•COUNTRY-HOUSES 
 
• 
 
ENGLISH 
 COUNTRY HOUSES. 
 
 FORTY-FIVE 
 
 VIEWS AND PLANS 
 
 OF RECENTLY ERECTED 
 
 MANSIONS, PRIVATE RESIDENCES, PARSONAGE-HOUSES, 
 FARM-HOUSES, LODGES, AND COTTAGES: 
 
 WITH 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE -BUILDING. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM WILKINSON, 
 
 ARCHITECT, OXFORD. 
 
 LONDON and OXFORD: 
 
 JAMES PARKER AND CO. 
 1870. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 '^pHE examples of Domestic Architecture in this work are selected by the 
 Author for publication as useful specimens of the various classes 
 of English Country Houses, which have been designed with care to meet 
 various requirements, have been executed at a moderate cost, and are 
 suited to the English Landscape. 
 
 These examples, accompanied with some practical remarks on House 
 Building, are submitted to those who may propose to build, chiefly to 
 assist them in determining the style and character of the proposed edifice, 
 in deciding upon the materials to be employed, and the mode of executing 
 the work, and as suggestive of various matters that deserve consideration. 
 
 In the remarks upon materials and building, the endeavour has been 
 to furnish practical information, avoiding technical phraseology as far as 
 possible. Those parts of the construction of a house which are the most 
 important to the owners and future occupiers, are adverted to in more 
 detail, such as the proper method of building walls, constructing floors, 
 covering roofs, ventilation, and drainage, which do not admit of subsequent 
 rectification without considerable inconvenience and expense, and propor- 
 tionately less space is allotted to the fittings and finishings of a building, 
 which do not affect the construction and stability of the work. 
 
 Oxford, 
 January, 1870. 
 
 A 2 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2014 
 
 https://archive.org/details/englishcountryhoOOwilk 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Nos. Built for 
 
 I. and 2. View and Plans of \ 
 
 Chadlington House, Oxford- I The late James Haughton Langston, Esq. 
 
 shire. t 
 
 3. and 4. View and Plans of 
 
 WOOTTON HOUSE, Oxfordshire. 
 
 5. and 6. View and Plans of 
 
 Bignell House, Oxfordshire. 
 
 7. and 8. View and Plans of 
 
 HOUSE on Norham Manor, Oxford. 
 
 . and IO. View and Plans of 
 
 House on Walton Manor, Oxford. 
 
 I. and 12. View and Plans of 
 
 HOUSE on Norham Manor, Oxford. 
 
 3. and 14. View and Plans of 
 House at Oxford. 
 
 \ John Rowland, Esq. 
 I The Misses Tyrwhitt Drake. 
 I Thomas F. Dallin, Esq., M.A. 
 \ Edwin Butler, Esq. 
 i Thomas G. Cousins, Esq. 
 I George Ward, Esq. 
 
 and 16. The Vicarage House, Linton, | The Rev. Edward Palin, Vicar. 
 
 15, I5 a > Views and Plans of 
 e Vicarage 
 Herefordshire 
 
 7. and 18. View and Plans of \ 
 
 The Vicar-age House, Swan- \ The Rev. M. D. Malden, Vicar, 
 bourne, Buckinghamshire. ' 
 
 9. and 20. View and Plans of \ 
 
 The Rectory House, Upper I The Rev. C. B. Mount, Rector. 
 Heyford, Oxfordshire. ) 
 
 I. and 2 2. View and Plans of ^ 
 
 Farm House at Upton, Oxford- \ Miss Youde. 
 shire. J 
 
VI 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Nos. 
 23. and 24. 
 
 25. and 26. 
 
 View and Plans of 
 Farm House at Newbald, York- 
 shire. 
 
 View and Plans of 
 Farm House at Whittlebury, 
 Buckinghamshire. 
 
 27. and 28. View and Plans of 
 
 Farm House at Claydon, Buck- 
 inghamshire. 
 
 29. and 30. View and Plans of 
 
 Farm Bailiff's House and 
 Dairy, Longleate Park, Wilts. 
 
 31. and 32. View and Plans of 
 
 Farm Bailiff's House at Ha- 
 vering Park, Essex. 
 
 33. and 34. View and Plans of 
 
 Keeper's Lodge at Bagley Wood, 
 Berkshire. 
 
 35. and 36. View and Plans of 
 
 Keeper's Lodge on the Astrop 
 Estate, Oxfordshire. 
 
 37. View and Plans of 
 
 Keeper's Lodge at Kirtlington 
 Park, Oxfordshire. 
 
 38. Views and Plan of 
 
 Entrance Lodge at Middleton 
 Cheney, Northamptonshire. 
 
 39. View and Plans of 
 
 Entrance Lodge at Bigncll, 
 Oxfordshire. 
 
 40. View and Plans of a pair of 
 
 Labourers' Cottages at Bour- 
 ton, Oxfordshire. 
 
 41. View and Plans of a pair of 
 
 Labourers' Cottages at South- 
 
 leigh, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Built for 
 
 The Rev. Canon Jefferson. 
 
 The Right Hon. Lord Southampton. 
 
 Sir Harry Verney, Bart. 
 
 The Most Noble the Marquis of Bath. 
 
 David Mc In tosh, Esq. 
 
 The President and Fellows of St. John's 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 Sir William R. Brown, Bart. 
 
 Sir Henry W. Dasiiwood, Bart. 
 
 Miss Horton, the Lady of the Manor. 
 
 The Misses Tyrwiiitt Drake. 
 
 His Grace the Duke OF MARLBOROUGH. 
 
 The Executors of the late MAJOR SlBTHORPE. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. Vll 
 
 Nos. Built for 
 
 42. View and Plans of a pair of -v 
 
 Labourers' Cottages at Od- V Frederick I. Staples-Browne, Esq. 
 dington, Oxfordshire. ' 
 
 43. View and Plan of ^ 
 
 Labourer's Cottage at Laun- > Frederick I. Staples-Browne, Esq. 
 ton, Oxfordshire. / 
 
 View and Plan of "\ 
 Labourer's Cottage at Steeple \ The Rev. J. B. Brooks, Rector of Steeple Aston. 
 Aston, Oxfordshire. / 
 
 44. View and Plans of 
 
 Labourer's Cottage, with ac- j 
 
 commodation for boys working \ The Right Hon. the Earl OF MACCLESFIELD, 
 on the Farm, on the Shirburn j 
 Castle Estate, Oxfordshire. j 
 
 45. View and Plans of -v 
 
 Almshouses at Witney, Oxford- \ The Trustees of Hollow ay's Charity. 
 shire. ' 
 
A 
 
 PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 HP HE first step to take in building a House is to select the Site; and in doing this 
 the chief points for consideration are — ■ 
 The Nature of the Soil, 
 The Drainage of the Ground, 
 
 The possibility of obtaining a sufficient Supply of pure Water, 
 
 And the facilities presented by the site for allowing the building to be properly 
 
 placed as regards aspect and protection from cold winds and rain. 
 
 Besides the above, and where the locality is not already determined, the 
 
 healthiness of the neighbourhood, the proximity of good roads, and easy access to 
 
 places of worship, &c, are matters not to be lost sight of. 
 
 The nature of the soil should be well considered ; for as one soil is more 
 healthy than another, it is desirable to make choice of that which is, 
 Nature of soil, in this respect, the best. One soil admits of the natural drainage 
 of surface water through it much more readily, and is consequently 
 drier, than another ; it is therefore less likely to encourage ague, asthma, rheumatism, 
 and that class of disorders, and is more agreeable to move about upon after rain or 
 in damp weather ; another is more prolific for gardening purposes. And with 
 special regard to the building itself, it is all-important to select a site upon which 
 a secure foundation can be obtained without the great expense of an artificial basis, 
 such as is necessary for a house upon unfavourable ground. 
 
 The ground most suitable for building upon is that having a subsoil of gravel, 
 sand, rock, or chalk. The best is that overlying a bed of gravel ; such an one is 
 generally healthy ; it becomes dry very soon after rain, which drains away naturally ; 
 no fogs hang over it ; and it is generally (unless the gravel be too near the surface) 
 favourable for vegetation; pure spring-water is usually to be found near the surface; 
 the subsoil affords a firm foundation for the walls, and the advantage of having 
 gravel, which enters so largely into the composition of mortar and concrete, on the 
 site, is not to be overlooked. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 Rocks and rocky ground exist in many districts, and they are often covered 
 with a soil produced from the decomposition of the rock itself, and partaking therefore 
 of its character. Much ground of this sort is healthy, and suitable for building 
 purposes ; it is easily drained, and springs of water are generally to be met with. 
 
 Clay subsoils are perhaps in this country more frequent than any other, some- 
 times having strata of gravel and rock in them. They vary from rich marls to yellow 
 and tenacious clays : the former are not unfavourable for building upon ; the latter 
 are at all times to be avoided, for the rain cannot get away, except by evaporation. 
 Hence a clay soil is for a great portion of the year in a damp state ; but when the 
 weather is dry, the surface becomes, on the other hand, hard and unfruitful. 
 
 Although, if possible, a site should be chosen sufficiently elevated to have 
 a natural drainage, it is in most cases necessary, in order to keep 
 Dra ^ske 6 ° f t ' ie g roun d around a house dry, to make provision for carrying away 
 from it the surface-water in wet weather ; and when the soil is 
 retentive, so as to hold moisture, it is the more necessary to make full provision for 
 thorough drainage of it before the building is commenced ; and this applies especially 
 where the situation is low, in which case it is desirable to extend the drainage 
 operations over a larger area. 
 
 The supply of pure spring-water is of the greatest importance : the value of it, 
 perhaps, is duly appreciated only where it cannot be procured. No 
 Water supply, dwelling, large or small, should be erected where pure water cannot, 
 in some way, be plentifully obtained. In districts where water can 
 only be procured with difficulty, it becomes of consequence to arrange for storing 
 in underground tanks all the rain-water which falls on the roofs. 
 
 The situation, with regard to aspect and protection from cold winds and driving 
 rains, should always be considered. And here I may describe what 
 Aspect, &c. may be fairly called a desirable situation for a house. The ground 
 moderately elevated, with subsoil of gravel, sloping towards the 
 south, sheltered by rising ground on the north and east, but open towards the 
 south, and with pleasant landscape. Under such conditions the air will be pure 
 and healthy. 
 
 Of course, all low and confined and marshy situations, and also those too much 
 exposed to the north and north-east, should be avoided. Such aspects are subject 
 to bleak winds in winter, and to great heat in summer. 
 
 The site being selected, the materials to be employed for walls and roofs must, 
 before the drawings can be prepared, be determined on, as the nature of them in some 
 measure influences the character of the building. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 3 
 
 Although the materials for the walls of buildings in this country are generally 
 Materials for but °^ two kinds, stones and bricks, the selection of the best in each 
 walls. particular case is often a matter requiring judgment and considera- 
 
 tion ; the more especially as the qualities and cost of both vary much in different 
 districts. 
 
 In ordinary house-building, a main consideration is the expense ; and where 
 a sound and good material of one kind can be procured in the locality at a less 
 cost than another from a distance, it is wise to make use of it. 
 
 The purposes for which stone is required in a building may be conveniently clas- 
 sified as follows : — 
 Stone. For the foundations, and for the walls of the superstructure ; 
 
 For the dressings, viz., quoins, plinths, string-courses, cornices, 
 jambs, heads and sills to windows and doors, and work of an orna- 
 mental character ; 
 For the steps, landings, paving, &c. 
 
 Stones for walling are usually quarried within a few feet of the surface ; they 
 should be of a dry and durable nature, of a kind that may be readily 
 Walling stone, wrought, and have large fiat beds. The dryness is of great import- 
 ance : some are affected by changes of temperature, and the inner 
 face of walls built with them becomes damp in wet weather, to the destruction of 
 paper and paint, and to the discomfort of the dwelling. An inner lining of brickwork 
 to stone walls is now a recognised necessity as a safeguard against damp, for few 
 stone buildings are sufficiently dry without this or some other precaution. 
 
 For the quoins, plinths, string-courses, cornices, jambs, heads and sills to doors 
 and windows, and for work of an ornamental character, it is cus- 
 (fre°s"ings tomary to use what is called, from the comparative facility with 
 which it is worked, " freestone." This description of stone, including 
 both oolites and sandstones, is quarried in many parts of this country ; large quantities 
 of the oolite are obtained from the neighbourhood of Bath, whence it is conveyed 
 by rail and canal to all parts of the south of England. This stone, when care- 
 fully selected for its purpose, is of average durability ; and it is so reasonable in 
 cost, and is so readily worked, that even in cottage-building it is often substituted 
 for the local stone for quoins, jambs, heads of window and door-openings, and the like : 
 there are several varieties of this stone in the Bath district. Some quarries in other 
 localities yield freestone superior to the Bath in durability, and where such is within 
 reach at a moderate cost, its superiority should be taken into consideration in making 
 choice. 
 
 Caen stone, imported into England from Normandy, is largely employed in 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 building, more particularly for interior and ornamental works, monuments, &c. : it is 
 uniform, fine in the grain, and easily wrought ; but its durability is not to be depended 
 upon in this climate in exposed situations. 
 
 Two kinds of a magnesian limestone, quarried at Bolsover, in Derbyshire, the 
 one buff, the other dull red in colour, and both hard and good weather-stones, are 
 extensively used for works of a monumental character. 
 
 All stone used in a building should be free from vents, sand-holes, and cracks ; 
 and it should, with few exceptions, be placed in the building on its natural bed. 
 
 The stone used for steps, landings, and for paving, is what is called " hard- 
 stone." It is a quality of stone, as the name implies, which will bear 
 paving S &c? S ' cont:mua l wear and pressure, and be unaffected by weather. 
 
 The chief quarries from which this kind of stone is obtained are 
 in Portland, Yorkshire, and the Forest of Dean ; but in many districts much useful 
 stone of this sort is met with. 
 
 Whatever may be the kind of stone, and for whatever purpose it is to be 
 used, the selection should be made with judgment, as there is a considerable variation 
 in the quality of stone from the same quarry : the stone which is durable in one situa- 
 tion is far from being so in another, and it is important with some, and especially with 
 the calcareous kind, to have it dug and exposed to the air for some time before it 
 is used. 
 
 Bricks have been used as building-material from the earliest times, and they 
 are still used for most engineering and railway works, and for build- 
 brick^maldng. m S s °f a domestic character. Great improvements have been made 
 in their manufacture since the repeal of the duty once levied on them, 
 and bricks of all sizes and shapes can now be obtained in most districts. 
 
 The quality of bricks is dependent on the nature of the clay, and the manner 
 in which it is prepared and burnt. Some clays, when dug, require to be exposed 
 to the weather during the winter season ; others contain limestone, and must be 
 ground in order to crush it, or, after burning, the bricks are liable to be split, or 
 " blown," by the action of the lime in them. 
 
 Bricks are moulded either by hand or machines, and are then freely exposed in 
 rows to the sun and air for six or eight days, when they are burnt in clamps or kilns 
 constructed for the purpose. The latter method is considered the best ; it takes less 
 fuel, a shorter time for burning, and the bricks are burnt more uniformly. In clamps 
 they are apt to vitrify and run together near the fire-holes, and in other parts to be 
 only partially burnt, so that much waste arises. Great care is required to burn the 
 bricks neither too little nor too much ; in the one case they are not sufficiently hard, 
 in the other they become mis-shapen, or fall to pieces. 
 
 Many risks must be incurred in brick-making, and unless a large quantity is 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 5 
 
 required for a building (at least 100,000), and the clay is of a good quality, it is 
 better to obtain them from an established kiln rather than make them on the ground. 
 In all cases, before a large quantity of bricks is made, it is as well to test the capa- 
 bilities of the clay and the probability of success by sending a small quantity of it 
 to a brick-kiln, to be made into bricks and burnt as a specimen. 
 
 Some clays, such as the Staffordshire, are adapted for the manufacture of tiles 
 of different colours for paving, and of blocks for stable and barn floors, and articles 
 of a similar kind. From the Stourbridge clay are made bricks and lumps which will 
 resist the action of fire, and are therefore used in the setting of grates and ranges, 
 and the building of ovens and furnaces. At Bridgwater, in Somersetshire, are ex- 
 tensive manufactories of plain and ornamental building-bricks, and of paving and 
 roofing tiles of several descriptions. 
 
 A good building-brick should be evenly burnt, hard, square at the angles, sound, 
 The quality of c ^ ose m texture, and give out a clear, ringing sound on being struck 
 bricks. with the trowel. 
 
 The materials usually employed in roofing buildings (excluding 
 Roofing mate- lead, zinc, and straw, which are only used in exceptional cases) are 
 r * a * s ' slates and tiles. 
 
 Most of the slates in use at this time are from Wales ; the ordinary colour of them 
 is blue or bluish, but some are grey, green, and purple. Others are 
 Slates. from Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Cornwall, chiefly green in colour, 
 and very durable. Several sizes of Welsh slates are made ; those 
 called Countesses (20 in. by 10 in.) are most preferred, as being of a convenient 
 average size, and easily procurable when repairs are needed. The Westmoreland 
 slates are of various sizes ; the smallest are selected by the slater for use next the 
 ridge of the roof, and the largest near the eaves ; the others being graduated in courses 
 between them. 
 
 A good slate is non-porous, uniform in thickness (although not necessarily thick), 
 clear in colour, and rings sharply when tapped with a mallet or the 
 ^slate ° f hand. A slate of a dull sound, or a dull colour, or easily absorbing 
 moisture, should be avoided. 
 At Stonesfield, in Oxfordshire, are obtained what are called "stone" slates: the 
 stone is quarried many feet below the surface, and is reached by means of shafts ; 
 it is exposed for some time to the action of frost, which causes it to break into thin 
 slabs of about a quarter or three-eighths of an inch in thickness, and of various sizes. 
 These slates are greyish in colour, and make a durable roof : they have been much 
 used for the roofs of the ecclesiastical and collegiate buildings of Oxford, and of 
 
6 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 churches and houses in Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. At Naunton, Temple Guit- 
 ing, and other parts of Gloucestershire, a similar stone slate is obtainable, which, 
 although more variable in quality, is more uniform in thickness, and is much employed 
 locally. 
 
 The Forest of Dean also furnishes a heavy stone slate ; but it seldom finds 
 its way into use out of that district. 
 
 Some other localities have special roofing materials, but they are not of sufficient 
 value to need particular description. The slates from Wales and Westmoreland are 
 generally considered to be the best in all important respects. 
 
 Roofing-tiles are manufactured from clay, in a similar manner to bricks; some 
 by machinery, others by hand, and are of various sizes and shapes. 
 
 Tiles. They are daily coming more into use : their durability depends 
 
 much upon the nature of the clay, and the care taken in making 
 them. The flat, or plain tile, in general use, is from ten to twelve inches in length, 
 from five to seven inches in width, and about three-eighths of an inch in thickness, 
 and can be procured in most districts where bricks are made. Red (pale or dark) 
 is the prevailing colour ; those made of the Staffordshire clay are perhaps the best, 
 and are to be obtained now in most places either of a red, dark blue, or a mixed 
 colour, called brindled, generally at a cost only slightly in excess of local tiles. Tiles 
 for the ridges, hips, and valleys, can be usually obtained where roofing-tiles are 
 made, and therefore no lead is required but for gutters. The Bridgwater tiles, 
 already mentioned, although perhaps not so widely known as the Staffordshire, are 
 used extensively throughout the district, and they are largely employed away for farm- 
 buildings, &c. 
 
 A good tile should be regular in shape and thickness and uni- 
 Quality of tile. f orm jy ] iarc j ( anc j gj ve ou t a clear, sharp sound on being struck. 
 
 The materials for the walls and roofs being settled, the next step is to pre- 
 pare the preliminary plans ; and in doing so, both for houses large 
 
 Preliminary anc j sma ll ) the chief matters for determination are, — 
 plans for a 
 
 building. The accommodation to be provided ; 
 
 The dimensions of the principal rooms ; 
 The arrangement and general disposition of the several parts of the dwell- 
 ing, according to the site, giving to the chief rooms the best aspect and 
 prospect, in order to make them healthful, cheerful and pleasant ; 
 The position of the entrance-hall, and approach thereto ; 
 And the situation of the kitchen and its appurtenances. 
 The best rooms of a house should, if possible, face the south, south-east, and 
 south-west, and they should have ready access from the hall and corridors. In all 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. J 
 
 but very small houses the dining-room should have a servants' entrance apart from 
 the general one. 
 
 The servants' offices and apartments should be distinct from the other portion 
 of the house, and there should always be a separate staircase for servants to the 
 upper floors without having to pass through the hall, or principal corridor. Water- 
 closets should be placed against external walls, in order to insure light and ventila- 
 tion, and in situations only where privacy, but nevertheless, convenience of access, 
 can be obtained. 
 
 Speaking generally, it may be said, that an idea of simplicity should pervade the 
 general arrangement and disposition of the rooms ; corridors and passages should not 
 be irregular in plan, but as straight as may be, and, without exception, have ample 
 light and ventilation. Numberless inconveniences arise from tortuous, dark, or un- 
 ventilated passages, and complicated arrangements of any sort. 
 
 A dwelling-house (and the same may be said of any building), to be satisfactory, 
 must be well and conveniently arranged ; the design, both of the exterior and interior, 
 be properly considered and worked out, with due regard to the purpose for which 
 the building is intended, to the materials of which it is to be composed, and to the 
 situation in which it is to be placed. 
 
 In working out the plan, much careful study is requisite to produce a satisfactory 
 building. Incomplete drawings, whether from carelessness, or want of practical know- 
 ledge, lead to endless trouble and expense, necessitating frequent alterations to meet the 
 deficiencies, and involving loss and misapplication of space. Nothing is more unsatis- 
 factory, even to those with ample means, and much more to those whose means are 
 limited, than to be called upon to pay more than they have been advised a house 
 would cost ; and this is more frequently the consequence of immatured and imperfectly 
 prepared plans than of anything else. 
 
 The wish to be employed to erect buildings, costly in design and rich in detail, 
 is, of course, pardonable in an architect; for from works of this kind he is more likely 
 to derive satisfaction and credit than from works in which, for pecuniary reasons, 
 he is compelled to dispense with all but what is actually necessary. Yet equal 
 skill and attention, and much more practical knowledge, are required to design and 
 carry out an inexpensive but satisfactory building, than one the expense of which 
 is not an object. It is where great economy in house-building has to be prac- 
 tised, that a minute practical knowledge of building operations and materials and 
 of planning is imperatively called for, to render an architect alive to what is really 
 necessary, and to shew him where saving can be effected without loss of conve- 
 nience, or without weakening the construction. Of course, under no conceivable cir- 
 cumstances, should the use of inferior materials of any kind be permitted, or the 
 employment of inexperienced labour. In all cases, walls and partitions should be 
 of sufficient thickness, and, above all, an unyielding natural or artificial foundation 
 must be secured. 
 
8 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 There are several methods of arranging with a builder for the execution of any 
 
 intended works. The old system of employing a trustworthy builder, 
 
 Modes of anc l having the work done by him measured and valued by a sur- 
 arranging with , , , , • r • r i- i r i 
 
 builders. veyor, although the most satisfactory, is last disappearing beiore the 
 
 present competition in the building trade, and its place is taken 
 
 by what is known as the contract system ; that is, builders are applied to for estimates 
 
 at which they are willing to execute the works. This method has now become so 
 
 general, that, although it is fraught with evils, it must be accepted as the one which 
 
 persons about to build will generally adopt, and it is desirable to consider the best 
 
 way of proceeding in it. 
 
 Although works are often thrown open by advertisement to public competition, 
 
 such a course is not to be recommended, and should only be adopted for special 
 
 reasons. 
 
 It is advisable, when the drawings and specifications are thoroughly complete, 
 that a competent surveyor be employed to take out the quantities of the several 
 works which the builder is required to perform ; and then copies of these should 
 be supplied to a few respectable builders (or to one only, if preferred), that they may 
 each estimate the amount at which they are willing to perform the works. The 
 lowest estimate is then generally accepted, if the architect considers it a fair one. 
 
 In many cases the quantities are not supplied, but each builder is required to 
 ascertain them for himself; but builders often have not the special knowledge neces- 
 sary for this, and more often have not the time. Mistakes arise from both causes ; 
 and these a builder is sure to find out as the works proceed, and there is thus engen- 
 dered a feeling of dissatisfaction, a loss of interest in the work, and perhaps, what 
 is worse, an attempt to compensate for his omissions by using inferior materials and 
 workmanship. 
 
 In erecting buildings on a nobleman's or gentleman's estate, the materials are 
 sometimes bought by the proprietor, or his agent, and local trades- 
 Mode of build- men are em ploved bv day-work, under the direction of a compe- 
 ing on some . . . 
 
 estates. tent foreman ; but this method is not advisable, except where there 
 
 are on the estate facilities for the conversion of timber, burning of 
 lime, &c. 
 
 In all important buildings a clerk of works, practically acquainted with all the 
 branches of building, should be employed under the architect by 
 
 Clerk of works, the proprietor, and be in constant attendance at the works, to take 
 care that everything is performed according to the specification : 
 
 without this, as an architect's supervision of any work can only be periodical, there 
 
 is no sufficient guarantee that the works, some of which are necessarily hidden 
 
 almost as soon as they are done, will be properly performed. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 9 
 
 The duty of an architect is, to prepare the designs, draw up the specification 
 containing a proper and minute description of all the materials to 
 ^duties* S ^ e use ^> tne var i° us works to be performed, and the manner in 
 which they are to be executed, and supply the necessary working- 
 drawings and explanatory details required from time to time ; also to enter into 
 the necessary arrangements with the builder, and give a general superintendence to 
 the works during their progress, and act throughout the undertaking on behalf of 
 his client. 
 
 The building operations are commenced by excavating the ground for the foun- 
 dations : the widths and depths of the trenches to receive the foot- 
 Foundations, ings (the projecting portion of the foundations) are governed by the 
 nature of the soil, and the weight and character of the super- 
 structure. When the subsoil is gravel or chalk, or is rocky, it is only necessary, in 
 ordinary cases, for the top of the footings to be a few inches below the intended 
 level of the ground, or, in the case of basements, a few inches below the floor, and 
 from six to nine inches wider on each side than the walls ; therefore a wall eighteen 
 inches in thickness should have the bottom course of stones or bricks, two feet six 
 inches or three feet in width, gradually reduced, course by course, until the thickness 
 of the wall itself is reached. When the subsoil is clay, greater care is requisite ; 
 for ground of this nature is generally subject to expansion and contraction in wet 
 and dry seasons, and it becomes necessary to excavate below the depth where it is 
 likely to suffer from atmospherical changes, often as much as five or six feet ; the 
 consequence of insufficient foundations in such a soil is the separation and cracking 
 of the walls in dry seasons from the base upwards, at times, so much as to render 
 necessary the reconstruction of the building, and, in any case, to entail great expense 
 and inconvenience in repairs. 
 
 In dealing with ground of this nature, therefore, it is most advisable to put 
 in an artificial foundation of concrete (a kind of artificial rock) under 
 Concrete. the brick or stone footings, of a width equal to twice and a-half the 
 width of the wall above the footings, and not less in depth than two 
 feet ; the proportions of the concrete should be one of blue lias lime or cement and 
 five of clean sifted gravel or broken stones, or an admixture of gravel and stones, 
 or even hard broken bricks ; the concrete should be thoroughly mixed together, and 
 this is an important point to be attended to, in order that the lime may be uniformly 
 distributed, and all particles of the gravel and stones receive a coating of it ; it 
 should be, immediately after mixing, thrown into the trenches from a height of six 
 or eight feet, and the surface levelled. 
 
 There are many cases in which practical knowledge and special care are required 
 
 c 
 
10 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 to secure a good foundation for a building; these cannot be met by 
 dation 1 work" general description ; for instance, when the walls are of unequal 
 
 heights and thicknesses, and therefore the weight of one part, such 
 as a tower, is much greater than that of another part ; the object then is so to con- 
 struct the work as to sustain the extra weight of such parts, and, as in the higher 
 parts there are necessarily more mortar-joints, and consequently a greater settling, to 
 provide that the settling shall be as uniform as possible. 
 
 A provision should always be made to prevent any damp rising up the walls 
 from the foundations. The usual method has been, to lay between 
 Damp course, the ground-line and the floor-line, over the whole thickness of the 
 various walls, internal and external, two layers of blue slates, each 
 being well bedded in cement ; now asphalte, of about half-an-inch in thickness, is 
 more generally used, and sometimes a composition of pitch, tar, and sand is substi- 
 tuted ; hard perforated bricks have also lately been introduced for the purpose. 
 
 There should be a communication between the space under the boards of the 
 ground-floor and the external air, which is insured by openings through 
 
 Ventilation fo e ou t er walls, and, where necessary, corresponding openings in the 
 underwood . „ , • , „ , ■ r , . 
 
 floors. inner walls, those in the outer walls being fitted with iron, or stone- 
 
 ware perforated bricks : the openings need not necessarily pass directly 
 through the walls, but in cases where the ground-line is nearly on a level with the 
 floor-line, they should be carried up a little way in the centre of the wall before being 
 turned outwards. The air admitted through openings so formed will be drier than 
 when it is admitted close to the surface of the ground. 
 
 To prevent the air from finding access through the joints of the flooring to 
 the rooms above, it is usual to have the edges of the floor-boards 
 puggfn^floors g roove d, and a tongue of wood, or hoop-iron, driven in as each board 
 is laid. This process is known as ploughing and tonguing, and is 
 inexpensive and effective. Another method is to lay rough boarding on fillets between 
 the joists, about two-thirds from the top, and upon this to place a coating of mortar 
 about two inches in thickness. This process is called " pugging," and, although more 
 expensive than the last-mentioned, is in some respects better. 
 
 Under all wood floors the ground ought to be cleared away to a depth of 
 eighteen inches, and where the soil is damp it is well to lay over 
 ^ r °floors n( * er w h°l e surface a bed of concrete six inches thick. 
 
 Under all brick, stone, and tile floors, the ground should be 
 excavated and refilled, for at least nine inches in depth, with broken stones, broken 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 bricks, and dry rubbish, and upon this should be laid a bed of concrete six inches 
 thick, levelled to receive the paving; all these precautions, it will be perceived, are 
 for the purpose of rendering the house as dry as possible. 
 
 The thickness, the materials, and the workmanship of the walls of a house should 
 be such as safely to support the super-imposed weight, and to prevent 
 
 Walls. the possibility of rain being driven through them, which, in exposed 
 situations, and in case of thin or badly-built walls, often occurs. The 
 bricks or stones should be well bonded together, and the spaces between them should 
 be filled up with mortar, or be rendered solid by having liquid mortar poured in at 
 intervals to fill up all unoccupied parts. 
 
 When the walls are of stone, the strength of the work depends very much on 
 the manner in which it is bonded together, and stones having large flat beds are 
 to be preferred ; and at frequent intervals, stones, the whole thickness of the wall, 
 should be inserted. 
 
 In localities where it is only possible to provide small short-bedded stones, it 
 is advisable to form bonding-courses of brick at intervals of a few feet in height — thus : 
 
 The ordinary terms used to distinguish the various kinds of stone-walling are 
 " rubble work," " random work," " ranged work," and " ashlar work." 
 
 In " rubble work " the stones are used pretty much as they are taken from the 
 quarry, and no labour is expended in shaping them : rubble work may be shewn as 
 follows : — 
 
12 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 In "random work," the stones intended for the face-work are squared, both for 
 beds and joints, as here shewn : — 
 
 In " ranged work," the stones are brought to an even thickness, and laid in courses, 
 
 thus 
 
 "Ashlar work" is formed of the descriptions of stone before described under 
 the title of Bath, Portland, &c. The stones are sawn to a face, are very squarely 
 bedded and jointed, worked perfectly smooth, and closely fitted to each other, as in 
 the following- illustration : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 // ' 1 
 
 \ 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In all cases, the amount of labour to be expended on the faces of the stones 
 is discretionary, and is often influenced by the quality of the stone and style of building. 
 
 As with brick walls, the joints and beds should be filled up solid by flushing 
 or grouting. 
 
 As previously stated, the ordinary building-stones are seldom dry enough for 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 13 
 
 the inside linings of the walls of a house ; it is therefore usual to build the inner 
 four and a-half inches with brick, bonded into the stonework by " headers," or bricks laid 
 transversely at frequent intervals. This is more general than the old-fashioned system 
 of lining the inner face of the walls with wood battens and laths. 
 
 The walls of a house are sometimes built with a space in the middle, to afford, 
 as is supposed, greater security against the damp passing through 
 Hollow walls, from the outside, and to ensure a more equal temperature inside the 
 building ; but the strength of the work is somewhat impaired by such 
 a mode of construction, and it is questionable, if only the same quantity of material 
 be used, whether any greater protection is given than with the solid work carefully 
 put together. 
 
 Hollow walls are sometimes built with purposely-made bonding bricks of extra 
 length, which make better work than when the ordinary bricks are used for bonders ; 
 and sometimes the place of bonders is supplied by wrought-iron cramps connecting the 
 two portions of the wall. 
 
 All the walls of a building should be carried up at one time ; no part should 
 be raised more than a few feet above the general height of the surrounding parts, 
 and all stone sills should be bedded only at the ends, and an open space be left 
 under them the v/hole width and depth of opening until the building is finished ; 
 when this precaution is neglected, the sills are liable to be fractured by the settling 
 of the walls. 
 
 All ends of timbers should be kept at least nine inches from smoke-flues, and 
 no wood plugs for fixing joiner's work should be driven into the walls near flues, 
 as many accidents by fire occur from neglect of these precautions. A course of 
 bricks should be laid on stone walls for all timbers to rest upon, except where stone 
 templates (plates of stones) are used. 
 
 The mortar used in building to unite the stones or bricks is ordinarily composed 
 of common stone lime and clean sand ; but where it is to be employed 
 Mortar. in damp situations it should be made with hydraulic lime, that is, 
 lime having the property of hardening under water. Common lime- 
 mortar decomposes in course of time in damp situations. Upon the goodness of the 
 mortar depends in the greatest degree the strength and durability of the walls, and 
 great care should therefore be taken in the selection of the materials of it and its prepa- 
 ration. The sand should be free from all foreign matter, sharp, i. e. angular in the 
 grit, and thoroughly mixed up with a due proportion of lime : it should be used 
 as soon as possible after being mixed. Loamy earth and road-scrapings should 
 not be used, wholly or partially, in the place of sand for mortar, as is the custom 
 in some localities. 
 
14 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 During hot dry weather, the bricks or stones should be plentifully soaked with 
 water just before they are used, which causes the mortar to unite better with them 
 than when they are in a dry state, and the work is therefore stronger for it. 
 
 The varieties of the constituents of building-mortar are very great, and the 
 proportions of lime and sand have to be settled accordingly. One measure of lime 
 to three measures of sand are the common proportions ; but when the work is not 
 properly overlooked, the lime is often stinted, and the soundness of the walls thereby 
 impaired. 
 
 Lime is the product of the calcination of calcareous substances, including chalk, 
 many building-stones, marble, shells, &c. The substance containing 
 Lime. it is subject to the action of a strong heat in kilns erected for the 
 purpose, by which operation the carbonic acid associated with the 
 lime is expelled. The presence of lime in a stone may be discovered by placing 
 a small piece in a glass, covering it with water, and adding a little " aqua fortis," or 
 other acid ; this combines with the lime, if there is any, and expels the carbonic acid, 
 causing it to rise to the surface, more or less briskly, in effervescing bubbles. 
 
 When lime is removed from the kiln it should be kept in a dry place, and 
 secured from the action of the air until it is required for use. 
 
 Before lime is fit to be used in making mortar, it undergoes an operation called 
 " slacking :" water is thrown on a heap, and the lime imbibes carbonic acid, which 
 it parted with in the kiln. 
 
 Chalk-lime slacks freely, is milder in its nature, and possesses less strength than 
 stone-lime in mortar, and it is more suited for plastering than building. 
 
 The lime which is produced from the blue lias beds is a hydraulic lime ; it is 
 difficult to slack, and, in consequence, it is usually ground in a mill before it is 
 used. It is a valuable lime for concrete, and for work underground, and in damp 
 situations. 
 
 The cements principally used for building purposes are Portland, Roman, Parian, 
 and Keene's : the two latter are only employed in interiors, where 
 Cements. a hard smooth surface is required for walls, skirtings, and exposed 
 angles. Plaster of Paris is used for mouldings and enrichments. 
 Both Portland and Roman cements are valuable for use in building walls and parti- 
 tions, piers, and other parts which have to bear more than usual weight, or resist unusual 
 pressure ; and also for the building of walls in damp or exposed situations, and 
 for foundation works. In towns, cement is much used in imitation of stone, for 
 facing inferior or thin walls, and for architraves, cornices, and dressings generally 
 to exteriors ; and Portland cement is used in districts where stone is scarce, for land- 
 ings, floors, &c. 
 
 Portland cement will bear, for ordinary purposes, mixing with clean, sharp sand, 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 1 5 
 
 in the proportion of one of cement to three of sand ; and Roman cement in the pro- 
 portion of one of cement to one of sand. 
 
 As the walls of a house are being carried up, the joists to support the several 
 floors have to be prepared and laid upon the walls upon plates of 
 £ ^f s of wood built in to receive them. The outside joists should be in 
 contact with the walls, and not, as they are sometimes, placed a little 
 distance from them. The following schedule of the sizes of joists, arranged from cal- 
 culation and experience, may be useful in determining the depth and thickness that 
 joists should be in relation to their length or " bearing :" — 
 
 Length of 
 bearing", 
 
 Size of Joists. 
 
 Length of 
 hearing. 
 
 Size of Joists. 
 
 Length of 
 bearing. 
 
 Size of Joists. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 7 to 8 
 9to io 
 
 Inches. 
 
 7 x 2J- 
 
 8 X 2\ 
 
 Feet. 
 II to 12 
 
 13 to 14 
 15 to 16 
 
 Inches. 
 
 81 x 21 
 or 9 x 2\ 
 9 x 2i 
 10 X 2\, 
 
 or 9 x 3 
 
 Feet. 
 
 17 to 18 
 
 Inches. 
 
 10 x 3, 
 or 11 x 2{ 
 
 In all cases where the bearing of joists exceeds ten feet, they should be strength- 
 ened by cross struts spiked between them, in the shape of an x , and running the 
 full length of the room: the rows of strutting (called "herring-bone strutting") to 
 joists of greater bearing should not be more than six or seven feet apart. The plates 
 and sleepers bearing joists of the lowest floors should be of oak. 
 
 The construction of floors by means of a single row of joists running the shortest 
 way of the room from wall to wall, called " single " flooring, and forming the ceiling 
 by lathing to the underside of joists, is only applicable to bearings of eighteen feet and 
 under. Where this bearing is exceeded, it becomes necessary to provide girders 
 of wood or iron, of sizes proportioned to the span, by which the bearings for the joists 
 are lessened, and the joists reduced in size accordingly. The ceiling may be then 
 laid as before to the under side of the joists, and the girders allowed to shew 
 beneath, or special joists for the support of the ceiling may be secured to the under- 
 side of the girders, thus enclosing them. 
 
 Floors are sometimes constructed with girders and binders (small transverse 
 girders), which, being exposed, form a panelled ceiling to the room beneath. 
 
 Between the ceiling of all important rooms and the floor above, provision should 
 be made for deadening sound, as the noise occasioned by persons passing overhead, 
 or of children playing, is often objectionable. The extra expense of this provision, 
 although slight, is frequently the cause of its omission. The ordinary method of 
 deadening sound in these cases, called " pugging," has been already described. 
 
 * The "bearing" is the clear distance between the walls. 
 
1 6 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 The ends of all timbers resting upon walls should be bedded without mortar, 
 and with a space around them for air to circulate. This precaution is frequently neg- 
 lected through carelessness. It may constantly be observed, that old timbers removed 
 from buildings are decayed in those parts which have been sealed up in the walls, 
 while they are perfectly sound in other parts. The above precaution is more espe- 
 cially necessary where walls are built rapidly, and timber not thoroughly seasoned 
 is used. 
 
 Timber is subject to two destructive agents, dry rot and wet rot. The first 
 affects unseasoned wood in damp situations, and when it is sur- 
 ^fmber 5 rounded by stagnant air, such as ground-floor joists where no ven- 
 tilation is provided, lintels when surrounded by plastering, skirtings 
 and framework when fixed against damp walls, and unseasoned wood covered with 
 paint. The second affects wood which is alternately wet and dry ; such as posts fixed 
 in the ground, plates, sills, and sleepers in damp places. Many processes, more or less 
 successful, have been devised for the preservation of timber under these conditions ; 
 they are, however, more applicable to timber used in engineering works than in house- 
 building. But it may be mentioned here, that the practice of charring the ends of 
 timbers to be inserted in the ground is very effective in preserving them, and is 
 of very ancient origin. The piles said to have been driven in by order of Julius Caesar 
 when he forded the Thames at Cowey Stakes, near Shepperton, when taken up forty 
 years ago were found to have been charred, and were free from decay. The beams 
 of the theatre of Herculaneum that were charred by the lava at the time of its de- 
 struction, were found perfect after the lapse of nearly eighteen centuries. Dry rot 
 makes its appearance as mildew, and afterwards assumes the appearance of fungus, 
 and has great tendency to spread. 
 
 The best means of preventing the rotting of timber is to provide ventilation to 
 all parts of it, and to make use of none that is not thoroughly seasoned, or that shews 
 any symptoms of decay ; sometimes it is affected before it reaches this country, or 
 by being stacked for a long period in a close and damp situation. The ends of all 
 important or large timbers should rest on Portland, York, or some other hard stone 
 templates, as they afford a dry bed for them. 
 
 In dividing the rooms of upper floors, it is often necessary, for convenience, to have 
 partitions in situations where there is no wall directly beneath them : 
 W titkms Par ~ m sucn cases trie partitions cannot well be of brick, and they are then 
 formed of wooden studs, about twelve inches apart, to be alternately 
 lathed and plastered to match the walls. These partitions should be so framed and 
 bolted together (in the manner called "trussing"), that as much as possible of their 
 weight is thrown upon the side walls and upon the ends of joists next the walls, and as 
 little as possible upon the centre of the joists, which are not generally strong enough to 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 17 
 
 receive it. Sinking and cracking of ceilings are the result of imperfectly trussed 
 partitions above them. 
 
 To assist in preventing the passage of sound through these partitions, fillets can 
 be fixed in the centre of the studs, and laths nailed to them and 
 partitions covered with a thick coat of plaster, in addition to the lathing and 
 plastering on each side ; or the spaces between the studs can be filled 
 with sawdust for the same purpose. Sometimes two independent rows of studding are 
 framed, with a space of a few inches between, with the same object. 
 
 The best wood for flooring is oak ; but this, on account of its costliness, cannot 
 always be used, and for it is substituted yellow deal from Christiana 
 Floors. or St. Petersburg. Boards with large, loose, or dead knots, as well 
 as those having shakes in them or sappy edges, should be care- 
 fully avoided. 
 
 The boards forming the floors should never be less than an inch in thickness, and 
 for principal rooms not less than an inch and a quarter ; they should be in narrow 
 widths ; five inches and a half is a usual width, but in no case should they be more 
 than seven inches ; for it is obvious that a narrow board will shrink less than a wide 
 one, and therefore shew a less open joint ; they should be well seasoned, and the 
 building should be dry and in a fit state to receive them before they are laid. 
 
 Floor-boards are usually fixed by nailing them through to the joists. When it 
 is desirable to avoid the appearance of nail-holes on the surface, they are nailed askew 
 through the edges only, and the edges are, in addition, drilled at distances of fifteen 
 or eighteen inches to receive wooden or iron dowels, which are also fitted into corre- 
 sponding holes in the adjoining board. The method of "ploughing and tonguing" 
 floor-boards, already alluded to, is chiefly used for the ground storey, to prevent the 
 passage of air through the joints ; but it is useful for all floors, inasmuch as it prevents 
 the possibility of water used in cleaning the floor, dust, &c, passing through the joints 
 into the space between the floor and the ceiling below. Over newly-laid floors (all grit 
 being previously removed from the surface), should be placed temporary boards, or 
 a layer of clean sawdust, to protect them from workmen's shoes, stains, &c, during 
 the completion of the building. 
 
 The additional cost of rendering a building practically fire-proof is insignificant, 
 when compared with the security obtained both for the inmates and 
 F floors°° f contents of a house ; and it is a matter of much regret, that at least 
 fire-proof floors and staircases are not more often used. The floors 
 may be constructed of joists of iron, in lieu of wood, the spaces between the joists 
 being filled in with concrete,- the ceiling below and the floor above being formed in 
 
 D 
 
i8 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 the usual manner. The two systems most in use are known respectively as " Fox 
 and Barrett's" and the "Dennett" systems. 
 
 The joiner's work in the principal rooms of important houses is sometimes exe- 
 cuted in oak, walnut, maple, or other ornamental woods ; but the 
 Joinery. costliness of them precludes their general use. Yellow deal, carefully 
 selected, dry, seasoned, and free from shakes, cracks, and large dead 
 knots, is chiefly used for the staircases, doors, windows, skirtings, and fittings of modern 
 houses, although for some parts the best white deal is often substituted. Pitch pine 
 is also sometimes used for the principal joiner's work : it is handsomer in the grain 
 than yellow deal, but harder to work, and therefore more expensive ; not so much 
 so, however, as to prevent its occasional use for staircases, fittings of dining-rooms, 
 framing and panels of ceilings, &c, for which it is very suitable. 
 
 The window-openings of cellars and out-offices are generally fitted with casements, 
 hung to solid frames with butt hinges, and opening outwards, or with 
 ^frames" ^ sashes hung on centres ; but for all other windows, excepting those 
 which are also to serve as doors, there is perhaps nothing so con- 
 venient as the ordinary sashes hung with lines and weights, and opening both at 
 the top and the bottom. These, when well made of seasoned materials, exclude the 
 weather perfectly, open and shut readily, and allow of the admission of fresh air 
 in large or small quantities as may be desired, and the exit of vitiated air, by open- 
 ing both the upper and lower sashes little or much as may be required. The pulleys, 
 lines, and fastenings should be of the best description. Where it is desirable that 
 a window should give access to a conservatory, verandah, or lawn, the opening 
 begins at or near to the floor-line, and it may be fitted with the sashes above men- 
 tioned, — the upper one being placed high enough to give headway beneath it, and 
 the lower one sliding up beyond the lintel, — or with what are known as French 
 casements, which are hinged to solid frames, generally in two widths, and fitted into 
 rebates in the frames, to exclude the weather. This will always be more effectually 
 done when the casements are made to open outwards ; those opening inwards should 
 be fitted with water-bars on the sills, to prevent the rain driving in, and a special 
 mode of rebating the frames and casements be adopted. The oak sills of all windows 
 should be rebated at the back to the stone sills, or tongued to them, to prevent the 
 passage of wind and water between the wood and the stone. 
 
 Staircase and hall windows are often, with good effect, glazed with small panes 
 of glass, of square or diamond shape, in lead bands made for the 
 
 Glazing. purpose, sometimes arranged in geometrical patterns, and with tinted 
 or painted glass. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 l 9 
 
 Glazing in lead quarries was at an early period the general method, and some 
 architects still sacrifice the advantages of clear glass and large squares even in sitting- 
 rooms for the picturesque effect of this glazing. 
 
 The best glass for the principal windows of a house is British polished plate ; 
 and next to it, when the squares are not very large, the patent plate ; either is more 
 costly than crown or sheet glass, which are the ordinary kinds in use. The advantages 
 of using plate-glass are, greater security, less liability to injury, better protection against 
 heat and cold, and a more transparent medium for light. The cost of plate-glass for 
 the chief windows of a moderate-sized private residence may be stated at from £2$ 
 to ^"40 beyond that of the ordinary glass. 
 
 Glass panels of doors, lobby partitions, and the like, are often glazed with rolled, 
 fluted, or embossed glass. 
 
 Shutters of iron, steel, or wood, made in laths, and working upon rollers fixed 
 in a casing above the window-head or below the sill, and for which 
 
 Shutters. there are several patents, are more frequently preferred for large 
 windows, more especially bows ; and if the fittings of the window 
 be purposely made to receive them, and they are so arranged as to act easily 
 without any great noise, they are very convenient and secure, but their cost exceeds 
 that of the ordinary shutters. 
 
 The shutters in most general use are made in small flaps, so as to fold together 
 and be enclosed, when not in use, in casings on each side of the window. They 
 are secured by means of iron bars, hinged to one half of the shutters, and fastened 
 to the other by a spring catch. They are not so well adapted for wide windows, 
 as the casings requisite to enclose the folds often unavoidably project some distance 
 into the room, involving loss of space, and interfering with the light and drapery. 
 This is avoided, to some extent, by the use of shutters hung with lines and weights, 
 like sashes, the hollow frames to receive the weights being fitted inside the frames 
 of the sashes, and these never project more than a few inches into the room. Such 
 shutters are suitable for bow-windows, to which, on account of their size and shape, 
 the shutters before-mentioned cannot conveniently be fitted. Shutters hung thus 
 should be in two heights, each height being equal to half the height of the window, 
 and slide into a casing below the window-sill, and, if necessary, extending below the 
 floor-line. Great care should be taken to make this casing as nearly as possible air- 
 tight, to prevent draught through it into the room from under the floor. Space 
 should be left between the sash-frame and the shutter, for the working of the blinds ; 
 and this applies to all windows having shutters. 
 
 The doors of the principal rooms should not be less than two inches in thickness, 
 Doors anc ^ °^ ma ^ n entrances two and a half or three inches. The character of 
 
 the mouldings, &c, of the panels depends upon the style of the building- 
 
 D 2 
 
20 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 The same remark applies to the moulding of skirtings, and these should, in all 
 cases, be fixed to proper "grounds" and "backings," that is, strips of 
 Skirtings. deal fastened to the wall to receive them. It is an excellent plan 
 to rebate the bottom of the skirting-board to fit into a correspond- 
 ing groove in the floor-boards. 
 
 The best material for stairs, principally from the fact of its being fire-proof, is 
 stone (Portland or York or other hard close-grained stone), and 
 Stairs. this material should always be employed for them in good houses : 
 wood is, however, generally used, for the sake of economy. It is im- 
 portant that stairs should be strongly constructed, and made firm and unyielding. 
 Easy ascent is secured by preserving a proper relation between the width of the 
 tread and the height of the riser. The following is a rule sometimes adopted for 
 calculating the relative proportions between riser and tread : — " From twenty-three 
 subtract the width of tread in inches (exclusive of the moulded projection at edge 
 of tread), and half the remainder will give the proper rise in inches of each step." 
 The height of the top of the hand-rail, measured in a directly vertical line from the 
 extreme edge of the nosing of the tread, should vary from two feet nine inches to three 
 feet, in proportion to the size and description of staircase. 
 
 Joinery should not be fixed in a building until the plastering is dry. The best 
 
 time of year for fixing such work is in the summer months, and on no 
 
 T — 1 1? T fi * X l ng account should it ever be fixed during the winter. The best-seasoned 
 joinery, &c. » 
 
 materials will swell if placed in a building at that time, and in the 
 following summer will shrink and split and open at the joints. 
 
 A house of any pretensions should, in fact, never be completed in one season, 
 but the shell should be erected and allowed to stand during the autumn and winter, 
 the plastering being done in the following spring, and the joiner's work and finishing 
 generally, in the succeeding summer. In the case of large mansions a considerably 
 longer time is required. 
 
 The construction and pitch of the roofs, and the sizes of timbers in them, are 
 regulated by the material to be used for covering them, the width of 
 Roofs. span, the character of the design, and any necessity there may be 
 
 for appropriating the space immediately under. 
 The smallest anorle which a roof intended to be covered with Welsh or West- 
 moreland slates should make with a horizontal line, in order to be weather-tight, 
 should be twenty-two degrees and a half (equal to a rise of a quarter of the span, 
 and technically called " quarter pitch "), and for all ordinary descriptions of tiles forty- 
 five degrees (equal to a rise of half the span, and termed " half pitch "). 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 21 
 
 The following table may serve as a general guide to the proper size of roof- 
 timbers : — 
 
 
 | Span in 
 | feet. 
 
 Tie-beams. 
 
 King-post. 
 
 Principals. 
 
 Struts. 
 
 Straining - 
 piece. 
 
 
 1 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 King-post Roofs J 
 
 '\ 20 
 
 \ 25 
 
 • ; 30 
 
 9X4 
 
 10 x 5 
 
 11 x 6 
 
 4X4 
 
 5 x 5 
 6x6 
 
 5 x 4 
 
 5i x 4 
 6X4 
 
 4X3 
 
 5 x 3 
 
 6 x 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Queen-posts. 
 
 
 
 
 Queen-post Roofs | 
 
 1 35 
 40 
 
 11 x 4 
 
 12 x 5 
 
 4x4 
 5 x 5 
 
 6 x '4 
 7x4 
 
 4x3 
 5x3 
 
 7x4 
 7 x 5 
 
 
 | Bearing. 
 
 Size. 
 
 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Size. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Purlins . . . / 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 6x4 
 7 x 5 
 
 Rafters . . 
 
 6 to 8 
 8 to 10 
 
 4 x 2} 
 
 5 X 2| 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 x 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rafters should not be more than twelve inches apart, and purlins should not 
 exceed ten feet width of bearing, a little less being advisable when it can be so ar- 
 ranged. The slates, or tiles, are laid on strips of deal, placed at regular distances 
 upon the rafters. When the roofs are of a low pitch, and slates are used, each course 
 (when of the usual size, viz., Countesses, twenty inches by ten inches,) should shew 
 on the surface a width of eight inches ; and if tiles are used (ten inches in length), then 
 four inches should shew ; but these widths may with safety be respectively increased 
 to eight inches and a half and four inches and a half, when the pitch of the roof is 
 steeper. Copper nails are the best for slating, but they are also the most expensive ; 
 and zinc ones, or a composition of zinc and tin, are chiefly used, as being the best sub- 
 stitutes for copper. Tiles are generally made with nibs, to hang on the battens, but 
 some have holes, and are fastened by wood pegs to oak laths instead of battens. 
 When the situation is very exposed, it is not desirable to trust to the nibs, but to 
 have the tiles nailed on as well, holes being made in them for the purpose, or else 
 to have the tiles bedded in lime-and-hair mortar, or cement, which is a good protection. 
 
 It is usual to plaster the under side of tiles with similar mortar or cement, to 
 assist in excluding the weather ; this is generally called pointing, but in some districts 
 " scotching," or " torching." 
 
 The rooms immediately below the roof are apt to be inconveniently affected by 
 change of temperature, and to be hot in summer and cold in winter, particularly where 
 blue slates are used for the covering. These extremes may be provided against by 
 boarding the roofs on the top of the rafters, and laying the battening on the boards : 
 there is then a space left for a current of air between the slates and the boarding, which 
 tends to keep cooler the rooms beneath the roof. A layer of hair-felt is sometimes 
 
22 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 employed instead of, or in addition to, the boarding : where both are used, the 
 boarding should be thoroughly dry and well seasoned, or else it is subject to decay 
 from the felt fitting so closely to it. 
 
 The ridges of the roof may be covered with lead, dressed round a roll fitted on 
 for the purpose, or with a stone or slate cresting, or with a cresting of the same material 
 as the tiles. Where two roofs meet, or where a roof meets a parapet wall, and it 
 becomes necessary to have a gutter, it should be formed of sheet lead, laid on boarding, 
 and currented to the heads of the rain-water pipes. Similar small gutters are required 
 for chimneys where they rise from the roof. Wherever the tiling or slating abuts 
 against masonry, it is necessary to make good the junction, either with a narrow strip 
 of cement, or (which is far better) with a piece of lead, from six to nine inches 
 wide, let into the masonry or brickwork, and lapping over the slating or tiling. 
 
 It is usual to cover the external junctions of the slope of slated roofs, called 
 "hips," with rolls and lead, as for the ridges; and also the internal junctions of the 
 same, called " valleys," with lead, about eighteen inches wide, passing partly under each 
 slope. For tiled roofs, hip and valley tiles are made expressly for these purposes. 
 
 The joints of all stonework and brickwork of chimneys and parapet walls, for 
 twelve or eighteen inches above the roof or gutters, should be pointed with cement, 
 as well as the edges of tiles and slates overhanging gables, and all lead-flashings, 
 where they run into joints of walling. 
 
 To receive the water falling on the roofs, cast-iron guttering, made of various 
 shapes and sizes, is fixed along the eaves, with outlets at intervals con- 
 Eaves, gutters, nected with 'cast-iron circular or rectangular pipes, which convey the 
 and rain-water k . 
 
 pipes. water to the drains below. Over the outlets in the guttering, a covering 
 
 of wirework, or a perforated iron plate, should be placed, to prevent 
 leaves, dirt, &c, from entering the pipes. The feet of the rain-water pipes should be 
 very closely connected with drains, so that no escape of water may take place near the 
 building : the junctions can be made with iron shoes, or with ordinary stoneware bends. 
 
 Where lead gutters occur behind parapets, outlet pipes of large size should be 
 fixed to convey the water from them, through the walls to the spout- 
 GU parapets ind heads : & tne spout-heads then become stopped, the water runs over 
 on the outside of the walls ; whereas, if the down pipe be directly 
 connected with the gutter, without a spout-head or a separate outlet, and the pipe 
 becomes choked, the water accumulates behind the parapet until it rises above the 
 edges of the lead, whence it passes into the building, damaging walls and ceiling. 
 
 Lead for gutters should weigh at least seven pounds to the superficial foot; 
 
 Lead for for valleys, hips, and ridges, six pounds to the foot ; and for flash- 
 gutters. . c j 
 ings, five pounds. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 23 
 
 The plasterer begins his work as soon as the roof is covered in. Ceilings and 
 wooden partitions are first lathed, then covered with a coat of coarse 
 Plastering. mortar, having a little cow-hair mixed with it, followed by a second 
 coat of similar material, but mixed a little finer, and " floated " evenly- 
 over the whole surface, and finished or " set " with a thin coat of " fine stuff" (slaked 
 lime mixed with washed sand), finished smooth with a steel trowel. 
 
 Brick walls are plastered with three coats, in a similar manner, called respectively, 
 " rendering," " floating," and " setting." 
 
 When it is desired to have plastering finished with a rough surface, the last or 
 setting coat is done with a wood trowel, instead of a steel one. This is called rough 
 stucco. All exposed angles should be formed of Parian or Keene's cement ; and cor- 
 nices, enrichments, and ornamental work generally, of plaster of Paris. 
 
 It has been an old custom to cover internal woodwork with paint, finished with 
 plain colours, or grained in imitation of such woods as oak, maple, 
 Painting. satin-wood, walnut, &c. ; but of late, much of it is simply varnished, 
 leaving the grain of the wood visible. 
 
 It is better, when it can be done without inconvenience, to leave such joiner's 
 work as it is intended to paint for a year, or even more, after it is fixed, before 
 the painting is done, to ensure its becoming dry ; although, in these days of rapid 
 building, it is seldom practicable to defer it for so long a time. 
 
 The process of ordinary painting on deal is as follows : — All knots are first covered 
 with a preparation of shellac and naphtha, to prevent the turpentine working through 
 the paint ; or sometimes gold or silver leaf is used ; or the knots are cut out below 
 the surface of the work, and the space filled with a piece of wood or putty ; this last 
 plan is generally adopted for good work. If this preliminary "knotting" be not 
 done well, the knots will shew through several coats of paint. 
 
 The first coat of paint, or " priming," generally done in the builder's shop, is com- 
 posed of linseed oil, red and white lead, and litharge, or some material to ensure 
 its drying quickly. All cracks and irregularities are then filled up with putty, and 
 the whole surface of the work rubbed with pumice-stone or glass-paper, and brought 
 to a perfectly smooth face. The third and fourth coats are composed of oil, white lead, 
 and turpentine, mixed with pigments of the required colours. When it is desired 
 to avoid the gloss or glazed surface of ordinary painted work, it is further coated 
 with a preparation of white lead and turpentine, which gives a flat, dead appearance, 
 and is called " flatting." Each coat of paint should be thoroughly dry and hard 
 before another is laid on. 
 
 Plastered surfaces, when perfectly dry, are painted in the same way, but the 
 paint is mixed of a thicker consistency for the first coat. Ironwork is generally 
 painted with three coats only ; it should be first filed and brought to an even surface ; 
 the first coat is generally done with boiled oil and red lead. 
 
24 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 The best times for external painting are in the spring or autumn, when the tem- 
 perature is neither very high nor very low. 
 
 The ironmongery used in a good house should be of the best quality : there is no 
 worse economy than the use of inferior locks, latches, blind-racks, sash- 
 Ironmongery, fastenings, &c. The locks, especially, should be of good quality, as 
 the greatest annoyance results from their imperfect or irregular action. 
 Blind-racks are better dispensed with entirely by the use of springs in the rollers, by 
 means of which the blind is rolled up, or by blind-fittings without springs ; there are 
 several kinds, which are simple in construction and inexpensive. 
 
 Bells should be very carefully hung, and only by experienced workmen. When 
 the ordinary system is adopted, copper wire, not less in thickness than 
 Bells. that known as 14 Birmingham wire-gauge, should be used, and when 
 
 it is necessarily carried along walls it should be enclosed in zinc 
 tubing, concealed in the plastering. The wires should, as far as possible, be carried 
 in accessible places, in case of repairs being needed. 
 
 The galvanic bell system, recently introduced, dispenses with all cranks and wires, 
 and is likely to supersede the old system. 
 
 An important feature in the internal fittings of a room is the fire-place. Great 
 improvements have lately been introduced in the character and ma- 
 Fire-places, terials of grates, mantel-pieces, and fenders. The old stereotyped marble 
 or imitation marble, mantel-piece and cast-iron grate, with its large 
 black-leaded surface, filling up the entire width, now frequently gives way to mantel- 
 pieces purposely designed and made for the building; and the fire-places are lined 
 with tiles or fire-bricks, and fitted either with " dog grates," standing independently 
 upon the hearth, or with bars built in, or with narrow iron frames, enclosing the front 
 and bottom bars of the grate, the space between it and the mantel-piece being filled 
 up with tiles, and the backs formed with Stourbridge fire-lumps or fire-bricks. 
 
 Instead of an ordinary iron or steel fender, a moulded curb is now frequently 
 fixed round the hearth, of the same material as the mantel-piece, or of metal ; and the 
 space within the fender, which has generally been of stone, painted black, is paved 
 with plain or ornamental glazed tiles, harmonizing with those about the grate. It 
 is recommended that the backs of all grates should be of fire-bricks or fire-lumps ; 
 more uniform combustion of the fuel and greater heat, even with less coal, are ob- 
 tained by their use, than from iron backs. 
 
 It devolves upon the plumber, in addition to laying the lead work, to complete 
 Plumber's the roofs, as already mentioned, to fix the necessary pumps, cisterns, 
 work * piping and taps, for the supply of water to the closets, landings, 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 25 
 
 pantry, scullery, &c. All the pipes should be kept, as much as possible, together, 
 be protected from frost, and be placed in accessible situations, where, when repairs or 
 alterations are needed, they can be attended to without interference with the principal 
 parts of the house, and where, if any bursting should take place, it will be least 
 likely to cause damage and inconvenience. 
 
 Iron piping, on account of its cheapness, is now much used instead of lead ; and 
 when it is carefully fixed, and the joints made water-tight, it answers its purpose 
 very well. 
 
 It is only possible, in this short treatise, to speak generally of the various con- 
 trivances of water-closet apparatus now made ; all profess to have, and doubtless some 
 have, special advantages over others ; many practical plumbers, however, aver, that there 
 is no apparatus more perfect, or less likely to get out of order, than that known as the 
 "pan" apparatus, so long in use; it should always be fitted with a leaden D trap, and 
 a leaden waste tray. A very good and cheap apparatus is the glazed stoneware 
 oval pan and trap, and it is rendered more perfect when used in connection with 
 a small self-acting water cistern. The danger to health and the great inconvenience 
 which result when any part of the apparatus, or piping in connection with it, is out of 
 order, are but too well known ; the utmost care should therefore be used by architect 
 and builder to see that all is done in the selection of the appliances, and in the per- 
 fect fitting and fixing of them, to render the chance of failure in any part as remote 
 as possible. Down pipes from closets should be of lead, equal in weight to ten 
 pounds to the foot superficial, and be connected with stoneware or brick drains, on 
 the outside of the wall, and the opening through which the pipe passes be filled up 
 and made perfectly sound round the pipe. To allow of the escape of deleterious gases 
 from the soil-pipe, an air-pipe, not less^ than two inches in diameter, should be con- 
 nected with it a short distance below the trap, and conducted directly to a point 
 above the eaves of the roof, removed from windows, and where the gases may safely 
 be discharged ; this pipe also tends to prevent the water from being drawn out 
 of the syphon by the action of the closet, which sometimes occurs when no air-pipe 
 is provided, thereby creating a passage for the escape of gases from the drain through 
 the closet into the house. In some localities, the water possesses properties which 
 corrode and destroy lead in pipes and cisterns ; when this is the case, iron, or some 
 other material, should be substituted. 
 
 The nuisance from "smoking" chimneys is very great. The causes of a flue 
 
 failing to properly carry off the smoke from a fire are various. It 
 
 Smoking ma y ar j se f rom the want of a sufficient draught of air up the chimney, 
 chimneys and . . . 
 
 Smoke-flues. from there being no special means of supplying the fireplace with 
 fresh air, and from the closed doors and windows not admitting suffi- 
 cient indirectly; this can often be temporarily corrected by the opening of a door 
 
 E 
 
26 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 or window, the air thus admitted driving the smoke before it to its proper channel ; 
 it can sometimes be remedied by supplying fresh air from without to the under- 
 side of the fireplace, by means of gratings in the wall, which can be opened or closed 
 at pleasure. It may be that the wind, when in a given quarter, beats against a por- 
 tion of the building near to and higher than the chimney top, and this reflected current 
 is driven back and rushes down the flue, and forces the smoke back into the room. 
 It may arise from the near presence of high trees, or the great elevation of adjoining 
 ground. Smoke will sometimes pass out of one flue and down an adjoining one into 
 the room to which the latter belongs ; this inconvenience is generally obviated by 
 raising the one flue a little higher than the other. 
 
 When flues are filled with cold damp air, which is often the case when they 
 have not been recently used, or when the weather is unusually damp, smoke will 
 frequently fail to ascend, especially when the fire is first lighted. Flues which are 
 carried up in external walls, are more subject to this, particularly in a northern 
 aspect ; hence, in such situations, the outer walls of a flue should be built of a 
 thickness not less than nine inches ; and the wind has a greater tendency to blow 
 down flues in external walls, when it sets against the side of the building in which 
 they are placed. 
 
 In building smoke-flues, there are established rules which should be observed ; 
 it is not always possible to ensure success, and in cases of failure it becomes neces- 
 sary to ascertain, by careful examination, the probable cause of it, and apply such 
 a remedy as seems most likely to meet the case. 
 
 The mouth of a flue should always be over the centre of the fire, and the 
 flue should be carried up vertically for some little distance before the commence- 
 ment of any bend ; unless this be done, the smoke is apt to strike the brickwork 
 before it has acquired any upward force, and is more or less driven back into the 
 room. In determining whether to turn off the flues to the right or left, regard 
 may be had to the probable direction of any draught from the door and window, so 
 that the flue may be bent in the same direction. 
 
 All sharp and sudden curves should be avoided. 
 
 Chimneys should be carried up a few feet at least (the higher the better), above 
 the highest ridge of roofs. Circular flues draw better than square ones, as being 
 nearer the shape which a column of smoke assumes ; circular pipes, made of fire clay, 
 with a smooth surface inside, built in the walls to form flues, are to be strongly re- 
 commended, because they afford no lodgment for soot ; circular flues can be formed 
 in stone walls (and also in brick walls, when there is thickness enough) by building 
 them round a wood core. 
 
 Where pipes are not used, the flues should be finished with a lining of mortar, 
 mixed with cow-dung, and called " pargetting," and in doing this work the corners of 
 square flues should be rounded a little. 
 
 A man should be sent up the flues, where practicable, when the building is finished, 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 27 
 
 to clear away projections of mortar, and to remove any materials which may have 
 lodged in them in the course of the work. 
 
 In setting the grates, the spaces behind the back and sides should be built up 
 solid to the beginning of the flue ; this space, if left hollow, is sometimes the cause 
 of a flue failing to draw. 
 
 When the draught of a flue is imperfect, a room is often filled with smoke by the 
 manner in which coal is supplied to the fire ; it should be put on in small quan- 
 tities, and large and small coal should not be indiscriminately heaped upon it ; for 
 thereby a dense volume of smoke is created, which will, in a few minutes, fill a room. 
 
 The evils which arise from defective sanitary arrangements, bad drainage, im- 
 pure water, and want of proper ventilation, are such, that the import- 
 Ventilation, ance of taking all possible precautions in these respects, for the 
 preservation of health, cannot be over-estimated. Not the least of 
 these is the proper ventilation of our dwellings. 
 
 Those who pass most of their time within doors, in rooms insufficiently ventilated, 
 injure themselves as much by the vitiated air they breathe as they would do by living 
 upon unwholesome food. 
 
 It has been proved, that if four persons be shut up in a perfectly air-tight 
 room of ordinary size, with two gas jets burning, they could not, under any circum- 
 stances, live longer than ten hours. 
 
 All have experienced, more or less, a feeling of oppression, headache, and sickness, 
 in crowded and ill-ventilated rooms ; and we must know from this how unhealthy it 
 is to remain long in them ; yet how frequently does it appear that our sleeping 
 apartments are very much in this condition, with doors and windows closely shut, 
 and often every crevice closed by which fresh air could enter ; the same impure 
 air is inhaled and exhaled again and again by the occupants ; how sickening it is to 
 enter such a room in the early morn, after having been in the fresh air ; can we 
 wonder at the pallid countenances and languid movements of those who have slept 
 in them ? 
 
 How deficient are sitting-rooms, particularly where gas is burnt, in proper means of 
 obtaining fresh air, and carrying off that which is no longer fit for breathing ; this can 
 be accomplished, it is true, by opening the window and door ; but the rush of cold air 
 is more than delicate, or even moderately healthy persons can often bear, and some 
 self-acting system of ventilation becomes imperatively necessary. 
 
 A fireplace is fortunately, though often unintentionally, an active agent in venti- 
 lation, and its activity is increased when there is a fire, though it is not sufficient at 
 any time to keep a room healthy ; the healthiness of bed-rooms is, however, much in- 
 creased by having fireplaces, and the mouth of the flue should never be closed even 
 when a fire is not required ; the air of a bed-room having a fireplace, and which has 
 been occupied during the night, is much less impure below the mouth of the flue than 
 
 e 2 
 
28 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 above it, with or without a fire ; and fortunately the position of a person lying on a bed 
 is often about on a level with the top of the opening, or below it. 
 
 It is to be regretted that a knowledge of sanitary matters is not more general, 
 and the application of proper sanitary appliances more generally insisted on, for 
 builders and owners of houses would then find themselves compelled to pay more 
 attention to space, ventilation, drainage, and water supply. 
 
 Many systems of ventilation are in use. One of the most successful means of 
 warming and ventilation combined is that of supplying to each apartment fresh air, 
 warmed by passing through a heated chamber, with means provided for extracting 
 the used or vitiated air. This system is applied to some of our hospitals and large 
 private dwellings, but is too expensive for general adoption. 
 
 Whatever system be adopted, the fresh air must be supplied, and the vitiated 
 air extracted, without the creation of unpleasant draughts ; this, to some extent, may 
 be accomplished, without much outlay or trouble, in rooms of houses already erected, 
 as well as those in course of erection. In an outer wall of the room, opposite the 
 fireplace where practicable, and as close to the ceiling as the cornice will admit, an 
 opening, of not less than ninety square inches, should be formed, and fitted with 
 one of Sherringham's inlet ventilators, provided with a moveable flap, and line and 
 weight, for regulating the supply of air, and for closing the opening entirely when 
 required ; or with one of Mac Haffie's self-acting inlet ventilators. For the ex- 
 pulsion of foul air a separate flue should be formed from each room by the side of the 
 smoke-flue, with an opening close to the ceiling over the centre of the fireplace, 
 fitted with one of Dr. Arnott's self-acting flap ventilators : when these ventilators 
 are used in existing rooms, they, of course, must be fixed in communication with 
 the smoke-flue; but this is not so good as having a flue expressly for them, for it 
 sometimes happens that smoke finds its way through them into the room. This simple 
 method of ventilating sitting-rooms and bed-rooms should not be neglected in any 
 house. There is another plan (somewhat difficult to describe in the absence of dia- 
 grams) which can often be easily and successfully applied, more particularly in rooms 
 where gas is used ; it consists of a flue between the joists of the floor above, open 
 to the external air at both ends, with a division across it in the centre of the room 
 over the gas-burners, and an opening to the flue on either side of the division ; 
 the fresh air being supplied through one, and the used or foul air passing away 
 through the other ; the supply being for the time from the side of the house against 
 which the wind blows. 
 
 Openings over the doors of rooms into the passages, fitted with perforated zinc, 
 are simple though imperfect means of ventilation. 
 
 Glass louvres and perforated glass, made to fit a compartment of the sash, are 
 sometimes used ; but these, when most needed, are obstructed by shutters and blinds. 
 
 Good ventilation to the kitchen and scullery should be provided, as it tends to 
 keep the house free from the smell of cooking; besides ample height and window- 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 29 
 
 space there should be a separate air-flue, not less than fourteen inches by nine 
 inches, with an opening to it just under the ceiling. 
 
 The present system of warming rooms by open fires is doubtless wasteful, as 
 much of the heat passes away up the chimneys ; but the cheerfulness 
 Warming. and freshness of a good fire are so much appreciated by the 
 English, that it will probably never be superseded by any system 
 equally agreeable and healthy. 
 
 There is much additional comfort given by a fire in the hall, which, being more 
 or less connected with the passages and with the upper part of the house by stair- 
 cases, distributes the warmth through them ; and as the air on the outside of the 
 sitting-rooms is warmed by it, a rush of cold air into them, when the doors are opened, 
 is avoided. 
 
 Without any great additional cost, a system of heating houses by hot water can 
 be adopted ; the water passes from a boiler at the back or side of the kitchen-range 
 through metal pipes to coils of piping in the hall, landings, or wherever required ; 
 and, by a little extra piping, the hot water can be supplied to a bath, without which 
 no private residence can be said to be complete. In mansions and houses of any 
 pretension, a special heating apparatus is usually provided. 
 
 There are two systems of heating by hot water, called respectively the " high 
 pressure " and the " low pressure " systems ; the former is less expensive to main- 
 tain, smaller pipes are used, and they are more conveniently fixed about a house ; 
 whichever system be adopted it is most important to have competent workmen 
 employed, as the success and security depend greatly on the goodness of the work- 
 manship. 
 
 The system of heating by hot air is more applicable to public buildings than to 
 private houses. 
 
 There is, without exception, no part of the work connected with the building 
 of a house that requires more special care and attention than the 
 Drainage. drainage ; for upon no part of it depends more the health, comfort, 
 and convenience of its inmates. 
 A proper system of drainage for a house should consist of three parts ; one, for 
 the conveying into tanks, or elsewhere, the rain-water from the roofs ; a second, for 
 carrying away the waste-water from the bath-room, and sinks in scullery, butler's pantry, 
 and on upper floors ; and a third, for conveying the sewage from the water-closets. 
 
 The rain-water drains should not, in any case, communicate with either waste- 
 water or sewage drains ; the waste-water should be conveyed away from the build- 
 ing into a separate cesspool, or elsewhere, and not be connected with the water-closet 
 drains ; and the sewage matter should be taken into a cesspool specially prepared to 
 receive it. 
 
3° 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 Glazed stoneware piping, of various sizes, from three inches to eighteen inches 
 in diameter, or larger, and in lengths of two feet, is now almost universally employed 
 for all house-drainage. The pipes are made with a socket at the end to receive the 
 plain end of the next pipe, and the joint should be carefully made good with cement. 
 
 Several improvements upon the ordinary description of pipes have been intro- 
 duced ; some are fitted with removeable " caps," or " saddles," upon the upper sur- 
 face, by means of which the interior of the pipes can at any time be examined without 
 taking up, or in any way interfering with, the drainage ; these pipes are but a little 
 more expensive than the common kind, and save expense whenever the drainage re- 
 quires examination ; it is scarcely necessary that all the pipes should be of this 
 description ; every third or fourth pipe will suffice ; but in any case, means of some 
 kind should be provided for getting at the drains when they are out of order. 
 
 The trenches intended to receive the pipes should be excavated before any of 
 them are laid ; and the fall of them towards the outlet should be carefully tested 
 before they are fixed. A regular and uniform fall of three inches in ten feet is the 
 least that should be adopted for soil drains ; but in all ordinary cases this is sufficient. 
 
 When the ground is soft and yielding, a solid base of concrete, brickwork, or 
 stonework, should be laid in the trenches to receive the drains ; if this precaution be 
 not taken, the pipes are liable to sink ; and the sinking of any one is sufficient to 
 stop the working of the drain. 
 
 Traps to prevent the passage of foul air from the drains may be formed in various 
 ways. Those made of the same material as the pipes are durable, and admit of 
 perfect connection with the drains, which is not the case with the iron traps so much 
 in use ; they should always be of the strongest description, to resist the action of frost. 
 Those known as bell-traps, with moveable tops, and commonly used in sinks, can 
 never be relied on ; if the top be fixed, these traps soon get stopped ; yet if this be 
 not done, servants will generally remove the top to gain a quicker exit for the water, 
 and will often omit to replace it, filling the house with foul air. There is a trap 
 known as Antill's patent, lately introduced, which admits of the top being removed, 
 and the trap cleared, without interfering with its action. 
 
 Sinks and washing-trays in sculleries and pantries should have brass perforated 
 gratings only, fixed over the mouths of the waste-water pipes ; the pipes should 
 pass as directly as possible through the external wall into a brick or stoneware trap on 
 the outside, which, in all cases, should have a catch-pit to receive fat and grease before 
 it can find an entrance to the drains. The end of the waste-pipe should dip into the 
 water standing in the trap, to prevent the passage of air through it. 
 
 Cesspools are built of brick or stone, laid in mortar or cement. When it is desir- 
 able, on account of the proximity of wells, or for other reasons, to render them water- 
 tight, the walling of cesspools should be built in cement, and also be covered inside 
 with a coating of the same material one inch in thickness ; as an additional precaution, 
 the space outside the walls may be filled in by a puddling of clay. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HOUSE-BUILDING. 
 
 31 
 
 Cesspools should be ventilated by means of two or three drains, formed of 
 common land-draining pipes, with open joints, running in different directions from 
 the upper part of cesspool, and about fifteen or twenty feet in length. Sewage drains 
 should also be ventilated in the same manner at intervals, to allow the gas to escape 
 into the earth ; or this may be accomplished when caps or saddles are used to 
 the pipes, by leaving some of them uncemented. 
 
 Lightning- A lightning-conductor should be provided on every house, 
 
 conductor and an( j an alarm-bell in country houses is very useful in case of fire 
 Alarm-bell. ... 
 
 and otherwise. 
 
COUNTRY COTTAGES. 
 
 O greater benefit can be conferred upon the labouring population than that of 
 providing them with decent and healthy dwellings. It is the first step towards 
 the improvement of their social condition. So long as sleeping-rooms are common to 
 the older children of both sexes, and there is but one room to serve as living-room 
 and for the performance of all the household-work, it is useless to expect any social 
 improvement. The necessarily uncomfortable condition of such homes, drives the 
 men to the more cheerful quarters of the ale-house, where the money required for the 
 family is spent for drink. The poor, ill-fed, ill-clothed wives have no bright prospect to 
 look forward to, and pass their lives in an ineffectual struggle to make the house 
 a home, clean and attractive to husbands and children. Children reared with such 
 surroundings can but grow up without sense of decency and self-respect, and likely 
 to lead the same improvident lives. 
 
 It is the interest of landed proprietors to provide suitable dwellings for the 
 
 working population on their estates, and where desired, money may 
 
 Lands' k e borrowed for this purpose, under the Lands' Improvement Act, 
 Improvement . .... . . 
 
 Act, which has been most beneficial in its operation. Considerable sums 
 
 of money have thus been raised and expended in the erection of 
 
 Cottages, Farm-houses and Buildings, and in draining, making roads, and other 
 
 improvements. 
 
 Cottage-building, as an investment alone, can hardly be said to be in itself 
 
 remunerative ; but the indirect advantages arising from providing 
 
 u • 1 S° ttage " the working poor with comfortable dwellings are the surest and best 
 building as an . . 
 
 investment. return ; it is but a limited view that looks only to the rent received 
 for a good cottage and garden. It is to be hoped that proprietors of 
 land will see the advantage of providing good cottages in order to retain on the estates 
 the better class of labourers. 
 
 The small proportion of pauperism, crime, and unhealthy poor among a well- 
 housed population, as lessening the rates of a district, and proving an indirect 
 advantage to the landlord, should not be forgotten ; on sanitary, moral, and 
 economic grounds, it is well worth his while to pay the usual interest upon bor- 
 
COUNTRY COTTAGES. 
 
 33 
 
 rowed capital, though he may receive back only a portion of it directly in the shape 
 of rent. 
 
 The great and general interest which has been taken of late years in the subject 
 of cottage-building has led to many publications concerning it, containing many de- 
 signs, plans, and estimates of cost. Many of these are open to the great practical 
 objection that they mislead, under the supposition that the designs can be built and 
 finished at a given sum, which proves too small. It is doubtful whether any of these 
 published plans, even where prizes have been awarded for them, have been carried 
 into execution at the estimated cost. 
 
 Reports are heard, from time to time, that cottages have been built at a sum 
 that will pay a good per-centage ; but these reports never bear examination. It is 
 found upon inquiry that the carriage of material was done by the landlord, the lime 
 or sand, or both, were supplied from the estate, that proper outbuildings and offices 
 were not provided, that a well, or pump and sink, were not embraced in the cost, 
 and so on ; and the addition of the value of these to the sum mentioned, would 
 bring the amount up to what a good cottage, really fit for habitation,' and with all 
 these requirements, must cost. Locality, of course, makes a great difference ; and 
 these supernaturally cheap cottages, besides being shorn of the requirements above 
 enumerated, probably were built where many of the heavier materials at least were 
 ready to hand. 
 
 The cost of cottages, as of all buildings, varies very much in different places ; some- 
 times as much as £30 or ^40 in a cottage, depending upon the facility 
 cottages ^ or obtaining bricks, stones, lime, sand, &c, and upon the wages, and 
 the nature of the foundation ; for instance, the price of bricks ranges 
 from 25s. to 40s. per thousand on the site, and of stones for walling from is. to 6s. 
 per yard ; and other materials in proportion. 
 
 A pair of good cottages, each with living-room, scullery, pantry, three bed- 
 rooms, and outbuilding for coals, wood, oven, &c, and water supply, and where 
 all the materials, labour, and carriage, have to be provided, will not cost less, under 
 the most favourable circumstances, than £220 or ^230, and the same pair may 
 cost ^300 or ^"320, or even more. Cottages with two bedrooms each will cost 
 from £170 to £220 per pair, and cottages with one bedroom from £50 to £%o 
 each. Single cottages cost rather more than semi-detached ones ; and blocks of four 
 or more, rather less. 
 
 Cottages should be built within a short distance of good roads ; the site should 
 be dry and healthy ; and when the subsoil is clay, the ground should 
 ^spe^t^ ^ e thoroughly drained, and the surface sloped away from the cottage. 
 
 Exposed situations, particularly to the north and north-east, should 
 
 F 
 
34 
 
 COUNTRY COTTAGES. 
 
 be avoided, as well as those lying low or being swampy ; a south or south-east aspect 
 is the best. It is better, speaking generally, that the cottages in a parish should 
 be grouped about the village-green, rather than distributed throughout a perhaps 
 straggling parish. No doubt should exist as to the purity or plentiful supply of 
 the water ; if that from the roofs is to be in part relied upon, it should be conducted 
 by pipes to underground tanks, and there stored for use. 
 
 For the accommodation of a man with wife and family, there should be a living- 
 Accommoda- room > not l ess tnan 1 2 ft- square and 8 ft. high ; a scullery, not less 
 tion and than ioft. by 8 ft.; a pantry, about 4 ft. by 3 ft. (with an external 
 genera^ ^arrange w j nc j ow ^ an( j wnere possible the space under stairs should be thrown 
 into this for storing potatoes, &c. ; three bedrooms, one containing 
 not less than 900 cubic feet, one not less than 700 cubic feet, and the third about the 
 same size ; if smaller, the partition dividing it from the stairs should not be carried up 
 within twelve inches of the ceiling. No bedroom should be less than 8 ft. high. All 
 windows should be of good sizes, made to open, and the top of them should be as 
 near as possible to the ceiling. Closets by the sides of the fireplaces should be placed 
 in the living-rooms and bedrooms ; the living-room should have a range containing 
 an oven and boiler ; and a furnace-pan, or copper, should be provided in the scullery. 
 An oven for bread-baking may be constructed in the outhouse, where one will serve 
 for several cottages. At least two of the bedrooms should have fireplaces. The 
 perforated zinc ventilators, mentioned in a previous page, are suitable for insertion 
 over the doors and in the ceilings of cottage bedrooms ; the floor of the living- 
 room should be boarded ; that of the scullery, pantry, porch and outbuildings paved 
 with stone, brick, or tile, on a bed of concrete. A sink should be provided in each 
 scullery, with waste-pipe leading to a trap outside, or simply to a bucket under 
 the sink. 
 
 A well arranged ground-plan provides a lobby within the entrance-door, upon 
 which opens the living-room door, and sometimes the pantry door, and in it is placed 
 the staircase, giving access to a small landing above, from which all bedrooms can 
 be separately reached ; the scullery is approached through the living-room, and has 
 a door to the back yard. Some model plans provide access to the scullery from the 
 entrance lobby, and also to the back yard, and no doorway to the yard from the 
 scullery ; but the desirableness of this arrangement is questionable ; for as most of 
 the work of the cottage is done in the scullery, a doorway direct from it to the yard 
 allows of a freer escape of the steam and smell arising from cooking, and a better 
 opportunity for removing refuse water. 
 
 Every cottage should have a small outbuilding for keeping fuel and workmen's 
 tools, and a closet, which, instead of having a vault under in the usual way, may 
 be fitted with a receptacle under the seat, into which each day some dry mould should 
 
COUNTRY COTTAGES. 
 
 35 
 
 be thrown, and the receptacle itself emptied on to the gardens as often as needed ; 
 this is a simple method of carrying out the principle of earth-closets, now so much 
 advocated. 
 
 As to materials for cottages, and the points to be attended to in building them, 
 the particulars in the former part of this treatise are, for the most part, equally 
 applicable. 
 
I 
 
PLATES I. and II. 
 
 CHADLINGTON HOUSE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the late James Haughton Langston, Esq., M.P. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 
 Seven Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 Bath Room. 
 Linen Closet and W.C. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room 1 
 Dining Room. 
 Morning Room. 
 Servants' Hall. 
 
 Three Bed-rooms. 
 
 Second Floor Pla7i. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 Pantry and China Store. 
 Larder and Dairy. 
 Lavatory and W.C. 
 
 The washhouse, laundry, and similar offices are placed in the court-yard, and are 
 all approached from the house by a covered passage. 
 
 The entrance is on the west side, and the principal rooms face the south. 
 
 The walls are built with stones dug on the estate, and the roofs are covered with 
 Stonesfield slates. The materials and labour were chiefly supplied from the estate 
 workshops. 
 
 a The sizes of the rooms are not figured on any of the Plans, but they may be readily ascertained by means 
 of the Scale. 
 
PLATES III. and IV. 
 
 WOOTTON HOUSE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for John Rowland, Esq. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 General Cellar. 
 
 Grotmd Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Morning Room. 
 Business Room. 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 Butler's Pantry. 
 Larder and China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Six Bed-rooms. 
 
 Two Dressing Rooms. 
 
 Bath Room. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 W.C. 
 
 Store Closet. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 
 The entrance is on the east side, the position of it being influenced by an existing 
 approach : the principal rooms look south. 
 
 The stones for the walls were dug on the estate by the contractor, and the lime 
 was burnt on the site. The walls are lined with bricks. The hall is paved with 
 Minton and Co.'s tiles, and the principal staircase is of stone. The roofs are covered 
 with Bangor slates. 
 
 Cost of the house, ,£3,097 (exclusive of the value of the walling-stones) ; equal 
 to $\d. per foot cube b . 
 
 b The cubical contents of each building are calculated from midway between the floor-line and the bottom 
 of foundations to midway between the plate and ridge of roofs. 
 
7>LflTE ■ € 
 
 o 
 
 Ld 
 
 T/2 
 ID 
 O 
 
PLATES V. and VI. 
 
 BIGNELL HOUSE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Misses Tyrwhitt Drake. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellars. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Morning Room. 
 Boudoir. 
 
 Lavatory and W.C. 
 Housekeeper's Room. 
 China Closet. 
 Servants' Hall. 
 Butler's Pantry. 
 Kitchen. 
 Scullery. 
 Larder. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Eight Bed-rooms. 
 Two Dressing Rooms. 
 Bath Room. 
 Linen Closet. 
 Two W.C.'s 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Nine Bed-rooms. 
 Two Dressing Rooms. 
 Store Closet. 
 W.C. 
 
 Outbuildings, 
 
 Dairy and Dairy Scullery. 
 
 Brew House. 
 
 Bedroom over Gateway. 
 
 Knife House and Boot House. 
 
 Larder. 
 
 Wood Shed, &c. 
 
 The entrance is on the south-east side ; the drawing-room, morning-room, and 
 boudoir are on the south-west, overlooking some ornamental grounds ; and the dining- 
 room is on the north-west, with access from the servants' passage. 
 
 The walling-stones were dug, and the lime was burnt, on the estate. 
 
 The walls are lined with brick throughout, and the freestone-work is carried out 
 with Box ground stone. The roofs are covered with Broseley tiling. The ceilings of 
 hall, drawing-room, and dining-room, are formed with moulded timbers framed in panels. 
 The hall floor is of oak, but the remainder of the joinery is carried out with yellow 
 Christiana deal. The kitchen has an open roof, for light and ventilation. The dairy 
 is a separate building, ornamentally treated, and can be approached from the lawn. 
 
 Cost of house and outbuildings, about ,£5,500; equal to 6d. per foot cube. 
 
 G 
 
J%f?T£- <5P 
 
PLATES VII. and VIII. 
 
 RESIDENCE ON NORHAM MANOR, OXFORD, 
 
 Built for Thomas F. Dallin, Esq., M.A. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 Coal Cellar. 
 Larder and Pantry. 
 Store Room. 
 Heating House. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Library. 
 
 Cloak Room and W.C. 
 Butler's Pantry and Plate Closet. 
 Servants' Hall. 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 Conservatory and Verandah. 
 Potting House. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Sitting Room. 
 Three Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 Bath Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 Man-servant's Room. 
 Brushing Room. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Six Bed-rooms. 
 Cistern Room. 
 
 The aspect of the principal rooms is south ; the entrance is on the west side. 
 
 The walling is carried out with local red bricks and freestone dressings. The 
 roofs are covered with Broseley tiling. The ceilings of hall, drawing-room, dining-room, 
 and library, are formed with moulded pitch-pine timber, framed in panels. The joinery 
 generally is of yellow Christiana deal, varnished. 
 
 Cost of house (including conservatory, &c), about ,£3,150; equal to 6d. per 
 foot cube. 
 
 g 2 
 
TLflTE-Cl 
 
Pt-fTE ■ IO 
 
 ■ 
 
PLATES IX. and X. 
 
 RESIDENCE ON WALTON MANOR, OXFORD, 
 
 Built for Edwin Butler, Esq. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 Larder. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Study. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 
 Pantry. 
 
 China Closet. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 One Bed-room. 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 The walling is carried out with red bricks and Corsham Down freestone dressings. 
 The roofs are covered with purple slates. 
 
 The plan is arranged for a conservatory, with French casements opening from 
 the drawing-room. 
 
 Cost of the house, ^1,180; equal to $d. per foot cube. 
 
TLfTE - /2 
 
PLATES XI. and XII. 
 RESIDENCE ON NORHAM MANOR, OXFORD, 
 
 Built for Thomas G. Cousins, Esq. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 Coal Cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 
 Dining Room. 
 
 Morning Room. 
 
 Conservatory and Verandah. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 
 Larder. 
 
 China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 One Bed-room. 
 Cistern Room. 
 
 The entrance is on the west side, facing the public road. There is access from 
 the drawing-room on the east side to verandah, conservatory, and lawn. 
 
 The walling is carried out with local white bricks, and the freestone dressings are 
 of Box ground stone. The roofs are covered with Broseley brindled tiling. 
 
 Cost of house, ^"1,735 ; equal to bd. per foot cube. 
 
PLATES XIII. and XIV. 
 
 RESIDENCE, ST. GILES', OXFORD, 
 Built for George Ward, Esq. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Morning Room. 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 Dairy and Larder. 
 China Closet. 
 
 Conservatory and Verandah. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Five Bed-rooms. 
 Bath Room. 
 Linen Closet. 
 W.C. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 Two Bed-rooms. 
 
 The extent of ground and view on the south side being limited, the principal 
 rooms were placed towards the east facing the public road, and towards the west 
 facing the lawn. Access is obtained from the drawing-room to the verandah and 
 conservatory. 
 
 The walling is carried out with red bricks and Bath stone dressings, and the 
 roofs are covered with Staffordshire tiles. 
 
 In consequence of many of the materials being supplied free of cost to the builder, 
 the whole expense of the house was not ascertained. 
 
PLftT£ • /& 
 
PLfiTE ■ /G 
 
PLATES XV., XV. a , and XVI. 
 
 THE VICARAGE, LINTON, HEREFORDSHIRE, 
 Built for the Reverend E. Palin. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 
 Grotmd Plan. 
 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Study. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 
 Larder. 
 
 Store Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Five Bed-rooms.. 
 Bath Room. 
 Linen Closet. 
 W.C. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Three Bed- rooms. ' 
 Housemaid's Closet. 
 
 The house is built upon the site of the old vicarage, and has the advantage, which 
 a new house often lacks, of being surrounded by trees. 
 
 The entrance is towards the road on the north side, and all the sitting-rooms face 
 towards the south, overlooking a beautiful landscape. 
 
 The walls are built with red and grey stones, quarried by the contractor on the 
 glebe, and are lined with brick. The freestone- work is from the Box ground quarries. 
 The roofs are covered with Broseley tiles. 
 
 Cost of the house, ^2,05 1 ; equal to 6cl. per foot cube. 
 
 11 2 
 
PLATES XVII. and XVIII. 
 THE VICARAGE, SWANBOURNE, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Reverend M. D. Malden. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Beer Cellar. 
 Wine Cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Study. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 
 Pantry. 
 
 China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Two Bed-rooms. 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 This house affords the minimum of accommodation which should be provided for 
 a country parsonage. 
 
 The entrance and study are on the west side, facing the village road ; the dining- 
 room and drawing-room are on the south, facing the church. 
 
 The walling is of brick, and the roofs are covered with tiles. 
 Cost of the house, about £ i , 200 ; equal to 6d. per foot cube. 
 
PLftTE - SO 
 
PLATES XIX. and XX. 
 
 THE RECTORY, UPPER HEYFORD, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 Built for the Reverend C. B. Mount. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 Potting House. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 Drawing Room. 
 Dining Room. 
 Study. 
 
 Conservatory and Verandah. 
 Servants' Room. 
 Butler's Pantry. 
 W.C. 
 
 Kitchen and Scullery. 
 Pantry and China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Two Dressing Rooms. 
 Bath Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Linen Closet. 
 Lumber Room. 
 
 This house possesses good accommodation for a country rector)-. The plan is 
 arranged to suit a site, in some respects, peculiar. The entrance is on the east side, 
 and the chief rooms face south and west. 
 
 The walling is carried out with local stones, lined inside with brick. The freestone- 
 work is executed with Box ground stone, and the roofs are covered with Broseley 
 tiling. 
 
 Cost of house, about £2,200 ; equal to 6d. per foot cube. 
 
PLATES XXI. and XXII. 
 FARM-HOUSE AT UPTON, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for Miss Youde. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 General Cellar. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Parlour. 
 Sitting Room. 
 Office. 
 Kitchen. 
 Scullery. 
 Dairy. 
 Larder. 
 Store Room. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 
 Two Bed-rooms. 
 Store Room. 
 
 Outbuildings. 
 
 Fuel Shed. 
 Garden Closet. 
 Servants' Closet. 
 
 This house is suitable for a farm of from 300 to 500 acres. 
 
 The walls are built with stone quarried near the site, and the freestone-work 
 is carried out with the Milton stone. The roofs are covered with tiles. 
 
 Cost of the house and outbuildings ,£1,390; equal to <\\d. per foot cube. 
 
 1 
 
PLf/TE • 2^ 
 
PLATES XXIII. and XXIV. 
 
 FARM-HOUSE AT NEWBALD, YORKSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Reverend Canon Jefferson. 
 
 Basement Plan 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Beer Cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Five Bed-rooms. 
 
 Two Bed-rooms for men. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 Parlour. 
 Sitting Room. 
 Kitchen. 
 Scullery. 
 
 Dairy and Larder. 
 
 It is customary on some farms in Yorkshire to board and lodge some of the 
 labouring men, and this house gives accommodation for that purpose. The kitchen 
 is large that it may serve as a mess-room for the labourers, and the two dormitories 
 for their accommodation are approached by a separate staircase. 
 
 The walls are built with brick, and the roofs covered with blue slates. 
 
 A large set of farm-buildings was carried out at the same time, and the cost of 
 the house was not separated from the general estimate. 
 
 i 2 
 
PLjJTE • 2G 
 
PLATES XXV. and XXVI. 
 
 FARM-HOUSE AT WHITTLEBURY, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Right Honourable Lord Southampton. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 General Cellar. 
 
 Grotmd Plan. 
 
 Parlour. 
 
 Sitting Room. 
 
 Office. 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 Scullery. 
 
 Larder. 
 
 China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 Two Bed-rooms. 
 
 Outbuildings. 
 
 Dairy and Churn House. 
 Coal House and Wood Shed. 
 Garden W.C. 
 Servants' W.C. 
 
 This house is suitable for a farm of from 300 to 500 acres, with pasture land. 
 
 The walling is carried out with red bricks. The roofs are covered with blue 
 
 slates. 
 
 Cost of the house and outbuildings, ,£1,295 ; equal to $d. per foot cube. 
 
PLATES XXVII. and XXVIII. 
 FARM-HOUSE AT CLAYDON, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, 
 
 Built for Sir Harry Vernev, Bart. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 
 Wine Cellar. 
 Beer Cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Parlour. . 
 Sitting Room. 
 Kitchen. 
 Scullery. 
 Larder. 
 Store Room. 
 China Closet. 
 
 First Floor Plan. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Dressing Room. 
 W.C. 
 
 Second Floor Plan. 
 Three Bed-rooms. 
 
 Outbuildings. 
 
 Dairy. 
 
 Churn House. 
 Fuel Shed. 
 Garden Closet. 
 Servants' Closet. 
 
 This house is suitable for a farm of from 300 to 500 acres, with pasture land. 
 The walls are built with local bricks, and the roofs are covered with Stafford- 
 shire tiling. 
 
 Cost of the house and outbuildings, ^1,235 ; equal to 5^. per foot cube. 
 
PZfT£ ■ SO 
 
PLATES XXIX. and XXX. 
 
 FARM-BAILIFF'S HOUSE AND DAIRY AT THE NEW FARM 
 HOMESTEAD, LONGLEATE PARK, WILTSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Most Noble the Marquis of Bath. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Bed-room Plan. 
 
 Parlour. 
 Kitchen. 
 
 Four Bed-rooms. 
 Linen Closet. 
 
 Scullery. 
 
 Pantry. 
 
 Dairy. 
 
 Dairy Scullery. 
 Covered Way. 
 
 This house was built for the farm-bailiff; and the dairy adjoining, for supplying 
 butter and cream to Longleate House. 
 
 This, and a house for the clerk of the works, overlook the new farm-buildings 
 and workshops, which were erected at the same time, the whole forming a complete 
 set of buildings. 
 
 The walling throughout is of stone, and the roofs are covered with Stafford- 
 shire tiles. 
 
 K 
 
TLffTE: • 3/ 
 
7>Lf7TE -32 
 
PLATES XXXI. and XXXII. 
 
 FARM-BAILIFF'S HOUSE AND LAUNDRY AT NEW FARM 
 HOMESTEAD, HAVERING PARK, ESSEX. 
 
 Built for David McIntosh, Esq. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Bed-room Plan. 
 
 Parlour. 
 Kitchen. 
 
 Three Bed-rooms. 
 Clock Chamber. 
 
 Scullery. 
 
 Pantry and China Closet. 
 Wash-house. 
 Drying Room. 
 Ironing Room. 
 Court-yard and Offices. 
 
 This house was built for the bailiff of the Home Farm, Havering Park, form- 
 ing part of a complete farm homestead. The laundry adjoins the house, and is 
 under the superintendence of the bailiff's wife ; it is fitted with Huthnance's patent 
 stove and drying-room fittings. 
 
 The bricks for the walls, and tiles for the roofs, were made on the estate ; and 
 the whole of the works, including the Farm Homestead, and extensive additions to 
 the Mansion, and new Stable Buildings, were performed by workmen engaged by- 
 Mr. Mcintosh's surveyor, under a resident clerk of works. 
 
 K 2 
 
PLf/TE • 34. 
 
PLATES XXXIII. and XXXIV. 
 THE KEEPER'S LODGE AT BAGLEY WOOD, OXON., 
 
 Built for the President and Fellows of St. John's College. 
 
 Basement Plan. 
 Cellars. 
 
 Ground Plan. 
 
 Dining Room. 
 Verandah. 
 Living Room. 
 Scullery. 
 Pantry. 
 
 First- Floor Plan. 
 Three Bed-rooms. 
 
 Oritbuildings. 
 
 Fuel Shed. 
 Gentlemen's W.C. 
 Keeper's W.C. 
 
 This lodge is situated in the wood, about three miles from Oxford. The dining- 
 room is provided for the use of dining and shooting parties, and also to serve as an 
 auction room at the college timber sales. 
 
 The walling is carried out with stone dug in the wood, with freestone dressings, 
 and brick linings. 
 
 Cost of the lodge and outbuildings, ^562 (exclusive of a deep well) ; equal to 
 ^\d. per foot cube. 
 
PLATES XXXV. and XXXVI. 
 KEEPER'S LODGE AND PHEASANTRY, ASTROP, OXON., 
 
 Built for Sir William R. Brown, Bart. 
 
 Besides the accommodation for the keeper and his family, this plan provides 
 poultry-houses, and a detached pheasantry. 
 
 The walls are of stone delivered on the site free of cost to the contractor, and 
 are lined inside with brick. The roofs are covered with blue slates. 
 
 Cost of the lodge and outbuildings, ^364 (exclusive of well) ; equal to 3^. per 
 foot cube. Cost of the pheasantry, ^133. 
 
PLATE XXXVII. 
 KEEPER'S LODGE AT KIRTLINGTON PARK, OXON., 
 
 Built for Sir Henry W. Dashwood, Bart. 
 
 This is of the same class as the two last buildings, varying only in plan and 
 arrangement. It was built by the estate workmen. 
 
 L 
 
TLfTE 
 
 ,4? 1 1 tv 
 
 ftoio -Lithograph *d by'-foi'tmanABa. 
 
 JJOR^HOMPTOtTeHil^. 
 
I 
 
 PLATE XXXVIII. 
 
 ENTRANCE LODGE TO THE MANOR-HOUSE AT MIDDLETON 
 CHENEY, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, 
 
 Built for Miss Horton. 
 
 This lodge provides all the required accommodation on the ground-floor. The 
 building is carried out with work of a similar character to that of the mansion, which 
 was built at the same time, and the expense was not kept separate. 
 
 L 2 
 
PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 ENTRANCE LODGE TO BIGNELL HOUSE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 Built for the Misses Tyrwhitt Drake. 
 
 This lodge stands at the entrance to the grounds of Bignell House, illustrated 
 on Plates V. and VI., and is of a similar character. 
 The cost was about ^300. 
 
TLflTE 
 
 PAl'ft of COJTR<l>e$ ?t kOUjCTONf , OKOhl 
 
PLATE XL. 
 
 PAIR OF COTTAGES AT BLACK BOURTON, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for His Grace the Duke of Marlborough. 
 
 The plan of these cottages has several advantages. It may be adopted for 
 a pair, or for a row. Each cottage has a living-room, scullery, pantry, and one 
 bedroom on the ground-floor, and two bedrooms above. The ground-floor bedroom 
 is found, in some cases, very serviceable for aged parents who may be living with 
 a married son or daughter. At times, when only two bedrooms are required by 
 the family, the ground-floor bedroom can be used as a sitting-room, dressmaking- 
 room, or shop. The lean-to roof of the scullery is unceiled, and is useful for storing 
 tools, &c. 
 
 The plan has been adopted on Sir Henry Dashwood's estate at Kirtlington, 
 and at other places. 
 
 The cost of a pair varies from about ,£300 to ,£330, including outbuildings, not 
 shewn by the plan. 
 
TLflTE ■ 
 
 f ft 
 
PLATE XLI. 
 
 PAIR OF COTTAGES AT SOUTHLEIGH, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built on the Estate of the late Major Sibthorpe. 
 
 The plan of these cottages is somewhat similar to that for which a prize was 
 awarded by the Yorkshire Agricultural Society in 1861; it is a plan which has been 
 adopted with more or less modifications for many years. 
 
 The walls are built with local stones. The roofs are covered with Broseley 
 tiling. 
 
 In addition to the accommodation shewn upon the plans, each cottage is pro- 
 vided with out-offices. 
 
 Cost of the pair of cottages and out-offices, ^"280. 
 
 M 
 
■ 
 
TLffTE ■ 42 
 
PLATE XLII. 
 
 PAIR OF COTTAGES AT ODDINGTON GRANGE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for Frederick J. Staples-Browne, Esq. 
 
 These cottages were designed for a site where two presentable fronts were 
 required. The plan is less expensive than that shewn on Plate XLI. ; the entrance- 
 door opens directly into the living-room, an arrangement which is often adopted, 
 but which is not so good as that of the preceding plan. 
 
 M 2 
 
PLATE XLIII. 
 
 LABOURER'S COTTAGE AT LAUNTON, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for Frederick J. Staples-Browne, Esq. ; 
 
 AND 
 
 LABOURER'S COTTAGE AT STEEPLE ASTON, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Reverend J. B. Brooks. 
 
 The first of these plans provides two bedrooms only, the second three bedrooms. 
 The walls are of local stone, and the roofs are covered with blue slates. They are 
 provided with the usual out-offices. 
 
TLffTE 44 
 
PLATE XLIV. 
 
 THE BAILIFF'S COTTAGE, SHIRBURN CASTLE, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Right Honourable the Earl of Macclesfield. 
 
 This cottage was built for the working bailiff, and it also provides accommo- 
 dation for boarding and lodging three or four boys working on the home farm. It 
 is built in connection with the new homestead on the Shirburn Castle estate. 
 
TLftTE • 4*5- 
 
PLATE XLV. 
 
 ALMSHOUSES AT WITNEY, OXFORDSHIRE, 
 
 Built for the Trustees of Holloway's Charity. 
 
 These six almshouses are substantially built of local stone, with freestone dress- 
 ings, the roofs being covered with Stonesfield slates. The walls are lined with brick. 
 Cost of the almshouses and outbuildings, ^725 ; equal to <\\d. per foot cube. 
 
 ill **** 
 
 N