n Jr 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL 
 OF PIGMENTS. 
 
THE 
 
 ARTISTS' MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 PIGMENTS 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 THEIR COMPOSITION, CONDITIONS OF PERMANENCY, 
 NON-PERMANENCY, AND ADULTERATIONS ; EFFECTS 
 . IN COMBINATION WITH EACH OTHER AND 
 WITH VEHICLES ; AND THE MOST 
 RELIABLE TESTS OF PURITY 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 gtitmtt atvb girt Jg-epartttunt's <&xitmimtxon (fymztwtt* 
 xrn Painting 
 
 BY 
 
 H. C. STANDAGE 
 
 AUTHOR OF " CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS," (( WATER-COLOUR PIGMENTS," 
 " USE AND ABUSE OF COLOURS AND MEDIUMS IN OIL-PAINTING," ETC. ETC. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 1896 
 
 [All rights reserved] 
 
LONDON I 
 
 PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, 
 CITY ROAD. 
 
 IrtUaiYCEMTEf? 
 UMMRY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Of late years the question of the deterioration 
 in hue of modern English pictures is one that 
 has occupied an important position in art circles. 
 These pictures are found to be unpossessed of that 
 permanency of colouring so noticeable in the works 
 of old masters of foreign schools. The " why and 
 the wherefore 99 for these changes are not far to 
 seek ; they may be attributed to the ignorance of 
 the modern artist as regards the actual nature of 
 the materials he employs. This ignorance is due 
 to his being practically unacquainted with the 
 chemical nature and qualities of his pigments and 
 vehicles, whereas u old masters " were their own 
 chemists ; and notwithstanding that chemical 
 knowledge in their time was of the most elemen- 
 tary kind, they perforce, through making their own 
 pigments, were compelled to become possessed of 
 some knowledge regarding the chemical reactions 
 occurring between mixtures of pigments with each 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 other and with vehicles. This knowledge was 
 sufficient to enable them to avoid dangerous 
 immixtures of pigments and vehicles ; but un- 
 doubtedly the great success cf the permanence 
 of their colouring was due to the use of an oleo- 
 resinous medium instead of pure oil, or oil and 
 spirits, as now used. 
 
 Another cause of the non-permanence of modern 
 paintings is to be found in the use of impure pig- 
 ments. The manufacture of pigments has become 
 a trade, and, like many others, it is one not free 
 from the vicious practice of selling a sophisticated 
 article when a pure one is not absolutely insisted 
 on by the purchaser. Pure pigments can be 
 bought, but while there is a demand for cheap 
 paints, and the artist is careless enough not to 
 satisfy himself that what he buys is perfectly pure, 
 the supply of adulterated pigments will be kept up. 
 This supply is greatly encouraged by the huge host 
 of amateur painters and manufacturers of " pot- 
 boilers/' who have no name to lose by bad work- 
 manship, and who, moreover, are not wealthy 
 enough to afford the price demanded for pure 
 materials. 
 
 Still another cause of the decadence of colour- 
 ing in modern paintings is to be traced in the 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 vii 
 
 desire, on the part of well-known artists, to obtain 
 startling, brilliant, or surprising effects of colour- 
 ing, the means by which this desire is gratified 
 being carelessly ignored so that they gain their 
 wishes. These painters recklessly make the most 
 pernicious immixtures of pigments. The results 
 show themselves a few years subsequently, and 
 the picture is worse than a bad imitation of itself 
 in its former state. 
 
 But whatever the cause, the fact remains; mo- 
 dern pictures are far from permanent. This is 
 saying very little for art and its patrons, for the 
 knowledge of the means of painting good sound 
 work is not difficult to obtain, although through 
 indolence, prejudice, or self-conceited satisfaction 
 in their own individual method of working, modern 
 artists do not trouble themselves to obtain it. 
 
 Many pigments are known under several names. 
 An artist may buy a colour under one name, and 
 never dream of its being identical in composition 
 and qualities with one of another name. In the 
 chapters on individual pigments I have given the 
 general equivalents by which a pigment is com- 
 monly known. The reader will, therefore, be able 
 to identify a pigment bearing half-a-dozen names. 
 The paragraphs on the " Chemical Names and 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Composition" give the chemical nature and quali- 
 ties of each pigment in its perfect form. This is 
 necessary, because artists are not chemists, and 
 elaborate explanations on this point would be of 
 little value to them. 
 
 The paragraphs on the " Artistic Qualities 99 
 will, I hope, prove of exceptional value. Those on 
 the " Permanency and Non-Permanency 99 of pig- 
 ments are based on a knowledge of the chemical 
 and physical reactions that occur, or are likely to 
 occur, between mixtures of pigments. 
 
 The information on " General Adulterations 99 is 
 given that artists may know what to expect, and 
 the " Tests for Purity 99 have been so selected as to 
 allow of their being practically worked out by 
 persons devoid of chemical knowledge. Artists' 
 colourmen may not be to blame for supplying a 
 sophisticated article if they find a demand for it, 
 but artists of repute are to blame if they do not take 
 every means in their power to ascertain that the 
 colour they use is in its purest form. 
 
 The matter contained in Chapters I. to VI. was 
 first published by the Author under the title of 
 " The Artists' Table of Pigments," a work now out 
 of print. But the whole of the remainder of the 
 present volume is now published for the first time. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ix 
 
 Chapter VII., on " Chemical Reactions occurring 
 between Pigments, Sec./' will, I think, demonstrate 
 that although painting is an art, its foundation rests 
 on scientific principles if the work is to be of a 
 sound character. 
 
 Chapter VIII. sets before the reader so much of 
 colour science as can be serviceable to a non- 
 scientific person ; while Chapters IX., X., XI. 
 are intended for students and those amateurs who 
 wish to acquire a knowledge of the technical pro- 
 cesses involved in painting. The Science and Art 
 Department Examination Questions on Painting 
 form Chapter XII. 
 
 The following pigments have been included in 
 those chapters in which their hues seem to entitle 
 them to be classed : — New Blue, Permanent Blue, 
 Mars Orange, Mars Yellow, Orient Yellow, Mineral 
 Yellow, Mars Red, Purple Lake, Mars Brown, 
 Mineral Gray, Neutral Tint, Payne's Gray, Rubens 
 Madder. 
 
 H. C. S. 
 
 31, Delvino Road, Fulham, S.W. 
 November, 1885. 
 
NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The fact that a Third Edition of the " Artists' 
 Manual of Pigments " is called for, is sufficient 
 proof that the work fulfils its purpose of being a 
 helping guide to the Fine Art Painter in the use of 
 Pigments. This point is emphasized by the fact 
 that since the publication of the last edition other 
 books on Pigments have been issued, of which the 
 Author feels justified in saying that, whatever 
 their merits in point of accuracy of information or 
 otherwise, the information is not so given as to 
 be sufficiently easy of assimilation in practice, so 
 that they fail to meet the wants of the painter. 
 Hence the continued demand for the present 
 manual. 
 
 The Author takes the present opportunity of 
 warning artists against the use of petroleum and 
 paraffin, as advocated by a French writer. These 
 articles do not possess the permanency claimed for 
 them by M. Vibert, and are (in the Author's judg- 
 ment) practically valueless as media for colours in 
 the fine arts. 
 
 With the exception of the correction of a few 
 typographical errors the contents of this little book 
 remain as in the last edition. 
 
 sunnyside, 
 
 Erdington, Warwickshire. 
 July, 1896. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface • • . v 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WHITE PIGMENTS. 
 
 Baryta White, also known as " Constant " or " Permanent " 
 White. — Blanc d' Argent, or " Silver " or " French " White. — 
 Flake White, or " Body " White. — White Lead, also known as 
 Ceruse, Cremnitz, Dutch, Flemish, Hamburg, Venetian, or 
 Roman White. — Zinc White, or Chinese White. — Normal, 
 Basic, and Acid Carbonates. — Blowpipe Testing x 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GREEN PIGMENTS. 
 
 Chrome Greens. — Native Green, or Pure Chrome Green, Green 
 Oxide of Chromium, Opaque Oxide of Chromium, or Chrome 
 Oxide. — Transparent Oxide of Chromium. — Emerald Green, 
 or Schweinfurt, Vienna, Imperial, Brunswick, or Mitis Green. 
 — Malachite, Mountain, or Hungary Green. — Sap Green, Verde 
 Vessie,Iris or Bladder Green. — Scheele's, or Swedish Green. — 
 Terra Verte, Green Earth, Verona Green, Green Bice, Verdetta, 
 or Holly Green. — Verdigris, or Viride JEris. — Vienna Green, or 
 Brunswick or Schweinfurt Green. — Viridian, or Guignet's 
 Green. — Zinc or Cobalt Green or Rinman's Green. . . 14 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 BLUE PIGMENTS. 
 
 Antwerp Blue, or Haarlem, Berlin, or Mineral Blue. — Cseruleum, or 
 Cerulian or Egyptian Blue.— Cobalt Blue, Cobalt Ultramarine, 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Vienna Blue, and Azure. — Indigo, or Indian Blue. — Prussian, 
 Berlin, Parisian Blue. — Smalt, Azure, Enamel, Dumont's or 
 Royal Blue. — Ultramarine, Outremer Lazurline, Lazuline 
 Blue, or Lazurstein. — Artificial, French, Metz, Gmelin's Blue, 
 or Factitious Ultramarine, Bleu de Garance, and Outremer de 
 Guimet. — New Blue. — Permanent Blue 25 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS. 
 
 Aureolin. — Baryta Yellow, Yellow Ultramarine, or Lemon Yel- 
 low. — Cadmium Yellow, Cadmia, or Jaune Brillant. — Chrome 
 Yellows, Jaune Mineral, Cologne Yellow, Pale and Deep 
 Chrome, Orange Chrome, Citron, Leipzig or Paris Yellow. 
 — Gamboge, (Camboge, Cambogia, Gambodium, Gamboage, 
 &c.) — Indian Yellow, or Purree or Powre. — King's or Chinese 
 Yellow, Orpiment, or Auripigmentum. — Lemon Yellow. — 
 Massicot, or Masticot. — Naples Yellow. — Yellow Lakes, 
 Madder Yellow, Italian, English, and Dutch Pink, Quercitron 
 Yellow, or Lake. — Yellow Ochres, Jaune de Fer, Jaune de 
 Mars, Sienna, or Raw Sienna. — Mars Orange. — Mars Yellow, 
 or Jaune de Mars, Jaune de Fer, Iron Yellow, &c. — Orient 
 Yellow, Turner Yellow, Cassel Yellow, Montpellier Yellow, 
 Vienna Yellow, Mineral Yellow 33 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RED PIGMENTS. 
 
 Cadmium Red. — Chinese Vermilion, or Ca r mine Vermilion. — 
 Crimson Lake. — Carmine Lake. — Indian Lake, or Lac Lake. 
 — Indian Red and Pers-an Red. — Iodine Scarlet, or Iodide 
 of Mercury. — Madder Lakes : Madder Carmine or Tinted 
 Carmine, Pink Madder, Rose Rubiate or Liquid Madder, 
 Lake or Rose Madder. — Red Lead, Minium or Saturnine Red. 
 — Red Ochre, Indian Ochre, Scarlet Ochre, or Light Red. — 
 Red Orpiment, or Realgar. — Venetian, English, or Prussian 
 Red, or Scarlet Ochre. — Vermilion, also called Cinnabar. — 
 Mars Red, or Rouge de Mars. — Purple Lake . . • 47 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 BROWN AND BLACK PIGMENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Asphaltum, or Bitumen. — Bistre. — Brown Pink.— Blue or Frank- 
 furt Black. — Indian Ink and Chinese Ink. — Lampblack. — 
 Manganese Brown. — Mummy or Egyptian Brown. — Prussian 
 Brown, or Iron Brown. — Sepia. — Umber, Raw and Burnt. — 
 Vandyke, Cappah, Rubens, Cassel, and Cologne Brown. — 
 Mars Brown, or Brun de Mars. — Mineral Gray. — Neutral 
 Tint. — Payne's Gray. — Rubens Madder • • . .60 
 
 Table of Reference • 70 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING BETWEEN TWO 
 OR MORE PIGMENTS, BETWEEN PIGMENT AND 
 VEHICLE, ETC. 
 
 Action of Lead and Sulphur. — Action of Oxygen amongst Pig- 
 ments. — Action of Alkalies on Pigments. — Explanation of 
 Loss of Opacity 73 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 COLOUR NAMES AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Positive Colours. — Primary Colours. — Secondary Colours. — Ter- 
 tiary Colours. — Tint. — Hues. — Shade. — Tone. — Grey. — Gray. 
 Popular Analysis of Colours forming Complex Hues. — Primary 
 Positive Colours. — Secondary Positive Colours, composed of 
 two Primaries. — Tertiary Hues, composed of three Primaries 
 with one Primary predominating. — Quaternary Hues, com- 
 posed of the Primary, with two Primaries or a Secondary 
 Colour predominating. — Neutral Tints ..... 80 
 
Xiv CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TABLE OF MIXTURES OF PIGMENTS TO PRODUCE 
 BLUES, BUFFS, BROWNS, GREENS, GREYS, 
 PURPLES, AND MAROONS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Table of Mixtures of Pigments to produce Blues. — Table of 
 Mixtuies to produce Browns, Buffs, and Yellows. —Table of 
 Mixtures to produce Greys. — Table of Mixtures to produce 
 Greens. — Table of Mixtures to produce Maroons, Purples, 
 and Pinks .86 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS USED IN POR- 
 TRAIT, FLOWER, AND MARINE PAINTING IN 
 WATER COLOURS. 
 
 Colours for Flesh. — Colours for Draperies. — Colours chiefly used 
 in Flower Painting in Water Colours. — Colours used in Sea 
 Painting 92 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF COLOURS USED IN LAND- 
 SCAPE PAINTING IN OILS. 
 
 List of Colours used on the Palettes of Sir F. Leighton, Alma- 
 Tadema, Armitage, Orchardson, Pettie, Colin Hunter . . 97 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 QUESTIONS SET AT THE SOUTH KENSINGTON 
 SCHOOL OF ART EXAMINATIONS IN PAINT- 
 ING. 100 
 
 Index 108 
 
THE 
 
 ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 WHITE PIGMENTS. 
 
 BARYTA WHITE (also known as Constant or Permanent 
 White). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition, — This white is a sul- 
 phate of barium, or " baric sulphate" of the chemist, and 
 known as " heavy spar " by the mineralogist. In composi- 
 tion it consists of T37 atoms of barium, 32 atoms of 
 sulphur, and 64 atoms of oxygen. The constituents in 
 the above proportions constitute the neutral sulphate of 
 barium. Constant white is occasionally a mixture of car- 
 bonate and sulphate of barium. 
 
 Note — When carelessly made this white is not entirely 
 freed from sulphuric acid. Such acid is injurious to its 
 stability. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — This white is of a beautiful though 
 
 B 
 
2 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 bluish-tinted white, dense in tone, but deficient in body. 
 It has a darker tone when moist (i.e. when being used) than 
 it has when dry. Gum-water destroys or mars the white- 
 ness. It is of good use for fresco, silicious, and water- 
 colour painting. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — This white is perfectly per- 
 manent under all conditions. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas 
 does not affect its colour, nor does any pigment containing 
 sulphur, since the sulphide of barium which might be 
 formed is also white. This is a great desideratum where 
 purity of high lights is requisite, or a white has to be used 
 almost pure. Strong light, darkness, oxygen, lead, or iron, 
 have no injurious action on the purity of this white. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — The neutral sulphate is 
 the one the artist should employ, because the acid sulphate 
 is semi-stable, since the free acid is apt to be injurious when 
 brought into contact with pigments affected by acids, or on 
 some of the oils and other vehicles used. In some cases 
 an acid will darken a colour ; in others it bleaches or robs a 
 pigment of its colour, and in all cases, other whites as well, 
 it has a disintegrating action. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Lead salts (usually carbonates) 
 are sometimes added to this white to give it body, i.e. 
 covering power. Zinc salts (usually the oxide) are also 
 added to give it whiteness. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If the white 
 be pure, no reaction will be shown by adding a little solution 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen to the pigment. If a lead salt be 
 present, this test agent will cause a black precipitate to be 
 formed. To test for the presence of other metals, use the 
 
BLANC & ARGENT. 
 
 3 
 
 tests given under white lead. To detect free sulphuric 
 acid, add a slip of blue litmus paper to a washing of the 
 pigment ; if the blue colour is turned red, free acid is 
 present. If the white paint is found to contain much 
 free acid, it may be greatly divested of the acid by 
 washing the pigment with distilled water. This may 
 be done by placing , the pigment on a filter-paper, and 
 directing a stream of water on to it from the wash- 
 bottle. In this operation the filter paper containing the 
 pigment is supported in a glass funnel. 
 
 Remarks. — The amorphous state of the sulphate is the 
 best for use on the palette, because in this state its covering 
 pow T er is best. This white is the best to use with sulphides 
 of metals, lead or iron pigments, e.g. cadmium yellow, 
 vermilion, yellow and orange chromes (of lead), Indian, 
 Venetian, and other reds, of which the basis is iron, and 
 red and yellow ochres. The neutral sulphate should be 
 tested for free sulphuric acid, since if present the permanency 
 of the white itself is weakened, and this acid has also power 
 to destroy other pigments. 
 
 BLANC W ARGENT (or Silver White, or French White). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — This white is a white 
 obtained from lead by a process different to that employed 
 in making flake white. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — This white has less body than flake 
 white, but is of exquisite whiteness. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — This white is just as stable, 
 no more, no less, than white lead used in a similar manner. 
 
4 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Conditions of N on- Permanency. — It suffers, in company 
 with white lead, since this white possesses all the deleterious 
 characteristics of the more frequently used white lead. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Chalk and baric sulphate are 
 those most chiefly to be searched for. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The tests 
 given under "White Lead" apply to this pigment. 
 
 Remarks. — This white is sometimes preferred by artists 
 is a white probably owing to its fanciful name, but it 
 should be vigorously excluded from use, like the rest of 
 the whites made from lead. 
 
 FLAKE WHITE (when levigated called Body White). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Oxidised carbonate 
 of lead, or a compound of protocarbonate and hydrated 
 oxide of lead. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Identical under every circumstance 
 with white lead or other lead carbonates. This white has 
 the best body of aJl white leads. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — The permanency of thiswnite 
 varies according to the mode of preparation. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Refer to white lead for 
 these conditions. 
 
 General Adulterations. — This white is sometimes not 
 entirely freed from the acid engendered in its manufacture. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Refer to the 
 tests given under the heading of white lead. 
 
 Remarks. — This white is called by the artists' colourmen 
 ' common white." It owes its flaky character to the mode 
 
WHITE LEAD. 
 
 5 
 
 of preparation, and takes its name from the scrolls or plates 
 in which it is formed. If it contains free acid, it is still 
 more injurious to other pigments than when pure, as will be 
 seen on referring to the general remarks at the end of this 
 chapter on normal, basic, and acid carbonates of lead. This 
 white is occasionally equal to Chinese white in colour, and 
 generally superior in body to all other white leads. The 
 presence of the hydrate of lead decreases the opacity of the 
 product, according to the greater proportion in which it is 
 present. 
 
 WHITS LEAD (known also as Ceruse, Cremnitz, Dutch, 
 Flemish, Hamburg, Venetian, or Eoman White). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — The whites known 
 under the above names are all carbonates of lead. Cremnitz 
 white is usually pure white lead. Dutch white contains 
 24 per cent, of white lead and 75 per cent, of baric sul- 
 phate. If they contain hydrate of lead the components of 
 water are present. Hamburg white is a mixture of two 
 parts heavy spar (baric sulphate), and the remainder white 
 lead. Venetian white is sulphate of barium (basic sul- 
 phate) and carbonate of lead in equal parts. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — These lead whites possess good body. 
 The "body" (by which is meant covering power) is better 
 in proportion as the carbonate is whiter and heavier. These 
 and all lead whites are easy to work, are very opaque, and 
 impart their quality to pigments compounded with it. 
 Cremnitz white is the whitest of white leads. When mixed 
 with barytes white, white lead is semi-transparent. Strong 
 light, especially sunlight, will sometimes restore the bright- 
 
6 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS, 
 
 ness of tarnished white lead ; so also will hydroxyl, i.e. per- 
 oxide of hydrogen, or water, plus a second atom of oxygen. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Linton says white leads 
 compound without injury with ultramarine, red and orange 
 leads, yellow and orange chromes, yellow, orange, and red 
 cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres, and Indian red, viridian, 
 and also oxides of chromium, We criticise this assertion 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Co?iditions of Non- Permanency. — Much oil or varnish de- 
 stroys these whites, partly by abstracting oxygen in their 
 process of " drying," and partly by becoming brown them- 
 selves. Also, sulphides of metals and sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen (the symbol for this compound is SH 2 , which will be used 
 in future) darken this white. White lead destroys the tints 
 formed by it with lakes (madder lakes excepted), probably 
 by oxygenating them, and so bleaching their colour. These 
 whites are injured by darkness and impure air, and blacken 
 sooner in oil (due possibly to the loss of oxygen) than in 
 water. They are unsafe to use in fresco and distemper paint- 
 ing, and in crayon. They are all very fugitive, and lose their 
 opacity, allowing whatever paint is beneath to show through 
 them. Massicot, red and orange leads, orpiment or king's 
 yellow, and patent yellow, are injured by white lead. 
 Hydrated oxide of lead gives white lead less covering 
 power, and it turns to a brownish hue. 
 
 General Adulterations. — These are whitening, sulphate of 
 barium, sulphate of lime (z>. gypsum or " plaster of Paris"), 
 oxide of lead, and carbonate of lime. These substances 
 are inimical to the perfect drying of white lead, and lessen 
 its body and brightness, and darken the oil vehicles. 
 
WHITE LEAD. 
 
 7 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If pure, 
 white lead is entirely dissolved by nitrous or acetic acid, 
 either of which leaves a clear liquid. Distinguished from 
 other white pigments, when acted on by SH 2 or a sulphide 
 by the formation of a black sulphide of lead. To test for 
 whitening, add dilute nitrous acid, boil in a test-tube, and 
 then add hydrochloric acid ; filter the liquid, and to the 
 filtered solution add amnionic oxalate. A white deposit 
 indicates whitening. To test for a barium salt, employ 
 the blowpipe test, inner flame. A green coloration of 
 the flame indicates barium; with the same test, a red 
 coloration indicates calcium or gypsum, i.e. sulphate of 
 lime. 
 
 Remarks. — The cause why white lead works so easily 
 under the brush is owing to its saponifying with the oil 
 {i.e. entering into a chemical union therewith), whence it 
 becomes linoleate of lead, or " lead soap." This chemical 
 union causes the pellicles of oil to be almost destroyed as a 
 protective coating, since the new body thus formed is easily 
 acted on by influences that would not attack the oil if the 
 latter formed simply a coat or covering to the pigment, as 
 it should do. Besides this union, white lead also parts with 
 some of its oxygen to the oil, whereby the latter becomes 
 dry and hard, thus leaving the metallic lead more open to 
 the action of sulphurous fumes, or to pigments possessing 
 sulphur, to be turned into the black sulphide of lead. 
 Cremnitz white is also known as Vienna white, being 
 brought from Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. It is 
 the brightest white that is_ used in oil, but possesses rather 
 less body than flake white, because the particles are finer. 
 
8 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Roman white is of the purest colour, and differs only from 
 Blanc d 1 Argent in the warm flesh tints of its surface when in 
 large masses. 
 
 ZINC WHITE, or Chinese White. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Oxide of zinc, 01 
 zincic oxide. This white consists either of 65 atoms 
 of zinc to 16 of oxygen, or else it is the anhydrous oxide, 
 the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic carbonate of zinc. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — This white wants body in oil, but it 
 is the best possible white in water-colour. It is a bad dryer, 
 although it is an excellent " dryer" itself for oils. Zinc 
 white may be mixed with various pigments possessing dura- 
 bility, such as the oxides of iron, charcoal, oxides of man- 
 ganese, ultramarine, &c, and will then furnish colours the 
 tones of which will remain permanent ; and this is a great 
 advantage in painting, whether alone or mixed with other 
 pigments. Zinc white is used for oil and water-colours, and 
 for varnish and distemper painting. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — This white is thoroughly 
 permanent under all conditions of use or mixture. It does 
 not form a soap with oils and fats. It retains its opacity, 
 and is not fugacious, like white lead. It is most* durable in 
 silicious painting or stereochromy, in which process of 
 painting it forms chemical compounds with potash and 
 silicon, which are stable. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — It is not impermanent 
 under any circumstances. 
 
 General Adulterations. — These are carbonate of lead and 
 
NORMAL, BASIC, AND ACID CARBONATES. 9 
 
 sometimes carbonate of lime, and kaolin (i.e. china clay), 
 and starch. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If the zinc 
 white be pure, it is perfectly soluble in sulphuric acid, 
 and does not effervesce during solution like white lead. To 
 detect lead, add SH 2 , and if salts of lead be present, a 
 black precipitate is formed ; the borax bead, with the blow- 
 pipe test, will be purple if manganese be added. If iron 
 is added, that metal will be obtained in a metallic powder 
 when the pigment is heated on charcoal with carbonate of 
 soda under the blowpipe analysis. 
 
 Remarks. — This is a good pigment when well prepared. 
 Since it does not saponify with oils, this white is the safest 
 to use where permanency of opacity is required. Although 
 in itself it is less opaque, it possesses less body than white 
 lead. It may, however, be laid over white lead when that 
 has dried, to preserve the latter from subsequent deleterious 
 influences, and this permanency and opacity of the whites 
 will be maintained. Chinese white replaces the ordinary 
 zinc white in water colours. 
 
 Normal, Basic, and Acid Carbonates. 
 
 The metal that yields the largest number of whites is lead, 
 and the best white obtained from it, suitable for the artist, 
 is the carbonate. 
 
 Now, carbonates are usually divided into normal, basic, 
 and acid. 
 
 The nor?7ial carbonate is one in which the equivalent of 
 the metal is united with the compound represented by the 
 formula CO g . 
 
io THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 A basic carbonate contains water ; that is, the hydrogen 
 in the water that has united with the carbonate acts 
 similarly to a base, or the opposite action to that of an acid ; 
 while an acid carbonate is one that has not been entirely 
 freed from an acid radicle. 
 
 Most carbonates are easily decomposed by heat. The 
 carbonates of the heavy metals are all decomposed at a low 
 red heat, giving off carbonic anhydride (C0 2 ) and leaving a 
 residue of metal or of oxide. 
 
 The carbonates of the fixed alkali metals are not decom- 
 posed by the strongest heat. At a very high temperature 
 they are somewhat neutralised. The acid carbonates of the 
 alkalies are reduced by heat to normal carbonates, with evo- 
 lution of C0 2 . 
 
 It may be w T ondered why we go so deeply into chemical 
 points, but here it is that a knowledge of these points is 
 valuable. Thus, alkalies decompose or destroy the materials 
 used as vehicles in painting ; therefore, if a basic — i.e. an 
 alkaline — carbonate be employed, we can see that it will 
 commence a chemical action on the oil or vehicle with which 
 it is incorporated, and this action may be such as to prove 
 injurious to the picture ; whilst, again, an acid carbonate 
 may be accidentally incorporated with a pigment — perhaps 
 the oxide of a metal, and, since an oxide is a base, and tends 
 to neutralise an acid, here again chemical action would be 
 set up, the result of which could not but be damaging, even 
 to the neutralising or fading of the tint. 
 
 The greater number of fixed oils by exposure to the air 
 become viscid and rancid, in which state they contain free 
 acid. Now we have seen that bases and oxides neutralise 
 
BLOWPIPE TESTING. 
 
 11 
 
 acids, therefore, a basic carbonate, or an oxide, by acting 
 on the " free acid " would again set up chemical action and 
 so prove injurious. 
 
 Therefore the only carbonate fit for the purpose of a pig- 
 ment is the normal or neutral one, and hence the value of 
 having a means of testing the nature of the pigment, or, in 
 other words, its purity. 
 
 Instructions in Blowpipe Testing. — In many cases where it 
 is desired to know which metal the pigment is a salt of, the 
 blowpipe gives a readier means than what is known as the 
 " wet process " of analysis, therefore the method of using 
 this handy utensil should be thoroughly understood by the 
 operator, especially so since the operation is so simple. 
 
 In the first place, a steady flame is requisite. This is to 
 be obtained thus : Close the lips and puff out the cheeks 
 with air drawn through the nostrils ; while the cheeks are so 
 inflated, press the blowpipe between the lips, and by the 
 muscles of the cheeks force the air through the pipe, the 
 supply being kept constant by drawing it in through the 
 nostrils. 
 
 This action will require some little practice to acquire, 
 but it will be soon and easily learnt after a few trials. 
 
 Having managed to acquire a constant blast, direct the 
 nozzle of the pipe on to the flame of a spirit-lamp so that 
 the flame is a horizontal one. This flame will then become 
 pointed, and possess two distinct points ; e.g. in the interior 
 of the flame is a blue coloured cone, while the outer portion 
 is of a reddish tinge ; this blue point is termed the reducing 
 flame, because it reduces metals from their oxides ; whilst 
 the outer cone or shell is termed the oxidising flame, since 
 
12 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF FIGMENTS. 
 
 this oxidises salts. The blue flame consists of particles of 
 unburnt carbon, particles with which oxygen has not com- 
 bined, and therefore combustion has not taken place, whilst 
 the outer flame owes its intense heat and incandescence to 
 the violent union taking place between the oxygen of the 
 air and the carbon particles of the spirit. 
 
 To utilise this blowpipe flame, select a piece of charcoal 
 free from knots and of fine texture and close grain, trim it 
 up somewhat prism-shaped, and scoop out a hollow cavity 
 at one end, into which put the salt to be tested, gradu- 
 ally bringing the other end of the charcoal in the flame 
 and then cautiously raise this end ; the flame shooting 
 lengthwise of the charcoal ; the experiment will direct 
 wherever the oxidising or reducing flame is to be employed. 
 If the oxidising flame, the point only is employed, and this 
 must not be directed on to the salt at once, or the whole 
 would be scattered about, but gradually brought into it as 
 described; at the same time the full source of the blast must 
 net be attained until the flux begins to fuse. 
 
 Another method of employing the blowpipe flame, in- 
 stead of the charcoal method, is to make use of a platinum 
 wire and borax bead. Thus, take a piece of narrow soft 
 glass tube, six inches long, heat it in the rvvldle in the spirit 
 flame, and when beginning to bend pull the ends apart and 
 snap the tube in the centre ; take one of these pieces, and 
 through the narrow end thus formed insert a piece of 
 platinum wire four inches long, about three inches remain- 
 ing out of the tube. By directing the blowpipe on to this 
 narrow portion the wire will be firmly fused in the glass, the 
 latter thus forming a handle that will prevent the heat 
 
BLOWPIPE TESTING. 
 
 *3 
 
 reaching the ringers. The end of the wire should be formed 
 into a loop about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. 
 To employ this instrument, dip the loop into a little hydro- 
 chloric acid to free the wire from corrosion. Never dip any- 
 thing into the bottle of acid, for that might render the whole 
 impure, but keep a little acid in a small test-tube or watch- 
 glass. When testing by means of a platinum wire, hold it in 
 the lamp or blowpipe flame, dip into a little borax, hold in 
 the lamp again until the borax is fused into a clear glass 
 bead; then, moistening this bead in acid again, dip into the 
 salt to be tested, and fuse in the inner or outer flame as the 
 instructions direct. 
 
 To free the wire from this bead, open the loop with the 
 thumb and finger, free from corrosion with the finger nail, 
 and purify by dipping in acid and heating in flame, after 
 which it is fit for next test. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 GREEN PIGMENTS. 
 
 CHROME GREENS. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Oxides of chromium 
 or hydrated or anhydrous chromic oxide. Sesquioxide of 
 chromium. Consists of oxygen and chromium combined 
 either by wet or dry chemical processes ; it is pale or deep, 
 bright or subdued, opaque or transparent in appearance. 
 
 Artistic Qualities, — These oxides when used in water 
 require much gum ; when in oil, in which they dry well, 
 they afford pure, natural, and durable tints. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — When anhydrous they can be 
 used in enamelling, and are all thoroughly permanent, 
 neither injuring nor being injured by other pigments, nor 
 by foul gas, air, damp, nor light. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency . — When hydrated they 
 cannot be used in enamelling. Mixtures of chrome yellows 
 with Prussian and other blues are less permanent than the 
 actual pigments. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Chrome yellow, Prussian or 
 other blues. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Test for 
 presence of yellows made from lead or baryta or Prussian 
 blue made from iron in usual way. If pure these tests will 
 
NATIVE GREEN. 
 
 15 
 
 give no result. If the tests affect the pigment, we may know 
 that it is not a true chrome green. 
 
 Remarks. — It is better to use the actual pigment than a 
 green compounded on the palette. Mixed with raw sienna, 
 gives a sombre and semi-transparent green. 
 
 NATIVE GREEN (Pure Chrome Green, Green Oxide of 
 Chromium, Opaque Oxide of Chromium, or Chroma 
 Oxide). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition.— Is an impure native 
 chrome ochre, prepared artificially for the palette. When 
 obtained anhydrous by dry methods* from the metal chro- 
 mium, it is the only chrome oxide available in enamelling. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is a" cold, sober, sage green, deep- 
 toned, opaque, and dull ; very dense and powerful. In flat 
 tints the oxide does not wash well in water. 
 
 Conditions oj Permanency. — Unchangeable in themselves 
 and do not affect colours mixed with them. 
 
 Conditions of N on- Permanency. — Chrome greens contain- 
 ing Prussian blue are acted upon by alkalies, and those 
 containing lead suffer the disadvantages incidental to lead 
 pigments. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Aitificially prepared, chrome 
 greens are often made by mixing solutions of lead and 
 iron with prussiate and chromate of potash or by adding 
 potassic chromate and then plumbic acetate to a solution 
 of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, whence lead or iron may 
 be accidentally present as adulterants, 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Pure clx o- 
 
16 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 mium greens when subjected to great heat retain their 
 colour unchanged. 
 
 Remarks. — Should be used with a delicate hand to pre- 
 vent heaviness. In tints with white it is delicate and pleas- 
 ing, being silvery and luminous; good for atmospheric 
 effects. 
 
 TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A compound of oxygen 
 and chromium. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is deficient in body, and only useful 
 in oils. Is a pale greyish green in powder. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Unchangeable and harmless 
 to other compounding pigments. 
 
 Remarks. — A yellowish green of some depth, moderately 
 bright, in oil not very pure or clear. 
 
 EMERALD GREEN (Schweinfurt, Vienna, Imperial, 
 Brunswick, and Mitis Green). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — It is a cupric aceto- 
 arsenite. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — These greens, which are identical in 
 body but variously named, are lighter, more opaque and 
 vivid than Scheele's green. Reflect light well ; dry badly 
 in oil, but better in water. Compounded with aureolin they 
 are softened and semi-transparent. 
 
 Conditions of Permane7icy. — Are perhaps the most per- 
 manent of the copper greens, both alone and in tint with 
 white. Are not much affected by damp or foul air. 
 
MALACHITE. 
 
 i ; 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Cannot be used in fresco 
 or silicious painting. Cadmic sulphide also would de- 
 compose them with formation of the brown sulphide of 
 copper. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Brunswick green is often but a 
 mixture of chromate of lead and Prussian blue. 
 
 Remarks. — Should be used only in small quantities, or its 
 brightness toned down by introduction of masses of other 
 greens. Contains arsenic, so should be used with caution. 
 
 MALACHITE (Mountain, or Hungary Green). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Is a hydrated di- 
 carbonate of copper, combined with a white earth. 
 Formed native by the constant dropping of water satu- 
 rated with carbonic acid, and holding in solution the oxide 
 of copper. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — For artistic purposes it is prepared 
 artificially ; the latter is not so bright as the native variety, 
 which gives greens varying from emerald to grass green, 
 inclining to grey. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Durable in pure air and light. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Blackened by bad air 
 and age, and exclusion from light. Converted into blues by 
 the action of alkalies. Inferior in durability to Scheele's 
 greens. 
 
 General Adulteratio?is. — The general adulterants of these 
 three greens consist of various mixtures of blues and 
 yellows. 
 
 Remarks. — Scarcely fit for the artists' palette. 
 
 c 
 
[3 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 SAP GREEN (Verde Vessie, Iris or Bladder Green). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Is the inspissated juice 
 of buckthorn berries, or made from the green leaves of the 
 woad, or the blue flowers of the iris, &c. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is dark in colour, of a fine natural 
 yellowish transparent green. Useful in water for flower 
 painting. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly durable in water 
 colours, less so in oil. 
 
 Cofiditions of Non- Permanency. — Imperfect as a pigment, 
 as it attracts moisture, and is thus liable to engender mil- 
 dew. Fugitive in course of time. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Adulterated with other vegetable 
 green colours, such as extract of coffee-berries. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adultera7its. — When pure 
 has a glossy fracture. 
 
 Remarks. — Similar pigments obtained from coffee-berries, 
 and named Venetian and emerald greens, are of a colder 
 colour, equally fugitive, and are now obsolete. 
 
 SCHEELE'S, or SWEDISH GREEN. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Cupric arsenite. Cop- 
 per and arsenic. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A good light green when well pre- 
 pared. Should not be used in flesh tints. Is less opaque 
 and of a darker shade than emerald green (of copper). 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Similar in stability to emerald 
 green. Permanent when alone and with white lead. Is 
 
TERRA VERTE. 
 
 *9 
 
 less affected than the other copper greens by foul air and 
 damp. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency, — Is destroyed when mixed 
 with the true Naples yellow or antimoniate of lead. 
 
 General Adulterations. — All the metals used in its manu- 
 facture are present in a free state if -carelessly prepared. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of 'Adulterants \ — The presence 
 of free copper and arsenic can be detected by using the 
 tests for those metals. 
 
 Remarks, — Since it contains arsenic, it should be carefully 
 kept from children, and the brush should not be put in the 
 mouth. 
 
 TERRA VERTE (Green Earth, Verona Green, Green Bice, 
 Verdetta, or Holly Green). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition, — A species of ochre 
 containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash, and water. 
 When calcined it forms another pigment called Verona 
 brown. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Grows darker when mixed with oil. 
 Weak in body and semi-transparent, dries well in oil, and is 
 useful for glazing. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Is very durable alone and 
 with other colours ; strong light and vitiated atmosphere 
 have no effect on it. 
 
 Co?iditions of Non- Permanency. — Its colour is destroyed 
 by acids. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Adulterated with yellow ochre. 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — See tests 
 given under yellow ochres. 
 
20 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Remarks. — Useful to landscape and marine painters. In 
 combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, it gives a 
 series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance. 
 
 VERDIGRIS, or Viride JEris. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — An acetate of copper 
 crystallised or distilled ; a compound from acetous acid and 
 oxide of copper. The verdigris of commerce is a sub- 
 acetate of copper, i.e. a salt in which the oxide is in the 
 largest proportion. Burnt verdigris means an oxide instead 
 of an acetate of copper. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A very bright, cold green : dries 
 rapidly, and is useful for glazing. Before using it for glazing, 
 the colour over which it is laid should be thoroughly dry, or 
 else the whole will crack. Burnt verdigris is of an olive 
 hue, and from its siccative qualities dries admirably. Dis- 
 tilled verdigris is useful for the plumage of birds, panes of 
 church windows, draperies, and where lively greens, as in 
 precious stones, are desirable. New clean brushes should 
 be used with this pigment. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Crystallised verdigris, when 
 ground in oil varnish is not soluble in water. In oil it is 
 permanent in light and air, and in varnish stands better 
 than in oil. Verdigris employed as directed by Bouvier 
 undergoes no change : — " It is so impri; oned in the copaiba, 
 which becomes very hard, and in the varnish, which dries 
 instantly, that the air has no time to attack it." Bouvier 
 found that after eighteen years verdigris used after his method 
 was as bright as when first put on. 
 
VERDIGRIS. 
 
 21 
 
 Conditions of N on- Permanency. — Crystallised verdigris 
 should be varnished as soon as dry, because being a 
 soluble salt it would be carried off whenever the picture 
 is washed. The least durable of copper greens. Light 
 fades it in water. Damp and foul air first bleach it, then 
 turn it black. In oil, moisture and foul air change its 
 colour, and cause it to effloresce or rise to the surface 
 through the oil. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Largely adulterated with chalk 
 and sulphate of copper. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If pure, 
 vinegar will dissolve it, forming a green liquid useful for 
 colouring maps. To test for chalk, see baryta white. If 
 adulterared with sulphate of copper, SH 2 will indicate 
 the sulphur present in it as a brownish black mass of 
 cupric sulphide, which is insoluble in dilute acids. 
 
 Remarks.— Bouvier's directions for using verdigris green 
 are these : — 
 
 " Carefully finish the object to be glazed by it, using for 
 the greens thereof Prussian blue and Naples yellow or 
 yellow ochre. Keep the colour yellowish, or even on 
 occasion make it pure yellow, but let no white be admitted. 
 . . . Let the object thus painted dry; glaze, then having 
 crushed some crystallised or distilled verdigris into a fine 
 powder, mix into it as quick as possible equal parts of fine 
 mastic varnish and balsam of copaiba (the whitest and least 
 viscous obtainable), then spread this rapidly as a glaze over 
 every part, both light and shade, as if you were varnishing. 
 If the glaze be not deep enough, let it thoroughly dry and 
 then paint afresh." 
 
22 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 VIENNA GREEN, or Brunswick or Schweinfurt Green. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Compound obtained 
 from sulphate of copper, white oxide of arsenic, potash, and 
 acetous acid. Ordinary Brunswick green is compounded of 
 chromate of lead and Prussian blue. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Ordinary Brunswick green cannot be 
 used on walls containing lime, as the action of the latter 
 alters the tint of the Prussian blue in this green. 
 
 Conditio?is of No7i-Permanency \ — Not likely to be of any 
 permanency. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Carelessness of manufacture will 
 leave portions of the constituents in a free state. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Wash the 
 green with water and dip in a blue litmus paper • it will be 
 turned red if free acid be present, and a red paper will be 
 turned blue if free potash be present. If free copper is 
 present in the solution, a little potassic hydrate will throw 
 down a light blue precipitate. 
 
 Remarks. — Ordinary Brunswick green is not suitable for 
 pictures, as the reaction of the chromate of lead on the 
 Prussian blue ultimately destroys it. 
 
 VIRIDIAN, or Guignet's Green. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition.— Oxide of chromium, 
 containing a small quantity of water. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is eligible in fresco. Is a rich trans, 
 parent colour ; used with aureolin, is a brilliant foliage green, 
 and useful for glazing and for aerial and liquid effects. " A 
 
ZINC, OR COBALT GREEN. 
 
 gorgeous green, being not unlike the richest velvet. Pure 
 and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian 
 blue of greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency 
 is it. In hue of a light bluish green, its deepest shades 
 verge on black, while its light tints are marked by trans- 
 parent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue 
 and yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and 
 stable, so gifted with the quality of light, and therefore so 
 suited for aerial and liquid effects. When fitly compounded, 
 it will be found invaluable for the glassy liquidity of seas, in 
 painting which it becomes incumbent to employ pigments 
 more or less transparent/' 
 
 Conditions of Pernianency. — Is the most permanent and 
 best green of the palette, and is neither injured by nor injures 
 other pigments. Is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permane?icy . — Cannot be used in 
 enamelling, as the colour, depending on the water of hydra- 
 tion, is destroyed by the strong heat. 
 
 General Adulterations* — If adulterated, other chrome 
 greens will be found. 
 
 Rernarks. — Is suitable for both aqueous and atmospheric 
 effects ; of great use in draperies and illumination. 
 
 ZINC, or COBALT GREEN (Einman's Green). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Compounded of zinc 
 and oxides of cobalt. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Inferior in colour and body to the 
 chrome greens, but it appears to possess more body than any 
 of the other colours made with zinc. 
 
24 THE ARTISTS 9 MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent both alone and in 
 combination, and similar to cobalt blue in character. It 
 resists change from oil, light, and foul air. 
 
 General Adulterations. — A spurious green would be made 
 up of cobalt blue and a yellow mechanically mixed. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — See tests 
 given under iron pigments. 
 
 Remarks. — Moderately bright in tone. u Zinc green " 
 should more properly indicate a cyanide of zinc and iron, 
 obtained by macerating finely-powdered Prussian blue in a 
 strong solution of chloride of zinc. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 BLUE PIGMENTS. 
 
 ANTWERP, HAARLEM, BERLIN, or MINERAL BLUE. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Ferro-prussiate of 
 alumina. Similar to Prussian blue, with the addition of the 
 earthy base alum. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Lighter than, and similar in properties 
 to, Prussian blue. Is a rich blue, fascinating to the artist, 
 but should be used with caution. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Is more permanent in pro- 
 portion to the less amount of aluminous base it possesses. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Not so permanent as 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Ochres and chalky matters. 
 
 Tests for Purity and A T alure of Adulterants. — Hydrochloric 
 acid will cause effervescence if chalk be present. Distin- 
 guished from Prussian blue by possessing a more earthy 
 fracture. 
 
 Remarks. — Lighter in colour and greener in tinge than 
 Prussian blue, with less depth. 
 
 CiERTJLEUM (Cerulian, or Egyptian Blue). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — The modern pigment 
 is a stannate of cobalt. Sulphate of lime is sometimes 
 present. The ancient Egyptian blue was artificially made 
 
26 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 of carbonate of soda 15 parts, powdered flint 20, and 
 cobalt 3. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Of dense body. Useful as a water 
 colour, in fresco and enamel; appears better as a blue in 
 night-time than in day. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent under the influ- 
 ences of heat, light, or atmosphere. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency . — Oils are said to injure 
 the delicacy of its tone. 
 
 General Adulterations . — A factitious cerulian is obtained 
 by mixing ultramarine with Naples yellow and white lead. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Test for 
 presence of lead and Naples yellow (which see). 
 
 Remarks. — Becomes greenish in time, probably by the 
 yellowing of the oil. Linton says that the ancient caeruleum 
 was a native carbonate of copper. 
 
 COBALT BLUE (Cobalt Ultramarine, Vienna Blue, and 
 Azure). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Silicate of cobalt and 
 potassium, or a compound of cobalt and alumina. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Fine blue pigment. Somewhat defi- 
 cient in body in water; dries well in oil. Can be used in 
 fresco, enamel, and silicious painting. Useful as a substi- 
 tute for ultramarine, on account of its brightness of colour, 
 and superior when used in skies and other objects which re- 
 quire even tints. Used occasionally in retrieving the bright- 
 ness of those tints when too heavy, and in draperies, &c. 
 Capable by its superior brilliancy and contrast of saddening 
 the brightness of other blues. 
 
INDIGO. 
 
 27 
 
 Conditions of Permanency, — Thoroughly permanent in 
 mixture with other pigments. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. ,— Light and foul air slightly 
 affect its brilliancy. When not well prepared, some speci 
 mens incline to violet and green. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Is purest when free from iron. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Distin- 
 guishable from native and artificial ultramarine by not being 
 discolourable by acids. 
 
 Remarks.— Cobalt blues include King's blue (a carbonate 
 of cobalt), Thenard's blue (a salt of cobalt calcined with 
 alumina or oxide of tin), and smalt (a glass coloured with 
 cobalt and then ground). 
 
 INDIGO, or Indian Blue. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A vegetable blue. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Deep blue colour, useful in water and 
 oil. Good body, powerful and transparent ; glazes well. 
 Used for twilight and evening skies, but not sufficiently bright 
 for skies on clear days. Is useful for the green of trees when 
 mixed with burnt sienna and gamboge ; useful when mixed 
 with lake and gamboge to make greys and neutral tints. 
 Washes smoothly, and much more easily than Prussian blue. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent under ordinary 
 conditions of pure atmosphere, &c. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency . — Fugitive in tint with 
 white lead, and affected by foul air. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Sometimes adulterated 50 per 
 cent, with sand, pulverised slate, or earthy bodies when sold 
 in dust or small pieces. 
 
28 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The best in- 
 digo will swim upon water, and is lightest, brightest, and most 
 copper-coloured, of most fine grain, and inodorous. 
 
 Remarks. — Useful to supersede Prussian blue for shadows. 
 Prussian blue with a little black and a tinge of green in it 
 equally replaces indigo in its uses. 
 
 PRUSSIAN, BERLIN, PARISIAN BLUE. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition . — Prussiate of iron or 
 ferro-cyanide of iron, i.e. it consists of carbon, nitrogen, and 
 iron. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Good body, powerful yet transparent. 
 Combines well with white lead to form splendid though 
 harsh tints. Dries and glazes well in oil. Imperfectly made, 
 has a greenish tinge. Good drier. Suitable for the blue 
 part of clear fine-weather skies at all times of the day ; 
 makes a purple when mixed with lake, which is useful for 
 distant mountains and drapery. Makes a bright green when 
 mixed with gamboge, and is permanent, but rarely used for 
 the greens of trees ; makes a good pearly grey for clouds 
 when mixed with lake and a little gamboge. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly durable, though less 
 permanent than the blues of cobalt or ultramarine. Soft or 
 distilled water should be used with it in water colours, since 
 any carbonate or lime present in " hard " water will injure 
 its tone. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Alkalies decompose it, 
 and strong light causes it to fade, but darkness restores its 
 colour. Hydrochloric acid again restores its colour after 
 action on it of alkalies. 
 
SMALT. 
 
 29 
 
 General Adulterations, — Ochres and other earths, mineral 
 matters, chalk, pipeclay, sulphates of lime and baryta ; 
 sometimes starch coloured blue with iodine. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Best kinds 
 are intense, almost black in hue, hard and brittle. Are in- 
 odorous and tasteless, and adhere to the tongue. If pure 
 this blue does not effervesce with acids ; but if adulterated 
 with carbonates, as chalk, it does effervesce with acids. If 
 starch be present, boiling water renders the pigment pasty. 
 
 Remarks. — Cannot be used in fresco or silicious painting, 
 because of action of alkalies. Turnbull's blue (ferro-cyanide 
 of iron) is lighter and more delicate than Prussian blue. A 
 green made with Prussian blue cannot be used on walls con- 
 taining lime. 
 
 SMALT (Azure, Enamel, Dumont's, or Royal Blue). 
 
 Chemieal Names and Composition. — Is a fused silicate of 
 cobalt, consisting of glass rendered blue by fusion ; the glass 
 is then powdered and used as a pigment. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is a vivid and gorgeous blue, bright, 
 deep, and transparent. Most valuable for fresco and sili- 
 cious painting ; can be used in water and oil ; possesses 
 little body, and does not wash well. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Is permanent ; not affected 
 by SH 2 . 
 
 General Adulterations. — The finer it is ground the more it 
 decreases in intensity, until it eventually becomes colour- 
 less. Chalk (carbonate of lime) is the most usual adulterant. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — See above 
 test for chalk. 
 
30 THE ARTISTS" MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Remarks. — Bouvier says it dries well, Tingry that it is a 
 bad drier. Probably the bad drier was of a coarse variety. 
 One way to use it was to strew it as a dry powder on 
 a freshly-painted blue ground. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE (Outremer Lazurline, Lazuline Blue, or 
 Lazurstein). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Lapis lazuli ; it con- 
 sists of silica, alumina, soda, and sulphur. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Pure in tint, transparent in shade, 
 dries and works well in oil, and from its silicious nature is 
 useful in fresco and silicious painting. Mingles well with 
 blacks, greens, and greys, and reds for purple. Ultramarine 
 Ash is obtained from the stone after the richer and more in- 
 tense blue has been exhausted. Although not equal in 
 beauty and inferior in strength of colour to ultramarine, it is 
 a valuable by-product, varying in shade from light to dark, 
 and in hue from pale azure to cold blue with a grey cast. It 
 affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive 
 as ultramarine, but which, as water colour, washes much 
 better. It furnishes greys softer, purer, and more suited to 
 the pearly tints of flesh, skies, distances, foliages, shadows 
 of drapery, &c, than those composed of other blues, with 
 white and black, which the old masters were wont to 
 employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effect 
 when broken with black and white, and is thus sometimes 
 carried throughout the colouring of a picture. The ash, 
 compounded with lampblack, gives a soft cold grey for dark 
 lowering clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's influence. 
 Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and 
 with orient yellow or aureolin, to distant mountains. 
 
ULTRAMARINE. 
 
 3i 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Thoroughly permanent for all 
 usual artistic purposes. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Hydrochloric acid, or 
 even a weak acid, like citric acid (lemon juice) decomposes 
 both the native and artificial ultramarine. Any acid pig- 
 ment, as impurely made Constant white, should not be used 
 with it. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Sulphates of baryta and lime. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Add an acid 
 to the pigment, and if pure its colour will completely disap- 
 pear, and without effervescence ; should it effervesce it indi- 
 cates the presence of a carbonate of some metal as an 
 adulterant. A hot concentrated solution of alum in water, 
 or strong distilled vinegar, discolours and decomposes arti- 
 ficial ultramarine. Nitric acid will destroy the blue colour, 
 leaving only an earthy yellowish-grey gelatine. If cobalt or 
 Prussian blue be used as adulterants, the acid tests will not 
 affect the ultramarine. SH 2 does not affect indigo blue, 
 but destroys ultramarine, and is a good test. 
 
 Pemarks — One of the best permanent pigments of the 
 palette, whether native or artificially produced. Varies in 
 tone and purity from deep to pale blue; also obtained with 
 a greenish violet or rose-colour tinge, according as it has 
 yellow or red oxide of iron mixed with it. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL, FRENCH, METZ, GMELIN'S BLUE, FAC- 
 TITIOUS ULTRAMARINE (or Bleu de Garance, and 
 Outremer de Guimet). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Silicate of alumina 
 and silicate of soda with sulphide of sodium. 
 
32 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF FIGMENTS. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — This artificial pigment, when well 
 made, can be safely used in place of the native variety. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent. The most 
 desirable are those possessing the most colour. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Strong heat turns it to 
 dingy blue, and finally white ; like the native variety, it is 
 decomposed by ignition in hydrogen gas. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Is as a rule darker and less azure 
 than the native pigment. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — No free sul- 
 phur should be present, nor sulphate of soda. To test for 
 latter, wash the ultramarine and add baric chloride, and if 
 this salt is present a cloudy precipitate will be given. 
 
 Remarks. — In water it should be used with a gum free 
 from acid. Blue ash is the product obtained from the last 
 grinding of the lapis lazuli; the refuse remains furnish 
 Mineral Grey. Unstable ultramarine (and the artificial is 
 stable and unstable) blackens with white lead, which the 
 genuine ultramarine does not. 
 
 New Blue is an artificial ultramarine, hovering in tint 
 between a rich ultramarine and cobalt. 
 
 Permanent Blue is a pale ultramarine with a cobalt hue. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 YELLOW PIGMEN1S. 
 
 AUREOLIN. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Cobalt yellow : a com- 
 position of cobalt, potassium, and oxide of nitrogen. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A rich, brilliant, transparent colour ; 
 mixes easily with other pigments. Useful for oil, water, or 
 fresco. Salter says : — " With white it forms very beautiful 
 and transparent tints. With cobalt and rose madder it 
 forms exceedingly pure and transparent aerial greys. With 
 sepia in addition it forms most agreeable delicate tints for 
 distant trees when under the influence of a soft light or hazy 
 state of the atmosphere. For foliage it imparts the vivid- 
 ness and freshness of nature to every colour with which it 
 is combined." 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent alone and in com- 
 bination. Sunlight, damp, impure air, and SH 2 have no 
 effect on it. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — It is non-permanent in 
 enamel, since heat destroys its colour. A steel spatula 
 should not be used in mixing it with another pigment, 
 especially if it be impure, since the steel would be oxidised 
 by the abstraction of oxygen, thus weakening the stability of 
 the pigment. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Most usual adulterants are the 
 chromates of lead or cadmium yellow. 
 
 D 
 
34 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — To test foi 
 cadmium see under cadmic sulphides and chromium. Am- 
 monium sulphate forms a black precipitate with salts of 
 cobalt. SH 2 does not precipitate solutions of cobalt salts. 
 If the pigment be heated it assumes an orange red colour, 
 gives off water, and then nitrous fumes, and leaves sesqui- 
 oxide of cobalt mixed with nitrate of potassium. If tested 
 in blowpipe flame, the borax bead is coloured a bright blue. 
 
 Remarks. — Alkalies and SH 2 have affected some impurely 
 made specimens, and with indigo this has been known to 
 be changed into the white indigo. The action is so very 
 slight, and the specimens so few, that it may be considered 
 the most permanent yellow known. Indigo is oxidised or 
 burnt up by admixture with it, the yellow of the aureolin 
 becoming brown. 
 
 BARYTA YELLOW (Yellow Ultramarine, or Lemon 
 Yellow). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Neutral chromate of 
 baryta. Composed of chromic acid and barium. This is 
 the true Lemon yellow. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Useful in high light, and as a glaze over 
 greens. A light wash gives cool sunny greens in distance. 
 Semi-opaque. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — The only chromate possessing 
 durability ; damp, foul air, light, and steel palette knife have 
 no injurious effect on it. Neither has white lead, nor other 
 pigments, either in oil or water. Permanent in fresco and 
 crayons. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Sulphates of lead, baryta, and 
 lime. 
 
CADMIUM YELLOW, 
 
 35 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Test for the 
 presence of the metals zinc, lead, and calcium. 
 
 Remarks. — Opinions differ on the permanency of this 
 pigment. 
 
 CADMIUM YELLOW (Cadmia, or Jaune Brillant). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Sulphide of cadmium 
 or cadmic sulphide. 112 equivalents of cadmium, and 32 
 equivalents of sulphur. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is a rich, intense, brilliant orange \ 
 useful in fresco and silicious painting. Excellent body and 
 of great power ; works and washes well. For gorgeous sun- 
 sets this colour is very valuable. With white, especially 
 Chinese white, it forms beautiful tints for the light touches 
 of bright clouds or mountains. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency . — With the exception of the 
 chromate, the cadmium yellows are all sulphides, and there- 
 fore unaffected by SH 2 . Light, air, and impure atmosphere 
 have no effect. Salter finds that cadmium yellow, if pure 
 and devoid of free sulphur, neither injures nor is injured by 
 white lead. If the pigment is doubted, it is best to use zinc 
 white for forming tints. The full deep cadmium is the 
 most stable. 
 
 Conditions of N on- Permanency \ — With white lead cad- 
 mium yellow is unstable. It should not be brought into 
 contact with pigments likely to be affected by sulphur or a 
 steel palette knife. It decomposes emerald green. The 
 pale cadmiums are somewhat unstable. Lemon cadmium 
 is very fugacious. No free sulphur should be present, as 
 it is injurious to other pigments. 
 
36 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Orpiment and chromate of lead, 
 iodine yellow and compounds of copper, bismuth, or mer- 
 cury are added as adulterants. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Cadmium 
 maybe known from yellow orpiment by not being volatilised 
 when heated, and being insoluble in ammonic sulphide. If 
 a black precipitate be given on adding SH 2 , the adulterants 
 may be mercury, lead, bismuth, or copper compounds. To 
 distinguish this yellow from copper compounds add SH 2 , 
 and if pure it will be unaffected, and will be insoluble in 
 alkaline sulphides, caustic sulphides, or potassic cyanide ; 
 insoluble in cold but soluble in hot dilute nitric and hydro- 
 chloric acids. Soluble also in dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Remarks. — The "pale" cadmium is not strictly so, except 
 in comparison with the deep cadmium we have been con- 
 sidering. This pale cadmium is of a full rich brilliant 
 yellow, but less orange than the deep cadmium. The paler 
 the cadmium yellow, the less permanent it is. 
 
 CHROME YELLOWS (Jaune Mineral, Cologne Yellow, 
 Pale and Deep Chrome, Orange Chrome, Citron, 
 Leipzig or Paris Yellow). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Chromates of lead, 
 in which the latter metal more or less exists in proportion 
 to the depth or paleness of the pigment ; it is chromic acid 
 combined with the metallic base. There are other chrome 
 yellows, being chromates of strontian or zinc, but they are 
 little used on the palette. Mineral yellow is a compound of 
 lead and chlorine. Cologne yellow consists of chromate of 
 lead (25), sulphate of lead (15), and sulphate of lime (60). 
 
CHROME YELLOWS. 
 
 37 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Are of various degrees of depth or 
 tone, from lemon to deep yellow, possessing opacity and 
 good body. Go cordially into tint with white, but they pos- 
 sess a harshness and crudeness when compounded with other 
 colours, and are devoid of that mellow richness which cha- 
 racterises the cadmiums. The action of oils is always too 
 great upon the lead in the presence of oxygen to allow of 
 the colour being quite permanent. They should be used 
 in draperies, where the changing would not greatly matter. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency, — The sulphates of baryta and 
 lime are sometimes formed during manufacture, and they 
 are an advantage, in that they not only lend a softness to 
 the colours, but decrease the proportion of lead and the 
 risk of change. Orange chrome is more lasting than yellow 
 chrome. Foul air has no effect on citron yellow. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Non-permanent either in 
 strong light, injurious air — in which they blacken — or in tint 
 with white. They are destructive to Prussian and Antwerp 
 blues compounded with them. Are likely to be affected 
 by sulphur compounds and alkalies. The denser the body 
 the more likely are chrome yellows to change. This change 
 is more rapid in water than in oil. Citron yellow in con- 
 tact with organic substances is apt to turn green. 
 
 General Adulterations. — The chromates are often mixed 
 with sulphate of lead — which is white — as well as with the 
 sulphates of baryta and lime. Lead increases the readiness 
 of the chromates to become black in impure air. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adtdterants. — If pure the 
 chrome yellow will be completely dissolved and without 
 effervescence when boiled in a test-tube with a little dilute 
 
3 8 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 nitric acid. The borax bead (blowpipe test) will be green 
 if the tested yellow be a chrome yellow. Alkalies, orange 
 or red protochloride of tin, and sulphurous acid reduce 
 Cologne yellow to the metallic state. 
 
 Remarks. — Chromate of lead in its natural state was long 
 known as " Siberian Redlead." Cologne yellow is a cheap 
 inferior colour unfit for the palette, but is useful for mixing 
 with other yellows. Jaune mineral is paler than the ordi- 
 nary chrornates of lead. Care should be taken as to what 
 pigments are mixed with these chrornates. Sulphides are 
 liable to be acted on by the lead in the chrom ates. 
 
 Cologne Earth. — This colour resembles sepia, but has 
 more depth when dry. It is useful for making sketches, 
 especially strong effects and classical subjects. These can 
 afterwards be coloured, and the Cologne earth gives sobriety 
 without coldness to the various tints which are laid over it. 
 
 GAMBOGE (variously written Gamboge, Camboge, Cam 
 bogia, Gambodium, Gamboage, &c). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Vegetable yellow. A 
 resinous gum which distils from various trees of a resinous 
 nature. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A clear yellow, bright and transparent, 
 readily dissolving in water. Somewhat deficient in light 
 and depth. Dries well, and can safely be used with other 
 pigments. Mixed with lemon yellow of barium, can be used 
 in oil. Useful for greens when mixed with blues, to be used 
 in trees and greens, and to make greys and neutral tints 
 when used with lake and indigo or Prussian blue, but 
 most frequently with indigo. It should not be used in 
 
INDIAN YELLOW. 
 
 39 
 
 the horizon tints of evening skies, yellow ochre being a 
 more mellow tint and preferable in tone. Gamboge will 
 make a good orange colour when mixed with burnt sienna, 
 useful for autumnal tints or faded trees. Makes pure green 
 when mixed with indigo and Prussian blue. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly permanent if properly 
 employed. Mixed with other pigments, from its gum resin, 
 it conduces to their stability and keeps its place well. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Impure air deepens, and 
 light weakens its tone. Not so stable in oil as water. White 
 lead and other metallic pigments injure it, terrene and alka- 
 line substances redden it, and alcohol dissolves it and alters 
 its colour. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Earthy matters. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants, — The tests 
 for organic substances are too complex to produce satisfac- 
 tory results in the hands of an amateur in analysis. 
 
 Remarks. — In landscape, gamboge affords, with indigo or 
 Antwerp blue, clear, bright greens, and with sepia a very 
 useful sober tint. For sunsets and sunrise, use gamboge 
 mixed with cadmium yellow. 
 
 INDIAN YELLOW (or Purree, or Powre). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Uriophosphate of 
 lime. A magnesian salt of a curious acid called euxanthic. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Pure yellow. Valuable in water under 
 strong sunlight. Of far greater body than gamboge ; can be 
 used in fresco. In oils useful for greens in landscapes. Is very 
 brilliant, and being transparent is useful in glazing over greens 
 which may be too dark and heavy, and to give them richness. 
 
4 o 
 
 THE ARTISTS 1 MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent in strong l'ght 
 and foul air. Lime does not affect it, hence useful in fresco. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency \ — Fugitive in oil, both alone 
 and in tint. Affected by darkness and obscurity. Is in- 
 jurious to cochineal lakes and carmines ; becomes brown by 
 mixture with pigments containing oxygen. 
 
 Remarks. — Blackness in the shadows of foliage resulting 
 from too much indigo is best corrected by this pigment em- 
 ployed thickly. 
 
 KING'S OR CHINESE YELLOW (Orpiment, or Auri- 
 pigmentum). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Arsenious sulphide ; 
 arsenious or sulpharsenious anhydride, a combination of sul- 
 phide and oxide of arsenic. Found natural ; also made 
 artificially. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A fine yellow, of good body. Works 
 well. Highly poisonous. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Semi-permanent in oil or 
 water. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — White lead destroys arse- 
 nical yellows. Cannot be used with Naples yellow made 
 from antimoniate of lead. Should not be used with green 
 chromium oxides. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If pure it 
 will be entirely volatilised when heated on a piece of porce- 
 lain i neither should it alter its colour when warmed with 
 dilute hydrochloric acid. Test for white lead. 
 
 Remarks. — The sulphur in combination with the arsenic, 
 having less affinity for that metal than for lead, lets it go, 
 
LEMON YELLOW. — MASSICOT. 
 
 4i 
 
 and forms a sulphide of lead of a dark greyish colour when 
 this yellow is used with lead paints. 
 
 LEMON YELLOW. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Chromate, carbonate, 
 and sulphate of lead. A mixture of chromium, carbon, sul- 
 phur, oxygen, and lead. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — It has some better qualities than the 
 chrome yellows generally. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly permanent under ordi- 
 nary conditions when well prepared. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Less affected by SH 2 
 than the chrome yellows. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Sulphates of baryta and lime and 
 arsenic. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Test for 
 the metals barium, calcium, and arsenic. 
 
 MASSICOT (or Masticot). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Protoxide of lead. 
 A higher degree of oxidation transforms massicot into 
 minium. Combination of lead and oxygen. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Unsuitable for fresco. May be em- 
 ployed in preparing the drying oils, but drying oils prepared 
 from lead pigments are dangerous to use. Light yellow 
 sold in shops under this name is generally Ceruse calcined. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Pure and unmixed it is as 
 permanent or fugitive as white lead. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — In tint with white lead, 
 and in damp and foul air, it is destroyed. 
 
42 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Other yellows compounded with 
 white. 
 
 Tests for Ptirity a?td Nature of Adulterants, — Employ 
 blowpipe test for chrome and baryta yellows. 
 
 Remarks. — One of the undesirable pigments. All lead 
 pigments, notwithstanding their opacity, good body, and 
 easy working, should be banished from the palette if perma- 
 nency is desired. 
 
 NAPLES YELLOW (the " Giallolino " of the Italians). 
 
 Che?nical Names and Composition. — Now compounded of 
 zinc j formerly lead oxide and antimony, or antimoniate of 
 lead. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Good body, opacity, and covering 
 power. The yellow now used in enamel painting is very 
 similar to Naples yellow, being composed of the oxides of 
 antimony and lead. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Not affected by sunlight. 
 Prof. Church says that the continental Naples yellow, com- 
 posed of zinc and antimony, is permanent. 
 
 Conditions of No n- Permanency. — Affected by SH 2 , foul 
 gases, and steel (which it oxidises by parting with oxygen) 
 or iron pigments, as ochres, Prussian or Antwerp blues. 
 
 General Adulterations. —Sulphates of lead, barium, and lime. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Should be 
 tested for the presence of lead, since that metal if in its 
 composition is very injurious. 
 
 Remarks. — In the manufacture of Naples yellow it is of 
 the greatest importance that the metals combined should be 
 in the complete state of oxides. 
 
YELLOW LA ICES. — YELLOW O CURES. 
 
 43 
 
 YELLOW LAKES (Madder Yellow, Italian, English, and 
 Dutch Pink, Quercitron Yellow or Lake). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Vegetable dyes on 
 earthy bases. Obtained from annato, turmeric, and quercitron. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Bright yellow ; very transparent ; bad 
 driers in oil. Time changes their colour to orange or foxy hue. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly durable if pure. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Light, oxygen, and white 
 lead destroy their colour. Metallic, arsenic, and alkaline 
 bodies redden them. 
 
 General Adulterations. — If adulterated will be with yellow 
 dyes. 
 
 Remarks. — Lakes of all colours should be used with cau- 
 tion and looked upon with suspicion. 
 
 YELLOW OCHRES (these include Jaime de Fer, Jaune 
 de Mars, Sienna, or Raw Sienna). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Hydrates of iron, and 
 peroxides of iron ; i.e. they are composed of oxygen, water, 
 and iron, sometimes closely combined with silica and alumina. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Semi-opaque in oil or water. Useful 
 for mixing for tints, and with Prussian blue to form greens. 
 When calcined they acquire a deeper colour, sometimes 
 becoming brown and red. Should be heated to 212 before 
 mixing with oil, to expel superfluous moisture. Useful for 
 stone buildings or plaster, cornfields, and yellow lights of 
 the sky towards the horizon; mixes well with Venetian red 
 for warm lights on buildings, &c, but never to be used in 
 the green for greens of trees, since it is not transparent 
 
THE ARTISTS 1 MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 enough, and liable to be washed off too easily. Burnt Sienna 
 is useful for rich banks of earth in sunshine and evening 
 tints, and for glowing tints on buildings ; not to be used on 
 the horizon tints of skies, but particularly useful in making 
 greens of various degrees of warmth and depth, when mixed 
 with purple grey; easily converted into different degrees of 
 warm or sober brown. Roman Ochre is useful for the 
 purpose of yellow ochre, but being less bright is adapted for 
 drawings of a deeper tone, and is more useful for the light 
 tints of stone buildings. Not to be used in the green of 
 trees. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Fairly permanent. Foul air 
 does not affect them. The chemically prepared ochres have 
 a more violent action on other pigments than the native 
 variety, and are less preferable. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency* — The ochres should not be 
 used with pigments affected by iron, or with carmine, lake, 
 and intense blue. They affect sulphates of lead. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Chalk and china clay (kaolin). 
 The greater the proportion of clay the brighter the colour. 
 Turmeric, Indian yellow, and yellow of coal-tar colours. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Hydrochloric 
 acid will cause effervescence if chalk be present. Boil this 
 solution, and if clay be present it will exhibit itself as a white 
 gelatinous residue. When there is a proportion of clay the 
 substance feels greasy, and has more body than one mixed 
 with chalk. Wash with ammonia; if coal-tar yellow be pre- 
 sent the liquid is coloured. 
 
 Remarks. — Jaune de Mars and Jaune de Fer are artificially 
 prepared iron ochres. Merimee gives good reasons for 
 
MARS ORANGE, MARS YELLOW, ORIENT YELLOW. 45 
 
 considering that no artificial ochres can have the same 
 permanency as natural ochres. 
 
 Mars Orange is a subdued orange of the burnt sienna 
 class, but without the brown tinge that distinguishes the 
 latter. It is marked by special clearness and purity of tone 
 with much transparency; it affords bright sunny tints in its 
 pale washes and combines effectively with white. Being an 
 artificial iron ochre, it is more chemically active than native 
 ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments 
 affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal, and intense 
 blue. 
 
 Mars Yellow, or Jaune de Mars, Jaune de Fer, Iron 
 Yellow, &c, is an artificially prepared iron ochre of the 
 nature of sienna earth. In its general qualities it resembles 
 the ochres, with the same eligibility and exceptions ; but is 
 more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, and richer and 
 brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. 
 
 Orient Yellow is absolutely permanent and perfectly unex- 
 ceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. It equals 
 aureolin in stability ; not possessed of the same amount of 
 transparency, it is distinguished by greater richness and 
 depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous, it 
 resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. 
 A gorgeous and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment 
 is produced by compounding the orient with aureolin, or by 
 using the latter as a glaze. Being more transparent than 
 the cadmiums, and less obtrusive, this yellow is adapted 
 
46 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, as for instance, sun- 
 shine on distant mountains. With French blue it affords a 
 beautiful sea-green, and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine 
 green tints. It is also eligible for draperies and illumina- 
 tion. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the colour being 
 destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may be safely 
 employed. 
 
 Turner Yellow, Cassel Yellow, Montpellier Yellow, 
 Vienna Yellow, Mineral Yellow. — These various names 
 belong to quite a number of colours, the composition of 
 which is not properly established. Nevertheless they appear 
 to result from the combination of a protochloride of lead 
 with variable proportions of oxide of lead, and consequently 
 suffer the disadvantages of lead pigments. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 RED PIGMENTS. 
 
 CADMIUM RED. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Is a simple original 
 pigment containing no base but cadmium. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Approaches an orange scarlet tone ; 
 has great depth; works and dries well. Gives delicate 
 washes, and is useful where opacity is undesirable. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Mixes readily and safely with 
 other colours. Not affected by light, impure air, or ex- 
 posure to atmosphere. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Must not be used for 
 enamel painting. 
 
 General Adulterations. — If adulterated will be with red 
 lead or vermilion. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants.- -Test for 
 lead. Boil in water, and add SH 2 to solution. A dark 
 precipitate indicates lead. To test for vermilion, heat a 
 little in test-tube ; the mercury will volatilise and condense 
 in metallic globules on sides of tube. 
 
 Remarks. — Useful for all kinds of work but enamel. 
 Compounded with white, this red yields a series of fine 
 flesh tints. 
 
4 8 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 CHINESE VERMILION, or Carmine Vermilion. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — This pigment was 
 sometimes a sulphide of arsenic, but is now obtained from 
 meicury. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Has a somewhat crimson hue not at 
 all inclined to orange. Mixed with white is useful for rose 
 and lilac tints of some complexions. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency . — Safe to use with madder lakes. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Unsafe in combination 
 with the lakes of cochineal. 
 
 General Adulterations. — See Vermilion. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Same as for 
 vermilion. 
 
 Remarks. — Scarlet and extract of vermilion are synony- 
 mous terms. Orange vermilion gives delicate carnations, 
 and is durable in oil and water. 
 
 CRIMSON LAKE. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Is an extract from the 
 " coccus cacti " insect fixed to oxide of iron or aluminous 
 base, and contains more of this aluminous base than car- 
 mine does. The colour of this lake should be imparted to 
 it during the process of manufacture, and not by subse- 
 quent mechanical mixture. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Not so deep nor brilliant as carmine. 
 More useful in water than in oil, and useful for glazing ; over 
 vermilion it produces a most brilliant scarlet, but is apt to 
 vanish therefrom. Poppy oil is the best vehicle to use with 
 cochineal lakes. 
 
CARMINE LAKE. 
 
 49 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — More valuable and durable in 
 water than in oil. 
 
 Conditions of No?i- Permanency, — Unstable either alone or 
 in combination. Strong light renders crimson lake fugacious, 
 whether in water or in oil ; white lead and other lead pig- 
 ments, Naples yellow, and arsenical colours, destroy its hue. 
 Lakes mixed with linseed oil turn livery. 
 
 General Adulterations. — If made from an inferior insect, 
 heavy spar, carbonate of lead, and Venice talc are some- 
 times added to give it the silvery-grey reflection that is 
 always to be met w 7 ith on the best insect. Logwood and 
 chalk are also sometimes added. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — A solu- 
 tion of ammonia will purple the lakes made with logwood, 
 Brazil wood, and others, but will not dissolve the colours 
 produced from them. To distinguish other adulterants, use 
 the respective tests for chalk, heavy spar, carbonate of lead, 
 &c., given under white lead. 
 
 Remarks. — Gives richness in flower painting and in illu- 
 mination. It forms excellent greys with cobalt and gam- 
 boge, and as a foreground colour it should be mixed with 
 Vandyke brown. Useless for frescoes, as alkaline bodies 
 purple the tones of lakes. A cochineal lake. 
 
 CARMINE LAKE. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A cochineal lake. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Has great power in full touches; 
 possesses clearness in the pale washes; works well. Seldom 
 used in landscape painting. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Carmine, containing less base 
 
 E 
 
THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMETNS. 
 
 and most colouring matter, is the most permanent of the 
 cochineal lakes. Oil or varnish as vehicles protect it. Im- 
 pure air has little effect on it. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency, — In glazing, strong light 
 causes the glaze to vanish, and in tint with white lead it is 
 fugacious. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Starch, vermilion, and alumina 
 are occasionally added as adulterants. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — These may 
 be detected by the tests given for cochineal lakes in general, 
 or by adding liquid ammonia and then heating. The colour- 
 ing matter is entirely dissolved, while the impurities remain 
 insoluble. 
 
 Remarks. — The name was formerly confined to the fine 
 feculences of the Kermes and cochineal tinctures, but now 
 includes any pigment which is like them in beauty and 
 powdery texture (as blue carmines), though the term is 
 usually confined to crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal, 
 
 INDIAN LAKE, or Lac Lake. 
 
 Chemical Names a?id Composition. — A resinous secretion 
 of the " coccus ficus " deposited on twigs and branches of 
 plants. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is a good deep colour, hard and nearly 
 transparent. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Used thickly or in strong 
 glazing, as a shadow colour, it is of great body and much 
 permanence. (Salter.) 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Not thoroughly per- 
 
INDIAN RED AND PERSIAN RED. 
 
 5i 
 
 manent, but still more so than the other cochineal lakes. 
 Is fugitive with white lead and in thin glazing. 
 
 General Adulterations. — The most usual are chalk and 
 sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris) and silica. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The native 
 variety has a brilliant conchoidal fracture. 
 
 Remarks. — Inferior in brilliancy and durability to madder 
 lakes. 
 
 INDIAN RED and PERSIAN RED. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Indian red is a hema- 
 tite or peroxide of iron containing oxygen, iron, and earthy 
 matters. Besides the Persian red obtained from the ochres, 
 there is another which is a chromate of lead. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Indian red has good body, of a purple 
 russet hue, and is useful for fresco and silicious painting 
 provided lime is not present. Goes well into combination. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Per?nane7tcy. — Contains much oxygen, 
 and when mixed with lakes and pigments, abstracting oxy- 
 gen, its stability is weakened. 
 
 General Adulterations — Chromates of lead and red ochres. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — To dis- 
 tinguish Persian red from other reds, if pounded in a mortar 
 it assumes an orange hue. To test for chromates of lead 
 use SH 2 . 
 
 Remarks. — Persian red is sometimes used to adulterate 
 vermilion, light and other reds. Chromate of lead in its 
 natural state was known as Siberian red lead. 
 
THE ARTISTS" MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 IODINE SCARLET, or Iodide of Mercury. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Iodide of mercury 
 or mercuric iodide. 200 equivalents of mercury and 254 
 equivalents of iodine. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Good body and opacity. A mag- 
 nificent scarlet, unequalled by any other pigment. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Not permanent. It is 
 subject to evanescence by slight influences. Is easily de- 
 composed by other pigments ; pure atmosphere renders its 
 colour fugacious; foul air destroys its scarlet hue; light 
 causes it to vanish. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Many adulterants which affect its 
 hue. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The best 
 quality is of the finest colour. Soluble in alcohol and in 
 excess of potassic iodide. 
 
 Remarks. — Although useless as a pigment, it is mentioned 
 here that its employment may be guarded against. 
 
 MADDER LAKES (Madder Carmine or Tinted Carmine, 
 Pink Madder, Rose Rubiate or Liquid Madder, Lake 
 or Rose Madder). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — These lakes are ex- 
 tracted from the root of the " Rubia Tinctorum." 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Brown and Purple Madder Lakes are 
 useful in landscapes for cattle, draperies and mossy stones^ 
 and thatch near the foreground. Madder Carmine is the 
 lichest and deepest, and contains more colouring matter 
 than base. It varies in hue according to the mode of pre- 
 
MADDER LAKES. 
 
 53 
 
 paration. Madder Lake, useful for purples when mixed with 
 indigo and Prussian blue; the last should be used prin- 
 cipally for distant hills and mountains. This mixture is also 
 useful for the shadows of nearer but not yet distant hills. 
 It makes a grey or neutral tint when mixed with gamboge 
 and Prussian blue or cobalt. Madder lake is bright, rubs 
 up easily, and with a better body of colour than the bright 
 madders of cochineal, and lies more evenly. May be 
 mixed with yellow ochre for the warm tint of skies instead 
 of Venetian red. Pink Madder is a weaker preparation of 
 this, paler in hue, and possessing less colour. Rose Madder 
 is not as intense as madder carmine. It gives the most 
 perfect carnation tints known. Does not rapidly dry in oil ; 
 is less easy to work in water than cochineal. With cadmium 
 yellow and Chinese white it is invaluable for glazing. The 
 red portion of a sunset sky may be improved with a thin 
 wash of this pigment. Rose Rubiate is a concentrated tinc- 
 ture of a beautiful and perfect rose-colour and transparency. 
 In its simple state it is used as a water colour with or with- 
 out gum. In oil it dries by acting as a siccative. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Madder lakes are the only 
 thoroughly permanen tlakes of the palette. Madder carmine 
 is the only desirable carmine for painting in oil or water. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency . — When adulterated their 
 permanency is affected in respect of the nature of the adul- 
 terations used. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Madders are often adulterated 
 with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay, mahogany saw- 
 dust, logwood, sandal and Japan wood, and bran ; whilst 
 the French madders have gum, sugar, salts, and other 
 
54 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 soluble bodies, as likewise lac, cochineal, and carthamus or 
 safflower. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Liquid 
 ammonia or alkalies generally dissolve the colours of cochi- 
 neal, lac, and safflower, so their detection is easy. If the 
 liquid remains uncoloured on adding ammonia to an as- 
 sumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment is 
 genuine. 
 
 Remarks. — u Lake " is a term applied either to red, yel- 
 low, or blue pigments formed by precipitating colouring 
 matters, as tinctures, on to some metallic oxide, alumina or 
 other earth. All vegetable lakes should be regarded with 
 suspicion if used in thinning, glazing, or delicate flesh or sky 
 tints. Pink madder is now almost obsolete ; the name is 
 given to rose madder, which is also called madder lake. 
 In using these lakes a little of the dry colour should be 
 crushed with the muller and made up into a thick paste with 
 a few drops of poppy oil, drying oil being used to thin it as 
 it is wanted for use. By thus omitting the drying oil the 
 pigment will remain moist for days. 
 
 RED LEAD (Minium, or Saturnine Red). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — An oxide of lead. It 
 is generally a mixture of two oxides of lead not chemically 
 compounded, and is of an uncertain composition. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Of a scarlet colour, heavy and opaque 
 in body. Is an excellent drier with other colours, but being 
 lead it cannot be safely employed except with the ochres, 
 earths, and blacks in general. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — When pure or alone it is not 
 
RED OCHRE. 
 
 55 
 
 affected by light, and in simple varnish or oil not rendered 
 drying by any metallic oxide it may stand a long time under 
 favourable circumstances. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — White lead destroys its 
 colour. SH 2 blackens it, and when mixed with it red lead 
 undergoes a rapid oxidation. Nitric acid turns it brown. 
 Red lead follows white lead in saponifying with the oil, and 
 so in time loses its opacity, and allows the background to 
 appear through. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Badly made red lead is of a 
 brownish colour. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — To dis- 
 tinguish red lead from vermilion or iron reds (as the ochres) 
 add a solution of SH 2 and a black precipitate of lead sul- 
 phide will indicate the leaden nature of the pigment. 
 
 Remarks. — Altogether unsuitable for the artist's palette. 
 
 RED OCHRE (Indian Ochre, Scarlet Ochre, or Light 
 Red). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Is usually a sulphate 
 of iron calcined into an oxide. Sometimes it is one of the 
 yellow oxides of iron calcined. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — It is less harsh to the eye than ver- 
 milion, and more harmonious in certain combinations. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — The ochres are permanent 
 when well prepared. Should not be mixed with those pig- 
 ments likely to be affected by iron. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Should sulphate of lime 
 be present, it is unsuitable for silicious painting, since sili- 
 
£5 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 cate of lime is formed by union with the silicate of potash, 
 and the pigments become hard and lumpy. 
 
 General Adulterations. — The native pigment is mixed 
 with earthy substances. 
 
 Remarks. — With vermilion or madder lake it is useful for 
 the shadows of light red draperies. 
 
 RED ORPIMENT, or Realgar. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Diarsenious disul* 
 phide ; i.e. a compound of arsenic and sulphur. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Red orpiment, which is an orange 
 colour, contains most arsenic, whereas yellow orpiment con- 
 tains most sulphur. Poisonous. 
 
 Conditions of Non~ Permanency. — A dangerous body to use, 
 since it destroys other pigments and absorbs the colour of 
 the ground, especially so if the latter contain lead. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Arsenic is 
 volatilised like the mercury in vermilion when heated in a 
 narrow test-tube, and only a small portion of the realgar 
 should be used. This arsenic pigment gives off an odour 
 similar to garlic when heated in a test-tube. 
 
 Remarks. — Both this pigment and its well-known yellow 
 companion should be excluded from the palette. 
 
 VENETIAN, ENGLISH, or PRUSSIAN RED, or Scarlet 
 Ochre. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — An oxide obtained 
 from iron. Prepared by calcining sulphate of iron, to 
 which a little nitric acid may be advantageously added. 
 The result is a peroxide of iron more powerful and of a 
 more scarlet tone than light red. 
 
VENETIAN, ENGLISH, OR PRUSSIAN RED. 57 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — With cobalt or French blue, with 
 which it mixes well, it gives fine pearly greys. Heightened 
 in tone by admixture with madder lake. Saddened by black, 
 it gives low-toned reds useful for buildings. Compounded 
 with aureolin, yields a clear orange. Useful for the red 
 horizon tints of skies, and to make a neutral tint when 
 mixed with indigo and a very little lake, and is most 
 excellent for its quality of mixing well with all colours 
 (Indian ink not excepted), and lying evenly and smoothly 
 on the paper, with less trouble than light red, for which 
 it is a valuable substitute. It is preferable to indigo 
 red, which is too heavy and purple, and is very good to 
 mix with yellow ochre for general tints used in bricks, 
 tiles, &c. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency, — When well prepared it is 
 permanent, but since it contains iron it should not be mixed 
 with pigments affected by that metal. It is apparently not 
 affected by SH 2 , light, damp, or foul air. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Sometimes unsuitable 
 for silicious painting (see red ochre). 
 
 General Adulterations. — In the manufacture of Venetian 
 red, lime sometimes becomes mixed with it, and as the 
 pigment is made from the sulphate of iron, sulphate of lime 
 is formed. The presence of this impurity prevents the use 
 of Venetian red in silicious painting. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Test foi 
 presence of alumina, chalk, and gypsum. If pure no reac- 
 tion will take place with the tests. Hydrochloric acid com- 
 pletely dissolves pure oxide of iron. 
 
 Remarks. — A good all-round pigment. 
 
58 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 VERMILION (also called Cinnabar). 
 
 Chemical Name and Composition. — Sulphide r of mercury. 
 Is obtained native, or is produced artificially by heating 
 together 200 equivalents of mercury with 32 equivalents of 
 sulphur. 
 
 Artistic Qualities '.—Has good body, due to its opacity; 
 is useful in oil, water, and fresco. It must not be used 
 with iodine, since it does not dry quickly. Compounded 
 with whites, it forms delicate flesh tints, and with cobalt or 
 French blue and white tender aerial greys. This is the 
 brightest of reds ; is useful in flesh and drapery, and in 
 painted objects, such as flags, boats, &c, being of that de- 
 gree of brightness which will, by contrast, send back many 
 other reds into distances. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent under all ordinary 
 conditions. Being a sulphide, it is unaffected by SH 2 , 
 and should not be brought into contact with a pigment on 
 which sulphur acts injuriously. Vermilion in the course of 
 time turns slightly brown. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — When heated to a very 
 high temperature with compounds of tin, iron, and anti- 
 mony, it is decomposed. Unfitted for enamel painting, 
 since alkalies and alkaline carbonates decompose it when at 
 a red heat. Unstable with lakes. Becomes denser with 
 age. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Red lead, brickdust, oxide of 
 iron, or Persian red (a peculiar chromate of lead). Some- 
 times iodine scarlet is added to give extraordinary brilliancy. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If pure will 
 
MARS RED. — PURPLE LAKE. 
 
 59 
 
 be decomposed into metallic mercury and sulphur, and dis- 
 sipated, when heated in test-tube. Hydrochloric acid and 
 caustic alkalies do not affect it. Oxide of iron may be 
 detected by hydrochloric acid. If lead be present a metal- 
 lic bead of it will be formed if vermilion be fused on char- 
 coal with carbonate of soda, the metallic mercury passing 
 off as a vapour. If brickdust be present, heat the pigment 
 in long narrow tube : the mercury will volatilise and brick- 
 dust remain at the bottom of the tube. Iodine is dissolved 
 by carbon disulphide, which assumes a fine violet colour. 
 
 Remarks. — Field's orange vermilion is less opaque and 
 also brighter, clearer, and purer than the ordinary vermilion. 
 Scarlet vermilion possesses a more scarlet hue than vermilion 
 proper. 
 
 Mars Red, or Rouge de Mars, is an artificial iron ochre, 
 similar in subdued tint and permanence to the native umber. 
 Its chemical affinities, however, are greater than those of the 
 latter, and it therefore requires to be employed cautiously 
 with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the red 
 resembles its compeers — Mars yellow, orange, violet and 
 brown — all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared. 
 Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is dis- 
 tinguished by a russet orange hue of light red. Its pale 
 washes are marked by considerable clearness. 
 
 Purple Lake is a species of crimson lake with a purple 
 cast, transparent and deep toned and useful in shadows ; in 
 other respects resembling that pigment. More durable than 
 crimson lakes. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 BROWN AND BLACK PIGMENTS. 
 
 ASPHALTUM or BITUMEN (Antwerp Brown, or Bitu- 
 men Judaicum). 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A mineral pitch of 
 resin. The native asphalt is non-secure ; the artificial is the 
 residue of various resins and bituminous matters distilled 
 for the sake of their essential oils. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is a rich brown. Has a powerful 
 body, but is useless, as it liquefies and cracks unless mixed 
 with an unctuous vehicle. It is dissolved in oil of turpen- 
 tine. The native is superior to the artificial asphaltum 
 when it is used as a permanent brown in water. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — Is a most destructive 
 pigment, since it contracts and cracks by atmospheric and 
 caloric changes. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Asphaltum is often adulterated 
 with foreign matters, all of which render it still more destruc- 
 tive in use. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If pure it 
 should present a glossy fracture, smooth and nearly black 
 and brilliant. This fracture also has the appearance of un- 
 dulations, arising, in fact, from the movement it experienced, 
 whilst yet liquid, on the surface of the sea, and in its con- 
 crete state it retains this form. 
 
BISTRE. — BROWN PINK. 
 
 61 
 
 Remarks. — The solution of asphalte in turpentine is com- 
 monly called " asphaltum," and the mixture with drying 
 oils "bitumen." Liquid asphaltum is a preparation made 
 for use in water colours. 
 
 BISTRE. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — The finer parts of 
 beechwood soot extracted by a watery solution. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Not used in oil, as it dries with diffi- 
 culty therein ; only in water. It has a powerful citrine brown 
 colour, and washes well. 
 
 Conditions of Pennanency. — A permanent colour. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — It attracts moisture from 
 the atmosphere, and is therefore liable to engender mildew 
 in water colours. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Accidental impurities, as coarse 
 particles of soot, wood-ashes, &c. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — A gritty 
 solution will at once show these impurities. 
 
 Remarks. — Used in water like China ink, and has the 
 same effect as brown pink has in oil. 
 
 BROWN PINK. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A vegetable lake 
 made from dye woods and French berries by precipitation 
 with alum. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Great depth and transparency in 
 water colour. All berry varieties dry badly. Works well 
 both in water and in oil. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — More permanent when worked 
 
62 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 in full body than in thin glazings. The quercitron bark 
 variety is semi-stable. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency \ — When in combination 
 A^ith white lead it fades. The berry variety is fugitive. 
 
 General Adulterations. — May accidentally possess an ex- 
 cess of soda or potash from careless manufacture. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — If the 
 alkali be in excess, the pigment possesses a brown hue 
 instead of that of a citron hue. 
 
 Remarks. — Should be used carefully in combination. 
 Produces fine greens with Prussian or indigo blue. 
 
 BLUE or FRANKFURT BLACK. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Charcoal and cal- 
 cined Prussian blue ; also burnt vine-twigs, cocoanut 
 shells, &c. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A most useful colour, and dries well 
 in oil. In mixture with white, produces bluish tints. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent, 
 
 Ge?teral Adulterations. — Common black mixed with blues. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — It should be 
 free from lumps and of fine texture. 
 
 Remarks. — The blue-black of the ancients was made 
 from the lees of wine. 
 
 INDIAN INK and CHINESE INK. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Shell-lac 10 parts, 
 borax 20 parts, lampblack and water 40 parts. Chinese ink 
 is the finest lampblack mixed with the oil of sesame and a 
 little camphor. 
 
LAMPBLACK, OR LAMBLACK. 
 
 63 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Finely opaque in body. When dry 
 on the paper will not yield to the action of water, owing to 
 its combining with the components of the paper. 
 
 Conditions 0/ Permanency. — It is thoroughly permanent. 
 
 Genera/ Adulterations. — Earthy matters and inferior soots. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Is homoge- 
 neous when rubbed in water. When diluted with much water 
 will leave no precipitate after evaporation. When dry its 
 surface is covered with a pellicle of a metallic appearance. 
 
 Remarks. — Chinese ink may be distinguished by its being 
 dissolved in vinegar without any precipitate. 
 
 LAMPBLACK, or Lamblack. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Smoke black. It is a 
 pure vegetable carbon of fine texture, obtained by burning 
 resins or resinous woods, turpentine, or camphor ; or made 
 from the imperfect combustion of bone, oil, coal-tar, and 
 the products of the petroleum stills. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Is not so intense nor so transparent 
 as ivory black but less brown in its pale tones. It has a 
 very strong body which covers every underlay of colour ; 
 works well ; it dries badly, but unites well in oil. Since it 
 is a dense solid colour, it must be used sparingly. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — It is durable. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Inferior soot and earthy matters. 
 
 Tests for Purity a?id Nature of Adulterants. — Lampblack 
 is intense in colour and of light weight, the black obtained 
 from coal-smoke being much heavier and coarser ; it con- 
 tains a large quantity of ammonia. 
 
 Remarks. — Salter says : — " Mixed with French blue ot 
 
64 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 cobalt it gives good cloudy greys. With light red and 
 cobalt in different proportions it yields most serviceable 
 silvery tones. In the dark marking of murky and dirty 
 clouds, a compound of lampblack and light red is particu- 
 larly suited, while a mixture of it with cobalt and purple 
 madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise 
 clouds. In seas the colour is useful with raw sienna." 
 
 MANGANESE BROWN. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A deuteroxide of man- 
 ganese. A native product. 
 
 Ariisiic Qualities. — A useful semi- opaque colour ; has such 
 good drying powers that it is often used as a siccative for 
 oils and dark pigments. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency . — Quite durable in water and oils. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Organic matters decom- 
 pose manganates, so this should be used cautiously in pre- 
 sence of animal and vegetable lakes.] 
 
 General Adulterations. — Various kinds of earths. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Heated in 
 outer flame (blowpipe test) the borax bead is of an amethyst 
 colour ; in inner or reducing flame this bead becomes colour- 
 less. This test distinguishes manganese brown from other 
 browns. 
 
 Remarks. — The peroxide of manganese forms the man- 
 ganese black. 
 
 MUMMY or EGYPTIAN BROWN. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — White pitch and 
 myrrh combined with animal matter. 
 
PRUSSIAN BROWN. 
 
 65 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A rich transparent colour. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — It is less liable to crack and 
 move on the canvas than asphaltum. 
 
 Conditions of Non-Permanency. — It is a substance better 
 rejected from the palette, as no reliance can be placed on it. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Its organic origin renders it liable 
 to contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete state, 
 which are undesirable. 
 
 Pemarks. — Bodies were embalmed 3,000 years ago in 
 liquid bitumen. It is this bitumen, combined with parts of 
 the body, that compose mummy brown. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BROWN, or Iron Brown. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Calcined Prussian 
 blue, or an iron oxide with alumina. French Prussian blue, 
 as it contains more alumina, is better than the English 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — It is of great transparency, of a most 
 harmonious tone, and dries well. When asphaltum would 
 be used this should replace it. As good in water as in oil. 
 Produces fine glazes with burnt sienna. 
 
 Conditions of 'Permanency. —Perfectly permanent, and un- 
 dergoes no change. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Harmful chemical constituents are 
 liable to be present from careless manufacture. The iron 
 browns vary in colour according to method of, or careless- 
 ness in, preparation. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The brown 
 made from the English Prussian blue is of a golden yellow- 
 ish brown. Another Prussian brown, a ferro-cyanide of 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 copper, can be detected by SH 2 and is totally destroyed by 
 the alkaline solutions used in picture-cleaning. 
 
 Remarks. — If the calcination of Prussian blue be carried 
 on in closed vessels, a deep black is procured possessing 
 the properties of this brown. The copper Prussian brown 
 is of a rich chocolate colour. 
 
 SEPIA. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Extract of cuttle-fish. 
 Consisting of carbonaceous particles and animal gelatine. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A dusky brown and transparent colour, 
 dries badly in oil. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Permanent in oil and water. 
 
 General Adulterations. — Earthy particles may be present. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The pure 
 sepia should be free from gritty particles when dissolved in 
 water. 
 
 Remarks. — Very pleasant working colour. 
 
 UMBER, RAW and BURNT. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — A native ore of iron 
 and manganese, mixed with silex and alumina. Also arti- 
 ficially made. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — Possesses strong drying powers, works 
 and washes well in water. Eligible in fresco, and has good 
 body. Is useful as shadows to warm tints of earth and 
 burnt sienna, and near foregrounds, and for the colour of 
 earth. Useful also for small dark touches of shadow to 
 pebbles, &c, in foreground. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Durable in oil and water ; 
 grows darker with age. 
 
VANDYKE BROWN. 
 
 67 
 
 General Adulterations. — Ochreous or earthy matters, or a 
 too great preponderance of some one of its constituents in 
 a free state. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — Browns are 
 best when deep, rich, and transparent. 
 
 Remarks. — An olive brown colour, useful both raw and 
 calcined. Should be used with white and other colours to 
 form greys. 
 
 VANDYKE, CAPPAH, RUBENS, CASSEL, and 
 COLOGNE BROWN. 
 
 Chemical Names and Composition. — Cappahis a manganese 
 peat. Rubens brown is a native earth of an ochreous cha- 
 racter. Cassel brown is a native earthy brown. Cologne 
 brown is an ochreous deep violaceous earth. 
 
 Artistic Qualities. — A deep semi-transparent colour, good 
 for glazing. Cassel earth compounded with burnt lake and 
 a little Prussian blue gives a profound black. 
 
 Conditions of Permanency. — Nearly permanent. To com- 
 pensate for the action of strong light, should be mixed with 
 permanent colours, such as umber, Chinese black, and oxide 
 of iron. 
 
 Conditions of Non- Permanency. — Strong light affects them. 
 Cologne brown is fugacious. 
 
 General Adulterations. — From their earthy nature these 
 browns are liable to possess an unwonted quantity of much 
 undesirable substance. 
 
 Tests for Purity and Nature of Adulterants. — The methods 
 of distinguishing these browns, or separating these earthy 
 matters, are too complex for ordinary practice. 
 
68 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Remarks. — All peaty browns, probably from their vege- 
 table colouring, have a slight tendency to become paler 
 when washed very thinly. Use the strongest drying oils 
 with them. 
 
 Mars Brown, or Brim de Mars, is either a natural or 
 artificial ochre, containing iron, or iron and manganese ; of 
 much richness and strict permanence. It resembles raw 
 umber in being a brown with a citrine cast, but is generally 
 marked by a flash of orange which is not observable in the 
 latter pigment. 
 
 Mineral Gray * is obtained from the lapis lazuli, after the 
 refuse and ash has been worked out. It is a pigment 
 peculiar to oil paints ; it is admirably adapted to that gray 
 semi-neutrality prevalent in nature in atmospheres. In 
 misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like, this gray will be 
 found useful. 
 
 Neutral Tint is a compound shadow colour of a cool 
 character. It is permanent except that, on exposure, the 
 gray is apt to become grey — a change which may be pre- 
 vented by a slight addition of ultramarine ash. So pro- 
 tected, it becomes serviceable in landscape for the extreme 
 distance, which, it may be laid down as a general principle, 
 should be painted rather cold than otherwise. 
 
 Payne's Gray resembles neutral tint in being a compound 
 colour, and liable to assume a grey cast by time, but diners 
 from it in having more lilac in its hue, and being, therefore, 
 
 * Grey is a grey compounded with black and white ; gray is a gray 
 with the blue replacing the black. 
 
RUBENS MADDER. 
 
 69 
 
 of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear violet shadow, 
 it maybe rendered more neutral by a small portion of burnt 
 sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or sienna 
 predominates, affords useful tints. Compounded with light 
 red or Vandyke brown, the gray is good for shipping and 
 sails or the stems and branches of trees, while, with gam- 
 boge or aureolin, it is suited to glossy leaves in high lights, 
 also to vary cold tones in foreground, herbage, &c. Yellow 
 ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks 
 and roads ; the gray ochre and sepia, a most beautiful tint 
 for stones; and brown madder and the gray a fine shade for 
 the black heads and feet of cattle. Alone the gray is service- 
 able for slates, and, compounded with light red, for bricks 
 or tiles in shadow. 
 
 Rubens Madder, otherwise known as Orange Russet, 
 Russet Rubiate, or Field's Russet. This is a very rich 
 crimson russet with a flash of orange ; pure, transparent, 
 and of a madder hue between orange and purple. It is a 
 good glazing colour ; its thin washes afford fine flesh tints 
 in water; and, as an oil pigment, it dries indifferently and 
 requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold-size or 
 varnish. It is not subject to change by light, time, or 
 mixture of other pigments. 
 
TABLE OF REFERENCE. 
 
 WHITE PIGMENTS. 
 
 Baryta w. 
 Blanc d'argent 
 Body w. (see white lead) 
 Ceruse (see ditto) 
 Chinese w. (see zinc w.) 
 Common w. (see flake w.) 
 Constant w. (see baryta w.) 
 Cremnitz w. (see white lead) 
 Dutch w. (see ditto) 
 Flake w. 
 
 Flemish w. (see white lead) 
 French w. (see blanc d'argent) 
 Hamburg w. ^(see white lead) 
 Permanent w. (see baryta w.) 
 Roman w. (see white lead) 
 Silver w. (see blanc d'argent) 
 Venetian w. (see white lead) 
 White Lead 
 Zinc w. 
 
 GREEN PIGMENTS. 
 
 Bladder g. (see sap g.) 
 Brunswick g. (see emerald g.) 
 Burnt Verdigris (see verdigris) 
 Chrome Greens 
 Chrome Oxide (see native g.) 
 Cobalt g. (see zinc g.) 
 Emerald g 
 
 Green Bice (see terra verte) 
 Green Earth (see ditto) 
 Green Oxide of Chromium 
 Holly g. (see terra verte) 
 Hungary g. (see malachite) 
 Imperial g. (see emerald g.) 
 Malachite 
 
 Mitis g. (see emerald g.) 
 
 Mountain g. (see malachite) 
 Native'g. 
 
 Opaque Oxide Chromium (see na- 
 tive g.) 
 
 Pure Chrome g. (see native g.) 
 Rinman's g. (see zinc g.) 
 Sapg. 
 Scheele's g. 
 
 Schweinfurt g. (see emerald g. 
 Swedish g. (see sap g.) 
 Terra Verte 
 
 Transparent Oxide of Chromium 
 Verde Vessie (see sap g.) 
 Verdetta (see terra verte) 
 Verdigris 
 
 Viride -^Eris (see verdigris) 
 Verona Brown (see terra verte) 
 Verona g. (see ditto) 
 Vienna g. (see emerald g.) 
 Viridian 
 Zinc g. 
 
 BLUE PIGMENTS. 
 
 Antwerp b. 
 Artificial Ultramarine 
 Azure (see ultramarine, smalt, and 
 cobalt) 
 
 Berlin b. (see Antwerp & Prussian b.) 
 Bleu de Garance (see artificial ult.) 
 Blue and Ultramarine Ash (see 
 
 ditto) 
 Cobalt b. 
 
 Cobalt Ultramarine (see cobalt b.) 
 Cseruleum 
 
 Cerulian (see caeruleum 
 Dumont's b. (see smalt) 
 Enamel b. (see ditto) 
 
TABLE OF REFERENCE. 
 
 7* 
 
 Egyptian b. (see cseruleum) 
 
 Factitious Ultramarine (see art. ult.) 
 
 French b. (see ditto) 
 
 Gmelin's b. (see ditto) 
 
 Haarlem b. (see Antwerp b.) 
 
 Indian b. (see indigo) 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Lazurline (see ultramarine) 
 Metz b. (see artificial ultramarine) 
 Mineral b. (see Antwerp b.) 
 Mineral Grey (see artificial ult.) 
 New Blue 
 
 Outremer (see ultramarine) 
 
 Outremer de Guimet (see art. ult.) 
 
 Parisian b. (see Prussian b.) 
 
 Permanent Blue 
 
 Prussian b. 
 
 Royal b. (see smalt) 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Thenard's b. (see cobalt b.) 
 TurnbulPs b. (see Prussian b.) 
 Ultramarine 
 
 Vienna b. (see cobalt b.) 
 
 YELLOW PIGMENTS. 
 Aureolin 
 
 Cobalt y. (see aureolin) 
 Auripigmentum (see king's y.) 
 Baryta y. 
 
 Camboge (see Gamboge) 
 Cadmia (see cadmium y.) 
 Chinese y. (see king's y.) 
 Citron y. (see chrome ys.) 
 Cologne y. (see ditto) 
 Deep Chrome (see ditto) 
 Dutch Pink (see yellow lakes) 
 English Pink (see ditto) 
 Gamboge 
 
 !!SX» }<-*»*«*.) 
 
 Giallolino (see Naples y.) 
 Indian y. 
 
 Italian Pink (see yellow lakes) 
 Jaune Brillant (see cadmium y.) 
 Jaime de Fer (see yellow ochres) 
 Jaune de Mars (see ditto) 
 Jaune Mineral (see chrome ys. ) 
 King's y. 
 
 Leipzig y. (see chrome ys.) 
 Lemon y. (see baryta y.) 
 Mars Orange 
 Mars Yellow 
 
 Madder y. (see yellow lakes) 
 Masticot (see massicot) 
 Naples y. 
 
 Orange chrome (see chrome ys.) 
 Orient Yellow 
 Orpiment (see king's y.) 
 Pale Chrome (see chrome ys.) 
 Paris y. (see ditto) 
 Powre or Purree (see Indian y.) 
 Quercitron y. or lake (see y. lakes) 
 Raw Sienna (see yellow ochres) 
 Siberian Red Lead (see chrome ys.j 
 Sienna (see yellow ochres) 
 Turner Yellow 
 
 Yellow Ultramarine (see baryta y.) 
 
 RED PIGMENTS. 
 
 Cadmium r. 
 Carmine Lake 
 
 Carmine Vermilion (see Chinese v.) 
 
 Chinese Vermilion 
 
 Cinnabar (see vermilion) 
 
 Crimson Lake 
 
 English r. (see Venetian r.) 
 
 Field's Orange Ver. (see vermilion) 
 
 Indian Lake 
 
 Indian Ochre (see red ochre) 
 Indian r. 
 Iodine Scarlet 
 
 Iodide of Mercury (see iodine s.) 
 Lac Lake (see Indian lake) 
 Light r. (see red ochre) 
 Liquid Madder (see madder lakes) 
 Mars Red 
 
 Madder Carmine (see madder lakes) 
 Minium (see red lead) 
 Pink madder (see madder lakes) 
 Persian r. (see Indian r.) 
 Purple Lake 
 
 Prussian r. (see Venetian r.) 
 Realgar (see red orpiment) 
 Red Orpiment 
 
 Rose Madder (see madder lakes) 
 Saturnine r. 
 
72 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Scarlet Ochre (see Venetian r.) 
 Scarlet Vermilion (see vermilion) 
 Tinted Carmine (see madder lakes) 
 Venetian r. 
 Vermilion 
 
 BROWN AND BLACK 
 PIGMENTS. 
 
 Antwerp Brown (see asphaltum) 
 
 Asphaltum 
 Blue Black 
 Bistre 
 
 Brown Pink 
 
 Bitumen (see asphaltum) 
 Bitumen Judaicum (see ditto) 
 Burnt Umber (see umber) 
 Cappah Brown (see Vandyke b.) 
 Cassel Brown (see ditto.) 
 
 Chinese Ink (see Indian ink) 
 Cologne Brown 
 
 Egyptian Brown (see mummy b.) 
 Frankfurt Black (see blue black) 
 Indian Ink 
 
 Iron Brown (see Prussian brown) 
 
 Lamblack (see lampblack) 
 
 Mars Brown 
 
 Manganese Brown 
 
 Mineral Red 
 
 Mummy Brown 
 
 Neutral Tint 
 
 Payne's Gray 
 
 Prussian Brown 
 
 Raw Umber (see umber) 
 
 Rubens Brown (see Vandyke b.) 
 
 Rubens Madder 
 
 Sepia 
 
 Umber 
 
 Vandyke brown 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING BE- 
 TWEEN TWO OR MORE PIGMENTS, 
 BETWEEN PIGMENT AND VEHICLE, &c. 
 
 The question of the chemical reactions that take place 
 between pigments is one that practically embraces the 
 chemistry of painting. The scope of the present work pre- 
 cludes the possibility of going deeply into this interesting 
 subject, yet it will be of incalculable use both to artist 
 and student to point out some few of the chemical changes 
 that occur between the materials he uses when painting a 
 picture. 
 
 Action of Lead and Sulphur. — The reactions that occur 
 between pigments possessing a lead base and pigments pos- 
 sessing sulphur as a component are some of the most destruc- 
 tive, and disastrous to the future permanency of the painting. 
 Briefly the action is this : lead possesses a great affinity for 
 sulphur, consequently these two elements forsake the other 
 components of their respective pigments, unite, and form a 
 new compound — sulphide of lead — which is of a black hue. 
 To take an example : a yellow chromate of lead (i.e. ordi- 
 nary chrome yellow) is mixed with cadmium yellow (i.e. the 
 sulphide of cadmium). Watch the result. The lead forsakes 
 the chromate of lead, the sulphur forsakes the cadmium sul- 
 
74 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 phide, and they unite together and form the black sulphide 
 of lead. This action is graphically depicted below. 
 
 Chemical formula Chem. form, of 
 
 of chromate of lead. ' cadmium sulphide. 
 
 Lead % \ Pb . unites with . S j =PbS., i.e. lead sulphide. 
 
 Now both pigments were yellow previous to the formation 
 of this black sulphide of lead, but since a black and yellow 
 produce a green, this will be the resulting hue of the mixture 
 of these two pigments, the greenish tinge becoming stronger 
 and of a deeper green in proportion to the amount of lead 
 converted into sulphide. 
 
 Although the chemical change brought about by the union 
 of a lead pigment and one containing sulphur is always the 
 same (i.e. the production of lead sulphide), the visual phy- 
 sical change varies. Thus, with the above case of two yellow 
 pigments, we have a visual change into a green hue ; this 
 is so, because side by side with the particles of chrome 
 yellow and cadmium yellow there are also particles of black 
 sulphide of lead, and the physical incorporation (for it is 
 not a chemical one, like the union of the lead with the 
 sulphur) of yellow and black particles is the production of 
 a green. 
 
 Now it is easily conceivable that a red sulphide, as that of 
 mercury (i.e. vermilion) may be mixed with a chrome yellow 
 of lead, whence, after the production of the yellow sulphide, 
 we shall not get a greenish hue, but something different. 
 Thus : 
 
 Yellow chrome and red vermilion will produce an orange 
 hue, but as soon as the sulphur in the vermilion unites with 
 
ACTION OF OXYGEN AMONG Si PIGMENTS. 
 
 75 
 
 the lead in the chrome yellow, we get the black particles of 
 lead sulphide produced, and these commingling with the 
 yellow and red particles of the above pigments change the 
 orange hue into an auburn or brown hue, or to a brownish 
 red, in proportion to the amount of black particles propor- 
 tionately to the yellow and red ones. 
 
 Take another case of this visual physical change. Say a 
 lead chrome is mixed with artificially made ultramarine, and 
 that there is some free sulphur in the ultramarine (i.e. that this 
 pigment has been carelessly made, and consequently not 
 entirely freed from this sulphur). The mixture of the yellow 
 chrome and blue ultramarine will produce a green, but in time, 
 as the free sulphur unites with the lead in the chrome, black 
 sulphide of lead appears, and we then get yellow, blue, and 
 black particles heterogeneously mixed, with the result that 
 the visual impression produced by these three colours will 
 no longer be the bright green formed by the blue and yellow, 
 but will be a dark green, approaching black.* 
 
 Action of Oxygen amongst Pigments. — Oxygen is an 
 element of much importance as a component of pigments. 
 Its addition to many mineral colours heighten or darken 
 their tone, while its addition to several vegetable colours 
 lessen their tone, or bleach them. Likewise the abstraction 
 of oxygen (i.e. deoxidation of a pigment) from a mineral 
 pigment weakens its tone. 
 
 Let us take some examples. Take chrome yellow of lead 
 again. So long as this yellow remains intact (i.e. not decom- 
 posed by the influence of other pigments), there is little risk 
 
 * The precise hue can be seen by mixing yellow and blue powders, 
 and then adding black powder in various quantities. 
 
76 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 of the oxygen in the chrome yellow acting on a pigment 
 affected by oxygen ; but suppose, as in the first example, a 
 mixture of lead, chrome, and cadmium yellow is made, the 
 reaction already specified takes place, and consequently the 
 oxygen in the chrome yellow is set free to unite with any 
 other body. This oxygen does enter into union with other 
 bodies, chiefly with the oil used as a vehicle to help dry or 
 harden the oil, and also physically acts on other pigments 
 that are brought within its influence ; e.g. suppose the mix- 
 ture of chrome yellow and yellow cadmium glazed with yellow 
 lake, the last pigment will lose its colour, because the oxygen 
 from the chrome will bleach the colour in the yellow lake. 
 If, instead of yellow lake, cochineal lake.be glazed over the 
 yellow mixture of lead and cadmium, this crimson colour will 
 in time flee, leaving simply the hue of the yellow beneath. 
 
 Again, the abstraction of oxygen from a mineral pigment 
 lessens its tone, while its addition to an animal pigment 
 deepens it ; e.g. mix an ochre (which has iron as a base) 
 with Naples yellow (which contains oxygen), the iron in the 
 ochre will abstract oxygen from the Naples yellow, and 
 become deeper in tone, due to the oxidation of the iron ; 
 whilst its abstraction from the Naples yellow will leave 
 that pigment much weakened in colour, the visual result 
 being a hue totally different to that when the ochre and 
 Naples yellow were first compounded. 
 
 There are several other ways in which oxygen plays an 
 important part in the disintegration of paintings, notably 
 in the abstraction of the oxygen from pigments by the oil 
 in drying. Such depletion of oxygen from a pigment leaves 
 that colour an easy prey to injurious influences that would 
 
ACTION OF ALKALIES ON PIGMENTS. 
 
 77 
 
 not otherwise act on it, for the simple reason that a partially 
 decayed object is never so sound as a wholly healthy one. 
 
 Action of Alkalies on Pigments. — Some pigments are 
 obtained artificially which possess such alkalies as pearlash 
 and soda in their composition; now some few pigments, 
 notably Prussian and Antwerp blues, have their colour de- 
 stroyed by the action on them of alkalies, consequently they 
 should not be brought into connection with those pigments 
 that have an alkaline base, or which are likely, from their 
 method of manufacture, to possess any free alkali. 
 
 The blues above mentioned are turned a buff or tawny 
 drab by the action of alkalies, while yet, again, their colour 
 is restored by any weak acid. Such being the delicacy of 
 Prussian and Antwerp blues, the painter must be very careful 
 in regard to what other pigments he incorporates with them 
 or glazes over them. To know what pigments to avoid in 
 this respect, the painter should consult the chemical nature 
 and composition of the pigments stated in the chapters on 
 pigments given in the first part of this work. 
 
 The alkali ammonia is likely to be present in very few 
 pigments, but it is often present in the artist's painting-room 
 or its vicinity. I know one painter whose studio is next 
 door to a stable — in fact, his door opens at right angles to 
 the stable door ; consequently it is impossible for him to 
 keep out such ammoniacal fumes as arise from the decaying 
 stable refuse. The action of the fumes of ammonia is not 
 at once apparent, but it is, nevertheless,, silently at work, for 
 the fumes insidiously act on the varnish laid on the paint- 
 ings, disintegrating the varnish; ammonia likewise acts 
 on oils. 
 
78 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 There are many other outside influences at work — enemies 
 to the painter and his picture — but in these pages we cannot 
 well discuss them, so I must refer my readers to other works 
 of mine for such information, as it is more properly treated 
 of in those articles from my pen which take up the subject 
 of artists' vehicles. There is one subject, however, that is 
 intimately connected with the pigment and vehicle, and that 
 is loss of opacity. This is a term applied to pigments opaque 
 in themselves, but which in time lose their opaqueness, and 
 become so transparent as to allow any colour laid beneath 
 them to become visible. This loss of opacity is notably a 
 characteristic of pigments having lead as a base. The action 
 is a very interesting one. 
 
 We have already spoken about the giving up of oxygen 
 from white lead to linseed oil, thus parting with one of its 
 constituents. Oxygen leaves the white lead in a very un- 
 stable condition, so much so that the lead particles them- 
 selves are at liberty to unite with the linseed oil (other 
 fixed oils have not this effect), and they naturally do so, 
 forming the compound known as linoleate of lead. Now 
 this linoleate of lead (a lead soap, as it is usually called) 
 is easily washed away by sulphuric acid. " But how," my 
 readers will exclaim, " can sulphuric acid get near the paint- 
 ing ?" Avery natural question, and one easily answered. 
 In this way : sulphur in some form or other is present in 
 vitiated atmospheres, especially so where there is a fire or 
 gas. These sulphurous fumes settle as an opaque film of 
 sooty dust on the painting, and afterwards, from alterations 
 of temperature, moisture settles on the picture also. Now 
 the particles of moisture unite with the sulphurous grime, 
 
LOSS OF OPACITY. 
 
 79 
 
 and form sulphuric acid. The artist, eager to let his picture 
 be seen in all its brilliancy, seizes his silk handkerchief, 
 breathes on the picture, and rubs of! the dirt. At the very 
 same operation he is rubbing off some of the lead pigment, 
 because the film of sulphuric acid under his handkerchief 
 unites with the linoleate of lead (that has been produced 
 wherever a lead pigment and linseed oil have been em- 
 ployed) and carries off a thin pellicle of the compound each 
 time he rubs. The amount taken off each time is very 
 minute, but it is none the less surely carried away. We all 
 know how the lacquer on the brass handle of a door will in 
 time wear away by the mere grasping of it in turning the 
 handle. If this hard lacquer can do so, we must readily 
 grant that the more delicate, tender pigment will do so 
 under the rubbing of the handkerchief. The artist, unknow- 
 ingly, takes a delight in rubbing out his picture, for the 
 more obdurate and obstinate the grime is, the harder and 
 brisker he rubs. The moral to this is, not to use lead pig- 
 ments in a painting ; they are, in fact, the bete-noire of the 
 painter. If he, however, will continue their* employment 
 after this warning, let him at least use an oil (walnut or 
 poppy) that will not form this inimical linoleate of lead. 
 
 On the many other changes effected on paintings by the 
 action of oils and other vehicles, the reader is finally referred 
 to articles by the author which have appeared in the pages 
 of the Artist ; Art Journal ; Magazine of Art ; Art Amateur 
 (New York) ; Painters' Magazine (New York) ; Painting 
 and Decorating (Philadelphia); Plumber and Decorator; 
 Decoration; Oil and Colourman's Journal ; Oils, Colours, 
 and Drysalteries ; Bazaar, Exchange, and Mart, etc., etc. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 COLOUR NAMES AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 The names of colours are still as indefinitely and con- 
 fusedly used as when Dr. Johnson defined Brown as being 
 the " name of a colour composed of black and any other 
 colour," "Puce, of a dark brown colour/' and "Pink, a 
 colour used by painters." 
 
 It is truly unfortunate that there is no universal scale of 
 colours. In a letter some years ago to the " Society of Arts 
 Journal," I pointed out the great diversity of names by 
 which colours and pigments are known to the dyer, artist, 
 and ordinary house-painter, and while even authorities on 
 the science of colour disagree as to the so-called primaries, 
 we may expect confusion still to reign. Consequently 
 colours can only be spoken of relatively ; e.g. we have the 
 blue of cobalt and of the indigo-plant, yet how different in 
 tone, yet both are " blues." If we assume carmine to be 
 the type of pure red, vermilion becomes an orange; and if, 
 on the reverse, we consider vermilion as red, carmine 
 changes to crimson, or belongs to the purple class. The 
 same relation will be found in the tints of gamboge with 
 ochre or yellow cadmium. The purest unmixed primitive 
 colours are to be found in flowers. There can, strictly 
 speaking, be only delicate and full tints of the primary and 
 
POSITIVE TERTIARY COLOURS. 
 
 81 
 
 secondary classes, as the less positive hues being caused by 
 the mixture of the positive colours with their " complemen- 
 tary " hues, are tertiaries and quaternaries. 
 
 Positive Colours. — We are accustomed to give the names 
 of positive colours to hues varying from the fullest or 
 brightest tints to very subdued shades. 
 
 A Primary colour is one that cannot be compounded by 
 mixture of other colours. I cannot here enter into the 
 question of which colours should be considered as true 
 primaries, but from my own knowledge of colour science I 
 remain steadfast to the old original theory of red, yellow, 
 and blue being the three primaries. 
 
 Secondary colours are those produced by mixture of any 
 two primaries. They are orange, green, and purple, 
 orange being produced by mixture of red and yellow (paints 
 or powders, not coloured lights), green of yellow and blue 
 and purple of red and blue. 
 
 Tertiary colours are produced by a mixture of a primary 
 and secondary with one of the colours predominating. They 
 are olive, citrine, and russet. " Complementary " colours 
 is a term interchangeable with the primaries and secondaries. 
 Thus, it is theoretically supposed (although in my study of 
 the subject I have failed to come across any scientific reason 
 for this fanciful theory) that complete harmony of colouring 
 is obtained only when the three primaries are present, in 
 proportions varying with their intensity of colour. Conse- 
 quently blue is said to be complementary to orange because 
 it completes the triad of primaries (and, vice versa, orange is 
 complementary to blue) ; red is complementary to green, and 
 yellow to purple. 
 
 G 
 
82 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Tint is a term used for gradations or mixtures of colours 
 with white. 
 
 Hues for mixtures of primary colours with a secondary, or 
 for variations of colour independent of strength, light or 
 dark. 
 
 Shade is a term used for the mixtures of colours or hues 
 with black. This term is too often improperly used, when 
 tone should be employed ; e.g., many persons in speaking of 
 a lighter tone of, say, a red ribbon, will exclaim, " Oh, what 
 a delicate light shade ! " when there is not a particle of black 
 in the tone of the red ribbon, but it is, in fact, lighter than 
 the primitive colour. " Shade " should never be used 
 unless black is present in the hue or tone. But the word 
 
 Tone should replace it, for this term is applied to any hue, 
 whether it be lighter or darker than the colour of the base ; 
 e.g. take ultramarine blue as the base colour blue, we 
 should then speak of cobalt as of a lighter tone of blue, and 
 Prussian blue as a darker tone of blue, but we could not 
 properly call Prussian blue a darker shade of the blue base 
 ultramarine. Tone expresses the predominant ruling colour 
 or hue in a combination. 
 
 Grey. — This is another word improperly applied. When 
 ypelt with an e the word, amongst colour scientists, refers to 
 a mixture made with black and white, or black and any 
 other colour, bearing in mind that if the two colours do not 
 equally balance to produce the normal grey of the mixture, 
 but that the black predominates and obtrudes itself, the 
 mixture at once becomes, a shade ; at the same time it does 
 not lose its title to grey. 
 
 Gray is a term used for a mixture of white and blue, or 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOR COLOUR SCALE. 83 
 
 when blue replaces black in producing the grayish hue ; then 
 we say a bluish gray and a blackish gray. 
 
 As a foundation for a colour scale I would beg to suggest 
 that colours should be named after some well-known flowers, 
 taking the deep yellow of the sunflower as the base for the 
 yellow scale, the poppy or red gladiolus for the base of the 
 red scale, the blue cornflower as the base for the blue scal%; 
 and ordinary grass as the base of the green scale. 
 
 These bases would not suffice for all the yellow, red, blue, 
 and green tones to be referred to as a " light sunflower yel- 
 low," or "dark poppy red," &c, for a lemon yellow could not 
 properly be referred to as a " light sunflower yellow " ; but 
 for such pale yellows we could take the primrose as the base, 
 and for the orange hues the skin of the Tangerine orange ; for 
 scarlet reds the old standard red geranium, and for the crim- 
 son red series we have the deep velvety toned " coxcomb " 
 plant ; for the base of the light blue series we could refer to 
 so-and-so lighter tone of the cornflower, because white and 
 a blue of the intensity of this flower would produce a series 
 of true blues varying in tint only in proportion to the 
 amount of white mixed with the blue ; for the base colour 
 of the dark series of blues we could not take this flower 
 mixed with black, because black and a blue this colour 
 mixed would produce an indigo hue. We should therefore 
 want to seek some primitive base, as, for instance, the deep, 
 intense blue in the old-fashioned pansy ; while for the lighter 
 tones of the green scale we could take the colour of the 
 pyrethrum or featherfew plant as a base, and the dark green 
 leaves of the ivy as a base for the dark series of this scale. I 
 have named these plants, as their colours have up to the 
 
8 4 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 present remained constant in hue, and are therefore fitly 
 suited as a standard of reference. It must be borne in mind 
 that the above remarks are only offered suggestively ; the 
 scope of such a work as this precludes any lengthened 
 discursive treatment of the question. Yet, nevertheless, it 
 is a work that should not be devoid of any reference to the 
 subject, and any suggestion thrown out may, let me hope, 
 be the means of rousing attention to the question. 
 
 The following tabular analysis of the primaries, second- 
 aries, tertiaries, and quaternaries will render it clear to 
 students what colours form the components of some of the 
 complex hues. 
 
 Primary Positive Colours. 
 White. 
 
 Yellow. — There are no distinct general terms for the 
 delicate tints, those in use being borrowed from objects 
 containing them ; e.g. lemon yellow, straw yellow, prim- 
 rose. 
 
 Red. — The delicate tints, pinks, carnations, rosy. 
 Blue. 
 
 Secondary Positive Colours, composed of two primaries. 
 
 Orange, composed of yellow and red ; comprehending 
 crimson when the red is in excess. 
 
 Purple, composed of red and blue. Violet lilac when 
 the red and blue are balanced. 
 
 Green, composed of yellow and blue. Blue purple 
 when the blue is in excess. 
 
TERTIARY HUES. — NEUTRAL TINTS. 85 
 
 Tertiary Hues, composed of the three primaries with one 
 primary predominating. 
 
 Citrine, where yellow predominates ; buff in the lighter 
 hues, tawny or dun in the deeper. 
 
 Russet, where red predominates ; maroon, chocolate. 
 Grey, where blue predominates. 
 
 Quaternary I/ues, composed of the primaries with two 
 primaries or a secondary colour predominating. 
 
 Auburn, where orange predominates ; brown in the 
 deeper hues. 
 
 Puce, where purple predominates ; lavender for the 
 lighter hues, where violet predominates, or the red and 
 blue are balanced. 
 
 Olive, where the green predominates. 
 
 Neutral Tints. 
 
 Where the three primaries are in proportion to balance 
 or neutralise each other of which the deeper shade is 
 black. 
 
CHAPTER IX * 
 
 TABLE OF MIXTURES OF PIGMENTS TO 
 PRODUCE BLUES, BUFFS, BROWNS, 
 GREENS, GREFS, PURPLES, AND MA* 
 ROONS. 
 
 Table of Mixtures of Pigments to produce Blues. 
 
 Cobalt Green, Cyanine Blue. — In series of blues of the tur- 
 quoise tint, sparkling and tender, both beautiful and useful. 
 
 Table of Mixtures to produce Browns, Buffs, 
 and Yellows. 
 
 Chocolate Brown. — Add lake or carmine to burnt umber, 
 or take Indian red and black to form a brown ; then add 
 yellow to bring about the desired shade. 
 
 Olive Brown. — Mix i part of Saxony blue with 3 parts of 
 burnt umber. Change proportions for different shades. 
 
 Snuff Brown. — Yellow, 4 parts ; Vandyke brown, 2 parts. 
 
 Ordinaij Brown. — Red, 3 parts ; black, 2 parts ; yellow, 
 1 part. 
 
 Chestnut Brown. — Red, 2 parts ; black, 1 part ; Chinese 
 yellow, 2 parts. 
 
 Light Buff. — Yellow ochre lightened with white. 
 
 * The mixtures named in this chapter are artistically good, but not 
 always so chemically ; for their chemical values the reader is referred 
 to the chemical nature of the several pigments named in each mixture. 
 
BROWNS, BUFFS, AND YELLOWS. 
 
 87 
 
 Deep Buff. — Yellow ochre, white, and a little red. 
 
 Oak Colour. — White, 8 parts ; yellow ochre, 1 part. 
 
 Fawn Colour. — White, 8 parts; red, 1 part; yellow, 2 
 parts ; umber, 1 part. 
 
 Tan Colour. — Burnt sienna, 5 parts ; yellow, 2 parts ; raw 
 umber, 1 part. 
 
 Stone Colour. — White, 5 parts ; yellow, 2 parts ; burnt 
 umber, 1 part. 
 
 Brick Colour. — Yellow ochre, 2 parts ; red, 1 part ; white, 
 1 part. 
 
 Portland Stone Colour. — Raw umber, 3 parts; yellow 
 ochre, 3 parts ; white, 1 part. 
 
 Yellow Lake. — Umber and white, equal parts ; add Naples 
 yellow and scarlet lake ; glaze with yellow lake. 
 
 Jonquil Yellow. — Mix flake white and Chinese yellow, and 
 add vermilion to carmine. 
 
 Golden Yellow. — White and yellow, tinted with red and 
 blue. 
 
 Canary Yellow. — White and lemon yellow. 
 Lemon Colour. — Lemon yellow, 5 parts; white, 2 parts. 
 Straw Yellow. — Yellow, 5 parts ; white, 2 parts ; red, 1 
 part. 
 
 Citron. — Red, 3 parts ; yellow, 2 parts ; blue, 1 part. 
 
 Clay Drab. — Raw sienna, raw umber, and white lead, 
 equal parts, and then tint with chrome green. 
 
 Ordinary Drab. — White, 9 parts ; umber, 1 part. 
 
 Cream Colour. — White, 5 parts; yellow, 2 parts; red, 1 
 part. 
 
 Orange. — Made with gamboge and burnt sienna. Useful 
 for the autumnal tints, and to mix with the other greens in 
 
88 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 order to vary their tone and depth, but not to be used in 
 very warm sky tints. 
 
 Table of Mixtures of Pigments to produce Greys. 
 
 Indigo, lampblack, and madder lake. 
 
 Indigo and Indian red. 
 
 Indigo and light red. 
 
 Indigo, lake, and gamboge. 
 
 Indigo, lake, and Roman ochre. 
 
 Indigo and Venetian red. 
 
 Indigo, raw sienna, and lake. 
 
 Indigo, sepia, and lake. 
 
 Indigo and purple madder. 
 
 Indigo, light red, and lampblack. 
 
 Indigo, burnt umber, and lake. 
 
 Indigo, madder purple, and burnt umber. 
 
 Lampblack and madder lake. 
 
 Lampblack and burnt madder. 
 
 Lampblack and light red. 
 
 Lampblack and lake. 
 
 Cobalt green, cyanine blue, carmine madder, for silvery 
 greys, through lilacs to the richest purple. 
 
 White, 8 parts ; black, 2 parts — for medium grey. 
 
 White, 8 parts ; blue, 1 part ; black, 1 part — lead grey. 
 
 White, tinted with ivory black, produces French grey. 
 
 White, black, and red, in proportion to suit lustre, for a 
 pearl grey. 
 
 Dove Grey. — Red, white, blue, and yellow. 
 Warm grey is made with Venetian red and indigo. Use- 
 
GREY AND GREEN HUES. 
 
 ful for shadows to warm-coloured objects, and for the colour 
 of earth and mould, and for a tint to put round drawings 
 when mounted. 
 
 Purple grey is made with lake and lampblack. Very use- 
 ful in the grey bark of trees and for rocks ; makes various 
 browns mixed with burnt umber and a grey when mixed 
 with Prussian blue or indigo, but not equal to the greys 
 made with lake, gamboge, and indigo, for Prussian blue and 
 lampblack is rather heavy. 
 
 Neutral Tint. — Made with Venetian red and indigo and a 
 very little lake. It is a very good tint for cloudy skies, 
 and with the addition of a little blue and lake it makes a 
 pearly grey useful for the shadows to clouds in general. 
 
 Table of Mixtures to produce Greens. 
 Indigo, light red, and gamboge. 
 
 Indigo and gamboge, with either burnt sienna, light red, 
 or Vandyke brown. 
 
 Indigo and gamboge. 
 
 Indigo, madder purple, and brown pink. 
 
 Indigo, burnt umber, and Italian pink. 
 
 Indigo and gamboge, with either Roman ochre or lamp- 
 black, or raw sienna or lake. 
 
 Indigo, Vandyke brown, and yellow ochre. 
 
 Indigo and raw sienna. 
 
 Indigo and Roman ochre. 
 
 Indigo, madder brown, and Indian yellow. 
 
 The following for shadows of green : — Indigo and burnt 
 
9 o 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 umber, indigo and Venetian red, indigo and light red, 
 indigo and lake, and gamboge, lampblack, and light red. 
 
 Transparent oxide of chromium and cadmium yellow, deep, 
 for the deep rich green and russets of autumn. 
 
 Transparent oxide of chromium and aureolin, for the 
 more sunny autumn greens. 
 
 Permanent yellow and cobalt green, for the tender spring 
 greens. 
 
 Permanent scarlet, carmine madder, for flower painting 
 the crimson-scarlet autumn effects, &c, &c. 
 
 Cadmium yellow and Prussian blue or black, for the light, 
 when vivid, of foliage in masses. 
 
 Naples yellow, with blue or black, for the grey-greens 
 produced by reflection. Use some white in these tints. 
 
 Yellow ochre and blue ; where the leaves are brown, the 
 ochres and burnt sienna may be used. 
 
 Naples yellow and terra verte is a very useful mixture 
 for the cold greens. 
 
 Dutch pink and Prussian blue, foreground glazed with 
 yellow lake, for bottle green. 
 
 Pea Green. — White, 5 parts ; chrome green, 1 part. 
 
 Bronze Green. — Chrome green, 5 parts; black, 1 part; 
 umber, 1 part. 
 
 Grass Green. — Yellow, 3 parts ; Prussian blue, 1 part. 
 
 Willow Green. — White, 5 parts; verdigris, 2 parts. 
 
 Olive Green. — Yellow, 8 parts ; blue, 1 part; black, 1 part. 
 
 Dark Warm Green.- -Made with burnt sienna, gamboge, 
 and indigo, is useful for the tints of trees and shadows for 
 grasses, &c, and particularly near foreground. 
 
MAROONS, PURPLES, PINKS. 
 
 9i 
 
 Warm Green. — Made with the above colours, but differ- 
 ently proportioned, is useful for grass and weeds. 
 
 Olive Green. — Made with more burnt sienna and gamboge 
 added to the blue, is very useful for shadows to bright and 
 warmish yellow r green. 
 
 Table of Mixtures to produce Maroons, Purples, 
 and Pinks. 
 
 Wine Colour. — Ultramarine, 2 parts; carmine, 3 parts. 
 
 Maroon Colour. — Carmine, 3 parts ; yellow, 2 parts. 
 
 Carnation Red. — Lake, 3 parts ; white, 1 part. 
 
 Plum Colour. — White, 2 parts ; blue, 1 part ; red, 1 part. 
 
 Claret Colour. — Red and black, or carmine and blue. 
 
 Purple. — Red, white, and blue, variously proportioned. 
 
 Lilac. — Red, 4 parts ; white, 3 parts ; blue, 1 part. 
 
 Violet. — Similar to lilac, but bluer than lilac and more red 
 than in purple. 
 
 Peach Blossom. — White, 8 parts ; red, 1 part ; blue, 1 
 part; yellow, 1 part. 
 
 Flesh Colour. — White, 8 parts ; red, 3 parts ; cadmium, or 
 Naples yellow, 3 parts. 
 
 Copper Red. — Red, 1 part; yellow, 2 parts; black, 1 
 part. 
 
 Salmon Pink. — White, 5 parts; yellow, 1 part; umber, 
 1 part; red, 1 part. 
 Rose Colour. — White, 5 parts ; carmine, 2 parts. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS USED 
 IN PORTRAIT, FLOWER, AND MARINE 
 PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS. 
 
 The Colours for Flesh are — 
 
 Brown madder, burnt sienna, cobalt blue, Indian red, 
 Indian yellow, pink madder (rose madder), Van- 
 dyke brown, Venetian red (or light red) vermilion, 
 zinc white {i.e. Chinese white). 
 
 The Colours for Draperies and Body Washes besides 
 the above list are — 
 
 Carmine, gamboge, French ultramarine, indigo, lake, 
 Prussian blue, sepia, smalt, yellow ochre. 
 
 Burnt sienna serves for the shadow tints of amber-coloured 
 draperies; it is also used in some flesh tints. 
 
 Brown madder used alone may be used to lower red 
 curtains or draperies, and for the darkest touches in flesh. 
 
 Carmine should not be used in flesh, but pink madder 
 is used for the carnation tints in flesh, and for pink draperies. 
 
 Cobalt is the best blue pigment for producing the silvery 
 
COLOURS IN FLESH AND FLOWER PAINTING. 93 
 
 tints on flesh in painting in water-colours ; alone it forms the 
 blue tints, and with Indian red the shadow colour for flesh, 
 
 French ultramarine is used only in draperies. 
 
 Indian rea makes an excellent shadow colour for flesh, 
 both alone and mixed with blue. 
 
 Sepia is used for the shadows of white linen and white 
 draperies. 
 
 Venetian red is a serviceable colour for general purposes ; 
 its tints, though bright, are clear and are very permanent. 
 This pigment is valuable as a general tint for flesh. 
 
 Vermilions afford a fine tint for the carnations of flesh. 
 
 Vandyke brown gives with lake a fine warm transparent 
 tint which is much used as a warm shadow colour. 
 
 Yellow ochre is a useful local colour for light hair. 
 
 Colours chiefly used in Flower Painting in Water 
 Colours. 
 
 The colours of flowers are so numerous, and the number of 
 tints so indefinite, varying in each particular case with the 
 colour of the flower being copied, that it is almost impos- 
 sible to set forth a list of tints and mixtures for the flower- 
 painter's use. It is therefore only possible to specify the 
 pigments chiefly used. These are — 
 
 Carmine, Chinese white, chrome yellow, cobalt, crimson 
 lake, gamboge, Indian yellow, Indian red, indigo, 
 pink madder, sepia, Vandyke brown. 
 
94 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 The following colours are seldom used : — 
 
 Chrome yellow deep, French blue, lemon yellow, scarlet, 
 smalt. 
 
 The following table comprises the list of opaque colours 
 used in flower painting : — 
 
 Reds. — Vermilion, Indian red. 
 
 Ye/lows. — Chrome of various depths, yellow ochre. 
 
 The following list gives the semi-opaque pigments : — 
 Reds. — Venetian red. 
 Yellows. — Raw sienna. 
 
 Blues. — Cobalt blue, French blue, ultramarine. 
 Browns. — Burnt umber, madder brown. 
 
 The following list comprises the transparent pigments : — 
 Reds. — Extract of madder, carmine, pink madder, lake. 
 Yellows. — Gamboge, Indian yellow. 
 Blues. — Antwerp blue, indigo. 
 
 Browns. — Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, violet, carmine, 
 madder purple (semi-transparent). 
 
 In painting Sea Views in Water Colours, many of 
 the Colours already mentioned are very use- 
 ful; thus — 
 
 Cobalt is useful for skies and the remote points of sea and 
 low lands; and a mixture of cobalt, vermilion, madder lake, 
 and yellow ochre may be used for the sky and the clouds in 
 calm weather. 
 
COLOURS USED IN MARINE PAINTING. 95 
 
 Burnt sienna is an excellent useful colour for the warm 
 tints in rocks, mud, boats, and buildings. For the foresea, 
 whether calm or broken by waves, it is employed with a 
 little madder; and mixed with lampblack and a little madder 
 it makes the tints of old posts, boats, and a variety of near 
 objects ; and the tints may be varied by modifying the pro- 
 portions of the component colours. 
 
 Indigo is employed for moonlights, and when mixed with 
 a little lampblack it is well suited for night clouds, distant 
 cliffs, &c. With a little raw umber and madder it may be 
 used for water in night effects. With madder and burnt 
 sienna it is useful for dark rocks and skies, and mixed with 
 raw sienna may also be employed for boats. 
 
 Lampblack is a colour which, when mixed with madder 
 and burnt sienna, may be used for dark foreground objects. 
 
 Light red is employed with cobalt for the dark tints of the 
 clouds ; a thin wash of light red in the lights of the clouds 
 produces mellowness. It is effective as shadow tints, and 
 with indigo makes a good grey. 
 
 Madder, with cobalt and a very little yellow ochre, meets 
 the airy tint of the remotest distances, and with burnt sienna 
 and Prussian blue it is well adapted for the shadows of 
 boats, figures, distant hills, and near water. 
 
 Madder brown. — Mixed with cobalt this is a valuable 
 shadow colour for distant objects. With indigo it is valuable 
 for shades of objects nearer the foreground. It is a good 
 shade colour when mixed with lampblack, and it is advan- 
 tageous in rusty iron, as anchors, chains, &c, and in all reds 
 it forms a good shade tint, but for distant red flags it would 
 be advantageous to qualify it with a blue, and for the deepest 
 
96 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 and reddest part of foreground it may be employed alone, as 
 also for all deep and dark cracks and fissures, or stony 
 markings, in all near objects, as boats, figures, &c. 
 
 Sepia is sometimes used alone and sometimes mixed with 
 lampblack or indigo and madder, for dark foregrounds, 
 boats, near rocks, seaweed, &c. 
 
 Vermilion is useful for morning and evening skies, whether 
 stormy or tranquil. Vermilion with yellow ochre and cobalt 
 will produce a very pure effect. In the darker grounds of 
 the clouds a little light red may be added. Vermilion, with 
 burnt sienna and madder, is a valuable tint in old houses, 
 piers, &c, and also for shipping and boats in the middle 
 and extreme distances. 
 
 Yellow ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships 
 and boats, sandstone rocks and cliffs, buildings, &c. It 
 does not mix kindly with any of the cold colours, and 
 should therefore be used as a wash over other colours that 
 are dry, when required to qualify their tints. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 ARTISTIC QUALITIES OF COLOURS USED IN 
 LANDSCAPE PAINTING IN OILS. 
 
 Colours for Foliage. — For the darker greens, terra verte, 
 black, and Naples yellow, or raw sienna with black and 
 Naples yellow, may be used, as well as the mixtures named 
 in the table of " Green Mixtures." 
 
 Colours for Fields. — For the cold greenish grey of unripe 
 oats, use blue, black, and Naples yellow, with, perhaps, a 
 little blue. In ripe oats, use white and Naples yellow, varied 
 by a little yellow ochre. The rich golden hue of ripe wheat 
 will require Naples yellow, with raw and burnt sienna ; and 
 for grasses the various greens given in " Green Mixtures " 
 will be found useful. 
 
 In Heaths and such-like coloured lands. — Lake with white 
 for the lights, and rich brown for the dark background. 
 For purple heath, French ultramarine, lake, and white. For 
 broom and furze, chrome yellow, reddened with burnt sienna 
 or Naples yellow, as occasion requires, will give the yellow 
 blossom of the broom and furze. 
 
 For Birch and Beech. — The silvery greys of the birch or 
 beech may be obtained by black and white, broken, as 
 occasion requires, by a little red or brown. The rich warm 
 browns in the trunks of the birch may be made by burnt 
 sienna and lake, or raw sienna. 
 
 H 
 
98 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Colours for Skies. — These are white, ultramarine, or the 
 permanent blues, blue-black, Indian red, light red, or Mars 
 orange, with light Naples yellow. In deep sunset effects, 
 cadmium yellow and vermilion or carmine may be required. 
 
 For Roads. — The various colours of roads may be obtained 
 by mixtures of Indian red, broken with (white in all cases) 
 umber (and lake, as in some of the roads where the old 
 Devonian rocks abound, as in Devonshire) ; yellow ochre, 
 varied with red, white, or with Naples yellow; burnt sienna, 
 with white broken by umber ; grey, broken with red and 
 white i Indian red, black and white, and burnt sienna. 
 Indeed, almost every colour may be mixed with white, so 
 varied are the colour-tones of the earth. 
 
 Sir F. leighton's (P.R.A.) Palette. — Ivory black, 
 cappah brown, burnt sienna, raw sienna, Roman ochre, 
 yellow ochre, jaune de Naples (French Naples yellow), 
 aureolin, cadmium. The following are supplementary : 
 Lemon yellow, pale and dark, flake white, vermilion, Vene- 
 tian red, Indian red, rose madder, cobalt, emerald, oxide of 
 chromium. For skies. Cobalt, pale lemon, vermilion. For 
 flesh. Cobalt and emerald, oxides of chromium (mixed 
 with white in gradations), vermilion and lake (mixed with 
 white in gradations), yellow ochre, Roman ochre, burnt 
 sienna. 
 
 Alma-Tadema's (R.A.) Palette. — White, Naples 
 yellow, yellow ochre, raw sienna, brown ochre, cadmium 
 (rarely), orange vermilion, Chinese vermilion, light red or 
 
ARTISTIC QUALITY OF COLOURS. 
 
 burnt yellow ochres, madder lake (seldom used), burnt sienna, 
 cobalt green, oxide of chromium, ivory black. 
 
 Armitage's (R.A.) Palette. — White, Naples yellow, 
 yellow ochre, raw sienna, light red, burnt sienna, vermilion, 
 oxide of chromium, cobalt, madder lake, black. 
 
 Orchardson's (R.A.) Palette. — White, lemon yellow, 
 yellow ochre, vermilion, Indian red, crimson lake or madder, 
 Vandyke brown, Antwerp blue. The following are supple- 
 mentary : Cadmium, raw sienna, light red, gold ochre, black. 
 
 Pettie's (R.A.) Palette. — White, lemon or yellow, raw 
 sienna, yellow ochre, cadmium, vermilion, crimson madder, 
 cobalt, Vandyke brown, ivory black. The following are 
 supplementary : Purple madder, French ultramarine, Ant- 
 werp or Prussian blue, Caledonian brown. 
 
 Colin Hunter's Palette. — White, Naples yellow, lemon 
 yellow, yellow ochre, raw sienna, cadmium, pale and deep 
 vermilion, rose madder, cobalt, Antwerp blue, burnt sienna, 
 madder brown, Vandyke brown, Caledonian brown, or 
 cappah brown. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 QUESTIONS SET AT THE SOUTH KENSING- 
 TON SCHOOL OF ART EXAMINATIONS 
 IN PAINTING, 
 
 The following are some few of the questions that are 
 asked in Group 2, subject Painting. The questions are so 
 asked as to compel the student to make himself acquainted 
 with more than a mere superficial knowledge of the old 
 methods of painting. Such being the case, it would be 
 manifestly unfair for me to answer the questions here, and 
 it would be of little service to the student were I to do so, 
 because, although I answered all these, perhaps at the next 
 examination in the subject, totally different questions, al- 
 though in kindred topics, might be asked ; moreover, the 
 answers that would be given in this work would be little 
 better than would suffice for " cram work," which is a sys- 
 tem of learning I am strongly against. I have seen students, 
 a few days before the examination, get the papers of questions 
 set at previous examinations, take the questions seriatim, 
 and then vainly endeavour to find answers in some ele- 
 mentary text-book on art. In such a work they get a mere 
 toutline of the various modes of painting, &c, and the subjects 
 are probably so baldly treated that there is nothing tangible 
 he student can digest, so he endeavours to repeat, parrot- 
 
AUTHORITIES ON FRESCO PAINTING. 101 
 
 like, what he finds set forth ; but the outline is so bare that 
 it is a mere skeleton of an answer he can give, a skeleton 
 that can fit into more than one suit of clothes (i.e. answer 
 questions in a general way), but yet do duty to none. Such 
 cramming is highly injurious to the students, and is pro- 
 ductive of ludicrous answers to the examination questions. 
 
 Rather than help towards such a system of cramming, I 
 have determined not to give here the answers to these ques- 
 tions, but prefer to direct the student to the fountain-head. 
 This I do because I have noticed many students know not 
 in the least what authority to consult, and also because I feel 
 sure that by directing them to the right authority, irrespec- 
 tive of the special place in such work, the student will inci- 
 dentally be induced to dip deeper into the subject by 
 perhaps reading through, if not studying, those works, than 
 he would do were he to find the answers cut and dried ready 
 to hand. 
 
 Questions i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 can be readily answered by 
 consulting the paragraphs on the "Chemical Names and 
 Composition," and the paragraphs on " Permanency " and 
 " Non-Permanency," in the chapters on the various pigments 
 given in the first part of this book. 
 
 To answer question 7, see " Cennini Cennino's Treatise 
 on Painting" (translated by Mrs. Merrifield, 1844), chapter 
 67, " The manner of painting on walls, that is, in Fresco, 
 and of colouring the faces of young persons," pages 
 39—44- 
 
 Questions 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 can be answered by studying 
 the information given in Mrs. Merrifield's work on " Fresco 
 Painting " (1846), in the pages 18 to 23 : — "How to lay on 
 
io2 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 the coats of plaster, the various kinds of intotiochi, and the 
 preparation of the mortars." 
 
 See also " Of painting on walls, and why it is called 
 Fresco/' pages 30, 31, same book. 
 
 See also " Of preparing the walls," pages 45 — 51, ibid. 
 
 See also " Inquiry whether the ancients painted in 
 Fresco," page 62, ibid. 
 
 See also "The execution of frescoes," page 63, and of the 
 colours, cartoons, and painting, page 65, ibid. 
 
 Likewise see "The practice of fresco painting" (according 
 to the directions and observations of Palomino) at page 70 
 of above book, and also "Of preparing the stucco," page 
 71; " Preparation of the walls," page 72; " Of laying on the 
 intonaco," page 72 ; "On using the cartoons," pages 73 — 
 76 ; " Of the colours used," pages 76 — 81. See also page 
 xi. of Introduction, " Colours used in fresco." 
 
 Reference to the above sections of this work and to the 
 following in Cennini's treatise, "How to colour walls in 
 secco, and what tempera is proper for that purpose," 
 pages 47 — 49, chap. 72; and also " How to colour pictures 
 and to temper the colours," page 87, chap. 145, same work; 
 together with a perusal of the section on " Fresco " in Mr. 
 Cave Thomas's work on "Mural Decoration," and the article 
 " Fresco," in the " English Encyclopaedia," vol. xiv., page 
 240 (i860 ed.), will give the student so much information 
 on fresco, and so well ground him in the practice of the old 
 masters, that he will be able to answer any question set 
 relative to this style of painting. 
 
 To answer questions 13 and 14, refer to Cennini's treatise, 
 pages 9, 16, 32, 128, and xiv. of Introduction; "Biacca 
 
ART EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, 103 
 
 (white lead) : its nature, properties, and use ; " " Bianco San- 
 Giovanni : its nature, properties, and use," see pages 31, 127, 
 128, ibid. 
 
 See also pages 41, 53, of" Verdaccio, a compound colour," 
 in above work. 
 
 To answer question 15, refer to Cennini, pages 43, 44, 
 " To paint the head of a young person as taught by Giotto." 
 
 Questions 16 and 17 may be answered by reading up 
 "Painting in distemper: its advantages and disadvantages," 
 pages xvi. and 1 56 of Cennini. 
 
 See also, page 87, " How to temper the colour for dis- 
 temper," and " How to paint in distemper," page 87. 
 "Directions for softening the tint," page 156, and " Where 
 distemper cannot be employed," page 56 ; and " Distemper 
 invented by Ludius, in the time of Augustus," page 144. 
 See also pages 47, 87, 96 of Cennini; and see also Mrs. 
 Merrifield's book on " Fresco Painting," pages 77, 78. 
 
 Question 18 may be answered by reading through 
 " Hogarth's Analysis of Beauty." 
 
 All, or almost all, the other questions usually set at this 
 examination may be answered by consulting Eastlake's 
 " Materials for a History of Oil Painting." 
 
 Question r, — Describe the relative durability of the fol- 
 lowing colours and their chemical ingredients respectively : 
 zinc white, flake white, cadmium yellow, vermilion, col- 
 cothar, cobalt blue, cappah brown, Cologne earth, masticot, 
 chrome yellow. 
 
 c Question 2. — Lemon yellow, orpiment, yellow ochre, 
 
104 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Roman ochre, chrome yellow, cadmium. State which of 
 these colours is considered durable. 
 
 Question 3. — Describe the chemical properties and the 
 comparative durability or otherwise of the following colours : 
 terra verde, chrome green, malachite green, verdigris, 
 Naples yellow, orpiment. 
 
 Question 4. — Describe the chemical constituents and the 
 comparative durability or otherwise of vermilion, light red, 
 Indian red, cadmium, lemon yellow, cobalt, indigo, verdi- 
 gris, scarlet lake. 
 
 Question 5. — Mention the principal colours derived from 
 the following substances, and their comparative dura- 
 bility : 1, copper; 2, arsenic; 3, mercury; 4, sodium; 5, 
 lead. 
 
 Question 6. — What were the grounds for oil painting used 
 by the early Flemings ? Were they absorbent, and of what 
 colour ? 
 
 Question 7. — Describe the difference between ct fresco 
 secco" and " fresco buono," and detail the principal pro- 
 cesses employed in each. 
 
 Question 8. — What colours are chiefly employed in fresco 
 buono? Describe in detail the processes of painting during 
 the day. What is the effect of mixing terra verde with 
 lime? 
 
 Question 9. — How is the cartoon prepared for fresco 
 painting and transferred to the "intonaco"? In what 
 state should the latter be (as to moisture) on commencing 
 each day's work ? 
 
 Question 10. — Describe the various ingredients and the 
 proportions of each for preparing the " intonaco " in fresco 
 
ART EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 105 
 
 painting. Is there any time during which lime may be kept 
 for the purpose of fresco painting ? If so, state the reasons 
 for the limitation. 
 
 Qi/estion 11. — For what reason is it necessary to keep 
 lime before using it in fresco painting ? Describe the pre- 
 paration of the walls and the work to be done by the 
 plasterer before commencing the operation which causes the 
 colour to adhere to its surface, and what prevents its ad- 
 hesion. 
 
 Question 12. — Why was terra verde so much used by 
 fresco painters, and what effect has it on lime whites ? 
 
 Question 13. — What are the pigments called by Cennini 
 biacco and bianco di San-Giovanni ? 
 
 Question 14. — What is biacca, bianco, San-Giovanni, 
 verdacio as described by Cennini ? 
 
 Question 15. — How did Giotto paint a head in fresco as 
 described by Cennini ? 
 
 Question 16. — How were the walls (1), panels (2), pre- 
 pared for painting on in distemper during the sixteenth 
 century ? 
 
 Question 17. — What is the process of tempera painting: 
 (1) the panel and its preparation, (2) the vehicle, (3) the 
 procedure ? Was oil varnish ever employed in connection 
 with tempera painting ? 
 
 Question 18. — What qualities does Hogarth say are essen- 
 tial to beauty ? 
 
 Question 19. — Who w T ere the earliest artists to practise 
 oil painting in Italy? From whom did they derive the 
 knowledge, and when and where did they flourish ? 
 
 Question 20. — What method did the first colourists adopt 
 
io6 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 to secure richness of effect in pictures when seen at a con- 
 siderable distance, as in churches ? 
 
 Question 21. — Describe Van Eyck's supposed method of 
 painting, from the design to the completion of a picture, and 
 his vehicle. What portion of a picture did he usually com- 
 mence to paint in colour? 
 
 Question 22. — Did Rubens avail himself of much pre- 
 paratory labours in commencing his pictures? Describe 
 his usual mode of practice. 
 
 Question 23. — In what particulars did the Venetian 
 method differ from that of Rubens ? 
 
 Question 24. — What opinion did Rubens hold about the 
 necessity of studying the antique marbles and bronzes? 
 
 Question 25. — What was the method of painting said to 
 have been adopted by the ancient Greeks, and with what 
 vehicles, and were the pictures so executed durable ? 
 
 Question 26. — Who principally originated the Florentine 
 method of painting, and in what respects did it vary from 
 the method taught by the Flemings'? 
 
 Question 27. — In what method are the works of Giotto 
 and his school usually executed ? 
 
 Question 28. — What were the relations existing between 
 L. da Vinci and Michael Angelo ? Was there any instance 
 of pictorial rivalry ? 
 
 Question 29.— Who were the principal painters of the 
 later Flemish school (seventeenth century)? Describe the 
 usual methods of painting, (1) as to the material or ground, 
 (2) as to practice. 
 
 Question 30. — What vehicle is said to have been adopted 
 by Van Dyke in oil painting ? 
 
ART EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 
 
 IG7 
 
 Question 31. — State which of the schools of art (in the 
 sixteenth century) made many drawings for their pictures, 
 and who. Give examples of varieties of process, and trace 
 their different results. 
 
 Question 32. — State the methods of preparing grounds for 
 oil painting employed by the early Flemish and Italian 
 painters, the various modifications in later practice, and the 
 comparative advantages and disadvantages of each. 
 
 Question 33. — What causes cracks in painting ? What 
 causes a wrinkled surface ? 
 
 Question 34. — Describe the various " media " or vehicles 
 used in pictures by (1) the ancient Greeks, (2) the tempera 
 painters during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 
 (3) in the transition period, (4) by the Van Eycks. 
 
 Question 35. — Did Cennini know the uses of varnish? 
 
 Question 36. — Were resinous vehicles ever varied accord- 
 ing to the colours in the same picture, or was it usual to 
 adopt one uniform vehicle throughout, during the sixteenth 
 century ? 
 
 Question 37. — What proportions did the various resins 
 bear to the oil in making varnishes for painting ? 
 
 Question 38. — What is the method supposed to have been 
 adopted by the great Venetian painters in commencing 
 their pictures, and in what respect was it different from the 
 Florentine and Roman schools ? 
 
 Question 39. — What were the grounds for oil painting used 
 by the early Flemings? Were they absorbent, and of what 
 colour ? 
 
 Question 40. — To what school did Sebastian del Piombo 
 belong? Who were his masters? 
 
io3 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Question 41. — What evidence can you give of the practice 
 of modelling figures, in wax or clay, by any of the great 
 colourists before commencing their pictures ? 
 
 Question 42. — Describe the gradual change of method 
 from tempera to oil painting, the vehicles employed, and 
 their composition. Was more than one vehicle employed 
 in the same picture ? 
 
 Question 43. — What were the methods of oil painting in 
 the Venetian School in Bellini's time, what changes did 
 they undergo, and to whom were the changes attributed ? 
 
 Question 44. — Who was the master of Giovanni Bellini ? 
 
 Question 45. — Who was Michael Angelo's first master in 
 painting? Relate some of the circumstances connected 
 with his first attempts in sculpture. 
 
 Question 46. — Trace slightly the course of art from its 
 revival in the thirteenth century ; the various schools, and 
 the names of the founders or principal painters in each 
 school, down to ibe end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 [Note. — The questions given above are those which 
 were set to Art Students ten years ago. As, however, they 
 cover the whole ground of the Art Student's curriculum, 
 they have not lost their value at the present time. — 
 H. C. %Jufy } 1896.] 
 
IND 
 
 EX. 
 
 ACTION oflead and sulphur, 73 
 ,, of oxygen amongst pig- 
 ments, 75 
 Alkalies on pigments, action of, 77 
 Answers to Art Examination ques- 
 tions, 100-2 
 Antwerp blue, 25 
 
 „ brown, 60 
 Art Examination questions, 102-7 
 Artificial ultramarine, 31 
 Asphaltum, 60 
 Aureolin, 33 
 Azure, 26, 29 
 
 gARYTA yellow, 34 
 
 ,, white, 1 
 Beech, colours for, 97 
 Berlin blue, 25, 28 
 Birch, colours for, 97 
 Bistre, 61 
 Bitumen, 60 
 Bitumen Judaicum, 60 
 Bladder green, 18 
 Blanc d'argent, 3 
 Bleu de garance, 31 
 Blowpipe testing, 1 1 
 Blue black, 62 
 Body washes, colours for, 92 
 
 „ white, 4 
 Brown, mixtures to produce, 86 
 Brown pink, 61 
 Brun de Mars, 68 
 Brunswick green, 16, 22 
 Buffs, mixtures to produce, 86 
 
 CADMIA, 35 
 
 Cadmium red, 47 
 „ yellow, 35 
 Camboge, 38 
 Cambogia, 38 
 Cappah brown, 67 
 Carbonate, normal, basic, and acid 
 Carmine vermilion, 48 
 
 „ lake, 49 
 Cassel brown, 67 
 „ yellow, 46 
 Cseruleum, 25 
 Cerulian, 25 
 Ceruse, 5 
 Chinese ink, 62 
 
 ,, vermilion, 48 
 
 ,, white, 8 
 
 ,, yellow, 40 
 Chrome greens, 12 
 
 „ oxide, 13 
 
 ,, pale and deep, 36 
 
 „ yellow, 36 
 Cinnabar, 59 
 Citron yellow, 36 
 Cobalt blue, 26 
 
 „ green, 22 
 
 ,, ultramarine, 26 
 Cologne brown, 67 
 
 „ earth, 38 
 
 „ yellow, 36 
 Constant white, 1 
 Cremnitz white, 5 
 Crimson lake, 48 
 
TIO 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 £) R APERIES, colours for, 92 
 
 Dumont's blue, 29 
 Dutch pink, 43 
 „ white, 5 
 
 EGYPTIAN green, 25 
 ,, brown, 64 
 Emerald green, 16 
 Enamel blue, 29 
 English pink, 43 
 „ red, 56 
 
 pACTITIOUS ultramarine, 31 
 
 Fields, colours for, 97 
 Flake white, 4 
 Flemish white, 5 
 Flesh, colours for, 92 
 Flower painting, colours for, 93 
 Foliage, colours for, 97 
 Frankfurt black, 62 
 Fiench blue, 31 
 „ white, 3 
 
 QAMBOAGE, 38 
 
 Gambodium, 38 
 Gamboge, 38 
 Giallolino, 42 
 Gmelin's blue, 31 
 Gray, 82 
 Green Bice, 19 
 ,, earth, 19 
 
 ,, oxide of chromium, 13 
 Greens, mixtures to produce, 89 
 Grey, 82 
 
 Greys, mixtures to produce, 88 
 Guignet's green, 22 
 
 HAARLEM blue, 25 
 Hamburg w r hite, 5 
 Heaths, colours for, 97 
 Flolly green, 19 
 
 Hues, 82 
 
 Hungary green, 17 
 
 JMPERIAL green, 16 
 Indian blue, 27 
 
 „ ink, 62 
 
 „ lake, 50 
 
 „ ochre, 55 
 
 n r ed, 51 
 
 „ yellow, 39 
 Indigo, 27 
 
 Iodine scarlet (iodide of mercury), 
 52 
 
 Iris green, 18 
 Iron brown, 65 
 „ yellow, 45 
 Italian pink, 43 
 
 TAUNE brillant, 35 
 „ de Fer, 43, 45 
 „ de Mars, 43, 45 
 „ mineral, 36 
 
 RING'S yellow, 40 
 
 LAC lake, 50 
 
 Lampblack (lamblack), 63 
 Lazuline blue, 30 
 Lazurstein, 30 
 
 Lead and sulphur, action of, 73 
 
 Leipzig yellow, 36 
 
 Lemon yellow, 34, 41 
 
 Light red, 55 
 
 Liquid madder lake, 52 
 
 Loss of opacity, 78 
 
 iy[ ADDER carmine, 52 
 „ lakes, 52 
 „ yellow, 43 
 
 Malachite green, 17 
 
INDEX. in 
 
 Manganese brown, 64 
 
 Positive colours, 81 
 
 Maroons, mixtures to produce, 91 
 
 Primary colours, 81 
 
 Mars brown, 68 
 
 ,, positive colours, 84 
 
 „ orange, 45 
 
 Prussian blue, 28 
 
 „ red, 59 
 
 ,, brown, 65 
 
 „ yellow, 45 
 
 „ red, 56 
 
 Massicot (masticot), 41 
 
 Pure chrome green, 13 
 
 Mineral blue, 25 
 
 Purple lake, 59 
 
 „ gray, 68 
 
 Purples, mixtures to produce, 91 
 
 ,, yellow, 46 
 
 Purree, or powre, 39 
 
 Minium, 54 
 
 
 Mitis green, 16 - ' 
 
 QUARTERN ARY hues, 85 
 
 Quercitron yellow, or lake, 43 
 
 Montpellier yellow, 46 
 
 Mountain green, 17 
 
 
 Mummy brown, 64 
 
 J^AW sienna, 43 
 Red lead, 54 
 
 J^APLES yellow, 42 
 
 ,, ochre, 55 
 
 Native green, 13 
 
 „ orpiment (realgar), 56 
 
 Neutral tint, 68, 85 
 
 Reference, table of, 70 
 
 New blue, 32 
 
 Rinman's green, 23 
 Roads, colours for, 98 
 
 OPACITY, loss of, 78 
 
 Roman white, 5 
 
 Opaque oxide of chromium, 13 
 
 Rose madder, 52 
 
 Orange chrome, 36 
 
 ,, rubiate, 32 
 
 Orient yellow, 45 
 
 Rouge de Mars, 59 
 
 Orpiment, 40 
 
 Royal blue, 29 
 
 Outremer de Guimet, 31 
 
 Rubens brown, 67 
 
 ,, lazurline, 30 
 
 ,, madder, 69 
 
 Oxygen amongst pigments, action 
 
 
 of, 75 
 
 gAP green, 18 
 
 Saturnine red, 54 
 
 pARIS yellow, 36 
 
 Scarlet ochre, 55, 56 
 
 Parisian blue, 28 
 
 Scheele's, or Swedish green, 18 
 
 Payne's gray, 68 
 
 Schweinfurt green, 16, 22 
 
 Permanent blue, 32 
 
 Sea views, colours for, 94 
 
 ,, white, 1 
 
 Secondary colours, 81 
 
 Pigments, action of alkalies on, 77 
 
 Secondary positive colours, 84 
 
 ,, action of oxygen amongst, 
 
 Sepia, 66 
 
 75 
 
 Shade, 82 
 
 Pink madder, 52 
 
 Sienna, 43 
 
 Pinks, mixtures to produce, 91 
 
 Silver white, 3 
 
112 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Skies, colours for, 98 
 Smalt, 29 
 
 Sulphur and lead, action of, 73 
 
 'pABLE of reference, 70 
 
 Terra verte, 19 
 Tertiary colours, 81 
 Tertiary hues, 85 
 Tint, 82 
 
 Tinted carmine, 52 
 Tone, 82 
 
 Transparent oxide of chromium, 16 
 Turner yellow, 46 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, 30 
 
 Umber, raw and burnt, 66 
 
 yANDYKE brown, 67 
 Venetian red, 56 
 
 Verde vessie, 18 
 Verdetta, 19 
 Verdigris, 20 
 Vermilion, 58 
 Verona green, 19 
 Vienna blue, 26 
 
 „ green, 16, 22 
 
 „« yellow, 46 
 Viride seris, 20 
 Viridian, 22 
 
 WHITE lead, 5 
 
 YELLOW lakes, 43 
 
 „ ultramarine, 34 
 Yellows, mixtures to produce, 86 
 
 £INC green, 23 
 „ white, 8 
 
 THE END, 
 
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