**385 I ) 1 ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. DETACHED ESSAYS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ISSUED DURING THE YEARS 1848- 1849. 1849- 1850. 1850- 1851. 1851 - 1852. 21st FEBRUARY, 1853. PRINTED BY THOMAS RICHARDS. LONDON. I 4 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/detachedessaysilOOarch LIST OF CONTENTS AND DIRECTIONS TO BINDER FOR PLACING THE WORKS ISSUED FOR THE YEARS 1848 TO 1852. x Title-page for the Works issued for the years 18-18 to 1852 . , Directions to Binder . .Title-page for the Works issued for the year 1848-49 Contents ...... List of Subscribers ..... Title-page for the Works issued for the year 1849-50 Contents ...... List of Subscribers . . . . . Title-page for the Works issued for the year 1850-51 Contents ...... List of Subscribers . . . . . Title-page for the Works issued for the year 1851-52 Contents ...... xjist of Subscribers ..... List of Terms proposed to be inserted in a Cyclo- paedia of Architecture .... Abattoir (6 woodcuts) Aqueduct . . (14 woodcuts) ,Arcade . , Arch Balustrade . . Baths and Washhouses . (13 woodcuts) ✓Campanile . . (11 woodcuts) /Catacomb . ,Ceiling . Chapel (Interior) . . Chimney . ✓ Chinese Architecture . (14 woodcuts) /Corbel . ✓ Cornice (Brick) ^Cortile . Court . Design, Elements of Architectural . Design, Principles and Practice of Architectural (5 woodcuts) /Diaper . ✓Door (Bronze) . 'Doorway ✓Drying Closet . (12 woodcuts) ✓Ecclesiastical Sculpture . • ’ages. Plates. Pages. Plates. < 8, 19, 32 45, 58,46, l 56, 57 — . . — ,Fa9ade . . . . • . • — . . — ✓ Fountain .... • — . . 82 — . . — Fuller, on Building • 2 .. — — . . — ^Furniture (Candelabra, Desk, Table) • — . . 34 — . . — Gable (Brick) (10 woodcuts) 3 .. — . .Garden .... • — . . 79 Gateway .... • — . . 59 /Genoa .... • — . . 80 Gerbier, on the Three chief Principles of Magnificent “ • • Building • 8 .. — — . . — Heat .... (49 woodcuts) 20 .. — — . . — / Hip-knob .... • 4 . . 90 ✓Loggia . . . . ( 9, 33, 60 • | 72, 61 /Mausoleum .... — . . 62 /Metal Work . — . . 20, 47, 63 34 .. Norden, the Surveyor’s Dialogue , . 30 .. — — /Organ .... . — ..77,78,91,92 6 .. 74, 75, 76 /Pavement (Injaid) . . . . 21 18 .. 84, 85, 86 ✓Pavement (Tessellated) . . . . 10 . . 40 ✓ Pedestal .... # . . . 48 — . . 52 /Pediment .... . . 4 .. 27 — . . 96 piazza .... . — . . 49 12 .. 97, 98, 99 ✓Pulpit .... • — . . 50, 94 6 ..1 1,2, 13,14 Ridge .... 2 .. 81 15, 25, 26 28, 29 Roriczer, on the Construction of Pinnacles . . (22 woodcuts) 10 .. — — . . 3, 41, 42 Screen Wall • — . . 35 30, 43 / Stained Glass . — . . 22 11, 12, 23, . . 4, 16, 44 ✓ Staircase .... . . 36' 37j 38, .8 ..( 64, 65, 66 51 67, 68, 69 ✓Tomb .... . — . . 39 . . 5, 31, 53 Ventilation .... (21 woodcuts) 12 .. — . . 17 Window (Circular) . • — . . 73, 83 . . 6 'Window Coronet . . — . . 24 . . 87, 88, 89 /Woodwork .... • — . . 95 6 .. — Description of the Illustrations contained in the first } 2 or two Parts of the Volume for the year 1848-49 j 4 • - 6 .. — Ditto Ditto Ditto ] A 7 for the year 1849-50 . •t 54, 55 Ditto Ditto Ditto 1 Q ~ •• for the year 1850-51 (1 woodcut)) — . . 18 Ditto Ditto Ditto ) o 8 .. 70, 71 for the year 1851-52 •t . . 93 178 woodcuts 99 Note . — Where there are text and plates, insert the text first and place a fly leaf after the plates. If it be wished to bind the works in two volumes, the division should take place after “Court”. Many will prefer to bind the detached Essays and their illustrations together, keeping the other plates for illustrations to the articles of the Dictionary of Architecture now commenced. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 1848 - 49 . COMMITTEE. SAMUEL ANGELL, Esq. A. ASHPITEL, Esq. f.s.a. CHARLES BARRY, Esq. b.a. W. J. BOOTn, Esq. C. R. COCKERELL, Esq. r.a. T. L. DONALDSON, Esq. W. J. DONTHORN, Esq. H. B. GARLING, jun. Esq. GEORGE GODWIN, Esq. f.rs. W. P. GRIFFITH, Esq. f.s.a. E. I’ANSON, jun. Esq. f.o.s. H. E. KENDALL, jun. Esq. f.s.a. ROBERT KERR, Esq. J. T. KNOWLES, Esq. JAMES M. LOCKYER, jun. Esq. CHARLES C. NELSON, Esq. JOHN W. PAPWORTH, Esq. WYATT PAPWORTn, Esq. W. W. POCOCK, Esq. b.a. J. J. SCOLES, Esq. SYDNEY SMIRKE, Esq. a.r.a. JAMES THOMSON, Esq. WILLIAM TITE, Esq. f.r.s. Honorary Treasurer — THOMAS L. DONALDSON, Esq. Bolton Gardens, Russell Square. Honorary Secretary — AVYATT PAPWORTH, Esq. 14a Great Marlborough Street. OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. Republications (after a careful collation of such MSS. as can be consulted, and the earlier editions) of the standard Authors, with their Commentators, enriched with Notes conveying a condensed view of the discoveries and theories of more recent Authors. Illustrations of executed works of Authors of equivalent talent, who may not have left writings in MS. or type, — or continuations of works in the same style. Publications of works (either of text or plates) by modern Authors, English or Foreign, which may be approved by the Society. Publications of the many very valuable Essays and Flints which are scattered in various Miscellanies. A Digest of the Theoretical Books, arranging each division of an Author’s works under the appropriate article of the Cyelopa;dia. A Polyglossary, or Table of Synonyms of Technical Words in the different languages of Europe, and in the different counties of Great Britain. LiTnooRAPnERS... MESSRS. DAY AND SON, GATE STREET ; Printer RICHARDS, 100, ST. MARTIN’S LANE; LONDON. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LETTER-PRESS FOR 1848 - 49 . CONTENTS. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. ILLUSTRATIONS. CAMPANILE. CEILING. CHIMNEY CORBEL. CORNICE (BRICK). CORTILE. DIAPER. DOORWAY. WINDOW Subjects: FACADE. LOGGIA. METAL-WORK. PAVEMENT. PEDIMENT. PINNACLE. STAINED GLASS. STAIRCASE. CORONET. TWENTY-SEVEN PLATES AND TWENTY-NINE WOOD-CUTS. TEXT. CAMPANILE, Essay on ; by Edward I’Anson, Jun., F.G.S. ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, as laid down by Vitruvius ; developed and explained by W. WlLLMER PoCOCK, B.A. FULLER, THOMAS, D.D., “ On Building ”, extracted from “ The Holy State ”, Book III, Chap. VII, 1642 ; with a Biography. GERBIER, SIR BALTHAZAR. “ The Three Chief Prin- ciples of Magnificent Building ”, 1662 ; and extracts from “ Counsel and Advice to all Builders", 1663 ; with a Biography. NORDEN, JOHN, “ The Surveyor's Dialogue ”, 1618 ; with a Biography. PEDIMENTS. “ Method of determining the proportions thereof by Stanislas L’Eveille, 1824. RORICZER, MATTIAS, “ On the Construction of Pin- nacles ”, 1485; developed and explained by John W. Papworth ; with a Biography. CYCLOPAEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE. List of terms applicable to subjects connected with the art, under the letters A, B, C. (The remainder in progress.) Description of the Subjects contained in the Twenty-four Plates of Illustrations. EIGHTY PAGES. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS For the Year ending April 30th, 1849. * designates the Members of the Committee ; f designates the Local Honorary Secretaries. Abbott, George L., 15 St. James’s Square Abraham, Robert, Architect, 32 York Terrace, Regent’s Park Aitchison, George, Architect, mj.c.e., Muscovy Court, Trinity Square, Tower Hill (2 copies) Aitchison, George, jun., Architect, ditto Allen, — , Lowestoft, Suffolk Allen, Snooke, and Stock, Messrs., Architects and Surveyors, 69 Tooley Street, Borough Allingham, William, 8 Grange Road, Bermondsey Anderson, Lieut. J. C., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, Comliill Anderton, William, Architect, Gargrave, Skipton, Yorkshire ♦Angell, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 18 Gower Street Architectural Association of London, Lyon’s Inn Hall, Strand Arkle, George, 11 Moss Street, Liverpool Armstrong, William, Architect, Bristol Arthur, Oswald, Architect, Plymouth ♦Ashpitel, Arthur, Architect, f.s.a., 5 Crown Court, Old Broad Street Ashworth, Edward, Architect, Exeter Aston, D. W., Buckingham Railway, Buckingham Atkins, William, Architect, 6 Adelaide Place, Cork Ayliffe, Oliver, Architect, Bath Bailey, George, f.i.b.a., 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields Baird, John, Architect, Glasgow Baker, William, Architect, Canon’s Marsh, Bristol Baldry, Alfred, 47 Gloucester Road, Hyde Park Ball, J. II., Architect, Plymouth Banks, Edward, Architect, Wolverhampton +B antes, Frederick, Architect, Brook Street, Ipswich Barnes, Henry, Surveyor, Dorchester Barnet, James, 4 Richard Street, Cornwall Road, Lambeth Barrett, William, 29 Wellington Terrace, St. John’s Wood ♦Barry, Charles, f.i.b.a., r.a., 32 Great George Street, Westminster Beazley, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 29 Soho Square Bedells, Charles, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire Bell, James, a.i.b.a., 15 Langham Place Bellamy, T., v.p.i.b.a., 8 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Bennett, William, Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liverpool Berners, John, Holbrook, Ipswich Bicker-Caarten, A. G., 19 Shaftesbury Crescent, Pimlico fBilling, John, Architect, London Street, Reading Black and Salmon, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Blackwell, Isaac, 136 Ormond Street, Manchester Blandford, Henry, Architect, per H. J. Stevens, Derby Blytli, John, Architect, 113 Aldersgate Street, City Boileau, Sir J. P., Bart., Ketteringham Hall, Norwich Bolger, Henry, Holkham, Norfolk Booker, William, Architect and Surveyor, Nottingham ♦Booth, W. J., f.i.b.a., 34 Red Lion Square Botham, John R., Architect, Birmingham Bouch, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Darlington Boult, Joseph, Architect, 3a Colquitt Street, Liverpool Boutcher, William, Architect, 14 St. Martin’s-le-Grand Bradford Mechanics’ Institute, The, per G. Rogers, Bradford Brandon, David, f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Brandon, Raphael, Architect, Beaufort Buildings, Strand Brasch, Richard R., Architect, Sunday’s Well, Cork Brayley, E. W., f.s.a., Russell Institution, Great Coram Street Briggs, Samuel, Birmingham Brown, John, Architect, Norwich fBrowning, Edward, a.i.b.a., Stamford Bulmer, Martin, Maidstone Bunning, J. B., f.i.b.a., 34 Guildford Street Bum, William, f.i.b.a., 6 Stratton Street, Piccadilly Bumet, John, Architect, Glasgow Burton, Decimus, f.i.b.a., 6 Spring Gardens Burton, Henry, 150 Aldersgate Street Burton, John, Avenham Lane, Preston fButcher, Lewis George, a.i.b.a., Ilfracombe, Devonshire -fCarter, Owen B., Architect, Winchester Chamberlain, J. H., Prebend Place, Leicester Chantrell, R. D., f.i.b.a., 21 Lincoln’s Inn Fields Chappell, Ahel S., 28 Walbrook, City Cheel, George, Architect, 30 Little Marylebone Street Child, John, Architect, Guildford Street, Leeds Christian, Ewan, a.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Christie, George, King Street, St. James’s Christie, William, Architect, 3 Regent Terrace, City Road Christman, T., 93 Old Street Road, Shoreditch fClark, J. M., Architect, Ipswich Clarke, John, Architect, 6 Park Square, Leeds Clarke, J. A., Architect, Bristol Clarke and Bell, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Clifton, E. N., Surveyor, 9 Tokenhouse Yard, Lothbury Clutton, Henry, Architect, 8 Whitehall Place Cobb, William, Maidstone ♦Cockerell, Charles R., f.i.b.a., r.a., Bank of England Cocks, Reginald T., 43 Hertford Street, Mayfair Colson, John, Architect, Winchester Cornish, A. S., Exeter Corser, John Bidlake, North Hill Place, Plymouth fCorson, W. Reid, Architect, 3 Albion Place, Leeds fCoiy, John, Architect, Durham Cottingham, Noclcalls J., Architect, 43 Waterloo Bridge Road, Lambeth Cowie, the Rev. Morgan, D.D., Principal of the College of Civil Engineer* Putney Cow'ley, Henry Arnold, Buckingham Cowten, Mawer, 9 Edward Street, Hampstead Road Cozens, Samuel E., 4 Whitehall Place Cubitt and Co., Messrs. William, Gray’s Inn Road Culshaw, Wm., Architect, Rumford Place, Liverpool Cuming, Richard, Ordnance Department, Dublin Cunningham, John, Architect, Seel Street, Liverpool Curtis, R., 59 Fenchurch Street, City Curtis, E., ditto Da Costa, R. P., Kingston, Jamaica Dangerfield, Henry, Architect, 9 Colonnade, Cheltenham Darbishire, Henry Astley, 5 Adelphi Chambers, Strand Darken, John J., Holt, Norfolk Davies, James, Birmingham LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ). \ Davies, John, f.i.b.a., 4 Devonshire Square, Bishopsgate Davis, Charles E., Architect, South Hays, Bath Dawson, Henry, 74 Cannon Street f Deane, Sir Thomas, Architect, Cork Deane, William Wood, a.i.b.a., 47 Lonsdale Square, Islington De Grey, the Right Hon. the Earl, K.G., &c. See. Sec., 4 St. James’s Square De Walden, , Kingston, Jamaica Denison, His Excellency Sir William, R.E., f.r.s., Sec., Governor of Van Dieman's Lund Devonport Mechanics' Institute, The Dickerson, Frederick J., 4 Gibraltar Place, Chatham Dixon, Edward, Civil Engineer, Charlotte Street, Leamington, Warwickshire Dobson, Jeremiah, Architect, 10 Park Row, Leeds Dobson, John, f.i.ii.a., Newcastle-upon-Tyne Dobson, Robert John, Architect, Houghton-le-Spring, Durham Dobson, William, 10 Jubilee Street, Mile End Dodson, Thomas, Wareham, Dorsetshire 'Donaldson, Thomas Leverton, f.i.b.a., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square, ( Honorary Treasurer) •Donthorn, W. John, fj.b.a., 18 Hanover Street, Hanover Square Dotwcll, Charles M., Architect, 7 Hamilton Terrace, Southampton Down, Edwin, Architect, Bridgewater Draper, George, Chichester Drury, George, 42 Cherry Street, Birmingham Dumbell, John, 12 Islington, Liverpool 1 >unch, Thomas W., Architect, Stepney Causeway Dwvlley, William, Architect, Plymouth Dyer, William, Alton Kbbells, Robert, Architect, Tattenliall Wood, Wolverhampton Edge, Francis, Kaye Hill House, Hockley, Birmingham Kilmcston, James, jun., Architect, 24 Tibberton Square, Islington Edwards, Charles, St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire Edwards, Francis, jun., Architect, 17 Hart Street, Bloomsbury Edwards, H. T., Architect, Hanover Street, Liverpool Elliott, Roger, Surveyor, 12 Clarence Street, Plymouth Ellis, James, Architect, 10 Rodney Terrace West, Bow Road Ellis, P., Architect, Clayton Square, Liverpool fEvans, George, County Surveyor, Wimbome, Dorsetshire Evans, William, Ell as tone, Ashbourne Eves, George, Architect, Uxbridge Eyton, 11. M., Architect, 04 Old Brood Street 1 abian, John, 24 Bedford Place, Brighton Ferguson, James, Nottingham 1 . rrey, Beigamin, f.i.b.a., 1 Trinity Place, Charing Cross Field, James, Architect, 5 Adeluide Place, London Bridge l-olkord, t liarles, ."id King Street, Westminster Forrest, A. J., Old Huymarket, Liverpool I baler and Wood, Messrs., Architects, Bristol Eranris, I. J., a.i.b.a., 2 Cork Street, Burlington Gardens French, G. B., Architect, 18 Sussex Gardens, Hyde Park Fuller, Thomas, Architect, 3 College Green, Bristol ft uHjnmcs, Thomas, f.i.b.a., Hasfield Court, Gloucester Furness and Kilpin, Messrs., Lawton Street, Liverpool Belfast Laxton. William, Fludyer Street, Westminster Lean, Alexander, 55 Brempton Row LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS (continued). Lee, Charles, f.i.b.a., 20 Golden Square Leeds Mechanics’ Institution, The, South Parade Lewis, T. Harter, a.i.b.a., 70 Baker Street, Portman Square Liddiard, Joseph, 5 Kent Terrace, Broadway, Deptford Lindley, Charles, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire Little, Thomas, Architect, 36 Northumberland Street, New Road Livesay, Augustus Frederick, Architect and Surveyor, Penny Street, Portsca Lockyer, James, Architect, 19 Southampton Street, Fitzroy Square ♦Lockyer, James M., jun., a.i.b.a., ditto London Institution, The, Finsbury Circus, per R. Thompson, Librarian Longmore, W. A., Architect, 7 Barnard’s Inn, Holborn Lucas, C., Lowestoft, Suffolk Lucas, Thomas, Folkestone, Kent MacGuffie, Thomas, Glasgow Mackinney, Henry H., Architect, 6 St. Paul’s Square, Liverpool Mackintosh, David, Architect, Exeter Mackland, John, 10 Russell Street, Brixton Mail-, George, f.i.b.a., 18 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Manchester Athenaeum, The, per James W. Hudson, Secretary Manners, G. P., Architect, 1 Oxford Row, Bath Mansfield, James, 11 Little James Street, Bedford Row Marks, Edmund, Architect, 5 Seymour Place, New Road Martyr, R. Smirke, f.i.b.a., Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, and 25 Abingdon Street, Westminster Mason, W. A., Architect, 24 Lime Street, City Masters, Henry, Architect, 16 Cumberland Street, Bristol Matthews, James, Architect, Aberdeen Mawley, Henry, Architect, 20 Gower Street Maybe w, Charles, f.i.b.a., 14 ArgyU Street Meredith, Michael, Architect, 7 Winchester Street Meyer, Thomas, a.i.b.a., 28 Bloomsbury Street Mickle, William, 4 Cowley Place, Cowley Road, Brixton fMiddleton, J., Architect, Bondgate, Darlington Millican, William, Architect, 30 Charles Street, Leicester Mills, Alexander, Architect, Manchester Mitchell, John, Civil Engineer, Diss Mocatta, David, f.i.b.a., 57 Old Broad Street, City Moore, George, f.i.b.a., F.R.8., 64 Lincoln’s Inn Fields Morant, Alfred, Civil Engineer, 59 Taehbrook Street, Belgrave Road, Pimlico Morant, Augustus, Lincoln Morant, George, 91 New Bond Street Morgan, John, Architect and Surveyor, 3 Queen's Ten-ace, Southampton Morris, W., Salop Road, Oswestry Munt, William, Whitefriars, Chester Murgatroyd, James, Ardwick, Lancashire Nash, Edwin, a.i.b.a., 53 Moorgate Street Neeld, Joseph, Esq., m.p., 6 Grosvenor Square ♦Nelson, Charles C., f.i.b.a., 30 Hyde Park Gardens Newham, William, jun., London Road, Lynn Newlands, James, Borough Engineer, Public Offices, Cornwallis Street, Liverpool Newton, R. H., 6 Argyll Street Nieklen, Samuel Edward Kettle, Architect, Evesham, Worcestershire Nield, William, Architect, 13 Thistle Grove, Brompton Norman, Alfred, Dcvonport Notman, J., Philadelphia, United States Nunns, Francis B., Leek, Staffordshire Oakes, Richard, Swaffliam, Norfolk fOrford, Charles Wyatt, Architect, 12 Waterloo Street, Birmingham Owen, James H., Architect and Civil Engineer, 2 Mountjoy Square West, Dublin Owen, T. E., Civil Engineer and Architect, Dover Court, Southsea Palmer, W. F., Oldham, Lancashire f Pap worth, George, r.a. Ireland, Architect, 109 Great Marlborough Street, Dublin ♦Papworth, John W., f.i.b.a., 14a Great Marlborough Street * Pap worth, Wyatt, Architect, 14 a Great Marlborough Street ( Honorary Secretary) Parr, Samuel, 1 St. John’s Terrace, South Hackney Parry, J. G., Higham Court, Gloucester Parsons, John L. and Charles, Messrs., Lewes, Sussex tl’arsons, William, Architect, St. Martin’s, Leicester Pascoe, — , Surveyor, Bodmin, Cornwall Patterson, James, 73 Montague Street, Blackburn Peach, Henry S., Architect, South Parade, Derby l’oddie, J. Dick, -Architect, 1 George Street, Edinburgh Peebles, W. S., Dereham, Norfolk Penfold, John Womharu, Architect, 20 Golden Square Pennington, E. G., Architect, 13 Great Russell Street, Covent Garden Penrose, Francis C., m.a., f.i.b.a., 4 Trafalgar Square fPenson, R. Kyrke, f.i.b.a., Oswestry Perring, J., Civil Engineer, East Lancashire Railway Office, Bury, Lancashire Perry, G., Surveyor, 39 Spencer Street, Clerkenwell Pettit, Joseph Ablitt, Ipswich Phelps, William, 24 Goulden Terrace, Bamsbuiy Park, Islington I’hipson, R. M., Architect, Ipswich, and 34 Moorgate Street fPicton, James A., Architect, f.s.a., 19 Clayton Square, Liverpool Pilditcli, — , Frome, Somersetshire Pilkington, Thomas, Bourne, near Stamford fPineo, Charles W. E., Architect, 170 Queen Street, Portsea Pink, Charles, Wood End, Nickham, Fareham, Hants Pite, — , St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire Place, G. G., Architect, Nottingham Plum, Thomas W., 7 Terrace, Camberwell Plymouth Public Library, The Plymouth Mechanics’ Institute, The Pocock, Lewis, f.s.a., 5 Gloucester Road, Regent’s Park ♦Pocock, William W., b.a., f.i.b.a., Ovington Square, Brompton Pooley, Henry-, Manchester Street, Liverpool fPope, It. S., Architect, Guildhall Chambers, Bristol Pordon, Charles F., Architect, 17 St. Helen’s Place, City- Porter, Frederick IV., 13 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Pownall, George, f.i.b.a., 3 Meeklenburgh Square Pritchett, Charles P., Architect, Huddersfield Pritchett, James P., jun., Architect, 13 Lendal, York Purdue, William, Architect, 15 Lower Islington Terrace Rampling, R. Bi, 32 Market Place, Preston, Lancashire Rattee, James, Carver, 6 Regent Terrace, Cambridge Rawlinson, Robert, Civil Engineer, Ovington Square, Brompton Itawlinson, Samuel Sutton, Nottingham Reed, Charles, Architect, South John Street, Liverpool Reed, Win. Candler, a.i.b.a., 64 Old Broad Street Reeves, C., Architect and Surveyor, 102 Guildford Street Ricardo, Harry R., a.i.b.a., Beaulieu Lodge, Norwood Richards, Theophilus, Birmingham Richardson, Charles, Stamford Richardson, Charles James, f.i.b.a., 22 Brompton Crescent Richardson, — , Lowestoft, Suffolk Ritchie, Archibald, Architect, Burton Row, Derby Rivers, H. F., Brompton House, Brompton, Kent Rivington, William, 52 St. John’s Square, Clerkenwell Roberts, Henry, f.i.b.a., 10 Connaught Square, Paddington Roberts, James, Architect, Norwich Robinson, R. II., Architect, Wolverhampton Robinson, Fred., Architect, per H. J. Stevens, Derby Robinson, W., jun., Architect, Wolverhampton Rochfort, James, 34a Brewer Street Rogers, — , Architect, Plymouth Rogers, William, f.i.b.a., 31 Pratt Street, Lambeth Ross, James, Architect, Inverness Rowe, R. R., 4 Wood Street, Abingdon Street, Westminster Sabine, William, jun., Architect, Winchester House, Old Broad Street St. Aubyn, James Pearse, a.i.b.a., 5 Furnival’s Inn Salomons, E., Architect, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Scharf, George, jun., 1 Torrington Square ♦Scoles, Joseph f.i.b.a., 1 ' Argyll Place Scott, Walter, 3 Wear Street, Sunderland Searle, Chas., Surveyor, 2 Charlotte Row, Mansion House Seckham, — , Lowestoft, Suffolk Seddon, John Pollard, Architect, 27 Grove Terrace, Kentish Town Selby, Edward, Lowestoft, Suffolk Shadgett, — , Boughton Monclielsea, Staplchurst, Kent Sharp, R. H., Architect, York fSharpe, Edmund, f.i.b.a., Lancaster Shearman, David S., Boxley, near Maidstone Slienton, Henry, Architect, Friar Lane, Leicester Sherwood, W. S., Architect, Clayton Square, Liverpool Shout, R. H., Architect, West End, Hampstead Simpson, Thomas, Erith, and 19 Clarence Square, Brighton ♦Smirke, Sydney, v.p.i.b.a., a. r.a., Berkeley Square Smith, George, jun., Civil Engineer, 42 St. Luke’s Place, Cork Smith, Henry, Architect and Civil Engineer, 10 Upper Temple Street, Dublin Smith, Thomas, f.i.b.a., County Surveyor for Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, North Road House, Hertford Smith, Thomas, Architect, Castle Street, Liverpool Smith, William, Architect, Aberdeen Sparkes, George, 12 King Street, Tower Hill Spratt, H. W., Architect and Surveyor, 17 Essex Street, Strand Stephenson, Charles, Surveyor, 11 Upper Eccleston Place, Pimlico Stevens, Edward N., Architect, Corn Exchange, Tunbridge Wells fStevgns, Henry J., Arcliitect, Friar Gate, Derby Sturt, Henry, Architect, Darlington Sugden, William, Arcliitect, 59 Victoria Street, Bradford Suter, Richard, Architect, 3 Upper Woburn Place Swindell, John G., a.i.b.a., 3 Kilburn Priory Tabberer, Benjamin, New Walk, Leicester Taylor, George Ledwall, f.i.b.a., 48 Gloucester Square Thompson, Edwin, London Road, Derby Thompson, George, Devonshire Street, Derby LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ). Thompson and Morgan, Messrs., 2 Conduit Street West, Hyde Park Thomson, Col. Robert, r.e., 1 Wellington Place, Dover •Thomson, James, F.I.B.A., 57 Devonshire Street, Portland Place •Tite, William, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 17 St. Helen's Place, City Todd, Frederick, Architect, Bath Toner, John, jun., Architect, 14 Brunswick Street, Bamsbury Road, Islington Tootell, Joseph, Maidstone Tovell, George Singleton, Ipswich Tress, Richard, Architect, 23 Little St Thomas Apostle Trollope, C. B., Surveyor, 57 Chester Square, Pimlico Underwood, C., Architect, Clifton Valentine, George Edward, Architect, 1 Southampton Street, Bloomsbury Square Wadmore, J. F., a.i.b.a., Upper Clapton Wale, James, Surveyor, Sadler Gate, Derby Walki r, G. and S., Messrs., Surveyors, Nottingham + Wallen, William, Architect, 42 West Parade, Huddersfield Waller, F. S., Architect, Gloucester Wallis, George, 14 College Place, Camden Town fWalsh, Blayney William, Architect, Blackmorc Street, Kingston, Jamaica Walter, Richard, Maidstone Ward and Son, Messrs., Architects, Eastwood House, Hanley, Staffordshire Potteries Watson, John Burges, Architect, 3!) Manchester Street, Manchester Square Watts, Thomas, Chipping Sodbury, Gloucestershire Weightman, John, Borough Architect, Town Hall, Liverpool Welchman, John T., Architect, per Win. Christie, 3 Regent Terrace, City Road Welchman, Thomas G., Architect, ditto ditto Welsh, S. T., Architect, Bristol Wliichcord, John, County Surveyor, Maidstone, Kent fWhichcord, John, jun., a.i.b.a., f.s.a., ditto Whitcombe, J. A., Hilfield, Gloucester White, Alfred, Architect, 13 Tyndnl Place, Islington Whiteford, Hamilton, Architect, Thorn Hill, Plymouth Wickes, Charles, Architect, Leicester Wigginton, William, jun., Architect, 53 Osmarton Street, Derby fWightwick, George, Architect, Plymouth Wildman, Col., Newstead Abbey Wilds, William, Hertford Williams, Evan Owen, Luton, Bedfordshire Williams, Richard Lloyd, Gloucester Williams and Co., Messrs., Publishers, 141 Strand Williamson, Francis, Surveyor, Nottingham Wilson, Charles, Architect, Glasgow Wilson, George, Knaresborough, Yorkshire fWilson, James, f.s.a., Architect, Belmont House, Bath Winfield, John F., Birmingham Winscomb, Capt., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, Cornhill fWithers, Robert Jewell, a.i.b.a., Sherborne, Dorsetshire Wittey, George, Architect, Bath Wood, Henry, Civil Engineer, H. M. Dockyard, PorUrtnouth Wood, John T., Architect, Wokingham Wood, John, Liversege House, Derby Wood, Sancton, f.i.b.a., 10 Craig’s Court, Charing Cross Woodthorpe, Edmund, f.i.b.a., 79 St. Martin’s Lane Woolnough, Henry, Architect, County Surveyor, Ipswich, Suflolk Wyatt, Thomas H., f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Wylie, Thomas, Surveyor, Sweeting Street, Liverpool fWylson, James, Architect, 112 Fyfe Place, Glasgow Yeoville, H. R., Architect, Persliore Road, Edgbaston Sq. London bjr U. UorcUjr, Cwtle St., Lclcc.ter ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 1849 - 50 . COMMITTEE. SAMUEL ANGELL, Esq. A. ASHPITEL, Esq., f.s.a. CHARLES BARRY, Esq., r.a. W. J. BOOTH, Esq. C. R. COCKERELL, Esq., u.a. T. L. DONALDSON, Esq. W. J. DONTHORN, Esq. H. B. GARLING, jun., Esq. GEORGE GODWIN, Esq., f.r.s. W. G. HABERSHON, Esq. E. I’ ANSON, jun., Esq., f.g.s. H. E. KENDALL jun., Esq., f.s.a. ROBERT KERR, Esq. J. T. KNOWLES, Esq. JAMES M. LOCKYER, jun., Esq. CHARLES C. NELSON, Esq. JOHN W. PAPWORTH, Esq. WYATT PAPWORTH, Esq. W. W. POCOCK, Esq., b.a. J. J. SCOLES, Esq. SYDNEY SMIRKE, Esq., a.r.a. JAMES THOMSON, Esq. WILLIAM TITE, Esq., f.r.s. JAMES WILSON, Esq., f.s.a. JAMES WYLSON, Esq. AND THE LOCAL HONORARY SECRETARIES. Honorary Treasurer — THOMAS L. DONALDSON, Esq., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square. Honorary Secretary — WYATT PAPWORTH, Esq., 14a Great Marlborough Street. OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. Republications (after a careful collation of such MSS. as can be consulted, and the earlier editions) of the standard Authors, with their Commentators, enriched with Notes conveying a condensed view of the discoveries and theories of more recent Authors. Illustrations of executed works of Authors of equivalent talent, who may not have left writings in MS. or type, — or continuations of works in the same style. Publications of works (either of text or plates) by modern Authors, English or Foreign, which may be approved by the Society. Publications of the many very valuable Essays and Hints which are scattered in various Miscellanies. A Digest of the Theoretical Books, arranging each division of an Author’s works under the appropriate article of the Cyclopaedia. A Polyglossary, or Table of Synonyms of Technical Words in the different languages of Europe, and in the different counties of Great Britain. Lithographers. .MESSRS. DAY AND SON, Gate Street; Printer RICHARDS, 37, Great Queen Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields; LONDON. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LETTER-PRESS EOR 1849-50. CONTENTS. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. ILLUSTRATIONS. Subjects : ARCADE. CATACOMB. CEILING. CHAPEL. CHIMNEY. CORBEL. DESIGN, ARCHITECTURAL FACADE. FURNITURE. VENTILATION. HEAT. LOGGIA. METAL-WORK. PEDESTAL. PIAZZA. PULPIT. SCREEN-WALL. STAIRCASE. TOMB. TWENTY-FOUR PLATES AND SEVENTY-FIVE WOOD-CUTS. TEX T . HEAT, Essay on; by R. S. Burn. VENTILATION, Essay on ; by R. S. Burn. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, Essay on; bv Georoe Wightwick, Architect. Subjects : CYCLOPAEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE. List of Terms applicable to subjects connected with the art, under the letters from D to N inclusive. (The remainder in progress will complete the list.) Description of the Subjects contained in the Twenty-four Plates of Illustrations. SIXTY TAGES. The Committee of the Architectural Publication Society do not hold themselves responsible for the several facts, opinions, and statements, contained in the various Essays; at the same time they can assure the* Members, that the utmost care has been taken by the respective Authors, in the preparation and revision of each article, to ensure general accuracy ; and to this circumstance chiefly may be ascribed the delay which has taken place in the issue of this Part. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION 9 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS For the Year ending April 30th, 1850. * designates the Members of the Committee ; f designates the Local Honorary Secretaries. Abbott, George L., Architect, Barnstaple Abraham, Robert, Architect, f.s.a., 32 York Terrace, Regent’s Park Aitchison, George, Architect, m.i.c.e., Muscovy Court, Trinity Square, Tower Hill (2 copies) Aitchison, George, jun., Architect, ditto Allen, Snooke, and Stock, Messrs., Architects and Surveyors, (it) Tooley Street, Borough Allingham, William, 8 Grange Road, Bermondsey Anderson, Lieut. J. C., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, 23 Cornhill Anderton, William, Architect, Gargrave, Skipton, Yorkshire *Angell, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 18 Gower Street Architectural Association of London, Lyon’s Inn Hall, Strand Architectural Society, The, York Arkle, George, 1 1 Moss Street, Liverpool Armstrong, William, Architect, Bristol Arthur, Oswald, Architect, Plymouth *Ashpitel, Arthur, Architect, f.s.a., 5 Crown Court, Old Broad Street Ashworth, Edward, Architect, 263 High Street, Exeter Aston, D. W., Buckingham Railway, Buckingham Atkins, William, Architect, 6 Adelaide Place, Cork Bailey, George, f.i.b.a., 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields tBaily, Charles, Architect, Newark Baird, John, Architect, Glasgow Baker, Charles, Market Place, Leicester Baker, William, Architect, Canon’s Marsh, Bristol Baldry, Alfred, 47 Gloucester Road, Hyde Park Ball, J. H., Architect, Plymouth t Banks, Edward, Architect, Wolverhampton tBarnes, Frederick, Architect, Tavern Street, Ipswich Barnes, Henry, Architect and Surveyor, Dorchester Barnet, James, 5 Roberts Place, Brunswick Street, Borough *Barry, Charles, f.i.b.a., r.a., 32 Great George Street, Westminster Barry, Frederick E., Sydenham Bateman, John J., Architect, Birmingham Beazley, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 29 Soho Square Bedells, Charles, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire Bell, James, f.i.b.a., 15 Langhara Place Bellamy, T., v. f.i.b.a., 8 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Bennett, William, Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liverpool Berners, John, Holbrook, Ipswich Bicker-Caarten, A. G., 22 Lower Belgrave Street, Pimlico Bidlake, George, Architect, Merridale Farm, Wolverhampton t Billing, John, Architect, London Street, Reading Black and Salmon, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Blackwell, Isaac, 136 Ormond Street, Manchester Blandford, Henry, Architect, per H. J. Stevens, Derby Blyth, John, Architect, 113 Aldersgate Street, City Boileau, Sir J. P., Bart., Ketteringham Hall, Norwich Bolger, Henry, Architect, Holkham, Norfolk Booker, William, Architect and Surveyor, High Pavement, Notting- ham *Booth, W. J., f.i.b.a., 34 Red Lion Square Botham, John R., Architect, Birmingham Bouch, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Edinburgh Boutcher, William, Architect, 2 Gun Cottages, Folkestone Brandon, David, f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Brandon, Raphael, Architect, 11 Beaufort Buildings, Strand Brasch, Richard R., Architect, Sunday’s Well, Cork Briggs, Samuel, Birmingham tBrowning, Edward, a.i.b.a., Stamford Bulmer, Martin, Maidstone Bunning, J. B., f.i.b.a., 34 Guildford Street Burn, William, f.i.b.a., 6 Stratton Street, Piccadilly tBurnet, John, Architect, 50 Renfield Street, Glasgow Burton, Decimus, f.i.b.a., 6 Spring Gardens Burton, Henry, 150 Aldersgate Street Burton, John, Avenham Lane, Preston fButcher, Lewis George, a.i.b.a., Ilfracombe, Devonshire Chamberlain, J. II., Prebend Place, Leicester Chappell, Abel S., 28 Walbrook, City Christian, Ewan, f.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Christmas, T., 1 Holywell Row, Worship Street, Finsbury Clarke, John, Architect, 6 Park Square, Leeds Clarke, J. A., Architect, Bristol Clarke and Bell, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Clifton, E. N., Surveyor, 9 Tokenhouse Yard, Lothbury Clutton, Henry, a.i.b.a., 8 Whitehall Place Cobb, William, Maidstone *Cockerell, Charles R., v. f.i.b.a., r.a., Bank of England Cocks, Reginald T., 43 Hertford Street, Mayfair Colson, John, Architect, Winchester Cornish, A. S., Exeter Corser, John Bidlake, 7 Ham Street, Plymouth tCorson, W. Reid, Architect, 3 Albion Place, Leeds tCory, John, Architect, Durham Cowley, Henry Arnold, Buckingham Cozens, Samuel E., 4 Whitehall Place Crealock, John J., Architect, 15 South Hill, Devonport Cubitt and Co., Messrs. William, Gray’s Inn Road Culshaw, Wm., Architect, Rumford Place, Liverpool Cuming, Richard, Ordnance Department, Dublin Cunningham, John, Architect, Seel Street, Liverpool Da Costa, R. P., Kingston, Jamaica Dangerfield, Henry, Architect, 9 Colonnade, Cheltenham Darbishire, Henry Astley, 20 Keppell Street, Russell Square Darken, John J., Holt, Norfolk Davies, James, Cambridge Street, Birmingham Davies, John, f.i.b.a., 4 Devonshire Square, Bishopsgate Dawson, Henry, 39 Cannon Street t Deane, Sir Thomas, Architect, Cork Deane, William Wood, a.i.b.a., 47 Lonsdale Square, Islington De Grey, the Right Hon. the Earl, K.G., &c. &c., 4 St. James’s Square 2 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ). De Walden, — , Kingston, Jamaica Devonport Mechanics’ Institute, The Dixon, Edward, Civil Engineer, Montpellier House, Leamington Dobson, Jeremiah, Architect, 1!) Park Row, Leeds Dobson, John, f.i.b.a., Newcastle-upon-Tyne Dobson, Rol>ert John, Architect, lloughton-le-Spring, Durham Dodson, Thomas, Ware ham, Dorsetshire •Donaldson, Thomas Lcverton, f.i.b.a., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square, ( Honorary Treasurer) •Donthom, YV. John, f.i.b.a., 18 Hanover Street, Hanover Square Down, Edwin, Architect, Bridgewater Draper, George, Chichester tDrurv, George, Architect, 42 Cherry Street, Birmingham Dunch, Thomas YV., Architect, Stepney Causeway Dwelley, YVilliam, Architect, Plymouth Dyer, YVilliam, Andover Ehhells, Robert, Architect, Tattcnhall YVood, Wolverhampton Edge, Charles, Architect, Birmingham Edge, Francis, Kaye Hill House, Hockley, Birmingham Edmeston, James, jun., Architect, 24 Tibberton Square, Islington Edwards, Charles, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire Edwards, Francis, jun., Architect, 17 Hart Street, Bloomsbury Elliott, Roger, Surveyor, 12 Clarence Street, Plymouth Ellis, James, Architect, 10 Rodney Terrace YY'est, Bow Road Ellis, P., Architect, Clayton Square, Liverpool tEvans, George, County Surveyor, YVimborne, Dorsetshire Evans, YVilliam, Ellastonc, Ashbourne Eves, George, Architect, Uxbridge Eyton, II. M., Architect, 04 Old Broad Street Fabian, John, 24 Bedford Place, Brighton Falkencr, Edward, Architect, 61 Gracechurch Street Ferguson, James, Nottingham Ferrey, Benjamin, f.i.b.a., 1 Trinity Place, Charing Cross Field, James, Architect, 5 Adelaide Place, London Bridge Folkard, Charles, 56 King Street, YVestminster Foster and Wood, Messrs., Architects, Bristol Fowler, Francis, Frome, Somersetshire Francis, F. J., a.i.b.a., 38 Upper Bedford Place French, G. R., Architect, 18 Sussex Gardens, Ilyde Park Fuller, Thomas, Architect, 3 College Green, Bristol tFulljames, Thomas, f.i.b.a., Hasfield Court, Gloucester Furness and Kilpin, Messrs., Lawton Street, Liverpool Gardiner, John Bull, f.i.b.a., 4 Bank Chambers, Lothbury •Garling, II. B., jun., a.i.b.a., 11 King’s Road, Bedford Row Gee, YY II., Architect, Castle Street, Liverpool Gcoghegan, Charles, Architect, 6 Bloomsbury Square Gibbs, Edward, Surveyor, Stratford-on-Avon Gibson, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Derwent Terrace, Derby Oilbert, J. C., Architect, Nottingham Giles, Charles E., Architect, Taunton, Devonshire Oingell, YVm. Bnice, Architect, 3 College Green, Bristol Given, George, Architect, Newtown Limadavy, Co. Derry Goddard, Henry, Architect, Lincoln Goddard, Henry, Architect, Market Street, Leicester •Godwin, George, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 22 Alexander Square, Brompton Good, J. II., jun., f.i.b.a., 75 Hatton Garden Goodacre, Robert Johnson, Newtown Street, Leicester Uooddy, Edward C., Higher Broughton, Manchester Goodman, Thomas J., Architect, 5 Furnival’s Inn Could, John, jun., Surveyor, St. George’s Terrace, Gravesend Gould, R. D., Architect, Barnstaple Green, Arthur John, a.i.b.a., 4 Lancaster Place, Strand Green, \Y illinm, |>cr YV . 0. Habcrshon, Esq. Oreenwich Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, The ncr P. Purvis, Esq., M.D. ’ tGrcgan, J Edgar, f.i.b.a., 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Grey, the Hon. W. Booth, Gayton, Northamptonshire G r>bbon, E. P„ Architect, 9 Dame Street, Dublin Griffin, YY D., Architect, Darlington Street, Wolverhampton Griffith, Evan, Aberdare, South Wales Griffith, J. YV., Architect, -j St. John's Square, Clcrkenwell Griffith, YY illiain Pettit, f.i.b.a., f.s.a., ditto (i • i Gritten, YY R , Bull Head Court, Ncwgutc Street Gue, YVilliam, Andover Gwilt, George, f.s.a., Architect, 8 Union Street, Borough Ilabershon, Edward, Architect, 38 a, Bloomsbury Square •TIabershon, YV. G., Architect, ditto Hall, James E., Canal Street, Nottingham Hall, Thomas, Harper Street, Leeds Hamilton, W. R., f.r.s., 12 Bolton Row Handyside, Andrew, Civil Engineer, The Cedars, Derby Hansard, Octavius, Architect, 2 Kensington Garden Terrace tllansom, Joseph A., Architect, Green Bank House, Preston Hanson, Samuel, 15 Trinity Square, Tower Hill Hardwick, Joseph, Birmingham Hargrave, Joshua, jun., Warren Place, Cork + Harrison, James, Architect, Chester Ilaswell, T. R., Darlington Hay, J., Architect, Liverpool llayter, YV. G. Architect, Darlington Hayward, Henry YV., Architect, Bank Buildings, Colchester t Hayward, John, Architect, Exeter Haywood, James, Civil Engineer, Market Place, Derby Healey, Thomas, Architect, Bradford, Yorkshire Ileathcote, Samuel Ileathcote Unwin, Esq., Shephalbury, Hertford Hemming, J., Architect, Birmingham Ileneker, R. W., a.i.b.a., 9 Old Jewry Chambers Ilerbertson, John, Architect, Glasgow Hertslet, Lewis C., Ilighgate Hill, Thomas, Architect, 2 Guildford Place, Brunswick Square Hilling, George, Architect, Regent Street, Yarmouth flline, Thomas C., Architect, Regent Street, Nottingham Hirst, John Henry, Architect, 20 Cumberland Street, Bristol Hitch, YY'alter, Ware, Hertfordshire Ilodson, II. B., Architect, 14 Guildford Street, Russell Square Holden, Isaac, Architect, 46 King Street, Manchester Holden, James Platt, Architect, ditto Hollingsworth, Daniel, Architect, Hertford Holme, Arther J., Architect, 2 Benson Street, Liverpool Holme, Samuel, ditto ditto Hooper, II., 9 Lansdowne Road Villas, Kensington Park Hopkins, Wm. J., Architect, Darlington Horner, YV. S., 7 Aldgate Ilorsford, James, Architect, Bedford Howell, J., Architect, 1 Vincent Square, Westminster Hughes, Arthur, Architect, Athenaeum Street, Plymouth Humphrey, Charles, Architect, 61 Leadenhall Street Hussey, R. C., Architect, 16 King YVilliam Street, Strand •I’Anson, Edward, jun., f.i.b.a., f.o.s., 20 Lawrence Pountney Lane Ives, YY illiam, Architect, North Parade, Halifax Jackson, Stephen, Ipswich Jalland, R., Architect, Nottingham James, Henry, Capt., r.e., f.r.s., Director of Works II. M. Dockyard, Portsmouth Jay, John, City Basin Jeckell, Thomas, YYymondham, and 19 Hill’s Road, Cambridge Johnson, John, Architect and Surveyor, 70 YVhiting Street, Bury St. Edmund’s Johnson, Robert J., Architect, Darlington Johnston, Andrew, Surveyor, 3 Lord Street, Liverpool + Jones, George Fowler, Architect, Monkgate, York Jones, John, Pleasant Street, Liverpool •Kendall, H. E., jun., f.i.b.a., 33 Brunswick Square + Kennedy, Henry, Architect, Bangor t Kerr, Robert, Architect, 2 St. Giles’s Terrace, Norwich Kimpston, James, County Surveyor, Ballinasloe tKimpton, Thomas Yale, a.i.b.a., Fore Street, Hertford Kingston, G. S., Adelaide, South Australia Kirkland, Alexander, Architect, 41, St. Vincent-street, Glasgow Kitton, Robert, Architect, Norwich t Knowles, Charles, Architect, Bridgewater Knowles, John, ditto •Knowles, James Thomas, f.i.b.a., 1 Raymond Buildings, Gray’s Inn LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS {continued). 3 Laker, John, jun., 12 Bower Place, Maidstone Lamb, J. J., Architect, 6 St. James’s Place, Paisley Lanyon, Charles, Architect and Civil Engineer, 10 Wellington Place, Belfast Lawrie, William, Downham Market Laxton, William, Fludyer Street, Westminster Lean, Alexander, 55 Brompton Row Lee, Charles, f.i.b.a., 20 Golden Square Leeds Mechanics’ Institution, The, South Parade Lewis, T. Hayter, a.i.b.a., 70 Baker Street, Portman Square Liddiard, Joseph, 5 Kent Terrace, Broadway, Deptford Lindley, Charles, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire Little, Thomas, Architect, 36 Northumberland Street, New Road Livesay, Augustus Frederick, Architect and Surveyor, Penny Street, Portsea Lockyer, James, Architect, 19 Southampton Street, Fitzroy Square *Lockyer, James M., jun., a.i.b.a., ditto London Institution, The, Finsbury Circus, per R. Thomson, Librarian Longmore, W. A., Architect, 7 Barnard’s Inn, Holborn Lucas, C., Lowestoft, Suffolk Lucas, Thomas, ditto Mackinney, Ilenry II., Architect, 6 St. Paul’s Square, Liverpool Mackintosh, David, Architect, Exeter Mackland, John, 7 Russell Street, Brixton Manchester Athenaeum, The, per James W. Hudson, Secretary Manners, G. P., Architect, 1 Fountain Buildings, Bath Mansfield, James, Architect, 11 Little James Street, Bedford Row Martyr, R. Smirke, f.i.b.a., Crooin’s Hill, Greenwich Mason, Henry Allan, 17 Compton Terrace, Islington Mason, W. A., Architect, 9 Great St. Helen’s Masters, Henry, Architect, 16 Cumberland Street, Bristol Matthews, James, Architect, Aberdeen Mawley, Henry, Architect, 20 Gower Street Mayhew, Charles, f.i.b.a., 14 Argyll Street Meeson, Alfred, C. E., 1 Ordnance Villas, Ordnance Road, St. John’s Wood Meredith, Michael, Architect, 7 Winchester Street Meyer, Thomas, a.i.b.a., 16 Warwick Street, Golden Square Mickle, William, 12 James Terrace, Commercial Road, New Peckham tMiddleton, J., Architect, Bondgatc, Darlington Millican, William, Architect, 30 Charles Street, Leicester Mills, Alexander, Architect, Manchester Mitchell, John, Civil Engineer, Diss Mocatta, David, f.i.b.a., 57 Old Broad Street, City Moore, George, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 64 Lincoln’s Inn Fields Morant, Alfred, Civil Engineer, 59 Tachbrook Street, Belgrave Road, Pimlico Morant, Augustus, Lincoln Morant, George, 91 New Bond Street Morris, W., Salop Road, Oswestry Munt, William, 28 Moorgate Street Nash, Edwin, a.i.b.a., 53 Moorgate Street Neeld, Joseph, Esq., m.p., 6 Grosvenor Square *Nelson, Charles C., f.i.b a., 30 Hyde Park Gardens Newlands, James, Borough Engineer, Public Offices, Cornwallis Street, Liverpool Newton, R. II., Architect, 6 Argyll Street tNicholson, Thomas, Architect, Hereford Nicklen, Samuel Edward Kettle, Architect, Evesham, Worcestershire Norman, Alfred, Devonport Notman, J., Philadelphia, United States Nunns, Francis B., Leek, Staffordshire Oliver, Harry, a.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Owen, James H., Architect and Civil Engineer, 2 Mountjoy Square West, Dublin Owen, T. E., Architect and Civil Engineer, Dover Court, Southsea Palmer, W. F., Oldham, Lancashire tPapworth, G., r.a. Ireland, Architect, 109 Great Marlborough Street, Dublin * Pap worth, John W., f.i.b.a., 14a Great Marlborough Street *Papworth, Wyatt, Architect, 14a Great Marlborough Street (Honorary Secretary ) Parr, Samuel, 2 Stamford Terrace, Swan Street, Borough Parry, J. 0., Higham Court, Gloucester Parsons, John L. and Charles, Messrs., Lewes, Sussex t Parsons, William, Architect, St. Martin’s, Leicester Pascoe, Joseph, Surveyor, Bodmin, Cornwall Patterson, James, 73 Montague Street, Blackburn Peddie, J. Dick, Architect, 1 George Street, Edinburgh Penfold, John Wornham, Architect, 20, Golden Square Pennington, E. G., Architect, Needham Market, Suffolk Penrose, Francis C. m.a., f.i.b.a., 4 Trafalgar Square tPenson, R. Kyrke, f.i.b.a., Oswestry Perring, J., Civil Engineer, East Lancashire Railway Office, Bury, Lancashire Petit, Rev. J. L., 9 New Square, Lincoln’s Inn Pettit, Joseph Ablitt, Ipswich Phipson, R. M., Architect, Ipswich, and 34 Moorgate Street + Picton, James A., Architect, f.s.a., 19 Clayton Square, Liverpool Pilditch, Thomas, F’rome, Somersetshire Pilkington, Thomas, Bourne, near Stamford tPineo, Charles W. E. Architect, 170 Queen Street, Portsea Pite, Alfred R., 4 Chatham Place, Walworth Road Plum, Thomas W., 7 Terrace, Camberwell Plymouth Public Library, The Plymouth Mechanics’ Institute, The Pocock, Lewis, f.s.a., 5 Gloucester Road, Regent’s Park *Pocock, \\ illiam W., b.a., f.i.b.a., 10 Trevor Terrace, Knightsbridge tPope, II. S., Architect, Guildhall Chambers, Bristol Pordon, Charles F\, Architect, 17 St. Helen’s Place, City Porter, Frederick W., 13 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Pownall, George, f.i.b.a., 37 Bloomsbury Square Pritchett, Charles P., Architect, Huddersfield Pritchett, James P., jun., Architect, 13 Lendal, York Purdue, William, Architect, 15 Lower Islington Terrace Putney College of Civil Engineers, The ; per R. N. Newman, Esq. Rampling, R. B., 32 Market Place, Preston, Lancashire Rattee, James, Carver, 6 Regent Terrace, Cambridge Rawlinson, Robert, Civil Engineer, Ovington Square, Brompton Reed, Charles, Architect, South John Street, Liverpool Reed, Wm. Candler, a.i.b.a., 64 Old Broad Street Reeves, C., Architect and Surveyor, 102 Guildford Street Ricardo, Harry R. a.i.b.a., Beaulieu Lodge, Norwood Richards, Theophilus, Birmingham Richardson, Charles, Stamford Richardson, Charles James, f.i.b.a., 22 Brompton Crescent Rickman, T. M., 16 King William Street, Strand Rivers, H. F., Brompton House, Brompton, Kent Rivington, William, 52 St. John’s Square, Clerkenwell Roberts, Henry, f.i.b.a., 10 Connaught Square, Paddington Robinson, Fred. J., Architect, per H. J. Stevens, Esq., Derby Robinson, G. T., Architect, 3 Castle Street, Wolverhampton Robinson, Richard, Architect, Wolverhampton Robinson, R. II., Architect, Bennett’s Hill, Birmingham Rochfort, James, 34a Brewer Street Rogers, — , Architect, Plymouth Rogers, William, f.i.b.a., 31 Pratt Street, Lambeth Ross, James, Architect, Inverness Rowe, R. R., 4 Wood Street, Abingdon Street, Westminster Russell Institution, The, Great Coram Street ; per E. W. Brayley, Esq., F.S.A. Sabine, William, jun., Architect, Winchester House, Old Broad Street St. Aubyn, James Pearse, a.i.b.a., 5 Fumival’s Inn Salomons, E., Architect, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Scharf, George, jun., 1 Torrington Square *Scoles, Joseph J., f.i.b.a., 11 Argyll Place Scott, Walter, 3 Wear Street, Sunderland Searle, Chas. G., Architect and Surveyor, 2 Charlotte Row, Mansion House Seddon, John Pollard, Architect, 27 Grove Terrace, Kentish Town Selby, Edward, Lowestoft, Suffolk Sharp, R. H., Architect, York tSharpe, Edmund, f.i.b.a., Lancaster Shenton, Henry, Architect, Friar Lane, Leicester Sherwood, W. S., Architect, Clayton Square, Liverpool Shout, R. II., Architect, 11 Trinity Street, Bristol Simpson, Thomas, 48 Lamb’s Conduit Street Slack, Henry, Architect, Darlington *Smirke, Sydney, v.p.i.b.a., a.u.a., Berkeley Square Smith, George, jun., Civil Engineer, 42 St. Luke’s Place, Cork Smith, James, Architect, Glasgow Smith, Henry, Architect and Civil Engineer, 10 Upper Temple Street, Dublin 4 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS (continued) Smith, Thomas, f.i.h.a., County Surveyor for Hertfordshire and Bedford- shire, North Road House, Hertford Smith, William, Architect, 142 King Street, Aberdeen Spence, William, Architect, Glasgow Spnitt, H. W., Architect and Surveyor, 17 Essex Street, Strand Stephen, John, Architect, Glasgow Stephens, Edward W., Taunton Stevens, Edward N., Architect, Com Exchange, Tunbridge Wells tStevens, Henry J., Architect, Friar Gate, Derby Sugden, William, Architect, .59 Victoria Street, Bradford Suter, Richard, Architect, 3 Upper Woburn Place, and 28 Fenchurch Street Swindell, John G., a.i.b.a., 3 Kilbura Priory Tabberer, Benjamin, New Walk, Leicester Thompson, Edwin, London Road, Derby Thomson, Col. Robert, r.e., 1 Wellington Place, Dover ♦Thomson, James, f.i.b.a., 57 Devonshire Street, Portland Place ♦Tite, William, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 17 St. Helen’s Place, City Toner, John, jun., Architect, 30 Luard Street, Caledonian Road, Islington Tootell, Joseph, Maidstone Tovell, George Singleton, Ipswich Tress, Richard, Architect, 23 Little St. Thomas Apostle Underwood, C., Architect, Clifton Wadmore, J. F., a.i.b.a., Upper Clapton Wale, James, Surveyor, Sadler Gate, Derby Walker, G. and S., Messrs., Surveyors, Nottingham Waller, F. S., Architect, Gloucester t Walsh, Blayney William, Architect, Blackmore Street, Kingston, Jamaica Walter, Richard, Maidstone Walters, Edward, 24 Cooper Street, Manchester Ward and Son, Messrs., Architects, Eastwood House, Hanley, Staffordshire Potteries Watson, John Burges, Architect, 39 Manchester Street, Manchester Square Weightman, John Borough Architect, Town Hall, Liverpool Welsh, S. T., Architect, Bristol tWhichcord, John, jun., a.i.b.a., f.s.a., Maidstone, Kent Whitcombe, J. A., Ililfield, Gloucester White, Alfred, Architect, 19 Tyndal Place, Islington Whiteford, Hamilton, Architect, Thorn Hill, Plymouth Wigginton, William, Architect, 5 Arboretum Terrace, Osmarton Street, Derby fWightwick, George, Architect, Plymouth Wildman, Col. Newstcad Abbey Wilds, William, Hertford Williams, Evan Owen, Luton, Bedfordshire Williams, Richard Lloyd, Gloucester Williamson, Francis, Surveyor, Nottingham Wilson, Charles, Architect, Glasgow Wilson, George, Knaresborough, Yorkshire ♦tWilson, James, f.s.a., Architect, Belmont House, Bath, and 1(5 Bridge Street, Westminster Winscomb, Capt., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, Cornhill Withers, Robert Jewell, a.i.b.a., 1(51 Stretford Road, Manchester Wood, Henry, Civil Engineer, H. M. Dockyard, Portsmouth Wood, John T., Architect, 15 Beaufort Buildings, Strand Wood, John, Liverscge House, Derby Wood, Sancton, f.i.b.a., 10 Craig’s Court, Charing Cross Woodthorpe, Edmund, f.i.b.a., 79 St. Martin’s Lane Woolnough, Henry, Architect, County Surveyor, Ipswich, Suffolk Wyatt, Thomas H., f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Wylie, Thomas, Surveyor, Sweeting Street, Liverpool ♦Wylson, James, Architect, 95 Tachbrook Street, Pimlico Yeoville, II. R., Architect, 1(5 Spring Hill Terrace, Birmingham Yorkshire Architectural Society, The NAMES OF SUBSCRIBERS Received too late fob insertion in the List for the Year 1848 - 9 ,— also New Members for that Year to the ‘20th January, 1851. Baily, Charles, Architect, Newark Baker, Charles, Murket Place, Leicester Burry, Frederick E., Sydenham Bateman, John J., Architect, Birmingham liidlakc, George, Architect, Merridale Farm, Wolverhampton Brunson & Co., Messrs., Birmingham CrcaJock, John J„ Architect, 15 South Hill, Devonport Edge, Charles, Architect, Birmingham 1 .ilkener, Edward, Architect, (51 Gracechurch Street howler, 1* nmeis, hrome, Somersetshire Giles, — , Architect, Wolverhampton Goodman, — , Birmingham Hardwick, Joseph, Birmingham llaswcll, T. R., Darlington Hooper, H., 9 Lansdowne Road Villas, Kensington Park Kimpston, James. County Surveyor, Ballinasloe Kingston, G. S. Adelaide, South Australia Kirkland, Alexander, Architect, 41 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow Mason, Henry Allan, 17, Compton Terrace, Islington Meeson, Alfred, C. E., 1 Ordnance Villas, Ordnance Road, St. John’s Wood Nicholson, Thomas, Architect, Hereford Oliver, Harry, a.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Petit, Rev. J. L., 9 New Square, Lincoln’s Inn Rickman, 1. M., Architect, 1(5 King William Street, Strand Robinson, G. T., Architect, 3 Castle Street, Wolverhampton Smith, James, Architect, Glasgow Spence, William, Architect, Glasgow Stephen, John, Architect, Glasgow Stephens, Edward W., Taunton Walters, Edward, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Yorkshire Architectural Society, The ARC HITEC TURAL P U B LIC ATIO N SOC IET Y. 1850 - 51 . COMMITTEE. SAMUEL ANGELL, Esq. A. ASHPITEL, Esq., f.s.a. CHARLES BARRY, Esq.,’k.a. JAMES BELL, Esq. W. J. BOOTH, Esq. EWAN CHRISTIAN, Esq. PROFESSOR COCKERELL, r.a. PROFESSOR DONALDSON. W. J. D0NTH011N, Esq. FRANCIS EDW r ARDS, jun., Esq. H. B. GARLING, jun., Esq. GEORGE GODWIN, Esq., f.k.s. W. G. HABERSHON, Esq. E. I’ ANSON, jun. H. E ROBERT KERR, Esq. J. T. KNOWLES, Esq. T. H. LEWIS, Esq. JAMES M. LOCKYER, jun., Esq DAVID MOCATTA, Esq. CHARLES C. NELSON, Esq. JOHN W. PAP WORTH. Esq. WYATT PAPWORTH, Esq. W. W. POCOCK, Esq., k.a. J. J. SCOLES, Esq. SYDNEY SMIRKE, Esq., a. r.a. JAMES THOMSON, Esq. WILLIAM TITE, Esq., f.r.s. Esq., f.g.s. JAMES WILSON, Esq., f.s.a. KENDALL, jun., Esq., f.s.a. JAMES WYLSON, Esq. AND THE LOCAL HONORARY SECRETARIES. Honorary Treasurer — THOMAS L. DONALDSON, Esq., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square. Honorary Secretary - — WYATT PAPWORTH. Esq., 14a Great Marlborough Street. OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. Republications (after a careful collation of such MSS. as can be consulted, and the earlier editions) of the standard Authors, with their Commentators, enriched with Notes conveying a condensed view of the discoveries and theories of more recent Authors. Illustrations of executed works of Authors of equivalent talent, who may not have left writings in MS. or type. — or continuations of works in the same style. Publications of works (either of text or plates) by modern Authors, English or Foreign, which may be approved by the Society. Publications of the many very valuable Essays and Hints which are scattered in the various Miscellanies. A Digest of the Theoretical Books, arranging each division of an Author’s works under the appropriate article of the Cyclopaedia. A Polyglossary, or Table of Synonyms of Technical Words in the different languages of Europe, and in the different counties of Great Britain. Lithographers. .MESSRS. DAT’ AND SON, Gate Street; Printer RICHARDS. 37, Great Queen Street, Lincoln’s Inn Fields; LONDON. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LETTERPRESS FOR 1850-51 CONTENTS. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. ILLUSTRATIONS. Subjects : ARCH. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. CORBEL. DOOR (BRONZE). DRYING CLOSET. WINDOW (CIRCULAR). FACADE. GATEWAY. LOGGIA. MAUSOLEUM. METAL WORK. TWENTY-TWO PLATES AND TIIIRTY-ONE WOOD-CUTS. TEXT. Subjects : CHINESE ARCHITECTURE, by E. Ashworth. CYCLOPAEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE. List of Terms applicable to subjects connected with the Art, under the letters from O to Z inclusive. FIFTY DRYING CLOSET, by Wili.iam Healy. Description of the Subjects contained in the first part of the Illustrations. FAGES. The Committee of the Architectural Publication Society do not hold themselves responsible for the several facts, opinions, and statements, contained in the various Essays ; at the same time they can assure the Members, that the utmost care has been taken by the repective Authors, in the preparation and revision of each article, to ensure general accuracy. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS For the Year ending April 30th, 1851. designates the Members of the Committee; f designates the Local Honorary Secretaries. Abbott, George L., Architect, Barnstaple Abraham, Robert, Architect, f.s.a., 32 York Terrace, Regent’s Park Aitchisou, George, Architect, m.i.c.e., Muscovy Court, Trinity Square, Tower Hill (2 copies) Aitchisou, George, jun., Architect, ditto Allen, Snooke, and Stock, Messrs., Architects and Surveyors, 0!) Tooley Street, Borough Allingham, William, 8 Grange Road, Bermondsey Anderson, Lieut. J. C., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, 23 Comhill Anderton, William, Architect, Gargrave, Skipton, Yorkshire •Angell, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 18 Gower Street Architectural Society, The, York Arkle, George, Messrs. Leyland and Co., King Street, Liverpool Arthur, Oswald, Architect, Plymouth •Aslipitel, Arthur, f.i.b.a., f.s.a., 5 Crown Court, Old Broad Street Ashworth, Edward, Architect, 203 High Street, Exeter Aston, D. W., 15 Bowl-alley Lane, Hull Atkins, William, Architect, C Adelaide Place, Cork Bailey, George, f.i.b.a., 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields +Baily, Charles, Architect, Newark Baird, John, Architect, Glasgow Baker, Charles, Market Place, Leicester Baldry, Alfred, 47 Gloucester Road, Hyde Park Ball, J. H., Architect, Plymouth +Banks, Edward, Architect, Wolverhampton +Barues, Frederick, Architect, Brook Street, Ipswich Bames, Henry, Architect and Surveyor, Dorchester Barnet, James, 4 Thomas Place, Gravel Lane, Southwark •Barry, Charles, f.i.b.a., h.a., 32 Great George Street, Westminster Barry, Frederick E., Sydenham Bateman, John J., Architect, Birmingham +Batemau, W. W., Architect, Cherry Street, Birmingham Beazley, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 2!) Soho Square Bedells, Charles, St. Neot's, Huntingdonshire •Bell, James, f.i.b.a., Devonshire Place, Marylebone Bellamy, T., f.i.b.a., 8 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Bennett, W illiam, Sir Thomas's Buildings, Liverpool Bennett, W., Birmingham Berners, John, Holbrook, Ipswich Bidlake, George, Architect, Wolverhampton tBilling, John, Architect, London Street, Reading Black and Salmon, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow BlackweR, Isaac, 130 Ormond Street, Manchester Blyth, John, Architect, 113 Aldersgate Street, City Boileau, Sir J. P., Bail;., Ketteriugham Hall, Norwich, and 20 Upper Brook Street Bolger, Henry, Architect, Holkham, Norfolk Booker, William, Architect and Surveyor, High Pavement, Nottingham •Booth, W. J., F.I.B.A., 34 Red Lion Square Botham, John R., Architect, Birmingham Bouch, Thomas, Civil Engineer, Edinburgh Boutcher, William, Architect, Sandgate Road, Folkestone Brandon, David, f.i.b.a., 75 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Brandon, Raphael, Architect, 11 Beaufort Buildings, Strand Brasch, Richard R., Architect, Sunday’s Well, Cork Brayley, E. W., Great Coram Street Briggs, Samuel, Birmingham Bristol Society of Architects t Browning, Edward, a.i.b.a., Stamford Bulmer, Martin, Maidstone Bunning, J. B., f.i.b.a., 34 Guildford Street Burn, William, f.i.b.a., 0 Stratton Street, Piccadilly +Burnet, John, Architect, 50 Renfield Street, Glasgow Burton, Decimus, f.i.b.a., 0 Spring Gardens • Burton, Henry, 19 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Burton, John, Avenliam Lane, Preston tButcher, Lewis George, a.i.b.a., Dfracombe, Devonshire Cawer, Richard G., Haines Hill, Taunton Chamberlain, J. H., 108 Great College Street, Camden Town Chappell, Abel S., 28 Walbrook, City j ’Christian, Ewan, f.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Christmas, T., 1 Holywell Row, Worship Street, Finsbury Clarke, J. A., Architect, Bristol Clarke and Bell, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Clutton, Henry, a.i.b.a., 8 Whitehall Place Cobb, William, Maidstone •Cockerell, Charles R., v.i>.i.b.a., b.a., Bank of England Cocks, Reginald T., 43 Hertford Street, Mayfair LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ). Cole, Henry, Architect, Birkenhead Colson, John, Architect, Winchester Cornish, Robert S., Exeter tCorson, W. Reid, Architect, 3 Albion Place, Leeds ♦Cory, John, Architect, Durham Cowley, Henry Arnold, 10 Southampton Place, Euston Square Crealock, John J., Architect, 15 South Hill, Devonport Crompton, W. H., Birmingham Cubitt and Co., Messrs. William, Gray’s Inn Road Culshaw, Win., Architect, Itumford Place, Liverpool IJarbishire, Henry Astley,20 Keppel Street, Russell Square Darken, John J., Holt, Norfolk Davies, James, Cambridge Street, Birmingham Davies, John, f.i.b.a., Great St. Helen’s Dawson, Henry, 13 South Street, Finsbury ♦Deane, Sir Thomas, Architect, Cork De Grey, The Right Hon. the Earl, K.G., &c„ 4c., 4 St. James’s Square De Walden, — , Kingston, Jamaica Devonport Mechanics' Institute, The Dixon, Edward, Civil Engineer, Railway Station, Euston Square Dobson, Jeremiah, Architect, 10 Park Row, Leeds Dobson, John, f.i.b.a., Newcastle-upon-Tyne Doekray, Robert B., Engineers’ Office, Euston Station •Donaldson, Thomas Leverton, f.i.b.a., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square, ( Honorary Treasurer) •Donthom, W. John, f.i.b.a., 18 Hanover Street, Hanover Square Down, Edwin, Architect, Bridgewater Draper, George, Chichester Dunch, Thomas W., Architect, Stepney Causeway Ebbells, Robert, Architect, Tattenhall Wood, Wolverhampton Edge, Charles, Architect, Birmingham Edge, Francis, Kaye Hill House, Birmingham Edmeston, James, jun., Architect, 16 Tibberton Square, Islington •Edwards, Francis, jun., Architect, 17 Hart Street, Bloomsbury Ellis, I\, Architect , ' i Clayton Square, Liverpool ♦ Evans, George, County Surveyor, Wirabome, Dorsetshire Evans, William, EUastone, Ashbourne Eves, George, Architect, Uxbridge Eyton, H. M., Architect, 64 Old Broad Street Fabian, John, ’14 Bedford Place, Brighton Ferguson, James, Nottingham Ferrey, Benjamin, f.i.b.a., 1 Trinity Place, Charing Cross Foster and Wood, Messrs., Architects, Bristol Fowler, Francis, Frame, Somersetshire ♦ Fulljumes, Thomas, f.ijj.a., Hastield Court, Gloucester Gardiner, John Bull, f.i.b.a , 4 Bank Chambers, Lothbury •darling, H. B. jun., a.i.b.a., 11 King's Road, Bedford Row (iee, W. H., Architect, Castle Street, Liverpool Geoghegan, Charles, Architect, 6 Bloomsbury Square Gibbs, Edward, Surveyor, Stratford-on-Avon Gilbert, J. C., Architect, Nottingham Giles, Charles E., Architect, Taunton, Devonshire Given, George, Architect, Newtown Limnvndy, Co. Deny Goddard, Henry, Architect, Lincoln God lord, Henry, Architect, Market Street, Leicester •Godwin, George, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 24 Alexander Square. Brampton Good, J. H., jun., f.i.b.a., 75 Hatton Garden Goodacre, Robert Johnson, Newtown Street, Leicester Goodman, Thomas J., Architect, 5 Furnival's Inn Gould, John, jun., Surveyor, St. George’s Terrace, Gravesend Gould, R. D., Architect, Barnstaple Green, Arthur John, a.i.b.a., 4 Lancaster Place, Strand Green, William, per W. G. Habershon, Esq. Greenwich Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, The, per P. Purvis, Esq., M.D. ♦ Gregan, J. Edgar, f.i.b.a., 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Grey, the Hon. W. Booth, Gayton, Northamptonshire, and 43 Charles Street, Berkeley Square Gribbon, E. P., Architect, Cl Lower Gardiner Street, Dublin Griffen, W. D., Architect, Darlington Street, Wolverhampton Griffith, Evan, Aberdare, South Wales Griffith, J. W., Architect, !) St. John’s Square, Clerkenwell Griffith, William Pettit, f.i.b.a., f.s.a., ditto (2 copies) Gwilt, George, f.s.a., Architect, 8 Union Street, Borough •Habershon, W. G., Architect, 38a Bloomsbuiy Square Hall, Thomas, Harper Street, Leeds Hamilton, W. R., f.r.s., 0 Bolton Row Hansard, Octavius, Architect, 2 Kensington Garden Terrace ♦Hansom, Joseph A., Architect, Green Bank House, Preston Hanson, Samuel, The Elms, Epsom Hardwick, Joseph, Birmingham Hargrave, Joshua, jun., Warren Place, Cork ♦Harrison, James, Architect, Chester Haswell, T. R., Darlington ♦Hayward, Henry W., Architect, Bank Buildings, Colchester ♦Hayward, John, Architect, Exeter Haywood, James, Civil Engineer, Market Place, Derby- Hawker, Edward, Plymouth Healey, Thomas, Architect, Bradford, Yorkshire Heathcote, Samuel Heathcote Unwin, Esq., Shephalbury, Hertford Hemming, S., Architect, Birmingham Heneker, R. W., a.i.b.a., 0 Old Jewry Chambers Herbertson, John, Architect, Glasgow Hill, D. R., Architect, Birmingham Hill, Thomas, Architect, 2 Guildford Place, Brunswick Square Hilling, George, Architect, Regent Street, Yarmouth ♦Hine, Thomas C., Architect, Regent Street, Nottingham Hirst, John Henry, Architect, 28 Corn Street, Bristol Hitch, Walter, Ware, Hertfordshire Hodsou, H. B., Architect, 14 Guildford Street, Russell Square Holden, Isaac, Architect, 46 King Street, Manchester Holden, James Platt, Architect, ditto Hollingsworth, Daniel, Architect, Hertford Holme, Artlier J., Architect, 2 Benson Street, Liverpool Holme, Samuel, Architect, Church Street, Liverpool Hopkins, Wm. J. Architect, Darlington Horner, W. S., 7 Aldgate Horsford, James, Architect, Bedford Howell, J., Architect, 1 Vincent Square, Westminster Huertson, William W., Leeds Hughes, Arthur, Architect Humphrey, Charles, Architect, 61 Leadenliall Street Hussey, R. C., Architect, 16 King William Street, Strand •I’ Anson, Edward, jun., f.i.b.a., f.q.s., 20 Lawrence Pountuey Lane Ives, William, Architect, North Parade, Halifax Jackson, Stephen, Ipswich Jay, John, City Basin Jeckell, Thomas, Wymondham, and 10 Hill’s Road, Cambridge Johnson, John, Architect and Surveyor, 70 Whiting Street, Bury St. Edm und' Johnson, Robert J., Architect, Darlington Johnston, Andrew, Surveyor, 3 Lord Street, Liverpool LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ) 3 ♦Jones, George Fowler, Architect, Monkgate, York Jones, John, Pleasant Street, Liverpool Kempster, James F., County Surveyor, Rallinasloe ‘Kendall, H. E., jun., f.i.b.a., 33 Brunswick Square ♦Kennedy, Henry, Architect, Bangor * Kerr, Robert, Architect, 23 Parliament Street tKimpton, Thomas Yale, a.i.b.a., Fore Street, Hertford Kingston, G. S., Adelaide, South Australia, per Mr. Clifford, Inner Temple Lane Kinnear, C. G. H., 17 Aloa Street, Edinburgh Kilpin, T. J., Lawton Street, Liverpool Kirkland, Alexander, Architect, 41 St. Vincent Street, Glasgow Kitson, James, Leeds ♦ Knowles, Charles, Architect, Bridgewater Knowles, John, ditto ‘Knowles, James Thomas, f.i.b.a., 1 Raymond Buildings, Gray's Inn Laker, John, jun., 12 Bower Place, Maidstone Lamb, J. J., Architect, G St. James’s Place, Paisley Lanyon, Charles, Architect and Civil Engineer, 10 Wellington Place, Belfast Lawrie, William, Downham Market Laxton, William, 20 Arundel Street, Strand Leeds Mechanics’ Institution, The, South Parade ♦Le Lievre, James, 27 Haute ville, Guernsey ‘Lewis, T. Hayter, a.i.b.a., 70 Baker Street, Portman Square Lindley, Charles, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire Little, Thomas, Architect, 30 Northumberland Street, New Road Livesay, Augustus Frederick, Architect and Surveyor, Penny Street, Portsea Lockyer, James, Architect, 1!) Southampton Street, Fitzroy Square ‘Lockyer, James M., jun., a.i.b.a., ditto Loudon Institution, The, Finsbury Circus, per R. Thomson, Librarian Lovelace, the Right Hon. the Earl of, 0 Great Cumberland Place Lucas, C., Lowestoft, Suffolk Lucas, Thomas, Montreal, Sevenoaks Lufkin, George, 18 Brunswick Street, Dover Road, Southwark Mackintosh, .-Eneas M., Raigmore, Inverness Mackintosh, David, Architect, Exeter Mackland, John, Ulverstone Manners, G. P., Architect, 1 Fountain Buildings, Bath Martyr, R. Smirke, f.i.b.a., Croom’s Hill, Greenwich Mason, Henry Allan, 17 Compton Terrace, Islington Mason, W. A., Architect, 9 Great St. Helen’s Masters, Henry, Architect, 1G Cumberland Street, Bristol Matthews, James, Architect, Aberdeen Mawley, Henry, Architect, 20 Gower Street May hew, Charles, f.i.b.a., 14 Argyll Street Measor, Rev. H. P., Tiverton Meeson, Alfred, C. E., 1 Ordnance Villas, Ordnance Road, St. John's Wood Meredith, Michael, Architect, 7 Winchester Street Meyer, Thomas, a.i.b.a., 16 Warwick Street, Golden Square + Middleton, J., Architect, Bondgate, Darlington Miles, William, Exeter Millican, William, Architect, 30 Charles Street, Leicester Mills, Alexander, Architect, Manchester Mitchell, John, Civil Engineer, Diss •Mocatta, David, f.i.b.a., 57 Old Broad Street, City Moore, George, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 04 Lincoln’s Inn Fields Morant, Alfred, Civil Engineer,^ Western Villas, Blomfield Road, Paddington Morant, Augustus, Lincoln Morant, George, 91, New Bond Street Morris, W., Salop Road, Oswestry Munday, Edward, Surveyor, Dorchester Nash, Edwin, a.i.b.a., 5 Adelaide Place, London Bridge Neeld, Joseph, Esq., m.p., 6 Grosvenor Square •Nelson, Charles C., f.i.b.a., 30 Hyde Park Gardens Newey, Isaac, Birmingham ♦Nicholson, Thomas, Architect, Hereford Norman, Alfred, Devonport Nunns, Francis B., Leek, Staffordshire Oliver, Harry, a.i.b.a., 6 Bloomsbury Square Owen, James H., Architect and Civil Engineer, 2 Mountjoy Square West, Dublin Owen, T. E., Architect and Civil Engineer, Dover Court, Southsea Palmer, W. F., Oldham, Lancashire ♦Papworth, G., n.A., Ireland, Architect, 109 Great Marlborough Street, Dublin ‘Papworth, John W., f.i.b.a., 14a Great Marlborough Street •Papworth, Wyatt, Architect, 14a Great Marlborough Street ( Honorary Secretary) Parry, J. G., Higham Court, Gloucester Parsons, John L. and Charles, Messrs., Lewes, Sussex ♦Parsons, William, Architect, St. Martin’s, Leicester Pascoe, Joseph, Surveyor, Bodmin, Cornwall Patterson, James, 2 King William Street, Blackburn Peddie, J. Dick, Architect, l George Street, Edinburgh Penfold, John Wornliam, Architect, 23 Charlotte Street, Fitzroy Square Pennington, E. G., Architect, Needham Market, Suffolk Penrose, Francis C., m.a., f.i.b.a., 4 Trafalgar Square ♦Penson, R. Kyrke, f.i.b.a., Oswestry Perring, J., Civil Engineer, East Lancashire Railway Office, Bury, Lancashire Petit, Rev. J. L., 9 New Square, Lincoln’s Inn ♦ Picton, James A., Architect, f.s.a., 19 Clayton Square, Liverpool I’ilditch, Thomas, Frome, Somersetshire ♦Pineo, Charles W. E., Architect, 170 Queen Street, Portsea Plum, Thomas W., 7 Ten-ace, Camberwell Plymouth Public Library, The Plymouth Mechanics’ Institute, The •Pocock, William W., b.a., f.i.b.a., 10 Trevor Terrace, Knightsbridge ♦ Pope, R. S., Architect, Guildhall Chambers, Bristol Pordon, Charles F., Architect, 17 St. Helen’s Place, City Porter, Frederick W., 13 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Pownall, George, f.i.b.a., 37 Bloomsbury Square Pritchett, Charles 1\, Architect, Huddersfield Pritchett, James P., jun., Architect, 13 Lendal, York Purdue, William, Architect, 15 Lower Islington Terrace Rattee, James, Carver, Hill’s Road, Cambridge Rawlinson, Robert, Civil Engineer, Ovington Square, Brompton Rebow, John Gurdon, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester Reed, Charles, Architect, Trafford Chambers, South John Street, Liverpool Reed, Wm. Candler, a.i.b.a., 64 Old Broad Street Reeves, C., Architect and Surveyor, 102 Guildford Street Reynolds, W., Birmingham Ricardo, Harry R., a.i.b.a, 33 Brock Street, Bath Richards, Theophilus, Birmingham Rickman, T. M., 16 King William Street, Strand Rivers, H. F., Brompton House, Brompton, Kent Roberts, Henry, f.i.b.a., 10 Connaught Square, Paddington Robinson, Fred. J., Architect, per H. J. Stevens, Esq., Derby Robinson, G. T., Architect, 3 Castle Street, Wolverhampton Robinson, H. R., Architect, Bennett’s Hill, Birmingham Robinson, Richard, Architect, Wolverhampton Rochfort, James, 34a Brewer Street, Golden Square Rogers, — , Architect, Plymouth Rogers, William, f.i.b.a., Palace Chambers, 31 Pratt Street, Lambeth 4 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS ( continued ). IIoss, James, Architect, Inverness Rowe, R. R., Town Surveyor's Office, Cambridge Russell Institution, The, Great Coram Street, per E. W. Brayley, Esq., f.s.a. Sabine, William, jun., Architect, Winchester House, Old Broad Street St. Aubyn, James Pearse, a.i.b.a., 5 Fumival’s Inn Salomons, E. Architect, 30 Cooper Street, Manchester •Scoles, Joseph J., f.i.b.a., 11 Argyll Place Scott, Walter, 3 Wear Street, Sunderland Searle, Charles G., Architect and Surveyor, 29 Poultry Sharp, R. H., Architect, York ♦Sharpe, Edmund, f.i.d.a., Lancaster Shenton, Henry, Architect, Friar Lane, Leicester Simpson, Thomas, 48 Lamb’s Conduit Street Slack, Henry, Architect, Bath •Smirke, Sydney, f.i.b.a., a.r.a., Berkeley Square Smith, George, jun., Civil Engineer, Belfast Smith, James, Architect, Glasgow Smith, Thomas, f.i.b.a., County Surveyor for Hertfordshire and Bedford- shire, North Road House, Hertford Smith, William, Architect, 142 King Street, Aberdeen Spence, William, Architect, Glasgow Stephen, John, Architect, Glasgow Stephens, Edward W., Taunton Stevens, Edward N., .Architect, Melbourne Cottage, Tunbridge Wells ♦Stevens, Henry J., f.i.b.a., Friar Gate, Derby Sugden, William, Architect, Leek, Staffordshire Suter, Richard, Architect, 3 Upper Woburn Place, and 28 Fenchurch Street Tabberer, Benjamin, New Walk, Leicester Thompson, Edwin, London Road, Derby Thomson, Col. Robert, r.e., 1 Wellington Place, Dover •Thomson, James, f.i.b.a., 57 Devonshire Street, Portland Place •Tite, William, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 17 St. Helen's Place, City Toner, John, jun., Architect, 30 Luard Street, Caledonian Road, Islington Tootell, Joseph, Maidstone Toplis, Thomas, Architect, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Tress, Richard, Architect, 23 Little St. Thomas Apostle Tress, William, Architect and Surv eyor, 19 Finsbury Square Wadmore, J. F., a.i.b.a., Upper Clapton Walker, G. and S., Messrs., Surveyors, Nottingham Waller, F. S., Architect, Gloucester ♦Walsh, Elayney William, Architect, Blackmore Street, Kingston, Jamaica Walter, Richard, Maidstone Walters, Edward, 24 Cooper Street, Manchester Walthew, R. S., Architect, Birmingham Ward and Son, Messrs., Architects, Eastwood House, Hanley, Staffordshire Potteries Watson, John Burges, Architect, 39 Manchester Street, Manchester Square Weightman, John, Borough Architect, Town Hall, Liverpool Welsh, S. T., Architect, Bristol ♦Whiclicord, John, jun., a.i.b.a., f.s.a., Maidstone, Kent Whitcombe, J. A. Hilfield, Gloucester White, Alfred, Architect, 19 Tyndal Place, Islington Whiteford, Hamilton, Architect, Thorn Hill, Plymouth Wigginton, William, Architect, 5 Arboretum Terrace, Osmarton Street, Derby ♦ Wightwick, George, Architect, Plymouth Wildman, Col., Newstead Abbey Wilds, William, Hertford Williams, Evan Owen, Luton, Bedfordshire Williams, Richard Lloyd, Gloucester Williamson, Francis, Surveyor, Nottingham Wilson, Charles, Architect, Glasgow Wilson, George, Knaresborough, Yorkshire •♦Wilson, James, f.s.a., Architect, Belmont House, Bath, and 38 Parliament Street W inscombe, Capt., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, 23 Comhill Mood, Henry, Civil Engineer, H. M. Dockyard, Portsmouth Wood, John, Liversege House, Derby W ood, Sancton, f.i.b.a., 10 Craig’s Court, Charing Cross M oolnough, Henry, Architect, County Surveyor, Ipswich, Suffolk Wyatt, 1 honms H., f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury W ylie, Thomas, Surveyor, Royal Bank Buildings, Liverpool » Wylson, James, Architect, 95 Tachbrook Street, Pimlico leoviEe, H. R., Architect. 10 Spring Hill Terrace, Birmingham SUBSCRIBERS FOR THE WORKS OF THE PREVIOUS YEARS. To the 16th December, 1851. Bateman, W. W., Birmingham Bennett, W., Birmingham Cawer, R. G., Haines Hill, Taunton Cole, Henry, Architect, Birkenhead Crompton, W. H., Birmingham Dockray, Robert B., Engineers' Office, Fusion Station Hawker, Edward, Plymouth Huertson, William W., Leeds Kinnear, C. G. H., 17 Aloa Street, Edinburgh Kitson, James, Leeds Le Lievrv, James, 27 Ilauteville, Guernsey Lovelace, the Right Hon. the Earl of, 0 Great Cumberland Place Mackintosh, .'Eneas W., Ilaigmore, Inverness Measor, Rev. II. P., Tiverton Miles, W illiam, Exeter Monday, Edward, Surveyor, Dorchester Newey, Isaac, Birmingham Rebow, John Gurdon, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester Reynolds, W., Birmingham. Richard, G. W., 18 Warwick Road Paddington Tress, William, Architect, 19 Finsbury Square W althew, R. S., Architect, Birmingham ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 1851 - 52 . COMMITTEE. SAMUEL ANGELL, Esq. A. ASHPITEL, Esq., f.s.a. SIR CHARLES BARRY, r.a. JAMES BELL, Esq., M.P. W. J. BOOTH, Esq. EWAN CHRISTIAN, Esq. PROFESSOR COCKERELL, k.a. PROFESSOR DONALDSON. W. J. DONTHORN, Esq. FRANCIS EDWARDS, jun., Esq. H. B. GARLING, jun., Esq. GEORGE GODWIN, Esq., f.r.s. W. G. HABERSHON, Esq. E. I’ANSON, jun., Esq., f.g.s. H. E. KENDALL, jun., Esq. : ROBERT KERR, Esq. J. T. KNOWLES, Esq. T. H. LEWIS, Esq. JAMES M. LOCKYER, jun., Esq. DAVID MOCATTA, Esq. CHARLES C. NELSON, Esq. JOHN W. PAPWORTH, Esq. WYATT PAPWORTH, Esq. W. W. POCOCK, Esq., r.a. J. J. SCOLES, Esq. SYDNEY SMIRKE, Esq., a.r.a. F.S.A. AND THE LOCAL HONORARY JAMES THOMSON, Esq. WILLIAM TITE, Esq., f.r.s. JAMES WILSON, Esq., f.s.a. JAMES WYLSON, Esq. SECRETARIES. Honorary Treasurer — THOMAS L. DONALDSON, Esq., Bolton Gardens, Russell Square. Honorary Secretary — WYATT PAPWORTH, Esq., 14a Great Marlborough Street, OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. Republications (after a careful collation of such MSS. as can be consulted, and the earlier editions) of the standard Authors, with their Commentators, enriched with Notes conveying a condensed view of the discoveries and theories of more recent Authors. Illustrations of executed works of Authors of equivalent talent, who may not have left writings in MS. or type, — or continuations of works in the same style. Publications of works (either of text or plates) by modern Authors, English or Foreign, which may be approved by the Society. Publications of the many very valuable Essays and Hints which are scattered in the various Miscellanies.. A Digest of the Theoretical Books, arranging each division of an Author’s works under the appropriate article of the Cyclopaxlia. A Polyglossary, or Table of Synonyms of Technical Words in the different languages of Europe, and in the different counties of Great Britain. PRINTED BY THOMAS RICHARDS, LONDON. ILLUSTRATIONS AND LETTER-PRESS FOR 18; CONTENTS. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. ILLUSTRATIONS. Subjects : ABATTOIR (3). GABLE (BRICK). AQUEDUCT (3). GARDEN. BALUSTRADE. GENOA. BATHS AND WASHHOUSES (3). HIP-KNOB. COURT (ALGIERS). ORGAN (4). COURT (BARCELONA). PULPIT. COURT (SYRACUSE). RIDGE. ECCLESIASTICAL SCULPTURE. WINDOW. FOUNTAIN. WOODWORK. TWENTY-SIX PLATES AND FORTY-THREE WOOD-CUTS. TEXT. ABATTOIR; by G. R. Burnell. AQUEDUCT; by Servaas de Jong. BATHS AND WASHHOUSES; by Messrs. Ashpitel and Whichcord. GABLES (BRICK); by Thomas L. Donaldson. Subjects : HIP-KNOB ; by A. W. Morant. RIDGE; by A. W. Morant. Description of the Illustrations contained in three Parts. Directions for Binding the four Volumes. fifty pages. The Committee of the Architectural Publication Society do not hold themselves responsible for the several facts, opinions, and statements, contained in the various Essays ; at the same time they can assure the Members, that the utmost care has been taken by the respective Authors, in the preparation and revision of each article, to ensure general accuracy. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCLE LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS Fok the Yeah ending April 30th, 1852. * designates the Members of the Committee ; f designates the Local Honorary Secretaries. Abbott, George L., Architect, Barnstaple Aitchison, George, Architect, m.i.c.e., Muscovy Court, Trinity Square, Tower Hill Aitchison, George, jun., Architect, ditto Allen, Snooke, and Stock, Messrs., Architects and Surveyors, Duke Street, London Bridge Allingham, William, 8 Grange Road, Bermondsey Anderson, Lieut. J. C., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, 23 Comhill Anderton, William, Architect, Gargrave, Skipton, Yorkshire •Angell, Samuel, f.i.b.a., 18 Gower Street Architectural Society, The, York •Ashpitel, Arthur, f.i.b.a., f.s.a., 5 Crown Court, Old Broad Street Ashworth, Edward, Architect, 263 High Street, Exeter Atkins, William, Architect, 6 Adelaide Place, Cork Bailey, George, f.i.b.a., 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields tliaily, Charles, Architect, Appleton Gate, Newark Baird, John, Architect, Glasgow Baker, Charles, Market Place, Leicester Baldly, Alfred, 47 Gloucester Road, Hyde Park Ball, J. H., Architect, Plymouth ♦Banks, Edward, Architect, Wolverhampton ♦Barnes, Frederick, Architect, Brook Street, Ipswich Barnes, Henry, Architect and Surveyor, Dorchester Barnet, James, 4 Thomas Place, Gravel Lane, Southwark •Barn', Sir Charles, f.i.b.a., k.a., 32 Great George Street, Westminster Barry, Frederick E., Sydenham Bateman, John J., Architect, Birmingham ♦Bateman, W. W., Architect, Cherry Street, Birmingham Bedells, Charles, St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire •Bell, James, m.p., f.i.b.a., 1 Devonshire Place, Portland Place Bellamy, T., f.i.b.a., 8 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Bennett, William, Sir Thomas’s Buildings, Liverpool Bennett, W., Birmingham Berners, John, Holbrook, Ipswich Bidlake, George, Architect, Wolverhampton ♦Billing, John, Architect, 38 Parliament Street, and London Street, Reading Black and Salmon, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Blackwell, Isaac, 47 Princes Street, Manchester Blyth, John, Architect, 113 Aldersgate Street, City Boileau, Sir J. P., Bart., Ketteringham Hall, Norwich, and 20 Upper Brook Street Booker, William, Architect and Surveyor, High Pavement, Nottingham •Booth, W. J., f.i.b.a., 34 Red Lion Square Botham, John R., Architect, Birmingham Boutcher, William, Architect, Sandgate Road, Folkestone Bowman, H., Architect, 68 George Street, Manchester Brandon, David, f.i.b.a., 75 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Brandon, Raphael, Architect, 11 Beaufort Buildings, Strand Brasch, Richard R., Architect, 23 Marlborough Street, Cork Briggs, Samuel, Birmingham Bristol Society of Architects ♦Browning, Edward, a.i.b.a., Stamford Bulmer, Martin, Maidstone Bunning, J. B., f.i.b.a., 34 Guildford Street Burn, William, f.i.b.a., 6 Stratton Street, Piccadilly Burnell, G. R., c.e., 14 Lincoln’s Inn Fields ♦Burnet, John, Architect, 50 Renfield Street, Glasgow Burton, Decimus, f.i.b.a., 6 Spring Gardens Burton, Henry, 19 Charlotte Street, Bedford Square Butcher, Lewis George, a.i.b.a., 8 Guildford Street, Russell Square Carver, Richard G., Haines Hill, Taunton Cates, Arthur, Architect, 38 Alfred Street, Bedford Square Chamberlain, J. H., 108 Great College Street, Camden Town Chappell, Abel S., 28 Walbrook, City Chorley, Charles R., Architect, Leeds •Christian, Ewan, f.i.b.a., 10 Whitehall Place Christmas, T., 1 Holywell Row, Worship Street, Finsbury Clarke, J. A., Architect, Bristol Clarke and Bell, Messrs., Architects, Glasgow Clutton, Henry', a.i.b.a., 8 Whitehall Place •Cockerell, Charles R., f.i.b.a., b.a., Bank of England Cocks, Reginald T., 22 Hertford Street, Mayfair Cole, Henry, Architect, Birkenhead Cornish, Robert S., Exeter ♦Corson, W. Reid, Architect, 5 South Parade, Leeds ♦Cory, John A., Architect, Durham Crealock, John J., Architect, 15 South Hill, Devonport Crompton, W. H., Birmingham LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS (continued) 4 Salomons, E. Architect, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Salvin, Anthony, f.i.b.a., 30 Argyll Street • Scoles, Joseph J., f.i.b.a., 58 Tall Mall Scott, Walter, 3 Wear Street, Sunderland Scott, E. E., 4 Trafalgar Square Searle, Charles G., Architect and Surveyor, 20 Poultry Sharp, It. H., Arcliitect, York ♦Sharpe, Edmund, f.i.b.a., Lancaster ♦Shenton, Henry, Architect, Friar Lane, Leicester ♦Shout, K. H., Architect, Yeovil Simpson, Thomas, 48 Lamb's Conduit Street Slack, Henry, Architect, 8 Chesterfield Street, King’s Cross •Smirke, Sydney, f.i.b.a., a.R.a., 24 Berkeley Square ♦Smith, George, jun., Architect and Civil Engineer, 12 Donegall Street, Belfast Smith, James, Architect, Glasgow Smith, James, Portsea Smith, Thomas, f.i.b.a., County Surveyor for Hertfordshire and Bedford- shire, North Road House, Hertford ♦Smith, William, Architect, 142 King Street, Aberdeen Spence, William, Architect, Glasgow Stephens, Edward W., Taunton Stevens, Edward N., Architect, Melbourne Cottage, Tunbridge Wells ♦Stevens, Henry J., f.i.b.a., Friar Gate, Derby Sugden, William, Arcliitect, Leek, Staffordshire Suter, Richard, Architect, 3 Upper Woburn Place, and 28 Fenchurch Street Tabberer, Benjamin, New Walk, Leicester Teulon, S. S., a.i.b.a., 2 Lansdowne Place, Brunswick Square Thompson, Edwin, London Road, Derby •Thomson, James, f.i.b.a., 57 Devonshire Street, Portland Place •Tite, William, f.i.b.a., f.r.s., 13 Duke Street, Westminster Toner, John, jun., Architect, 30 Luard Street, Caledonian Road, Islington Tootell, Joseph, Maidstone Toplis, Thomas, Architect, 20 Cooper Street, Manchester Tress, Richard, Architect, 23 Little St. Thomas Apostle Tress, William, Architect and Surveyor, 19 Finsbury Square Verelst, Charles, Liverpool Wadmore, J. F., a.i.b.a., Upper Clapton, and 5 Crosby Hall Chambers Walker, G. and S., Messrs., Surveyors, Nottingham M ailer, F. S., Architect, Gloucester ♦Walsh, Blayney William, Architect, Kingston, Jamaica Walter, Richard, Maidstone W alters, Edward, 24 Cooper Street, Manchester Ward and Son, Messrs., Architects, Eastwood House, Hanley, Staffordshire Potteries M'atson, John Burges, Architect, 39 Manchester Street, Manchester Square Weightman, John, Borough Architect, Town Hall, Liverpool Welsh, S. T., Architect, Bristol ♦Whichcord, John, jun., a.i.b.a., f.s.a., Maidstone, Kent Whitcombe, J. A. Hilfield, Gloucester White, Alfred, Architect, 19 Tyndal Place, Islington Whiteford, Hamilton, Architect, Thom Hill, Plymouth Wililman, Col., Newstead Abbey, Nottinghamshire Wilds, William, Hertford Williams, Evan Owen, Luton, Bedfordshire Williams, G. B., a.i.b.a., Frederick Place, Old Jewry Williams, Richard Lloyd, Gloucester ■Williamson, Francis, Surveyor, Nottingham Wilson, Charles, Architect, Glasgow ■Wilson, George, Knaresborough, Yorkshire *+ Wilson, James, f.s.a., Architect, Belmont House, Bath, and 38 Parliament Street Winscombe, Capt., Aden, per J. M. Richardson, 23 Cornhill ■Wood, Henry, Civil Engineer, H. M. Dockyard, Portsmouth ■Wood, Sancton, f.i.b.a., 10 Craig’s Court, Charing Cross Woolnough, Henry, Architect, County Surveyor, Ipswich, Suffolk •Wyatt, Thomas H., f.i.b.a., 77 Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury Wylie, Thomas, Surveyor, Royal Bank Buildings, Liverpool * Wylson, James, Architect, 4 Windsor Terrace, City Road Yeoville, H. R., Architect, 16 Spring Hill Terrace, Birmingham SUBSCRIBERS liuroell, G. R., Lincoln's Inn Fields Cliorley, Charles R., Leeds Cubitt, Lewis, Bedford Square Cumberland, F. W., Toronto, Canada Dull'erin, Lord, Grosvenor Place Fowler, James, Louth Gingell, F. W., East Ham, Esses Lucas, Thomas, Sevenooks Mackenzie, Thomas, Elgin Nesfield, W. E., York Terrace, Regent’s Park FOR THE WORKS OF THE PREVIOUS YEARS, To the 12 th February, 1853. Newlands, James, Liverpool Newton, R. II., Argyll Street Pink, Charles, Fareliam, Hants Rawlinson, S. S., Nottingham Salvin, Anthony, Argyll Street Scott, E. E., Trafalgar Square Shout, R. H., Yeovil Teulon, S. S., Lansdowne Place, Brunswick Square Williams, G. B., Frederick Place, Old Jewry The proof of the first portion of the list of terms for a Cyclopaedia, is forwarded as a circular, for the assistance of the members towards its perfection. The Committee hope to receive suggestions as soon as possible after careful inspection, the subscribers being requested to cooperate by forwarding additions and amendments : the first step to the compilation of a complete work. It is expected that such a commencement of such a work, will meet with that entire satisfaction from the subscribers, which will at once place sufficient, and secure adequate means of assistance and funds, at the disposal of the Committee, upon which the utmost consideration will be again given to the revision of this list, and the plan for carrying out the Cyclopaedia efficiently and constantly, will be completely matured. Synonyms in foreign languages, for the Polyglossary, will be acceptable ; they are not included in the subjoined list, it being proposed to form them into a separate paper. LIST OF TERMS, APPLICABLE TO THE SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE ART, PROPOSED TO BE INSERTED IN A CYCLOPAEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE. The References are to the following Divisions of the Art : — ARCHAEOLOGY. BIBLIOGRAPHY'. BIOGRAPHY'. BOTANY'. CHYMISTRY'. CONSTRUCTION. DECORATION. GEOLOGY'. HISTORY. LANDSCAPE GARDENING. ORNAMENT. PERSPECTIVE. POLIOGRAPIIY'. PRACTICE. THEORY'. Aaken, Jacob van Biog. Aarhuus Polio. Aaron’s-rod, or Caduceus Dec. Abaciscus Abacot Decor. Abaculus Abacus Abaiser Abamurus Abate Biog. Abatement, or Batement Abaton Abat-jour Abat-vent Abat-voix Abattoir Abbattis, Abatis, or Abattis Abbeville Polio. Abbey Abbot’s lodging Abbreviation Abbuttals, or Abuttals Abderites Abel, John Biog. Abele-tree, see Populus Bot. Aberdeen (Devina Texalorum) Aberration [Polio. Aberthaw Lime Abietineae Bot. Ability Ablaqueation Abnormal Aboukir (Canopus) Polio. Abousambul, Aboo-Simbel P. Abousir (Busiris) Polio. Abrantes Abreuvoir, and in Masonry Abraxas, Abracax Decor. Abrupt Absciss, or Abscissa ARCII. PUB. SOC. Absis, see Apsis Achleitner, Simon Biog. Absorbent Achmin Polio. Absorbing well Achmounein (Hermopolis) P. Absorption Achromatic Abstract Acids Absurdity Acinose Abury, see Avebury Polio. Acme Abuse Acorn Bot. Abutment Acorus (Aroideaj) Bot. Abuttals Acoustics Abydos Polio. Acquapendente Polio. Acacia-tree, see Kobinia Bot. Acqui Polio. Academia Acradina Polio. Academic Acre Academician Acrolithos Academist Acropolis Academy Acrostolium Acalus, or Calus Biog. Acroterium, or Acroter Acanthacea; Bot. Act Acapulco Polio. Actinobilism Access Actinometer Accessory, or Accompaniment Action Accident Actus Accidental Point Pcrsp. Acute angle Acclivity Adage Accommodation Adam, J. Biog. Accompaniment R. Biog. Accompts YV. Biog. Accordance Adamant, or Diamond Accouplement Adams, B. Biog. Accubitus R. Biog. Accumoli Biog. p. Biog. Accuracy Adaptation Acerinese Bot. Addition Aceric Acid Adhesion Acerra Decor. Adit, or Aditus Acetate Adjacent Angle Achaia Polio. Adjustment Achelor, Ashiler Adjutage, or Ajutage Achievement Admeasurement Polio. Admiralty Admiration Adoption Adorn Adria (Atria) Advance Advice Adytum Adze, or Addice AEcclesiola iEdes ASdicula yEdiculus ALgesta Angina (Egina) Allgis gEgricanes AUgyci JEgyptilia ASlamoth JElbrechts iElfric AElia Capitolina vEmilia Via iEneatores ASolia A^olipylae Aeolus AEqui iEquipondium iEquum ACra AErarium Aerial Perspective Aero-Dynamics, Statics, etc. Aerology Aerometry Aerugo Aesculapius, Temples to AEsculus (Hippocastanese) Bot 1 Polio. Polio. Decor. Decor. Decor. Biog. Biog. Polio. Decor. Polio. Polio. 2 INDEX. -/Esthetics ^Estimation, see Estimation Etherius Biog. Etiaioi Etites Etoma, or Etos Afenestration A ffectation Affinity Affix Afioum Polio. Aftercost A gal m a Decor. Agalmatolite Agamedes Biog. A gapenor Biog. Agaphite Agapitos Biog. Agde Polio. Agate Age A gen Polio. Agency Agent Ager Agesistratus Biog. Agger Agglutination Aggrandize Aggregation Agincourt, d’ Biog. Agistment line Aglet Agnolo, Baccio d’ Biog. Jul. Biog. Gab. Biog. Mich., see Buonarotti Agora [Biog. Agostino and Agnolo da Sienna Biog. Agra Polio, and Bot. Agraffe, or Aigraffe Decor. Agreeable Agreement Agricola Biog. Agrigentum (Girgcnti) Polio. Agrippina Colonia (Colo gne) P . Aguilla Agylla (Ccrvetcri) Polio. Aicardo Gio. Biog. Giac. Biog. Aichl, Job." Sant. Biog. Aichstct Polio. Aigner Biog. Aikin Biog. Aileron Aim Air — Drains, Escape, Hole, Ma- chine, Pump, Shaft, Tint, Trap, etc. Aire, d’ Polio. Airy Ajutage Aisle, or Aile, Isle, He, Ala Aitre, or Atrc Aix (Aquae Sextiae) Polio. Aix-la-Chapelle Polio. Alabandines Alabaster, Alabastritcs Alabastropolis Polio. Alais Polio. A-la-modc Alaque Alata Castrn (Edinb.) Polio. Alntrium Polio Alauna (Stirling) Polio. Alba Longa (Albano) Polio. Alban’s, S. Polio. Albnrnzin Polio. Albnrium Opu9 Albaro p 0 li 0 . Albenga polio. Albert Bio«'. O Alberti, Albert Biog. Arist. Biog. Joseph, von Biog. Leo Batt. Biog. Albertolli, Ferd. Biog. Gio. Biog. Albertoni Biog. Albi Polio. Alboresi Biog. Albula Polio. Album Albumen Bot. Alburnum Alcala Polio. Alcandri Biog. Alcantara (Norba Caesarea) P. Alcazar Alcha Alcinous Biog. Alcock Biog. Alcohol Alcorans Alcove Alder-tree, see Alnus Aldovrandini, D. Biog. M. Biog. P. A. Biog. T. Biog. Aldred Biog. Aldrich Biog. Aldun Biog. Alcaceria Ale-house Alcatorium Aleotti, J. B. Biog. Alessandro, B. d’ Biog. Alessi, Gal. Biog. Alet Polio. Aleus Biog. Alexander Biog. Alexandria Polio. Alfieri Biog. Algardi, Biog. Algebra Alghisi, Gal. Biog. Algorithm Alhambra, or Medinet Alham- bra Polio. Alien Priories Alio, Brothers Biog. Alioti, or Aleotti Biog. Alipius, see Alypius Alipterion Alkali Alkoranes Allahabad Polio. Allegory Allemagne Polio. Alley Alliprandi, Joh. B. Biog. Allotment Alloy Allowable Allusion Decor. Alluvium Almandine Almchrab Almeria Polio. Almcry or Almonry Almshouse Alnus (Bctulinete) Bot. Aloisius Biog. Alonso Biog. Aloryng Alosto, Pier. C. Biog. Alpicro Polio. Alquifore Altnmura Polio. Altar, Piece, Screen, Tomb, etc. Alterations Altimetry Altinura Polio. Altitude Alto-relievo Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Alum Aluminum Alur, or Alura Alvarez Alveare Alyo Alypius Amaasa Amalfi Amalgam Amali Aman, Job. Amarapura Amaryllideae Amateur Architect Amati, Carl Amatrice, Cola dell’ Ambhier Ambitus Amblygon Ambo, Ambone Amboyna Ambrey, see Almonry Ambrogio, S., Quarries of Ambrun Polio. Ambulacrum Ambulatio Ambulatory Amel Amelie Amendment Amerina Via Amethyst Amethystisontes Amiantus Amiens Amiternine Quarries Ammannato Ammonia Ammonite Ammon-no (Luxor) Amomum Amphi-cupcllum Ampbione Ampbiprostyle Ampbirrbeusis Amphithalamus Amphitheatre Ampbitbete Ampbitbura Amphora Ampulla Amsterdam Amnia Amulet Amusium Amussis Anabathra Anacamptus Anaclastics Anaglypha Anaglypbic Analemma Analogy Analysis Analytical Index Anamorphosis Anamour Polio. Ananas Bot. Anapiesma, or Anapicsmata Anastagi, Vic. Biog. Anatary Anatomical Monument Anchor Decor. Anclabria Decor. Anclabris, or Altar Decor. Ancient Ancon, Ancones Decor. Ancona Polio. Ancyra Polio. Andcrnach Polio. Andirons Andrea di Pisa Biog. Andrea di Nantes Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Decor. Biog. Decor. Decor. Decor. Polio. Decor. Decor. Andrews, S. Polio. Androdamus Andron, or Andronitides Andronicus Biog. Androuet du Cerceau, J. Biog. J. B. Biog. Anemoscope Angel Angelo, see Agostino Biog. S. (Corniculum) Polio. Angers Polio. Angiportum Angle — Bar, Bead, Brace, Bracket, Capital,Chimney, Float, Modillion, Rafter, Rib, Staff, Stones, Tiles, Tie Anglesea, or Mona Marble Anglo-Saxon Architecture, see England, Gothic Archi- tecture of Angouleme Polio. Angular Angular Capital, — Perspective Ani Polio. Anician Quarries Polio. Aniello, Agn. Biog. Animadversions Animation Anjou Polio. Annah Polio. Annals Annealing Annex Biog. Annular Mouldings, Vault, etc. Annulated Columns Annulet Anomaly Anonymous Architect Writer Anse-de-panier Decor. Ansidonia Polio. Anspach Polio. Ant Antic Antmopolis Polio. Antaradus Polio. Ante-cabinet Ante-chamber or room Ante-chapel Antc-court Antefixae Ante-hall Ante-mural Antepagmentum Antependium Ante-portico Antequera Polio. Anterides Ante-room Anthemius Biog. Antic Decor. Antick, or Grotesque Anticorrosive Anticum Antigua Polio. Antimachides Biog. Antimony Antimeter Antinopolis, or Antince Polio. Antioch Polio. Antiochus Biog. Antiphilus Biog. Antiquarium Antiquary Antique Antiquities Antiquo-modern Antiquum Antis, In Antistates Biog. Antithalamus Antium (Porto d’Anzo) Polio. Antoine Biog. * INDEX. 3 Antolini, Gio Biog. Antonine column Antonio, Fio. Biog. Antrim Polio. Antwerp Polio. Blue and Brown A nulus Anvil Anzo, Porto d’ (Antium) Polio. Aoust, see Augst Polio. Aosta(Augusta praetoria)Polio. Apartment Apaturia Aperture or Apertions Apex Aphites, or Memphites Marble Apiary Apium Bot. Aplomb Apoditeriom Apographon Apollinopolis Magna (Edfou) Polio. Apollo, Temples to Apollodorus Biog. Apollonia Apollonius Biog. Apophyge Apostoleum Apotheca Apothecarery Apothesis Apparatus, Warming Ventilating Appearance Appendage Appendix Appentis Appia Via Applause Apple Room Application, of the Orders, etc. Applique Appointment Appraise Appraiser Apprehension Apprentice Apprenticeship Approach Approbation Appropriateness Appropriation Appui Appurtenance Apricot Bot. Apron or pitching piece to dock, flashing, lining Apse, Apsis or Absis Apt Polio. Apteral Aptness Apulia Polio. Apuleius Biog. Apuzzo, d’, Pietro Biog. Apyros Aqua-fortis, -regia, -tint Aqua; Calidse (Bath) Polio Aqua; Stratiellorum (Acqui) P. — Sextiee (Aix) Polio. Aquaminarium Dec. Aquary Aqueduct Aquila Polio. Aquileia Polio. Aquilia Via Aquilariacete Bot. Aquino Polio. Arabesque Arabian Architecture Biblio. Arabo-Tedesco Araeostyle Ara;osistyle Aranjuez Arbores Arbitrary Arbitration Arbiter Arboretum Arbor-vitte Arbustum Arc Arcade Arcadia Area; Arcanum Arc-boutant Arcebocen Arcella Arceps Arch, Buttant, Buttress, etc. — Sepulchral, Triumphal Archoeography Archangel Polio. Archa;ology Arched Channels Schoene, Scheme, Schcam Archeion Archer Archeria Archetypum Ai’chias Archibancus Archibotant Archiepiscopal Archifrone Archimedes Archinale Architect Architectonic, Architectonical Architec tonography Architector Architectural Nomenclature, Design, Drawing, etc. Architecture — Anglo-Saxon, m'England, Gothic Arch 6- of — Arabian — Assyrian, Babylonian — Aztec — Botany of — British — Burmese — Byzantine, Romanesque, Romane — Celtic, see Druidical — Chinese — Christian — Cinque-cento — Civil — Classic — Counterfeit — Cyclopean — Domestic — Druidical and Celtic — Dutch — Ecclesiastical — Egyptian — Elizabethan — Etruscan — French — German — Gothic of England — — France — — Germany — — Italy . — — Normandy — — Northern Europe — — Spain and Portugal — Grecian — Hindoo — Indian — Italian — Japanese — Jewish — Lombard Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Bot. Polio. Arch i tecture — continued — Louis Quatorze — — Quinze — — Seize — Mexican — Military — Monumental — Moresque — Municipal — Pelasgic — Persepolitan, see Assyrian — Persian — Peruvian — Pointed, see Gothic — Renaissance — Roman — Russian — Sacred — Saracenic — Saxon — Sepulchral or Revival — Spanish and Portuguese Architecture Biblio. Architrave, Cornice, Door, etc. Architype Archives Archivolt Archivoltum Archivum, Arcep Archoid s Archpillar Archway Archwise Arcograph, see Cyclograph Arconio, Mario Arcs doubleaux Biog. Arcuatile Arcuature Arcueil Polio. Arcucci Biog. Arcugnano Arcula Arcus Polio. Ardagh Polio. Ardea Polio. Ardesia Arderne Biog. Ardfert Area Polio. — Curb, Drain, Areiopagus Arena Arenaria Arenaceous Arenatum Opus Areometer Arerde Grating, etc. Aretino, see Niccolo Biog. see Pietro Biog. Arezzo (Arretium) Polio. Arfe, d\ Gio. Biog. Argelius Biog. Argentoratum (Strasburg) Po. Argil Argillaceous Argos Polio. Ariccia Polio. Aricinian Wood Arienzo Polio. Arighini, Gius. Biog. Arigucci Biog. Ariminum (Rimini) Polio. Aristoteles, see Alberti Biog. Aristotile, see Fioravanti Biog. Aristotle Biog. Arithmetic Arleri, Peter Biog. Arles Polio. Armagh Polio. Armarium Armilla Decor. Armorial Bearings Armory Arnaldi Biog. Arnheim Polio. Arnolfo di Lapo Biog. Aroidem Bot. Arolsen Polio. Aronade Arphe Biog. Arpino, Gius. Cesare d’ Biog. Arran Polio. Arrangement of Edifices of a City, of Private Build- ings, etc. Arras Polio, and Decor. Arras, Mat. von Biog. Arrectaria Arretium (Arezzo) Polio. Arriaga Biog. Arriere voussure Arris, Fillet, Gutter, etc. Arrow-head Arroyo Biog. Arsenal Arschin Arsinoe (El-fayoum) Polio. Art Arta Polio. Artesian well Articled Clerk Articulation Artificer Artificial, Fireworks, Stone Artilise Artimesia Polio. Artisan Artist Artistic Artobriga (Ratisbonne) Polio. Arts, The Fine Arundel Polio. Arx Asaph, S. Polio. Asarotum Asbestos Aschaffcnburg Polio. Ascoli Polio. Ash -tree, see Fraxinus Ash-coloured Asheley Biog. Ashes, Smiths’ Ashlar, or Ashler Ashler Ashlcring Asliur Biog. Asiminthos Asinelli, Brothers Biog. Askew Aspect Aspen-tree, see Populus Asperity A spersorium Asphaltum Aspirant Assa Assemblage, of the Orders Assembly-Room Assers Assessment Assign Assistant Assisum (Assisi) Polio. Assize Association Assos (Bairam Kalesi) Polio. Assouan (Syene) Polio. Assular Assurance-Office Assyrian Architecture Biblio. Asta (Asti) Polio. Astel Asterites Asti (Asta) Polio. Aston Biog. Astorga (Asturica Aug.) Polio. Astori, Franc. Biog. 4 INDEX. A stragal Astrakhan Polio. Astronomical Building, Column Asty Astylar A styllen Asulaj Asylum, Blind, Lunatic, etc. Asymmetral, Asymmetry Asymptote Atcheen Atelier Atella Athenmum Athenseus Athenagoras Athens Athos, Mount Athothis Atlantes Atlantides Atmosphere Atria (Adria) Atriacum Marble Atriensis Atriolum Atrium Attacamite Attached Attalus, or Calus Attendolo, A mb. Attention Attic, or Attic order Attic Base, Door, Story, etc. Attica ™ ’’ Atticurges Attiret Attitude Attic, etc. A ttraction Attributes Attrition Auburn Auch Auction-room Audit Auditory Auger, or Augre Augmentation Augsburg (Augusta Vindeli- corum) Polio. Augst, or A oust (Augusta Rau- racorum) Polio. Augusta — Asturica (Astorga) Polio. — Pretoria (Aosta) Polio. — Rauracorum(Baslc A ugst) Polio. — Suessionum (Soissons) P. — Taurinorum (Turin) P. — Treverorum (Treves) P. — Trinobantum (London) P. — Veromanduorum(S. Quen- tin) Polio. — Vindelicorum (Augsburg) Augustalc [Polio. Augustodunum(Autun) Polio. Aula Aulteum Aumbrev, see Almonry Aurelia Via Aureo Dec. Aureola Auria, d\ Dom. Biog. Aurum Musaicum Aurungabad Polio. Austere Author Authority Autometer Autonomy Autun ( Augustodunum) Polio. Auxerre Polio. Polio. Biog. and Polio. Polio. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Auxiraum (Osimo) Polio Auxonne Polio. Auzoult Biog. Avanturine Avebury Polio. Avellino Polio. Aventinus, Mons Polio. Avenue A versa Polio. Avery Aviani Biog. Aviary Avignon Polio. Avila Polio. Aviler, Aug. Chas. d’ Biog. Avitus Biog. Avranche Polio. Avvesani, Saverio Biog. Award Awl Awning Axe Axal Axiom Axis Axle Axum Polio. Aylesbury Polio. Azani Polio. Azon Biog. Azote Aztec Architecture Azure and Polio. Baalbec Polio. Babel Polio. Babicomb Marble Babylon Polio. Babylonian Architecture Biblio. Bac Bacchus, Temples to Bace Bacharach Polio. Back — Door, House, Front, Ground, Lining, Nails, Painting, Room, Shutter, Skew, Stair, Yard, etc. Backing Backs Bacon, Lord Biog. Baculometry Badajos, di, see Giovanni Bio. Badajoz Polio. Bade Polio. Badge Badigeon Baeza, Beatia Polio. Baffa Baganurn (Bavay) Polio. Bagdat Polio. Baglioni, Pietro Biog. Bagnacavallo(Tiberiaco) Polio. Bagnio Baguette Bagyn, P. Biog. Bairn (Baja) Polio. Bailey Bairam, or B. Kalesi (Assos) P. Bake-house Bakery Balance Balas Ruby Balbait (Busiris) Polio. Balbastro Polio. Balbeck, or Baalbec Balcony Baldachino, or Baldaquin Baldassare, da Sienna Biog. Baldi Biog. Baldonino, Gasparo Biog. Balducci, Giov. di Biog. Baldwin Biog. Balearic Isles Polio. Balection, or Bolection Balista Balistraria, or Arbalestria Balk, or Baulk Balk-roofing Ball-flower, cock, valve, and Ballast [socket Balleso Biog. Ballium Ballon Balneum Balteus Balthei Baltic Timber Baltimore Polio. Baluster, or Banister Balustrade Bamberg Polio. Bamboccio, Ant. Biog. Bamboo Bancours Band Bandage Bandalet, or Bandlet Bandeau Decor. Banded-cross Bangor Polio. Banister, or Baluster Bank Banker Banquet Banqueting-room, and House Banquette Baphomet Baptismal-font Baptistery Bar, Door, Iron, Post, etc. Baratta Biog. Barattiero Biog. Barbarism Barbaro Biog. Barbarous Barberry- tree (Berberide®) Barbican Barbione, Nic. Biog. Barca, P. Ant. Riog. Barcelona (Barcino) Polio. Bardiglione, or Bardilla Marble Bareness Bares Bargain Barge, or Verge-boards — Couples, Course, or Bash- Barium [course Barium (Bari) Polio. Bark-stove Barkal, Jebel Polio. Barkary Barlitta Polio. Barmkyn Barn Floor Barometer Baroque Baroscope Barozzio, da Modena Riog. Jacobo, da Urbino B. Giac. (da Vignola) B. Hya Riog. Barrack Barrel-drain Barrenness Barricade Barrier Barrow Barrows Barry, James Riog* Bartizan Bartoletti Biog. Bartolomeo, Dion, di Biog. di Bramantino B. di Centogatti B. Barton, or Fowl-house Baryc®, or Barycephal® Barytes Bas-relief Basalt Basanite Base Base-court — Line Persp. Basement Basevi Biog. Bash-course, or Barge-course Basil Basilia (Basle) Polio. Basilica Basin, or Bason Basis, or Base Basket, Groining, etc. Basle( Augusta Rauracorum)P (Basilia) Basra, or Balsora Bass® Bassano, Annibale Aless. Polio Polio. Polio. Biog. Riog. Polio. Biog. Bot. Biog. Basset, or Outcrop Bassi, Mart. Bassia (Sapotese) Basso Basso-Relievo Bastard Art, Stucco Bastile Bastion Baston, or Batoon Bat Batalha Batardeau, or Cofferdam Batavia Polio. Batement, Light Baths (Therm®) Bath (City) (Aqu® Calid®) P. Bathing-place, Room Bathos Baton, see Baston Batrachus Riog. Batten Polio. Door, Floor, etc. Battening Batter Battifolium, or Battifollum Battista di Toledo, Gio. Riog. Dio. Ant. Biog. Veronese Biog. , Giovanni Biog. Battle Polio. Embattled Battlement Battling Bavay, (Baganum) Polio Baveno Baulk, Balk, or Bauk Baumgartner, Mic. Riog. Bauschulc Bay, Screed, or Day Window Bayer, Fried. Biog. Bayeux Polio. Bayfius Biog. Bayonne Polio. Bazaar Bazas Polio. Beacon Bead — and Butt — Butt and Square — and Flush — Flush and Square — and Quirk [turn-bead — and Double-Quirk, or Re- — Plane Beak — Iron, Joint Beam, Hammer, Iron, Stone, Compasses, Filling, etc. INDEX. 5 Bear Bearer Bearing-wall, or Partition Bearsbreecb ( Acanthacese) Bot. Beater Beau-Ideal Beaucaire Polio. Beauchamp Biog. Beaufet, or Buffet Beaulieu Polio. Beaumaris Polio. Beauty Beauvais (Csesaromagus) Pol. Bee, see Bek Becerra Biog. Becket Bed — Beams, Chamber, Hang- ings, Mould, Room Beddern Bedding of Timbers, Stone Bede Biog. Bede-house, or Almshouse Bedford Polio. Bedlam Bedstead Beduzzi, Ant. Biog. Bee-house, or Apiary Beech-tree, see Fagus Bot. Beef- wood Bot. Beetle, or Boytel Beginner Behsel, Ant. Biog. Bejapore, or Viziapore Polio. Bek, or Bee, de Biog. Belection, see Balection Belem Polio. Belfast Polio. Belfry, Beffroi Belgorod Polio. Belgrade Polio. Belidor Biog. Bell — Crank, Gable, Turret, or Cot, Hanging, Metal, Roof, Tower, etc. Bellai Polio. Belle Biog. Belley Polio. Bellona, Temples to Belloni, Jos. Biog. Bellucci, Gio. Bat. Biog. Belluno Polio. Belly Belt Belus, Temples to Belvedere Bema, Chancel Benares Polio. Bench Hook, Mark, Screw, Plane, Table Bend Benda Bending of Timber Benedetti, Theo. Biog. Benedetto da (Majano Biog. da Rorezzano Biog. Benedict Benesch, Bened. Biog. Benetura Biog. Beneventum Polio. Benezet, Sancti Biog. Bengal Polio. Bengazi Polio. Benguela Polio. Benihassan Polio. Benincasa Biog. Benoni, Gius. Biog. Bensi, Giulio Biog. Benson Biog. Bent Bentham Biog. Benzine ARCH. PUB. soc. Berain, J. Biog. Berberidese Bot. Berchtesgaden Polio. Berenice Polio. Bergamasco, il (Gio. Bat.)Biog. Bergamo ( Pergamos) Polio. Bergen Polio. Bergman, Jacob Biog. Berham Biog. Berkeley Polio. Berlin Polio. Berne Polio. Berneval Biog. Bernini, G. L. Biog. L. Biog. Berrettini, Piet. Biog. Berruguette Biog. Berry Decor. Bertano, Gio. Bat. Biog. Bertotti-Scamozzi Biog. Beryl Bervtus Polio. Besan^on Polio. Besia, Cajetano Biog. Besittoon, or Besutun Polio. Bethlehem Polio. Beton Bettini Biog. Betty Betulinese Bot. Betune Biog. Bevel, and Graduated Beverley Polio. Bevignate Biog. Bewcastle Polio. Bewdley Polio. Beyer, Joh. Fried. Biog. Bey rout Polio. Bezaleel Biog. Bezel, or Bezil Beziers, or Bcsiers Polio. Biadero Biog. Bianchi, Gio. Batt. Biog. Bartol. Biog. Tom. Biog. Bianchini Biog. Bianco Biog. Bianzani, Luigi Biog. Bias Biban-el-moluk Polio. Bibbiena, Ferd. G. Biog. Franc. G. Biog. Ant. G. Biog. Car. G. Biog. Giu. G. Biog. Bibliography Bibliotheca Bice Bien-Seance Bier Biforum Bigazzini, Gir. Biog. Bighignato, Gasp. Biog. Bignoniacese Bot. Bijanaghur,or Bisnaghur Polio. Bijnee Polio. Bilboa Polio. Bilection, see Balection Bill Billet-molding Billiard Room Binder Binding Joists, Rafter Biudrabund Polio. Bingham Biog. Binn Bino, detto Ben. Sozi Biog. Biography Bipes Birch-tree, Betulinese Bot. Birde Biog. Bird’s-eye Perspective Bird’s-mouth, Beak, etc. Birma Polio. Birmingham Polio. Bisaccheri Biof Cor- Hiling rection, Painting, W arming Ililtz, John Biog. Housekeeper’s Room Himera Polio. Housing Hindoo Architecture Hovel Hinge, Stone Hovelling Hiorne Biog. Ilowden Polio. Hip, Mould, Roll, Roof, Tile Huddersfield Polio. Hippias Biog. Hue Hippocastanea(^Esculus) Bot. Ilueber, Franz Michael Biog. Hippocrene , Johann Bapt. Biog. Hippodamus of Miletus Biog. Iluesca (Escua) Polio. Hippodrome Hugh de Grenoble Biog. Hire, Laurent de la Biog. Hugo de Goldcliffe Biog. Hispalis (Seville) Polio. Hull Polio. History Hulme Polio. Hitchcock, Joh. The. Biog. Hultz, John Biog. Hive Human Figure Hoard Humbert of Lyons Biog. Hod II umeri Hog Stye Humidity Ilohenberg, Joh. Ferd. von B. Hundred of Lime Hoist, Bridge Hung, Double and Single Hoi, Elio Biog. Hunt, Thomas Biog. Holbein, Hans Biog. Hunting Lodge, Tower Holden Biog. I Huntingdon Polio. Holdfast Hurdle Hole, for Air, &c. Hurries Holland, Henry Biog. Hurst Hollar Biog. Husk Decor. Hollow, Newel, Pots, Quoin, Husly, Jac. Ott. Biog. Tile, Tower, Wall Ilusting Holly (Ilex) Bot. Hut Holte, Thomas Biog. Huve Biog. Holy, Water Vessel, Table Huygensz, Klass Biog. Homage Hyacinth Homer Biog. Hyde Polio. Home-Stall or Stead Hydragogy Homogeneal Hydrant Homologous Hydrate Hondius, Henri Biog. Hydraulic Mortar Hone Hydraulics Honeycomb Hydrocharacese Bot. Honeysuckle Bot. Hydrodynamics Honiton Polio. Hydrogen Honor, Temple to Hydrology Honorary Hydrometer Hontanon, de, see Gil Biog. Hydrophane Hoo, William de Biog. Ilydrophore Hood, Mould, &c. Hydrophyllaceae Bot. Hook, Pin Hydroscope Hooke, Robert Biog. Hydrostatic, Press Hoop, Iron Hygrometer Hop, Kiln and Bot. Hyling Hope, Thomas Biog. Hylmer, John Biog. Hopper, Casement Hymettus Marble Hoppus Biog. Ilyptethra Horizon Persp. Hypaetrum Horizontal, Cornice, Line, Hyperbius Biog. Plane, Projection, &c. Hyperbola Horn Stone Hyperbolic Conoid and Cylin- Hornbeam (Carpinus) Bot. droid Hornblende Hyperbolid Hornwork Hyperthyron Horologium Hypocausis Horreum Hypocaustum j Horse, Block, Power, Run Hypogaeum Ilorsechestnut (iEsculus) Bot. Hypomochlion j Horsham, Slate, Stone Hypopodium Horshoe Arch Hyposcenium Ilypothenuse Hypothesis Hypotrachelium Biog. Biog. Iatinum (Meaux) Polio. I-Colm-Kil or Iona Polio. Ibis Icarus Ice-house Ichnography Ickham, Thomas Iconoclastic Iconography Iconostasis Icosahedron Ictinus Biog. Iculisna (Angoulcme) Polio. Idea, Ideal Ielmi, Borso Biog. — , Etienne Biog. — , Stefano Biog. Ietzeler, Christopher Biog. I. H. S. Ildebrand, Gio. Luca. Biog. Ilerda (Lerida) Polio. Ilex (Holly) Bot. Illegal Illice (Elche) Polio. Illuminate, Illumination Illusion Illustration Image, Imagery Imagination Imbibe Iinbowment Imbrication Imitation, Imitator Immersion Immovable Imola Polio. Impact I m pages Impair Impale I mpark Impastation Impediment Impenetrability Imperfect Imperial, Dome, Slate Impervious Impetus Impinge Implement Impluvium Impose Impost Impression Impromptu Impropriation Improvement Impulse In Antis In Vacuo Inaccessible Height Inbond Jambstone Incarnadine Incertum Opus Inch, Stuff, Tool Incidence Incidents of a House Incised Slab Inclave Inclination, of a Roof Inclined Plane Incombustible Incommensurable Incommodious ARCH. PUB. SOC. 18 INDEX. Incongruity Inconsistency Incorrectness Increment, Increase Incrustation Incumbency Indaco, Francois dell Biog Indefinite Indemnification Indentation Indenture Indeterminate Index Indian Architecture, Ink, Oak, Red, Rubber, Steel, Yellow Indigo Indore Polio. Induction Induration Industria(Monteudi Po)Polio. Industry Inelegant Inequality Inertia Infant School Infinite Infirmary Infringement Inflection Tngelramme Biog. Ingenious, Ingenuity Ingolstadt Polio. Ingress Ingrossing Ingulphus Biog. Inheritance Injunction Injury Ink Inlaying Inn, of Court Innate Force Inner Plate, Square, &c. Innovation Innspruck Polio. Inordination Insecurity Inserted Column, Insertion Inscription Inside, Bead, Lining Insignificant Insipidity Inspection, Inspector Inspiration Instalment Instaurum Ecclesiae Institute, Institution Instruction I nstruments, Mathematical Insufficiency Insula, Insular Insulated Building, Column Insurance Office Intact Intaglio Intavoluta Integer Integral Calculus Intellect Intelligence Interaxal Interbaluster Intensity Intention Intercepted Axis Intercolumn I ntercolumniation Interdentel Interduces, or Interties Interest I nterfenestration Interference Interglyph Interior, Angle, of Buildings Interjoist Interlacing Interlignium Interloper Interment Intermission Intermodillion Intermutule Internal Angle Interpensivse Interpetted Interpilaster Interquarter Interruption Interscalmia Intersection In terser t Intersole Interstice Intertie Intertriglyph Interval Intestacy Intonaco Intrados Intrasura Intricacy Intrita Introduction Inutility Invalidity Invected Invention I nventory 1 nverary Polio. Inverness Polio. Inverse Inverted Arch Investigation Invitation Involute and Evolute Inward Angle In wood, William , Henry Wm. Iodine Scarlet, Yellow Iona, or I-Colm-Kil Polio. Ionia Polio. Ionic Arcade, Order &c. Ipornma Bot. Ipsambul, or Abousambel Pol. Ipswich Polio. Iridacese Bot. Iron, Beam, Cement, Hoop, W ood, Y ellow Ironmonger’s Tools, Work Ironmongery Ironwork Irrational Number, Power, &c. Irreconcilable Irregularity Isagon [Polio. Isca Damnoniorum (Exeter) Isembert of Nantes Isidorus of Miletus of Byzantium Biog. Biog. Isis, Temple to Isle or Aisle I slip, John Isochromatic Isodomum Isolation Isometrical Isoperimetry Isosceles Triangle Ispahan Italian Architecture Church Italiea Iteration I vara, Filippo Ivory, Black , Thomas Ivy (Ilodera) Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Biog. Bot. Jacca Polio. Jacchetti Biog. Jack, Arch, Plane, Rafter, Rib, Smoke, Timber Jackly (Labrauda) Polio. Jacobean Architecture J acobello Biog. Jacob’s Staff Jacobi, Telle. Biog. Jacopo, Gabriello Biog. di Casentino Biog. di Cione Biog. di Lapo Biog. Jacopo da Prato Vecchio Biog. Jacques de Compostella, S. Po. Jiiger, Franz Biog. Jalin, Johann Quirin. Biog. Jak Wood Bot. Jalousie Jamb, Jaumb, Lining, Mould- ing, Post, Stone James, John Biog. Jansen, Bernard Biog. Janua, Janitor Januarius Biog. Japanese Architecture J apanning Jaque, Jean Baptist Biog. Jasminaceae Bot. Jasper Jaum, Jawme, Jawmer Jaune-antiquo Java Polio. J ealously Jean Polio. d’ Echelles or de Chellis de Nola da Pisa J ena Jerkin Head Jerusalem Jervis, Humphery Jesse Window Jet d’eau Jetimo Jettie, Jetty Jewish Architecture Jewry Jib Door [ Ji miners Joannina Jocundus, Jean Job Jobent Nail Joggle, Joint, Piece, Johannes of Miletus John of Padua de Ebor de Lincoln Johnson, Benjamin • , Joel Johnstone, Francis Joiner’s Tools and Work Joinery- Joint, Jointer Jointing Rule j Joist ! Jolli, Antonio Jonello Jones, Inigo , William J oppa Jope, Jopy J ossenay Joubert, Charles • , Louis Joue, Jacques de la Joui, Mansard de I Journeyman’s Work Jousse, M. Jousselin de Courvault Bio^. J ube Judgment Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biosr. [Biog. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Post Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. J uffer Juglans (Walnut) Bot. J ugumentum Juliano, Marco Biog. J ulietts Julii Forum fFrejus) Polio. Julio Romano see Pippi Blog. Juliomagus (Angers) Julius, Temple to J uinble Jump, Jumper Wood Polio. Bot. Juncaceae (Rush) Bot. Junction Juniper Tree Bot. Juno, Temple to Jupiter, Temple to Capitolinus, Panhellenius, Stator, Tonans, Jupp, R. Biog. Justice, Temple to, Court of Justness Jut out, Window Jyrnewe Kaffa Polio. Kage Ivager, Mathias Biog. Kahira or Cairo Polio. Kakorinov Biog. Kalabshe (Talmis) Polio. Kalos Kampen, Nicolas van Biog. Kang Kaolin Ivarilepho, Wm. de Biog. Katablemata Kapeller, Anton. Biog. Katur Keep, Tower Keeper’s House Keeping Keldermans Biog. Kendale, John Biog. Kenilworth Polio. Kenle, Lambert di Biog. Kenn Kennel Kent, William Biog. Kentish Rag Stone Keramos Keraunoscopeion Kerb Stone Kerf Kerkis Kermes Lake Kern, Leonardo Biog. Kerrich, Thomas Biog. Keuz, Wilhelm Biog. Key, Hole, Stone Keyed Dado Keyes, Roger Biog. lveyser, llenri de Biog. Keyzer, Hendrick de Biog. , Pietro Biog. Klilaig, G. Biog. lviabooca, or Amboyna Wood [Bot. Kief Polio. Kiel Polio. Kiew Polio Kilderkin Kilkenny Polio. Marble Killalla Polio. Killaloe Polio. Killas INDEX. 19 Killepe Killesed Ivillfenora Polio. Kilmacdreagh Polio. Kilmore Polio. King, Oliver Biog. Kiln — burnt Brick King, Post, Table, Wood, Yard, Yellow Kinross Polio. Kirb, or Curb Kiosk Kirk Kirkcudbright Polio. Kirnelle Kirton, Robert Biog. Kitchen, Garden Kleiner, Salomon Biog. Klenze, Theodore von Biog. Kleyn Biog. Ivlinometer Klyn, Ch. Wil. Mar. Biog. Knee, Drip, Piece or Rafter Ivneeler, Kneeling Place, Stone Knight, J. P. Biog. Knob, Glass Knocked oft' Knocker Ivnottes, Knot, Knotting Knuckle Koeck, T. H. Biog. Ivbnig, Seifried Biog. Ivdnigsberg Polio. Kopp von Felsenthal, Wolf B. Kornhausel, Joseph Biog. lvottik, Andreas Biog. Ivouin Ombo (Ombos) Polio. Krade Ivrafft Biog. Kramin, Chris. Biog. Krems or Kremnitz White Kremlin Kryger, Will. Biog. Kwieton Biog, Kyanizing La Schiazzia Polio. Labacco, Antonio Biog. , Mario Biog. Labarre Biog. Label Labelye Biog. Laboratory Labour, Day’s, and Nails Labourer Labra Labranda (Jackly) Polio. Labrum Laburnum Wood (Cytisus)Bot. Labyrinth, Fret Lac, Lake Lacedaemon Polio. Lacer, Caius Julius Biog. Lachrymatory Lacker or Lacquer Laconicum Laconism Lacrates Lactarium Lacunar, Laquear Lacus Ladder Ladies Slate Lading Ladle Lady Chapel Laertius, Diogenes Biog. ARCII. PUB. SOC. Lago Polio. Lausanne Polio. Lahore Polio. Lava, Metallic Laines Lavacrum Lake Laval Polio. Lama, Gio. Bernardo Polio. Lavant, Polio. Lambert de Kenle Biog. Lavishment , le Marquis de Biog. Lavatory, Laver Lambriz Lay, Stall Lamb’s Tongue, Sash Lavoro di Commesso Lamego Polio. Law Court Lamiaceae Bot. Lawful Lamina Lawn Lamp Laws Black Layer, Laying Lampadarium Lazarhouse or Lazaretto Lamporecchio Polio. Lazari, Dionisio Biog. Lancaster (Longovicus) Polio. Lazulite Lance Wood Bot. Lazzari, Bramante Biog. Lancea , Francois Biog. Lancet, Arch, Gothic, Window Lead, Red, White Lanci, Baldassare Biog. Leadbetter, S. Biog. Land, Gabel, Measuring, Sur- Leaf, Gold veying Leafage Landing, Place Leakage Landini, Taddeo Biog. Leaning Place Landriani, Paolo Biog. Leanto Landmark Lear Board Landscape Gardening Learned Landshut Polio. Lease and Release Landslip Leat Lane Leather, Gilt, Stamped Decor. Landtner, Dietrich Biog. Leaves Lanfranc, Archbishop Biog. Lectern or Lattern Lanfrani, Giacomo Biog. Lecture Room , Jacopo Biog. Ledge Langhans, Carl Gotthard Biog. Lodged Door, Partition Langlace Biog. Ledgement Langton, John de Biog. Ledger or Lidger , Walter de Biog. Leeds Polio. Langres( A ndomatunum)Polio. Leet Langley, Batty Biog. Leg Lantern or Lanthorn Legal Laodicea Polio. Legend Laon Polio. Leggement Lap Legger Lapicide Leghorn (Livorno) Polio. Lapis Lazuli, Specularis Legnago Polio. Lapo, Arnolfo di Biog. Leg of an Hyperbola, Inangle , Jacopo di Biog. Leicester(RagiC or Ratm) Polio. Laquear or Lacunar Leige Polio. Lararium Leighlin Polio. Larch (Abietineae) Bot. Leipzig ( Lupphurdum) Polio. Larder Leitmeritz Polio. Lardose Leitoure Polio. Large Lemberg Polio. Larmier Lemma Laschenzkv, Joh. Geo. Biog. Lemon Yellow Lassurance Biog. Lendenari, Bernardo Biog. Christoforo Bios - . Latch Biog. , Laurent Biog. Latent Heat Length Lateral Lengthening of Timber Lath, Brick, &c. Leno, Guiliano Biog. Lathe Lens Later Lenticular Lateral Strength Lentisk Bot. Latina Via Lenyng Place Latomiae Leocrates Biog. [ Latomus, Henry Biog. Leon Polio. Latopolis (Esneh) Polio. de Tours Biog. Latratus , Artus da Biog. Latrinae Leonardo da Vinci Biog. Latten Leoni, Giacomo Biog. Latterkin , B. Biog. Lattice Leonides Biog. Laubach Polo. Leopardo, Alessandro Biog. Laugier, M. A. Biog. Leporarium Laundry Lepisma Laura Lerida (Ilerda) Polio. Lauracese (Bay Tree) Bot. Lescar Polio. Laurel Bot. Lesche Laurentina Via Lescot, Pierre Biog. Lauretti, Tommaso Biog. Lessee Lauriacum (Lorch) Polio. Lessening 1 Lessor Letter, of Attorney, Patent Let tern Levati, Gitiseppe Biog. Leve, Pierre Biog. Levecel Level, Levelling, Staff Lever, Board Leverton, Thomas Biog. Lewis, J. Biog. or Lewisson Leybourn, W. Biog. Leyden(LugdunumBatavorum) [Polio. Leygeben, Ferdinand Biog. Li Liable Lias, Blue Liber, or Bark Liberal, Arts Libergier, Ilugues Biog. Liberty Libon of Elis Biog. Library Licence Licentious Lich Gate Lichen Bot. Lichfield Polio. Lido Polio. Liea, Peter de Biog. Lien Lievain Biog. Liego ' Polio. Leignitz Polio. Liernes Lift Ligement Light, Red, House Lightness Lightning Conductor Lights, Area of, Leadvvork for Ligneous Lignum Vitm (Guaiacum) Bot. Ligorio, Johann Peter Biog. , Pirro Biog. Like Arcs, Figures, Solids, &c. Lille Polio. Lily Bot. Lima Polio. Limbed Lime or Quicklime, Blue Lias, Dorking, Kiln, Stone, White Limen Tree (Tilia) Bot. Limerick (Regia Altera)Polio. Limit, Limitation Limner, Limning Limoges (Augustoritum)Polio. Limonum (Poitiers) Polio. Limosinage Lincoln (Lindum) Polio. John de Biog. Linden, Lime Tree (Tilia) Bot. Jan. van Biog. Lindum(Lincoln& Linlithgow) [Polio. Line, of Direction, Station, Vertical, &c. Linear Perspective Lining, Paper, of Boxings, Door Lining out Stuff Link Linlithgow (Lindum) Polio. Lino da Sienna Biog. Lintel Linton Linz Polio. Lion Lip Lippe Polio. Lippi, Fillipio Biog. Lis, Fleur-de- Lisbon (Olisipo) Polio. 6 20 I N D E X. Lisburn Polio. Lisiera Polio. Lisieux (Noviomagus) Polio. Lisle, Pasquier Biog. Lisinore Polio. List or Listel Lista Listed Board Listing Litany Desk Liter Litharge Lithic Paint Lithocolla Lithochromatics Lithography Lithostroton Little Lituus Liverpool Polio. Livery Livorno (Leghorn) Polio. Llandaff Polio. Lo, S. Polio. Loam Loasaceae Bot. Lobby Lobe Lobetum (Albarazin) Polio. Local, Color, Locality Locanda Locatelli, Gio. Batt. Biog. Lock, Gate, Rail, Sill, Smith, Weir Lockband Locker Lockrand Lock-spitting Locus Locust Tree (Robinia) Bot. Locutory Lodeve (Lutova) Polio. Lodge Lodging, House Lodi Polio. Loft, Lofty Log, House [Bot. — Wood (Ilaematoxvlon) Logarithms Logeion Loggia Logistic Spiral Loir, Nich. Lois, Jacob Lolsone Lomazzo, .Jean Paul Lombardi, Antonio , Jerome -, Tullio Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Lombard ic Architecture Lombardino,il, see Tofano Bio. Lombardo, Antonio Biog. , Carlo Biog. , Cristoforo Biog. , Giustina Biog. , Lambcrto Biog. , Martino Biog. , Pietro Biog. , Sante Biog. , Tullius Biog. Lomber Polio. Lonati, Gio. Dom. Biog. Londinio (Milan) Polio. London ( A ugusta T rinobantum and Londinium) Polio. Clay , Richard do Biog. and Nottingham White Londonderry Polio. Long Long and Short Work Longhena, Bald. Biog. Longimetry Longitudinal Section Longo, Anton Biog. Longone, Jean Bap. Biog. Longovicus (Lancaster) Polio. Lonigo Polio. Looch or Loch Look, Looking Glass Loop, Hole Loose Ground Loragho a Ferino, Carl. Biog. Loreignes, Guerin de Biog. Lord of the Manor Lorenzo, San Biog. Loreto Polio. Lorication Lorient Polio. Lorimer Loriot’s Cement Lorraine, Claude le Biog. Lorymer Lorch (Lauriacum) Polio. Losing or Lozinga, Herbert Bi. ., Robert Biog. Lbssl, Franz Biog. Lote, Stephan, see YeveleBiog. Tree (Celtis) Bot. Lotti, Lorenzetto Biog. Lotus Bot. Low Side Window Lowryng Casement Louis of France Biog. Quatorze Architecture Quinze Seize Louvain Polio. Louver or Luffer Boarding Lozenge, Ornament, Molding Lozing, Robert Biog. Lubeck Polio. Lublin Polio. Lubrifaction Lucarne Lucca Polio. Lucchesi, Johann Biog. , Matteo Biog. Lucerna Luciano Lucimeter Lucina, Temple to Lucknow Linton Lucubration Lucus Asturum (Oviedo)Polio. Lucy, Godfrey de Biog. Luffer or Louvre Boarding Lugdunum (Lyons; Polio. Batavorum (Leyden) [Polio. Luguvalliutn (Carlisle) Polio. Luigi de Foix Biog. Lumaca Lumachelli Marble Lumber Room Lumen Lump, Lumpish Lunate Lunatic Asylum Lune or Lunula Liineberg Polio. Lunette Luneville Polio. Lunghi, Martino Biog. , Onorio Biog. , Jun. Biog. Lungo, Silla Biog. Lupphurdum (Leipzig) Polio. Lupus, Caius Servius Biog. Lurago, Rocco Biog. Lusarche, Robert do Biog. Lustre Lutetia (Paris) Polio. Luteva (Lodeve) Polio. Luthern or Dormer Luting Lutrin Biog. Polio. Polio. Lutz, Johann Luxor (Ammon-no; Luxuriance Luzern Lycaeum Lycli Gate Lychnites Lychnoscope Lychnus Lycurgus Lying Panel Lymphsea Lynn Regis Lynterelle Lynton or Lintel Lyons (Lugdunum) Lyre Lysicrates, Monument Lysis Lysippus Lysistratus Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Polio. Decor. of Biog. Biog. M. Roof MS Maastricht Polio. Macadamize Macci, G. A. Biog. Macclesfield Polio. Mace, Jean Biog. Macellum Macerata Polio. Maceria Machicoulation Machine Machuca de Granada Biog. Mack, Robert Biog. Macra Teiche (Athens) Polio. Macremium Macrometer Madder, Carmine, Lake, Orange, Purple, Yellow Madersbach, E. von Biog. Madhouse Maderno, Carlo Biog Madounma, J. Bapt. Biog. Madras Polio. Madreporite Madrid Polio. Madrier Madurah Polio. Madus (Maidstone) Polio. Mteander M feniana Maevium (Magdeburg) Polio. Maffei, S. Biog. Mafra Polio. Magazine Magdeburg (Maevium) Polio. Maggi, Girolamo Biog. , Paolo Biog. Maglione, Ferrante Biog. Magna Carthago (Carthage) P. M agnavaeca, Joseph Biog. Magnesian Limestone Magnificent Magnitude Magnolia (Champ) Bot. Mahabalipuram Polio. Mahogany (Chloroxylon) Bot. Mahomedan Architecture Mahon Polio. Maiden Castle, Tower Maidstone (Madus) Polio. Maignaud of Paris Biog. Main Couple Maintain Mainz, or Mayence Polio. Maire, Lo Biog. Maison Carree Maitani, Lorenzo Biog. Majano, Benedetto da Biog. , Guiliano da Biog. Majestic, Majesty Majolica Major, Thomas Biog. Majorca Polio. Make Malaga Polio. Malatia Polio. Malden (Camuldonum) Polio. Male Joint Malicious injuries to Property JNlalines or Mechlin Polio. Mall Malleability Mallet Malm Brick Malmo Polio. Malo, S. Polio. Malt House Malta Polio. Maltese Cross Maltha Malus (Apple) Bot. Malvaceae Bot. Malverne, Alduin de Biog. Man Hole Manacaybo Wood Bot. Management Manchester(Manduessedum)P. Manchineel Wood Bot. Mandrel Mandrocles Biog. Manege Manfredi, Fra Andrea Biog. Manganese Mangardi, Giov. Batt. Biog. Manger Mangle Mangone da Fiesole Biog. Manheim Polio. Manhole Manini, Giac. Antonio Biog. Manipulation Manlio, Ferdinando Biog. Manner, Mannerist Mannon, Mullion Manometer Manor, House Mans, Le Polio. Mansarde Mansart, Absalom Biog. , Francois Biog. , Jules HardouinBiog. , Jules Martin Biog. Roof Manse Mansion Mantelets Mantle Piece, Shelf, Tree Mantua Polio. Manubical Column Manufactory, Manufacture Manus Marise Bot. Manuscript Manzini, Raimond Biog. Map, Room Maple Tree (Acerincoe) Bot. Maratti, Carlo Biog. Marazzi, Jacopo Biog. Marble, Polishing, Table, Pav- ing, &c. Marburg (Mattiacum) Polio. March Marchand, Guil. Biog. Marchesi, Antonio Biog. , T. di Biog. Marchesini, Alessandro Biog. Marchetti, Antonio Biog. Marchione, Carlo Biog. Marchionne Biog. Marchirolo, Batista Biog. INDEX. 21 Marco di Pino Biog. da Sienna Biog. Juliano Biog. Marcus Margaritone d’Arezzo Biog. Margin, Draught Maria, Gio. orFalconetto Biog. Mariani, Camille Biog. , Jean Mar. Biog. , Joseph Biog. Maridunum (Caermarthen)Pol. Marienzell Polio. Marieschi, Michel Biog. Marigold Window Marina, Pietro di Biog. Marinari Biog. Marino S. Polio. Marionis (Hamburgh) Polio. Mark, Marking out Market, Cross, House, Place Marl, Pit, Stock Marmi, Gio. Bat. Biog. Mannorarii Marmoriatum Marmoset Marone Lake Marot, Daniel Biog. , Jean Biog. Marquetry or Parquetry Mars Ultor, Temple to Marseille (Massilia) Polio. Marsh Mallow Bot. Marshall, or Mascall, Eust. B. Martelli, Valen. Biog. , Vine. Biog. Martello Tower Martin d'Olindo Biog. Martinelli, Domenico Biog. Martinez, Ambroise Biog. Martyn, John Biog. Martyrologium Marucelli, J. Etienne Biog. , Paolo Biog. Mascall, or Marshal, Eust. B. , Robert Biog. Mascherino, Ottaviano Biog. Mascle Masculine Maser Polio. Mask Masoned Masonry Mason’s Mark, Tool, Work Masque Mass Massari, Georgio Massilia (Marseille) Massive Mast House Master, Piece Mastic Varnish Masticote Masuccio • , Stefano Mat Matalone Match Boarding Matching Plane Materials, Crushing weight of, , Strength of Materiation Mathematics Mathematical Tiling Mathiew da Sienna Matrix Mattainore Matteo da Pino Matter Mattiacum (Marburg) Maude Maundril Mauresque or Mooresque Maurice Mauritius of London Maus Mausoleum Mavalipuram Maximum Mayence, or Mainz, tiacum) Maynard, John Mazandaran Maze Mazin Meadow M eagre Mean Meander Meason Measure, Measurement Meaux (Iatinum) Polio. Mecca Polio. Mechanics Mechelin or Malines Polio. Mechanical Art, Carpentry Power Meda, Giovanni da Biog. Medal, Medallion Mediaeval Architecture Medianae Medianos Medinet Alhambra Polio. M edinet el F aioum ( Ars: inoe)P. Medinet Habu (Memnionium) Mediocrity [Polio. Mediolanum Aulereorum (Evreux) Polio. Mediolanum Insubrium( Milan) Medium [Polio. Medusa Meeting Bar, House Megacles Biog. Megalographia Megascope Megliavacca, Melchiotte Biog. Meiningen Polio. Meissen Polio. Meissonier, Juste Aurele Biog. Melighini, Jac. Biog. Melampe Biog. Melanthacese Bot. Melasso (Mylassa) Polio. Meledo Polio. Melnikov Biog. Melochite Melon Pit Melsonby, Thomas Biog. Melter Melting House » Member Membretto Memel Polio. Timber Memnon of Persia Biog. Memnonium (Medinet Habu)P. Memorial Memphis Polio. Memphites or Aphites Marble Menage Menagerie Menandres Mende Menestro Menia, Raffaello Menon Mensole Mensuier, Filippo Mensuration Mephitic Merab Mercier, Jacques le Mercury, Temple to Mere Meretricious Merida (Emerita Augusta) i Meridian Line Meritorious Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Polio. (Mogon- Polio. Biog. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. [Polio. Merliano, Giovanni Biog. M erlon Meros Merseburg Polio. Merus Mesaula? Meselle House Mesne Mesolabe Mesovium (Magdeburg) Polio. Messina Polio. Messine Polio. Messle House Messuage Mestling Meta Metagenes Creticus Biog. Xypaeticus Biog. Metal, Metallurgy Metatome Metelli, Augustin Biog. Meter Metezeau, Biog. Biog. , Clement Biog. Methodical Meticus Biog. Metoche Metope Metrical Metrodorus Biog. Metropolis Metz (Divodurum) Polio. Meunier, Philippe Biog. Meulan, Waltier de Biog. Mewe, Mews Mexaris Biog. Mexican Architecture Mexico Polio. Mevda, Alonzo de Biog. Meyers Biog. Mezzanine Mezzo Relievo, Tinto Miao Miasma Miazzi, Giovanni Biog. Mica, Slate Michelozzi, Michelozzo Biog. Micrometer Microscope Middle Ages, Panel, Post, Quarter, Rail, &c. Mighty Migliari, Giuseppe Biog. Miglioranzi, Gio. Batt. Biog. Mignard, Pietro Biog. Mignochi Biog. Mikhaelov Biog. Milan (Mediolanum) Polio. Milani, Francesco Biog. , Giuseppe Maria Biog. Mildew Milestone Miletus Military Architecture Milizia, Francesco Milk, Room or Dairy Mill, House Milled Lead, Slate Miller Milliare Milner, Thomas Millstone Grit Minaret Minden Mime Mine Minello de’ Bardi, Ant. Bic Mineral Black, Green Mineralogy Minerva, Temple to Medica, Polias, Miniature Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. I Minion Minium Mino da Fiesole Minor Minster Minstrel Gallery Mint Minute Minyas, Treasury of Mirepoix Mirror Miscellaneous Mischia Miscolell Miserere Biog. Polio. Biog. Misna (Dresden) Polio. Misproportion Mitchel Mitford, W. Biog. Mitla Polio. Mitre or Miter, Box, Square Mitred Abbey Mixed Angle, Color, Figure Mnesicles Biog. Mnesthes Biog. Moat Mocchi, Francesco Biog. Mocchio or Moccia, da Sienna [Biog. ■ , Gio. Simone Biog. Diode, A- la- Mode Model, Architectural Modelling Modena, Fra da Biog. (Mutina) Polio. Niccola da Biog. Moderation Modern, Modernize Modification Modillion Modination Modi nature Modonino, Francesco Biog. Modular Proportion Modulation Modulo Modulus of Elasticity Mceander Moenianum Moeris, Lake of Moglia, Domenico Biog. Mogontiacum (Mayence) Pol. Mogul Architecture Mohilew Polio. Moilon Moineau Moisture Molandini, G. A. Biog. Mold, Stone Mole Molecule Moline Cross Moller, George Biog. Mollet Biog. Momentum Mona or Anglesea Marble Monaca Polio. Monad Monastery, Monastic Buildings Monce, lie la Biog. Mondavio Polio. Mondonedo Polio. Monegro, Gianbattista Biog. Monello Monial, Monyall Monica, Vincenzo della Biog. Monkey Monochrome Monogram Monographice Monolithic Monomial Monopodium ARCH. PUB. SOC. 22 INDEX. Monopoly Monopteral Monota Monotony Monotriglyph Mons Polio. Monsignore, Jocondo Biog. Monstrance Monstrosity Mont, Deodato del Biog. Montant, Munton or Mullion Montagnana Polio. Montalto Polio. Montano, Jean Bap. Biog. Montauban Polio. Monte Baroccio Polio. Fiascone Polio. Oliveto Polio. Porzio Polio. Pulciano Polio. San Miniato Polio. Sansovino Polio. Sumano Polio. Montelupo, Rap. da Biog. Monterano Polio. Montereau, Pierre de Biog. Montgomery Polio. Monti, Gian Giacomo Biog. Montino Montmorillon Polio. Montorsoli, Angiolo Biog. Montpellier Polio. Montreal Polio Montreuil, Eudo de Biog. Montughi Polio. Monument Monumental Architecture Monumental Brass, Chapel Monyal Monza Polio. , Arnolfo da Biog. Moon, Temple to the Moor Moorstono Moot Hall Mora, Francesco da Biog. , Gian Gomez dc Biog. Wood Bot. Moreau, Carl Biog. Morecroft, Dr. Biog. Moreelse, Paul Biog. Morelli Biog. Moresque or Moorish Archi- tecture Moretti, Giuseppe Biog. Morgue Morlaix Polio. Mormando, Gian. Franc. B. Morning Room Morris, Robert Biog. Mortar Mortgage Mortice or Mortise Mortier Mortmain Morton, John Biog. Mortuary Chapel Morus (Mulberry) Bot. Mosaic or Musaic Work Mosca, Simone Moscow Mosque Moss Mossy Ground Moston, J. Mosul (Nineveh) Motif Motion Motto Mould Mouldiness j Moulding Moulinet Moulins Polio. Mound Mountain. Blue, Green Mountayne Mouret Mouse Biog. Mouth, Bird’s Movement Moyenaw Moynielle Mozzetti, Gio. Ant. Biog. Mud Wall, Cill Muet, Pierre Le Mufle Biog. Mugello Polio. Muhlhausen Polio. Mujelibe (Babylon) Polio. Mulberry Tree (Morns) Bot. Muller, Jean Sigismond Biog. , W olfgang Biog. Mullion, Munnion, or Munton Multangular Multiform Multilateral Multinominal Multiplication Munich Polio. Municipal Architecture Muniment House, Room Munnion, Muntin or Mullion Munster (Holland) Mur d’Appui Polio. Mural, Arch, Monument Murano Murazzi Polio. Murcia Polio. Murena, Carlo Muring Biog. Murphy Murrailles Pleines Murus Musaic or Mosaic Work Biog. Musante, Gio. Luigi Biog. Musaous, Caius B. Musea Biog. Muses Museum Mushroom House Music, Room Mustaib Mustius Biog. Mutation Mutilated Cornice Mutilation Mutina (Modena) Mutius, Caius Polio. Biog. Mutius or Muzius Biog. Mutule Mycenae Polio. Mylassa (Melasso) Polio. Mylne, Robert Mynchery Biog. Myrtaceae (Myrtle) Mystical Bot. Mythology Nail, Head Moulding Naked, Flooring, of a Wall Naldini, Paul Biog. Name Namur Polio. Nanci Polio. Nankin Polio. Nanni, Jean Biog. di Baccio Bigio Biog. de Bartolo Biog. Nantes (Condivicinum) Polio. Naos Naphtha Napier Compasses Naples (Neapolis) Yellow Polio. Narbonne (Narbo Martius) Nares [Polio. Narni (Narnia) Narrow Narthex Polio. Nash, John Nattes Biog. Natural Bed of a Stone, &c. Nature Naumachia Naumann Biog. Naumburg Polio. Nauta, Gerben Naval Architecture Biog. Navarre, Pietro Nave, Navis Navy Office Biog. Neapolis (Naples) Neat, House Polio. Nebule Moulding Neck, Mould Necessaries Necrology Necropolis Decor. Nedam, James Needle, Work Biog. Neefs, Peter Biog. Negative Power, Quantity Negligence Negri, J. Franc. Biog. Negruolo, Filippo Biog. Neisse Polio. Nemausus (Nismes) Polio. Nemea Polio. Nemi (Nemus Dianae) Polio. Nepi Neptune, Temple to Nerves Polio. Neroni, Bartolomeo Nervures Nessotrophium Biog. Net Masonry, Measure, W eight Neufchatel Polio. Neuhaus Polio. Neumann Biog. Neustadt Polio. Nevers (Nevirnum) New, Work Polio. New York Polio. Newcastle-on-Tyno Newel Polio. Nexaris Biog. Nicaea Polio. Nice Niche Polio. Nicholson, James Biog. Biog. Nickel Nicolaasz, Paul Biog. Nicolas de Belle Biog. Biog. Nicolo di Bonaventura da Modena Biog. da Pisa Biog. , il Tribolo Biog. Nicomedes Biog. Nicon Nidged Ashlar Niello Biog. Nieuwenbuizen, Job. Biog. Nigetti, Matteo Nigge Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Polio. Nilometer Niloscope Nimbis Nimes or Nismes Polio. Nimrood Polio. Nineveh (Mosul) Polio. Ninfodorus or Nimpho Biog. Niort Polio. Nismes or Nimes (Nemausus) [Polio. Nischnei- Novgorod Nitrate Polio. Nitrogen No (Carnac, Luxor, &c.) Polio. Nobile, Peter Noble Biog. Nocera (Nucria) Nodus Polio. Nog . Nogging Piece Nola Polio. — •, Jean de Biog. Nolli, Giov. Batt. Biog. Nomenclature, Architectural Non-Conductor Nonagon Nonillion Noordendorp, Adrian Biog. Norba Polio. Caesarea (Alcantara) P. Norcia, Seb. C. da Biog. Norel, Ilendric Biog. Norica, Temple to Norma Normal Line Norman Architecture Normand Biog. Normando, Gian. Franc. Biog. Northern Aspect Northampton Polio. Northumberland Polio. , Earl of, Biog. Northwold, Hugh de Biog. Norwich Polio. Nosing Notation Notch Board, Head Notching Notebook Notice Notion Notre, Andre le Biog. Nottingham Polio. Novaculite Novara Polio. Novello de S. Lucano Biog. Novi, Francesco di Biog. Noviciate Noviodunum (Nevers) Polio. Noviomagus (Lisieux) Polio. Novogorod Polio. Noyau Polio. Noyon Polio. Nubia Polio. N ucleus Nucria (Nocria) Polio. Nuel or Newel Nuisance Nullah Number Numeration Numicia Via Numisius, P. Biog. Nunnery Nunziata Biog. Nuremberg Polio. Niirnberg Polio. Nursery Nut Nymphaeceae (Lotus) Bot. Nymphaeum INDEX. 23 Oak Tree (Quercus) Bot. Oast House Obelisk Object Objective Line Oblate Oblati Obligations Oblique, Angle, Arch, Line, &c. Oblong Obregon, Juan de Biog. Obscure Observation and Experiment Observatory Obstruction Obtruncate [ed Window Obtuse, Angle, Section, Head- Obverse Occult Line Occupier Ocellated Ochre, Brown, Red, Yellow, &c. Ochsenhausen Polio. Ocriculum (Otricoli) Polio. Ocridione, Temples to Octagon Octahedron Octant Octastyle Odam, Jerome Oddi, Maur. Odessa Odeum Odilo, Abbot Odo — Aurifaber — of Croyland Odometer Odontograph CEconomy CEcus CEillet Hole, Oylett (Enantbe Oes Hlufs Office, Assurance, Government Officinator Officina Sculptoris Offset Ogee, O G, or Oggiff Ogive, Arch Olilmuller, Dan. J. Oil, Cloth, Color, Painting Oihettes Oker, Ochre Old — Carcassone Oldenburg Oldham Olea (Olive) Oleron, Olleron, Oloron Polio. Olgiato, Gio. Mar. Biog. Oliab Biog. Olindo, Martin d’ Biog. Olisipo (Lisbon) Poho. Oliva Poho. Olivarez, Cardinal Biog. Olive, Brown — — (Olea) Bot. Oliver, John Biog. Olivieri, Piet. Paolo Biog. Ollmiitz Poho. Olmo, Josef del Biog. Olotzaga, Juan de Biog. Olry de Loriande Biog. Olympia Poho. Ombos (Koum Ombo) Poho. Omer, S. Poho. Omodeo, Ant. Biog. Omphalobium (Zebra Wood) Onyx [Bot. Oojain Poho. arch. pcb. soc. Oolite Oort, Adam Van Biog. Opa Opacity, Opaque Opal Opening Opera House Operameter Operation Operative Ophites Opinion Opisometer Opisthodomus Ople Tree Bot. Oporto Poho. Oppenheim (Bauconica) Poho. Oppidum Oppenord, Gil. Mar. Biog. Opposite, Angle, Cone, &c. Opposition Optic, Pyramid, Ray Optostrotum Opus, &c. [Poho. Orange (Arausio), and Color Orangery Oratory Orb Orcagna, see Cione Biog. Orcelis (Orihuela) Poho. Orchard Orchestra Orchevarde, W. Biog. Orchomenos Poho. Orci Nuovi Poho. Order Order above Order Ordinate Ordination, Ordinance Ordones, Gasp. Biog. Ordonnance Orel Poho. Orenze (Salientes) Polio. Orford Poho. , Lord Biog. Orfraies Decor. Orgagna, see Cione Biog. , Jacques Biog. Organ, Loft, Screen Organum Orgues Oriae Orichalcum Oriel, &c. Oriental Alabaster Origin of Architecture Original, Line, Plane, &c. Originality Orihuela (Orcelis) Poho. Orillon Orlandi, Clem. Biog. Orle Orlet Orleans (Genabum) Poho. Orlo Orlops Orme, Philibert de 1’ Biog. Ormolu Decor. Ornament Decor. Ornamented English Archi- tecture Ornate Ornithon Orphrey Decor. Orpiment Orrea (Perth) Poho. Orsi, Franc. Biog. , Lelio Biog. Orso (Osuna) Poho. Orsolino, Gio. Batt. Biog. , Giov. Biog. Orsoni, Joseph Biog. Ortega, San Gio. Biog. Orthogonal Orthography Orthostataj Ortner, Ant. Biog. Orvieto (Herbanum and Urbs Vetus) Poho. Orzi Nuovi Poho. Osca (Huesca, Escua) Poho. Oscillation Osculating Circle Osimo (Auximum) Poho. Osio, d’ Biog. Osmund, Bishop Biog. Osnabruck Poho. Ospel Biog. Osma (Argaelaj Uxama) Pol. Ostia (Ostia) Poho. Ostiarius Ostertag, Wil. Biog. Ostium Ostrich-boarde Osuna (Ursaon or Orso) Pol. Oswald, S. Biog. Otranto (Hydruntum) Poho. Ottimer, C. T. Biog. Ottoman Otricoli (Ocriculum) Poho. Ouch Oudenarde Poho. Oufa Poho. Out to Out — of Winding, &c. Outchang-foo Poho. Outcrop or Basset Outer, Door, Plate Outfall Outhouse Outlier Outline, Drawing Outside, Lining, Stile Outward Angle Outworks Ova Oval Ovate Oven Over-Charge, Hang, Sale, Span, Story Overseer Oviculum Oviedo (Lucus Asturum) Poho. Ovolo Ovyrhistorye or Ovyrstorv Owner Oxalidaceae Oxford Oxidation Oxygon Oya, Sebastian d’ Oylement Oylett Oza, Juan de Ozia Pace Packing Paddle- hole or Clough Arch Paderborn Poho. Padlock Padova (Patavium) Poho. Padua, John of Biog. Paeonius or Peonius Biog. Paestum (Posidouia) Poho. Pagauelli, Dom. Biog. Paggi, Gio. Batt. Biog. Paglia, Luigi Biog. Pagoda Pagodite Pail Pain-drawing Pain, William Biog. Paine, James Bios. Paint, Painted Glass, Window Painters’ Tools, Work, &c. Painting Room Pair of Stairs Paisley Poho. Pakassy, Baron Yon Biog. Palace, Court Palados Palaestra Palatial, House, &c. Palazzo Pale, Fencing, Tints Palencia (Pallantia) Poho. Palenque Poho. Paleography Palermo (Panormus) Poho. Palestrina (Prameste) Poho. Palimpsest Brass Paling Palisade Palisander, or Rose Wood Bot. Palissy Ware Pall Palladio, Andrea Biog. Palladian School Pallantia (Palencia) Poho. Pallas Pallet Palliardi, Ignaz. Biog. Pallier Pallification Palm and Bot. Palma Poho. , Felix Biog. Palmetta Palmyra (Tadmor and Hadri- anopolis) Poho. Palombino Marble Palsgrave Paltronieri, Pierre Biog. Paments Pamiers, see Parmiers Poho. Pampeluua (l’ompelo) Poho. Pampinata Pampre Pan Pancarpi Pandroseum Pane Paneaux Panel Panini, Jean Paul Biog. Panionium Panizza, Alvarez Biog. Pannier Panorama Panormus (Palermo) Poho. Panstereorama Pant Pantameter Pantheon Pantile, Pantiling, or Pentile Pantograph Pantometer Pantry Paoletti, Nic. Mar. Gasp. Biog. Paolo, S. Poho. Papantla Poho. Paper, Mill, Stainer Paperhauger, Work Paperhanging Papier-m&che Papoul, S. Poho. Papworth, John B. Biog. Papyrography Para Poho. Parabola Biog. Biog. Poho. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Bot. Biog. Mastic, Polio. Poho. Poho. Bot. Bot. Poho. Biog. Biog. 7 24 INDEX. Parabolic Assymptote, Curve Paraboloid Paracentric Paradigrammatrice Paradise Parados Paradrornides Paragrele Parallel, Cut, Coping, Rule Parallelism Parallelogram Parallelopipedon Parament Parameter Parangon Marble Parapegma Parapet Parasaccbi, Domenico Biog. Parasang Parascenium Parastatae Parastatices Imagines Paratonnerre Parapent, Parpent Parcel Gilt Parchment Parclose Parcll Parerga Parget Parian Marble Parigi, Alfonso Biog. , Jules Biog. , Giuseppe Biog. Paris (Lutetia) Polio. , Matthew Biog. Parish Church Park Parke, Robert Biog. Parker’s Cement Parliament House Parlour Parma (Parma) Polio. Parmeirs Polio. Parochial Buildings Parodo, Domenico Biog. Parpain, Parpaigne Parquetry and Marquetry Parr, William Biog. Parrell Parsimony Parsley (Petroselinum) Bot. Parsonage House Part Parterre Parthenon Particolored Parting Bead, Strip, &c. Partition Partridge wood (Heistcria) Bot. Party, Fence, Partition, Wall Parvis Paschall Pasini, Giacomo Biog. Pasinelli, Laurent Biog. Pasio, Ant. Biosr. T) *= Passage Passau (Batava Castra) Polio. Passeri, J. B. Biog. Passion, Emblem of Decor. Flower (Passiflora) Pastas [Bot. Pasteboard Pastici Pastophoro Pastoral Staff Pasture Land Patand Patavium (Padova) Polio. Pate Patel, Bernard Bio°- Paten Patent, Dryer, Letters, Slat- ing, Yellow Patera Paterno-Castello, J. V. Biog. Paternoster Patesle, Thomas Biog. Path, Pathway Patin Patina Patna Polio. Patronage Patte, Pierre Biog. Pattern Paul de Leon, S. Polio. Chateaux S. Polio. Pauline de Peyvere Biog. Paulinus Biog. Paulizza (Phigalia) Polio. Pautre, Antoine le Biog. , Jean le Biog. Pavache Pavement Pavia (Ticinum) Polio. Pavilion Paving, Brick, Stone, Tile Pavior Pavonine Marble Pavy, Pavice, Parvise Pawl Pax, Paxbrede Pay-leon Payneize Peace, Temple to Peach, Color, Stone Peacock, James Biog. Decor. Peak Pear Tree (Pyrus) Bot. Pearl, White Peat, Compressed Pebble, Paving Pectinatum Tectum Pectoral Cross Pedestal, Stove Pediculus Pediment Pedometer Peel Polio. or Pole, Tower Peg Pegmata Pegu Polio. Pein, Geor. Biog. Peirameter Peking Polio. Pelasgic Architecture Pele or Peel Tower Pelecoides l’elegret, Tomas Biog. Peling Polio. Pellegrini, Pellegrino, see Tibaldi Biog. Pellesini, Lelio Biog. , Vic. Biog. Pellet Ornament Decor. Pelo Pembroke Polio. , Earl of, see Herbert Pen • [Biog. l’enaria Pencil Pend Pendant, Gas Pendent Pendentive, Bracketing, Cra- dling Pentadoron Pentahedron Penetrale Penetralia Penitentiary Pennant Penuone, Rocco Biog. Pensile Gardens Penstock Pentadoron Pentagon Pentagrapli or Pantograph Pentalpha Pentangular Pentapostos Pentaspast Pentastyle Pentelic Marble Penteys Penthouse, Roof Pentile or Pantile Pentoma, Tancredi di Biog. Peny, John Biog. Peonius or Paeonius Biog. Peparelle, Pietro Biog. Peperino Marble Peppercorn Rent Perach, Stepliano Biog. Perambulator Perception Perch, Perk Percier, Charles Biog. Perclose or Parclose Percolation Percy, John Biog. Perez, Pietro Biog. Perforation Perfection Performance Pergamos (Bergamo) Polio. Pergenyng Pergula Periactos Peribolus Pericles Biog. Peridromus Perigueux (Vesunna) Polio. Perimeter Perini, Lodovico Biog. Periods Periphanes Periphery Peripteral Periptery Perirrhanterion Periss, Jean Philip Biog. Peristylium Peritherides Peritrochium Permanent Pernegger, Andrea Biog. Perouse Polio. Perpend, Perpent, Perpevn, or Perpin, Stone, and Wall Perpendicular, Style, Lift Perpetual Screw Perpetuity Perpeyn Wall Perpignan Polio. Perrac, Etienne Biog. Perrault, Claude Biog. , Charles Biog. Perron Perronet, J. R. Biog. Persepolis (Chel-Minar) Polio. Persepolitan or Assyrian Ar- cbitecture Persian Architecture, Portico Persians or Caryatides Persiennes Persons, Klaas Jcrem Biog. Perspective Pertch Biog. Perth (Orrca) Polio. Perticae Perugia (Pcrusia) Polio. Perugini, Gal. Biog. Perundt, George Biog. Peruvian Architecture Peruzzi, Balthesar Biog. Pesaro (Pisaurum) Polio. Peschiera (Ardelica) Polio. Pesi, Paolo Biog. Pest House Pesth or Pest Polio. Pesto (Psestum) Polio. Petard Peter of Colechurch Biog. de Liea Biog. Peterborough Polio. Petersburg, S. (Porta) Polio. Petition Petitot Biog. Petra Polio. Petroleum Petroselinum (Parsley) Bot. Petty Petworth Marble Pew Pewter Peyre, A. F. and M. J. Biog. Peyvere, see Pauline Biog. Pfeffel, J. A. Biog. Pforzheim Polio. Phaeax Biog. Phalanga Phane, Vane or Faue Pharos Pharillon Phatnomata Pheaces Biog. Pheasant Wood (Histeria) Bot. Plieasantry Phengites Marble Pheon Pbial or Vase Phidias Biog. Phigalia and Marbles Polio. Philadelphia Polio. Philae Polio. Philander, Guil. Biog. Philo Biog. Philocles of Arcliaruae Biog. Philon Biog. Philosophy Phocicum Phoenician Architecture Phoenix Phonics Phonolite Phosphate of Iron Photogenic Photography Photometer Phryctorion Phrygian Marble Phygalia, see Phigalia Polio. Phyllade Phytcus or Pytlieus Biog. Piacentina, Giam Biog. Piacenza (Placentia) Polio. Piache Piali (Tegea) Polio. Pian, Andrea de Biog. Piazza Piazzetta Picault Biog. Picchetti, Ferrase Biog. Picchiani, Francesco Biog. Picchiatti, Bart. Biog. , Franc. Biog. Piccino Biog. Piccioni, Nicola Biog. Pichl Biog. Pick Picket Pickford, J. Biog. Picking Bricks Pickling Piet’s House, Wall Picture, Frame, Gallery Picturesque Piebald INDEX 25 Piece Pie dritto Piedroit or Pier Pied ouch e Piepole Pier or Piedroit, Glass Pierre de Montereau Biog. Levees and Debout Piermarini, Giuseppe Biog. Pietro Aretino Biog. Cozzo Biog. d’Apuzzo Biog. di Gamiel Biog. di Marino Biog. di I’ietri Biog. San Biog. Piezometer Pig, of Lead and Iron Pigeon House Pigment Pignerol or Pinerolo Polio. Pigsty Pilse Pilaster, Mass, Strip Pilastrade Pile, Engine, Plank Pilgram, Ant. Biog. Pillage Pillar Pillau Polio. Pillnitz Polio. Pillou, Germain Biog. Pillow, Pillowed Pilsen Polio. Pin, Underpin Pinacotlieca Pinaster Pincers Pine (Pinus) Bot. Apple Decor. Cone Moldings Pinerolo or Pignerol Polio. Pingeron, M. Biog. Pink Pinion Pinnacle, Pinicle, Pinnakvll Pinning up Pino, Marco di Biog. Pintelli, Baccio Biog. Pintia (Valladolid) Polio. Pinus (Pine Tree) Bot. Piola, P. P. J. Biog. Piombino Polio. Pioppi, Gio. Franc. Biog. Pipe, Casing, Clay Pipels, Jan Biog. Pippi, Giulio (Romano) Biog. Piraeus Polio. Piranesi, Gio. Batt. Biog. Pirineo, Pitheo Biog. Firna Polio. Pirro Ligorio Biog. Pisa (Pisae) Polio. , Niccolo da Biog. Pisanelli, Laurent. Biog. Pisano, Andrea Biog. , Jean Baptiste Biog. , Thomaso Biog. Pisaurum (Pesaro) Polio. Piscina Pise Pisidia (Selge) Polio. Pistici or Pastici Pistoja (Pistoria) Polio. Pit, of a Theatre, Saw Pitch, of a Roof, &c. Pitching or Apron Piece Pith for Models Piti or Pitius Biog. Pitodorus Biog. Pitran, M. Biog. Pivot Pix Placard Place, Brick Placia or Placiam Placentia (Piacenza) Polio. Plafond or Platfond Plagiarism Plain or Plane Angle, Tile, &c. Plainness Plaister or Plaster Plan Planceer or Plancher Planched Plane, Table Tree (Platanus) Bot. Geometrical, Horizon- tal, Inclined, &c. Persp. Planimetry Planing Machine Plank, Planking Plantaginaceae Bot. Planting, Plantations Plasencia Polio. Plashing Plaster, Floor, of Paris Plasterers’ Tools, Work Plastering Plastic, Plastice Plat, Platte, Plot Plataea Polio. Platanus (Plane Tree) Bot. Platband Plate, Glass, Rack, Tracery, &c. Plateresque Architecture Platfond Platform Platinum Platte or Plan Platzer, Joseph Plauen Play House Plea Pleasing Pleasurable Plectrum Plenty, Temple to Plebania Plexiform Pliers Plinth Pliny Pliocene Plot Plotting, Scale, Table Ploughed Plug, and Feathers Plum Tree (Prunus) Bot. Plumb Line, Rule, &c. Plumbago Plumber’s Tools, Work Plumbing Plummet Plutarch Biog. Pluteus Pluviameter Plyers Plymouth, and Marble Polio. Pneumatics Pnyx P6, Giacomo del Biog. Poch, Paul Biog. Pocket Piece Podium Podophvlleaj Bot. Poccile or Poikile Poccilitic Poetry of Art Poggio, Marc. Ant. Biog. a Cajano Biog. Poinciana Bot. Point, Accidental, &c. Persp. Pointed Arch, Architecture Pointed, Poyntill, l’oyntell Pointing Points of Support Poitrel Poitiers (Limonum) Polio. Pol, or Paul de Leon Polio. Pola (Pola) Polio. Pole, Board, Plate, Scaffold Polemascope Poleti, Luigi Biog. Poley, Jacob Biog. Polia Stone Policy Polides or Polius Biog. Poliograpby Polishing Polispasto Poll [Biog. Pollajuolo, Simone, II Cronaca Poliak, Jos. or Leopold. Biog. Pollard Pollio, see Vitruvius Biog. Pollis Biog. Poltava Polio. Polyacoustic Polychromatic Architecture Polychromy Polycletes Biog. Polycritus Biog. Polyfoil Polygon Polygonal, Masonry, Roof, Tower Polygonometry Polygram Polygraph Polyhedron Polvoptron Polyscope Polyspast Polystyle Pomegranite Decor. Pomel Pomoerium Pompei, Alessandro Biog. Pompeii Polio. Pompeion Pompelo (Pampeluna) Polio. Ponce, N. Biog. Poncello, Sebastien Biog. , Tommaso Biog. Pond Ponderous Pons, S. Polio. Ponstonelli, Giac. Ant. Biog. Pont-h-Mousson Polio. Pontagium Ponte, Ant. del Biog. , Gio. da Biog. Pontee Pontifices Pontoon Ponz, Ant. Biog. Ponzanelli, Jac. Ant. Biog. Ponzio, Flamiuio Biog. Pool Poon Wood Bot. Poore, Richard Biog. Poor, House Pootermans, Pietro Biog. Poplar Tree (Populus) Bot. Popplemann, N. Biog. Poppy Head and Bot. Populus (Abelc, Aspen, and Poplar) Bot. Porcate Porcelain Porch [Polio. Porchester (Adurnus Portus) Porden, William Biog. Porentrui Polio. Porinus Biog. Porous Porphyry, or Serpentine Port, Crayon, Folio, Hole, Nail Porta (S. Petersburg) Polio. , Jacopo della Biog. Portable, Altar, House, &c. Portal, Portail Portcullis Porter’s Lodge, Room Portici Polio. Portico Porticus Portland Stone Porto d’Anzo (Antium) Polio. Portsmouth Polio. Portuguese Architecture Porus Marble Posen (Setidava) Polio. Posi, Paolo Biog. Posidonia (Psestum) Polio. Position Posphorus, Caius Julius Biog. Possession Post and Paling Pane Petrail , Pietro Biog. Office Postscenium, or Parascenium Posterity Postern Posthumius, Caius Biog. Posticum Postilum Postique Postumius, Caius Biog. Potash Pothoeus Biog. Pot, Metal, Hollow Potosi Polio. Potsdam Polio. Potstone Potter, Pottery, Clay Pouch Ball Pouget, or Puget Biog. Poultier, Jean Bap. Biog. Poultry House, Yard Pound, Nails Pourmenade Powder Magazine Powdering Power Poyet Biog. Poyntell Pozzo, Andrea del Biog. , Giovanni del Biog. , Giralamo del Biog. , Lauren Biog. Pozzolauo, or Puzzolano Pozzuolo (Puteoli) Polio. Practical Architecture, Car- pentry. Geometry, &c. Practice Prado, Pedro de Biog. Praeceton Praecinctio, or Balteus Prato Polio. Praefumium Prameste (Palestrina) Polio Praetorium Prague (Budorgis) Polio. Prantner, Carl Biog. Prato, Franjois dal Biog. Vecchio, Jacopo da Biog. Praxiteles Biog. Preaching Cross Prebendal Stall Precarium Preceptory, or Commandery Premises Premium Presburg (Anduetium) Polio. Presbytery Presence, or Privy Chamber Presentment Biog. Polio. Biog. ARCH. PT7B. 80C. 26 INDEX. Preserving Timber Press Room Pressure Preti, Franc. Mar. Biog. Pretty Prevesa (Nicopolis Actia) Pol. Priapeian Monument Price , Uvedale Biog. Pricket Prick Post Prickiug-up Prie-dieu Priene (Sanson) Polio. Priest, Godfrey Biog. Priest’s Door Primaticcio, Francois Biog. Prime Priming Primitive Colors, Ilut Princes Metal Wood Bot. Principal, Brace, Point, Rafter, Ray, &c. Principle of Composition, &c. Print, Printing, House, Office Prioli, Juan B. Biog. Priory Prism Prismatory Prismoid Prison Private Buildings, Houses, &c. Privy, Chamber Proaulion Probationer Problem Probst Biog. Procacim, Andres Biog. Processional Cross Prococton Procounesian Marbles Prodromus Producing Professor Profile Profiling an Order Profission Profit Progress of Architecture Progression Projection Project.ure Prolate Promenade, or Public Walks Pronaos Pronouncing Proof Prop Propend Property Propigneum Proplasm Proportion Proportional Compasses Proprietary, Chapel, &c. Propriety Propylseura, Propylon Proscenium Proserpine, Temple to Prospect Prospettive, Augustin del Biog. Prostas Prostyle Prostvride Prothyris Prothyrum Protogene Prototype Protractor Provincialism Prow Prudde, John Decor. Biog. Prunus (Plum Tree) Bot. Prussian, Blue, Brown, Copper, Green Prynt, Preynt Prytaneum Przemysl Pseudisodomum Polio. Pseudodiptcral Pseudoperipteral Pseudoprostyle Pseudothyron Pskow Polio. Ptera Pteras Pterigium Pteroma Pteron Biog. Pterospermum (Amboyna Wood) Bot. Public, Edifice, House, Library Puce Color Pudding Stone Puddling Pudlay Pudsey, Hugh Biog. Pue, Pew [Biog. Puget, Pujet or Pouget, Pierre Pugging, Mill Pugin, Augustus Biog. Pug Piling Pujet or Puget, Pierre Biog. Pull Down Pulley, Mortise, Stile Pullish or Polish Pulpit, Latch Pulpitum Pulvinaria Pulvinated Pumice Stone Pump Punch Puncheon, Punclion, Stanchion or Stanchel Pupil Pui’beck Marble Purchase Purfled Purity Purlin, Purline Purple, Black, Lake, Ochre , Wood (Copaifera) Bot. Purser, William Biog. Puteal Puteoli (Puzzuolo) Polio. Putlog, Putlock Putty Puy, Le Polio. Puzzolana, or Pouzzolano Puzzuolo (Puteoli) Polio. Pycher House Pycnostyle By king Pyling or Piling Pylone Pyramid Pyramidion Pvramoid Pyrgos Polio. Pyrites Pyrometer Pvroscope Pyrotechnics Pyrrhus Biog. Pyrus (Pear and Service Tree) Bot. Pytheus or Phyteus Biog. Pyx or Pix Quadra Quadrangle Quadrant Quadratista Quadratura Quadrature Quadrels Quadrifores Quadriga Quadro, Girolamo Biog. , Pietro Biog. Quadroni, George Biog. Quadrilateral Quadriporticus Quaglio, Domenico Biog. Quaini, Franc. Biog. Qualification Quality Quantity Quarenghi, G. Biog. Quarrel, Quarry, Quarrying Quarter, Grain, Space, Parti- tion, Round, &c. Quartering, Quarters Quaterfoil Quatremere de Quincy Biog. Quartz Quay Quebec Polio. Quedlinburg Polio. Queen, Closer, Post, Roof Queens Yellow Quellino, Gio. Eras. Biog. Quentin S. (Augusta Veroman- duorum) Polio. Quercitron Lake or Yellow Quercus (Cork & Oak Tree) Bot. Queretaro Polio. Querini, Roco Biog. Querry Quick, Lime, Hedge, Sand, Silver Quilinus, Aertus Junr. Biog. Quimper, or Kimper Polio. Quinquangular Quincunx [Biog. Quincy, see Quatremere de Quindecagon Quink Quintain Quire or Choir Quirinus, Temple to Quirk, Bead, Molding Quito Polio. Quit Rent Quivill Biog. Quoin, Raftic Quoit or Discus Decor. Raab (Arrabona) Rabbet or Rebate Polio. Rabirius Biog. Racchetti, Bernardo Race, Mill, Plane Racket Court Biog. Rack, Rent Raddlings Rademacker, Gerard Biog. Radial Curve Radiate Radiation of Heat Radius Radnor Polio. Raffaello da Montelupo Biog. , see Sauzio,d’Urbino Rafter [Biog. Raftic Quoin Ragaj or ltatie (Leicester) Pol. Rag, Bolt, Slate, Stone, Work Ragg, Ragge Raggi, Antonio Biog. Ragusa or llaugia Polio. Rail, Railing Railway or Tramway ltaimond de Montfort Biog. Rainbow Decor. Rain, Cistern, Pipe, Water Rainaldi, Adrien Biog. , Carlo Biog. , Girolamo Biog. , Jean Baptiste Biog. , Jerome Biog. , Tolomeo Biog. Rainaldo Biog. Rainucci Biog. Raiser Raising Piece Rake, Raker Raking, Temple, &c. Ralph de Erglium Biog. Salopia Biog. Ram, Water Ram’s Head, &c. Decor. Ramichouer, Temple of Rammer Ramp Rampant, Arch Rampart Ramsey, William de Biog. Random, Course, Pavement Raudvara (Renfrew) Polio. Range, or Ranging of Glass Rant Biog. Ranulph Biog. Raperella Raphael, see Sanzio Biog. Rarefaction Rari Biog. Rasp Rastadt Polio. Ratchell Ratchet Brace Rate • Rath Ratify Ratio Ratisbon (Artobriga) Polio. Ratzebourg (Coenocnum) Pol. Raughieri, Gio. Batt. Biog. , Pietro Biog. Ravelin Ravenna (Ravenna) Polio. Ravi, Jean Biog. Ray Raynelm Biog. Reading, Desk and Polio. Rear Reason or Reson Piece Reate (Rieti) Polio. Rebate or Rebate Plane Rebuild Rebus Recanati Polio. Receipt Receptacle Recess Rechamus Rccipiangle Reclusorv Record, Office Recover Recta Directrix Rectangle Rectification Rectilinear Rectoria INDEX. 27 Rectory Red, Lead, Marl, Ochre, Sand- stone, Wood Redans Rede or Read, William Biog. Redelmayer, Joseph Biog. Redmund’s Hinges Redoubt Redress Redsear Reduce Reducing Scale Reduct Reduction Redundant, Hyperbola Reeds, Reeding Re-entrance Re-entrant Angle Re-establish Refectory Reference Refined, Refinement Reflected Light Reflection, Reflex Reflector Reformatory Refraction Refrigerator Refuse Regals Regard Regensburg (Ratisbon) Polio. Regia Altera (Limerick) Pol. Reggio (Rhegium) Polio. Registration, Registry Reglet Regnatus FI. Veg. Biog. Regnum (Chichester) Polio. Regrating Regula or Orlo Regular, Regularity , Architrave, Curves, Fi- gures Reichenberg Polio. Reigate or Rigate Stone Reii (Riez) Polio. Reims or Rheims (Durocorto- rum) Polio. Reins of a Vault Rejointing Relation Relay Release Relicts Relief Relieving Arch Reliquary Rem, Mathieu Biog. Remigius Biog. Remo, S. Polio. Remote Removable Remuneration Remy, S. (Glanum) Polio. Renaissance Architecture Renault de Cormont Rendering Renew Renfrew (Raendvara) Polio. Rennes (Condate) Polio. Rent Renucci, Giuseppe Biog. Repair Reparation Repetition Replum Repose Repository Representation Reproduction Reredos, Rerdos, Reredosse, Dossel, Lardos Researching arch. pub. soc. Biog. Resemblance Reservoir Residence Resilience Resin Resina (Retina) Polio. Resistance Resolution of Forces Reson or Reason Piece Resonance Resonant place Respond, Responder, or Re- spound Responsibility Ressant, or Ressaunt Ressault Ressenti Restitution Restore, Restoration Restormal Castle Resultant Resurvey Retable Retaining Wall Reticulated Work, Reticulation Retouch Retrace Retreat Retrenchment Retro Choir Retina (Resina) Polio. Retirade Return, Bead Reul Reval or Revel Polio. Reveal Reveley, Willey Biog. Revello, Domenico Bios. Reverberation Reverse Revesi, Bruti Ottavio Biog. Revestry or Vestry Revetment Revett, Nicholas Bio Review Revise Revival Revolution Reward Rey, Antonio del Biog. Reyers, Zeger Biog. Reynolds, Sir Joshua Biog. Reysek, Mathias Biog. Rez-de-Chaussee Rhamnus Polio. Rhegium (Reggio) Polio. Rheims, see Reims Polio. Rhodes (Rhodus) Polio. Rhodez or Rodez Polio. Rhodiacum Rhoecus Biog. Rholus Biog. Rhomb, Rhomboid Rhombus Rhus (Sumach) Bot. Rib Ribas, Francesco de Biog. , Gaspar de Biog. Ribband Ribbed Vaulting Ribber Ribbing, Nails Riccardi Ricchetti, Leonardo Ricchini, Francisco Ricci arelli, Leonardo Rice Paper Rich Richard of Cirencester O* Biog. Biog Biog. Biog. Richardson, George Richborough Richer, Jean Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Biog. Richini Biog. Richmond Polio. Richness Rickman, Thomas Biog. Rideau Ridel, Geffery Biog. Rides Ridge, Crest, Piece, Tile Riding House Ridolfi, Bartolomeo Biog. , Carlo Biog. Rieger, C. Biog. ltieti (Reate) Polio. Rieux (Durerie) Polio. Riez (Reii) Polio. Rigate or Reigate Stone Right Angle, Circle, Line Rigid Rigoglio Rilievo or Relief Rimachi, Iluallpa Ynca Bio Rimers Rimini (Ariminum) Rinaldi, Gio. Carlo , Pier. Danti Polio. Bios. Bioii Polio. Biog. Polio. Bio Bio or Ring, Bolt Ringlet Riom Ripe Ripley, Thomas Ripon Ripping Riser Ristoro Rivalz, Jean Pierre River Rivet Rivett, Nich. see Revett Biog. Rivoli Polio. Rizi, Francesco Biog. Rizzi, Andrea Biog. Road, Drift, Roman, Rail Robbia, Agostino della Biog. Robeliny Robert de Coucy , Hubert de Lusarch the Pious Roberti Robinia (Acacia and Rocadillo (Carteia) Rocaille Piece Rochelle, La Rochester (Durobrivis) Rock Worked Stone Rockhill Paving Rococo Rod Stone or Oolite Rode Rodeburn, Thomas Rodez (Segedunum) Rodriguez, Emanuel , Ventura Rodulf, Corrado Roe Stone Roger, Archbp. of York Bishop of Sarurn Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Locust) Bot. Polio. Polio. Polio. Biog. Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Rogers, Thomas Roll, or Roller Molding Roma (Rome) Polio. Romaine, Francois Biog. Roman, Architecture, Beam, Brickwork, Cement, Order, School, Vaulting Romanesque Architecture Romano, Francesco Biog. , Giulio, see Pippi Biog. , Luca Biog. Rome (Roma) Polio. Rome, de Biog. Romualdus Biog. Roncaioli Biog. Rondel Rondelet Biog. Rood, Rode, Beam, Loft,Screen, Steeple, Tower Roodenburg, Arend Biog. Roof, Roofing Room Roots Roporography Rosa, Christophe Biog. Rosati da Macerata, Ros. Biog. Rose, Wm. Nicholas Biog. , Wood or Palisander, (Mimosa Amyris and Dal- hergia) ‘ Bot. and Rosette, Molding, Pink, Tudor, Window Rosellini, Antonio Biog. — , Bernardo Biog. , Vincento Biog. Rosemary Bot. Rosenthaler, Caspar Biog. Rosetti, Cesare Biog. Rosetta Polio. Wood Bot. Rosin Roslin Rbsner, Carl Rossellino, Bernardo Rossetti, Domenico Rossi, II , David , Domenico , Gio. Ant. de , Mattai de , Properzia de , Vincenzio de Rossis, Angelo de Rosso, Giuseppe del de Florence Rostock (Laciburgium) Rostral Column Rostrum Rot, Dry, Stone, Wet Rother Nails Rothsav Rotomagus (Rouen) Rotten, Wood Rotterdam Rotunda or Rotondo Roue Rouen (Rotomagus) Polio. Rough, Cast, Mortar, Plate Glass, Setter, Stone, Stucco Round, Church, House, Tower, Headed Nail Roundel Rounds Rousseau, Jacques Roux, Le Rovescio Ilovezzano, Benedetto da Biog. Row Rowsby Roxburgh Roy, Le Royal, Blue, Palace Ryall Glass Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Polio. Polio. Polio. Polio. Biog Bio Biog. Polio. Biog. Rubeis, Ant. de Rubbed Returns Rubber, Rubbing dian Rubbish Rubble Stone, Wall Rubens, Pierre Paul Brown Biog. Stone, In- Biog. Rubiate, or Field’s Russet Rubric or Madder Lake Ruby Rudder Decor. Rudenture Decor. Ruderation Rudiments 8 28 INDEX. Rue, Abbe de la Biog. Rugged Ruggliesi, Fausto Biog. Ruggieri Bio Ruins, Picturesque Ruiz , Ferdinando Biog , Juan Biog. Rule, of Art, Joint, Sliding Rumalde Biog. Rumford, Benj. Biog. Runic or Danish Knot Orna- Biog. ment Running, Leafage, Decor. Measure Decor. Bios. Biog. Biog. Biog. Rupp, Ladislaus Rural Architecture Ruscelli, Giralamo Ruscoui, Camillo , Jean Antoine Rush (Juucacese and Equita ceaj) Bot. Russell, John Biog. Russet, Rubiate or Field’s Russian Architecture Rust Rustic, Order, Quoins or Coins, Work Rusticated, Rustication, Rus- ticked Rustico, Gio. Francesco Biog. Rutile Ryfaat Rysant, Gablet Rysts Polio. Biog. Bot. Biog. Biog. S, Tye Rod Sabate (Bracciano) Sabatiui, Francisco Sabicu Wood Sabliere Sac, Cul de Sacchetti, Giambattista Sacco, Geunaro Sacellum Saco me Sacrarium Sacred Architecture Sacring Bell Sacristy, Sacrary Saddle Back Coping, Bar Safe, Safety Lamp Sa e> Sagging Sa g a » Polio. Sagitta Sagittarius Sagrcdo, Diego da Biog. Saguntia (Siguenza) Polio. Saii, Seez Polio. Saiis or Seez, John de Biog, Sail Over or Projecture Sailing Course Saint Angelo (Corniculum) Pol. | iu A ado Polio. Ghamas Polio. Germain Biog. Giovanni Petersburg (Porta) Polio. ~ ~ Jean Polio. Saintcs (Mediolanum) Polio. or Xaintcs, Isembert de Saintcs Bell [Biog. Salamanca (Elmantica or Sal- mantica) Polio. Sahmns Polio. Salapia Polio. Sal aria Via Salerno (Salernum) Polio. Biog. Bot. Polio. Salette, Antonio Salient Salicacese Salientes (Orenze) Saliferous System Saligny Marble Salisbury or New Sarum Polio. Salix (Willow) Bot. Sallow (Salix) Bot. Sally, Port Salmantica (Salamanca) Polio. Salon or Saloon Salonica (Thessalonica) Polio. Salomon de Gand Biog. Salone Polio. Salopia, Ralph de, see R. d’Erghum Biog. Salpione Biog. Salsette, Island of Polio. Salt Cellar Salutatorium Saluzzo Polio. Salvi, Niccolo Biog. Salvetti, Paolo Biog. Salviati, Francesco Biog. Salzburg (Jovavum) Polio. Samarcand Polio. Samaritan Sambin, Hugues Biog. Sambucus (Elder Tree) Bot. Samel or Sandel Brick Samian Ware Samos (Samos) Polio. San Felice, Ferdinando Biog. , Pietro Biog. Dalmatius Biog. Gallo, Antonio Biog. , Antonio di Biog. , Francisco di Biog. , Giamberti di Biog. , Giuliano Biog. Giovanni Ortega Biog. Polio. Gonsalvo Biog. Lorenzo Biog. Lucano,Novello da Biog. Marino Biog. Micheii, Michele Biog. Michella, Gio. Girol Biog. Nicolas, Fra Lorenzo Biog Pietro Biog. Polio. Salvador Polio. de Bahia Polio. Sovino, see Contucci. Biog , .see Tatti Biog. Quirico, Alessandro. Biog Sanchez, Filippo Biog. Sanctis, Giacomo de Biog. Sanctuary Sanctus Bell Sanctum Sanctorum Sand, Coat, Pit, River, Sea, Stone Sandal V ood (Santalum) Bot. Sandby, Thomas Biog. Sanders, John Biog. Sanderson, James Biog. Sanding Sandrart, Joachim Von Biog. Sandriui, Tomaso Biog. Sanese, Francisco Biog. ~ — : — . Giorgio Biog. Sanitarium Sanitium (Senez) Polio. Sanson (Priene) Polio. Santalum (Sandal Wood) Bot. Santa Croce, Girolamo Biog. Sante, see Lombardo Biog. S.ui ten, Jan van Biog. Sauter, Jacob Phil. Biog. Santi, Lorenzo Biog. di Tito Titi, see Tito. Biog. Santiago (Asseconia) . Chile Santini Sanz, Augustin , Matias Polio. Polio. Biog. Biog. Biog. Sanzio d’Urbino, Raf. Biog. , Van, see Santen Biog. Sap, Green Sapan Wood (Caesalpinia) Bot. Saphita Sapodilla Wood (Fagara) Bot. Sapoteae (Bassia) Bot. Sapphire Sapwood Bot. Saracenic Architecture Saragossa (Caesar Augusta) Pol. Sarcophagus Sardel, Sardine Sardes (Sart) Polio. Sardi, Giuseppe Biog. Sardonyx Sarlat Polio. Sarnacus Biog. Sarrasine Sart (Sardes) Polio. Sarum, Old (Sorbiodunum) Pol. Sash, Fastening, Frame, Line, Tool, Weight Sassafras Wood Bot. Sassari (Gurulis Vetus) Polio. Satin Wood (Chloranthus and Chloroxylon Bot. Saturn, Temple to Satyrus Biog. — Biog. Saucisson Saul or Sal Wood Bot. Saumur Polio. Saunders or Cendres Blue Biog. Biog. -, George Polio. Biog. Bio Saurus Saussurite Savin Savings' Bank Savo (Savona) Savonanzi Savot, Louis Saw Pit or Sawing Saxon Architecture, Blue , Samuel Biog. Saxulphus Bio, Sbiek Scabellum Scaffold Scagliola Scala, Giambattista della Biog. Scale, Gunter, Stone, Weights O' Biog. Scalene Triangle Bios Scalfarotto, Giovanni Scallage, Scallenge Scallop Ornament Decor. Scamilli Impares Scamillus Scamozzi, Gio. Dom. Biog. , Ott. Bert. Biog. , Vicenzo Biog. Scandulse Scangium, Gio. Biog. Scansoria Scantle Scantling Scantlometer Scape or Scapus S cap pie Scapling Scarcement Scarabaeus Decor. Scarfing Scarlet, Oak, Lake Scarp Scarpagnino, Anton Biog. Scarsella, Sigismond Biog. Scarsellino, Ippolito Biog. Scena, Scene Scenography Sceus or Sceous Schaffhausen Scheam, Scheme Arch Schedule Schene Schemmerl, Von Schiavi, Bernardo , Carlo , Pietro Schifferim or Biog. Polio. Skene Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. Biog. ■5, Jbrg Schillerspar Schimpfenpfeil Biog. Schinckard, Ileinrick Biog. Schistose Scliola Scholium Schonbrun Polio. School of Architecture, Room Schor, iEgid. Biog. , Johan Bapt. Biog. , Johan Paul Biog. Schorl Schrankh, Conrad Biog. Schubert, Johan Wilhelm Biog. Scliweinfurt Blue Schwerin (Alistus) Polio. Schynvoet, Simon Biog. Sciagraphy or Sciograpliy Science Scill or Sill Scima, Scimatium or Cyma Scipio Decor. Scite or Site Sclatte or Slate Scoinsou Scolari, Antonio Biog. Francesco Bio, O* Biog. Scollop Molding Sconce, Scouchon, Skonchon or Squinch Scone Polio. Scopas Biog. Scoriae Scorpion Decor. Scotch Architecture Scotia Scorticone, Domenico Biog. Scottice Scouchon Scraper Scratch Work Screen or Skreen, Organ, Rood Screw, Check, Nail Scribe, Scribing Scrinium Scriptorium or Writing Room Scripture or Texts Scrivano, Pirro Luigi Scroll Scrub Stone Scull Decor. Scullery Sculptor, Sculpture Scupper Nail Scutable Scutage Scutcheon Scutula Scyriacum Marmor Seabrooke, Thomas Biog. Sealing Seams Seaming Mallet Seasoning Timber Seasons Decor. Seat Seaward, John Biog. Sebroke, Thomas Biog. Secant Seckel, Norbert Biog. INDEX, 29 Seclusorium Secondary Secos, see Adytum Secretarium Section of a Building, Solid Sector, of a Circle, Sphere Security Sedile, Sedilia Seeling or Ceiling Seez or Saii Polio. , see Yves Biog. Seffrid, Bishop Biog. Se gan foo Polio. Segedunum (Rodez) Polio. Segeste (Sestri) Polio. Seghizzi, Giacomo Biog. Segment, of a Sphere, Circle, Headed Segontium (Caernarvon) Polio. Segorbe (Scgobriga Edetano- rum) Polio. Segovia (Segobia) Polio. Segura, Antonio Biog. Segusium (Susa) Polio. Segustero (Sisteron) Polio. Seiis or Seez, see Yves Biog. Selection Seleucia (Selefkch) Polio. Selge (Pisidia) Polio. Selinum (Selinunte) Polio. Selkirk Polio. Sell or Cill Sellynge, William Biog. Seloueste Biog. Selva, Antonio Biog. , Gian. Antonio Biog. Semaphore Semerk, Henry Biog. Semicaualiculi Semicircle Semicircular, Arch, Work Semidiameter Semiellipse Semimetope Semiordinate Semiramis Biog. Semitae of the Xystus Semple, George Biog. Senaria Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia) Polio. Sena Julia (Siena) Polio. Senes (Xanthus) Polio. Senez (Sanitium) Polio. Senlis (Augustomagus) Polio. Sennamar Biog. Senone, Rocco Biog. Sens (Agedincum) Polio. , William of Biog. Sentences on Walls or Texts Sentiment Sepia or Seppia Sept Septa Septangular Septaria Septenaria Septentrio Septizonium Sepulchral, Arch, Architecture, Chapel, Monument, Slab, Stone Sepulchre Seraglio Serai Serancolin Marble Serapis, Temple of Serges Seringapatam Polio. Serlio, Sebastiano Biog. Serlo of Gloucester Biog. Serpent Decor. Serpentine, see Porphyry Serrated ARCH. Pl'B. soc. Serratini, Giuseppe Ant. Biog. Scrvandoni, Jean Biog. , Niccola Biog. Servants’ Hall Servi, Constantino de’ Biog. Service, Pipe Tree (Pyrus) Bot. Sesquialteral Sessions House Sesspool or Cesspool Sestertium Sestri (Segeste) Polio. Setidava (Posen) Polio. Set, Set-off Setting, Coat, Board, Knife, out Rod Settle Settlements, Settling Sevegno, Vicenzo Biog. Severall Severano Biog. Severaus, Severonne, or ■ Seve- ronde Table Severiana Via Severity Severus Biog. Severey, Civery Seville (Hispalis) Polio. Sevres Polio. Sewer, Sewage, Sewerage, Sul- liage Sexangle Sexagesimal Sextant Sextefother Sextrv Sexulphus Biog. Seyssel’s Asphalte Sfogatoi Sfumato Sgizzo, Andre Biog. Sgraffito or Scratch Work Sgrilli, B. S. Biog. Shade Shadows and Shadowing Shaft, of a Chimney, King Post Shafted Impost [Polio. Shahjehanabad or New Delhi Shake, Shaky Shale Sham Shamble Shanks Shapes Sharp, Nail Shaving Sheath, Sheathing Nail Shed Sheet, Glass, Lead, Piling Shelf Shell Sheriffs Posts Shield Decor. Shing king or Monkden Polio. Shingle or Shide Shinlog Ship Shittim Wood Bot. Shivers Shoar or Shore Shoe Shop, Fittings, Front Shore or Shoar Shoo san Polio. Shoote, see Shute Biog. Shoot i Shooting, Board Shoulder, of a Tenon ] Shouldering Piece Shovel Shread or Jerkin Head i Shreddings or Furrings ! Shrewsbury Polio. Shrine, Work Shrinking Shroud, Shrowd Shute or Shoote, John Biog. Shutter, Bar Siberite Siciliano, Anastasio Biog. , Angelo Biog. Sicily, Temples of Sicyon Polio. Side, Board, Nook, Pieces, Posts, Timbers or Wavers Sidelong Gi’ound Sideroxylon (Iron Wood) Bot. Siena (Sena Julia) Polio. Burnt, Raw, Marble Sienite or Syenite Sight Sigillo (Helvillum) Polio. Sign Signia Polio. Signiuum Opus Signorelli, Leandro Biog. Sigovia Polio. Siguenza (Saguntia) Polio. Silanion Biog. Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) [Polio. Silenus Biog. Silery or Cilery Silex Sill, Sole or Cill Sillon Siloe, Diego Biog. , Gil Biog. Silt Silvani, Gherardo Biog. , Piet. Franc. Biog. Silver Sima or Cvma Simeon Biog. Similar Figures Simone, see Pollaiuolo Biog. Simonetti, M. A. Biog. Simons or Symonds, R. Biog. Simple Vault Simplicity Sincreste, Sencreste Sine and Cosine Singapore Polio. Single Frame and Naked Floor, Hung, Joist Floor, Measure Sinigaglia (Sena Gallica) Pol. Sink, Sinking, Stone Sinoper or Red Lead Sinuous Sion or Sitteu Polio. Siparium Siphon Sisseverne, Gilbert de Biog. Sissoo (Dalbergia or Rose Wood) Bot. Sisteron (Segustero) Polio. Sisypheium, Temple of Site, Scite or Situation, Healthy Size Sketch Skew, Back, Bridge, Table Skias Skill and Taste Skinning Skirlaw, Walter Skirting, Board Skirts, of a Roof Skittle Ground Skownsiom Skreeu or Screen Skull Skylight Slab Slaking of Lime, Slack Lime Slate, Sclatte, Batten, Boarding Slater’s Tools, Work Slating, Patent Slaughter House Sledge, Hammer Sleeper Sleford, John de Biog. Sliding Rule Slight Slip, Board, Window Slipper Slit, Deal Slodiz, Paul Ambrose Biog. , Rene Michael Biog. Slope, of Roof Sluice Slyp or Slype Small Cut Brad, Glazier’s Smalt Smaragdine Smiris Stone Smit, Jan Biog. Smith Biog. , James Biog. , John Biog. Smithery and Ironmongery Smith’s Tools and Work Smithson, Huntingdon Biog. , Robert Biog. Smoke, Smoky Chimney Smoking Room Smolensk Polio. Smoothing Plane Smyrna (Smyrna) Polio. Snacket Snake Wood Bot. Snipe’s Bill, Plane Soane, Sir John Biog. Soap Stone Sobriquet Socage Society Socket, Chisel, Piece Socle or Zocle Sodalite Soder or Solder Soerendonck, Matthys Biog. Sofa Sofilus Biog. Soffit, Soffita, Sofite Softening Soil or Cill Soissons (Augusta Suessino- rum) Polio. Solar, Soler, Solere, Solyer, Soller Solari, Santino Biog. Solario, Antonio Biog. , Cristoforo Biog. Solarium Soldati, Giac. Biog. Solder or Soder Sole or Cill Soleure or Solotliurn l’olio. Soli, Giuseppe Biog. Solid, Angles, Shoot Solidity Solis, Francis de Biog. Solive Solleret Solothurn or Soleure (Solo- durum) l’olio. Solution Sondelets Sommering or Summering Sonometer Soo choo Polio. Soot Soprani, Raphael Biog. Soracte Folio. Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum) Pol. Soria, Giambattista Biog. Sormano, Pace Antonin o Biog. Sortant or Salient Ang le Sostratus Biog. Biog. Decor. 30 INDEX. O' Soudlet Soufflot, Jacques Germain Biog. Sough Souls Sound, Boarding, Work Sounding Board Soursadel Rcredos Souse, Souste, Source Souterain South Southwark Polio. Southwell (Ad Pontem) Polio. Sowdel Soyle or Cill Sozi, Bene, detto Bino Biog. Spaa (Tungrorum Fons) Polio. Space Spalatro (Spalatum) Polio. Spalatum Polio. Spalt or Spelt Span, Piece, Roof Spandril, Bracketing Spanish and Portuguese, Ar- chitecture, Black, Order, Red, White Spanner Spar, Piece Sparke, John Bioj Spars Sparta or Lacedaemon Polio. Spartium (King Wood) Bot. Spatula Spauled Masonry Spaundre Speaking Tube Specchi, Alessandro Species Speck, Speke, Speak, House Specific Gravity Specification Specimen Speculation Specus Spelter Spello (Colonia Julia Ilispel- lura) Polio. Spence, Spense Spentharus Biog. Spere or Screen Speroni or Anterides Sperver, Espcrver, Sperware Speyer or Spire Polio. Sphaeristerium Sphere Spherical Bracketing, Surface, Perspective, Vaulting Spheroid or Conoid Spheroidal Bracketing Spherometer Sphinx Spike, Head Spilefski Spiller, James Spina or Circus Spindle, Tree Bot. Copper Biog. Decor. Biog. Biog. Bio O* [Polio. Spintharus Spira Spiral Spire Spire or Speyer (Noviomagus) Spiret or Spiracle Spirit Level Spital, Spittel, Spytiel Splandrel or Spandrel Splashing Splay Splendour Splice Split Deal Splinter Spoil Bank Spoleto (Spoletiura) Polio. Spoliatorium Spot Spout Spreader Sprenger, Paul Biog. Spring, Bevel, of a Rail Springed, Springer Springing, Course, Wall, &c. Springs Spunge Spur Squarcino, Bernardo Biog. , Francis Biog. , Jacob Biog. Square, Bricklayers’, Glaziers’, Nail, Root, Shoot, Staff, T Squaring of a Handrail, of a piece of Stuff Squillery, Scullery Squint, Squinch, Sconce Stable Stability Stack of Chimneys Stadium Staff or Angle Bead Stafford Polio. Stage Stagi, Domenico Biog. Stained Glass, Window Stair Staircase Staith Stalactite Stalk Decor. Stalpert, Daniel Biog. Stall, Board Stamboul (Byzantium, Con- stantinopolis, or Lygos) Pol. Stamford Polio. Stamped, Leather, &c. Stanchel, Stanchion, or Pun- cheon Stand, Stander Standards Staudart Standelf or Stone Quarry Stanko, Johann Biog. Stanzione, Cav. Massimo Biog. Staple, Bar Star, Chamber, Ornament Starling, Sterling, or Stilts Stat-de-charge State Room Statics Station, Point Stationes of the Gymnasium Statuary, Column, Marble Statue Statumen Staves Stay, Bar Staykfald Hole Stazio, A. Biog. Steam, Heat, Seasoning Steatite Steel Stecne, Gilles Biog. , Pierre Amelie Biog. Stecning Steenwyk, Henry Biog. ■, Henry, Jun. Biog. Steeple Steevens, Richard Biog. Steiger, Franz Biog. Stela or Cippus Steliform Stem Stench Trap Stencilling Step Stephen Bio". Steppes Stereobata Stereographic Projection Stereography Stereometry Stereotomy or Perspective Sterling or Stilt Stern of a Ship Decor. Stettin Polio. Steuart, George Biog. Stevens, Edward Biog. Stevyns, Thomas Biog. Steward’s Room Steyer (Vetonianae) Polio. Stick, Sticking Stieglitz, C. L. Biog. Stiff Stile Still House, Room Stillatory Stillicidium Stilobate or Stylobate Stilt or Starling Stilted Arch Stinkstone Stirling (Alauna) Polio. Stoa Stock and Bit, Brick, Lock Stockholm Polio. Stole Stolk, David von Biog. Stone, Artificial, Bond, Coal Furnace, Cutting, Masonry, Ochre, Pillar, Seat, Work Stone, Nicholas Biog. Stonehenge Polio. Stootlnngs Stopcock Stopping and Picking out Tools Stops, Wood Store House, Room Storm Window Story, Post, Rod Stothard, Charles Alfred Biog. Stoup, Stoppe Stourbridge Fire Lumps Stove, Drying Stow, John Biog. Stowe, William Biog. Straight, Edge, Joint, Floor, Line, Plane Straaten, Jan van Biog. Stragona (Dresden) Polio. Strain and Stress Straining or Strutting Piece Strait Stralsund Polio. Strangers’ Hall Strap Strappa, Pietro Biog. Strasburg (Argcntoratum) Pol. Strata Stratonica Polio. Straw, Roof of Strawberry (Fragaria) Bot. Street Strength of Material Stretched out Stretcher Stretching Course Striae Striated Strike, Striking String, Cordon, Course, Board, Piece Striped Work, Striping Stripping Strix Stroking Struck Structure Strudem, Domenico , Paolo Strut or Brace Biog. Biog. Strut or Strutting Beam, Piece Strutt, Joseph Biog. Stuart, James Biog. Stub Nail Stucco Stuck Stud, Studwork Student Studio, Study Stuff Stuhlweissenburg Polio. Stukeley, R. W’m. Biog. Stump, Cross Stuttgard Polio. Sty Stylagalmatic Style of Architecture Stylobate or Pedestal [Biog. Suardi, Bartol. (Bramantino) Sub Arch Subbasis Subdivision, of a Building Subiaco (Sublaqueum) Polio. Subinfeudation Subiras, Francisco Biog. Subject Sublime, Sublimity Sublition Subnormal Subplinth Subprincipals Subsellum Subsidence Subsoil Substructure Subtangent Subtegulaneous Subtend Subterranean Style of Egypt Subtraction Success Sudatio, see Concamerata Sufllot, see Soufflot Suffulcrum Biog. Sugar, Dr. Hugh Biog. House Sugger, of S. Denis Suggestum Suit of Hangings Suitable Biog. Sulmona (Sulmo) Sulphur Polio. Sumach (Rhus) Summer, House, Tree Bot. Summering Summit Sumph Sun, Temples to the, Dial Sunium Sunk Shelf Polio. Super Altare Supercilium Superficial Superficies Superintendence Superstructure Superior Supervisor Supple Supply Support, Supporters Surat Surbase Surbasement Polio. Surcharge Surchi, Fran5ois Surface Surmounted Arch Biog. Surpass Surrender Survey, Surveying Surveyor, District, Land, , Mea- suring INDEX. 31 Susa (Segusium) Polio. (Hadrumetura) Polio. Suspender Suspension, Bridge, Rod Susfitius or Fussitius Biog. Sussex Marble Sustain Sutton, John Biog. Sutri (Sutrium) Polio. Svelte Swalve or Swallow, John Biog. Swan, A. and R. Biog. wart, Pietro de Biog. Swallow-tailed or Dove-tailed Swedish Timber Sweep Swelled Column, Frieze Swerin Polio. Swietenia Swimming Bath Sword Swing, Bridge, Door Sybil, Temple of the Sycamore (Acer) Bot. Syene (Assouan or Essouan) Syenite Marble [Polio. Symbol, Symbolical Column Symbolism Symmachus Biog. Symmetry Symondes, Symond Biog. Symons, R. see Simons Biog. Synagogue Synchronism Synetree, Syntre Svnnadicum Marble Synonyme Synthesis Synthrone Syphon, Bridge Syracuse Polio. Syria, Temple to System Systvle T Cramp, Nail, Square Ta, Taa or Tai Tabbi Taberna Tabernacle Work Table, Tablet, Corbel, of Glass, W ater Tablement Tabling Tablinum Tabulatum Tack Tackle Tadmor (Palmyra) Polio. Tae yuen foo Polio. Taenia or Tinaea [Polio. Tafa, Taeffa, or Teffa (Taphis) Taffa, Andrea Biog. Tagliapictra, Giacomo Biog. Tail, Bays, Trimmer Tailing Tailloir Talavera de la Reyna (jEbura or Libura) Polio. Talc Talent Tallara (Tanjore) Polio. Talliage Tally Talman, William Biog. Talmis (Kalabshe) Polio. arch. pub. soc. Talon Talus and Biog. Tambour Tamping Tan House Tanevot Biog. Tangent Tanjore (Tallara) Polio. Tank Tansia Taormina (Tauromenium) Pol. Tap Ball Taper, Shell Bit Tapering Tapestry Decor. Taphis (Tafa) Polio. Tappen, George Biog. Tapres Quarr’ Tar Taranto (Tarentum) Polio. Tarascon (Tarusconienses or Tarasco) Polio. Tarbes (Turba) Polio. Tarchesius Biog. Tarentum (Taranto) Polio. Targone, Pompeo Biog. Tarnow Polio. Tarpaulin Tarquinio da Viterbo Biog. Tarquinium (Tarchina or Cor- neto) Polio. Tarragona (Tarraco) Polio. Tarsus (Tersoos) Polio. Tarras, Terras or Trass Tarsia Tarvisium (Trevigi) Polio. Tas de Charge Task Tassel or Torsel Tassi, Giordano Biog. Taste Tatti, Antonio Biog. , Jacopo (Sansovino) Biog. Tauromenium (Taormina) Pol. Tavella Tavern Tavistock Slate Tawny Color Tax Taxaceae (Yew) Taxis Taylor, Sir Robert Tazza Teach, Teacher Teak (Tectoria) Teaze Tenon Technical Tectonick Tectoria (Teak) Tectorium Opus Tedesco Teen tsin foo Teeth or Dentils Tegea (Piali or Moklai) Polio. Tegula Teint, Tint Teios (Sigagik) Polio. Telamones Telbasta (Bubastis) Polio. Telmesus or Telmissus Polio. Telonnum (Toulon) Polio. Temanza, Tommaso Biog. Temeswar (Lizisis) Polio. Temones Temper of Iron, &c. Tempera Temperature Tempered, Tempering | Templa ; Templars, Tbe [ Template i Templen Mold Temple Templet Tenacity Tenaille, Tenaillon Tenant Tender or Estimate Tenement Tenia or Tamia Tennis Court Tenon, Saw Tensile Strength Tension, Bridge, Rod Tent Tenter Hook Tentyris (Denderah) Polio. Tenure Teocides Biog. Teocalli Teocopoli Biog. Teodoli, Marchese Girol. Biog. Teos (Budrun) Polio. Teotihuacan Polio. Teotocopuli or Theotocopuli, Domenico Biog. Tepidarium Tergeste (Trieste) Polio. Term, Terminus, Terme, Therme of Years Terminus of Railway Terni (Interamon) Polio. Terra, Cotta, di or Raw Sienna Terrace, Roof Terras or Tarras or Traas Terre Verte Terribilia, Francesco Biog. Tersoos (Tarsus) Polio. Terzi, Francois Biog. ] Teruel (Turbula) Folio. I Tesi, Mauro Antonio Biog. Tesifane, Gnosio Biog. Tesifone, see Ctesiphon Biog. Tessellated Pavement Tessera Tessin, Nicod. Valent. Biog. , Count Nicod. Biog. • , Count Ch. Gust. Biog. Tests Tester, Tcstoon Testocopoli Biog. Testudo Testuggine [Biog. Tetar van Elven, Mart. Gerard Tetradoron Tetragon Tetrahedron Tetrants Tetraspastos Tctrastodn Tetrastyche Tetrastylc Tew Tewel Tewkesbury Polio. Texier, Jean Biog. Thames Sand Thatch, Thack, Tile Theatre Thebes (No-Ammon, Carnac, and Hecatompvlos) Polio. , (Heptapylos) Polio. Theocides Biog. Theodolite Theodoric, Tomb of, and Biog. Theodoricus Biog. Theodorus of Lemnos Biog. the Phocean Biog. Theodosius Biog. Theorem Theory Theotheca, Monstrance or Re- monstrance Theotocopuli, Domenico Biog. Therico (Thoricos) Polio. Bot. Biog. Decor. Bot. Bot. Polio. Thermae Thermes or Term Thermolousia Thermometer Thermoscope Thermostat Thesaurus Theseium, or Temple of Theseus Thesilium Thesis Thessalonica (Salonica) Polio. Theuring, Nicolas Biog. Thicket Thickness Thimble Third Pointed Style Thistle (Carduus) Bot. Thokey or Tokey, John Biog. Tholobate Tholus Thomas de Canterbury Biog. Cormont Biog. , W. Biog. Thomond, Thomas Biog. Thoricos (Therico) Polio. Thornhill, Sir James Biog. Thornton, John Biog. Thorough, Carved W ork, Fram - ing. Light, Stone Thorpe, John Biog. Threshold of a Door Throat, Gorge, of Chimney Throating Throne Through orThorough Stone, &c. Thrust Thugga (Dukhah) Polio. Thunder Bolt, Rod Decor. Thurible Thurmer, Joseph Biog. Thvmele Thynne Biog. Thyroma Thyrcreum Thyrsus Decor. Tianges, Jean de Biog. Tibaldi, Domenico Biog. , Pellegrino Biog. Tiberiaco (Bagnacavallo) Pol. Tibur (Tivoli) Polio. Tiburtine, Stone, Tile Ticinum (Pavia) Polio. Ticozzi, Stefano Biog. Tie, Angle or Brace, Beam, Dragon Tieck, C. F. Biog. Tielemanvan dey Horst Biog. Tier Tierce Point Tiercerons Tietlandus Biog. Tifernum Tiberinum (Citta di Castello) Polio. Tige [Biog. Tikehull or Tykull, Nicolas de Tile, Creasing, Slope for, Pavi ng Tilers' Tools, Work [Bot. Tiliaceae (Lime and Linden) Tiling Tilting, Fillet Tirnante, Bernard Biog. Timber, Church, House Tin, Saw, White Timea, see Taenia Ting Tiodas Biog. Tiraunt Tirvns (Anapli) Polio. Titi, Santi di Tito Biog. Title Titus Biog. Tivoli (Tibur) Polio. Tiziani, Antonio Biog. 9 32 INDEX. Toad’s Back Rail, Stone Tobolsk Polio. Tofano, il Lombardino Biog. 'Jodi Polio. Toft Toils of a Hinge Toledo (Toletum) Polio. , Juan de Biog. , Juan Bautista Biog. Tolentino Polio. Tollus, Adrianus Biog. Tolosa (Toulouse) Polio. Tolosini, Gio. Batt. Biog. Tomasso di Pisa Biog. Tomb, Stone Tombellas 1 on Tondino or Torus Tone Tongue and Groove Tonnage Tontine Toofall Tool House Tools Toon Wood (Cedrelaceie) Bot. Tooth, Toothing, Molding Top Beam, Rail Topaz Topli Stone, Tuf, Tufa Topiarium Opus Topography Tor Torcello Polio. Torch Decor. Torchiator Tordesillas, Gaspar de Biog. Torelli, Giacomo Biog. Toreumata Decor. Toreumatographic Toreutic Tomography Toropez Polio. Torregiani, Alphonse Biog. , Pietro Biog. , Sebastian Biog. Torrona, Angelo Biog. Torrvsanz, Peter Biog. Torsel or Tassel Torsion Torso Decor. Tortoise Decor. Tortosa (Dcrtosa) Polio. Torus [Biog. Tosca, Dr. Thomas Vicente Toscanelli Biog. Tossis, Temple to Tote of a Plane Touch, Stone Toul (Tullum) Polio. Toulon (Telonnura) Polio. Toulouse (Tolosa) Polio. Toultecs, Architecture of the Tournay (Dornick or Doornik, Turnacum) Polio. Tourquai Polio. Tours (Csesarodumun) Polio. Tout-ensemble Tow- Tower, Light Town, Hall, House, Wall Townlev Marbles Trabeation Trabs Tracer Tracery Trachyte Tracing Paper 'Trade Tradition Trail, of Foliage Trajan, and Temples to Biog. Trajectus (Utrecht) Polio. Tram Way Trammel Trani (Turenum) Polio. Transaction Transeon Transept, Tow r er Transfer Transition Rock, Styles Transgression Translation Transom Transparency Transplant Transtra Transverse Section Transyte Trap, Door, Rock Trapani (Drepanum) Polio. Trapezium, Trapezoid Trass Trasura Travaison Travee Travel, Travelling Crane Traverse, Traversing Wood Travertino Marble Travice Trayler Tread of Steps Treasury Trebisond Polio. Treenails or Trennels Trefoil Decor. Treguier Polio. Trellice, Trellis or Treillis Trellasdome Tremeglione, Alexander Biog. Tremolite Trench Trencher Capital Trenels or Treenails Trent Polio. Tressel or Trussel [Polio. Treves (Augusta Treverorum) Trevigi, da Biog. , Girolamo Biog. (Tarvisium) Polio. Trezzo, Giacomo Biog. Ti’iachini, Bartol. Biog. Trial Triangle Triangular Compasses, Open- ing Trianon Tribunal, Tribune Trichet du Fresne, Raf. Biog. Trichinopoli Polio. Trichoron Triclinium Trident Decor. Trieste (Tcrgestc) Polio. • Triforium, Tablet Triglyph Trigon Trigonometry Trilateral i Trim, Tritneus, Trimmed, In, Out Trimmer, Trimming Joist, of Slate Trine Dimensions Tringle Trinity, Emblems, House, Da- tum Tripod Tripolitza (Tripolis) Triptic I Triquetrous i Trireme Trisection Triton Triumphal Arch, Column Trochilus Trochitics Trochlea Trochoidal Curve Troezene Trogli, Jules Troityk Trondheim Trophonius Trophy Trottoir Trough, Gutter Trowel, Trowelled Stucco Troy Polio. Troyes (Augustobona) Polio. Truck Trugg Trullization Trumpet Decor. Truncated, Pyramid Truncheon Truncus Trunk Truss, Beam, Partition , Roof, &c. Trussel or Tressel Trussed Beam or Girder Trussing, Bed, Piece Trust, Trustee Truth Try, Trying Plane, Up Trypho Biog. Tryrner or Trimmer Tse nan foo Polio. Tuam Polio. Tube Tuberturi Biog. Tubular Beam, Girder Tuck Pointing Tude (Tuy) Polio. Tudelilla Bio. 1276, the engineer Bocca N4gro commenced the construction of an aqueduct destined to carry soft water to Genoa. It was commenced in the valley of the Vento, but the works having been interrupted, it remained unfinished until 1636, when Giovanni Aicardi completed it. The water, from the sources of the torrent Bisogno, is at first led into a subter- ranean channel, but nearer the town in crossing the valleys it is supported by arcades. The syphon-bridge, which traverses AQUEDUCT. 13 the valley of Cavarola, is the most considerable of this work, although only 215 feet long ; but its highest arches give an elevation of 100 feet. (Plate in. Fig. 1, and Fig. 12.) The subterranean portion is made of cast iron syphons ; on arrival at the city, the water is conveyed by leaden pipes through the streets into the houses. The pipes are enveloped in hollowed mar- ble conduits. The length of the aqueduct is 5 miles. The Genoese have however wisely availed themselves of the progress of time, and have made such alterations as to render this aqueduct almost entirely modern. The celebrated syphon bridge called the Ponte dell’ Arcate, is a portion which crosses the valley of the torrent Geivato, and carries the channel from the hill of Molassina to that of Pino. The horizontal distance between the two ex- tremities of the syphon is about 2,193 feet 6 inches, and its lowest part is placed at a difference of level from the upper reservoirs of 164 feet ; the difference between the two reservoirs being 24 feet 0 inches. The diameter of the pipes is nearly 14£ inches, with a thickness of three quarters of an inch. The total length of this aqueduct is nearly fifteen miles from the source at Schiena d’Asina to the city, and its construction dates about the year 1782. The aqueduct is often the only testimony to the military occupation by the Romans of the territory on their frontiers : the traveller will find such ruins at Apulum (Weissenberg), and Dr us us is claimed as the builder of the conduit which once supplied Ulpia Trajana (Koloswar). Diocletian is named as the builder of the aqueduct from Salome to Spalatum, five miles in length, built of squared stone in regular courses, with a single range of arches. The finest remains in Germany of sub- jects of this class are at Treves, where the piers of an arcade are still standing, and are accompanied by portions of the chan- nel : and similar vestiges are to be found at Augusta Raura- corum (Basle Augst), and the Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). Commencing the list of ancient aqueducts in France, the most northerly will be found to be that of Metz, supposed to have been built by order of Drusus, in the reign of Tiberius. The principal source of this aqueduct was above Gorze, and thence the channel, following the hills in a serpentine line with great detours, passed not far from the village of Jouy aux Arches, six miles on the road from Nancy to Metz. Its total length from the mill of Gorze to its destination, although only about nine miles and a half in a straight line, was nearly fourteen miles, with a fall of nearly 73 feet, or about T( ^ This is not uniform, as the slope varies according to the cha- racter of the country. The portion in arcades which passed the Moselle near Jouy, in a single tier of 118 arches, each about 17 feet 10 inches span, on piers 14 feet deep by 4 feet 5 inches wide (Plate in, Fig. 7), must have been about 3583 feet long. As only seventeen arches remain on the side next Jouy, and five on the opposite bank of the Moselle, it is difficult to say what was the height of the arches above the river : the road passes under one about 60 feet high, built of stone-like bricks 3 and 4 inches high ; the imposts are of white marble. At both extremities of the bridge were reservoirs for delivery ; the receiving cistern is circular, probably because the aqueduct here makes a right angle. The remarkable features in these two reservoirs are the centre basins, intended, without doubt, to prevent the sediment therein from entering the aqueduct, and for this purpose a step, level with the bed of the channel, formed the basin twelve inches deep. The channel divides upon the bridge into two branches, for which, amongst several reasons assigned, the best appears to be the desire to check in some arch. pub. soc. 1 degree the velocity of the current, so as to allow the sediment to be more quickly deposited in the basins. In the neighbourhood of Lyons traces have been found of three Roman aqueducts (Delorme, liccherches sur les Aque- ducs de Lyons, 12mo, Lyons, 1760) ; the first, which was con- structed by the troops of Mark Antony, drew its water from the Mont d’Or, by means of two branches which embraced that group of hills ; but the water thus furnished not being suffi- cient, a second was built to take water from the Loire, near Feurs ; and the third, presently to be described, was made by Claudius, who was born at Lyons, to supply the highest portion of the hill on which the palace of the emperors was situated : all these aqueducts, built in the same age, are of simi- lar construction. Afterwards a fourth was made along the Rhone, whose water was taken near Montluel and Miribel ; this last seems to have been intended for the supply of the lower town, and it is doubtful if it were a Roman work. The aqueduct of Mont Pila (PI. hi. Figs. 6 & 9), commonly known as the aqueduct of Lyons, obtained its supply at the foot of Mont Pila and from several branches which meet it in its course : it is more than thirty-nine miles in length, on account of its circuit, the direct distance being only thirty ; and if to the larger amount be added the different feeders, the total will be about forty-five miles. The aqueduct is car- ried in the vallies by fourteen bridges, excepting in three cases by souterazici, one between S. Foy and the suburb called Fourvieres, where the valley is 1,700 feet wide ; another from S. Foy to Boan, or Baunan, where the dip is 3,458 feet wide and 325 feet deep ; and the third, from Chaponest to Soucieux, where the valley is 2,600 feet across by 217 feet deep ; five tiers of arches would hardly have sufficed to carry the canal or channel across it. In the course of this article the same mode will be mentioned, but only describing those aqueducts of more recent construction. The difference of level between the source and outlet of this aqueduct is 360 feet, which, for thirty- nine miles, gives a fall of 1 in 572, or about 1 foot 9 inches in 1000 feet. For the canals or channels of the aqueducts, either below ground or piercing the hills, the Romans (according to De- lorme’s inference drawn from this aqueduct), made a trench five feet wide by ten feet deep, following one uniform slope of 1 in 600, and in this trench they built the aqueduct, placing at the bottom a mass of masonry, one foot in thickness, on which were raised two walls, each eighteen inches thick, five feet high, and two feet apart, forming the channel, and surmounted by a semicircular vault one foot thick, ordinarily covered by two feet of earth ; the inside of the channel being coated with six inches of cement on the bottom and on the sides. The junction of the sides with the bottom was rounded in the angle. The walls were constructed with small stone rubble, from three to six inches thick, bedded in mortar in such a manner as to leave no space between the stones. The use of larger stone than six-inch rubble was avoided, because walls of small stones, well grouted, were found to form a mass more solid than one built with large blocks : bricks do not appear to have entered into these constructions. The Romans preferred coarse gravelly sand for this sort of masonry to fine sand, which is scarcely proper but for plastering ; and when obliged to use it, they took care to mix it with pulverised brick, as in the aqueduct of Nismes; the same course was adopted with the coarser sand, and lime from the best stone was frequently used. The cement employed for the plastering of aqueducts was composed of portions of brick, the size of peas, for the first coat, and much smaller for the last. In plastering the bottom the pieces of brick were as large as nuts and eggs ; the mix- ture was made with fresh lime, without any other ingredient. The walls of the channels out of the ground are from 22 to 24 inches thick ; the external faces are of reticulated masonry, each lozenge of which is 3^ inches square, without any courses E 14 AQUEDUCT. of bricks. The covering of the vault of the aqueduct in the open air was slightly rounded to let the rain-water run off, yet sufficiently flat to allow of walking upon it to the reservoirs and into the aqueduct, which were entered by iron trap-doors, two feet square, worked into their vaults. The subterranean por- tions had similar entrances upon square wells, raised two or three feet above the ground ; two such still remain between Mornant and S. Laurent d’Agny. To regulate the entrance of the water into the aqueduct, a flap [panne, floodgate), or paddle ( porte a coulisse, sluice-gate), was placed at each supply, to let no more enter than the quantity desired : this was about 22J inches. The aqueduct on the ground — here that of Mont Pila only is spoken of — was supported upon solid masonry, six feet in thick- ness, while the highest above ground did not exceed six or seven feet ; but when it was higher, arches were constructed, and piers for the arches, as the elevation increased. Upon this depended the width of the arcades, the size of the piers, and their height : for example, if the headway of the arch gave 18 feet, its diameter was 12 feet, the pier 12 feet by 6 on its face, and the foundation 3 or 4 feet deep, according to the nature of the ground, with three sets-off of six inches each. As the upper portion in which the canal or channel is placed is only six feet thick, a chamfered set-off of ten inches has been worked on each face, which reduces the pier and arch to the thickness required. All these portions of the aqueduct were of similar construction, in small rubble work, laid in courses, and bedded in mortar, and the external faces in reticulated masonry, which was bonded at every four feet in height by two courses of large bricks or tiles, twenty-two inches square and two inches thick. The small ashlering at the angles, which had not sufficient bond with the lozenge work, has contributed to the decay of the erection, as it has been seized for private buildings. Such piers could only be constructed by caissons four feet high, tightened by two rows of keys or bands, like moulds. The arches, semicircular, arc formed by voussoirs of ashlering, about three inches thick, with a row of large bricks as a hood, upon the key of which runs a double course of bricks throughout the length of the aqueduct, without forming any projection : on these bricks the drain of the channel is based. The masonry docs not appear to have been well executed, for there are many indications of repairs, and the piers of the bridge on the valley of Chaponcst, which were originally made with transverse dis- charging arches, needed to be filled in solidly before the bridge was finished. The Baunan souterazici only differs from that of Chaponcst, about to be described, in having reservoirs 19 feet (3 inches long by 6 feet (3 inches wide, with openings for twelve pipes, because it was laid in the deepest of the three valleys; the perpendicular height of the descending limb being 282 feet. The third souterazici was much less important, and docs not require special notice. The reservoir on the Soucieu hill was placed on strong piers, and was internally 14 feet long by 4 feet (3 inches wide, and 4 feet 9 inches high to the springing of the semicircular vault, with walls 2 feet 3 inches thick of rubble, faced with dressed and coursed stone, and two ranges of wrought iron ties to resist the pressure of the water. The vault is pierced in the middle by an opening, two feet square, which may be judged to be for a free supply of air (though Delorme supposes it was intended for an entrance), because had it been simply a door, it would have been closed with an iron gate, as in the length of the aqueduct. At nine inches above the bottom of the reservoir, its wall, next the valley, was pierced by nine oval openings, 12 inches high by 10 inches wide, and 7 inches apart : through these apertures the water left the delivery reser- voir by as many leaden pipes, 8f inches diameter and 1,V inches thick, which, descending into the valley, were laid at first upon ramping arches, and afterwards upon solid masonry, the fall being regulated to the top of the arcade, upon which they crossed the bottom of the valley. (Plate in. Fig. 6.) The pipes con- tinued of the same diameter for one-half the descent, or about 81 feet ; they then divided each into two smaller pipes of 6 inches diameter each, which completed the descending limb of the tube, continued over the bridge in the bottom of the valley, and then remounted to an equal height, where they again became nine pipes as before, and so connected the two reservoirs. The pipes in the level part were laid upon carefully constructed walls, with large stones at the elbows, and were covered with earth, well rammed down, to resist the cold, and in some degree the pressure ; they were also tied down to the sleeper walls. A set of vent pipes was brought from the lowest part of the descending tubes above the level of the upper reservoir to secure the discharge of air. The perpendicular height of the upper limb of the tube was 164 feet ; that of the lower limb was 142 feet 2 inches, and the whole width of the valley 2,600 feet. The reservoirs, which took the water from the pipes on the opposite side differed from those whence the water came, inasmuch as the openings to receive the pipes were piaffed about three feet above the drain, so that the reservoir, and consequently the aqueduct, could hold two feet in depth of water, while in the delivery reservoir it might be three or four feet deep, on account of the resistance of the air to its entry into the tubes, or rather on account of the pressure of the atmosphere in the receiving cistern. In the valley near Saintes (Mediolanum Santonum), exist some slight remains of an aqueduct ; and Caylus ( Recueil d'Anti- quites, etc., 4to., Paris, 1752-67) described other ruins near Luynes, in Touraine, about 900 feet long, in sixty-two arches then in tolerable preservation, each arch being 10 feet 5 inches span, on piers 4 feet wide at the ground, but 3 feet at the spring- ing, the tallest pier being about 28 feet high ; all the work was executed in small rubble, and the specus or forma no longer existed. There are also remains of an arcade over the valley of Gargallon, close to the road leading from Forum Julii (Frejus) to Antibes, which must have been of considerable length. The arches, which are entire, are about 56 feet high, and they are strutted, by means of buttresses, against the extremely violent gusts of wind, 'which occasionally sweep along the valley (Cresy). The aqueduct of Nismes is probably the most ancient of the remains of such erections executed by the Romans beyond the Campagna. The boldness of its erection, and the beauty of its proportions, combined with the picturesque nature of its position, render this one of the most impressive series of arcades, which will come wutliin the scope of this notice. The formation of the fabric may be attributed, according to the au- thorities who give the highest antiquity, to M. Yips. Agrippa. This aqueduct, whose development is about tw r enty-one miles from the gates of Nismes, forms, in its course of 135,305 feet, a horse-shoe shape ; for it obtained the water from the sources of the Eure and Aivan, situated to the eastward of, and below, the town of Uzes ; while the Pont du Gard is the middle, and the fountain at Nismes the termination of the aqueduct. The Pont du Gard, at that portion which covers the deep valley of the river Gardon or Gard, amongst the hills between Vers and S. Bonnet, is composed of three tiers of semicircular arcades, springing from imposts upon the piers (PI. II, Figs. 13, 17, 18). The lowest story has six arches ; the next range has eleven, and they are both of the same height of 66 feet, and the arches in both stories are 63 feet 10 inches span, except over the river, where they are 80 feet span, springing from a lower level than that of the imposts of the side arches. The length at the level of the first story is 561 feet 9 inches ; at that of the second, 882 feet 11-j inches, which last figures give very nearly the dimensions of the top of the aqueduct between the two extre- mities, which have been broken away or destroyed. The uppermost tier, 28 feet high, consists of thirty-five arches, each about 16 feet 9 inches span ; but no correspondence with the lower ranges is preserved. As the two hills forming the valley are not of equal elevation (that on the left bank being much lower than the level of the aqueduct, while the opposite AQUEDUCT. 15 one is much higher), the channel was sustained on one side by a long range of arches, similar to those of the higher story, and on the other it was, of course, engaged in the side of the hills ; the top of the conduit being about 157 feet 6 inches above low water in the river. The width of the piers in the first tier is 21 feet 6 inches; of the second, 15 feet; and of the third, 12 feet; this projection on each side, added to that of the cornice, forms foot paths 4 feet 3 inches wide, and two feet wide, by which the valley was crossed at either level. This Pont du Gard is entirely constructed of squared freestone, with its face coarsely pointed by the masons, from the foundati&ns up to the third course above the cymatium, which crowns the piers of the highest tier, no rubble work having been used in filling up the haunches and piers of the two lower ranges. The spandrel filling and the upper portion of the third story were the only parts of the masonry which were worked to a smooth face ; all the masonry was laid dry without any cement, and owes its sta- bility to the mass of each block and the precision of the beds and joints. The corbels, on which the scaffolding and centres were erected were never cut away ; this sensible precaution has been met with in several other ancient examples. The conduit, or rather channel, is the only part which was not in cut stone ; it is constructed in ordinary masonry on the two faces of the bridge and aqueduct, and in rough rubble for the interior ; this rubble-work, in which cement was not spared, formed a mass absolutely impermeable to infiltration. The inside face of the walls and the bottom, which was worked hollow to a segment of a circle for its transverse section. Fig. 13, were covered with a coat of cement, about 1| inches thick, made of lime, fine sand, and almost pulverized brick, and still pos- sessing a tenacity and consistency equal to the hardest stones ; no wearing away, no alteration, being as yet found in it. This first layer of cement was covered with another coat of very fine mortar, at most of an inch thick, and of a deep dark red colour, leaving a waterway 4 feet 2 inches wide. The courses are in general two feet in height : the key-stone of the large arch is 5 feet 3 inches, and that of the others 5 feet, deep : those of the arches of the upper story are 2 feet 7 inches in depth. The lower arches are formed of four sepa- rate rings, those of the range above of three, and those of the upper range, of single rings or courses of voussoirs. Each soffit exhibits three distinct arches not tied or bonded together. The aqueduct is constructed with the same care throughout its length, the only difference being, that in the exposed parts, it was finished with slabs of stone, 14 inches thick ; while in the subterranean portion it was covered by a semicircular vault, of rough rubble work, about 1 foot Ilf inches thick, which gave to this part an additional height of 2 feet 2 inches inside, because the vault always sprang from 5 feet 3 inches above the bed of the channel. A considerable petrifaction or concretion was found formed on the exposed side of the innermost antique coating of cement, and it had gained a thickness of more than lOf inches at the height of 3 feet 3£ inches from the bottom ; from its immediate diminution, it results that the height of the water was regulated by the abundance in its feeders, and that its most usual height in the canal was 3 feet 3g inches ; it rarely rose to 4 feet 7 inches, because here very slight traces of sedi- ment are found. The fall of the channel was about 1 in 2,500. It is supposed that the aqueduct was broken up by the bar- barians about a.d. 406 ; and upon this conjecture the water would have been running for about four centuries. At the commencement of the eighteenth century, according to Roxdelet and others, but in reality of the seventeenth, the Duke de Rohan, to facilitate the passage of his artillery, caused all the piers of the arches in the middle row, on the upper side, to be cut away for one third of their thickness, about 10 feet high ; setting arch. pub. soc. aside the barbarism of the deed, it must be confessed that it was done with some conscience, because the equilibrium and con- struction of the masonry were preserved ; as it was considered that this mutilation was ruinous to the bridge, repairs were made in 1(00, under the architect Daviler. In 1745 a carriage way was built against the Roman work, at the level of the floor of the middle story, and other repairs of the structure were exe- cuted to ensure its stability under Pitot (FI. 2, Fig. 18). In considering Paris and its environs or rather dependencies, it appears that the first existing modern French aqueduct was executed under Philip Augustus, between 1180 and 1223, to convey a supply of water from S. Gervais and Belleville. Henry IV, besides adding watermills to the Seine, in 1606 proposed bringing water by an aqueduct from Arcucil, which owes its origin to the Emperor Julian, who, after building a palace on the ground afterwards occupied by the Sorbonne and the Hotel de Cluny, about the year 360, constructed an aqueduct, which was more than 48,000 feet long, to supply this palace, and the thermae appended to it, with water from the villages of Louans, Montjean, Chilli, Vuissous, and other places in their vicinity. This aqueduct was destroyed by the Normans, and it had so remained for more than eight centuries. After the death of Henry IV, the new aqueduct was steadily continued and the water from Arcueil is said to have reached Paris in 1634, under the direction of the architect Jacques de Brosse, and from that time till the year 1780, numberless plans were submitted and put into execution by Louis XIII and XIV to increase the supply. Although the aqueduct has been partly reconstructed, yet improvements remain to be made, especially at the sources. Fragments of the ancient construction still exist, contiguous to the modern work, which is about 45,937 feet 6 inches long. At present the water called d’ Arcueil (because it is brought by an aqueduct constructed at the ex- tremity of the village of that name), comes from a place called the Grand Carre of Rungis. This great reservoir, receives all the springs which are brought thither by the different water- courses. It is a square plot of ground about seven and a-half acres in extent, encompassed by a vaulted gallery. In this gallery is a channel, which receives all the water, and conducts it into a reservoir, situated at one of the angles of the before- mentioned site, and then into a vaulted subterranean channel. Many loopholes ( barbacanes ) have been worked in the walls of this channel at intervals between the first reservoir (that of Rungis) and the aqueduct-bridge of Arcueil. These openings receive the land water, and also the contents of many water- courses, which have been made since the construction of the aqueduct; the part of it from Rungis to the bridge is 22,020 feet long, with a fall of 42 feet £ inch. The bridge is 1,250 feet long and 1 1 feet 9 inches broad, strengthened at every 40 feet by buttresses, between which are nine arches, each 25 feet 7 inches span ; the greatest height is 72 feet, of admirable con- struction in squared stone. At the head of the aqueduct-bridge is a reservoir in which is a carre, receiving all the water ; it is here guaged, thus giving a means of knowing the increase or loss which may have occurred between Rungis and Arcueil. The water, leaving this carri, crosses the valley of Arcueil on the aqueduct-bridge, and afterwards runs below ground to a waterhouse near the Observatory. This part of the aqueduct (Plate II, Fig. 20) is 25,980 feet long, with a fall of 11 feet 6± inches. In the length last mentioned there are twenty-seven reservoirs, having staircases to allow of workmen descending. On arriving at the observatory the water is divided, one part going to the Luxembourg, Rue d’Enfer, the other portion to the half-moon of the Chartreux. At these places it is subdivided to the public fountains and to private concessions. Two sections are given (Plate ii). Fig. 19 shews the old con- struction, with the channel and a banquette or raised way on each side of it, on which to step along ; but as these were found to be very inconvenient, a banquette , on one side only and much larger, was formed in the new construction as shown in Fig. 21. 16 AQUEDUCT. At Maintenon, the valley of the river Eure is crossed by the imposing ruins of the aqueduct commenced in 1680 by Vauban and Lahire at the mandate of Louis XIV, to convey water from the Eure at Font Gouin to Versailles. The war of 1688 inter- rupted the labour, and it was never resumed. The source was seventy-one miles from the Cour de Marbre at the Palace, with a fall of 1 in 2,933. It was intended that the Maintenon aque- duct-bridge should be nearly three miles and a quarter long, in three tiers of arcades (PI. ill, Fig. 12, and PI. li, Fig. 9), 234 feet high ; altogether containing 685 arches ; but it was partly pulled down to build the villa of Crecy for Mdme. de Pompadour, and the present remains consist of forty-seven arches, each 83 feet high and 42 feet in span. This project, far from ever being revived, has been altogether cast into obli- vion, and, though unfinished, cost no less than £880,000. The minutest details are given with drawings by Rondelet. Another system for the supply of Versailles and its waterworks was subsequently adopted ; which consisted in using about 70 miles of catch-water drains over 37,500 acres, running into 25 reservoirs ; a conduit 21 miles long, partly subterranean ; and an arcaded bridge at Rue (PI. n, Fig. 22), about 1,965 feet Ion" and 133 feet high, where it crosses the Bievre. It consists of two rows of arches : the upper are nineteen in number ; the lower range carries a bridge 13 feet 2 inches wide, over which the road crosses the valley, and is continued on a terrace of earth, so that the lower arches are completely buried. The length is 1,345 feet, and the height 42 feet 8 inches. The thickness of the piers is 13 feet 10 inches. There are no buttresses, but their place is supplied by giving considerable slope to the sides. The masonry of the piers is in a kind of mill-stone, strengthened by quoins of squared stone. This, and the operations for the same purpose at Rannequin, which necessitated the erection in 1682 of the aqueduct of Marly, are presumed to be still used. This last aqueduct is 2,113 feet long ; consisting of a row of arches 25 feet 6 inches span, with piers of the same width, but 19 feet 2 inches thick below, and 6 feet 6 inches above. The greatest height is 82 feet. Under the Roman dominion, Arles was plentifully supplied with spring water conveyed to it from the Alpine chain, in aqueducts of masonry many miles long (PI. n. Fig. 4) ; the modern town is now destitute of this important commodity. The aqueduct of Carpentras is 2,560 feet long, and is com- posed of thirty -three semi-circular arches, 38 feet 4 inches span, and 12 lesser arches of 25 feet 7 inches span, all in one range ; below the level of which is the segmental arch, 76 feet 9 inches span, on which it crosses the Auzon. The width below is 17 feet, and 7 feet 3 inches above: the greatest height is 82 feet (PI. in, Fig. 5). One of the most magnificent aqueducts existing in France is that of Montpellier, begun in 1742 and completed by the archi- tect Pitot in 1752. The source is at the spring of S. Clement; the channel runs about 42,000 feet to the Place de l’cyrou, where it terminates in a very handsome castcllum; this forms the termination of a construction 3,215 feet long, of which about 2,300 feet is in an ar- cade 92 feet high, of two tiers, the bottom being in 70 arches, each arch 27 feet 8 inches span, with piers 12 feet 3 inches wide (Plate hi, Fig. 11). The arcade of the upper tier is so arranged as to show three arches between the centres of the lower piers, each arch being 9 feet in span, with piers 4 feet wide. The aqueduct is con- structed entirely of squared stone, and the cas- tellum, in the form of a circular temple, over the distributing reservoir, is highly praised. The conduit is about 12} feet wide and 10} deep internally (lig. 14), the fall being uniformly isSo nearly 1 in 35. 1 lie town of Marseilles has however carried into execution, under M. de Montricher, a still more wonderful work, one not Fig. 14. exceeded in importance by any such undertaking of modern times. The source of supply is from the Durance, near Pcrtuis, a distance of nearly ninety-eight miles, of which about twelve miles and three-quarters are tunnelled ; and the remainder of the distance required 237 aqueducts, and 537 culverts. The great work, however, is the arcade in three tiers, executed in 1846, of squared stone, with a rusticated or rough scabblcd face, over the valley of Roquefaveur, where the width is at least 1312 feet; the greatest height of the arches is 282 feet; the mean height 272 feet, without reckoning the foundations, which reached an additional average depth of 31 feet 6 inches (PI. hi. Fig. 2). The lower tier is about 111 feet 10 inches high, taking an average to the top of the string-course, and the middle range is 124 feet 8 inches. The piers of those two lower ranges are 69 feet 9 inches apart from centre to centre, and the span of the arches is about 50 feet. The illustration will show that there is a difference in these openings, the lower piers being wider than the upper ones. There is about 8 feet 3 inches between the bottom of the keystones and the floor of the tier above, of which 4 feet 3 inches may be given to the string- course. The haunches of the arches are eased by means of a semicircular arch, upon the top of which a passage is con- structed through the piers by means of arched openings, each 3 feet 4 inches wide by 6 feet 7 } inches high at the different stages. The third story is 35 feet 6 inches high to the top of the aque- duct, and is so divided as to show three arches between the centres of the lower piers. About three miles on the road from Tarragona to Lerida, there exists on the right hand a Roman aqueduct, in which a range of two arcades rises to a height of 96 feet (PI. ii. Fig. 11). There are eleven arches in the lower story, 20 feet span, on piers 11 feet 8 inches wide by 12 feet deep; and twenty-seven arches in the upper range, 21 feet span, on piers 10 feet 8 inches wide by 9 feet deep, forming a bridge 700 feet long : it is remarkable for the slope given to the upper piers. The water runs, partly underground, nearly twenty miles from the Pont d’Armentara ; and the aqueduct is called le mil-agros , a general name for such wonderful structures, the puente de Ferreras, and by the vulgar del Diablo. It was ruined by the Moors, and so remained upwards of a thousand years, until re- paired by the Archbishop Joaquin de Santiyan de Valdivielso, who died in 1783, leaving funds to complete the work, which was done by Senor Al manac. It was again destroyed by Marshal Suchet, who broke it down near the Olivo ; but these injuries have likewise been repaired, and it still supplies the town. As the steep banked rivers below Segovia are difficult of access, and their water not very wholesome, the pure stream of the Rio Frio was brought by the Romans, on an aqueduct attributed to Trajan, from the Sierra Fonfria, commencing about nine miles from the city, near a house on the road to S. Ilde- fonso. Beginning thus, near S. Gabriel, it runs 216 feet to the first angle, then 462 feet to the second at la Concepcion, then 925 feet to the third at S. Francisco, and then 937 feet to the city wall. Passing along one side of the Plaza del Azoquejo, and as far as the small square opposite the church of S. Sebas- tian, the water is thence distributed by subterranean channels to the houses. The aqueduct-bridge, consisting of 109 arches, was respected by the Goths, but broken down in 1071 by the Moors of Toledo, who sacked Segovia and destroyed thirty-five arches. It remained in ruins until August 26, 1483, when Isabella II employed a monk of the Parral convent, named Juan Fscovedo, to restore it, who had the good taste to imitate the model before him. The new work is intermixed with the old, and occurs chiefly near the angle of la Concepcion and S. I rancisco. 1 lie total length is about 2,530 feet, the greatest height of the bridge is 104 feet, and when necessary two ranges of arcades were employed ; the arches in the upper range were 1 1 feet 8 inches span, on piers 4 feet 6 inches wide by 6 feet deep: the arches in the lower range were 13 feet 8 inches span, on piers 1 1 feet 6 inches deep. The illustration (Plate I, Fig. AQUEDUCT. 17 13 ) obligingly furnished by Mr. Waring, will give some idea of the magnificence of this aqueduct, which is of squared stone laid without cement, and altogether fifteen miles in length ; still supplying water, at the height of the city itself. Toledo, built on a lofty rock, was badly supplied with water; whereupon the Romans spanned the defile with a gigantic via- duct and aqueduct, which ran from the Puerto dc Ycvcncs about twenty-one miles. Its greatest height is 102 feet, at Los Siete Cantos, and the lower arches are 1 1 feet 8 inches span, the upper arches being 15 feet 8 inches span ; it is built of granite, laid without cement or mortar ; and, like other similar Roman works, unites simplicity, proportion, solidity, and utility, in one general effect of grandeur. The great aqueduct of Merida, however, is considered to be one of the grandest remains of classic antiquity. Ten arches are nearly perfect, and thirty-seven piers remain in place. Some of these piers are 90 feet high, and arched in three tiers (PI. in. Fig. 8), with a level platform running between each, and made of granite worked en lossage, and of brick, which is principally used for the stringcourses. This was only one of the many Roman aqueducts which poured rivers into Merida ; another, crossing the Madrid road, although it has only three arches left standing, puts to shame a modern attempt at an aqueduct built by the Maestro Esquivel, under Philip II ; which conveys water from El Borbollon, a spring which rises about six miles from Merida, near the village Truxillanos. The aqueduct of Evora, forty miles long, is a Roman work of grey limestone, and of brick ; there is a peculiarity about this work deserving particular attention, viz., that the arches are divided into bays, with stouter piers forming but- tresses in both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the bridge ; this consists of twenty-five arches, each 13 feet 6 inches span, on piers 4 feet 6 inches wide by 9 feet thick, of which it has been noticed that the width was one-third of the span, and the united length of the four sides of the pier was equal to twice the span. The arches were 50 feet high under the key- stone. The castellum, which contained the distributing reser- voir, was a beautiful circular edifice 12 feet 6 inches in diameter outside the Avails, and around it Avcre eight Ionic three-quarter columns Avith their entablature, supporting a second story, Avith flat pilasters, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, all executed in brickAVork covered Avith cement. The spaces be- tween the columns on the loAver floor were decorated Avith semicircular niches, having striated heads ; and the spaces betAveen the pilasters in the upper floor Avere left open for ven- tilation. This is still nearly perfect, as is the rest of the aque- duct, Avhich continues to supply the modern town. At Italica (Sevilla Vedr a), — the birth-place of Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius, — traces exist of the reservoir of the aqueduct constructed by Hadrian ; the other Avorks arc not noAV visible. The Canos dc Carmona are Roman arches repaired by the Moors, forming part of the Avell supplied conduit, which even runs at present, although unknown to the majority of the inha- bitants of SeA’ille. Between Liria and Chclva, or Chclvcs, may be seen an aqueduct built about the year 1 500 ; and some remains of a Moorish aqueduct exist at Chestalgar, near Chclves, Avhose Rambla dc los Arcos takes its name from a fine Roman aque- duct partly in ruins (PI. n, Fig. 8). These successors to the dominion of Spain also executed the small aqueducts at Cas- tellon de la Roma, and under the Rambla dc la Viuda, near Grenada: both these were chiefly undertaken for the purpose of irrigation. The extreme height of the latter is about 70 feet, on arches about 8 feet 9 inches span. The Moors perhaps introduced the system of souterazici into Spain ; at least that at Castellon dc la Plana, which passes under the Rambla de la Viuda, is attributed to them : a similar work is in use at Puerto Real, near Cadiz, constructed in 1776 ; and there is another modern one at Talavera la Reyna, besides one Avhich supplies the fountain called La Carolina, at Madrid. ARCH. l’UB. SOC. The fountains at Panipeluna are avcII supplied from a noble aqueduct, which Avas built in a style of Roman solidity, by \ entura Rodriguez, about 1783, the Avatcr being brought from the hills of Subiga, nine miles distant ; one portion, 2,300 feet in length, contains ninety-seven arches of 35 feet span, and G5 feet high. The aqueduct Avhich leads the springs from the neighbour- hood of Bellas, a distance of twelve miles, to Lisbon, traverses a valley of extraordinary depth, by means of a bridge 2,600 feet long; the centre arch is 229 feet high to the under-side of the key-stone, and 98 feet 4 inches span ; the shape of the arch being that of an ellipsis divided, and standing on its minor axis (PI. in. Fig. 3). There are altogether thirty-two arches, on piers 23 feet by 16 feet 6 inches. The Avatcr floAvs through a channel about 8 feet Avide, divided by an upright wall ; and on each side are parapets and footAvays for the purposes of ex- amination and repairs. This is often cited as a work of the Romans ; but in fact it Avas erected by Manocl da Moya, em- ployed by John V, Avho commenced it in the year 1713, and finished it in 1732. The material is a kind of white marble. AMERICA. The former inhabitants of Peru, Chili, and other parts of South America, as avcII as the ancient Mexicans, constructed many and extensive Avorks (conduits) for the supply of their toAvns and cities Avith Avater, and also for the encouragement of agriculture. The channels Avcre oltcn of great magnitude ; for besides many mentioned as being fifty miles in length, Vira- cocha, the seventh Inca of Peru, is stated to have made one tAvclve feet in depth, and three hundred and sixty miles long, through the proA'ince of Rucana ; and another, somcAvhat simi- lar, traverses the Avhole division of Cuntisuya, in a course of four hundred and fifty miles. No arches are mentioned in these constructions, for the line Avas made through the hills ; the channel being made of hcAvn stone cemented together, and earth rammed doAvn over it so tightly as to prevent any escape through accidental holes. Many of these works consisted of tAvo conduits, — the larger Avas for general use, the smaller to supply the inhabitants and fields Avhile the other Avas being cleansed. Such Avcre those of Churubusco, still to be seen, according to Humboldt, and of Chapoltepec. It is knoAvn that the latter, which carried tAvo or three toavs of pipes made of trees holloAved, was built by Montezuma. Iztaclapa, Zacatecas, and Palcnque, had their aqueducts ; and the ruins of Tezcuco still shoAV the remains of a fine one, in a sufficient state of pre- servation for general use. — Towers, Illustrations of the Croton Aqueduct, 4to., Ncav York, 1843. The engineers of the United States consider that the Croton aqueduct (formed in order to supply the city of XeAv York), is one of the greatest and most important Avorks in the world, on account of the boldness of the plan, as avcII as for the admirable manner of its execution. It undoubtedly deserves very high commendation, and is the only great aqueduct in North America ; the cities of the United States being chiefly supplied through iron mains. This aqueduct Avas designed by Major Douglass, under Avhose direction the preparations for its execution Averc made ; but in consequence of some dissensions the completion of the AA'ork Avas intrusted to Mr. John B. Jervis, previously engaged in the execution of State canals ; his principal assis- tant AA'as Mr. Horatio Allen. The water of the Croton river Avas raised forty feet, by the construction of a dam Avhich caused the stream to form a lake of 400 acres ; this is the collecting reservoir of the aqueduct. At first it Avas proposed to use an open trapezium-shaped canal, but as the Avatcr might become impregnated in its course, and a considerable quantity be lost by sinking and evaporation, as avcII as be exposed to the wading of cattle, to bathing, and to being filled up Avith earth and snow Avashed in, and might freeze out in AAuntcr, it therefore became necessary to cover it. As a Avoodcn roof to the canal did not appear impenetrable to frost F 18 AQUEDUCT. and heat, it was at last resolved to arch the whole, notwith- standing the great expense. The channel, when in cuttings 01 in embankments, was built of granite or of gneiss masonij. The following is a general description of its form ; the side walls, of brick, are sloping, and 4 feet in height j it is i feet 5 inches wide at top, and 0 feet 9 inches wide at the bottom, wheie it joins a brick segmental invert, having a versed sine of 9 inches. The arch is semicircular, either of brick or stone, as considered necessary. hen tunnelled in the rock, the sloping sides and invert were retained, whilst the top was formed by the solid rock ; and when tunnelling in the earth was required, the side walls were made segmental, instead of sloping, to resist the lateral pressure. The total length of the aqueduct from its head to the dis- tribution of the water is about forty-five miles, nearly twenty- eight miles of which have a regular fall of l*10b8 feet per mile, i. e., nearly The varieties of fall to suit particular circumstances arc given by Schramke ( Description of the New York Aqueduct, 8vo, New 5 ork, 184(5, p. 26), and 1 owers (above mentioned), whose works may be consulted for all the detail of execution. Ventilators as lumina were erected at dis- tances of every third mile, while two others, as putci, were placed between each pair of shafts. Twenty-two are made of white marble, the rest, eleven in number, arc of gneiss. At suitable points, waste weirs arc put, to draw out the Avatcr when required, these are seven in the whole line, and they serve likewise for ventilation. The receiving reservoir contains 150,000,000 gallons; it is divided into two portions, for the purpose of inspection and repairs. To cross the [Manhattan valley, an aqueduct bridge, 105 feet high, and 4,180 feet long, would have been required ; this would have preserved 3 feet of head pressure for the conduit water, but at an expense of (1,200,000 dollars) £240,000, while the passage by four pipes of 36 inches each, was calculated to cost one-fifth of that amount ; it was therefore adopted. For the same reason it seemed desirable to carry the conduit water over the Hacrlem river in a souterazici with iron pipes, but it was proposed to let them pass in the centre over an arch 120 feet wide and 60 feet high. This was an object of popular disgust, and being compelled by the legislature cither to carry it below the bottom of the river, or on a bridge (PI. in. Fig. 4), the latter course was adopted, although exceeding the tube system by, in cost (200,000 dollars) £40,000. With this arrangement the water crosses the bridge in pipes, with a depression of 12 feet. The bridge is about thirty-three miles from the Croton dam, and crosses a stream whose tidewater occupies a width of 620 feet. There arc fifteen arches, eight of which are 80 feet wide each, and 100 feet above flood tide, with piers 14 feet wide, placed in the water way; and upon the shores arc seven arches of 50 feet span each, the piers being T feet wide ; three of the large piers arc thickened to 20 feet, to resist thrust, if any arch should fail. A thirty-six inch pipe being put down temporarily, the aqueduct was opened on 4th July 1842. I he actual cost amounted to £1,715,000, including the purchase of land required, extinction of water rights and some unfinished works, being within 5 per cent, of the estimate made by the engineer Mr. Jervis; to this is added £360,000, being the cost for the distributing pipes. The money being borrowed, the total expense will be £2,500,000. It only remains to add, that notice has not been taken of a few unimportant aqueducts, such as those of Tusculum and \ olei (Cues'*) in Italy ; Luyncs, \ ienne, Coutanccs, and Neris, in 1* ranee, etc. ; because it seemed unnecessary on the present occasion to do more than place before the reader a general notion of each great work, in connexion with the history of the system. It has frequently been mentioned as matter of surprise, that some of the aqueducts above described should in modern times have been built in preference to the now ordinary method of the pipe system. On consideration of the merits of the ancient plan, it will be found that although nearly two thousand years have elapsed, some of the erections have incessantly fulfilled their purpose ; and if one estimate were made of the cost of construction and repair, in stone or brick, after the Roman manner, and another upon any system of tubes capable of deli- vering the same quantity of water, their liability to obstruction, to bursting, and to loosen at the joints, their wear and tear, including loss by age and by decomposition, with the generally necessary expense of steam power, the balance would be found infinitely in favour of the method described in the preceding pages, without taking into consideration, that good water loses its quality in metal tubes, while even inferior water is improved while running in a brick or stone channel ; besides the above, there are all the inconveniences produced by inequality of pressure in the pipe system, the deleterious effects of the metals employed, and the necessity of taking up whole lengths of mains laid under the solid pavement of our streets, which are rendered impassable during the works ; such an inconve- nience the Romans wisely avoided, and continued to prefer the system of raised aqueducts even to that of pipes in vaults (patented by John Williams, Historical Account of Subicays in the British Metropolis , 8vo., Lond., 1828). The only chance of accident would be the leakage produced by the settlement of a divison of the arcade, and this would instantaneously dis- cover itself. In Central America the conduits were provided double, as was the case at Metz ; and the Roman legislation decided that the aqueduct should be unincumbered for fifteen feet on each side in the country, and for five feet in towns. [Mr. Burnell has already made the following just observa- tions, that — “ As for the comparison of works of art, the moderns do but make a small figure, when we take into account the great superiority of their means of mechanical execution. With the exception of the Marseilles and Caserta aqueducts, of late no constructions of this kind can be said to rival the works of the Romans in all the magnificence of their details. Even at the present day, the student who would wish to examine the problems connected with the conducting of large streams, could not find better examples or better subjects for examination than the Roman aqueducts. For we may safely assert, that if we examine such works merely from an artistical point of view, we arc immeasurably beneath our predecessors in the taste with which we have designed them. Considering them as objects of scientific investigation, we are far from having derived any important benefit from the advancement of the physico-mathc- matical sciences which has taken place since the revival of learning.” Translated, with additions, by J . W. Papworth, from the MS. of Seryaas de Jong, (. Amsterdam , 1852.) The following works may be further consulted : — Andr£ossi, Constantinople, etc., Paris, 1828 ; The Architect Journal, for 1850 ; Berbiiugger, Alg&rie Historique, etc., fol., Paris, 1843 (which contains illustrations of several aqueducts); Bur- gess, Topography, etc., of Rome, 8vo., Lond., 1831 ; Canina, Architectura Ant. Rotnana, Rome, 1834 ; Cassio, Corse dell ’ Acquc, 4to., Rome, 1756 ; Fabretti, De Aquis, etc. Veteris llomce, 4to., Roma, 1680 ; Frontinus, De Aquceductibus Urbis Romcc Comment arias, by Ronpelet, Paris, 1820; Genieys, Essen sur les Moycns de Conduire, etc., les Eaux, 4to., Paris, 1829 ; Guys, Voyage Litteraire de la Grece, 8vo., Paris, 1776 ; Murray’s Handbooks for Spain, Raly, etc.; Pococke, A Description of the East, fol., London, 1743-5; Poleni, De Aquceductibus, etc. (Frontinus), 4to., Patav., 1722; Wiebeking, Theor. pract. buerg. Baukunde, 4to., Munich, 1821-7 ; Wie- beking, Analyse Descriptive, Munich, 1838. Yol.1V l’ T 2 AHCHITCCTUHAL PLl 3 l: cati C l N SOCIETY f -CL I LL A M U S Fm '.1. ANTIOCH ANTIOCH I LLA M US < I LLA M US ANTIOCH <9 If. y T I LE N E CON STANTI NOPLE 3r»5-- 10 ASPENOUS < ^'ASPliit // CAIRO 13 BISCARI ITT. SECOV1 A ; C Aulci. Iili aj-. p "iatod hj Hullmandpi S: "Walton Audi 9’.^ !8i » VOL. IV P T 2 ARCHITECTURAL PUBL/CAT/ON SOC/E TY. «r» TARRAGONA £/u?mvcd' ty WajrirytDru&Ci ? Z7. .jt7undJ3Auyus&I&5Z. VOL IV. P T 2. ARCH/TECTURAL PC/BL/CAT/O/V SOC/ETY 4 CROTON 10 . CARTHACE 11 MONTPELLIER Jinyraveds iy Warrviyton/ &. C7Z7. Stra/uJ ’./■ .:uyust . . . VOL. 2. pm ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY +0 hth/>qraptud by HcssTVRyfiSoe Aval 50 I860 Ternu/uUwn. a / the Church ct the madonna della g ua RD t a BOLOGNA hebwxrds lAnrorv. Jun r \1 1 B A Enlrtui.ee ca/Ced PORTA D / SARA OOZZA BOLOGNA. Hi I gps*: ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY Vol i Pi \ Ftg.J vt NAPLES c A* ->'• - • S fi'nmnsro NAPLES ■4 RCP/TC CT UR 4 1 PUBL/C4T/ON SOC/CTY 96 HALT S T HAD E A’/y ,3 SPKDAI.E GK SliltALK - NAPLES & T. Robiuson M uc N Hanhart Imp’ F C Auld.lith. BATHS AND WASHHOUSES Baths (Ancient). In the early stages of civilization there is no doubt that the only form of bathing used was the simple plunge into a river, or clear pool. In severe weather this would be too cold for the sick and infirm ; and as society ad- vanced in the arts of life, the improvements in constructing pottery or metal vessels no doubt suggested to these persons the use of warm water ; and as luxury generally increases as the means of indulgence are discovered, it is probable the healthy in cold weather also availed themselves of the invention. As early as Homer’s days, it is evident, from the speech of Alcinous to Ulysses ( Odyssey viii, 249) the warm baths, Xoejpa -re Oepfia, were considered effeminate, and as late as those of Aristo- phanes, in the memorable contest between “ Reason” and “ Quibble” ( as the &iKaio : but as the play is lost there is no context to guide one in so short a passage. BaXaveiov, “ derived,” says the Etymologicon Magnum ( sub voce ) “ as impetov, from Impos, seems to have been the name of the bath-room rather than of the bath itself, (see Equites, 1055, cited further on) and is stated on the authority of Suidas {sub voce) to be derived from pdXavo?, an acorn, because the baths were heated by burning the cups, etc., of the acorns, the fruit itself being eaten in those days as food. Others have derived it partly from a passage in S. Augustine ( Confes - sions, cap. 12) from jitiXXeu’, “quia pcllat anxietatem animi this seems a far-fetched reason, and as Philander (see his notes to the folio Elzevir Vitruvius, p. 95) says “ cui senten- tia refragatur orthographia.” Be its derivation what it may, it is no doubt the etymology of the Roman terms “ Balineum,” “ Balineai,” contracted to “ Balinum,” “ Balnea;.” The other Roman word “ Thermae” is derived from the Greek adjective for “ warm” (sc.) baths, as a glance will show, has already been mentioned. Aocrpdv, and Xovrpov, are of course directly derived from Xoew, the Homeric form of Xovw, to wash. Some critics have consi- dered XovTpov to signify a warm bath, and the AadpivOo s to sig- nify a cold bath, but Vitruvius (lib. v. cap. ii.) says distinctly “frigida lavatio quam Graeci ‘ Xov-rpdv ’ vocitant,” and that which much strengthens his testimony, Homer {Iliad, xviii, 489) speaks of “ Xoerpwv Quecn'Dio.” The 'HfyfcXcfa Xovrpd were warm baths. There is a tradition that they were natural warm baths shown to Hercules by Pallas (see the Scholiast on the before- cited passage of the Nubes, 1033.) rithXos, this Hen. Stephens derives from ttvois or irvpoi'!, a vessel made for the fire. The Scholiast, on Aristophanes Equites 1055, says vveXovi rds epfidaeis, the same word which Athcnaeus considered equivalent to the aadpivOos of Homer. The Scholiast goes on to describe it as “ a hollow vessel, vveXos ftp bpv/pa, where people are washed,” and Julius Pollux (vii. 1(50-109) seems to consider it the same. This author also speaks of the last sort of bath, mpla, as de- scribed by Herodotus, and irvpidpara as described by Philistus. Of the latter author there are no remains : the former describes the Trvpla thus {Melpomene 74). He states the Scythians set up three sticks and cover them with cloth like a tent ; they place a quantity of red-hot stones under this covering, and taking some handfuls of the seeds of a species of hemp, they creep in under the covering, and throw the seeds on the red-hot stones, so that a smoke arises thence such as no Greek imply, vapour-bath, could exceed ; that they rejoice so in this vapour they shout 2 BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. aloud ; that this is their bath, Xovrpw, and that they never bathe their bodies in water. There are thus three sorts of baths described — cold, hot, and vapour. The Lacedaemonians seem to have bathed daily in the Eurotas, however cold the weather might be, and the versatile Alcibiades ( Plut . hi vita) seems to have excited their admira- tion by falling in with this custom. They seem also to have used a dry sweating-bath to a great extent, called from thence “ laconicum,” and which will be hereafter described. The other species of bathing seems to have been like that described in the Odyssey, the sitting in a large vessel, and having hot or cold water poured on the body by attendants, from vessels called aptnaiva or apvftaWo*! these arc both men- tioned by Julius Pollux (vii. 167 and x. 63) but without par- ticular description. From a comparison of two passages in the Equites, 1087 and 1090, with a fragment of Athcnaeus, it ap- pears these vessels were much alike, broader at bottom than at the top, and the apvpaWo* the larger of the two. It is from this last vessel the sausage-seller sees in a vision the patron goddess of Athens casting tan-liquor upon Cleon. From a passage in Athcnaeus, ii. p. 501, it seems that in the middle of the baths for the women, there was an o/i0a\o?, in the form, he says, of a hand-bowl, okiIQiov, which covered the waste pipe, and on which the women sat and chatted to each other. An error has been committed as to the II\tW by some lexi- cographers: this is clearly the washing trough. Homer gives it this name ( Iliad xxii, 153) as the vessel by the side of the hot streams of Scamander, where the Trojan damsels washed their linen before the coming of the Greeks. And again ( Odyssey vi, 86) as the vessels used by Nausicaa and her attendants when they go to the river side to wash their garments, which vessels, says the poet, were always (from year to year) left there, E v0' 7)701 nXvvo't ?)oau iirr/eravoi. Washing with nitre and soap is mentioned as early as Jere- miah (ii, 22 ;) and Susanna ( Apocrypha , v, 17) is described as taking oil and washing-balls into the garden with her to bathe there. The Greeks used a quantity of these things, as enume- rated by Pollux (vii, 37, 38), the principal of which was xov'ia, lye, and a sort of fuller’s-earth, KipwXla rpj ; all these tilings were called pvppa, and provided, some say, by the bath keeper. But the very passage cited seems to prove the contrary, for the flvoman in Aristophanes (Lysis. 377) says, “ If you hap- pen to have the lye,” (e" pvppa Tv<^x vet9 tx wv >) “ I will give you the bath.” The perspiration was scraped off by an instrument like a blunt knife, called a strigil, much as the ostlers scrape the sweat from horses with an iroji hoop. Xenophon ( Anab . 1, 2, 10,) describes some of gold, which he calls (rre^XiSe^. After further rubbing with towels the bather was invariably anointed all over the body with scented oils. Much stress has been laid on a passage in the Odyssey (xv, 135,) where Pisistratus and Tclemachus are so splendidly en- tertained by Menclaus, to shew that in that day there were separate bath rooms, but the passage seems to suppose the di- rect contrary ; in fact it is curious how such a mistake could have arisen, as the heroes do not seem to have moved from the hall or dining-room. The words arc, “ Then indeed they sat down on couches and scats, and a maid-servant bearing a basin (xipvtfla) poured from a ewer (irpoxow) “ beautiful, golden, upon a silver Xipqt, that they might wash,” she then places close to them “ a smooth table,” and then she brings bread and all sorts of food. In the Equites (1055) the Sausage-seller tells the Demus that the baths (miXovs) in the bath house (ftaXaveiif) have been taken away, ami the Demus cries out, “ Then I shall go unwashed to-morrow.” It is clear in this case a separate word is used for the bath and the place which contains it. Sec also the Etymolog. Mag. as before cited. The origin of public baths among the Greeks is not clear, but it has been supposed with reason that private baths were first opened to friends at a small fee. That such existed is known from Plutarch ( Vita Dcmet. Poliorcet.), where he states that Dcmocles, for a particular reason, would go to none but a private bath ; this must have occurred about twenty years before Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Italy. The success of the experiment among friends probably led to the establishment of public baths. Athen^eus relates (viii, p. 351) that in the town of Phaselis, they were in the habit of charging foreigners double for a bath, and he relates a story of a bath-keeper, who when his attendant attempted to overcharge a stranger, cried out, “ Scoundrel, would you make me a Phaselitan for a little farthing,” 7 rapa X'iXkov piKopu. In Lucian’s time (Lexiphan.) the charge was but two oboli, and in the time of the Roman emperors, but a farthing, “quadrante lavari,” is mentioned both by Juvenal and Horace. There is but very scanty information respecting the con- struction of the Greek baths ; Atiien^eus (lib. viii, 501), how- ever, states that they were covered by a OoXos, or dome, and they were probably, in other respects, much the same as at Pompeii, one of those places which we know Juvenal denounces as a “ graecam urbem”; in fact not only did the Roman fashion re- semble the Greek, but it is extremely probable that the whole system of bathing among the ancients is yet kept up in all its stages to the present day in Constantinople. The East has long been remarkable for steady adherence to every old habit and custom ; and it may now be worth while to enquire what was done in the Roman bath, and how far this is paralleled by the Turkish Hummam. Although there is such scanty material for an architectural description of the baths of the early Greek period, there are very minute and circumstantial descriptions of those of the later period, beginning with that of V itruvius, and proceeding with those of Seneca and Pliny, to the time of Lucian, a range probably of 150 years. The first-named author, lib. v, cap. 10 and 11, has given rules for the construction of public baths in the Roman way, and of palaestrae, xysti, and baths in the Greek way. Pliny the younger has given some account of his own baths in two of his letters (ii, 17, v, 6). Seneca (ep. 86) gives a very curious description of the old villa and bath of Scipio Africanus. Lu- cian, in a separate treatise, “ Wi n’a? »/ paXaveiov,” describes some baths just erected by Hippias ; these authorities arc of course accessible to every one, and well known to the learned ; so much only therefore will be extracted as will instruct without fatiguing the reader ; the engineer’s work will then be described, and it is proposed to conclude with a very brief account of the remains of some of these noble works of antiquity. Following the description of Greek work it is thought pre- ferable to take the 11th chapter of the 5th book of Vitruvius before the 10th. He commences by saying, he intends to ex- plain the Greek edifices, although they arc not in use in Italy. In palaestra?, he says, square or oblong peristyles (courts or cloisters) should be made in circuit the length of two stadia — each stadium is the eighth of a Roman mile, consequently the circuit would be 1,203 ft. 6 in. English, and the court about 300 It. square. On three sides the colonnades are to be single ; these, he says, the Greeks call £cavXot, but on the south side it is to be of double width with a double row of columns to keep out the dash, “ aspergo,” of the rain in the windy season. In the three single colonnades are to be species of pavilions (hexc- drae) with scats, where philosophers, orators, and others, may sit and dispute. On the side of the double colonnade, in the middle, is to be a very large hexedra for the young men to exercise in, with seats. It is to be one third longer than its breadth ; on its right side a “ coriccum.” (On this word there is much dispute, it will be treated of under its proper head, Coriceum ; it may suffice to express an opinion that it is a place for playing with the pilum, or ball sewed with leather. Under the strict seclusion the Greek women were kept, it is very unlikely the girls, icovpai, would be admitted in the very midst oi the young men.) Next to this, the “ conistcrium,” or BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. 3 place where the wrestlers were sprinkled with dust, that their adversary might not have a slippery hold. Next the “ coniste- rium,” in the turn of the colonnade “ versura porticus”, was the cold bath, which, says one author, the Greeks call Xovrpou : on the left of the ephebseum (or young men’s liexedra), the eleothe- sium, or anointing chamber of the young men, and next to that the cold elaeothesium ; from this passage we would suppose there was a difference between the ointments used after hot and cold bathing. From thence, one author says, there is a way into the propnigeum [literally choke-chamber] at the turn of the court ; this was probably the stokery. Much difference of opinion has been expressed as to this word ; it is difficult to conceive why a hypocaust or prsefurnium should be supposed to be more “ choking ” than the hot “ laconicum,” but on look- ing a little closer into Vitruvius and the meaning he gives his words, in the account of the water machine (lib. x, cap. 13), it will be found that he employs a sort of check valve, or damper, in the form of an inverted funnel, and calls it pnigeus. The Etym. Magnum, Edit. Princeps, sub voce , gives this curious passage “ m/iyevs, among the comic writers a fur- nace, and it is also part of an hydraulic machine, and signifies the bridle ; it comes from Trvi-pv, the second aorist is ewvi^ov, from this is Trvir/ov, which signifies burning, or heat, and the word TT-viycvs, which signifies a baking pan, and also the bridle for beasts yoked to a carriage.” It appears highly probable that the 7rj/(7ti»9 was the damper to the furnaces, to bridle or increase the draft. If this be correct, no doubt “propnigeum” was the stokery. Next this, within the region of the frigidarium (not the frigida lavatio), is the concamcrata sudatio, or vaulted sweating room ; at one end of this is to be the laconicum, which will be treated of hereafter, opposite to this is the hot bath. Here is the sum of his description of the Greek f 1/(7*709, The Roman baths are described in cap. x. Vitruvius directs first, choose a site as warm as possible, averse from the north and north-east, because the hot and tepid baths should have their light from the south-west (occidente hyberno : lite- rally, “ winter sunset”) ; if there are any difficulties as to the site, then from the south, as the time for bathing is from noon to evening. Then it is to be contrived that the hot baths of the men and women should be contiguous, that the hot water vessels should easily be used in common by both. Let there be three brazen vessels (our author directs) joined together (componenda), one hot, another tcjiid, and so placed that as much water shall flow from the tepid into the hot vessel, as hot water shall go out. The like from the cold to the tepid vessel. Let the vaults of the “ alveoli” be heated from one common fire; as already intimated ; [all this work will be treated upon here- after. ] Let the “ suspensurae ” of the cells [hollow floors under which were the furnaces] be thus made : first, let the ground be paved with 18 in. tiles, laid with a fall to the furnace, so that a ball, if thrown in, should not be able to remain, but must run back to the stoke hole, and so that the flame may circulate better under the “ suspensura; let jiieces of eight inch bricks (laterculis bessalibus) be built so that two feet tiles may be bedded on them. The height of the piers to be two feet, to be built with potter’s clay (argilla) and hair, and the two-foot tiles bedded thereon, to carry the pavement. It would be better if the structure were arched, but if there be framed tie beams “ contignationes” (which see ; and also trabs, tignum, &c.) let “ signinum opus” (flooring composed of a concrete, made of pounded tiles and lime, something like Messrs. Fox and Bar- rett s principle) be placed under. Let iron rods or bows (arcus) be made, let them be suspended to the trusses, by crooked irons, as closely as they can. Let the rods or bows be so disposed that the tiles can lie and be carried in pairs, and so the whole vaulting be perfect : let the upper part of this chamber be lined with lime and hair; the lower part, which looks to the pavement, to be first trowelled with baked clay and lime, and then let it be polished with fine stuff (“ albario,” lime with- out sand, see Philander in loco ) or stucco (“ tectorio,” lime ARCH. PUB. SOC. with sand). These chambers in the hot baths, if made double, ■will be the more useful, as the damp of the vapour will not in- jure the material of the roofing “ contignatio,” but will pass off between the two chambers. “ The sizes of the baths must be according to the number of bathers. Let them be thus made : the width the same as the length, less one third, exclusive of the * schola of the labrum ’ (bath) and of the alveus. The labrum bath should be con- structed under a light (window) so that those who stand round should not darken the light by their shadows. It is necessary that the whole of the baths should be spacious, as when the first shall have taken their places, the others looking on should stand properly. The alvei should not be less than six feet wide between the wall and the pluteus, so that the lower step and the seat (pulvinus) should take off thence two feet.” It will be better now to pause and examine this passage. That “labrum” is the bath, the wi >e\ov of the age of Aristophanes, has already been explained, and of which there is no sort of doubt. The al- veus has generally been considered to be the hollow part of the bath itself ; but there seems this difficulty, if a scat and step of two feet are to be taken off six feet, the bath could only be four feet long, and could never have held nine persons at once, as shown in Fig. 1, given by Mercuriali, de Re Grjmnas. apud Polen. Alveus has a great number of significations ; from its primary meaning, the belly, it seems to have expressed any long flat hollow vessel — a trough or a tray, a back-gammon board (d no- de cim scripta) the hold of a ship, any trough-like hollow uten- sil or vessel. The section of the bath at Pompeii, as given by Sir Wm. Gell, is shewn Fig. 1, Plate n. Former writers, and even some later ones, have suggested a as the alveus ; while Marini and those who have followed him consider a to be the labrum, b the upper scat or spaces called scholaj (at Pompeii in the pis- cina are niches in the scholse), c the pluteus, and D the solium, or inner seat. Now the labrum, marked e, Fig. 1, seems to have been a large laver, or vvcXos, as shown also in Fig. 2, from the baths of Titus ; and there seems no reason why the rim of the bath should be called a wall “ pluteus.” It is not necessary to pursue this criticism further, but to suggest that Pliny, Ep. lv. 6, calls the bath “ puteus ” : if pluteus be considered there- fore to be an error of the transcriber for the former word, the meaning of alveus is plain — it is the passage between the wall and the bath. This emendation, however, is thrown out with considerable diffidence. The description of Vitruvius finishes thus : “ Let the laconi- cum and sweating -baths be joined to the warm-bath, these should be as broad as they are high (measuring) to the lowest curvature (springing) of the hemisphere ; let a light be left in the middle of the hemisphere, from which let a brazen shield hang by chains, by whose rise and lowering, the temperature of the sweating may be regulated. It should be made circular (ad circinum), that the force of the flame and vapour should pervade equally from the middle by the roundness of the cur- vature.” These descriptions are given at greater length as the work of the great architect of antiquity : the others will be merely glanced at; that of Pliny ( Epist . lib. v, 6,) gives a picturesque account of his Tuscan villa, at the foot of the Appenines : of course his bath was private. After describing the different parts of the house, he says : “ There is then the winter cubicu- Fig. 1. 4 BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. lum extremely warm, as it is filled with the full sun ; attached is the hypocaust, and if the day be cloudy, its emitted vapour supplies the place of the sun. Then the apodyterium receives in its cold cell him relaxed and joyous from the bath. In this is a plunging bath (baptisterium) wide and deep. If you wish to swim at more ease and in warmer water, in the area there is a piscina, and in the next a puteus, if you would again be cleansed (abstergi may be read, rather than astringi) if you dis- like the weather. lie then states there are “ celiac frigidariae,” cold rooms, a “sphacristerium,” or tennis-court over the apody- terium, and then he proceeds with an account of the rest of the villa. A description of his other villa at Laurentinum is given, lib. ii, 17. In the midst of the minute details of this villa is the mention of “ cold-baths broad and spacious, on the opposite sides of which are two plunging-baths (baptisteria) in which you may swim if you wish. Next to this the anointing-room, and the hypocaust, and next to the bath the stokery (propnigeon) then a warm-bath, whence the swimmer may look on the sea. Next to this the tennis-court,” etc. etc. A most delightful description is given by Seneca, Ep. 86, of his visit to the bath of Scipio Africanus : he contrasts the little plain building belonging to the great hero with the luxurious baths of his day. The letter throws little light on the architec- ture. The mention of columns and statues would not be unexpected, but our readers will be surprised however to hear of inlaid gems, glass windows, and silver bath-cocks (epistomia) as early as about a.d. 50. The letter will amply repay a pe- rusal, but is too long for these pages. The description of the baths erected by Hippias, must not however be passed over quite so lightly. It is given by Lucian in a tract under that head. He commences by stating how few men there are, and how much they are to be commended, who shine in more than one art or science, and then praises Hippias as one who was at once celebrated as an orator, writer, mathe- matician, mechanician, musician, and architect. He then en- ters upon a long relation of the baths erected by him. After describing the difficulties of site and foundation, he says, “ a large common hall (o7*:o?) receives those who enter, fit for the footmen and servants to wait in ; on the left are chambers fitted up for lounging (c's jpv^v). These, he says, are excellently fitted up with plenty of light near the baths, and suitable for the genteeler {evhaip.over)v — and therefore to dream of beautiful and clear baths, and genial warmth, is a sign of wealth and prosperity, it also signifies health to the rich. To dream of bathing in an unusual manner is bad, as to dream of entering the Oippat with one’s clothes on.” He then relates a story of a lute player, who was hissed off the stage after dream- ing he was in a bath without water. “ It is good,” he says, “ to dream of bathing in rivers and pure springs, but not to swim — this signifies danger and disease. To dream of the strigils and instruments for cleansing the skin (ojep'/iSes T6 %vtrrai Kal xm apa^eia) signifies servants. He who dreams of losing his strigil will lose a slave.” This might be interesting on the other side of the At- lantic. “The oil-flask (\?}*:v0o?)and the strigil-case (ZvtnpocpvXag) he says, “ signify your wife’s slave, or a faithful maid-servant.” It appears from the foregoing that in the later times, there were two sorts of bathing, the cold and the warm. This trea- tise, of course, is of baths, rather than bathing, and it is de- sirable to describe no more of one than will illustrate the other, and make the treatise intelligible. The parts of the cold baths seem simply to have been, first, the apodyteria, or dressing rooms. It is singular that V itru- vius, with all his minuteness, does not mention this ; while Lucian calls them anoOcaeis, or in common English, drawers, boxes, or literally, “ put-away” places. It is possible they were not rooms, but enclosures, like our dressing boxes. At Pompeii, the frigidarium seems to have served as the apodyte- rium. The clothes were taken, some authors say, by servants, called “ capsarii,” because they put them in “ capsa?” (see the Digest, i, 15, 8, -where the theft of clothes is made a capital crime) ; others call them “ caprarii,” because the garments ■were hung up on hooks of horn. That this seems an invariable practice we learn from Cicero’s speech in defence of M. Coelius Rufus, charged by the notorious Clodia Quadrantaria (the Lu- crezia Borgia of the day) with, an attempt at poison. The drug, this female Titus Oates swore, was to have been conveyed in a box by a young man named Licinius, and given to Coelius in the bath. Cicero shows how unlikely and improbable a story this is, as there was no means of concealment of a box when the parties were undressed, and that if “shod” and dressed “ calceati et vestiti,” they would not have been admitted. That the dresses were left in the same way on the woman’s side is learnt from Ovid (de Arte Amand. iii, 639). Next -was the plunging, or swimming bath, called Xovrpov, KoXvpptjOpa, ftanTiim'ipiov, piscina, puteus, natatio, natatorium, &c. At Pompeii this is circular, about 13 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep, with scholae or vacant spaces, and niches round it. That the Romans used to swim in these, there is the often cited obser- vation of Cicero to his brother Quinctus, where he wishes for a wider piscina that he might not hurt his hands when he flings them out. After this, it is surmised, came the cold anoint- ing chamber, the “ ekeothesium frigidarium” of Vitruvius, and this seems to have completed the cold bathing. They who used the hot baths also commenced by undressing, either in the apodyterium or the frigidarium. It is not desirable to enter into the different methods of bathing as recommended by the two great doctors of antiquity, Galen and Celsus ; suffice it to say, like other doctors, they differ : the first recommends, to commence with the hot air of the laconicum, then the warm bath, then the cold ; while the latter recom- mends, first, the tepidarium, then the caldarium (which in- BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. 5 eludes the laconicum), then the frigidarium. While in the laconicum, the perspiration was scraped off by the strigil, and a sort of shampooing took place. The anointing is beside the present purpose ; those who wish to know more of the unguents of the ancients, should consult that wonderful and amusing collection of all the scraps and omnium-gatlier am of antiquity, the Dcipnosophists of Athen^eus. Perhaps most light will be thrown on the subject by a com- parison with the modern Turkish bath. As it will be neces- sary to make some allusion to these before the conclusion of this treatise, the highly graphic description of the celebrated Mr. Michael Angelo Titmarsh is at once extracted. This in- genious gentleman writes from Constantinople, thus : — “ I made the dragoman conduct me to one of the best ap- pointed hummams in the neighbourhood, and we walked to a house at Tophana, and into a spacious hall lighted from above, and which is the cooling room of the bath [the frigidarium of Vitruvius]. This spacious hall [the oik'oc of Lucian] has a large fountain in the midst, a painted gallery running round it, and many ropes stretched from one gallery to another, with profuse draperies of towels, and blue cloths for the use of the frequent- ers of the baths. All round the room and the galleries were matted enclosures, fitted with numerous neat beds and cushions for reposing on, where lay a dozen of true believers smoking or sleeping, or in the happy dozing state. I was led up to one of these beds to rather a retired corner, in consideration of my modesty ; and to the next bed presently came a dancing der- vish, who forthwith began to prepare for the bath. “ When the dancing dervish had taken off his yellow sugar- loaf cap, his gown, shawl, &c., he was arrayed in two large blue cloths [probably Trepi%wfuna\ a white one being thrown over his shoulders, and another, in the shape of a turban, plaited neatly round his head. The garments of which he divested himself were folded up in another linen and neatly put by. I beg leave to state I was treated in precisely the same manner as the dancing dervish. [If the be considered to be the same as the avoOcaei? of Lucian, the above is an exact descrip- tion of the ancient bath ; if the apodyterium was a separate hall or room, it would certainly have been so described by Vitruvius]. “ The reverend gentleman then put on a pair of wooden pattens [soleae ; Spartianus calls one of the chambers in the baths of Caracalla, ‘ cella solcaris ’] which elevated him about six inches from the ground, and walked down stairs and pad- died across the moist marble floor of the hall, and in at a little door, by the which also Titmarsh entered. But I had none of the professional agility of the dancing dervish ; I staggered about very ludicrously upon the high wooden pattens, and should have been down on my nose several times, had not the dragoman and the master of the baths supported me down the stairs and across the hall. Dressed in three large cotton nap- kins, with a white turban round my head, I thought of Pall Mall, with a sort of despair. I passed the little door ; it was closed behind me ; I was in the dark ; I couldn’t speak the language ; in a white turban, mon Dieu ! what was going to happen. “ The dark room was the tepidarium, a moist, dark, oozing, arched den, with a light faintly streaming from an orifice in the domed ceiling “ When you get into the sudarium, or hot room [the laco- nicum and caldarium], your first sensations occur about half a minute after entrance, when you feel that you are choking [see the description of this apartment by Lucian, in the Hippias, given above]. I found myself in that state, seated on a marble slab ; the bath man was gone ; he had taken away the cotton turban, and shoulder shawl ; I saw I was in a narrow room of marble with a vaulted roof, and a fountain of warm and cold water : the atmosphere was in a steam, the choking sensation went off, and I felt a sort of pleasure presently in a soft boiling simmer, which, no doubt, potatoes feel when they are steaming. arch. pub. soc. You are left in this state about ten minutes ; it is warm, cer- tainly, but odd and pleasant, and disposes the mind to reverie. “ But let any delicate mind in Baker-street fancy my horror, when, on looking up out of this reverie, I saw a great brown wretch extended before me, only half dressed, standing on pattens, and, exaggerated by them and the steam until he looked like an ogre, grinning in the most horrible way, and waving his arm, on which was a horse-hair glove “ The grinning man belabours the patient violently with the horse brush. When he has completed the horse-hair part, and you lie expiring under a squirting fountain of warm water, and fancying all is done, he re-appears with a large brass basin, con- taining a quantity of lather, in the midst of which is something like old Miss Mac-Whirter’s wig, that she is so proud of, and that we have all laughed at. Just as you are going to remon- strate, the thing like the wig is dashed into your face and eyes, covered with soap, and for five minutes you are drowned in lather ; you can’t sec, the suds arc frothing over your eye- balls ; you can’t hear, the soap is whizzing in your ears ; you can’t gasp for breath, Miss Mac-Whirter’s wig is down your throat, with half a pailful of suds, in an instant you are all soap ; wicked children in former days have jeered you, exclaim- ing, e How are you off for soap V You little knew what sa- ponacity was till you entered a Turkish bath [The same operation is described by Savary, one of Bonaparte’s savans in Egypt ; curiously enough, he says, they called the soap rusma, evidently a corruption of pvppa, of which mention was made before]. “ When the whole operation is concluded, you arc led — with what heartfelt joy I need not say — softly back to the cooling- room [this explains the use and name of the yfrvxpov, or frigida- rium], having been robed in shawls and turbans as before. You are laid gently on the reposing bed; a cool sweet dreamy languor takes possession of the purified frame, and half an hour of such delicious laziness is spent, as is unknown in Europe.” There is no apology needed for quoting at such length this brilliant little description, feeling that it illustrates the subject both of ancient and modern baths so well, and besides (a thing it is hoped ever before one’s eyes) it saves space, and the reader’s patience. It is now proposed to turn to what in these times is called the engineering department. Like everything else the Homans did, this was carried out in a far more vast and striking manner than would be at first supposed. It is now found difficult, even with best Low-moor plate boilers, and all the appliances of modern science, to keep baths going for one hundred persons. Conceive then what it must have been in the baths of Diocle- tian, where 1,800 persons were accommodated at once. Let the mind be made up to listen to something out of the way, and be told that all this mass of water was boiled in brick chambers, put together with lime and hair, and lined with tiles bedded in the same ; that there are the remains of a set of these chambers, twenty-eight in number, below (or as a ground story), covered with twenty-eight other chambers as a sort of first story, and containing two millions and a quarter cubic feet, or nearly fourteen million gallons, all heated by one furnace forming a basement ; that such a building would actually cover more ground than Exeter Cathedral, and would hold as much water as that entire building, transepts included, if filled to within nine feet of the ridge rib of the groining, and that this mass of water was boiled without apparent difficulty ; an idea of the Castella of Antoninus can then be imagined, and also some faint idea formed of Roman engineering. What are the dye or print works of the present age to this ? The boiler power at the largest foundries or factories, is a plaything to it. This interesting subject will be now entered into at more length. The furnaces have been carefully described in the above cited passage from Vitruvius, and seem to have been con- structed so as to be best adapted for burning wood. The ash is a simple alkaline powder (the Kovla of the Greeks, of immense c 6 BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. value to the ancients, as the method of separating soda or pot- ash from chlorine was unknown), a powder which could easily be swept away by a broom, unlike the soot from coals : no file bars, or bridges were wanting ; a simple paved floor -with a slight incline to give a draught, was all that was necessary. In fact it was like the bottom of a country oven. But, how simple piers of brick in pottery clay and hair, and simple tiles, and a sort of trowelled concrete floor on this, could bear at once the vast heat of the fire, a weight of water of many tons to the foot, and the expansive power of the boiling fluid, besides the wcai and tear of constant flame, is wonderful indeed. However, there aie the Roman hypocausts to this day, and the united labours of Piranesi, and of Cameron (Baths of the ^Indents, fol. London, 1772), have proved to demonstration this is no fable. Of course these arc the suspensurse of A itruvius. At Pom- peii, instead of 8in. square piers 2ft. high, they are 9in. squaie and only 1ft. 7in. high. They support strong tiles 15in. square, on these is the signinum opus, or box and Barrett concrete, and then where they are visible, as in the laconicum, a mosaic pave- ment is bedded upon it. Every wall and every payment was perforated by square earthen tubes, Plate n, Fig. 5, fitting into each other, through which the flame and smoke circulated and afforded as much heated surface as possible. See also the detail from the Baths at Augusta Rauracorum, Fig. 1, Plate ill. The invention of the suspensurse has been attributed to the Sybarites ; be that as it may, it was evidently new in the time of Seneca. That author (Ep. 90) speaks with wonder of the things disco- vered in his memory, as window panes made of talc ; the sus- pcnsurce of the baths ; and “ tubes impressed within the walls”, through which heat might circulate equally above and below ; contrivances to cut and polish marble, and to erect porticoes and arches ; and lastly, the invention of marks for words, “ by which an uttered speech might be seized, and the hand follow the celerity of the tongue.” If the good philosopher marvelled so at short hand, what would he have thought of the electric telegraph ? The English antiquary must beware of an error into wiiich too many persons have fallen, namely, that of calling every Roman remain a Bath, where a hypocaust has been discovered. Most of those found in this country were intended to warm the dwelling rooms, and supply the want of an Italian climate in houses which strictly followed the Roman model. The small “ foculus” or brazier, with which the Romans were accustomed to ward off the little winter they got in their own climate, would have been useless in the rigorous winters of a wooded country, where every stream was ice-locked during the winter months. Fancy the looks of some gay-plumed young Centurion, accus- tomed to lounge along the Via Sacra, or complaining of the horrid algid cold as soon as a little snow fell on the extreme top of Soracte, when his face had to encounter the north-east winds of the hills of Yorkshire — or still worse of the Grampians. No wonder they gladly resorted to the invention of the Sybarites, and that almost every Roman building in England has its hypo- caust, in some form or other. The laconicum seems to have had the usual hypocaust under the floor, and a false lining round the whole room, behind which the heat circulated, like the gallery flues of a boiler. This false lining was formed in a very curious way, of large square tiles, fixed by metal cramps at each corner. It appears that while the tiles were moist, a sort of plug was thrust through in several places, forcing out the clay like a tube, and forming a kind of short pipe on the back of the tile. Through these the cramps passed, and of course the length of the tube regulated the distance from the wall, and the space for the heat to circu- late in. A quantity of pitch was found in the stokcries at Pom- peii ; w licthcr intended to light the fires, or to give an occasional extra impetus to the flame, is not known. Now that the laconicum is being treated of, it is preferable to revert to the description of the clypeus or shield, as given by \ iTRtmus. Much conjecture has been bestowed on this sub- ject, but it seems clear enough. Besides the heat of the hypo- caust, a painting in the baths of Titus (Fig. 2), shows that a fire was actually kindled in the laconicum. This seems to have been enclosed in some hemispherical metal vessel. Within this is drawn a second, suspended from the first by chains, exactly as described by Vitruvius, and it is easy to see how this second vessel (marked clipeus) could be raised or lowered, and would act as a sort of damper, extinguisher, or large curfew (couvre- feu) on the fire. Probably water was sprinkled on the outer metal vessel to temper the dry heat of the place. Far be it that these individual remarks should be placed against those of more learned authorities, but there is such strong professional bias in favour of a drawing or a diagram, and the matter seems such common sense, that the wonder is, there has been so much discussion about it. Let the subject of heating the w r ater be now returned to ; again reverting to the description of Vitruvius ( tide supra ). He distinctly describes three vessels joined (componenda) in some way, one boiling, one tepid, and one cold, and so placed in conjunction (collocanda) that as much water should flow from the tepid into the boiling vessel as should be drawn out, and the like from the cold into the tepid. An infinity of labour has been bestowed on this passage, some critics have placed these coppers (*nea) side by side, and supposed that one filled the other by a syphon, some have drawn them as a little above each other, and the water running in an ordinary way from service cocks. Others have placed them one on the top of the other, almost like the old chemical N ooth’s apparatus. The second is the way in which they are drawn in the picture, found in the baths of Titus (Fig. 2), and which being a clear diagram ought to have every consideration. But there is this practical dilem- ma, — if the water passed from one vessel into the other by mere service cocks, how could the middle vessel become tepid ? There must have been a connection between it and the boiling vessels, or no heat whatever could pass, and if there was a con- nection so that the hot water could circulate, the hotter fluid would naturally rise, the highest vessel would contain the boil- ing water instead of the lowest, and the lowest would be the tepid vessel. AVith a rapid circulation it might become some- thing more, but certainly could not be the hottest. If the section of the castella, as given by Piranesi (Plate n. Fig. 2 and 3), be referred to, a will be found to be the main ser- vice of water from the great aqueduct ; b, a sort of cistern or filter, with probably a grating to catch leaves, etc. ; D, a huge open shallow cistern wherein the water was exposed to the sun, and partly heated thereby : this was the roof or top of the upper set of twenty-eight chambers described before, each chamber being 49ft. Gin. by 27ft. Gin, and 30ft. high, all vaulted over, and lined with tiles and opus signinum ; f, the hypocaust ; gg, the furnace mouths ; h, the upper set of chambers ; i,the lower set. F ig. 5 shows the pipes, the tubi impressi, in the walls ; and I* ig. 4, the suspensurse, all of which have been before described. N ow it is clear that D represents the aeneum frigidum of V itru- vius, h, the tepid vessel, and i, the boiling vessel. There are many ways in which the supply from one to the other could be regulated. The simplest would be a clack-valve, and a balanced BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. 7 float. It is not known whether the Romans were acquainted with the ball-cock, but as they knew the bibb-cock or episto- mium, this could easily be imagined. Now, as before stated, if there was a constant communication between the two chambers, a circulation would take place and both would boil. The diffi- culty appears to be easiest explained thus : whatever was the position of the vessels, the steam only, generated by the boiling vessel, was conveyed into the second vessel, and became gradu- ally condensed there by the cold water, just as when a locomo- tive stands still, the driver turns his waste steam into the water tank, and gets it partially hot, so that steam may be more quickly generated in the tubes, than it Avould be, were quite cold water injected into them. A series of plans will be now described of existing Roman baths, beginning at the smallest known example, and proceeding to the magnificent erections of the em- perors. Fig. 3 is from a villa on the sup- posed site of the ancient Stabile, a little beyond Pompeii. A, the prse- furnium or stokcry ; b, the frigida- rium ; c, the tepidarium ; and u, the laconicum, with its double Avails. Fig. 4 is from the same neigh- bourhood, but of larger size, a, the praefurnium ; B, the frigidarium ; c, the tepidarium, of much greater ex- tent ; D, the laconicum, of exactly the same plan as the last ; but in ad- dition to these, there is E, the piscina, or cold SAvimmingbath : it has niches, or scholac, like that of the large baths at Pompeii (Plate i. Fig. 2, c) ; F, part of the atrium of the villa, or colonnade leading to the baths. The pile of buildings forming the example of baths from Pompeii (Plate i, Fig. 2), fills up the whole space betAveen four avenues, and forms an entire insula, as was usual, and is now so in Italy. The lower portion of the frontage, and perhaps a small mezzanine or room over, were let off as shops. At a, the water service entered, coming from a piscina or cistern, at the other side of the street. 1 appears to have been the stokcry ; 2, the furnaces themselves ; 3, the court for stoAving fuel, and for the general use of the engineer ; here, as was said before, a quantity of pitch was found ; the stairs shoAvn, led, some up to the boiling vessels, others down to the furnaces. The men’s baths had three entrances, 4, 5, and 6 ; the principal was the latter, and led to the waiting-room 7, passing through the open court or atrium 8 ; the entrance 5 also led to the same court. 7 was surrounded by seats, probably for the servants in Avait- ing, and in it was found the box of the money-taker, and a sword, probably also belonging to this functionary. Passing through the different corridors, as the entrances directed, the bather came to the apodyterium or dressing-room, b. In the corridor marked 4, no less than 500 lamps were found — for what purpose placed there it is impossible to say — the ceiling Avas decorated Avith stars, like some gothic chancels. The apo- dyterium had seats of lava, Avith foot-stools, and the holes Avhere the pegs were fixed, on Avhich the dresses hung, are plainly visible. A small closet, 9, probably contained the valuables left by the bathers. This room, Sir W. Gell, with great pro- bability, supposed to haA'e been not only the apodyterium, but the frigidarium or cooling-room. This is the more probable, as it leads into the other rooms, just as in the smaller instances, c was no doubt the piscina, frigida natatio, or plunge bath ; the niches round were no doubt the scholac. The bath is 12ft. lOin. in diameter, and 2ft. 9in. deep, entirely of Avhitc marble ; the supply was a bronze mouth, and at bottom was a small Avaste to cleanse it out, an overflow waste was placed at the edge, d is the tepidarium, a very handsome vaulted chamber, enriched arcii. pub. soc. throughout; the springing of the arch of the ceiling being sup- ported by Telamones, or powerful human figures. In this room Averc some seats, and a brazier of bronze, shoAving, that in very cold Avcather some additional heat was required to render the temperature tolerable. E Avas the calidarium, containing at one end, as has been shoAvn by the large section (Plate n, Fig. 1), the labrum, and at the other the alveus, puteus, etc. This has already been so fully described that it need not be repeated. The entrance to the women’s baths seems to have been at 10. F appears to have served both as apodyterium and frigidarium : it contains a cold bath, and also accommodation for ten persons to dress or undress. G appears to have been their tepidarium ; it is a room about 20ft. square ; while H is the caldarium, contain- ing the labrum and a hot bath, 11, close to the furnace like those of the men. The Avomen’s baths have suffered much more from the hand of time than those of the men. It would not have served any purpose to enter into the details of the architectural decoration, but only to convey such general ideas of the plans as would illustrate the previous descriptions. The ground plan of the splendid baths of Diocletian (Plate I, Fig. 1 ), like all these later edifices, comprehended not only baths, as described by V itruvius, but palaestrae, hexedrie, a stadium, libraries, and even a theatre. This illustration is given as one of the best arranged plans of the kind. The main buildings are situate in the midst of a quadrangle. A, entrance hall (stated by Cameron, but he docs not say on what authority, to be the bath-room of the athlctse) ; b, the Avaiting-room, undressing- room or apodyterium ; c, the xystus, with margins, that the bystanders might witness the games, and yet be out of the way ; d, a large atrium, Avith a piscina, or sAvimming-bath in the centre ; ee, vestibules leading into ff, tablina, and thence into gg, the cold baths, frigida lavatio ; hh, the conisterium, or place for anointing and sprinkling with sand ; 1 1, ephaebaeum, or place for exercise for the younger men ; kk, elaeothesium ; L L, frigidarium ; m m, tepidarium ; n n, caldarium ; o o, laco- nicum ; p p, detached circular buildings, supposed to have been small temples ; qq, libraries ; rr, atria to ditto ; ss, back en- trances, probably to the theatre ; T t, rooms attached to the xystus; u u, rooms said to be intended for the athletae ; avav, tAVO peristyles with sAvimming-baths in the centre ; xx,yy,z z, detached baths, apodyteria, and elaeothesia, said to be for the use of the philosophers, or for other distinguished persons ; a a, bath keeper’s apartments; bb, schools ; cc, the stadium; dd, the theatre, i. e. the spaces for steps to the scats. With the advance of Christianity the system of public baths seems to have declined ; some have supposed it to be intended to mark the difference betxvecn Pagan luxury and Christian simplicity : this can scarcely be agreed to ; but it is no doubt true that during the entire mediaeval period there is no record of anything like large public bathing establishments in Europe. That bathing, hoAvever, Avas extensively used, and its practice peculiarly respected, is found from numberless instances. The strongest perhaps is the circumstance of the ceremonial of bathing previous to conferring the order of knighthood on those who, during the middle ages, had merited this honoured distinction. The great Sei.den himself, in his Titles of Honour, has not been able to unravel the mystery : certain however it is, that the order of the Bath is the second among the exalted ranks of knighthood in our own land. A foreign writer has fancied that the lavatorium attached to monastic buildings had something to do with bathing, but an inspection of the existing cloister Avould show it was a mere place for Avashing hands. The Russians haA r e now, and have had for centuries, a species of laconicum or sAveating bath, the heat being produced by scattering water on red hot stones ; but as these buildings are mere Avooden sheds, it would be useless for the object of the present purpose to dAvell on them. The Indians of America have similar baths constructed of wicker and covered with skins. In these they make a sort of SAveating bath, not unlike the description given by Herodotus of those of the Scythians, with 8 BATIIS AND WASHHOUSES. which nation the North American Indians have many points in common. There are many public baths in Europe, and some of them splendid buildings ; but as bathing seems the last thing thought of by the proprietors, and as the magnificent edifices at Wies- baden and Carlsruhe, at Bath and Cheltenham, seem decidedly planned for music and promenades, and in some instances even as salons for gamesters, they are also as much beside the purpose as the rude examples above quoted. The only modern instances of public buildings purely de- voted to these purposes are the hummams of the Orientals. Their similarity to those of the llomans has been already dwelt upon, and much more cannot be added to the graphic description before cited of Mr. M. A. litmarsh. A plan and section (Plate n. Figs. 6 and 7) is given of one, from the cele- brated architect Ramee. A, the divan, waiting-room, or frigi- darium, and sometimes serving also as the apodyterium, or dressing-room ; b, the tepidarium, or first warm chamber ; c, the caldarium, or sweating chamber ; and n, the place in which the bather gets the thorough ablution of soap as before de- scribed ; this room probably answers to the labrum of the ancients. These buildings have another point in common with those of Home. The bath-rooms arc almost invariably vaulted or domed; the light descends by small polygonal apertures, and produces the most singular and picturesque effects as it breaks through the volumes of rising steam upon the scene below, and tinges the shaven crowns and bushy beards of the believers in Mahomet. Figs. 2 and 3, Plate m/are a plan and section, being an interesting example of a double bath for men and women. There is but little reason to doubt that the cause of the disuse of public baths for long years back has been just the reason why they are now re-established. The question turns wholly on the density or scantiness of the population. Devastated as all Europe was after the inroads of the northern nations, few and scattered as was their population, the necessity for such establishments did not exist. The bather could without diffi- culty resort to the clear pool or bright river, and as it is in crowded assemblies the need of artificial ventilation is felt, so it is in an increasing population the need of readier methods of purification must be resorted to. And this commences the second portion of the task here undertaken. BATHS (modern) AND WASHHOUSES. Requirements arising in society very slowly and gradually, and which do not depend on any great fact or marked event, are always the most difficult to understand and the latest to find a cure. As society is now constituted, it is too often the case that evils of this description are first detected by the eye of some pretender, who has a nostrum to propound for every disorder, who exaggerates every evil for the purpose of exalting his own self and his own remedies. The frequent repetition of this system has caused the public to be cautious in listening to complaint, and suspicious of receiving remedial suggestions. 1 lie charlatan is without doubt one of the greatest causes of “ obstruction ’, as it has been called, in the present day, and perhaps in no instance is this more signally evident than in all matters which the vast increase of our population has affected. Day by day, the tide of population has rolled onwards. Day ky day, for years, there has been a steady increase, in a steadily increasing ratio. From 1650 to 1770, our population doubled; it has since doubled again ! Four persons now feed where one fi d, foui persons reside in the same town where one formerly did. lour persons demand air, water, cleanliness, moral oppor- tunity , and moral checks, where one formerly required them. 1 he change in habits, the crowding together of the population, the struggle to get four times the water from the same fount! the difficulty to maintain air fit to breathe, when four times the number arc huddled together where formerly one respired freely, — these are all evils that have gradually made their way, and necessitate the formation of establishments contrived to supply the increased sanitary requirements. Of all the expedients for the health and comfort of the in- habitants of towns and populous places, that have been devised of late years, none has been more successful than the institution of baths and wash-houses. It has already done much, though in its infancy, and promises to do much more. It is hardly true that we are not a bathing nation, and do not understand the comforts of a complete ablution. Every one will remember that at one time every school-boy learned to swim, and through- out the summer months, wherever there was a river, or a clear sheet of water, it was an eager resort for hundreds of active bathers. In almost every gentleman’s garden, where clear water could be got, there was the little bath room, with its quaint Dutch tiles, and little lantern-light, filled with pale stained glass. But now, when every river is polluted by the sewers, when a spreading population has rendered it impossible to bathe in open streams with common decency, when the supply to every bath and closet is guaged by the eager eye of the com- pany’s official, and charged at a rate that formerly would have paid the ground rent of the house, it behoves us to have resort to other means, and to supply, by the aid of science, that which circumstances beyond our control have deprived us of. Again, in open towns, when every house had its garden, and the chimneys were so few that the dreaded enemy of the house- wife, “ the blacks”, did not undo her work, — when, in case of rain, there were out-buildings in which the reeking linen might be suspended, and so the domestic hearth kept free, the neces- sity for the artificial system of washhouses was not felt; but, when dwellings are crowded close together, — when gardens and yards are swallowed up by bricks and mortar, — when chimneys are multiplied, and out-buildings become rare and dear, — when water is scarce, and fuel expensive, — then is the value of this system felt and acknowledged. Like most salutary institutions, it has been of slow growth. It originated at Liverpool, as long back as the year 1832, when first it was proved that the best check to cholera was cleanliness. In one of the poorer parts of the town, the wife of a labourer rented a small out-house, in which she had the wealth, not “ Ex acre lebetas Cymbiaque argento perfecta, atque aspera signis”, — but a common washing copper. By the kind subscription of some ladies, aided by the weekly contribution of the mighty sum of a penny from themselves, the neighbours were supplied with hot water. An ingenious network of cords was stretched from back window to back window, and by these humble means, directed and assisted by the kindness of these ladies, no less than eighty-five families per week were relieved from the nuisance and unhealthiness of washing in their own crowded apartments. This suggested the idea of building a set of com- mon washhouses, and uniting the advantages of bathing to them ; and in May 1842, the first regular establishment was opened at Liverpool. It succeeded so well, that it was soon followed by one of six times the size, the continued success of which was so great, that public attention was called to the sub- ject throughout the country. It was not, however, till October 1844, that a public meeting was held at the Mansion House on the subject, and strenuous efforts made to erect an establish- ment in the metropolis. So great, however, were the difficulties, that it was not till November 1845, that possession was obtained of the ground, and the first stone laid in December of that year. Difficulties, delay, and expense of every kind, seemed flung in the way of the enterprise, and one-half the establishment only could be opened by July 1847 ; in the meantime, the com- mittee had, with great exertions, obtained an act of parliament to encourage the establishment of public baths and washhouses. It is unnecessary to relate the history of the struggle, or to state any of the arguments used against the system. So entirely different, however, have been the results from BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. 9 what was generally anticipated, that instead of thrusting the buildings out of sight in any hole or corner, it was found desir- able to place them in the most conspicuous spot, and to make them not only valuable, but ornamental structures. The bill, which received the Royal assent on the 26th August, 1846, is headed the 9th and 10th Victoria, chapter 84, and is intituled “ An Act to encourage the establishment of Public Baths and Washhouses”. Of the provisions, the following arc those which bear more immediately upon the present purpose : — Sections 3 and 4 enact, that the council of any borough may, if they think fit, adopt the act absolutely ; and that the expense of carrying the same into execution shall be charged upon the borough fund, and the income arising be carried to the same ; and that a separate account shall be kept, called the “ Public Baths and Washhouses Account”. Sections 5 and 6 enact that, on the requisition of ten rate- payers, the churchwardens of any jmrish may convene a meeting of the vestry, giving seven days’ notice ; and if it be resolved by such vestry that the Act be adopted, a copy of such resolu- tion shall be sent for approval to the Secretary of State, but no resolution shall be deemed to be carried unless two-thirds of the votes be in favour of the same ; and that not less than three persons, nor more than seven, be appointed Commissioners fox- carrying the same into execution. Sections 24, 25, 26, and 27 give Commissioners power to appropriate borough lands, or parish lands, as the case may be ; or, if not, to purchase or rent the same to build baths, washhouses, etc., or convert buildings for that purpose, and alter and amend from time to time ; to enter into coixtracts of all kinds, but no contract above £100 to be entered into with- out notice by advertisement ; if Commissioixers think fit, they may purchase existing baths. Section 31 and 32 empower the Council to make sale and ex- change of lands with consent, and also to sell, after seven years’ trial, any baths that may be found too expensive to be kept up. Section 36 enacts, that the number of baths for the labouring classes shall be not less than twice the number of any higher class, if but one ; or of all the baths of any higher classes, if there be more than one of such higher class. In the next year, it was found necessary to amend this act in a few particulars; accordingly, the 11 and 12 Victoria, cap. 61, intituled, “ An Act to amend the act for the establish- ment of Public Baths and Washhouses”, received the Royal assent, 2nd July, 1847. Section 4 incorporates the Lands Clauses Act, 1845, with this Act, but provides that the lands may be taken by agreement. Section 5 enacts the same proportion of washing troughs for the labouring classes, as for baths, viz., twice the number of higher classes, if only one higher class, or an equal number with all the higher classes, if more than one higher class. The progress of the establishment of baths and washhouses, as above described, was very slow; there were prejudices on the part of the wealthy, but there were also prejudices on the part of the poor. They called it “ washing in public,” and no persuasion could induce them to believe that there was not something derogatory in availing themselves of this boon ; but they soon found that nothing was further from the fact than publicity. The early frequenters — the sensible few that always lead the way to the first enjoyment of offered privileges — soon found that in the washhouses they were, in fact, more private than in their homes. No ci-itical neighbours could remark on the patched or darned apparel that hung in the back garden ; they could bring their week’s linen in their little covered basket, wash their scanty wardrobes in their own compartment, dry them in their own separate drying closets, carry them home again, “ nobody any the wiser”, except themselves, in the dis- covery of such a cheap, safe, and speedy refuge from all the domestic misery attendant upon the ill-starred “ washing day”, as formerly conducted. There were no “ blacks” falling from neighbours’ chimneys on their counterpanes, — no tears of ARCH. PUB. SOC. vexation keeping pace with the showers that rained the whole “ washing day” ; when all these advantages becaixie apparent, the establishments soon became full, and were as popular as they were unpopular before. The best and most convincing proof of the appreciation in which baths and washhouses are held by the public, and the gradually increased use made of their benefits as they became more generally known, will be best shown by the quotation, from the published returns, of a few simple figures. At the four first establishments in London the increase has been as follows : — Bathers. Washers. In 1847 143,794 39,418 1848 160,628 61,690 1849 394,557 75,004 1850 595,797 133,177 1851 647,242 142,251 During the month ended July 1852, the receipts at the (now) six metropolitan establishments have amounted to the suixi of £2768 : 5 : 5, against £1506 : 3 : 4 in the same period in 1851. The number of bathers was 199,934, against 104,856 in the corresponding month of 1851, shewing an increase of £1262: 2 : 1 in money, and 95,078 bathers; in the month of the year 1848 the number was 7,934 bathers, and the receipts then amounted to £91 : 5 : 10 only. The number of persons who have availed themselves of these advantages has steadily increased, till the number has amounted to five times the demand. The women are obliged to wait for their turn at -the tubs, and the number of bathers has so in- creased, that it has cost considerable study to save time in the making and dischai-ging of each bath, and, consequently, to accom- modate a greater number of persons. In an establishment in a provincial town, with a population of 20,000, the number of bathers for the week ending August the 21st, was 2,016. The extraordinary success of these buildings has led to the adoption of the system throughout the country. There are now in London seven establishments ; at Liverpool three ; and there are baths and washhouses, either complete or in progress, at Manchester, Birmingham, Bristol, Maidstone, Bilston, Norwich, Hull, Preston, Oxford, Wolverhampton, Macclesfield, Notting- ham, Bolton, Worcester, York, Exeter, Hereford, Chester, Plymouth, Sunderland, Newcastle, Carlisle, Coventry, Belfast, and Waterford, and they are projected in many other places. In fact, they are found to be self-supporting, with scarce an exception, and in most instances they yield a profit. So short a time has elapsed since their first establishment, and so great were their early difficulties, that the profits at first were nothing ; and even now are not to be compared to what they probably will be. As long back as 1848, however, the Hampstead Road Baths produced a profit of £35 in a few weeks ; and at Manchester, in the same year, a profit of £30 was realized. The present statistics shew that at Newcastle, when only opened a little more than a year, they paid 4 per cent, on the outlay, and at Chester 3| over working expenses. It is evident that the profits must increase as the utility of the system becomes apparent. This is already sufficiently evidenced in those establishments referred to above, that have been in operation sufficiently long to base any calculation, and which all, both metropolitan and provincial, shew a steady in- crease year after year. Cold and wet as the month of May 1850, was, the returns of four of the London establishments shew an average of £80 per week received, instead of £51, and there is every reason to believe that the profits will be larger year by year. The management will cost no more, and the only additional outlay is for fuel ; and even this will not be in- creased in a large ratio, as steam must be kept up to a certain pressure, and the drying closets heated to a certain temperature, whether they be used by many or by few. The returns from the Cornwallis Street Baths, Liverpool, for the year 1852, give : amount received, £1,585 : 7 : 10 ; working expenses, £1,055 : 2 : 10, leaving a surplus of £530 : 5 : 0. At i) 10 BATHS AND "WASHHOUSES. Birmingham, during some of the summer weeks, the return has been 11,000 bathers, and the receipts £150 weekly. The fol- lowing abstract of receipts from washers and bathers at this establishment, gives a very satisfactory result, as to the progress of these establishments : — Week ending Bathers. Washers. Total. Dec. 1851 . . . £6 : 15 : 4 £3 : 13 : 3 £10 : 8:2 Dec. 1852 ... 13 : 4 : 6 4 : 12 : 3 17 : 16 : 9 Like almost all early experiments, the first establishments have been very costly. It has been found necessary to take down, alter, and refix machinery at an immense outlay ; even now it is evident that very great and expensive alterations must take place at many existing establishments before they can be worked effectively and economically. The combination of practical knowledge, both for the design and construction of the building, and for the adaptation and execution of the machinery, is essential in undertakings of this kind ; it is thus only that a unity of arrangement can be pre- served throughout, and so a due economy attained. This consideration is of the utmost importance, as the bare interest of the money, or all extra or unnecessary cost, is a fear- ful deduction from the profits. Undue importance is, however, frequently attached to curtail- ing first outlay in the erection of baths and washhouses, which often in the end proves bad economy, as the extra expenditure caused by any necessary after-addition much exceeds what the entirety would have been if done at first, and the whole is not likely to be so complete ; but as it is in some cases a question between a small outlay or no establishment, it may be useful to state that, with favourable position as to site and supply of water, £3,000, or even £2,000, would erect a very useful build- ing, including the best machinery ; but it is far better in towns exceeding 18,000 or 20,000 population to make a first outlay of from £5,000 to £6,000. Two plans are given in Plate i ; Fig. 4, representing an arrangement for a large establishment, suitable for the metro- polis or a first-rate city, and Fig. 3 such as should be erected for a provincial town with a population not exceeding 20,000 ; — the subsequent remarks on the details, etc., will generally apply to each of these plans. The larger building contains for men twenty-four first class, fifty-five second class, and three vapour and shower baths, with a plunging bath 16 ft. X 14 ft.; first and second class swimming baths each 65 ft. x 40 ft. On the women’s side, fifteen first class, thirty-one second class, with plunging, shower, and vapour baths, similar to men’s side. The wash- house department accommodates twenty-one first class, and fifty-two second class stalls, each containing a washing, boiling, and rinsing tub, as well as a drying closet; a washhouse is also shewn in which the business for the establishment, and for v ashing towels, is carried on. I his building could be erected at a cost of about £14,000. 1 he smaller plan, 1 ig. 3, is arranged for five first class, and eight second class men’s baths, with a plunging bath 17 ft. x 8ft., two Hist, and lour second class women’s baths, a shower and vapour bath on each side, and a swimming bath 35 ft. x 24 ft. The washhouse contains ten washing stalls, arranged precisely the same as the larger plan. The cost of this building is £2,125. Erections for this purpose should always, if possible, be on one floor only above the basement,— a matter of primary value as regards light, air, ventilation, avoidance of steps, and con- venience of arranging pipes, etc.: the only exception being over the entrances, etc., where frequently another story is added, to contain the residence of the superintendant or other officers. 1 he plan should be made with the greatest compactness to ensure a minimum of cost. The larger establishment shewn covers an area of 2,930 yards, and the smaller of 417 yards In the basement should be placed the steam boilers, which, by means ot a small engine, perform the duty of pumpin<>- water to a great cistern in the roof (of course, if the water is delivered at the level of tills cistern by a water company or otherwise, this cost would be dispensed with). The boilers also supply steam for the boiling vessels in the washhouse, for the vapour baths, and any excess is used for warming apartments, heating towel closets, etc. Where inundation is to be appre- hended, and it is consequently unadvisable to place the machinery in the basement, the stokery, etc. might be put at the back. It is important here to notice the great economy attained in a minute adaptation of the waste heat and steam as well as water, etc., all of which may be made available, and thus tend to economise the working expenses. It is easy, for example, to turn the overflow pipes, also the condensed water, etc. into the swimming bath instead of the drain, that the waste steam, instead of blowing aw r ay, should per- form some duty ; if no better adaptation can be found, it is always useful in the shaft to increase the draft and destroy the black- ness of the smoke. In the Lambeth establishment, the authors intend to use the exhaust steam from the pumping engine as the medium of heating the two very large swimming baths averag- ing 150 feet long by 40 feet wide, and to turn the steam in at an angle with the side of the bath to cause a circulating motion of the w r ater. It is worthy of remark, that in this establishment, the great first class swimming bath is to be filled by means of a fountain, which will keep the surface of the water in rippling motion, and it is believed that, while the latter will prevent the accumulation of what is ordinarily known as scum on the sur- face, the former will keep a due admixture of the steam-heat- ing medium with the water. \ [ / 1 Uhl V \ j f'7o\ °) ij M 1 To minor matters, such as the due clothing of pipes and boilers, and all heated vessels, it seems almost unnecessary to refer, and yet, satisfactory results are frequently frustrated for want of due consideration on these points. As before remarked, much attention has been given to the production of a valve for the supply of water to fill and empty the baths. A patent for an invention for this purpose has been taken out by the authors of this essay, and found to act very satisfactorily; the pe- culiarity consists in the pressure being at the back of the valve, and in the conical shape of the ground surfaces, into which the column of water at the back always tends to force the Fig- 5- pl u g > the same form insuring tightness with wear. In the centre is a mixing box for the hot and cold water, delivered on either side, so that an equable temperature is maintained, obviating the difference in the degree of expansion and contraction; the cause of leakage in most articles for similar purpose. A bath can be got ready with these valves in thirty-two seconds. They are manufactured and executed in a very superior manner by Sylvester and Co. of Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury, and Potter of South Molton Street. As, in establishments of this kind, it is important every thing should be as clean and bright as possible, it is essential that the chimney should be lofty and active, and, if possible, one shaft carrying everything away with it. This shaft is also of great use to ventilate the apartments, especially the washhouse. The greatest care should be taken in procuring a pure soft water for the purposes of washing and bathing. The value of softness in water, for such purposes, can hardly be estimated, and should always be a leading point of consideration in the se- lection of a site. The fact that, where hard water is used, 10s. for each person is the cost of soap and water — 6s. 8 d. for soap and 3s. 4 d. for water in the London district — proves how much economy, in large establishments, is to be attained by a due attention to the quality of this article. Animal deposit and organic impurity may be easily removed by filtering ; but the BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. 11 lime, causing hardness, is not so got rid of. The process of fil- tration is simple and inexpensive, except where the water is deli- vered by companies who have not provided proper filter beds. In the evidence given by Dr. Clarke, printed in the first Report of the Commissioners of the Health of Towns Act, he states, that “ Supposing we had the choice of several waters, there is no single quality to which I should attach more import- ance than softness.” And again, “ With regard to the softness of water, this quality is of importance ; not merely for the saving of soap, and agreeablencss for washing and bathing, but also in respect to the wear and tear of linen due to hard water.” Dr. Lyon Playfair, in his lecture on the chemical properties involved in the manufactures of the Great Exhibition, gives the following astounding figures in connexion with this subject. “ The annual charge of washing to the metropolis is £1,535,000, which is equal to above a twenty-fifth of the whole capital invested in the cotton manufactures of the United King- dom. Hard water usually contains lime ; and in washing, that earth unites with the fatty acid of soap, producing an insoluble body, of no use as a detergent. For 100 gallons of Thames water, 30 oz. of soap are thus wasted before a detergent lather is formed. In personal ablution, we economise this excessive waste by the uncomfortable practice, universally followed in London, of taking about an ounce of water into the hands, and converting it into a lather, the water in the basin being only em- ployed to rinse this off, instead of aiding in the detergencc. But in washing linen, this plan cannot be followed, every par- ticle of lime being removed before the soap becomes useful ; this, as a matter of economy, is frequently accomplished by carbonate of soda, as being cheaper than soap. The amount of soap and soda thus wasted in the metropolis has been stated to be equal to the gross water rental.” In arranging buildings for the purposes of baths and wash- houses, there should be an absolute division effecting an entire separation of sexes. The centre should comprise a residence for the superintendant, waiting halls for both men and women, pay office, etc., with the swimming baths, etc. At the establishment at Maidstone, a range of private bath rooms have been constructed, and fitted up in a superior man- ner as regards furniture, and with a towel closet heated with a coil of pipes, and with the apparatus for vapour or shower baths. These rooms average 9 ft. X 8 ft., making a superior class, reserved for a higher rate of charge. The swimming baths should be made with a surface light and clean, and it is important it be non-absorbent ; glazed bricks have in some cases been used, and are defective only in the number of the joints: slabs of terra cotta, 9 ins. square, and 24 ins. thick, are made by the Llysnewydd brick Company, Swansea, with a glazed surface, in white and blue colours ; these have been used, and form a very beautiful bath ; the dressing boxes ranged round the bath, are constructed of wood framing, they are each 4 feet long, by 3 feet wide, with a seat, hat pegs, and a wood foot grating in each. Baths are made of copper, zinc, glazed tiles, slate, marble, or of glazed porcelain in one piece. Very many experiments have been made, and a variety of conflicting opinions given on the relative value of each material ; the objections to those which require a painted or enamelled surface are obvious, in the action which the water and soap are found to exert on the composition of these surfaces, which contain generally a large amount of oleaginous matter. The glazed tile baths are much approved, and of late years arch. pub. soc. have been very generally used ; but by far the most perfect bath is that of glazed porcelain in one piece. The walls or sides of these .are about two inches thick, in which fine clay, china clay, and the glaze, are so assimilated, that the two clays are of the same porosity, bear the same heat, and expand and contract together, and the glaze will melt only when the fine clay is sufficiently burned. These baths avoid the only objection to the tile baths, viz. the frequent joints, and conse- quent irregularity of surface. They are made of the following dimensions, 5 ft. 3 ins. long, 2 ft. 4 ins. wide at head, 2 ft. at foot, and 1 ft. 11 ins. deep. They have been brought to perfec- tion after a long and expensive series of experiments, for which much credit is due to Mr. ltufford of Stourbridge, the manu- facturer, and his energetic coadjutor, Mr. Paul Mathews. In fitting up these bath rooms, it is important, as much as possible, to adopt the use of material which is not injured by steam or moisture ; and for this reason, the looking-glass frame, soap dish, handle to door, clothes’ pegs, etc., are all made in porcelain, so as not to be liable to rust or contract dirt. An elaboration of this is intended to be executed by the Llangollen Slate Company, in the new Lambeth Baths and Washhouses. The first class men’s baths are placed in a gallery, round a por- tion of the great swimming bath, supported by iron brackets and columns. The slate divisions and the doors will be enamelled, so as to give them a pure white glaze. The divisions between the baths and washing boxes shown in the plans, and also in the details. Figs. G to 12, arc made of slate, with slate doors, answering all the purposes of privacy, at the same time that no impediment is offered to the free cir- culation of air throughout the one large apartment. The compartments in the washhouses shown on the plans, are each complete in themselves, viz. they should contain a wash- tub, b, Fig. 9 ; a vessel for boiling clothes, c ; a tub for rins- ing, a ; d, wringing board ; and a drying closet, as shown Fig. 10. The arrangement of these compartments is exhibited in Fig. 12. Fig. 9. detail in Fig. 9, plan of tubs ; Fig. 10, section of washing and drying closets; Fig. 11, elevation of two drying closets, one with the door raised, the other shut ; and Fig. 12, section of stall at E f, on Fig. 9. The rinsing tub is a feature not univer- sally adopted : it has the great advantage of saving the neces- sity of discharging the heated and softened water from the wash- tub, and thus economizes fuel. Each compartment should have a perforated foot-board, raised a little above the floor, and the tubs should be heated by steam. It is advisable, when the site will admit of such an arrange- ment, that a separate entrance should be given to the washhouse, distinct from the baths, that no confusion in the different de- partments should arise. In the former, hydro-extractor wring- ing machines are provided to each group of washing compart- ments, in the position shown on the plans ; these, in the course of a few seconds, remove fifty per cent, of the moisture from the linen, and consequently facilitate the rapidity of drying. 12 BATHS AND WASHHOUSES. The following table of the results of washing, wringing, and drying, at the Goulston Square establishment, exhibits the value of these wringing machines : — Description of Article. C A fee |£l p *g,o . -5 ~ s o % S H |1 Weight after the wringing process. S s “j? j= ££-o 5 -' r 4 ec s s © 5 ® £ ass ■§ 3% g"Sb S| Ho O 2 c mZ H a> Temperature of the drying ohamber. lb*, oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. Min. Min. .Dei?. 12 bathers’ towels 7 11 16 12 11 12 6 12 2 .30 200 ditto 7 13i 16 15 11 13 6 14i 2 25 210 ditto 7 15* 17 1} 11 14* 6 15* 2 35 190 3 fine sheets 4 15* 13 2 8 4 4 3* 2 15 180 3 middling do. . 5 4 14 1 8 3 4 12 2 25 190 3 coarse ditto . 7 8 16 2 9 0 6 15* 2* 30 190 3 small blankets 6 15 22 15* 9 10* 6 3 2 15 200 ditto 6 10 21 4 9 1 6 0 2* 15 200 3 large ditto 9 1 24 14 12 3 8 12 3 25 210 The object of contriving the whole process of washing and drying in each compartment, is obviously for the sake of privacy ; and, in provincial towns, must be of even more importance than in the metropolis, where it is less likely that the occupant will meet with any one of her acquaintance. It is necessary to seek an arrangement that shall prevent the necessity of exposing the possibly ragged linen of a washer to her neighbours, or congre- gate any number of them together — a rendezvous for gossip. The method of having the drying horses together in one place, away from the washing box, although the easiest to con- struct, is decidedly objectionable, being a place of lounging, and does away entirely with the comfort and privacy the other plan gives ; and this is, as before observed, a point of vastly greater importance in a provincial town than in the metropolis. The system formerly pursued of heating drying closets by steam has been found so imperfect, that other methods have been sought, by which greater rapidity in drying could be attained. It is well known by brick makers, that however hot the day may be, the bricks will not dry unless there be some movement in the air, to carry off the vapour as soon as formed ; the same fact is also observed in the process of drying hops ; in hay- making, and, in fact, everywhere in which quick drying is necessary. Injected currents of highly dessicated air in rapid volumes, imitating the rush of the hot winds of eastern climates, whose rapidly drying powers are the wonder of Europeans, will be found to be the most successful principle. At Maidstone, where there is a steam-engine, an apparatus something on the principle of the centrifugal pump has been fitted up for this purpose. At Bilston and other places, where there is no engine, a system has been adopted of causing air to pass through red-hot coke, and thence diffusing it by a series of pipes, so as rapidly to circulate through the wet linen. The results of the first described closets, with a temperature of only 130°, has been that heavy blankets have been perfectly dried in twenty minutes, and light articles in three minutes. No accommodation is necessary for ironing and mangling. In some of the establishments, where they have been provided, they have been found comparatively useless, even in London ; and in a provincial town, we should think them positively objection- able, as the ironing is not unhealthy to be done at home, and the mangling is a small source of living to many poor persons, which would be lost if it were done in a public establishment. In the report also of the Goulston Baths, in 1848, after de- tailing the number of washers, driers, etc., it is observed : “ No ironing appears to have been done.” If it be considered ad- visable, however, to have such accommodation, a room is always easily added for that purpose, as it is entirely distinct from the other processes. An addition of great value has been made to these establish- ments at Liverpool, and, up to the present time, we believe, at Liverpool only : a place set apart for washing infected linen, it should be entirely detached,— in which the clothes of persons ill of infectious disorders arc received and washed for them without any charge, a note from a medical man being all that is required to procure this aid. A novel addition of great value to the washing establishment, is intended to be made at the Lambeth Baths and Washhouses, in adding an infant school, where the poor washers may safely leave their young children, while they are engaged in the wholesome duty of purifying the household linen. The fact of being obliged to leave an infant at home, exposed to all the chances of accident and neglect, have deterred at least one-half of those who would gladly have accepted this boon, afforded by the new washhouse, from availing themselves of it. In this instance, the authors have given a room for the children of those engaged within ; and the kindness of the directors will provide a competent person to assist in their care, and, as much as can be, in the development, of their youthful minds. Buildings for the purposes of baths and washhouses should be erected in a substantial manner ; all superfluous ornament, and the adaptation of Gothic or other masks, ought to be for- bidden ; a character of cheerfulness should be given to them, which the architect will know well how to stamp with an ex- pression of its purpose. The internal fittings should in all cases be of the simplest and strongest kind, and, wherever possible, of a material not liable to corrode : the rooms should be lofty, finished quite plainly, and left white, with a strict avoidance of dark corners, or places in which dirt could accumulate. The roof shown in Fig. 13, constructed on the ridge and furrow principle, of sub- stantial construc- tion, and covered partly with glass Fig- 13 - and partly with slate, is admirably adapted for buildings of this character. One of the most important considerations in the erection of these establishments, is the selection of a fit site. First, then, it should be in a position in which it could be supplied with an unlimited quantity of soft water ; secondly, it should occupy a prominent position, to be seen by every one ; thirdly, it should be central, and have good approaches. The principles above detailed, but in a modified form, may be well carried out for the use of hotels, and even of private houses, with the most beneficial effects as regards comfort and economy. In hotels, particularly, the saving of labour and time in the washing, and the convenience of thoroughly drying and airing linen for immediate use would be most sensibly felt; and by combining apparatus for the baths with these, would prove a very beneficial speculation. Large sums are cheerfully spent for the shelter of the lunatic, and for the punishment of the culprit, and it is hoped that there will be no stint in the expenditure of much less sums for the improvement of the moral and physical condition of the labourer ; the more so, as the money is but lent, as it were, for a time. The union house, the lunatic asylum, the prison, are all connected with saddening ideas — all are necessary evils ; but every establishment that elevates man in his moral organ- ization diminishes these evils ; and if it be true, as the con- current testimony of all wise and good men has confessed, that “ cleanliness is next to godliness”, we must rank these institu- tions as next in worth and importance to our schools. Even if we take lower and more selfish views, we must consider that these establishments are self-supporting, if not remunerative ; and we must remember that the pestilence of the nineteenth century, though it requires dirt and filth to generate its first breathings, yet, when arrived at vigour and activity, it sweeps on like the simoon, and strikes down the rich as well as the poor. It is too much to expect of any human institution that it shall eradicate all evil, and cure all disease ; but when a remedy is known, either moral or physical, heavy is the respon- sibility of those who can use it, and will not. ASHP1TEI. AND WHICHCORD, Architects and Engineers. V0I;.4.PT3. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY . 1»7 BATHS AM) WASHHOUSES. Elate 1 . o : ; t . u e : u : T : ; o W *-*y*v*i w L ■ i C , — . — _1_ JL*Jk. N .jL°J o_tt. BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN ROME. 10 O ZOO &00 4-00 500 Scale 49 ARCHITECTURAL P U £ L / C A T I O N & O C / £ T Y 1.0 W H A K I) Y LiOiOfraehed byMc-i ' Sok .Mur .h. 12*1849 VOL. I PT 'l. GENOA. nl ah GENOA CAMPANILE. GIU GE NTT n t a r NAPLES Jokio JotisiAon... F.S A SICILY . LiAwt/raph/d by Afe-ts ? Day l, Son May. 7 s /S 4 9. Jobi Joh/ism r’.S. A ?: : Iff. ; , f « ! ! !i | >i H , j "1 i ; 1 Jr W a 1 St L. VOL 1 PT 2 A/fCH/TEC TUBAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 1 + Liihograph/A by Mess “Day l Sul May 7* 1849 VOI. I P? 2 ARCHITECTURAL PU B L I CAT I ON SOCIETY 15 CAMPANILE . Scale 3/lOMch lo a. Pool r PLAN OF UPPER STORY The tt hole height R om floor of Church? to lop of uppermost cornice 112 ft 0 The Cornices composed/ of nine courses of hicks inch thick, with small mar hie consoles S’" high and- -k' 1 bread introduced between ■T h rmd 7 courses The columns nuirble. The Joints ore, ujuversaTly as wide as the brick courses. PLAN AT A. B 5^ MARIA in COSMEDIN BOCCA DELLA VERITAj ROME . VIII*” CENTu RY .Vent i arui (tram. vil84£. by Jyilctr'Y. 6 0 JC Ttef TvOvgcapked. \fJHtss ri Doykfr. Kt> . 'Mf*Vk * 4 . 1 i 1 n 13 rt 0. . nut 10 / t I *fP9 VOL 1 I* T 3. A H (H ! T l , T u K A L PlIHLIOAriON SOC t f TV c AM PAN1 I 1 H I " ' ? LAN AT I) 11 S R C T 1 0 N Fig 2 • Fig .7 CAT UK I)RAL OK PIS'INO, IN 1STKIA T I. Donaldson- Ml D A Fl.OR R N C R . ATliKIMLALor S MARIA DR'RIOR] Crtotto. Archit/-r,l ^rilTTUl mi flltilirttw. L LJLJ = Art uu 1 J 5 i j * I’l.AN at B B P LAN AT A A Lithographed. bf Mess Detyi. ARCHITECTURAL PUBL! CA T I ON SOCIETY CAM PAN 1 LR . V K KONA frozza dsl Erbc . tSOVUK M 0 l> K N A 6 alh rdral Hdward J Anton. Jim r M l AA_ A' 0. S. A Uhoqr /iph/xJ by Mets r,l Day&/Son . Jazz? ZW h l$bO. ARCHITECTURAL HU BLi CAT! ON SOCIETY. 2K YOI- 2-Pfl Lithograph rd t f/i" v . E !h . ■ v ' 7~Ai#h :• ARCHITECTURAL PU B L/ CAT! O N SOC / E T V . . 29 . CEl/ U& 2 f»£ JO •OO a. <* <* JL o o a 2 onz i/) X V QO « >f t 9 . u->l rmt jojuin tupoo zpnr&A 007 / 09 $ jO rUlj i uari7?b ■ ™y// jut 'l f ~pjfuj) - C Mm i o < M W •// I"A s'um/jvyjO *irri uotpvv snap jo 9Ujl Jjjurj co w [/!>>. j ?»f pirtiixruifuruw': A K C H / T E C T U ft A L PUBLICATION SOCIETY C E L L I X G THKATKO CANO BIA.VA MILAN ROYAL BOX . ON LANDING ABOUT k> F t W‘ Fl<5 I ylstibu L £ HI! ESA GESU . ROME . DON ED CE ILINO Zl FEET D/AN PALAZSO BRASCH1 ROME GREAT STAIRCASE H O *> ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. * o Q: * . o W io o * ^ *0 < o 5 , iliiugraphrd by Mess™ Day iuSorv, April 30*1360. 'USL/ CATIOfi VENICE YOI. II. P* | ARCHITECTURAL purucation society ■» CHAPEL OF S DOMENICO CHURCH OF S DOMENICO BOL.OGNA Tern hi / ui /.' IV Urns ker V ! /> A fiti'i.v Y.^&uytSn .1 on7: , .o" i .?.W. VOL. 2. PTE. CHAPEI SS. TRINITA 0 E' PELLEGRINI (PAOLO MAC.OI _I6I4.) T.KL ewis, KI.B . A f|rg | il| -'-rl j ""1 w •* f \v A -i i Iiilhcgraphed byAless^Dayi Scr, April 30^1850. VOU F' l ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY 1 - C li ! M N E Y. ,bhn 'ohn>c ~j itbiogia.phgd by Mess rs Io y t Sc" Wared. 12* 18-M VIA D-EL COLOSSKO ROME VIA NUOVA. NARNI BRESCIA m CONTE TRISSTNO VEI. D'ORO VICENZA A PALLADIO ARCH ' EALA 7 . 7.0 CATHEDRA!, NARNI FLORENCE FLORENCE VEROFA PADUA 0 : p‘ fr't * ■VR ( ■ f T 1 Pfc:, 1 T M P 1 ' uJ VOL I, P T 2 AH C H / T ECT U B A L PUBLICATION SOCIETY W CHIMNEY. FERRARA BRESCIA Fi 4 s 1 2, 3 l W, M Digit)’ Wyatt acaa STLO BRITTANY BOLOGNA VERONA Fig? 7 9 11,12117, RWHeiuJcer.MIBA _ Fu)‘ 5.6,7 1 19. Henry Btrke ui the Library of the 1L I BA Fig ? S.JB £ IF, C ' Fowler Ju/v r Fig IF, C Wyalt OrAmd, Bumi/tghajn Lilfuymphe/i. by Must ^Pay t. Son, May 79 l 87 i) ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION 6od LTV CHIMNEY VERONA YE RON A PIAZZA COLON N A * ROME PALAZZO MADAM A ROM! VERONA PA LAZLO MADAM A . ROM E ROME VENICE VERONA PIA7ZA MONTE 1 C IT OR 10 ROME piazza D / p/fr*^.ROME VERONA VERONA PIAZZA COLONNA.'BU'^lY. ATHENS VERONA F. KONA ^4 V. 1 mi jpjgja n r . a I* " A . _ Ai 'OfeJ VOL. 44 CHATEAU DE BLOJS. E'uf -i. 4. 11. 16. 16, 17 tJ9jBdv/ard JAnAnn NT.J.B.A ' OENOA CHAMBORD „ , , „ „ , Tuft 5 6.7 8 JO 14120. TTT LpwiaJETB.A Fufl z.ff. 12,13. & 16 .lames b. -11 MJ.i.A -Fu/. 21. JolaoJohnsow. T.e> A l. ilh/i graphsji.by Mess T ''Daj'i ''on. AprilAC’* I860 . CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. A territory of enormous extent, stretching fourteen hundred miles from east to west, and as many from north to south, peopled by above three hundred millions of persons, all living under one sovereign — preserving their customs from a period far beyond the beginning of authentic history elsewhere — civi- lized when Europe was sunk in barbarism — possessed many centuries before ourselves of the arts which we deem the prin- cipal triumphs of civilization, and even yet not equalled by the industry and enterprise of the west in the prodigious extent of their public works — with a huge wall of fifteen hundred miles in length, built two thousand years ago, and a canal of seven hundred, four centuries before any canal had ever been known in Europe, — the institutions of the country established for much above five-ancl-twenty centuries, and never changing or varying (in principle at least) during that vast period of time — the inhabitants, with all their refinement and early progress in knowledge and the arts, never passing a certain low point ; so that they exhibit the only instance in the history of our species of improvement being permanently arrested in its progress, — the sight of such a country and such a nation is mightily calcu- lated to fix the attention of the most careless observer, and to warm the fancy of the most indifferent. — Lord Brougham, Polit. Phil. Although many causes have prevented Europeans from be- coming thoroughly acquainted with Chinese art, there are three sources from which the student may gain information sufficient to enable him to form a generally correct idea of it. He has, in the first place, the almost unanimous opinions of travellers ; in the second, a knowledge of the uniformity and esprit de routine which characterise the works of this people ; and in the third, the multiplied images of their houses and edifices, which are supplied by native artists on the various articles of ingenuity and use, which have been imported by commerce for centuries. Mr. Edward Ashworth, architect, of Exeter, having been resident in China for nearly two years, has supplied from his note-book the original and chief portion of this paper, with the accompanying illustrations ; his practical experience has also revised the quotations from various authors, whose previous acquirements did not enable them to satisfy professional inquiry. The article on this subject, given by Quatremere de Quincy, Diet. Hist, d' Architecture, has been translated, as his authorities, although early, have been cor- roborated by travellers of more recent date. The materials employed by a people in the construction of their edifices determine so naturally the measure or style of their invention and skill in the art of building, that an acquaint- ance with these materials is essential to the understanding and appreciation of their art. TIMBER. In China, trees are beams, and beams become columns, with- out the columns ceasing to be, or to appear beams ; all the arch. pub. soc. columns are of wood, and their beauty and value consist only in its quality and polish. — Quatremere. There is in general a great want of timber : the oak being very scarce, the fir tree mostly supplies its place ; the san wood, a tree peculiar to China, is inferior to fir. Every mountain’s ridge which can possibly produce the fir is planted with it ; but with the exception of the hilly districts, there are few forests in the country ; for every inch of ground is arable soil. Mantchoo Tartary how r ever abounds in primeval forests, whilst Pechele does not even produce so much timber as to make rafters for houses. In Fokien the dwellings are of solid granite, and not a piece of wood is seen in the w r hole construction. There is an utter want of fuel. — Gutzlaff. The ly mo, or iron wood, inferior to none for strength and firmness, is used for anchors and various other purposes. Teak is not indigenous. The tse chu, cultivated in Kiangse and Szechuen, resembles the ash, and attains the height of about fifteen feet ; this, with the tong chu, produces liquid gums, which are applied to woods as varnish; the former is most esteemed, as it will take any colour ; the latter is boiled with litharge to make it fit for use, and seems to be chiefly applied to the floors of the apartments of the emperor and grandees. Amongst all the plants which China produces, none is so extensively used as the tchou tse, or bamboo, called chok in Canton ; every particle of this reed is converted to some use ; cottages are built of it, also railings, vessels, boxes, chairs — in fact, all sorts of furniture ; and paper is also manufactured from the young stunts. No idea of these bamboos, or of their use in building, can be gained from the specimens imported into Europe. In China, their shoots attain the height of an ordinary tree ; and though this cane is knotty and hollow, it is capable of sustaining great weight, and in some places, even carries good-sized wooden houses. The nan mo, which supplies a very long, straight trunk, with wood similar to that of the cedar, although the two trees differ widely in their leaves, is used in the temples, palaces, and houses of state, on account of its straightness and durability ; it serves for pillars, windows, gates, and beams, being employed in the exterior as well as the interior of buildings, as it is not affected by the action and variations of the atmosphere, or by insects ; the natives indeed imagine that it will never decay ; and consequently that whatever is formed of it will last for ever. They have, however, no other timber equal in beauty to the tse tan, also called mo wang, “prince of woods”, or rose- wood, appropriated to the finest sort of joiner’s and cabinet work ; whatever is made of it therefore is held in great esteem. — Gutzlaff and Du Halde. The columns and rafters used in the construction of houses are rather the bars of a light cage than the support of heavy weights, — the perpendicular beams serve less to support than to unite the cross timbers or horizontal rafters. The frame- work of the roof is only a light fabric of bamboos placed one B 4 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. most plentiful timbej 1 in that country ; and the spars are sawn by a single operator, with an implement resembling our pit- saws. — E. A. The foundation is not very deep, and commonly consists of granite. It is a very general custom to raise a mud wall and face it with bricks; but houses of that description are soon soaked through and overthrown by gales. Brick houses are covered with thick ridges of tiles, with the convex part down- wards, and the chinks by laying others athwart. The spars are round and flat : upon these they cither put their bricks or square tiles, well joined with mortar, so as to admit no rain. The Chinese arc a peculiar people, even in their mode of building. The hearth is one of the first parts they construct ; but they forget to add a chimney. The interior of the houses of the poor is wretched enough ; and such are, by far, the majority. They consist of one room, which serves the purposes of kitchen, sleeping apartment, par- lour, and stable, the floor not being paved. In the cold regions, a flue runs along the room, which serves as an oven for cooking the victuals and warming the apartment. The pigs lodge in the snuggest corners, and goats, asses, and colts, share the dwellings of their masters. Such are the hovels of the common peasantry. Richer people surround their premises with a stone wall, in the background of which the dwcllinghouse and minor buildings are erected. At the entrance, one observes various flower-pots, and often artificial rocks, mountains, and gardens. The principal hall generally faces the south, and is the most ornamental part of the whole house. Along the sides, chairs are placed, and in front stands a table, behind which either the image of an idol, or some inscription, is attached to the wall, with an incense-stand before it. The walls arc adorned with inscriptions, either drawn upon a lacquered plank with golden letters, or written upon paper. Behind this public hall are two doors, which lead to the side apartments and the abodes of the females. Most houses are only one story high ; if two, the uppermost is inhabited by the women, who live in the most retired part. The windows are very small, and admit, of course, very little light ; and glass being scarce, paper and shells are substituted. — Gutzlaff. In the greatest part of their houses, when you are through the porch, there is a hall (say) toward the south about thirty or thirty-five feet long; behind the hall there are three or five rooms to the east and west, the middle room of which serves for an antechamber. The roof of the house is supported by pillars in the manner following: for instance, if the hall be thirty feet long, it will be at least fifteen feet broad, and then twenty-four pillars support the roof forward and the same number backward, and one at each end. Every pillar is erected on stone bases, and they support the great beams laid length- wise upon them, and between every two pillars they place a piece of wood or beam across ; upon the great beams, and on the two pillars at the ends, they lay other pieces of wood that support the bulk of the roof, after which they begin to build the walls. The pillars arc commonly ten feet high. The mag- nificence of the houses, according to the Chinese taste, consists in the thickness of the beams and pillars, in the excellency of the wood, and in the fine carving on the gates. — Dvhai.de. The interior arrangements of the houses of the upper classes are likewise uniform. According to Chambers (p. 8), they are all narrow and long ; the ground floor is divided by a broad passage, which runs the whole length of it. The apartments are ranged on both sides, and consist of a saloon, or large room, for the reception of visitors, a small sleeping room, and some- times a closet or study. Every apartment has a court and gar- den before it. The chief room, or saloon, is generally from eighteen to twenty-four feet long by twenty broad, paved with flags ot stone, or marble of different colours. The walls arc covered with matting to the height of three or four feet, the remainder with different coloured papers. Folding doors divide the saloon from the sleeping rooms. A passage at the side of this room leads to the study, which is always enclosed by walls and lit with windows. The walls generally are covered with paintings and moral sentences. Besides these apartments, the ground-floor includes the dining-room, the kitchen, the servants’ room, the office or counting-house, the bath, etc., and shops facing the street. The leou, or upper story (when built), con- sists of several large halls that occupy the whole breadth of the house, and cover the apartments on the ground-floor. These are occasionally converted into lodging-rooms for strangers by wooden leaves or slides, which, when chambers are wanted, they fasten to the floor and ceiling, and in a few hours form any number of apartments. Some of these slides are open from the top to within four feet of the flooring ; and instead of glass, the open part is filled with very thin oyster shells, sufficiently trans- parent to admit the light. All the windows in the Chinese buildings are made thereof. The front of Chinese houses facing the street is either en- tirely plain, or employed as shops ; there is no other opening than the door. The houses of the better classes have in the upper story a gallery or verandah, neatly painted and sur- rounded with a railing. Terraces are often built above the roofs and surrounded with breastworks. There they ascend to enjoy the cool air of the evening, to dry their clothes, or to keep watch. Such with few exceptions are the buildings over the greater part of the empire. The law docs not permit them to deviate from the established rules ; and any man, who might venture to erect an elegant and commodious house, would have his property confiscated and pulled down under pretence of useless waste. The streets are narrow, and generally not laid out according to any plan. A few cities however make excep- tions. The houses of the villages are so much huddled toge- ther that there exists neither stx’ect nor lane. In the north, a certain number of houses are built in a square with the doors inward, to screen the dwellings against the blasts of northerly winds. The houses are crowded with inhabitants, who must be content with a very little space. Xo class is remarkable for cleanliness, and the houses appear worse than stables if beasts have their abode in them. The inhabitants of the city keep their dwellings in better order ; and merchants and shopkeepers excel in tastefully adorning their shops and laying out their wares ; but there is nevertheless, with much show, a want of neatness in the interior of the buildings. — Gutzlaff. The houses of the nobility and rich people, if compared with ours, do not deserve the name to be mentioned. It would be an abuse of the term to give them the name of palaces, they being nothing but a ground-floor raised something higher than common houses ; the roof is neat, and the outside has several ornaments. The greater number of courts and apartments fit to lodge their domestics, make amends for their meanness and want of magnificence. It must be acknowledged, however, that the palaces of the chief mandarins and princes, and such as arc rich and powerful, are wonderful for their vast extent. They have four or five courts, with as many rows of apartments in every court. Every front has three gates, that in the middle is the largest, and both sides of it are adorned with lions of marble. Near the great gate is a place encompassed with rails finely lacquered, either red or black. On each side are two small towers, wherein are drums and other instruments of music, on which they play at different hours of the day, etc. On the inside there immediately appears a large open place, wherein those wait who have petitions, etc., to present ; on each side are small houses that serve for the officers of the tribunal to study in. Then there are three other gates that are never opened but when the mandarin ascends the tribunal, — that in the middle is very large, used only by persons of distinction ; the rest enter through those on each side. After which, another large court appears, at the end whereof is a great hall, wherein the mandarin distributes justice ; then succeed two halls set CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. 5 apart to receive visits in, which are neat and abound with chairs and a variety of furniture. Such are generally the places where the tribunals of the great mandarins are erected. The next court entered has another hall, much handsomer than the former, where none but particular friends are admitted. In the apartments about it, the domestics of the mandarin have their lodging. Beyond this hall is another court in which is a great gate, that shuts up the apartment of the women and children, where no man dares to enter. Everything there is neat and commodious. You may see gardens, woods, lakes, and everything that can charm the sight. Some have gone so far as to make artificial rocks and mountains, full of windings like a labyrinth ; and the richer persons have little parks and ponds for fish and water-fowl.— Du Halde. The upper story, generally appropriated to the women, is without a ceiling, therefore open to the spars and battens of the roof, which are occasionally painted ; sometimes the former are inlaid with mother of pearl. The pitch of the roofs is about an angle of twenty degrees ; they are covered with two thicknesses of light-red tiles, having the concave side upwards. The joints are protected by small cover tiles, completely cased in a thick roll of lime, stiffened with chopped grass in lieu of hair. A larger roll, curved up to form a sharper point at the apex than the angle of the ridge, covers the gable. From the quantity of cement used about these roofs, they present a most dazzling white to the eye when new. In inferior houses, where the windows are mere jalousies or shutters, oblong panes of thick glass, much resembling the lights in a ship’s deck, are inserted in the roof, to be available in stormy weather. Architectural variety, which is not permitted in China to mar the simplicity of columns, seems to have exercised its sway in forming varieties of gable ends. The character of Chinese villages, as seen from a little distance, is that of houses huddled together, with but very narrow alleys between them. The walls, of blue brick, peeping above the bamboos, seem like a magnified copy of a church-yard full of the ornamented head - stones so often seen in the slate dis- tricts of England. (Figs. 1 and 2.) The breadth or frontage of town houses is calculated by the num- ber of rows of tiles (nga harng), instead of lineal feet, each row being about ten inches wide. Parapets sometimes screen the eaves ; these are constructed with piers at intervals, not of necessity standing over the solids between the windows. The piers and the spaces between them are marked out in panels and enriched with stucco-work in a very elaborate manner. Sometimes the parapet is open (Figs. 3 and 11), with dark-green glazed porce- lain patterns inserted. These compartments of ARCII. PUB. soc. Pig. 1. open work frequently ventilate the close inner courts, of large dwelling-houses, which are divided by single brick, t. e., ten- inch walls. Sometimes the screen wall is adorned on a larger scale, with mimic bamboo stanchions modelled in lime, as in the two cases shewn in the first view of Plate 1. Fig. 4 completes the example of columnar decoration of wall surfaces. The coupled pil- lars are attached at intervals, there being one or two win- , dows between the pairs, and |jj| they are based, not in a very |JJp solid manner, upon the string <||| of the first floor. One section applies to these bases ; the other represents the cornice and parapet, shewn in Fig. 3. The terrace roofs are simply formed by paving tiles about fourteen inches square, laid in hard mortar upon boarding and spars. Gutters behind parapets are often met with, formed of tile, and discharging at intervals into short stoneware pipes, “ fun- neling” into each other to form a stack (lao yu), attached with wire to the brickwork, and stoutly cased with stucco, wrought to imitate a great bam- boo ; in the example, Fig. 5, from Canton, it is seven inches in diame- ter, and often expanding at the top in a tulip- shaped finiul as a cistern head. Sometimes the para- pets are as full of holes as the bridge of a baga- telle board, and no gutter is necessary. Sometimes at the end of a long mid- dle gutter, a gargoile, that would rival any So- mersetshire tower speci- men, spouts out the dis- charge. These uncouth animals arc said to gape to a double purpose, — namely, that of swallow- ing evil influences when they are not disgorging drippings from eaves. Columns in China by no means lead the fashion in architec- ture. Though the facades of many places of worship resemble temples “ in antis”, having the outer brick walls forming the sides advanced to the front of the portico (see Plate 3), the two pillars, whether square, moulded, or circular, and often granite, have no capitals, and the shaft runs up behind the carved caves board, which turns up like a piece of drapery at the ends. This and the “ antefixaj” of the rolls of the roof form the whole entablature. There is a good deal of mould- ing about the bases (Fig. 6), which arc often pinched in as barbar- ously as the ladies’ feet. The bases shewn in Fig. 0 are of granite, used for internal pil- lars of temples at Can- ton. The shaft is some- times of pine wood, and rarely more than twelve or fifteen inches in diameter. The want of a capital is partly compensated for by a bracket, composed of a meander or fret, and which in wood-work Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 6 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. spreads from the column under the rail of the fiieze of a verandah, and is generally painted a deep giccn A\ith led edges, and varnished, and sometimes studded with roses gilt or painted (see Plate 2). Chimneys in the poorer houses are merely traps of tiling propped a foot or two above the general surface. Superior dwellings have fanciful pots covered on the top, and something resembling those common in Italy. Fig. 7. In Fig. 7 is represented a verandah attached to the flat ter- race roof of part of a dwelling-house at Canton. The residence, although built for foreigners (Parsees), is of Chinese invention as to its ornaments. Having commenced (as surveyors do) with the roofs, the carpentry will now be described, and this is decidedly the weak point in Chinese building. Though frequent brick Avails run up in all divisions of the building to take the bearings, it sometimes happens that large areas have to be covered, such as warehouses, Avhere the clear width may be from sixty to eighty feet (Plate 6, Fig. 1). In this case, the trusses arc assisted Avith brick piers, and there is no departure from the uncouth round spar construction. Great labour is directed to getting the ends of the little puncheons or posts accurately scribed to the convexity of the horizontal spar, leaving a little fragile tenon about an inch square as a joggle (Plate 6, Fig. 5). The carpenters infinitely prefer their oAvn elaborate, though faulty constructions of round poles, to the simple European king and queen post trusses, of sawn timber, which they are able to frame in one-fourth of the time occupied in putting together their OAvn invention. Floors are formed of the universal sappy pine spars, rarely more than ten inches thick, and if the bearing be fifteen or six- teen feet, the elasticity of the timbers indicates that the amuse- ments of the inhabitants of the one-pair floor do not consist of saltatory exercises. As there is often no ceiling to either story, the floor-boards arc ploughed and tongued. Partitions for lathing and plastering are sometimes con- structed, but boarded divisions to rooms arc more common. Of out-door Avorks in carpentry, the jetties, bridges, tempo- rary sheds, etc., cannot be called engineering Avorks, as they are executed in a very flimsy manner Avith bamboos about the thickness of a man’s arm, tied together Avith ligatures of the same material. They arc stronger than would be imagined, oAving to the number of their fastenings and cross bracings, which, like the innumerable little tics that confined the fabu- lous Gulliver to the soil of Lilliput, owe their poAver to their united force. But the Avriter has seen a bamboo bridge sAvcpt entire into the sea by a swollen Avater-course. The laws of good construction are not considered to be violated in the imposition of a heavy balcony of brick, plas- ter mouldings, tiled floor, and earthenware open compart- ments upon slight bressummers and Avood pillars (see Plate 3, Fig. 2). A portion of a screen, similar to that seen in Plate 2, and represented in Fig. 10, may be described as a series of sash doors, not glazed, the central two being hinged. The more ornamental carvings are gilt, or painted some light colour, whilst the fret and frame-work are green ; a white flower is painted on a small horizontal panel above and below the carv- ing. The dimension, one foot five inches and a half in width, determines the scale. Doors (moon) arc generally simply form- ed of upright boards keyed at the back. The hinges are often no- thing more than ph'ots above and bcloAv, and the lock and bolts of a very vwoden construc- tion. They manufac- ture good brass butt hinges, but the secu- rity of doors and shut- ters is so slight that shops in toAAms have to their open fronts a head and sill, pierced Avith mortices to re- ceive the tapered ends of a set of poles about four inches thick, and the same distance apart. This mode of construction is ex- plained in Plate 5, at the right-hand side. When all the poles are in situ, a board clamps them at the top, completes the bar- ricade, and behind it the inmates can sleep securely with open doors. Panelled doors are occasionally made by sticking mould- ings on the framing, and contriving the bottom rail to be the narroAvest. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. WindoAvs (chayong moon) are light casements, often hung in roAvs to form an extent of sash the whole length of the front, and three or four feet in height. This arrangement applies only to the upper story, and the depth from the ranging sill to the floor is fitted with turned balusters about tAVo inches in diameter backed with boarding. In toAvns, the shop-fronted houses have generally these open fa 9 adcs, sometimes richly carA’ed (Plates 1 and 4). The casements have their styles pivoted into cleats on the head and sills, having no jambs to hinge to or close against. The AvindoAvs often have cornices of plaster externally, the bcdmould shorter than the architrave of the head, and finished with a tail of fret-Avork at each end (Figs. 8 and 9). These illustrations are taken from external examples in stucco, exe- cuted at Canton ; the fret-Avork bcloAv the bcdmould in the larger example, projects about half an inch from the face of the plastering. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. I There are also triangular and circular pediments to these cornices, very barbarous, and seeming to caricature the style of Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren. The first impression on a new comer is, that the natives got these from the Portuguese ; be that as it may (and the question is only to be solved by the study of works erected in the interior of the country), the mouldings and the original enrichments of the tympanum are decidedly Chinese inventions. Fig. 11. Fig. 11 is an elevation of a window from Chinam’s Hong, shewn in Plate 1. The glazing is perhaps rather too civilized and conformable to English practice to be called Chinese. Fig. 12 is the same comice and tympanum enlarged. In well finished fronts the lower part of the sash is a panel with an embossed white sprig of leaves on the ground, which is generally green, as well as the sash-bars, that con- tain oyster-shell panes of va- ried angular figures, often dis- posed at random (PI. 3, Fig. 1). A central pane larger than the rest will be filled with real glass, composed perhaps of fragments sent in casks as ballast from England, melted down and manufactured in China ; while sometimes the sashes are lined with flowered paper. In less ornamented windows closing into rebated linings in brick walls, the sash -bars which sustain the translucent shell are longitudinal only, resembling our green-house roof sashes. Basement windows, especially those of warehouses, are strongly barred with iron. Venetian blinds (ngao park eep) sometimes take the place of the oyster-shell transparencies in ordinary houses, and are added as contrevents to those of the rich (Plate 1). Stairs are often simple step ladders, but are sometimes con- structed with rounded treads, risers, and string boards. They have also hand-rails and turned balusters. The principal de- fect in these conveniences is the excessive height of the riser, nine inches to eleven inches, without a compensating width of tread. The granite, which so abounds in the neighbourhood of Canton river, is disengaged from the mass by wedges, in blocks, perhaps five feet long and fifteen inches in width and depth. This proportion causes the masonry to exhibit extremely long stretchers and small headers. Three or four courses of ashler generally form the walling of the most assailable part of a large trading house or “hong”; viz., from the ground to the sills of the lower windows, which have solid granite jambs, heads, and sills. A plinth with a good ogee moulding is sometimes intro- duced. The large doorways are most substantially formed of granite. Several sets of jambs and lintels, two feet wide, and nearly a foot thick, that were erecting in a mercantile house at Hong Kong, strongly reminded the writer as he viewed them of a group in Stonehenge. A bead, with an ornamental ter- mination near the ground, adorns the angle of the door-jamb. The upper part of the building is of blue brick, which the workman does not care to bond well together. The facing is a white stucco; cornices and strings are formed by projecting the edges of tiles one inch and a quarter thick and fifteen inches square, and these tiles too closely dictate through a thin coat of stucco the profiles of the mouldings, though ogees, cavettos, and quarter-rounds, interspersed with little enrichments, are introduced in profusion. There are plenty of examples of brick arches in the circular apertures which in temples and dwelling-houses form openings for ingress and egress, or for ventilation. Stone mortar (shia fooi) is lime mixed with coarse grit. Brick mortar too often with red mud. Though brick facing is frequently executed very neatly, the delight ol the Chinese is to plaster over tin wall, wash it blue, and draw joints imitative of Flemish bond upon the coloured surface. Often in temples a long panel or frieze is sunk in the brick facing near the eaves, and its white field scattered with flowers and fruits partially gilded. Fig. 13. Like the people whose arts it is our province to describe, we are uniting the trades of bricklayer and plasterer. This two- branch operative possesses the accomplishments of modellei and designer of ornaments and enrichments, which aie pro- O ARCH. PfB. SOC. 8 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. duced without working drawings. He creates cornucopia in circular pediments over windows, arranges sprigs of foliage in centre flowers — (Figure 13 is one about three feet in diameter for a room) — lays birds and fishes about rain pipes (see Fig. 5), executes panellings in parapets, and works up cornices Fig. 14. (Fig. 14) with exceeding patience by hand, rejecting straight edges and sheet-iron moulds, and all such line and rule for- nudities, rather crippling his mouldings however in his inde- pendence. It is chiefly to protect these works on the exterior of a build- ing before the plaster is well set, that an immense cage (tap pong chong) of bamboo is reared, at an expense of two hundred and fifty dollars (£53), to inclose the whole edifice. A good thatching of leaves shelters the stucco-work from the heavy rains, that would destroy in a night the work of several weeks. The setting coat of internal plastering is mixed with shreds of white paper, which supplies the place of hair : the lime sets exceedingly hard. A remarkable feature in the ornamentation of stuccoed fronts is the introduction of ventilating apertures near the main cor- nice (see Fig. 11), which communicate with flues that open into the roof when there are plastered ceilings. Other ventilators pierce the slope, that connects the wall and ceiling, an inclined plane conforming to the rake of the roof, and lathed upon fear- fully slender battens, which serve for ceiling joists. Excavation goes on slowly. Earth is removed in two slen- der shallow baskets, carried milk-pail fashion by the labourer. In the course of the extensive building operations at Hong Kong, consequent on the conclusion of the war, in barracks, military hospitals, and fortifications, the commanding engineer, to expedite the “ diggers’ work”, caused some barrows to be made by the carpenters of the corps of sappers and miners, such as are used by our navvies. As soon as one was brought to the scene of action, the Chinese labourers filled it with earth, and not comprehending the use of the wheel or leverage of the handles, proceeded to lift the loaded barrow upon the shoulders of one or two of the stoutest of their comrades, who were to carry it to the depositing place. — E. A. The simplicity with which the Chinese make their scaffold- ings is quite surprising ; the architects of the palace employ neither beams nor planks in their construction ; long poles of pine wood, which are neither touched by an axe nor pierced by a nail, and which last for several generations, suffice to make scaffolds of one hundred and one hundred and fifty feet in height ; the labourers come and go as in a street, and move about without interrupting each other. — Quatremere. I he peculiar fashion of the Chinese tools in most cases proves their originality. Though their iron work is not good, yet their tools, such as chisels, planes, axes, etc., are excellent, and kept very sharp. They make great use of the circular saw, and they possess a saw for particularly fine work, which if we had not seen them using, we should have imagined the work had been done with a chisel. The blade of it consists merely of a single piece of brass wire jagged with a sharp instrument. The pattern to be cut out is traced on the wood, and a hole is bored in it, through which the wire is passed and made fast to the handle, which is kept outside the wood, and is altogether very similar to the instrument used in this country for the same kind of work. — Murray. lheir carpenter’s saw is formed of a very thin plate of steel, which for this reason is kept straight by a light frame of bamboo at the back, which serves at the same time as a handle. In appearance, this has a heavy and clumsy look, but the lightness of the bamboo prevents it being so in reality. For all rough work, they make use of a sort of axe slightly rounded on one side. This answers the purpose of an adze. Carpenters work their awls with a thong, the two extremities being attached to the tw r o ends of a stick. The thong being quite slack, a single turn of it is taken round the handle of the awl, which is then worked backwards and forwards with great velocity. The anvil of the Chinese blacksmith, instead of having a fiat surface, is slightly convex or rounded. The iron that is w-orked upon it thus extends more easily under the hammer on all sides, but the metal probably loses something in solidity. The bellows consist of a hollow cylinder, the piston of which is so contrived that the blast shall be continuous. — Davis. Extracts from a list of builders’ prices, from an average taken at Victoria, Hong Kong, in 1845. All superficial measurements are computed in squares, ten feet by ten feet; and the dollar has been calculated at 4s. 2d. in reduction to English currency : — Brickwork. s. d. 10 inches (thick) per square 39 7 14 inches „ 60 5 18 inches ,, 79 2 24 inches ,, 98 0 Bricks, per ten thousand 150 0 Flat tiles for paving, per thousand 104 2 Plastering. Two coats rendering and finish stucco, per sq. 4 2 Ceiling, laths and ornaments D 14 7 Double tiling roofs 29 o i » \ \ \ a jL| wa - «» ^ * h x • - - ?*? *<-■''■'•■- ■U^-.,V.^-;. MS HLa a n ^ a a twiji .» a v 34 ,0 a CHINAMS HONO VICTORIA. HONO KONG Platel. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE SSSSS2 vw; 1^1 PRIVATE DW £ LUNG HOUSE CANTON hUwflrapkjeds by NtsffDcykSott, Sep 30*1851 ARCH IT £ CTU Ft A L PU B L! CAT / ON SOC / LTV vol a p»z ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY E AshvtOTiJ’ ' ' A ■ PART OF A TEA MERCHANTS DWELLING HOUSE CANTON. GA'Bl E END OF TE NHL E MACAO . Litfiot/rapTMLby Mess rs DcykSon.ficp T 30 ,K 1851 ARCHITECTURAL publication society CHINESE ARCHITECTURE E Ash STRE ET SCENE C AN TO>’ . near Uie Foreign Parlor Lej -jgvgUi» K -4M r f ! T si!* m m\t fcrai'- El j J ' Sw !i ‘ VH 5^ : fi3r3 ^ , piL III j ' ^-T- - \fe ] Vi* < tic HM i«r Ltihqf ranked. by Mrs* iSw... 'ep T 30*lSb! VOL. 3. PT 2 ARCHITECTURAL PU B L /CATION SOCI ETV 68 . Plate 5 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE ■ jrjp$ F.AshwyrO CHINESE STREET. MACAO l.uhvyaphfTL b,y Mess r 'Tay kSmi.Si-p' ■iO tn ! SSI . ‘ . . ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY Plate 6 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE CLOTH WAREHOUSE CANTON WARE HOUSE CAN T ON PUNCHEON E Ashworth - Wim x E i . | l, Wio graphed. by Mess" bay ISon Eep' SO^lSb] . 1 — 1 | — ! — ■ 1 ! 1 1 ' ■ - -i' | ; | E3 E3 VO!. I \' T I A p CH I T E CTU P A L PUBLICATION SOCIETY -vr ter "'// ’ l .Z. 4. T //. Lewi >\ M I fi.A FLOItEN C K Pia^^a, del Ducmo lithographed, by Mcf* n Dcy USm,, W 1X^1850 J VOL. 2. PT1. FI.OKENC R hi HIND OR 5 AN Midi K j, K l> I -ION « S' Mm/tjtr> I'irjo Sydney Smis he M. / />'// Kig 4 I. E G H 0 UN VOL.HL PT1. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 53 CORE El - * wM ■' C\> ■ ■ A. J. Green, M! ft A CASTELLO O/ Z/ZA J, idwq 1 txfJifil hyMess r ‘ dtylSon, Match 74 1851 CO RNI ('] (BRICK.) SANTO. ROM I' CTFURCH rf SAN 010 RjGJ 0 m VK LARRO ROM K M. Dti) by Wyatt M Diqby Wyatt • - CHURCH of the SERVT ROROONA . Janus M Lorkyer, MJ.fi. CHURCH of SAN STEPflANO.. FERRARA THE GREAT II O S R IT A_L._ MI I, AN. H fi Garlzru ) , tun MJ.fi. A ntilrntr V'"-'- I - l _ ShN-- VOL . I f*T2 . ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 17 . SANTO STEFA NO. _YENTCE . 1325. AT BO LOON A lames M lorkyer, M. 1 . fi.A. Cha? Fourier, Jim '. I.tiho.yraphedsby MessMJhlylcSon. May 7 * 1849 . / TICT URAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY Ti 1 W ~"T , j & h~-' ■ •* ' SL 1 jr— * — * V— . ... AAJl/JO, HH Pod m iL._ _ _ r rzn i r n r ‘ . ^ u i 1 r ' A Z Z 0 C A P H A R 0 L A vjohol* . apca' tHiilMHi IC i fil il III 1 1 ft! li t mmmmmmmmMmmm gpk* *prt?" -'**MHfc' 1 * 2*1 Pmntp^ ~Rv Hnlltnajid-gl ic Walton . I n N Qv r 1852 . • //Mrs/-: Of THP. FROVZjrCfAl ASSEJURI.Y, II MICK I. ON A . Pruned bv ITullmacdeJ JcWalton, i ‘ l Nov r 1852 * architectural publication society QUAD RAM GZE OF HO IPSE IN THE VIA AMALf/TAN/A. THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN, EXTRACTED FROM THE SECOND CHAPTER OF TnE FIRST BOOK OF THE WORK DE ARCIIITECTURA, by MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO. LIBER 1. CAPUT II. EX QUIBUS REBUS ARCHITECTURA CONSTET. Architectura autem constat ex ordinatione qua; grace ra&c dicitur et ex dispositione : Ilanc autem graeci cia^emv vocitant et eurithmia et symmetria et decorc et distributione qua; 5 grace oiKoronia dicitur : Ordinatio est modica mcmbrorum operis commoditas separatim universieque proportiones ad symmetriam comparatio haec componitur ex quantitate qua; grace -KorrooTijc dicitur: Quantitas autem est modulorum ex ipsius operis sumptio e singulisque mcmbrorum partibus universi operis con- io veniens effectus : Dispositio autem est rerum apta conlocatio eligansque compositionibus effectus operis cum qualitate: Species dispositionis qua; grace dicuntur «’£tat sunt lue ichnographia ortographia scaenographia ichnographia est circini regulteque modicse continens usus aequa capiuntur formarum in soliis 15 arearum descriptiones. Ortographia autem est erecta frontis irnmago modiceque picta rationibus operis futuri figura : Item scamographia est frontis et laterum abscedentium adumbratio ad circinique centrum omnium linearum responsus ha; nas- cuntur ex cogitatione et inventione : Cogitatio est cura studii 20 plena et industria; vigilantiaeque effectus propositi cum voluptate : Inventio autem est qusestionum obscurarum explicatio ratioque nova; rei vigore mobiii reperta. ha; sunt terminationes dispo- sitionum Eurithmia est venusta species commodusque in conpo- sitionibus membrorum aspectus hrnc efficitur cum membra operis 25 convenientia sunt altitudinis ad latitudinem latitudinis ad longi- tudincm et ad summam omnia respondeant sua; symmetria;: Item symmetria est ex ipsius operis mcmbris conveniens con- sensus ex partibusque separatis ad universm figura specicm lata; partis responsus uti in hominis corpore e cubito. pede palmo. 30 digito cieterisque particulis symmetros est eurithmia; qualitas sic est in operum perfectionibus DE .EDIBUS SACRIS. Et primum in cedibus sacris aut e columnarum crassitudinibus aut triglypho. aut ctiam embatere ballista; foramine quod graeei ■u ntpLrprfTov vocitant. navibus interscalmio qua; cupox 10 ^) dicitur: Item ca;terorum operum e membris invenitur symmetriarum ratiocinatio : decor autem est emendatus operis aspectus pro- batis rebus compositi cum auctoritate. is perficitur statione quod grace Qtp.aTirTjj.6c dicitur seu consuetudine aut natura : Statione lo cum jovi fulguri et cselo et soli et lunae mdificia sub divo hypaethraque constituentur horum enim deorum et species et effectus in aperto mundo atque lucenti prasentes vidimus minerva; et marti et herculi aides doricse fient. his enim diis propter virtutem sine deliciis aedificia constitui decet: 4jVeneri flore proserpinae fonticuin phiscorinthio genere con- stituta;. aptas videbuntur habere proprietates quod his diis propter teneritatem graciliora et florida foliisque et volutis ornata opera facta augere videbuntur justum decorem junoni. diane libero patri cteterisque diis qui eadem sunt similitudine -o si a;des ionicae construentur habita erit ratio mediocritatis quod ARCH. PUB. SOC. BOOK I. CHAPTER II. On those things of ichich A rchitecture consists. Architecture consists of Ordination, which in Greek is called ra£tc; Disposition, which the Greeks name ciaSemv; Eurithmy; Symmetry ; Fitness ; and Distribution, which in Greek is is termed oicovopla. Ordination is the adjustment as to size of the members of the work in themselves, in reference to their uses, and as com- pared with the scale of the entire design. This arises out of dimension, which in Greek is called Tro e f ; 1. 76, autem operum est, ce; 1. i 8, earn non potuent, d ; 1. 79, nisi cum magno, bd; 1. 79, non in omnibus, c ; 11. 80 and 84, sapinorum, d b ; 1. 83, aut maxime lota, a ; 1. 88, aut ad pecuniw, f ; 1. 90, aliter est quibus, a ; 1. 92, alter, c. directs, that temples to Jupiter Thunderer, and to Coelus, and to the Sun, and to the Moon, be erected without roofs, and hypaj- thral ; for we see around us the effect and appearance of these deities in the open air and broad light. To Minerva, Mars, and Hercules, Doric temples should be built ; for to these gods, because of their masculine valour, it is proper that buildings should be erected without ornament : edifices in the Corinthian order to Venus, Flora, Proserpine, and nymphs of fountains, will seem to be appropriate, because more graceful and florid w r orks, ornamented with volutes and adorned with leaves, will seem to be better adapted to the feminine character of these deities. If to Juno, Diana, Bacchus, and other gods who are like unto them, Ionic temples should be built, then will be attained a due mean, because the style suitable for them is a modification between the severity of the Doric, and the deli- cacy of the Corinthian. In respect of custom, too, fitness is in like manner maintained, when buildings with magnificent interiors have suitable and elegant vestibules. For if the interiors should be elegant, but the entrances of poor and mean appearance, there would not be fitness. So, if in the Doric entablatures, dentils be carved, or if triglyphs be introduced in the entablatures on pulvinated capitals and Ionic columns, proprieties of one style being transferred into another, the sight will be offended, from the use of peculiarities contrary to established custom. But natural fitness will thus arise; for if healthy sites and fountains of water are thought necessary in those places, in which shrines are to be raised to any of the gods, then especially would they be so in the case of -ZEsculapius, of Salus, and of those divinities by whose medicine many sick men are seen to be cured. For when invalids are transferred from a pestilent to a healthy place, where the supply of water is furnished from pure springs, they will the sooner convalesce. Thus it will result from the nature of the place that the divinity will be more thought of, and held in greater reverence. Also the fitness as to nature will be attended to, if for cham- bers and libraries light be obtained from the east; for baths and winter apartments, from the west ; for picture-galleries and others, in which a steady light is required, from the north ; because that region of the sky is neither made lighter nor darker in the sun’s course, but is steady and unchangeable throughout the day. Distribution is an advantageous use of the materials and site, and a frugal expenditure in the execution. This will be observed, if the Architect does not ask for those mate- rials which cannot be found or procured except at great expense. For there is not in every place plenty of pit-sand, cement, fir, larch, or marble, but one or other may be procurable only in another locality ; and the carriage, consequently, difficult and expensive. So that, where there is no pit-sand, river or sea- sand must be used, being first washed. The want of the fir or larch may be obviated by using cypress, poplar, elm, or pine : other difficulties, also, may have to be got over in like manner. Another branch of distribution is, when the buildings have to be arranged according to the wants of the head of a family, or in proportion to the wealth, or to the dignity of eloquence of the owner. For it appears, that city houses should be arranged in one way; but a different distribution must obtain in the resi- dences of those, who derive their means from the produce of their lands ; one system for traders ; and another for the rich and luxu- rious; but for the powerful, by whose thoughts the state is governed, the houses must be adapted to their position ; and, in short, the arrangement of buildings must ever be suited to the wants of the persons requiring them. It is not intended to present the above translation as a literal rendering of the text of the English codices in particular, but rather of what is presumed to be a faithful representatiou of the original text emended by reference to other authorities. THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN. 3 OBSERVATIONS. Architecture may very properly be regarded in a three-fold view, under those distinct courses of study necessary to produce the perfect Architect, whom Vitruvius describes. It is a science; an art of design; and a practical or mechanical art. Under all these three aspects does our author contemplate it, in the open- ing of his work. He begins the first chapter by considering it as a science, embracing an extensive range of knowledge, both theoretical and practical. The former of these branches, admitting only of a general treatment, in a work of his scope, he disposes of in the same chapter, recurring to it occasionally, as opportunity offers ; but the practical knowledge necessary for an Architect, so far as it can be gleaned from writing, he discusses at consi- derable length, in the latter chapters of the first, and the whole of the second, seventh, and eighth books. In his second chapter, he proceeds to consider architecture as an art of design (or the ratiocinatio artis , as he elsewhere calls it), having reference to practical utility; and lays down very distinctly, and with equal truth and beauty, those principles or elements of composition, by which every architectural design should be tested, before it is put into execution. In his third chapter, after specifying the three heads, under which architecture, as then practised, ranged itself, he adverts briefly to the points requiring attention in the opus or mechanical execution of the design. It is under the aspect explained in the second chapter, that we wish more particularly to consider the subject, on the present occasion. This chapter, more, perhaps, than any other part of the writings of Vitruvius, not even excepting the scamitti impares , the de harmonia, or the vasa theatri, has been an amigma and a stumbl in "-block to all those who have undertaken, either O to explain or translate the text of our author. Barbaro and Scamozzi, though at great pains to elucidate it, have left it involved in rather greater obscurity than originally invested it. Philander and Poleni, despairing of throwing any light upon it, have left it untouched ; and Perrault hesitates not to say, that “ no one can discover the essential difference of ordinance, dis- position, and distribution in a building, nor how proportion can be considered as distinct from these, seeing they can none of them be effected without attention to this principle”; and in his translation, resigning all hope of arriving at the true sense of the text, he manifests a characteristic boldness, in altering it to suit his own conceptions of the should be, wisely judging that to be the readiest means of solving this gordian knot. Lastly, Newton, with somewhat more show of modesty, acknowledges that the words seem put together in such a manner, as to have neither “ coherence nor sense”. The translators have been scarcely more happy. Barbaro and Orsini, Perrault and Martin, Newton and Gwilt, have all fallen into errors, more or less gross, either in the rendering of specific words, or in the general conception of their author’s meaning. It is indeed matter of no surprise that all this obscurity should exist. Vitruvius confessedly compiled his treatise, in most part, from Greek authors ; and he endeavours to embody and explain their lessons of art in a tongue, into which their terms had never yet been translated. Moreover, he is, in this part of his work, treating in the abstract a subject of much abstruseness. He is the only author we possess, either Greek or Roman, who has treated upon that subject; and even he handles it in a very concise and summary manner, presupposing his Roman reader to be prepared by education to understand a technical classification familiar in the schools of his period. The difficulty is yet increased, by his using, perhaps unavoidably, a confused phrase- ology, in employing the same term to explain one of his six principles, which he makes to express another. It is owing to the ambiguity arising from our ignorance of his arch. pub. sor. technical terms in their true force and meaning, and the conse- quent doubt that hangs over many of his passages, that his writings have, of late years, lost, instead of gaining, in general estimation with the professors of the art of which they treat. In this age of railway rapidity, when royal roads to every attainment are expected on all hands, and books, of more or less pretension and merit, have been multiplied in every department of art, no wonder if the old-fashioned, dry, and uninteresting because unintelligible, pages of a Latin author, are in danger of being discarded for the supposedly more rational and practical works of a later date. The architectural student, anxious to come at once at the fundamental principles of his profession, sits down to consult the father and oracle of the art. Scarcely have his fears of final success been excited by a summary of the talents and acquirements necessary for an Architect, before he is arrested in his studies by a metaphysical disquisition not easily comprehended, and of which, should he venture to consult any of the general interpreters, he is not likely soon to arrive at the meaning. Discouraged and disgusted because disappointed, he impatiently closes the book ; and instead of attributing his failure to his own want of apprehension or perseverance, he con- cludes that the author was either lunatic, or ignorant of that which he professed. Such a mode of study will not suffice for an Architect. The necessary knowledge is not to be gained but by diligent and persevering application ; nor is it, when obtained, to be reduced to practice, with anything like good effect, without unremitting attention and repeated assays. That the Greeks had reduced their architecture to a highly elaborated system, and studied it upon scientific principles well digested, can, I think, scarcely admit of doubt, if we only re- member that — They so greatly excelled in its practice ; — They were a people loving philosophical investigations of every de- scription ; — We have still remaining elaborate and deeply argu- mentative treatises upon the arts of speaking, writing, and other sciences and non-plastic arts ; — The subjects treated of are re- duced to first principles ; — They had public schools and places of general resort, where such questions were constantly agitated ; and spent all their time (the Athenians at least) in healing or telling some new thing; and, finally, they actually wrote elabo- rate works on architecture, the names of many of which have descended to us. Rome derived her knowledge of art from Greece. The con- current testimony of all history affirms that Grsccia capta ferum victorem ccpit et artes Intulit agresti Latio. Vitruvius professes to give us the six Greek divisions of archi- tectural design, in the chapter under consideration; and the only reason for doubting its authenticity or correctness, is a cer- tain obscurity with which his statement is supposed to be enve- loped. If, then, it can be shown that he gives a just analysis of architectural design,— that the terms he uses arc appropriate and consistent,— and that the order in which lie places them is just and natural ; a service will be rendered to the study of the art, and a powerful argument supplied in favour of the genuineness and authenticity of our author. The attempt is the more inviting, on account of the utility connected with it: for though any in- formation respecting the vasa theatri , or the scamilli impares, may lie more curious than useful, or, at the least, but seldom available for practical purposes, any light thrown upon the passage in question, would render it serviceable, in every design we can possibly form, in whatever style conceived. The principles of composition, which Vitruvius would have us ever keep in mind in the formation of an architectural design, are stated in the extract at the head of this essay, and are six:- II 4 THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN. ordination, disposition, eurithmy, symmetry, decor (or fitness), and distribution. Of these, the first is, perhaps, the most difficult, and certainly the most important, to comprehend and distinguish from the rest. And here let me premise, that it is not to be supposed that any one or more of the distinct principles here enumerated can exist totally independent of the others, any more than the elements of words can have their due, or indeed any, sound, without the assistance of each other. Ordination, Vitruvius defines as “ the adjustment as to size of the members of the work in themselves, in reference to their uses, and as compared with the scale of the entire design.” Newton translates this passage thus : “ Ordination is the proper modification of the members separately, and the regulation of the whole proportion and symmetry.” But this is more nearly a definition of architecture generally, as an art of design. He has evidently been led into this error by taking the Latin word ordinatio in the same sense as we use the word Order. But that this is not its true sense, is evident from the fact, that Vitruvius makes here no reference whatever to the orders, but speaks generally; so that the whole of what he lays down in this chapter is equally applicable, whether an order be employed or not, which it could not be, if the very first step in the formation of a design must necessarily be the selection of an order. Besides, this definition, as Newton renders it, omits the three essential particulars noticed in the original, viz., — the size of the parts, included in the word modica, their use, commoditas, and the general scale of the whole structure, universe? jrroportionis symmetric?. Galiani translates it, “ un misurato commodo de’ membri di una fabbrica presi separatamente, e’l rapporto di tutte le sue proporzioni alia simmetria”; a rendering very similar to the former, and almost equally defective. This is the more remark- able, because Galiani adds in a note, that ordination means the giving to the members of an edifice the size due to their use ; an annotation, by-the-bye, which he has borrowed from Perrault, without acknowledging its author. This latter, as already stated, proposes to alter the text, as the only means of making sense ; an alternative not justified, so far as I can find, by any manuscript ; and I think unnecessary, as perhaps any one will allow, who compares the above rendering with the original text. The translation of Jean Martin is scarcely more correct: nor is that of Orsini ; both of whom seem to have been at a loss for the real meaning of their author. Barbaro translates it thus : “ Ordine b moderata attitudine de i membri dell’ opera, partitamente e rispetto a tutta la pro- portione al compartimento, il quale si compone di quantita”; a definition which defines nothing, but serves rather to conceal the meaning of the author than to explain it. Sir Henry Wotton considered that ordinatio meant merely the adoption of a module for the whole work ; a misconception to which we may probably trace Newton’s error. He also ima- gined that dispositio was simply the plain expression of the forms or ideas ol the design ; so that he did not hold it necessary to include these two in his enumeration of the principles of archi- tectural composition. As, then, the translation above given requires no emendation or forcing of the text, is in itself plainly intelligible, and is borne out by Perrault, Gwilt, and Schneider, I hesitate not to adopt it. According to this, then, Ordination is that principle of our art, which requires us to give to the parts of our designs their appropriate size ; lor instance, to the several apartments, suffi- cient area for the purposes to which they are dedicated, without making them disproportionately large for the whole structure. It requires us to give to our doorways, corridors, stairs, etc., suf- ficient width ; to our windows sufficient size for the requisite supply of light; and to our walls and other supports, sufficient thickness or strength. There is, however, one difficulty to be met. The term ordi- natio seems rather to express arrangement, than adjustment of size. How, then, does it admit of such an interpretation as we have given it ? We must here, in the first place, observe, that as Vitruvius professes to derive his knowledge from Greece, so he employs all Greek terms ; and it is therefore to Greece that we must look for a solution of the question. Now the term ordinatio he explains by rd£ie, which is no doubt the original word, of which ordinatio is a correct translation. Both express the marshalling or setting in array of an army. And here we must not forget the difference between ancient and modern warfare ; in the former of which success depended more on the courage, prowess, and martial elo- quence of the generals, and in the latter upon their skill. The tactics of Grecian warfare were particularly simple. The troops of the several states were drawn up under their respective leader ; but nearly, or quite, in a straight line ; and the whole issue trusted to a single onset. With little or no cavalry, and no chariots or elephants, their battles elicited none of the manoeuvres, which the use of gunpowder, and especially artil- lery, has given rise to in modern times. The disposition of an army involved but little idea of arrangement : the chief points were, to bring all the forces into the field ; to marshal the natural divisions under their officers; and the general’s skill was displayed in apportioning his troops to the several departments of the field. In forming them in a phalanx, fifteen or twenty deep, to make the attack, or in a line to receive it ; in determining that his tp(3t\ov or xoiXtufioXov, his nXivOiov or Trvpyoe, should consist of so many Xo-^oi or r«£at, his phalanx be dpdia or irXayia, as circumstances seemed to require. So an Architect’s skill in ordination, consists in apportioning a given space and amount to the several uses in- volved in drawing out, as it were, before him, a muster-roll of the several apartments and other necessary parts in due order, according to their several stations and importance in relation to the whole. Or, if we imagine the terms to be employed only in their general acceptation, of setting in order, without reference to an army, the parts of a building may be said to be set in order without reference to actual location, when the most important is made the largest, and the next in importance is also next in size, and so on. in regular gradation ; in which also there seems to be some similarity to the form and subordination of an army. The second principle enumerated by Vitruvius, Disposition, and the Greek ciuOtmg, both have exactly the same meaning, viz., the placing in order according to some given system of classifi- cation, or, as Vitruvius here defines it, “the just collocation of the parts, and the desirable effect in the composition of the work with regard to quality.” As, then, ordination gives us the sizes according to their uses, so disposition teaches us how to place them together, both according to their use ( apta collocatio) and the general effect in the composition. This term, Mr. Gwilt translates “ arrangement” ; but as that is mostly applied to the construction of the plan, and Vitruvius goes on to show that lie means every species of collocation, I prefer the more general term of disposition. Euritiimy, the third division, Vitruvius says, is “ the graceful form and suitable appearance in the composition (or compound- ing) of the parts”; and is realized, he adds, when the members are of a height suitable to their width, and a breadth propor- tioned to their length ; and, in short, when all things accord to their own proper proportion. “So Symmetry (the fourth), he adds, “is the proper harmony of the members of the work itself, and the agreement of any given one of the several parts with the appearance of the whole”; where the words ipsius ope r is, and universe? figure? , are evidently op- posed to the word membrorum in the definition of eurithmy. And yet so little has this part been understood, that I have not been able to find any one translation in which it is properly rendered, and the distinction maintained. Barbaro, though he translates correctly the last clause of the definition of eurithm, omnia respondeant suce symmetric v, which THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN. is generally construed as though it were universe symmetria, “ the proportion of the whole”, but which he renders “ ogni cosa risponda al suo corapartimento proprio”, yet confounds the whole by a note, in which he says, “ symmetry is the beauty of order or ordinance, as eurithmy is of disposition”; whereas neither one nor other of them have anything whatever to do with disposition or location of any kind. Perrault considers eurithmy and symmetry as synonymous, and translates them “eurithmie ou proportion”, adding, in a note, that all previous commentators had thought eurithmia and symmetric/, as distinct, because they seemed to have, different definitions, whereas, in reality, they were one and the same. Galiani has fallen into an equally remarkable error. He has confounded the Latin compositio and dispositio; and has expressly stated in a note, that eurithmy means the equal distribution of the members of an edifice, so as to produce a pleasing effect, espe- cially making the left-hand side accord with the right. In like manner, Mr. Gwilt translates symmetric i “ uniformity”, evidently misled by the authorities above quoted. Newton has had a pretty just conception of the distinction, for he says in a note, euritlimia seems to refer to the proportion of a member in itself ; symmetria to the relation of proportion of the members to each other and to the whole : yet, strange to say, he adds, “ they are very similar”, and then renders the text in the usual and corrupt manner, translating suw symmetria • “ to the symmetry of the whole”; adding in his comment, that eurithmy is “the agreement of parts with each other and with the whole”; which is exactly the only sense that can be put upon his rendering of the definition of symmetry, except that he there interpolates the word “ same”. Our only other translator (Jos. Gwilt) renders the former of these two definitions very nearly as does Newton; and for the latter he furnishes a fresh definition, so as to suit the new sense he has given to the word symmetria. It seems, indeed, that the whole of the confusion above no- ticed, has arisen from forgetting that every member has at least two dimensions which must bear certain relations to each other, as well as to the whole of the composition ; an error which would have been at once corrected, had the word compositionibus been translated as a substantive, which it is, instead of as a gerund, which it is not. The former construction shows clearly that the author had reference to the composing or forming of the members out of their fundamental parts of height, width, and length, as a chemical compound is formed out of its simples. This, it is evident, is the meaning of Vitruvius, by the term eurithmy. As he defines it, it is applicable only to the ratios of the several dimensions of one member or part, whether it be the width and height of a facade, a door, window, or other feature ; or the relation of the length, width, and height of an apartment ; the depth and projection of a cornice ; the diameter and height of a column, etc. That this is the sense in which Vitruvius employs the term is clear ; for this is secured, he says, when the members are of a height suitable to their breadth, of a breadth suitable to their length, and, in fact, when all things answer to their own proportion or symmetry, — a passage where the word symmetria is used in a general sense, for it is not to be supposed that he would explain one of his six principles by another. Hence it appears how utterly unfounded is the idea of those writers, who state, that either of these terms signifies the equal and similar distribution of the parts, on the right and left of the centre. Were any argument necessary to show this falsity, it is furnished by the fact, that about one-half of those who find this principle laid down by Vitruvius, discover it in the word eurithmia, and the other half in symmetria. Hence we might naturally infer, that it is justly discoverable in neither. In like manner, then, as eurithmy regards the relations of the dimensions of any single member, symmetry refers to the rela- tions of one member to another, or of any given dimension of one member to the corresjxmding dimension of another. En- rithmic proportion exists between the height of a column and its ARCH. PIB. SOC. diameter; symmetric, between the height of a column and the height of the entablature, and also between the diameter of the column and the width of the intercolumn. Eurithmie, between the width and height of a door or of a window ; symmetric, be- tween the door as a whole and the window as a vdiole, or between the widths and the heights of the two respectively: eurithmie, between the length and height of the whole facade; symmetric, between the centre and wings, and between either of these and the whole facade, and so on. The expression “ in good proportion” is therefore either very extensive or very indefinite; for it either means that the thing spoken of is in good proportion, both as a whole, and also as a part of a wdiole, or else it does not express of which nature is the proportion approved, whether eurithmie or symmetric. That symmetria has nothing to do with location, is clear from its derivation, which as plainly expresses the comparison of one thing with another, in respect of magnitude, as it is possible for words to express : literally, it is “a measuring together”, or one against the other, as if to determine which were the greater. Some have been misled by our author employing the members of the human figure to exemplify his definition; arguing that as they are set uniformly one opposite to the fellow, that was wdiat Vitruvius meant. If so, lie would have used the plural number, and repeated the preposition, and said, as in the human body the hands, feet, etc., are symmetrical, so in perfect works, etc. But not so : his language is, ut in hominis corpore e cubito, pede, pal mo, digit o, cceterisque partibus symmetros est, etc., i. e. , as be- tween the cubit, foot, palm, and finger — measures taken from the human body, there exists a symmetry of proportion, so is it in perfect works. Besides, the digitus is not properly said to be uniformly placed, unless the uniformity is stated to exist on the tw r o hands, and not on the one. And again, he goes on to specify certain measures, such as the diameter of a column, the triglyph, etc., which determine the dimensions of all other parts of the composition in which they occur: so that he clearly establishes two kinds of proportion, eurithmie and symmetric. J The fifth element of architectural design which our author lays down, is decor, or Fitness, by Newton translated “propriety”, and by Gwilt, “consistency”. He defines it as “a correct aspect of a work composed of parts, approved with the sanction of precedent or authority.” This, he says, is three-fold, according to the grounds upon which it proceeds, whether that be of what he calls statio, or of custom, or of nature. The first of these has been variously translated: station, Newton calls it; and Gwilt, circumstance; Barbaro, stanza ; Orsini, abitazione ; Martin, situation d’un lieu; Perrault, <5tat des choses; and Galiani, statuto. Vitru- vius explains it by the Greek OtpariirpoQ, from degarHiw, to lay down a fundamental principle. For instance, he says, tem- ples to Minerva, Mars, and Hercules, should be Doric, because, owing to the stern attributes of those deities, their shrines should be without delicate enrichments; but temples to Venus, Flora, ] etc., should be Corinthian, in accordance with the tender nature of these divinities. Here it would seem that the fundamental principle that required to be laid down was the distinctive attri- bute of the deity to whom the temple was to be dedicated, and which, being known, the style of the composition would be de- termined. Here we may observe that considerable latitude was left for selection ; for, according to the exact aspect under which the deity or object of the erection was contemplated, so the style would be varied. Thus, at Athens, to Minerva, as the goddess of war, the Parthenon, of the Doric order, is dedicated ; but to the same divinity, regarded as the tutelary deity of the city, the promoter of peace, and the protector of arts, a temple of decora- tive Ionic order is erected. Conventional propriety, or consistency as regards custom , re- quires that established usages, which have been approved in all ages, should not be infringed ; for instance, that triglyphs should be introduced in no other order but the Doric ; and again, that dentils be not admitted into the Doric. The other illustration G THE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN. given by Vitruvius of conventional propriety, viz., that magnifi- cent internal structures should be approached by spacious and elegant vestibules, might perhaps appear more appropriate to lu3 third division, viz., natural propriety. But, in fact, this latter refers only to external nature, decor naturalis Vitruvius calls it, which every Latin scholar knows is not synonymous with natural decor, but is that which requires the structure to be judiciously located, and arranged with respect to the natural objects, pheno- mena, or peculiarities by which it is surrounded ; for instance, aspects, healthy or appropriate localities, and the like. But the consistency of styles alluded to, depends upon association of ideas, which results from experience or habit, and is, therefore, appropriately ranged under the second division. The sixth and last principle that he establishes is Dis- tribution, explained by him as “ an advantageous use of the materials and site, and a frugal expenditure in the exe- cution.” Most of the commentators have imagined that because their author proceeds at once to give certain advice respecting economy in materials, that this is mainly or solely the object of distributio. But if a little more consideration were devoted to the Greek term, which we must insist upon regarding as the true original, we should more clearly arrive at his mean- ing. The Greek word is oiKovonta, a term which expresses the entire control and arrangement, not only of the household affairs, but of the whole estate and its resources, and is more nearly rendered by our word “ stewardship” than by any other in our language. Now, as in a Greek establishment it was the office of the oeconomos to provide for all the requirements of the family and of the estate, and yet to husband the resources, so it is the province of architecture, under this aspect, to furnish all the requisite parts of the design (without lavish expenditure), in such manner and measure as may best accord with the cir- cumstances of the case. 'Outovofiia, therefore, as a scientific term, was particularly appropriate, and very judiciously introduced by our author, as explanatory of his Latin word, which, though the nearest translation his language afforded, is by no means adequate to express the force of the original. It seems, then, that according to Vitruvius, the principles of architectural design are — Ordination, by which the parts are made of a size appropriate to their use ; Disposition, by which they are placed in convenient and effective collocation ; Euritiimy, or the due adjustment of the parts in themselves; Symmetry, or the unity of proportion between all the parts and the whole ; Fitness, or propriety, or consistency; and Distribution, or economical provision of the essential requisites. Sir Ilenry Wotton, as already stated, considered that ordina- tion and disposition were redundant in this explication. But if we have properly understood them, all the parts of a design might be well proportioned in themselves, and a unity of propor- tion might run through them all; they might also be consistent as regards appropriateness of style to the object proposed, cus- tom, and external nature; and every requisite might also be furnished without inordinate expense: and yet, if ordination were neglected, some of the parts would be too small for their use, in proportion to the general scale, and others larger than necessary ; or the parts might even be correct in these respects, and yet, unless disposition were studied, be inconveniently con- trived, or so arranged as to produce a clumsy or weak effect. Nor, on the other hand, was Perrault more correct, when he supposed that if ordination and disposition were properly at- tended to, all other requisites must necessarily be secured. For an edifice might be very convenient, both in respect of the mag- nitude and arrangement of its parts, which might in the essential dimensions be proportioned to their uses and the general scale, and the effect arising from arrangement be the best they admitted ol ; yet the apartments, though of sufficient area, might be too low or too long for their width to be elegant or noble ; sufficient light might be admitted at very ill-proportioned windows ; the entrance, though wide enough, might be inelegantly low, or ab- surdly high; the vestibule, though large enough for useful pur- poses, and appropriately situated, yet not consistent with the spacious saloons; or the design might be correct in all the above particulars, and yet be abundantly too expensive for execution, or when executed, useless, because, forsooth, there was no stair- case to the upper floor, or, if a palace, no state rooms in which to hold the levees. In like manner, the ordination, disposition, consistency, and distribution, may be perfect; and there may be also unity of pro- portion, but that very clumsy or very weak ; or the proportions of eurithmy may be very good, and yet one part of the edifice in Doric tone, and another in Ionic, and a third Corinthian. And so, were we to ring the changes, we should not find one of these six elements with which we could dispense. On the other hand, that design, which provides all the essen- tial requisites, so far as expense and circumstances will admit, thereby fixing the general scale of the composition ; which pro- portions their sizes to their uses on this general scale ; and which arranges them in the most convenient manner, is complete in the utile ; and if it also affixes graceful proportions to all these parts, and entwines them with a oneness of ratios, so far as is consistent with their usefulness, and then places these graceful parts in good relative positions, maintaining consistency through- out ; such, we say, is a perfect design, so far as art can make it. That it may be clever, good, beautiful, or deserve any of the other hackneyed epithets, we do not assert. This depends not upon education, but upon talent ; not upon acquired, but upon natural, power in the designer. This analysis of the theory of Vitruvius is, therefore, not only correct, but also visibly exhibits all the elements of the compound, and the order in which they are placed is just and natural. First, the parts are procured of appropriate size ; then justly arranged as to convenience and effect, which, as there can be only one arrangement, must be a single act ; but this must be done with reference to eurithmy, both as regards ordination and disposition, and these must again be adjusted ac- cording to symmetry. Next, we must see that the consistencies are maintained ; and, lastly, that everything essential is provided, and not too much expense incurred. The only doubt that can exist, is whether distribution should not come first ; for ordina- tion, disposition, eurithmy, and symmetry, must of necessity come together, and decor , or consistency, as a restriction, follow. But as distribution is, after all, the grand restrictive clause, it very properly accompanies decor , and with equal consistency closes the catalogue. If this be so, then, as far as the limits of a paper like the pre- sent will allow, I have succeeded in making good my original proposition, or, at all events, in showing that in this case, at least, the text of Vitruvius is not “ sophistical twaddle”, as it has been called, “ put together by an ignorant compiler, who scarcely possessed the most crude and childish notions on the subject treated of.” I have endeavoured to show that it is an admirable explication of the subject when elicited, in all the views in which it can be regarded. True, it is not easy to make it out, on account of its minute sub-division and subtle analysis, — a characteristic feature of Greek philosophy and metaphysics, — as well as from the absence in ourselves of a like methodical investigation of the operations of the mind, which leaves us unprepared to appreciate its fitness. It is the original of every similar attempt, but equalled by none ; and the author, whoever he was, is worthy of our highest admiration, entitled to our warmest thanks. William Willmer Pocock, B.A. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. Oxe of the fundamental principles in architectural design is perfect adaptation to the purpose intended. It is this purpose which originates the building ; and it is only by a strict and uncompromising regard to the full provision, and to the perfect adjustment, of the various conveniences required, that an archi- tect can be said to put himself under that self control and dis- cipline, which are necessary to insure a satisfactory result to his subsequent operations in the more artistic features of his design. Superficial display is a dangerous attraction for the artist ; and he should, therefore, the more scrupulously respect those con- siderations which conduce to substantial reality. The connexion of the constructive, with the exhibitory, fea- tures of a fine building is not less intimate than that, which exists between the mechanical perfection of the skeleton and the “ form divine”, of the complete man. The imperative laws of practical truth must chasten and inform the lively impulses of poetic fancy ; for the separation of the “ utile” from the “ dulce”, by regarding them as wholly distinct in their nature, is a vulgar and pernicious fallacy. Where truth exists, the poetical enunciation of it involves ad- ditional truth ; and wdiere a perfect adaptation to purposes of utility is found, grace of superadded ornament is the more useful. Thus the sole consideration of this fundamental prin- ciple, without any reference whatever to decorative applica- tion, will go far to create the beauty which constitutes a build- ing a piece of art. Since a design, in which the component parts are rendered duly subordinate and conducive to the best interests of the -whole, will exhibit a necessarily induced lorm and a serial proportion, satisfactory to the eye of intelli- gence, though the ornate features be not yet applied, nor the exact appropriation of the structure positively declared. In short, the designer may rest assured that a building, honestly and thoroughly considered in respect to its plans and sections, will suggest those elements of expressive decoration, which, consistently cultivated, cannot fail to produce elevations of dig- nity and beauty. In illustration of the inseparable connexion between the “ utile” and the “ dulce”, it will be observed, that the mention of this fundamental principle gives rise, as it were sponta- neously, to the anticipation of the other, which is secondary only in the order of succession. It must not, for a moment, be sup- posed, that the artistic properties of architectural design are infe rior in importance ; it is merely urged, that the utilitarian portion of the architect’s labour should be thoroughly and inde- pendently worked out in the first place, — that the skeleton and substantial body should be framed and formed before fea- tures, which give grace and expression, are at all considered. Knowing that the artistic process is to come, or rather that it waits his coming, the architect must not anticipate what bides its time in patient dignity. The thought of it must not disturb — much less distract — the strictly regular progress of his work ; ARCH. PUB. SOC. he must act as if the operation might be arrested at the consum- mating point of mere practical utility. The builder-architect has to yield into the hands of the artist-architect a simple model, perfect in its general form, arrangement, and construction. In other words, the same mind has to exert all its best powers of practical ingenuity and science, before it gives the rein to ima- gination and taste. The other fundamental principle of architectural design is perfect adaptation of decorative features to the carcase, of which they form the superficial grace, and to which they are simply intended to give artistic expression. These features are in no respect to be applied to the building, as things having ii distinct and separate existence ; but they are to be confined to such a display as may be suggested by the character and formation of the building ; a superinduced result, owning to the parentage or willing adoption of the substance on which they are to be formed. The matter of the argument is already pro- duced ; its logical arrangement is decided on ; its general con- clusions are formed ; it is substantially perfect as a piece of reasoning ; and wants only the graces of art. The process, involved in the secondary principle, is to invest the subject with beauty of diction, with poetic illustration, and with the charms of rhetoric. As in the first instance, the artist was true to necessity ; so in the second, he must be true to permission. The construction of the machine is complete in respect to its bones, its sinews, its covering, and general form : there is now a sufficient latitude allowed to the imagination, in giving to it a suitable complexion, and in gracing its essential and varied parts with features ol ornate and distinctive charac- ter. What the skin is to the body, the hair to the head, the eye-brows and lashes to the eyes, and the lips to the mouth, such is the marble casing to the walls, the cornice to the fa£ade, the pediment and architrave to the windows, and the porch to the door. Nor is the architect wholly restricted to such appli- ances ; as the painter and the sculptor are at liberty to employ such accessories as advance the significance or dignitj of their productions, so the architect may make use, to a certain amount, of features, not essential to the perfection of his building critic- ally considered, but still admissible as suggesting some senti- ment connected with its individual peculiarities. 1 hus the sacred temple, perfect in its fitness and in the architectural ex- pression of its solemn purpose, may yet, without detriment to this critical excellence, be characterised by an extiinsic splen- dour, having reference to the sacrificial devotion of an offemig to the Deity. The palace, complete in its convenience, arrange- ment, and consequent architectural presentment, maj jet exhi- bit increased gorgeousness, typical of the pomp which "aits on regal state. The city-hall, a model of its kind as a piece of sterling architecture, may yet be rendered ol more interest by such additions as call to mind municipal importance, lesthc bounty, and commercial wealth. 0 THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. Indeed all buildings, of whatever kind and degree, are, in addition to their merits, as finished pieces of architecture, sus- ceptible of certain congruent and expressive graces, as works of art in the more general sense of the term. The sculptor and the carver of ornate symbolism may be called in, even at the end of the eleventh hour, to carry out the ultra-final conceptions of the architect in the further “ illumination” of his work. Rut it must be observed, that this is a most delicate operation, to be ventured upon only by those who have arrived at this perfec- tion by the most scrupulous gradations of experience. It is the last to be thought of, as well as the last to be done : it rests upon an hundred foregone and successive permissions ; and is the ulti- mate privilege of an imagination, so self-castigated from the first, that an habitual preventive of excess has been thoroughly insured. According to the value, of these two principles, it will appear that the primary consideration governing the architect will be the exercise of that sagacity, which, in some degree at least, is common to all men ; and which, when exercised in this parti- cular calling, will enable him, without regard to any known style of architecture, or any conventional forms, to arrange his walls, partitions, coverings, and openings, in the manner most conducive to the required capacity, convenience, shelter, light, ingress, and egress. Nothing that he now does should have reference to any particular anticipation ; for to start with yearning thoughts of a portico, dome, or mediaeval model, for every sub- ject, is to stumble at the threshold. The only promise, to which he may now bind himself, is to do the best he can for the pur- pose placed under his care. He may, hereafter, go to the past for classic, gothic, or other ancient details or features ; but he is now to think only of walls, with openings in them for doors and windows ; posts and beams, or piers and arches ; vaults of brick, or roofs of wood ; such decidedly essential parts, in short, as constitute what may be termed the aboriginal forms and combinations, — the materials of legitimate design. The best arrangement of plan will first demand his most serious attention ; and this will give a fixed ground-outline, from which to raise the vertical planes of the elevation. The neces- sities of construction will then equally demand his care ; and these will induce certain sectional forms, varying with the mate- rial which circumstances may render more or less absolute. Plan, section, and elevation, will be subsequently modified into that equality ot concession, which may leave the general body ot the structure as perfect as man’s imperfect ability may hope to make it. I he secondary consideration governing the architect, and one which is more peculiar to himself, will be the adoption or modification of some style of architectural decoration, or the employment of some new (and more appropriate) manner of ornamenting the surface of his edifice, lie will now bring into operation, not a servile obedience to limited attainment and partial precedent, but — a free exercise of that adaptive and inventive intelligence, which results from the unrestricted culti- vation of general knowledge and of an universal acquaintance with varied examples. He has not been, hitherto, working up his rough model to receive any prescribed manner of architec- tural finish ; hut, on the contrary, he has bound himself to such a “ finish” as the independent requirements of his rough model shall demand. The yet unadorned structure is to be honoured as the parent of the future ornate piece of architecture ; and, if the latter strictly and truthfully reveal the character of its ori- ginal, its durability will be insured, and its worth will be acknow- ledged by posterity. It is possible that the architect may be thrown wholly on his inventive resources, in which case he will make no further use of precedent than the Greek architect did I-'nypti* 111 Ihcbes; i.c.,he will improve on certain sentiments of declaratory power or expressive beauty, as shewn in the olden appreciation of majestic simplicity or suitable decoration, — but he will seek in his own disciplined imagination for those details of ornate expression which are to produce parallel — but not similar — effects. The architect’s early studies, therefore, are intended for the education of his mind, and not for the dogmatic guidance of his practice ; and the more extended those studies, — the more gene- ral his intimacy with Egyptian, Greek, Italian, Byzantine, Arab, and Mediaeval art, the less will he acquire a prejudiced par- tiality for any particular variety. He will study rather the principles which are common to them all, than the forms and features which are peculiar to any one of them singly ; and he will find that the true spirit of imitation may be more devotedly shown, in emulating the independent and inventive genius of those, who have distinguished themselves in separate styles, than by the practice of a bigoted system of copyism. At the same time, while his invention is stimulated, he will necessarily imbibe the virtue of a modest deference, arising from that reverence, which he cannot but acquire in his “ worship of the great of old”. Matured in themselves, as may be the great specimens of art, which illustrate the successive epochs from the date of Thebes to that of York Minster, there may still be requirements, de- manding forms and features which are imperfectly, or not at all, supplied bv existing or recorded examples; and the dictum, which imperatively prescribes that any desired new building shall be in the certain style of a bygone period, is simply one which demands the production of an academical “ exercise”, a mere school theme, for which even dulness may “ cram” itself, and which will leave laborious book-knowledge to triumph over inventive genius. The amateur advertiser, if he mean more than such an exercise, has assumed to himself, in the first instance, a right of selection for which he is unqualified ; and he has promised himself, in the second place, the exercise of a judg- ment which he is not competent to form. He cannot know so much, without knowing more ; and it were better that he should consult the interests of art, by himself doing that, which he has too condescendingly invited the architect to do for him. He may be (if an intelligent, an accomplished, and unpreju- diced man) competent to judge between two designs made by two wholly unfettered architects ; but, if he has begun by pre- scribing a favourite style of his own, he can only end by decid- ing in favour of that which approximates to his own peculiar notions ; assuming, in short, the questionable privilege of judg- ing in his own personal cause. One of the most absurd of prevalent fallacies, is the right asserted by all parties of pronouncing on matters of taste : as if matters of taste were matters of superficial whim, idiosyncrasies of a constitutional fancy, having reference to things of an entirely separate and individual existence, apart from those matters of substance on which they are to be exercised, and from which alone they derive their vitality as matters of worth. He, who has designed and constructed the building, ought to be the best judge of those more superficial appliances which come within the province of taste ; since there can be no good architectural taste which is not expressive of, or suitable to, the feelings and pur- pose, which have governed the designer in the general form and construction of his model. A piece of architecture, though it be private property, is yet a public object. No other works of art proclaim themselves so openly to the world ; and it is the duty, even of the most free- born Englishman, to eschew the ostentatious exhibition of a mere personal manifesto. If freedom be, as Hartley Coleridge savs, “ a universal license to be good”, the sentiment applies not less to correctness of taste than to propriety of morals. He, who rears an imposing fagade, which challenges, and may continue, perhaps for ages, to challenge the admiration of passing thou- sands, has ventured on a responsibility which concerns the cause .of universal license, — i.e., of such license as may be universal, consistently with the sovereign laws of truth. When architects shall again be architects indeed, — i.e., profes- sors and practisers of certain universally admitted principles, they will teach their critics to estimate that beauty only which is the exponent of truth : but so long as architects shall condescend to 3 THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. waive their authority as teachers, and to yield, for the sake of pecuniary patronage, to the caprices of individuals, or to the partially informed opinions of incorporated amateurs, they can establish no principles, and impart no catholicity of feeling. They must remain the mere draughtsmen of prejudiced em- ployers, with no hope beyond that of temporary emolument, with no prospect of imperishable fame. The nation, that would leave monuments to address the saga- city, and claim the homage, of remote posterity, must be unani- mous in opinion, at least on national principles, as well as obe- dient to national requirements. The recognition of these prin- ciples and requirements will be, of course, common to the public and to the professor ; but the manner of treatment must be left to the professor exclusively. The only combination, which can lead to the desired result of a national architecture, must be that of the associated public, — pronouncing a clear distinct demand for a certain thing of simple and defined purpose, — with the entire professional body, prepared by reflection to answer such demand in the best and most uniform manner. While particular architects are attached to particular bodies of employers, nothing but the unfruitful results of sectarian art can be expected. People chiefly differ when there is nothing very important to agree upon ; and they will continue to disagree, so long as the fashion of the thing is determined previous to a decision as to the thing itself. Egyptian, Greek, Byzantine, or Gothic art is great, because all the examples of each arc obedient to a supreme national rule. The architects of each variety brought their dif- fering, justly-constituted minds to bear upon the same object ; and produced, not repetition, but resemblance ; while they still maintained that characteristic individuality, which is to be found in every example of the human form. Man resembles man throughout the world ; but no two men were ever yet found exactly alike. To illustrate the practice of these two principles of architec- tural design, a particular case may be selected, viz., such as that of a religious edifice, aelapted to the ritual of the Church of England, assumed to be built of stone, and covered with a vaulted ceiling ; with walls enclosing a space sufficient to accom- modate not less than one thousand persons seated, all of whom may distinctly hear and see the officiating minister. A tower is required for the bells, as well as to denote conspicuously the position of the church, Avhether in the town or in the village. The building must include suitable porches, a spacious entrance, a baptistery, a recess for the communion table, and attached vestry and other needful rooms. No galleries, except an organ- loft, are to be introduced ; nor any wood-work, except the internal fittings, the roofs over the vaultings, and the upper floors of the tower. It must be, in every respect, a handsome, consistent, and durable piece of architecture, worthy of its sacred purpose, and aiming at perpetuity. The amount of decoration must be such as circumstances, and the nature of the design, may require ; but the building will, of course, derive all its essential beauty and grandeur from the attention bestowed on the general arrangement of its parts, and the nice adjustment of their rela- tive proportions. No pseudo-architecture is to be admitted ; nor any ornament but that which may be suitable to positive features, or such symbolical accessories as may give additional expression and richness, without injury to the simplicity and general effect of the mass. There must be no deceptive conceal- ment of required means, nor affectation of necessity, to give a false warrant to imposing objects in the composition. It will not be necessary to detail the process, with every suc- cessive step of reasoning and every modification of thought, by which an architect of independent mind will gradually advance, and ultimately arrive at his conclusively adopted model. To do this would require a book instead of a mere essay, and in place of the few subjoined illustrations, a portfolio of drawings and studied sketches would be necessary. The comments and reflec- tions, which follow, must be regarded as mere starting points in the reasoning process, and the figures must only be viewed as ARCH. PVR. soc. types of ideas in illustration of the argument : but they will suffice to shew the mode in which an architect should experi- mentalize in composing a design, which may equally evince a regard for his own independence, and his respect for the prece- dents of antiquity. It is presumed that, whatever be the form of the auditorium in each variety, the other parts of the building will remain generally the same cubes throughout. The circular, or polygonal form of auditorium, Fig. 1, will be first considered ; containing in its area space for a thousand sit- tings, which can be well and conveniently arranged, both for sight and hearing. There will unquestionably be much grandeur in the effect of such a rotunda, surmounted, as it must be, by a single vault. Hitherto somewhat of a classic dress has always been adopted for such a cubical mass. The dome within and without will exhibit that expression of majesty, which is dis- played by the Pantheon, and there will be nothing unpleasing in the general form of the plan. When the sectional con- struction and internal proportion have been decided, there results the general external form, which honestly and truthfully deduced may or may not be admitted, to have something that is highly picturesque in the clustering of the parts ; but it may also be urged, that the parts are too distinct in their individuality ; that it is a combination of separate forms attached to one another, instead of a single form composed of parts contributive to un- complicated effect ; that the high square tower, and the low spherical dome are in rivalry ; and that the vertical elongation is in contest with horizontal ex- panse ; which is the principal cha- racteristic of the building ? If it be said, “ raise the dome to a more suitable external proportion,” that cannot be done, since the internal proportion will not allow of in- creased height : besides, the dome has primary reference to internal effect, and the tower is required by the very term of the instructions to be the external conspicuous object. The sentiment of firma- mental expanse is desired within ; and additional height will be equi- valent to diminished horizontal space. Again, the junction on the plan, of the square Avith the circle must involve an imperfec- tion ; a segment of the latter must either be cut off, or it must be permitted intrusively to its attached squares. A remedy is obtained by adopting the octagonal form. Still the wide sAvelling dome will, in its close neighbourhood to the toAvcr, look like a crouching giant by the side of an erect one ; thus there are two giants ; one only is required, and eA'en that should not be the toAver or the dome, but the entire building. The vertical altitude of a tower, balanced by the horizontal length of the attached body of a church, may exhibit a distinction "without a difference ; elongation is common to both, and unites both into one whole : but there exists vertical continuity and horizontal interruption ; Fig. 1. the glassy surface of the waterfall descends to be shattered among the breakers beloAV ; or to reverse the action, and vary the simile, the spectator is ever endeavouring to escape from the turmoil below by ascending the rock which rises from it. In plain language, the main body of the structure is here under such different conditions from the rest, that no continuity of feeling can be preserved. It is, at least, a question Avhethcr anA skill (consistent Avith perfect architectural integrity) could pre- vent the appearance of complication, AA'here unity is the great desideratum. A form must be found, AA’hich shall compiise in- ternal adA'antages, of couA’eniencc and beauty, equal to those of the circle or octagon, with a corresponding amount of external propriety. The perfect square Fig. 2 , may be taken next as the outline of the required auditorium. Its capacity is, of course, made equal 4 THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. Fig. 2. against another to that of the circle or octagon ; but instead of the dome springing from a polygonal or circular tambour, its quadrangular area is to be covered with a vault ; and in lieu of a continuous abutment, dispersed equally through the uniform substance of the support- ing inclosure, the pressure of the vault must now be concen- trated on four distinct abutments, one at each angle of the square. The internal result of this disposition is susceptible of being rendered impressive. The exterior of the main body, if in the Classic or Italian styles, may jircsent four great gables or pedi- ments : but it becomes too box- like ; though it will perhaps be ad- mitted that the effect of the whole is more harmonious than in the first example, and that there is a breadth in the contrasting light and shade which tells powerfully. Still the auditorium is too massive in its bulk, and too overwhelming in its relation to the tower, as well as too crushing in respect to its minor adjuncts ; the whole presents too decidedly a clus- ter of distinct portions, abutting each What it gains, externally, over the former model, it loses internally ; and we may perhaps regard the result of the contest between them as undecided. The next suggested form for the main body of the edifice, is that of the rectangled parallelogram of the Romanesque period. Fig. 3 ; to be covered with a continuous “waggon-headed” vault, or with a series of groined vaultings. If the former exceed a certain length it will appear tunnel-like. If the latter be employed there must be, at least, three bays or openings, for a pier is never admissible where it is obviously central. Whichever may be taken, a length equal to three bays will be the best for an in- terior, which is to retain the proportions, of a compromise between length and breadth, i. c. of a room as distinct from a gallery. In following out, from the re- quired area, the regular process of the resultant section and ele- vation, a cubical mass is obtained, not so distinguished by breadth of shadow as the last attempt, but, critically considered, of a better general form ; leaving the tower the supreme external fea- ture, as it should be, so far as it may, consistently with its being only a part of a harmonious whole. If the waggon-headed vault be employed, the side walls must, of course, be thick ; but if groined vaulting be adopted, the projecting external buttress is the consequence; and the assistant pier may project within the building, so far as it can be allowed without detriment to sight and hearing. But the employment of these vertical features so corrects the horizontal length of the main body of the structure, that its extension is immediately suggested ; and the employment of the buttress and pier, (which may be chosen to afford increased opportunity for perspective effect) having been decided on, it is clear that, to a certain extent, the proportions of a gallery may be taken for the auditorium, a truth which the Gothic architects clearly perceived and established. 1 he parallelogram is next, therefore, narrowed and elongated, so as to include the required area within its walls as before, Fig. 4. It is now obviously improved by the diminished span of the vault- ing ; but there is (or the artist has learned to consider there is) a certain required proportion between the width and the height of a semicircular vault or arch, which is now interfered with. The pier looks too high ; the crowning cylindrical vault springs from stilts ; it 'becomes so fore-shortened that it seems flat ; but though Fig. 8. width is resigned, height cannot be forfeited and it is therefore desirable to lower the springing of the arches. The long and narrow half of an ellipsis may be tried ; it is not pleasing ; it ex- presses a checked aspiration. The pointed arch is satisfac- tory, as it expresses infinite ascent ; for a perspective of pa- rallels may be so elongated as to present in appearance a a distant point. Length and height have now become the theme, as opposed to expanse : the rich perspective fascinates : still such a continuous length of sameness must be regretted ; and when the building is view- ed externally, on looking more directly against its elongated side, it lacks the picturesquc- ness of varied mass ; there are too many strips of shadow ; breadth of shadow is required, which the tower alone exhibits in the aspect chosen, while more planes of dark are wanted to contrast with planes of light. The building also is still, in a measure, a range of distinct blocks. The tower is with the rest, rather than of the rest. The width of the main body of the building is next reduced, so as to make the ridge of the roof and the range of the parapet continuous with those of the baptistery" and of the recess for the communion table : but of course, if the last plan be preserved, the evil of disunion is only corrected by increasing the above men- tioned defect, “ the continuous length of sameness”. This brings on a most important change of form ; a change which no precedent was required to suggest, but which, happily, precedent is ready to justify". The idea of the cruciform plan, Fig. 5, is, at length deduced. It is found to be suited pre-eminently to the purposes required; a large superficies for sittings is obtained, without great width between the walls, and without too great length from the position of the minister to that of the most distant auditor. Prac- tical convenience is associated with symbolic form. In the former plan a length of eight bays was taken : on that now under consideration, two of these bay T s arc taken from the length, one given to each arm of the cross, to make the transeptal length across the front of the chancel, or recess. The sides of the church have now their gables, as well as the ends ; a noble projecting mass gives character, expression, and picturesque boldness to each side of the building ; for now there are three distinct (but perfectly united) features in the nave, the transept, and the chancel ; while the whole body to a certain ex- tent is decidedly one. But, to improve still further and to ren- der the building more compre- hensive in unity, the crowning triumph yet remains. The tower needs no longer be a thing attached ; it becomes the cognate member of an undivided whole, springing as legitimately from the square of intersection, as a truthful deduction does from philosophical reasoning on admitted premises. Thus a form is obtained which, so far at least as regards its general shape and mass, is manifestly superior to all the others. The architectural style, which each form suggests or best admits, may now be considered with all possible fairness. The arch and dome are Roman ; novelty needs not to be sought for novelty’s sake ; antiquity, in fully- meeting its own wants, anti- cipated many of ours ; and it has left us the cornice, impost, arcliivolt, column, entablature, and pediment ; these are as ap- Fig. 5. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. propriate to our first model (the circular), as they were to the Roman Pantheon : while the campanili of Italy fulfilled the uses of the Gothic bell-towers. Old forms may be modified, and old details with their application, may be improved ; but in a general way they are to be accepted with gratitude and faith- fully introduced. The second, or square form, is equally subject to Italian treat- ment, though the plan admits of some features which perhaps belong more to the eastern and media? val, than to the ancient Roman periods. The details of the Palladian, and still more of the modern schools, afford us much that harmonizes with our notions of the antique, and perfectly suits modern requirements. As the circular vault and arch remain in the third form, that of the parallelogram, the artist is confined to choose his decorative details from the Roman, the Romanesque, or some modification of those styles. The great proportional width continues to enforce the low pediment or gable ; buttresses and vertical pres- sure are required to resist lateral pressure ; but buttresses may be Romanized, or, rather, Anglo-Romanized, while the balus- trade, with its pedestals, figures, and ornamental vases, may be made to serve the purpose of Gothic buttresses, parapets, and finials. Rejecting the Romanesque, — not less in its Anglo-Norman, than in its Italian and German form, — and despairing of any original style within modern powers of invention, the archi- tect will recur at once to the pointed arch, as it induces less proportional width, while it occasions higher gables. For decorative details there is abundant precedent in the various mediaeval Gothic styles ; but it would be ridiculous to refuse the adoption of some variety of that pointed architecture which was brought to such perfection of detail in our English cathedrals. The architect, therefore, can adopt the high pointed, with its simple windows ; the pillared and foiled win- dows of the second variety ; the mullioned windows, with the tracery of the third ; or the mullioned and transomed work of the fourth period : at all events, he would use a Gothic style in all the decorative features. Having obtained his general model, and deduced the leading forms and members from con- siderations, wholly independent of bookish theory, and solely referring to the strict purpose and modern character of the building, he may now (creditably to his modesty, and without compromising his inventive freedom), go to a Glossary of Church Architecture, and be as particular in the selected examples of detail, as the most devoted of Diocesan Societies could desire. The most strict observance of the details presented by English ec- clesiastical monuments, will still leave his modern church to stand on its own merits as an original. Internal detached arcades, flying buttresses, clerestory and triforium, are utterly discarded ; and instead of the triple combination of nave and aisles with two ranges of windows, there is now one lofty single nave, lighted by a single range of windows. Such a design, it cannot be de- nied, simple and plain though it may be, will present a more decided character of unity than either of the three preceding combinations. But the union is not perfect ; it is still a conjunction of separ- able cubes, far inferior in effect to the Gothic decoration of the model last to be considered, namely, the cruciform. Here the ar- chitect can lessen the projection of the buttresses by reducing the width of the vaulting ; and can reduce them further, by adopt- ing the vertical weight of the pinnacle. The use of the latter at once suggests (because it justifies) the adoption of the spire. If the pointed style be carried out, he has the idea of a Gothic church, for modern use ; perfect in its unity ; challenging fur- ther advance ; from which nothing essential can be taken ; to which nothing essential can be added ; the sides of which have a nobler elevation than the church with aisles can ever have; the steeple of which emerges, as if naturally, from its cruciform substructure, the whole majestically rising pyramidically from the expanded and varied outline of its base, at once simple, ornate, and expressive of its holy purposes. arch. pub. soc. It has thus been attempted to explain the operations of the two great principles which should guide the architect, in forming and maturing his design for any building, whatever its use, or what- ever style it may induce ; and a case in illustration has been given, in which the adoption of the Gothic style has been finally resolved on, from the conviction that it is the most applicable to a modern church of large dimensions, although the latter necessarily differs in some important particulars from the Mediaival model. But the adoption in this one instance is by no means to be construed as advocating the idea of Gothic architecture being suitable to every description of building. On the contrary, it is rather believed that a like application of the same principles, to almost any other purposed design, would lead to an almost absolute rejection of the Gothic style, and to the imperative adoption (subject, of course, to many modifications) of the revived Graeco-Roman architecture. The present rage for the numerous quaint Me- diaeval varieties to be found throughout Europe, is a sign that the true Gothic mania is declining. Already is the feeling for the fine old English architecture giving way to a wild revel- ling among foreign examples of transitional periods, and the country is positively becoming a mere museum of miscellaneous specimens. -Things interesting as illustrations of the past (to be respected in their venerable existence, and worthy of regard in their pictured representation), are seized upon with unthinking avidity, and practically exhibited in brick and stone, as the works of the draughtsman successively issue from the publisher. What should remain in books, rises in form palpable to feeling as to sight. What should only operate to the establishment of “ principles”, stimulates to activity in the idealess work of un- principled imitation. Instead of the results of general inform- ation, each architect gives a servile example of his partial know- ledge, leaving the public to revel in a licentious multiplicity of bewildering varieties. Just as the conflicts between the ancient systems of philosophy produced no truly philosophical result, so the modern clash of architectural fancies brings forth no archi- tectural truth. Some architectural Bacon is required to supply us with a “ Novum Organum”, which may teach us, from obser- vation of the past, to deduce wisdom for the present. An endeavour has been made, in the foregoing observations, to indicate at least such a process of thought, experiment, and deduction, as might, if universally followed, give rise to a system of national architecture ; an architecture of several varieties, which would still be pleasingly and expressively associative. But where shall we now find any orderly association or expres- sive individuality ? Instead of the combination of different objects, each marked by its own peculiar features, we see build- ings in which purpose is belied and degree confounded. Many churches arc only known by their steeples ; the palace front is rivalled by the shopkeeper’s fa5ade ; the manorial residence of the olden style is surpassed in effect by the poor-house ; the railway-office may be mistaken for a collegiate institution ; in- fantine ignorance approaches its first teacher under a classic portico, and crime is incarcerated in a baronial castle ; liquor is purchased amid Corinthian splendours, and tobacco is retailed, and almost every trade is carried on, in a cabinet gorgeously de- corated a la Louis Quinze. Assuredly there is a specialty of rule for each kind and class of building, and an expression of degree suitable to every building individually. By the process followed in determining the form and style best adapted to a church, a canonical decision may be adopted in regard to every other structure. Of one kind, — to differ only in superficial expression and relative degree, — arc the state palaces of royalty ; those of the nobility ; the senate-house and all other government edifices ; all public structures, forensic, civil, and municipal ; buildings devoted to the fine arts and polite literature ; theatres and other structures appropriated to refined entertainment ; club-houses and buildings intended for the social union ol the highly edu- cated and wealthy ; the mansions of the aristocracy ; the resi- dences of the hereditary, the professional, or the mei chant L <> TIIE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. gentry. All these being, more or less, susceptible of imposing scale and ornate stateliness, are enumerated under one class ; and for each variety above enumerated, without an exception, mature consideration leads to the assertion, that Graeco-Roman forms and details (modified by the Venetian and the recently influential British schools) preeminently claim adoption. Of the next kind of buildings, are to be reckoned those which, from their nature, arc more confined to a simple purpose and a marked expression of necessity. Such arc asylums and edifices devoted to charitable purposes ; institutes for the educa- tional benefit of the million ; gaols, and structures of penal intent; manufactories, warehouses, shops, and all buildings dedicated to the practical operations of commerce, or appropriated as offices or suits of business-chambers. In these the Graico-Roman style would still be considered the one to be employed ; but with such a scrupulous rejection of the elaborate and refined delicacies which were admitted in the former case, that a marked distinction should be unmistakeably cmphaticizcd. Nothing of a prominently ornate character is admissible, except where it is obviously expressive of the main purpose of the building. Per- haps a more suitable example cannot be found to illustrate this position than the prison of Newgate ; with a somewhat heavier cornice it would be a perfect piece of expressive architecture ; nothing Gothic ever exhibited the substantial and hopeless gloom of its square and windowless rusticated masses. The niches near the angles relieve the superficies without penetrating the mystery, and the house of the gaoler just shows that he is himself no prisoner ; but the manacles of the gaol porches are intimations that he who becomes a prisoner may expect to re- main one. The third class of structures is wholly connected with the education of those, whose learning and acquirements are to fit them for the important position they may be called on to occupy in the Church, the Senate, on the Bench, at the Bar, or in their magisterial and professional callings ; and within this class may be included such official houses and buildings as arc closely con- nected with the Church. If all education should be founded on a religious basis, the future lawyer and doctor of medicine should, for the time, be Christian learners in common with the intended divine. Therefore, as it has been decided that the church should be Gothic, the writer would assert that our colleges shall be Gothic also ; or, at least, designed in that modification of the style which, during the reign of the Tudor dynasty, was adopted for the general purposes of building. The parsonage-house and the church-school building should be Gothic, for the sake of harmonizing with the church ; and should not even the private chapel, though attached to an Anglo- V enetian palace, be Gothic also ? But in a general sense, excluding the exceptions just allowed, it is maintained that every modification of the Gothic style is utterly unsuited to civil and social buildings. Such buildings, when executed in this “ fashion”, may be picturesque, but they are essentially inelegant ; and the most admired effects arc pro- duced by the forced application of features, unnecessary, and often opposed, to comfort and convenience. During the former prevalence of the domestic Gothic style, cleanliness was impossi- ble, comfort seems to have been unknown, and convenience despised ; the floor was strewed with rushes, and the wind found a ready admittance through the crannies between the iron case- ments and the stone mullions. We are now accustomed to carpets which may not be saturated with damps ; and we are susceptible of taking cold, which may not be risked by ill-fitting windows. Every architect knows the expedients and contrivances, which are necessary to make Tudor forms compatible with modern feelings ; by using internal wood-work to patch up external stone work, and by making lifting sashes look like hinged casements. Gotliic architecture, in its severer sense, is only applicable to the church, or to buildings of but one story. Its natural and proper cover- ing is a vault. The pointed arch, perhaps, grew out of the cir- cumstances attendant on groined vaulting ; and our reasonings may have shewn that it might have been so produced : but, at all events, true Gothic pointed architecture is constitutionally opposed to a successive series of horizontal floors ; and, to sum up the argument in few words, the Tudor square-headed win- dow with the flattened arch, as applied to domestic architecture, is nothing more or less than the transitional step from the pointed Gothic, which was unsuitable, to the horizontal Italian, which was found in every way convenient. The fourth class of buildings which demands distinct consi- deration, is that which, in a constructive point of view, comes more directly under the management of the engineer, and in which an imposing simplicity is the great desideratum. Lon- don Bridge is admitted to be a signal instance of success in this respect : but what arc we to say to the multifarious bizarreries of the railway buildings ? Was there, in erecting the various stations and termini, no peculiarly suitable dignity or beauty to be deduced from the forms and necessary construction of a vast shed, with adjoining rooms for busy clerks and hungry travel- lers ? Is not the Halle aux Bles, at Paris, a far better sample of what may be done with Roman, than the Bristol station of what may be accomplished with Gothic, forms ? To the fifth class belong the country residences of the gentry : and what can be more beautiful as an object, or more favour- able to a picturesque irregularity of plan and elevation, than the Italian villa, with its cantilevered roof and its lofty Belvidere, its bay and balconied windows, balustraded terraces, and classic accessories of vase and statue ? It has all the advantages of the clustered Tudor House, with others peculiar to itself, and of the paramount recommendation of an especial adaptability to our climate. The Tudor and Elizabethan houses derive additional effect, from being built in wooded hollows : but now, no man of sense builds in such situations. The Italian villa is improved by being placed on a wooded acclivity, where every one now desires to build. The choice lies between the sombre quaintness of the former and the cheerful elegance of the latter ; and there is no question that, if a wandering stranger should be suddenly confronted by both, he would choose as, in all probability, his more accomplished and trustworthy host, the owner of the Italian villa. Of the sixth class, is the “cottage of gentility”; its title justified by the art-improved, yet rustic and secluded character of its position. No objection can be made, under such circumstances, to the barge-boarded gable, the thatched roof, the unbarked posts of its verandah, and the scmi-Gothic doors and windows. To the seventh class, belongs the dwelling of the artizan and industrious poor in towns ; and to the eighth class, the farm- house and the cottage of the agricultural labourer. In the last two classes, some important improvements are being made ; for in these, perhaps, more than in any other, the principles above propounded have been truthfully and studiously acted upon. It is thought that some model design, preeminently suited to a building of each class, can be conceived. These designs, pub- lished in a proper form, would constitute a work worthy of the nation, and such as might speedily occasion a general move towards the ultimate cstablislmicnt of a national architecture. George Wigiitwick. ASSISI FROM WALLS OF UPPER CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO. /4 r " CENT r SCALE QUARTER FULL SHE ARCHITECTURAL PUBLI CATION SOCIETY. Liihogra/tfud bfJfoss'?£)ay6 San/,24 lA Jilir r cil851. VOX. JU P? 1 . architectural publication society ‘O BRONZE DOORS. CATHEDRAL church of s pantaleone.-RAVYA, LO t II 79 A .0.) VOJ, 1. P r 2 A B C H / TE C T U B A L POBt/CATION SOCIETY. DOORWAY lAt/ufyntphui' bv Mzss r ' Duy & Afey 7 '' I&&A DRYING CLOSET. Plates 70 and 71. Drying closets are apartments in which heat is applied in various ways, according to the peculiar plan or description of medium adopted, for the purpose of extracting water and other fluids from wet or damp materials by evaporation ; a process which enters so largely into domestic and manufacturing ar- rangements, that a means of drying safely, rapidly, and econo- mically, becomes a serious desideratum. The importance of the subject will be evident, on mention- ing that the manufactures of textile fabrics, linen, cotton, woollen, silk, paper, printing, paper staining, leather, gun- power, starch, japanning, varnishing, cabinet work, bedding, carpentry, timber, chemical preparations, and many more, all require arrangements which will maintain, or not exceed, a given temperature, to avoid serious injury to the material, and consequent loss to the manufacturer. At first, a close room was tried, the heat sustained at a high temperature, either by stoves placed within the apartments, or by fires beneath the floor, the latter being of stone or brick. The next improvement was the provision of motion in the air of the room by proper ventilation. A system by which the materials to be dried were subjected to the influence of the heated air, without the necessity of the operators exposing themselves to its deleterious action, was effected by having an apartment, the heat of which was regulated by proper con- trivances, provided with an apparatus in which the materials to be dried were hung or fastened, termed “ horses”, drawing in and out of the room, on rails or tramways. By the applica- tion of hot-water apparatus, and the use of steam, much greater precision and safety in the operation have been obtained ; and lately, since the institution of public laundries, the necessity for the rapid drying of linen, cottons, and woollens, has called for arrangements of a novel description to effect the object in the least possible time, as those Avho avail themselves of such institutions, have to pay for the time during which they occupy the washing and drying apparatus. It would appear superfluous to describe the philosophical principles of drying, yet, as it has lately been asserted that it can be effected without ventilation (which is so diametrically opposed to all experience on the subject, that it would scarcely he possible to imagine that such an opinion could be put in print), it appears desirable to give an explanation of the natu- ral process. The principles on which effective drying depends, are simple and easily understood. Air, even at ordinary temperature, has a great affinity for moisture, and beyond doubt this varies with the electrical state of the atmosphere (which is generally posi- tively, and the air of close rooms negatively, electrical) as well as its hygrometrical condition ; this affinity increases as the temperature of the air advances within all known limits ; Air saturated with moisture, in a cubic foot at 32° contains 2 grains of moisture. „ 48° „ 4 „ 60° „ 6 ,, 68° ,, 8 ,, (One cubic foot of air absorbs one cubic foot of steam ; one cubic foot equal to 527 grains.) The heat maintained must therefore manifestly be greater than that merely required to convert the moisture of the material to be dried into vapour, in order that arch. pub. soc. the affinity of the air for moisture, by adding to its tempera- ture, may be increased ; one portion of the caloric is exerted in rendering the water elastic, while the other is enabling the air to dissolve it. Evaporation may be simply defined, as that process by which liquid is changed into a (gaseous or) aeriform state, by the appli- cation of heat. This vapour, at 32° Fah., expands by the application of heat, in the ratio of 1 -480th part of its bulk, for every additional degree of heat applied to it. On cooling, it diminishes ; if this be continued, as soon as the degree is reached beyond that at which the vapour was generated, it reverts to its liquid state. Evaporation is not affected in its amount by the pressure of air or other gases in the space in which the process is carried on : vapour, to an equal amount, filling a certain space in vacuo as easily as when it is occupied with a dense gas ; the gaseous bodies only alter the rate or rapidity of evaporation, not its amount. The space, however, into which the vapour is allowed to expand, exercises an important influence on the rapidity of evaporation ; the quantity evaporated is exactly proportional to this. This may be stated in exceedingly plain terms ; the larger the vessel the more it will contain : at the same tem- perature, vapour will rise from a body of water sufficient to fill a space of one hundred cubic feet, while it will as duly fill a space of ten cubic feet ; but, in the latter case, the same quantity will not be evaporated, unless the temperature and the density of the vapour are correspondingly augmented. By enlarging the space, the rapidity of evaporation is also increased ; and the pressure of air exerting no deleterious influence on the produc- tion of vapour, and air having an affinity for moisture, it follows that the greater the number of volumes of air admitted near or around an evaporating liquid, the greater will be the amount of that evaporation. Evaporation is affected only in its rapidity by the presence of air or gaseous bodies surrounding it, and is resisted to a greater degree from this cause than is generally supposed. Thus it was found, that from one square foot of water-surface at a temperature of 90% the evaporation was twenty-two and a half grains per minute, in a calm ; in a moderate breeze, twenty- nine ; and in a high wind it rose to thirty-five and a half grains. The point illustrated is explained by the rapid drying of the ground in a windy day, and the speedy evaporation of ether from the surface of the hand, while a current of air is directed upon it, or created by waving it in the air. The same effects may be observed by drying a towel before an open fire ; the heat of the fire rapidly drying or rendering elastic the water on the side nearest it, whilst at the back the vapour rises slowly, and may be seen till it passes into the current of the chimney. This is, in fact, the reason why ventilation is con- sidered essential to drying, as each volume of air (which, when dry, has an affinity for moisture, this being increased by raising it in temperature) carries off a certain amount of vapour ; it is, therefore, clearly the most reasonable mode to afford a fresh supply of dry air, to take the place of that which is already saturated. There is an erroneous idea prevalent amongst many, regard- ing evaporation, which it is here necessary to point out ; this is, that no evaporation takes place under 212°, or the boiling n 2 DRYING CLOSET. point. This has been truly termed a fallacious opinion ; many degrees below the zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer, could it be seen, there is vapour evolved. Mr. Dalton of Manchester, was the first who experimentally investigated, in a minute and satisfactory manner, the principles and rationale of evaporation. From the results obtained he constructed a table, showing “ the force of vapour from water in every temperature, from that of congelation of mercury at 40° degrees below zero of Fahrenheit, to 325°.” For this table, which will be found extremely useful in all investigations made on applying steam to evaporating purposes, see Steam, where this part of the subject will be fully discussed. The new drying closet at the Middlesex Hospital, is six feet wide, seven feet high, eight feet long, and is heated by the direct radiation of the heat produced by the flue of the ironing stove passing through it ; by which means it is kept at tem- peratures varying from 180° to 200° Fahrenheit, with little more fuel than would be required for the working of the ordinary ironing stove. It was originally constructed with an external air drain, but the drying not being satisfactory, the drain was closed, and the following results obtained. Materials. a © - © 3 i r Y 1 © Temperature of the closet when put in. Temperature of the closet when taken out. Six blankets Eighteen rugs 44 lbs. 1 69 lbs. Q<2 1 i) 874 204 814 1 hr. 35 min. 1 „ 35 „ 200° 200 3 160° 100° The closet, after the linen was taken out, gradually rose to the temperature of 200°. The quantity of fuel required to keep the closet and ironing stove in full work, was found to be about sixteen pounds weight of coke per hour. It will be observed, that the water evaporated from this closet is equal to one pound per minute, and the fuel consumed about one-fourth of the weight of water evaporated. The inference that a change of air in drying closets is not an assistance, but an impediment, is so much at variance with received theory and successful practice, that there must be something in the case which has been overlooked A current of air is an important part of the process of drying, perhaps it is as important as heat : for linen may be dried out of doors, where it will be subject to constant change of air about its surface, without artificial heat at all ; but if hung in a saturated medium it will not dry, though at a high temperature. Any laundress practising open- air drying, will say that the difference between a good and a bad drying day lies here : in the former, the atmosphere is in brisk motion and dry ; in the latter, it is still and moist. In other words, the linen dries most quickly when there is a rapid succession of dry particles passing over its surface. Artificial drying is, in fact, a twofold operation. By heat, the moisture is quickly converted into vapour ; by ventilation, that vapour is carried away and replaced with dry air. If no fresh air were introduced, successive changes of wet linen would soon satu- rate the atmosphere of the closet, at which point drying would altogether cease. — Builder, vol. vii, pp. ITT, 219, 245, 323. In the construction of drying closets, every practical man is aware that a large amount of air finds entrance to the closet through the chinks and apertures, which cannot be avoided ; this quantity being much larger than is generally supposed. The secret of the success of Mr. Jeakes’ closets (the example above- mentioned being one of them) has been, that he has succeeded in proportioning very nicely, the outlet for the volume of heated air charged icith water, and that the apertures allowed the necessary quantity of air — to be heated — to be admitted. Venti- lation may be in excess ; because the ingress of too large a quantity of cold air prevents the general temperature being raised to a proper point for promoting effective evaporation. The utmost effect will be obtained for a closet and heating apparatus of a given size, when the air admitted bears a definite and not to be exceeded proportion to the quantity of vapour to be evolved in a given time — to the temperature — to the thick- ness of the textures — to the state of the atmosphere at the time as regards dryness and motion. Hence there should be area for ingress and egress sufficient for the greater required quantity of drying, under the least favourable state of the external air, with means of reducing that area for smaller quantities under a drier or less stagnant atmosphere. The peculiar mode of ventilation, hereafter described by Figs. 9, 10, and 11, Plate 1, and followed in several public buildings, has not in any instance failed, and is apparently ident- ical with the operation of that described as fixed at Middlesex Hospital ; for although the air drain be rightly abolished, the same closet remains yet perfectly ventilated, and upon exactly the same principle ; for although the narrow slit, made for the admission of fresh air, may not be provided specially, yet the steam cannot pass away with a sufficient rapidity, unless influenced so to do by a current of air, passing through the closet, jiowerful enough by its levity, compared with the exter- nal air, to carry or pass such steam away. A small amount of aperture will, in realitij, he sufficient, when it is considered how much the volume of air admitted to the closet at 60° is expanded during its progress through and out of it, saturated with steam, at 200° ; and that this is the operation constantly existing, is evident from a smaller closet heated by hot water in Park Lane, where sliding entrance and exit air-valves were provided in the centre of the floor and ceiling. When both were closed, the wet clothes were invariably rendered hot, but never dry, in twenty minutes ; the whole of the steam that did escape finding its way into the laundry : on opening the valves, the lower one (which communicated with a room below), one-fourth of the area of the upper valve, a sufficient current of air was admitted to pass the steam freely away, without much loss of heat, but evidently, from two distinct trials, the establishment of the current was imperative. — Builder, vol. vii, p. 339. Mr. Ashpitel found, in one instance, that a closet of this kind of construction was readily heated to 200°, but the clothes would not dry. In fact, for want of proper supply of dry air and exit for the reek, the water in the clothes rose as vapour, became condensed on the ceiling of the room, and fell back again upon the clothes in the form of a scalding rain, continuing this alter- nation for hours. A very positive proof of the fact that wet material would not dry without ventilation, was found at the public laundries of St. Martin’s in the Fields ; the drying chambers, which are constructed of slate, were made quite air-tight previous to the ventilating apertures being made, and when the heating pipes were set to work the wet articles would not dry, although there was a temperature of 200° at the time ; but as soon as the venti- lators were opened, the drying was effected rapidly. It is quite possible to be deceived on this head, in experimenting with a drying closet ; for notwithstanding there might be no provision made expressly for ventilation, it being unusual to construct closets so accurately as to render them air-tight, air and vapour at high temperatures are so exceedingly elastic, that ventilation would take place at every crevice ; and, even if every joint was pasted over with paper, the vapour would most likely find its way through the pores of the wood or paper ; and it is even possible that a closet may be of sufficient size, so that the amount of air contained in it may hold the quantity of moisture imbibed by a given quantity of material. If it were taken for granted that drying could be economically performed, without specific means of ventilation, it would be bad in principle ; as the free passage of air through wearing appa- rel is of great importance in clearing them from impurities, humidity, soap, and other matters, and freshening them. It has been experienced at the Surrey Lunatic Asylum, that wear- ing apparel, dried in a closet without ventilation and at a low temperature, came out with a very unwholesome smell ; the same description of things, dried in a closet with a higher temperature and free ventilation, came out relieved of all ob- DRYING CLOSET. jcctionablc properties ; and this may be considered a fact appli- cable to lazarettos, and other places for disinfection. It must be unnecessary to dilate further upon the condition of hospitals, prisons, unions, lunatic asylums, etc., with hun- dreds, sometimes thousands, of inmates suffering under all sorts of maladies, whose linen and wearing apparel arc mixed together in the process of washing and drying, without ventilation in the drying closet. A workman, when removing the closet at the lunatic asylum before mentioned, slightly grazed the back of his hand against a piece of wood in the upper part of the closet ; the following morning his hand was much swollen, although the wound was scarcely to be perceived ; for many days he was unable to work, and did not become entirely free from pain for two months, leaving no doubt but that his hand was affected by some poisonous matter on the surface of the wood, and that death might possibly have ensued. It is admitted that this is an extreme case, but it is also clear that extreme cases cause all the mischief; and considering that mankind is periodically visited with the most astounding and appalling maladies, with- out its being known from whence they come or how they are promulgated, in all sanitory arrangements too great caution cannot be taken to ensure safety. In the construction of a drying closet separate and distinct from other apartments, care should be taken to have the ground on which it stands free from damp, and the floor well paved. The lining of closets is generally of wood, grooved and tongued to prevent warping ; glazed earthenware tiles might be adopted with advantage ; Trcdgold recommended thin slabs of marble. The great point to be observed is, to avoid loss of heat from the external parts of the closets. All should be made fireproof where practicable : thus the external walls should be of cellular brickwork, the ceiling being arched ; slate slabs arc good mate- rials where brickwork cannot be introduced. When constructed of wood, the planks should be placed diagonally, and of a double thickness reversed. If this cannot be done on account of cost, then the woodwork should be of tongued battens ; all the frame- ■work being morticed and pinned. In closets having a cockel and pipe-heating apparatus, a floor should be formed of finely- perforated iron trellis work, or strong wirework of fine meshes, to prevent small articles falling upon the heated pipes, and endangering the clothes by fire ; indeed, every possible pre- caution on this head should be taken. The horses on which the clothes are hung, admit of some variety of construction. They arc often made of wood. Iron is unquestionably better, from its durability and strength. The rods on which the clothes are placed should be cased with brass tubing, or they should be covered with zinc, to prevent the iron-rust staining the clothes. For large closets the horses should run on friction-rollers, or wheels, in grooved tramways, with guide rods for the upper part. There are various plans of making and fixing these wheels, they arc generally what are termed “ edge wheels”, running in grooved or rebated rails ; at the top of the closet the horses run in grooves, or wheels are some- times added. The rails are in many cases single ; they are also shewn so in the illus- trations ; the wheels being fixed one at each end of the horse, but in Fig. 1 the rails are double. In this example (from the Prest- wich Lunatic Asylum) the horses are trian- gular, which thus affords more rod space, than even the arrangement shown in Fig. 18, Plate 2. The box posts at the front *ig- 1. of the closet are rebated on the front and back faces, to receive the front and back doors, in which the rails are fixed. When pulled completely out to charge the horse, the door goes into the recess in the box posts ; the same is done when the horse is put in its place, thereby preventing ingress of air. Instead of having edge wheels for the horses, Trcdgold recommended rollers of considerable length, little arch. pub. soc shorter than the breadth of the horse door, the side plates of the rollers being fastened to the posts of the horses by bolts. 1 ig. 2 is a plan of a drying closet, possessing some advan- tages, and it might be very cheaply con- structed : a is a semicircular chamber with a properly-arranged heating appa- ratus underneath it ; B, a centre pillar, with radiating rods cc, fixed all round it at proper distances, and of convenient heights. This column of rays should be equally divided by a nearly air-tight upright door, shewn at dd, which, when closed, leaves half of the number of rods inside, and the other half outside, the closet. As soon as one; side is loaded, that is turned into the closet, and is drying during the time that the part then standing outside is being emptied and charged. In large establishments, two or more of these closets may be placed side by side. They certainly pre- sent considerable facility of construction and management, as they do away with the rolling in and out of large horses, and also the expensive construction attendant upon that plan. The construction of the furnaces must be left to the con- trivance of the manufacturers, as different treatment will be required according to the nature of the fuel ; the great point to be observed is the non-admission of superfluous air into the smoke flue, as all air admitted, over and above that required for the perfect combustion of the fuel, has a direct tendency to cool the pipes, and convey the heat to the chimney to waste. The method of ventilating these closets is a subject of some difference of opinion amongst practical men, namely, as to whether it is best to take the ventilation from the bottom or from the top of the closet, and it would appear somewhat diffi- cult to decide; it is certain that either way will answer the purpose. With the ventilating tube placed at the bottom, the heating apparatus being under the floor of the closet, and a sufficient admission of fresh air round it, the heat will rise through the clothes, taking up the moisture as it passes ; then, becoming heavier, it falls down through the clothes, taking up a further quantity, and passes to the ventilator ; the heated air circulating in the closet according to the laws of all fluids under the influence of heat. On the other hand, when the ventilation is from the top of the closet, the heat passes up through the clothes at once to the ventilating tube, and is lost. Again, when the ventilator is near the bottom, and the current in the venti- lating tube very strong or rapid, much of the heat passes directly to the opening without effecting any drying, or passing amongst the clothes at all. Taking all things into consideration, ventilation is best from the top, provided the outlet have a properly constructed valve, capable of adjustment. Practically the best, or rather the quickest, plan of drying, is to shut up the ventilator until the closet has attained a considerable tem- perature, and then to open the ventilator, letting the vapour pass off as quickly as it will ; for it is found by experience that when a charge of damp clothes is placed in the closet, the tem- perature falls considerably until the things have absorbed much heat (i. e., the specific caloric required to change the water into vapour), and the drying is not rapid until they attain a consider- able temperature. A thermometer should be placed in the external wall, sympathizing with the air of the closet. Fresh air should be admitted in such a manner as to impinge on or sweep over the surface of heated pipe, the greatest quan- tity on the hottest part of it ; it is doubtful whether the opening shotdd ever be closed, although it has been recommended to have movable covers to admit more or less as may be required. Finely perforated gratings should cover these openings, to pre- vent the admission of small animals and insects, and to prevent combustible materials from being drawn in. All smoke Hues should have air-tight covers to allow of cleaning out soot and dust. The smoke flue of the heating apparatus should always be made the means of ventilation when practicable. The flue 4 DRYING CLOSET. Fig. 3. should be double, that is, one flue outside another. The inner one, or smoke flue, should be constructed of stoneware pipes, ten or twelve inches diameter, with the apparent chimney built round it, Fig. 3, and the ventilation of the closet led into the casing. The advantage of this plan is that the gaseous products of com- bustion keep the flue pipe warm, creating a cur- rent in the surrounding case, so that there is a ventilating tendency from the closet. This might equally be effected by leading the venti- lating tube at once into the smoke flue, but there is the liability of adverse winds, defective draught of the smoke flue, or other reasons which might cause the smoke to descend through the ventilating tube into the closet, to the serious damage of the clothes. The ventilating tube should have a valve, with a lever handle under the controul of the attendant, to stop or regulate the ventilator as may be required. It has been found that for a closet containing one thousand cubic feet, an opening into the ventilating tube of one hundred and twenty square inches, or about eleven inches square, has been ample. This may be varied according to the judgment; it is clear that a small open- ing, with a good current, will be efficient, when a large one, with little or no current, would be inoperative. To assist in proportioning the requisite amount of heating surface in steam and hot water pipes, and by approximation, cockles and hot air pipes, Tredgold instituted experiments by which lie was enabled to draw up the following list of the absorbent powers of different articles. In the trials, the clothes were wrung as they usually arc in washing, before being weighed in the wet state. -.a or area ; where t= internal cubic feet x t/ 450-K _ oOO h(t — x) temperature, say 90° ; x = external temperature, say 40° (less 6° for inferior specific gravity), and A = height of ventilating tube, say 25 feet, to be measured from the centre of the hot chamber to the top of the egress aperture, the quantity a will be about T5 square feet for each 270 feet of surface of pipe. In making calcu- lations for drying closets, it is not enough to estimate the mere cubical contents of the apartment, — though this is necessary in calculating the area of heating surfaces, — the lineal dimensions of the drying rail ought also to be taken into account ; as by a judicious arrangement of the horses, additional feet in many cases may be obtained ; the lineal dimensions being given, the average quantity of cloth which may be hung thereon may be estimated ; this being known, approximative estimates of the heating surfaces may be easily obtained. If the temperature is wished higher than 90°, all that is requisite is to alter the mul- tiplier in finding the area of pipe. One superficial foot of iron water pipe, constantly maintained at 150°, will warm 100 cubic feet of space about 20° in ordi- nary dwelling houses, without especial means of ventilation ; and one superficial foot of steam pipe at 212°, will warm 200 cubic feet the same number of degrees, presuming the air to be at 30° previously ; and probably one foot of steam pipe at 250°, would warm 300 cubic feet the same number of degrees. One foot of small pipe will produce the same effect on 400 feet, when the pipe is maintained at 350°. One superficial foot of stove or pipe surface heated to GOO" will produce the same effect on 600 cubic feet of air. It will be readily seen that these data are only approximative, but they will be found of service, as it is Weight dry. Weight wet Weight of wuter absorbed. merely required to calculate the cubic space to be heated, and AVool, in flannel . l lb. 3 lbs. 2 lbs. multiply the quantity of radiating surface ; for instance, a closet Cotton, in calico . l 2T25 1-125 to contain 1000 cubic feet, or ten feet each way, then Silk . l 1-9666 0-9666 100 sup. ft. of water-pipe at 150° will produce 100° in the closet Flax, in linen l 175 0 - 75 50 ,, steam pipe 212 „ 100 „ Flax, in sail cloth l 1-75 0-75 100 ditto 212 „ 120 „ Paper, foolscap 1 1-2857 0-2857 50 „ ditto 250 „ 135 „ Paper, drawing l 1-24 0-24 200 small pipe 350 „ 200 „ “ N ow, in order that equal weights of these different species 100 cockle 500 „ 230 „ of goods should be dried in equal times, the force of heat for the flannel should be sufficient to abstract 2 lbs. of vapour ; while that for the calico need only be sufficient to abstract 1 lb. ; and that for the linen three-quarters of a pound.” — Tredgold, Treatise on Wanning and Ventilation , page 251. By adopting 90° as the maximum temperature of the heat used in a drying closet, he also formed the following rules for proportioning the quantity of pipe and ventilating orifices. At a temperature of 90°, the mean of several experiments shewed that one cubic foot of water was evaporated from each 2700 square yards of cloth, or 5400 square yards of surface, each piece of cloth having two sides or surfaces, or nearly one-hun- dredth of a cubic foot for each piece of cloth of twenty-five yards. For each yard he found that fifteen cubic feet of air per minute were required to carry off the vapour ; this he however doubled, making it thirty, so that for a piece of twenty-five yards, 750 cubic feet of air per minute were required to carry off’ the vapour — “ the heat required per minute for each piece of twenty-five yards, will be equivalent to evaporating one-hun- dredth part of a cubic foot of water, and heating 750 cubic feet of air from the temperature of the external air to 90°. The quantity of steam pipe to evaporate one-hundredth of a cubic toot of water is 138 superficial feet. The quantity to heat 750 cubic feet of air to 90°, supposing the external air to be 40°, is, (by the rule given in Heat) equal to 132 feet” ; adding these quantities together, the area of pipe for each twenty-five yards of cloth is 270 feet. The area of ventilating tube is easily found ; for each 270 feet of surface of pipe 750 cubic feet of air is to be passed through each minute ; to this latter quantity is to be added one-thirtieth of its bulk of steam, making 775 cubic feet. Using the formula of Tredgold ( Treatise, art. 64, note), The above data arc as near as the nature of the subject will admit ; the quantities should on no account be less than those named, but rather more, as the amount of ventilation, and the degree of conducting power of the surrounding material varies so much in every case that it is next to impossible to construct exact tables ; the difficulty may be estimated when it is con- sidered that high temperatures cause rapid dispersion of heat. The above data have been repeatedly proved in a very extensive practice, and may be relied on ; but much depends on the judg- ment, and considerable allowances must be made for variation in the material of which the closets are constructed, or of the containing walls ; the radiation, conduction, and ventilation increase so rapidly with every rise in temperature, that the additional warmth is gained in an uncertain progression ; and when very great heat is required, much increased power of apparatus will be necessary. When drying began to be practised as an accessory to our manufactories, the arrangements were incomplete and unsatis- factory. A very usual form was a room provided with a common stove, the materials to be dried being hung from lines or spars, stretched across, near the ceiling. The “ cockle” was also used, the major portion of it being in the room, the materials to be dried being protected from the overheated surface by wirework. Fig. 4 is a section, and Fig. 5 a plan of a cockle ; a a is the iron casing ; the flames and smoke arising from the furnace f, pass up and over the partition b, and down by d, out to the flue by the piping c ; e e shew the line of wire work. The heating surface may vary from 200° to 1000", or just red hot. It is by no means advisable to heat iron much above 400° for these purposes, as, at a greater heat, iron-work deteriorates fast from oxidation ; and sulphureous gases and unequal expansion DRYING CLOSET. Fig. 4. Section. $ , 7 z' 'N i i 1 a i i 1 e i a .1 1 l r j_ ■ 1 jr Hose of central rnlumn of Pulpit- SIENNA Pulpit in CATBEPRAL -SIENNA -J P , C.Auld.lith ' &N.H&nharl.Imp T^nnnn N A P L K S ANCIENT PORTAL NEAR THE A R Cl V E S COVA DO &&&$■ R V'-.X-I'-J l v> W V & V V<- V- V- > vs v‘ v- o > f fas*: 1 iS'- 1.3m VOL. I l >T I ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY faqad e . A K L. K S BORDERS FROM THE PORTAL OF THE CATH EDRAL OF S r TRORHEME Dlgfcy Wyitt Vrl L, 111 I’T 1 ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOC/ETV. L>8. "’ACAD E • Ltfifttiai* - . -jc PALAZZO FIBBIA _ BOLOGNA Fred.. I. aw ford M IB. A PAtAZZO COPPER SPIFELLI - VENICE James, M hockver.M .1 Bj Lithographed, by Mess r,> Pay fc VOL 2 K r n ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY Litfutfrapkedby Mu* u i /. fe Son* April" 1 )" " I f; ' Date, the middle of\ the 13 ( 'rrtiury . at YPKES. Edward 1’AnsonJund M IB. A. VOL.3.PT1. ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY ' ■ — . 5 (> T. L Donalds orvJhT.LB.A . TiiflutgrapheiL by Me-is T *Daf ICon,, March ?4' h '18H ©%»>! , _U!L iT'-j | ■ r-j r;l FOUNTAIN. ft F ULLE R ON BUILDING. Thomas Fuller, celebrated for his wit and fancy, and for the sound sense which he joined to uncommon powers of memory and judgment, was the son of the Rev. Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle, in Northamptonshire, where he was born in 1608. At twelve years of age, he left his father’s tuition for that of Queen’s College, Cambridge. In that University he became B.A. in 1625, and M.A. in 1628; but afterwards removed to Sidney College, where he obtained a fellowship in 1631 ; and nearly at the same time, the prebendary of Netherby, in the cathedral church of Salisbury. In 1660, he was created D.D., and made chaplain extraordinary to the King, in recompense not only for his talents, but for an unshaken fidelity, in camp and garrison, to the royal cause; in despite of which, during the existence of the commonwealth, his services were gladly accepted as lecturer, at the Savoy ; S. Clement’s Lombard- Street, and S. Bride’s. In 1648, the Earl of Carlisle procured him the rectory of Waltham Abbey; and in that year, some writers affirm, he published the very clever work, entitled “ The Holy State ”, from which a chapter is extracted. He had been a constant employer of the press from the year 1631, having produced more than twenty works, still leaving his favourite book ( History of the Worthies of England), to be published at his death, which occurred in 1661. Fie was buried in the church of Cranford, where his monument still remains on the north wall of the chancel. In the preface to a new edition, with notes, of “ The Holy State ”, by James Nicholls (Lond. 1841), are the following passages as to the history of the work: — “ It was,” he says, “ put to press at the close of 1640, but not published till 1642. It passed through three editions in the course of ten years; but is supposed to have run through five bona-fide impressions during the interregnum, — each of them consisting of a large number of copies. In a paragraph in one of the introductory chapters to his ‘ Appeal of Injured Innocence ’, published in 1659, he alludes to ‘ some design in his stationer’, in suffering this work ‘still to stick in the title-page at the third edition . The (nominally) fourth edition was published in 1663, soon after the decease of the author.’ The chapter itself is valuable as expressing the ideas of the features considered to be essential in buildings, at the time when the Italian style of architecture was being introduced into England by the genius of Inigo Jones; although conveying, in a very happy manner, maxims derived from an observance of the edifices erected undet the influence of the taste of Elizabeth and James I. John W. Papwortu. OF BUILDING. BOOK III. C IIe that alters an old house is tied, as a translator, to the origi- nal, and is confined to the fancy of the first builder. Such a man were unwise to pluck down good old building, to erect (perchance) worse new. But those that raise a new house from the ground are blameworthy, if they make it not handsome; seeing to them method and confusion are both at a rate. In building we must respect situation, contrivance, receipt, strength, and beauty. ARCH. PUD. SOC. H APT Eli VII. Of situation : — MAXIM I. Chiefly choose a wholesome air .— For air is a dish one feeds on every minute, and therefore it need be good. Wherefore, great men (who may build where they please, as poor men where they can), if herein they prefer their profit above their health, I refer them to their physicians to make them pay for it accordingl) . s 9 FULLER ON BUILDING. MAXIM II. Wood and water are two staple commodities, where they may be had. — The former, I confess, hath made so much iron, that it must now be bought with the more silver, and grows daily dearer. But it is as well pleasant as profitable, to see a house cased with trees, like that of Anchises in Troy : — 1 quanquam secreta parentis Anchisse domus arboribusque, obtecta recessit. 2 The worst is, where a place is bald of wood, no art can make it a periwig. As for water, begin with Pindar’s beginning apiorov piv vSup. 3 The fort of Gog-Magog Hills, nigh Cambridge, is counted impregnable, but for want of water, — the mischief of many houses, where servants must bring the well on their shoulders. MAXIM III. Next, a pleasant prospect is to he respected. — A medley view, such as of water and land at Greenwich, best entertains the eyes, refreshing the wearied beholder with exchange of objects. Yet I know a more profitable prospect, — where the owner can only sec his own land round about. MAXIM VII. A house had better be too little for a day, than too great for a year. — And it is easier borrowing of thy neighbour a brace of chambers for a night, than a bag of money for a twelve-month. It is vain, therefore, to proportion the receipt to an extraordinary occasion ; as those who, by overbuilding their houses, have dila- pidated their lands, and their states have been pressed to death under the weight of their house. As for strength : — MAXIM VIII. Country houses must be substantives, able to stand of themselves. — Not, like city buildings, supported by their neighbours on either side. By “strength”, we mean such as may resist weather and time, not invasion, — castles being out of date in this peace- able age. As for the making of moats round about, it is ques- tionable whether the fogs be not more unhealthful than the fish brings profit, or the water defence. Beauty remains behind, as the last to be regarded, because houses are made to be lived in, not looked on. MAXIM IV. A fair entrance, with an easy ascent, gives a great grace to a building . — Where the hall is a preferment out of the court, the | parlour out of the hall ; not, as in some old buildings, where the doors are so low, pigmies must stoop, and the rooms so high, that giants may stand upright. But now we come to contrivance. MAXIM IX. Let not the front look asquint on a stranger, but accost him right at his entrance. — Uniformity, also, much pleaseth the eye ; and it is observed, that freestone, like a fair complexion, soonest waxeth old, whilst brick keep her beauty longest. MAXIM V. Let not thy common rooms be several, nor thy several rooms be common. — The hall, which is pandocheum, 4 ought to lie open ; and so ought passages and stairs, provided that the whole house be not spent in paths. Chambers and closets are to be private and retired. MAXIM VI. Light ( God's eldest daughter !) is a principal beauty in a build- ing. — Yet it shines not alike from all parts of heaven. An east window welcomes the infant beams of the sun, before they are of strength to do any harm, and is offensive to none but a sluggard. A south window, in summer, is a chimney with a fire in it, and needs the screen of a curtain. In a west window, in summer time, towards night, the sun grows low and over fami- liar, with more light than delight. A north window is best for butteries and cellars, where the beer will be sour for the sun’s smiling on it. Thorough lights are best for rooms of enter- tainment, and windows on one side for dormitories. As for receipt : — ’ Virgil.ii JEneid, ii, 32. 2 “ And though remote my father’s palace stood, V ith shades surrounded, and a gloomy wood.” 3 “ Water, indeed, is the best.” ' riav&jxetoy, “ A house for the reception of guests, an inn.” MAXIM X. Let the office-houses observe the due distance from the mansion- house. — Those are too familiar which presume to be of the same pile with it. The same may be said of stables and barns; with- out which, a house is like a city without works, — it can never hold out long. MAXIM XI. Gardens, also, are to attend in their place. — When God planted a garden eastward, lie made to grow out of the ground every tree pleasant to the sight, and good for food (Gen. ii, 9). Sure, He knew better what was proper to a garden, than those who now-a-days therein only feed the eyes, and starve both taste and smell. To conclude : — In building, rather believe any man, than an artificer in his own art, for matter of charges ; not that they cannot — but will not — be faithful. Should they tell thee all the cost at the first, it would blast a young builder in the bud- ding ; and, therefore, they soothe thee up till it hath cost thee something to confute them. The spirit of building first pos- sessed people after the flood, which then caused the confusion of languages, and since of the estate of many a man. A DESCRIPTION OF SOME BRICK GABLES TO COTTAGES IN BROADSTAIRS, NEAR RAMSGATE, AND IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD. Throughout the whole history of our art, there seems to have reigned an antagonism of two principles : the useful and the decorative. Each has had the predominance at various epochs. The most fortunate periods of architecture were those, when the two were happily united, and satisfied at once the wants and tastes of mankind. This contest is going on at the present moment ; many considering the ornamental as the chief aim and end of a building, others deeming all decoration of very minor importance, and in some constructions very ill-placed. One of my own maxims is that ornament is tise. For the life of man is not given him merely to provide for the animal wants of his existence, but to enjoy life; and the sphere of his enjoy- ment will be enlarged, as he is taught to appreciate the beauties of form, of colour, of proportion and contrast, of light and shade. This enjoyment is forbidden to no class, and may be the property of the humblest as of the most elevated. It is a simple fruition, which has the whole range of nature for its objects of con- templation, — the hill, the dale, the sea, the land, the starry glories of the sky, the varied beauties of the flowery meadow, and, as Cowper says, — “ He looks abroad into the varied field Of nature, and though poor, perhaps, compared With those whose mansions glitter in his sight, Calls the delightful scenery all his own. His are the mountains, and the valleys his, And the resplendent rivers .” — The Task, book v. And art itself swells the catalogue, in the splendour of the palace, the solemn dignity of the church, and the cotter’s humble dwelling. For this last, with the commonest materials, may be made to assume an infinity of varied forms, to charm the most refined, as well as the humblest taste, without diminishing one of its comforts as a residence. It must have been evident to all, that the country village of modern times has lost much of the picturesqucncss of mediawal periods, by the abandonment of the gable ends, and the adoption of hipped roofs. In the former there was a bold decision of form, a height of elevation and pyramidal outline. In the hipped roof there is a tameness and insipidity, and a prevalence of the horizontal, instead of the vertical lines. The flatness of the roof of modern times also does not admit of those gable windows, breaking through the horizontal line of the dripping eaves, varying the outline and giving the conviction of the usefulness of the high pitched roof, as a quality independant of, yet associated with, its innate element of beauty. The variety and pleasing forms of the gable ends of some of the houses in Broadstairs, and in its immediate neighbourhood, as S. Peter’s, Reading Street and Sole Street, arc very striking. arch. pub. soc. The construction is simply of brick and flint, and the two materials are so ingeniously combined as mutually to set off each other. Some of the houses are of one story, with a high pitched roof, containing rooms within it. Others have two lower stories with the range of attics in the roof also. The gable ends rise with a bold pitch, the contour formed at one time with a simple ogival profile on either side and a central mass rising up, crowned by a circular or pedimental top ; and this again surmounted by a massive chimney shaft, as Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. i. Fig. 7. READING STREET N* BROADSTAIRS Fig 6. Fig. 4. HIGH STREET BROAD STA I RS Fig- A. BRICK GABLES. 3 At other times the outline of the gable is broken into two heights by a quadrant as well as an ogee, with the usual centre somewhat varied, as Figs. 3 and 4. Another variety consists of five segments, as Fig. 5. The outline is generally formed by a simply projecting brick, as a cresting, beneath which the bricks are not cut to the sweep, but arc arranged whole, to come in as they will. In the upright parts, below the gable, when the mass of the construction consists of brick and flint work, it generally occurs that the quoin of the building is formed with a species of rusticated or alternating blockwork, nine inches high each course, and alternately nine and fourteen inches wide. The flint-work occupies the general surface, and is arranged in regular courses of the same height as the brickwork, of three inches each. There is an horizontal string generally at the commence- ment of the gable, three courses high, which projects about an inch or an inch-and-a-half, stopping short of the ends, as Figs. 6 and 9, about nine or fourteen inches, and returning on itself : or going to the end, and not returning along the other front. Occasionally, there is another intermediate horizontal narrower string in the height of the gable, being the cresting carried through (as in Fig. 6, Reading Street example). Some- times the gable is divided by vertical piers or pilasters in brickwork, as in Fig. 7, either slightly projecting beyond the face of the flint-work, or at others not at all ; the bi'icks themselves, by the contrast, marking the feature. Now and then, in the centre, there is an arched panel slightly sunk, with or without an impost, as in Figs. 4 and 7. The windows are generally small, with a brick margin and with slightly arched heads ; the outside line of the margin being indented, and the sill indicated, and occasionally with the springer somewhat projecting. Here and there, for effect, even blank windows or panels arc introduced, as in Vowel’s Cottage, Figs. 9 and 10. The square masses of the chimney shafts tell with great effect. They have projecting courses, and the head is formed of several oversailing courses. In the centre, there is now and then a square pro- jection, as Figs. 1, 2, and 6 ; and at times an angular one, as Figs. 4 and 8. In fact, the fancy of the designer seems to have revelled in a playful variety of the parts, which, although pro- I senting a general likeness, is so artfully combined in one or other of the details, as to offer an endless change of effects. It will be perceived, that the general surface of the work is varied by the introduction of lozenges and other figures, formed by brick headers in the flint-work, as Figs. 1 and 9. In only one instance is there to be found a return front which had not been materially altered by modern innovations. This is in Reading Street, Vowel’s cottage. Fig. 10. It is irregular* in distribution, but still a certain eurythmy is preserved. Fig. 10. There is a door at either end ; probably one of these was originally a window, and has been cut down to form a door, in order to convert the cottage into two dwellings. The heads of the doors and large lower window are elliptic ; a form very pre- valent. The brick margins round the opening are very peculiar, with the alternating broad and narrow courses and projecting imposts, as also the central keys to the arched heads, and the margins continuing vertically up to the string. Out of the six windows, there are four varieties of size or form. In this instance, the long line of the dripping caves is not broken by a gable head to any one of the windows, which might have im- proved the outline. Nor is there any gable window in the roof, as the rooms in the roof are lighted by small windows in the gable ends of the cottage. Here, then, without any material expense in the construction, without any application of costly material, is an elegant fisher- man’s cottage ; striking in its proportions and outline, designed with care, and producing a pleasing effect to the eye. There were some beautiful flowers trailed against the front, and planted in the beds. A well formed neat pathway led to the doors, and there was an abundantly stocked garden of a few perches in extent, which amply supplied the fruit and vegetables to the occupants. Is it then too much to assume, that the taste evinced in the arrangement of the garden may have been influenced by the architectural elegance of the habitation, or to believe that these poor people were the happier and the more refined from being housed in a dwelling, where the hand of taste had added elegance to the rural comforts of the hard working, simple cottager and his family. T. L. Donai.dsox. * A KCH-ITECruHAl PU B L / C A T / O/v SO C I IT y GARDEN Fig / Figs 1 & 2 r tan and View of 1 'ISO LA BELLA in- Iht BOBOLI GARDENS FLORENCE T _ Joalt of Fuel fig. 3 MONREALE Sydney SrmrkiA .T A London Lithographed at 70 S' Martins Lane Febr^ 7 ' l V'V ARCHITECTURAL RU 0 L t CAT 1 0 N SOCIETV PALAZZO OURf ft/ MILAN. ' • ,ii* VOI. A- I- * I ARCH! TEC RURAL. f"U BL! CAT/OH SOCIETY no «'• I N o A LonAon-LithografLed. a.t 70. S t Martin s Lane, Fein ‘ li r Z G E R B I E R ON TIIE THREE CHIEF PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. Sir Balthazar Gerbier, Baron D’Ouvilly, has been very much undervalued by the compilers of Biographical Dictionaries, of whom not one appears to have consulted the account which he gives of himself, in the pamphlet entitled “ Balthazar Gerbier, Knight, to nil men that love truth ” (dated, in a MS. note, Paris , 26 Mai/, 1646), from which it appears that he was a child of Huguenot refugees— Antoine Gerbier, a gentleman by birth, possessed of a barony in Normandy, and Radegonde, daughter and heir to the Lord of Blavet, in Picardy. He was born at Middleburg, in Zealand, about the year 1591 ; was educated, by his brother’s means, in France; and returned to Holland in time to accompany Caron, the Dutch ambassador, to England. There he made his attendance pleasing to the famous George Yilliers, on account of his “several languages, good hand in writing, and skill in sciences,— as mathematics, architecture, drawing, painting, contriving of scenes, masques, and entertainments for great princes ; besides many secrets gathered from divers rare persons ; as likewise for making of engines useful in war.” Sanderson ( Graphice , p. 15) calls him “a common penman, who pencilled the Decalogue in the Dutch Church. London, his first rise of preferment.” Gerbier himself states, “ the Duke of Buckingham put to me first, the contrivance of some of his habitations, and to choose for him rarities, books, medals, marble statues, and pictures in great store; I kept his cyphers with his intelligencers abroad, and was sent by him (with the King his master’s approbation) on secret messages.” His services on one of these occasions were required by the Duchess, who in one of her letters {Harl. MSS. 6989) to her husband, at Madrid, 16th July, 1623, wishes him, that she might have it well done, to sit for his portrait, in little, to Gerbier, who had followed him in quality of painter in distemper, and had executed a miniature of the Infanta for King James. His public employments abroad, were, his journey into Holland, to receive overtures for the restoration of the Palatinate; a mission to expostulate with Richelieu, on the behaviour of the French cabinet with respect to Count Mansfeldt ; a conference with the Marquis Spinola, in Brabant, “ on which the treaty with Spain was set on foot, and pursued until it was brought to a conclusion” ; and to remonstrate at Paris, on the carriage of Spanish goods in French vessels. When Blinville, the ambassador, had contrived to excite a riot in London, Gerbier was ordered to make a drawing of the locality in which it occurred, to enable Buckingham to explain the matter to his master, by whom Gerbier was again sent to the French court. He then delivered to Richelieu that letter from the Duke, which is unnoticed in the history of our country, but was probably the most important document of the period, because the two favourites then declared their opinions of each other, which were so violently expressed by the cardinal, that to revenge himself, for the necessity of making an apologetical oration, he instigated and fomented those parliamentary troubles for Buckingham, which ended as fatally for the King. M alpole ( Anecdotes of Painting, vol. ii) gives a copy of one of Gerbier’s letters, dated from the Hague, 6th August, 1627, in which Rubens’s name appears as appointed to meet him on the subject of the Spanish treaty. Buckingham desired that the feast of reconciliation between himself and the Abbe d’Escailles (della Scaglia), should take place at Gerbier’s house, “ where the Duke was pleased two days after, to beseech his Majesty to come with the Queen to accept like entertainment, because the manner thereof was pleasing.” This supper is mentioned in a letter of 1628, as taking place at the Duke’s painter’s house, and was supposed to have cost a thousand pounds. He was knighted, 31st March, 1629, at Greenwich, probably on occasion of being made Master of the Ceremonies, and for eleven years after was resident at the court of Brussels, acting the part of an accomplished minister, as it was then played ; as Avitness the reply, “ it is not my custom to disgrace those that do serve me well”, made to an address of the Spanish embassy for his removal, by Charles I, who seems to have had a great esteem for his works, as well as for his other services ; this may be inferred from the letters of the King, and from the consideration, that such a connoisseur would not have insulted the talents of Rubens and Vandyke, by joining them in the same honor with a man ot inconsiderable talent. ARCH. pub. soc. M 2 GERBIER’S THREE PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. In 1637, lie was sent on a mission to the discontented Due d’Orleans : and on the 13th of July, 1641, he took the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, having obtained a bill of naturalization ; but this watchfulness was not sufficient to protect him from being troubled in the following year by the populace, as a papist and concealer of priests; this seems to have driven him abroad; and going from the Hague, in 1645, he received from Charles a letter of credence to the French King, containing the following passage : — “ I do recommend this gentleman, master of my ceremonies, to your particular protection, for that he hath done me long and faithful service.” This was answered by a gift, in consideration of his detection, when at Brussels, of a plot on the part of the Due de Bouillon, against the King’s life. He says, that he received the superintendence of an office, which would have proved worth many thousand pounds a year, but that he was pursued by a faction, who maintained, in petitions presented by the Bishop du Puis to the Queen Regent, that she was, ipso facto , excommunicated, for bestowing such an office upon a heretic. He lost his post; and the best light of his character is displayed in his efforts to obtain the return to his own care, of three daughters who were induced to conform to the Church of Rome, placed in a nunnery, declared to belong to others, and refused permission to have an interview with him. Returning to his house in Bethnal-Green, he opened an academy, in imitation of the Museum Minerva}, of which he put forth an account, having his portrait in an oval, prefixed. Public lectures, of which nine are printed, were given on AVednesdays, until March 1 650, as appears by his advertisements ; in one of which, he professes to lend “ from one shilling to six, gratis, to such as are in extreme need, and have not wherewithal to endeavour their subsistence, whereas, week by week, they may drive on some trade.” The publication by him of some well-intended pamphlets, shows, that he did not quit England until after 1 652, when (having previously obtained a grant, during his residence at Brussels and the Hague, to settle in Cayenne) he went to Surinam; there, however (7th May, 1660), by permission of the Dutch governor, his house was broken open, the assailants killing his daughter Catherine, and endangering the lives of others, his papers seized, and he himself, menaced with a loaded pistol held to his head, unable to resist, was, with his family, put on board a vessel bound for Holland. On his arrival there, he complained, but obtained no redress ; the States disowning both the act, and any pretended orders for it. As this happened immediately before the Restoration, they apprehended, knowing his obligations to England, that he might give notice of the advantages to be gained in Surinam. This, in effect, was his revenge ; his publications had a share in rousing Charles II to declare war with the Dutch ; having no other recompense for his sufferings, after a life of many vicissitudes, he ended as he began, by the exercise of his professional skill ; first, as asserted by Gough ( British Topography, vol. i), in designing the four triumphal arches for the coronation procession at the Restoration ; and afterward, on the erection ol the Lord Craven’s house at Hempstead-Marshall, in Berkshire, since destroyed by fire. Representations of the arches are given by Ogilby ( The Entertainment , etc., of Charles II, fol. Lond. 1662). In the Britannia Illustrate, fob Lond. 1714-20, pi. 45, is a view of Hempstead-Marshall. Excepting two printed essays, this was Gerbier’s last production; for while it was building, he died there, in 1667, and was buried in the chancel of that church. The two publications are, in reality, but one work: the second portion, entitled 11 Counsel and Advice to all Builders ”, 12mo. Lond. 1663, has been so recently subjected to the attention of the profession, that it does not appear necessary to say more of it, than, except where it gives the prices of the materials, and of the workmanship of that time, it is inferior in interest to the following treatise, which is remarkable, not only for being one of the few early English publications on the art, but for being evidently the fruits of many conversations, held both with professional men and with amateurs, by one who himself understood the practice and theory of the art as an Architect, and at the same time, by a rare concurrence of events, was enabled, like Lord Burlington, by birth, education, and position, to comprehend the requisite points of buildings for the most refined courts of a luxurious age. The word “ Builder”, is applied by him to the building owner; and, in his use of the terms, Surveyor and Architect seem to be synonymous. The promise of the reversion of Inigo Jones’s post, mentioned in the following preface, does not seem to have been inconsiderately made; the arches and Hempstead-Marshall are not “horribly ugly”, and may serve as very fair specimens of the taste of their day. In that view they are by no means discreditable in design, though not precisely ranking in purity of detail, with the best works of such classes of composition. With this reservation, then, those who wish to consult an account of the letters, productions, portraits, and other curious particulars of himself and his family, may refer to the Anecdotes of Painting, vol. ii, 8vo. Lond. 1826, pp. 114-126; but it is due to our author to note, that George d’Ouvilly therein mentioned, as a misprint for Gerbier d’Ouvilly, is the same as Captain George Gerbier d’Ouvilly, of the city of London, Esquire, “ oltramamento detto Giorgio di San Giorgio di Yinegia”; and Antoine is also mentioned by the bibliopoles of France, where Balthazar published a work on Fortification. In the British Museum are copies of twenty-four of his works, published in England, several of which have passed through two editions. John W. Papworth. 3 A Brief DISCOURSE Concerning the THREE CHIEF PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICEN T BUILDING ; VIZ. Solidity, Convenience , and Ornament. By Sir Balthazar Gerhier I)' Ouvilly, Knight. LONDON, (First) Printed in the Year 1662 (and again in 1664). TO THE KING’S MOST May it ’please your Sacred Majesty , — 1\ /TY place of Master of the Ceremonies (which the King, your 1V1_ royal father, of blessed memory, confirmed unto me during my life, by the great seal of England), is to introduce foreign princes, or their public representatives, to your sacred presence. And in regard the place of Surveyor-General, was also intended to me (after the late Inigo J ones), I do make bold to introduce the three capital principles of good building to your Sacred Majesty, who hath seen more stately palaces and buildings than all your ancestors ; and may be a pattern to all future posterity, by building of your own palace worthy yourself, and placing it, as EXCELLENT MAJESTY. the Italians, for their health, delight, and conveniency (as well as solidity and ornament), “La matina alii monti, la sera alii fonti,” according to which, the main body of your royal palace may be set on the side of Saint James’s park, and the gardens along the river. If the book afford any thing worthy your Sacred Majesty’s further satisfaction, I have obtained my end, and done the duty intended by, Your Sacred Majesty’s Most humble, most obedient, most loyal subject, and most zealous servant, Balthazar Gerbier D’Ouvilly, Knight. TO THE LORDS AND COMMONS ASSEMBLED IN PARLIAMENT. May it please your Honours , — I T being lately reported that your Honours have deliberated to have the streets made clean, to enlarge some of them, and to build a sumptuous gate at Temple Bar, I thought it my duty to present this small discourse of the three principles of good building ; and, withal, a printed paper, concerning the cleaning of the streets, the levelling the valley at Fleet Bridge, with Fleet-street, and Cheapside ; and the making of a sumptuous gate at Temple Bar, whereof a draught hath been presented to his Sacred Majesty, and is ready also to be produced to your Honours, upon command, with all the devotion of Your Honours’ Most humble and most obedient servant, B. Gerbier D'Ouvilly, Knight. A BRIEF DISCOURSE CONCERNING THE THREE CHIEF PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING: viz., SOLIDITY, CONVENIENCY, AND ORNAMENT. TTTHEREAS building is much minded in these times, I ' » thought fit to publish some principles thereon, which may stand the lovers of it in stead ; yet without spending time and paper to note how a point, line, angle, demi-circle, cube, plinth, base, pedestal, column, head, architrave, frieze, cornice, or frontispiece must be made ; and what dimensions all those several parts (a point excepted) must have, since all master- workmen ought to remember (as scholars their grammar, and arithmeticians their table) how every particle must have its just proportion ; and that the height of windows and doors must be double their breadth ; and, also, to be careful to maintain the due esteem of their art, since its dimensions and rules came directly from heaven, when the great Architect and Surveyor of heaven and earth prescribed the rules and particular orders for the building of a floating palace (Noah’s ark), and the glorious, matchless temple of Solomon, the perfect house of prayer. ARCH. PUB. SOC. And, therefore, such precedents may serve to convince those who say, that a wise man never ought to put his finger into mortar, since there is a necessity for building, especially among nations who do not, or cannot, live in caves and hollow trees, or, as the wild Indians, who have no other roofs but of palmito- leaves ; nor wainscot, but bamboos, as they call the poles to which they tie a woollen hammock to lie in. There are three capital points to be observed by men who intend to build well ; viz., Solidity, Conveniency, Ornament. Those who have marshalled the orders of columns (to make good the first point), have ranged the Tuscan to be the supporter of a building ; but such an atlas must stand on a firm ground, not as ill builders place columns (either of brick or stone), like things patched or glued against a wall, and, for the most part, against the second story of a building (contrary to the very Gothic custom, who, at least, did begin their buttresses from the 4 GERBIER’S THREE PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. ground), as if their intent were, that the weight of the columns should draw down the wall on the heads of those that pass by. Such builders confound the first and essential point of build- ing (to wit, solidity,) with ornament and conveniency. They will make a show of something, but miss thereby (as ill bowmen) the mark. They may, perchance, have heard of rare buildings, nay, seen the books of the Italian Architects, have the traditions of Vignola in their pockets, and have heard lectures on the art of architecture, which have laid before them the most necessary rules, as, also, the oi'igin of the several orders of columns, and discourses made thereon ; that the Tuscan is as the Hercules ; so of the Ionic and Corinthian ; the first of the two, to resemble the dressing of the daughters of Ionia, who had twists of hair on both sides of their cheeks. The Corinthian heads, to represent a basket with acanthus leaves, and the gut- tered columns, the plaits of daughters’ and women’s clothes. That the Grecians (in remembrance of their victories) did range the columns in their buildings, to represent the number of slaves which they had taken ; the grains, beads, drops, pendants, garlands, interlaced knots, fruitage, and an infinite number of ornaments which are put on the frieze, to signify the spoils which the victors had brought away from their enemies; and, to preserve the memory thereof, did place them on their buildings, that they might also serve for a true history. But none of such ornaments were ever impediments to the strength or convenience of a building ; for they were so hand- somely and well contrived, as once the Duchess of Chevreuse (a French lady) said of the English females, that they had a sin- gular grace to set their ornaments right and handsomely. The barbarians and naked Tapoyers, Caripowis, Alibis (and several Charibdiens) do place pendants in their nostrils, which are proper for their ears ; and these hinder not the use of the lips, which ought to be observed by all builders. As for the inside of fabrics, builders should, in the first place, set the doors, chimneys, and windows, as may be most conve- nient for use. Builders ought to be not only experimented in housekeeping, but also good naturalists ; to know (before they spend time and materials) the required property to every part of a building. A door to be so set, as it may not convey the wind toward the chimney or bedstead, though opened never so little. The windows to be so placed, as that the fire made in the chimney may not attract the air and moisture, and so prove the unwholesomest part of the room for those that are near the fire ; which was the main reason why the great Isabella, Infanta of Spain (King Philip the second’s daughter, who governed the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, Artois, and Ilainault, during her many years’ residence at Brussells), being prepossessed with a prejudice, never approached a fire to warm herself; till at last, being throughly wet (going a procession in a great rain, and by a visit made by Mary of Medicis, Queen-Mother to Lewis XIII, just as she had returned to her palace had no time to shift her), she was constrained to approach the fire to dry herself, and a few days after, she fell sick and died upon it ; which relation being very true, and happening in the time that I resided for the King ol blessed memory in that court, I thought fit to mention, to per- suade all noble and curious builders to place their doors, windows, and chimneys in their proper places. And though it be not my design, in this small discourse, to treat of dimensions (which are fit for a primer to apprentices), yet I cannot desist (by reason of the West Indian hurricane-like winds which happened February last) to persuade all builders to forbear the building any more those exorbitant chimney-shafts, which, when they fall, break both roofs and ceilings of rooms, and kill good people in their beds ; since a chimney some two feet higher than the ridges of the roof of a building (which is not overtopped by a church or steeple, or some other eminence), is as good a conveyance for the smoke, as any of a greater height. Neither are those high shafts of chimneys real ornaments to a building, much less to the palace of a sovereign ; nor do the German travellers of this age, any more fill (as formerly) their table books with the number of them, as they were very careful to note the names of their hosts, where the best wine was, and when they tasted that called lacryma Christi , they moaned, and asked why He did not weep in their country. It is true, that the least addicted to bibbing, did put in their stam-books the dimen- sions of the Pantheon, and of the amphitheatres; as also of Capra- rola, Frescati, and such magnificent structures above ground in Italy; and, under-ground, La Piscina Admirabile, La Grotta de la Sibilla Cumana, Bagni de Cicerone, Cento Camere, and le Sepul- ture de li nobili Antichi. But they arc now taught by tutors to observe the inside of men and buildings. And as the best orna- ments of a face, appear at first sight by the eyes, mouth, and nose ; so do the best qualities of a perfect building, by windows, and doors well placed, as also by a large, magnificent, commo- dious, and well-set staircase. Noble, magnificent, and commodious staircases, must in the first place participate of a nobleman’s manner of pace and attendance. There is no man of sound limb (and that hath a gallant gait), but lifts his toes at least four inches, when he goeth an ordinary easy pace ; so that if two steps (each four inches high) be eighteen inches broad, or deep, which makes six-and-thirty inches the two, (the just measure of a man’s two steps), they may be ascended, from the first floor, to the higher story, as if a man walked on a level ground. Secondly. Those stairs ought to be so long, that the attendants on each side the noble person, prince or sovereign, may not be straitened for room. Such were the monarch-like stairs of the Palace of Darius, and Cyrus the Great, at Chelminar, in Persia, near Saras, the metropolitan, between Ormus and Espahan. I do speak indeed, of a palace without comparison to any other ; the walls of cir- cumvallation of that palace, being four-and-twenty foot thick, and the stairs (as yet in esse), are forty foot long, in number a hundred and eight, of circular form, and of so easy an access, as that travellers do ascend them on horseback. Ivina: James of blessed memory, could not have been so much in danger of an onset, in a pair of stairs large enough for a noble retinue to his person, as he was in a narrow pair, which history mentions. Neither had William, Prince of Orange, been so easily shot, at Delft, in Holland, descending a narrow pair of stairs. Thirdly. A noble pair of stairs should have a cupola, and no windows on the sides, which for the most part serve but for rude and unadvised men to break. In some palaces and noblemen’s houses, “ Too many stairs and back-doors, (as the old English proverb) make thieves and whores.” And the setting the front of a building towards the north-west, and a palace, like Cardinal Wolsey’s ill-placed one, (now called Whitehall) on a low ground by the river-side, makes work for physicians, apothecaries, surgeons, coflin, and grave-makers. But as for a seat on moorish grounds, except the builders observe the practice of those of Venice in Italy, and Amsterdam in Holland, who bestow more timber of oak, in the foundation of one, than in the building of six houses, in effect, it is to build perpetually, leaving to their posterity to prop and redress their ill-grounded buildings ; and they may well be ranked with the Duke of Arscot, who built much in Brabant, and, (in a merry humour) designed in his will ten thousand gilders per annum, to support and alter what he had built amiss. I must also advise builders on high grounds, to cause their Surveyors to search for springs, and shun them ; which serve better to fill up glasses to allay the vapours of Gascony wines, than to make a pond in a cellar. Builders ought also to be very curious and careful in the choice of the place to build a seat on, for good prospect, well garnished with woods, and the water at hand, not too near nor too far from a city, or town. GERBIER'S THREE PRINCIPLES Item, I must wish all princes and noble persons, who are re- solved to build palaces and seats answerable to their quality, to imitate those who in the heathen age were so careful in the ordering of the structure of their stone images, especially of their Saturn, Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Neptune, and all their fry of wanton Goddesses, as to empanel a jury of philosophers, natu- ralists, physiognomists, and anatomists, who were to direct the sculptors how to represent those images. And so I would wish builders to proceed, in the contriving the models of their intended fabric, to wit, to consult (as those of Amsterdam did in the making the model of their town-house) divers experimental Architects, though they pitched, for the front, on the worst of all. Item, before the workmen make use of materials, and not to build at random, as the custom of too many ill builders is; and when once the model is approved, never to alter, nor to pull down what has been well begun, nor to hearken to the diversity of opinions, which have been, and are the causes of many deformities and extravagancies in buildings; and especially those who seem to have had for models, bird-cages, to jump from one room into the other by steps and tressels, to cause men and women to stumble. And the sides all of glass, like spectacles; the glass windows of small panes, with great store of lead, to draw the more wind and moisture, from the open air, within doors. As also windows with store of iron casements, which rust, and never shut close, notwithstanding all the various devices of smiths, to catch money out of the builders’ purses, contrary to the good custom in Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and the Low Countries, which certainly for plurality of voices should be believed and followed. Those nations cause their glass windows to be fitted in wooden casements treble riveted (rebated), to keep out wind and rain ; they are lined with wooden shutters, and have double-boarded shutters without, to resist all the violence of the weather and thieves. Let no man mistake these windows for wooden casements, for such [as] are usually seen here in England in old wooden houses, the casements scarcely above one foot and a half high, tottering things ; for these are substantially, strongly, and curiously made casements; nor are the wooden shutters such paste-board like things, as are generally put on the outside of the windows, on the London and suburbs houses, but double-deal well-riveted windows, with substantial locks, bolts, and hinges, and a double iron bar, with a bolt fixed in the middle of them both. Nor do good builders affect partitions of lime and hair in their houses, nor any of their bricks to be daubed over with finishing mortar. The Romans are very curious in the tempering their mortar, and in the laying it as thin as possibly they can, to prevent the sinking and bending of their walls, which the laying of the mortar too thick does cause ; and experience shews, that when some walls are taken down in England, half of the substance is sand and dust. The Romans, as likewise the Grecians before them, did not make use of their lime at the same time it was slaked, but for six months time suffered to putrefy, and so putrefied com- posed a cement, which joined with stone, or brick, made an in- separable union, and such strong work, as I have seen iron tools break on the old mortar of the amphitheatres at Verona and Rome. Their manner of preparing lime, is to lay it in cisterns, the one higher than the other, that the water (after it has been so stirred as that it is well mixed and thoroughly liquid) may drain from one cistern to the other ; and, after six months time the lime (having evacuated its putrefaction), remains purified, and then they mix two parts of lime with one part of sand, and make that strong and pure mortar, which, if practised in England, would make a wondrous strong union, especially if the clay- rnakers did beat the clay as it ought to be, the English clay being better than the Italian, nay, the best in the world. They are very careful in the making large and deep founda- akch. pub. soc. OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. 5 tions, and to let the walls raised on the foundations, rest and settle a good while, before they proceed to the second story. Some of our carpenters have learned to lay boards loose for a time ; the Italians, and other nations, are not sparing therein ; they nail them, as if for good and all, but rip or take them up again, to fit them for the second time. As I said before, no building is begun before a mature re- solve on a complete finished model of the entire design. The builder, having made choice of his Surveyor, and committed to him all the care and guidance of the work, never changes on the various opinions of other men, for they are unlimited, because every man’s conceits are answerable to their profession and par- ticular occasion. A sovereign, or any other landlord, is then guided by natural principles, as well as by his own resolve, taken on a long-considered model, because they know, by expe- rience, how sudden changes arc able to cause monstrous effects. They know that a well -experienced Surveyor must not be dis- turbed in his task and undertaking; but, as the silk-worm and the soul of man, the first in his husk, the second in the womb, wherein both the one and the other (by the powers of the great Architect and Director of all things) works out his own complete fabric, if not interrupted, but if interrupted by any outward accident, it happens that those passions become the original causes of exorbitant features and forms; an item for all builders to suffer a good Architect quietly to pursue his task, if he under- stand it. It has been observed among the French (a nation as much addicted to changes as any), that, when the charge of an under- taking has been committed to many, it caused but confusion ; and therefore it is a saying among them, “ Trop de cuisiniers patent le petar/e," too many cooks spoil the broth. I shall not spend time, and transgress on the reader’s patience, concerning the making of clay, and burning of bricks, only say, that it imports much the clay should be well wrought before it is put in the mould. Experience has also taught brickmakers to have them of such a length, thickness, and wideness, that four of them (together with the mortar thereunto belonging) may raise a foot. As for free-stone, Portland stone works well, and makes a good union with bricks, yet cannot be compared with marble, nor with the bluish stone of the quarries of Liege and Namur. But it is also certain that this climate makes marble itself to moulder very much; as, for example, the Cain and Abel in York House garden, which did not moulder when it stood in that of the duke of Lerma, at alladolid, in Spain ; the cold- ness, together with the moistness, of this clime being of a con- trary operation to the temper of the air in Italy and Spain. And therefore, when builders see their copings, water-table, cornices, rails, and balusters, to decay, they must have patience, since there is no material but is subject thereunto ; and that rails and balusters (either on the top of the walls of a frontis- piece, or in balconies), though never so well [tainted in oil, and of the best-seasoned timber, but must be renewed at forty or fifty years’ end. Builders ought to calculate the charges of their designed build- ing, and especially with what sum of money they are ■willing to part ; and yet remember to imitate some philosophical humorist, who resolves to venture on a pretty thing called a handsome lady, without which their fate seems to tell them they cannot live ; and therefore makes an account beforehand, that all things will not precisely answer his expectation. But, on the contrary, the lady, instead of being a good housewife, and an assistant, proves expensive, and an impediment. And if it prove otherwise, he will be a great gainer by the bargain ; for let builders put their design to master-workmen by the great, or have it wrought by the day, either the workmen will overreach themselves, or the builder will be overreached. Charity to the one, and respect to the other, moves me to keep the rest in my pen, yet shall never be backward to inform either of them, in the ear, what may be the best for them to choose. 6 GERBIER’S THREE PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. But I must freely advise all builders in general, never to begin to build on a ground before it is purchased, as the late duke of Buckingham did at York House, where there has been much daubing and breaking through old, rotten, decayed walls; first, to make a ladies’ closet on the corner of a wall where a buttress stood, and which was taken away for the closet, in- tended only at first for a closet of ease, and to serve until the archbishop of York could be persuaded to accept as good a seat as that was, in lieu of the same ; which could not be so soon compassed, as the duke of Buckingham had occasion to make use of rooms, to entertain (according to the dignity of a prime minister of state) foreign princes and ambassadors : so as, on a sudden, all the buttresses that upheld that rotten wall were thrown down, the ceilings of rooms supported by iron bolts, bal- conies clapped up in the old wall, daubed over with finishing mortar, and all this (as a toad-stool grows in a night) to serve until a model for a solid building to stand even with the street were made, and to be built of such stone as the portico, or water- gate, at the river-side is; and this was done on a moorish ground, whereon no new building could stand any time without proppings, which was contrary to the main principle of good building. I must proceed, and conclude, with my humble respects, con- cerning palaces of sovereign princes, which must differ as much from other buildings, as their quality and condition from that of their subjects. And in the first place, as solidity must be the first principle in all good building, so much more ought it to be observed in that of sovereigns, unto whom the whole world has access. And as there must be spacious ground before their palaces, their inner-court ample, the offices for their retinue large, and commo- dious, and so placed as they may neither be an annoyance, nor of ill aspect; the first stories ought rather to be vaulted than boarded, to prevent such an accident as happened to Louis XIII, French King and his Queen at a ball, when the floor of the room, with all the company, fell down ; the King and Queen only remaining, (by a special Providence) on the hearth of the chimney, sitting under the cloth of state. And as there is a necessary magnificence to be expressed on the front and inside of princely buildings, answerable to their greatness, so is it absolutely necessary that the Architect be pos- sessed with a soul as great as the player in the French play called The Visionaries, where he persuades himself to be Alexander, and governs his motions accordingly. And the lines and strokes of the Architect must be Alexander-like : — his figures and statues, colossi ; his pyramids like those of Egypt ; and the vaults like that rock wherein Alexander and Darius wrestle for mastery, in a valley in Persia, between Babylon and Ispahan, at a place called Carimonshahan, where formerly was a great city, six English miles long ; in which grotto, the Alexander-like mind of the sculptor hath hewn within the rock (besides Alexander on horseback, and a number of huntsmen and ladies) the aforesaid Alexander and Darius wrestling to break a ring between them. Such a like mind Prince Thomas of Savoy (son to the great Emanuel of Savoy), infused into his Architect, sculptors, and caster in brass, whom he employed in the designing and build- ing a stable, in Turin, within all of marble, the racks, manger, and the upright-posts all of copper, ricldy wrought, conveyances of water pipes. The manger fourteen inches wide at the bot- tom, to contain a pail of water on all occasions. The uppermost edge of the manger, three foot eight inches high from the ground, to accustom the Neapolitan great saddle-horses to raise their necks. The rack -poles three inches asunder, and upright, that as the Frenchman saith, L'appetit vient en mangeant, the horses may feed more cheerfully, the hay and dust may not fall on their heads, as it doth out of a rack which stands shelving : the under part of the manger ought to be made up, to keep in their litters, and no boxes made there for dogs, as some not curious do: where harnesses, saddles, coverings of horses, or any other implements or tools, are not to be seen about the postern, since those things do but impede the access of a cava- lier to the horses. The disposing a stable into a double range, has been affected by some, who would see all their horses at once. Others love only a single range with a broad walk, and if they have a great number of horses, return at the end into another range, if the ground can afford the same, so as a wall makes the partition between the horses. The paving of such a stable is very neat, being of white or yellow (twice burnt) Flanders bricks, in Dutch called clinkart , far beyond planking of stables, for divers reasons. The paviors (after the bricks are laid) throw sharp sand over them, and twice a day they are watered with a gardener’s watering-pot, and swept with a broom, which the grooms are to continue sometime, because the sand gets between the joints, and makes the paving very close and firm. The pavement at the foot of the manger, must be raised at the least six inches higher, than at the gutter where the posts are placed, which ought to be five foot and a half distant one from the other, which ground so paved is of double use; first, that the higher a horse stands to- wards the manger, the better sight it is, and especially when the lights of the stable strike on the horses’ backs, which is the better light. Secondly : — That a horse’s usual standing place being so much shelving, accustoms the horse (reposing more on his hinder feet than on the foremost), to be more light and nimble in his gait and pace. Thirdly : — That his stale do not remain under him, and especially when his standing has eight foot in length from the man- ger to the channel, which for neatness ought to be above ground, the eight foot in length being at full the space which the horse possesses, when in the night time he lies stretched on his litter. I must not omit, by way of queries, to write somewdiat con- cerning the kitchen of a princely palace ; viz. : — whether there should not be as much curiosity, if not moi^, in the kitchen than in the stable ; since the meat prepared in a kitchen ought to be drest with all neatness, and preferred before a fine lace about the master cook’s towel : neither are the vessels of silver but in reference to the neatness which ought to be observed in all cookerj r . The Frenchman’s glass is wrenched [rinsed] as often as he drinks, and why should not cooks be more curious and neat in their kitchens, than grooms in their stables ? And as a stable can have conveyances for the horses’ water, so may kitchens for slabbering, for guts of fowls and deer, coals, ashes, and whatso- ever else can cause dirt and nastiness, and be freed from the annoyance of smoke, which many ill-placed doors cause ; nor ought the kitchen or other offices and cellarage, (as in some palaces in France), to be so placed as they may prove prejudicial to the Court ; and if they are underneath a palace they ought to be vaulted. I must not forget that the roof of a palace should be covered either with lead or blue slates. The Pantheon at Rome was covered with brass, which a pope melted to cast cannons, not such ( canons ) as only eat, drink, and sing. No curious eye can well endure those barn-like roofs of many noble persons’ palaces, covered with red tiles, which break and rot away, and then the roof being mended and patched, seems to be a beer car's mantle, which I would not have the nobles’ and courtiers’ to be. See the roofs of Leicester, Newport, South- ampton, and such like palaces, whether they do not look as barns for hay, and piebald, by their patched tiles ? As for the main bulk of palaces, it is true some have a great- ness in plainness, as that of Farnese in Rome, whereof Michael Angelo made the architrave, frieze and cornice. And, as for bigness and solidity, that of S. Hicronimo, and the Escurial in Spain ; for ornament, that of Munich in Bavaria ; the Louvre at Paris for vastness, situation, and orna- ment ; by the embossed imagery on the frontispiece, variety of GERBIER’S THREE PRINCIPLES OF MAGNIFICENT BUILDING. 7 orders of columns, with the delight of the annexed Tuilleries, wherein, as especially in that of the palace of the Duke of Orleans, hut above all, in the Cardinal Vigna’s in Rome, is observed the form of a true princely garden, — consisting not only in much air, great plots of grass, low borders, large gravel-walks, but for close walks, fountains, groves, and statues, to make good the Italian saying. Per variar natura e bella. And as for the embossed carved imagery on the frontispiece of a palace, their dimensions must be according unto their distance from the ground ; which is a main point requisite to be observed also in schemes, where- in divers undertakers commit very great faults, not only by the not reducing whatsoever is represented, to the true lines of per- spective, but also by omitting the giving such proportions to things, as may satisfy the sight of all the spectators at their se- veral distances ; for excellence does not consist in vastness, nor in the quantity of objects, nor shapes, nor colours. The sphere in an angle of a great chamber in S. Pietro e Vati- cano in Rome confirms this truth, and every judicious eye will be satisfied therewith. Seas must not only be seen to have a natural motion, but heard to make a noise of breaking of their waves on the shore and against the rocks. Clouds must not only drive, but be transparent. Winds, thunder, lightning, rain, snow, and hail, must be so heard, seen, and felt, as that spectators may think those sights to be natural operations. The sun, moon, and stars, no pasteboard devices ; but so represented, as that they may dazzle the eyes of spectators. And all the motions of scenes and mutations as insensible, and no more to be discovered, than that of the hand of a dial. Neither can all great rooms of princely palaces serve for this use, except they be after the model of such as the Italians have built; as there is a good one at Florence, in Italy, with convey- ances for smoke, and capacities for echoes, which Inigo Jones (the late Surveyor) experimentally found at Whitehall, and by his built Banqueting-house ; so as having found his own fault, he was constrained to build a wooden house over-thwart the court of Whitehall. The greatness of a sovereign consists not in the quantity of stone and timber heaped together. The quarries possess more stone, and the woods more timber, than a banquet-room. Let any good eye judge, whether it be not true, that the extreme height of a room takes away the greatness of the company that is in the same, and that all hangings of tapestry make no show’ at all, unless they reach to a proportionable height of a room. Since the greatness of a nation consists not in a husk, but in itself, and in its sovereign, nothing should be suffered to di- minish the appearance of that greatness within or without doors. A sovereign and his retinue, in a too vast room in height, width, and length, appear like a company in a valley near high mountains. Whereas, a body standing on the brow of a hill, and seen from below, seems to be a kind of colossus; which argues that there must be a great discretion used, in the making them fit and pleasing. All which I do not write to undervalue anv modern works, nor any of the cavalier-like operas, — every good talent being commendable. As I am confident there are some that live, who will not deny that they have heard the King of blessed memory graciously pleased to avouch he had seen, in anno 1628 (close to the gate of York-house, in a room not above thirty-five feet square), as much as could be represented (as to scenes) in the great Banqueting-room of Whitehall ; and that divers judicious persons will not deny, that the excellence of the several triumphal arches erected in the city of London, consists not in their bulk. The Grecians and Romans (who have shewn their mastership in them) did conform them to the respective places. Things can be too great, as well as too little ; too massive, and too slender; too gaudy, and too plain ; and colours placed together, which agree not one with the other, God, in his rainbow, having shewed us the best way of ordering colours. Nor is it the quan- tity of timber or stone that speaks love, in an arch ; but, rather, when it is composed of the hearts of loyal subjects, which sur- passes all that can be made. May, therefore, the oldest and most tottering house in the land, breathe forth of its windows what may answer that true love; and in point of good building, wherewith this discourse is begun (next to the giving such a new form to the streets of London and the suburbs, as may in a manner equalize those in Holland in neatness, if the inhabitants will but take the right and only course therein), may his sacred Majesty, during his long prayed for and wished reign, see St. Paul’s church in that magnificence, as the metropolitan of the houses of God in the chief city of Albion, justly requires; and his royal palace built, so as to answer the matchless greatness of him, whom all tongues of loyal subjects speak to be Carolum Magnum Secun- dum, Dei gratia, Anglia ?, Scoticc, Frandos, et Hibernia; Regem, ecclesice, legum, et libertatis populi restoratorern ; which shall ever be the dutiful wishes of Balthazar Gerbier D’Ouvilly, Knight. EXTRACTS FROM THE COUNSEL AND ADVICE TO ALL BUILDERS. (First) Printed in the Year 1663 ( and again in 1664). From the Preface-. — Furthermore, you may gather out of this treatise, a posie pleasing to your scent, and leave the gleanings, which are most proper to mechanics concerned therein, until a large work (with copper plates) shall have had time to be put forth ; wherein, not only shall be represented in complete mea- sure, the forms of all moldings, of orders, columns, ornaments for doors anti windows, courts, houses, and garden gates; and withal some fronts and dimensions of houses, both in a city and in the country; churches, towers, houses, and steeples, with all neces- sary appurtenances thereunto belonging; as also the charges a builder may be at, according to the extent and height of a build- ing, either made of stone, brick, or mixed. ARCH. PUB. SOC. 8 COUNSEL AND ADVICE TO ALL BUILDERS. Page 98 : — Furthermore, in reference to the main contents of a former printed discourse, concerning the three first principles of magnificent building : as the well choosing of a fit place for a building is a capital point, to set it right, and the giving a fit extent to the court, so the making to it a porch ought to be well considered ; for as a porch serves to a hall, to distribute alms to the poor ; a porch proves often cumbersome, being the recept- acle of foul creatures, who, as soon gotten into a court, make it their rendezvous. Nor is a porch so convenient to the palace of a prince, whose person must be attended by a great retinue, and no man to stand in his passage : but if a porch be affected, let it then be a vast portico, as that of Solomon’s house, and that he built for Pharaoh’s daughter. Now, as for the placing a gate or door to enter into the hall of a palace ; none will deny but that greatness and conveniency, being conjoined, fits best. The entrance into a hall is not so proper in the middle as at the end, when the ground plot is yet to choose and to be ordered : but if there be a constraint, which is most prejudicious to a building, the entrance must be set as much towards the end as possible can be, to set the chimney well, and the main staircase in so fit a place, as that it may not be subject to a like fatal accident, as happened to William, Prince of Orange, at Delft, when he was shot by one who stood behind a column, opposite to the stairs of that prince’s house. The rise, width, and depth of steps, shall not need to be repeated, since they have been described, and by reasons alledged for their dimension, mentioned both in the former printed and in this discourse ; nor shall repetitions be necessary concerning the reason, why the first floor of a building should not lie level with the ground ; the first for health ; the second for neatness, since any floor level with the ground receives more dirt from abroad ; the third for greatness, which appears more by an ascent ; the fourth for the vaulting of cellars, or any other offices ; and the fifth to have the floors more dry: only I shall insert this story of one in authority, who, passing by a town wherein the people generally did not outlive the thirtieth year of their age, caused all the back of their houses to be made the front, and the win- dows which were forward to be made up, to free them from that infectious air that did shorten their lives, which had its effects accordingly ; and it is therefore I do so much insist on the point of placing a building where good air is, and that neither chimneys nor doors may be so placed as to serve for the attracting of infec- tious air, which kills more than the sword, or the seas overturn ships. To take my leave of all builders, 1 must conclude with what followeth : — First, that when they shall be pleased to take a posie out of the former printed discourse, and join it to what may please them out of this, they will find that both hit the main mark, to wit, solidity, conveniency, and ornament, altogether to be observed in true building ; that all what is represented is for their profit and satisfaction ; that the manner and phrase of the first dis- course was to that end intermixed with recreative passages ; that the reader should not be tired with the mechanics’ phrases, and the proper names of their several trades, though some of them are wont to scoff at those whose language is polished, as if a person of eminent quality (born to the highest concernment of a state), should have learned their words, and have spent therein part of his precious time : and therefore 1 have now offered to write in such workmanlike terms, as may serve for a clerk of the works to speak unto them. Secondly, — that all owners of buildings shall do well to make choice of such a person for their clerk as the master workmen will endure, which they will not, if he be a master workman, whom they will not only suspect to have a design to undermine and supplant them, but obey not, pretending to know more than themselves. Nor is it fit that there should be such a controller over a master workman, as a workman. The same is to be observed with a Surveyor, to prevent all quarrels and contests ; for as every cook commends his own sauce, more than one cook to a dish will spoil it : there cannot be two suns in the firma- ment, one general over another, nay, two cocks among hens. In a word, an owner must trust, or never make choice of trustees; for if otherwise, let him be certain that his purse will be incessantly abused. Thirdly, — let all owners be prepared to repent, whether they build or not, for it is likewise the fate of many that marry or marry not. Let both one and the other lay as in a scale, their several charges, vexations, cares, labours, and pleasures ; they will find this to be true, viz. if they build, they must be at great present disbursements, vexed with as many oversights as printer setters will commit faults (as appears by the errata at the end of books), and to be overreached in bargains concerning their ma- terials, as also in work done by the great or day. If they build not, they are subject to the inconvenicncies of houses built according unto the fancies of the owners, and when they shall cast up the sums of money spent in the rent (besides many chargeable alterations), they shall find that they might have built a better and more fit habitation : so will it be with men that marry or marry not. * * Page 108 : —Now of these two sorts of men, the one will resolve on the affirmative, and delight to spend money on choice materials, as in particular to imitate Solomon, in the procuring of precious wood ; they may take notice (if they please) that store of precious wood can be had for the boarding of princely palaces, both for colour, aromatic smell, and durance; to make square framed panels (more rich than those which are seen at Paris in the cabinets of the palace called d’Orleans), which precious woods are to be had in several parts in the West Indies, some whereof are as red as the fairest vermilion, some yellow as gold, hard as marble ; besides rare madeira, and others variously figured, as the right honourable the Lord Willoughby of Parham well knoweth what extent of land about Surinam (at Abacoa), is beset with speckled wood, and is not above six weeks sail from England, where ships full of lading may be had, besides large timber eighty feet high, straight, without a knot; and at no other cost but filling and lading, more advantageous than to pay for lur from Norway ; besides a very gainful return of ambergris and vendible commodities, in exchange of iron tools, scissors, knives, old linen, and trifles. To conclude. May all builders, both of palaces and of parti- cular habitations, have good success, and possess them in peace and prosperity. May also all Surveyors, master workmen, journeymen, and labourers, behave themselves so as they ought. Take well this former counsel and advice; give no admittance to pride, the enemy of all learning; whereof a King was such a lover, as that when near the hour of his leaving the world, he saw one advance more than others within the curtain of his bed, he asked, “ Whether he could learn him anything that was good ?” FINIS. H E A T . Heat, as required in architectural structures, results from raising the temperature of the air in an apartment, or suite of apartments, by means of various contrivances, so arranged as to take advantage of the laws which govern the transmission of heat. It is unnecessary here to enter into a statement of the various theories promulgated regarding the nature of heat; a subject on which there is still very great diversity of opinion ; but the principles which govern its movements, on whose due adapta- tion effective heating alone depends, must be briefly pointed out. A body capable of affording heat, gives out caloric by two methods ; these are radiation and conduction. Kadiant heat is diffused through the air at an immense velocity, without mate- rially raising its temperature, but immediately warming solid bodies exposed to its influence ; its effect being increased in proportion to the number of points which a body presents to its influence : hence it is more rapid on rough surfaces than on smooth ones: the sun, fire, candles, gas, all give out radiant heat. In an apartment warmed by an open fire, the heat thrown out raises the temperature of the surrounding bodies, which, in turn, give out the acquired heat slowly. High temperature is required in bodies ere they can throw off much radiant heat ; the redder the fire in an open fire-place, the warmer is the radiant heat ; it follows then, that bodies at a low temperature, i. e., below 212°, afford very little heat from radiation. Radiant heat is unequal in its effects ; some parts of the body may be over-warmed by it, whilst others may be cold ; moi’eover it can only be used on a small scale. If large fires be kept up to raise the temperature of a room, the heat near them is too great, diminishing as the square of the distance, to positive inefficacy. The attendant disadvantages of a number of fires are too obvious to be more particularly indicated. When, therefore, the air of a large apartment is to be raised in temperature, the method of heating by contact is employed. The name sufficiently indicates the principle ; for the volumes of air, coming in contact with the heated surface, become raised in temperature, are put in motion, and communicate the heat they receive to surrounding bodies. The quantity of air, which may be warmed, will depend upon the area of heating surface; as only a certain volume of air can come in contact with a given space at one time. In order to obtain full advantage of heating surfaces, their area should be proportioned to the cubic feet of air required to be warmed ; a small surface, if raised to a very great temperature, will heat a large quantity of air, if means are taken to pass it rapidly from contact with the heated surface: it is most advantageous, however, both on account of health, and economy of working, to have a large surface maintained at a mild temperature with a slow, but gradual, change of air. When the air comes in contact with a body greatly heated, it is rendered unhealthy by being deprived of its moisture, or being burnt as it is termed. In general if the temperature is above 212°, or that of boiling water, this effect is produced. It will be seen that a movement of the air to be heated is an essential requisite in effective heating : in fact, a large body of air cannot be raised in temperature, unless its movements arc assisted and sustained by ventilation. If air around a heated body be, in some measure, forced to be quiescent, only the por- tions immediately in contact with it are heated ; air being a ARCH. PUB. SOC. very bad absorbent, it only communicates or conveys heat when allowed to have free motion among the particles of sur- rounding volumes: a costly and complicated apparatus has proved totally ineffective, solely through want of efficient ven- tilation. As the movement of heated air is upwards (Ventilation), it is obvious that the best place for the situation of the heating sur- face is near the floor of the apartment to be warmed, if possible beneath it. The air to be raised in temperature should have free access to it, and be allowed to flow freely upwards to the interior of the apartment. It is, therefore, manifestly erroneous to have, as is often the case, the heating surfaces, as steam, or hot-water pipes, hung within a few inches of the ceiling of the apartment. If the room be well ventilated, in which this plan is adopted, the warmed air will at once be passed from the apartment. If there be no means for ventilation, the parties occupying the room will be warmed only after a considerable lapse of time. The foregoing remarks being once thoroughly understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the various methods which arc hereafter described. In the present article will be mentioned, as concisely as the subject will admit, the various modes of heating generally adopted ; by which advantage is taken of the principles already indicated — “radiation” and “conduction”. These are, first, open fire-places, or Heating chiefly by radiation; secondly, high temperature stoves and furnaces, steam and hot-water pipes, or Heating chiefly by conduction or contact. The most primitive mode of heating the air in apartments used by man was, in all probability, by consuming masses of w r ood, placed on the ground, in a central position ol the room ; the smoke being allowed to pass through the entrance aperture, or through one specially made in the roof. This is still the mode in use amongst the savage tribes of the American continent, and of other countries, and is even to be seen in the Highlands of Scotland ; in many parts of Spain charcoal is burnt, in open braziers, in the rooms required to be warmed. This mode of consuming the above species of fuel is of very ancient origin. In many of the religious ceremonies of the Greeks, the open brazier, filled with perfumed fuel, was generally employed; and, from using it thus, the transition to domestic purposes may have been sufficiently obvious to have induced the latter practice; for their apartments were warmed by burn- ing fuel in like manner. Whether the method was anteriorly adopted for ceremonial purposes matters not, it is sufficient to know that it was the general practice for domestic convenience ; the noxious fumes arising from the fuel being corrected, or at least disguised, by the addition of spices and perfumes. In Rome a similar system was in vogue ; the receptacles for the fuel being, in some cases, of a costly and handsome construction. This antiquated mode of warming is not quite extinct; it has been employed for heating the entrance halls of places of amuse- ment, and, in some cathedrals, it may still be seen in operation. A kindred usage, moreover, may be traced in the turf-hearth of too many of those dark, low-roofed hovels, remaining in the poorer districts of Scotland and Ireland. In heating apartments, the Romans adopted another method, in addition to that described above; the principle of which has been adopted in the constructions of modern times. In this, F. 2 HEAT. called the “ hypocaustum”, the rooms are heated by flues running under the floors, in some cases, supplied with heated air from a fire outside the building; in others the hypocaust was formed by a low chamber beneath the floor; the roof of which was supported by “ small pillars, or by dwarf walls, and sometimes with flues leading from them to other apartments.” (TomlInson, Rudimentary Treatise on Warming and Ventilating , p. 53; Vitruvius; Adams, Roman Antiquities .) This plan, as above hinted, has been introduced in modern times, in hot- houses and other structures, and is largely practised by the Chinese. Previous to the fourteenth century the apartments, even of the wealthy classes in Europe, were heated much in the same primitive manner. The fuel was burnt on an open hearth, in the centre of the apartment; the smoke, created by the com- bustion of the masses of wood which formed the fuel, escaped through an opening in the room, so arranged that while the smoke escaped, the wind and rain were prevented from entering. This contrivance, termed the “ louvre”, is still retained under the same name, in many structures of the style to which it is considered more especially to belong ; the only mechanical aid to the combustion of the fuel, in such a mode of heating, being a horizontal bar, resting at either end on uprights, designated, as a whole, “ andirons”. The ends of the billets of wood placed on this, being raised from off the hearth, the circulation of the air, beneath and around them, promoted vivacity of combustion : for the manipulation of the wood, a large two-pronged fork was used. On the introduction of chimneys (Chimneys), the next ob- vious improvement took place ; the fire, instead of being on the hearth in the centre of the hall, was l-emoved to a recess wall of the apartment. The andirons were, however, still retained ; and these, in the halls of rich families, were handsomely con- structed ; the standards, in some instances, being of silver. The recess, or receptacle in which the hearth was placed, was usually of large dimensions; seats being formed ai'ound it, on which the inmates reclined, enjoying the heat and comfort of the cheer- ful blaze. The transition from the andirons to the grate, or “ cradell”, a9 it was long called, was the next alteration. The large recess, or rather apartment above described, was only eligible in capa- cious halls ; so that when smaller chambers began to be heated, it was much diminished in size. The andirons were then fixed into the back by bars ; and, in some cases, these were remove- able at pleasure ; in this arrangement the horizontal billet bar represented the front bars, and the sides of the recess, the jambs, or covings of the modern grate. The improvement following this was, probably, the bending of a few bars into a semicircular, or rectangular form, and the ends fastened into, and supported by, the back wall of the recess. In the chambers once occupied by Mary, Queen of Scots, in the palace of Holyrood, in Edinburgh, may still be seen an old grate, or cradell, somewhat in this style ; and which, according to tradition, was first introduced into Scotland by that princess. Tomlinson mentions (p. 64), that, in an inventory, dated 1603, of the goods of Sir Thomas Kyston, of Hengrave Hall, Suffolk, there is mention made of “ a cradell of iron for the chimnye, to burne sea-coal with.” So long as wood was plentiful as a fuel, coal was rarely used ; indeed, on its first introduction it had to contend with deep- seated popular prejudices, and judicial penalties, enforced by government against those, who attempted to use it: but on the construction of fire-places being improved, so that the smoke was carried of! from the apartment with some degree of cer- tainty, the advantages of coal were soon appreciated. Early in the seventeenth century, Savot succeeded in effect- ing decided improvements in the construction of fire-places. 1 he principal defect complained of in the grates placed in small chambers, was, that a door, or window, had to be left open to supply the fuel with air ; or the consequence was, that the smoke was driven into the apartment by the air descending the chimney to the fuel. Savot’s mode of obviating this difficulty was, by lowering the mantel, raising the hearth, and construct- ing the width between the jambs, so that the oi'ifice of the fire- place was left three feet square. From this period till the early part of the eighteenth century, little attention appears to have been paid to the subject. About the year 1713 a book was published in France with the name attached of Guager; who, according to Tomlinson, ( Rud . Treat, on W. and V., p. 70), was the celebrated Car- dinal Polignac. The cardinal, however eminent the position he attained in his more peculiar walk, shewed that he fully un- derstood the principles upon which effective heating was to be obtained by the open fire-place. The value of the book (some of the details of which will be hereafter given) may be known from the fact, that almost all who have, since that time, given their attention to the subject, have helped themselves liberally to his ideas, without being, in many cases, equally eager to ac- knowledge the source of their information. The celebrated Desaguliers translated the cardinal’s work, and published it in London in 1716, under the title of “Fires Improved, or a New Method of Building Chimneys, so as to prevent their Smoking; in which a small fire shall warm a large room, much better than a large one made the common way. And the method of alter- ing such chimneys as are already built, so that they shall per- form the same effects. Second edition, 1736, with an appendix, containing several further improvements, made by the translator and others.” Notwithstanding the admirable hints thrown out in this work (to which the reader, curious in this matter, is referred) ; the practical hints of Dr. Franklin, given ninety-five years ago; those of Count Rumford, published some years later ; and the many valuable suggestions of scientific men of the present cen- tury, it is matter of surprise that so many defectively constructed fire-places should still be in daily use. In treating of this part of the subject it is thought best to notice, in detail, the princi- ples on which grates ought to be constructed. The history of the introduction of the open grate has been already glanced at. In many mansions, and first-class houses, specimens of this mode of heating are to be met with, in which it is difficult to say whether the beauty of design, or elegance of finish, is more noticeable than the excellent arrangements, adopted to secure the full heating effect of the fuel consumed. In these the principles of effective heating are carried fully out 5 so far, of course, as the peculiarities of the system are capable of improvement. This state of matters, unfortunately the ex- ception not the rule, has been brought about solely by the devo- tion of their talents by savans to the subject, and by the careful attention which professional men now pay to such matters. In the fire-places of modern apartments in this country, grates are almost universally used. The object in all such being to heat the lower portion of the hearth and surrounding sub- stances, the bars should be placed very low. The consequence of this arrangement is, that the floor and hearth being warmed, the cold air, which flows into the apartment in contact with them, is warmed by the ascending currents of heated particles. There should be provision made for admitting fresh air to the front of the fire bars, not beneath them ; as radiation is chiefly required from the front, the fuel there will be more quickly consumed by the fresh air thus thrown against it. Another beneficial advantage derived from the use of this contrivance, or “ blower”, as it is called, is, that the currents of air along the floor, found in all apart- ments not having this plan, are dismissed. In Fig. 1, shewing the arrangement, the grate is indicated by a, the air-flue entrance at b, the position of the egress aperture, or blower, at c. The materials of which the bodies of grates are generally made militate very much against economy in their use ; the desideratum is to have the fire surrounded by non-conducting materials. Iron should be sparingly used in parts near the fuel, HEAT. 3 and never allowed to surround the place in which it is actually consumed. Some manufacturers content themselves with leaving an aperture at the back of the grate, on casting it, to be after- wards filled in with fire-brick : this is an approximation to what should be the law, yet it is not carried out to its fullest extent : the sides also should be filled in with fire-brick. A form of grate in which the fuel is carefully surrounded on the sides and back, by good non-conducting material, is that known as the “fire-lump grate”: such non-conducting bodies could be easily applied to any size of grate, by taking a model of its interior with a piece of block-tin. Fig. 2 is a plan of Jr this body, having the sides at a proper angle * ^ at the back. In some grates, where the in- Fig. 2. # ° ternal dimensions are too large, malleable iron sides, or “cheeks”, are used to lessen the space, and save the fuel ; the above non-conducting body might for this purpose be substituted with advantage. As before mentioned, the chief effect derived from grates, as generally used, is from “ radiation”. It is, then, of importance to construct them so as to have as large a surface, of burning coal, as possible presented to the in- terior of the apartment to be warmed. This will be best attained by making the breadth and depth of the front as large as con- venient; while the breadth, from front to back, should be of the least dimensions, consistent with the space requisite for steady combustion. A good proportion was found, where the breadth, from side to side of the front bars of the grate was fourteen inches, the depth, from the top to the bottom bars was ten inches, and the width, from the inside of the top bar to the back of the grate, was six, but at the bottom, four inches. (Grates.) In order that the rays of heat may be readily and surely sent into the room, the sides, or covings, should be made at a certain angle, or curve to the back. The form in which the sides are at right angles to the back, is the one worst calculated to throw out the rays of heat: Guager demonstrated very clearly the disadvantages of this form. O “ Supposing”, says he at page 4, “ the fire f f Fig. 3, in a common chimney, whose sides, or jambs a b ; b a are parallel to each other, the ray of heat, f g, will be reflected to m, the ray of fh upon itself into /, the ray f Ic into n, and the ray f l into p ; and as the ray fl , going from f to l, constantly rises, as it does also when, after reflection, it goes from l to p, it must get within the flue before it reaches^; and then, whenever it strikes against the fore part of the funnel which is inclined to the horizon, it will be reflected upwards into the chimney ; al- ways supposing the angle of incidence to be equal to that of reflection ; and therefore it cannot go into the room. lie next demonstrates the effect of having sides with a parabolic curve. “ Geometry teaches us that all rays which, coming from the focus of a parabolic curve, strike upon its sides, after reflection, go on parallel to the axis. If, therefore, on the back part of the hearth of the chimney a b b a , Fig. 4, the length c c, be taken equal to the length of the wood to be burnt, as for example 22 inches ; and from the points c c, the perpendiculars c d, cd, be drawn for the axis of two half parabolas, whose vertices shall be at c and c ; and the distance of the breadth of the chimney be two points of the said parabolas, then if those parabolic jambs a c c a, be covered with plate-iron, brass, or copper, and the under part of the chimney-piece be made parallel to the horizon, and as broad as may be, leaving only 10 or 12 inches for the passage into the ARCII. PUB. soc. funnel: this chimney will not only reflect a great deal more heat than common chimneys, but as much heat as any chimney possibly can do. For if f/ be the two foci of the half parabolas, when the billets, whose length is supposed f /, are on fire, the rajs o t heat darted from the said foci f which in common chimnej T s cannot go into the room, and so are useless, will here be reflected parallel to the axis c d to m n op , and consequently go into the room. If the rays, which come from any part of the fire between the foci of the parabolas, be examined, it will appear that though they are not reflected from the jambs in such a manner as to go on parallel to the axes cd c d, yet they will all be reflected into the room as g n i.” (Page 7.) In some cases it may be deemed desirable to improve old- fashioned grates ; this may be done by bending round, and placing in the inside of the jambs, plates of metal in the form of a parabola. As the curve is somewhat difficult to describe, it has been found that nearly equal advantages are to be obtained by having the sides, as drawn in Fig. 2, at an angle of 135° to the back. Count Ilumford was the first to introduce this form. The material of which the covings should be made is of im- portance. Absorption of heat is the point to be avoided, reflec- tion that to be promoted. Iron absorbs heat rapidly when rough, and radiates little, or nothing, when below the tempera- ture of red heat. Non-conducting materials, as brick, mortar, earthenware, absorb radiant heat very slowlj\ The nature of the surface of the material employed exercises an important in- fluence on its reflecting powers: polished surfaces absorb little heat, but reflect powerfully ; white surfaces reflect better than black, and if rough, less than when smooth. To meet these implied conditions, earthenware, with polished light coloured surfaces, will be the best material to be employed : it will be as perfect a covering as can be obtained, and may be looked upon as the standard of efficiency. The colour may be cream, pale blue, or green ; but the nearer it approaches to white the better. To prevent all obstruction of radiation from the burning fuel, the bars should be made as light as consistent with the required strength; and all heavy ornaments thereon should be carefully avoided. The proportion of the front of the grate to the size of the room, Tredgold (The Principles of Warming, etc., § 177, 8°., Lond., 1836) gives as follows : “ if the length of the front of the grate be made one inch, for each foot in length of the room ; and the depth of the front be half-an-inch, for each foot in breadth of the room, the proportions will be found near the truth in the cases usually occurring in practice. If the length of the room be such as requires the grate to be longer than two and a half feet, two fire places will be necessary; and in that case the same proportions maybe adopted, divided into two grates: unless the room be very wide, when a greater length should be given, and less depth, so as to preserve an equivalent area.” Grates should not be placed too far in, under the mantel-tree ; the outside bars may be flush with the outside of it. The prac- tice of making the recesses for the reception of grates deeper than absolutely necessary, should be at once condemned. The form of grates almost invariably used, is that known as the “ register”, or similar construction. These, when placed in their receptacles, leave a large empty space between the back and the wall ; this often having direct communication with the flue above, serves the purpose of a deposit for all falling soot, which accumulates until it reaches that part of the back of the grate which is apt to be — in fact, is generally— highly heated, and combustion ensues. It may be objected, that the backs of grates arc, in some cases, made of fire-brick ; and that, consequently, the heat is not sufficient to cause ignition. Admitting the fact, the inference may be denied : it takes a much lower degree of heat to ignite so combustible a matter as soot, than is generally supposed; and the result of all experience proves that this is the case. Again, sparks may be carried up the chimney, and fall down amongst the soot ; but all objections to an unlimited condemnation of the practice of leaving spaces behind grates. 4 II EAT. are but poor and lame excuses for not getting rid of the absurdity. The use of a flue is to carry off the created soot, and that of a fire-place to heat the room ; it is, therefore, as unphilosophical in principle, as inducivc of danger in practice, to allow spaces to be left for the reception of that which has no right to be there ; or to construct grates in such a manner as to make it a possibility that inflammable substances near them may be ignited. Fig. 5 will illustrate the proper form of construction of the recess which should be provided in apartments, for the placing of the grates : a shows the method too much in general use for old chimneys ; c, the back wall ; b, the wall of the apartment ; will be forced to pass through the flame that fills the whole tube ; and hence, being acted upon by the fire in all this passage, it will lose the thickness and disposition of smoke, will be con- verted into flame, and in this form, passing out of the aperture 9> w ill disappear without any visible smoke or soot.” Dr. Benjamin I 1 ranklin was the first who improved upon this plan ; and produced his vase stove, with descending flue. Fig. 14 is an elevation of this form. The top d of the stove is move- able, and through this the fuel is admitted ; it is provided with a hollow knob, perfo- rated with holes, through which the air descends to the interior to support com- bustion ; a grating is placed near the mid- dle of the vase at c, and another at the bottom of the hollow base b\ the pedestal a is also hollow, and provided with a series of plates, forming a zig-zag passage leading to the flue. There is no communication be- tween the flue and the room, excepting by the opening in the lid of the vase. The vase and hollow pedestal are placed in a niche in the ordinary fire-place, so that the heat produced is sent directly into the room. The plan, Fig. 15, will illustrate the position of the passages in the hollow pedestal a; b b is the pedestal; a a the grating at the bottom of the space b of the preceding figure ; the smoke and flame, passing through this grating, goes towards the back of the chimney as at ce\ then, dividing into two streams, one goes round the partition marked d out to the chimney flue at h, while the other stream turns round/, out to the flue at h. The air, in passing, gives out its heat to the pedestal, and is thus communicated to the room. A box, or drawer, is inserted between the partitions c and e, below the grating a a, into which the ashes drop. This excellent contrivance would be much improved if the vase was lined with fire-brick ; this would tend to prevent the air being desiccated by the overheating of the part in which the fuel is consumed. One advantage obtained by this form of stove is, that the smoke from the coals being consumed, by passing through the burning fuel, the chimney flue will thus be kept comparatively clean ; the only smoke passing through it being when the fuel is first kindled. By this consumption of the smoke the greatest advantage is taken of the fuel; the particles of soot, passing off' in the generality of fires, being but portions of unconsumed fuel, 'file air in a common fire-place rising, as soon as it is heated, in great quantities uselessly up the chimney, much of the heating power of the fuel is lost; but in this stove, being made to pass downwards, and in contact with a large heating surface, the greater portion of the evolved heat is made useful. This form of stove may be used with advantage in heating an office, or basement apartment, where the floor is paved, for the following reasons: — the best mode of fixing it will be to dispense with the pedestal and enclosed partitions, and to allow the heated air, trom the vase, to communicate with a horizontal flue, running beneath the pavement of the floor; this may be led in any direc- tion required, and should finally communicate with an upright shaft, or chimney. The horizontal flue may be made square, the paving stones forming the roof of it ; or circular earthenware tubes may be adopted; these being placed in excavations rather larger than the diameter of the tubes. In the former case, the heat will be ARCH. PUB. SOC. communicated to the room by the floor; in the latter, the air, surrounding the circular tubes being heated, must be admitted to the apartment above through grated apertures made in the floor, lo have the full effect of this plan, the excavations in which the tubes are placed should be freely supplied with air. A somewhat similar arrangement is mentioned by Tomx.inson as having been eminently successful ; the heat obtained being kept uj> at an annual cost of 30s., while by another apparatus the cost was £18. {Hud. Treat., page 108.) It should be remembered that an essential requisite, in the construction of descending flue stoves, is a chimney with a good draught. A\ ith this adjunct, Franklin’s stove will be found exceedingly economical. Another advantage, not generally known, to be obtained from its use, is the economization of the fuel; from its conservation, while in a red state, by the flame surrounding it. The conserving power of flame is fami- liarly illustrated by observing the wick of a candle when allowed to burn a considerable time; if completely surrounded by flame, the reddened portion will remain unchanged for a long time, but if moved from the influence of the flame, it is instantly consumed, and passes away. Franklin, while noticing this among other advantages possessed by his stove, cites the above illustration of the principle (Philosophical and Miscellaneous Papers , page 74). Ilis attention was first drawn to the circum- stance, from having watched, through a small opening, in the side of one of his stoves, a piece of red coal, which he expected to see pass away consumed by the heat, remain for a long period without diminishing in bulk. As the flame to be kept up will require a continual supply of fuel, the conservation of the fuel is not carried out to its fullest extent, where flame is not con- tinually passing downwards; nevertheless, Dr. Franklin found the stove very effectual in delaying the consumption of the fuel. When descending stoves are adopted, care should be taken to in- struct the parties attending them in the right way of kindling them. As an upward current is generally established in chimneys in the morning and evening, these will be easiest kindled before eight in the morning (Chimneys), and after eight in the evening. In kindling descending flue stoves, the current must first be ascertained; if drawn steadily downwards, the stove may be lighted without danger of the smoke being drawn into the room ; the coke, or coal, should be placed first on the grating, then sticks, and paper; the paper being lighted, it will ignite the sticks, and then the coals. By having a damper, or valve, placed at the top, where the air is introduced into the stove, the draught may be lessened, or increased, at pleasure. Smoke, from all fire-places, stoves, and furnaces, having a considerable portion of heat contained in it, it becomes a matter of some importance to obtain contrivances by which this heat may be advantageously used. In the preceding remarks it has been shewn how the heat of the smoke can be made use of in common fire-places (see Fig. 6) ; and in some of the stoves which have been described, arrangements for this purpose are also indicated. Thus in the Franklin stove the smoke is made useful in giving out heat, and also when the horizontal flue is adopted. In describing the common stove, Fig. 9, it has been shewn that, by lengthening the smoke tube, the heat therefrom may be made available. This plan cannot, however, always be carried out ; for, in the generality of cases, the length of tube will be cumbersome. A mode of obtaining the fullest advantage of length of tube, with but little space, may be gathered from the following de- scription : suppose the back of the stove to have a casing attached to it, the smoke lube finding access to it at one side near the top, and the casing to be provided with passages made with par- titions, the openings of which will be at the top and bottom alternately, as in Fig. 6 ; these passages being covered with an external casing of thin iron, the smoke having to pass in a zig- zag direction, gives out its heat thereto. The casing should he easily removable, to clean the passages, when required, from the accumulated soot. The winding passages may be made of 8 IIEAT. circular earthenware tubes; if these be placed behind the stove, having perforations at top and bottom, the fresh air will ascend to the casing, pass in contact with the pipes, and issue heated into the room through the apertures above. This last arrangement will be more practically available when coke or charcoal is burnt in the stove, as the tubing will not be liable to be choked with soot : il the inside of the tubes be glazed, this will not happen so frequently, even when coal is used. In hot-air pipe stoves, the gaseous products of combustion are led through a series of pipes to the chimney, the air to be heated passing in contact with the outer surface of the pipes; the form above described is therefore a stove of this de- scription. The porcelain stove, another form of hot-air pipe stove, is highly recommended by Reii> for producing “a mild, genial, and equal tempera- ture” ( Illustrations of Ventilation, p. 239). Fig. 16 is an internal elevation of this form; where b is the body of the stove, with the flue c c c circu- lating as shewn : the whole internal case and piping is covered with an external casing, provided with apertures near the top and bottom, to allow the air to enter and pass out when heated. The employment of Gas as a heating medium for stoves has long been suggested ; but from the defective construction of the contrivances adopted, much prejudice was raised against their use, and their general introduction greatly retarded. As an economical heating power, attention has of late been so strongly directed to it, that it may be expected shortly to be seen largely employed in structures, both private and public. The gas stove originally introduced consisted of a gas jet, or series of gas jets, burning in the inside of a metal casing, the air to be heated passing in contact therewith. The principal feature in these stoves was, that the products of combustion being considered so harmless, or at least unworthy of notice, when compared with smoke, no chimney was deemed necessary. Now herein lay the great objection to these; for independently of the deleterious nature of the fumes evolved, the offensive smell occasioned by the gas (which is peculiar to gas stoves alone) was enough to exclude them from general use. In many of the forms more recently introduced this erroneous plan of allowing the products of combustion to pass into the room to be heated is still followed out. It is conceived that so long as this is continued, so long will gas stoves be considered, and justly so, as unhealthy, and will be hindered from being used. If the products of combustion be taken away at once, the stove will then become as healthy as any in use; and if due care be taken that the surfaces, which the flame heats, are so small that it cannot create a temperature sufficient to burn the air, then it will be not only healthy, but the most economical form which can be used. A good form of gas stove would be the arrangement of a cir- cular pipe, punctured with small holes, in an internal casing; il this be covered with a second casing, leaving a space between the two, the air may be admitted between them, and passed into the room by apertures at the top of the stove. The products of combustion being of comparatively small volume, the tube to lead them away need not be of large diameter. A gas heating stove may be made with advantage on the principle of the “ Arnott” stove. It is believed that this would be economical, and be productive of satisfactory results. 1 he true method, however, of having healthy heat from gas, is by placing a double cylindrical vessel containing water, round a series of gas jets ; by which, the water being heated, will give out a grateful heat from its external casing. An idea of the economical nature of this mode of heating may be obtained from the fact, that forty-five gallons of water can be heated to a tem- perature of one hundred and six degrees Fahrenheit, from sixty-t wo degrees, in the space of six minutes ; at an expense of one penny ; calculating the gas to cost six shillings per one thousand cubic feet. I he result thus obtained is by the patent process recently introduced by Mr. Dcfries. 1 1 is plan is simple: a series of flat tubular pipes, communicate with the water in the vessel to be heated ; copper pipes are placed along the whole length of these, perforated with holes, so that several hundreds of gas jets are thus made ; the water flows into these tubes, and, being heated by the gas, ascends, and the cold water takes its place ; this goes on till the whole water is heated. It is evident, that by a judi- cious placing of the gas jets, a large surface of pipe or tubing may be supplied with hot water, at a very moderate cost. A very ingenious gas heating apparatus has recently been introduced by Mr. D. O. Edwards: it is termed the “ Atmo- pyre”. The following is the inventor’s description of it : — Hoods’ of tobacco-pipe-clay are made, perforated with nume- rous holes, the fiftieth of an inch in diameter; below these, gas is introduced ; mixing with the air, it forms a species of artificial fire-damp; this being ignited on the outside, burns with a pale blue flame, and soon raises the hoods to a red heat. A number of them are placed beneath an earthenware casing, the aggregate heat of the hoods raising this to a red heat. The hoods consume, when thus heated, five-sixths of a cubic foot per hour, and eight of them are calculated to warm a room containing four thousand cubic feet.” The fitness of the “atmopyre” to secure a perfect ventilation is thus exemplified by the inventor : — “ A battery of twelve ‘ hoods’ is inclosed in an earthenware case, which becoming heated to four or five hundred degrees Fahrenheit, constitutes a repository of heat. This is placed in an outer case of china, terra-cotta, common ware, or any other non-refracting substance. The products of combustion are carried away by a small pipe entering the chimney. The fresh air is brought from outside the house, through a large pipe, about six inches diameter, which communicates, by means of a valvular iron plate, with the space contained between the two cases. The air ascends in this area in large quantities, is warmed in its transient contact with the inner case, enters the room, through large holes in the top of the stove, at one hundred and twenty degrees of Fahrenheit, and dif- fuses itself equally through the apartment; maintaining such a temperature as the inmates may desire. r Ihe fire may be con- centrated in one part of a room, or distributed over the several sides. The strictest economy would require that the * chimney' or * way out’ for the products of combustion, should be in alto- relievo, within the apartment, in order that the least possible heat should be lost”. By a judicious arrangement of the outer casings, it is possible that a healthy heat may be obtained from this invention ; which certainly recognizes the principle above advocated, namely, the carrying away of the products of combustion from the apart- ment. Without attention to this feature, no satisfaction will ever be obtained. High temperature furnaces have now to be considered, or the forms of apparatus used for warming large spaces. Their lead- ing feature may be stated to be, plates of metal, or surfaces of brick or stone, heated in or by a furnace or fire ; the air to be warmed being caused to impinge upon, or pass between, them. It is evident that, from the nature of the process, the air cannot be regulated in temperature, and is liable to be over-heated; nevertheless, by great care, and an adaptation of the various parts of the machinery one to another, air may be effectively and healthily warmed. This is exactly the principle which Mr. Strutt, of Derby, endeavoured to carry out; Fig. 17 is an elcva- j tion of the form of cokcl adopted bv him. a is the internal fire-place ; the smoke and gaseous products from the fire leave by the chimney, c ; the internal casing, b b, is made of brick- work ; an external case, d d, is placed over this, so as to leave a space, up f: s . 16 . Fig. 17. II E A T. 9 which the air can pass, as shown by the arrows, into the flue e. The fire heats the brick casing, which, in its turn, communicates the temperature to the air passing up the space. This is known as the “ Strutt” or “ Belper” stove (so called from the name of Mr. Strutt’s seat in Derbyshire). The principle of Sylvester’s stove, is similar to that of Strutt’s cokel; in fact, it is merely an improvement thereon. A cast- iron cone or cokel is placed above a fire-place or furnace ; the air to be heated is projected through pipes made in an exte- rior casing, covering the cokel. In some cases this casing is made of brick-work : in the improved plans iron is used. The improved construction of this stove is shown in Fig. 18, where g c A Fig 18. B A is a plan, and B a section, of the stove ; e e, the fire-place ; i, the fire ; the chimney flue is at the back part of the furnace ; a, the cokel ; iron ribs, c c c, are placed in the manner shown in the drawing, so as literally to compel the air entering through the flues or fresh air openings, gg, to pass upon the heated surface of the cokel, it having been found that a flame held at the ribs was extinguished by the draught ; the air thus heated passes upwards into the chamber b above, from whence it is led by flues through the plate d d, to the place to be warmed. This form of stove seems well adapted for economical heating ; and by pro- perly regulating the temperature of the heating surface, a healthy degree of warmth may be obtained. There is one feature in connexion with it worth mentioning, viz., the facility with which cold air can be admitted to the building to which it is attached, in summer as well as winter. The change of temperature effected in a crowded or heated church, for instance, in summer time, is greater than would at first sight be supposed. At the Derby Infirmary, the cold air flue was four yards square, and seventy long. In the month of August, the temperature in the shade being 80°, the air which entered the stove room was 60°, and the velocity of the current was such as to blow out a candle. In applying this stove in original constructions, a fire-proof chamber must be built expressly for it; this is, in fact, the cause which precludes its trial in buildings already constructed, and not similarly provided. There are, however, many churches, etc., having subterranean chambers, in which highly defective heating apparatuses are used, wherein the stove now under con- sideration might be placed with advantage. The size of the fire chamber must obviously be so regulated, that the iron dome shall never exceed a certain temperature ; 300° degrees was the limit assigned to it by Mr. Sylvester. “ In theory, Mr. Strutt’s cokel is a simple and elegant appli- cation of principles to obtain the whole effect of the fuel ; and in less skilful hands must have failed entirely, as far as regards economy ; but in practice, it requires a building to be provided for it ; otherwise it is a cumbrous mass, which it is difficult to find a place for, and still more so to give a tolerable appearance to the parts which ought to be ornamental as well as useful. — Tredgold, Principles of Warming , etc., § 8. Where a large quantity of air is to be heated, and con- sequently a large heating surface is required, the cokel will, from its size, be very awkward ; if of very great diameter, as the fuel will be much spread in the interior, it will not be so ARCH. PUB. SOC. effective ; consequently additional vertical height must be given to it. In its place may be adopted the plan of constructing a longi- tudinal furnace, similar to that of a steam-engine fire-place, placing, round the brick case, a series of square flues, one side of which should be formed by the furnace casing: these flues should run along the whole length of the furnace, and communicate with a chamber, the opening of which should be at its highest part; at this, the flue leading to the place to be warmed should be attached. In Fig. 19, a a is the front of the fur- nace, b the ash-pit, c the pipe leading to the apartment above. The entrances to the pipes are shown by the shaded squares. A furnace might also be constructed with an arched top ; a series of earth- enware, or thick iron pipes, might run along within a few inches thereof, pro- tected from the effects of the direct flame by a partly spherical shield, made of cast-iron, stretching below them. The fronts of the tubes are to be open for the admission of fresh air, the other ends to communicate with a chamber leading to the apartment to be warmed. Another form of furnace for heating large quantities of air, known by the name of the Hot Air Pipe Furnace, is shown at Fig. 10. Fig 20 ; where a is the fire-place, with sloping bars; the heated air and smoke pass through the pipes b b, communicating with the chambers c c c c, and finally issuing into the flue//. The pipes being thus heated, give out their heat to the air which passes up through, and between, the pipes, and is led to the apartment to be warmed by means of flues ; or by grated apertures in the floor of the apartment, if the furnace room be situated directly beneath it : doors e e e e are made to open into chambers c c, so that the interior of the pipes may be cleaned from their contained soot when required. In this form of stove the full effect of the fuel is obtained, the smoke being made useful. In all these forms of apparatus, where a large separate cham- ber is required for them, the apartments above might be venti- lated, by bringing the air, by means of channels, to supply the furnace. (Ventilation.) In constructing the flue by which the air is led to the apartments to be heated, care should be taken to have the interior carefully covered with fire-proof cement ; and, above all, not to allow beams to pass through, or indeed to come in contact with them. The circular stone-waie tubing might be used with advantage. The common form of grating may be placed at the apertures for admitting the hot air to the interior of the apartment. The interiors of the cokels and furnaces above described should be made of fire-brick, carefully cemented with fire-clay, or fire-proof cement; if more than one thickness be used, the joints of the last laid series should not coincide with those of the first, but should “ break joint”. This is necessary, as the heat opens the joints, even in the best made furnaces ; and the gaseous products, escaping, become exceedingly noxious. Common bricks should never be used for the interiors of fur- naces, as they ordinarily emit, even at a low temperature, a dis- agreeable sulphureous vapour, causing a most offensive odour. The outer joints should be well pugged with blue stiff clay till 10 HEAT. within half an inch of the surface, then finished with a layer of good consistent mortar ; this treatment, if the furnaces be not very much overheated, will prevent the emission of noxious fumes. In too many cases the heating surfaces of cokels are made of iron; this ought not to be done, as it is certain to create over- heated air, and they are, moreover, inducive of danger. It is not too much to say, that almost all the public buildings con- sumed by fire owe their destruction to the defective apparatus employed to heat them. Parties fitting up such contrivances forget, or are not aware of the fact, that a not very high temper- ature is sufficient to ignite dry wood-work : and too frequently the parts are so defectively constructed that flame and smoke have egress into the flue. Wherever iron is used in hot air furnaces a lining of fire-brick should always be provided; the grand desideratum, in all such heating appliances, being to keep the temperature of such heating surface nearly to 212°, and never higher than 250°. A process has been recently patented by Messrs. Davison and Symington in which the heated currents of air are used for drying purposes in various branches of manufactures ; and which, under certain circumstances, is applicable to the heating of apartments, with a degree of precision and capability of control, seemingly highly advantageous. The principle may be seen from the following diagram. Fig. 21. A series of bent pipes c c c are placed over a furnace fire a\ the flame and heated air of which, com- ing in contact with the pipes, heats them to a high degree of tempera- ture : the air to be heated is driven in and through these pipes by the fanner d. The velocity of these fans varies, according to circum- stances, from nine hundred to thirteen hundred revolutions per minute ; and any degree of heat can be kept up with the utmost regularity, by varying the velocity of the fanners, and conse- quently that of the air through the pipes. Any cessation of the action of the blower may be expected, however, to cause material injury to the pipes. The processes connected with architecture, to which this plan has been applied with the most signal success, are the drying of wood, and preservation of timber. (Preservation of Timber.) As power is required in all cases to work the fanners, when a steam-engine is used in a building for ventilation, or other purposes, this form of heating apparatus may be used with ad- vantage. Care in this case will be requisite to produce the re- quisite degree of heat ; this is done by regulating the intensity of the fires, and the velocity of the fanners: the air, even when of a high temperature, being remarkably pleasant; this, of course, is to be attributed to the speed with which it passes over the heated surfaces. (Ventilation.) Thus in a drying house for silk, when, by means of hot iron cokels, the temper- ature of the room was raised to 120°, the air was close, stifling, and oppressive: when the air was thrown in at the rate of seven thousand cubic feet per minute by the fanners, through small perforated iron plates in the floor, the sensation, on entering, was agreeable and pleasant; the temperature being the same. 1 he great advantage obtained by the use of this process, is the speed with which the temperature of the apartment can be raised and lowered, by the 2 ^'opcrly regulated, yet constant, working of the fanners. In all these contrivances, save in the last, a limited quantity of air only can be heated; as the surface would increase in pro- portion to the cubic contents of the place to be warmed : for a large space, a huge ungainly size would speedily be obtained ; this would involve expense in construction, as well as in main- taining the fire. By stoves placed in the interior of a very large apartment, partial benefit only is obtained ; the space near them being overheated, the places further off’ scarcely feeling the influence. It is almost impossible to heat a church, for instance, equably by means of one stove, however large, placed in the interior, on a level with the floor. The economical working of cokels, furnaces, and stoves, is of very great importance, not only as regards saving of expense, but the maintenance of a steady warmth : yet, unfortunately, little attention is paid to it. The plan generally adopted is that, a few hours before the building is to be occupied, the stove, or furnace, is lighted, and a huge fire is maintained with the view of “getting the heat up quickly”; the heat is frequently so in- tense as to crack the brick, or iron work, greatly endangering the building. The best mode is to keep up a gentle heat, for at least one full day before the building (if large) is required, and to maintain the fire at a low rate of combustion : the heat- ing surfaces will then be gradually warmed, and the joints of the casing escape uninjured. Another point too often neglected, is the supply of the flues with fresh air to be heated. In general it is considered quite enough if the fire-place is supplied ; in too many cases this has not been attended to, and the flues may draw their supply of air as they best can. It should be remembered that the sole aim and end of all these contrivances is to heat the air; if this air be not supplied in sufficient quantities, it is clear that the heating power must be expended uselessly. Upon examining a heating furnace which was totally ineffective in warming the church to which it was attached, it was found placed in an apartment below the level of the floor; there was a fire calcu- lated to raise easily as much steam as would have heated every part of an apartment three times the dimension of the church, in half an hour, or at the most an hour’s time. This stove was generally kept up at this ruinous rate of expenditure for twelve or fourteen hours, sometimes in very cold weather for twenty-four hours ; and, after all, the church was by no means comfortably heated when the congregation assembled. The mode of con- struction was as follows : above the arched top of the fire-place a large chamber was made, used to warm the air ; the entrance to this, for admitting the air, was immediately above the door of the fire-place: from each side of the chamber a flue branched off, leading to a space made in the passage, and covered with a grating. The upward current was found scarcely strong enough to lift, very perceptibly, a silk handkerchief placed on the upper side of the grating ; at the other, the handkerchief, instead of being raised, w r as pulled downwards; shewing the existence of a current down the flue instead of up, as it ought to have been. On descending to the heating chamber, the door of the hot air chamber was found shut; so that the air had to be drawn from one side of the church to be heated, and then passed into it at the other. The attendant had no very clear ideas as to the use of the door opening to the hot air chamber; all that he seemed to think necessary was the keeping up of a large fire. Now in this case, the type of too many others, had a full know- ledge of the principles and constructive details of the apparatus been given, this result could never have existed. This has been pointed out as the cause of inefficiency in many arrangements, as well as explanatory of a simple means of experimenting on currents and movements of heated air. The next method of heating large spaces by contact, is the use of steam as a means of giving heat to reservoirs, whose sur- face can never exceed the temperature of boiling water, unless the steam be created under a very high pressure ; which is easily avoidable. If the surface of the metal, which it is employed to heat, be of a proper nature, the air is quite healthy ; if iron pipes are used, no unhealthy exhalation is produced. It is now upwards of one hundred years since the use of steam as a heating medium was first suggested. This was brought forward by Col. William Cook, in 1745 : since which time, pro- jects and contrivances, in amazing numbers, have been produced, all designed to carry out the principle. The great advantages of steam over hot temperature stoves is the economy and facility with which it can be produced, and Fig. 21. II E A T. 11 conducted to any desired situation. The distance of the place to be heated from that where the steam is produced, has no influence in stopping the useful effect; care, however, being always taken that the pipes in which it is conducted shall be protected from cold, in order to avoid condensation. In making arrangements for heating by steam, the points necessary to be considered are — the place and situation of the furnace and boiler, and the mode of distributing the pipe or heating surfaces ; so as to heat the required quantity of air in the least possible space of time. The furnace should be so con- structed, that the fullest advantage may be obtained from the fuel consumed. The first point to be aimed at, is to allow fresh air to have free access to all parts of the grating, or fire bars, on which the fuel is consumed. The freer this is, the more perfect will be the combustion, and consequently the effect derived from it. However, the combustion of fuel must never be pursued to that point at which the gaseous products, and the air necessary to blow the fire, consume more heat than the fuel generates. The quality of the air to be admitted to the furnace is also of importance: the air ought to be dry and cool; if moist, it takes away heat ; if cool, on entering the ash-pit, it passes with greater velocity through the fuel. It may perhaps be objected to this recommendation, that it is opposed to the practice of having the ash-pits of furnaces sup- plied with water. In such cases, it must be remembered that the benefit derived from the practice is, that the draught of de- fective furnaces is increased by the steam which rises from the water, which, mixing with the smoke, renders it lighter. Expe- rience of the working of furnaces shows, that the air supplied to the fuel should be cool, that it may pass with greater velocity through the burning fuel ; and in this the opinion of Tredgold coincided : — “ The quality of the air to supply the fire is another thing worthy of being considered, although any dirty wet hole is usually esteemed good enough for the fire-place. Now the air ought to be dry ; for air charged with moisture is improper, and only takes away heat.” — Principles , etc., § 91. The form of construction for the furnace will depend on the species of boiler used ; a cylindrical or longitudinal boiler will evidently be differently circumstanced from a spherical one. As the principal point to be aimed at, is the economization of the fuel, there are certain important matters which ought to be con- sidered in all constructions, whether for the one or the other kind. The object being to confine the heat, non-conductors ought to be used for the external brickwork, or walls, of the fur- nace, so as to avoid as much as possible the use of metal. The outside brick-work should be built with hard well-burnt bricks, and, if possible, have hollow walls surrounding the space in which the fuel is consumed. The space for the fire and boiler should be lined with fire bricks, set carefully in fire-proof cement. In the generality of furnaces, a flat piece of metal, called a dumb plate, is placed near the door ; for which earthenware slabs or fire-tiles should be substituted. The best place for the boiler is where the flame can act at once upon the bottom ; much heat is lost by placing the boiler too far in, as a cold current of air mixes with the flame and hot air every time the fire is stirred. At the place where the smoke leaves the furnace, a damper, made of cast-iron, should be hung, which, although usually made horizontal, should slide in a vertical frame, and be attached to a chain, which, passing over a pulley or pulleys, should have a weight at the extremity, to act as a counterpoise to the damper ; by moving this weight up and down, the damper may be moved in a corresponding ratio, and the fire consequently regulated in intensity. The bars whereon the fuel is placed should not be larger than one inch in breadth at the top, and the distance, be- tween each, not more than half-an-inch. To evaporate one cubic foot of water per hour, one square foot of aperture in the grating should be allowed for admission of air to the fuel. If fifteen square feet of surface of boiler are exposed to the flame for every cubic foot of water evaporated per hour, this allowance will be ample, and found consistent with general practice. Of this arcu. pub. soc. quantity, one-third is reckoned a3 horizontal or effective heating surface, the remainder vertical. For the aperture of the chim- ney, Scott Russell gives as a standard — one-fifth of the fire- grate, diminished at the chimney, to one tenth of the same area. 1 he chimney should be of the same diameter throughout its interior; and if of forty feet height, and one-tenth part of the area of the grate, it will give an abundant draught. If the height of the chimney be greater, then this area may be diminished, as the square root of the height is increased”. The higher the flue, the greater is the upward current or draught; consequently, if the height is increased, the area may be proportionally dimi- nished : this, as Russell above shows, is as the square root of the height is increased. ( History of the Steam Engine, chapter on Boilers.) The shape of the boiler generally recommended is the cylindrical, having spherical ends. If very small, it should be made of copper, this being the most economical material, as the thinner the metal the better, at the part where it is exposed to the flame. The outer surface, above the brick-work, should not be exposed to the air ; if this be the case, it occasions a very considerable loss of heat : the best contrivance to obviate this, is to have an outer case surrounding the exposed portion, leaving an empty space of some three inches between them; this should be filled with a non-conducting material, as lime, animal char- coal, etc. A cheaper method would be lining the outside with bricks carefully cemented together. The quantity of water in the boiler is also a matter of some importance. A good propor- tion will be, ten cubic feet for every cubic foot of water evapo- rated per hour ; and the size of boiler should be so proportioned that this quantity shall fill half of it ; the other half having its capacity equal to, if not a little greater than, the capacity of the range of steam pipes to be filled for heating purposes. To ensure safety, and a proper attention to the quantity of water, etc. in the boiler, certain apparatuses should be used. The safety valve consists of a cylinder fixed to the top of the boiler, having free communication with the interior and the external atmosphere ; on the lower part of this a valve is placed, having a vertical motion ; the spindle or stalk of the valve is loaded with heavy weights at its upper extremity, or is pressed upon by a weighted lever. When the steam exerts a pressure on the under surface of this valve, greater than the amount of downward pressure, caused by the weight of the atmosphere and the load placed upon its upper extremity, the valve rises from its seat, and the steam is allowed to escape to the atmosphere, through the aper- ture provided in the cylinder. As nothing should be left to the final settlement of workmen, the professional master should him- self see that every requisite condition is fully carried out. The following rule is given by Tredgold ( Principles , etc., § 103), to decide if the area of the safety valve be of sufficient size : — “ It will be obvious that the safety valve should be of such dia- meter that the steam may escape as quickly as it can be generated by the fire under the boiler ; for, with a less aperture, the steam will accumulate, and the pressure, tending to rend the boiler, will increase, even after it has become sufficient to raise the valve.” A sufficient pressure of steam for heating purposes is four pounds per square inch over and above that of the common atmospheric pressure : this should never be exceeded. It is almost unnecessary to state that this pressure is quite harmless : a pressure fourteen times as great is daily wrought with safety in many parts. If the quantity of water to be evaporated per hour is known, the rule for finding the area of valve is, according to the same authority “ Divide the number of cubic feet of water that the boiler would evaporate in an hour by five, and the square root of the quotient is the least diameter that should be "iven to the safety valve.” After the safety valve, the next important appendage to the boiler is the feed apparatus. Fig. 22 is a representation of a simple form of feed-pipe: a a is part of the boiler; the level of water is seen by the horizontal lines ; a tube, h b, is inserted in the boiler, passing down within a couple of inches of the bot- 12 IIEAT. tom. At the top of the tube, a small cistern, c c, is placed, supplied with water from the pipe i. At the bottom of the cistern a conical valve is placed ; this is furnished with a rod, e, attached to the end of the lever f, working on a standard affixed to the side of the cistern; at the other end of this lever a rod, g , is attached, passing downwards through a steam-tight aperture in the boiler’s top, and fastened to the upper side of a stone float, h. When the valve is in its place, and the lever f hori- zontal, the bottom of the float h should rest on the surface of the water. And this line should be that of its proper level. When the water falls below this, the float de- scends, pulling with it the rod g, raising the opposite end of the lever, and, by means of the attached rod e, raising the valve out of its seat ; the water, flowing from the cistern, down the pipe b, to the interior of the boiler, rises in the interior, raises the float, and shuts the valve. One thing should be attended to in this contrivance, namely, to make the height of cistern, from the boiler, sufficient to balance the pressure of steam in the boiler. It will be seen, that when the steam accumulates in the upper portion of the boiler, as it increases in pressure it will press upon the surface of the water, and force it up the feed-pipe, thereby opening the valve tion this duration is not always calcidable. After the pipes are fitted up, and previous to the fire being lighted, the air is forced out of them, by passing volumes of water several times through the whole range ; they are then completely filled, the expansion tube being left empty. The pipe by which the apparatus is filled is situated at the bottom of the expansion tube : when the apparatus is filling, the latter is left open, till filled, and the air expelled from the pipes. The filling and expansion tubes are hermetically sealed, by plugging them with screw-plugs. In both forms of apparatus (low and high temperature), objec- tions have been made, that in cases of bursting, the danger would be great, from the hot water being scattered about. The fact is, that an explosion — which, by the way, very rarely happens — is not attended with dangerous consequences. In the “ low tempe- rature ’ apparatus, if a pipe were to burst, a simple crack would probably be the result : the water would not spread with much force, as, unlike steam, it has a very limited range of elasticity. In the “ high temperature”, the water being under high pressure, would issue from the crack or fissure at first in the form of steam, thereafter in that of water, at 212°. Those who have to do with the manufacture of both species of apparatus, express themselves perfectly willing to stand within a few inches of the fissure at the time of rupture. That there is little chance of bursting in the “ high temperature” may be judged from the fact, that the pipes are proved at a pressure of three thousand pounds per square inch, and every care is taken in their manufacture to prevent unsound work. Where heating surfaces of great extent are required, a prac- tical difficulty arises, from inability to provide the necessary space for the pipes, as set up in any of the usually applied forms, more especially in connexion with steam and low temperature hot-water apparatus. In these, a large quantity of hot water or steam is required ; hence a large space is occupied to obtain a small effect. The annexed, Fig. 48, is an illustration of a plan, which, it is obvious, will afford a large amount of heating sur- face, with a small cubical content. A box, of which a transverse section is seen at b, is provided with pipes running longitudinally through the interior: these are surrounded by water or steam ; the surface presented by each of the internal tubes will, it is evident, heat the air effectively which passes through them : a longitudinal section is seen at a. If hot water be used, it enters I =3 r~ -• • ■ Fig. 48. c C / O^cS a SO09QOO B VOODOO -D O C the box at the upper side, by the pipe d, leaving it at the lower, by the pipe c. The apertures, or internal surfaces, may be made in the shape of longitudinal slits, having flat instead of circular sides. By this arrangement, a large amount of surface will be obtained ; a box, twelve inches high, and six inches square, giving from its sides above two square feet of surface ; but if arch. pub. soc. four slits or apertures be made to pass through its whole length, half-an-inch wide between their sides, and five inches long, so that space will be left at each end to allow the hot water or steam to circulate round and surround them, four additional feet will be given with the same size of exterior surface. Were this principle to be more generally adopted, greater satisfaction would be obtained, from having to provide less spaces for heating sur- faces. The practical difficulty would be making the joints per- fectly tight. Mr. Walker has recently invented and patented an effective form of heating box, which presents a large effective heating surface, yet is, at the same time, simple in its arrangements ; and will be kept easily in repair. The inventor describes it as “ consist- ing of a number (more or less, according to the heating surface required) of iron blocks, say six inches square by twelve or four- teen inches high (Fig. 49), each block having square openings, cells, or perforations, passing through it, from the top to the bottom, in a vertical direction. The divisions between the perforations are made extremely thin, so as to require the smallest possible quantity of metal ; and the blocks are enclosed within an iron box, in such a manner as to leave one inch for water or steam all round each block. The top and bottom of the box have each square openings, corresponding with the ends of the blocks, so as to permit the ingress and egress of the air to and from the perforations. The box may be quite plain, or ornamented to any desired degree, by metal work ; when its exte- rior, and also the internal perforations, are all efficient heating surfaces. Heat, being applied to the outside of each block, by the passage of hot water or steam into the box, is conducted or communicated through the divisions, and the air contained in the cells or perforations becoming also heated, by contact with the hot surfaces of the divisions, rises into the apartment. The box being fixed over any opening in the floor or wall, communicating with the external atmosphere, a constant stream of fresh and warm air is maintained. The heat may be regulated, or entirely shut off, by a stop-cock in the pipe that supplies the hot water or steam ; and the quantity of air may be varied at pleasure, by the ordinary slide, or other valve, fixed in the opening. By this very compact arrangement, one hundred and sixty-six feet ot heating surface may be obtained, in a box measuring not more than two feet cube, and no outer casing is required”. From a strict examination of the principle, and a careful series of experiments as to its heating powers, stated below, this inven- tion will probably be found to be the most effectual yet intro- duced. In fact, the philosophical principles which govern the transmission of heat seem to be carried out to their fullest extent. The difference between the heating-box described in Fig. 48 and Mr. Walker’s (Fig. 49) being, that in the former, the whole heating surfaces are surrounded by the heating me- dium ; while in the latter, the outer surface only is heated, the heat being communicated to the internal perforations entirely by conduction, — the really original and valuable feature of the plan ; few joints being required, and the danger of leakage being, to a considerable extent, obviated. It has been consi- dered this plan would be “ weak and slow in its operation . As a proof, however, that it really is not so, and further, as affording an instance of the valuable properties of heated iron as a con- ducting medium, the results of some experiments made to test its heating powers are here added. With air in a natural state of quiescence, except only so far as it was set in motion by the heat of the iron : — A block, 6( inches square, 12 inches long, with 49 perforations, each f of an inch square ; the divisions £ of an inch thick ; the outer shell j of an inch thick ; the temperature of water applied to the outer case, 200° ; ditto of atmosphere, 56°. \ 20 II EAT. ]. The thermometer let down six inches into perforations — In the corner (nearest the water, the heating medium) indicated - 174° In the centre - 164° Difference - - - 10° 2. Bulb of thermometer level with top of block — At the corner indicated - - - 156° At the centre - - - - 152° Difference 4° The difference showing that the conducting power of iron, heated by water at a distance from it, results in a temperature little less than that of the portion actually in contact with the heating medium. The difference, 6°, between the two experi- ments, was probably owing to the bulb in No. 2 being in contact with the iron. A block, 4f inches square, 24 inches long, with 49 perfora- tions, each | of an inch square ; the divisions ^ of an inch thick; outer shell \ of an inch thick. Temperature of water 200° ; at- mosphere 50°. 3. The thermometer suspended in a wooden tube bulb twelve inches above block — Over the corner indicated - - 135° Over the centre - 132° Difference - - - 3° In this experiment, it will be observed, that though the heating surface was much increased, nearly in fact doubled, the temperature attained was not so high as in the two former cases; this may be attributed to the fact, that the bulb of the thermometer being close to the heated iron, and within the influence of radiation ; whereas, in No. 3, it w r as purposely placed beyond it. Nevertheless, the result obtained is still decisive as to the fact that there is very little difference between the temperature of the iron heated by contact with the water, that being two inches from it, deriving its heat solely from conduction. A block of the same external dimensions as that in No. 3, but having no perforations, constituting in fact a square pipe containing hot water. The temperature of water 190°, atmo- sphere, 64°. 4. The thermometer suspended in a wooden tube bulb twelve inches above the shell — Over the side indicated - 83° Over the centre - - - - 76° Difference 7° Here it will be observed, that the air being more highly heated by the block in No. 3, than by the shell in No. 4, passed at a greater velocity, shewing that a much larger quantity of air was heated to a much higher temperature by the block than by the shell. A\ ith air forcibly blown through the perforations by a four- horse power engine, working two double-action air-pumps, each six feet by five feet sectional area; the quantity of air passed being equal to 13,000 cubic feet, at a velocity of eight hun- dred feet per minute; — Fourteen heat boxes, each contain- ing six perforated blocks, each having forty-nine perfora- tions, the whole amount of heating surface, including that of cases, being 2,240 square feet; notwithstanding the great quantity of air passed, which was such as to lower the tem- perature of a hot chamber over the heat boxes from 212° to lNO (the former being the temperature when the engine was at rest), the difference between the centre and corner openings could at no time be found more than 10°. To the finger the central opening appeared in no way to differ from the corner one in point of temperature. Ihe rules for finding the area of hot-water pipes for any required size of apartment, are, in all respects, essentially the same as those given for steam ; excepting in one point, that is, the mean temperature of the pipes. In the calculation for steam pipes, 200° is given; but 140° to 150° may be taken as that of low temperature hot-water pipes. From the data obtained by Hood, it appears that water in a pipe of four inches diameter loses - 851 of a degree of heat per minute, when the excess of its temperature over that of the sur- rounding air is 125°; and also that, under the same condition, one foot of such a pipe will heat 222 cubic feet of air one degree in the same time: whence he deduces the following rule: — Multiply 125 by the difference between the maximum proposed temperature of the room and that of the external air, and divide this product by the difference between the temperature of the pipes and that proposed for the room : then the quotient is to be multiplied by the number of cubic feet of air to be warmed per minute; and the product divided by 222 will give the num- ber of feet, in length of pipe of four inches in diameter, required to produce the same effect : this length is to be multiplied by 1*33 or by 2, for equivalent lengths of pipes respectively three and two inches in diameter. These remarks are to be considered merely as elucidative of the principles and practice of heating as generally adopted ; not as recommendatory of any particular plan. It is difficult to say whether the low water apparatus is not superior in work to any other, when properly fitted up by an engineer possessing a thorough knowledge of his subject. In deciding upon the form to be adopted, the architect will be guided by local and other circumstances ; these will necessarily vary in different cases. The admirable arrangement in Franklin’s stove presents a feature of the utmost importance, viz., the consumption of smoke ; and it clearly points out a means of accomplishing that desideratum. The obvious practical difficulty is the fire-grate : could any material be discovered which would resist the intense action of focal concentration of heat where the flame passes downwards, all the other conditions, of agreeable temperature, cheerful appearance of fire, sufficient ventilation, and perfect freedom from dirt or smoke, would be fulfilled. Were houses built with one central chimney, having an outer case carried up to the full height of this smoke-flue, — forming an air-shaft, — the flues from each stove could be conducted to the chimney, and each apartment could have a ventilating tube leading to the shaft, — the heat of the chimney maintaining a constant upward cur- rent therein, — there would be a certainty of warmth and ven- tilation to every apartment ; and a city of such dwellings would possess an atmosphere free from a canopy of smoke with all its attendant disadvantages ; in short, the economy and salubrity of the system would be incalculable. Robert S. Burn. Of the publications upon this subject, the following additional works, (see also Ventilation), may be mentioned: — G. P. Boyce, Remarks on the different systems of Warming and Ventilating Buildings, 8vo, 1826; Alf. Beaumont, Hints for preventing Damage by Fire in the Construction and Warming of Buildings, 8vo, London, 1835; C. Sylvester, The Philosophy of Domestic Economy, as exemplified in the mode of Wanning, Ventilating, etc., 4to, Nottingham, 1819; W. Walker, On the comparative merits of the various systems of Warming Buildings by means of Ilot Water, 1837 ; II. W. Dewhurst, Practical Observations on Warming Dwelling Houses and Public Buildings with Hot Water , 12mo, London, 1832; C. Hood, A Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water ; on Ventilation, etc., third edition, 8vo, London, 1850; Col. W. Cook, On Warming Rooms by Steam conveyed in Pipes, Phil. Trans. 1745, p. 370; Robertson Buchanan, Bssay on the Wanning of Mills and other Buildings by Steam, 1807 ; Trans. Soc. Arts, 1806, etc., ; A. M. Perkins, Improved Patent Apparatus for Warm- ing and Ventilating Buildings, 12mo, London, 1840; J. Davies and G. V. Ryder, On the system of ] Vanning Buildings by Hot Water , a Reply to Mr. Perkins’s Answer to the Report presented to the Manchester Assurance Company, 8vo, Manchester, 1841. H I P-K NOB. PLATE XC. The term Gable, Hip, or Ridge-knob, signifies a pinnacle, finial, or other ornament, placed on the top of the hips and ridges of roofs, or on the point of a gable. Crosses have been usually fixed in those situations on ecclesiastical edifices, but on other buildings ornaments of various kinds were used ; and when applied to gables w-ith barge- boards, the lower part of the hip-knob frequently terminated in a pendant. The architectural forms given to the cross as a hip-knob, scarcely differed from those which it presents in every collection of its shapes ; and therefore attention will only be given, in the pre- sent instance, to those finials of other forms. The subject has hitherto met with little attention in England, but in France it has been ably treated. The following observa- tions have been extracted from the work by E. de la QukRikRE, quoted in the article Ridge, in which a preference is given to examples whose epoch could be ascertained with certainty, either from the date marked upon the fronts of the houses, or from the character of the architecture and ornamentation. It is supposed that the word “ epi ” arose from the similarity existing between the ornaments so called, and ears of corn (epis de ble) ; nevertheless, it seems that the origin of epi, espi, would be more correctly given as espie, espiel, espiet, espieu, i.e. epee, etc. , and in general anything pointed, from spina, as is found in the Glossaire de la Langue liomane of Roquefort. That the term “espi” was used in the fifteenth century, is proved by a manuscript ( Comptes de la fdbrique de la paroisse Saint Laurent de Rouen, suppressed in 1791, for the year 1470-1471), in the archives of the Departement de la Seine Inferieure, in the depot of the ancient library of the cathedral of Rouen, which says : “A Cardinot le Pelletier, pour cent liures de plomb, n’est pas comprinse la peine ct salaire de la fachon dcs cinq espis des chapelles du hault de l’esglise tant de coste que d’aultre com- menches a faire et mesme du plomb.” Although at Caudebec-en-Caux there is a stone house of the thirteenth century, exhibiting upon its gable a contemporary capital, which probably bore a statue or some such object, there are no sufficiently authenticated examples of hip-knobs earlier than the fifteenth century ; which is the more remarkable, as Vanes (in themselves a branch of the present subject) and hip- knobs were marks of distinction appropriated to the chateaux and hotels of feudal times: and although all the civil and religious edifices of any importance of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- ARCH. PUB. SOC. turies, and of a great part of the seventeenth, were ornamented with crests and hip-knobs, and had the leadwork of their ridges glistening with gilding and painting. In the Departement du Cher, the Chateau de Mediant offers an extremely rare example of the complete decoration of an ancient roof (Ridge, Plate 81, Fig. 9): this and the specimens at Abbeville; and also those on the apse of Evreux cathedral ; those of the cathedral, of the arcade of the Grosse Horloge, of the Palais de Justice, and of the tower of S. Romain at Rouen, are all mentioned on the second page of the description to Plate 81, Ridge, as well as a drawing of such a careful termination of a roof, which was designed in the time of Francis I, for the church of S. Vincent at Rouen. At Alencon, near the church, in the place Notre-Dame, is a house of the sixteenth century, having two vanes and a hip- knob in the style of the Renaissance. At Argentan, in the rue des Capucins, there are some fine complete hip-knobs of the seventeenth century, with some others which are very remark- able : in the place de la Cathedral at Auxerre, there remains a curious fragment of a hip-knob of the fifteenth century, at the top of a turret belonging to a private house ; also a hip-knob of the seventeenth century on a house in the rue des Lombards: those of the old Hotel Dieu at Beaune may be mentioned ; also those of a house at Caen of the sixteenth century, in the rue du Moulin, at the bottom of a large court. At Dijon are the vanes of the Hotel de Mimeure and the hip-knob of the Hotel Cham- bellan, and at Delft are two peculiar hip -knobs. On the chateau at Eu there are four hip-knobs of the sixteenth century, and four others of the seventeenth. At Gien are those of the chateau, of the time of Louis XII : at Lisieux some mutilated hip-knobs, among others that of the house in the rue aux Fevres : at Mans, that of a turret, which is near the south portal of the cathedral. At Paris some are remaining in the Place Royale and some at the Prefecture de Police, all of the time of Louis XIII; at Reims are those of the Hotel-de-Ville ; and at Troyes the vanes of the old Hotel de Vauluisant, built at the epoch of the Renaissance ; one of these represents the sun, the other is the crescent moon surrounded with stars ; both the stems are very high, and ornamentd with dolphins, etc. : another charming vane of the same epoch, about fourteen feet high, attracts notice at the foot of the rue de la Monnaie, facing the rue des Croisettes. At Vitre are the hip-knobs of the B 2 HIP-KNOB. castle, and Verneuil possesses the remains of a hip-knob of the end of the fifteenth century, upon a turret, corbelled out from the angle of an important and very remarkable house in the rue de la Madeleine. There are three ornamental vanes at Epcrnay, besides other vanes and hip-knobs remaining in divers places in Britany ; at Quimper-Corantin ; Brest ; on the hospital at Landernau ; and on the chateaux of Brignon, of Keroel or Kerouel, and Tr4s£ol ; the vanes of this last bear the date of 1642. In the hip- knob with the vane observable at the town of Brest, anchors are employed. According to M. Ch. Grouet, very curious vanes of the sixteenth century are to be seen at Grange-le-Roi (Seine and Marne), at the chateau of the celebrated Fouquet, built in the seventeenth century and situated at Vaux-le- Praslin ; also at Dole (Jura) and at Gray (Haute-Sacme). This enumeration is poor in comparison with the numerous examples that Rouen is able, notwithstanding its daily losses, to offer to the curiosity of strangers, particularly if the types belonging to the latter half of the seventeenth century are in- cluded, which still present themselves in large numbers. It may here be mentioned that the artists of that period always reproduced in lead, what was done in stone, accord- ing to the types of ornamentation of the period. In point, of fact, however, the liip-knobs of the fifteenth century have become so extremely rare, that even Rouen offers no more than five examples. These consist of two fragments, one on the houses No. 112-114, rue Martainville, and No. 23, rue de la Grosse Horloge, or Grande Rue, Fig. 7 (as restored by La QuERikRE) ; the base of this last very much resembles that shown, Fig. 5 of Plate 81, Ridge; and another of this descrip- tion, very well preserved, remains on the ridge of the chapel of the Virgin at Evreux cathedral, and another upon the church de la Madeleine, at Verneuil (Eure) : two others are to be seen, the first upon the chapel of the hospice at Orbec (Calvados), the second at Paris, in the cul-de-sac des Bourdonnais ; the latter is terminated by a bouquet of lilies. The hip-knob upon a turret in the rue de la Madeleine at Verneuil, is of a different type to the above ; and upon the chapel called des Machabees, adjoining to the cathedral of Amiens, is one of the same cen- tury deserving of notice. There are some perfect and extremely remarkable examples (Fig. 9) at the chateau de Martainville- sur-Ry, near Rouen. The other specimens at Rouen com- prise one (Fig. 8), mutilated but analogous to no other known example, springing from the top of one of the turrets of the archbishop’s palace in the rue S. Romain, facing the rue des Chanoines ; it has a very high stalk, bearing four rays sculp- tured into foliage, the termination of which could not be ascer- tained : a wooden turret of the fifteenth century, enclosing the staircase of the house. No. 17, rue Bouvreuil, and covered by a high pitched roof, surmounted by a very dilapidated vane ; and lastly, the turret aux Pastorales of the Hotel du Bourgthe- roulde, furnishes a remarkable example of the ornamentation of the hip-knobs of the end of the fifteenth century. Fig. 3. The crowning of the hexagonal slate roof is enveloped with a network of lead, bearing foliage on the hips. From the sum- mit of this point springs a high iron stalk, bearing a large thistle flower (which, like the lily, was very common at that time), around this other thistles were grouped, now reduced to a very small number. At Verneuil, the turret corbelled out from the fine stone house of the time of Louis XII, at the angle of the rue du Pont-aux-Chevres, has a bouquet composed of four lilies, surmounted by a vane, also having a lily at its sum- mit, the whole in ironwork. At lloucn are several buildings of the fifteenth century with overhanging stories, having above their gables the rudiments of hip-knobs no longer in existence. Such are the houses in the rue Grand-Pont, No. 60-62, at the angle of the rue de la Madeleine ; rue du Bac, No. 66, at the angle of the rue des Fourchettes; rue des Charettes, No. 20, facing the rue de la Comedie ; and the house formerly called “ Caradas”, from the name of the proprietors, an important and curious construc- tion, with two stories, occupying all one side of the rue de la Tuile to the rue de la Savonnerie. This house is engraved in vol. ii of the author’s Description Ilistorique des Maisons de Rouen , etc. The epoch of the Renaissance is the most fruitful in fine and elegant hip-knobs of every description; it was also the time when good taste was invariably shown. Upon a base, mostly square, with more height than breadth, with mouldings, orna- mented on its faces with little grotesque heads or tablets, is placed a candelabrum, an elegant vase, a flower-basket, or an urn, of a light and graceful form, and springing from which are leaves, flowers, and fruits. This base likewise sometimes supports small figures. The different pieces which compose the epi or hip-knob, fitted one above the other, are held together by an iron rod, which passes through them and comprises the basis ; this at its lower extremity divides into four branches, to clasp, if the ex- pression may be used, the post upon which the entire hip-knob is fixed. This piece of wood called an “ 4pi,” has probably given its name to the ornaments with which it is finished. The height of the best hip-knobs of private houses varies from three to six feet, but there are some, principally with vanes, which are as much as from twelve to fifteen feet. Two of the four hip-knobs, which existed upon a house in the rue des Charettes, Nos. 100-102, have been measured and weighed. They are each four feet four inches in height. The weight of an iron stalk of this length is sixteen pounds ; and that of the lead of a hip-knob is from eighty-five to ninety pounds. So that the total weight of each hip-knob is a little less than one hundred and six pounds. In places where potteries existed, crests and hip-knobs were made of burnt clay, also ornamental ridge-tiles (in the neighbour- hood of Etampes, ridge-tiles have been discovered surmounted by a trefoil). Hip -knobs of burnt clay, perfectly executed and greatly resembling lead, have been seen in different loca- lities, especially in Lower Normandy, at Alenin, Bayeux, Cou- tances ; above all at Falaisc (two hip-knobs of the Renaissance upon the Prefecture, rue Basse), and at Domfront, upon the Maison-du-Juge-de-paix, of the same period, and upon other houses. After searching among a number of collections of drawings and engravings for examples, the author was only able to find two sheets, each containing four designs for hip-knobs of the end of the Renaissance and of the sixteenth century. These form part of a volume of manuscript designs by Jacques An- drouet-Ducerceau, deposited in the Bibliotheque de Sainte Genevieve at Paris. Fables, allegory, mythology, social life, and religion, have furnished numerous subjects, both various and graceful, for the finishing of the coverings of roofs. Thus a little soldier, armed from head to foot, is to be seen at Rouen upon a house of the Renaissance, rue Saint Denis, No. 38. A sort of bully, with a drawn sword, still figures over a window at the house, No. 11, rue Herbierc ; likewise some little Cupids, with quiver on shoulder and bow in hand, shoot very innocent arrows from above lucarncs (from whence they have seen three hundred years), in rue du Bac, No. 40, seemingly at one of their bre- thren, still remaining in the place du Vieux-Marche, at the corner of the rue du Vicux-Palais. Another infant, also draw- ing a bow, belonged to the house rue Fcuyere, No. 44 ; but an amateur having by chance spied it out, roosting on its lucarne, had it taken down to ornament his country house. It would appear that this motif is often copied at Rouen, for at Dieppe- dallc, three miles from the town, upon a house with a steep roof, there arc two little naked figures, one of a child drawing a bow, the other of Neptune. Lastly, Justice, Strength, Hebe, Temperance, and Prudence, statues as large as life, the first and last executed in a very remarkable manner, complete, with magnificent hip-knobs, the HIP-KNOB. picturesque appearance of the Chateau d’Angerville-Bailleul, built in the year 1543, and situated in the Pays de Caux, in the canton of Godervillc (Seine-Inferieure). Statues and hip-knobs also figure upon religious edifices. At the cathedral of Rouen, the chapel of the Virgin still shows, upon the hip-roof of its apse, a fine statue of the mother of the Saviour, and a magnificent hip-knob of the sixteenth century (Fig. 10). At the church of Saint-Ouen, was formerly an angel, such as still remains at Rheims, over the choir of the cathedral ; and at the cathedral of Toul, near the enclosure ( Lanternon ) of the clock. At Falaise, the chapels at the north of the nave of the church of the Trinity, are surmounted by a leaden figure, and each figure is in a different attitude. At L’Aigle, at the summit of the high-pitched slate roof of the bell-tower of the principal church, between two badly-executed colossal statues of angels in lead, rises a hip-knob, composed of several tiers of lilies overlaying each other ; the whole surmounted by an eagle, in allusion to the name of the town. On the south aisle of the same church, is a hip-knob formed of lilies. Fine ones are to be seen at the cathedrals of Amiens and Rouen, the church at Aumale, etc. There still remain a few scattered over the turrets of some of the old chateaux. As to those of city habitations, they have been almost all annihilated. The most curious hip-knobs of the sixteenth century now remaining at Rouen, are those with vanes, on a building at the bottom of the court-yard of the house No. 6, rue Herbiere (Fig. 4). That which is seen at the top of the staircase of the house, externally decorated with arabesques, in the rue de l’Hopital, No. 1, nearly resembles Fig. 5 ; those, originally four in number, but now reduced to two, in the rue des Charettes, No. 100-102 (Fig. 5), upon a stone house dated 1587, destined to be removed for the indispensable enlargement of this street. Those which are seen at the old Hotel de Senneville, No. 30, rue Damictte ; rue Bouvreuil, No. 24-26, over a build- ing at the bottom of a court; rue de l’Ecureuil, No. 14; rue de la Grosse Horloge, No. 159; and rue du Coquet, No. 5. There still remain other very pretty hip-knobs of this epoch, which must be passed over, though they have become rare. But the leaden swan crowning the house numbered 12, 14, and 16, rue de la Cicogne, must not be omitted ; it was certainly repeated as a sign in a more conspicuous place, and gave its name to the street. As types for the end of the sixteenth century, and the com- mencement of the seventeenth, the hip-knobs of the large stone house, rue des Carmes, No. 66-77, at the corner of the rue Saint-Lo (Fig. 6) may be given as representations. A head of a bearded man, in profile, of good execution, adorns the return of the square of this house at the rue Saint-Lo. Unfor- tunately, almost all the sculptures upon the side of this house have disappeared under pretence of embellishment. Attention is directed to the hip-knobs of the period of Henry IV, which decorate a remarkable stone house, bearing the date 1601, Grand Rue, No. 101-103; and another house, rue Saint Hilaire, No. 130. This is almost all that is known here of this sort, a fashion which arose in the midst of the traditions of the Renaissance, traditions which have been followed to a recent time, as is proved by the hip-knobs of the rue du Renard, No. 59 ; and those of the rue Bouvreuil, Nos. 24, 26 (Fig. 14.) Under Louis XIII, the form of the hip-knobs was affected by the heavy style into which the arts dependent upon design had fallen. The bases, formerly imitated from the antique, take a distorted form. Vases, often of a not very graceful out- line, with or without handles, are still employed ; but fre- quently the base of the hip-knob bears a ball surrounded with foliage, and surmounted with a stalk more or less ornamented. Fine examples of this description are to be seen at the house called the “ Swan”, dated 1631, in the rue Cauchoise, No. 47, (Fig. 2); rue des Charettes, No. 83, at the corner of the rue Haranguerie, dated 1640 (Fig. 1) ; rue des Carmes, No. 80, arch. pub. soc. at the corner of the rue de la Chaine ; again at No. 15 ; rue Saint-Patrice, Ao. 36, facing the rue Etoupee ; place de la Pucelle d’Orleans, No. 12; rue Saint-Georges, Nos. 5-7 ; rue aux Ours, No. 69; also at No. 45: the latter showing a blooming bouquet ; rue des Cordeliers, No, 29 ; rue des Ver- getiers. No. 17 ; rue Ganterie, No. 104 ; rue des Rons Enfants, Nos. 41-43 ; rue Boutard, No. 21, etc. Lastly, at the main building at the bottom of the court of the beautiful timbered house in the rue de la Grosse -Horloge, No. 115: the latter (Fig. 11), which are very curious, have figures of children placed round the base of a large vase ( cassolette ). Also may be mentioned the three large hip-knobs of the house No. 17, rue Herbiere (Ridge, Plate 81, Fig. 2). In the second half of the seventeenth century, under the minority of Louis XIV, the hip-knobs still more degenerated ; some are, however, to be found, remarkable for their originality, such as that (Fig. 12) of the house No. 95, rue de la Vicomt£, formerly du Merrier, dated 1643. From that time they are generally a quadrangular pyramid, accompanied by four handles in bad taste, and terminated by a sort of cabbage. Frequently these hip-knobs, employed with lucarncs, are short and stunted, like those are on the houses in the rue Saint Antoine, near t the March4-Neuf ; or those of the houses built in 1663 for the old monks of Saint Lo and occupying all the side of the rue de Socrate (before the Revolution, rue Neuve Saint L6) ; or those still on the house rue des Fosses-Louis VIII, No. 28, bearing the date of 1666. The description of hip-knob (Fig. 13), of which numerous examples present themselves in town and country, offers a variety known by a species of plume, like those of the rue de la Vicomt4, just mentioned. Nevertheless, art sustained itself to the end of the reign of Louis XIV. The proof thereof is seen in the hip-knobs of a house situated in the faubourg d’Eauplet, No. 63 (Ridge, Plate 81, Fig. 3), built about 1680; and the hip-knob, consisting of a heart pierced with arrows in saltire, and crowned with flowers, to be seen on the roof of the ancient convent of the barefooted Augustines, founded in 1674, in the place du Champ de Mars. But at the accession of Louis XV, this kind of ornament clearly showed that it had had its day. During the greater part of the eighteenth century, it was nothing more than a pedestal, upon which was mounted a very simple urn (abbey Fecamp), or a reversed pear (Hotel de Ville at Rouen, formerly the dor- mitory of the monks of St. Ouen ; the presbytery of the parish church of Saint Vincent ; the house No. 61, rue du Renard, etc. etc.) ; or a ball accompanied by a few leaves (quay du Mont Riboudet, No. 44), which at last altogether disappeared, only to leave a plain ball upon a pedestal. This ball or little globe, now almost always made of tin or zinc, gilt in some dis- tricts, is sometimes borne by a little quadrangular pyramid of the same metal, instead of lead, the material always used in for- mer times. To complete this portion of the subject, it may be useful to add La Querikre’s remarks upon the girouettc or vane, which probably ought always to have surmounted the ipi or hip-knob. As the embattlements and turrets which served for the defence of the chateaux showed nobility, so only gentlemen had the privilege of adorning the ridges of their houses with vanes, which were pointed like pennons for simple chevaliers, and square like banners for the knights bannerets. (La Curne de Sainte Palaye, Memoires sur V Ancienne Chevalerie, Paris, 1826, vol. i, p. 26. According to RenauLDONT ( Dictionnaire des Fiefs et des Droits Seigneur iaux, etc., 4to, Paris, 1745), there were two kinds of vanes, simple and square. The nobles and proprietors of a fief might place simple vanes on their houses and dovecots ; but he thought that the tenant had not this right, because it was a mark of the nobility of the person or estate. With respect to square vanes, as they were seigneurial marks, the lord might prevent the vassal and tenant from using them, as was judged 4 HIP-KNOB. by a decree of the parliament of Bourdeaux, recited by LapeyrLre. On this subject, the entrance gate of the ancient Charter House of Val-Dieu, near Mortagne (Orne) may be cited ; it is a portal built in the eighteenth century, where there are two square vanes, bearing the arms of Rotrou, its first founders ; they are made of iron, cut in open work. Very few of the vanes now remaining have preserved the primitive character of the middle ages, for only those just mentioned were known to La Queri^re. “ On the turrets of the southern chateaux,” says Marchangy (Gaule Poetique, 4th edit., vol. iii, pp. 99, 100), “ we see vanes in the form of cocks. The right of placing vanes upon a cha- teau,” continues the same author, “ only belonged, in the com- mencement, to those who were the first to mount in an assault, and who had planted their banner upon the rampart of an enemy : therefore they gave to these vanes the shape of a flag, and painted on them the arms of the master of the place.” The most conspicuous modern vanes are composed of a rod of iron, crossed at right-angles by two others, much shorter, at the extremities of which are indicated the four cardinal points, by the Roman initial letters N., S., E.,W., gilt. The vane properly so called, of wrought iron or “ tole ” , i. e. tin-plate, placed above, consists of the union of several gilt arrows, usually three, turning on the axis of the stalk ; sometimes even a single arrow is sufficient. Other vanes show different fanciful subjects ; sometimes an animal, a figure of Fame, a hunter, the sun, moon, etc. etc. In the seventeenth century, and during the eighteenth, an open-mouthed head was commonly employed. In some localities (among others, at Troyes), there is a special elegance in the fabrication of modern vanes and hip-knobs. The stalks are ornamented with little globes, pierced ; with balls armed with points, forming stars ; with crescents, etc. etc. Hip-knobs have disappeared, through time and other causes ; among these, are the ignorance and carelessness of proprietors, and the unskilfulness or bad intentions of plumbers. It is thus that throughout France, the greater number of old houses, public buildings, and even churches, have successively been despoiled of the ornaments which crowned their summits. A. W. MORANT. Vol, IV P T 3 ABCB/TECTUBAL PUBLICATION aybSon Jar * Z 8^7 860. . a item tec ru .*? a l publication society . LO G GIA . Fi^.l t -VOL -TTI . PT1 , ON LINE A . B . Scale lo FrqU t-Z , ■Scale to Plan PART OF PANEL IN ClELING. Hie white fujur&s, and gill rn n eh mrn Is are* w touted, ui raised Siuccn ] fs Real . Hyf Wsnekcr.MJ B.A. LOGGIA OF THE GROTTO . PALAZZO DEL 7"£_ MANTUA. TRANSVERSE SECTION LINE CD. 7 'is y r v O? 7 V^y - A r Xjtca ! vo l m pr ill ARCHITECTURAL. PUBLICATION SOCIETY . TU . l tU it FT 57 " TRANSVERSE SECTION LINE C.l) - Seal*' Ic Fia*Mr Z . 27 6 PART OP PANEL IN C I E L I N 0 . The a’ hi It- fi/qumt. (t/td. gUl rnnrhmrn/is or& . ' I , A ' U »» . VOL HI . P» l ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. "I L () G G LA . ENTER IOR ELEVATION Inne_E. IT. 4 — — — — . t .... f> y A .^r? : :i . ; i r?: DETAIL OF EXTERIOR SeeKg.l. > j 2 3 ■* 1 scale of r i l t' KN1) ELEVATION line _G. S. a 6 o l 1 ‘ ' 1 SCALE Of FEET. Jk centre compartment. bi centre compartment DETAILS OF INTERIOR DECORATION S« Tit! PI 60. ( Aiout Real size .) Fig. 6. 2 In centre compartment. GARDEN PALAZZO DEI Iw evoLe compartment Fig. 8. bo stde compartment, LOCCIA T£ MANTUA . Jj.Gruner . Lithographed tyMessVDay&SonJOtrct. 24?- 1851 . vor. . 3 . PT 1 . ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. 62 M A U S 0 L K U M h Ft ilk e/i tv. l,dlioqra{>huLbyMess r *Va)j &Son, March-Z-f” 1 1851 . VOL.l.PT 2. 20 J P CH / r £ C r U PA L PUBLICATION SOCICTY METAL WORK IMayrapkaL by Mess Day iSarv. May 7* ] #4*9 N I S M F, 8 CATHEDRAL TOP OF TOW£R James Bell M L B A V0L.2.P?H ARCHITECTURAL P UB L/C ATI ON SOCIETY. H'7. METAL WORK T. ilhoyrafihedhyjtess rs /)ayr .'wiyApnJMO^l&SO NORDEN. THE SURVEYOR’S DIALOGUE. John Norden seems, according to Wood (Ath. Oxon. i, 450), to have had birth in Wiltshire, about 1548. Admitted of Hart Hall in 1564, five years afterwards he became B.A., and proceeded A.M. in 1573. It was probably during his residence, that he drew with the pen, on sixteen sheets, that map of all the battles, fought in England, from the Conquest to the time of Queen Elizabeth, which is mentioned by Hearne (Letter on Antiq. etc., p. 34), as formerly existing in the picture-gallery at Oxford. Wood ascribes to him fifteen devotional pieces, now very scarce, (among which, The Labyrinth of Man's Life has a true poetic style), though he doubts if any were really written by him ; and Granger ( Biog. Hist.), who describes a print of his portrait, attributes them to his father ; but surely without sufficient grounds. He is the inventor of An intended Guide for English Travellers , 4to. Lond., 1625, the now common tabular form of calculation of distances, “ showing how far one citie, and many shire towns in England are distant from each other”. This was reprinted anonymously, 4to. Lond. 1643, and was the basis of many other publications, differing in little else but the title-page. He was best known as a topographer, from the publication, 4to. Lond. 1728, of his Survey and Map of Cornwall; made probably in 1584, and perhaps printed from the Harleian MS. 6252, which contains coloured drawings of all the plates except the front of S. Germain’s church. In the close of this document, which is addressed to King James I, the author observes: “ Might it stand with your Majesty’s good opinion and favour to enable me to proceed in the residue of your Majesty’s kingdom (being by my former travailes, and by tedious attendance for my promised recompense, meerly undone), such shall be my loyal care and faithful diligence, as nothing shall be omitted worthy your Majesty’s and his Highness’ understanding, by Divine assistance, without which all endeavours are vain. — Debentur pigro prtemia nulla viro.” This work was part of a projected historical and chorographical description of England, under the title of Speculum Britannia;; but all that later appeared were the following divisions: — Middlesex , 4to. Lond., 1593, reprinted 1637, dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. In a prefatory letter to Burleigh, he speaks of long sickness and other impediments. It contains excellent plans of London and Westminster, engraved by Peter van den Iveere. In 1596, he found it desirable to write a “ preparation to this work, intended as a reconciliation of sundry propositions, by divers persons tendered, concerning the same.” This is affixed to the second (third?) edition, 4to. Lond., 1723. The copy of his Middlesex , in the Harleian MS. 570, supposed to be in his own handwriting, differs from the printed copies, both in the arrangement and the additions made to it. Hertfordshire , also 4to. Lond. 1593, 1605, 1637, and 1723. In the prefatory letter to Burleigh the author says, “ I have been forced to struggle with want, the unpleasant companion of illustrious desires, and have long sustained foils, enforced neglect of my purposed business and sorrow of my working business, — Miseria mentem macerat.” Northamptonshire , “ done after this poor sort, being otherwise employed in surveys there,” in 1610. This was reprinted in 4to. Lond. 1720. In his maps, for the first time, are inserted the roads, the hundreds, and lines, apparently two miles apart, which divide the county, so as to save the trouble of mensuration, and to facilitate reference from the alphabetical index. His map of Surrey (1605) was much larger and more exact than any ot the others; the survey vas sold to a learned Hollander at the Restoration, according to Aubrey 1 , who also mentions his Kent, which vas in all likelihood undertaken with Kip. Weever, (p. 655), mentions the Essex Survey (1584), a thin folio MS. in Sii John Turner’s library; and one of Sussex is also attributed to him. There exist, a Description of the honor of Windsor, dated 1607, in the Harleian MS. 3749 , and a Sm > < y of the manor of Blewberrie , county Berks, being parcel of the domains of the Prince of Wales, dated 1017, take u b) the subject of this notice and his son of the same name, deputed by Sir James 1 ullerton surveyoi-geneial . the I iinee, this belonged to Bishop More’s library now at Cambridge. Bishop 2 sicolson also mention* a bin > ty