«* 
 
 
 The Jury of the Vienna Exhibition, 1873, have awarded the 
 FIRST PRIZE MEDAL OF MERIT to 
 
 THOMAS FLEMING & SON, 
 
 West Grove Mill, 
 
 HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE, 
 jfor excellence of Jfflanufacture 
 
 AWARCED 
 
 OF 
 
 AWARDED 
 
 CARDS 
 
 FOR 
 
 HIGHEST PRIZE MEDAL. 
 
 HIGHEST PRIZE MEDAL. 
 
 Flax, Tow, Jute, Wool, Silk, 
 Cotton, Shoddy, &c., 
 
 IN LEATHER, WOOD, AND OTHER MATERIALS, 
 
 Card Clothing of every Description. 
 Mill furnishings, &c. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 PATENT DIAMOND, SECTORAL WIRE, 
 
 FIAT WIRE, AND NEEDLE POINTED CARDS, &c. 
 
/ v 
 
 B. & S. MASSEY, OPENSHAW, MANCHESTER. 
 
 PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED- 
 
 Parts, 1 867 : Havre, 1868 : Highland Society, 1870; Liverpool, 1871; Moscow, 1872; Vienna, 1873. 
 
 B. & S. MASSEY, 
 
 OPENSHAW, MANCHESTER, 
 
 Patentees and Makers of DOUBLE and SINGLE-ACTING STEAM HAMMERS of all 
 sizes, Irom I Cwt. to 20 Tons, with self-acting or Hand Motions, in either case giving 
 a perfect DEAD BLOW while the former may be worked by hand when desired. Large 
 
 Hammers, with Improved Framing, in Cast or Wrought Iron. Small Hammers 
 
 working up to 500 blows per minute, in some cases being worked by the Foot "f the 
 Smith, and not requiring any separate driver. 
 
 SPECIAL STEAM STAMPS OF CHEAT IMPORTANCE, 
 
 For Forging, Stamping, Punching, Eolt- Making, Fending, &c. 
 
 STEAM HAMMERS for Engineers, Machinists, Shipbuilders, Steel Tilters, Millwrights, 
 Coppersmiths, Railway Carriage and Wagon Builders, Colliery Proprietors, Ship-Smiths. 
 Bolt Makers, Cutlers, File Makers, Spindle and Flyer Makers, Spade Makers, Locomotive and 
 other Wheel Makers, &c., also for use in Repairing Smithies of Mills and Works of all kinds ; 
 for straightening Bars, Bending Cranks, BreakingTig Iron, &c. 
 
 Special Steam Genoial Smithy General Smithy ..... , 
 
 Stamp. Hammer. Hammer. Hammer for Wheelmakiug, OOpperwork, &c. 
 
 FROM 60 TO 100 STEAM HAMMERS AND STEAM STAMPS MAY USUALLY 
 BE SEEN IN CONSTRUCTION AT THE WOR! r E. 
 
 Steam Hammer tor Heavy Gorging. 
 
Society for the Promotion of 
 Scientific Industry. 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS 
 
 UPON THE 
 
 VIENNA EXHIBITION. 
 
 MANCHESTER : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF 
 SCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY, 11, MANCHESTER CHAMBERS. 
 
 SOLD BY 
 
 SIMPKIN AND MAESHALL, LONDON; JOHN HEYWOOD, MANCHESTER 
 AND CORNISH BROTHERS, BIRMINGHAM. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY BEVERIDGE & CO.,. 
 HOLBORN STEAM PRINTING "WORKS, 
 9 TO 12 , FULLWOOD’S RENTS. 
 
Society for the Pf( 0M0T10 H of 
 
 j^CIEJNTIFIC I^DUFTRY. 
 
 President : 
 
 THE BIGHT HON. THE EARL OF DERBY, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
 
 Vice-Presidents : 
 
 Sir THOMAS BAZLEY, Bart., M.P. 
 
 I. LOWTHIAN BELL, Esq. 
 
 The Rt. Hon. JOHN BRIGHT, M.P. 
 
 W. CUNLIFFE BROOKS, Esq., M.P. 
 
 DAVID CHADWICK, Esq., M.P. 
 
 THOMAS CLEGG. ESQ. 
 
 RICHARD HAWORTH, ESQ. 
 
 Sir J. P. KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, Bart. 
 Tub Rt.Hon. the Earl of MALMESBURY 
 G.C.B., D.C.L. 
 
 The Rt.Hon. Sir J. S. PAKINGTON, Bart., 
 G.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., M.P. 
 
 The Rt. Hon. Col. WILSON PATTEN, M.P. 
 JOHN PENDER, ESQ., M.P. 
 
 HERBERT PHILIPS, ESQ. 
 
 JOHN RYLANDS, Esq. 
 
 TheMostNoble the Marquis ofSALISBURY 
 F.R.S., F.Z.S. 
 
 Sir TITUS SALT, Bart. 
 
 J. BERGER SPENCE, Esq., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., 
 F.C.S. 
 
 PETER SPENCE, Esq., J.P., F.C.S. 
 
 His Grace the Duke of SUTHERLAND, 
 
 K.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 
 
 Sir JAMES WATTS, Knt. 
 
 GEORGE FERGUSSON WILSON, Esq., F.R.S. 
 JAMES YOUNG, Esq. 
 
 Council : 
 
 Chairman — HUGH MASON, Esq., President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 WILLIAM AGNEW, Esq., Manchester. 
 BENJAMIN ARMITAGE, Esq., Manchester. 
 WILLIAM BLINKHORN, Esq., St. Helen’s. 
 J. ALBERT BRIGHT, Esq., Rochdale. 
 JAMES CARLTON, Esq., Manchester. 
 
 J. KYN ASTON CROSS, Esq., Bolton. 
 WILLIAM MATHER, Esq., Salford. 
 
 J. GERALD POTTER, Esq., Over Darwen 
 SAMUEL RADCLIFFEPLATT, Esq., Oldham. 
 HENRY RAWSON, Esq., Prestwich. 
 FRANK SPENCE, Esq., Manchester. 
 JOSEPH THOMPSON, Esq., Manchester. 
 BENJAMIN WHITWORTH, Esq. 
 
 JOSEPH WORRALL, Esq., Salford. 
 
 Treasurer : 
 
 JAMES WATTS, Esq. 
 
 Bankers: 
 
 HEYWOOD BROTHERS & CO. 
 
 Secretary : 
 
 WILLIAM GEORGE LARKINS, ESQ. 
 
 Offices : 
 
 11, MANCHESTER CHAMBERS, MARKET STREET. 
 
 The Object of the Society is the increase of the technical knowledge 
 and skill of those engaged in the various Industries; the improvement 
 and advancement of Manufactures and the Industrial Arts and Sciences, 
 and the general progress, extension, and well-being of Industry and 
 Trade. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 T> Y a Resolution of the Council of the Society, passed at 
 ~ a meeting held on April 29, 1873, it was determined 
 that a number of selected artisans engaged in the principal 
 industries of the country should be sent out to visit and report 
 upon the International Exhibition then about to be held at 
 Vienna. It was also determined that in the selection of the 
 Reporters, great care should be exercised, so that only those 
 possessing the necessary experience, information, and intelli- 
 gence, and a capability of observation, should be sent ; and 
 that men who had risen to be foremen, or to positions of 
 trust, should be chosen rather than workmen of a lower 
 grade. It was also decided, first, that every Reporter should 
 be bond Jicle a workman, earning his living at his trade; 
 second, that the applicants should be obtained by public 
 advertisement ; third, that every suitable candidate should 
 give some practical proof of his fitness, before selection. 
 
 The number of applications received was 320. These were 
 weeded down to about ninety by striking out all those who 
 were evidently unsuitable, and to these ninety, after a per- 
 sonal interview, where possible, some test was applied. In 
 this manner the best men were picked out, and the selec- 
 tion made. 
 
 In selecting the artisans to represent the various industries 
 associated with Birmingham, Mr. W. C. Aitken rendered 
 
VI 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 most zealous and efficient service. He entered con amove 
 into the matter ; and he has further, with much labour and 
 trouble, superintended the editing of the Reports of the 
 Birmingham men. 
 
 It was originally intended to have only seven of the 
 Birmingham industries represented ; but the Birmingham 
 Chamber of Commerce having learnt what the Society pro- 
 posed to do, with a generosity that does the members of it 
 great credit, determined not only to take the burden of the 
 cost of the seven men upon themselves, hut to increase 
 the number to eleven, which, through the liberality of 
 some Birmingham firms became finally fifteen. This cordial 
 and earnest co-operation of the Birmingham Chamber 
 enabled the Society to enlarge the number of artizans it was 
 originally intended to send to thirty-four. 
 
 The Sheffield Chamber of Commerce also contributed to- 
 wards sending a representative of the staple industry of that 
 city, and some of the watchmakers of Manchester subscribed 
 together a portion of the expenses of a second reporter upon 
 watchmaking. The Council are indebted to the kindness and 
 liberality of Mr. Hugh Mason, the Chairman of the Council, 
 for a loan of .4*200 to the Expense Fund of the Expedition : also, 
 to several other gentlemen for donations of various amounts. 
 
 At a very early stage of the arrangements a telegram was 
 received from Mr. Philip Cunliffe Owen, the Secretary of the 
 Royal British Commission, at Vienna, to the following effect: 
 “ Obeying Prince’s instructions, will do utmost to have the 
 men shown carefully over the various parts of the Exhibition, 
 and make their visit as instructive as possible.” The 
 kindness with which the men were received at Vienna, 
 and the facilities that were given them to enable them to do 
 their work as well as the short time of their stay permitted, 
 
Introduction. 
 
 Vll 
 
 was owing entirely to this expressed wish of His Eoyal 
 Highness the Prince of Wales, President of the Commission, 
 and the way in which those wishes were fully carried out by 
 Mr. Owen. Great facilities in the matter of travelling, &c., 
 were also afforded by the Commission, and in the forwarding 
 of letters and telegrams from Vienna to England. 
 
 Mr. W. Mather, a member of Council, being in Vienna, 
 was able to render great assistance in the preliminary 
 arrangements, and he took much trouble to secure lodgings 
 at a time when such accommodation was difficult to obtain, 
 and the charges for it outrageously high. 
 
 The party left London on the 2nd July and reached Vienna 
 on the 6th of the same month. Previous to departure 
 every one had been presented with a copy of the Catalogue of 
 the British Section by Her Majesty’s Commissioners, through 
 Messrs. J. M. Johnson and Sons, the official publishers, and 
 by the kindness of Mr. Hossfield, of Liverpool, the publisher, 
 with an admirable little guide to Vienna, with a French and 
 German vocabulary, which was of great use and assistance. 
 
 Immediately on arrival the whole party were received by 
 His Excellency Baron Schwartz Von Senborn, the Director 
 of the Exhibition, who not only took a personal interest in 
 the work of each reporter, but hospitably entertained them at 
 a banquet in the Exhibition, and by both speech and deed 
 showed his earnest sympathy with what he was kind enough 
 to call <r an industrial mission of goodwill from England to 
 Austria.” 
 
 Previous to the arrival of the men a committee of the 
 English exhibitors and others had been formed for the purpose 
 of rendering assistance in carrying out the object of the visit. 
 On this Committee were, amongst others, the Bev. W. Bogers, 
 Prebendaryof St. Paul’s, London; Messrs. P. C. Owen, W. 
 
Vlll 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Head (Eansome, Sims, and Head), S. E. Green (Green and 
 Son), J. Berger Spence, H. Sandham, Pryce Jones, — Eutson, 
 Lieut. Anstey, and Professor Archer (Edinburgh Museum). 
 
 Under the guidance of several of these gentlemen the first 
 visit to the Exhibition was made, and the locations of the 
 various exhibits pointed out, and much general information 
 was obtained that was afterwards useful. 
 
 Subsequently a supper was given by some of these gentle- 
 men, at which Mr. Head and Mr. S. E. Green presided. Both 
 of these gentlemen, by the general kindly interest they took 
 in the object of the visit, did much to render it a success. 
 Mr. J. Berger Spence also liberally gave the men an oppor- 
 tunity of seeing one phase of Viennese life by inviting them 
 to a supper at the “Fiirst ” Cafe on the Prater, at which the 
 British cheers evoked by the playing of “ God Save the 
 Queen ” by the band of the First Vienna Eegiment will not 
 be soon forgotten by the habitues. 
 
 In editing the Eeports the greatest care has been taken to 
 preserve the characteristic features of each one. All allusions 
 to the outside proceedings at Vienna or elsewhere that did not 
 bear directly on the work of the reporter, have been eliminated, 
 as well as all mere descriptions of the Exhibition building. 
 In some cases, the reports have been condensed, but with 
 these exceptions, they are pretty much as they left the hands 
 of the writers. The Council feel that the individual expres- 
 sions and opinions of the men, whether right or wrong, 
 are of more value left untouched, than if much altered in 
 correction. 
 
 Among other instructions issued by the Council to the 
 reporters, were the following : — 
 
 “The object in sending out selected and skilled workmen to 
 report upon the Exhibition at Vienna is, that the artisans 
 
Introduction. 
 
 IX 
 
 themselves may be benefited by the lessons such interna- 
 tional displays are calculated to teach, and that through them, 
 their respective trades maybe stimulated to improvement. 
 
 “ It is not intended in any way to fetter the Reporters with 
 any instructions as to their method of reporting, but each one 
 will confine himself to his particular industry. Their best 
 discretion must be used, and attention may be profitably 
 directed to the following points : — 
 
 “ I. A comparison of the quality and character of the work 
 exhibited by the different countries. 
 
 “ II. The new features in old manufactures, machines, 
 and processes, and the principal points in new ones. 
 
 “ III. Relative cost of materials, wages, conditions of 
 labour, &c. 
 
 “ IV. Special features of National Exhibits.” 
 
 The Reports are the work of English artisans, and as such 
 must be read. In publishing them the Council venture to 
 express their belief that they are no mean addition to indus- 
 trial literature, and do no discredit to the intelligence and 
 powers of observation of British workmen. Of the value of 
 such Reports there can be no doubt ; in addition to the value 
 of the influence of them upon the writers, there is that wider 
 influence that they must have upon their fellow workmen, and 
 upon the manufacturer. 
 
 It is hoped that the former will learn from them the fact 
 that intelligence, education, and technical skill does meet 
 with reward, and that the latter will profit by the view of 
 the industry with which he is connected as seen by the eyes 
 of a practical observer. 
 
 There has been a greater delay in the publication of the 
 Reports than was at first anticipated. It has been caused by 
 many of them exceeding largely the length it was expected 
 
X 
 
 Introduction . 
 
 they would be, and the book has increased in size conse- 
 quently from three hundred to five hundred pages. 
 
 Speaking personally I may be allowed to say that I have 
 been much impressed by the very high order of intelli- 
 gence displayed by the Reporters, and by the earnestness 
 they showed when at Vienna, to do their work as 
 well and as thoroughly as possible, in spite of many other 
 attractions and the intense heat of the weather, the thermo- 
 meter averaging 91° in the shade, and with few exceptions the 
 work was manfully stuck to. Seven in the morning found 
 most of them in the Exhibition, and the signal for closing 
 only interrupted the work. The disagreeables incidental to 
 a journey of a thousand miles from home and back, and to 
 the mode of life of a strange land were borne with exemplary 
 good temper and forbearance. 
 
 To myself the week spent in Vienna was a most anxious 
 time, as I knew from official sources that from twenty to thirty 
 deaths were occurring daily from cholera. With the excep- 
 tion of the slight illness of one or two of us, all were enabled 
 to return to England in health. I cannot speak too highly 
 of the readiness with which all the arrangements were 
 acquiesced in, and the almost soldierly manner in which 
 the necessary regulations were obeyed. And it is a great 
 pleasure for me now to say, that a more upright, honourable 
 set of men could not have been selected as the Artisan 
 Reporters on the Vienna Exhibition of 1873. 
 
 WILLIAM GEORGE LARKINS, 
 
 Secretary . 
 
 Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry, 
 
 Manchester , November , 1873. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery 
 
 Cutlery 
 
 Watchmaking 
 
 Timekeepers, Clocks, Watches, and) 
 
 Chronometers > 
 
 Social and Working Habits and Cus-) 
 toms of German Workmen . . . ) 
 
 A Survey of the Exhibits connected) 
 with the Cotton Manufacture . . ) 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving . . . 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing . 
 Calico Printing, Dyeing, and Bleaching 
 Design in Wood, Metal, and Stone . . 
 
 Woollen Carding 
 
 Paper Manufacture 
 
 Machinery in General 
 
 Ceramic Ware 
 
 Stationary Engines 
 
 Machine Tools 
 
 Locomotive Engines 
 
 Engineers’ Machine Tools 
 
 Silk Weaving Machinery 
 
 PAGE 
 
 hi 
 
 Frederic Smith 1 
 
 John Wilson 13 
 
 J. S. Turnbull 29 
 
 Aldred M. Rodgers ... 36 
 
 Malcolm Macleod .... 41 
 
 John Campbell 56 
 
 Robert Cornthwaite .... 72 
 Charles Grindrod .... 80 
 
 Thomas Almgill 84 
 
 Richard A. Bastow .... 94 
 
 Tom Lister 116 
 
 Albert E. Reed 124 
 
 F. H. Millington 142 
 
 Edward Locke 154 
 
 Charles A. Perkin .... 192 
 
 James Hogg 201 
 
 John Fox 207 
 
 Claude Carter 229 
 
 John Randle 242 
 
 PART II. 
 
 (BIRMINGHAM ARTISANS’ REPORTS.) 
 
 Introductory Report to Reports by Bir- 
 mingham Artisans 
 
 Saddlery and Harness 
 
 Gold, Silver, and Electro-plate . . . 
 
 Mr. W. C. Aitken 
 
 Frederick Thompson . . . 
 
 Frank G. Jackson . . . . 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
Xll 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Design of Works in Metal, &c., more) 
 
 particularly Jewellery f 
 
 Jewellery Manufacture 
 
 Tubes and rolled Metals 
 
 Bell Casting, &c 
 
 Brassfoundery, General and Cabinet . 
 
 Gas Fittings 
 
 Tinplate Working and Japanned Ware 
 Glass, Ornamental and for Table Ser- ) 
 
 vice, &c f 
 
 Buttons and Small wares 
 
 Guns (General Report) 
 
 Labour Saving Machines 
 
 Railway Carriage Building 
 
 Ironmongery, &c., &c 
 
 Page 
 
 J. W. Tones 49 
 
 Arthur McKewan 74 
 
 James Grice 95 
 
 John Banister 100 
 
 George Cashmore 103 
 
 Edwin Parker 113 
 
 Henry Bishop 121 
 
 Thomas C. Barnes .... 127 
 
 S. Wall Richards 147 
 
 Charles Hibbs 159 
 
 Henry Fowler 177 
 
 Federick C. Cowney. . . . 183 
 
 George Wakeman 195 
 
Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 By FREDERIC SMITH, Manager , Union Land and Building 
 Society , Manchester . 
 
 I N presenting my Report upon Woodwork and Joinery, I feel 
 desirous of making a few preliminary remarks. 
 
 First, with regard to the Exhibition itself. Since my return 
 I have often been asked what I thought of the great show at 
 Vienna, and have been compelled to say that I scarcely saw it. 
 Looking at the arrangement of the exhibits from a reporter’s and 
 workman’s point of view, it has seemed to me that too much 
 importance has been attached to the geographical position of the 
 country supplying the article exhibited, and too little to the fact 
 that, if a proper comparison is to be made, the productions com- 
 pared should be — as far as possible — in juxtaposition. If the 
 whole of the articles had been arranged according to material or 
 class, the work of three days could easily have been accomplished 
 in one, and comparisons could have been made with much greater 
 ease and certainty. I am quite aware that, as a mere show, this 
 arrangement would not have had the best effect ; but it is a 
 matter for serious consideration 'whether it is not of infinitely 
 more importance to institute perfect comparisons than merely to 
 please the eye of the ordinary spectator. After w'orking hard 
 for nearly a w^eek, I came away fearing that my work was 
 imperfectly done, and that I had missed many things which I 
 ought to have seen, and feeling that the time had been too short 
 for justice to be done to the various subjects. 
 
 Next, with reference to the classification of my notes. For 
 reasons which I shall state hereafter, I have placed first, and 
 dwelt somewhat at length upon, w r ood-converting machinery. 
 I have placed second, the ordinary tools of the carpenter and 
 joiner; third, buildings and house joinery; fourth, cabinet- 
 work and furniture generally ; fifth, machines made to any con- 
 siderable extent of timber ; and sixth, timber itself. In the 
 latter portion of my report I make some remarks upon the work 
 I noticed in various cities and towns through which we passed, 
 believing that it is in the streets and workshops that the truest 
 exhibition of the average workman’s skill is to be found, at any 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 rate so far as my special branch is concerned. It is not my 
 intention to make any special reference to design, except where 
 I feel compelled in order to illustrate my opinions, as I have no 
 desire to be caught poaching on the domains of my fellow- 
 reporters. 
 
 With respect to the workmanship displayed in the construction 
 of the various machines, I desire to express no opinion, leaving 
 that to the reporters on machinery ; and I shall chiefly confine 
 myself to the discussion of their adaptability to the various pur- 
 poses for which they were made. 
 
 Holding strongly to the belief that in this age the nation 
 whose machinery is most varied and perfect runs the least risk 
 of being left behind in the race for commercial pre-eminence, 
 and believing, also, that the measure of a nation’s machinery 
 either is or ought to be the measure of both the wealth and ease 
 of its operative classes, I naturally turned with some anxiety to 
 the English section in the Machinery Hall, and was agreeably 
 surprised to find that, in spite of above a thousand miles of land 
 carriage, our manufacturers stood foremost in the quantity of 
 their exhibits. 
 
 When, after looking round, I discovered that, large as was the 
 assortment of machines, they represented only a portion of those 
 actually in use in this country, and supplied by the various firms 
 who are exhibitors at Vienna, I felt that, so far at least as 
 variety was concerned, we had nothing to fear from Continental 
 nations, and that our only rivals were our Transatlantic cousins. 
 
 And here I desire to express ^he gratification I felt at the 
 kindness and candour of the English-speaking portion of the 
 exhibitors. Every machine was put in motion, and every spe- 
 cialty was pointed out to me, without the least hesitation ; an 
 example which was not followed by some of the Continental 
 exhibitors, one of whom even objected to my measuring the bed 
 of a planing machine. 
 
 But some of the difficulties which I and others of my fellow- 
 reporters met with were, I believe, simply owing to our inability 
 to make ourselves understood. At the same time, I would 
 suggest that, in future, it be made a condition that exhibitors 
 allow measuring or sketching within reasonable limits ; for it 
 appears to me that, if exhibitions mean anything, they mean an 
 interchange of ideas. 
 
 Wood-converting Machinery. 
 
 Worssam and Co., London, exhibit, among other things, an 
 arrangement for giving the “drunken” motion required in a 
 
Woodwork and Joinery . 
 
 3 
 
 circular saw when used for grooving purposes, by means of one 
 washer and a set screw, thus dispensing with the sets of bevelled 
 washers commonly used ; also a set of machinery for preparing 
 parquetry flooring, including a disc for turning up the squares 
 when glued together, and a table with verticle spindle, enabling 
 two men to work at one pair of cutters ; the timber is held firm 
 on the table by an eccentric roller. 
 
 Messrs. Allen, Ransome and Co., London, among their 
 machines, exhibit a hand mortising machine ; and endless as 
 is the variety of these machines, there have been improvements 
 made in them of late. For instance, this firm lowers the table 
 instead of the chisel, and if the screw and supports are only 
 made strong enough, the advantage is great, inasmuch as it not 
 only maintains the stroke at one uniform height, but the spindle 
 carrying the chisel sliding in perfectly rigid bearings is an 
 additional advantage. 
 
 Besides this, they seem, with other makers, to have discarded 
 the spring stop of the reversing apparatus, and now this step is 
 taken, the wonder seems to be that a spring should ever have 
 been fixed for that purpose. 
 
 Personally, I should have preferred a longer stroke, and I find 
 that the indiarubber washers are still in use, although I have 
 seen that in a short time the oil reduces them to a pulp. 
 
 There are also some important improvements in planing 
 machines, exhibited by this firm with some other makers. They 
 have dispensed with the flange from the pulleys of the band saw, 
 thereby greatly reducing the risk of breakage, and have applied 
 to their pulleys a hinge bearing. 
 
 Charles Powis and Co. show a cheap and simple general joiner, 
 one of the principal advantages of which is, that all the opera- 
 tions are performed from one shaft. They also show a planing 
 machine, the spindle of which carries a flange for supporting the 
 edge of the cutter, thereby imparting greater steadiness. 
 
 The pneumatic apparatus of Messrs. Allen, Ransome and Co. 
 ought not to be forgotten. By means of this arrangement all 
 dust and shavings are carried away, thereby promoting health and 
 economy, and lessening the risk of fire. 
 
 Messrs. Robinson and Co., of Rochdale, have a number of 
 machines, amongst them a dovetailing machine of a first-class 
 character, a log frame calculated to run 300 revolutions per 
 minute, and a cross cutting machine, having a chisel sharpened 
 tooth. When we consider that this firm stands in the front rank 
 in England as makers of wood-working machinery, and that the 
 machines they exhibit in no sense represent the extent of their 
 
 b 2 
 
4 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 
 
 manufacture, but may be said to be a small selection from their 
 stock, and that the same remark will apply to most of the other 
 exhibitors, it will be understood that this Exhibition must not be 
 taken as a test of England’s strength in this direction. 
 
 The English makers seem generally to strive to obtain such 
 a form of machine as will enable them to cast the frame in a 
 single piece, and to secure solidity, accurate fitting, and — 
 ugliness. The utilitarian character of the people is shown in 
 their machines. The exhibits are precisely the same articles 
 which will be sent from their workshops in the ordinary way of 
 trade. The same everlasting lead colour, the same stiffness of 
 outline, and also the same accuracy and strength. 
 
 American Section. 
 
 In this section, considering the great distance the exhibitors 
 have had to travel, the show is tolerably large, and the variety 
 is considerable. 
 
 There are some very compact moulding machines by Rogers 
 and Co., Norwich, Connecticut, some of the small ones at a very 
 reasonable price. 
 
 A new machine to supersede dovetailing, by Knapp, of North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts, executes some very good though novel 
 work, and its small size, and neat appearance, will commend it 
 to the public. 
 
 J. A. Fay and Co., Cincinnati, show a tenoning machine with 
 narrow frame, enabling the attendant to feed quite through the 
 cutters without leaning over the table. Those who have worked 
 a tenoning machine will appreciate this arrangement. There is 
 also a beautiful machine for making buckets. 
 
 The general design and decoration of the American machines 
 is superior to the English, though, for practical utility, they are 
 no better, and in point of strength and solidity are scarcely so good. 
 
 French Section. 
 
 In the French section, F. Arbey, of Paris, exhibits a con- 
 siderable number of machines, including a trying machine with 
 spiral cutters, the sharpening of the cutters being accomplished 
 by means of an emery disc travelling over them when in motion. 
 I have been unable to see any advantage in this arrangement ; 
 for when we consider that the primary object of such a machine 
 should be accurate work, and not simply clean work, and when 
 we also bear in mind that a cutter for a 24-in. machine must be 
 28 in. to 30 in. long, the difficulty of securing an even temper 
 over such a length of steel, and the impossibility of applying 
 
5 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 a straightedge to a spiral surface, makes me think that spiral 
 cutters will never he very extensively used for trying up machines. 
 Several other machines are shown by this maker, including several 
 saw benches for manual power, very cheap, and some of them 
 apparently well adapted for light work. 
 
 There are machines of various kinds from various countries, 
 scattered up and down, but none of them, so far as I saw, calling 
 for special remark. 
 
 Joiners’ Tools. 
 
 Heissinger, of Nurnberg, shows a case of joiners’ tools in box- 
 wood, and a cabinet-maker’s bench. The case is a credit to 
 him, both in design and execution. The tools, also, are well 
 finished, but peculiar in shape ; the handle at the front end of the 
 planes would be puzzling to an English joiner. There are no 
 hand saws, and the square blades are very narrow, tvhich must 
 make it easy to force them out of square. 
 
 Next is a case of tools from Leipsic. Here we see the marked dif- 
 ference between the English and the German tools. The bench 
 planes are very narrow, the moulding planes are all worked upright 
 instead of being sprung as ours are, the clumsy looking frame 
 saw, and the variety of tools for doing the work which the 
 English joiner would do with his plough alone, did not tend to 
 impress me with a belief in the superiority of the German tools. 
 The exhibitors of this case have had a medal from some exhibi- 
 tion, but most of the tools I saw an English workman would 
 consider rude and obsolete. There are other cases of tools from 
 Rhenish Prussia, many of them well finished, but the hand saws 
 are conspicuous by their absence. 
 
 Of the English makers, Spear and Jackson, Ward and Payne, 
 Kenyon and Co., and others, show joiners’ tools, principally steel 
 tools. The grinding of these tools is superior to anything of 
 Continental manufacture. I could have wished that the show of 
 planes and other wood tools had been larger. 
 
 Buildings. 
 
 The buildings of the Exhibition itself and the annexes are, 
 generally speaking, of good design, and the work is sufficiently 
 well executed. The main buildings differ from those of previous 
 exhibitions, in that they are lighted from the side and have a 
 boarded roof ; the inside was therefore cooler than it would have 
 been had the roof been of glass. An additional advantage is, that 
 there are no galleries, thus much labour is saved to the visitor. 
 The roofs of the French annexe are formed of ribs of oak bolted 
 
6 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 together in segments, and strengthened by laminated ribs above 
 and below, the whole retained in shape by forked tie rods and 
 king bolts. The span is about 60 feet. 
 
 Some of the other annexes have w T hat may be called hammer- 
 beam roofs ; but in consequence of the struts passing across the 
 middle of the hammer beam, and straight up to the purlin, one 
 fails to see what purpose the hammer beam serves, except to 
 produce an optical illusion, and that illusion the worst which 
 could be produced in a roof, namely, an appearance of deflection. 
 
 In the grounds is a Russian house and outbuildings, by G. 
 Winterhalter, St. Petersburg, constructed of logs about 9 inches 
 diameter, very neatly put together. Every possible portion is of 
 timber, even to the cornices of the living rooms. The work is well 
 done, but the ornaments are remarkable for being all angular. 
 
 There is a village composed of houses built in the styles 
 adopted by the people of the various portions of the Austrian 
 Empire, and a church with a groined roof supporting a bell 
 turret, all of timber. The work is most of it ill executed, and 
 contrasts unfavourably with the Russian specimen before-men- 
 tioned, and with a Swedish dairy, the work of which, as well as 
 the selection of the timber, is exceedingly good. 
 
 House Joinery. 
 
 In this class of work, England and America show nothing, for 
 the joinery of the workmen’s cottages and the offices of the com- 
 mission can scarcely be called exhibits. In these corrugated 
 iron was the speciality, though, to my thinking, the visitors 
 might inspect the sanitary arrangements, and be benefited 
 thereby, for they are the only decent closets and lavatories I saw 
 on the Continent. 
 
 Stroman and Larsomm, of Gothenburg, show some very good 
 mouldings, and various kinds of joinery, well executed; but the 
 panels are all jointed, and the wood badly matched in grain and 
 colour. Other Gothenburg makers show a quantity of joiners’ 
 work, including splayed circular soffits for windows, not suf- 
 ficiently well executed for England. There is also a spiral stair- 
 case from Stuttgart, with oak treads and risers ; the design and 
 proportion very good, but the rail, instead of being moulded 
 from the solid, is in two thicknesses, screwed together from the 
 under side; the joints are very bad, and the lower length is in 
 three thicknesses, the top piece being about three inches long, 
 and three-quarters of an inch thick, and of a different colour to 
 the rest of the rail. I wonder how a workman, able to make the 
 rail at all, failed to see the defects I have mentioned. 
 
7 
 
 JVoodivork and Joinery. 
 
 The pulpit by Goyers Brothers, of Louvain, is too well known 
 to need either description or praise, and, after the specimens of 
 bad work which I saw in Antwerp, I was ready to fancy that so 
 much skill had been lavished on that pulpit, there was none to 
 spare for the rest of Belgium. 
 
 I also found a spiral staircase, with risers, balusters, and rail 
 in bent oak, an excellent illustration of the elasticity of the 
 material, and of the skill of the workmen in bending timber ; 
 also a model of a spiral staircase from Brazil, with scarf-jointed 
 rail, and I wondered why no English workman or firm had sent, 
 at least, a model, to show how a butt-jointed rail could be made. 
 
 In Venetian blinds, circular headed windows have generally 
 been a difficulty. In one case this is obviated, by an arrange- 
 ment like two fans, which close up the arch, and have a very 
 neat appearance. In England, when the blind is drawn up, part 
 of the light is blocked out, and the window practically shortened. 
 In Vienna they often obviate this, by forming a box above the 
 sash head, and drawing the blind into it, a great improvement 
 upon our plan. 
 
 In parquetry flooring, England is a long way behind. Perhaps 
 it is that our damp, cold climate causes us to prefer carpets ; but, 
 be the cause what it may, although there are many specimens of 
 this class of work, I saw none but what were from Continental 
 countries, some of them very elaborate and beautiful in design, 
 and superior in execution : in fact, there was no class of exhibits 
 which struck me as being so uniformly good. I am informed 
 that most of the machinery which is made in England for this 
 work is sent to the Continent. Some of the principal exhibitors 
 are Carl Sterkel, of Bavensburg ; Bauer and Behorsh, Breslau 
 and Berlin ; Blumer, Strasburg, and Tasson, of Brussels. The 
 Brussels flooring was specially excellent, and in these exhibits 
 Belgium partly retrieves her character. 
 
 As in most Continental exhibits, the judicious choice of colour 
 strikes the eye of the English visitor, as something to which 
 he is not accustomed. 
 
 Cabinet Woke. 
 
 Nothing struck me more in examining the German specimens 
 of cabinet work than the wide difference in the quality of the 
 workmanship. The designs were generally excellent ; but taking 
 two pianos placed almost side by side, in one, the joints were 
 painfully apparent, while in the other, by F. Neumann, of 
 Hamburg, the framing and cross-banding were perfect specimens 
 of clean workmanship. 
 
8 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 1 Another, in ebony, by a Berlin firm, was exceedingly chaste ; 
 the ornament was finished clean from the tool, while the rest of 
 the work was all that could be desired. The same remark applies 
 to the specimens of many other German exhibitors ; but I noticed 
 two wardrobes that were very inferior, and ought never to have 
 found their way into the Exhibition. 
 
 An ebony cabinet, by a Dantzic firm, is very beautiful in 
 design ; the colour dead black ; the curved mouldings and 
 general finish reflecting great credit upon the workman. 
 
 Among English exhibitors, Messrs. Jackson and Graham, 
 Holland and Sons, Walker and Sons, and others show specimens 
 of the skill of the English workman. The two cabinets by the 
 first named firm, executed from designs by Owen Jones, are per- 
 fect marvels of workmanship, both inside and out. The one in 
 ebony and ivory is a masterpiece of cabinet work ; the most rigid 
 scrutiny on my part failed to expose a single flaw. The second 
 firm show a splendid marquetry table, and the others have articles 
 which fully maintain the honour of England. 
 
 The Italians show, from Milan and Florence, a quantity of 
 furniture. From the former city comes a suite in mahogany and 
 oak, beautiful in design, but wretched in execution ; also an 
 ebony and ivory cabinet, with lapis lazuli and jasper ornaments, 
 very badly made ; and if it could be placed beside that of Jackson 
 and Graham, the contrast would be plain to the most superficial 
 observer. There is also a marquetry cabinet from Carlsbad, full 
 of work, but of a very inferior quality. 
 
 There seems to be very little ecclesiastical work in the Exhibi- 
 tion ; the Belgian pulpit is the principal article in that branch 
 of joinery. 
 
 Austria, and particularly Vienna, has a fine show in clock 
 cases ; oak and walnut are the principal materials ; walnut seems 
 to be an especial favourite with the Viennese workmen. The 
 design and workmanship are generally excellent ; in fact, the 
 workman of the Austrian capital appears to be in advance of his 
 Continental brethren. 
 
 Machine Joinery. 
 
 In these days of iron there is little scope for the joiner in the 
 frames of machines except in those for agricultural purposes, 
 such as combined thrashing machines ; and here Robey and Co. 
 and Marshall and Co. vie with each other : the one exhibiting 
 a frame in oak and pitch pine, and the other a similar frame in 
 pitch pine and iron, both well made and deserving praise. Some 
 
Woodivork and Joinery. 
 
 9 
 
 American machines with wood frames also took my attention ; 
 they were exceedingly well put together, as American machines 
 almost always are. 
 
 And this leads me to ask how it is that the workmen of the 
 United States are so far in advance of those of Sweden, Norway, 
 Germany, and other countries ? It cannot all be owing to the 
 fact of their having abundance of timber, for in the countries I 
 have named timber is plentiful. Is it not partly owing to the 
 fact that very many of the best of the Continental workmen find 
 a home in the States, coupled with the fact that when they reach 
 America they are fettered by no such absurd restrictions as pre- 
 vail in their native land, and are freed from the curse of enforced 
 military service, and so hand down to their children the glorious 
 heritage of unfettered intellect and unrestricted energies 1 
 
 Timber. 
 
 There are some very fine specimens of timber shown in the 
 Exhibition grounds, among which is a piece of straight ash, 
 93 ft. long, 2 ft. 8 in. at bottom, 1 ft. 4 in. at top ; a beech, 
 80 ft. long, 3 ft. at bottom, 2 ft. 4 in. at top ; and a splendid 
 pine about 150 ft. long, 3ft. at bottom, 11 in.* at top. The 
 timber most used in Vienna is oak and a species of spruce fir of 
 two kinds — one resembling American spruce, and the other not 
 unlike Norwegian red deal — neither of them very easy to work, 
 and that makes me wonder that machinery is not more generally 
 used. Much of the timber used in Vienna is rafted up the 
 Danube, and the price of oak at the quay, when purchased in 
 considerable quantities, was given me by Herr Paulick at about 
 one gulden sixty kreutzers per cubic foot, or something like three 
 shillings sterling. The timber used in Dresden is rafted down 
 the Elbe in the same manner. 
 
 I visited the workshops of Herr Friedrich Paulick, and was 
 received by that gentleman with the greatest kindness and cordi- 
 ality. I spent some time with him in his office and workshops, 
 and was struck with the good feeling which seemed to exist 
 between himself and his workmen. He had some English ma- 
 chinery at work, but complained of the difficulty of getting his 
 men to attend properly to it. 
 
 He mentioned that it was his custom to give to his oldest 
 workmen — I mean by that those who had been longest in his 
 employ — a periodical bonus over and above their wages, according 
 to the amount of his profits. I saw there — what I am sorry to 
 say I never saw in England — trees and flowers growing among 
 
10 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 the piles of timber, and looking in at the office and workshop 
 windows, so that the workman could look out not at a brick wall 
 but on a flower-bed. 
 
 In the construction of casements the Germans are in advance 
 of us; but the great obstacle in the way of adopting their win- 
 dows arises from our wet climate and the difficulty of keeping 
 casements weather-tight. Double casements are almost universal, 
 and in Vienna the outer pair are brought flush with the face 
 of the wall; the result is that there is scarcely any shadow on 
 the front of the building, and the architectural effect is seriously 
 marred. At Aix-la-Chapelle I noticed many revolving shut- 
 ters made to pull up with a strap ; very well made, and apparently 
 capable of pretty general application. At Antwerp the shop 
 fronts strike one as very peculiar. Here also I noticed the cus- 
 tom which I have alluded to as prevalent in Vienna and else- 
 where of bringing the doors and windows out to the front line of 
 building, and consequently giving a flimsy and gingerbread 
 appearance to the fronts of the houses and shops by destroying 
 the shadows. This is the more remarkable in people who under- 
 stand so well the shading of flat ornaments, and is almost unpar- 
 donable in the citizens of Antwerp, who have their beautiful 
 cathedral constantly before their eyes ; but when we see that 
 they, along with the inhabitants of Aix-la-Chapelle and Prague, 
 have striven to hide or disfigure the edifices which it should be 
 their delight and pride to show to strangers, by surrounding 
 them with cobblers’ shops and cafes , one ceases to wonder at 
 huge sheets of glass being brought out to the face of a wall, and 
 I felt inclined to say, “We manage these things better in 
 England.” 
 
 The joinery of Antwerp is very indifferent. Nothing but the 
 stump tenon and pin seems to find favour with the joiners of 
 that city, a mode of construction which would not be allowed in 
 this country. I saw some oak doors which were being fixed in 
 a large shop in one of the main streets ; the design was elabo- 
 rate, the workmanship was simply abominable, and no respectable 
 English builder would have allowed himself to be disgraced by 
 sending it out of his workshop. 
 
 The conclusions I have come to as the result of my visit 
 are, that while our workmen, and, indeed, many of our archi- 
 tects, are very far behind in art knowledge, and have very much 
 to learn in design, especially where colour is made a predomi- 
 nating feature, we are as a nation greatly in advance in the 
 quality of our workmanship. For, taking the exhibits in deal 
 shown in the Exhibition, I do not hesitate to say that superior 
 
11 
 
 Woodivork and Joinery. 
 
 work" can be found any day in the workshops of almost any 
 building firm in England professing to do good work. 
 
 Again, the great difference in the quality of the exhibits, to 
 which I have already referred, seems to indicate that the best 
 specimens are the work of isolated individuals, and are not to be 
 taken as criterions of the average skill of the districts from which 
 they come. 
 
 They are more careful of human life in the erection of new 
 buildings ; at least, such was my impression on comparing their 
 scaffolding with the flimsy erections we see in this country. It 
 seems almost impossible to fall off a Continental scaffold, unless 
 it is done on purpose, the scaffolds being formed of square 
 timbers bolted together, with wide floors, strong and close balus- 
 trade, and are reached, not by ladders, but by flights of steps or 
 inclined planes. 
 
 I could not help remarking on the journey that the amount of 
 waste land to be seen is infinitesimally small as compared with 
 England. Through Belgium, Prussia, and Austria they seem to 
 know how to make the most of the land. Where they cannot 
 grow corn they grow trees, and we find few immense commons in 
 the very richest of their land, as with us. Near the stations and 
 crossings, rows of fruit trees are planted along the sides of the 
 railway, and in many places the turnpike roads are marked out 
 for miles by lines of fruit trees. An example which might be 
 followed with advantage in this country. 
 
 One great drawback to the development and progress of the 
 Continental nations seems to be the military spirit which is 
 fostered by the governments, and the waste and demoralisation 
 consequent thereon. Vienna swarms with idle soldiers, while the 
 women have to do the drudgery of the city. The waste of wealth 
 caused by the withdrawal of millions of the people from produc- 
 tive industry, must be felt severely by the rest of the population, 
 and the burden must be especially heavy on the poorest classes. 
 Feeling this, I was not in a frame of mind to appreciate the 
 exhibition of Krupp’s guns, nor the armour plates of John 
 Brown and Co., and felt saddened to think that, after the doc- 
 trine of peace on earth and goodwill to men had been preached 
 for nearly nineteen centuries, the workmen of the most Christian 
 countries in the world should excel in the production of 
 machines for murdering each other. 
 
 We are often startled by the alarmist cry of foreign competition. 
 If our workmen would only consider that every extra ear of corn 
 grown, either in our own country or elsewhere, increases the general 
 stock of food, that every extra article which is useful to man in- 
 
12 
 
 Woodwork and Joinery. 
 
 creases the stock available for human comfort, and that the 
 mission of every new machine (if in proper hands) is to lessen 
 the toil of the masses of humanity : instead of fearing the grow- 
 ing skill of their Continental brethren, they would leave oft' their 
 drunkenness, become possessors of their own machines, train 
 their minds and the minds of their children to a love of the 
 beautiful and true in art and in nature, and bid Godspeed to all 
 International Exhibitions, and to every means which good and 
 thoughtful men adopt in order to bring men face to face in 
 friendship. 
 
 We shall then not only cease to see women in Belgium 
 harnessed with dogs and drawing carts ; women in Prussia 
 carrying hay out of the fields on their backs ; women in Austria 
 climbing scaffolds and working as platelayers barefooted ; but 
 we shall cease to see in our own country little boys and 
 girls, who should be at school or at play, wearing out their 
 young lives in our factories and workshops, nearly every 
 corner in our cities occupied by a flaring liquor shop, our prisons 
 and workhouses crowded, immense wealth and abject poverty 
 elbowing each other, and every large town garrisoned by 
 hundreds of men living in enforced idleness on the labour of 
 their fellow citizens. 
 
 After visiting the hospital trains exhibited by Baron Munday, 
 a man who deserves far more honour than a successful general, 
 I came away deeply impressed with those lines of Longfellow, — 
 
 “ Were half the power that fills the world with terror, 
 
 Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts, 
 
 Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
 
 There were no need of arsenals nor forts.” 
 
 In concluding my report, I desire to say that if any special 
 machine or work has been omitted it has been, not from my 
 desire to leave it out, but from sheer inability to examine the 
 whole of the articles in that immense Exhibition, in the time at 
 my disposal. 
 
Cutlery, 
 
 By JOHN WILSON ( Messrs . Joseph Rodgers and Sons), Sheffield. 
 
 N EVER, before the Exhibition of 1851 in London were the 
 industrial products of all nations placed side by side for 
 comparison. Since then there have been similar displays of rival 
 skill. So far as regards cutlery, Sheffield at that time stood 
 unrivalled; consequently, other nations could learn more from 
 us than we could from them. In the London Exhibition of 1851 
 some of the cutlery displayed by Austria was of a very primitive 
 type ; knives without springs, which might have been made by a 
 country blacksmith : the cutting tools were equally rude. Rhenish 
 Prussia made a better display ; their greatest defect was in the 
 inferior finish of the blades. The French cutlers had a good dis- 
 play ; common cutlery being represented by the manufacturers of 
 Haute Marne. The finest French exhibits were from Paris. In 
 surgical instruments, Charriere stood unrivalled. In sportsmen’s 
 knives, daggers, and cooks’ knives, the Parisian manufacturers 
 had a first-rate display. In 1862 things were in a similar condi- 
 tion. The South German Confederation showed signs of progress ; 
 if the quantity was less, the quality was improved. In the 
 Exhibition of Paris in 1867 the French had a large display, as 
 might be expected; every department was represented. Each 
 country makes its most successful show at home. In the Vienna 
 Exhibition Catalogue, “Metal Industry” is placed under “Group 
 VII.,” and includes articles varying in size from a small fish- 
 hook or needle up to immense armour-plates, 18 inches thick. In 
 Group XIV. there is also some cutlery, viz., surgical instruments. 
 
 • 
 
 The Exhibits of Different Countries. 
 
 Nearly every country displays some specimens of cutlery ; 
 nations cannot progress without cutting tools. For the purposes 
 of a report on Scientific Industry, the production of these 
 articles by many countries may be described in general terms. 
 They neither supply their own wants nor enter into competition 
 with other nations. Among these may be classed China, Japan, 
 
14 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 Turkey, Russia, India, Siam, and other countries. Most of these 
 show plenty of raw produce and special branches of industry. 
 Some of their exhibits of cutlery are more interesting to the 
 antiquarian than to the modern workman. The tools of Japan, 
 British India, and Turkey are very rude , yet still curious, so far 
 as they show the attempts of nations to supply their industrial 
 necessities. Some of the swords and daggers displayed by the 
 nations above-mentioned are splendid specimens of ancient work- 
 manship — handles studded with brilliants, the blades “Damas- 
 cened” in various patterns. Whether these were made at 
 Damascus (a place famed in past ages), or Toledo, or were 
 fashioned by the sword cutlers of Liege, we are not informed. 
 Be this as it may, the ancient metal-workers possessed great 
 skill ; but we have no means at present of ascertaining the cost at 
 which these specimens were produced. Belgium, though manu- 
 facturing cheap pocket and table cutlery, is only poorly repre- 
 sented. Case 448 displays good swords, both in the blades and 
 finish. Fonson and Sons need not be ashamed of their work- 
 manship. The same remark will apply to A. Lambermont (Case 
 449), Brussels, and Case 282, exhibited by Bazet Brothers, of 
 Liege. Russia has a much better display of sword cutlery and 
 daggers than of other departments of cutting implements. Robert 
 Bohte is the exhibitor. He has obtained medals at Moscow, 1865 ; 
 Warsaw, 1867 ; Paris, 1867; Petersburg, 1870; and Moscow, 
 1872. Schaff Brothers, St. Petersburg, show a fine sword, inlaid 
 with gold and ornamented with precious stones. Rhenish Prussia 
 is represented in swords and bowie-knives by Fred Esser and Co., 
 Ilaarhaus, Elberfeld. There is nothing special in this branch of 
 industry from England or America. 
 
 In surgical instruments, Group XIV., several nations are 
 represented. Peter Fischer, of Pesth, has a good display. The 
 amputating knives look like English work. I. Mang, of Prague, 
 shows a case of instruments, not equal to Fischer’s. In the same 
 court Dr. Schrotter and Ilenrich Reiner exhibit ; some of their 
 instruments are rather coarsely finished. The same remark will 
 apply to Joseph Leiter, Vienna. Rudolf Thurrigl, Vienna, 
 maker to the Austrian Government, displays good and varied 
 instruments ; and this remark will apply to J. Sobel, Gratz. In 
 this department of cutlery none equal the celebrated successors 
 of Charriere, No. 6, Rue de l’Ecole de Medecine, Paris. 
 
 Scythes and Sickles. 
 
 In this department of useful industry England is very badly 
 represented. This is more surprising when we consider that 
 
Cutlery. 
 
 15 
 
 these articles belong to the staple manufactures of the town of 
 Sheffield. Robert Sorby and Sons could well have sustained our 
 reputation. Robert Sorby was the first “ Master Cutler, ” in 
 1624, and it would have been gratifying to me, as a Sheffielder, to 
 have seen this old firm perpetuating its ancient fame. J ames Fussel 
 and Sons, “Mell’s Iron Works,” nearFrome, show a large case of 
 scythes, sickles, hay and chaff knives, furze hooks, &c., all marked 
 with their own name. Several firms in Westphalia exhibit in this 
 class. There is nothing special to notice. The patterns are 
 common to the Continent, and the description of the Austrian 
 exhibits will apply to those shown from the North German Con- 
 federation. As far as numbers and variety are concerned, the 
 Austrian display is immense. They are shown in various stages 
 of manufacture, therefore a better opinion can be formed about 
 them. The scythes vary in length from eighteen or twenty inches 
 upwards to four feet, and some are about five inches broad at 
 one end. In making both scythes and sickles the hammer is 
 almost everything, the grinding nothing. The workman begins 
 with a bar of steel, and beats it out apparently single-handed on 
 the edge of his anvil. Many heats are required to do this. 
 When the blade is sufficiently moulded (or, as w r e should say, 
 mooded ), the workman forms the tang. Then comes the smithing 
 process, but this never removes the marks caused by the edges 
 of the anvil. The blades are hammered very thin , and have 
 a concave and a convex side. From their thinness they warp 
 or “run ” (as a Sheffield workman would say), in the process of 
 hardening. In order to straighten them they are tempered very 
 low, being subjected to heat until the colour of the steel becomes 
 a dark blue, and then set with a hammer of a shape betwixt that 
 of a saw-smith’s and a grinder’s “setting” hammer. In most 
 cases the scythes’ edges are drawn down the grindstone, and are 
 then ready for use. 
 
 Many of the scythes and sickles are too soft, from being tem- 
 pered so low, and it is probable that they use an inferior steel, 
 because it can be worked at a higher heat than steel of a superior 
 kind. This facilitates work, but deteriorates the article. A 
 bad tool is dear to the workman, even if he can buy it at a low 
 price. Mowing is never easy work. It is therefore more neces- 
 sary for the worker to economise his strength. Ripe corn has 
 brittle straw, and requires a good edge to cut it, on the same 
 ground that it requires a good knife to make quill pens. The 
 Austrian farmer has frequently to take his scythe from the handle 
 to hammer its edge. For this purpose he has a small anvil with 
 him in the fields; and the mowers may be often seen smithing the 
 
16 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 edges of their scythes and hooks, and afterwards whetting them 
 w T ith a stone or a strickle. The best Austrian scythes and 
 sickles were froift the Tyrol. The cases No. 130, 131, and 132 
 were without name. Each case had good narrow scythes, more 
 like English patterns. Max Fasold (Tyrol, No. 133) and Franz 
 Huber (Tyrol, No. 212) made the best display. The latter, 
 I think, exhibited at Paris in 1867. Some of his scythes are 
 cross-ground, and this is almost unique in German scythes. At 
 Paris the best work in this branch of industry was shown by the 
 Greenwood Scythe Company (America). For finish there is 
 nothing equal to them shown at Vienna. For good material anti 
 workmanship the exhibits of James Fussell and Sons bear the 
 palm in scythes, sickles, and hay-knives. 
 
 Saws, Files, and Edge Tools. 
 
 These articles have long been staple trades of Sheffield, and 
 the town is represented by Messrs. Spear and Jackson, Ward 
 and Payne, John Kenyon and Sons, and others. Taylor Brothers, 
 Adelaide Works, exhibit a circular saw, 7 ft. 2 in. in diameter. 
 It is described as best cast steel. The saw is perforated, hardened 
 and tempered, and ground by patented machinery. The prin- 
 ciple of the invention consists in the perforation of a number 
 of holes under each tooth. Among the advantages claimed 
 by the patentee are the following : “ The teeth are more 
 
 easily kept in proper shape, saving files, labour, expense, and 
 vexation. The 4 perforated ’ saws do not require gumming, and 
 keep cooler at work than solid saws.” This is a matter that 
 must be settled by experience. It is questionable whether the 
 “saving in files and labour” is not counterbalanced by the 
 greater liability of the teeth to break, from being weakened by 
 the perforations. Apart from any merits of the patent, Taylor’s 
 saw is a specimen of good work, and in 1851 it would have been 
 deemed impossible to make a saw of that size. The etching on 
 the sides is both useful and ornamental. By a series of letters 
 and figures, a customer may order saws of any gauge, size, or 
 form of tooth. From some cause or other, the saw is marked 
 with rust, which detracts from its appearance. 
 
 The case of John Kenyon and Co. is near the last, and this old- 
 established firm has an excellent assortment of saws, files, edge 
 tools, and centre bits. Their circular saws vary from about one 
 inch to five feet in diameter. Their tools are varied and well- 
 finished. In files, the selection, if not large, is varied and excel- 
 lent. This firm has long had an extensive Bussian trade, the 
 result of honourable trading. Next to Kenyons’ case is that of 
 
Cutlery. 
 
 17 
 
 Ward and Payne’s. They have a first-rate display of edge and 
 joiners’ tools. In carvers’ tools they are remarkably strong. 
 For neatness, variety, and finish, there is nothing equal to them in 
 the Exhibition. This firm also displays a great variety of sheep 
 shears, superior to anything of the kind shown by any other 
 nation. In a report on the Paris Exhibition, 18G7, written for 
 the Society of Arts, London, I said, “ It was a matter of regret 
 to find one branch of trade in which we have almost a monopoly 
 not represented, I allude to the 4 wool shear trade.’ It was 
 almost a treat to see a pair of good sheep shears, and this was 
 not confined to the British department ; either Robert Sorby 
 and Son or Lockwood Brothers could have creditably sustained 
 the honour of Sheffield in this branch.” At present the credit of 
 the “ City of Soot ” is well upheld by Mr. David Ward, Robert 
 Smith and Company, “ Porter Works,” and F. Gr. Pearson and Co., 
 “ Hope Works,” who show varied tools from Sheffield. Some of 
 Pearson’s have<a high polish, but have been damaged, either in 
 transit or in the Exhibition. They are very creditable to this 
 young firm. Wilson-Hawksworth, Ellison and Co., Sheffield, 
 show files, steel wire, railway springs, hammers, &c. They 
 show no edge tools; but I observed that the joiners’ chisels, used 
 by men working in the Exhibition, were stamped with their 
 names. Near the above case is one of A. W. Wills, Birmingham, 
 who displays hoes and picks, adzes, hatchets, hedging bills, 
 and sappers’ tools. A good case. There are other Sheffield firms 
 who exhibit. Several of them confine their display to unwrought 
 steel of all shapes and sizes, and some specialities of manufacture, 
 as guns, rifle-barrels, steel shot, &c. Neither Cammell and 
 Co. nor Tlios. Firth and Son show edge tools, saws, or files, 
 although both firms are extensive manufacturers of such articles. 
 On the other hand, some firms show various goods not manu- 
 factured by them; for example, Schletter and Co., Birmingham, 
 have an extensive case of general hardware, edge tools, brass 
 ware, table and pocket cutlery, razors, and scissors, most of them 
 with Sheffield names. 
 
 In the Rotunda there are two cases of this class of goods. 
 The most prominent one is that of Spear and Jackson, Etna 
 Works, Sheffield. The form of their cases is a parallelogram. 
 On the front side, opposite the fountain, there is a magnificent lot 
 of saws ; in the centre a large cast-steel circular, 7 feet 3J inches 
 diameter ; besides this there are other intermediate sizes down 
 to one inch. They also exhibit one of Llewellyn’s Patent 
 Rotary Cutters, 14 inches diameter. The teeth of this tool are 
 not punched out by the “fly,” but files out alternately from side 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 Cutlery . 
 
 to side. It is well adapted for cutting fine work. On one side the 
 large circular is a long 9^ feet mill saw, and a cross-cut the same 
 size on the other. There are other mill, pit, and cross-cut saws 
 of various sizes, styles, and shapes of teeth. In addition to these 
 there is an assortment of hand and back saws, with polished plates 
 and fancy handles. On the second side of the case are displayed 
 cast-steel spades and forks, trenching tools,'* bills, reaping 
 machine knives, hammers, spanners, &c. The third side has a 
 good show of machine blades, spiral cutters for dressing cloth, 
 and an excellent display of files in every variety. The fourth 
 side is filled with edge tools, axes, adzes, chisels, &c. These 
 are finished in the highest style. In fact, the same remark 
 applies to the whole case. 
 
 Near the last case is one containing saws, steel (unwrought) 
 and metal in various stages. The saws are less in size and 
 variety than Spear and Jackson’s, and contain no hand or back 
 saws. They are marked <£ Forcersta Brack. Fleming’s Patent.” 
 I could discern no speciality in the patent. They are not equal 
 to their neighbours. Austria is represented in this class by 
 several exhibitors. The most notable, perhaps, is Franz Wertheim, 
 who has a large and varied case. lie has often contended with 
 others, and has carried off twelve gold, eight silver, and four 
 bronze medals. His exhibits are saws, joiners’ and edge tools, 
 chopping and mincing knives, pruning hooks, shears, a veneer 
 saw in sections, and a number of narrow web saws, which arc not 
 surpassed. This exhibitor had a good show in Paris, 1867, and 
 obtained a prize medal in London, 1851. They are good and 
 useful tools. 
 
 John Weiss and Son (No. 417) show machine blades, chop- 
 ping knives, planes, and edge tools. They have won thirty 
 medals and five honorary distinctions. They show tool chests in 
 great variety ; a large and good collection. Antonio Benesch 
 and Peter Brank exhibit various cutting implements ; their 
 drawing knives would be better if the handles had ferrules. 
 II. Tyrolt, of Vienna, exhibits a few tools of a high character. 
 Case 109, J. Braun and Sons, contains a large assortment of 
 files, saws, machine knives, &c. The files are of all sizes, from 
 one inch up to thirty-six inches. Some of the files had the end 
 of the tang rounded, to do without hafts. This is not un- 
 common with German files. In the using, they cannot be held 
 so firmly in the hand as a haft. The large half rounds were not 
 well covered in cutting. An additional row of teeth would make 
 them more serviceable. In rasps, single-cuts and large dead 
 smooth files, none of the Continental makers equal the English. 
 
Cutlery. 
 
 19 
 
 AY. Kranziger (Neuterchenfeld), has a show of files, principally 
 half round rasps, and several steel discs, cut all over. They are 
 intended to be worked by steam or water power. 
 
 Remscheid is well represented in files, centre bits, and other 
 tools. A. Mannesman informs his customers that his files are 
 “Hand Gehauen.” He strikes his name and the words, “ Guss 
 Stahl.” Some of his neighbours have both hand and machine 
 cut files. They generally bear the maker’s name and “cast-steel.” 
 
 H. AYuster and Co. (Cronenberg) exhibit saws — circulars, 
 long, hand, and web, in great variety. Files, -well assorted. 
 Chisels and plane-irons, highly polished. Skates and sheep 
 shears ; the latter not equal to AYard and Payne’s ; still AYuster 
 and Co. need not be ashamed of their display. Robert Landon 
 (Cronenberg) has a good lot of saws marked with his name. 
 Edward Engels (Remscheid), along with his other exhibits, shows 
 an immense variety of skates, both plain and ornamental. 
 
 Sweden and Norway, Cases Nos. 431 to 437, contain saws, tools, 
 skates, and swords. There is no special merit in any of them. 
 In this department of industry, it is a matter of regret that 
 America is not better represented. The Douglas Axe Company 
 have a good show of axes, adzes, and manchet knives. In the same 
 court there was a good display of agricultural and sappers’ tools ; 
 and at one end of the court there was a small case of joiners’ planes. 
 I have seen American tools in Sheffield equal to any in the 
 world ; it is, therefore, matter of regret that the United States 
 did not appear in greater force at Vienna. 
 
 Before I conclude this subject it is only right to mention 
 that Taylor Brothers, have done much to raise the saw manu- 
 facture in England from a simple handicraft. They were the first 
 firm to introduce hydraulic pressure for flattening saws. They have 
 also successfully applied patent machinery for grinding, glazing, 
 and polishing long and short saws. Their corporate mark, 
 ‘ ‘ Advance, ’ ’ seems indicative of progress. They have recently put 
 down a machine that wdll grind circular saws of eight feet diameter. 
 
 Fine Cutlery. 
 
 Under this term is included both pocket and table cutlery, 
 razors, and scissors. In this branch of industry, America is 
 also feebly represented. Peters Brothers, New York, show good 
 tailors’ shears, about thirty patterns of spring cutlery, and twenty- 
 four patterns of scissors. They are useful, with no attempt at 
 elaborate work. Landees, Fray, and Clark, New York, exhibit 
 two pairs of carving knives, forks, and steels. A small lot, but 
 really excellent. 
 
20 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 France is not well represented. In first-class knives, the 
 Parisian cutlers can make st good display. In London in 1851 
 and 1862, and in Paris in 1867, I had opportunities of seeing 
 this. At the first named Exhibition, G. F. Picault got a Prize 
 Medal, and richly deserved it. In the Paris Exhibition all the 
 departments of the cutlery manufacture showed their productions. 
 The late war has, no doubt, seriously interfered with French 
 industry. In 1867, at Paris, Belgium showed some common 
 cutlery at very low prices. At Vienna, I did not see any of this 
 class. G. V. Ilelvestrand (Eskilstuna, Sweden) has a varied lot 
 of razors, daggers, and desk knives. They are well finished, and 
 have an English look. B. and 0. Liberg have a good show of 
 knives, scissors, garden and tailors’ shears, and skates. There 
 are several cases adjoining, without names or numbers. Rhenish 
 Prussia is well represented in fine cutlery. Solingen and the 
 neighbourhood have long been active seats of the cutlery trade. 
 Since 1867, I think greater progress has been made in Southern 
 than in Northern Germany. In the Report on the last Paris 
 Exhibition, I said, “Two-ended knives are more general from 
 Solingen than from any part of the Continent.” This cannot 
 be said now ; such knives are common from all parts of Ger- 
 many. Weydekamp, Kettling and Co., Iserlohn, besides heavy 
 cutlery, exhibit scissors and penknives, mostly English patterns, 
 among others the “Rifle knife.” “Sunk joints” are less 
 common than they were a few years ago. Fred. Blasburg, 
 Solingen and Leipsic, has an interesting display. He shows 
 table and pocket cutlery, scissors, shears, &c., and, in addi- 
 tion, he shows these articles in different stages of manufac- 
 ture. The “fly” and “stamp” are both used at Iserlohn. 
 P. Kamphaus, Solingen, shows tailors’ shears and scissors, good 
 finish. In the adjoining Case, B. Kissner, of Hesse, has a similar 
 show. Near the last, Christian Marguardt, No. 85, exhibits 
 knives in great variety, including hunting, sportsmen lock, sneck, 
 pistol, and penknives. One knife contains 100, and another 83 
 different articles. These are a good lot. 
 
 Fred. Augt. Hermes, Solingen, shows varied cutlery, scissors, 
 pen and bowie knives. In table knives the display is good. 
 P. Engels, Solingen, shows pocket and table knives, erasers, 
 fine scissors with pearl and ivory bows. Ilis razors are chiefly 
 “Rattler’s.” August Melchior has a small case of knives and 
 scissors that are no disgrace to him or to Solingen. Carl Zim- 
 merman exhibits button hooks, nail-files and corkscrews ; in 
 variety and finish they are inferior to the English. Joseph 
 Mayer (Gorlitz) displays pruning shears and ordinary pocket- 
 
Cutlery . 
 
 21 
 
 knives. Ilis knife saws have the teeth double-cut, but too 
 deep, and the edge thicker near the tang than at the point ; 
 this will make the saw bind w T hen in use. The Austrian 
 Empire has a large show of cutlery, and there is evidence of 
 great improvement in its manufacture. Ignaz Rotschen, No. 
 351, exhibits a large assortment, including the Norfolk, Wharn- 
 cliffe, and most of our best Sheffield patterns, in ivory, pearl and 
 shell. He shows scissors and razors, and a set of dessert cutlery 
 in fluted pearl handles. This is an excellent lot. No. 201, 
 Carl Hentschall, has a card of small forgings. lie shows scis- 
 sors, &c., erasers, and desk knives. lie also shows a gardener’s 
 knife, a “take-out” w T ith six articles. This class has been a 
 speciality with Saynor and Cook, Sheffield. No. 110 is without 
 name, but, if small, it is a good case of hunting knives and fine 
 scissors. In the adjoining cases, belonging to Franz Witck, 
 Joseph Politsky, Rudolph Klock and Joseph Ilejek, there is 
 nothing special to notice ; as a rule, they are not equal to some 
 of their competitors. The goods of the last-named are marked 
 “Tax,” often struck after the knives are finished. This only 
 show r s that the blades are soft. In the next case, without a 
 name, there are about tw T enty small shell sportsmen’s knives. 
 The maker need not blush for his fame. 
 
 Antonia Sladek, Vienna, shows a fair lot of daggers, sports- 
 men’s knives, and the usual patterns of two, three, and four- 
 blade knives. Joseph Grabherr exhibits knives, chiefly tortoise- 
 shell sportsmen’s, of the usual German pattern. A large and 
 creditable lot. Franz L. Bihls show’s scissors, daggers, table 
 and cook knives, a lot of plain razors, principally ‘ ‘ German 
 Hollow,” ground. Wengel Sedlack has a small case of fair 
 articles; amongst others he has some good common “ slotts.” 
 A knife, 'fork and spoon are very useful things. Ignaz Rosier, 
 jun., Nixdorf, Bohemia, shows daggers, scissors and sportsmen’s 
 knives containing from six to twenty-five articles ; small scissor - 
 knives and “smokers’ friends” in great variety. The goods are 
 marked “I.R.,” or the name in full, and sometimes “silver steel” 
 or “ cast steel.” A few of his tailors’ shears have a Sheffield look, 
 the others are undoubtedly German. Side by side with the 
 son’s are exhibited the goods of Ignaz Rosier, sen. He has a 
 large display, on the whole, perhaps, superior. The maker’s 
 name is stamped upon the blade. His pruning knives are not 
 surpassed by any exhibitor in the German Empire. There are 
 several exhibitors from Hanover, Hartz, Darmstadt, Holstein, 
 &c'. In general, the exhibits are of common construction. 
 
 F. W ellman, Altona, has one of the best displays of cutlery in 
 
22 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 the Exhibition. Before leaving home I had seen in a Sheffield 
 newspaper a description of Wellman’s cutlery “From our Special 
 Correspondent.” The notice rather disparaged his goods, and 
 the writer displayed his ignorance by describing a “Picnic knife, 
 containing knife, fork, spoon and corkscrew, evidently intended 
 for a one-lianded man.” The “ Nelson Knife” is for such per- 
 sons. Wellman’s knife was a “slott,” which can be separated 
 into three parts; but “Special Correspondents” often know 
 little about what they write. I examined Wellman’s goods very 
 carefully, and showed him the description of his exhibits, and he 
 said if I would give him the article, he would get it translated. 
 Since I returned from Vienna I have learnt something of which 
 I w^as then ignorant. The following account of these goods 
 appeared in the Sheffield Telegraph, July 19, and it was written 
 and sent from the Victoria Hotel, Dresden : — “ Wellman’s case 
 and those adjoining are very creditable specimens of varied and 
 good work. His hollow-ground razors, polished, are ground 
 remarkably well, and on a less stone than any I have seen. The 
 fault, if any, is the edge being too long.” I personally examined 
 various specimens of knives, scissors and razors, and am compe- 
 tent to judge of them better than those who only see goods in 
 the case. Like all German cutlery, the defects are in the 
 grinding. This is more especially seen in pruner shaped blades. 
 The same thing is apparent in their scythes and sickles. I 
 visited Wellman’s case several times. On one occasion he told 
 a German gentleman that Sheffield could not produce razors like 
 his “German-hollow,” and that he sent them to Sheffield. I 
 am greatly obliged to this gentleman, who acted as interpreter 
 for me. I was then in a position to deal with the subject. I 
 told Wellman that he did not supply either Kodgers, Wolsten- 
 holm, or Butchers, and that he did not successfully compete 
 with them in America. He said he did. My interpreter then 
 asked me if I could show anything equal to Wellman’s goods \ 
 Being thus challenged, I produced from my pocket a pearl- 
 covered back four-bladed knife, and at once offered to show it 
 against anything he had, offering at the same time to let the 
 interpreter be the judge, when I had pointed out the defects in 
 the grinding. This the gentleman and one of his friends (who 
 spoke a little English) declared to be fair. I then asked the 
 challenger to produce knives which I had examined the day 
 before, and he refused to stand the test. My knife I after- 
 wards presented, as a memento of Sheffield, to His Excellency 
 Baron Schwartz. These remarks are not made to disparage 
 Wellman’s exhibits. Many of his articles arc Jirst-rate. Of 
 
23 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 liis razors I must speak highly ; in grinding they were 
 superior to any German grinding I have ever seen. But the 
 question may be asked, does Wellman manufacture at all ? He 
 offered to give £20 if I could produce a razor in the English 
 department like his. I was not then in a position to comply. 
 Now, circumstances are different, and I can produce the man 
 who ground them, and the manufacturer who made them, with 
 the Sheffield merchant through whom Wellman was supplied. * 
 
 In the English Department there are not many exhibitors of 
 fine cutlery. There are several persons who show Sheffield 
 cutlery with general hardware. London and Sheffield well repre- 
 sent England. Many people suppose that much fine cutlery is 
 made in the Metropolis. “Town made” has often been struck 
 in Sheffield for London shopkeepers. So far back as the year 
 1826, Messrs. Rodgers and Sons, Sansoms, Champion, and Thomp- 
 son and Barber, made specimens of cutlery for presentation to the 
 Royal Family. The British Press (London paper) says, “The 
 specimens are certain proofs that the manufacturers of Sheffield 
 have no occasion to be under any alarm that the London cutlers 
 will long deprive them of their fair share of business, and that 
 the quackery of marking ‘ London ’ on their knives will be of no 
 avail when they are fairly brought into competition.” 
 
 Amongst the London exhibitors John Neal shows “ Pyro- 
 Silver Cutlery.” The articles make a good show. I cannot 
 speak of the merits of pyro-silver, whether it is equal or superior 
 to electro-plated ware. For my own use I should prefer knives 
 plated on steel by the “soldering” process. Franz Pigall, 
 London, has a good show of fine cutlery, and seemed to be doing 
 a good business amongst his countrymen. He does not pretend 
 to be the manufacturer of all the goods he shows. They are all 
 marked with his name, which he says is a guarantee for excel- 
 lence. He seemed to take a pride in allowing me to examine 
 them. The carvers and forks were made for use , with good 
 German slag hafts. If any of his cutlery is “Town-made,” 
 these are so. His spring-knives and razors were made in Shef- 
 field, by Messrs. Wilson and Ibbotson, and, for a young firm, are 
 very creditable. The ivory tang and pearl fluted- razors were 
 very fine. The scissors are of the manufacture of Wm. Gibbins 
 and Sons. A large pair had the Austrian Arms filed out in the 
 shanks. As a piece of artistic work in steel they are not equal 
 to a pair exhibited by Morton, late MacDaniel and Co., who has a 
 
 * I enclose my card to Mr. Larkins, impressed by my own band with the 
 mark “ F. Wellman — Altona.” The very brand which stamped his razors. 
 
24 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 large and excellent case of pen and table knives, razors, scissors, 
 dressing-cases, &c. His large scissors with the Royal Arms in 
 fine filing are not, perhaps, equalled by any in the Exhibition. 
 The form of our National Arms is better adapted for display in 
 a pair of scissors than the arms of Austria. The scissors in this 
 case, as well as much of the spring cutlery, are Gibbins’s manu- 
 facture. The display of razors was excellent, including German 
 hollow, flat tangs and rattlers. Mr. Richardson, in the first 
 instance, claimed their goods as “London-made.” As far as 
 some of the table cutlery is concerned, I will not contest the 
 point. As to some other things, I think, beside the firms 
 already named, Messrs. Brookes and Crookes, and perhaps J. and 
 W. Ragg, have contributed. Be this as it may, the whole lot 
 is a creditable specimen of English workmanship. 
 
 Sheffield is represented by the firm of Brookes and Crookes, 
 and they worthily sustain the reputation of the place. The brief 
 description in the Catalogue would not lead any one to suspect 
 such a display. On the different sides of their case may be seen 
 the Royal Arms of England and Austria, the Rose, Thistle and 
 Shamrock, and other national emblems. By a good arrangement 
 of various articles — razors, scissors, table, pen and pocket knives, 
 and smaller articles for dressing-cases — a good display is made. 
 This firm shows an assortment of all kinds of cutlery, many of 
 them being made to exhibit. It will be invidious to particularise 
 among so much excellence. A solid steel hunting knife was an 
 excellent specimen of good work. It was straight, sharp and 
 clear; a clearer piece of polished steel I never saw. It is 
 seldom that large blades are so well hardened and tempered. A 
 large ivory sportsman’s knife, containing thirty-eight or forty 
 articles, was a piece of good workmanship. All the joints were 
 sunk, every article would “walk and talk,” and, whether exa- 
 mined open or shut, the knife was a good specimen of Sheffield 
 skill. The “smoker’s friend” was here in several patterns. I 
 made a careful examination of this case ; and, as I sat wiping 
 the knives and scissors, and opening and shutting articles which 
 none but an expert could find, I was often surrounded by curious 
 visitors, and sometimes by gentlemen with the word “Juror” 
 on a large button. The best specimen of that useful knife, the 
 “ Wharncliffe, ” in the Exhibition, was in this case. It had 
 shell scales and gold shield and studs. The knife had one small 
 fault, the pocket blade slightly “rapped” on the spring in 
 shutting. None but an experienced eye would have detected it. 
 Notwithstanding this it was a beauty. The razors, both plain 
 and ornamental, were good; and in dressing-case instruments 
 
Cutlery. 
 
 25 
 
 they distanced all competitors. In scissors, also, they had a 
 good display. In my opinion, Brookes and Crookes, for quantity 
 and quality, including taste and utility, have the best show in 
 the Exhibition. Their corporate mark, the bell, “bears the 
 bell” at Vienna, as it did in Paris in 1867. Still, there was a 
 great defect in the show of cutlery at Vienna. Scarcely one 
 exhibitor had a good cheap pocket knife , such as would always 
 be useful to the peasant of all nations, either to get his dinner, 
 cut a stick, or, in fact, answer the purpose of a tool. I did not 
 see one hollow-ground “sheepfoot” pocket knife. Knives for 
 show are fine , and do to admire; but manufacturers should not 
 forget that knives are made for use. 
 
 The Present Condition op the Trade. 
 
 The question may now be asked, What is the present con- 
 dition of the cutlery manufacture ? At the first great Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of 1851, the Jurors’ Report on Cutlery 
 and Edge-tools says : — “ Among the seats of the cutlery manu- 
 facture there is none, as might naturally be expected, which for 
 extent, variety and excellence, can compare with Sheffield, its 
 most ancient home. We here find every article, from the most 
 exquisite razor down to the plainest pocket knife, and from the 
 finest saw or file to the most ordinary chisel, with various 
 degrees of merit, it is true, but -with a large proportion of excel- 
 lence.” I endorse this opinion now , as applied to razors, knives, 
 and scissors. These branches of industry remain yet, almost 
 entirely, “handicrafts;” and, notwithstanding what has been 
 said about the extensive introduction of labour-saving machinery 
 in America, and the cheap labour of the Continent, Sheffield 
 will yet retain its position in this class. I expect the Germans 
 still to progress. They begin to strike their own names on 
 their best productions. I hope, for the honour of their national 
 character, they will cease to strike the names and marks of 
 others. Messrs. Joseph Rodgers and Sons, Sheffield, had recently 
 a trial at law against a Solingen manufacturer for striking 
 their mark ; and, not long since, a large consignment of German 
 cutlery, with the same name, was destroyed in London. It was 
 seized by the authorities while being transshipped from one vessel 
 to another, to be sent out as Sheffield cutlery. On my return from 
 Vienna I bought a four-bladed knife in Dresden, marked in a 
 novel manner. The side of the large blade was stamped, “The 
 Real I.X.L. Knife.” This mark was granted nearly fifty years 
 ago by the Cutlers’ Company, and is the property of George 
 
26 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 Wolstenholm, Esq., Washington Works, Sheffield. The tang of 
 the same blade was marked, “ Rodgers, Cutlers to Her Majesty.” 
 Their corporate mark, a star and the Maltese cross, was granted 
 in 1764. It need scarcely be said that the knife is spurious , 
 and calculated to injure the reputation of the' firms mentioned, 
 who enjoy all over the world a deservedly great reputation. 
 
 The old branch of “Scythes and Sickles,” it is probable, will 
 not extend in this country ; they will gradually be superseded by 
 the reaping and mowing machines. The blades for these will 
 yet be made in Sheffield. Since I wrote the part relating to 
 German scythes, I have found that the Jurors’ Report, 1851, 
 confirms my opinion of their being soft. At page 487, they say, 
 
 4 ‘ There are from the southern provinces of Austria assortments 
 of scythes worked thin, and with a concave surface, very difficult 
 to forge, and therefore requiring much skill in the workmanship, 
 but of metal so soft and inferior that they would not be con- 
 sidered worthy of notice were it not that they are made so 
 purposely, to suit the peculiar habits of our agricultural popula- 
 tion, who mow all crops, whether of grain or others, close to 
 the soil, generally abounding in stones. A scythe of hard steel, 
 with a fine edge, though it might perform its work better, where 
 unimpeded, would be liable to constant injury and very difficult 
 of repair under such circumstances. Whereas the Tyrolese or 
 Styrian scythes, yield at once to the blows they receive upon their 
 edge. The labourer carries with him a small hammer, and when 
 the blade has so far lost its shape as to need renewal, he beats 
 it out in a few moments to its original form ; hence the softness 
 in the metal, in most cases considered wholly inconsistent with 
 excellence, in this branch of manufacture becomes an essential 
 property.” If all Germany was stony land, I could agree with 
 this conclusion, but there are millions of acres of the finest corn 
 land in the world. If the crops were mowed by piece-work, hard 
 scythes would be used generally. If “ softness is an essential 
 property” in these articles, hardening and tempering may 
 be dispensed with, cold “ smithing ” would give the requisite 
 hardness. 
 
 The saw and edge tool trades in Sheffield have not increased 
 with the growth of the population. In 1833 a Parliamentary 
 Committee sat, to inquire into “Commerce, Manufactures and 
 Shipping.” Mr. Samuel Jackson (Spear and Jackson) was ex- 
 amined as a witness. In his evidence he admitted the supe- 
 riority of Sheffield in making large saws. In the making 
 of small web saws the Germans and French have cut us out 
 of the market. In larger work it will be seen we still 
 
Cutlery. 
 
 27 
 
 maintain our superiority. The opposition of the Trades’ Unions 
 to machinery has doubtless sent a portion of the saw trade 
 to America and other places. So far back as 1842, the effect 
 of the restrictive policy of the saw trade was seen by all in- 
 telligent persons who took an interest in trade questions. On 
 the first of June in that year the saw trade memorialised the 
 Board of Trade, “Praying for a duty to be placed on steel and 
 'partly manufactured goods ” (pared saw plates). They stated 
 that the exports of steel for saws averaged twenty-five tons 
 weekly. This memorial was supported by the other Unions in 
 the town. The Board of Trade replied, “ That the remedy pro- 
 posed would rather restrict than enlarge the trade.” 
 
 In 1851 the manufacturers of Sheffield met those of France 
 and Prussia at our International Exhibition. And with what 
 result? The Jury shall speak for themselves. They say, 
 speaking of the Sheffield exhibits, “From this collection the 
 Jury have thought themselves justified in awarding, for one 
 remarkable object, a ‘ Council Medal.’ Messrs. Spear and 
 Jackson have exhibited, among an assortment of edge tools of 
 great excellence, a cast-steel circular saw, of the large size of 
 five feet diameter, and of such signal beauty and perfection that 
 it stands far above comparison with any other in the building.” 
 In the Paris Exhibition, 1855, the same firm maintained the 
 position of Sheffield against all countries. The forebodings 
 of Mr. Samuel Jackson were not realised. The firm carried off 
 the Council Medal, and Mr. Samuel Jackson himself received 
 the decoration and the title, ‘ ‘ Chevalier of the Legion of 
 Honour.” And at Vienna they meet Wertheim, Weiss, Haas, 
 Wuster, and others; and, in the words of the Jury of 1851, I 
 will say of Jackson’s circular, of the diameter of 7 feet inches, 
 “ that it stands for beauty and perfection far above anything in 
 the Exhibition.” 
 
 In the interval between one Exhibition and the other there 
 has been a gradual introduction of machinery in the different 
 branches of the saw trade, which has done much to supersede 
 manual labour. All the saw grinders in the world could not 
 grind saws like Taylor’s and Spear and Jackson’s circulars so 
 well as the machine. In 1860 Wheatman and Smith, of Shef- 
 field, put down a machine for grinding long saws. That was 
 blown up, under the instigation of the Secretary of the Grinders’ 
 Union, and at the present time the man who did the “job” is 
 grinding long saws by machinery on the opposite side of the 
 river to Wheatman’s Works. A wiser policy would have kept the 
 trade at home. Restrictions have fostered rivals in America, 
 
28 
 
 Cutlery . 
 
 where machinery is common, who are our most formidable com- 
 petitors. Still, without a high protective duty in the States, I 
 feel confident that Sheffield can maintain its ground, even in 
 America. 
 
 This trade is not an expanding one, and though Sheffield may 
 maintain its position against Continental workers, they will find 
 greater difficulty with their American competitors. 
 
 The file trade is one of the largest and most important in 
 Sheffield. In a paper read before the Social Science Association 
 in Sheffield, 1865, by Dr. J. C. Hall, the numbers employed 
 in the trade are as follows : — 
 
 Forgers and cutters 
 
 
 . 3,500 
 
 Grinders 
 
 
 250 
 
 Hardeners 
 
 
 200 
 
 Females .... 
 
 
 300 
 
 Boys . 
 
 
 . 1,000 
 
 Dressers, Strippers, &c. . 
 
 
 300 
 
 Managers 
 
 
 200 
 
 As to machinery, the trade is now in a state of transition. 
 In point of utility, the forging machines are the most successful. 
 The grinding machine is partially in use, though, I believe, not 
 with the most economical results. Its indirect success will be in 
 checking any exorbitant demands for higher wages. Cutting 
 machines are used to some extent, but for real good work they 
 are not equal to hand labour. The ultimate success or otherwise 
 of machinery will depend on the economical results. If it can be 
 successfully applied, the Unions cannot prevent the application. 
 During the gathering of the Social Science Association in 
 Sheffield, Professor Fawcett met the workmen in this trade on 
 the question of machinery. The Secretary said, ‘ ‘ that the 
 trade did not oppose machinery. They only said, ‘ If the ma- 
 chine begins a file, let it finish it.’ ” In reply, Mr. Fawcett 
 said, ‘ ‘ Depend upon it, if by the application of machinery a file, 
 or any part of it, can be made better or cheaper than by hand, 
 then, sooner or later, the file will be made.” For any machine 
 to be successful in cutting files, the earnest co-operation of the 
 skilled workman will be required, and, even with this, it is 
 questionable whether files will ever be cut (simple as the opera- 
 tion appears) equal in quality to the best hand-cut work. 
 
Watchmaking. 
 
 By J. S. TURNBULL, 27, Corporation Street , Manchester. 
 
 N presenting this Report, I am afraid it will not be so lengthy 
 
 and full of information as could be wished, for two reasons. 
 First, the almost entire absence of English pocket watches in the 
 Exhibition ; there are only two or three exhibitors, showing but 
 a few samples. I do not think there were one hundred English 
 pocket watches exhibited in the whole Exhibition, and little if 
 anything that was new among them. Second, in the French 
 and Swiss departments, amongst the representatives of exhibitors, 
 only a few could speak English, and I could only speak that 
 language. 
 
 In looking round the exhibits of watch manufacturers I found 
 that there are few attempts at reducing the cost of making up 
 watches. The English watches shown in the Vienna Exhibition 
 are, as far as workmanship, &c., is concerned, as near perfection 
 as possible ; but the price asked for such watches demands that 
 it should be so: when £35 is asked for a plain full plate' lever 
 watch, it is only to be expected that it is the best production of 
 skilled workmen. * 
 
 What we want, in my opinion, and in the opinion of almost all 
 the watchmakers I have come in contact with, is a watch capable 
 of everyday wear, and keeping reasonably correct time, at a cost 
 making it accessible to everybody. I know our watch manufac- 
 turers will say they do supply such a watch; but my experience is 
 against that, for the middle priced English lever watch is 
 no more to be depended upon than the same class of Swiss 
 watches. A well finished and well cased silver lever cannot be 
 sold at present under £8 to £10. 
 
 Now I should like to know why a good English watch cannot 
 be made up as cheaply as the Swiss make their good watches. 
 I think it could be done if our watchmakers, both men and 
 masters, would allow their prejudices against foreign systems and 
 ideas to be laid aside, and I think I see signs in the times that 
 say those prejudices are being slowly but surely knocked on 
 the head. 
 
30 
 
 Watchmaking. 
 
 The .first English exhibitor whose watches I looked at was 
 C. J. Klafenberger, of London, whose watches have a high 
 reputation in London. I may here at once say that I saw 
 nothing new (in our trade) of any importance, or likely to effect 
 any radical change in watchmaking, in the Exhibition. 
 
 Mr. Klafenberger exhibits a few samples of London-made 
 watches of very high finish ; he shows a very beautiful chrono- 
 graph, for w'hich he claims a speciality in the stopwork; it marks 
 seconds and fifths of seconds. He also shows some specimens 
 of case decorating, a sort of enamel, but produced at half the 
 cost of that material, while quite equal to it in all other respects. 
 
 I next looked at the case of Mr. Victor Ivullberg, of London, 
 w’ho exhibits the finest lot of marine chronometers in the Exhibition. 
 Anything superior to his work could scarcely be imagined. He 
 claims to have constructed a balance that effectually counteracts 
 the effects of temperature on the chronometer, either in moderate 
 or the extremes of temperature. I was not fortunate enough to 
 catch Mr. Ivullberg, or his representative, at his case, so that 
 I had to be content with seeing his things through the glass case. 
 I cannot, therefore, very accurately describe his new balance, but 
 it seems to me to be like two balances more than one, the 
 under one like the ordinary flat steel one usually in verge 
 watches, but made of brass and steel one above the other. On 
 the top of that is a compensalia auxiliary. The mean rate 
 of two of his chronometers for five months was within a fifth of 
 a second per month. 
 
 French, of London, had a small case of pocket watches of the 
 highest finish, finely cased and dialed. W. J. Thomas, London, 
 shows a f plate lever going barrel, with a back winder, very 
 simple in construction, but I do not think it will be either useful 
 or durable ; the back of the case works on a shallow socket, 
 having a fixed wheel on it, which works into a wheel fixed on the 
 barrel arbor, into which the click works the same as a pendant 
 winder, the watch being wound by the finger and thumb forming 
 a friction plate, and turning the movable back round. 
 
 There was little more, if anything, in the English Section 
 worth notice, save the marine chronometers, of which a goodly 
 number was shown, and I can only say of them that, in that 
 direction, England maintains an undoubted supremacy. I think 
 if all the exhibitors of chronometers had shown certified tables 
 of the rates of their exhibits, it would have enhanced very 
 much the interest taken in them. 
 
 I will now pass to the Swiss Section. The first case of Swiss 
 watches I examined was that of Badollet, of Geneva, a maker 
 
W atchmaking. 
 
 31 
 
 well known in England. The watches exhibited by this firm are 
 something superb, not only in point of workmanship, but in the 
 Exquisite appearance of them ; the engraving and chasing 
 of their cases and dials are really specimens of high art. 
 M. Badollet exhibits a keyless chronograph, with a new arrange- 
 ment in the setting of the hands which is certainly a decided 
 improvement on the ordinary thumb piece, which requires to be 
 held in while the hands are being set. By his improvement he 
 does away with that inconvenient necessity ; the watch which 
 he show r ed to me was a hunter ; a small push piece near the 
 figure V is pushed aside, which immediately throws the sliding- 
 wheel on the winding arbor into connection with the minute w r heel, 
 and holds it there until the hands are set, or the front cover of 
 the case is shut, or the winding arbor is pushed in, the action of 
 the snap spring, by a simple contrivance, withdrawing the sliding- 
 wheel from the motion work ; a small lever with an inclined or 
 angled face is, when the push piece is moved aside, sent under 
 the nose of the snap spring, so that when the spring is pushed 
 dowm, it presses on the angle of the lever and moves it back to 
 its place. This, in my opinion, is indeed a real improvement. 
 
 The above is a rough sketch given me by M. Badollet’s representative. It is not 
 professedly accurate, but gives an idea of the invention. 
 
 The same maker also shows some very small w-atches, very good 
 for showing what can be done by skilful workmen, but in my 
 opinion also a great w r aste of valuable time in making such toys. 
 Workmen who can do such w’ork ought to have their time em- 
 ployed in making articles that will be of real practical use. Some 
 of his cases serve to show that the Swiss fully understand noiv 
 the value of having their movements well protected, and while 
 they follow the English in weight of gold in their cases, they far 
 excel them in the beauty of their design. M. Badollet’s repre- 
 sentative showed me a few which, in addition to being exquisitely 
 engraved, had subjects splendidly cut out in relief, giving a really 
 magnificent appearance to the case. 
 
 M. Louis Andemars, of Brassus, Canton de Yaud, Switzerland, 
 
32 
 
 Watchmaking. 
 
 exhibits one of the finest collections of pocket watches in the Exhi- 
 bition ; mostly complicated, such as clock watches, minute re- 
 peaters, calendars, &c. Pre-eminently among his exhibits is a 
 watch he describes in his catalogue — “A clock watch, strikes 
 hours and quarters in passing, minute repeater, independent 
 seconds, one stopping for observations, marking simple and one- 
 fifth of seconds on the same axis ; two sets of hours on dial, full 
 calendar and moon-phases, metallic thermometer, anchor escape- 
 ment, compensated balance isochranal spiral, 45 rubies, treble 
 keyless work, and double setting pin, 21 lines. System invented 
 by Louis Andemars. The first watch, with all these complications, 
 was manufactured by me in my workshops in the year 1867.” 
 
 This is par excellence the most wonderful piece of mechanism 
 in the Exhibition. Everything in and about it is finished to 
 perfection. M. Andemars has certainly succeeded in cram- 
 ming a greater amount of machinery into the smallest space 
 than any man, either now or before him, ever succeeded in doing, 
 and it does very great credit to both his genius and persevering 
 industry. To give an idea of the complication of the watch, 
 I would not undertake to merely clean it for a sum less than 
 £5. The same maker also exhibits the smallest minute repeaters 
 ever made, the movement being no larger than a shilling ; his 
 genius evidently lies in the direction of producing extraordinary 
 complications. Among other firms who exhibited very high class 
 watches were Patek, Philippe, and Co., II. Grande, Frean, 
 and Co., &c. 
 
 There w r ere a few exhibitors who showed watches of much 
 lower quality than those of which I have been writing ; but as 
 they had no representatives, I could, of course, gain no informa- 
 tion respecting them. 
 
 Before I have done with the Swiss Section, I would just 
 mention that the dial makers of Geneva show some exceedingly 
 fine specimens of their craft. Dial painting and elaborating 
 seems to be made a study much more with them than with us. 
 One dial in particular attracted my attention by its beauty, both 
 in appearance, and as a piece of handicraft. The figures are 
 plain black letters done in gold, and made to appear as if they 
 stand up on their end, at an angle of 25 degrees ; the shading, 
 which is black, is so exquisitely executed that one sees at once 
 that the painter of it was not only a splendid workman, but 
 a true artist. 
 
 The first case I noticed in the French Section was that of 
 “l’Ecole Nationale D’Horlogerie,” which contains specimens 
 of work of the pupils of that institution ; all of which are the 
 
Watchmaking. 
 
 33 
 
 work of boys who had been there from twelve months to three 
 years ; all the escapements that are in general use, and many 
 other peculiar escapements, on which a variety of balance springs 
 were exhibited — the flat, the Brequet, the spiral, and one that 
 W'as called a spherical balance spring, for which, however, no 
 special advantage was claimed, except that it was good practice 
 for the students, as it was considered more difficult to make than 
 any other. The work showed no mean ability in the boys, and 
 was a great credit both to them and the Institution. A ticket 
 was attached to each, giving the name of the boy whose work it 
 was, and the time he had been in the Institution. 
 
 There are here, as in the Swiss Section, a great many exhibitors 
 of watches ; but what I have said generally of the Swiss will 
 apply equally to the French. 
 
 That the Swiss and French watchmakers are the superiors 
 of the English in real delicacy and purity of finish in the design 
 of the exterior of their watches, and in complications, is an 
 almost universally admitted fact ; for a long time that has been 
 their characteristic, and it is so still. 
 
 English watchmakers have laboured hard to produce a machine 
 that will measure time accurately ; in that direction they have 
 always carried the palm, provided that they had a carte blanche 
 as to price ; but the Swiss watchmakers, wise in their generation, 
 have, without forfeiting any of their taste for a beautiful 
 appearance, applied themselves of late years to produce a watch 
 equal to our best English watches in point of timekeeping, and 
 experience confirms the opinion that they have succeeded. One 
 thing, in particular, is noticeable in the modern Swiss watch 
 (especially with lever escapements) : the shallow' frail movements, 
 which at one time were so extensively made up in the best Sw'iss 
 watches, are being gradually discarded, and in their place is sub- 
 stituted a deep strong movement with a good deep going barrel, 
 allowing of a broad elastic spring, which is everything in a going 
 barrel w'atch. There is also a marked advance in their balances 
 and balance springs. A good sized heavy rimmed balance and a 
 Brequet spring is now found invariably in a good Swiss watch. 
 The general result is that those watches keep as accurate 
 time as the majority of English watches, and there are not a few 
 in the trade who believe that these w'atches will be much more 
 extensively used than they are at present, for the simple 
 reason that they are much cheaper than English watches of the 
 same quality ; and protected, as they now are, by good strong 
 cases, they are equally as well adapted for the pocket. 
 
 One sign of advance in our country is the disposition of 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 Watchmaking. 
 
 manufacturers to discard the chain and fusee, and use the 
 going barrel. I know it is still a controverted point as to the 
 superiority of the going barrel over the fusee and chain. And 
 the greatest argument in favour of it is the fact that our manu- 
 facturers are now making up going barrels much more extensively 
 than they have hitherto done. At least ninety per cent, of the 
 English keyless watches are made with the going barrel. 
 
 There is, however, a watch made up by Mr. Charles Wood, 
 of Birmingham, called Powell’s Patent Going Arbor, which is a 
 great advance on either the fusee or going barrel. At least, 
 that is the opinion of many eminent watchmakers. The 
 advantages claimed for it by the inventor are — 4 ‘ Increased power 
 to carry the escapement (lever) and govern the balance, which, in 
 this watch, is larger and heavier than usual ; the great capacity 
 of the mainspring, which is attached to a patent traversing 
 hook that advances and recedes with its action, which, com- 
 bined with a large axis or arbor, renders accident almost 
 impossible. When Mr. Wood allows his patent to run out, I 
 believe this watch will be most extensively made up and sold. 
 Experience proves that while its timekeeping qualities are equal 
 to any fusee or going barrel watch, its liability to accident is 
 90 per cent. less. 
 
 Before concluding this Report, I would for a moment contrast 
 the French and Swiss systems of training their apprentices with 
 our English system. 
 
 The agitation which has been going on in this country for some 
 time now in regard to Technical Education will, I hope, result in 
 great good to our trade, for in no other trade in England is it 
 more required ; the ignorant state of a vast per-centage of our 
 workmen in that direction is a most lamentable fact and a 
 disgrace. When a youth is apprenticed in France or Switzer- 
 land he remains but a short time in the factory, some twelve 
 months, more or less ; he then attends such an institution as the 
 one I have already spoken of, l’Ecole Nationale d’Horlogerie, 
 where he has the benefit of lectures and classes, conducted by 
 learned professors, and the teaching of practical men at the 
 bench ; here he remains from two to three years, when he again 
 returns to the factory. Such a course as that cannot fail to 
 make an intelligent youth master of his trade. IIow do we teach 
 our youths their trade ? IIow much do they learn during the 
 first two years of their apprenticeship ? In the majority of cases 
 not much more than running errands and sweeping the floor 
 of the workshop. 
 
 I hear employers complain again and again about the scarcity of 
 
Watchmaking. 
 
 35 
 
 good men. Why, is it to be wondered at ? They themselves will not 
 be troubled with apprentices ; and small employers, who do take 
 them, educate them generally after the manner referred to. I 
 should like to see such institutions established in this country, 
 supported partially by Government, and employers .insisting that 
 their apprentices attended such places. The benefit that would 
 be derived from them would in a few years be simply inestimable, 
 equally to employer and employed. I believe, and am fully con- 
 vinced, that it would materially help to lessen the enormous 
 importation of Swiss watches into this country. The very fact 
 that the value of watches imported here during each of the first 
 five months of this year exceeded £30,000, ought to stir the trade 
 to do something to keep that money at home amongst ourselves, 
 and I cannot see how else we can do it than by technically edu- 
 cating the mass of workmen, either by such institutions as these, 
 or in some other effectual manner ; for though we have undeni- 
 ably produced the greatest watchmakers that ever lived, the 
 bulk of our present watchmakers are not equal as workmen to the 
 bulk of the French or Swiss watchmakers. 
 
Timekeepers, Clocks, Watches, and 
 
 Chronometers. 
 
 By ALDRED M. RODGER, Secretary to the Manchester District 
 Watch and Clock Makers' Association. 
 
 T HE art of constructing machines for the measurement of 
 time has frequently received very considerable attention 
 from scientific men ; and they are material aids, if they be not 
 absolutely necessary, to the astronomer, the navigator, and the 
 physician, as well as in regulating the concerns of everyday life. 
 
 Many great men like Newton and Ferguson, both Galileos, 
 and both the Harrisons, with Dr. Hooke, have their names im- 
 perishably associated with the art of scientific timekeeping. 
 The British, as well as several Continental Governments, Corpo- 
 rations, and many private individuals, have from time to time 
 given rewards to foster the liorological art ; and doubtless a 
 kindred spirit animated the Society for the Promotion of Scientific 
 Industry in sending watchmakers to the Vienna Exhibition. As 
 one of the number sent out by them, I will endeavour in this 
 Paper to show the most recent improvements in the art, and also 
 contrast the timekeeping machines exhibited there with those 
 produced in this country. 
 
 The name chronometer is applied chiefly to those machines 
 the principal use of which is to give correct time at sea, to 
 enable the navigator to know his longitude ; and in their con- 
 struction an accurate knowledge of the expansion and contraction 
 of metals in varying climates is absolutely necessary. The great 
 difficulty of the chronometer-maker has hitherto been to construct 
 a machine to keep correct time in changing states of the atmo- 
 sphere in different parts of the world. This difficulty has been 
 overcome chiefly by the combination of metals and the construc- 
 tion of the chronometer balance. 
 
 Mr. Victor Kullberg, of Liverpool Road, London, exhibits 
 chronometers of the above description in a state of all but 
 absolute perfection, both as regards workmanship and time- 
 keeping. They are the perfection of mechanism, and do not 
 vary in time half a second far many months. Among the 
 
Timekeepers , Clocks , Watches , awrf Chronometers . 37 
 
 many excellent horological machines exhibited, I saw none 
 equal to these. Besides these, Mr. C. J. Klaftenberger, of 
 Regent Street, London, exhibits chronometers, timepieces, and 
 watches of very excellent construction, having all the modern 
 improvements. His watch-cases are extremely chaste and beauti- 
 ful ; the enamelled work is done by a new and less costly process. 
 Specimens of this are shown in the crests of the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury and the Duke of Bedford, beautifully enamelled on 
 bassine edged cases. In the French Department there was exhi- 
 bited an excellent variety of clocks, watches, and timepieces of 
 very superior quality, by different firms ; Leroy and Brequet, 
 both of Paris, stand conspicuous. The former shows timepieces 
 with the duplex escapement, watches repeating the hours, chro- 
 nographs with split seconds and duplicate dials, marking every 
 division of time from a quarter of a second to the date of the 
 month, and also the age of the moon, and all of first class 
 quality. I cannot speak too highly of the timepieces exhibited 
 by L. Brequet, of Paris, displaying as they do in their construc- 
 tion such originality of idea, versatility of talent, and superiority 
 of workmanship combined, as I did not find under any other 
 name in the Exhibition. 1st. An astronomical clock, striking 
 the seconds at will, so that two or more persons can take observa- 
 tions at the same time. 2nd. A timepiece whose escapement is 
 the vibration of a tuning fork, recording accurately the hundredth 
 part of a second, which keeps correct time and is regulated by a 
 screw on the tuning fork. 3rd. A regulator whose pendulum is 
 of zinc and steel, that keeps time equal to one of steel and 
 mercury, and is produced at a fraction of the cost. 4th. A 
 timepiece whose lever action is on the right angle, enabling it to 
 dispense with the objectionable contrate wheel, and bringing the 
 balance into the horizontal position. And lastly, I will mention 
 a remontoir clock, whose nine-inch-and-a-fraction pendulum 
 shows seconds, and the workmanship of which throughout cannot 
 be surpassed. 
 
 Such are some of the specimens of work exhibited by a man 
 whose name is famous in the horological world as the inventor of 
 the Brequet balance spring, named after him, and which is found 
 so serviceable in giving isochronism when the cylindrical spring 
 from its greater bulk cannot be used. In the French Department 
 is also shown a large glass case fitted with model escapements, 
 specimens of the workmanship of the youths in the Government 
 School of Cluses. Here every escapement and every balance 
 spring on a large size is exhibited going, the chronometer, duplex, 
 lever, horizontal verge, vergule and others, with the cylindrical, 
 
38 Timekeepers , Clocks , Watches , awe? Chronometers. 
 
 spherical, Brequet, and flat balance springs attached, all produced 
 by youths, from fourteen to twenty years of age, who stay 
 about four years. Besides their trade, they are taught drawing, 
 mathematics, geometry ; in short, get a complete scientific and 
 practical education. I asked the exhibitor what advantage there 
 was in the spherical balance spring so generally used in the mo- 
 dels ; he replied, “None, but it was difficult to make properly;” it 
 looked beautiful, and was regarded in the school as a test of pro- 
 ficiency in the art. Such schools must be very beneficial, and 
 could our Government or some wealthy persons be induced to 
 establish something of the kind in our own country, it would 
 do much to bring back our art, and provide work for the unem- 
 ployed of both sexes in a light and elegant business, the profits 
 of which are lost to the nation, or nearly so. Our grandfathers 
 supplied the world with English watches, and now we do not 
 make half of those used in our own country. In the Swiss De- 
 partment, as might be expected from the country that produces 
 most watches, everything in watchwork is exhibited, from the 
 smallest article separately to all the parts in combined action, as 
 in the complicated calendar chronograph repeater. 
 
 In fact, in small complicated machinery the Swiss productions 
 are unrivalled, and the house of Patek, Philippe, and Co. well re- 
 present their staple trade in this Exhibition. J. Huguenin 
 Girard, of Geneva, exhibits a fine display of balance springs of all 
 kinds ; Bourgeaux and Delamure, of Geneva, a variety of ex- 
 cellent watchmakers’ tools ; and D. L. Petitpierre, from Couvet, 
 Switzerland, shows a pitching tool with three sets of centres, and 
 shows the pallet wheel and roller depths, in fact, the whole lever 
 escapement is seen in it at the same time. This is a useful in- 
 vention, and its advantage over the old tool, that can only show 
 part of the escapement at once, cannot fail to be appreciated. 
 
 Austria and Germany generally are very fully represented in 
 clocks in the Exhibition. The regulator and hall clocks made 
 in Vienna, I examined in detail, and found them the best I had 
 ever seen ; the metal hard, the workmanship square, and the 
 finish on the pinions, arbors, and pivots, when examined 
 through the eyeglass, faultless ; the jewelling finely executed, 
 and the arrangement of the pallets for giving nicety of pitch, 
 exquisite. Amid so much that is excellent in clockwork, I 
 forbear giving names, as from my short visit I might omit some 
 worthy of mention. I was especially indebted to Mr. Maren- 
 zeller, horologer, 21, Ilothenthrum IStrasse, for permitting his 
 foreman, who speaks English, to show me through the Exhibi- 
 tion. The house clocks from the Black Forest and other parts 
 
Timekeepers , Clocks , Watches , awe? Chronometers. 39 
 
 in Germany, though in beautifully carved cases, have rather coarse 
 movements, not to be confounded with those high-class time- 
 keepers manufactured in Vienna. There are improvements in 
 watchwork common to different makers, such as the lever 
 watch on the double roller principle, which protects the watch, 
 although the hands are set backward with some violence. I 
 cannot state who was the first to apply this great improvement. 
 Mr. Kullberg informs me he makes no other kind, and doubtless 
 it will soon be universally adopted, and will contribute not a 
 little to make the lever watch the best pocket timekeeper. j 
 
 Another recent improvement in keyless work is the detaching 
 of the pendant so that the watch cannot be affected in the pocket 
 by being incidentally turned, whether it is on the fusee or going 
 barrel principle. Chronographs, or watches that mark time in 
 writing by means of a miniature pen on the point of seconds’ 
 hand, are shown in large numbers, and much improved. The 
 principle can scarcely be called new ; but how essential to record 
 accurately the instant of passage of a satellite across the field 
 of the telescope, or the decisive moment of a race ! 
 
 In comparing the home and foreign work, for turret or 
 large clocks, Great Britain stands first for quality and utility, 
 and our system of manufacturing by steam power anything of 
 bulk will always enable us to keep down in price where the orders 
 are large enough to induce competition. Of hall or regu- 
 lator clocks, Austria produces the best, and of spring 
 clocks France has the best and most suitable for dining and 
 drawing-rooms, or for mantel- timepieces. For chronometers, or 
 lever watches, for timekeeping and quality, England is the first. 
 For repeaters, or complicated watches requiring to give more 
 than simply the time, Switzerland is unrivalled. Some of the 
 Swiss keyless work is very simply got up, with small additional 
 expense, having little more than an endless screw on the pen- 
 dant ; and for watches not expected to give the most correct 
 time, but still that will go within one minute a month, the 
 simplicity and cheapness of the going barrel, now universally 
 adopted in Switzerland, enables her to produce a watch re- 
 sembling the English make in strength more and more every 
 year, and it will take the home trade all its time to hold its own 
 on this class of work, except we adopt some better system in 
 our manufacture. I fear our second-class trade, in which price 
 is a consideration, will diminish. 
 
 The English watch cases are strongly made, but they are all 
 alike or nearly so, with their everlasting engine turned backs, so 
 unsightly after a few years’ wear, while the Swiss cases are embel- 
 
40 Timekeepers , Clocks , Watches , awe? Chronometers. 
 
 listed with the art of the engraver in lines and curves of beau- 
 tiful form and combination ; landscapes, animals, and vegetable 
 life are subjects often represented, and form scenes the eye can 
 dwell on with pleasure. 
 
 The enamelled w T ork not only adds another beauty to the 
 cases, but materially enhances their value. On the dome of a 
 keyless watch I observed a beautifully enamelled miniature of a 
 lady, which alone cost one thousand francs, or over £40. 
 
 I have thus given in the foregoing Paper, to the best of my 
 ability, my opinions frankly, and I am grateful for having been 
 afforded the opportunity of visiting the Vienna Exhibition of 
 1873. It has enlarged my experience, and I trust my report 
 will prove interesting and of some utility. 
 
Social and Working Habits and Customs 
 of German Workmen. 
 
 By MALCOLM MACLEOD. 
 
 T HE methods I adopted to obtain the information I required 
 in writing this Report, were those of visiting, during work- 
 ing hours, two, three, or more workshops daily, spending evenings 
 in the cafes and places of amusement, visiting the gardens fre- 
 quented by the working classes and the houses mostly occupied 
 by workmen’s families ; visiting with the utmost impartiality — 
 just as opportunity offered — the church, the circus, the garret, 
 the cafe, back slums, respectable residences, resorts of “ life,” &c. 
 When I called at the workshops I took with me the reporter in 
 that branch of trade. This served a double purpose ; the reporter 
 obtained information, and kept the employer or manager busy, 
 whilst I saw the men in their normal conditions and received 
 their version of w^ages, hours, work, &c., which I could after- 
 wards compare with that given by the employers. Of course I 
 should not have been able to accomplish much but for several 
 gentlemen assisting me in getting through the workshops, and 
 the valuable aid of an interpreter (lately a workman), kindly put 
 at my disposal by the Secretary of the Royal British Commission. 
 
 Work, Wages, etc. 
 
 The population of Vienna is set down at 1,000,000, the 
 trades’ population at 100,000, and the total number of workmen 
 in Austria at 6,340,000. Of these there are miners 104,256, 
 and employed in salt mines 12,771. I quite believe that the 
 workmen are so situated as to become first-class at their trades.. 
 Their educational advantages are certain to be a power to them ; 
 they seem to be in education where we are in workmanship ; in 
 fact we need their school learning, they our workshop knowledge. 
 The hours of labour are twelve for adults generally ; agricultural 
 labourers and farm servants often work fifteen hours per day, 
 but there is no uniformity. Children seem to work from six to 
 ten hours daily ; Saturday, .perhaps, one hour less in most 
 
42 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 trades ; Sunday, sometimes till noon. I have seen Austrian 
 workmen do excellent work, which could not be surpassed. But 
 I feel certain they cannot in the same time produce work equal 
 in quantity and quality to that of our workmen. They seem to 
 lack the dash and continuity of our workpeople, so that this 
 extra time is equal to an advance in their wages — as it is the 
 total wages paid, and not the weekly wages, or hours worked, 
 that determines the price of an article produced. 
 
 One million Germans have emigrated — mostly to the United 
 States — from the Ports of Hamburg and Bremen during fifteen 
 years ; and during a two years’ stay in America nothing to me 
 seemed more remarkable than the sober, quiet, plodding industry 
 of the frugal Germans, who command the average wages of the 
 country. Whenever I found a number of men in Germany at 
 outdoor work — excavating, for instance — at least one-half of the 
 number were sure to be idling, talking, and smoking. They 
 appear blessed with constitutions that can endure rest. But it 
 is fair to say that the heat there was about 135° F. in the sun ; 
 still I think our navvies would either have worked or left it 
 entirely. To me it looked slovenly that almost every man 
 had in his mouth a large fancy pipe, the immense bowl 
 reaching the lowest button on his vest. This long pipe and 
 cigar smoking reminded me of the Yankee quack doctor’s pre- 
 scription, that ‘ ‘ his medicine was to be taken internally, ex- 
 ternally, and eternally ; ” for meet the Germans when and where 
 you will, there is the inevitable smoke. I find no fault with the 
 (eight feet) long handle of either the navvy’s spade or pick, as 
 it is just possible a man may do more work by stooping less. 
 Certainly the men do not work out of doors as would be expected 
 here. But I witnessed a great contrast when I visited some 
 engineering establishments, and joinery and cabinet works, a 
 large portmanteau, purse, &c., works, employing about 300 men, 
 clock manufactories, and other places, and found the men 
 (excepting one firm) working as constantly as would be the case 
 in an English workshop. 
 
 The clock manufactory which I visited produced two kinds of 
 clocks: the first is well known as the Viennese clock, prettily 
 gotten up, the parts well chosen and fitted. These can be 
 produced at a cost of about £2 5s., and sell here at about £5 
 each ; our equivalent clock would cost about £6, and our clock- 
 making operative earns less wages than his Viennese brother. 
 Their turret clocks are not nearly so good as those of British 
 make ; the castings were, perhaps, better than the average Man- 
 chester work of that class, but not so good as those of Sheffield 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen . 43 
 
 or Glasgow. The wheel patterns were not prepared with suffi- 
 cient care, and the turning and fitting was not good. 
 
 The first cabinet-making works I visited produced a variety 
 of work, the design of which was excellent ; but though the 
 intention of the designer was good, * ‘ distance lent enchantment 
 to the view,” of the inlaid work especially. At the second 
 establishment (to which was added a builder’s joinery works), 
 whilst the design and taste of the work was equal to that at the 
 first place, it was done in a far superior manner, and a practical 
 English joiner accompanied and agreed with me that we could 
 not surpass the work in England. In the method of doing the 
 work, too, there were some things worth the knowing. But this 
 is the province of my colleagues. 
 
 Nearly all the men at these two firms worked by the piece, 
 and earned about one-third more than day wages. Both these 
 firms have warehouses in London — proof of their ability to produce 
 at a cheaper rate than we can. I also paid a visit to an estab- 
 lishment which manufactures every kind of fancy goods in leather 
 from a purse to a portmanteau. About 300 men — also a few 
 women — were employed there. The work is almost entirely done 
 by the piece ; the working hours are from 7 to 4 and 5 in the 
 afternoon. The manager said the men earned about £2 per 
 week, and were fortunate compared with other Viennese work- 
 men. This establishment also had a place in London for the 
 sale of their goods. I was very kindly taken over the extensive 
 works and show-rooms of Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth (of 
 Lincoln), where, except for the dress and some tools used, I 
 should have noticed little difference between it and an English 
 agricultural works. The men were steadily at work, and were 
 nearly all on piecework, and earned about a third more than 
 daily wages (the same class of mechanics work by the piece in 
 England). All the plain and rough work was done in Vienna ; 
 but the best work, as the portable engines, and boilers, and the 
 machine tools used, were brought from England. At the kind 
 invitation of Mr. John Hardy, chief engineer at the Southern 
 Railway works, I was shown every detail and given every in- 
 formation at these works. Mr. Hardy, being a native of New- 
 castle, was able to compare British work and workmen with the 
 same in Germany. He complained that the German workmen 
 (there were no Englishmen working here, nor at the other 
 places visited) needed too much superintendence — could not be 
 trusted to finish a job, as the British workmen could. To sum- 
 marise, the information I received here — and I regard it as the 
 most reliable I could obtain — Mr. Hardy taking all pains, and 
 
44 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 even looking up his Reports to his Directors to check my notes — 
 there were about 950 men employed — 400 on locomotives, the 
 rest on waggon work, &c. They worked from 6 in the morning 
 to 6 evening, 5 days ; Saturday, till 5 ; and on Sunday did 
 “odd jobbing” only. The artizans received, on the average, 
 3s. 2d. per day ; the labourers Is. lid. per day. About 80 per 
 cent, worked by the piece, and earned 5s. instead of 3s. 2d. 
 Six years ago there was a Union, but, as usual with the German 
 Unions, it was partly political, and, consequently, was suppressed 
 by the police. There was a partial strike a year ago — the first 
 one known at Vienna to Mr. Hardy : the men obtained the ad- 
 vantage, but new hands were taken on in lieu of the old ones 
 who struck. The Union had no funds, but “levied” for 
 strikes, and there is really no Trade Union now. He had 
 no apprentices, as the term of probation was only two years. 
 It is four to five in North Germany. But at other works ap- 
 prentices were employed. Machine men, such as slotters, 
 shopers, and drillers, receive the same wages as turners and 
 fitters. The men work as many machines as they can tend at 
 one time. All Austrian workmen could read. Bohemians were 
 good at hard, but not at intricate, work, excepting those who 
 had come to Austria when young, and who could now do the best 
 work with despatch. Men staying off work through drink was 
 a rare occurrence indeed. The wages of some classes of men in 
 the country were 10 per cent, less than in Vienna. But the 
 countrymen had more comforts and were best off. The wages 
 already cited were an advance of 25 per cent, on those of fifteen 
 months ago. It is worth noting that while I was at the Southern 
 Railway works, no idling, smoking, or drinking could be seen 
 among the 950 workmen. 
 
 Ilaswell and Sons employ 1,100 men, very few of whom were 
 smoking. Both these firms were engaged on locomotives and 
 other railway work, both were in Vienna, and both under English 
 management. But when the works of Messrs. Sigls were visited, 
 many men had their beer before them, alarge number were smoking 
 cigars or pipes, and standing in groups, seemingly as indifferent 
 to the promenade of the foreman as were the two crouching dogs 
 that had just run in with a new supply of beer in the barrels 
 on their cart, and the girl in attendance seemed fully employed 
 “refreshing” the men with frequent draughts. This firm was 
 under German direction absolutely ; 1,500 men were employed 
 on locomotives and general machinery. 
 
 At Haswell and Sons’ ordinary mechanics earned 5s., others, 
 as erccters, earned about 7s. per day ; whilst at the Southern 
 
45 
 
 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 Railway works the men were employed at repairs. Messrs. 
 Sigls were employed on new work built by contract, and there- 
 fore subject to competition. It will be noted, too, that there is 
 a great difference in the wages paid at these establishments. 
 
 All the workshops I visited were clean, comfortable, and fairly 
 healthy ; the men, too, seemed cleanly, clad in plain, serviceable 
 clothing. Many of them worked with bare feet in the joinery 
 works. 
 
 Considering their economical manner of living, their inexpen- 
 sive enjoyments, and the progress these men are rapidly making 
 in most branches of industry, they are not rivals that we can 
 afford to despise. They have a broad margin for improvement. 
 We have small growing space beyond improving upon ourselves. 
 
 Brunn, a manufacturing town, furnishes another sample of 
 life. Here, as at Vienna, there are no beggars, or “miserably 
 poor the people are largely employed at the woollen mills, 
 the girls earning about 5s. 6d. per week — three girls doing ten 
 per cent, more than two girls would do in England ; but they work 
 72 hours per week, as do the men, who earn 10s. to 14s. per 
 week. The English overlooker (as a teacher of Germans), who 
 would earn about 30s. in England, receives at Brunn about £4 ; 
 but very few of such men are retained. No work is done on 
 Sunday except by the clerks and warehousemen, and “odd 
 jobbing.” 
 
 The people here and at most other towns and places are 
 crowded together to sleep, irrespective of age or sex, as many as 
 can be got into one room. The number of persons in one room 
 is limited to the space required for them to sleep in. Illegiti- 
 macy and concubinage is common to all classes. The wages 
 are stated officially to be, throughout Austria — Engineers and 
 mechanics, cabinet-makers and joiners, 26s. to 28s. ; labourers, 
 10s. ; plumbers, 16s. ; silversmiths, 12s. to 14s. per week; and 
 joiners, 5s. ; tailors, 4s. to 6s. ; smiths, 4s. to 6s. ; builders’ 
 tradesmen, 2s. 8d. ; labourers, Is. 8d. per day ; agricultural 
 labourers, £5 per annum, with board, lodging, &c. ; Vienna 
 upholsterers, 20s. per week. Hours in most trades about 60 to 
 65 per week. These rates do not include board, lodgings, 
 and other conveniences, except to the agricultural labourers, 
 and which must always be regarded as so much wages. There 
 are 76 whole holidays in the year. 
 
 Women’s Work. 
 
 Work usually done in England by bricklayers’ labourers 
 is performed throughout Germany mainly by the women, 
 
46 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 whose dress is one remove from Mother Eve’s before the fall, 
 and though very economical and convenient, it would be here 
 regarded as indecent. These women mix the mortar, carry 
 the bricks, lift the stones, and attend generally upon the men. 
 They had also been taught to solicit ‘ ‘ allowance, ’ ’ though 
 they were wise not to spend the money in drink. Water in 
 Vienna is obtained by means of large pumps, stationed at short 
 distances from each other. The pumping for town purposes is 
 done after the fashion of a clock pendulum. Two women, some- 
 times three, are to be found working at each of these pumps. 
 One may see occasionally a man, apparently an overlooker, 
 making a desperate attempt to post himself against the wall 
 surrounding the pump ; but I never saw a man pumping. 
 
 Street cleansing is mostly done by women, but sometimes men 
 work with them. I noticed women working as navvies in exca- 
 vating foundations ; they took the shovel or the barrow, as the 
 case was ; so it was with the women plate-laying on the railway. 
 But I marvelled that, whilst nearly all the men had shoes, the 
 women usually had none. Besides the work named, I witnessed 
 several women working at mowing, ploughing, and general farm- 
 work, drawing a cart with the aid of a dog, taking care of rail- 
 way crossings, working as porters, carrying loads (in criels 
 strapped to their back), and as gardeners. 
 
 These labouring women are mostly Bohemians. The Bohemians, 
 men and women, seem to do the hard work in Vienna. Evidently 
 a different construction is put upon “Woman’s Bights” there 
 from that understood in England. In Germany woman’s right 
 to labour seems to be universally recognised, and so far respected 
 that no man is so ungallant as to limit that right by helping her. 
 Since women are allowed the full “dignity of labour,” I fail to 
 see why they should not be allowed to win “ honour and glory ” 
 in the army and navy. 
 
 I was inclined to be hard on our Cousin German for thus 
 degrading women by physical labour, but I passed a brickworks 
 at home since I penned the above, and I have not decided which 
 is worse for a woman, to make bricks, or carry them when made. 
 I would say hard things of the Austrians for allowing women to 
 sweep their streets, but fear Austrians may hear that our women 
 work in coal pits. 
 
 Much of the portering, such as we see done at home with 
 donkey and cart, is commonly done with dog and cart, driven 
 and drawn by women. The loads these dogs draw are surprising. 
 There are often two dogs to the cart, or a woman takes the place 
 of the second dog at one side of the shaft, and runs along 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 47 
 
 with the cart. I observed less of this means of conveyance in 
 Vienna than in Dresden and Aix-la-Chapelle. Churches are 
 seemingly open at all times of the day, where the very poor and 
 women were the most noticeable at devotions. There were some 
 honest wives who economised their time by calling at church on 
 their way home from their marketing ; but at any time I could 
 have found more persons at any one of the many hundred cafes 
 than could be found inside a church. But I think there are few 
 ribs broken in hasty attempts at getting into church ; I always 
 found ample room there, whilst I could not always obtain a seat 
 in a cafe. The market women, with their criels strapped on 
 their backs, and in the quaint country market attire, called at 
 church for devotion as they returned home. 
 
 Sunday. 
 
 As we both arrived at and departed from Vienna on a Sunday, 
 I w r as struck by the contrast to an English (and especially a 
 Scotch or New England) Sunday. At 6 in the morning people 
 are breakfasting in the saloons, some going to work until 12 ; 
 shops open; persons buying and selling; girls or women working 
 at the town pumps ; dredging boats at work on the river ; 
 Turks squatted on the road-side smoking ; steam-boats filled 
 with pleasure parties scudding up and down the river ; women 
 shaking beds, and thoughtfully placing them at the open 
 windows to sweeten ; a quaint brewer’s cart laden with barrels ; 
 builders’ carts laden with stones, sand, &c. In fact, Vienna 
 is as busy and as lively at 6 o’clock on a Sunday morning 
 as Manchester would be on a w r eek-day at 8 or 9 o’clock, 
 even to the gentry driving out in carriages, and all the etceteras 
 of everyday life. There is some work done in the workshops on 
 Sunday, but it is scarcely the rule, and when work is done on 
 Sunday, it is only till noor, and is optional with the men. The 
 Viennese people have the like aversion to working on Sunday 
 that our people have to working on Saturday afternoon, and have 
 much the same reason — pleasure. But it seems a recognised 
 rule to do “odd jobs,” or “work if you like.” “Six days shalt 
 thou labour, and on the seventh do odd jobs,” that is, if you 
 can deny yourself the gardens, cafe, &c., is the creed. 
 
 Trade Unions. 
 
 There seems to be little of the kind of Trade Associations 
 known as “Unions.” Those which have existed seem to have 
 languished ; hence we find no uniform rate of wages, hours, or 
 trade customs. The existence of Courts of Arbitration, how- 
 
48 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 ever, prove that there must be some matters of difference to 
 settle. 
 
 Strikes often terminate by the men carrying on business in 
 their own trade by means of co-operation. This applies with 
 greater force to North Germany, where the workpeople are 
 better educated than in the South. There are Travelling Unions, 
 which assist the members by way of a bed and breakfast in each 
 town. 
 
 Cost of Living. 
 
 Clothing of the same kind and quality is not much less than in 
 England ; but although the Germans usually dress well on Sun- 
 days and holiday times, they do not regularly w r ear expensive 
 clothing. 
 
 It is not often in Vienna — but quite common out of it — that 
 the employers supply dinners for the workpeople ; and it is 
 officially stated that 46,739, or 13*7 per cent, of the entire 
 working population are thus v r holly or partially provided with 
 board. Some employers furnish provisions at the market prices; 
 others have cheap eating-houses or cafes on their estates; 
 and patches of ground are allotted out to the workpeople. Some 
 trades, as joiners, are furnished with tools, which are considered 
 in the wages. Trade, like Government, in Germany, is more 
 paternal than independent. 
 
 It is estimated that the cost of a single man’s living for one 
 year is — board, £36 10s. ; lodgings, £10 ; clothing, £6 14s. 
 Out of the large towrns these expenses are less. Dr. Engle esti- 
 mates that the cost of food absorbs 62 per cent, of an annual 
 income of £45 to £60. In such cases lodgings cost about 12 per 
 cent. But I regard these estimates as extremely liberal. It 
 must be understood that the food is not such as would satisfy the 
 British workman, whom I hope never to see content with the 
 house accommodation of Vienna. 
 
 The wines and beer commonly drunk in Germany contain very 
 little alcohol, so people drink an immense quantity and do not 
 become intoxicated. Drinking is mostly done at eating times ; 
 stronger drinks, as brandy, w hiskey, and British beer, are seldom 
 indulged in. Austrians will often sit in a cafe and drink only 
 about two glasses of these weak drinks. With them it is more 
 a matter of making a meal, or listening to music, than mere 
 drinking. 
 
 I think I saw not more than one person intoxicated, and he 
 was an Englishman, and had been taking stronger drink than is 
 usually taken by natives. Some half-dozen of our party com- 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 49 
 
 pared notes on this head, and their experience was like 
 my own. 
 
 All classes, all sexes, all ages frequent the cafes. Classes 
 predominate just in proportion to the locality, whether near to 
 the domicile of the worker or the wealthy. But all classes com- 
 mingle together. In any of these cafes you may find gentlemen 
 and working men with their families, taking their meals accord- 
 ing to the length of their purse. It is not easy to distinguish 
 between the rich and the poor in this respect at evening meals. 
 At some of these gardens, in other ways very pleasant as a 
 summer retreat, and as a place for “restoring man,” bands of 
 music are often in attendance, and play some really good music. 
 
 These caf£s have gardens or spaces of ground planted with 
 trees, or if fronting the road the space may be made into an im- 
 promptu garden by the aid of huge tree-pots, which succour trees 
 that serve as some shade and retirement ; but there are a few at 
 which the chairs and tables are in the street. People take their 
 meals in this fashion ; but passers-by do not take the slightest 
 notice ; everybody seems to mind his own business in Germany. 
 
 I may simply mention the dancing of the voluptuous Can- 
 Can, as performed in Vienna. I have no sympathy with milk- 
 sopism ; still I regard this exhibition as simply disgraceful. But 
 it is proper to state that the admission is about the amount an 
 artisan earns per day, and other expenses are in proportion, so 
 it will be seen that this is not a workman’s amusement. 
 
 The Germans are very fond of, and will have, good music ; 
 their circus and cafes present splendid displays, and close at 
 the time such places fairly commence in London, about half-past 
 nine. 
 
 Homes. 
 
 There is no dearer word in the Anglo-Saxon tongue than 
 home. If the British workman has a home, with all its tender 
 associations, its humble but ennobling and refreshing comforts, 
 with what inspiration can he face the world ! The thought of 
 home lightens the toil of the labourer, cheers him on his way, 
 giving tranquillity to body and mind. Yet I am told there is no 
 word in the German language that expresses the word “ home.” 
 I fear they have little use for the word. Feeding at the cafe and 
 sleeping at the lodgments would be a poor substitute for our 
 English home. One finds at the entrance to what are, externally, 
 handsome mansions, the wives and children of the apparently 
 poor. It is their domicile or lodging-house. All the rooms, 
 landings, stairs, &c., are wonderfully clean, and this under 
 
 E 
 
50 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 unfavourable circumstances, as the rooms are let off to so many 
 families. The common entrance to all is through a hall- 
 way, the keeper of Tvhich requires a penny from every person 
 admitted after 10 at night until 4 next morning ; at which hour 
 almost everybody is on the move, especially the women, who will 
 be found doing all kinds of domestic duty soon after that hour. 
 I was told by an Englishman who took me to his lodgment (a 
 very comfortable, clean, and respectable looking apartment) that 
 300 persons lived in ‘ ‘ that house, ’ ’ which seemed a fair sample 
 of “lodgments” generally in Vienna. If you are asked to 
 sup with a friend, or dine, or take tea with him, you meet him 
 at a cafe for the purpose — home, or “lodgment,” is never 
 dreamt of. The workmen’s apartments and surroundings are 
 certainly not what would suit a British workman, neither are 
 the internal fittings or the conveniences such as would please 
 our tidy housewives, to say nothing of having to fetch the water 
 from the public well, often a great distance from the house. 
 
 In many districts the dwellings are built by the owners of fac- 
 tories or mines, just as is done in all new industrial countries (it 
 is so in America). These dwellings are frequently purchased by 
 the working men out of wages that w'ould be regarded as ex- 
 tremely low in England, many Englishmen spending more on 
 themselves than these men earn. About 60,000 are furnished 
 with lodgings by their employers. In Vienna the large build- 
 ings; or lodgments, present the appearance of gentlemen’s man- 
 sions, with hall entrances, and a gateway opening into a large 
 square court -yard formed of four extremely large buildings, two 
 or more of which may have their entrances from the said court- 
 yard. In this way it will be seen that the land is more closely 
 built upon than it could be on any other plan. Indeed, the 
 consideration seems to be, firstly, how many lodgments can be 
 built upon the least space ? secondly, how many persons can be 
 lodged in each room ? Yet I daresay the people are very much 
 astonished at the sudden appearance of cholera and other epi- 
 demics. I wonder that these places are not constantly afflicted 
 with such diseases. 
 
 Education, Co-operation, etc. 
 
 From the Consular Reports received by our Foreign Office, we 
 learn that there are “many excellent trade schools” and 
 “drawing and Sunday-schools are provided by some mine pro- 
 prietors.” The law (1809) makes attendance at school (from 
 the ages of 6 to 12 years) compulsory, and even for a longer 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 51 
 
 term, if needful. The religion taught is according to the parents’ 
 choice, or the creed in -which the child is born. The religious 
 teaching is during stated hours, from 8 to 9 o’clock in the 
 morning, twice a week, and the child may be absent, at will, 
 from such religious instructions. Before the above law was 
 passed the cost of educating a child was 2d. to 3d. per week. 
 The new law has done very much good, and though evaded 
 sometimes, it is generally well observed ; and the officers 
 enforce the law strictly and the people regard it with much 
 favour. But education must have been highly appreciated before 
 this law was passed, as a totally uneducated Austrian is rare. 
 At the museum I found young men engaged in moulding in 
 plaster, works of art, which are sold. 
 
 The Working Man’s Education Union in Vienna is doing a 
 most important work, and the association is duly appreciated as 
 proved by its membership, numbering 8,000, out of a trades’ 
 population of 100,000. Besides some dozen academies and 
 seminaries, of a very high class, there are in Vienna alone about 
 20 classical high schools, 115 industrial schools, 90 public, 
 grammar, and national schools, and 300 private educational 
 establishments. 
 
 The progress of co-operation, and that too in the higher and 
 more difficult branches in which it has been found almost impos- 
 sible until recently to make any progress in this country, proves 
 the Germans to have both intelligence and education, and serves 
 as an exhibit of their self-denial, prudence, and power of organi- 
 sation. The following will show the great progress of the Co- 
 operative Banks in North and South Germany during eleven 
 years : — In 1859 there were 80 societies with 18,676 members, 
 who had money on loan = 4,131,436 thalers; share capital, 
 246,001 thalers ; and in 1870 these figures had risen to 740 
 societies, 314,656 members, 207,618,287 thalers lent ; and the 
 share capital had risen to 13,449,152 thalers (a thaler is equal 
 to 3s.). Even during the Franco-German War the number of 
 co-operative banks increased by 121, and 112 new stores were 
 opened, while 9 manufacturing societies were established. The 
 business done by all these societies in 1870 amounted to 
 350,000,000 of thalers. The paid-up capital was 27,000,000, 
 and the loan capital 62,000,000. The number of co-operators 
 now in Germany exceeds 1,000,000. Amongst the “ Magazine 
 Associations,” there are of shoemakers, 65 ; agriculturists, 43 ; 
 tailors, 37 ; cabinet-makers, 24 ; smiths, 8 ; weavers, 5 ; book- 
 binders, 4 ; glove manufacturers, 2 ; carpenters, 2 ; basket - 
 makers, 2 ; house-painters, 1 ; millers, 1 ; • cloth-makers, 1 ; 
 
 e 2 
 
o2 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 sewing machinists, 2 ; booking establishments, 1 ; house-build- 
 ing establishments, 5 ; and they appear to make most progress 
 in co-operation just where we make least. 
 
 Social Matters. 
 
 The German workman is a plain polite man, whether in his 
 blue blouse or evening attire ; he will raise his hat to whoever 
 he meets, no matter if they be below or above him in social 
 position, and I observed more familiarity between the employer 
 and the employe than is usually the case with us. Still I 
 noticed what I regard as servility and want of a manly spirit, 
 especially outside of Vienna. The Austrian is often rated as 
 rather low in intellectual and educational attainments ; I do not 
 fully concur in this opinion. Very few, indeed, of even the 
 lowest class, can be found who have not some education, and I 
 regard them as quite equal, intellectually, to our own people ; 
 but they are not nearly so industrious as Englishmen. This 
 rather surprises me, as I have seen these people, by their in- 
 dustry, thrift, and sobriety, acquire property in a remarkably 
 short time in the United States, and I always regarded them as 
 among the most industrious of the American population. But 
 whatever their position now, they are advancing by immense 
 strides intellectually, socially, and politically, at home. Provi- 
 dent societies are a thriving institution in Austria ; nearly every 
 workman belongs to a Friendly Society. The weekly payment is 
 about lOd. ; the weekly allowance during sickness, 10s. ; and 
 funeral allowance, £2 10s. These benefits appear ridiculously 
 small to us, who, for a weekly payment of 6d., can secure lOs. 
 per week (from temperance societies, 12s.), and £10 at death. 
 But these societies are purely local, and must therefore be 
 very expensive in their management, and with us would not be 
 deemed safe. Perhaps this accounts for the smallness of the 
 benefits. 
 
 I was informed by several persons in Vienna that they had no 
 poor — miserably poor. As I had seen men and women sleeping 
 all night in the streets, within a yard or two of the tramway 
 cars, 1 thought our people would be either heavy in the head or 
 light in the purse, were they to court balmy sleep in such a 
 position. Certainly, I never saw nor heard of a beggar while I 
 was in Germany, whereas, in London, I should have seen 
 hundreds. 
 
 I was assured, that in Vienna one half of the children were 
 born to parents out of wedlock ; that it was common for a 
 business man to have a much larger family than lived under his 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 53 
 
 roof or in his rooms. In a large city like Vienna immorality 
 is to be expected. But, when nearly the same may be said of 
 a place like Brunn, there exists a state of things which would 
 alarm us at home. I was informed by persons who were enabled 
 to know, that living together without marriage was very common. 
 The conditions or hindrances to marriage, are such as would 
 bring about like results at home. First, the Church is forbidden 
 to marry any person without the consent of the parents ; people 
 in love have no will of their own, and cannot be expected to 
 regard the will of others. The parties must also have the con- 
 sent of the Burgomaster and the authorities of the place of 
 their nativity. This can only be obtained if it can be shown that 
 a family can be supported by the contracting parties. If 
 people intending to marry could be thus deliberate, they might 
 hesitate at marrying at all. 
 
 All able-bodied men are liable to serve in the army. A man 
 cannot marry during this time, unless by the consent of the 
 Secretary of War, or the general under whom he is serving. 
 
 No wonder, then, that all is observed but the ceremonies. I 
 believe it would be the same here ; for in these matters, at any 
 rate, men and women are not governed by statutory law. A 
 recently made law enables a woman, who has lived with a man, 
 to prevent his marrying another ; but of course he may live with 
 the second as he did with the first. It is a dull novel that does 
 not contain a few elopements — matrimony is ignored in this kind 
 of literature. The marriage ceremony has become, is fast be- 
 coming more unpopular, as is shown not only in novels but on the 
 theatrical stage, and I am afraid by our own returns. 
 
 After all that is said of Vienna morals, I could not but 
 notice the fewness of the lewd women in the streets, their 
 remarkably good behaviour, and the almost total absence of that 
 low type of manhood one sees at home, dressed mostly in the 
 “natty” garb of the do-or-be-done racing fraternity. Still 
 my first opinions and those of my interpreter, and a Metro- 
 politan Police officer, received a dreadful shock, when the former 
 in our company lost his watch whilst waiting for a tram-car. 
 But Exhibitions bring certain gentry long distances for profitable 
 employment. 
 
 Sanitary Matters 
 
 are officially reported to be “good among the mining popula- 
 tion;” yet all I was able to see or learn went to prove that 
 sanitary science was not only not understood, but misunderstood. 
 Until visiting Austria I had supposed that no worse system could 
 
54 Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 
 
 be devised than our open cesspool. I was mistaken. We have had 
 much discussion on ventilation of sewers. I found the thing 
 accomplished in Vienna, with this difference, that we talk 
 of ventilating into the open air, in Vienna they ventilate into the 
 houses, by means of so-called water-closets, but which are 
 badly constructed privies without traps ; the water used being 
 slops from the rooms, &c., though this will not be excessive, as 
 the water is brought from pumps, often a goodly distance from 
 the house, and perhaps carried up many flights of steps or stairs. 
 Traps, such as we insist upon, in and around our homes, seem 
 to be little known, at least they seem little used in Austria. 
 Whenever we came near a grid, our nasal organs informed us 
 wdth emphasis. The open street gutters, or sewers on the 
 surface, all over the Continent, are simply disgraceful. A happy 
 contrast to this are the scrupulously clean apartments of the 
 people, who also never omit the w eekly bath. I can name some 
 dozen very large public baths in Vienna, some of which can be 
 converted into places for meetings or amusement. There are 
 excellent floating baths, w 7 hich may be called rafts, and are 
 anchored in the middle of a river ; the outside can be used by 
 swimmers. The raft resembles a flat-bottomed boat, divided 
 into so many private baths, a space of each being above the 
 water level, and devoted to dressing, &c. Boats convey bathers 
 to and from the shore, including the bath, for 5d. A healthy, 
 private, and safe bath is thus obtained. With the two exceptions 
 named, the Germans have yet to fully learn, that, even on the 
 grounds of selfishness, it is wise for the wealthy to see to the 
 sanitary condition of the poor, as the rich are not free from 
 contagion should it attack the poor ; to say nothing of the 
 national loss caused by the non-production of the sick ; and as 
 each workman is worth a given sum to the State (as he produces 
 more than he consumes, by the profit on his labour, <fec.), the 
 death of a workman is a loss to the country. 
 
 At Aix-la-Chapelle I passed through a fair, composed, 
 for the most part, of just such exhibitions of mimicry, mari- 
 onettes, tawdry, painted faces, &c., just such folly as at our own 
 fairs, minus the drink and disorder. It is also to be hoped that 
 a Government which has had the wisdom to organise and carry 
 out the greatest of Great Exhibitions, will soon withdraw its 
 sanction and patronage from the Lotteries, so that we may no 
 longer wdtness the national arms over a shop or office from which 
 is announced all about the various “drawings,” &c. 
 
 In conclusion, I w ould say, if, as I believe, one and a quarter 
 hour’s labour per day w'ill earn for every man all that is needful 
 
Social and Working Habits of German Workmen. 55 
 
 for his health, and if the Germans go on with anything like their 
 present frugality, our commercial supremacy may be in danger ; 
 for as one person in England can produce calico enough for 550 
 persons, we must look to other nations to purchase the bulk of 
 it. And so with other goods, for we are the world’s principal 
 workshop. At present, it is clear that Germany has a much 
 broader margin for improved production than we have. It has 
 the elasticity represented by how far we arc in advance of them. 
 We can, in the main, only improve on ourselves, whilst they arc 
 armed by education and aided by our example as to work. So 
 far, we seem to be superlatively their superiors in sound, solid, 
 utilitarian workmanship, and, I may add, in bad taste. As 
 Austria advances in industry, let us hope she may less need that 
 her chief cities should have immense barracks, her streets be 
 guarded by armed police, and that her tenement hives may give 
 place to homes, which we love to call our “ castles.” On the other 
 hand, we can learn of our German cousins some of their frugal 
 and temperate habits, polite demeanour, and good taste. The 
 exchange will be a mutual advantage. 
 
 I am deeply sensible of the honour and responsibilities of my 
 appointment as reporter, and of the kind and courteous assistance 
 I have received on all hands from our own countrymen, and the 
 proprietors, managers, foremen, &c., of the various manufactories 
 in and around Vienna. 
 
A Survey of the Exhibits connected 
 with the Cotton Manufacture . 
 
 By JOHN CAMPBELL ( Messrs . J. and J. L. Orai/s , Manchester ). 
 
 S there was no official catalogue of the Exhibition to be 
 
 had, it was rather a laborious undertaking to discover 
 where all the cotton manufactures were to be found, therefore 
 this report may possibly not notice some exhibits, though this 
 can scarcely be the case, as every manufacturing country has 
 been noticed. 
 
 I have strictly confined myself to report conscientiously upon 
 what was exhibited, refraining as much as possible from com- 
 parisons with things which ivere not in the Exhibition. I have 
 also strictly adhered to the functions of the situation to 
 which I had the honour to be appointed, — namely, “Artisan 
 Reporter” on the Cotton Exhibits. 
 
 Although I have ventured incidentally to mention lace, gloves, 
 and hosiery, as being part of the cotton manufactures, it will be 
 observed that no opinion has been expressed as to those goods. 
 
 There is, however, one class of goods of which I have some 
 considerable knowledge, that is, “ fancy dresses ” manufactured 
 with cotton warp and woollen weft. This class the Report will 
 not notice, but it may here be stated, -without the least impro- 
 priety, that a Bradford firm exhibited goods of this class unsur- 
 passed by any Continental house. 
 
 This report of the cotton manufacture exhibited in the Uni- 
 versal Exhibition at Vienna, 1873, will be divided into three 
 sections. The first will treat of the raw material, the second 
 will be devoted to the machinery employed in the manufacture 
 of that material, and the third will deal with manufactured 
 goods. 
 
 For obvious reasons, the United States of North America first 
 claim our attention, and they have indeed furnished an interest- 
 ing exhibit of the various qualities well known in the market. 
 The Mobile (Alabama) Cotton Exchange, as well as that of New 
 Orleans (Lousiana), were well represented, the latter exhibiting 
 
 Section I. — The Cotton Exhibited. 
 
57 
 
 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture . 
 
 nine sample bales accompanied with statistics. Besides these col- 
 llective exhibits, and those of several private firms in the above- 
 named States, there were samples from St. Louis (Missouri), 
 Lee County (Mississippi), and Uplands from Memphis (Ten- 
 nessee). Independent of these native exhibitors, several firms 
 in England and other countries exhibited North American cotton 
 from the bale, and in its various stages of preparation for 
 manufacture. 
 
 The United States of Venezuela exhibited four sets of samples 
 of superior looking staple, the best looking being Sea Island 
 from the plantations of Tocoran, on the coast of Valencia ; then 
 came fine cotton from the valleys of Aragua, the State of Bar- 
 celona, and that of Yaracuy. 
 
 The Brazilian Empire had a gigantic display of the cotton 
 cultivation of its various provinces. The Town Council of Per- 
 nambuco, in the province of that name, sent samples of herba- 
 ceous cotton ( Gossypium lierbaceum ), and several planters in 
 the province of Bahia exhibited samples of the same kind, w r ith 
 black seed, several samples of green and yellow Maranham, 
 independently of the usual sorts well known in the market by the 
 names of the provinces where they are grown, — i.e., Bahia, 
 Pernambuco, Maranham, St. Catharina, Amazons, Parana, &c. 
 
 The British colonies or possessions that sent raw cotton were 
 few, the largest exhibit being from India. The local committee 
 of Berar, for the Government of Bombay, exhibited upwards of 
 700 samples of the produce of Western India, consisting princi- 
 pally of cotton, cotton seeds, and goods. The local committee of 
 Indore exhibited the produce of that locality. There were several 
 small bags from the Cape of Good Hope, and a collection of samples 
 from Australia, including cotton grown in the Botanical Gardens, 
 Brisbane, as well as some from Moreton Bay, grown from New 
 Orleans seed, and classed as “good fair,” at 9^d., 9|d., and lOd. 
 per lb. 
 
 The French possessions and colonies were exceedingly w r ell 
 represented, Martinique, Guadaloupe, French Guinea, Senegal, 
 West Coast of Africa, Island of Reunion, New Caledonia, 
 French India, Cochin-China, &c., all sending samples, with no 
 less than eight exhibitors of Tahitian, and four times that 
 number of Algerian grown cotton ; the thirty-two lots from 
 Algeria, with three exceptions, being what the French spinners 
 call “ Georgia Long-staple, ” or Sea Island. On close inspection 
 these samples would bear favourable comparison with American 
 grown cotton. The following statistics w'ere posted to this ex- 
 hibit. “There was exported from Algeria in the year 
 
58 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 1868 376,982 kilos, of long-stapled cotton. 
 
 1869 282,584 
 
 1870 346,899 
 
 1871 271,479 
 
 1872 241,362 
 
 1,519,306 kilos., or 3,418,434 lbs. of cotton, 
 little, if anything, inferior to North American Sea Island. 
 
 From Italy the Royal Industrial Commission of Turin Museum 
 and the Exhibition Commission of Caserta had collective exhibits 
 of Italian grown cotton, and thirteen private planters had fair 
 specimens of European cotton, i.e., Italian. 
 
 Greece had five exhibitors of cotton in the pod, and many 
 provinces of the Ottoman Empire sent very good samples. 
 
 The Government of the Khedive of Egypt had a collection of 
 thirty-five different sorts, several of them approaching, in 
 appearance, to good Sea Island. Annexed to this exhibit was 
 the following : — “ Exported from Alexandria in 
 
 1821 944 quintaux, or 105,728 lbs. 
 
 1872 2,013,433 „ or 225,504,496 lbs.” 
 
 The neighbouring states of Tunis and Morocco were repre- 
 sented with good samples. There was yellow-flaked cotton from 
 Roumania ; and from far away in the East — Siam, China, Japan, 
 and Persia — came samples of the plant, which these nations 
 cultivated and manufactured long ages before the great cotton- 
 farm of the world — North America — was known to civilisation. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing, that nearly every nation, 
 or, more properly speaking, the inhabitants of every settlement, 
 as well as those of the Continents, where climate and other 
 conditions of nature are favourable, cultivate with assiduity a 
 plant which has supplied the means of raising this country to a 
 degree of prosperity never before attained by any nation ; and 
 that by giving judicious encouragement to those countries where 
 cotton can be advantageously cultivated, England need never 
 again be at the mercy of the United States of North America 
 for her supply. 
 
 Section II. — The Machinery Used in the Cotton 
 Manufacture. 
 
 Cotton, when gathered from the plant, is full of the seeds 
 which it clothed and kept warm in the pod until they arrived at 
 maturity. To get rid of these seeds, without injuring the fibre, 
 
Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 59 
 
 which varies in diameter from *0005 to *0007 of an inch, various 
 means were tried previous to the invention of the cotton gin. 
 There are two exhibited, and two models. 
 
 (a) The Cotton Gin . — The only “ gin ” at work in the Exhi- 
 bition is made by Messrs. Platt, Brothers, and Co., Oldham, and 
 it is called the “patent double-roller gin, with hopper feed.” 
 This machine certainly does its work well, taking away every fibre 
 from the seeds, and delivering the cotton clean and open, so 
 much so that it could at once be put into the breaker card. The 
 following is Messrs. Platt’s description: — “This machine is well 
 adapted to separate any description of cotton from its seed, but 
 especially so to the class of cotton adhering to seeds having the 
 husk, or shell, covered with short fibres, technically termed woolly 
 seeds, of which American uplands is a principal variety. The 
 roller gin has hitherto proved inefficient for this kind of cotton, 
 in consequence of the seeds, after separation, becoming entangled 
 with the seed cotton, and obstructing the action of the roller and 
 knives. 
 
 “ In the machine exhibited, this is obviated by the combined 
 action of the moving and fixed grids. At each elevation of the 
 moving knife the grid, which is attached to the same, lifts the 
 cotton to the level of the fixed knife-edge, and to the exposed 
 surface of the roller, and on the descent of the moving knife 
 the seeds, which have become separated from the fibre, are dis- 
 entangled by the prongs of the moving grid passing betwixt 
 those of the fixed grid. The action of the rollers and knives is 
 also shown by a full-sized model. The out-turn of clean cotton 
 of this class is about 120 lbs. per hour, but of cotton having 
 smooth seeds, as much as 200 lbs. may be obtained.” 
 
 The next is called the “American needle cotton gin,” made 
 at Remmington Works, Ilion, New York. Patented June, 1866 
 and 1867, reissued 1868, the English patent dating from 1864. 
 H. Scattergood, patentee. This gin was removed from the 
 Machine to the Agricultural Hall, and was not set to work, so 
 that no comparison can here be made between it and the roller 
 gin as regards work. 
 
 In the Cape of Good Hope exhibit there was a well-made 
 model of the “Dharwar saw gin,” to gin American cotton, or 
 rather cotton grown from American seed. It was made and pre- 
 sented to His Excellency Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, for the “ In- 
 ternational Exhibition, by the native artisans of the Dharwar 
 Cotton Gin Factory, Dharwar, 1872.” There are then to be 
 seen in the Exhibition, “the roller,” “the needle,” and “the 
 saw gin.” Each of these has its partisans, but to unprejudiced or 
 
GO Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture . 
 
 unbiassed observers, it is evident that the ‘ ‘ patent double roller 
 gin ” has a good career to run. 
 
 (b) Preparation and Spinning Machinery . — There is only 
 one firm exhibiting the •whole process of preparing and spinning 
 cotton, viz., Joh. Jacob Reiter and Co., cotton spinners, 
 machinists, &c., Winterthur, Zurich, Switzerland. This exhibit 
 consists of all the usual machines, scutcher, &c., lap machine, 
 first and second carding engines, drawing frames, stubbing 
 frame, two intermediates, fly frame, and self-acting mule. Of 
 this machinery there is absolutely nothing whatever to report on 
 as being new in England, whatever may be the case elsewhere. 
 On the carding engines there is Messrs. Dobson and Barlow’s 
 patent self-acting stripping motion, and John Hetherington and 
 Son’s patent coiling motion, the latter being also on the drawing 
 frames ; these motions are working on the machines referred 
 to, without any mention being made, so far as could be seen, of 
 the patentees or their property. 
 
 (c) The Power Looms Exhibited . — There were looms from 
 various parts of Germany, Austria, England, and one from the 
 United States. The last claims attention on account of “Ross’s 
 independent shuttle motion, ’ ’ which is, at the same time, simple 
 and ingenious. The inventor states that it can be driven at a speed 
 of 300 picks per minute. The pickers are perpendicular and are 
 worked by two heart-shaped wheels on the driving shaft ; being 
 pressed back alternately, each picker is forced into its place 
 again by a series of spiral springs, acting independently on the 
 shaft, which keeps the picker in its place. This loom is driven 
 by a patent friction pulley, which fits inside the pulley driven by 
 the strap, and as soon as the loom knocks off, through the weft 
 breaking or otherwise, it stands instantaneously still. This loom 
 was in motion, but no warp being in, no definite opinion can here 
 be given of its capabilities. 
 
 Without hesitation it may be safely affirmed that, for both 
 plain and fancy work, the looms exhibited by Mr. George Hodg- 
 son, Thornton Road, Bradford, Yorkshire, were (if equalled) 
 unsurpassed by anything in the Exhibition, lie exhibited four 
 or five, the following description of which was transcribed (with 
 permission) from the statement drawn up to lay before the In- 
 ternational Jury : — 
 
 “No. 1, Plain Loom. This loom has 34 inches reed space, 
 and can be made to weave mohair, silk, worsted, or cotton. It 
 can be filled up to 8 treads, as well as figures and Jacquard. It 
 can be driven very fast, say from 200 to 300 picks per minute. 
 At the International Exhibition, London, 1862, one of the 
 
Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. G1 
 
 same kind ran at upwards of 450 picks per minute, earning the 
 gold medal that year in London, and the only gold medal in 
 
 Paris, 1867. 
 
 “No. 2, Rep Loom. Specially arranged to weave reps, with 
 the advantage that very delicate and fine wool warp can be used. 
 It can also be made to weave merinos, Orleans, and twills. The 
 friction or letting off motion is quite new, and different from the 
 ordinary kind. 
 
 “No. 3. Circular box loom for weaving checks, plaids, or stripes. 
 The models are similar to those of the plain loom (No. 1), but being 
 furnished with a revolving shuttle box, containing six shuttles, 
 will weave any number of even picks of colours, from two upwards, 
 without stopping the loom to change the colours ; the box will 
 remain stationary or revolve at pleasure while the loom is weav- 
 ing. The shuttle box is regulated by a patent lock catch, so 
 that the box cannot overrun itself The motion is protected by 
 two patents, dated respectively August 11th, 1863, and May 6th, 
 1864. The aim of these patents is to accelerate the speed of the 
 loom when weaving checks. For although the speed of the plain 
 (No. 1) loom reaches 300 picks per minute, the speed of similar 
 looms with the circular box has been limited to 135 or 140 per 
 minute ; but with the application of the patented improvements 
 referred to, a speed is now obtained of, say, from 180 to 200 picks 
 per minute. Besides this, owing to the former unsteadiness of 
 the box, at the instant of picking, the shuttles were frequently 
 thrown out, the workpeople thereby incurring danger of being 
 injured ; but this danger is now entirely obviated by the applica- 
 tion of these patents. Moreover, the loom is also fitted with 
 another patent for stopping the cards and box motion alone, if 
 the weft fails or is broken. By these various applications, the cir- 
 cular box loom is as easy for the operative to work and under- 
 stand as the plain one. 
 
 “No. 4 is a broadcloth loom with two boxes at each side, and 
 is fitted with sliding picking tappits, for the purpose of picking 
 two shuttles from one side, making up cloth with one small and 
 one thick pick. Backing cloth can also be made on this loom 
 with two different kinds of weft, one on the back, the other on 
 the face ; it is also fitted with a new shedding motion for sixteen 
 healds, which can be operated on at pleasure, to rise any head or 
 sink it at any pick required. For tender warps this motion is 
 inestimable, as it will lift the same heald as many times as is 
 required, from the middle , not allowing it to go to the bottom , 
 or pass through the other part of the warp, avoiding the friction 
 on the warp which takes place in other cases. 
 
62 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 * ‘ This arrangement is so simple and plain that it can be easily 
 understood by any ordinary workman. The loom is likewise fur- 
 nished with a ‘ patent sinking motion ’ for taking down the healds 
 when required ; besides, there is gearing and friction motion 
 attached for letting off the warp, and three strong iron rollers 
 for the warp to pass over, with or without friction as required. 
 The loom can be used either for light worsted or strong woollen 
 goods, and any pattern can be produced up to 16 healds, at a very 
 small cost, by a simple paper card.” 
 
 There is exhibited in the same department a patent “selvedge 
 motion,” by Mr. Jabez Oldfield, Manningham, Bradford, York- 
 shire. The object of the patent is to make two selvedges in the 
 middle of a warp. The selvedges are bound fast by two con- 
 tinually twisting threads. Two different kinds of cloth can thus 
 be woven at the same time. After the cloth is woven the 
 selvedges are cut by a circular revolving knife. The patent 
 can be applied to an ordinary loom, and will be found in many 
 instances to be of great service. 
 
 The next exhibitor of cotton -manufacturing machinery is Mr. 
 Henry Livesey, machinist, Greenback Foundry, Blackburn, Lan- 
 cashire. He exhibits a loom 33-inch reed space for plain shirting 
 and printing cloths, with weft stopping motion, positive taking- 
 up motion, &c., &c. This loom might be driven at a great speed, 
 and is all that could be desired for the work it is constructed to 
 perform. His spooling or pirning machines are remarkable for 
 their simplicity of construction, style of finish, lowness of price, 
 and capability of doing their work. Particular mention may be 
 made of a small spooling machine of six spindles, for winding 
 heading bobbins, on the opposite side two spindles for winding 
 knitters’ bobbins, with one spindle for unknitting healds. This 
 last contrivance is patented, and is known as the ‘ ‘ Patent 
 Utilising Machine.” These machines can be made of any num- 
 ber of spindles. 
 
 The foregoing are the only English exhibitors of cotton manu- 
 facturing machinery, but two Paisley firms show the last process 
 of sewing thread manufacture — i.e., spooling. These spooling 
 machines are made in Manchester, and for the beauty and 
 precision of their work are surpassed by nothing in the 
 Exhibition. 
 
 / About half-a-dozen Continental machinists sent the various 
 machines used in a weaving mill ; of these special notice will be 
 taken of two or three, but in the first place the following firm 
 may be mentioned as the most remarkable on account of 
 geographical position : — 
 
Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 63 
 
 “The Machine Shop of the Imperial and Royal privileged 
 Cotton Spinning Factory of Tannwald, in Tannwald, Bohemia, 
 makers of all machinery connected with power-loom weaving, 
 such as warping, spooling, and sizing machines, hand or power 
 looms, as well as cotton spinning machinery, more particularly 
 double-carding engines for cotton waste, as also for wool, &c. &c.; 
 finally, shafting, steam-engines, water-wheels, steam piping, 
 <kc., at the lowest possible price.” Such is the literal transla- 
 tion of the card of the Tannwald machine makers, and it may 
 truly be said of their exhibit, that to all appearance it would 
 compare favourably with any other ; a sizing machine, several 
 looms, a warping machine, and a winding machine particularly 
 looking like Lancashire. None of the machines exhibited by this 
 firm being in motion, no remark can be made on their practical 
 capabilities. 
 
 From Switzerland three or four firms exhibited power looms, 
 &c. Escher Wyss and Co., Zurich, had three looms, with drop 
 shuttle-boxes for two, three, four, or five shuttles ; they were in 
 motion, weaving checks, and did their work well. 
 
 The principal German exhibitors were from Chemnitz, in the 
 kingdom of Saxony. In this department there was a loom from 
 Beutl ingen, in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, with a revolving 
 shuttle-box, having a striking resemblance to that of Mr. George 
 Hodgson, of Bradford. 
 
 Besides looms, the exhibitors referred to had several other 
 machines, such as spooling, winding, and doubling machines, all 
 of which may have some trifling peculiarity of construction, but 
 none meriting any particular notice, with the exception of a 
 spooling machine made by Rudolph Voigt, Chemnitz. It has 
 certainly many things to recommend it to the attention of manu- 
 facturers or machine makers. 
 
 All the machinery employed in the cotton manufacture exhi- 
 bited has now been noticed, with the exception of those machines 
 which do not come within the scope of this Report, such as knit- 
 ting machines, bobbing, net, and lace machines ; and it is certain 
 this part of the Exhibition was exceedingly meagre considering 
 the magnitude of the cotton trade. 
 
 It is now only one hundred and four years since the genius of 
 Arkwright gave to the world the true principles of cotton spin- 
 ning. (His original frames are to be seen in the Patent Room 
 at South Kensington. His first patents are dated 1769, and 
 those for further improvements are dated 1775.) It is exactly 
 one hundred years since the first piece of cloth was sold, entirely 
 made of cotton, in England, and eighty-eight years since Boulton 
 
64 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 and Watt erected the first engine to drive a cotton factory, in 
 1785. The engine was erected for Messrs. Robinson, at Papple- 
 wick, Nottinghamshire. During these hundred years every 
 nation, in Europe at least, has learned our processes of manu- 
 facture, and by purchasing a few of our machines, have learned, 
 not only to make machinery for themselves, but to send their 
 machinery to Universal Exhibitions, there to contend against us 
 for honour and reward. 
 
 Section III. — The Cotton Manufactures Exhibited. 
 
 In the two preceding sections it was a task of some difficulty 
 to discover, in the first instance, what countries were cultivating 
 cotton ; and, secondly, to find out those who were making 
 machinery for its manufacture ; but in this section the difficulty 
 was to find out the country that does not (at least attempt to) 
 manufacture cotton goods. 
 
 From the United States there was one exhibitor of yarn, from 
 St. Louis (Missouri) another of yarn ; thread and cloth from 
 New Orleans (Louisiana) ; one with shirtings from Providence 
 (Rhode Island), and another from Boston (Massachusetts). 
 
 From the Brazils there were three exhibitors : — One of yarn 
 from the Province of Bahia ; the others were calico and sailcloth 
 from the Province of Minas Geraes. 
 
 From England there were about a dozen exhibitors of yarns, 
 sewing thread, crochet and embroidery yarns, &c. The exhibits 
 of this class, which appear to be the most complete, were 
 respectively that of E. Ashworth and Sons, Bolton, who exhibited 
 fine cotton in all stages of preparation from the bag to the mule, 
 and single yarn on cops from 18’s to 220’s, bleached, dyed, 
 and polished yarns and thread ; Messrs. Brook, of Huddersfield, 
 who exhibited what is known in the market as six-cotton sewing 
 cotton, and patent glace yarn ; John Dewhurst and Sons, Skip- 
 ton, who exhibited specimens of the manufacture in its various 
 stages, and sewing cotton, bleached and dyed ; Messrs. Bowman, 
 of Halifax, who had a similar exhibit. There were no less than 
 five or six Paisley thread firms represented. Coarse spinning was 
 illustrated in its various processes by T. Ogden and Co., Oldham, 
 with cloth, banding, sewing, and knitting cotton, and fishing 
 nets, &c. 
 
 There were nine or ten exhibitors of the various kinds of 
 cotton cloth, from plain shirting to velvets. The most remark- 
 able of which were respectively that of Stretton and Co., 
 Manchester ; Sir Elkanah Armitage and Sons, Manchester ; and 
 
65 
 
 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 Steiner and Co., of Church, near Accrington, whose Turkey red, 
 cambrics, plain, and printed muslins and handkerchiefs, were 
 unsurpassed by any other exhibitor. Ilorrockses, Miller and Co., 
 of Manchester and Preston, had a display of long- cloth, calicoes, 
 &c., which were unequalled in the Exhibition. 
 
 From Portugal there were nine exhibitors, two of yarns and 
 seven of cloths, &c., the principal being the Spinning and 
 Weaving Company of Lisbon — coarse yarn and cloth; and the 
 Porto Spinning Company — thread and yarn. 
 
 Spain was represented by eleven or twelve exhibitors of plain 
 and printed cloth, principally chintzes, but no yarn. 
 
 There were ten exhibitors from France, five of yarns and 
 thread, and five of cloth. H. Loyer and Sons, Lille, appeared 
 to have the finest thread. Besides these there was a collective 
 exhibit of thirty-eight firms from Farare (Rhone), consisting of 
 plain and embroidered muslins and window curtains, figured and 
 embroidered muslins by the loom, dyed and finished muslin, and 
 embroidered goods. 
 
 Switzerland was represented by no less than forty-eight exhibi- 
 tors of yarns, thread, and cloth. Nine of these exhibitors put 
 their Turkey red dyed yarns prominently forward. For fine 
 yarns, single and double, thread, &c., the largest exhibitor was 
 Heinrich Kunz, of Zurich, who exhibited single yarns from No. 
 8’s to 500’s, and doubled yarns in great variety. Attached to 
 this exhibit was the statement that this spinner had 200,020 
 yarn and 7,745 doubling spindles. Then came J. J. Rieter and 
 Co., Ilinterthur, exhibiting warp and weft yarns, from 6’s to 
 300’s, with thread and embroidery yarn. From information 
 obtained from the representative of this firm it appears that they 
 have twenty pairs of mules — 400 spindles per wheel — constantly 
 spinning from 200 ’s upwards. As a rule their work is from 
 200’s to 220’s ; but when the firm can get orders, they will 
 spin any numbers. One thing was remarkable in the goods 
 exhibited by the Swiss (South Cross Gallery, No. 5a.), viz., the 
 paucity of printed goods, and the preponderance of goods woven 
 with dyed yarn. And attention may be more particularly called 
 to the exhibit of J. Heitz and Co., Munchweilen, Thurgau, who, 
 in the Belgian Official Catalogue describe their exhibit to consist 
 of “ yarn-dyed cotton goods, for exportation to India, the 
 Levant, Italy, and Africa then J. Rudolph, Rasclile, and 
 Co., Wattwye, St. Galls., “yarn-dyed cotton goods, for the 
 Levant, Eastern and Western India, Japan, Africa, &c.” 
 
 There were about three dozen exhibitors of Italian manufac- 
 tured yarns and goods ; and here again Turkey red yarns may be 
 
 p 
 
60 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 prominently mentioned. Among the exhibitors of yarns, &c., 
 may be mentioned Micheli de Ferrario, Manzoli, Milan, for 
 grey, bleached, and dyed yarns, and grey, bleached, and dyed 
 sewing and embroidering cotton ; and the Pordenone Spinning 
 and Weaving Company for grey, bleached, and dyed yarns of 
 various qualities. From Naples there were ten different pat- 
 terns of hand-loom work from dyed yarns ; from Salerno there 
 were three exhibits of raw cotton dyed red, and from Padua 
 there were woven goods of various patterns from dyed yarns and 
 stuff for sail-cloth. 
 
 From Sweden there were only three exhibitors of yarn and 
 cloth, the principal being the Itosenlund Joint Stock Spinning 
 Company. Norway had also three exhibitors, one of yarn and 
 cloth, the other two of cotton and mixture goods. 
 
 From Denmark there was one exhibit of dyed warp. And 
 from Belgium there were eighteen exhibitors of yarn, thread, 
 calico, and other goods, besides two collective exhibits, one of 
 those being a collective exhibit of the cotton industry of Ghent, 
 consisting of plain and figured cloth ; three Ghent spinners ex- 
 hibited respectively yarn and thread from 8’s to 12 ’s, 40’ s to 
 60’s, and 4’s to 50’s. There were also eleven exhibitors of lace. 
 
 There were eight exhibits from Holland, yarn for candlewick 
 and heavy goods ; the most important exhibit being that of the 
 £ ‘ Hilversumsche Steam Spinning and Weaving Company,” 
 Amsterdam. Three exhibitors described their goods as being 
 manufactured for export to British India and Java. 
 
 There were exhibits from nearly all parts of Germany, 
 amounting in all to nearly a hundred ; the principal being 
 from Saxony, the finest looking being that of the Saxon Sewing 
 Thread Company, who showed the various processes of manufac- 
 ture from raw cotton to thread. 
 
 Then came the Dresden Joint Stock Company, who had an 
 eagle made up of dyed thread. Besides the individual exhi- 
 bitors, there were several collective exhibits, such as * * The 
 Collective Exhibit of the Augsburg Cotton Industry,” Bavaria, 
 in which fifteen firms were represented, and that of Alsace 
 representing six firms, of Lauben representing five firms. 
 
 The Austrian Cotton Industry was represented by four large 
 double cases, containing the exhibits of ten or twelve manufac- 
 turers. Some illustrated the various processes of the manufac- 
 ture from raw cotton to yarn. The numbers ranged from 6’s to 
 40’ s, and the calico looked excellently finished. Some of the 
 most important exhibitors were from Bohemia ; and in the 
 gallery set apart for Hungary there were twelve exhibitors of 
 
Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. G7 
 
 cotton goods, the most remarkable being the collective exhibit 
 of New Gradiska, which included cotton cloth of various sorts. 
 
 The Russian Empire was represented by twenty-eight exhibits 
 of cotton goods and yarn. The first glance at the Russian 
 manufactures brings the conviction that they are not novices in 
 the trade. One of the firms, Finlayson and Co., Tammerfors, 
 Finnland, had a small pamphlet on their case, from which the 
 following particulars are taken : — “ The cotton mill established 
 at Tammerfors in 1820, by James Finlayson, a Scotchman, was 
 purchased by the undersigned (Nottbech and Rauch) in 1835. 
 At that time it consisted of a wooden building, in which 800 
 spindles spinning low numbers gave employment to about sixty 
 workpeople. Since then, the establishment has been consider- 
 ably enlarged, and consists, at the present time, of — first, a six 
 story building for cotton and woollen spinning ; second, of five 
 four story buildings occupied for spinning, weaving, and machine 
 shop ; third, a two story building for store and warehouse ; fourth, 
 another two story building for weaving, bleaching, and finishing ; 
 fifth, a one story house for boilers and dyeing ; sixth, a smithy ; 
 seventh, a school and orphan house ; eighth, an infant school ; 
 ninth, gas-works ; tenth, an hospital ; eleventh, a dining-room ; 
 and twelfth, twenty-seven houses of one and two stories for 
 overlookers and workpeople. There are now 40,000 spindles 
 and 950 looms to manufacture cotton, and 800 spindles and 30 
 looms for wool, occupying 2,100 workers of both sexes from 
 12 to 70 years of age. More than a third of the whole have 
 
 worked in the establishment eight, twenty, and forty years 
 
 Four English and two German overlookers conduct the work in 
 its different branches, and a manager, also an Englishman , is 
 at the head of the whole concern, &c., &c.” 
 
 Besides the goods exhibited, several firms showed single and 
 doubled yarns, grey and dyed. Some 36’s water twist looked 
 particularly well, twofold 60’s was the finest. Stefko Brothers, 
 of Moscow, had some beautiful prints. 
 
 From the Caucasus there were five or six exhibits of cotton 
 manufacture; a coarse grey cloth, called “ Bj as and striped 
 goods, home made, called “ Tscharsaw.” Some of these goods 
 were bleached and others dyed red and blue. 
 
 The Ottoman Empire sent from the Imperial Factory of Con- 
 stantinople, cotton cloth, and a native spinner had samples of 
 yarn. With regard to the different provinces, there were in all 
 3,554 exhibits by nearly as many exhibitors, in the group in- 
 cluding textile manufactures, the whole being more curious 
 than commercially useful ; there may have been some yarn 
 
68 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 and goods which escaped the writer’s notice. There was cotton r 
 cotton yarn, and lace from Bagdad, Smyrna, Cherki ; stockings, 
 gloves, and yarn from Syria ; cloth from Aleppo, and thread 
 from Beyrout; cotton cord (white) from many places, with 
 towels and calico and raw cotton from Liban. 
 
 From Boumania there were only a few T fancy articles, and a 
 few articles of native manufacture from Morocco ; and from 
 Persia about fifty articles of native manufacture, from Ispahan, 
 such as bed-covers, hangings, &c. 
 
 From Greece there were about twenty exhibits of yarn and 
 goods, eight of them being yarns only. 
 
 Of all the English possessions India alone contributed any- 
 thing remarkable to the exhibition of cotton manufactures. The 
 committees of Madras, Bombay, Bengal, of the Punjaub, of 
 Indore, and the sub-committees of Oude, Surat, and the local 
 committee of the North-West Provinces, all sending samples of 
 native industry, without reckoning the exhibits of private firms. 
 The India Museum, London, contributed largely to the Indian 
 section of the Exhibition. The Jaffer Ali Spinning and Weaving 
 Company, Surat, exhibited all the processes. 
 
 From China there w\as yarn and different colours of nankeen, 
 garters, ribbons, and cloths exhibited by the Government of the 
 Emperor ; and Mr. Rudolf Schliik, the Austrian Consul at Shang- 
 hai, exhibited a collection of samples of all the cotton goods pro- 
 duced in China. 
 
 The Imperial Government of Japan exhibited bleached and 
 dyed cloth (blue), cotton goods for men’s clothing, muslins, and 
 light goods for summer clothing. 
 
 The Government of the Khedive of Egypt had an exhibit of 
 all the sorts of yarn and cloth manufactured in that country. 
 The Government of the Pasha Bey of Tunis had many fancy 
 articles, bleached and dyed tow r els, shirts, ribbons, &c., and 
 there were several specimens of cloth w oven in Morocco. 
 
 We have now had a general view of the cotton manufacture as 
 it was exhibited, by many people, at the Universal Exhibition of 
 1873. It must not be inferred, from the statements in this 
 Report, that the greatest exhibitors were also the greatest manu- 
 facturers ; on the contrary, nearly the smallest exhibit of any 
 nation in Europe was that of the English, and w r e produce more 
 than all the rest of Europe put together. 
 
 Of the raw cotton exhibited it does not come within the scope 
 or object of this Report to pass an opinion. America is looked 
 upon at the present time as the cotton farm of the world, and 
 the finest cotton required for the Manchester market is not, as 
 
Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 60 
 
 far as is known, produced in any other country. Nevertheless, 
 it is generally admitted that the plant is not indigenous to North 
 America. In Dr. Andrew lire’s work on the Cotton Manufacture 
 of Great Britain (Charles Knight, London, 1836), the author 
 says, “In 1785 the late Governor Jatnall received a parcel of 
 seed of the silky or Sea Island cotton, which came from 
 Anguilla through the Bahamas. In that year and the one 
 following, the seed of long staple cotton, and probably that of 
 Mains and Santees, was also brought into Georgia from Pernam- 
 buco and the Bahamas. Sea Island cotton was not extensively 
 raised in South Carolina till 1799, but as early as 1789 about 
 twenty persons cultivated it in Georgia. It is not known whence 
 the seed originally came. Before its cultivation in the United 
 States, the cotton which commanded the highest price in England 
 came from the Island of Bourbon. The finest cotton I have ever 
 seen was grown on the plantation of Mr. Benjamin Freeman, 
 situated on Wadmalan Island, about twenty miles from Charleston. 
 It was sold for six dollars and seventy-five cents per pound. . . . 
 Three quarts of the seed were sold as a favour for 150 dollars.” 
 This goes so far to prove that the cotton plant being an exotic 
 as far as North America is concerned, other places may be found 
 where the plant might be cultivated and improved ; and that if 
 such were judiciously encouraged by English spinners, their own 
 position would be so far improved, that they would be less 
 dependent for their supply upon the United States. 
 
 Of the cotton manufacturing machinery exhibited, there is 
 little to be said here by way of comparison. The exhibit being 
 confined to one firm, as far as spinning went, the whole machinery 
 was the common machinery used here for the same numbers, the 
 cotton was well prepared, and the spinning good, the mule being 
 driven very slowly. 
 
 As to weaving, the looms exhibited have been fully described; 
 the half-dozen, or so, of German looms which were in motion 
 did their work well, and those that were not looked as well made 
 as they could be in Lancashire ; but the attendants upon the 
 machinery at work had not the same appearance of neatness and 
 dexterity observable in the factory workers of this country ; besides 
 there exists a feeling something approaching to affection in the 
 mind of an English artisan for the machine he, or she, is constantly 
 employed at ; that feeling which the British sailor has for his 
 ship, whose deck he proudly treads, exists in the mechanic for 
 his lathe, the spinner for his mules, and the weaver for her looms. 
 The English artisan understands, as a rule, all the motions and 
 functions of his machine, and humours it as he would a child. 
 
70 Exhibits connected with the Cotton Manufacture. 
 
 The question may now be asked, can the spinning and weaving 
 machinery made on the Continent be as well, as quick, and as 
 cheaply made on the Continent as in England ? This question 
 cannot be answered here, but those interested in the subject 
 will obtain a true answer by referring to the price lists of the 
 makers. 
 
 With regard to the manufactured goods, any unprejudiced 
 Englishman would place this country’s exhibits, poor as they 
 are, in the very first rank for yarns, thread, and Turkey red dyed 
 goods, bleached calico, shirtings, and printed handkerchiefs ; for 
 small wares nothing could surpass the exhibit of Messrs. Waters, 
 of Manchester. With regard to so many exhibitors of sewing 
 and other threads, he will be a clever jurymen who can give a 
 casting vote to decide the honour, where all are honourable. 
 Wishing to avoid as much as possible the mention of particular 
 firms, reference is requested to the names mentioned when 
 noticing the exhibits of different nations. The principal object 
 of this Report being understood to be to point out the true posi- 
 tion of England to other manufacturing nations, and not to 
 prefer any particular exhibit to another, I shall proceed to 
 name in rotation our greatest rivals, and endeavour to ascertain 
 if we can keep the lead in the clothing trade of the world. 
 
 Next to England France claims our attention for the beauty 
 and excellence of her cotton manufacture, more particularly in 
 the finer class of yarns and cloth ; and it is gratifying to see that 
 France, to whom science owed so much in the days of her pros- 
 perity, has not neglected scientific industry in the dark days of 
 adversity. The first spinning machine was introduced into France 
 from England in 1787, and the cotton manufacture was fairly 
 established there in 1798*, and the French have certainly 
 made much progress in three-quarters of a century, many mills 
 in Lille spinning from 200’ s to 400’s regularly ; but they excel 
 most in the beautiful designs of their prints. 
 
 For the lower or medium numbers of yarn, it would be very 
 difficult to decide between Belgium and Switzerland ; the work- 
 people of both countries are equally sober and industrious ; if 
 there be any difference, however slight, it is in favour of the 
 Swiss ; but the finest yarns, as a rule, are spun in Switzerland. 
 The representative of one firm assured the writer that they had 
 themselves twenty pairs of mules, of 400 spindles each, spinning 
 No. 200’s and upwards regularly, and occasionally much finer when 
 they had orders. 
 
 Dr. Ure’s Investigation into the Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain. 
 
Exhibits connected icitli the Cotton Manufacture. 71 
 
 Russia comes next on the list, not so much as a competitor 
 against us in other foreign markets, but as a nation that can 
 supply its own wants, and do without us; up till now their manu- 
 facture has been done by English-made machinery, and superin- 
 tended by English intellect. 
 
 With regard to Germany, or, rather, the German Empire, 
 Saxony alone produces anything at all equal to English goods ; 
 the other parts of the empire, although manufacturing fine goods, 
 get their yarns from England. 
 
 The same may be said of . the Austrian Empire, with its com- 
 ponent parts, Bohemia and Hungary ; it is questionable if any- 
 thing fewer than 40’ s be spun in the whole country. 
 
 Of the other European nations who exhibited cotton yarn and 
 goods, they may all, with the exception of Italy, be eliminated 
 from the present enquiry, and the opposing forces will then be 
 reduced to England, France, Belgium, and Switzerland, as the 
 suppliers of cotton goods to all the other markets of the 
 world. 
 
 This Report having unintentionally extended to greater length 
 than was intended, will now close with the unprejudiced opinion 
 of the writer, who is well acquainted with the manners, customs, 
 and working capability of the artisans of all the four countries, 
 and that opinion is, that England can and will long maintain 
 the lead against all rivals, in the production of cotton yarns, in 
 the production of cloth made from these yarns, in the high class 
 style and finish in which she sends her goods into the market, 
 and, above all, in the durability, cheapness, and genuineness of 
 her productions, as well as in the high commercial morality of 
 her manufacturers and merchants. 
 
Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 By ROBERT CORNTH WAITE, Skipton. 
 
 rpiIIS Exhibition furnishes the visitor with a series of views of 
 JL cotton in all the stages of progress in its manufacture, 
 from the cotton on the tree to the machinery which produces 
 such wonderful transformations in its appearance, presenting 
 to our view an almost endless variety of goods manufactured 
 from it. 
 
 In the American section we have a cotton-tree in full bloom 
 from North Carolina. It stands about C feet high, and is neatly 
 surrounded with a glass case. 
 
 This tree gives us a good idea of the very beautiful appearance 
 of a cotton-field, when ready for picking. Cotton, as is well 
 known, varies considerably in length of fibre, and, to illustrate 
 this, we have a pile of cotton bales from New Orleans and 
 Mobile, classed by the commercial names of Middling, Low 
 Middling, Good Middling, Fair, Mid-Fair, Ordinary, Good 
 Ordinary, Ac. These samples are exhibited by the State of 
 North Carolina. 
 
 The “Cotton Gin” of Messrs. Platt, Brothers, and Co., 
 Oldham, does its work admirably, completely extracting the 
 seeds from the cotton without crushing them. The sample 
 operated upon was “Smyrna cotton,” especially selected on 
 account of the tenacity with which the fibre adheres to the seed. 
 
 This machine is more especially intended for the cotton- 
 grower, who in this w ay may clean the cotton before it is shipped 
 for the market. 
 
 The exhibition of w’oollen machinery by this firm is on a large 
 scale ; but it struck us as singular that they should have no 
 cotton spinning machinery at Vienna, remembering also that 
 they had such a grand display at London in the Exhibition of 
 1862, and also at the Exhibition at Paris in 1867. 
 
 The only complete collection of cotton spinning machinery 
 exhibited is that made by Messrs. J. Rieter and Co., Win- 
 terthur, Switzerland. The machinery they have at work well 
 
73 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 illustrates the entire process of cotton spinning from the removal 
 of the cotton from the bale to its production into the finest yarns, 
 ready for the lace manufacturer, the thread doubler, or the loom. 
 This enterprising firm was evidently prepared to compare notes 
 with the best English makers. As they are the only exhibitors 
 of cotton spinning machinery, we are quite unable to make a 
 comparison of the machinery of different makers for accomplish- 
 ing the same purpose ; each machine exhibited by this firm is 
 deserving of special attention. 
 
 When a bale of cotton is opened, it is found that some few 
 seeds, with a considerable admixture of leaf and dust, remain 
 even after the ginning process, and as the cotton has been very 
 closely pressed together to form a bale, an opener is required 
 to break up these compressed tufts, and bring them into a fleecy 
 condition. One opener exhibited is identical in construction with 
 that made by Messrs. Crighton and Co., Manchester. This was 
 a “single machine,” intended to put through about 18,000 lbs. 
 per week. It is not made, however, with Crighton’s recent im- 
 provements to deliver the cotton in the form of a lap. It has a 
 vertical cone-like beater, which revolves about 1,800 times per 
 minute. This is surrounded with a grid, which allows a 
 great area of cleaning space. The cotton is not held with feed 
 rollers to the beater, but goes in at the bottom and out at 
 the top. 
 
 Messrs. John Jacob Rieter and Co. have a cotton-opener of 
 their own design also, which they say is specially intended for 
 long-stapled cotton. The cotton is spread on a lattice feed cloth, 
 at the extremity of which it is taken hold of by a spiked roller. 
 Over this roller is placed a “shell” (as in Tatham’s card 
 engine). The cotton is taken from the edge of the shell by a 
 cylinder, about 36 inches in diameter, having eight rows of 
 knife-shaped teeth, which project about one inch. These knives 
 are not intersected with plates. The cylinder revolves upwards 
 from the shell, and is surrounded with a grid, through which the 
 sand, leaf, and seed are driven into an outer case, which sur- 
 rounds the whole. The cotton is delivered in a loose form after 
 it has passed nearly round the beater. 
 
 The lap machine, or scutcher, shown is a one-beater scutcher, 
 with Lord’s patent feed part. There is a peculiarity in the levers 
 that regulate the feed which is claimed as an improvement. A 
 coupling-link goes on the end of two levers, and there is only 
 one perpendicular rod to two levers. Where there is a rod to 
 every lever, there is only <me bowl between the wedge-shaped 
 ends of two levers, and if both levers are lifting together, the 
 
47 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 bowls cannot revolve, hence it is found that they wear oval and 
 do not move easily. Here there is only one perpendicular rod 
 to two levers, which allows space for two bowls, and the 
 “regulator ” is said to be more sensitive. 
 
 Four carding engines are exhibited. The first breaker card 
 had seven rollers and seven clearers — a kind of engine much 
 used where low numbers of yarn are spun. There was a “shell 
 feed part,” and the feed roller was of leather cards. 
 
 In the other breaker card engine there was a compound or 
 combined arrangement. In this engine there was an iron shell 
 also, and an iron fluted feed roller.' Next above the lickcr-in 
 came three rollers and three clearers ; then twelve self-stripping 
 flats. This engine was well adapted for modcrately-fine spinning 
 with single carding. 
 
 In the lap-doubler there is a self-stopping motion, and 
 the cans are placed in a semicircle, and the whole is so con- 
 veniently arranged as to stand in the same room as a carding 
 engine, so as to be placed between the breaker and finisher- 
 engines. 
 
 The finisher carding engine was mounted with twenty self- 
 stripping flats, on Wellman’s principle, resembling those now 
 made by Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, of Bolton. The back cards 
 
75 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 were stripped twice for the front ones once, l ’and they were doing 
 very good work ; but I noted that the 18-inch doffer was only 
 making about six revolutions per minute, which is scarcely Lan- 
 cashire speed. This engine had two pairs of feed rollers through 
 which the lap passed, having a slight draught so as to straighten 
 the lap before coming in contact with the licker-in. The en- 
 gines were all fitted up with “ web conductors ” and “patent 
 doffer combs ” — which seemed well balanced, and working steadily. 
 Two pairs of drawing rollers were attached to each delivery. 
 I noticed also that a wire brush and stripping roller were placed 
 underneath the licker-in to keep the main cylinder clean, and to 
 save the time otherwise lost in stripping the engine. If the 
 cards are choked they cannot do good w T ork ; but to strip them 
 only once a day (the time said to be required, on account of the 
 stripping brush being used) seems sacrificing quality for quantity. 
 The cards on the main cylinders were all sheets, and the licker- 
 in was a 9-inch roller w T ith leather carding on. Opinion is 
 so divided as to the w r ay in which engines should be clothed that 
 I merely chronicle what I found. The engines exhibited were 
 sufficiently waried to suit the requirements and preferences of 
 different spinners, and, with exact setting and careful grinding, 
 would, any of them, do good work. 
 
 There was also a neat machine for brushing out rollers, the 
 casing being so conveniently arranged that all the dust was con- 
 veyed away with a fan. 
 
 Each drawing box is fitted up with six pairs of rollers. These 
 six rollers have an advantage over the ordinary four rollers by 
 allowing the draught to be divided into five places instead of 
 three. The draught being more gentle, less clearer waste works 
 up from the rollers. 
 
 The first box had two deliveries ; the second box had also two 
 deliveries, and the third box three deliveries. Eight ends were 
 put up at each head to be drawn into one. 
 
 The rollers were weighted with chains passing over pulleys to 
 a lever, the elevation of wffiich at once liberated the rollers from 
 the weight. Both the front and back stop motions seemed very 
 sensitive, the spoons at the back being -well vee’d. Although 
 adapted for a 36-inch can, these boxes were not so high as to 
 require a tall person to mind them. The cans from the drawing 
 boxes are placed at the back of the stubbing, and the sliver is 
 passed through three pairs of rollers, reducing it to about a 
 lj-hank in thickness. Here the cotton receives a slight amount 
 of twist. 
 
 In this frame the bobbin leads the fiver, so that when an end 
 
76 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 comes down the slubbing will not unwind from the bobbin and 
 fly about. Breakages more frequently occur here than in the 
 further stages, the cotton being in a comparatively loose condi- 
 tion as it comes from the drawing ; the ends at this stage also 
 pass through the rollers single, and not double, as in all the 
 other frames of this preparation. 
 
 The ends are next passed through an intermediate frame , then 
 through a medium roving frame, and then through a fine roving 
 frame. In the last three frames named the flyers lead the 
 bobbin. It is not that the ends will not run off when they break, 
 as mentioned in the slubbing, but because the frames take less 
 power when the flyer leads the bobbin. When frames are in 
 good working condition, -we know that ends should not often 
 break, and as the frames work steadier 'when the greater portion 
 of the power is transmitted through the fixed gearing, rather 
 than through the “jack in the box,” fewer ends break in this 
 way of working than the other if the roving is not drawn too 
 tight from the roller. In very fine roving frames there is great 
 danger of ratching the roving when the flyer leads ; but we were 
 assured that this firm, who are fine cotton spinners as well as 
 machine makers, have press roving frames -working with a 25 to 
 30-hank roving, and ag they spin from 150’s to 300’s yarn it 
 does not seem as if the roving sustained any damage, either from 
 the presser or being led by the flyer. 
 
 The arguments that can be adduced in favour of both ways of 
 -working are so many, that the mode of -working the machinery 
 at this Exhibition will not settle the question as to whether the 
 bobbin or the flyer should lead, and -whether a presser should be 
 used for a very fine roving. 
 
 Double creels -were used at each stage from the intermediate 
 to the mule, and double ends were passed through one boss at 
 each of these places. This method of passing two ends through 
 one boss is as strongly favoured in some localities as it is ob- 
 jected to in others. 
 
 All the frames had two rows of spindles, and the ends going 
 to the front row of spindles passed over a wire which was stretched 
 a few inches in front of the delivery roller. In all the frames 
 they have adopted what they consider to be an improved mode of 
 driving the spindles. The spindle foot rests in a step, and above 
 the foot the spindle has four flat sides , which pass through a 
 square hole in the small pinion. The pinion runs on a bearing 
 on the outside of the spindle footstep. 
 
 The spindle foot has no pressure exerted on it, and runs true 
 for a much longer time than when the wheel is fast on the 
 
77 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 spindle foot. The spindle can also be lifted out without un- 
 loosing any set-screw. 
 
 The driving shaft has an eccentric applied to it, so that all 
 the wheels can be slided out of gear, to enable the pinions to be 
 readily taken off the studs and cleaned. As the pinion wheel is 
 on the underside of the driving wheel, the “lift ” can be worked 
 nearer to the foot of the spindle, and the frames can be made 
 lower, which is an advantage in coarse frames. I was referred 
 to persons who have been working this kind of frame for six 
 years, and who say that the collars are in excellent condition, 
 owing to the spindle feet working true, and they much prefer 
 this mode of driving the spindle. I believe that both Platt 
 and Higgins have made frames with this arrangement for 
 driving the spindles, but have discontinued doing so, owing to 
 the increased cost in construction and the expense in oil required 
 to oil the bearing for the pinion. They have also adopted a good 
 arrangement for tightening the cone-strap. A new cone-strap 
 is often put on too tight, and after working awhile is allowed to 
 get slack. It need not be so in these frames, as the belt can be 
 gradually tightened with a screw, even if it should ratch six 
 inches. This can be fixed so ^s to be always right when working, 
 and can be used by the attendant to slacken the ends at doffing. 
 This can be conveniently done with a handle from the front of 
 the frame ; another handle also at the front is placed to wind up 
 the rack when beginning a new set of bobbins. 
 
 The pair of mules exhibited have 600 spindles in each, at a 
 distance of l T 4 ff inch apart. These self-acting mules are made 
 after the principle of Curtis, Parr, and Madeley. I am 
 informed that more mules are made on this principle than on any 
 other. These makers have improved the arrangement by placing 
 the “coping plate” within the headstock, and other minor 
 changes. In this mule there was only one belt used, which is 
 always on the fast pulley when working. There are no reversing 
 belts, the change motion being positive ; hence there is no 
 jerking in the movement of the carriage. There is an extra 
 slow motion applied to the rollers, so that when the carriage is 
 near the end of the stretch, the rollers do not stop, but continue 
 to run almost imperceptibly until the required amount of twist is 
 put in the yarn. There was also a letting-off motion, which 
 delivers a few inches of yarn during the putting up of the 
 carriage. The top-rollers were all of leather, and two ends were 
 delivered from each boss. They were spining 80’s on one mule 
 and 60’s on the other from Upland cotton. 
 
 Their wrap-reel is deserving of a word of commendation, 
 
78 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 being the most perfect I have seen. Seven ends can be wound 
 on at once ; a traverse motion lays it on perfectly regular ; the 
 reel revolves twice for the handle once, and when a hank has 
 been wound on, a stop motion comes into action, and by simply 
 turning a thumb-screw the ends are slackened so as to be easily 
 taken off the reel. 
 
 Although the Americans exhibit very little machinery, they 
 keep up their character for the introduction of novelties in 
 “throstle spinning.” 
 
 The throstle is one of the most simple, and yet one of the 
 most perfect of machines. It has remained without any material 
 change in the mode of its construction for the last generation. 
 
 The Americans introduced a striking novelty at the English 
 Exhibition of 1851, viz., their ring and traveller throstle. Like 
 its predecessor, the “ cap frame,” it has not entirely answered 
 the expectations of its most sanguine advocates. As the ‘ ‘ ring 
 and traveller” requires about 25 per cent, less power than the 
 “ flyer throstle,” it was thought that its adoption would become 
 universal. The yarn, however, proved to be less smooth and 
 silky, and though not so hairy as mule yarn, it has never met 
 with favour in the English market ; so that, except for the 
 doubling of fine twofold yarns, it is not much used. The ring 
 throstle is, however, somewhat generally adopted in America for 
 single spinning. 
 
 Sometimes the travellers have been made so that they would 
 go round the ring, or as in the ring rail, so as to get a more 
 delicate drag for fine spinning. 
 
 At the Vienna Exhibition a novelty is shown with a ring so 
 hollow r ed out in the inside that a straight piece of wire, or tra- 
 veller, extends from one side of the ring to the other, bearing 
 against the bobbin, as shown in section. 
 
 The traverse, or lift, is a coping motion. The bobbin is placed 
 on the spindle, and rests on a button, which makes it revolve 
 with the spindle ; the end is then put under the wire and pieced 
 up. In this case the yarn is not thrown round so great a circle, 
 and is said to resemble more closely the yarn produced by the 
 flyer throstle. The spindles can be run at a higher speed than 
 with the ordinary ring (so say the Americans), and the traveller 
 
Cotton Spinning and Weaving. 
 
 79 
 
 is said to work lighter and with less liability to bind. The ends 
 of the wire may be lubricated with less danger of greasing the 
 yarn than in the old ring. The rings can soon be taken off or 
 put on. One edge of the ring goes under a screw on one side, 
 and a piece is taken out of the ring so as to allow it to drop 
 over the screw on the other side ; a slight circular movement 
 brings both edges under the screws, and the projection at the 
 bottom of the ring, going into a recess in the lift-plate, keeps 
 the ring concentric with the spindle. A little practice soon 
 enables the spinner to piece the ends up quickly. Experience 
 alone can prove whether this new ring and traveller can displace 
 the flyer or not. 
 
 With regard to looms, the power-loom is now fast supplanting 
 the old hand-loom, even in Austria, where labour is compara- 
 tively cheap. I was, however, surprised to find so few exhibitors 
 of looms. George Hodgson and Son, Bradford, had four looms 
 working, well fitted up for weaving twills, plaids, or plain goods 
 for the Bradford trade. The narrow loom was working at 300 
 picks per minute, and making a very even piece. A narrow 
 cotton loom was exhibited by Mr. Henry Livesey, Blackburn, 
 which was of the ordinary Lancashire make. 
 
 A cotton loom was exhibited from America. It illustrated a 
 few novelties. First, it was driven by a clutch box, which 
 enabled it to be stopped more suddenly than with a fast and loose 
 pulley ; then there was a letting-off motion from the yarn beam ; 
 next the picking-shafts are upright, and seven springs are acted 
 upon by a cam, and when liberated give an impetus to the 
 shuttle. These round wire springs go round a shaft, and each 
 exerts a gentle pressure, so that they are not so liable to break 
 as when one or two springs only are used. No picker is used, 
 but simply a bit of leather on the upright stick, which works in 
 the shuttle-box. 
 
 It would be easy to write an article on what is not at this 
 Exhibition. England has always taken the lead in previous 
 Exhibitions, and perhaps our machine makers now think they 
 have already done sufficient for the instruction of their foreign 
 competitors. We, who have nearly clothed the world, have not 
 a single spindle of cotton spinning machinery running at this 
 the largest Exhibition ever held. 
 
Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing. 
 
 By CHAS. GRINDROD, Whitworth , near Rochdale . 
 
 AVING been selected by the Society for the Promotion of 
 
 Scientific Industry to report upon “Cotton Spinning and 
 Manufacturing ” in the Vienna Exhibition, I have the honour to 
 submit the following : — 
 
 On entering the west door of the machinery hall, I found the 
 Americans exhibiting a “patent continuous spinner.” This 
 machine mostly resembles a throstle frame, with the spindles 
 standing vertically, and turned from an horizontal tin-roller. 
 The threads are delivered from the roll to and from the front 
 roller at the speed required. The holes of the lifting-rail are 
 made larger than the cop or bobbin is required to be made, so as 
 to allow the cop or bobbin at full size to pass through the hole. 
 On the top of each hole of the lifting-rail is placed a cap, and 
 betwixt the cap and the lifting-rail is a small space, sufficiently 
 large to allow a round thin washer to revolve therein. The 
 threads from the front roller pass through the guide-wire (im- 
 mediately over the spindle front), thence to the washer, and on 
 to the spindle, tube, or bobbin, as required. 
 
 The thread being held at the front roller, and the spindle 
 revolving, would cause the washer to revolve at the same speed, 
 and would give twist to the thread ; but as the thread is delivered 
 from the front rollers, the washer revolves slower than the 
 spindle, which produces the winding motion of the thread. By 
 this method of spinning the threads can be wound on to a spindle 
 tube or bobbin, and the shape of a cop or bobbin by changing the 
 motion of the lifting-rail. 
 
 The invention is by Mr. II. J. Potter, Norwich, Connecticut, 
 America, who claims it to possess the following advantages : — 
 An increase of production, a saving of power, labour, and waste ; 
 a better thread or quality of yarn than can be produced by any 
 other machine or process ; and an increased production from the 
 loom. It is time only that can prove the invention valuable 
 or not. 
 
 This being the only machine of interest in cotton manufac- 
 turing in the American Section, I pass on and come next to the 
 
81 
 
 Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing. 
 
 British, where we find a preparation of wool spinning machinery, 
 exhibited by Platt, Brothers and Co., Oldham ; a preparation of 
 flax machinery, by Lawson and Sons, Leeds ; weaving of fancy 
 cloths, by G. Hodgson, Bradford. 
 
 All these firms exhibit their latest improvements, which give 
 additional speed or produce a better article, and also their usual 
 good and highly finished machinery, which is very rarely equalled. 
 Beyond the above there is nothing in the British Section. The 
 entire absence of cotton spinning and manufacturing machinery, 
 for which Lancashire is so famous, is remarkable. This feature 
 has not only surprised the English visitors, but the inhabitants of 
 Europe appear disappointed, and inquire the reason, which reason 
 is, perhaps, best known to our large cotton machine makers. 
 
 It has been said the distance is too great, that foreign people 
 copy our machines, that exhibiting is not very profitable, and 
 that our machinists are so heavily engaged for the Continent 
 that they could not send machinery to this Exhibition. It is, 
 however, evident, there is some important reason, of w^hich the 
 reader may be better able to judge hereafter. 
 
 In the French Section we have nothing to report, but from 
 Switzerland w’e have a complete preparation of cotton spinning 
 machinery. The first machine is a cotton-opener, which, in 
 every respect, resembles Crighton’s patent cotton-opener, as 
 made, and extensively used, in this country. The scutcher has 
 the appearance of the one made by Lord Bros., Todmorden, 
 and has Lord’s patent regulating feed motion. The lap, motion, 
 fan, box, and general appearance is very good. The carding 
 engines are of the same size and construction as those in general 
 use in Lancashire, and have good long stapled cotton, carding 
 very light, but contain no new feature. The drawing frame has 
 three heads and three deliveries, six rows of fine fluted bottom 
 rollers, six rows of leather top rollers, which are not weighted 
 separately, but with a lever weight for three or more rollers, 
 which must have a very bad effect on the drawing. 
 
 The slabbing frame has three rows of fine fluted bottom rollers, 
 three rows of top leather rollers, which are weighted separately, 
 and run slowly with the fly leading the bobbin, and making a 
 short draft. The intermediate and roving frames are much the 
 same, with the exception of the bobbin leading the fly in the 
 latter case. The mule runs slowly and rather heavily, although 
 it has not a heavy appearance, and has three rows of double- 
 bassed rollers, weighted separately. The mule-head looks well, 
 and contains nearly all our latest inventions. Spins 3G, w T ith a 
 draft of about 6, and speed of about 3£ draws per minute. 
 
 a 
 
82 Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing. 
 
 Finding amongst the whole of the foreign cotton manufacturing 
 machinery no new features of interest to any of my friends or 
 readers, I have ventured to give a short, general description of 
 all the machinery in the Exhibition (of interest on this subject), 
 which it will readily be perceived has a great similarity to that of 
 our own make ; but further than this, if honest judgment must 
 be given, without any wish to boast of national superiority, I am 
 bound to say the whole of that machinery is very extensively 
 copied, so much so, that if an English made machine were placed 
 next to one which is now in the Exhibition, it would be difficult 
 for four out of five men to recognise the English made machine. 
 This is an extreme case, but in all other cases the most important 
 parts of all the other machines appear the most perfectly copied. 
 
 If we are rightly informed, Messrs. J. J. Rieter and Co. are 
 our most formidable opponents as makers of cotton manufacturing 
 machinery. If this statement is positively true, and their pre- 
 paration of machinery as exhibited is to be considered the most 
 perfect and complete of all the machinery made on the Continent, 
 no one w T ould have any hesitation in saying that Lancashire still 
 holds the first position. 
 
 From England, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Holland, 
 Prussia, Austria, and Switzerland, we find cases containing 
 cotton in its raw state, in all its preparations, and also cloth in 
 the grey and finished state. The coarse yarns and cloths are 
 equal to our own make, and it is only in finer counts that we can 
 boast of superiority. 
 
 Nor must it be forgotten that the close resemblance of all the 
 cotton manufactured goods, as exhibited by foreign countries, is due 
 (with very few exceptions) to their make by Lancashire machinery. 
 This feature is a very striking one, and almost compels an 
 Englishman to think there is a greater demand for machinery on 
 the Continent than for cotton goods. If it be so, what is the 
 cause, and what will be the result ? 
 
 Hitherto, Lancashire in this branch has surpassed the world, 
 and has produced the greatest example of extraordinary pros- 
 perity ; but what protection or guarantee have we that Lan- 
 cashire will still hold this position, and be able to beat foreign 
 competition, or countries which abound in cheap provisions, 
 which work longer time, and which, consequently , produce a 
 cheaper yarn and cloth than Lancashire can ( Lancashire, it is 
 true, built the locomotive, and established the railway system of 
 travelling at home and in foreign countries, which has been of 
 incalculable value to all ; but will the sale of cotton machinery 
 and the development of this industry in foreign parts have the 
 
Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing . 83 
 
 same beneficial effect on British commerce, when we consider 
 that cheaper labour, longer time, and Lancashire machinery 
 working at the same speed, is working in competition with Lan- 
 cashire to produce the same article ? 
 
 It must be a disappointment to many to find in this Exhibition 
 so little cotton machinery, and no new feature in machinery of 
 striking interest to our subject. In the Industrial Ilall we 
 have found cotton goods exhibited by foreign countries, which 
 have been made by our own machinery, and have considered this 
 as an important feature. 
 
 We have, perhaps, no need as yet to fear foreigners’ competi- 
 tion, as they are not yet able to do more than supply their own 
 demands. Gladbach, though an important manufacturing town 
 in Prussia, has yet to come to Lancashire for finer yarns and 
 cloth to supply her own demands. We must admit that some 
 foreign countries enjoy natural advantages over which w T e have 
 no control ; that provisions and labour here continue to get 
 dearer ; that the cry for less work has become an important 
 question ; — all of which tend to increase the value of our 
 machinery in foreign parts, and affect our trade, which ought 
 to have some protection. 
 
Calico Printing, Dyeing, and Bleaching. 
 
 By THOMAS ALMGILL ( Messrs . Lockett, Leake and Co., Manchester). 
 
 I T is almost impossible to know where to begin the work of de- 
 scription in the midst of such a profusion of skill, and em- 
 bracing all nationalities that make any pretensions to civilisation, 
 trading, or commercial enterprise. Between the latitudes of New 
 Zealand and Moscow, every country may consider itself repre- 
 sented in some degree, though not in all cases by its staple 
 products. The reason why this should be so is difficult to con- 
 jecture ; but this may fairly be presumed, that if those objects 
 of industry which are exhibited are the best of their kind, we 
 should have a standard of comparison of unquestionable value. 
 
 The Vienna Exhibition, as with all previous ones, does not give 
 us the materials for the application of this rule ; as some of the 
 best houses of several countries are not represented at all, and 
 other nations have not a single article to represent the produce 
 of some of their staple trades. 
 
 Great Britain is a remarkable instance of this absence of enter- 
 prise, or indifference to competition, for, throughout the entire 
 portion of the building allotted to her, she has not, properly 
 speaking, a single print, either cotton or woollen. And were it 
 not for Messrs. Mather and Platt, of Salford, the Exhibition 
 would have been without a printing machine. This machine is a 
 twelve-colour, containing all the latest improvements, and ex- 
 ceedingly well finished. 
 
 The question was often asked, why have the English printers 
 refused to exhibit ? Because, was the frequent reply, they have 
 plenty of orders, a steady trade, and, therefore, require no ex- 
 traneous helps. Others said they were afraid to exhibit their 
 goods for competition, in consequence of the great advance made 
 on the Continent in all departments of the printing trade. Be- 
 fore this last hypothesis could be supported, a great many ques- 
 tions would have to be established, such as the price of cotton, 
 the rate of wages, the hours of labour and its comparative value 
 as to quality and quantity, the price of coal, of machinery, of 
 chemicals, the facilities of transport, and many other details 
 
85 
 
 Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 which constitute the comparative cheapness or dearness of any 
 manufactured article. 
 
 Whatever may have been the cause of this apathy, it is clear 
 other nations do not share it. Austria, as might be expected, 
 exhibits well in many departments, and in others but indiffer* 
 ently. In group 5 there are a number of handkerchiefs, chiefly 
 block-work, mixed with cotton prints of the most common and 
 simple designs, composed of set objects, plain stripes and small 
 checks. Against this may be contrasted the contribution of 
 Albert Reiss (No. 309 of the same group), whose elaborate 
 designs of flowers in trail stripes, with neatly-executed pin- 
 shacling in various colours, is above the average merit, and the 
 dyeing and printing of which are very creditable. Niederlage, 
 of Vienna, also shows some good handkerchiefs and prints, the 
 colours of which are well defined and tolerable in brilliancy, but 
 designs poor. 
 
 There are several exhibitions of prints from private or retail 
 dealers of various degrees of goodness ; and although not classed 
 as the product of any special manufactory, are nevertheless 
 valuable, as showing the kind of cloth and the quality of the 
 work usually sold in the shops. In this respect she will bear 
 comparison with some <jf the best competitors. In case 71 are 
 some beautifully bleached goods of perfect whiteness and excel- 
 lent finish. 
 
 Leopold Abeles, Vienna, produces some very fine samples of 
 cotton bleached goods, with a case of prepared cotton wool in 
 all stages of manufacture. Getzner and Co. have a similar case, 
 and of equal merit. The object of these exhibits, and per- 
 haps all others of this sort, is to show the quality of the manu- 
 facture in every stage of its progress. In many instances it is 
 difficult to understand why so much has been exhibited where 
 there can be no claim to extra quality of texture, superiority in 
 dyeing, or elegance in arrangement. Doppelt Cardirt’s display 
 is very fine, consisting of large samples of cotton wool, in various 
 stages of manufacture, perhaps equal to any in the Austrian 
 Department. Bleached and dyed yarns and cotton fabrics are in 
 profusion about here. 
 
 Torrens and Co., Mulhausen, exhibit well in unbleached 
 goods, along with some furnitures, the designs, printing, and 
 colours of which are really good. Schlumberger and Sons, Mul- 
 hausen, have similar articles, with no striking difference in work- 
 manship, but first class throughout, the furnitures being a really 
 grand display ; and from the position of the case, aided by the 
 skilful arrangement of the prints, the goods are seen to great 
 
86 
 
 Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 advantage. They have excellent cotton wool, chiefly American, 
 with cops, dyed thread, and printed trouserings on a kind of 
 moleskin cloth, and fine plush velvets dyed in various colours, 
 the tone and blending of which are of great richness ; they are 
 •printed in from ten to twenty colours, both glazed and cretonne. 
 
 Zurcher, from Mulhausen, has a good display of furnitures and 
 prints — the latter thrown and bundled together, as if they were 
 of no value either to the inspector or producer, though they 
 contain some excellent garancin work, chiefly block. 
 
 The Russian Court is dreary and tasteless, though Russia 
 exhibits very creditably, with printed goods, Turkey reds, printed 
 trouserings, and dyed shirtings. 
 
 The printed handkerchiefs of Hubner, of Moscow, are of a 
 superior character. Some other cases in this Court are very 
 uninviting, with cases squared and centred, from which long 
 hard lengths of cloth are tightly drawn and puckered, without 
 any regard to colouring or ease ; and others in this place are 
 unexceptionably stamped with the same incapacity and want of 
 grace. 
 
 The Ottoman Empire has some remarkably fine samples of 
 cotton wool, but the cloth is coarse and badly bleached. In 
 connection with these are some curiously wrought fabrics, inter- 
 woven with loose threads about an inch in length, and working 
 out, in some instances, especially where the metallic wire which 
 they use so commonly is judiciously applied, a few elegant 
 designs. Egypt is poor in cotton goods, but abounds in the raw 
 material, showing very effectively the silken and beautiful 
 character of the raw cotton. 
 
 Saxony sends some striking dark indigo blues from Konig- 
 reich — not bad work, but lacking in design. In an adjoining 
 case arc some pretty white diapers and a few dyed shades, the 
 quality of the work anything but impressive. Brothers Grossna, 
 from Baden, exhibit a very large collection of common work and 
 styles, such as white and dyed shirtings, and figured cotton goods 
 of no importance as an exhibition. Ilcross and Company, Baden, 
 have some plainly dyed Turkey reds, the colour of which is only 
 middling — probably garancin work. But the colours and execu- 
 tion of the printed Turkey reds, in red and black grounds, of the 
 furniture designs, are without doubt the richest in design and 
 the most skilfully executed of any in the German Courts ; any 
 one not acquainted with the printing business would pro- 
 nounce it beautiful as a work of ark, but to the initiated it 
 displays an amount of skill and care not often equalled. 
 
 Near by are some very fine Turkey reds, and a really good 
 
87 
 
 Calico Printing, Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 collection of handkerchiefs — not one or two samples as if pro- 
 duced for no other purpose than show, but a commercial quan- 
 tity, that will stand close inspection, and arranged with artistic 
 
 taste. 
 
 Dannenberzersche, Berlin, have some cotton prints rather com- 
 mon in style of pattern, rather bare, and without effect ; but 
 they have a large and well-selected collection of other work in 
 great variety, from neat diaper light grounds, to the dark style 
 of the Paisley Persian shawl pattern : good steam work ; the 
 colours look well, aided by valuable and carefully-worked out 
 designs. Gebruder Elbers, Westphalia, exhibit some black and 
 purple stripes and set sprigs, on good cloth, the work being 
 equal to some of our best English prints. In another case they 
 have spinning and weaving products with a few cops. They also 
 show some pretty dark indigo blues with a few diapers. But 
 their chief effort seems to be a serial collection of printed hand- 
 kerchiefs, put together in the manner of a large book — equal to 
 about one of double folio size — with red borders, and dark or 
 black shaded printed figures in the centre, illustrating consecu- 
 tively the chief incidents of the late war, beginning with 
 “Wacht am Rhein,” interspersed with battle scenes, por- 
 traits of all the leading generals, with marches and songs of 
 triumph. 
 
 The designs, as a rule, are good, but the execution is dull and 
 flat ; so much so, that some of the best scenes are almost lost 
 for want of clear and effective shading. An engraving of the 
 works is given, in which all the above articles are supposed to 
 have been done. They appear to be extensive and pleasantly 
 situated — if a beautiful valley, the absence of house or village, 
 with a high stretch of hills in the background, can make them so. 
 
 Bertelsman and Bergman, of Bielefeld, show a case of white 
 shirtings very neatly got up. A. W. Kisker, of the same place, 
 shows an excellent collection of bleached figured goods, very 
 satisfactorily finished. 
 
 Italy sends a rather meritorious class of goods, considering 
 the difficulties of her past existence. Cotonificio Cantoni. — This 
 is a neat and artistically finished case of bleached and dyed 
 goods — from the raw material to the finished article ; the 
 cotton of which appears rather poor, probably Egyptian. With 
 brocades, are some excellent dimity fabrics, the figures of which 
 stand well up ; also some dark dipped blues and printed block 
 work, very fair. 
 
 Scklaepfer, Werner, and Co., Salerno, send a small collection 
 of machine prints, and a few furnitures, the whole of which 
 
88 Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 appear to be dyed with madder, with some pretty stripe patterns 
 in aniline black and buff', which have a neat effect. 
 
 The comparative tinctorial effect of madder and garancin may 
 be thus stated : — 1 lb. of garancin is equal to 4 lbs. of madder ; 
 but in dyeing garancin work, where there is much chocolate, 1 lb. 
 of garancin goes as far or is equal to 7 lbs. of madder. Garancin is 
 a colouring body obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on madder. 
 
 Spain exhibits well in printed goods and calicoes generally. 
 Catuluna, Picart, and Co., Barcelona, have a fair collection of 
 prints, chiefly light things ; printing not bad, but finish very 
 poor. Some oxide of chrome, plain shades, look pleasing, and 
 are tastefully arranged. Jose Ferrin and Co., Barcelona, show 
 mostly light work of good quality and style, stripe patterns pre- 
 vailing ; the way these goods are set out is really fine, and do 
 great credit to the firm. Santonja E. Higos, Barcelona, shows 
 dark patterns, consisting chiefly of dip blues in the old style, 
 blue, orange, and white, and a few small handkerchiefs with buff 
 ground ; altogether a very fair collection. From Achon, Anda- 
 lusia, are two cases ; one small, and not satisfactorily set out, 
 with cloth and work generally good ; the other, in the course of 
 fitting up, poor and tawdry. 
 
 Belgium does not show noticeably in prints, but has an 
 excellent case in group 185 of white-figured goods ; the designs 
 are well brought out and carefully finished. 
 
 From Japan, Yokohama, we have cases of flax, raw and in pre- 
 paration, with a large and well assorted quantity of silks, the 
 colours not over brilliant, but good. Many of the patterns are 
 decidedly English, if not the fabric, and others are most unmis- 
 takeably Japanese, with their curious devices, perhaps legendary 
 ones if we only knew their history. A loom similar to those in 
 ■which these curious patterns were wrought was in the course 
 of erection by a diminutive, dark-skinned Japanese, assisted by 
 a female of the same race, and proportionally small. The 
 machine at which they were working was all made of wood, rather 
 primitive, but neat. 
 
 China has nothing competitively alarming. She appears to be 
 more on the defensive than otherwise. All her coloured articles 
 seem as if they had been selected from some museum, as repre- 
 senting some ancient but extinct dynasty. No calico prints to 
 be seen. British India exhibits some poor cheap prints for pur- 
 poses of covering. The object of the manufacture of these 
 fabrics is honestly stated to be cheapness; but whether it is truth- 
 ful to call them Indian prints I very much doubt. They appear 
 to be British goods manufactured for India. If so, they should 
 
Calico Printing, Dyeing , and Bleaching. 89 
 
 have been found in the British Court. Here they would be dis- 
 tinguished as the only representative of the printing trade of 
 
 England. 
 
 The United States have an extraordinary fine display of raw 
 cotton. Some of the samples are snow-white in purity, and 
 really beautiful in quality. The only thing in print is from 
 the Rock Print Works, Rockville. A small collection of 
 printed goods, very middling in quality, mixed w T ith a consider- 
 able quantity of garancin work. Also a peculiar, rather Ameri- 
 can-looking, black w r ith scarlet blotches garancin colours, with 
 bad chrome yellows, poor, but redeemed in some degree by an 
 excellent collection of woollen cloths. 
 
 Brazil makes no show comparable to the United States, but 
 the display, nevertheless, is large, and of various qualities in 
 raw cotton. Nothing manufactured. 
 
 New Zealand, as might be expected, has no cotton goods, but 
 raw wool and woollen fabrics in moderate variety. 
 
 Australian commercial cotton is exhibited in fair quantity. 
 There are samples here said to have been grown on the Ipswich 
 Estate, Moreton Bay, Queensland, which are classified as good 
 fair, valued at 9|d. per lb., and other Australian cotton classi- 
 fied as fine, valued at lOd. per lb. There is also a moderate-sized 
 sample from the Botanic Garden, Brisbane, grown from New’ 
 Orleans seed. This is intended to foreshadow what may be done 
 in the future, should circumstances prove favourable. There is, 
 too, a small sample named by the exhibitor “white wheat cotton,” 
 from Darling Dowms, Queensland. Australia is evidently trying 
 to do something in cotton growing, and if the climate and tillage 
 should be as favourable on a large scale as this sample show's 
 it is on a small one, she may expect a successful future. 
 
 The following are the wages of skilled artisans and labourers 
 in connection w ith the printing business in Austria, Germany, and 
 Russia. The rate of wages in Austria is generally a little less 
 than in Prussia; the machine printers average about £ 2 per week 
 in the latter place, but somewhat lower in Austria, though they 
 work longer hours. Back-tenters, bleachers, and dyers, and 
 other unskilled hands, 90 kreutzers per day — nearly 2s. English 
 money, or about 11s. per week: time, from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., 
 Saturday included ; the breakfast being taken without any speci- 
 ally appointed interval — that is, they eat it during their working 
 hours ; one hour for dinner. 
 
 In Russia, printers’ wages are £2 per week. Back-tenters and 
 dye-house men and other labourers average 15 roubles per month, 
 equal to £2 10s. Engravers average about £2 5s. per w T eek: 
 
90 Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 time, from 5.30 a.m. to 8 p.m.; in some print works from 5 a.m. 
 to 8 p.m. 
 
 In calculating the time worked at the respective print 
 works on the Continent, we can safely deduct half an hour for 
 the time consumed in eating their food, which would make for 
 Austria and Prussia 63 working hours per week. 
 
 The Russian print works, on the other hand, work 81 hours 
 per week, exclusive of one hour and a half for meals. There is 
 one exception to this rule at a print works in the vicinity of 
 Petersburg, where the hands work 75 hours per week, closing at 
 2 o’clock on the Saturdays. The owner of these works, I am in- 
 formed, finds it to his advantage to do so. 
 
 There is a pecuniary principle, as well as one of humanity, in- 
 volved in this consideration ; for is it possible that any workmen 
 can continuously labour 81 hours per week, and successfully com- 
 pete with those who only work 58 \ hours per week ? It is totally 
 impossible, especially when all the degrading influences are con- 
 sidered connected with it. I wonder they can do so much. 
 With employers haughty, exacting, and overbearing, we have 
 workmen ignorant, timid, and servile. With no mental training 
 or time in which to improve their condition, they fall victims to 
 the cupidity and oppressive servitude of ignorant taskmasters. 
 A dogged and unwilling labour is enforced, with no capacity to 
 understand their duties ; no wonder that they perform their dull 
 and monotonous round of daily toil reluctantly and unskilfully. 
 Unremitting toil cannot be successful against free labour under 
 any circumstances. We have, on the one hand, poverty, depres- 
 sion of spirits, ignorance, excess of sickness, with comparative 
 mental and bodily weakness. On the other hand, we have 
 shorter working time, with a corresponding amount of vigour, 
 intelligence, and training, to which long hours would be surely 
 fatal. 
 
 It is a singular fact that the people of England, who work the 
 shorter hours, are better paid, and their employers the richest 
 in Europe ; whilst the Russians, who work the longest hours, are the 
 worst paid, and the most ignorant and degraded within the pale 
 of civilisation. I know that reasons may be given which would 
 appear to modify this view, but the coincidence and the facts 
 remain nevertheless. Be this as it may, every year must bring 
 with it fresh concessions to overwrought labour. But will not 
 commercial enterprise necessarily limit both wages and time? It 
 will always do so \\Rhin certain limits ; but these limits will vary 
 according to the changing circumstances of trade and its relation 
 to the employed. If co-operation should be favourably deve- 
 
Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 91 
 
 loped, it is hard to tell what these circumstances may be, and 
 foolish to attempt it. 
 
 But one thing is clear, that the longest hours mankind can 
 work are not the most profitable to the employer or beneficial 
 to the employed ; but that time is the most profitable to both 
 which enables the workman to “recruit his exhausted strength ” 
 with the stimulus of rest, so that he may have a conception of 
 labour beyond the beast, and perform the duties of the day with 
 earnest cheerfulness, and a conscientious regard to the con- 
 tingencies of competition. 
 
 In taking a retrospective view of the printing business for the 
 last twenty years, and comparing the impressions left on the 
 mind, after this reflection, with the choice samples of printed 
 cloth in this Exhibition — or in any of the preceding ones — we 
 are at once struck with a very familiar similarity, in style or 
 design, in all the cheaper class of goods. In real quality of 
 design there is a palpable deterioration, resulting probably from 
 several causes. It may be in the want of a cultivated taste for 
 the beautiful in the purchaser, or a desire in the producer to 
 reduce the manufacture of his goods to the lowest possible ex- 
 pense, resulting from competition, avarice, or poverty. Now 
 the mechanic is trying to do the work of the artist. If the 
 designer produces a pattern full of pleasing and beautiful con- 
 ceptions, the mechanical genius of the printer is immediately 
 employed to cut it down to working order. It is pronounced 
 “impracticable.” This generally means it is too expensive. 
 ‘ ‘ The engraving would be enormous, and the extra colours and 
 care required in working it out would eat up all the profits.” 
 To such an extent is this process of thought carried, that all the 
 branches of the trade now are reduced to weighing and measur- 
 ing, and the successful workman is he who can do this part of 
 the business best. And this state of things is likely to continue 
 so long as the “greater profit ” idea rules the market. 
 
 Exceptional circumstances will arise, where high art and un- 
 usual care are required to execute some special design of an 
 intricate and elaborate nature, several instances of which have 
 already been given, but it is not the rule. And although h6re 
 and there are to be found some captivating and gorgeous display 
 of the workman’s art, portraying with infinite skill the combina- 
 tion of rich and varied colours, it is to be deplored this state- 
 ment applies only to a very small portion of the prints exhibited. 
 Bengal stripes, rings, squares, honey-combs, diagonal lines, 
 a few simple trails and stripes, small pin objects, with roses and 
 pines, form the staple product of the universal printer. 
 
02 Calico Printing , Dyeing, and Bleaching. 
 
 This is the character now, and has been for years without 
 alteration. The change that has taken place is as much as we 
 should find in a garden whose decoration is confined to a few 
 simple flowers. The gardener may alter the shape of his beds 
 and borders, from season to season, but there are the same 
 flowers, with their monotonous recurrence ; just so with»our pre- 
 sent effete patterns ; they are all the intimately allied species of 
 an extinct genus. Unfortunately in this case the species are 
 almost permanent. 
 
 No reported improvement in the printing business can be 
 given, except in colouring, and this is almost perfection. I 
 have been informed on good authority that the entire method of 
 printing, bleaching, and dyeing on the Continent is now worked 
 entirely on the English system, and that skilled British workmen 
 are to be found in this department of labour all over the Conti- 
 nent, receiving considerably higher wages than they can get at 
 home. This will always be the case where there is a deficiency 
 of skilled hands, and arises from the necessities of a growing 
 trade ; but a trade supported under such circumstances can 
 never become great, except assisted by some special privilege 
 or protection, because it is skilled hands which give the greatest 
 value to all manufactured produce, and where these have to be 
 imported at an unusually high rate of wages, it must of neces- 
 sity diminish the competitive power of the manufacturer who 
 imports it. Of course I reason on the supposition that unskilled 
 labour is of nearly the same value in all countries, which may 
 not be absolutely correct ; for we can readily suppose that where 
 skilled labour is abundant and native, the unskilled hands em- 
 ployed to assist must in some degree be instructed from actual 
 association, and so help proportionately to increase the profits of 
 the trade. So, on the other hand, where the value of skilled 
 work is high and scarce, unskilled labour will be proportionately 
 feeble and deficient in helping power, and must be a serious 
 drawback to the profits of the employer who is subject to this 
 double disadvantage. 
 
 The wages of unskilled labour may in reality be considered 
 the same in all countries, for their profits seldom if ever rise to 
 a sum beyond that which is barely necessary to support them in 
 food and clothing ; so that in calculating the advantages or dis- 
 advantages of foreign competition, they can be safely left out in 
 the calculation. 
 
 In summarising this brief review of the printing business, it 
 can safely be inferred that the quality of the prints exhibited, 
 as representing the competitive skill of different nations, is not 
 
93 
 
 Calico Printing , Dyeing , and Bleaching. 
 
 sufficiently distinctive to be pronounced superior in any one 
 section. Here and there, as I have already named, are to be 
 seen in bold relief some striking display of art and beauty. 
 Beyond this, the general appearance is flat and tame. But the 
 price at which the cloth is sold, including the entire expense of 
 production with the profit to the manufacturer, is wholly un- 
 known here ; so that the elements on which a true calculation 
 can be based, are absent. It may generally be inferred that the 
 English printer has nothing to fear from foreign competition. 
 The wages he pays are not greater than the foreigner gives, all 
 things considered. Coal, dear as it is, is cheaper here than on 
 the Continent. The hours of labour are not so different, with 
 the exception of Russia, as to cause alarm. They are not 
 troubled with turn-outs or lock-outs. There are no demon- 
 strations for higher wages or shorter time. They are blessed 
 with that which all masters desire — intelligent, industrious, and 
 docile hands. Throughout the printing trade of England and 
 Scotland there has been no business less disturbed, and no em- 
 ployers have less cause to complain of fluctuations, either in the 
 price of the varied articles they consume or in the changes of the 
 value of labour. 
 
9 * 
 
 Design in Wood, Metal and Stone. 
 
 By RICHARD A. BASTOW. 
 
 I N the body of my Report I have mentioned nothing that I saw 
 outside the Exhibition, although there were many objects 
 of interest on the journey which deeply impressed me. At 
 Dresden, for instance, I was struck with the peculiar ornate 
 appearance of almost every part of it. The houses generally 
 are built of brick, then plastered and ornamented with cement, 
 the gable ends being frequently panelled and otherwise orna- 
 mented. The roofs of the houses do not present that unbroken, 
 monotonous, and heavy appearance to which we are so much 
 accustomed ; they invariably break their lines of roof with attics, 
 hips, &c., and sometimes very ornamental ones. Most of the 
 windows have outside Venetian blinds, which, when drawn up, 
 are cased in with an ornamental board, answering the purpose 
 of an ornamental freize to the outside window cornice. 
 
 While in Dresden I saw a very simple but very neat design for 
 palisading in one of the public squares. The inside ornamental 
 work was made of T V wire, looped together after the pattern of 
 the scales of a fish ; this was held tight by top and bottom bars, 
 and about every eight feet apart were ornamented cast-iron posts, 
 with very low stone coping. The whole had an appearance of 
 lightness and good taste combined with strength, well deserving 
 notice. 
 
 The railroad station platforms and many of the public cause- 
 ways are paved with broken stones, such as we tip on our high- 
 roads ; they are of two colours, blue and white, and they set 
 them very carefully, in patterns which have a very pleasing 
 appearance. The fences round the fields and gardens are gene- 
 rally young branches, lopped and nailed diagonally to a top and 
 bottom rail of like material. The spaces between windows and 
 round doorways, both in brick and wood houses, arc often orna- 
 mented with branches ripped down the middle to give a flat side 
 to nail to, and in the corners a fir cone is split and tacked on ; 
 thus satisfying, at a cheap rate, their desire for ornament. 
 
 I was much astonished to see young women sweeping the streets 
 
95 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone , cmcZ Metal. 
 
 of Vienna, but much more so to see them running up a ladder 
 with bare feet and a load of concrete on their heads. Messrs. 
 Tall and Co., of London, are building a concrete cottage of two 
 storeys in the Exhibition grounds ; it is very near completion, 
 and the whole of the work has been done by Bohemian girls. 
 
 In Prague I saw some house doors that struck me, and which 
 are worth reproducing. 
 
 The Votif Church in Vienna is one of the most beautiful 
 monuments of German Gothic. The spires ascend to a great 
 height, and are composed of scores of lesser spires and arches in 
 beautiful clusters. The extreme lightness of its appearance and 
 the profusion of decoration cannot but arouse a feeling of plea- 
 sure in every one who beholds it. 
 
 At the grand entrance to the Exhibition everything was most 
 carefully and pleasantly arranged for the accommodation and 
 comfort of the thousands of visitors, and to gratify the taste of 
 the most fastidious. It is a perfect paradise ; the walks are all 
 shaded by exceedingly tasteful and light wood-work, supported 
 by posts, equidistant, and in the angles made by post and wall- 
 plate are ornamental brackets ; around the posts and creeping 
 amongst the ornamentation are climbing plants, forming natural 
 festoons, delightful to look upon ; ferns, flowers, and shrubs in 
 beds geometrically laid out ; trees, fountains, and the like, made 
 an impression the remembrance of which is refreshing indeed. 
 
 The Exhibition is such an extensive building, and so sur- 
 rounded by gigantic trees that it is impossible to obtain a really 
 good view of the whole. The different parts of the building are 
 so justly proportioned one to another that the immensity of 
 length, breadth, and height are easily lost sight of. 
 
96 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 On the floor of the Rotunda is a Gothic pulpit of very fair 
 design ; but it is made of cement. Now, we have been taught by 
 some art teachers to abhor sham in everything, and if a warehouse 
 were to be “ run ” up in common brick, properly keyed and ready 
 for stucco, it would be condemned ; and is there any wonder it 
 should ? Have we not seen in numberless instances an ominous 
 crack make its appearance in a stucco wall, in shape resembling 
 a crow’s foot ; then the centre of the decaying portion appears 
 as though it were gradually drawn outwards, like a flat pyramid, 
 and some very wet day down comes a great patch of the front, 
 leaving a speaking testimonial to the vile stuff the builder 
 daubed on. This is not the case on the Continent. We look 
 around, and find ninety-nine out of every hundred houses stuc- 
 coed, but there are no cracks visible, no large brown, mouldy 
 patches, no corners knocked off, nor any appearance of sham. No 
 lines drawn across and cut into the face of the plaster, to make be- 
 lieve that the building is of large, solid, square stones. It is 
 used fairly as composition — a much cheaper commodity than 
 stone, capable of quite as much ornamentation, and, mixed as 
 they mix it, lasting a long time ; in point of cost, bearing no 
 comparison with stone. It is to the general use of this material 
 that we must attribute the substantial, respectable, and cheerful 
 aspect of the streets of Dresden and Vienna, so unlike our narrow 
 long perspective of brick cottage houses. Some of our very best 
 furniture is veneered, and it is the better for it. Why should 
 we not veneer our houses if we can obtain material that will last 
 as long or longer than the brick on which it is hung ? And so 
 capable of ornamentation as it is, would it not be a step in 
 the right direction ? 
 
 In the body of the Exhibition, and not far from the Rotunda, 
 is an Ionic entrance, mounted on a platform, and all round the 
 platform runs a framed base of light and dark walnut. The 
 lower two-fifths of the shaft is very well carved ; in the pediment 
 are some bronze figures; the doors arc three-panelled and folding, 
 the panels being raised about five-eighths of an inch above the 
 level oi the stiles, and veneered at 45 deg. The handle to door 
 is a lever, and not a knob, such as we adopt. The projection of 
 panels does not look so bad as we should be apt to think, and to 
 open a door it is much easier to press down a lever than to 
 squeeze a polished and slippery knob, and run the danger of 
 spraining our wrists. 
 
 A little further on is a zinc fountain, a very ornamental piece 
 
97 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone, and Metal. 
 
 of work, but I cannot help thinking that if it were placed in 
 position in a public place, it would soon be battered up, and be 
 ready to weigh in. 
 
 As the population of our cities increases, and land becomes 
 more valuable, our landlords build us smaller houses. Thus 
 compelled to huddle together, and be warm, our grandfather’s 
 old four-post bedstead is gradually disappearing; it has done its 
 duty ; besides it takes up too much room ; therefore light iron 
 bedsteads are taking its place. Birmingham is now supplying 
 nearly all England with strong, light, easy-put-up and easy- 
 taken-down iron bedsteads; but with all her variety in designs, 
 we have yet to see those wdiich will bear comparison with 
 Austrian bedsteads here exhibited. They are made of sheet- 
 iron, circular outline and elliptic fronted. One is a pure white 
 ground, and finished as though it were French polished. A few 
 flowers and leaves, beautifully arranged, form the ornament at 
 the foot and head. The stocks are 12 or 14 inches wide, and a 
 sprig of flowers and leaves wanders the entire length. They 
 look well, very simple, and very fit for a bedroom. There are 
 also examples in black and gold and other colours. They make a 
 much better appearance than the spider-web designs of the 
 generally used class of iron bedsteads from Birmingham. The 
 babies’ cots were extremely pretty. 
 
 Gerbruder Thonet shows some furniture made from bent wood; 
 the timber for the furniture is first cut in the direction of the 
 grain and w'orked, then bent to the required shape by heat. The 
 tables appear to be very well finished, but we cannot say that we 
 admire their supports ; they have, too light an appearance, and 
 must be too elastic to be solid and strong, setting aside the evil 
 consequences likely to arise on exposure to damp. There is also 
 here a portion of a circular staircase, built of bent timber, by P. 
 Reimer; it is well adapted for this kind of work, and makes the 
 strongest kind of staircase; the ease with which the rail can be 
 wrought, and ornamental banisters filled in, all commend it as 
 an improvement. 
 
 As an illustration of the natural artistic taste possessed by most 
 Continental nations, I may say, not far from the Rotunda is a 
 bust of the Emperor of Austria, in white marble, set on a painted 
 marble pedestal; round the base of the pedestal runs a box, with 
 a wire-work railing. In this box beautiful ferns are grow ing ; 
 they reach about half way up the pedestal, and look very healthy. 
 Take the ferns away, and the remainder w r ould not look very 
 much ; but surrounded as the common pedestal is by the wild, 
 but graceful ornaments of the forest vale, the statue is not only 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone , and Metal. 
 
 shown to the best advantage, but the fresh and living green 
 gives a charm to the scene. 
 
 Some of the Austrian show-cases were badly made, and 
 horribly finished. They have been imitating Milanese work, and 
 have made a botch of it. You cannot make black paint and 
 white stencilling look like ebony and ivory. A number of their 
 show-cases are bronzed. 
 
 Some of the wardrobes and cabinets are very well made, and 
 have a very effective appearance, without the detail of flat 
 ornamentation, which we generally put in our work. The 
 designs for clock-cases are, in some instances, very good; they 
 seem to display far better taste in this branch of woodwork than 
 in any other. 
 
 The wrought-iron work which I saw in Austria, with the 
 exception of some in St. Stephen’s, Vienna, is scarcely worthy 
 of mention. Although to make an article or a building rather 
 pretty seems to come naturally to the Austrians, yet I am bound 
 to say that in that prettiness may be often seen an utter want of 
 thought and careful study. Austria has much to learn, and 
 there is no doubt she will make use of the splendid opportunities 
 now afforded by the Exhibition of the industry of all nations. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Englishmen have the name of being the best workmen in the 
 world, and they justly merit this good name, for every nation 
 has vastly benefited by their dogged perseverance in the inven- 
 tion and perfection of machinery of all kinds. We arc thoroughly 
 a mechanical people; we do everything by square and straight- 
 edge, and when we have completed a piece of work to our satis- 
 faction, we proudly bring down our doubled fist upon it, and say 
 that's a good strong job , forgetting all the time that there is 
 such a thing as ornament. Our work always looks too strong, 
 and full of sharp offensive corners; if we do ornament it, we do 
 so by rule, and instead of clothing it with grace and beauty, we 
 produce an ungainly article, innocent of anything but work. I 
 do not say that is always the case, but I do assert that it is the 
 rule rather than the exception. 
 
 In all our workshops the general design for a job, and every 
 little detail belonging to it, is drawn by architects and their 
 draughtsmen, who practically know nothing of a building, or of a 
 piece of furniture ; and should an intelligent workman see how 
 an improvement could be made, he dare not mention it, for if ho 
 did he would instantly be told to mind his own business, and 
 work to the drawing. Is it to the interest of the employer that 
 
99 
 
 Design in TVood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 such an unfathomable gulf should exist between himself and 
 those he employs ? We rather think that this is not the case on 
 the Continent, and if so we do not wonder so much that their work 
 looks better than ours, and that they succeed in producing a 
 better design. 
 
 Barnard, Bishop, and Barnard, of Norwich, exhibit a pair of 
 wrought iron gates, standing right opposite the entrance to the 
 British department. As a specimen of workmanship, and minute 
 and well-finished detail in wrought iron, they far excel anything 
 in the building. They are a first-class example of English work 
 and English design. Strength is the prevailing feature ; it is the 
 
 all-important aim ; and this idea the designer has succeeded in 
 working out. To count all the angles in them would be no 
 small undertaking ; even the very leaves are made to shoot off at 
 a tangent from the spiral stem, in either a horizontal or vertical 
 straight line, then lap themselves round their parent stem. In 
 
 h 2 
 
 * 
 
100 Design in Wood , Stone , awe? Metal. 
 
 the ornamentation the halves are similar, and to copy one leaf, 
 or scroll, would be to copy a great many. Little old-fashioned 
 looking birds sit in some of the panels of the base, which is 
 made to represent the four season. On the upper panels of 
 one gate is another old bird, an owl in an ivy bush, and on the 
 other gate a rising lark, representing night and day. The gates 
 are full of design, and everything has a rectilineal unbendable 
 appearance ; therefore, we must call it very effective. 
 
 The Coalbrookdale Company exhibit a grand entrance in 
 mediaeval style, consisting of a pair of wrought-iron gates and 
 pillars, with cast-iron enrichments ; the designs in the panels of 
 these gates are well worthy of inspection, they are different in 
 character from the generality of our work, and no two panels 
 * are alike. The little perforated panels between the two bottom 
 bars and between the two middle bars, look very well, and are 
 put just in the right place ; the upper part of the gates and 
 posts are highly ornamental, and, as a whole, they form indeed a 
 grand entrance. 
 
 Mr. B. J. Talbert is the designer, and they illustrate well what 
 
 artistic work can be done 
 in cast iron. There is 
 a novelty in the twisted 
 metal of the bars of the 
 fencing. Fig. 1 is one of 
 the panels in which every 
 leaf, flower, tendril, &c., 
 is entirely undercut, al- 
 though each panel is solid 
 and cast in one piece. 
 
 The patent twisted 
 metal used for the bars 
 of the gates and fence 
 ( Fig. 2) and for the piers, 
 is quite a new feature. A 
 simple bar of very or- 
 dinary section iron is 
 twisted by powerful ma- 
 chinery whilst cold, un- 
 til it assumes a most 
 telling undercut effect of 
 twist. It will be seen 
 that this idea is capable 
 of considerable develop- 
 ment, for only alter the 
 
Design in Wood , Stone, and Metal. 
 
 101 
 
 # 
 
 section and you produce effects which are numberless in their 
 variety, and from being operated upon when cold the twists are 
 regular, which could hardly be the case were heat applied to 
 effect the ductility of the metal. 
 
102 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone , and Metal. 
 
 Yates, Haywood, and Co. exhibit a marble mantel, enclosing 
 one of the prettiest of fire-grates ; not the dingy thing that we are 
 accustomed to, but a liighly-ornamental piece of work in polished 
 steel, and brass, and tile; the ornamental tiles form the jambs 
 and soffit of the splayed part of the stove, the general design 
 evincing a great amount of taste. 
 
 Messrs. Jackson and Graham exhibit an ebony cabinet in 
 Italian style, which for excellence of finish cannot be surpassed. 
 I learn that the bottom part of this, with a marble top on, was 
 at the Paris Exhibition, it being then in an unfinished condition. 
 The front is divided into three compartments ; between each of 
 these is a pilaster, the fluting of which is stopped at about two-fifths 
 from the bottom ; the whole is built of Spanish mahogany, and 
 is veneered inside and out with black ebony. There is a quantit} r 
 of ivory tracery and lining in it, and the ends of the cabinet are 
 quite as full of detail as the front. Anyone unaccustomed to 
 this work cannot conceive what an immense amount of time 
 and care is required in its production ; two first-class workmen 
 were fifty- three months each at this job. Look where you will — 
 mitres, shoulders, or fluting stops — all is clean, close, perfect. 
 All along the channels of flutes, and in almost every corner, is 
 minute ivory tracery ; the very shelves, which are concealed from 
 view, I examined, and found them beautifully finished and 
 engraved. Blue lapis lazuli is let in in various parts, which 
 adds greatly to the effect ; but in fact, were it not for the white 
 ivory ornamentation contrasting so strongly with the ebony, the 
 design would be tame. 
 
 Here is also a cabinet table in Italian style, the little pilasters 
 of which are surmounted by capitals full of almost microscopical 
 work ; every little mould, bead, and fillet is of different coloured 
 wood ; the groundwork of the panels is palm tree cut end-ways. 
 Another cabinet, in pure Greek outline, is highly ornamented 
 by different coloured woods and ivory, being inlaid in Oriental 
 style. All these cabinets depend upon the ivory for their very 
 beautiful appearance ; this kind of ornament exhibited by other 
 nations is miserably executed when compared with work so 
 faultless as this is, and so full of chaste design. 
 
 Morant, Boyd, and Co. show an enclosed toilet-stand, divided 
 in three compartments, and standing on four slight turned legs, 
 biit, like a stout man with very small understandings, it does not 
 look particularly graceful. 
 
 Mr. Walker, manufacturer, exhibits a bedroom suite. The 
 middle parts of the stands are 9 or 10 inches higher than the 
 sides ; the sides have three drawers, about 3 inches deep, and 
 
Design in Wood, Stone, and Metal. 
 
 103 
 
 the corners arc considerably hollowed out to make room for little 
 pillars. The ivory handles in the drawers are very pretty. The 
 whole of the fronts are filled in with ivory. 
 
 All the English furniture we have noticed thus far has one 
 feature in common, that is, ornamented flat surface, the designs 
 of which point to a refined taste in our midst, and artistic talent 
 which will, if cared for and not confined to one particular rut, 
 soon elevate us above the level of our neighbouring nations. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Jacobs, one of the artisan reporters on the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1867, exhibits a small table of Amboyna wood. 
 The top is beautifully inlaid with ivory, ebony, and boxwood. 
 We cannot but admire the design of this small article. We hear 
 that he not only designed but made it himself, and has already 
 received some reward for his combined taste and skill. 
 
 Cooper and Holt exhibit an excellent piece of oak furniture in 
 mediaeval style. Purple wood and ivory form a great part of the 
 ornament. In the back is a large glass, with a smaller one at 
 each side, and above the glass are panels or tiles, with coloured 
 figures on them of an old-fashioned type. Why we should repro- 
 duce the quaint and ungainly pictures of our forefathers we 
 cannot tell, but we do so to a great extent in both wood and 
 stone. Here is a fisherman, two gardeners, a woodman, a plough- 
 man, a sower of seed, a shepherd, and an old woman paddling 
 herself along the stream in a little scow. The design is excel- 
 lent with an excellence peculiarly its own ; it is very angular, 
 and reminds us of when, as boys, we used to cut and carve a 
 square stick with a jack-knife into all kinds of zig-zags and 
 triangles. 
 
 Mr. Owen Jones shows some designs for couches, chairs, 
 cabinets, &c., the prevailing feature of which is a combination 
 of different-coloured materials arranged in Oriental style in flat 
 surfaces. 
 
 The British show-cases are by far the most beautiful ones in the 
 Exhibition ; perhaps our being a ‘ ‘ nation of shopkeepers ’ ’ has 
 tended to the cultivation of this particular branch of joinery 
 
 work. 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Exhibits an inlaid cabinet made of the different kinds of timber 
 growing in the North Island. The work is very moderate indeed ; 
 there has been an attempt to represent a bird in the panel with 
 veneers : this is badly done. Alongside the cabinet is an inlaid 
 table, with an amount of work in the framing which is totally 
 hid by the top projecting so far over. 
 
104 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 p The punch-bowl made by the Maories is grotesque enough ; 
 the figures are playing mountebank on the lid, and their tongues 
 are protruding as though they were choking for a drink. It is 
 clean cut and well finished. 
 
 France. 
 
 Immediately outside the French annexe is a model house of 
 three rooms, furnished, and exhibited by France. If John Bun- 
 yan’s Christian had happened to stumble upon them in his 
 pilgrimage, he would have called one the House of Joy, another 
 the Hall of Melancholy, and the other the Arbour of Repose. 
 All the furniture in the House of Joy is gilt, and has light 
 turned legs. Two side-tables are shaped, one on each side of the 
 room, "with marble tops, and on the rails below rest a beau- 
 tiful vase. The chairs are of an elegant shape, light frames, 
 nearly straight backs, and upholstered with light green material 
 with flowers -woven in ; a gilt timepiece on the mantel-shelf, 
 candelabra at each side, chandelier all crystal and gold, a long 
 narrow gilt table with rounded ends in middle of room ; curtains 
 to window matching chairs, and a gilt cornice ; a pretty fender 
 and a beautiful gilt screen. The ceiling is gorgeously enriched and 
 in slight relief. Every appointment of the room has been care- 
 fully studied, and it has a very pleasing and heart-w r arming 
 effect. The Hall of Melancholy is rather a mis-appellation for 
 a dining-room ; but we wish to convey the impression it made 
 upon us. Here are a dozen ebony chairs, covered in black and 
 crimson, -with small gilt flowers ; curtains to match, no cornice, 
 only a valence ; an ebony telescope dining-table, ebony cheffonier, 
 pier-glass, screen, &c. ; carpet of black-brown and green with grif- 
 fins all over it ; steel chandelier with touches of gold ; and heavy 
 panelled ceiling with chocolate ground. Stepping from the 
 House of Joy into this room, the effect is very striking : there 
 all is bright, and warm, and light ; here all is heavy, gloomy, 
 cool, — beautiful w^ork, beautiful designs, but the effect was very 
 depressing. The Arbour of Repose is furnished in Moorish style. 
 It contains two sofas without arms, and four chairs, — chairs we 
 must not call them, for there is no framing visible ; they seem to 
 be made of two square cushions about 6 inches thick, and placed 
 one above the other, then a similar cushion for the back. The 
 sofa is like them, and all arc finished with purple and a little 
 scarlet and blue ornament ; carpet of geometric pattern ; the 
 ceiling the same ; the chandelier is all points. At one end is a 
 fanciful archway, and here are some ferns ; a most inviting place 
 of rest for a wearied mortal to recruit his exhausted energies. 
 
105 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone , and Metal. 
 
 The foundation and principal feature of the French orna- 
 mental iron work, as shown in the Exhibition, is the spiral. 
 There is nothing in their design to give the idea of strength ; it 
 is all ornament — ornament seems to be the end and aim through 
 all their work ; we do not see any of that angularity so peculiar 
 to our iron ornamentation. Baudrit, of Paris, exhibits some 
 good iron work ; it is impossible for us to do justice to the 
 beauty and gracefulness of some of their designs in writing. v 
 There is one specimen of very light work, full of curling tendrils 
 and scrolls ; one of a little heavier metal and bolder design ; one 
 good large pattern of scroll work and acanthus leaf ; and a first- 
 rate specimen of iron and brass, used together — pattresses, 
 flowers, oak leaves, and acorns very tastefully combined, and 
 making a highly ornamental display. 
 
 The works at Yal de Osne exhibit a number of very interesting 
 bronzes. One is a large fountain ; beneath the canopy stand 
 two females, evidently confiding their secrets one to another, 
 while they empty their vase into the large basin below them. 
 Also a very handsome pair of hall lamps ; the pedestals are 
 ornamented with gilt drapery in festoons and a shield ; on each 
 pedestal there stand two gilt boys dressed in ancient costume ; 
 the lamp is fixed on a light ornamental stem, down which tassels 
 hang carelessly, the boys holding up the whole. 
 
 M. Goekler exhibits a bedroom suite, enamelled white with 
 blue lines — it is plain but very neat ; also a very good cabinet in 
 ebony. The upper part of the cabinet is supported by trusses, 
 w T hich gives it a top-heavy appearance, but the work is exceed- 
 ingly well done. P. Mazaroz exhibits a piece of furniture which 
 is one blaze of gold ; there are figures of boys standing against 
 the upper part, and the front is nearly all occupied by a panel 
 carved in relief ; it is allegorical, and a proper specimen of 
 French taste. 
 
 Ilenri Fourdinois exhibits the best furniture of any in the 
 French Department ; it is first-class both in workmanship and 
 design. The gentleman in charge took from a drawer some 
 specimens of Brevete sculpture, light coloured wood let into wood 
 of a darker shade ; the light wood was carved elegantly and 
 clean, and goes clear through the dark wood. The designs were 
 very pretty. 
 
 Goyers Freres exhibit a magnificent pulpit in the Rotunda, 
 executed in Gothic style in oak, and left in the white. The 
 design is beautiful indeed. The long pointed arches, the narrow 
 long panels set so far back, the vertical lights and shades, and 
 the scores of little pinnacles pointing upward and heavenward, 
 
106 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone , and Metal. 
 
 appear to us not so much to attract our attention to them, but 
 to arouse in our minds sacred emotions and solemn contempla- 
 tion of Him who dwells on high. 
 
 Monduit, Beekitt, and Co. exhibit part of a church spire 
 covered with lead. The ornaments, mouldings, sashes, gar- 
 goyles, &c., are all lead. It would be much cheaper than stone, 
 and looks very well. 
 
 The conclusion that we arrive at, after examining their various 
 productions, is, that the French will allow nothing to stand in the 
 way of adornment — directly opposite to the spirit we manifest ; if 
 they cannot combine utility with beauty, they will have the latter 
 at the expense of the former. No other nation decorates so 
 much and so extravagantly as they do ; coloured woods, ivory, 
 and enamel, metal of all kinds, arms, horses and chariots, 
 shields, scrolls, flowers, birds, and beasts, figures celestial and 
 terrestrial, are all laid under tribute to beautify the work of 
 their hands and gratify the national passion for display. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Our fireplaces are much more comfortable to sit around, and 
 far pleasanter to look upon than the ugly closed stove, and 
 Germany is successfully emulating us in this matter. I have 
 often thought what ungainly and smudgy looking things our 
 firesides were, the very ugliest part of the whole house ; and of all 
 places, the one to which we draw up our easy chairs and stare at 
 all evening long, why this should be the prettiest nook in all the 
 building. There is a good marble mantel and a very orna- 
 mental brass stove or fireplace, something to look upon with 
 pleasure, though it is not as good as that exhibited by Yates, 
 Haywood, and Co., of London. It is high time we altered our 
 crude taste in such articles ; and if we cannot dispense with them 
 altogether, as many Americans do, let us at least adopt some- 
 thing more pleasing than blacklead and its associations. 
 
 There are clocks of all kinds ; some are very good, and some 
 are very bad. There are Gothic clocks, clocks with little 
 soldiers marching round, stair clocks, American, Swiss, and 
 Italian clocks, all made in Germany ; but the silliest of all is a 
 clock in a picture frame. Also hundreds of little carved 
 articles, such as paper knives, inkstands, candlesticks, trays, 
 &c., in which the oak-leaf figures prominently. They show an 
 amount of taste and skill in their manufacture. 
 
 Some of the cabinets display much taste in design. Where we 
 should fix a plain pilaster, they carve a figure ; where we let in a 
 tile, apparently painted 400 years ago, they carve fruit, leaves, 
 
107 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 or flowers. Here is a very good Gothic cabinet, of very excel- 
 lent design, w T ith engraved glass panels, thick silvered hinges, 
 escutcheons, &c. With all our pretensions to Gothic, it certainly 
 shames any such that we have seen at home. Also a black ebony 
 cabinet, on which the ornament is profusely heaped. In the lower 
 part three figures do duty for pilasters, and in the panels trophies 
 are carved ; the mouldings are all beautifully enriched. Three 
 female figures support the shelf above, and in the panel of the 
 back a stag hunt is carved. The cornice is supported by male 
 figures. This piece of furniture will bear close inspection by 
 workman or artist. 
 
 Leigler, of Baden, exhibits an entrance. A male and female 
 caryatides support the cornice ; but the work is too flat alto- 
 gether to look well ; and besides, the 
 too much and in the wrong way and 
 place, as it certainly is here. 
 
 There are some good specimens of 
 cast-iron work in the German De- 
 partment. One is a circular staircase ; 
 a garden table, with ferns forming 
 the centre and ivy running round for 
 a rim in the top ; palisades, &c. 
 
 A walk through the Educational De- 
 partment was especially interesting. 
 
 There were models, and specimens, 
 and copies for almost every branch of 
 study, drawing, perspective, astro- 
 nomy, botany, cryptogamy, crystal- 
 lography, entomology, architecture, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Were I not an Englishman , I would willingly be an Italian. 
 The Romans were once masters of the world, and they still sway 
 the sceptre in Art. In this department a language is spoken 
 which can be understood by the untutored savage as easily as 
 by the most civilised, telling tales of love, of honour, of victory, 
 of defeat, of trouble and of deliverance therefrom, of bereave- 
 ment and of resignation. There can be but one opinion of the 
 artistic ability of the Italian. The w r hole human race is pos- 
 sessed of affections. If men have courage, they have love as well ; 
 if they have iron wills, they also have hearts. The Italian gives 
 expression to his feelings continually. With us solidity is the 
 natural state of mind, and we carry this stern solidity too far ; 
 
 human figure may be used 
 
108 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone, and Metal. 
 
 it gets into all our work, it hinders our improvement, it makes us 
 surly and abrupt, and causes our very decoration to be defiantly 
 stiff. The Italian does not allow bis feelings to govern him, 
 neither does he smother them, but he allows them to grow and 
 attain their native strength, and thus by them his productions 
 are influenced for much good. 
 
 The matchless skill and beauty of a specimen of wood carving 
 I much appreciated. It is a panel carved in relief, about 3 ft. 
 long and 1 ft. wide. The centre figure is a female, her hair 
 streaming in the wind and she standing in a shell; a lovely little 
 cherub, all wings and head, is lightly touching her lips, and 
 clusters of cherubs are hovering round her. The slenderest of 
 stems and leaves emanate from the centre in perfect curves, 
 forming a network regular in outline and charming in design. 
 Here and there those elegant curves dash boldly to the front, 
 magically changing their character into a dragon, not marring, 
 but adding to the effect, like a clear and gentle purling brook 
 suddenly leaping over a rock and transforming itself into a foam- 
 ing cataract. 
 
 The cabinets are of a very bold design. Blue, red, and green 
 stone are much used for inlaying, and very often bold carved 
 figures of unexceptionable outline are introduced. Table tops 
 are frequently inlaid with different coloured marble, representing 
 vases, musical instruments, scrolls, dolphins, birds, angels, fruit 
 and flowers in unlimited profusion. 
 
 Here is a very good picture frame. Little nude children arc 
 playing amongst the foliage which climbs around it ; it is well 
 cut and left in the white. 
 
 Also some handsome brass bedsteads, cot, and toilet table. 
 The glass on the latter has a beautiful picture on the back of it ; 
 the designs of the bedsteads arc in the same style as Birmingham 
 goods, but much more tasteful. 
 
 The general upshot of my ideas, after passing through this 
 department, is that Italy is the native hot-bed where all the 
 slips of European Art have germinated ; they have been carried 
 away from home, nurtured and trained in different climes by 
 different nations, sometimes crippled and sometimes overgrown, 
 and in this Exhibition they are once more gathered together, 
 English, French, German, and Swiss, but the loveliest of them 
 all is that which still luxuriates in its native clime. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Here is exhibited a good and substantial looking cabinet in 
 black walnut, with ebony moulds ; there is very little ornamenta- 
 tion about it, nevertheless the design is very good. 
 
100 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone, and Metal. 
 
 Also a very beautiful folding screen in papier-mache, with a 
 landscape painted on each fold. The scenes are all at the bewitch- 
 ing moonlight or twilight hour, and, with the mother-of-pearl so 
 aptly introduced, have a beautiful effect. 
 
 The gas bracket given here I saw at Antwerp, and I was 
 struck with its gracefulness. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 In the Exhibition grounds is a beautiful specimen of cast-iron 
 work, in the form of an octagonal pavilion. It is highly orna- 
 mental in design. The glass for the windows is engraved, and 
 the little dome is glazed with stained glass. There are also a sofa 
 and chairs in this department made entirely of cane, which seems 
 to be a favourite article for this purpose with them. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Exhibits a gun-rack made of oak. The principal panel is 
 carved to represent a deer hunt ; in the back are eight carved 
 figures suggestive of the chase, and a squatted hunting dog 
 forms the upright at each side. The design is very appropriate. 
 
 Herr Fried Bille shows a very good cabinet ; it is full of in- 
 ternal and external mitres. The upper part is supported by two 
 female lions, leaving an open space of about one foot along the 
 whole length of the top. We notice this peculiarity in many of 
 the cabinets of the Continent, and do not like it, for it suggests 
 to us top-heaviness, and surely this is the opposite of good taste. 
 Had this place been filled up, we think it would vastly have im- 
 proved the design. 
 
 Here are some very good iron bedsteads, all white, and orna- 
 
110 
 
 Design in Wood , Stone, and Metal. 
 
 mented with flowers. The mattrasses are covered with quilted 
 pink silk with white lace trimmings. They appear very happily 
 adapted for the purpose for which they are made. 
 
 Among the villages the Hungarian hut is conspicuous, it has 
 such a clean and comfortable appearance ; it is stuccoed all over. 
 The bottom storey is coloured light blue, and the upper storey 
 pink ; green Venetian shutters serve the purpose of keeping out 
 the sun, and allowing fresh air to enter ; the roof is covered with 
 circular-ended shingles (wooden slates). 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 A very fair sample of circular stairs in cast iron. The treads 
 and risers are riveted together ; then these are riveted to sheet- 
 iron outside string. On each step are two banisters, one twisted 
 and one straight. The twisted one goes right into the underside 
 of the rail, and when the straight one reaches nearly the top, it 
 bends into a scroll with leaves, forming an ornament all along 
 the underside of the rail. 
 
 Close by the annexe is a Swiss house, which gives us an excel- 
 lent idea of their design in building. A balcony runs all round 
 the house, and the roof projects sufficiently to cover it. Carved 
 and twisted pillars support the wall-plates, and wherever there 
 is a right angle there an ornamental bracket is fixed, cut out in 
 some fanciful manner. The house is built of deals, planed and 
 dowelled together, the ends project, and are gouged out to 
 take away the plainness. Inside the house the risers of the 
 stairs have strips tacked on diagonally across their whole face, 
 and the banisters are cut out with a bow-saw. The architraves 
 and panels of the doors are ornamented with strips of walnut, 
 cut out to patterns, and nailed on, and sometimes they arc 
 carved. The work is all extremely rough, but the general effect 
 is very pleasing. 
 
 Here are workboxes, knives, forks, spoons, baskets, vases, 
 toilet glasses, barometers, clocks, crosses, chairs, tables, dogs, 
 stags, all in endless variety, and carved out of dark-looking 
 wood. There is a loo-table with a beautifully carved top in 
 slight relief, a very Swiss notion, and quite contrary to our ideas 
 of utility. 
 
 Also a carved mantelpiece, with centre stand for timepiece 
 and a group of birds at each side. The carving is very well 
 done ; but no one in their senses would fix a mantel like this in a 
 room, unless cased in with glass, and then its beauty would be 
 departed. 
 
 Swiss design does not impress us with any idea of magni- 
 
Design in Wood , Stone , and Metal. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ficence, or grand and noble effect — they leave that for their 
 mountains to do — but it rather reminds us of their fields, and 
 hedges, and cottages in the mountain nooks, where they live 
 contentedly, and earn their bread by the production of such 
 things as these. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Exhibits a very good sideboard of dark oak ; it is about 8 ft. 
 long and 10 ft. high, and about 2 ft. from back to front. The 
 carved panels and figures are of much lighter wood, which rather 
 mars than enhances the good effect. On one panel is a boy 
 amusing himself with ducks, and on either side of this is a group 
 of birds. In the centre of the back is a youth feeding a bird, 
 which is perched on his shoulder ; the lower panels are filled in 
 with carved fruit. The handles to the drawer fronts are very 
 pretty ; they consist of two sprigs with leaves intertwining, and 
 bending out a little in the middle to afford hold for the hand. 
 
 Very near this sideboard stands a cottage piano, which, viewed 
 at the distance of three yards, looks like a packing case, with 
 brown paper pasted over it. On closer inspection we find it is 
 carved most elaborately in geometrical arabesque. A more com- 
 plete waste of labour and a more wretched perversion of taste it 
 was never our lot to behold. In their designs they pitch their 
 pearls to the swine with a vengeance. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Here is a specimen of carving in light coloured wood, a few 
 flowers intertwining about a shield, evidently an exact imitation 
 of nature ; extremely fine workmanship, but of no utility. 
 
 Also a very beautiful capital for a column. It is scarcely pos- 
 sible for anything to be more ornamental than this is ; it is 
 covered with lines and curves and white and gilt foliage on a 
 light blue ground ; it arrests and captivates the attention of the 
 passer-by with its acceptable tints and peculiar outline. 
 
 Bussia 
 
 Makes a very poor show. There is a very ordinary fountain made 
 of composition ; the roof is supported by composite pillars and 
 the water jets out of the head of a lioness. There are several 
 very rude chairs ; they look as though they were painted red, 
 and varnished, and have gaudy flowers on them. The backs of the 
 chairs are set on to the bottom, instead of forming the back leg. 
 
112 
 
 Design in W ood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 The most remarkable group in this department is a whole 
 suite made out of deers’ feet and horns — feet for backs, rails, 
 legs, spindles ; they look as though they wanted to trot. 
 
 Also a splendid billiard-table, made of heavy moulded green 
 and brown spotted marble, with heavy octagonal marble legs. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 The religion of the Turk debars him from representing any- 
 thing which has life in his ornamentation ; therefore, if he will 
 decorate, he must confine himself to straight lines, curves, and 
 colour. 
 
 There is a good example of his work in a marble centre table ; 
 the top is a perfect maze of brown, white, and black curves, 
 abutting and intersecting in all manner of forms, the general 
 confusion thereof combining to form a pattern symmetrical in 
 outline and highly ornamental. 
 
 When they attempt to make European furniture they signally 
 fail. Here is a side-table, evidently a copy from a French one 
 with cabriole legs ; those legs would shake the nerves of the 
 original maker, did he but see them ; but then w T e must all have 
 a beginning. After getting together they have dosed them with 
 mother-of-pearl, which makes them look ridiculous. 
 
 Here are two polygonal tables or stools, standing about 18 
 inches high, made of black w*alnut, and almost filled with 
 
 mother-of-pearl ; there are no rails 
 to them, but the legs seem mitred to- 
 gether at the ^angles, and between 
 each leg is cut out in Oriental 
 fashion. 
 
 The designs of some of their pro- 
 ductions possess a peculiar beauty, 
 and point clearly to the faith they 
 hold ; but in some we fail to see either 
 use or ornament. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 There cannot be a greater difference visible in anything than 
 is shown in the designs of the ancient and modern Egyptians. 
 The monolithic and sepulchral style of the Pharaohs, the croco- 
 dile, the beetle, and the water-lily, and the hieroglyphic writing 
 which covered their walls, all belong to ages long since passed 
 away ; and in their place we find the dome, the minaret, the 
 crescent, and the unscientific arch and coloured embellishments 
 of the Mussulman. 
 
 There are two ebony cabinets here shown, very Moorish in 
 
113 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 style, with ivory and mother-of-pearl inlaid over their whole 
 surface. The centre is a cupboard, and at each side is a niche 
 overhung by a cusped arch ; the frieze at the top is filled with 
 rows of cusps, and the panels of the doors below are filled in 
 with arabesque on a gilt ground. 
 
 There are a pair of doors, left in the white, which at a 
 distance look very plain. They are filled w T ith arabesque 
 carving. This peculiar style of ornament requires colour to 
 give it any effect. 
 
 The large Egyptian building standing nearly opposite the 
 Rotunda is a splendid specimen of Moorish architecture. It is 
 particularly conspicuous by its alternate lines of chocolate and 
 buff stringing encircling the "whole building. The archw r ays and 
 window openings are extravagantly full of ornament ; and in the 
 loftiest portion are five highly decorated towers, one apparently 
 built on the other, and each one decreasing in diameter and 
 height until the top is reached. The inside of the building is 
 gorgeous and delightfully cool ; not a single representation of a 
 leaf, flower, fruit, or animal of any kind is to be seen ; never- 
 theless the delightful arrangement of the different colours and 
 geometrical forms of the same unite to produce a gorgeous 
 display. 
 
 Roumania. 
 
 In furniture the Roumanians display a very rude taste. The 
 timber of the chairs and sofa here exhibited is all about inches 
 square ; the legs, arms, and back are all straight, and covered 
 with scarlet, then webbed over the scarlet with something like 
 carpet binding. About every four inches apart is suspended a 
 little coloured wooden ball, hanging like a tassel. 
 
 There are two models of buildings which are very ornamental, 
 and are very Oriental in character. 
 
 Among the villages in the outer grounds the Roumanian hut 
 was, perhaps, the very rudest ; but, in strange contrast, the 
 archway over the entrance to the garden was filled with Moorish 
 ornamentation. The agricultural implements and cart in the 
 corner of the yard were exceedingly primitive in type. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 They exhibit a table about 6 feet long by about 3 feet 6 inches 
 wide, and standing on legs halved together and braced by a rail 
 underneath, which goes through the halving, and is made firm 
 by a key-w T edge. It is miserably constructed, and is covered 
 with red, green, yellow, black, and brass dots for ornament. 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 Design in Wood, Stone, and Metal. 
 
 There is a bedstead to match the above. It stands about 
 1 foot high, with a rail running completely round it, and a gate 
 at one side to go to bed through. The legs have a triangular 
 block nailed on them at the bottom, and another at the top, for 
 strength’s sake ; and on each post, right at the top, the paper 
 photograph of a European girl is stuck on with gum. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 In this department stands, very conspicuous, a huge gong — a 
 Japanese big drum. Whether they use it to call their gods to 
 attention, or whether it is for some more civilised purpose, we 
 know not. It stands about 16 feet high, and is about 9 feet 
 square at the base ; three steps lead up to the platform and the 
 gong, and this is surmounted by a large screen covered with 
 Japanese lines of beauty, and climbing up each side of which are 
 two dragons, many-winged and many-clawed, and looking like 
 demoniacs at each other. There is a hand-rail running round 
 the platform, with a purple screen behind it ; every joint of the 
 framing is brass bound, and the brass engraved. 
 
 There are several models of houses, most of which are quite 
 open at the bottom, with a light palisading or network of bamboo 
 running from post to post ; the object of this will be to receive 
 as much of the cool air as possible. The lines of the eaves have 
 many irregular curves in them, which adds considerably to their 
 picturesqueness. They are thatched or shingled, and bamboos 
 are then nailed diagonally upon them. Some have paper win- 
 dows. Their houses, furniture, clothing, pictures, are all 
 possessed of the same irregular outline, and they are not with- 
 out beauty. 
 
 They have been trying their hands at a chest of drawers and 
 cupboard, but they will not pass muster. 
 
 There is a very fair dining-room suite in frame, but we have a 
 strong suspicion that they have been put together by a European, 
 if not an Englishman, and the carved part only executed by 
 them. 
 
 They arc a long way behind in many points, and yet they are 
 worth imitation in some points, and may be studied with profit. 
 
 China. 
 
 Here is the most extraordinary bedstead we ever clapped our 
 eyes upon. It has four long posts, and the stocks are about 6 
 inches wide and 1 foot high. The mattress is about twelve 
 inches thick, and moulded like an ogee on the sides. The width 
 of the bedstead is considerably more at the head and foot than 
 
Design in Wood, Stone , and Metal. 
 
 115 
 
 it is in the middle — the inference being that J ohnny reposes 'with 
 arms and legs outstretched. The posts are about two and a half 
 inches square, and the corners nicely rounded off ; at about 6 
 inches from these are smaller posts, about one and a quarter inch 
 in diameter. The cornice is 9 inches deep and beautifully 
 carved. Very light carved work also answers the purpose of 
 curtains, and sweeps from the top at the centre of the sides to 
 about halfway down the posts. The character of their carving 
 is peculiar, very minute at times, and very well finished. 
 
 Also a toilet-stand, with ebony top, and three frightful dragons 
 lashing themselves around the pillar. There is another with a 
 quaint picture on the top, representing a procession of grass- 
 hoppers : six of them are carrying one of their brethren in a 
 sedan chair — and very solemn they look over their job ; another 
 has his work set to lug along a flower and keep it perpendicular; 
 six more are marching along in state, &c. The whole, probably, 
 refers to some national fable. 
 
 One piece of furniture very much resembles our canterburies ; 
 the shelves are surrounded with curious carved work, and fear- 
 fully Plutonic little figures are scrambling round the pillars. 
 
 There is also a grim old specimen like a side-table ; the two 
 front legs arc figures, the faces of which are just discernible. 
 
Woollen Carding. 
 
 By TOM LISTER ( Carder at Messrs . John Schofield and Sons.) 
 HE Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry having 
 
 done me the honour to send me to the Vienna Exhibition to 
 report on Woollen Carding, I will endeavour to make a fair and 
 unprejudiced comparison of the various exhibits employed in that 
 industry. In my opinion the Society have done well to include 
 the woollen industry in their programme, as there is such an 
 incredible difference in the system of working on the Continent 
 and in England. This must be understood to apply to clean 
 wool and clean waste only. It is time the British manufac- 
 turers awoke out of the trance in which, as a body, they have 
 been for so long reposing, in the thought they could not, and never 
 would, be beaten. When we take into consideration the large 
 quantity of yarn sent into our own markets, particularly to Glas- 
 gow, from the Continent, which will amount to between twenty 
 and thirty millions of lbs. of yarn per annum, and assuming that 
 the average per lb. will be 2s., it will amount in the aggregate to 
 between two and three millions sterling. With these facts before 
 us, would it not be well to look around and see if we cannot 
 find where we in England are so effectually beaten. I will now 
 attempt to describe the machinery exhibited, which, without 
 exception, was on the Continental system — that is, small three- 
 single-cylindered machines, from 40 to 50 inches wide, clothed with 
 hard, or Belgian, cards. The English style of large machine, 
 GO to 72 inches wide, and clothed with soft sheet cards, was 
 entirely unrepresented. 
 
 Scouring and Preparation of the Raw Material. 
 
 The first special feature is the very great care taken in freeing 
 the wool from grease, burrs, seeds, &c. Wool scouring was well 
 represented by Messrs. McNauglit’s, of Itochdale, well-known 
 machine, which is of great advantage compared with the old 
 and slow process of hand-washing. The wool is then dried and 
 willowed ready for burring, for which a very efficient machine is 
 exhibited by M. Celestin Martin, Yervicrs, Belgium. 
 
Woollen Carding. 117 
 
 Burring Machine. 
 
 The principal novelty in this exhibit is the burr cylinder, 
 the diameter of which is about 24 inches, covered on the surface 
 ■with thick-teethed bars, similar to doffing-plates, which are 
 ground to the surface, admitting of very close setting of the 
 burr roller. Between, and from the roots of each tooth, grooves 
 are cut about ^ of an inch deep and broad to run out at the 
 back in the direction of the circumference. The points of each 
 succeeding row of teeth are brought immediately opposite the 
 grooves. The effect of this arrangement is, the wool being 
 caught by the teeth falls in the grooves, which are too small to 
 admit the burrs and other hard matter ; consequently, the burrs 
 being on the surface are very readily knocked off with very little 
 wool attached. 
 
 Oiling and Fearnoughting, or Plucking. 
 
 For these purposes M. Martin exhibits machinery. This 
 process of oiling is far in advance of the English system of 
 putting the wool on the floor in layers, or beds, and sprinkling 
 on the liquid with an ordinary watering can, when the blend is run 
 through the plucker, and sometimes the willow, thereby losing a 
 large percentage of oil. This oiler distributes the oil on the 
 material as it passes finally along the lattice feed-sheet of the 
 plucker. The machine has two cans, quarter circle in shape — one 
 for oil, and one for water — having a spout at the bottom of the 
 straight side. The cans are placed above and across the feed, 
 and are tilted by means of a rack and cog-wheels. The liquid when 
 released runs into a gutter with niches cut one inch apart across 
 the feed. A quick revolving brush, about 12 inches diameter, 
 sprinkles the oil in a gentle spray on the wool as it passes along 
 the lattice on the feed-rollers. When the machine is stopped, or 
 running without wool, by simply tilting back the cans the flow’ is 
 stopped. Should an oil containing sediment be used, it w r ould be 
 liable to make up the niches, and so prevent its proper working. 
 
 Carding machinery — Platt , Br other, and Co. ( Oldham) ,1 set . — 
 This set consists of three single-cylinder engines, or breaker, 
 clearer, and condenser, all of one width, 50 inches. Each part 
 comprises one cylinder, 50 inches diameter; five workers, each 8 
 inches diameter; five strippers, each inches diameter; one 
 angle stripper, 6 inches diameter; one fancy, 12 inches diameter; 
 doffer, 30 inches. The doffer is stripped with a vibrating or fly 
 comb, and under each fancy is placed a small roller, covered w r ith 
 card, to prevent an excess of fly being thrown out. All the 
 
118 
 
 Woollen Carding. 
 
 
 parts are made of iron, perfectly true. The fixings or bearings 
 are of their well-known pattern, which admits of the greatest 
 nicety in setting, and are well adapted for this method of card- 
 ing. The condensing machine is on the principle of M. Martin’s 
 patent, dispensing with the usual doffer covering of separate card 
 rings or ribbons, this covering being a continuous fillet wound 
 on spirally, stripped or doffed with a fly comb. The web'then 
 passes between two rollers, about 9 inches diameter ; the surface 
 of each roller is divided into alternate ridges and grooves of 
 equal width, and also provided with a series of endless leather 
 bands of the width of the fleece- intended to form one thread or 
 sliver. The rollers are so set that the elevation, with the strap 
 around, of one roller will press into the groove of the other, 
 enabling each groove to take its proper share of web. The 
 straps on one roller pass upwards, and those on the other 
 pass downwards, thereby separating or tearing the web into as 
 many threads as there are straps. These flat slivers are then 
 taken from the straps by small discs, the upper half carried 
 forward to the top pair of rubbers, and the lower to the bottom 
 pair, where they are rubbed into threads; each pair of rubbers 
 filling two bobbins or spools, turning off two waste and eighty 
 good threads, giving twenty to each of the four bobbins. 
 
 Feeding. 
 
 The wool is weighed on to the scribbler-feeder by hand, the 
 web from the doffer is twisted into a rope sliver, and passes 
 into the balling machine, which makes a roll or ball with two 
 flat sides. In front of the clearer is a creel in which are placed 
 sixty-eight of these balls, threaded through a rack of as many 
 holes. This is a good feed for mixing and producing even work 
 on the clearer, but is not suitable for small parcels or for 
 condenser feeding, where broken slivers would cause uneven 
 threads. 
 
 The condenser is fed with rolls or bats, on the principle 
 patented by Mr. David Horsfall, Huddersfield. It consists of an 
 endless lattice apron, hinged at one end, so as to be capable of 
 oscillating. At the other end of this is hinged a pair of oscillat- 
 ing lattice sheets, parallel to each other, both travelling 
 together, balanced from the fulcrum by a weight passing over a 
 pulley in the ceiling. 
 
 The wool is received as stripped from the doffer on to the 
 endless lattice apron, and carried forward between the pair of 
 oscillating and travelling creeper-sheets fixed on a carriage, and 
 by their traversing and rotary motion they deliver it on to a 
 
Woollen Carding. 
 
 119 
 
 cross-creeper in folds or layers one upon another, forming a bat 
 of suitable width to the width of cards on the engine intended to 
 be fed. This creeper again delivers the bat to a roller or bobbin, 
 upon which it is wound by surface rollers turned by a latch 
 motion, or the patentee’s adaptation of a positive worm motion, 
 which is not so liable to vary as the latch in its rate of turning. 
 
 This is an excellent machine, requiring little attention, and 
 taking up considerably less room than other bat-feeds with the 
 same amount of mixing and crossing of the material ; and it also 
 enables the two engines to work independently of each other. 
 
 The strippers, fancy, and workers are turned, Continental 
 fashion, outside the . bends, a very desirable arrangement where 
 Belgiau cards are used, as it enables the fancy to be well covered 
 in, and preventing any side draughts, or the chains tightening 
 by an accumulation of wool, and so drawing the rollers into the 
 cylinder ; and more particularly in cases of straps breaking there 
 is less danger of damaging the cards. 
 
 This set was carding Buenos Ayres wool for 18’s Scotch yarn 
 condensed to 18 yards to the dram, and spun direct from the 
 bobbins to the required length, turning out about 110 lbs. per 
 day, thus dispensing with and saving the cost of the intermediate 
 process of roving. 
 
 This condenser does its work very well, and is specially 
 arranged for making small yarns. Experience alone will deter- 
 mine how far it can be applied to the production of coarse or 
 thick yarns. In my opinion, a fillet-doffer having the teeth cut 
 out or depressed to form spaces and filled up with leather or lead 
 dividers, thus producing more uniform rings than if made in 
 separate ribbons (on which the evenness of the work depends), 
 would be more suitable for the general trade of this country. 
 
 M. Martin's set for fine work . — This set consists of three single 
 cylinder engines. The breaker comprises 1 licker-in 10 inches 
 diameter, with burr roller, 1 small breast 10 inches diameter, 
 with 2 workers and strippers 3 inches diameter, clothed with flat 
 wire or Garnett tooth-cards. Cylinder 44 inches diameter, 8 
 workers 7 inches diameter, 8 strippers 2£ inches diameter, 1 
 angle stripper 6 inches diameter, 1 fancy 15 inches diameter, 
 1 doffer 16 inches diameter, stripped with a fly comb. 
 
 The intermediate and condenser carder are of the same 
 dimensions as the breaker, but without the breast. All parts 
 made of iron. The roller bearings are of flat shape, with a 
 square hole to assist the sight in setting. They are put 
 through grooves in the bends, and the side adjusting screws are 
 placed above the top of the bends, and in the way of easy set- 
 
120 Woollen Carding. 
 
 ting. The strippers and fancy are turned outside. The worker 
 chains inside pass over, and are kept clean by a fixture brush. 
 
 The condensing machine is on the same principle as that 
 fitted to Messrs. Platt’s exhibit, with the exception of turning 
 off 120 threads in place of their 96. 
 
 The breaker is fed by a machine consisting of a box or hopper 
 (placed in front), and will hold from 20 to 30 lbs. of wool. 
 Inside this box is a leather sheet inclined towards the engine, 
 on which are placed iron hooks about 2 inches apart. Over the 
 top of the sheet is a roller, with strong straight teeth the same 
 distance apart, revolving at the rate of 12 revolutions per 
 minute, acting as a worker in spreading the wool, which is then 
 passed on to the feed rollers by a fan. This is a very simple 
 arrangement, and lays on the wool far evener than by hand. 
 
 The sliver from the doffer is wound on to a blanket feed or 
 endless sheet, passing over and around a series of rollers. 
 After a certain number of revolutions, a bell rings, intimating 
 to the minder that the web is the required thickness, who then 
 breaks it across, and it is weighed on the intermediate by hand. 
 The same kind of feeder supplies the condenser, excepting that 
 the web, when broken across, is wound on a roller, and placed on 
 the feeder the same way as it is turned off the intermediate, not 
 attaining that desirable crossing of the web as shown in Messrs. 
 Platt’s exhibit. 
 
 M. Martin's set for coarse work . — This set comprises two 
 single-cylinder engines, each part having five workers, of the 
 same dimensions as the set just described, and having the same 
 condensing machine turning off 60 good threads. In these two 
 sets, to prevent dirt and fly accumulating in the necks of the 
 bearings, the roller shafts work in a loose boss about 2 inches 
 long, having a small lubricating cup on the top, and underneath 
 the boss is a small hole to admit a pin fixed on the bearing to 
 keep it in position. 
 
 M. Seeks , of Chemnitz , Deutsche Rein . — This set also com- 
 prises three single cylinder engines, 44 inches wide. The con- 
 denser doffer, 24 inches diameter, is covered with separate ring 
 cards stripped by a fly comb, having a single rubber machine 
 filling only one bobbin of 30 good threads, the waste or end 
 slivers being stripped with a fly comb on to the floor without 
 passing through the rubbers, thus preventing in some degree 
 the frequent breaking of one or two threads near the waste slivers. 
 Between each ring on this doffer is a space three-eighths of an 
 inch wide filled in with leather bands. Underneath the cylinder 
 is placed a quickly traversing worker and a stripper to spread 
 
Woollen Carding. 
 
 121 
 
 the wool left by the divisions in the doffer. The breaker of this 
 set is fed by J. II. King and Co.’s, St. James’ Works, Ken- 
 ning Park, Glasgow, patent hopper feed; and it seems to answer 
 very well for the fine class of work here carded. The sliver from 
 the breaker is twisted into a rope and passed by Apperly’s dia- 
 gonal feed to the following part. The condenser is then fed by a 
 blanket feed. The bearings have a flat plate or lid to prevent 
 dirt getting into the necks. These workers, strippers, and fancys 
 are also turned outside the bends. 
 
 Cards. 
 
 The fillet cards on all these machines, which are used to such 
 advantage by the Continental manufacturers, are the Belgian or 
 hard cards. The wire is set in a strong foundation of leather, 
 or seven ply of cotton cloth, cemented together with a solution 
 of rubber, and filled up to the bend of the card tooth with a 
 woollen felt. The bend of the tooth is so arranged as not to 
 hook the wool, and, should it be overpowered, will sink under 
 rather than rise, and make a prickle, a fruitful source of noppy 
 yarn. 
 
 These cards are much finer in counts and wire than ordinary 
 English cards. The breaker cylinder is clothed with 22’s, or 11 
 crowns, 110 counts, 32 wire ; doffer and workers, 24’s, or 12 
 crowns, 120 counts, 33 wire; the strippers on every part are 
 clothed with undercut diamond point, 6 crowns, the point of 
 teeth rising about one-eighth of an inch above the foundation. 
 The fancy, with sheets, 7 crowns, 70 counts, 32 wire, inches 
 cut; the tooth is bent so as to bring the point very forw r ard, so 
 that the contact with the cylinder will be rather at the back than 
 at the point of the tooth, which prevents an excess of fly. The 
 intermediate cylinder is 24’s, or 12 crowns, 120 counts, 34 
 wire ; doffer and workers, 26’s, or 13 crowns, 130 counts, 35 
 wire ; fancy 8 crowns, 80 counts, 34 wire ; condenser cylinder, 
 26’s, or 13 crowns, 130 counts, 35 wire; doffer and workers, 
 28’s, 14 crowns, 140 counts, 36 wire; fancy, 8 crowns, 80 
 counts, 35 wire. 
 
 The lapping of card-fillet. — These cards require to be 
 lapped on very tight, and before grinding every fallen tooth re- 
 quires putting into position. 
 
 Grinding. 
 
 For grinding workers and strippers, M. Martin has an excel- 
 lent exhibit, arranged so as to grind a needle point on the card. 
 It consists of two discs, or face plates, rotating and traversing 
 
122 
 
 Woollen Carding. 
 
 across the frame, the card roller revolving at a quick pace ; the 
 abrasion on the wire by these discs grinds a needle point instead 
 of a chisel or flat point. The traversing strickle exhibited by 
 Messrs. Platt is also a very useful and good arrangement for 
 grinding perfectly true, and can readily be applied on the cylin- 
 ders and doffers. Should these cards at first or afterwards 
 be ground too hastily, or with too much pressure, serious 
 and irremediable injury is done, as the point of the tooth once 
 brought forward, it is never got back to its place again. If 
 they are properly put on and ground, they are, in effect, as true 
 and level as an iron roller turned in a lathe, and have nothing 
 to prevent them from being set with mathematical precision ; 
 they will work so close as only to admit a flat piece of steel of 
 the thickness of 34-wire gauge between cylinder, workers, and 
 doffers, and with this precise setting it is impossible for a lock 
 of wool to escape being worked. 
 
 Cleaning or Fettling the Cards. 
 
 In cleaning, the comb-fettler must not be used by any means, 
 but a soft sheet card of particular form of tooth, nailed on 
 to a hand board similar to those used by cloth finishers in hand 
 raising. The cards, being of such a very delicate nature, would 
 soon be knocked down and spoilt by the comb-fettler, as any- 
 thing of a stronger substance passing between the teeth will lay 
 them down, as they do not possess the same elasticity as a soft 
 card. At each cleaning the workers are taken to the grinding 
 frame and ground with a light hand emery strickle, for about 
 10 minutes each. With straps, &c., the cylinder and doffer can 
 readily be reversed and ground a half-hour each. Thus always 
 keeping a regular working point. 
 
 That the British manufacturers are far behind the Belgians 
 and other Continental firms in the production of fine wool yarns 
 suitable for making flannels, shawls, some kinds of fine cloths, 
 and goods suitable for the making of female attire, is very evi- 
 dent, from the published and well known statistics of their large 
 trade in Scotch yarns, having beaten the home firms almost out 
 of the markets ; of course, this does not apply to those isolated 
 manufacturers here who have successfully applied this system. 
 It seems to rest in some persons’ minds that the wages question 
 enters largely into this matter ; but I can affirm from actual 
 inquiries on the spot that it has very little or nothing to do with 
 it, as the following example will show. In their works where 
 they employ three women at 6s. each per w*eek, we have two at 
 10s. each, and here three men at 20s. each per week against 
 
Woollen Carding. 
 
 123 
 
 their five men at 12s. per week, and so on through other depart- 
 ments ; from this it is evident that wages do not make the dif- 
 ference. Whilst our manufacturers have been increasing the 
 width of machines, and so making them more ponderous and 
 to require a great amount of power to turn, the Continentalists 
 have stuck to their narrow machines, which in no case exceed 50 
 inches on the wire iron cylinder, turned perfectly true, clothed 
 with a card that will stand up to its work, and allow of being 
 kept sharp at the point, and perfectly level on the surface, thus 
 admitting of fine and close setting without actual contact of the 
 teeth in any part of the machine, excepting the fancy. ' The 
 rollers being narrow and of light weight, are removed to the grind- 
 ing frame tu go through their periodical process of strickling, 
 and replaced in the engine in the shortest possible time. 
 
 The reason these narrow machines are preferred to the larger, 
 is that they have found them to answer their purpose so well. 
 They cannot be surpassed or equalled, cither in the quantity or 
 quality of work turned off, besides taking less room, less money 
 to purchase, fewer cards, and less power to turn the machines. 
 
 Should the English manufacturer adopt the system here com- 
 mented upon for his own mill, he would then have taken the 
 first and most important step towards reducing the successful 
 competition of his foreign rivals. 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 By ALBERT E. REED. 
 
 P APER MANUFACTURE, as represented at the Vienna 
 Exhibition, is the subject on which I have the honour to 
 report. In making the necessary investigations for this I have 
 considered it my duty not only to examine and compare the 
 specimens of paper from the different countries, but also to 
 make a careful scrutiny of the paper-making machinery and 
 appliances. 
 
 To make my Report as intelligible as possible, I propose to 
 describe — first, the exhibits of paper machinery ; next, the paper 
 productions of the different countries represented ; and then, 
 from these, to make some comparisons and deductions. 
 
 The expectations which a paper-maker forms on first entering 
 the spacious and well-filled machinery hall of finding a good col- 
 lection of paper-making machinery are soon disappointed. Whilst 
 ponderous locomotives are counted by the dozen, and stationary 
 steam-engines by the score ; whilst machinery for spinning and 
 ■weaving, and other trades, appears in profusion, the paper-maker 
 finds the exhibits in his trade are few and mostly unimportant. 
 Seeing that the machinery employed in his manufacture is so 
 varied, and that scope for improvements is so considerable, he 
 cannot but feel disappointed, and perhaps a little jealous of 
 better represented trades. 
 
 Our own country is one of the principal defaulters. Great 
 Britain supplies paper machinery in considerable quantity to all 
 parts of Europe — indeed, to all parts of the world ; yet the 
 entire display in the British Section consists of two revolving 
 strainers and an old model of a paper machine. America, the 
 largest maker and largest consumer of paper in the world, with 
 all her inventive genius, sends not a single specimen of her skill 
 in appliances for paper-making. France has two exhibitors ; 
 Switzerland also two ; Wiirtemberg three; and Prussia (includ- 
 ing Bavaria) three ; and that completes the list. Austria herself 
 has nothing to show, so that if she has any interest in this matter 
 at all it is a desire to be benefited, and not to benefit other coun- 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 125 
 
 tries by her own Exhibition. Of Russia it may perhaps be 
 thought characteristic, that, whilst vying with other countries in 
 big things, such as locomotives and monster guns, she exhibits 
 no machinery for the peaceful art of paper-making. In course 
 of time, it is hoped, the balance of importance between gun- 
 making and paper-making will be more evenly adjusted. 
 
 In reference to the exhibits above enumerated, the most in- 
 teresting facts to notice are — first, that Switzerland and Prussia 
 each send a paper-making machine, and next the especial atten- 
 tion paid to revolving knotters (or strainers), Great Britain 
 and Wiirtemberg each exhibiting two. These demand our special 
 notice. For the other exhibits of paper-making a few words will 
 suffice. 
 
 Both paper machines — Swiss and Prussian — are clumsy in 
 arrangement, badly proportioned, and indifferently finished, re- 
 flecting credit on neither designer nor workman. If these 
 represent their best achievements, those paper-makers who are 
 working their inferior machines deserve much commiseration. 
 Probably the exhibitors rely -on the heavy build and somewhat 
 imposing appearance of their machines to obtain for them a good 
 reputation. Heavy they are indeed — in many parts needlessly 
 so ; but whilst there is a waste of metal in some places, in other 
 parts there is a deficiency. 
 
 The machine of Escher, Wyss, and Co., Zurich, is of a 
 moderate width, and will make about 75 inches of paper. It 
 should here be noted that all dimensions given are merely 
 estimates, as measuring was not permitted. Commencing at the 
 head of the machine, we find a peculiarly-constructed sand-trap. 
 Usually the cross-bars are placed obliquely to the floor of the 
 sand- trap, inclined against the flow of the “stuff,” acute 
 angles being thus formed, which readily retain the sand that 
 becomes precipitated. In this machine the cross-bars are placed 
 obliquely, but inclined with the floor of the stuffs, making obtuse 
 angles for the pulp to strike against, which obviously cannot 
 retain the sand so well as the usual method. In connection with 
 this it is interesting to note that the model exhibited by Donkin 
 and Co., and which previously did duty in London, has singularly 
 enough this same peculiarity. The knotters are of the plain 
 flat kind, three in number, each about 6 feet by 2 feet, and 
 placed on a level, copper tubes being provided to divide the pulp 
 between them. The modern practice of placing the cam-shaft 
 below the knotters is adopted ; the driving pulleys are also under- 
 neath — altogether a good arrangement for cleanliness. The 
 trough between the knotters and wire is very shallow. A mixing- 
 
126 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 box, with agitator, which is fixed between the sand-trap and 
 knotters, would be more serviceable, if placed here. The wire- 
 frame has the merit of being long, but the advantage of this to 
 the paper is to a great extent lost, owing to the space occupied 
 by the vacuum-boxes, which is over 5 feet, being about double 
 the space usually allotted. In modern machines generally two 
 boxes are fixed, about 9 inches wide, with a foot space between 
 them, and this is found sufficient* Here, there are three boxes, 
 each 13 inches wide, with 12 inches space between them. The 
 edges are covered with brass strips, which are crooked and 
 roughly screwed on, presenting a hard uneven surface to the 
 wire. It will be evident that this great length of suction, and 
 the excessive friction from the roughly-fitted brass tops, will 
 combine to subject the wire to unnecessary wear, whereby its 
 life will be very materially shortened. The breast roll is of 
 copper, and about 9 inches diameter. Between this and the 
 first vacuum-box there are thirty-one copper tubes. These 
 are inches diameter, and the journals bear on independent 
 adjustable brasses, which are unaccountably thin. The first 
 twenty-four tubes are placed 3 inches from centre to centre ; 
 here 2-inch tubes would have been an ample size. The couch 
 rolls also are copper, each 12 inches in diameter. For the top 
 coucher a wooden roll of 16 inches diameter, and for the 
 bottom a copper, or brass, roll of 10 inches diameter would 
 be more effective. On the top roll, the guard board is fixed low 
 down, and between it and the rinse pipe there is a hard brush. 
 Evidently some Continental paper-makers have found couching 
 a difficult operation. The guide roll and stretch roll are only 4 
 inches diameter. This is not large enough, as they are subjected 
 to a ten times greater strain than any of the twenty-four 2£ inch 
 tubes. This is only one instance amongst many of striking dis- 
 proportion. The Deckle frame is of brass, well made, and 
 conveniently arranged for shifting. The arrangement of water 
 pipes is also convenient. The shake motion is given through 
 a bar standing about 12 inches perpendicular to the shake 
 frame. The motion w’ould be steadier with the horizontal shake 
 bar attached direct to the end of the frame. 
 
 Passing on to the wet felt frame, we find a convenient arrange- 
 ment for drawing the air from under the paper, immediately 
 before the first press rolls, where it is so often a source of trouble 
 to the machine-man. The rolls working under the wet felt are all 
 copper and rather heavy. There are seven drying cylinders, 
 each about 3 feet 6 inches diameter. Immediately following the 
 cylinders, instead of plain rolls for leading the felt, there are 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 127 
 
 small cylinders (about 15 inches diameter) with steam supply to 
 them, which serve the double purpose of leading the felt and 
 drying it. By this arrangement the duration of the felt is in- 
 creased. The stretching tackle of the felt is peculiarly clumsy; 
 a worm and wormwheel, rack and pinion, all of coarse pitch, 
 being employed to do what would be better accomplished by an 
 inch screw and nut. The framing of the machine is heavy and 
 inconvenient. There is one stack of three large calender rolls, 
 and then we reach the reeling apparatus. ])octor blades are 
 fixed, not only on the top press rolls, but also on the first bottom 
 press rolls, and on all the cylinders and calenders. In this they 
 are unusually extravagant, seeing that they are expensive ap- 
 pendages, not only in first cost, but also in power to overcome 
 the friction they produce. English makers are generally content 
 with doctors on the top press rolls and the first three or four 
 cylinders. 
 
 Looking at what may be regarded as novelties in the machine, 
 viz., its extra vacuum surface, the brush on the top couch roll, 
 and extra doctors, it would appear that Continental makers have 
 some peculiarity in their pulp inducing these additions. The 
 extra vacuum-box suggests that their pulp, as supplied to the 
 machine, parts with its water through the wire reluctantly, or, 
 to use a technical phrase, that they work “wet stuff.” This 
 might result from the special properties of the fibres employed, 
 from the special mode of preparation in boiling and bleaching, or 
 from beating the stuff in the rag engines a longer time than is 
 common with us ; by this (latter) means the paper is improved 
 in appearance, but is made soft and weak. The brush, on couch- 
 roll, and the extra doctor blades, suggest that they have some- 
 thing in their pulp which freely escapes from the surface of the 
 paper and adheres to the rolls and cylinders. The secret, per- 
 haps, is the too liberal use of that friend of paper-makers in 
 these cutting times, china clay. 
 
 The machine exhibited by G. Sigl, of Berlin, is about the same 
 size, and is in its general features very similar to the one just 
 described. Like it, it has plain flat knotters, with very irregu- 
 larly cut plates ; but there are only two in this machine, one 
 being placed above the other. The wet end is better proportioned 
 and arranged than in the Swiss machine, excepting that the 
 breast roll is much too small, being only 7 inches diameter. The 
 tubes following the breast roll are 2 inches, and immediately 
 preceding the first vacuum-box they are 2J-. There are two 
 vacuum-boxes arranged for water suction. The top couch roll is 
 14 inches, the bottom 9 inches, a good proportion. From the 
 
128 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 guide roll, which is only 4 inches diameter, to the couch rolls 
 there is a fall of about 7 inches. All the rolls of the wet end 
 are copper. The press rolls, both pairs, are 14 inches diameter. 
 Here there is a great waste of metal, and worse than waste, for 
 a 10-inch or 11-inch roll at most would have been large enough 
 to ensure freedom from springing, and allow an easier escape of 
 the water pressed through the felt. The doctor on the top first 
 press roll is made to travel slowly to and fro ; this is a very 
 sensible arrangement for preventing either the roll or doctor 
 blade wearing in grooves, and keeps the press roll much brighter 
 than fixed doctors. Although so reasonable a plan, I have only 
 seen two machines in Britain that have this arrangement. There 
 are only five drying cylinders, four of them 4 feet and the other 
 3 feet diameter ; on three of them heavy iron surfacing rolls 
 are placed. Doctors are fixed to all the cylinders, and also to 
 the calenders, of which there are three rolls in one stack. The 
 felt rolls throughout the machine are copper, about 5 inches 
 diameter. I see no reason for this profusion of copper. I think 
 copper shells will be more likely to get warped by extreme varia- 
 tions of temperature than iron rolls. The same clumsy arrange- 
 ment for stretching the felts is employed as in the Swiss ma- 
 chine ; this is an elaborately cumbersome way of effecting a 
 simple movement. The framing is heavy, ugly, and inconvenient. 
 The circular slotter framing which has been adopted in England 
 for some years past is lighter, stronger, and the most convenient 
 that can be made, and it is surprising it has not been copied on 
 the Continent, unless they fear the expense of new patterns. 
 Another antiquated notion is that the machine is constructed for 
 the paper to be reeled on skeleton drums, and then to be cut off 
 by hand, involving extra labour and waste, although cutting 
 machines date forty years back and have attained to great per- 
 fection. The driving motion is complicated ; too many belts are 
 used. The evil of this, however, is partially counteracted by 
 the use of flat expansion pulleys, which offer great facilities for 
 accurately adjusting the speeds. 
 
 Viewing the two machines in connection, it is difficult to 
 decide which should be preferred. Both betray absence of ori- 
 ginality, and are behind the times. What special features of 
 merit, other than the minor details I have mentioned, their 
 makers claim them to possess, I cannot discover, and they have 
 not even the redeeming quality of good workmanship. 
 
 Turning now to the revolving strainers, we are glad to find 
 novelties. It is well that special attention has been given to this 
 subject, as there can be little doubt that eventually some form of 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 129 
 
 revolving strainer will supersede the flat jog knotters in general 
 use. No adjunct of the paper machine is more troublesome, and 
 although many schemes for separating knots, strings, and dirt 
 from the pulp have been well devised, they have generally proved 
 in practice unsatisfactory. 
 
 The two revolving strainers from Wiirtemberg are on the same 
 principle, which consists in an ingenious combination of jog and 
 revolving motions. That exhibited by Christopher Wandel is the 
 better in detail of the two. These strainers are cylindrical in 
 shape, and have large hollow brass journals, which bear in cast- 
 iron carriages bored to receive them. An arm attached to the 
 oast-iron carriage gives the jog motion to the strainer derived 
 from the cams. The strainer by Christopher Steinmeyer revolves 
 once to every 1G revolutions of the cam shaft, andWandel’s once 
 to 6|- revolutions of the cam shaft. In both cases the plates 
 appear too weak to endure the wear and tear of the jog motion, 
 especially the former, in which the slits are very badly cut, some 
 being double the width of others. The pulp being supplied to 
 the inside of the strainer is constantly on the move. A rinse 
 pipe fixed over Wandel’s strainer is a convenient method of 
 keeping the plates clean, w r hich cannot be obtained in flat 
 strainers. With more substantial workmanship this may be con- 
 sidered a decided advance on flat knotters. 
 
 The revolving strainers from British exhibitors are constructed 
 on different principles. That of II. Watson, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
 is sexagon, but is unfortunately so placed that its method of 
 working cannot be seen. I presume it is worked by a bellows 
 inside it. The plates of the strainer are beautifully and evenly 
 cut, and are well put together. 
 
 The strainer exhibited by James Bertram and Son, of Edin- 
 burgh, is of recent invention, and well deserving attention. It 
 is four-sided, each side measuring about G feet by 2 feet. 
 The bellows, which has hitherto been the principal difficulty with 
 revolving strainers, is dispensed with, and the necessary suction 
 is obtained by a pump fixed outside the strainer. This pump 
 has a 13-in. plunger and an inch stroke, and makes 200 strokes 
 per minute. It will be obvious that at every stroke of the pump 
 a regular quantity of pulp is drawn through the finely slit plates, 
 and ejected through a pipe at the opposite end of the strainer 
 from that to which the pump is fixed. It is exhibited working 
 with water, and revolves six times per minute within a large 
 fixed vat to which the pulp is supplied. A special advantage of 
 this strainer is the regularity with which it delivers stuff to the 
 paper machine. The pump is more certain in its work than a 
 
 K 
 
130 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 bellows, and there is the additional advantage of having the 
 working parts in sight. If this strainer had the addition of 
 some arrangement for removing regularly the dirt that is 
 retained in the vat, it would leave little to be desired by the 
 most exacting of paper-makers. The workmanship is good. It is 
 pleasing to observe that in this section the British exhibitors have 
 maintained their reputation for substantial work and good 
 finish. 
 
 Only two or three less important paper-machinery exhibits 
 remain to be noticed. Two leading engines of Prussian manu- 
 facture possess no new features, but show manifest want of care 
 in design. In the rag engine, which is fitted with a roll and 
 plate, the latter projects 2 inches on each side beyond the 
 sweep of the roll, nearly 4 inches of plate surface being thus 
 wasted. The old-fashioned style of having the roll to lift only 
 at one end is retained, and the still more antiquated plan of 
 using a worm wheel and its accompaniments for lifting the roll, 
 whereas a screw and nut would serve the purpose much better. 
 
 The French exhibit consists of a flat knotter, a brass-jacketed 
 press roll, and an iron calender roll, which are all specimens of 
 excellent workmanship and splendid finish, but possess no novel 
 features. A complete paper machine in this style of work would 
 have been a refreshing sight. 
 
 A drawing of a paper machine, shown by Zuppenger, of Wiir- 
 temberg, was hung too high to obtain details ; but when it is 
 observed that although there are only 5 drying cylinders, yet 
 13 pairs of bevel and mitre wheels, and 17 pairs of pulleys 
 with straps, besides spur gear, are shown for the driving motion, 
 it will be at once seen that no benefit could have been derived by 
 an exhibit of a complete machine with corresponding complica- 
 tion. The drawing might be usefully employed in teaching future 
 designers what to avoid. 
 
 A small model of a paper machine sent by Donkin and Co., of 
 London, is probably intended to show, not how machines should 
 be made, but how they iverc made a few years ago. 
 
 Lespremont’s (of Paris) model of a patent pulp-washer is more 
 of a novelty. It is an ingenious apparatus for washing esparto 
 and straw pulp with less water than is used by drum-washers in 
 common use. It appears to be a very elaborate arrangement for 
 performing a simple operation. I fear, however, this must be 
 regarded as a waste of talent, as a patented invention of mine 
 has shown that washing such pulp is altogether unnecessary ; so 
 the cost of such apparatus may be spared. 
 
 Gebriider, Decker, and Co., of Wurtemberg, exhibit a circular 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 131 
 
 revolving boiler for straw and esparto, strongly made, suitable 
 for liigh-pressure boiling, but possessing no new features that 
 I could discover. 
 
 This completes the exhibits of paper-making machinery, and 
 cannot be considered a fair representation of so important a branch 
 of industry. 
 
 Leaving the Machinery Department, and entering the Great 
 Industrial Hall, we find numerous specimens of paper-making 
 appliances, as dandy rolls, machine wires, felts, &c. These are 
 found in various parts of the building, and the wires and dandy 
 rolls especially are uniformly good. The wires from one of the 
 Austrian exhibitors specially deserve examination. In addition 
 to ordinary machine wires, there are wires for cigarette paper 
 of very fine mesh, and beautifully woven ; also, a wire from a 
 white metal, which is a novelty ; and if it is more durable than 
 the ordinary brass wires, will supply a real want. The speci- 
 mens of French and Russian lettering in wove and laid were 
 excellent, as also the laid dandy rolls. The felts are mostly 
 coarse, but, probably, stronger than we get at home. Some extra 
 stout jacketing comes from Switzerland ; also some coarse strong 
 wet felts, which are finished on one side only. In appliances 
 of this sort, the Continental paper-makers are clearly at least as 
 well supplied as English makers. 
 
 The samples of manufactured paper now claim our attention. 
 Taking the Annexes and Courts in their numerical order would, 
 with one or two exceptions, be following a descending scale. 
 The ascending scale — progression — is preferable. We, there- 
 fore, begin with the specimens from those countries most remote 
 from the advantages of mechanical appliances. 
 
 Commencing with Japan, in the extreme North-Eastern 
 Annexe (No. 16 B), we find a small parcel of, perhaps, the 
 most remarkable paper in the whole Exhibition. This is made from 
 the native Broussonetia Papyrifera. How the Japanese make 
 this paper does not appear ; but the result of the accumulated 
 experience of hundreds of years is the production of a delicate, 
 silky, tenacious tissue, unequalled, in these respects, in the 
 Exhibition. Close by is a collection of magnificent fibres, suffi- 
 cient to excite the envy of hungry, fibre-hunting Englishmen. 
 
 On the opposite side of this Annexe are some Chinese papers. 
 These are mostly of a dirty colour, and have nothing to recom- 
 mend them but their tenacity. Other papers for decorative pur- 
 poses are elaborately coloured, and figured in grotesque designs. 
 These display skill in the preparation of the paper to make 
 them receive the impressions and colours so clearly. In the 
 
 k 2 
 
132 
 
 Paper Manufacture . 
 
 adjoining Court are samples illustrating the manufacture of the 
 Chinese rice paper. The pith plant — Arabia Papyrifera — from 
 which it is made, is shown in section, and also in course of 
 cutting. This plant is of such peculiar growth that the fibre 
 can be unrolled from the stalk, forming a continuous natural 
 textile fabric of gauze-like appearance. Several samples of 
 printing paper of tolerable quality, and some very fair cap 
 papers are shown. The latter is tough and well made, and 
 might easily pass for an English-made cap. 
 
 Egypt is badly represented. We find only a small quantity 
 of coarse, roughly made, grey paper. That Egypt is able to 
 produce a fair paper is evident from some samples I have in my 
 possession made at the modern mill of the Viceroy, Cairo. 
 There is a fine display of fibres for paper-making, such as 
 esparto and diss, which grow in abundance with little or no 
 cultivation. 
 
 Turkey sends a collection of fine fibres, but no paper except 
 in the form of books ; and I could not understand if the paper 
 on which they were printed is their own make. In the portion 
 of the transept allotted to Greece there is a small parcel of 
 a cartridge-like paper. It is placed too high for examination, 
 but apparently is of a fair quality, and made from rags. 
 
 Passing now to the Russian Annexe, the advantage of the 
 application of machinery is at once apparent in the variety 
 and improved style and finish of the paper shown. We now 
 meet with machine-made fancy water-marked writing paper, 
 made in continuous lengths and in rolls of great width. Two 
 rolls are shown — one white, and the other of a rich pink tint — 
 both with a clearly-defined water mark displaying great skill in 
 the manufacture. We find also some machine-made cigarette 
 papers of fine quality. A ream of them in double crown is 
 marked 2™, kilos., price 8fr. 20cts. (say, in English weight, G lbs., 
 price 6s. 10d.). Some machine-made writing paper is not so 
 creditable, being of a poor pinky shade and muddy in appear- 
 ance. A printing paper, fairly clean, but low in colour and 
 badly put together, is marked at the rate of 5 jd. per English lb. 
 (a penny per lb. more than its present value in the English 
 market). It is in this Annexe that we first find wood used as a 
 paper-making material. To this we shall refer subsequently. 
 
 The Hungarians estimate the importance of their paper manu- 
 facture so highly as to exhibit their specimens in the transept ; 
 but unfortunately all are in locked glass cases. So far as could 
 be seen, the various qualities represented are uniformly good. 
 We here note the use of straw as a raw material to a large 
 
133 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 extent, and a very fair quality produced from it, excepting, per- 
 haps, the straw browns. In the higher qualities the fine blue 
 laid foolscaps and white cartridges of Smith and Mcynier deserve 
 special notice. This firm and two or three others display views 
 of their mills. These are interesting, as showing their extent, 
 substantial build, and favourable situation. 
 
 We now arrive at the Austrian Section, in which there is a 
 much larger quantity and greater variety of paper than in that 
 of any other country, some firms showing samples ranging from 
 the coarsest brown to fine loan and bank note. Perhaps the 
 most marked advance displayed in this section is to be seen in the 
 variety of specialities for numerous purposes. Some of the 
 Elhemiihl Co.’s papers deserve particular notice. Their water- 
 marked papers are exceedingly well made. Some portraits in 
 w~ater mark of well-known personages are unmistakable like- 
 nesses, and possess the merit of being distinct and clear when 
 viewed on the surface, as well as when held to the light, especi- 
 ally in the blue-shade papers. Their laid linear writings, white 
 and coloured, are beautifully marked, and in their fine blue wove 
 thin writings the rich shade of colour and evenness in texture 
 are highly creditable. The printings are not relatively so good ; 
 they betray irregularity of bleaching, and in several samples 
 bad work at the machine. There is also that want of clearness 
 so frequently to be seen in German and Austrian printings. 
 The coloured printings are dull, particularly the greens and 
 violets. This firm also exhibit homogeneous papers, which are 
 very well laid together. Straw papers, too, are displayed in 
 great variety. Some of this is remarkable for strength, and 
 equally remarkable for manifest want of care in the preparation 
 of the pulp. In a sheet of about 6 inches square I have counted 
 30 pieces of unbleached straw, ranging from J to ^ an inch in 
 length ; and apart from this fault, it is cloudy in appearance. 
 On the other hand, there are a few specimens of finer printings 
 very well put together, clear and close. The Neusiedler Co.’s 
 papers, both hand and machine-made, are distinguished by close 
 texture and more than usual clearness of colour. In their hand- 
 made water-marked papers the effect of dark shading to the 
 letters is very striking ; and in machine writings the water- 
 marked leaves and other designs for tinted note are particularly 
 good and clearly impressed. In addition to these we have 
 marbled paper, executed with the most minute fidelity to nature. 
 In the Austrian Section the specialities indicating new applica- 
 tions of paper are interesting ; such as imitation leather for hat 
 and cap linings, book-bindings, satchels, &c., which are shown 
 
134 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 in various leather colourings. There is also the paper parchment, 
 to show the quality of which two bags were suspended containing 
 water, which did not make the outside of the bag the least damp. 
 The imitation wood paper is very striking. This is made specially 
 firm and hard-sized, and afterwards surface-coloured in imitation 
 of various woods, such as mahogany, deal, &c., and a high polish 
 is then given, rendering the imitation very faithful. There are 
 numerous other interesting Austrian exhibits, which we have not 
 space to particularise. 
 
 In the German part of the Rotunda is an imposing display of 
 paper with illustrations of its manufacture. These latter consist 
 of numerous bottles of pulp, chemicals, and colours. A monster 
 roll of printing paper, some miles in length, and large sheets of 
 cartridge with heavy weights suspended, are sources of attrac- 
 tion to visitors. A great variety of paper is shown ; a -special 
 feature being paper made of many colours in one sheet. This is 
 a very clever production, and must have cost the maker a great 
 deal of trouble to produce. The water- marked papers are good, 
 but barely equal in distinctness to the Austrian. The printing 
 papers, however, are superior in respect of solidity. A view of 
 the mill shows it to be large and well arranged, at least 
 externally. 
 
 Going w T est from the Rotunda we enter the Annexe appro- 
 priated to Sweden and Norway, where wood as a paper-making 
 material seems chiefly to absorb the attention of the exhibitors. 
 We soon become familiar with neatly cut blocks of wood, bottles 
 of cut and crushed wood, and pulp. Most of the pulp is simply 
 wood that has been ground and strained ; but we are glad to 
 notice that chemically prepared wood comes in for a good share 
 of attention. To this we shall again refer. 
 
 From Holland and Belgium we have every variety of paper 
 shown by two or three masters. They excel in antique hand- 
 made writings. Printings are generally deficient in firmness ; 
 there are, however, a few exceptions to this rule. One of the 
 exhibitors shows samples of about 200 different kinds, chiefly 
 writings, only a few of them being really good specimens. 
 Straw appears to be largely used in printings and browns, and 
 very poor things the latter are. 
 
 In the French Department there are four or five small cases of 
 paper. In one of them we notice the superior quality of the 
 cartridges. Another case contains principally printings. In 
 these there is a marked improvement in colour as compared with 
 any previous ones met with. The water-mark papers of W. L. 
 Dumont’s manufacture are splendid examples of dark water- 
 
135 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 mark, with light shading. The writings of C. Becoulit and Co., 
 the cigarette paper of Meyer and Co., and the photographic papers 
 of Blanchet Brothers, are all of superior quality. Indeed, without 
 exception, the French exhibitors appear to have taken pains to 
 show nothing inferior, and only their best productions. In the 
 transept there is an imposing display of decorative papers by 
 P. Balin, of Paris. These are elegant imitations of cretonne 
 and other furnishing hangings. Some that have the appearance 
 of leather are remarkable for depth of colour ; others have a fine 
 silky appearance. The paper used for these purposes must, 
 necessarily, have been well sized and made regular in thickness, 
 firm and strong. With these provisions as a foundation, allied 
 with artistic skill in embellishment, we have as the result, a 
 fabric unique, elegant, and useful. 
 
 The ingenuity of Spanish paper-makers seems to be absorbed 
 in the production of cigarette paper. This is certainly a well- 
 finished article, clear, thin, strong, and crisp; in the latter 
 qualification it is unsurpassed, but I think equalled by the 
 French. Their writing and printing papers are badly made; 
 they are characterised by dulness in colour, and a copious 
 sprinkling of dirt. The newspaper samples are wretched. In 
 coloured and marbled papers they manifest more care and ability. 
 The colours are bright, especially the yellow; and in all their 
 qualities the thin sorts feel and look the best. 
 
 We now arrive at home, and are glad to find that, although 
 Great Britain is only represented in the paper-making interest 
 by two firms, these have done us justice. Cowan and Sons show 
 samples of their splendid machine-made writing papers, amongst 
 which their antique vellum-laid post and record-laid medium 
 may be noticed for their close resemblance to hand-mades. In the 
 whole exhibition I did not discover any machine papers so firm 
 and substantial. The blue-laid and azure-laid papers arc all fine 
 colours. The firm of J. W. Saunders exhibit white and coloured 
 printings, blottings, hand-made writings, account book, loan, 
 and drawing papers, in a close glass case. We are, however, 
 familiar with their papers, but might wish that some samples 
 were open for the inspection of visitors, that they might more 
 closely examine some fine specimens of English hand-mades. 
 Pavy’s patented felted fabrics, from a paper-maker’s point of 
 view, are not equal to P. Balin’s (Paris) decorative papers. The 
 latter have a solidity, and, when embossed, a clearness of outline 
 which is not found in Pavy’s papers. The colours, too, are dingy, 
 and patterns indistinct, implying deficiency in sizing, and want of 
 solidity, defects which are remedied in P. Balin’s production. 
 
136 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 The English Colonies are far behind. A specimen of Indian 
 paper, made from the Broussonetia Papyrifera , is not to be com- 
 pared with the Japanese from the same material. It is not only 
 wild in appearance, but unevenly made ; in one sheet I noticed a 
 variation of thickness amounting to a difference, as I judged, of 
 from 8 lbs. to 14 lbs. demy. It is not any better than a sheet of 
 paper made from the same plant by natives in one of the Fiji 
 Islands, which I have by me. This was made by the primitive 
 method of beating out the fibre w r ith sticks, on blocks of wood, 
 into very thin gauze, and then pasting them together. A speci- 
 men of writing paper from the Punjaub is very much like our 
 English glazed gray wrapping. Their best production i3 a special 
 paper for kites. Australia is not represented, although they are 
 manufacturing in Victoria very fair papers. 
 
 The greatest interest in the exhibits from the British Colonies 
 attaches to the large collection of magnificent fibres. These are 
 from all parts of the w’orld, and if some cheap means of transit 
 could be devised, would be a great boon to English makers. 
 
 Coming now to the extreme west, we search in vain in the 
 American department for specimens of their paper manufacture. 
 
 We must now refer to the exhibits which illustrate the 
 development of wood as a material for paper. Altogether there 
 are over twenty exhibitors of wood pulp and wood paper, the largest 
 proportion of which are from Norway and Sweden. In the 
 Machinery Iiall there is nearly a complete mill for the produc- 
 tion of ground wood pulp. This comes from Switzerland, and 
 includes a grinding machine for reducing the cut raw wood to 
 pulp ; a well-arranged system of cone washers and strainers to 
 remove dirt and portions imperfectly ground ; and a machine for 
 running it into sheets, and drying, ready for paper-makers. 
 The first part of this machine is very similar to the wet end of 
 an ordinary paper machine. A wet felt leads the pulp from 
 the wire through a pair of heavy press rolls, from which it passes 
 over a large cylinder to complete the drying. This cylinder is 
 about 5 feet diameter, and has no ends attached to it. Plates of 
 cast iron fastened to the framing form the ends for the cylinder, 
 which revolves on turned flanges projecting from these ends. 
 Inside the cylinder there is a fire-grate, by the use of which 
 the necessary heat for drying is obtained. The driving-wheel 
 of the cylinder is fastened on its circumference. Altogether it 
 is very ingenious, and is interesting as showing how quickly a 
 clever machine can be devised when necessity requires. 
 
 In all probability ere long machinery of this kind will be 
 regarded as a thing of the past. The so-called “pulp” prepared 
 
137 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 by it is simply ground wood or fine sawdust matted together. 
 Whenever it is used, however carefully prepared it may he, its 
 admixture renders the paper miserably poor, weak, and gritty. 
 On the contrary, paper made from chemically-treated wood is 
 remarkably tough and firm, and yields a firm, smooth surface. 
 We therefore regard the exhibits relating to this mode of treat- 
 ment as more important ; and we hope that one result of the 
 Exhibition will be to prevent the erection of any more mills for 
 spoiling wood by grinding it. There are several exhibitors of 
 chemically- treated wood ; two arc in the British Section, viz. — 
 J. M‘Nicol, of Glasgow, and Jas. A. Lee of Derby. The former 
 shows Sinclair’s process. Although they refer to their distinctive 
 systems, so called, the principle of treatment is in reality the 
 same, and based on the original patents of Houghton. The 
 variations are simply in matters of detail. The one idea is to 
 separate the non-fibrous from the fibrous portions of the wood 
 by boiling it in strong alkaline liquor under a pressure of steam. 
 
 The omission from the Exhibition of Machinery for the 
 chemical treatment of wood, is unfortunate, as it is to this 
 material that paper-makers are anxiously looking for relief from 
 the threatened scarcity of fibres. From the papers shown it ap- 
 pears there are difficulties in bleaching it sufficiently and uni- 
 formly white, for writings and printings. We see enough, how- 
 ever, to satisfy us that properly treated pulp from wood will 
 produce a paper, which, in respect of strength and hardness, sur- 
 passes that from any other raw fibre in common use. 
 
 Having now described the machinery, and some of the most 
 important exhibits of paper, so far as space will permit, it now 
 remains to make some comparisons and deductions, suggested by 
 a review of the whole. 
 
 I have before intimated that the display in machinery is 
 meagre and unsatisfactory. Engineering firms that could have 
 contributed the best machinery, have, with one or two exceptions, 
 held themselves aloof. So far as our countrymen are concerned, 
 the reason is probably this, that' our engineers hesitate to show 
 their machines without a proper protection against copying by 
 foreigners. This is especially the case with Austria where the 
 patent laws are so unsatisfactory. Probably the entire absence 
 of paper-makers’ engineers of America from the field, may be 
 attributed to the same cause. It is not unusual to hear English 
 machinists complain that Germans, and Austrians particularly, 
 copy their designs, and that they do not invent for themselves. 
 I am not able to judge of the justice of this complaint ; but 
 I may remark that in respect to the Swiss and Prussian paper 
 
138 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 machines shown in the Exhibition, there is a marked absence of 
 originality. I could not discover in either a single useful fea- 
 ture which I have not met with in England ; and, as I have pre- 
 viously intimated, there are some things retained in these 
 machines which have been discarded for years past by English 
 makers. 
 
 We cannot expect representations at such Exhibitions to be 
 more complete until a scheme of international patent law is 
 devised which shall provide sufficient protection to inventors, 
 so that, without doing them injustice, nations may benefit from 
 each other. I venture humbly to suggest that it is possible to 
 make inventions national, and even international property ; so 
 that men who are without money to float and protect their 
 patents — and on that account frequently keep their ideas to them- 
 selves — might bring them to light, and reap the reward of their 
 industry. At the same time, the objection, that patents restrict 
 manufacturing enterprise, would be met ; as with such regulations 
 men would be stimulated to send their most recent inventions to 
 international exhibitions. When this is accomplished we shall 
 make more rapid strides, and with the same material and labour 
 far better manufactured articles will be produced. For example, 
 in the development of wood as a paper-making material — British, 
 German, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, and American, paper- 
 makers are separately aiming to effect the same object. Each 
 have, doubtless, mastered some branch of the subject ; and I 
 venture to say that if the disjointed ideas of these separate 
 workers could be united, a paper vastly superior to esparto 
 paper could be forthwith produced from wood. Meanwhile, 
 forests of wood are being ground up into what is called ‘ ‘ wood 
 pulp,” sold at £7 or £8, and not worth the money, which, if 
 properly treated, w T ould make magnificent pulp, five times the 
 value of the other ; thus valuable property is being ruthlessly 
 squandered. 
 
 We must not fail to observe some national characteristics 
 manifested in the exhibits of paper. From a general point of 
 view the English papers are characterised by firmness and 
 solidity, but have not, as a rule, such a close appearance as 
 European papers generally. The Austrians and Germans appa- 
 rently study more the tastes of their customers ; their machine 
 writings particularly have a style of finish calculated to suit the 
 popular taste. We have something to learn here. A close 
 examination of English makes will frequently show that they 
 have an intrinsic merit which at first is not apparent ; whilst 
 with German and Austrian papers the reverse is the case. It 
 
Paper Manufacture. 
 
 139 
 
 may be questioned which is the more creditable — to make things 
 seem to be better than they are, or to make things better than 
 they seem. The French and Russians appear to take a middle 
 course, but the former evidence a more uniform skill. 
 
 The Spanish cigarette paper gives token of a latent talent 
 which makes us wonder how they can be satisfied with such 
 wretched printings. It is singular that they should supply 
 esparto, the raw material of a very large proportion of English 
 fine printings, and yet not learn to use it themselves. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the display of browns is the most unsatis- 
 factory. It is not relatively equal to the other kinds. There is 
 nothing to be seen approaching to the style of first-class English 
 glazed casing. A good show of English browns and caps would 
 have been a valuable addition. The attention of Continental 
 makers seems to be devoted more exclusively to the finer sorts, 
 to the neglect of printings and browns, of which a much larger 
 quantity is used. 
 
 With reference to the papers from China and Japan, we 
 cannot but admire the patience and industry by which they pro- 
 duce, with the rudest appliances, papers so tenacious and 
 respectable in appearance. Japanese wire-work, suitable for use 
 in paper-making, well made, is exhibited ; and we also find 
 numerous bottles of chemicals and colours, many of them useful 
 in the manufacture. When we note these, side by side with 
 magnificent fibres, we are forced to the conclusion, that, as the 
 advance of civilisation in Japan induces the introduction of 
 modern appliances, and as they learn to develope their natural 
 resources of fibres, chemicals, water-power, and* intelligent 
 labour, they may become rivals in the European markets. 
 
 An important subject for inquiry now is this. How comes it 
 that such large quantities of paper arc imported to us from the 
 Continent, whilst makers at home are complaining of ruinous 
 prices and dulness of trade ? In Austria I was happily enabled 
 to obtain some information tending to the elucidation of this 
 question. I was informed that they have the advantage of cheap 
 rags, cheap labour, and large water-power, and it is only due to 
 their superior machinery that the English makers can hold their 
 ground. A visit to a mill in Austria, which was kindly arranged 
 for me, tended to confirm this view. It was a large mill, having 
 force of water equal to no less than 160-horse power. Rags were 
 cheap, and used exclusively. Everything about the mill was 
 clean and orderly, and there was evidence of general good 
 direction, except in respect to details of the machinery. As an 
 instance, I may refer to their antiquated mode of cutting the 
 
140 
 
 Paper Manufacture . 
 
 paper after the machine. This was done by hand in the style 
 which was discarded in England in favour of machines twenty or 
 more years ago ; and I find also there were about one-third more 
 hands employed than would he in a corresponding English mill. 
 This is probably a fair representation of Austrian mills. Here 
 Ave find cheap labour, cheap poAver (coals, I am told, are also 
 cheap), and cheap fibre, partially neutralised by inefficient 
 machinery, and, to judge by appearances, indifferent ability in 
 workmen. If these shortcomings Avere remedied, the Austrians 
 would be much more formidable rivals than at present. The same 
 may be reasonably inferred of the Germans or Belgians. 
 
 In the matter of colours for tinting white paper and for 
 coloured paper, they have a decided advantage, judging from the 
 exhibits of these substances. From Belgium, Germany, Austria, 
 and Russia, came magnificent displays. We can scarcely 
 imagine a finer ultramarine blue than that from the Marienberg 
 factory, of which Dr. Hoffman is director. 
 
 In spite, however, of the natural advantages of makers on the 
 Continent, not forgetting the general fine situations for their 
 mills, Ave cannot fail to note that, excepting in a few specialities, 
 their papers do not come up to the English standard. In printings 
 and browns this is specially the case ; although most of their 
 printings in the Exhibition Avill compare favourably with English 
 makers, yet in buying a feAv newspapers promiscuously on the route 
 from Vienna, Ave must see that, compared with the average 
 English papers, they are in appearance despicable. 
 
 There remains only one other subject to which I shall refer — 
 viz., the treatment of wastes produced in the manufacture of 
 paper. The only reference avc find to it is in the collection of 
 P. L. Simmonds, of London, shoAving the economic and indus- 
 trial uses of wastes and residues from manufactures. Amongst 
 this collection is an illustration of Mr. T. B. Houghton’s 
 chemical process for the treatment of pine wood for paper- 
 making ; one part of which is the recovery of alkali from the 
 waste lye, by charging it with carbonic acid gas for the precipi- 
 tation of the organic matters, leaving a clear alkaline solution. 
 I am not aAvare if this result has been obtained in practice. This 
 particular part of the process is said to be the invention M. Tessie 
 du Motay ; but I observe that a patent Avas granted in America 
 in 1861 for this identical thing, to Mr. W. Lowe, of Baltimore. 
 Strange, it seems, that the minds of men so far apart should run 
 in the same peculiar channel ; but, as may have been expected, 
 the American Avas a few years in advance. 
 
 The utilisation of the Avaste liquors running from the boiling, 
 
141 
 
 Paper Manufacture. 
 
 and subsequent treatment of esparto and straw, is of the utmost 
 importance. This may not have occupied the attention of Con- 
 tinental paper-makers very much, but in England, where pre- 
 vention of pollution has been insisted on, makers have been 
 forced to its consideration. This was at first sadly against their 
 will ; but, in spite of prejudices, they have now learnt to regard 
 as a source of profit the black liquor, which, hitherto, had been 
 looked upon as a nuisance. 
 
 The washing water, which is a wholesale source of pollution, 
 still shares the same prejudice ; and although a process which I 
 patented about three years ago, and which dispenses with wash- 
 ing altogether, has, since then, been in successful operation, 
 yet many paper-makers would even now consider the scheme 
 Utopian. But the times will alter. We shall learn to regard 
 all colouring of rivers as a costly work of painting, yielding no 
 return. 
 
 I hoped to have found the whole question thoroughly venti- 
 lated at the Vienna Exhibition, for it was one that ought to be 
 fully considered. In this respect, as well as with reference to 
 machinery, it is disappointing to a paper-maker. 
 
 However interesting in itself so comprehensive a collection 
 of manufactured produce may be, I conceive that the highest 
 purpose of an International Exhibition is best achieved when it 
 is not so much a museum — a record of the past — as when it 
 anticipates and becomes an indication of the future. 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 By F. H. MILLINGTON, holder of a Whitworth Scholarship, 
 Owens College , Manchester . 
 
 EFORE going into details of any of the machinery, it 
 
 would be best to give a general idea of the arrangement. 
 The great hulk of the machinery was exhibited in the 
 Machinery Hall, which was a large building to the north of the 
 Palace of Industry, running parallel to it; it was about three- 
 quarters of a mile long, by 164 feet wide; it was divided into 
 three long halls, or, rather, one wide nave in the centre, with a 
 narrow aisle on each side; these ran without interruption from 
 end to end of the building. All the machinery that required 
 driving was shown in the central nave, while the machinery at 
 rest, or machinery such as steam pumps, sewing machines, &c., 
 which did not require power from the shafting, was exhibited in 
 the side aisles. The American section was to some extent an 
 exception to this, for they put up shafting in the side aisles, as 
 well as in the nave. Inside the central nave, and at such a 
 distance from the wall as to leave a convenient roadway, there 
 were two rows of cast-iron columns, carrying plate-girders on 
 the top; to these girders the shafting was fixed. It was ordi- 
 nary wrouglit-iron shafting, about inches diameter, turned 
 up all over ; the bearings were all of the American class, that 
 is, they were adjustable swivel bearings, capable of being raised 
 or lowered by means of screws, according as they wore, or their 
 supports gave way. The shafting, with the exception of that in 
 the American section, was made and put up by two Austrian 
 firms, Sigl, of Vienna, and a firm from Prague. Most of the 
 American machinery being light, they thought the shafting sup- 
 plied would be too heavy, and so put up most of the shafting in 
 their department themselves. This shafting was made by Messrs. 
 Jones and Laughlin, of Pittsburgh; it was cold-rolled, and after- 
 wards straightened, and seemed to be of good quality. The 
 pulleys used by them were much lighter and neater than 
 similar things in England. The Americans seem to excel 
 in this branch of engineering, for their arrangements were the 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 143 
 
 best in the Exhibition. Specimens of this shafting and bear- 
 ings were exhibited in their section, besides that which was in 
 motion. All the engines at work, unless driving some special 
 machine, were applied to drive the shafting, the power being 
 generally taken off by means of a strap on the fly-wheel, in other 
 cases from a pulley on the crank shaft. The engines belonging 
 to each country were supposed to drive the machinery in the 
 section belonging to that country. On the north side of the 
 Machinery Hall were the boiler-houses, each country having to 
 supply the engines in its section with steam. The steam was 
 taken into the hall by means of wrought-iron pipes, laid in brick 
 trenches. So much for the arrangement of the motive power in 
 the building. The same plan for the arrangement of exhibited 
 goods was followed in the Machinery Hall as in the Palace of 
 Industry ; each country had so much space allowed, and was 
 permitted to dispose of its goods in whatever manner best 
 suited it in that space. The countries were placed in their 
 geographical order, starting with America at the west end of 
 Machinery Hall, then England, France, and, finally, ending 
 with Russia at the east. Germany and Austria occupied by far 
 the largest areas ; then came France and England ; after them 
 Belgium and Switzerland. Italy, Holland, and Sweden had very 
 small displays in this department; while several countries, such 
 as Spain, Greece, and Turkey, were totally unrepresented. One 
 drawback to this system is, that if anyone wants to study any 
 special branch of machinery, they have to keep passing from 
 one country to another, which wastes a great deal of time, 
 to say nothing of the risk of not seeing some of the things 
 exhibited. 
 
 The Machinery Hall was not large enough to hold all the 
 things sent, so a considerable amount of machinery had to be 
 shown in some of the outbuildings. All the agricultural ma- 
 chinery was shown in two large halls, called respectively the East 
 and West Agricultural Hall. In the west hall were the English, 
 French, and American exhibits ; in the east, the German, Aus- 
 trian, and Russian. Behind the Machinery Hall was a large 
 wooden pavilion, in which several ice-making and brick and tile- 
 making machines, pumps, fire-engines, and a large collection 
 of other fire-extinguishing apparatus was exhibited. 
 
 Having given a general idea of the arrangement of the ma- 
 chinery, which, on the whole, was very good, considering the 
 immense amount there was of it, I will now pass on to some of 
 the branches which came under my notice. 
 
144 
 
 Machinery in General. 
 
 Wood-working Machinery. 
 
 This branch of machinery was as well represented as any in 
 the Exhibition, particularly in the English and American Sec- 
 tions, the displays in these sections being larger and better than 
 those in any other. Besides the ordinary machines, such as saws, 
 tenoning, morticing, moulding, and planing machines, there 
 were several machines for special purposes, such as bucket- 
 making, cutting out barrel-staves, turning hand-rails and wood 
 pillars, &c. In the American Section, the machine which 
 attracted most attention was the bucket-making plant. This 
 was more a system of manufacture than one machine, for there 
 were three or four separate tools on the bench ; the logs were 
 sawn out, tongued, and grooved, put together, turned up, and 
 papered inside and out, and bottom put in, all at a bench about 12 ft. 
 by 3 ft. Whitney, of Massachusetts, was the exhibitor of this. 
 He also exhibited a lathe specially adapted for turning hand-rails 
 or small wooden pillars ; it was an application of the “ copying ’’ 
 principle. There were three tools used : first, a slide tool, which 
 turned the wood cylindrical and as small as the largest part of 
 the finished pillar ; just after that tool there was a ring rest 
 on the cylindrical piece of wood, which kept it steady, while the 
 second tool, which was a diamond-pointed one, roughed it out 
 approximately to the finished state ; this tool travelled along in 
 a direction parallel to the axis of lathe, and at the same time 
 was made to move backwards and forwards in a direction at right 
 angles to the axis by means of a fixed templete, whose contour 
 was the exact shape of the finished pillar ; finally, the pillar was 
 finished by a sharp knife of same shape as templete, which wa3 
 brought up to the pillar, and just smoothed it up. 
 
 Among J. A. Fay and Co.’s (Cincinnati) exhibits there was 
 a nice, compact horizontal boring machine, adapted for coach and 
 waggon work. The bitt was fed forward by a foot-treadle, and 
 brought back by a spiral spring. The table could be set at an 
 angle for boring for level mortices. There were two peculiari- 
 ties about these American machines ; one was in the use of timber 
 in the construction of some of the parts, as in a band saw in 
 which the wheels or pulleys had cast-iron bosses with wrought- 
 iron arms and wooden rims, and a fret saw in which the con- 
 necting-rod was timber with light wrought-iron rods ; the other 
 was the way in which they would make the same band drive two, 
 three, or as many as four pulleys. 
 
 In the English section there were four large exhibitors, T. 
 Bobinson and Sons, Boclidale, S. Woram and Co., London, 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 145 
 
 Powis, James, and Western, A. Ransome and Co., also of London. 
 All of these had very large and creditable displays, and there is 
 no doubt that in general wood-working machinery the English 
 Section stood first in the whole Exhibition. Among Robinson’s 
 machines was their well-known dove-tailing machine, which was 
 originally an American invention, but it has been greatly im- 
 proved since it fell into their hands. They also showed some 
 tool-grinding machines, in which the tool is held in a rest, which 
 can be set so as to give the tool the proper angle. In Ransome’s 
 exhibit, which was the largest, besides a great deal of general 
 wood-working machinery, they showed an arrangement for the 
 removing of shavings, dust, &c., from the machinery. Powis, 
 James, and Western, showed a band saw in which the shaft 
 carrying the top pulley was fixed in a circular slot in the frame 
 of the machine, so that the saw itself could be set at an angle 
 with the table ; the use of this is to obviate sloping the table. 
 When any bevel timber requires cutting, this new arrangement 
 will be much handier, as the timber will not have to be supported 
 from sliding off, as in ordinary band saws. The same firm 
 exhibited a band saw for sawing iron. This idea is not new, for 
 saws of this description have been in use for some time at Wool- 
 wich Arsenal. 
 
 In the French Section the fret saw of M. Arbey attracted a 
 great deal of attention, it being one of the neatest and best con- 
 structed in the Exhibition. There were some beautiful specimens 
 of fretwork done by it exhibited at the same stand. The other 
 exhibits in this Section were of the ordinary type. 
 
 In the Swedish Section, J. and G. Bolinder, of Stockholm, 
 exhibited a very ingenious machine for cutting corks for bottles, 
 &c. The cork was cut up by a small circular saw into square 
 pieces of the right size and length ; these were pushed along a 
 little table, until they were each picked up in their turn by a 
 pair of rotating spindles, which held them by pressure against 
 the ends, while a fixed knife took off the corners and made them 
 perfectly cylindrical ; if they were required a little taper, the 
 knife had only to be fixed not quite parallel to the axis of the 
 spindles. The corks were beautifully finished, and an enormous 
 number of them could be made in a day. 
 
 In the German Section I did not notice any new features 
 in this class of machinery, although there was a considerable 
 amount of it. The two largest exhibitors were the Chemnitzcr 
 Werkzenger Maschinen Fabrik, and Schmaltz Brothers, of Offen- 
 bach, on the Maine. 
 
 In the Austrian Section, G. Topham, of Vienna, had the best 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 Machinery in General. 
 
 show, in which was a log-frame, where both top and bottom 
 rollers are driven, an arrangement by which he obtains a better 
 grip on the timber, a thing I did not see in any other part of the 
 Exhibition. Messrs. Pfaff and Co., of Otakring, show a double 
 circular saw for squaring timber, but there is nothing special in 
 it. There were several other exhibitors, but on the whole their 
 machinery does not come up to the English and American 
 standards. Considering the immense quantity of woodwork done 
 in Austria, their display of machinery was not first-class ; but 
 a few years may work a great difference in this, as it was under- 
 stood that many of the English and American patents have been 
 bought for Austria. In taking a general survey, it will be found 
 that, with the exception of one or two special machines in the 
 American Section, most of the improvements consist, in matters 
 of detail, which are common among all the best makers. In 
 log-frames the tendency seems to be to do away with the heavy 
 carriage fed forward with rack underneath, and to substitute in 
 its place two light trucks running on rails to carry the log, while 
 the feed-motion consisted of two grooved rollers, one before, the 
 other behind the standards of the saw ; the log was allowed to 
 rest on the rollers until the pressure was sufficient to cause them 
 to bite ; the rollers were driven by the ordinary silent feed. This 
 system may do for ordinary straight timber ; but I do not think 
 it will answer so well for the crooked oak timber grown in 
 England. Most of the makers of band saws are doing away with 
 the flange on the pulleys, alleging that it causes a deal of useless 
 friction, &c., and that it is too far removed from the table to 
 give an efficient support to the saw when sawing. The saw is 
 prevented from leaving the pulley by a small plate of steel, or 
 a roller in some cases, which is attached to the guide, which 
 prevents the saw from buckling. In the Blanchard lathes, in- 
 stead of the axis of the oscillating frame carrying rotating cutter 
 being parallel to lathe bed, it is now fixed at right angles to it, 
 and generally above lathe bed ; the consequence of this is that 
 the revolving cutter, instead of cutting across the grain of the 
 timber, cuts along it, leaving it much smoother than formerly, 
 and the piece of wood is also much steadier while being turned. 
 
 Hydraulic Machinery. 
 
 The amount of machinery which came under this heading 
 was very large, as most countries had something or other to 
 show in this department, the exhibits from Germany and Austria 
 being very large. 
 
 The display of turbines and centrifugal pumps was very large, 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 147 
 
 particularly in the foreign sections ; hut there were very few 
 novelties to be found among them. I did not see anything of 
 this class from America ; but in the English Section, J. and II. 
 Gwynne, of Hammersmith Iron Works, showed some very 
 large centrifugal pumps capable of lifting 3,000 gallons a 
 minute 30 feet high. J. Bernays, of London, exhibited a 
 patent centrifugal pump, the improvement consisting in keeping 
 the journals cool by means of a stream of water, the water- 
 chamber of the journals being connected with a passage to the 
 discharge pipe of the pump ; the water was allowed to escape 
 into the suction inlet of the pump, the diminution of pressure 
 caused by the working of the pump being sufficient to produce 
 the flow of the stream through the journals. 
 
 At Gwynne and Co.’s stand, besides a collection of centri- 
 fugal pumps, hydraulic rams, &c., there was a small parallel 
 flow turbine, the chief feature of which was the arrangement 
 for controlling the supply of water to the machine. The upper 
 ring or plate containing the guide vanes was divided into four 
 parts or quadrants, two of which, opposite to each other, con- 
 tained the guide vanes for directing the water into the buckets 
 of the turbine. The other two quadrants were solid, so that the 
 area of flow through the guide vanes was only half of that through 
 the buckets. The advantage of this is that the water will pass more 
 freely through the machine, not so much of its energy being 
 wasted in internal disturbance and friction. The regulator for 
 varying the area of flow according to the supply of water, and 
 the work to be done, consisted of a plate, which, when the 
 machine was at full work, just covered the two solid quadrants 
 of the upper plate or ring, but which, by means of a segmental 
 rack and pinion, could be made to cover any or all of the guide 
 vanes, thus affording an efficient means of stopping the machine 
 entirely, or of regulating its supply of motive power. 
 
 Brotherhood and Ilardingham, London, exhibited Boulton and 
 Imray’s “ Helical” Pump, worked by one of their three-cylinder 
 engines. This pump consists of a paddle-wheel, which works in 
 a casing, round *’the circumference of which a helical channel 
 winds. As the paddle-wheel revolves it drives the water along 
 this passage, which, being helical, causes it to rise. The advan- 
 tages of this pump over an ordinary centrifugal pump are, that 
 the section of the stream of water is uniform throughout, it 
 being well known that changes in section are apt to produce loss 
 of energy, and that for the same lift and volume the speed of 
 rotation is much less than in a centrifugal pump, which i3 a great 
 advantage, as fluid friction increases verv rapidlv with the velocity. 
 
 l 2 
 
148 
 
 Machinery in General. 
 
 Among the French exhibits of this class were Neut and 
 Dumont’s, Paris, centrifugal pumps, for which many superi- 
 orities are claimed, including prevention of drawing air through 
 the journals of the shaft by having water chambers in them, 
 adaptability for pumping viscous fluids, and ease with which 
 they can be cleaned, owing to peculiar construction. Whether 
 they possess these advantages or not, I cannot say ; to me they 
 seemed very much like ordinary centrifugal pumps. 
 
 In the Swiss Section, Sogin and Wick, of Basle, exhibited a 
 good collection of turbines, including one about 4 or 5 feet 
 in diameter, on Girard’s system. It was a parallel flow turbine, 
 the chief peculiarities being that the guide blades only extended 
 over about one-fourth the circumference of the buckets, the 
 rapid increase in the area of flow from the top to the bottom of 
 the buckets, and the use of holes in the external casing of the 
 buckets to facilitate the escape of air and water from them. 
 
 The Maschinen Werkstatter und Eisengiesserei, of St. Georgen, 
 also had an excellent show of turbines. This firm also exhibited 
 a hydraulic press for the manufacture of maccaroni. 
 
 This class of machinery was very well represented in the 
 German Section, their display being the largest and best in the 
 Exhibition. This is not to be wondered at, seeing that the 
 turbine was originally a German invention, and the great 
 demand there is for them, owing to their great natural advan- 
 tages in the supply of water, &c., necessary to drive them. 
 
 The two largest exhibitors in this Section were Nagel and 
 Ivampf, of Hamburg, whose stand was in the centre of the 
 Machinery Hall, and attracted a great deal of attention, as they 
 had their turbines and pumps working nearly every day ; and 
 Straube, of Geirslingen, of Wiirtembcrg, whose machinery was 
 in a pavilion near the east end of the Machinery Hall ; he was 
 almost the only exhibitor of water-wheels in the Exhibition. 
 
 In the Austrian Section there were some outward flow turbines 
 on Fisher’s (Vienna) system ; and some centrifugal and other 
 pumps shown by Knaust and Co. ; but they did not merit any 
 special notice. Russia also sent two models ot turbines from St. 
 Petersburg. This class of machinery does not show any remarkable 
 advance upon that shown at Paris in 1867 ; most of the improve- 
 ments which have been made are chiefly in matters of detail. 
 The turbines exhibited from Germany were the best, those from 
 Switzerland being next, while the English centrifugal pumps 
 were at least as good as any there. Of steam pumps there was 
 an immense number, comprising every possible type and form ; 
 in the English section alone there were about a dozen exhibitors. 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 149 
 
 These pumps may be divided into two classes, rotative and non- 
 rotative : — rotative pumps, in which the steam piston drives a 
 crank-shaft, and the steam valves are worked by an e acentric 
 (in these pumps there is generally a fly-wheel ; the well-known 
 “ Vauxhall ” pumps of Alexander Wilson may be taken as a 
 type of this class) ; non-rotative, in which the pump plunger is 
 generally a continuation and enlargement of the piston rod, and 
 in which the steam valves are worked by tappets, levers, or 
 auxiliary valves, as the case may be. Of this class Tangye 
 Brothers’ “Special” pump maybe taken as the type. Both 
 these classes were well represented, most of the English and the 
 two American pumps exhibited being of the non-rotative type, 
 while most of the Continental pumps, with the exception of some 
 of the German ones, were rotative pumps. The two American 
 pumps were neat serviceable pumps ; exteriorly they did not 
 present any great difference except in the mechanism for working 
 the steam valves. In the Norwalks Iron Works Pump the valves 
 were worked by an arm keyed on that part of the piston rod 
 between the steam cylinder and pump cylinder : on this arm was 
 an eye which slid along the slide-valve rod, and when near the 
 end of the stroke struck a collar on the valve rod, thus reversing 
 the valve. In the other, which was from New York, there 
 were two short spindles which passed through cylinder ends ; as 
 the piston came to the end of stroke it pushed the spindle out, 
 the spindle moving the valve by means of a lever, with one end 
 of which it came in contact, the lever at the other end of cylinder 
 pushing the spindle at that end into the cylinder ready for the 
 next stroke. In the English section, besides the already men- 
 tioned “Vauxhall” and “Special,” there were Brotherhood 
 and Ilardingham’s “Paragon” Pump ; Clarkson’s “Excelsior,” 
 exhibited by a Glasgow firm ; Hayward, Tyler, and Co.’s “ Uni- 
 versal and those of several other well-known makers : to 
 describe all of them would be waste of time, as the constructions 
 of most of them are well known. Hayward, Tyler, and Co.’s 
 “Universal” attracted a great deal of attention from the sim- 
 plicity and compactness of its appearance. It is a double-acting 
 non-rotative pump, its chief peculiarity being its valve-gear, 
 which is inside the piston. The steam and exhaust pipes are on 
 opposite sides of the cylinder, about the centre of its length. 
 The piston is long and hollow, and contains a cylindrical slide 
 valve. The piston passes at each end of its stroke over the 
 steam and exhaust passages, and causes the valve to move so 
 that the steam supply and exhaust are reversed. The great 
 advantage of this pump is that it will start in any position, as 
 
150 
 
 Machinery in General. 
 
 there are no dead points. France, Belgium, and Switzerland 
 showed scarcely anything in this department ; there was one 
 pump from Paris, a rotative pump w r ith two single-acting trunk 
 plungers. Schmidt, of Zurich, exhibited a pump of a peculiar 
 description, in which both the steam and water cylinders are 
 oscillating, the piston and plunger being both attached to the 
 same crank pin of a shaft which had a fly-wheel at each end ; the 
 oscillation of the cylinder is made to control the admission and 
 the exhaust of the steam ; the valve face is cylindrical and works 
 in a suitable bearing, containing admission and exhaust ports, 
 the parts in the valve face being brought into connection with 
 them alternately by the oscillation of the cylinder. Fielding 
 and Platt, of Gloucester, are the English makers of these 
 pumps. 
 
 In the German Section there were six or seven exhibitors, the 
 largest being Decker and Co., of Canstatt, Wurtemburg, most 
 of whose pumps were non-rotative, of the same type as those in 
 the American Section exhibited by the Norwalk Iron Works Co. ; 
 Decker and Co. being the Continental makers of these pumps. 
 Several of the other exhibitors were Berlin firms ; most of their 
 pumps had automatic valve-gear, but otherwise did not present 
 any striking features. The Austrians made a good display, as 
 far as number ; there were about half-a-dozen exhibitors ; most 
 of the pumps "were rotative, and did not differ very much from 
 the ordinary patterns of that class common in England. Most 
 of the exhibitors in this section came from Prague, or Brunn. 
 
 Fire-Engines, &c. 
 
 There was an enormous quantity of fire - extinguishing 
 apparatus showm ; a great deal was in the side aisles of the 
 Machinery Hall, the rest being in pavilions in the grounds. The 
 three largest exhibitors were Austria, Germany, and England ; 
 all three showed both steam and manual engines, though the 
 latter class predominated to a great; extent. Most of the 
 Austrian manual engines had two horizontal pumps, single 
 acting, connected with one air vessel. Among the exhibitors in 
 this section were — Knaust and Co., of Vienna, and Wulzer, of 
 Pesth. The latter exhibited some engines especially adapted for 
 use in towns with narrow streets ; the engine proper was loosely 
 mounted on an ordinary four-wheeled carriage ; when the streets 
 were too narrow for the carriage, the men dismounted the engine 
 and carried it. These engines were very light and well made. The 
 steam fire-engines, neither in the German nor Austrian Section, 
 appeared to me to be so good as those exhibited by the two 
 
151 
 
 Machinery in General . 
 
 London firms — Shand, Mason, and Co., and Merryweather and 
 Sons. The chief exhibitor in the German Section was Reinhart, 
 of Wurzburg. In the English Section Merry weather exhibited 
 some both steam and manual, similar to those in use in the 
 London Fire Brigade. 
 
 Shand, Mason, and Co. exhibited their treble-cylinder engine, 
 and an improved single-cylinder engine, in which they had 
 dispensed with the fly-wheel ; the improvement consisted in 
 putting an auxiliary piston on the valve rod of the steam 
 cylinder, the valve of the auxiliary cylinder being worked by a 
 separate gear. The Americans showed one steam fire-engine of 
 a peculiar construction, B. Holley’s patent, in which the pumps 
 were rotary pumps, worked by a rotary steam-engine ; it looked 
 very compact and serviceable, but I do not think it would be 
 very efficient. 
 
 The arrangements of the Exhibition authorities for the pre- 
 vention of fire were very complete, and showed a great deal of 
 care, for, besides engines and men stationed all over the grounds, 
 most of the engines exhibited were always ready for use. There 
 were three large pumping stations in different parts of the 
 ground, fitted up with first-class machinery — one by an Austrian 
 and the other two by French and German firms — to provide a 
 plentiful supply of water in case of fire, and for the use of the 
 fountains, machinery, &c. ; pipes from these water-works went 
 up and down the grounds, there being about eleven or twelve 
 miles of piping altogether, and hydrants were fixed at every 
 suitable spot. 
 
 Besides the hydraulic machinery already mentioned, there was 
 a large quantity of miscellaneous machines of this class — such 
 as rams, hydraulic jacks, and presses, two or three examples of 
 water-pressure engines, but none of them very new, and a whole 
 host of ordinary force and suction pumps, for agricultural and 
 domestic uses, all of which, to believe the makers’ prospectuses, 
 possessed some special superiority, though, as a rule, their 
 improvements did not repay the time spent in discovering them. 
 
 The cranes exhibited were neither very large in number, nor 
 yet showed any very marked improvements. The only two 
 classes that were well represented were the locomotive, or port- 
 able, steam crane, and the travelling crane. There were six or 
 seven locomotive cranes, which were so much alike in their 
 general features that one description would almost serve for 
 them all. They had vertical boilers, fixed so as to counterpoise 
 as much as possible the weight to be lifted, and were fitted with 
 slewing and traversing gear, and generally with gear for adjust- 
 
152 
 
 Machinery in General. 
 
 ing the radius of jib ; the chief distinctions were in the methods 
 of reversing the engines, it generally being done by a modifica- 
 tion of link motion. In those exhibited by Appleby Brothers, 
 London, it was done by means of a helical feather on a shaft, 
 with small cranks on the ends, which worked the slide-valves. 
 The cranes exhibited by Appleby Brothers were similar to those 
 sent to Paris, and seemed well adapted to stand the rough work 
 that this class of machinery is subject to. Aveling and Porter 
 had a very nice arrangement of crane mounted on their traction 
 engine ; this was said to have been found very useful during 
 arrangement of the goods in the Exhibition. 
 
 There were three or four travelling cranes, but the only ones 
 worthy of much notice "were those exhibited in the German 
 Section of the Machinery Hall by L. Stuckenholy, of Wetter, 
 Westphalia. They -were to lift 25,000 kilogrammes, and were 
 driven by a rope running at a great speed, similarly to those in 
 the London and North-Western works at Crewe. All the gearing 
 is fixed at one end, — an arrangement which enables them to use 
 only one cross-girder, which is wrought-iron, of a hollow section. 
 The chain is' of the flat-link class, and is carried over two 
 pulleys on a truck which runs inside the hollow cross-girder. 
 Altogether this crane was a fine, well-made machine, and was 
 one of the best pieces of crane-work in the Exhibition. 
 
 Miscellaneous Machinery. 
 
 The machines exhibited which come under this heading were 
 both large in number and varied in design, both with respect to 
 the end desired and the means taken to obtain it. It would be 
 folly to attempt more than a notice of a few of the more 
 striking objects of this class. 
 
 In the American Section, Sellars, of Philadelphia, exhibited 
 a large rotary mechanical puddler. It consisted of a large glo- 
 bular vessel, somewhat similar to a Bessemer converter in shape 
 and construction, except that it had only one trunnion, about 
 which it revolved and through which the charge was put in and 
 taken out ; the products of combustion passed through this 
 vessel, which was caused to rotate slowly by an engine attached 
 to it. In this Section, N. C. Styles exhibited a dead-blow 
 hammer. The hammer was wound up by a strap, on a pulley 
 fixed on the top of the wooden guides ; the hammer was disen- 
 gaged by a catch on a rod in front of the machine and fell on 
 the anvil, the length of stroke being regulated by this catch. 
 
 In the English Section, Mr. Scott, of Manchester, had a 
 wheel -moulding machine. The principle of this machine is to 
 
Machinery in General. 
 
 153 
 
 make a small segment of the wheel, generally containing about 
 4 or 6 teeth. The machine itself consists of a central pillar 
 with a radial arm, the arm being worked round by wheel- work. 
 The segmental pattern is fixed at the end of the radial arm, 
 which can be lengthened and shortened according to diameter of 
 required wheel ; the pattern is lowered into the sand, and the 
 mould of a small portion of the wheel is then made ; the pattern 
 is raised up, and the arm is turned through an aliquot part of 
 the circumference, and another part of the mould is made ; and 
 so on until the mould is finished. The pillar carrying the 
 machine is then lifted out, and the mould for the boss and arms 
 made. It will mould bevel wheels as well as spur. 
 
 In the German Section a Chemnitz firm exhibited a moulding 
 machine, very similar to this, said to be a copy of it. Thwaites 
 and Carbutt exhibited a large Rost’s blower ; it consists of a long 
 box, in which two shafts rotate rapidly one being driven, gene- 
 rally by a pulley, if the blower is small, and by a small engine, if 
 large ; this shaft drives the other round in the opposite direction 
 by means of two equal sized spur-wheels ; on each shaft, in the 
 inside of the box, is a long two-lobed wheel ; these are keyed on 
 so that the lobe of one just fits in the hollow of the other as they 
 rotate. They produce a very efficient draught, and are rapidly 
 coming into general use. In the French and German Sections 
 there were several rock-boring machines or drills ; among them 
 were some on the systems of Dubois Franqois, Sachs, and 
 Oesterkamp. All of them were worked with compressed air, and 
 exhibited with most of them were the air compressers required 
 for their use. There was a beautiful machine in the German 
 Section for planing the spiral grooves or fluting in stone 
 columns ; it consisted of a reciprocating table, as in an ordinary 
 planing machine ; the column was fixed on the table with its 
 axis parallel to the direction of the table’s motion ; while the 
 table moved backwards and forwards the column received a 
 rotary motion proportional to the pitch of the spiral required. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 By EDWAKD LOCKE. 
 
 T HE great number of exhibits and the very limited time at 
 my disposal rendered the task of reporting upon the pot- 
 tery in the Vienna Exhibition a serious one ; but I have en- 
 deavoured to give an idea of the principal articles exhibited on 
 each stand, pointing out their excellences and defects, and 
 where new paths are being struck out, and of the results ob- 
 tained. The great advance made in the ceramic art during the 
 past twenty years, and the high art now applied in its manufac- 
 ture, require not only the technical knowledge of the artisan, but 
 also the experience of a trained artist, to give an adequate esti- 
 mate of the numerous articles exhibited. The views expressed 
 are honestly given, and if I have in some respects failed to 
 combine the judgment of the two, I must plead the great diffi- 
 culty of the task. 
 
 On my return journey I took the opportunity of a few hours’ 
 stay at Dresden to visit the Royal Works, knowing that a short 
 account of some of the processes, &c., would be interesting to 
 some of my fellow workmen. I have made this an Appendix 
 to my Report. 
 
 Japan 
 
 Is one of the most interesting of all the countries that send 
 pottery. First stands the Tamango ware — a buff earthen body, 
 with a rather dull glaze; the style of decoration upon it is 
 beautiful indeed to any one taking a delight in Oriental Art. 
 There are some teapots and cups without handles with what a 
 potter would call a defect in the glaze ; it is crazed all over in 
 very minute lines ; not like the crackled china so called (for that 
 is a crack upon the surface of the ware to the depth of the six- 
 teenth of an inch), but this is a surface craze in the glaze, and 
 it helps to tone the general colour of the ware. The colours 
 have an opaque appearance, but the drawing of the flowers is 
 very pure. In the same class of ware is a complete breakfast 
 service ; it is the best of any of this sort of ware. The details 
 of the flowers painted upon it are clouded at intervals with 
 minute dots of gold, which help to take from it the bareness of 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 155 
 
 the surface of the body. I should like to see some of it in Eng- 
 land, so that our workmen might see a specimen of Japanese 
 decoration. There are breakfast cups and saucers in porcelain, 
 decorated with flowers and gold ; but the shape of the cup and 
 saucer are evidently an imitation of a Western outline, possibly 
 French, and the detail of the modelling is Japanese — it is a 
 meeting of East and West in Art. There is a dinner set, the 
 shape of the covered pieces of which they must have copied from 
 the French. The handles and knobs are exact in outline, but on 
 the surface of them is the Japanese modelling. The decoration 
 upon it to a European is almost comical — like a band of print 
 that one of our printers would put round the rim of a saucer, 
 cut into pieces and stuck by chance on the surface of the piece ; 
 but they use the clouded dots of gold to break the abrupt lines 
 of the detached pattern on the white porcelain. Very noticeable 
 are two large vases, about 3 feet high, having dark brown ground, 
 on which are birds and flowers, in what looks like mother-of- 
 pearl. It has a singular effect. I think it is nothing but a kind 
 of lustre similar to that used in England upon Parian, but its 
 beauty here is in the application of it to produce the light in the 
 decoration. 
 
 There are several large vases in porcelain about 5 feet high, 
 with the dragon modelled in low relief upon the surface. 
 Between the modelling are painted birds and flowers on the flat, 
 in dark blue under the glaze. I have not seen any colour 
 so good as this on porcelain. There are two vases that I 
 see are bought by a gentleman in the North of England. The 
 blending of colour in the pattern is one confused mass ; but the 
 disposition of the colours is good. It is a wonder how they 
 made them all harmonise. The colours are much darker in tone 
 than is usual with the Japanese. Close by there is a pair of 
 vases (an exact copy of a well-known vase which has been made 
 in France for years). They have not altered the line in the 
 least, in either the body or foot, but they have attached to it a 
 handle of their own. There is no attempt at French decoration. 
 The decoration is pure Japanese, with flowers and gold ; and I 
 must say that I should much rather have seen the decoration 
 upon one of their own shapes. There are three large plaques 
 or dishes, about 4 feet across, in porcelain ; and two of them are 
 decorated with foliage in dark blue, and beautiful and rich the 
 colour looks under the glaze. The centre dish has a view of a 
 Japanese house and garden, and I should think the drawing 
 and colouring are in the best style of Japanese art. The large 
 dishes were well made and got through the firing. I am sur- 
 
156 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 prised to see so many things in the case based upon Western 
 outlines, as is the case with almost every other thing. I am 
 sorry to see it, for we shall lose all the charm of the pure 
 Japanese style. I suppose they find it profitable to please the 
 European taste, as I understand they are manufacturing it to 
 order as fast as they can ; but the new Japanese make will not 
 touch the old, when they worked for the love of their art. 
 There are a few of those cups and saucers with covers to the 
 cups wdiich are a winder to a potter ; what system they had of 
 firing them and yet keep them so straight, and in the making of 
 them keep so regular in thinness, is a mystery. There is a 
 round dish, about 12 inches, which is a fine specimen of raised 
 enamel with leaves and flowers ; also three small basins of the 
 same. I expect they have not done much in this line, as I do not 
 see another specimen, and these are bought for the Berlin 
 Museum, the authorities from w r hich have been very busy buying 
 from this stall. There are two cups and saucers in thin porce- 
 lain with a tall shape, painted with figure upon the white in 
 pale tints ; they are perfect for the style of decoration. There 
 are three basins about the size of a slop basin, with embossed 
 flowers modelled — not in very low relief — inside and outside, and 
 the basins do not exceed the thickness of an ordinary one made 
 in England ; it certainly would puzzle an English china potter to 
 do it. There are several cups and saucers (copied in shape from 
 the Worcester w r are made about fifty years ago at Messrs. Chamber- 
 lain’s), having a coloured ground, with flow r ers stencilled out and 
 the stems in gold upon the colour ; they must have had one to 
 copy from. There is a fireplace made in porcelain, the upright 
 jambs and the top moulding area of which is a copy of an English 
 make ; but they have painted birds in blue upon it in the most 
 confused manner. There are two sets of cups and saucers, 
 exact in shape and similar to one with a twisted handle, made by 
 Messrs. Minton, and a cup that is made at all the Longton 
 manufactories with a ring handle. Also a dejeuner set — a copy 
 of old Dresden in shape, the panels being the same, but the 
 details Japanese. There are two toilet sets, an exact copy of 
 one of Messrs. Minton’s make. The decoration is a blue flower 
 under the glaze, and it certainly is a model of decoration. I 
 should expect to see it copied in England ; it w'ould print well if 
 engraved with a careful study of the shadows. They show some 
 small earthenware butter dishes with coloured glazes — one in 
 reddish chocolate, and green, and yellow. I should like to see 
 the Japanese do some large pieces in their ware. I have not 
 seen any of the English coloured glazes so even. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 157 
 
 China. 
 
 From this country a very large collection is shown, and, 
 coming from the Japanese Court, all the porcelain looks hard in 
 colour ; the colours are more opaque and harder in the lines of 
 drawing, and there is not that minuteness of decoration. All 
 the things in this Court are better laid out, and the quantity of 
 large vases imparts an imposing effect. The exhibits arc all 
 wonderful in their harmony of colours. One that attracted my 
 attention among so many was an oblong box about 8 inches long, 
 perforated in the ends, with a yellow ground of diaper, and with 
 flowers raised on it. The combination of the whole w r as perfect. 
 There is a lot of crackled ware, which would turn the heads of 
 most old ladies. The cups with covers are nothing when com- 
 pared with those from Japan for careful making and firing. A 
 vase of crackled china, with the crackled lines wide apart and 
 running up the outline of the vase as if drawn at random, was 
 quite unique. Two garden seats, with a celadon glaze and raised 
 white p ate- sur -pate flowers, very beautifully arranged ; I cannot 
 exactly tell how it was done, the celadon was kept so clear from 
 the white flowers. There are a number of garden seats, one 
 with a yellow green glaze very good in colour. Several spill 
 cans — the design a bundle of bamboo canes ; it was well arranged, 
 and coloured to suit the canes. A square-top flower vase, with 
 little berries on a stem made by hand, and laid upon the vase, is 
 very good in its arrangement, better than we often see such 
 things done in England. Some teapots and cups, with groups of 
 flowers in very pale tints of grey on a beautiful blue, are the 
 best I have seen of the Chinese in this style of colouring. A 
 dejeuner set, with square tray, in the yellow ground they are so 
 fond of, with flowers raised upon them ; the harmony of colour 
 was wonderful. I was quite pleased to see the Chinese keep so 
 conservative in their art, till I came to a case at the bottom of 
 the Annexe, in which I find the Celestials are on the move at 
 last. They send us tea, and they intend to send us tea-ware to 
 suit our taste ; for their case contained a complete tea-set, tea- 
 pot, sugar, cream, two bread-and-butter plates and slop, with 
 the usual number of cups and saucers, in shape an exact copy of 
 an old Dresden, and made to look, at a casual glance, like one 
 made in England. But the detail of the decoration being 
 Chinese, the things all looked hard in outline and finish. I 
 think they can do their own style better than ours. I saw some 
 terra cotta on one stand. There was a round jar with cover, 
 and raised leaves rather rude in manufacture. From the treat- 
 
158 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 ment of the shades of colour in the ground, one could almost 
 think they had begun copying from one of the majolica of 
 Europe. 
 
 India — Madras. 
 
 India sends a small collection of terra cotta and tiles. A 
 black body with a smear upon it is very different to anything 
 European either in form or decoration, for they have used lines 
 of silver upon the black, and in a pure Indian ornament. The 
 white terra cotta is very good in form, and well made upon the 
 wheel ; none of it is very large, and it is principally for domestic 
 use. There were some beautifully designed large slabs for a 
 wall in terra cotta, well worth a careful study as an illustration 
 of Indian Art. The interlacing flower pattern is perforated. I 
 do not think they were moulded, but am of opinion they were 
 cut out by the maker. I wonder none of them had been selected 
 for the museums. Coloured majolica tiles were shown, and the 
 style of art was very good, pure Indian, but rather rude in 
 manufacture. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 The Royal Porcelain W orks of Russia have made an effort to be 
 represented at Vienna, and it is to their credit. Of the Govern- 
 ment works represented in this Exhibition the first place must be 
 given to Russia for showing progress. All on the stand is well 
 shown, and the stand itself is one of the best I have seen for 
 displaying pottery. It is covered with purple. I should think 
 the leading artists employed are mostly French, from the treat- 
 ment of the painting and the outlines of some of the vases. 
 There is an absence of the large vases Russia used to show. All 
 shown here are moderate in size ; most of them are mounted in 
 ormolu, and the painting of the flowers upon them deserves the 
 highest praise ; the gradations of colour in the backgrounds of 
 the vases, beginning at the plinth in one shade and the top in 
 another, and yet not affecting the general composition of the 
 design, was perfect, and had a good effect, but it would not do 
 for an inferior artist to attempt such treatment. There arc 
 two slabs of raised flowers made by hand, very well grouped 
 (much better than some we often see in England), but the flowers 
 themselves were not any better. There is a perforated dessert 
 plate, very good, done just to show the workmanship ; a tazza 
 of pute-sur-pdte, on a celadon ground, very well done; and a 
 similar tazza with the white clay worked upon the surface of the 
 celadon, in which there were more lights and shades than could 
 
Ceramic Ware . 
 
 159 
 
 be got by pate-svr-pate. It was very carefully done, and full of 
 merit. 
 
 There is a novelty in the decoration of a dejeuner set. It has 
 a celadon ground, with a pattern raised (I think in white enamel) 
 to look like a piece of lace laid upon the tray) and the other 
 pieces. Between the lace are painted small roses in colour ; it 
 was well treated, and deserved notice. A tea set shown deco- 
 rated in the Persian style is good ; the teapot, sugar, and cream 
 arc all throwed and turned, and well regulated for thickness. 
 There is a small tazza with blue du roi ground, and raised gold 
 upon it. I have seen better raised gilding, and the dark blue is 
 not so good as the French. Also a plate with Persian ornament 
 in two shades of enamel, with a pleasing effect. A flower vase, 
 in bisquet celadon, is shown, but the modelling upon it looks 
 hard, and the shadows do not show well. Altogether the Boyal 
 Works show good work done, if not any new development of the 
 potter’s art. 
 
 I must mention some Moorish tiles, &c., shown by the Govern- 
 ment of Russia in the nave of the building. They are of the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth century, and are splendid examples of Moorish 
 design. They had formed parts of a cornice and of a pillar. 
 There had not been any moulding of the pieces, but the maker 
 had put the clay into the shape, and cut the design out of it ; 
 the undercutting was so deep, and the drawing of the design so 
 good. The pieces were made by an artist, not by a machine or 
 mould, as most modern things are. It had a charm of its own 
 that made one linger round it. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 Maritz von Fischer . — This manufacturer showed more on his 
 stand than any other of the Austrian Empire, and I hardly know 
 how to describe the exhibits, there were such a mixture of all 
 styles and makes of porcelain dinner sets, tea sets, and dessert 
 sets, as thick as they could be put, and all copies of old Dresden, 
 Sevres, Capi de Monti, old and modern Worcester, Minton’s, 
 and I think everybody else having a name for making porcelain. 
 But they are very bad copies ; I did not see a good made piece 
 among them — the plates and saucers are fired so badly, and 
 with such an inequality in the surface, and all the plain 
 parts on the sides of the jugs show us the pinching of 
 the fire. I saw the Prince of Wales had bought a tea set 
 of perforated porcelain in the Chinese shape, and with a 
 perforated lining inside ; the handles of the pot and sugar 
 box were also perforated, and the set was certainly the most 
 
160 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 meritorious work upon the stand. But the set had a clumsy 
 appearance, the pieces being too large for what they were in- 
 tended. I saw a copy of a well-known desert plate with a per- 
 forated edge and cupids painted in the bottom, manufactured by 
 Messrs. Minton. If the artist who did the original were to see 
 this copy, he would be rather shocked at the great diversion 
 made from his design. The Capi de Monti ware was quite as 
 bad a copy ; very different from the same style of ware shown by 
 the Marquis Guiori in the Italian Court. The best painting was 
 some figure subjects on plates and a few slabs ; the colours were 
 brighter than the rest of the things, but with a hard look upon 
 it. Several large fruit dishes, copies of some of the ugliest 
 Dresden things I ever saw, with a lot of labour upon them. If 
 they would only copy the good things, I could understand that. 
 There is a large vase about five feet high, with a Chinese outline 
 and perforation upon it, covered with dark blue ; it was some- 
 thing to remember. I saw that many of the things are sold to 
 German nobles ; I hope they will keep them in Germany. 
 
 Wilhelm Zsolnay shows a small collection of tea and breakfast 
 sets ; the pieces are made better than those of the other firm. 
 Some are painted in the Japanese style, but the colours are poor 
 and the effect weak. He also shows some earthenware vases, 
 the flowers on which were painted in coloured glaze upon the 
 bisquet surface with a very novel effect. This stand had a naked 
 appearance when once contrasted with its overcrowded neighbours. 
 
 Austrian Empire. 
 
 Grafijos Oswald von Thunsghi , Porcelain Manufacturer . — 
 Mostly sets of dinner ware, one set well decorated in the Pom- 
 peian style ; the glaze looks hard, and the outlines of the covered 
 pieces are a copy of the French. There are china plates with 
 crests ; the potting of them are not what an English house 
 would send out. There is a toilet set well decorated in the 
 Turkish style ; but the outline of the jug and basin is Greek, and 
 not good. The tea sets are of the same shape as those of most 
 of the German exhibitors, a general copying of the same form, 
 and that a very ugly one. A dejeuner set of very chaste decora- 
 tion in gold ; but the teapot and the other pieces are extremely 
 hideous in shape. Also a toilet set in china, with the flower 
 painting in the worst style of the French, and the shape clumsy. 
 There is a large bisquet porcelain jug with a pale blue ground ; 
 the ornament embossed upon it is very weak and poor. 
 
 Erst Elbogner , Bohemia. — The usual large vase, very ugly, 
 and the tea ware in porcelain, with the heaviest of ground 
 
Ceramic Ware . 
 
 1G1 
 
 colours, to look upon which would almost make the eyes ache. 
 Several of the things are done with a good intention, but with 
 no feeling for art. The teapots are all in the same form as the 
 others exhibited by Germany. The best thing upon the stand is 
 a pair of flower-pots decorated in the Persian style. A toilet 
 set painted in a blue Indian pattern is very passable, much better 
 than the average. 
 
 G. Heinz. — On the stand of this exhibitor were shown groups 
 of flowers painted in the first place on a slab, after which the 
 background of the slab is cut away from the flowers, which are 
 then laid upon dark velvet, the stems being indicated by marks 
 made upon the velvet ; it had a good effect. I made inquiries 
 about it, and was told that the background is all cut away by 
 a grinding wheel. If so, it would entail a deal of labour ; but 
 the china made in Germany could be cut after the first fire very 
 easily, as it has made scarcely any contraction then. I fancy all 
 this stand is the contribution of working decorators. There is 
 a pair of flower-pots done very well with pure Renaissance orna- 
 ment in colours. The pieces of flower and figure painting are 
 not very good. There is a small pair of vases in imitation of 
 pate-sur-pdte , done with enamel, which is a fair attempt. 
 There are several slabs of groups of flowers, but the colours look 
 hard, and they have much to learn before they can take their 
 place among good flower painters. 
 
 Hlois Gepwatd Maler , Bohemia. — This is an exhibition of 
 porcelain ; but the stand has scarcely anything meriting notice. 
 He has evidently had good models to "work at. There is a dish 
 decorated in the Chinese style, upon which he has put his own 
 construction of the details of the ornament. The rest of his 
 exhibits are very indifferent. 
 
 V. Kosch, Vienna. — A decorator of porcelain in Vienna. 
 Specimens of dessert plates, nearly all decorated in the Persian 
 and Indian style, but the heavy colours lack that brightness seen 
 in the English. The light tints are better, but most of the de- 
 signs are a leaf out of Owen Jones’s Grammar of Ornament. He 
 also exhibits a tazza, made in terra cotta, upon which is painted 
 a female head in enamel, very well done, with a deal of freedom 
 in the drawing, and bold shadows; but the colours partake of 
 the earthy look of the terra cotta. 
 
 Ferdinand Beck , Decorator of Porcelain , Vienna. — This 
 decorator exhibits some tea sets with a black ground and fine gold 
 lines upon the white, done with a lot of labour in a style the 
 German gilders are fond of ; the contrast of colour seemed too 
 severe, the lines of gold being too fine to warm the black. 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 Franze Kadler , Vienna. — The exhibits on this stand are of 
 a superior character. There are two saucers 'with raised gold 
 decoration upon a blue du, roi ground ; the raised gold is as good 
 as any specimen I have seen, better than the average raised gold 
 in England. One specimen is treated like the dessert plates at 
 Kensington Museum from the lloyal Works of Vienna. I do not 
 think that it is worked with the pencil ; one could almost think 
 it was stamped out and fastened with a flux in the enamel kiln, 
 the markings of the leaves and flowers are so sharp. The other 
 saucer is decorated in the Kaphaelesque style upon a blue ground; 
 very good, indeed. A plate also in the same style of ornament, 
 with the raised part of the panels in silver ; it looks rather cold, 
 but it is surrounded by plenty of gold. The figure subjects in 
 colour are painted with good broad effects. Altogether 1 am 
 pleased with this stand. It does not show a good thing* mixed 
 with a lot of poor things, as so many of the stalls do. 
 
 I saw several large exhibits of Vienna album and bookbind- 
 ing firms, and in the covers of the large albums were shown 
 the application of the flower painting with the backgrounds cut 
 away, as on the pottery exhibited by G. Heinz, and described by 
 me on a preceding page. 1 was pleased to see what a beautiful 
 and good adaptation it was of porcelain used in the decoration of 
 other articles. On one stand belonging to Edward liecher, the 
 group of flowers had long twining stems that could not have been 
 fired with the flowers, but the joining was well done. There were 
 groups of Cupids done in the same way ; of course, there was not 
 the difficulty with them as with the flowers, the figures being 
 close together. The leather upon the covers was cut out to 
 admit the porcelain, the meeting of which with the leather was 
 close, 'very neat, and of an even flush surface. You could 
 hardly believe your own eyes, it looked so beautiful, the dull 
 tone of the leather and the bright colours of the procelain. I 
 understood that those shown by E. Bccher were done by a firm of 
 decorators of porcelain, in Vienna, Iiadler and Pily, who ex- 
 hibited other things. My notes on their exhibits I regret very 
 much I have mislaid, the things shown by them being far in 
 advance of all the Austrian decorators that have shown in the 
 Exhibition. They showed table tops and large slabs of figure 
 flower subjects ; also dessert plates in the best style of de- 
 coration. All their things were well mounted, and they had 
 adapted many things in porcelain to the decoration of cabinet 
 work. 
 
 Alois Klammerth , Znaim. — I was attracted by this stall. 
 There were excellent mugs and pots shown in common brown 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 163 
 
 and white ware. The surface of the ware is covered with 
 a brown dip, and then upon the lathe the colour is cut away in 
 patterns (some of which are very good), leaving the white under 
 to show the cut of the lathe. I think our common-ware makers 
 might take a pattern from it with profit ; it carried a good glaze 
 upon it. Some of the designs you almost thought had been 
 copied from Owen Jones’s New r Zealander ornaments. The same 
 stall showed some faycnce in the Italian style, very good in its 
 way, but displaying no art. 
 
 There are two firms from Teplitz, in Bohemia, exhibiting the 
 lava ware, as it is termed in England, and the common yellow 
 ware with the gold lustre, as seen on the stalls at the Crystal 
 Palace ; it is very vulgar and gaudy, and no attempt seems to be 
 made to improve it in form or decoration. 
 
 Niederlage , Porcelain Manufacturer , Dallivitz. — This ex- 
 hibitor shows dinner and tea ware. The body has a grey hard 
 appearance, but the glaze is better; and the outlines of the 
 covered pieces of the dinner ware are very inferior, with a hard 
 clumsy look, which properties are also possessed by the teapots. 
 The decoration is slight and not bad. As usual with most of 
 the manufacturers, he sends a large vase, the conception of which 
 is very poor. 
 
 Mahren , Bohemia . — There were three exhibitors of earthen- 
 ware from Bohemia, some brown and white inside, the glaze not 
 so bad. Toilet and sanitary ware were exhibited by two of 
 them, but they were very small. The dinner ware was very 
 indifferent and was covered with lustre. There was an attempt 
 at an Indian pattern on one set, which would have frightened an 
 Indian if he had seen it. 
 
 In the same Court were a large variety of stoves (used in 
 the German houses) made in terra cotta, of different colours, 
 and white earthenware glazed. They are made in several pieces, 
 and I was surprised to see how well they fired the parts and 
 fastened them together with cement. Some of them were well 
 designed, I should think by architects, and others w T cre but poor in 
 design. I wonder they do not make more sanitary ware in the 
 same clay, for it seems to be suited for large pieces. Most of 
 the stoves were very creditable to the manufacturer. There 
 were three different makers of yellow ware in this Court with the 
 black dip outside and the pattern cut out of the black ; but it 
 was not to be compared to the production of Alois Klammerth, 
 of Znaim. 
 
 Fisher and Mige , Porcelain Manufacturers , Carlsbad. — As a 
 manufacture in Germany, the exhibits of this firm show more 
 
 m 2 
 
164 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 advance than any other German manufacturer at the Exhibition, 
 both in ornamental ware, and in goods for the regular market. 
 There is one special feature in this stand. It is the introduction of 
 what I was told was platina in the decoration, but it looks more 
 like aluminium or oxidised silver. When it is used among the 
 gold, it produces a good effect, especially upon some of the 
 ground colours, — the dark blue the best. The design and 
 modelling of most of the things are done without the attempt 
 to do something out of the common way, which often leads to 
 failure, and the making and finishing of the handles in the 
 ornament department were well and carefully done, and much 
 better than most of the potting from abroad. There w r ere three 
 vases shown in the Egyptian form, with an Egyptian landscape 
 painted upon each in a quiet tone of colour, which were very good. 
 It is a class of decoration I should like to see more of. There 
 are some vases with a beautiful shade of maroon, amounting 
 almost to a purple, with two shades of the same colour worked 
 in a pattern upon it. It is a new colour to me, and it had a 
 fine effect. The lustre decoration shown is much better in its 
 treatment than I see attempted in England. There are several 
 sets of dessert and dinner ware, the making of the plates and 
 the hollow pieces of which "was very good. The shapes and 
 decorations were more like the English ware, and the price 
 also was moderate. I think it could compete with us in the 
 English market. There is toilet ware shown : the shapes are 
 copies of the English — one an Indian pattern with a dark brown 
 ground, so much used by the Germans, and another with a pale 
 blue ground, the blue being very level in tone and decorated in 
 good taste ; the price was also very moderate for the labour 
 upon it. Several tea and breakfast sets have the dark brown 
 ground. It is a colour that wants careful treatment, and it 
 would not do for any but a proficient to use it. The breakfast 
 saucers are raised in the bottom to fit the inside of the foot of 
 the cup. This stand altogether shows a good selection of almost 
 all that a leading manufacturer would show, and I was pleased 
 to see such healthy progress made. 
 
 A. C. Anger , Porcelain Manufacturer , Carlsbad . — This 
 house shows dinner ware and dejeuner sets, but they were but 
 indifferently potted, and arc such as an English house would not 
 send out, the amount of decoration employed being too great. 
 There were several tureens shown, modelled after some very 
 poor French ones, and also many other odd things which had 
 not much to commend them. At the next stall I could not mako 
 out the name of the manufacturer, and I think it is best he is 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 105 
 
 nameless. I hope the Exhibition will be the means of showing 
 something to aim at in the future. 
 
 Berlin Royal Works . — I was much disappointed with the 
 exhibits of this manufactory; for, with such good artists attached 
 to the works, and not the competition of the trade to contend 
 with, they ought to take the lead in developing new processes and 
 productions ; but I see hardly a single attempt to do either. 
 Almost all upon the stand had been to the Paris and London 
 Exhibitions. It may be that the late unhappy war has stopped 
 the production of fresh things, for it must have disorganised all 
 industry, especially art workmanship. The most noticeable was 
 a plain line vase, about 2 ft. high, which has not been exhibited 
 before ; and the artist who painted the flowers upon it deserves 
 every praise, for I have seen no flower painting in the Exhibition 
 to surpass it. There is good freedom in the drawing, and the 
 distribution of colour is well balanced to keep the out line of the 
 vase. There is also a dejeuner breakfast set, the design of 
 which, I believe, is by a German Prince, sent by him to the 
 Royal Works to be executed. It is without decoration, is in 
 the rococo style, and is left to its own merits of outline and 
 modelling. I hope it will not find its way into one of the 
 museums to guide the taste of the German potters. There 
 are the usual large bisquet busts seen so often. The large oval 
 body-vase they have exhibited before, with the fine figure 
 painting upon it, the same make as the one at Kensington, 
 except that the handles are in porcelain instead of ormolu ; the 
 handles are beautifully modelled, and you can see the modeller 
 has finished the clay handles upon the vase, all the markings 
 being so keen, and no marks of a pencil to destroy the shadows. 
 The gold is put upon the bisquet handles, and you can hardly 
 tell it from the ormolu handles. 
 
 There are two dinner sets shown, and I think they ought to 
 have sent something better ; both the outline and the decoration 
 upon them being very poor. I liked the simple raised gold upon 
 a set of vases in blue du roi t the decoration suited the outline of 
 the vase ; but none of the German manufacturers have a good 
 blue du roi. I think the felspar glaze is the cause. Two 
 dejeuner sets are copies from the French in shape, but the simple 
 decoration upon them is good. But why copy the French ? Almost 
 all the dejeuner sets shown in the exhibits of foreign houses 
 are copies from the French. There is a perforated dessert shown, 
 but the design is not worth the labour of cutting. Near this 
 are three elevated comport dishes in the Dresden style, with a 
 lot Of labour frittered away upon them, and with neither outline 
 
166 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 nor meaning. The small painted bisquet figures shown are 
 better than those from Dresden. Some Dresden outlines shown 
 are, I suppose, made from the moulds which Frederick the Great 
 had from Dresden. There was a large tripod-shaped vase put 
 on the stand while I was there, nearly 3 ft. across, w r ith the 
 handles in the corners of the angles. It was well painted with 
 foliage in rich soft tones of colour, but I think it was a mistake 
 to carry the colour on to the handles and the edge. At first 
 sight it looked like fayence, and if the edge and handles had 
 been finished like the foot, it would have shown the white porce- 
 lain. It was well potted, and gives us an idea of what they 
 could do when they made an effort to produce fresh things. 
 With it came a pair of vases, in shape the same as others on 
 the stand, with a snake coiled in the hollow of the foot, and 
 painted with Cupids in a panel of gold leafage, all on the white, 
 very chaste and very good. All the fine figure painting 
 shown is worthy to rank among the best productions of porce- 
 lain painting. A large table top, more than 3 ft. across, 
 shows the superior talent of the artists who are employed. The 
 stands of Dresden and Berlin were canopied with red, em- 
 blazoned with gold, and looked very imposing, but certainly 
 were not suitable to show decorated porcelain. 
 
 Villroy and Bock , Rhenish Prussia . — It was with great 
 interest I looked at this stand, for upon it was something quite 
 new to me, showing the creating art of the potter in taking the 
 commonest of earthy clays and making from it objects of rare 
 beauty without the aid of gold or enamel colours. The pieces 
 shown are made in a fine terra cotta ; the body is buff, with a 
 good surface, and, having a ring, it showed it had been well 
 fired. There are several differently-coloured terra cottas 
 used in combination, the shapes and decorations are of the 
 Itenaissance. They are very like a French modeller’s work. 
 There is a large rosewater ewer and stand, the ground colour of 
 the rim of which is a dark sage green, and the Itenaissance 
 leafage work is raised in white upon it, and well it is done. I 
 think the white is put in the moulds in the slip state (they are 
 not made in a separate mould) and laid upon it ; but some of the 
 colours in the ewers arc inlaid, for by carefully looking I could 
 see a slight difference in the contraction. There is a pair of 
 vases with two shades of the buff body, a red and a pale blue, 
 some of which colours aro used upon the surface in embossment, 
 and some inlaid ; but the taste shown in the combination of the 
 colours and in the outlines of the vases is very good indeed, 
 far beyond the ordinary run of new things ; it was quite refresh- 
 
Ceramic Ware . 
 
 1G7 
 
 ing to see a fresh treatment of outline. Two small ornaments 
 for jewel -stands, I think, are as good in design as the vases; all 
 the handles and joinings are made and put upon the things very 
 carefully. I should like to see all the terra cotta things upon 
 this stand brought to England, for there are several workers in 
 fine terra cotta now in England who would derive a profitable 
 lesson from them in art as applied to potting. Nearly every 
 piece was sold to the museums on the Continent, but I did not see 
 that any were bought for England ; for real merit these pro- 
 ductions are far before the great bulk of fayence, which is 
 bought daily, because it is the ware most in fashion. 
 
 M. Lehomburg , Berlin, shows a variety of insulators, made in 
 a good, hard china body, with an excellent glaze. Most have an 
 inside tube, and are corrugated, the bolt hole the same ; but they 
 show some without the tube. They are well made, and turned 
 all over, and the clifting is deeper than those we now use in 
 England ; otherwise there was not anything in the make of them 
 new to us. There were porous cells and tubes, with a white 
 porous body made similarly to the English. 
 
 Dresden Royal Works . — It was with disappointment I saw 
 the exhibits of the well-known Dresden porcelain; it was well- 
 arranged upon the stand, but most of it has been seen before. 
 There were the usual groups of figures they have made for years, 
 very carefully done, but all small, with much labour, for which 
 they do not make any great show. I do not think the details of 
 the decoration upon them were as good as those on the old 
 examples. There was a group of vases in imitation of the 
 Limoges enamels. The dark blue ground was not good, and 
 the enamel had a thin look with no depth of shadows upon 
 it. Altogether it was much inferior to the other examples 
 shown in the Exhibition. The flower painting shown upon some 
 vases, with a Roman outline, is very good indeed. It is rich in 
 tone, and the colour is far in advance of anything upon the 
 stand, and displays the talents of an artist who would be an 
 honour to any manufactory. The plates and dishes were not 
 made and fired very well. They exhibit their perforated dessert 
 plates, so well known for shape, the painting upon which is very 
 good, but it is no advance upon what they have done before. 
 There are large vases, covered with raised flowers, which make 
 it impossible for anyone to see the outline intended, with all that 
 kind of modelling upon it they are so fond of. I think that the 
 Royal Works ought to take the lead in art, and not keep to the 
 manufacture of a style long since condemned. 
 
 M. Thallmaier , China Decorator , Munich , exhibits a sat of 
 
168 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 dessert-plates, with portrait well painted on the bottom, but the 
 colours not good, and some large dishes w r ell painted in the old 
 German style; a large vase in porcelain, decorated as if it was 
 fayence, but which was a mistake ; and a dejeuner set from 
 Limoges, the decoration of which did not harmonise with the 
 shape. The best of these exhibits were some large slabs in porce- 
 lain, with copies from the Munich gallery. One, a copy of a 
 Murillo, w'as beautifully painted, as were all the slabs. This 
 exhibitor evidently was much better at this class of work than 
 at decoration. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 M. Gustafsberg, Stockholm . — There are two exhibitors of 
 porcelain, earthenware, and Parian from Stockholm. These two 
 are the only manufacturers of our English Parian body showing 
 here. The principal ingredient, felspar, is found in Sweden, from 
 which country we get most of our supply. M. Gustafsberg shows 
 a number of Parian figures, some original and others similar to 
 those made by English houses, well modelled, but pinched and 
 contracted by the fire about the limbs of the figures to a greater 
 degree than in the English Parian. I could account for this on 
 seeing a broken figure upon the stand. They cast the limbs 
 quite solid, in doing which I suppose they thought they were 
 giving support to the figure in firing, but they are under a great 
 mistake. The colour of the Parian is good, and carries a good 
 surface to show r the shadow's of the modelling. There is an earth- 
 enware dinner set, of which the shape of the covered pieces is 
 better than is usual, and the light blue print upon it is very good 
 indeed ; the engraving of the plate is a credit to the engraver, 
 and the print itself is far before any I have seen from a foreign 
 exhibitor of earthenware. There was the usual large vase in 
 earthenw’arc ; the form was not new, and the ground colours were 
 thin and poor. Side by side w’ere some pieces of good design in 
 the decoration, but next were some quite as bad as the others 
 were good ; there must be some one at the manufactory w'ell up 
 in decoration, judging from the examples show’n, and I cannot 
 account for such bad designs being here. There is a dinner set 
 with a blue sprig under the glaze — a copy of one the Danes sent 
 to the Exhibition of London in 1871, but it is not as good. 
 There is a dinner set with an attempt at Persian form and deco- 
 ration, having a raised border in Persian ornament on the edge 
 of the piece. It had a rude hard look, and the intention was 
 better than the execution. There are a few things in porcelain, 
 but the decoration was not good enough for the ware on which it 
 w r as employed. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 169 
 
 M. Roostrand , Stockholm . — This manufacturer shows china, 
 earthenware, Parian, and majolica. A china dinner set, with 
 dark blue bands under the glaze and panels ; the gilding upon 
 the blue w r as passable; the body and the glaze not bad, so was 
 also the dark blue. Close to this was a dessert set in dark blue 
 with birds and flowers in the panels, but the flower painting was 
 indifferent. A china dejeuner set, with a good outline and well 
 decorated. For a slight patter, it was as good as anything show'll. 
 There are several articles, mostly vases, in the dark, blue with 
 white enamel flowers done in the Persian style, and some with 
 the Renaissance ornament upon them, not bad as showing a 
 feeling for art, but a long way from the specimens shown by the 
 large English firms. As usual, there are the vases in imitation 
 of the Dresden, with much labour thrown away upon a bad sub- 
 ject. Also some large Parian vases perforated, with festoons of 
 flowers made by hand upon them ; but the style or meaning of the 
 design I do not think anyone could tell. The colour of the 
 Parian is not so good as that which the other manufacturers of 
 Stockholm send. On this stand was some really good majolica, 
 two large candelabra and a large stove about 9 feet high, all well 
 designed by an architect of Stockholm, and equally as well manu- 
 factured. (I see the stove is bought for Edinburgh.) I think 
 the glaze reflects the light a little too much ; it confuses the 
 shadows of the modelling and the colours. There is a dinner set 
 done in majolica not bad in shape, but it does not look well 
 applied to dinner ware. This stand, like the other from Stock- 
 holm, shows articles with good and bad design side by side. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Bing and Gi'ondalil , Copenhagen . — This manufactory was 
 formerly the Royal Works. I found part of the exhibits of this 
 firm under the Rotunda, and the remainder in the Annexe. This 
 manufactory has always been noted for the bisquet china 
 figures, of which there is a large collection here. The figures 
 covered with drapery bear looking at, but some with naked 
 limbs w r ere sadly pinched with the fire, and are very angular. 
 The best things shown in bisquet porcelain were the bas-reliefs 
 of Thorwaldsen, with coloured backgrounds. There were china 
 cups and saucers, and plates, decorated with Celtic ornaments, 
 which looked well. It is not often we see this style of ornament 
 used. I suppose the Danes almost claim it as an heritage of 
 theirs, and have made good use of it in these examples. There 
 is a table top shown, given by the employes to their employer 
 upon his marriage. On the centre is painted a view of the 
 
170 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 works, with a good finished border of decoration, and the legs 
 and claws made of wood, and inlaid with bisquet rosettes 
 and medallions. It is done with very good taste, and the top 
 itself was the best potted table top I saw in the Exhibition. 
 There is a dinner set shown, the same in pattern as one 
 exhibited at the London Exhibition of 1871, with a blue sprig 
 under the glaze ; also breakfast and tea cups and saucers in the 
 same decoration ; the cups and saucers are beautifully made, the 
 surface is marked with fine lines in the modelling, like that 
 I have seen in a Chinese example ; both are made very thin and 
 regular, and the glaze is very good upon it. I did not see in 
 the whole Exhibition, either English or foreign, as good an 
 example of potting in tea ware. I see they are bought for the 
 Bavarian Museum. I should like to see a greater number of 
 specimens bought for the museums, showing more good potting 
 than has been . A dessert set is shown with a perforated edge in 
 good design, but they seem to have had a difficulty in the firing 
 of the supports of the dishes. I think some of it is due to the 
 making ; they are pressed almost solid, from which cause the 
 contraction is sure to be unequal, as was the case in this 
 instance. There is a china dinner set, with a gothic outline, 
 but the detail of the gilding is in the Louis Quatorze style, 
 with panels of flowers. The painting is not good, and the 
 covers to the tureens are like the top of a gothic font, but 
 much too large for the body of the tureen. There was a 
 dejeuner set as good in form as any I have seen, with Greek 
 details in the modelling ; the set was well potted, and the 
 decoration chaste. I do not think this manufactory made such 
 an appearance here as it did in London in 1862 and 1871. 
 
 There are three exhibitors of a fine terra cotta, all from 
 Copenhagen, and there is a great deal of merit in all of them. 
 The body is in a pale red, the shapes arc principally copies from 
 the antique ; they are well thrown and turned, and the handles 
 are carefully made and finished. The decoration upon them is 
 in colour, with Greek frets and honeysuckles, very carefully done. 
 Some of them have flowers of a conventional form in colour, and 
 the painting of the flowers is very good, it did not hurt the 
 forms of the antique vase at all. There were jugs and a pair of 
 vases having Assyrian ornaments painted in colours upon them. 
 The form of the vases was very suitable to the style of decora- 
 tion. I was much pleased with them ; nothing vulgar in the 
 treatment of the colour, as is often seen in such things. All 
 the forms shown were good ; none of them were large, and where 
 they had departed from the well-known shapes of the classical, 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 171 
 
 it was done with excellent judgment. They asked a good price 
 for the articles, but they were worth it. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The Marquese Ginori . — This manufacturer has a fine collec- 
 tion of porcelain and fayence, and makes a speciality of the 
 Capo di Monti porcelain. I believe one of the ancestors of the 
 present marquis bought the moulds from the old works near 
 Naples, and I should think most of the things shown are from 
 the old moulds ; the potting of them is very good. There is a 
 square box with two large mugs, having the figures, which are well 
 grouped, raised in relief and then coloured ; the colouring is done 
 very carefully. There are several large vases in the same style, 
 the figures on which, in high relief, are well and carefully made, 
 and the fire has not pulled them about as badly as some of the 
 others in porcelain : there is a large amount of labour upon 
 them. Two large ewers shown are fine examples ; and a dejeuner 
 set, with the exception of the saucers, is well done. I think 
 some of the Capo di Monti shown is as good as the old in the 
 Kensington Museum, but I know it is difficult to carry in the eye 
 such things in making comparisons. 
 
 Almost all the porcelain is well got through the kilns, which 
 shows that there is a good potter upon the works. There is 
 breakfast and dinner ware shown of the ordinary useful kind 
 (not copies of the shapes of other makers), which is decorated 
 very neatly. The china toilet ware is not so good as the other 
 things, and is small in size. The dessert ware is very good 
 in the potting ; but the shape of the comports is not what the 
 English would like. There is a large show made of the fayence, 
 principally ornaments. I liked the shapes of most of them, and 
 some are well designed. There are two large vases, with a good 
 line, on which the coiled dolphins forming the foot do not inter- 
 fere with the outline of the vase, as we often see ; also some 
 large plaques, 4 feet across, with heads modelled in bold relief in 
 the inside; the colours are brighter than in most of the fayence 
 shown, and the painting better than usual upon this material. 
 The gems of the stand were two slabs painted with the Virgin and 
 Child ; the tones of the colours were very soft, and they must have 
 been drawn by a real artist. They were much admired. A pair 
 of vases with a pale ground looked as if there had been a white 
 surface or coating laid upon them, and then the pattern was 
 sketched afterwards and cut away till it showed the colour 
 beneath ; it was a Renaissance diaper pattern, and it had a 
 g6od effect : in the hands of some artists it could be made 
 
172 
 
 Ceramic Ware . 
 
 very effective. There was a group of vases in dark blue glaze, 
 traced all over with gold lines to look like filigree, but the 
 lead in the glaze had spoiled the blue. There is a sample of the 
 insulators made for the Italian telegraph ; it seemed a pity to 
 employ such a beautiful body and glaze for such common pur- 
 poses, they being made in porcelain. All the insulators have 
 tubes, and the bolt hole is not corrugated. The clefting at the 
 top is very deep, and there was not anything about them superior 
 to the English. 
 
 There is a small stand shown from a manufacturer in Pesare. 
 The fayence is an imitation of the gobbio ware ; it is rude in 
 manufacture and very dull in colour, and the shapes of some of 
 the vases are very far fetched and crude in design. There are 
 also earthen dinner sets, but the shapes are a bad copy of the 
 old C. C. ware of Wedgwood ; the glaze is also poor, and the 
 printing not very bad, but in a poor style. 
 
 Scappino Antonie , Civita Vecchia, shows a collection of terra 
 cotta, principally copies of old Etruscan shapes. Some designs 
 of their own are as good as any I have seen of the modern pro- 
 ductions in terra cotta. The water bottle, with a black 
 decoration, was particularly good in style and finish, and I do 
 not wonder at the speedy sales they made. 
 
 Fernian Conte Hlnnibak , Faenza , showed a group of vases 
 in earthenware, with a lustre decoration, very ugly in shape, 
 and some dinner ware, copies of the shapes of old Wedgwood, but 
 very rude in manufacture. A manufacturer from Savona shows 
 two large vases and a wine-cooler made in earthenware, and de- 
 corated in majolica colours ; the modelling was in the Louis 
 Quatorze style. They looked very showy, but were not such 
 as would entice a second inspection. A manufacturer of Umbria 
 sends fayence with the old lustre decoration used by the early 
 makers ; he has copied the old style well, and not attempted to 
 improve it. This stand is better than most of its class. 
 
 Monaco . — A court outside the main building of the Exhibition 
 was devoted to this small State, and the principal exhibits are 
 very novel fayence. Almost all the things were copies of 
 Dresden vases, about 2 feet high, and covered with flowers made 
 by hand, which were coloured in different shades of lustre, the 
 body of the vases being done with fayence decoration. They 
 had quite an imposing effect, and must have been much admired, 
 to which the large number purchased can testify, some being 
 actually for museums. If we consider their merit as art 
 productions, I am afraid we are making a retrograde movement. 
 
Ceramic Ware . 
 
 173 
 
 France. 
 
 M. Rousseau, Paris . — This exhibitor shows some earthen 
 dinner ware in a buff body, the colour of which would suit some 
 of those English writers upon art who have lately written about 
 the proper colour for dinner-ware. It is darker in colour than 
 the C. C. ware made in England, but not so clear in the tone, 
 and it shows the sparks of iron through the glaze. The decora- 
 tion, also, would suit some of the writers referred to ; it is 
 birds and flowers, painted with broad shades of colour, in a 
 sketchy style, the drawing of which was very free ; but I do 
 not think it would do for general sale in England. The shape of 
 the plates is not good, nor of the covers of the tureens and 
 vegetable dishes. The edges of the plates are finished not unlike 
 the manner in which they finish the grass-edge common plates in 
 England. There were several articles finished the same as pdte-sur- 
 pate , but it did not look better than fayence and was not worth 
 the making. 
 
 Jules Houry , Paris . — This exhibitor has a good stand of 
 porcelain, applied to the decoration of metal and high-class 
 cabinet-work. He exhibits some good effects, chiefly noticeable 
 being some slabs of porcelain let into jewel-boxes and the tops of 
 tables. The slabs are modelled with stems and leaves, in low 
 relief, and then covered with a beautiful blue glaze ; the colour 
 is wiped off the high parts of the modelling, and looks as if the 
 light had fallen across it, and the blue falls into the shadows. It 
 must not be compared with the majolica made in England, which 
 is similar in treatment, for the tone of the blue was bright and 
 pure, and the design suited the purpose. It gives us an idea of 
 what good things can be done without much labour. There is 
 a flower-pot done with a dead-black ground, on which is 
 modelled a simple spray, twining round it. It is well designed, 
 and the spray is covered with the same blue. The unusual fresh 
 appearance which it had added to the advantages of its make. 
 There is a porcelain slab, about 22 inches by 10 inches, in a 
 panel, with a female figure, representing painting in porcelain. 
 The conception of the subject is very good, and tells its own tale; 
 and the painting of it is beautiful. A cover of a small box, with 
 a landscape painted on it, in different shades of blue ; the 
 colours are good, and the glaze the same. Also vases shown in 
 fayence, of which the handles are in ormolu, and the glaze and 
 colours are richer in tone than most of the fayence shown; it 
 also did not look so earthy. I should like to see the English use 
 their decorated porcelain in objects of use more than they do; for 
 this exhibitor shows what can be done with it. 
 
174 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 Geoffroy and Co ., Department Loiret. — This firm shows a 
 large collection of fayence, in all the styles of the old makers. 
 There is a dinner set done in fayence, painted and filled in ; 
 it is not very remarkable, and the price of it is higher 
 than the English. There are some common printed plates 
 shown, with a poor gray glaze upon them. A pair of pilgrim 
 bottles, having some pdte-sur-pdte flowers raised, and markings 
 of the pencil upon the surface to imitate the crackled ware. 
 There is no novelty in the shape of anything shown. The best 
 are a set of vases, with the white ground done with pdte-sur-pate 
 birds and flowers ; the drawing of the birds is very good. There 
 is an ewer and stand, with some figures painted upon the body ; 
 the outlines of the figures are done with lines of gold, and then 
 filled in with colour in the ordinary way; it is bought for the 
 St. Petersburg Museum, and has realised a good price. 
 
 D. Vion and Baury , Paris , show a good collection of 
 porcelain figures painted upon the bisquet. They are almost 
 all in the Watteau style of costume, made very attractive to the 
 eye with the colouring, and the style of the figure takes off any 
 defect in the firing. There is a Venus and Cupid done as a 
 statuette, but the joinings of the limbs and the seams of the 
 moulds are very bad. They have made the joinings of the 
 limbs at very disadvantageous places. The best figures on 
 the stand are two large life-sized Cupids, one veiled and the 
 other with arrows. The bisquet porcelain is excellent in colour, 
 and carries a good surface ; the joinings do not show so badly as 
 in some of the other things. There are some large busts life 
 size in bisquet, which are well fired, without that pinched look 
 we so often see in this ware. The vases shown are not new 
 either in shape or decoration. 
 
 Thierry Poulin , Paris. — This stand has a small show of 
 porcelain and earthenware. The porcelain dessert set is very 
 well made, and is decorated somewhat in the English style. If 
 it was not for the body, I should have thought it had been 
 English. There is a grounded band of colour, and on the 
 bottom of the plates are birds and flowers, the painting of which 
 was equal to the average of the same kind that we see in 
 England ; but the price was high. There were shown some cups 
 and saucers decorated in the Raphaelesquc style, very good indeed ; 
 also a dessert set made in earthenware, the plates of which are 
 made very well, better than we usually see ; the whole is deco- 
 rated with bold free drawings of birds and flowers, and is not 
 too dear. All the exhibits of this stand are very good of their 
 kind, and there is not that crowding to make a show. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 175 
 
 H. Boulenger , near Paris. — This stand is filled with fayence, 
 principally in the Italian style. The colours are bright and 
 clearer than most to be seen here, but there is nothing new either 
 in design or decoration, other than what we have seen so often, 
 and they are mostly reproductions. There are also some printed 
 plates, the engraving of which is well done, but not good in 
 the design. However, the cheapness makes amends for the defects. 
 Toilet ware is also shown, but the prices of it or its appearance 
 will not hurt the English. There are several good things with 
 Persian decoration and the p ate- sur -pate upon the earthen 
 body. 
 
 Od. Haclie and Pepin , Sahalleur, Vierzon. — This firm sends 
 nothing but porcelain ; it is by far the best stand of porcelain 
 sent by France, and comes up to our notions of what to expect 
 from her. There is dessert service very chaste and good in 
 the decoration, but the shape of which the French must be fond, 
 as I have seen it at three of their stands. A dinner set shown 
 with the oval shape covered pieces is very good; the body and glaze 
 are splendid, and all the pieces are well made and fired. I see the 
 dishes are longer and not so wide as ours, but they look -well, 
 and are, I think, better than the oval shape we use. There are 
 some vegetable dishes shown, smaller in size than the English, 
 and With coloured grounds upon the covers ; I have not seen 
 colours at home which could compete with them for depth of 
 tone and levelness. The shades of colour were different to those 
 we see so often in England. There was a maroon with a purple 
 cast in it (but not with that washy look which we get in Eng- 
 land), and a pure light green, but solid in colour. At first sight 
 they looked as if they were under the glaze, and attracted much 
 attention, as well they might. The knob of the vegetable dish was 
 a rose knob covered with gold, and burnished all over, but it 
 very much detracted from the decoration upon the dish. One 
 of the vegetable dishes was decorated with Persian ornament 
 upon a turquoise ground, and for real decoration I have not 
 seen anything to surpass it — a dinner set done with that decora- 
 tion would be something to remember. There was a dessert set 
 with large, flat, oval comport dishes having perforated edges ; 
 the design of it was good Renaissance, and it was beautifully 
 modelled and made. I must not forget a dejeuner set in pure 
 white china mounted in ormolu ; the surface of the pieces 
 was covered with fine lines of modelling, similar to what I have 
 seen on the egg-shell ware of the Chinese ; the glaze upon it 
 was very level and transparent. There is a beautifully shaped 
 Clip and saucer, with four panels in the line of it and fine 
 
176 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 fluting ; it is a fine piece of potting. There are two vases with 
 ormolu handles, the lines of which are very bad, and the decora- 
 tion not such as I should have expected, judging from the work- 
 manship displayed on the other exhibits shown on the stand. Alto- 
 gether it was a relief to see this stand with good porcelain upon 
 it, after seeing so much of the fayence with the dull body and 
 colour, and not half the merit in the manufacture of it as this 
 porcelain. 
 
 M. Leon Parvvillee, Paris. — This stand has nothing but large 
 plateau dishes, about two feet across, made in fayence, and with 
 a large amount of labour in the decoration. The patterns upon 
 them are slightly raised with the pencil, either by pate-sur-pate 
 or enamel glazes. The Persian style of decoration prevails most, 
 but there are some done in the Arabian and Turkish ; and the 
 decoration has not the appearance of being copied, but looks 
 as if designed for the piece in these styles. I do not see the 
 wisdom of so much labour being bestowed upon so poor a 
 material, which is the case in a great many subjects displayed on 
 this stand. There is a coffee-pot made in the Persian shape we 
 see in metal. It must have been difficult to make and fire, but 
 it was well done. It was decorated, of course, with Persian 
 ornaments. 
 
 M. Saurin , Bourgle Peine. — A small stand of fayence, and 
 among it some dinner ware in the same material, with birds 
 painted upon it in a blotchy style of free-hand so much admired 
 by some people ; I do not care to see it upon a dinner table. The 
 outline of the tureen was good, better than one often sees. Some 
 of the small pieces of fayence were sold to the Museum at 
 Edinburgh. The colours are not bad, but it has a bleared look 
 about it, and I do not think many would wish to copy from it. 
 
 J. Brianchon Aine , Paris. — This is a stand of small porcelain 
 ornaments and figures covered with lustres ; there are few things 
 among them which have not been seen in the English market. 
 The best thing in the design is the grouping of three large shells, 
 and the adaptation of coral for the handles. There are some very 
 curious designs among them, but they seem to suit the lustre 
 decoration. I find they ask quite enough money for the articles. 
 
 E. Collinot, Paris. — This exhibitor shows a splendid collection 
 of fayence worthy of the name. The columns on which the 
 covering of the stand is supported, the frieze, and some of the 
 side panels were made in fayence. The large vases made in the 
 Persian style are well designed, and suitable to the decoration 
 put upon them ; some of the relief is modelled upon the surface 
 of the vases, but most of it is worked on with the pencil ; some 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 177 
 
 in the clay state, as pdte-sur-pdte , and some with thick enamel 
 glazes. All the colours arc very clean and bright, and are quite 
 a relief to the eye, after seeing so much of the Italian style of 
 fayencc. On the back of the stand are two panels about five 
 feet long, made with tiles fitted together and painted with 
 Persian foliage, a fine example of decoration. There are some 
 tiles with raised modelling upon the surface, more like the old 
 Moorish tiles of Spain than any I have seen ; I almost think they 
 are copies. They have a good appearance, and are different to 
 the ordinary look of tiles. This exhibitor seems to have mastered 
 the difficulty of the crackled ware of thq Chinese, for there are 
 slabs shown crackled all over, which would be difficult to tell 
 from the Chinese ; I do not see the use of it for decoration, 
 except when applied to the imitation of the Chinese vases. All 
 the things shown upon the stand are on a large scale, and were 
 all very good specimens of decoration and potting. 
 
 M. Deck, Paris . — Of all the exhibitors of fayence, M. Deck 
 has done most for the advance of real art. His stand was the 
 admiration of all who made a careful study of it, and every 
 praise must be given to him for his encouragement of art, and 
 for the beautiful results of his labour. I was pleased to see the 
 names of the artists who had been employed on the work shown, 
 hung upon the side of the stall. When shall we see that done 
 in England ? The vases exhibited were not too large, so that 
 the eye could take in all the details of the decoration with ease. 
 The most attractive were several large round plaques, about 
 2 feet across, painted with large female heads, and other deco- 
 rations. I saw one of them was bought by an English manufac- 
 turer. The price paid was £200. Here is an example of art 
 workmanship ! This dish, which realised such a large amount, 
 could be made and sold by the gentleman who bought it, for 
 about two shillings, and the artist with his labour has made it 
 worth £200 ! The real alchemist must be the Artist, for he 
 seems to have the true philosopher’s stone. I am glad the dish 
 is coming to England, and pleased at this instance of an English 
 employer having such a love of art. There is a pair of cylinder- 
 shaped spills, on which birds are painted ; the drawing of the 
 birds is in a superior style. I have not seen anything to surpass 
 it. As far as I can judge the colour and the glaze is all one. 
 I would call it coloured enamels, with a powerful flux in it to form 
 the glaze. The colours are different from the English majolica; 
 the glaze of which is transparent, and shows the colour ; but in this 
 case the colours look more opaque and solid, while the surface 
 carries a good glaze, The method of work seems to be 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 laying the ground colour of the design first, then taking 
 away the parts to form the design, and filling in with 
 the colours wanted. The colours in some examples were 
 raised up as high as three-sixteenths of an inch, and the 
 white grounds laid upon some of the pieces looked like glazed 
 porcelain, from the purity of the white. There are two 
 plates painted with swallows resting on a telegraph wire ; they 
 have a comical appearance, and they look very happy together. 
 There is a vase with Persian ornaments very finely traced in 
 black upon it with a pencil, in low relief, and then covered with 
 a turquoise green glaze ; it had flown very equally indeed, 
 and showed the tracing under. It had a charm of its own 
 I shall not forget. There is a broad jar with elephants heads 
 for handles ; but to give a description of all the gems of art 
 shown at this stand would take more space than I have to spare ; 
 but to know that the white ground of the plates with Persian 
 flowers was not the colour of the body, but the enamel glaze, 
 was very striking, and showed that M. Deck had not followed the 
 rule of thumb in the composition of his colours, but had made 
 science to be a handmaid to art, and combined both to aid 
 in the most promising results to the potter’s art. I hope M. 
 Deck will meet with the success which his skill deserves. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Messrs. Pickman, Seville . — These manufacturers showed good 
 promise of progress at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, but the 
 show here is very limited in comparison, owing, I suppose, to 
 the disturbed state of the country, which must be a sad hindrance 
 to the development of any trade requiring capital and study, and 
 these the manufacture of pottery must have. There is a large 
 vase in the Rococo style, with lustre in the ornamentation ; but 
 it is poor. The dinner and toilet ware is indifferently done, the 
 engraving and printing is about the same, and the shapes are 
 copied from the English. I was sorry to see so poor a display 
 from this manufactory, and hope better days await the potter’s 
 art in Spain. There were some coarse brown and buff water- 
 bottles shown from Barcelona, but they were indifferent in form 
 and make. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Pinto and Tilho's .— This is the first time I have seen porce- 
 lain from this country, and the manufacturers have tried to make 
 a display, but they had a limited supply of art to bestow upon it. 
 The tea ware was hard in outline, the toilets were English shapes, 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 179 
 
 the glaze had a gray look, the potting and the firing were not 
 good, and the decoration was very slight ; but I was pleased to 
 see Portugal making a start in the trade. M. C. G. Mafra 
 shows some earthenware, but the shapes are bad, as is also the 
 engraving of the prints. lie shows majolica after the Plassy 
 style, but not good ; also common yellow ware, with the very 
 best colour of yellow I ever saw, and the glaze upon it was also 
 very good. 
 
 England. 
 
 Messrs. Jones and Co ., StoJce-upon- Trent . — This house has 
 made a special feature of the majolica ornament. There are several 
 good designs in the modelling, but no trying to do large 
 attractive pieces. The articles in majolica are all well made, 
 but the colours seem to lack the brightness of tint which some of 
 the foreign makers show ; there is a look about it as if the fire 
 was too much for the colours, but not for the glaze. The class 
 of articles made by this house is very suitable for the general 
 market, and the price is more within the reach of ordinary 
 purchasers. Most of the English majolica is differently treated 
 than the Italian in its decoration, which is more artistic, with 
 plain surface (either vase or large dish, &c.), and the design of 
 the decoration is painted in different colours upon the surface of 
 the piece, so that it takes a good draughtsman to do the colour- 
 ing of it ; but in the majolica exhibited by this firm, and most 
 of that made in England, the design is in the modelling, and the 
 relief of the modelling is the guide for the floating on of the 
 coloured glazes. The colours drop into the hollows of the 
 modelling, and give a deeper shade to it. This method of 
 colouring majolica, not requiring skill, does away with the 
 artist workman ; it may not be so artistic, but it enables it 
 to be sold much cheaper. There is a tripod stand about three 
 and a half feet high, with a vase upon it, very good in design, 
 and well made ; also some pilgrim bottles and large plaques, 
 all good in this style of production, and a great variety of other 
 articles suitable to the adornment of houses of moderate dimen- 
 sions. This firm also shows a good collection of earthen toilet 
 ware, of which I was glad, there being very little in the 
 Exhibition ; and that shown by the foreign houses being either 
 small in size and bad in shape, or made in china, and decorated 
 to a great extent (often with not much taste), and, of course, 
 dear. The ware shown by this house is good ordinary selling 
 articles, decorated simply. It does not offend one’s taste, and 
 the price is very reasonable. 
 
180 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 Brown , Westhead , T. C. Moore , <# (7o., Cauldon-place , Hanley , 
 Staffordshire. — This manufactory shows a variety of articles in 
 china and earthenware ; also in sanitary ware, for which they are 
 famous. They make no attempt to show large exhibits, and all 
 shown would give a foreigner a good example of first-class 
 productions of everyday sale. The china dessert shown, with an 
 ornamental foot under the comport, could not, I think, be sur- 
 passed either for design or the way in which it is brought through 
 the kilns. It is an everyday production of this house, and may 
 be seen in most shop-windows in England. There was a dessert 
 plate shown with a beaded border, and one with leafage upon the 
 shoulder, as neat specimens of what dessert plates in china ought 
 to be as any to be seen, not being produced at a large cost in the 
 making, as some of the dessert plates are. I saw a good 
 specimen of enamelling upon the dark blue, after the Limoges, 
 a good example for a house not making it a speciality. The 
 earthen dinner ware is good in shape, and not overloaded with 
 decoration to destroy the outlines of the covered pieces, as is too 
 often the case. Toilet ware is well shown here ; one new-shaped 
 ewer, with a rope handle over the top, was very good and 
 acceptable, there is plenty of room for a new shape in toilet 
 ware, for one shape of ewer is shown by most English houses, and 
 about six of the exhibitors from abroad have copied the same. 
 There are a few specimens of majolica shown, not in the Italian 
 style, but more for their form, which is good in design and 
 modelling. The sanitary ware is just the thing to show at 
 Vienna ; it is much needed there. There is a top to a wash- 
 stand, made with the bowl, and soap, and brush trays, all in one 
 piece — not an easy thing to make and fire ; it is decorated with 
 gold, but the design of the gilding is not suitable to such a 
 surface of white. In all their various shapes, sanitary utensils 
 are shown ; they are not very attractive to the eye, but of 
 immense importance to England and to the English potter. 
 
 Messrs. Copeland , Stoke-on-Trent. — This well-known manu- 
 factory has made itself a name at all the Exhibitions for first* 
 class art and decoration. In statuary porcelain it led the way 
 in the production of Parian as a new development of the Pottery 
 Art, and the statuary still produced by this house is such that it 
 will hold its own against all competitors. There are two busts 
 of females shown, and the tone of the material and the way they 
 are manufactured cannot be equalled by anything shown in the 
 Exhibition in that line. They did not look as if they had been 
 through a fire and were once in a liquid state, and they looked 
 very solid and compact in texture. A large vase made in china 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 181 
 
 with Cupids supporting it for a foot, is a fine specimen of china 
 potting ; it is decorated with flower painting boldly treated. 1 
 think I have seen this artist to better advantage in some of his 
 other productions. There are two pairs of vases with an egg-shaped 
 body, very good in form, shown with different handles (that lying 
 flat upon the line is the most suitable), and the flowers are 
 painted upon them in such delicate tones of colour that they 
 seem to be reflected lights. There are several vases modelled 
 and decorated in the Japanese style, of which Messrs. Cope- 
 land’s artists seem to have their own treatment, not making a 
 slavish copy of a vase from Japan, but using the Japanese style 
 for the realising of their own ideas. A large, flat, oval vase, 
 with the dragon upon the neck, raised birds and flowers on the 
 body, and the sides perforated, is a good specimen of the de- 
 signer, and shows that he fully understands the style. There i 3 
 a dessert set designed in the Chinese style, painted in the centre 
 with birds and flowers, and the design is good and true to the 
 style. A dessert set in china, with Parian figures for supports 
 to the comports, is good, showing the combination of the two 
 materials. A large vase, with panels upon the pedestal, and 
 having tinted celadon ground; the painting of the flowers is 
 beautiful, and the treatment of the serpents on the handles very 
 good. Toilet ware in earthen is shown with sound decoration 
 upon it, of which the eye will not tire ; it is suitable to 
 the requirements of all households in price and taste. The 
 majolica shown by them is so good that I cannot make any com- 
 parison between them and those of the other good makers in 
 England, to which it is so near in excellence. 
 
 The Boy at Porcelain Company , Worcester . — These exhibits 
 are from the well-known manufactory at Worcester, which 
 earned itself a name before most of the present manufactories 
 were in existence. As regards its productions in high art, a 
 comparison of its present exhibits with those it exhibited in the 
 Exhibition of 1851 would show that they have made great progress 
 and advance in the past twenty years, and I think they have 
 fairly earned themselves a name for several specialities which 
 they have made almost their own. In this Exhibition they show a 
 fresh application of another style of art to the potter’s list, in 
 what they call “Japanese ivories.” It seems to be the impression 
 of many that they have been copying the Japanese porcelain in 
 their productions, but in all the Japanese exhibits — and they 
 show largely here — I have not seen anything that would at all 
 suggest the designs for these specimens. The artists who de- 
 signed and decorated them seem to have thoroughly mastered 
 
182 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 the style, and imparted to their designs that subtle feeling for 
 art which the Eastern nations seem to alone possess. That they 
 intended to be well represented is proved by their exhibiting nearly 
 a hundred different articles. The designer has taken a Japanese 
 form, and on it modelled in low relief the decoration, the 
 modelling being done with the greatest care, to preserve its keen, 
 fine lines. All the ware was very carefully made by the 
 potter, for if it had not had that care bestowed upon all its 
 details in every process, it would be anything but what it was 
 intended to be. The colouring of the relief is done with great 
 distinctness ; the colours are more opaque than those ordinarily 
 used, and almost all the plain surfaces are covered with the tint 
 of ivory, with a good tone, and almost the texture. Some of the 
 feet and supports are coloured to look like bronze and other 
 metals, and all that sharpness of outline which the metal shows 
 is well preserved in these examples — one could hardly believe it 
 w r as not metal, instead of porcelain — which shows that a great 
 deal of care and labour must have been expended upon the work. 
 I can only mention a few of the things that struck me as 
 showing good potting as well as good design and decoration. A 
 pair of tusk-shaped vases with the frog story done in bronze and 
 colours, and the same line vase with gilt storks, perforated. I 
 think the perforated ones realised the ivory look as well as any- 
 thing shown. A pair of pilgrim bottles with gold ground, and 
 pottery subjects done in bronze upon the surface, were excellent. 
 There are a set of vases with the decoration in relief, to illus- 
 trate the manufacture of pottery as carried on in China. The 
 figures have a quaint, comical appearance, especially the thrower 
 on the wheel, and one almost wishes to form his acquaint- 
 ance as a brother in the potting art. A pair of cylinder-shape 
 vases with ivory ground, bronzed and gilt, with coloured birds, 
 and a large plateau pierced, on which are subjects in coloured 
 bronze ; also a pair of figures of a Japanese lady and gentle- 
 man, of which all the details of the fine modelling are well pre- 
 served, both in the making and in the rich decoration of the 
 garments, which is done in colour well kept in subjection to the 
 general contour of the figure. Altogether, it is a real treat to 
 look at the skill and fancy displayed in the production of these 
 ‘ ‘Japanese ivories.” One end of the stall is occupied with figures, 
 &c., described as “terra cotta with Persian turquoise,” which is 
 used as a decoration upon the drapery of the figure. At first 
 sight it is almost a shock to the eye, tw'o such strong contrasted 
 colours, red and blue, meeting without any medium to tone 
 them down. The figures made in this kind of decoration are far 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 183 
 
 better than those formerly produced by this house, — in fact, are 
 a much better class of figure altogether. A statuette, ‘ c The 
 Bather,” is the best I have seen of their production, but would 
 much prefer to see it in Parian. There is a large “Guardian 
 Angel,” with the flesh parts in terra cotta, and the large wings 
 and pedestal covered with different tints of the blue. This, I 
 ' think, is not many degrees removed from the vulgar. A pair of 
 large Grecian “ Water-Carriers ” is very good in the modelling. 
 They are also shown made in a (Plain C. C.) body, and I must say 
 their beauty is best without the adornments of the blue and red. 
 I do not think this class of decoration will be permanent in the 
 trade. This manufactory has long held a name for the beauti- 
 ful imitations of the Limoges enamels, which were brought to 
 great perfection by the late Mr. Bott, whose death was a loss to 
 this class of art. Some of Mr. Bott’s best productions are now 
 upon the stand, but they are all well known in England, having 
 been exhibited at the 1871 Exhibition of London. I see they 
 have still an artist following this style of art, — an ewer, with 
 Cupids in enamel on the blue, showing a near approach to the 
 late artist. There is a pair of vases painted with subjects after 
 a French artist. The figure painting is well done, in very 
 good, pure tones of colour, and is finished with care in the 
 details. The shape of the vase is the best upon the stand, and is 
 well fitted for the decoration put upon it. small triangular ink- 
 stand in Parian, with Raphaelesque decoration. The embossment 
 is traced with colours, and harmonises well w T ith the soft tones 
 of the glazed Parian. The dejeuner set given by the City of 
 Worcester to the Countess of Dudley is shown as an example of 
 their jewelled porcelain. It has been exhibited in England. I 
 must mention two teapots with pale blue linings, as good speci- 
 mens of perforated porcelain as I have seen. The making and 
 the firing are very successful, and they are chastely finished with 
 fine lines of colour on the geometric ornament, and have a good 
 effect. There are some good examples of rich coloured glazes 
 like the Japanese. A jug with dragon handle, plum body, and 
 turquoise, is good, as showing this class of decoration. A large 
 quantity of the things showm are bought by distinguished persons, 
 and for several of the museums upon the Continent. 
 
 Messrs. Wedgwood , Etruria, Stoke-on-Trent — The coloured 
 jasper ware shown by this house has great charms forpotters, 
 charms that a dilettante can never knov r , because he does not 
 understand the technical difficulties to be overcome in the 
 production of it; besides the articles and the decoration of it are 
 wholly done by the potters, and all its effects are the results of 
 
184 
 
 Ceramic Ware . 
 
 one firing, which is very different to the manner of producing 
 high-class china, it having to depend for its decoration upon so 
 many and different degrees of fire. Most of the coloured jasper 
 shown, I think, looks brighter than the old examples in the 
 Museums. I do not see many shapes of vase, &c., shown, but 
 what I have often seen before. There are two vases, with white 
 grounds and coloured festoons upon them, which have a good 
 effect; but with the command of such w T onderful bodies and 
 colours, it is to be hoped that some fresh application of them, 
 beyond the reproduction of the old shapes, &c., will be attempted. 
 The larger vases shown are fine pieces of potting, and equal to 
 any of the old. I saw a reproduction of the speckled, or mottled 
 vase, at Kensington Museum, but I do not think the effect is 
 obtained in the same manner as in this copy. A large table top, 
 shown in the Henri Deux ware, is a new manufacture of this 
 house, and is a fine specimen of that class of pottery, showing 
 good art in the treatment of the difficult and intricate inlaying 
 of the fine lines of colour composing the decoration; it reflects 
 great credit upon all who w r ere engaged upon it. Upon the 
 table is a set of chess-men, supposed to be modelled by Flaxman, 
 which gives great interest to them from the high place he occu- 
 pied in English art, and the connection in early life which he had 
 with Josiah Wedgw’ood, and the improvement of English ware. 
 There is very little of the black basalts shown. I w'onder at 
 that, and should like to have seen more; for in this they are 
 unapproachable, and could show very good examples. There is 
 a good show of the fayence w r are, in w r hich this house has, of late, 
 taken great interest; it is after the style of the Italian, depend- 
 ing upon the art decoration for its value. There are figure 
 subjects done in colour, with a sketchy kind of drawing to them ; 
 and it is a great relief to see the colour of the body they are 
 done upon, after seeing the muddy-coloured bodies of most of 
 the foreign fayence. A few of their portrait-medallions shown, 
 with the outline of the face well defined by the coloured back- 
 ground ; with our progress in potting, this branch of art has 
 not been used so much as it ought. In ancient times a similar 
 method w r as made use of to preserve the features of the old 
 worthies. 
 
 Messrs. Minton , StoJce-tipon- Trent . — The magnificent show 
 of ceramics exhibited by this house certainly surpasses anything 
 shown by an English house in any exhibition. From the 
 Exhibition of 1851 to the present, there has been that steady 
 progress shown in the development of all their different classes 
 of production to which England is indebted, in a large degree,. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 185 
 
 for the high position she holds in the potting art and trade. 
 Artists from all countries have always been encouraged, and 
 there has not been that neglect of the native artist shown which 
 is often the case. The results of this liberal patronage of art 
 are w T ell illustrated upon the stand in this Exhibition, and show 
 the experience and knowledge of our twenty years of progress. 
 It is the admiration of all the English who have seen it, and who 
 know the excellent productions of this firm, and is a great 
 surprise and wonder to foreigners. One hardly knows where to 
 begin to note the most striking among so many praiseworthy 
 productions. There is a specimen of the Henri Deux ware, a 
 barometer and clock stand, about 2 ft. long, to hang upon a wall. 
 I do not know whether it is a copy of an original one, but it is 
 a fine production, showing a vast amount of the minute and 
 delicate lines of inlaying in colour ; one could hardly expect 
 that a private manufacturer 'would undertake such a piece of 
 w r ork with any hope of profit, the labour bestowed upon it being 
 so great ; I am glad to see it is sold to a real patron of English 
 art. A candlestick, copy of the one in the Kensington Museum in 
 the Henri Deux is shown ; I should like to see the two together, 
 for the difference is so small that I do not think it could be 
 detected. Two large vases, with blue du roi grounds upon them, 
 and panels of painting on each side — one a landscape, the other 
 a figure subject ; the artists who painted these show what 
 Englishmen can do if they are properly trained and encouraged 
 in art. For good sound painting, without any tricks of art, they 
 are not surpassed by anything shown in the Exhibition. The 
 vases are sold to the same Englishman that bought the Henri 
 Deux. The pate-sur-pate — made by this house as early as any 
 in England — shows the advance they are making in this difficult 
 branch of manufacture, for in the production of it there arc 
 great difficulties to overcome, the labour of none but artists 
 being required to produce it. There are some large vases shown 
 with this decoration : — the white pdte-sur-pdte is done upon 
 differently-coloured grounds ; the grounds with the dark tones of 
 colour are so rich, and yet so soft under the glaze, and the 
 shadow of raised white so delicate in gradation of shade, that the 
 great difficulty to overcome is to produce the darkest shades of 
 Parian, and in keeping the delicate white upon it without getting 
 a stain from the black by the action of the fire, it is well managed. 
 The coloured celadon in Parian is well shown. There is a large 
 piece for a centre, with a fine design and modelling that would 
 demand no ordinary care in making and firing, and the colour 
 is kept equal in tint all over. A candelabrum in the same material 
 
186 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 — not an easy thing to make, and the difficulty well got over, 
 also two Parian figures and large vase in celadon, with drapery 
 the same, are fine examples of this class of coloured bodies. 
 Two large pilgrim bottles, with flowers painted upon a pale green 
 ground, are fine specimens of flower painting, as applied to 
 porcelain ; indeed all the flower painting shown on this stand is 
 equally good, and the effects got without any tricks of art. Two 
 large vases, blue grounds, on which are storks and flowers, and 
 bronze on the feet, are very fine in conception, and in all the details 
 of manufacture ; but to name all the different classes of decoration 
 shown, would require much more space than I can give. The 
 Persian style is largely shown ; it is very beautiful, and lends 
 itself well to the bright colours and glaze of porcelain, and 
 is capable of either rich or slight decoration as required. 
 The examples shown of the turquoise blue, which this house 
 has made its own, still stand the tests of fashion, and are pre- 
 eminently the best shown in the Exhibition. The earthen 
 dinner and toilet ware made by this house, and well-known in 
 the English market, is shown, but, taking your e} r es from the 
 bright colours and decoration of the other articles upon the 
 stand, you cannot fully appreciate, the simple but good decora- 
 tion upon these. There were several samples of china dinner 
 plates, the decoration on which was a good example of what 
 should be employed on china dinner ware, and there was that 
 absence of misdirected labour which often confuses the eye at 
 the expense of the design. A cup and saucer, with a rose 
 adapted to the shape of the cup and the foliage to the shape of 
 the saucer, is a very difficult thing to treat well, but in the hands 
 of a good designer it does not present that torturing of nature 
 we too often see, which the one shown here is free from. It 
 is also quite new. The majolica made by this house has obtained 
 a name at all the Exhibitions, especially that of 1862, where they 
 showed what they could do in large pieces. The pieces shown 
 here are not as large as some they manufacture, but are more 
 suitable to the requirements of ordinary use. I can see progress 
 has been made in the shades of colour used ; the colours look 
 more solid, and the shadows of the modelling are not confused 
 with the different shades, as often seen in English majolica. 
 Specimens of this manufacture are placed in several prominent 
 parts of the Exhibition as aids to its decoration. This stand is 
 the best I have seen, and they have mastered the imperfect 
 lighting of the nave by keeping the covering of the corner stands 
 well in height. The disposing of the different colours of the 
 exhibits to aid each other was perfect. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 187 
 
 General Conclusions. 
 
 As regards the Government manufactories, I do not think 
 Dresden at all occupies the position it ought to. I am afraid they 
 have increased the producing power of the works more for com- 
 mercial purposes than for the development of the ceramic art, than 
 which we expect something different from such works. The Berlin 
 works do not keep up to the good name which they held at the Paris 
 Exhibition of 1867, where they came well to the front, and showed 
 good things worthy of a Iioyal Works ; but we must make some 
 allowance for the late war interfering more or less with their 
 productions. The first place among these works exhibiting at 
 Vienna is due to the Royal Works of St. Petersburg. They show 
 more advance, not in the production of anything new to the 
 trade, but in the quality of the work shown. The decoration is 
 better than the forms of the pieces, and there is not that elegance 
 of outline which there might have been. However, they 
 deserve credit for the great striving which they seem to have 
 made to advance their reputation as a Royal Works. We miss 
 here the fine exhibits of the Sevres Works. The potting art can 
 ill spare the beautiful and elegant productions which used to be 
 so great a feature in these Exhibitions, in many instances their 
 examples being used by ceramic manufacturers as starting points 
 for fresh productions. The capabilities of France in the manu- 
 facture of fine porcelain are not at all represented here, for the 
 Limoges manufacturers do not show their fine potting, which was 
 the admiration of all who saw it at the 1862 Exhibition. France 
 shows its pre-eminence most in the fayence of Messrs. Collinot 
 and Deck, which is certainly unrivalled. 
 
 The Austrian and German porcelain does not come up to my 
 expectations, which were based upon the advantages they possess 
 of technical and scientific education. Exception must be made 
 of the exhibits of Messrs. Fisher and Mige, of Carlsbad. If in 
 the future this manufactory makes as good advance as the 
 present Exhibition shows, they will be able to take a good place 
 in the production of porcelain. There are great contradictions 
 shown on most of the stands from these countries ; side by side 
 are to be seen good and bad designs. They fail most in the 
 forms of outline, and do not show that taste for harmony of 
 colour which I should have expected. It seems to me that there 
 is a want of a directing artist to superintend the production in 
 all its processes. I think Germany has advantages in the 
 manufacture of porcelain, which, if well developed, would give 
 them a share in the commerce of the world. I do not see any 
 
188 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 advance made by either Sweden or Denmark on former Exhi- 
 bitions. Spain we must leave out for the present, but I am 
 glad to see Portugal makes a start in porcelain manufactures. 
 Italy I do not think has made much progress in bringing out 
 anything to add to the list of new styles of production, but 
 what they do make is kept up to its previous excellence. 
 
 If the Japanese still go on in the porcelain manufacture, as 
 shown at Vienna, real Japanese art will only be found in the 
 museums of Europe. 
 
 In my progress through the Exhibition, according to the 
 arrangements, I began with the Eastern nations ; and after 
 looking at the foreign exhibits of pottery, I was much impressed 
 with the general excellence of English ware, all the forms, with 
 few exceptions, being very good in design, and the decoration 
 free from all pretence and bad taste. One did not see here good 
 forms and decoration side by side with bad. The work looks 
 honest, with art principles ruling it, and not the chance pro- 
 duction of an individual trained in one part of the process, 
 while the other parts are left to chance, but the ruling head 
 directing and controlling the articles both in form and decoration. 
 
 I should have liked to see more shown of the general useful 
 ware which has enabled the English to command the markets of 
 most countries, and to compete against almost prohibition tariffs. 
 This exhibition will not give foreigners an idea of the immense 
 manufacture of pottery which has developed itself during the 
 last few years, indeed it does not show the productions of scores 
 of manufactories. That there is great progress being made 
 can be seen by anyone who recollects the productions of the 
 smaller houses, some of which, in domestic articles, are almost 
 equal to those of the large manufacturers in potting and design ; but 
 I am afraid it is too often done at the expense of the large houses. 
 
 I have no fear at all for the future of the potting trade of 
 England, if our rising workmen will only submit themselves to 
 be properly trained in art, and take all the advantages they can 
 of technical and scientific education. With the magnificent collec- 
 tion of ceramics at South Kensington, to show the success of 
 past productions, we ought to be ever on the move, endeavouring 
 to gain a still higher position in art, and not forget that this 
 Exhibition has shown foreign makers where they are deficient, 
 and that every effort will be made by them to profit by its 
 teaching. I know the Germans are quite aware of their posi- 
 tion in this Exhibition, and that every encouragement will be 
 given them by their country to enable them to compete in the 
 markets of the world. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 189 
 
 Visit to the Dresden Royal Works . — On my return journey 
 I had an opportunity of paying a visit to the Dresden Royal 
 Works. They are situated on the left bank of the river Elbe, 
 about twelve miles below Dresden, at a small town called Meissen, 
 formerly the seat of Government of the King of Saxony, before 
 Dresden was made the capital. The river is very picturesque, 
 with bold hills on each side and lateral valleys opening out, 
 mostly all well wooded or covered with vineyards. The castle 
 and a fine old church overlooks the river. There are some good 
 details of florid Gothic about the church, but some of the resto- 
 ration of it is no better than they used to do in England when the 
 churchwardens were the architects. The manufactory was 
 situated in part of the old castle till within the last few years, 
 but there is now a new manufactory built, not far from the 
 castle, in the bottom of a small valley that opens out to the 
 Elbe, and is overlooked by vineyards on each side. The build- 
 ings are plain and substantial, in the plan of an oblong, with 
 openings from passages to the different rooms, which are lofty, 
 well ventilated, and heated with hot water. I was much pleased 
 with the appearance of the men employed, — they looked in- 
 telligent, of good social position, and there were many middle- 
 aged men among them. I did not see much of the decora- 
 ting, for I concluded that the process would be the same as 
 in England. 
 
 The works employ nearly 600 hands ; a few years since they 
 did not employ 300. I was much interested in seeing the 
 process of manufacture, as it is different in several respects from 
 the English. I think in the manufacture of porcelain they have 
 advantages over us. The materials of the porcelain body is 
 found near Meissen, and it is washed on the works (almost in 
 the same way as our china clay is washed in Cornwall). It has 
 the appearance of being of a loose sandy nature, almost like the 
 Cornwall stone when pounded up without crushing the particles. 
 The fine particles are floated away, and carried with the water 
 along a series of spouts till deposited into tanks of slate, where 
 it remains till it settles down, after which the water is gradually 
 drawn off. The thick slip is then put into bags about 2 ft. long 
 and 18 in. wide, which are then laid on their sides upon wooden 
 hurdles plaited with wicker-wood. Several layers of hurdles and 
 bags are put upon each other, a flat board is placed on the top 
 and a screw is brought to bear upon it gradually, till all the 
 water is squeezed out. The clay is then ready for tempering. 
 Xhe clay was a very good clay for the potter’s use ; it worked 
 very free and clean in the hands of the throwers. An English 
 
190 
 
 Ceramic Ware. 
 
 thrower would call it good for working, much better than many 
 kinds of the English china clay. The plates and round dishes 
 are made upon the thrower’s wheel, as we used to make them in 
 England fifty years since, and are then blocked upon a mould on 
 the wheel, the foot upon it being worked with a roll. When it 
 has left the mould it has to be hardened and the back turned on 
 a wheel, to give the finished outline to the foot. I see the 
 bottoms of all the plates and dishes are raised up about a quarter 
 of an inch, to allow for the dropping in the firing of them. 
 
 Another man does the finishing of the edges of the plates and 
 dishes, for there is a clear waste upon the plate of half-an-inch, 
 level with the edge, and that has to be cut away with a knife 
 and finished. The figure makers have their labours divided. 
 There are persons to do the pressing of the figures — the clay 
 worked very well. The figures are all made very thick, and the 
 bodies of some of the figures were all pressed solid ; and to get 
 the moulds close, they were put under a screw-press. The parts 
 of the figure are then taken to the finishers, who have to go over 
 all the surface with their tools, and every fold and embossment 
 is retouched ; it was a great waste of labour. The moulds were 
 all very dull, and the lines of the fine drapery hardly to be seen. 
 One half of the labour would have been saved in England by 
 keeping the moulds good, and the work as it left the modeller. 
 I do not think they cast anything. 
 
 The plaster of Paris used for the moulds seemed very hard, 
 with a gray look, and heavy in its gravity. The cottles used by 
 the mould-maker- were of a very rude description, and those for 
 the square moulds were made of plaster-bats fastened at the 
 corners with twisted wire ; the plaster seemed to take a good 
 finish. 
 
 The raised flowers made by hand are done in about the same 
 manner we do them in England. Having manufactured these 
 things so many years, I expected to see better work than I did. 
 
 The figures are burned the first time, laid upon their backs, with 
 short props dipped into ground quartz, that would answer the 
 same purpose as our ground flint, as the composition is almost 
 the same. The kiln is divided into two parts by a low dome 
 about 6 feet high, with a hole in the centre, of 2 feet. The 
 clay ware is placed into the bottom part and the glost above, 
 and all the saggers are looted. The fire-holes are all smaller 
 than our kilns, and they take more care in excluding the rush of 
 air into them. The ware fired in the bottom part of the kiln is 
 hardly out of clay, and has not done scarcely any contrac- 
 tion ; it is as porous as an earthen piece in the bisquet state. 
 
Ceramic Ware. 
 
 191 
 
 It is afterwards dipped, and the glaze being in a very thin state, 
 the dipper gets it on the piece very equal and thin. They do 
 not use a wash for the bottoms of the saggers, but a thick bat of 
 sagger-clay, with a deal of sand in it, and it seems to answer the 
 purpose well. 
 
 From this it will be seen that the piece of ware has to do 
 almost all its contraction in the second burning with the glaze 
 upon it, and with no support at all, which is not the mode 
 in England, where it has to be supported during contraction. 
 They told me the contraction was one-sixth ; but, from what I 
 saw, I should think it about one-eighth. The glaze is composed 
 of felspar from Norway, good clear quartz, and a limestone of 
 a bluish grey colour before it is calcined. In the grinding of the 
 materials, the stones move much slower than they do in England. 
 I saw that they used turned rings to keep the edges straight in 
 the first firing, which I should think is almost useless, seeing the 
 small shrinkage which the first fire makes on the pieces. They 
 have, however, this advantage, all the damaged pieces and the 
 rings of the first fire are ground up again and used in a certain 
 proportion of the clay, which, no doubt, helps to stop any dunt- 
 ing in the second burning. The clay with which they make the 
 saggers is found in the neighbourhood of Meissen ; it is not 
 a fire-clay like we use, but more after the nature of a ball-clay. 
 They use the ground grog and a sand mixed with it ; I could see 
 small particles of iron in it, and I should think is gave them 
 trouble at times, but the outside of the saggars did not look as 
 if there was much flame and sulphur from the coal used. They 
 get their coal from Bohemia ; it is of a very dull-looking black, 
 and the cost must be considerable from the distance it has to 
 come. A great deal of their decoration seemed be done in 
 bisquet blue under the glaze. I saw several working upon it; 
 but not having time to spare I did not see much of it. I looked 
 through the show-rooms ; they were well stocked with articles of 
 everyday sale, not at all what I expected to see from a Boyal 
 Works. Some of our English show-rooms show much better 
 articles, and there was such an absence of high-class decoration 
 that I may with truth say it to have been more like the pro- 
 ductions of forty years back than of 1873. It was a well-regu- 
 lated works ; everything seemed in order ; the rooms clean, and 
 no one in a hurry to get their work done ; working with them did 
 not seem such a serious affair as it does with us. I was much 
 pleased with my visit, and should have liked to have spent a few 
 hours in the vicinity of the town of Meissen. 
 
Stationary Engines. 
 
 By CHARLES A. PERKIN ( Messrs . Mather and Platts ' , Salford 
 Wo rlcs, Ma nchester ) . 
 
 N writing a report on the Stationary Engines in the Vienna 
 
 Exhibition of 1873, care must be taken to look on every 
 subject with an impartial eye. because this is the first occasion 
 our foreign brethren have made a show, in any exhibition, at all 
 approaching us, and that, although we have had to scheme and 
 invent in the first place, which they have only followed, it is 
 clear that they have the perseverance to emulate us, and are 
 determined to equal us in quality and design. The stationary 
 engines form a very great feature in the colossal hall, specially 
 set apart for motive machinery, which is nearly three-quarters 
 of a mile long. Different nations of Europe compete with each 
 other in the production of various classes of engines, and it is 
 only surprising that our large manufacturers should have over- 
 looked the fact of the necessity of sending specimens to an 
 Exhibition in the midst of a people who are anxious to make 
 themselves known in the engineering world. I conversed with 
 several Englishmen in Vienna (one or two holding high official 
 appointments), and the answer they gave me about the absence 
 of English manufacture was not at all satisfactory. One said : 
 “the expense” was too great, and the advantages ultimately 
 gained did not compensate for the outlay. Another said that if 
 we exhibited our goods it was only for them to copy. My 
 answer to both was, that while we were neglecting the time 
 and opportunity, our foreign brethren were showing to the 
 world that they could manufacture articles as good as ours, 
 if not so cheap at first, and that there were other places 
 where they could supply their requirements without having to 
 come to England. And again, with respect to the finish of 
 exhibition work, it is well-known that most firms spend a good 
 deal of time in getting up and finishing specimens of their 
 manufacture for exhibition, to make them look as well as possible. 
 When I remarked how well certain machines were finished, I was 
 met with the reply, that it was quite unnecessary and useless, 
 
Stationary Engines. 
 
 193 
 
 and that it was not intended to put so fine finish on such work 
 for ordinary use. This clearly shows that they can do their 
 work well, in some cases quite equal to, if not superior to ours. 
 
 It is not to he expected that ample justice can be done to all 
 the different engines exhibited, on account of the shortness of my 
 time in Vienna, and, in many cases, the opposition shown by the 
 attendants at some of the stands, who were very jealous of any- 
 one paying extra attention to their machine or engine, and 
 noting any part down particularly. The officials were powerless 
 to assist, as it was understood that exhibitors had not sent their 
 things to be copied and have dimensions taken, but to show that 
 their machines were superior to others in design and workman- 
 ship. If anyone were detected taking dimensions or sketching, 
 he was liable to have the leaf torn out and taken before the 
 commissioner, and to be ordered out of the Exhibition. In some- 
 instances the stands were left without attendants, so that notes 
 could only be taken from a cursory glance ; and again, the diffi- 
 culty in not being acquainted with the language was another 
 drawback to the work, as interpreters were not in all cases easily 
 obtained. The machinery began to run for the day about nine 
 in the morning and stopped at five in the afternoon, and at that 
 hour most of the stands were covered up to keep them clean, so 
 that not much could be done afterwards. As I was not accus- 
 tomed to the tremendous heat of the hall and weather combined, 
 I was prevented from doing much in the middle of the day. 
 
 In looking for stationary engines to report on, T found all the 
 nations of Eastern Europe represented with the exception of 
 Turkey and Greece. The greatest number are from Germany 
 and Austria, from the fact, I suppose, that these countries are 
 nearest the Exhibition. 
 
 There are several engines of the old class without any improve- 
 ment in design, i.e. f box section bedplate, double slide bars, 
 crosshead, slide valve, and eccentric, &c. To this class one or 
 two English exhibits belong. There are also several engines of 
 the Corliss frame class with ordinary slide valves ; several of the 
 steam hammer class with inverted cylinders ; several of the 
 same class of Corliss valve as made by Kick, of Bolton ; 
 and several on other systems of Corliss valves ; engines 
 of the double beat valve class ; two winding engines with steam 
 brakes ; one steam pump from Warsaw, and one large blowing 
 engine. One firm, Danck and Co., of Prague, have a pavilion to 
 themselves, with every variety of engines and pumps. 
 
 I had intended giving a detailed description or short specifica- 
 tion of the various engines of merit, that anyone might easily 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 Stationary Engines . 
 
 understand the different classes of engines now made, and draw 
 a comparison as to their merits, but the space allotted for my 
 Report will not allow of my doing so. At the same time, it must 
 not be supposed that those I refer to are all the engines exhi- 
 bited, as there are scores of others, but those I refer to are 
 taken from different countries to show the progress that has 
 been made. 
 
 The Continental exhibitors have evidently looked forward to 
 the Exhibition, and have attached great importance to it. I 
 gather this from the fact that they have spared no expense, 
 though some of the engines are of such large dimensions that 
 one would have thought it unnecessary to lay out money in 
 exhibiting them. One firm, the celebrated Schneider, of 
 Creusot, has sent a 12-wheel locomotive, and, amongst other 
 things, a compound condensing inverted-cylinder engine, 
 elaborately got up, with all the polished work electro-plated. 
 A New York firm exhibits a small inverted-cylinder engine, 
 not more than 3 feet 6 inches high, and all the wrought-iron 
 work in this is electro-plated. Danck and Co., of Prague, 
 originally Danck and Co., Prague, Danck and Co., in Aussiz, 
 and Breitfield and Evans, in Prague, now formed into 
 a joint stock company, have exhibited in their Pavilion 
 amongst other things a large horizontal rolling-mill engine of 
 colossal proportions. It is 1,000 horse-power, and has been 
 sold for nearly £8,000, English money. With regard to the 
 engine in the Machinery Hall, it has nothing new. The valves 
 are placed on top of cylinder, and the eccentric sheave is put 
 on outside of bearing, close to neck and crank. The work is 
 very strong and heavy, but does not call for any remarks. In 
 the Pavilion there is a surprising number of machines exhibited. 
 Blowing engines, rolling-mill engines, winding engines, and 
 other machinery. The place is an exhibition of itself. They 
 have a catalogue of their work, with a well-got-up plan 
 of the whole Exhibition, which shows the position of their 
 engine in the Machinery Hall, and the Pavilion in red, also 
 a plan of the Pavilion, with all the machinery marked in its 
 place. 
 
 The Soci^te Cockerill, of Seraing, have erected a gigantic 
 blowing engine, with the blast cylinder overhead supported on 
 four diagonal pillars, with two fly-wheels ; and I was surprised to 
 see it working. It was not quite steady, on account of the 
 foundations not being as good as they should be, but it must 
 have cost a considerable sum to set it to work at all. The 
 design and workmanship are good. 
 
Stationary Engines. 
 
 195 
 
 Taking the engines altogether, I must say that the “Corliss” 
 bears the palm ; and although some of the valve gears look 
 light with many parts, yet the eye becomes accustomed to them, 
 and they are, no doubt, the engines we shall have to look to in 
 the future. Most of them have the slides cylindrical, cast on 
 the cylinder, cover and crank shaft pedestal. They are bored 
 out at the same time the cylinder is turned, so that both are 
 perfectly square with each other. The adjustment for wear is 
 on the slide block and crosshead, and is effected by lock-nuts. 
 Another feature in many cases is the polished cast-iron crank 
 disc instead of wrought-iron crank. These look very well, and 
 act also as small fly-wheels. 
 
 It is not necessary to say much upon the English Department. 
 Messrs. Galloway’s engine has nothing striking about it, except 
 the governor, which acts upon the slide very quickly with the 
 radius link. The Reading Iron Company have nothing new in 
 their show, and I am much surprised that the system of working 
 the governor by a strap has not been done away with, seeing 
 that all makers are paying so much attention to the subject of 
 expansion of steam, and that the governing part of the engine 
 is of the utmost importance. Messrs. Tangye’s engine is a very 
 good one, the design and arrangement being new, but the bed 
 looks rather heavy, though the work is very w T cll done. The 
 American engines are exceedingly good in design and workman- 
 ship, and the governors with the weight suspended on a flat 
 spring do their work very well. That from the New York Com- 
 pany has a very well-shaped round frame which gives a novel 
 appearance. Schneider, of Creusot, sends an engine which, for 
 design and finish, is second to none exhibited ; but I cannot see 
 any great advantage in electro-plating all the bright work. It 
 certainly gives it the appearance of silver, but it hides any 
 defects. Bede and Pai^ot, of Yerviers, show an engine of the 
 Corliss class, which is excellent. The valve gear is not worked 
 by an eccentric, but by a horizontal shaft worked from the fly 
 shaft, and a vertical shaft with cams does its work very well. 
 The great advantage of the upright shaft and cam is that the 
 exhaust is entirely independent of the steam, and can be worked 
 without any back pressure by setting the cam. 
 
 In the Swiss Department the Gebriider Sulzers’ engines are 
 both excellent, of the Corliss frame class. The large one has 
 vertical circular valves, worked by a shaft driven off the fly- 
 shaft, and two small eccentrics keyed on it, which are attached to 
 the valve levers. The small engine is well-arranged ; the Corliss 
 frame is strong and light, and the slide and expansion valves 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 Stationary Engines. 
 
 are regulated by the governor. Provision for working the air- 
 pump, which is also well arranged, is very simple and good. 
 This engine is of good design, and upon it engines from the 
 smallest to any size may be made. Scheller and Birchtold’s- 
 engine is not of a good design. The method of working the air- 
 pump is not at all neat. The frame at cylinder end looks very 
 unshapely. The circular vertical valves are worked very singu- 
 larly by the cam rising and falling to catch each valve lever. 
 The making use of the engine-bed for condenser and air-pump is the 
 best feature. Esher, Wyss and Co., of Zurich, and Basil, of Zurich, 
 show two Corliss engines, with valves and gear exactly the same as 
 Hicks’, of Bolton. They are excellent in design and workmanship, 
 
 W tirtemberg . — Gebriider, Dicker, and Co.’s engine is very 
 good of its class in design and workmanship. The air-pump 
 behind the steam cylinder does not look at all like what it is. 
 
 Schlessingen. — Sprottan’s pair of engines are of good design, 
 with circular valves worked by lever and eccentric. The valve 
 boxes on the sides of the cylinder do not add to the appearance 
 of the engine, as they look very clumsy. 
 
 Bendsburg . — Ilollerschen Carlshiitte’s engines have nothing 
 new, except the method of working crosshead, which has the bottom 
 part in the shape of an inverted T, and moves between two 
 plates, which act as adjustable top bars. Workmanship and 
 design are only moderate. Sacshsische Maschinen fabrik in 
 Chemnitz exhibit a large Corliss engine, which has only one fault, 
 that the back piston-rod has not a crosshead and adjustable 
 slide block, working on a slide bar. In other respects it is 
 excellent, and without doubt one of the best in the Exhibition. 
 Schellenbern, Chemnitz, do not exhibit any feature in their 
 engine, the design and arrangement having nothing new. 
 
 Polluk, of Augsburg, shows an engine on the Corliss class, 
 exactly the same as Hicks’, ofj Bolton. Design and workman- 
 ship excellent. Maschinen fabrik, Augsburg, exhibit an engine 
 on the Corliss class, with circular vertical valves on top, and 
 exhaust in bottom. The air-pump is placed underneath front of 
 cylinder, and is worked by eccentric on fly shaft. Design and 
 workmanship excellent. 
 
 G. Sigl, Vienna and Berlin, has sent a pair of horizontal 
 engines on the old principle, with the exception of the crosshead, 
 with the bottom part in the shape of an inverted T. The expan- 
 sion is alsG new, consisting of a rod which at one end is attached 
 to the expansion lever by means of a pin with a square hole in. 
 The pump is worked by a small double crank connected to crank 
 pin, and fits in a pedestal. 
 
197 
 
 Stationary Engines. 
 
 Fried Wanneck, Brunn, shows a condensing engine of the Corliss 
 class, with condenser underneath, worked by a connecting rod 
 attached to a crank pin. Design and workmanship very good. 
 
 Joseph Oesterich, of Vienna, has an engine which is a strong 
 one of its class, but it does not look well. The frame is too 
 deep and massive, and too heavy by one-third at least. The 
 arrangement of valve and expansion gear is good, as the latter 
 is directly attached to governor, which will regulate the steam 
 quickly. 
 
 Maschinen a Waggoner fabriks actien, Gesellscliaft, Sem- 
 mering, send an engine, the only peculiarity of which is that the 
 cylinder end is bolted to a strong bedplate of the box section, 
 which is very strong and gives a substantial appearance to it. 
 
 Blansko Furst Samsche, sends a horizontal winding engine of 
 very good design and arrangement. All the handles for starting, 
 reversing, and steam brake are close together, and the telegraph 
 with two gongs attached is very good ; so that, with ordinary 
 precaution, no accident ought to occur. The winding drum is 
 made of cast-iron ; the boss, with recess for holding ordinary 
 plate-iron, 6 in. x 1 in., which project out and arc stayed to- 
 gether by struts, 6 in. x J in. The rim of drum is made of 
 wrought-iron plates, 9 in. x § in., with angle-iron inside riveted 
 to projecting plates, and wood pieces join the two rims together 
 bolted to angle iron. The rope used for this drum is a flat one. 
 
 Lillpop, Bau, and Co., of Warsaw, show a pump, which is 
 a well-arranged double-acting one, and the valves are very easy 
 of access. Design and workmanship very good. 
 
 An engine, by Lcssner, St. Petersburg, is an exceedingly good 
 one. The foundation plate is very strong, and the valve and 
 expansion gear well arranged. The workmanship is also very 
 good. 
 
 Another firm, of Prague, formerly Buston and Co., amongst 
 other things, exhibit a winding engine with steam brake. The 
 engine is a good strong one, and the arrangements for starting, 
 reversing, and applying the steam brake, are very complete. 
 The brake can either be worked by steam or hand, and the 
 method of constructing the winding drum is very good. The boss 
 on fly-shaft is cast iron, with recesses in for double angle-irons, 
 which project, and at the ends are joined by other angles, which 
 are riveted. The arrangement of steam brake is also good, 
 and the effect very powerful. The telegraph is a very useful 
 addition, as it shows the engineman the exact position of the 
 rope, ascending or descending. They also exhibit an horizontal 
 engine of the Corliss class, with horizontal air-pump underneath, 
 
198 
 
 Stationary Engines. 
 
 worked by a cast-iron bell-crank lever off crank-pin. Work- 
 manship and design very good. 
 
 Brunn, Maschinen fabriks. — Engine is a Corliss, and is 
 excellent of its class. The valve gear is a modification of the 
 general Corliss, and in some respects is very good. The pecu- 
 liarity of this engine is the air-pump, which is placed under- 
 neath engine, and is horizontal, with a trunk ram and very 
 short stroke, worked by a cast-iron arm, reciprocating by a 
 connecting rod from crosshead pin. The workmanship is good, 
 and the design new and well arranged. 
 
 I will now give a summary of what I saw, as a comparison 
 of foreign work with our own. 
 
 After a careful examination I find that foreign castings, as a 
 whole, are clean and well done. The brass work is very 
 creditable, the rough castings, as specimens, being clean ; and 
 particular care has been taken in finishing the work. 
 
 In the smithy department the work was, in some cases, neatly 
 and artistically done, especially in the black work of locomotives, 
 viz., brake gear, springs, coupling chains, and links, and other 
 parts chiefly painted, which were good specimens of ordinary 
 smith-work. 
 
 In the forge department are various kinds, such as connecting- 
 rods, uses, shafts, cranks, carriage wheels, finished and in pieces, 
 tires, and the heavier portions of work, all of which show that 
 they have extensive knowledge of the use of blocks for the work 
 they have in hand. 
 
 The turning work, generally, is fairly done, especially in the 
 heavier work, such as cranks, shafts, connecting rods, boring 
 cylinders, and slide bars. Some of the work is on such a large 
 scale, that it is evident that manufacturers have had the fore- 
 thought to supply themselves with tools specially adapted for 
 certain work. They must generally have had good tools from 
 the quality of work done, but it is also evident that they can 
 scarcely have had the advantages we have. 
 
 The fitting is carefully done, care being taken in setting out 
 the work ; the parts which come together are well-jointed, and 
 especial pains have been taken in finishing the parts, which work 
 can only be done by the file. 
 
 The machine work is also very carefully done, and the shaping 
 of radius parts, cranks, &c., and the heavy planing is also 
 accurately finished. 
 
 It is generally admitted that foreign manufacture in this par- 
 ticular branch has made very rapid strides in the last few years ; 
 having far surpassed us in the same time, and that we have not 
 
Stationa ry Eng ines. 
 
 199 
 
 made that advance which our great experience and the talent of 
 our workmen warranted us to expect we should. 
 
 After careful consideration of the qualification and abilities of 
 foreign workman judged by their work, the conclusion I have 
 come to is, that they are quite able to hold their own with us, 
 and that their best skilled men are fit to be placed on the same 
 footing as ours. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the days of monopoly by English 
 manufacture are past, that we all stand on the same level, and 
 that in the opening of new countries in future, the foreign 
 manufacturers will compete with us for their share of work. 
 
 No doubt a great deal of our past success has been due, in the 
 first instance, to the extraordinary cheapness of the raw material 
 and fuel, but these for the last two years have completely turned 
 round, having nearly doubled in price. 
 
 Another great drawback to us at the present time is the un- 
 easiness existing between employers and employed, and which, if 
 not satisfactorily adjusted, will lose this country numbers of our 
 best men, whom we can ill-afford to spare. Both sides ought to 
 reflect on the importance of this question, and endeavour in 
 future to work together for the same object, which is to maintain 
 the good name we hitherto have had, and which there is no 
 just reason we should not keep. 
 
 I have not been able to get much information respecting the 
 rate of wages paid on the Continent, but have obtained those of 
 several countries from the men who were at the stands : — 
 
 England . . 
 
 France . . 
 
 Belgium . . 
 
 Switzerland 
 Italy . . . 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 First-class men 
 
 Skilled men, 34s. per week of 54 liours. No Sunday work. 
 5fr. per day of 10 ,, 
 
 4fr. 50c. 10 ,, 
 
 6fr. ,, 10 „ 
 
 5fr. „ 10 „ 
 
 lrix-dol.(3s.) 11 ,, 
 
 dollar more. Food, (fee., very cheap 
 
 Germany 
 Schleswig 
 Bohemia 
 Hungary 
 Russia . 
 
 Skilled men, 1th. 20gr. per day of 11 hrs. Sunday work. 
 
 25gr. 
 
 2fl. 
 
 3fl. 
 
 l£s.r. 
 
 10 
 11 it 
 11 „ 
 11 *,, 
 
 No Sunday work. 
 

 Machine Tools. 
 
 By JAMES HOGG, Messrs. Gcidd and Co., Manchester. 
 
 FTER a very careful inspection of the class of machinery 
 
 on which I liacl to report, I found nothing of foreign manu- 
 facture particularly new in design nor in finish, of both of 
 which there was every degree. Although I went with a full 
 determination to be honest and impartial, I was forced to the 
 conclusion that, for both, England was before' all other countries 
 exhibiting, and that all foreign tools were copies from English, 
 some poor and others good. I did not hastily come to the above 
 conclusion, for I took very favourably to various tools exhibited 
 by Joh. Zimmerman, in Chemnitz, as being very well constructed 
 and altogether a very good collection ; but I learned afterwards 
 that he had had English w r orkmen making them. So that if this 
 be true, though they are nearly equal to English tools, it is not 
 to the discredit of English makers. II is prices were nearly 
 
 equal to those of some makers in England. 
 
 Another exhibitor, a Mr. Ducommun, had for show a good lot 
 of small lathes, <fec., very w r ell got up, but I could not ascertain 
 whether he had any English workmen or not. lie w r as very 
 willing to show the machines, and he seemed very proud to tell 
 me that his prices were equal to Sir J. Whitworth’s. Looking at 
 facts like these, from whichever point we will, they point towards 
 the fact that foreign makers in this branch of trade are com- 
 peting with us. 
 
 I do not say that there is any danger of our being overtaken 
 just yet ; but then, it will be well not to rest too self-assured of 
 our superiority. To say that they have not such good workmen, 
 or that they cannot turn out such good work only means, in my 
 humble opinion, that they are so much behind us, and does not 
 mean that they are not in the race. 
 
 For a foreign maker to say that his prices are the same as 
 Sir J. Whitworth’s, implies that he is acquainted with those of 
 Whitworth’s, and probably with much of the work, which ho 
 evidently is, and takes advantage of, such as conical spindles 
 and bushes ; . and of these and necessary parts being case- 
 hardened, &c. 
 
Machine Tools. 
 
 201 
 
 The foreign workman receives less wages, and works many 
 more hours per week than the English workman. Now these 
 facts count in favour of the foreign masters, but the foreign 
 workmen have not that stability of character nor steady applica- 
 tion to work that English workmen have, and therein lies the 
 secret of our superiority. 
 
 As far as my observation and experience have gone, I have 
 found that any average English workman — I speak now only for 
 this branch of trade, although I doubt not it would apply to 
 others — can do more work in a given time than an average 
 foreign workman. But, as I have said, it will be well for us not 
 to lose sight of the fact that they are certainly following us. 
 
 Commencing at the South-East end of the Machinery Hall, 
 there is in the Russian Department a very good small slide lathe, 
 six-inch centres, from St. Petersburg, very fair both in work- 
 manship and design ; the only part that can be found fault with 
 is the change wheels : they are too slender, and the pitch too 
 fine ; they are cut-teeth, and appear to be well in gear, but too 
 weak for the size of the lathe and to bear much work. But for 
 the wheels I should consider it altogether a very good copy of an 
 English lathe, such as is generally made for gentlemen amateurs. 
 A good supply of chucks and face-plates, as bell-chuck, drill- 
 chucks, &c., and a very good four -jaw chuck, well put together, 
 with jaws case-hardened, and case-hardened spindle in driving 
 head-stock, with conical necks, 'which were also case-hardened. 
 
 By the same maker, a wall drilling machine (that is, a machine 
 fastened upright to the wall), worked by a treadle; workmanship 
 only moderate, and very poor principle of design all throughout; 
 bad position for driving pulleys, on a shaft supported by a 
 bracket on left-hand side of spindle, and very close to the head 
 of a workman when standing in front, as it is about the same 
 height from the ground ; very poor in self-acting feed arrange- 
 ment. When it is required to throw the worm shaft for self- 
 acting out of gear, the bearings are loosened and are knocked 
 along the slope in which they are, sufficiently for the purpose. 
 For similar machines to the above, English makers have 
 several very neat arrangements for self-action. There was also 
 an 18 -inch slide lathe with gap in the bed — very complicated in 
 change wheels and reversing motion — in which there arc too many 
 wheels, and with five wheels to work the carriage along with the 
 handle (whereas a wheel and pinion with the handle would do); 
 hand- wheel, which is not required, for working back gear shaft 
 longitudinally into gear with the wheel and pinion on spindle; 
 conical bearings on spindle working in brass bushes; oil cups, 
 
202 
 
 Machine Tools. 
 
 that will hold about half a pint of oil on headstock, which are 
 quite unnecessary, and so large they must often be in the way. 
 The top slide of the rest overhangs the bottom one, some inches 
 back and front, and the tool must necessarily spring very much 
 when any pressure comes upon it. A lathe like this one ought 
 to be able to take half-inch or five -eighths of an inch off a cut, but 
 it would not do anything like that without springing very much. 
 Now, if the two lathes reported on above — the one good and the 
 other poor — are meant to be copies, it is proof that the faults 
 of a machine are copied as well as the good principles ; but 
 if they be really their makers’ own, it shows that they are 
 in the field with us, and may in time become formidable 
 competitors, by improving as necessity requires or experience 
 teaches them. 
 
 Another exhibitor in this department, amongst other things, 
 exhibits a good model of steam-hammer with uprights made of 
 boiler plate. 
 
 F. Zimmerman , Hungary , exhibits a few tools, but nothing 
 new, most of them well got up ; but on such parts as are straight 
 from the planing machine, the tool marks are very coarse 
 indeed ; also a very large face-plate with four jaws to slide in 
 slots, meant for a four-jawed chuck, is without bushes for the 
 screws to work against. The collar of the screw works against 
 two projections, one on each side of the slot. 
 
 In the Austrian Department, Ausser.Beurtheilung has a good 
 show of very fair ordinary tools, but nothing new amongst them. 
 
 Th. Schultz and L. Goebel , Vienna , exhibit a steam-hammer 
 of ordinary make, very fair workmanship ; double-shearing 
 machine, with vertical engine on same foundation-plate cylinder, 
 driving upward to crank-shaft ; two fly-wheels ; gearing for 
 driving-shaft on top of machine very fair, heav) 7- , which shaft 
 works the shear slides ; long 3-inch bolts from underside of 
 foundation plate up sides of machine, two to each cap to take 
 the strain when the shears are cutting. Altogether a very ugly 
 and clumsy machine, the roughest casting in the Exhibition, very 
 poor workmanship indeed. Cylinder cover on the engine chipped 
 and filed round, and pieces knocked out at the joint about half an 
 inch deep ; both shears set at an angle to the machine. They 
 would not state the price ; said it was sold. This is not to be 
 compared to De Bergues’ machine, which was working at a short 
 distance from it. 
 
 Johann Hipp , Vienna , had a good stock of foot lathes of 
 various kinds, some with wood beds and some with iron ; some 
 wood poppet heads, and some iron headstocks, very well fitted 
 
Machine Tools. 
 
 203 
 
 together, and made of hard wood, and nicely proportioned in 
 their various parts, with the exception of one, about 15 -inch 
 centres, the headstocks of which looked slender and ill-propor- 
 tioned ; the ends and bottom 1 inch thick, with not even rounded 
 corners, which would have strengthened it a bit. It might do 
 for turning wood, discs, &c., which are light, but require a large 
 diameter. 
 
 For Germany, Joh. Zimmerman , in Chemnitz , makes, as I have 
 said, a good exhibition of tools, well finished in their various parts. 
 Steam-hammer very good and neat. Large punching and shearing 
 machine, to punch at one end and shear at the other, with, near 
 the middle of the machine, a pair of shears for cutting angle 
 iron, heavy body casting, well proportioned, and good gearing, 
 only ordinary disengaging motion. 
 
 Good large-size planing machine, with a sort of press to hold 
 the work, to take in about 10 feet long, but which did not appear 
 suitable for anything of bulk ; it had in it a long cast-iron strip , 
 which might be done better in an ordinary planing machine. It 
 might do for edging plates which would not go in an ordinary 
 machine. 
 
 The steel-cutting tools were made of round steel ground off at 
 an angle, and which are, in most shops, taking the place of the 
 forged tools, which have to be bent up. 
 
 A very good wheel-cutting lathe for large sized wheels, bevel 
 or others, was exhibited. A second small bed worked about 
 beside the lathe in which the wheel is placed, to any angle to 
 suit bevel wheels ; this extra bed carries a rest with the planing 
 tool, and is worked longitudinally by a screw in the bed, and 
 driven with pulleys at the end with reversing motion, each tooth 
 being moved round as required. 
 
 Collett and Engleharn , Off enbach-on-the- Maine, had a side- 
 planing machine, and other large tools, similar to Zimmerman’s, 
 but not equal to them in finish. 
 
 Ateliers Ducommun , Elsass , had a good exhibit of small slide 
 lathes, and a few other tools. This is the maker whose prices 
 are equal to Whitworth’s, and he has imitated Whitworth as 
 nearly as he could in make, and also in case hardening the 
 various parts of wrought-iron work, such as screws, nuts, 
 screw keys, &c., with the tool marks left in. Lathe spindles are 
 also case hardened. Almost all the flat surfaces, and some large 
 surfaces, which we do in the shaping or planing machine, were 
 done with a revolving cutter, while the work is moved about 
 under it, as it may be held in a rest. The cutter leaves circular 
 marks about three inches in diameter. They are scarcely so 
 
204 
 
 Machine Tools. 
 
 deep as the ordinary shaping machine tool marks ; but I 
 think the work is not likely to be so true, in consequence of 
 there being more rubbing surface, and any inequalities in the 
 work would soon find out the back lash, as it is called, or play in 
 the spindle, and would give way at these places. 
 
 The Markise Maschinen Fabrick , Vorm, formerly Kamp and 
 Co., exhibit a very large steam hammer : ordinary make, 
 
 moderate finish, but only remarkable for its size, foundation, 
 and uprights of boiler plate. 
 
 Bede and Co., Verniers, Belgium, exhibit a multiple drilling 
 machine, for four drills, not very good workmanship : price, 
 
 5.000 francs, about £200. Boring lathe, moderately good : 
 
 7.000 francs, about £280. Ordinary hand lathe, about 7 inches 
 centre, short bed, about equal to the above for workmanship : 
 1,800 francs, about £72. 
 
 Dandoy, Maillard, Lucy, and Co., Nord Maubeuge, France , 
 have some small machinery of various kinds, but only very poor 
 in finish, and nothing new about them. 
 
 Passing over the British into the American Department, there 
 are a few very good small lathes and small planing machines 
 of good finish, but nothing large in the tool line. 
 
 I cannot pass over, however, a case of workmen’s tools without 
 a word or two. They are very good indeed; I may say, I think, 
 the best case in the Machine Hall; they are well got up, 
 and are warranted true, and are all hard-straight edges, of 
 various lengths, squares of different sizes, callipers, slide, and 
 other gauges, &c., and there is an excellent case of twisted drills 
 for various kinds of work, and of all sizes. 
 
 B. and S. Massey, Openshaw , show good small steam hammers, 
 from about £ cwt. to 3 or 4 cwt. For general smith-work, these 
 are very useful sizes. Thwaites and Carbutt, Bradford, have 
 steam hammers and tilt hammers of ordinary make and work- 
 manship. The Kirkstall Forge Company, Leeds, show some 
 large self-acting steam hammers, and D. Davis, Newport, 
 exhibits patent self-acting steam strikers, to replace ordinary 
 hand-striking. They seem very handy and useful tools for light 
 smith-work. D. New and Co., Nottingham, exhibit planing 
 machine ; amongst a large stock of goods, a radial-arm drilling 
 machine, shaping machine, and wheel lathe, but only of very ordi- 
 nary make and workmanship. Id. Hind and Son, Nottingham, 
 have almost a similar stock, of about the same degree of finish 
 on them, with a few good parallel vices and chucks. Without 
 going into the description of each machine exhibited by Sharp, 
 Stewart, and Co., Manchester, I may say, without doubt, they 
 
Machine Tools. 
 
 205 
 
 are the best tools of their kind in the Exhibition. There is 
 something solid about their build, and they look as though they 
 would work without straining. A slot drilling machine and 
 planing machine displays very good workmanship ; but I need say 
 nothing about that, for they would not be allowed to leave the 
 works unless they were well finished. Very good double-head 
 shaping machine, on the tables of which lies a locomotive 
 connecting rod, to show the adaptability of the machine to 
 work at both ends of the rod at the same time. The rod is 
 finished at both ends in the hollows beautifully. Of course the 
 ability of a good workman must count for something, but still 
 there is credit due to the machine. 
 
 Lastly comes De Bergae , Manchester , with very well finished 
 tools, the best exhibited for the purposes for which they are 
 intended. The punching and shearing machines work so very 
 steadily and with such ease that they cannot be surpassed, I 
 think, by any of the foreign makers. The principle is very good, 
 too, of throwing the weight of the head alternately on each side, 
 so that it helps to do the work, through the head being fixed on 
 a rocking shaft. The construction is very simple, and there are 
 not many parts that can get out out of repair. A large punch- 
 ing and shearing machine for shearing angle iron, works very 
 well, and makes as clean a cut as any machine I have ever 
 come across. Their rivet-making machine is so well known that 
 I may pass it over ; but there is a small machine working next to 
 it w r hich ought to be mentioned ; it is for finishing off the rivet 
 head. In making rivets, though the bar iron is cut into certain 
 lengths, it is not always equal in diameter; it therefore happens 
 that there is more iron in the die than is required for the rivet ; 
 this surplus is forced out as a rim round the head. This machine 
 cuts off this rim as follows. There is a horizontal rocking shaft, 
 which has in it a die which can be changed at pleasure ; as this 
 shaft is rocked out by a cam, the workman throws in a bolt; it 
 rocks back, and a ram comes down ; the plunger is cup-shaped, 
 and has behind it a spring, which allows it so much time to get 
 the bolt in the centre of the die, as it has so much play, before 
 the solid plunger is down to force the rivet through the die, which 
 just cuts off the rim and leaves a clean round head. They also 
 exhibit a small tool, which is very simple, to do away with the 
 crowbar or lever, in raising the rails on the permanent way; it is 
 called a leveller. To a plate that rests on the ground is hinged 
 a short lever, which is raised or lowered by a screw sufficiently 
 long for the purpose; the top of the screw is square, so that the 
 handle with which it is worked may be taken off, to allow a train 
 
20(3 
 
 Machine Tools. 
 
 to pass over. They are cheap and simple, and a less number of 
 men are required to do the repairs. 
 
 In conclusion, I may say that I left the British Department 
 till the last, because, being most familiar with English tools, I 
 had them in mind as a standard with which to compare the others 
 that I examined, and by this means I was the better able to judge 
 of their quality. I have only dwelt on those tools which I thought 
 required special reference. 
 
 
 
 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 By JOHN FOX, Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Locomotive 
 
 Works , Bury. 
 
 rT THERE are forty-seven locomotives exhibited at Vienna. Of 
 X these, Germany contributes eighteen ; Austria, fourteen ; 
 Belgium, five ; France, three ; England, Russia, and Italy, two 
 each ; and Hungary one. It seems a pity that in such a large 
 collection of locomotives, America should be altogether unre- 
 presented, and England and France so poorly. One of the 
 French engines and both the English are only contractors’ 
 locomotives, so that England is hardly better represented than 
 America. The reason Germany is so well represented is due in 
 a great measure to its proximity to the Exhibition. As regards 
 the construction of the engines, most of them differ from English 
 practice, so far as regards detail, but not as regards their general 
 construction ; for instance, they have all either inside or outside 
 cylinders, tubular boilers, and the inevitable blast pipe, though 
 in the construction of one engine the cylinders have been placed 
 on the sides of the foot-plate next to the fire-box. Most of the 
 valve gears and all of the cylinders, with the exception of one 
 pair, are placed outside the framing, which, of course, makes 
 them appear more complicated than they really are. The 
 motion work of one of the engines exhibited projects about 2 ft. 
 6 in. beyond the rails at both sides of the engine. The reasons 
 assigned for adopting this plan arc that the motion work is more 
 easily got at, and secondly no crank axle is required ; and if the 
 cylinders are securely fixed to the framing, and at the same time 
 placed horizontally, or nearly so, the engine will run with great 
 steadiness, provided the wheels are properly balanced. Some of 
 the engines are very large and heavy, and have as short a wheel 
 base as it is possible to let them have (in order to facilitate 
 their going round curves), which, of course, makes it worse for 
 the permanent way. A great many of them have very large fire- 
 boxes, partly on account of the inferior evaporative power of the 
 fuel used, and partly on account of the increased power of engine 
 required. These engines have been designed according to the 
 work they have to do. In designing an engine, the main points 
 
208 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 to be considered are as follows : — What load will it be required 
 to draw besides the weight of itself and tender ? at what speed ? 
 What is the maximum rise of the inclines ? and what is the 
 minimum radius of the curves of line over which it will have to 
 draw the load ? and lastly, what is the evaporative power of the 
 fuel intended to be used ? No doubt all these points will have 
 had due weight in the designing of the locomotives exhibited, 
 which will account for the large dimensions of some of them. 
 For instance, on the Austrian railways, most of the coal used is 
 of an inferior quality, and part of the country through which 
 they pass is very mountainous, such as the Semmering Pass; and 
 then again they take trains of forty and fifty carriages and 
 waggons, and most of the third and fourth-class passengers are 
 conveyed by the goods trains, which on an average run slower 
 than our goods trains. As to the w T orkmanship, all the German 
 engines, with the exception of three, as well as three of the 
 Belgian and one of the French, arc quite equal to the very best 
 engines we turn out, which at once shows us that we have met 
 our match as far as regards the practical part of the business is 
 concerned ; and we all know that the Belgian, German, and French 
 workmen understand as a rule more about the theoretical part of 
 their business than the majority of the English workmen do ; but 
 then they have greater facilities for obtaining it ; for instance, 
 the Socidte Anonyme de Marcinclle et Couillet, Belgium, which 
 employs about 6,500 workmen, as well as M. Schneider, of 
 Creusot, France, who employs upwards of 10,000 men, not 
 only look after the comfort of their workmen and their families 
 by providing them with comfortable and well-ventilated houses 
 to live in, but they also provide a number of schools of different 
 grades, from the lowest to the highest, without any restrictions 
 as to either age or sex, and no fees to pay. In the advanced 
 schools, instruction is given in all science subjects connected 
 with mechanical engineering, so that if the men or youths have 
 anything in them, it will be their own fault if they do not profit 
 by the privileges that arc granted to them. I think if English 
 workmen were brought up under such favourable circumstances, 
 they would be able to say of the theoretical part of their busi- 
 ness what they can say of the practical part, that they may have 
 their equals but not their superiors. Of course, in England we 
 have our Colleges and Mechanics’ Institutes, where instruction 
 may be obtained on reasonable terms ; but there is not enough 
 stimulus to encourage working men above a certain age to attend 
 such places. There is no doubt that Sir Joseph Whitworth’s 
 scholarships have done a great deal to further technical educa- 
 
Locomotive Engines . 
 
 200 
 
 tion in this country ; but as the stipulated age is rather low, all 
 above that age have no inducement held out to them ; and 
 I think if Government offered similar advantages, only more in 
 proportion to what is required in this large centre of engineering 
 industry, and to bond fide working men only, it would raise the 
 standard of technical education in England, and put us more on 
 an equality with our Continental neighbours. 
 
 In making my Report, I examined each engine separately and 
 carefully, taking down a description of the leading peculiarities. 
 In the number of pages that I have to fill in the volume of 
 Reports, it will be, of course, impossible for me to get in half my 
 notes. In fact they make a good sized volume in themselves. 
 I should have much liked to have published them all, but editors 
 are autocrats. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 This Exhibition is, 1 believe, the first at which Russia has put 
 in an appearance, so far as locomotives are concerned. In one 
 of these (the “ Kaloma ”) the workmanship is first-class, and 
 the wheels are the best in the Exhibition. If made by Russian 
 workmen, they do them credit indeed. Both engines are a credit 
 to Russian industry. Each engine has peculiarities of its own, 
 rendered necessary by the conditions under which it works ; 
 such as double dampers, the second one being at the rear, to 
 keep out the snow, and water cocks on the sides of the tender to 
 enable the driver to see what his water supply is on long 
 journeys. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Exhibits a goods engine constructed by Ilerr Zimmerman, Pesth. 
 Its outside cranks are made on a plan invented by Mr. Hall, an 
 Englishman, the patent right of which has been sold by him to 
 Herr G. Sigl, of Vienna, who is a large contributor of locomo- 
 tives to this Exhibition, and who employs about 1,500 men at 
 his works in Vienna. Ilis cranks (which are almost elliptical in 
 the body part, and about two inches thick) have very long 
 losses, which form the bearing surfaces for the axle boxes, 
 which, of course, will be very large. The advantage gained by 
 adopting this crank is that the motion work can be placed near 
 the framing, which, on one of the engines exhibited, projects 
 about 2 ft. 6 in. from the rails at each side, as I have said. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Exhibits the only inside cylinder engine in the Exhibition. It 
 has been constructed at the works of the State Railway, of 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 which Mr. J. Haswell is director. In 1852 the Austrian Govern- 
 ment offered several prizes for engines, each one of which was to 
 draw, besides its own weight and that of its tender, a gross load 
 of 110 tons, at a speed of ten miles an hour, up the thirteen 
 miles on the north side of the Semmering ; the greatest rise on 
 this part of the line being one in forty for a distance of two and 
 a half miles, and the average one in forty-seven. The least 
 radius of the curves on this part of the line being nine and a 
 half chains. Herr J. Maffei, of Hirschau, near Munich, won 
 the first prize. In his engine he secured great adhesion to the 
 rails by coupling the tender wheels by means of an endless chain, 
 but it had soon to be abandoned ; then Herr Engerth, engineer 
 to the State Railway, to overcome the difficulty, constructed 
 an engine on the following principle, though slightly modified. 
 There are a great many of these engines at present running on 
 the State Railway of Austria, and the following will give an 
 idea of the principle of their construction : — The side frames of 
 the tender are extended past the front of the fire-box, and are 
 made to support part of its weight. A strong wr ought-iron 
 transverse stay is bolted to leading end of tender framing in 
 front of fire-box. The centre of this stay is the point where the 
 engine exerts its draught upon the tender, which can, therefore, 
 move radially round this point to suit the curves of the line. 
 The leading end of the engine is carried on two pairs of wheels, 
 and the tender has three pairs of wheels ; the leading pair are 
 under centre of fire-box. Each cylinder has two round guide 
 bars placed above the centre line of cylinder ; and though they 
 may not look as well as the ordinary rectangular bars, their 
 prime cost is less ; besides, when they are worn they can be 
 easily skimmed up in a lathe, and their blocks bushed ; and 
 further, they will not require re-setting, as is the case with the 
 ordinary class of guide bars. The steam-pipe is led down at 
 right hand side of dome instead of through the smoke-box, which 
 leaves more room in the latter place to get at the tubes when 
 they require caulking. 
 
 There is a goods engine, constructed by Herr Sigl, at Vienna, 
 which has superseded the Engerth engine on the Semmering 
 incline. Its trailing springs are placed wider apart than the 
 others, and are connected by a transverse compensating lever, 
 the springs resting on its extreme ends, and the pillars from the 
 axle boxes resting inside next to the springs ; this is to clear the 
 fire-box. The dome is placed on leading end of boiler, and the 
 regulator-spindle stuffing box is placed on the right-hand side of 
 dome casing ; a long lever, which is curved in order to clear the 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 211 
 
 boiler, is fitted on to the end of regulator spindle, and is coupled 
 by a short rod to a long rod, which works through brackets 
 (similar to handrail brackets), and extends to footplate, where a 
 longitudinal thrust will work the regulator valve. This plan of 
 working the regulator valve has been adopted by several 
 exhibitors, some coupling the longitudinal rod to a curved 
 lever, the fulcrum of which is on top of fire-box ; and in one 
 instance it is coupled to a bell-crank lever, with the fulcrum 
 above the footplate, the thrust being vertical ; in this position 
 the driver will be able to work the regulator with great facility ; 
 and, lastly, in one or two engines it is coupled to a vertical 
 lever, which w r orks on the same fulcrum as the reversing lever. 
 This engine is very heavy, being about fifty tons in working 
 order. 
 
 The “Orient” is an outside-cylinder engine from the State 
 Works. All the springs are connected with each other by 
 compensating beams, and the trailing springs are connected by 
 a transverse compensating beam. The boiler is worked at a 
 pressure of 12 atmospheres effective, or 176-4 lbs. per square 
 inch, which, at the present time, is considered rather high. This 
 engine will only weigh about 20 tons in working order, and is 
 intended for running round curves of small radius, on a 39.37- 
 inch gauge, and will, no doubt, do a deal of work for its size. 
 
 The “ Stainz ” is a goods engine, and has been constructed 
 at the State Works, on Ilaswell’s system. Both eccentrics are 
 forged together in one piece. The trailing wheels are made the 
 drivers, which necessitates a long connecting rod, and also admits 
 of a long eccentric rod, both of which are two very good points. 
 This plan has been adopted in the construction of several of the 
 exhibited engines. 
 
 The “Kaiser Franz Josef” is a goods engine. It is exhibited 
 by the State Railway. It has been running since 1870, and was 
 constructed at the same works as the last two engines, and is the 
 1,000th locomotive that has been turned out from those works, 
 where they employ about 1,100 hands, and where they not orly 
 make locomotives for their own line, but also for other lines, 
 just the same as a contract shop. Last year they turned out 
 between 90 and 100 locomotives. 
 
 The “Austria” is a goods engine. It is the only engine in 
 the Exhibition that carries its water in a saddle-back tank on the 
 top of the boiler, with the exception of one of the small English 
 engines. This engine is carried entirely on volute springs, three 
 to each wheel. The chimney is cast-iron all through, as is the 
 covering for the dome. The latter will be heavy, compared 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 with the ordinary light sheet brass or copper ones. It is the 
 only engine exhibited that has its coupling rod ends bushed ; the 
 bushes, instead of being keyed in as usual, have ears cast on their 
 outside faces, and are secured by means of studs and nuts. The 
 valve gear of this engine is of the stationary link type, placed 
 inside, and reversed with screw gear. In this gear, the expansion 
 link is suspended from its centre by two links, the other ends of 
 which vibrate on a fixed centre. The eccentric rod ends couple 
 to the ends of the expansion link, as in the ordinary shifting 
 link motion. When the two centres of the tw'o end holes of 
 expansion link are vertical, the centre of the curve will be at 
 the centre of that hole in valve link which couples to valve 
 spindle socket. When it is required to reverse or shorten the 
 traverse of the valves, the trailing ends of valve links, to which 
 are coupled the expansion link blocks, arc either raised or lowered 
 as the case may be, and not the expansion links, which are only 
 allow ed to move in a longitudinal direction ; that is, if we dis- 
 regard the vertical motion given to them by the suspension links 
 from which they are suspended ; because, as long as these links 
 vibrate on fixed centres, they are obliged to describe curves, 
 and, of course, raise and lower the expansion links, and the 
 shorter the suspension links, the greater the vertical motion. 
 With this valve gear the lead of the valve will be constant at all 
 degrees of expansive working. 
 
 The “ Rittinger ” is a passenger engine constructed for the 
 Southern Railway of Austria, by the same maker as last engine. 
 Its leading end is carried on a four-w r heeled bogie. The eccentrics 
 are wrought-iron and the ones next to the outside cranks are 
 forged solid with them. The trailing cranks have large washers 
 forged solid with them (their width being equal to the width of 
 the tw'o eccentrics which are placed between the driving cranks 
 and the framing), the object being to keep the coupling rods 
 parallel, which of course is necessary. The workmanship of this 
 engine is very good, in fact it is the best finished of all Sigl’s 
 locomotives. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 The “Tauern” is a goods engine constructed by the 
 Sachsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz (formerly Richard 
 Hartmann). The forked joints which couple the trailing ends 
 of coupling rods to the driving ends are very long, being about 
 11 in. from centre of end holes to the root, and have besides 
 the ordinary coupling pins each an additional pin, the holes for 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 213 
 
 these pins being bored about 4 in. from root, the hole in the 
 he or straight part of joint being made elliptical, the major 
 axis of which is vertical in order to allow the requisite vertical 
 play. The object in having such a long fork and two pins in- 
 stead of one is to keep all the coupling rods in one straight line 
 when the engine is going round a curve, its trailing axle being 
 allowed lateral play, and the crank pins of this axle being made 
 wider than the brasses in order to allow the arrangement just 
 explained to accomplish the object for which it is designed. 
 This plan is adopted on nearly all the eight coupled engines 
 running on the Austrian Railways. 
 
 A goods engine constructed by F. Wohlert, Berlin, for the 
 Upper Silesian Railway. The water is carried in wing tanks, in 
 the sides of which three pieces of glass are placed about 12 in. 
 long by 2 in. wide, in order to tell the height of the water. 
 The smoke-box door is kept shut by means of four sliding bolts 
 placed at right angles to each other, each of which have two 
 brackets to guide them ; one handle placed in the centre will 
 move all four at once. The buffer beams consist of two long “]~ 
 irons, which are riveted to a f-in. plate ; they are fastened to 
 the end of the framing by means of angle irons, and are fur- 
 ther strengthened by means of gusset stays, which are rendered 
 necessary because the centres of the buffer shells, which are 
 wrought-iron and about 12 in. long, extend about 9 in. wide off 
 the edge of the framing. The trailing draw-bar is rather novel, 
 it is T -shaped at the inner end, which extends through buffer 
 plate about 2 \ ft. ; there are two holes in this cross-piece about 
 10 in. from centre to centre ; there are also two other holes in the 
 foot-plating about 12 in. from centre to centre, two links about 
 2 ft. long coupling the draw-bar to these holes in foot-plating, 
 which are the points where the draw-bar transmits the pres- 
 sure derived from the load of its train ; the two latter holes 
 are about 6 in. in front of buffer beam, the bearing surfaces 
 of which are increased by having thick plates riveted to them, as 
 is the usual plan with all draw-plates. The holes in the foot- 
 plating are wider apart from centre to centre than the 
 holes in the cross-piece of draw-bar, which therefore ensures a 
 stable ba.se for draw-bar ; the effect of this arrangement will be 
 just the same as if the draw-bar were made several times longer 
 and were coupled correspondingly nearer leading end. This 
 'plan is a very good one, and well worth copying. 
 
 The “Vulcan” is an outside cylinder engine constructed by 
 the Stettiner-Maschinenbau Actien Gesellschaft for the pas- 
 senger traffic of the Bergisch Markisch Railway. Its leading 
 
214 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 end is carried on a two-wheeled Bissell truck. The bearings, 
 clack boxes, and name plates, there are four of the latter, 
 namely, two at each side of the engine, are made of a new 
 metal which is called Neusilber, and rather too free use has been 
 made of it. This engine, which will weigh about 35 tons, will 
 draw a gross load of 140 tons in addition to its own weight and 
 that of its tender, at a speed of 30 miles an hour, up inclines of 
 1 in 72, and round curves of 984 ft. radius. The workmanship 
 of it is very good. 
 
 The “Nord” is a tank engine, constructed by the Berliner 
 Maschinenbau Actien Gesellschaft (formerly L. Schwartzkopff), 
 Berlin. Its trailing axle is fitted with Adams’ radial axle 
 boxes, and has one large spring placed transversely. Its 
 
 dome is furnished with a collecting pipe, which communi- 
 cates with the top of the fire-box, a plan adopted by a great 
 many exhibitors ; and the side cocks on fire-box casing are all 
 connected with one pipe. The workmanship of this engine is 
 very good. 
 
 A tank engine, constructed by Messrs. Krauss and Co., Munich, 
 has its leading springs placed above the axle, and the trailing 
 spring is placed transversely, so that the engine is only supported 
 on three points. The water is carried under boiler, between the 
 framing ; in fact, the framing itself forms the two sides of the 
 tank. This is a good point, because it lowers the centre of 
 gravity. The coal is carried in wing bunkers. The valve gear 
 is of the Allan or straight link type, and is placed outside, the 
 expansion link being simply a solid bar. The regulator spindle 
 stuffing-box is placed on the right-hand side of a small casing, 
 which is attached to top of boiler. A longitudinal rod about 
 g in. diameter, which serves the purpose of handrail as well, 
 couples to a lever which is fitted on to the end of regulator 
 spindle, the other end of rod extending to footplate within the 
 driver’s reach. This engine, which will weigh about 24 tons in 
 working order, is called a 150-horse power locomotive. The 
 'workmanship of this engine is very good, especially the motion 
 work. 
 
 A passenger engine, constructed by A. Borsig, Berlin, for the 
 Berlin, Potsdam, and Magdeburg Bailway. It bears the number 
 3031, which represents the number constructed by A. Borsig 
 when he finished this. The balance 'weights are forged solid 
 with the wheels, and resemble a lune. The coupling rod brasses 
 are tightened up by means of wedges and screws. Both the 
 connecting and coupling rods are recessed, the cross section 
 of which is a segment of a circle. The workmanship is really 
 
Locomotive Engines. 215 
 
 first-class ; it is one of the best finished engines in the 
 Exhibition. 
 
 A small tank engine, made by the Maschinenfabrik und 
 Eisengiesserei, Darmstaat, for a 3 ft. 1£ in. gauge, has the 
 buffer beam of wrought-iron, and flanged at both edges, which 
 strengthens it considerably. This engine is badly fitted up, and 
 does not do credit to its makers ; and the same may be said of the 
 adjoining engine by the same makers. 
 
 In the “Bismarck,” all the wheels have a fancy brass plate, 
 about 7 in. diameter, screwed on their centres with 4 small 
 cup-headed screws. Brass liners are placed between the axle- 
 boxes and horn blocks. The piston-rod glands are wrought-iron, 
 and are bushed with brass, which is a good plan. The cylinders 
 are clothed with sheet brass, the cylinder covers having a fancy 
 beaded brass plate placed on their outside. The injectors couple 
 right to feed pipes imder footplate. The clack boxes look well. 
 The fitting-up of this engine is first-class. 
 
 The “Linden” is a goods engine, constructed by the same firm 
 as the “Bismarck.” One inverted spring at each side of the 
 engine, placed longitudinally, serves for both driving and trailing 
 axles, the spring pillars being attached to the ends, and the 
 springs to the centre of compensating beams. The balance 
 weight for valve gear is about 2 ft. 2 in. long, by about 7 in. 
 diameter, and is placed between two of the weigh-bar shaft arms, 
 being secured by two large sett screws, which screw into it from 
 the outside of the arms. When there is room, this plan of 
 fixing it is very handy. The gauge-glass cock handles are 
 coupled, and the socket end of a horizontal rod about 18 in. 
 long, which works in brackets placed on the fire-box casing plate, 
 fits on to the end of the bottom gauge cock plug, so that in case 
 the gauge-glass gets broken, both gauge cocks can be shut at once 
 at a distance of 18 in. from bottom cock, which is the length 
 of the socket rod which is fitted on bottom plug. The jet cock is 
 placed on the top of the leading end of boiler, and is opened 
 and shut from footplate by means of the right-hand side hand- 
 rail, which also is in communication wdth a small cock which is 
 screwed into the flange of pipe which is attached to clack box. 
 This cock is to show whether the injectors and pipes are all right. 
 A rod which passes down the centre of left-hand side handrail is 
 connected to a bell crank, which is placed on side of smoke-box, 
 and works the cylinder cock motion. This handrail is also con- 
 nected to a similar cock, which is attached to clack box at the 
 right-hand side. It is a common practice with Continental 
 builders to make the handrail serve for something else besides its 
 
216 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 own especial purpose. The workmanship of this engine is first- 
 class. 
 
 A goods engine, constructed by J. A. Maffei, Hirschaw, near 
 Munich, for the Bavarian State Railway, is the 900th locomotive 
 he has turned out, and is of the great width of 10 ft. Its 
 cylinders are slightly inclined, and are fixed to the framing at 
 each corner by two 1^-in. bolts. The guide bars extend beyond 
 the transverse stays to which they are bolted, which is a good 
 plan, because it will give more support to them than if they had 
 been fixed as usual at their extreme ends. The workmanship of 
 this engine is first-class. 
 
 The “Hessen” is a goods engine, constructed by Messrs. 
 Ilenschel and Son, of Cassel, for the Bergisch Markisch Rail- 
 way. This engine has only four springs, and is, therefore, only 
 supported on four points. The longitudinal distance between 
 these points being only about 7 ft. 9 in., there will, therefore, be 
 a great deal of overhanging w’eight at trailing end, a thing not 
 to be desired when running quick, on account of the oscillating 
 movement it will produce. The leading springs are connected 
 by a transverse compensating beam, which vibrates on a pin 
 which is fixed in two transverse stays, the beams going between 
 these stays. One inverted spring placed at each side of the 
 engine serves for both driving and trailing axles ; it is placed 
 underneath the framing, between the driving and trailing wheels, 
 the framing being connected to the under side of spring buckles. 
 The end holes of the springs are connected by means of long 
 links to the compensating beams, which are made of tw’o plates, 
 placed above the framing ; the beams extend both over the 
 centre of both driving and trailing axles, and are made to bear 
 on to the axle boxes by the intervention of short bars of iron, 
 which work through guides fastened to framing. A bracket is 
 fixed over the centre of each spring on the top of framing ; it 
 goes between the plates, which form the compensating beams, 
 and is provided with a vertical slot, in which a block is allowed 
 to slide, through the centre of block a pin is placed, which also 
 passes through a hole in centre of compensating beam, the object 
 of this being to allow’ the beam vertical, but no horizontal or side 
 play. This plan is adopted in the construction of several other 
 exhibited engines. The guide bars are very long ; the reason 
 is, no doubt, that if the transverse stays to which they are 
 secured were placed nearer the cylinders, the wheels must 
 either be placed inside the framing (in this engine they are 
 placed outside the framing), made of a less diameter, or be placed 
 nearer the cylinders ; the latter plan would of course increase 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 217 
 
 the wheel base, or, in other words, would decrease the facility for 
 running round curves, and the first plan would necessitate the use 
 of outside cranks ; and to reduce the size of the wheels would 
 interfere with the work the engine is intended to do. The 
 regulator, spindle stuffing-box is placed rather high, with regard 
 to foot plate, so high that if the ordinary upright lever were 
 fitted directly on to the end of regulator spindle, the majority of 
 the drivers w r ould not be able to open and shut the regulator 
 with facility without being elevated above the footplate, in order 
 to have the lever a convenient height, and still retain the same 
 amount of leverage, the following plan has been adopted, viz., 
 a bracket in which a pin is fixed is placed on the casing plate of 
 fire-box about 14 in. below stuffing-box; on this pin an 
 ordinary regulator lever w’orks, on the boss of which is forged a 
 horizontal arm, which is at right angles to centre line of lever, 
 and in which a hole is bored about 3 in. from centre of 
 boss, to which a connecting rod about 14 in., centre to centre, 
 is coupled, and transmits the motion given to lever to a similar 
 arm, which is fitted on regulator spindle, and thereby works 
 regulator valve. Though not complicated, similar plans might 
 have been adopted as lias been done on other engines in the 
 Exhibition, but at the same time the handle of the lever could 
 not have been placed in the ordinary position as it is in this 
 engine, and the leverage and direction of thrust remain the same ; 
 if the lever w r as fitted with the handle placed below the spindle, 
 it w'ould be too low. The boiler is made on Becker’s system, 
 slightly modified, the crown plate casing being semicircular in 
 this fire-box, and in Becker’s system fiat for about half its 
 width. 
 
 The “ Dniepr ” is a passenger engine constructed by Herr 
 Emil Kessler, Esslingen, Wiirtcmberg, for the Carl-Ludwigs 
 Bahn. The slide valves are Iiasw T ell’s Patent ; their 
 traverse can be shortened without w f ire-drawing the steam so 
 much as in the ordinary valve. Both connecting and coupling 
 rods are made of steel, and the cross section of the coupling rods 
 next to their eyes is about 24 in. by 1J in. Their cotters are 
 secured as follow's : a piece of iron in which a slot is made is 
 fitted into that part of the rod end-eye through which the cotter 
 hole is cut ; when the cotter is put into its place a stud is screwed 
 into it near its centre ; the piece of iron is then put in (the stud 
 passing through the slot), and by means of a nut it is screwed to 
 the side of cotter, which is then prevented from working out. 
 This plan is largely adopted on the Continent. The boiler 
 is fed by two of Schau’s patent injectors ; they arc made by 
 
218 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 Schaffer and Biidenberg, and will supply 200 lbs. of water in a 
 minute. 
 
 A tank engine is constructed by Messrs. Krauss and Co., 
 Munich, for a 2 ft. 7 in. gauge. The ends of the expansion 
 links are slotted, and the eccentric rod ends fit into the slots. 
 The reversing gear of this engine is both novel and simple. 
 There is a horizontal bar 1|- in. by f in. fixed on the right-hand 
 side of fire-box, on which a slide block is fitted ; the reversing 
 rod (which is provided with a handle screwed into it at right 
 angles) couples to this block, which can be held in any desired 
 position by means of a spring and clip. Short spiral springs are 
 placed between the nuts and washers of every cock-plug on 
 Messrs. Krauss’ engines, which of course will increase the dura- 
 bility of the plug and its bearing. This engine is called a 
 30-horse power locomotive, and will weigh about six tons in 
 working order. 
 
 There is a tank engine made by the Maschinenbau-Gesellschaft 
 Carlsruhe for a 31 -in. gauge. The motion of the expansion link 
 is communicated to the valve link by a link similar 
 fj? to sketch ; it oscillates on a pin placed a little below 
 the bottom guide-bar, the valve link coupling to the 
 top hole, and the expansion link block works on a 
 pin fixed in middle hole. I was informed that this link 
 ^ was a very good contrivance for the object already stated, 
 and that it was worth making a note of ; but the same 
 kind of link was used twenty years ago in England ; in fact I 
 myself fitted up a valve gear with similar links three years since 
 for an 18-in. cylinder engine, viz., the “Iron Duke,” now running 
 on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. This engine has 
 only three springs, viz., two leaders, which are placed above the 
 axles, and one transverse trailer. The framing has a cast-iron 
 box stay at leading end placed between the cylinders. The small 
 cinders which are drawn through the tubes into the smoke-box 
 by the draught may be discharged through a cast-iron pipe which 
 is placed in the bottom of smoke-box ; the orifice of this pipe 
 can be opened and closed at pleasure. There is a great quantity 
 of cast-iron used in the construction of this engine, the work- 
 manship of which is very good. 
 
Locomotive Engines . 
 
 219 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 A passenger engine is exhibited by the Societe Anonyme de 
 Marcinelle et Couillet for the Grand Central Railway of Belgium, 
 the same firm having already turned out nineteen similar engines 
 for the same railway, besides seven more which are in the course 
 of construction at their works at Couillet. These engines, take 
 daily, trains composed of twenty-one vehicles, at a speed of 
 37 j miles per hour, over a road which has an incline of 1 in 
 200, and a train of nine vehicles at a speed of about 25 miles 
 per hour, up an incline of 1 in 55 : the mean consumption of 
 fuel per mile having been 34 J lbs. of the semi-bituminous coal 
 obtained from the basin of Charleroi, which the makers say is 
 a remarkable result when the road over which they have to run 
 is taken into consideration. The cylinders are placed between 
 the leading and central axles, and the guide bars arc very long 
 on account of the trailing wheels being made the drivers ; but in 
 order to secure rigidity two £ plates are riveted to their sides, 
 and when once set they have no occasion to be taken down to be 
 straightened up, as they are provided with steel plates about f in. 
 thick, which are fixed to the inside of the guide bars by means 
 of set screws. The valve gear is very complicated, the valves 
 having expansion slides, and there are, therefore, two valve 
 spindles to each cylinder. The gear that works the main slide 
 is of the Walschaert type, and is always placed in full gear, 
 being only used to reverse by the cut-off being regulated by the 
 expansion gear. The latter gear is known as Guinott6’s gear. 
 When the auxiliary gear is set for any degree of expansive 
 working, it is immaterial whether the main gear is placed either 
 in fore or back gear, the cut-off will remain the same. The main 
 gear is reversed by a lever, and can only be put in three posi- 
 tions, viz., fore, mid, and back gear, the expansion gear being 
 regulated by a screw. There is no doubt that the object for 
 adopting this gear is to reduce the consumption of fuel ; but, 
 then, to use an old phrase, it is robbing Peter to pay Paul, and 
 it is a question whether Peter won’t require more to keep him in 
 working order, besides his increased prime cost, than it would 
 take to meet Paul’s original wants. I, myself, consider it no 
 saving so long as the working parts of such an important piece 
 of mechanism, which is subjected to such wear and tear as it is 
 in the locomotive, are so greatly increased as in this valve gear ; 
 
 , there is about as much work again as there is in ordinary gear. 
 As for the workmanship, it is first-class. 
 
 The “ Faurante ” is a goods engine, constructed by the 
 
220 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 Societe John Cockerill, Seraing, for the Upper Italian Railway 
 Company. I may mention, by the way, that these works, where 
 about 9,000 men are employed, were founded by a Lancashire 
 man, viz., the late John Cockerill, whose name they still 
 retain ; he was a native of Ilaslingden. In this engine the in- 
 jectors are placed horizontally under the footplate. This position 
 may be said to be the rule on the Continent, whereas in England 
 they are generally placed vertically above the footplate. This 
 engine is made more for work than show. 
 
 A six-wheeled coupled passenger engine has been designed and 
 constructed by Charles L. Cards, Ghent. In the construction 
 of this engine the cjdinders are placed horizontally on the foot 
 plate at the sides of fire-box between the trailing and central 
 axles, their centre line being about 3 ft. 8 in. above the centre 
 line of the wheels. Each cylinder is bolted down to a horizontal 
 plate, this plate being fixed to the top of main framing by means 
 of angle irons. The guide-bars are made out of about 3£-in. 
 angle iron, the bottom bar being riveted and the top bar bolted 
 to a vertical plate about J-in. thick, the leading end of which 
 is dog-legged and bolted to the side of piston rod stuffing-box, 
 which has a flat surface to receive it, the bottom edge being 
 secured to the same horizontal plate as cylinder. M. Belpaire, 
 Inspector-General of the Belgian State Railway, first suggested 
 the idea of putting the cylinder in this position, and claims for 
 it the following advantages, viz., great steadiness when the engine 
 is running at high speed, on account of the movement of the 
 piston and its attachments being in an opposite direction to that 
 of the coupling rods ; the motion work being placed a greater 
 distance from the rails, it will be more free from dirt, &c., and 
 will therefore last longer ; more of the moving parts will be 
 directly under the driver’s eye ; and, lastly, not being obliged to 
 oil except when required, a great saving of oil will be effected. 
 That there is room for improvement in the locomotive engine 
 there is not the slightest doubt, perfect though it may appear ; 
 and whether taking so much weight from leading end and placing 
 it at trailing end, which of course is altering the proportion of 
 the respective weights on trailing and leading axle in a twofold 
 ratio (to gain the advantages previously described), will be 
 a step in the right direction, remains to be proved, but I scarcely 
 think it will. In this engine the leading wheels are put as near 
 to the central wheels as possible, in order to increase the weight on 
 leading wheels. The leading end of framing extends about 7J ft. 
 past the centre of leading axle. The wheels are about 5 ft. 7 in. 
 diameter, and are placed inside the framing, the trailers being the 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 221 
 
 drivers. All the springs arc placed under the axles, and are con- 
 nected by bell cranks and rods. The front spring links of leading 
 springs are connected by bell cranks, as follows : the front spring 
 links are connected with the horizontal arms of two vertical bell 
 cranks which vibrate on pins fixed on the framing, and the vertical 
 arms are each connected by a horizontal tie-rod to the longitudinal 
 arm of a separate horizontal bell crank which vbirates on a pin 
 attached to the bottom edge of each framing ; the transverse 
 arms of these bell cranks are connected by a transverse tie-rod. 
 The trailing springs have a small pair of auxiliary springs placed 
 above the axle. The motions of the pistons are communicated 
 by means of two strong vertical vibrating beams to the driving 
 crank pins, these beams being placed in bearings on each side of 
 trailing end of footplate ; the piston rod connecting rods being 
 coupled to the top pins of the vibrating beams, and the driving 
 crank pin connecting rods coupling to the bottom pins of vibrating 
 beams. The valve gear, which at first sight appears complicated, 
 when scrutinised, is very simple — in fact it is Walschacrt’s gear 
 slightly modified: two long vibrating shafts about in. in 
 diameter are placed in bearings under footplate, the shafts 
 being about 9 in. from centre to centre ; on each of these shafts 
 are placed two short arms at each end, one of which is connected 
 by a long link to a short arm which is placed on the axis of 
 vibrating beam, which therefore gives the shaft a certain amount 
 of vibration, the arm on the same shaft placed at the other end 
 transmitting the motion to the expansion link, the centre of 
 which vibrates on a fixed centre above the footplate ; the expan- 
 sion links have each an arm about 9 in. long projecting from 
 their middle parts at right angles to the curved slots ; to this 
 part of expansion link, and not the bottom (as is the usual plan), 
 the afore-mentioned links couple. The links, therefore, that 
 communicate the motion to the expansion links move in a direc- 
 tion almost at right angles to the traverse of the valves, so that it 
 will be seen that the right-hand side slide valve derives its motion 
 from the left-hand side vibrating beam, and vice versa. The 
 motion given to the valve being, so far, similar to that which 
 would be obtained from a single eccentric if placed on driving axle 
 at right angles to crank, but, however, to give the requisite lead 
 to the valve both in backward and forward gear, the contrivance 
 introduced into Belgium by M. Walschacrt is adopted, which is 
 as follows : the ordinary valve link is not coupled direct to valve 
 spindle, but to a vertical link which has three holes in it ; the 
 two top holes are very near each other, the valve link couples 
 to the lower of these two holes, and the valve spindle to the 
 
222 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 top hole, while the bottom or third hole is connected with the 
 vibrating beam at such a distance from its centre as will give 
 the valve the extra motion required to allow' for its lap and give 
 it the requisite lead. Both the gauge-glass cocks and the usual 
 auxiliary three-side cocks are screwed into a column which is 
 fixed on back fire-box casing plate. The steam pipes are placed 
 outside the boiler, but they are protected by casings. The 
 exhaust steam pipes go along footplate and under boiler between 
 the central and leading wheels. With these pipes having so many 
 bends in them, and the distance from cylinders to the chimney 
 being so great, the back pressure of the steam on the piston will 
 be increased and the force of the blast will be decreased. The 
 fire-box, which is made on Belpaire’s system, is adapted for 
 burning small slack, and is very long, being about 9 ft. The 
 workmanship of this engine is only middling ; in fact the valve 
 gear is very badly fitted up. 
 
 A passenger engine, constructed by the Societe Generale 
 d’Exploitation de Chemins de Fer, Ateliers de Tubize, J3elgium, for 
 the Antwerp and Botterdam Bailway. Each driving and trailing 
 spring is connected by means of a link and a pair of bell cranks. 
 The pin on which the bell crank vibrates is attached to framing 
 by means of a bracket, the spring links coupling to the vertical 
 arms of the bell crank, the horizontal arms being connected to 
 each other by means of a horizontal link, the cross section of 
 which is about 1| in. by 1 in. This arrangement has the follow- 
 ing advantages over the ordinary compensating beam : it is a 
 great deal lighter, more easily put together, is more suitable for 
 wheels whose centres are far apart, and lastly, it costs less. 
 Steel plates are interposed between the guide bars and blocks ; 
 they are secured to the guide bars by means of J-in. sett screws 
 screwed in from the outside ; they have rectangular grooves 
 planed down their centre. The guide blocks are provided with 
 similar rectangular fins, which fit into the grooves, and there- 
 fore guide the piston rods laterally. The connecting, coupling, 
 and counter crank rods are all recessed, but only on the outside. 
 There is no doubt that it improves their aj pearance, but, at the 
 same time, it renders them less fit for the work they have to do, 
 especially the coupling rods, which are so often subjected to 
 extra strains of tension and compression when running round 
 curves. Either groove them at both sides, or leave them alone 
 altogether. The valve gear is of the type introduced into 
 Belgium by AValschaert and by Herr Ileusinger von AValdegg 
 into Germany. This gear is reversed by combined screw' and 
 lever. The regulator lever has been made like an ordinary 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 223 
 
 straight lever, and the handle afterwards bent at right angles, a 
 plan which does not improve its appearance, though it may lessen 
 its cost a trifle. The action of the valve gear is clearly shown 
 by diagrams which are engraved on one«of the side windows of the 
 cab which protects footplate. I inquired of the Society’s repre- 
 sentative at Vienna (who kindly gave me engravings, &c., of this 
 engine) whether the engine-drivers would understand these 
 diagrams, and he answered me in the affirmative. The valve chest 
 covers have been stamped ; the smoke-box tube plate has been 
 flanged, in order to obviate the use of angle iron in attaching 
 smoke-box to it. The chimney is made out of one plate having 
 been welded. There are specimens of all these three last-men- 
 tioned articles laid down by the side of the engine for inspection. 
 The fire-box, which is of the Belpaire pattern, is about 7 ft. 3 in. 
 long. The workmanship of this engine, especially of the motion, 
 is really first-class. Attached to it is a four-wheeled tender, the 
 brake tackle of which is very simple, and will work well. At the 
 bottom of the leading hangers (which the brake blocks are 
 screwed to) is a large boss, in the centre of which the ordinary 
 transverse shaft works, on which two arms are placed at its right- 
 hand end ; the nut for brake screw is placed in the longest of 
 these two arms, and a connecting rod couples the shorter arm to 
 right-hand side trailing hanger, so that when the brake screw 
 is screwed up, it pulls the long arm upwards, and therefore 
 presses the brake block against the leading wheels, pushes the 
 short arm in the direction of the trailing axle, and consequently 
 forces the brake blocks against the trailing wheels. 
 
 A double bogie engine, constructed by the Compagnie Beige 
 Materiel de Chemins de Fer (of which Charles Evrard is the 
 Director), for the Grand Central Railway of Belgium, is con- 
 structed on Meyer’s system, and is something similar to the 
 “Avenir,” which is now running on the Grand Luxembourg Rail- 
 way. Each bogie has two cylinders, which are fixed to the inner 
 ends of each bogie frame, and six wheels 4 ft. diameter, all 
 of which are coupled and placed outside the framing. Each 
 three pairs of wheels are very close together. The wheel base of 
 each bogie is about 8 ft. 8 in., the total wheel base being about 
 28£ ft. The third pair of wheels from the cylinders are the 
 drivers, and the connecting rods are very long, being about 8 ft. 
 4 in. Each driving and second pair of springs are connected by 
 compensating beams. The axle-boxes are case-hardened, and 
 the horn-blocks are provided with adjusting wedges. The bogie 
 framings are well stayed, both by horizontal and vertical plates 
 placed transversely. The cotters of coupling rods are secured by 
 
224 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 means of studs, &c., in a similar manner to the Dniepr. The 
 connecting rods, coupling rods, piston rods, guide bars, and 
 horn-blocks are all cast-steel. The valve gear is of the Wals- 
 chaert type, and is placed outside, that on the leading bogie 
 being reversed by the screw gear, that on the trailing bogie 
 by a lever, but at the same time they can both be readily 
 reversed together by means of the screw alone, by simply pushing 
 a catch into gear. The boiler is supported by the leading 
 bogie on one point only, viz., about 6 in. in advance of middle 
 axle, the bearing surfaces being hemispherical in shape. The 
 bearing surface of the supporting body, which is attached firmly 
 to the bogie, is of cast-iron, while the bearing surface of the 
 supported body, which is in its turn firmly fixed (by means of 
 plates and angLe irons made in the form of a box) to the boiler, 
 is of phosphor bronze, a new metal which has already given good 
 results. The fire-box is supported by the trailing bogie on two 
 points, about the same distance behind central axle, as the other 
 point is in advance. The bearing surfaces fixed to bogies are of 
 cast-steel. The expansion plates, which have hemispherical 
 bearings, are also cast-steel, and bear on phosphor bronze 
 brackets. 
 
 Each pair of cylinders is provided with a separate regulator, 
 one lever having a straight handle, the other, which is placed in 
 front of first lever, having its handle placed at right angles to 
 lever same as usual. The exhaust pipes, which blend into one, 
 are placed under boiler, the steam going through the centre of 
 the aforesaid cast-iron support and wrought-iron box into the 
 blast pipe. The chimney, which is conical, is about 2 ft. 2 in. 
 diameter at top, and 1 ft. 10 in. at the bottom, in order to in- 
 crease the draught. There is a steam collecting pipe in boiler 
 which goes from top of fire-box into dome casing. The engine is 
 provided with the Le C’hatelicr counter-pressure steam brake. 
 The steam pipes arc led along the top of boiler for about 2 ft. 
 G in. and then down the sides of boiler ; between the two cylinders 
 they are protected by a casing in order to prevent the pressure of 
 the steam being lowered by radiation. The water is carried in wing 
 tanks and the coal in wing bunkers which arc attached to sides of 
 boiler ; they arc very long, and extend the whole length of the 
 engine, and about 2 ft. past the smoke-box. The cylinders arc 
 about 17£ in. diameter, stroke being about 19J in. The boiler 
 is about 5 ft. diameter and about 14 J ft. long, and contains 289 
 tubes 2 in. diameter outside. The fire-box, which is made on 
 llclpaire’s system, is about 9J ft. long and 5 ft. wide outside the 
 casing. The engine is about 42 ft. long over the buffers, and 
 
225 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 will weigh about 70 tons in working order. It is painted very 
 nicely. The workmanship is first-class. I need scarcely add that 
 this is the heaviest engine in the Exhibition. 
 
 France. 
 
 A goods engine, constructed by Messrs. Schneider and Co., 
 Creusot, for the heavy inclines of the Compagnie des Chcmins 
 de Fer du Midi, has eight wheels ; the third pair from leading 
 end are the drivers. Both the leading and trailing axles are 
 allowed lateral play, and the trailing ends of the coupling rods 
 are provided with a double joint in order to avoid the strain 
 which would necessarily be put on them when going round a 
 sharp curve if vertical play only were allowed for. This engine is 
 very heavy, namely, about 54 tons in working order, and has all 
 its motion work (which is made of steel, but which contains very 
 little carbon) electro-plated, clothing belts as well ; and although 
 it may make it look very pretty, I think it is quite out of place. 
 The workmanship of the whole engine is really first-class. 
 
 A goods engine, constructed by Messrs. Claparede and Co., 
 St. Denis, near Paris. The boiler and fire-box was clothed with 
 sheet brass, which of course, though it increases the cost, does 
 not improve its look ; the valve gear of this engine is of the 
 stationary link type, and the workmanship is nothing extra. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The “Napoli” is a goods engine constructed by the Societd 
 Nazionale d'Indiistria Meccdnico, Naples. The guide blocks 
 which guide the piston rod crossheads are placed on the piston 
 rod end of crossheads, flat surfaces being provided to receive 
 them. The way the coupling rods are coupled together is rather 
 peculiar. The he, or straight part of joint, is similar to an 
 ordinary rod end eye, and has a cotta hole cut through it. 
 The coupling pin is held firm in this part of the joint by means 
 of a taper cotter which is provided with a screw, and forces this 
 pin by means of the intervention of a piece of metal, similar to 
 an ordinary bearing, right up against the root of the hole. The 
 she, or forked part of joint, is bored out the same diameter as pin, 
 as is usual, and has therefore the requisite amount of vertical 
 liberty. I myself see no advantage in adopting this plan, because 
 both holes or bearing surfaces must be of the same diameter, or 
 else they cannot be coupled up, and when the pins are renewed 
 the he part of joint will have to be lapped out to the same size 
 as forked part ; and as for the extra firmness, it will be a 
 disadvantage when the engine is going round a sharp curve. 
 
 Q 
 
22 6 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 Both the clack boxes and both the injectors are placed on the 
 left-hand side of the engine, the clack boxes being placed 
 together near middle of boiler, and the injectors, which are 
 placed vertically, near together on footplate. The workmanship 
 of this engine is very poor, in fact it looks like an old engine 
 rigged up again. 
 
 The ‘ ‘ Ariosta ” is an express engine, and though it has been 
 made by a German firm, viz., Messrs. Andre Koechlin and Co., 
 Mulhouse, it is exhibited in a short tunnel belonging to the 
 Italians. Its valve gear is of the stationary link type, and the 
 workmanship is good. The tunnel referred to is a full-sized 
 model of the entrance to the Mont Cenis tunnel. 
 
 I have now referred to all the engines of any note with the 
 exception of the two small tank engines from England, one of 
 which carries its water in a saddle-back tank, and the connecting 
 and coupling rod brasses of the other are made to cover the out- 
 side of the crank pins, and therefore keep a great deal of dust off 
 the bearings ; its leading axle is fitted with Adams’ radial axle 
 boxes, and the engine is provided with the Le Chatetier patent 
 counter-pressure steam brake. 
 
 There are many exhibits connected with locomotives that I 
 cannot notice. Herr Becker exhibits, in a pavilion on the 
 northern side of the Machine Hall, a fire-box and its casing, 
 made on his system, together with the casing of the boiler 
 belonging it, but separated from it. It is something similar to 
 Belpaire’s system, the difference being that in the latter’s plan 
 the crown casing plate is made flat all over with corners only 
 slightly rounded, the use of transverse stays being therefore 
 necessitated for the top parts of the side casing plates ; besides 
 all the top parts of crown casing plate being flat, it will require 
 staying all over, which is done with vertical staj’s, which are 
 screwed in from the outside and extend through the top of copper 
 fire-box, nuts being screwed on the stays tight up against the 
 two plates. This arrangement, as well as Becker’s, is in order 
 to do away with the heavy girder roofing stays which are used 
 in England. 
 
 In Becker’s plan the fire-box crown casing plate is only made 
 flat to a limited extent, and is in the present case about 26 in., 
 the remaining part at each side being curved same as usual. The 
 crown plate of copper-box is bent to a radius of about 14 in. at 
 each corner. There are four rows of wrought-iron stays, twelve 
 stays to each row ; the distance from centre to centre of stay in 
 the longitudinal direction of fire-box being about 7 in., the two 
 middle rows are about 1J in. diameter, the two outside 1J in. 
 
Locomotive Engines. 
 
 227 
 
 diameter ; they are all turned less in the middle, in order to 
 increase their elasticity ; copper washers £ in. thick are inter- 
 posed between the nuts and the two plates. The crown plate of 
 copper-box is 1 in. thick, the sides being J in. thick. The 
 boiler, which is about 4 ft. 2 in. diameter and 13 ft. 6 in. long, 
 is double riveted and made out of two single plates, these plates 
 being jump-jointed. The plate which goes round the barrel over 
 the transverse joint is £ in. thick by 8 in. wide, and has four rows 
 of rivets in it. 
 
 In the construction of a great many of the fire-boxes belonging 
 to the engines exhibited the copper stays have a small hole of 
 about Win. drilled down their centre. And of course when a stay 
 cracks the water will work its way through and speak for itself. 
 The fire-box clothing plates have holes drilled in them opposite 
 each stay, about f in. diameter. I noticed when going through the 
 Austrian State Locomotive Works that most of their stays were 
 wrought-iron, the ends only being slightly riveted over, and not 
 made to lie close to the plate as is done in England, the latter plan 
 not being required. They have a very powerful hydraulic press 
 at these works, by means of which they make a great deal of the 
 iron and steel work by pressure, which in this country is made 
 at the forge and finished by the smith and his strikers. They 
 make their axle boxes out of wrought-iron by means of this press, 
 which, when finished, have the corners quite as good as any 
 casting. In welding up the bosses of the wheels they are placed 
 between cast iron dies and pressed. This plan of forging 
 is largely adopted on the Continent. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 In conclusion I will say that this grand display of Continental 
 locomotive engineering shows us that we have got formidable 
 rivals, so far as regards the construction of the locomotive, who 
 seem to be trying, on every hand, what they can do to improve 
 it, whereas in England, those in authority generally say that 
 what is has done before, and will do again (of course there 
 are exceptions). There is no doubt that if our patent fees 
 were more in proportion to those on the Continent, we should be 
 more stimulated to improvement than we arc at the present 
 time. Then, again, there is no doubt that the great advance 
 made on the Continent of late years is due, in a great measure, 
 to Englishmen who have gone there, on account of the greater 
 remuneration they can get for their services ; and when following 
 their avocation in the capacity of workmen, the native workmen, 
 of course, have watched their modes of working, and thereby 
 
228 
 
 Locomotive Engines. 
 
 gradually got to be their equals, or nearly so, just the same as 
 an apprentice does, or should do, during his apprenticeship. 
 Then there are Englishmen, generally practical men, who hold 
 the honourable position of managers, and who of course (which is 
 to their interest) give the men the necessary information 
 required. For instance, in Vienna the superintendent of the 
 Sudbahm Locomotive Works, who is assisted by his son, is an 
 English gentleman, namely, Mr. John Hardy, of Newcastle ; as 
 also is the manager of the Austrian State Railway Locomotive 
 Works, Mr. J. Haswell, who likewise is assisted by his son. 
 
 The last w r ords of my Report, and as my deliberate convic- 
 tion as a workman after seeing the Vienna display, are these, I 
 will simply say, that if w T e do not mind what we are doing, both 
 employers and employes, we shall have the tables turned, and 
 instead of supplying foreigners with locomotives we shall have 
 them supplying us. 
 
Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 By CLAUDE CARTER, Bridgewater Iron Works , Salford. 
 
 B EFORE commencing my Report, I may mention that I had 
 much difficulty in getting information for it. I had 
 the greatest difficulty with the Germans and Austrians, who, 
 in most cases, absolutely refused any information whatever, or 
 admission within the barriers ; and one exhibitor actually covered 
 ^machine up three separate times : so that a very close observa- 
 tron was in most cases a thing impossible. Sketching (which 
 would have been a great advantage) was not permitted ; and, 
 while taking notes, my book was constantly being examined, 
 either by the constables or the persons in charge of the stands, 
 who had orders to destroy all sketches. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Exhibits a slide screw-cutting and surfacing gap lathe, about 
 1 ft. 6 in. centres, by Mr. G. A. Lessner, St. Petersburg ; but 
 the whole finish of this tool was very inferior, and the design 
 not good. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Exhibits a railway wdieel lathe, about 4 ft. 3 in. plates ; head- 
 stocks fitted with cast-iron spindles working in cast-iron bear- 
 ings ; no tail-pins, but spindles kept up by lock nuts at back 
 end. Fast headstock fitted with cone pulley carried by brackets 
 cast on front. On one end of the pulley shaft is a pinion run- 
 ning loose, and working direct into spur ring on face plate. 
 This pinion is driven by a sliding claw-clutch. On the other 
 end of same shaft is a sliding pinion which works into a wheel 
 about 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, which is keyed on bottom pinion shaft. 
 By this arrangement of gearing a good variation of sped is 
 obtained, as it can either be driven double or single-geared, and 
 the two plates can be driven at a different or the same speed at 
 the same time. 
 
 The slide rests are the ordinary English design ; the tool keeps 
 are cast-iron, swivelling on centre bolts, and having two set 
 screws for holding tool ; self-acting feeds by ratchets actuated 
 
230 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 by means of a crank-disc driven by gearing off spindle and work- 
 ing in a snug on front of head, one feed per revolution. The 
 carriages are short, and do not stretch across the bed. The bed 
 sides are of the inverted gutter form, and are without connecting 
 bars, excepting one at each end, and are planed on top, with a 
 round nose tool, and about eight feeds per inch. The face plates 
 are fitted with two drivers and four dogs each. The dogs are a 
 very poor job, being only about 2J-in. cubes ; they have no 
 sliding surface, and will not be steady. The design and finish 
 of this tool are very good, with the exception of the jaw-chucks. 
 The fitting-up and painting are first-class, and all unnecessary 
 bright work is avoided. 
 
 Austkia 
 
 Exhibits a portable ratchet slott-drilling machine. This little 
 tool is designed to cut key-ways in shafts (which are fixe^ 
 without removing the same ; it is cramped to the shaft. The 
 cramp part is cast to a slide running parallel with the shaft, 
 along which slides the head, which is traversed by a screw. 
 The traverse is effected by means of a worm on the spindle 
 working into a worm -nut on screw, the screw being stationary 
 and the nut revolving. The spindle is worked by means of a 
 lever and ratchet. The vertical feed is put on by a hand-wheel 
 at top of spindle. When cutting a slott, the down-feed is put 
 on ; the drill is then worked until the full length of slott 
 required is traversed. The head is then run back, fed afresh, 
 and worked up again ; and this process is repeated until the 
 required depth is cut. The drill exhibited with this machine 
 was of the Rhymer type, having cutting edges both on the peri- 
 phery and on the bottom. The slotts cut in the shaft ex- 
 hibited were exceedingly good. The machine is very small and 
 portable, and a very fair job. 
 
 Messrs. Escher, Wyss, and Co., Leesdorf, exhibited duplex 
 railway wheel-lathe, 4 ft. 6 in. plates, fitted with cone pulley 
 (5 speeds, top one 24 in. diameter, bottom one 9 in. diameter, and 
 7 in. wide) carried out at back of fast headstock. Rut the whole 
 lathe is a very rough job, badly finished, and the design is 
 neither good nor proportionate. 
 
 A trace lathe, by Mr. Ausser, Bcurtheilung. Plate about 
 4 ft. 6 in., filled with self-acting, transverse, and angular feed 
 motions. The headstock is about a strong 14-in. one, cone pulley 
 has 5 speeds, spindle runs in brass bearings, has no tail pin, but 
 is kept up by lock nuts. The pinion which runs in the face plate 
 ring is carried on one end of a third shaft, and is driven from 
 
Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 231 
 
 the outer end of the back shaft by a wheel and pinion which 
 work outside the headstock. It is fitted with a short bed or base 
 plate, the face of which is about 2 ft. 6 in. below the centre of 
 spindle ; on this bed slides a cross bed or carriage, and on this 
 carriage the slide rest slides at right angles to the centre of 
 spindle. The feed shaft is placed along the front side of the bed, 
 and is driven from the tail end of spindle by cone pulleys. This 
 shaft gives motion to the surfacing slide by means of a pair of 
 bevel wheels and screw. To this screw is geared a shaft which 
 runs parallel to it, and gives motion to a vertical shaft (by means 
 of bevel wheels) working through the centre of standard and 
 slide rest. A third pair of bevels are here introduced which 
 work the swivel screw for the self-acting angular motion. The 
 longitudinal feed is by a screw running along the centre of bed, 
 which is geared up to the cone pulley shaft. By this method all the 
 three feed motions are worked by one pair of cone pulleys. With 
 this lathe is a four-jaw chuck, the dogs of which slide on short 
 slides. These slides are bolted on the face plate, and are adjust- 
 able for large or small diameters. This is a first-class tool, well 
 designed and proportioned, very well finished, and all useless 
 bright work is entirely omitted. 
 
 There is also a face lathe, plate 8 ft. The headstock about 
 2 ft. 9 in. to the centre, bolted on cast-iron stand or foundation 
 block, the spindle works in brass bearings, 10 in. diameter at large 
 end, and tapers down toward tail end. The gearing is a light 
 24-in. lathe, double gearing, and is carried by brackets cast to the 
 side of headstock arms. The pinion, working in the face plate ring, 
 is keyed on the end of cone pulley shaft, so that the plate can 
 either be driven single or treble geared. There are two slide 
 rests sliding on one cross bed or carriage, which is adjustable on 
 the base plate either to or from the base plate. The self-acting 
 feeds are by ratchet motions. With this lathe is a four-jaw 
 chuck, similar in construction to the one with the foregoing 
 lathe. This is a very good tool, and well finished in every 
 respect. 
 
 There is a large double drilling machine designed for the man 
 to mind both spindles. Having fixed his work on the large 
 table, he sets the drill to work self-acting, and then works the 
 small spindle until the large one wants attending to again. 
 This machine is not at all proportionate. It is extremely 
 heavy and massive in the frame and table, and light in the 
 gearing. The frame is strong enough for a machine to bore 
 holes 16 in. diameter, whereas the gearing will not do more 
 than 6 in. properly. The workmanship is good. 
 
232 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 Treble-geared slide, screw-cutting and surfacing gap lathe, 
 4 ft. 6 in. face plate. The fast headstock is about 16 in. centres 
 and treble-geared, and has spur ring cast on face-plate. The 
 gap can be widened by taking out a step piece which makes it 
 about 3 ft. wide, the slip piece being 1 ft. 6 in. The carriage, 
 rest, and poppet headstock are all of the ordinary type ; the 
 guide screw is outside the bed, and about 3 in. diameter. 
 
 The general design of this lathe is not good ; the step piece 
 in gap is not firm, and the whole lathe not rigid enough to turn 
 articles 4 ft. 6 in. diameter. General finish and workmanship 
 good. 
 
 Horizontal pedestal boring machine for boring pedestals, 
 small fixings, &c., is exhibited, consisting of a bed (similar to 
 a lathe bed) about 10 ft. long, carried on two standards. On 
 this bed are two upright fixings, the one at the left hand carry- 
 ing the horizontal spindle, and the other two the boring- bar. 
 Between the boring-bar fixings is the table which slides on the 
 bed by means of a screw, and has a self-acting motion. The 
 table has also a cross slide for adjusting the work to be operated 
 upon. The spindle is driven by gearing and cone pulley carried 
 by a headstock fixed to the left-hand standard and the floor. 
 This gearing drives a vertical shaft by bevel wheels, which 
 vertical shaft drives the spindle by another pair of bevels. The 
 table is not adjustable vertically, but both the boring-bar and 
 spindle are by screws. This is a very useful, strong, and well- 
 finished machine, but I think much more complicated than when 
 the spindle and bar are fixed vertically, and the table adjustable. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Messrs. Wagner and Co., Dortmund, exhibit a horizontal rail 
 slott drilling machine, to drill 3 holes at one operation. This 
 machine consists of a box bed, having fixed at one end the 
 tables, at the other the driving gear, at the left-hand side (from 
 the table) the crank disc, at the right hand the feed-motion 
 gearing, and on the top the carriage and spindles. The gearing 
 is a 16-teeth 1 J in. pinion, working into a 50-teeth wheel ; 
 the pinion is fast to a plain pulley about 16 in. diameter and 
 3 in. wide. The spindles are horizontal, working in square brass 
 steps which are adjustable in pitch ; the centre spindle is 
 driven by the 50-teeth wheel. On this spindle are two pinions, 
 one at each end ; each pinion drives an intermediate wheel, one 
 at either side. These wheels run loose on short shafts, which 
 are carried by links, two each from the centre spindle, and two 
 from each side spindle ; two at each side of wheels. These 
 
Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 233 
 
 intermediate wheels work into pinions keyed on the two side 
 spindles. By this arrangement, the pitch of spindles can be 
 altered without interfering with the gearing, the links always 
 keeping the wheels properly in gear. 
 
 In order to make the holes’ slotts, the 3 spindles are all on 
 one carriage, which slides across the bed. This motion is given 
 by means of a horizontal crank disc and connecting rod. The 
 crank disc is worked by a horizontal shaft, worm and wheel, and 
 a pair of bevels. The worm shaft is driven by a pulley cast to 
 the driving pinion. On the other end of this shaft is the worm 
 running into the worm wheel, which wheel is keyed on the 
 bottom end of a short vertical shaft. On the top end of this 
 shaft is keyed a bevel pinion working into a bevel wheel fast to 
 the underside of the crank disc. 
 
 The self-acting feed motion is by a bevel pinion working into 
 the crank disc bevel, and the shaft running through the machine 
 is geared up to another shaft running back again ; but what the 
 internal arrangement for working the carriage screw is I could 
 not get to know. I should think an eccentric working a 
 ratchet wheel nut the most likely. 
 
 The table is adjustable horizontally, but not vertically. The 
 vertical adjustment is accomplished by the top slide, which is 
 made to suit the section of rail to be drilled, so that it is 
 requisite to have as many top slides as sections of rails to be 
 drilled. 
 
 The machine complete occupies about 5 ft. x 5 ft. x 4 ft. high, 
 and is a very compact, strong, and well-finished job. 
 
 A number of lathes and screwing machines are exhibited by 
 J. G. Schone and Son, which are not well finished, neither are 
 they new in design. 
 
 T. X. Honer, Bavensburg, exhibits a double-head double- 
 geared drilling machine. The drill-head is double and equal 
 sided, and stands on a turned column about 12 in. diameter, 
 on which slides and swivels one table. The other table fits in a 
 bell-shaped stand which stands on the base plate. This table is 
 circular, and is elevated by means of its pivot, which is screwed, 
 the stand being chased to receive it, in order to lock it any 
 height ; the stand is split where chased, and # is tightened on the 
 pivot by means of bolts fitting in snugs cast at either side of 
 splits. On this table is bolted a parallel vice. The finish is 
 rough, and the machine has a very top-heavy appearance. 
 
 A planing or shaping machine, for shaping the teeth of bevel 
 and spur wheels, is also exhibited by this firm. The wheels are 
 cast with very thick teeth, which are planed to shape and pitched 
 
234 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 at the same time. I could not get any particulars of this 
 machine (which is very complicated), as the man in charge 
 would not allow me inside his stand, and I could not see much 
 from the outside. 
 
 Messrs. Englerth and Eunzer-Eschweiler exhibit a 5-in. 
 double-ended angle-iron and bar-shearing machine, with knives 
 at an angle. The knife-backs are bolted to frames, and adjust- 
 able by sett-screws through j ogle-pieces : this is so as to change 
 the bar-knives for angle-iron knives. The slides are worked 
 from an eccentric shaft by means of wrought-iron links, fitted 
 with brass steps double gearing, driven by an engine about 
 10-in. cylinder and 14-in. stroke, which is fixed to the side of 
 the frame. This machine is a dreadfully rough job ; the 
 knives are black from the forge, all the bolt-ends roughly cut 
 and standing through the nuts in some cases lj in. ; it is also 
 very badly designed : no notice whatever appears to have been 
 taken as to where the strength was requisite, just over the jaws 
 being the lightest part about it. The castings also are very badly 
 done — it is, in fact, the roughest tool I ever saw. 
 
 Mr. J. Zimmerman, Chemnitz, shows an -4-size slott-drilling 
 machine, which is an almost exact copy of Sharp, Stewart, and 
 Co’s., Manchester, the only alterations being the use of an 
 eccentric on the spindle for the self-acting boring feed, and in 
 place of the head being adjustable longitudinally, the table is 
 fitted with compound slides. The tool exhibited in this machine 
 was a flat steel cutter, fitted in an open-ended cutter bar, and 
 projecting beyond the end of the bar, about one-eighth of 
 an inch. 
 
 By the same exhibitor is a double-ended eccentric punching 
 and shearing machine for lj-in. holes in lj-in. plates — a very 
 heavy double-geared machine. The frame is made of two 
 box castings, and is jointed down the centre vertically. 
 Between the punching ram and the opening for the large 
 wheel is an opening and an apparatus for shearing angle- 
 iron, worked from the same eccentric shaft. The wheel on the 
 eccentric shaft is about 4 ft. 6 in. diameter, 3 in. pitch, and 
 6 in. wide. Both the punching and shearing rams are fitted 
 with stop-motions, which is accomplished by moving the com- 
 pression links away from their bottom bearings in a side 
 direction. This is a very good and well-finished machine, but 
 the stop motions, I think, are objectionable, because when the 
 rams are being worked, the links are always at an angle, there- 
 fore the pressure is never vertical ; also the bearings for these 
 are little more than a flat surface. 
 
Engineers ’ Machine Tools. 
 
 235 
 
 M. Zimmerman exhibits a railway-wheel lathe, face plates 
 4 ft. 6 in. diameter. The gearing of this lathe is similar to 
 an ordinary double-geared lathe, with cone-pulley on the spindle 
 and a back shaft ; on the outside end of the back shaft is keyed 
 a pinion, which works into a wheel keyed on the bottom pinion 
 shaft. This latter gearing can be thrown out, and the lathe 
 worked as an ordinary geared lathe, or the two face plates can 
 be driven at the same or a different speed at the same time. 
 This lathe is elaborately finished, the rests, carriage, and bed, 
 all being scraped and polished, which is quite useless, and, 
 though costly, does not at all add to the value of the machine. 
 It is a good and well proportioned tool. 
 
 A wheel-moulding machine, exhibited by the same firm, is an 
 exact copy of Mr. G. L. Scott’s patent machine, one of which is 
 exhibited. 
 
 An eight-feet face and break lathe, also by Zimmerman, is 
 fitted with double gearing, carried by arms cast on the side of 
 the headstock, with small pinion working into the face plate 
 spur-ring ; this pinion can either be driven single speed or by 
 the double gearing. The bed is very wide, and carries a large 
 carriage, with self-acting surface motion, by which the whole 
 face-plate can be faced at one operation, though when at the full 
 diameter the cut will not be very steady, as the carriage over- 
 hangs a long distance ; the rest is an ordinary one, though very 
 strong. The rack for moving the carriage is placed in the 
 opening in the bed with the teeth upwards ; this plan is decidedly 
 objectionable, because the spaces will be constantly filled with 
 the cuttings. The height of the poppet-head centre is about 
 24 in., the base of which is brought out of the centre towards 
 the front of the lathe, and is about 2 ft. 6 in. wide. The 
 spindle is 4 in. diameter, screwed at the back end, and works 
 through the hand- wheel. This is a very good well-finished tool, 
 the only objectionable features being the overhanging carriage 
 and the racks. 
 
 A shaping machine, about 10-in. stroke, fitted with moveable 
 head on 8-ft. bed. The mandril for circular work is fitted in an 
 independent fixing, which is bolted to the table saddle when in 
 use and can be taken off when not required. One advantage 
 claimed for this arrangement is, that it can be put to any exist- 
 ing machine without any alterations or preparations of same. 
 A good, strong, useful and well-finished machine. 
 
 There is a planing machine, for planing the edges of boiler 
 and bridge-plates, consisting of a long table projecting about 
 2 *ft. out at the back of machine, and standing 2 ft. 1 in. 
 
236 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 from the floor. On each end of this table are strong screws, 
 about 5 in. diameter, on which slide a cross-bar or beam ; 
 through this beam are eight sett screws, by means of which the plates 
 are cramped down to the table. Along the front, and of the 
 same length as the table, is a bed similar to an ordinary 12-in. 
 lathe bed, and having a screw running along the centre ; this 
 screw is driven by gearing at the left-hand end of machine, which 
 gearing is similar to that of an ordinary rack-planing machine. 
 The pulleys, three in number (two fast and one loose), are about 
 20 in. diameter and 4 in. wide ; the gearing is single, with a 
 second motion-shaft and two pinions, introduced to get the 
 reversing motion. The screw works a carriage backwards and 
 forwards along the bed ; this carriage carries two uprights back 
 to back ; each upright, which stands about 12 in. above the face 
 of table, carries a down slide, on which is fitted a clapper or 
 tool-holder ; the uprights also slide towards the table, to adjust 
 the cut. The vertical self-acting feed-motion is by ratchets and 
 levers, the levers striking catches which are fixed on the front 
 of beam by bolts in a T slott, and are adjustable to suit the 
 different lengths of plates to be planed. The horizontal trans- 
 verse slide-motion is not self-acting. The strap-forks are actu- 
 ated by a sliding bar, which slides in two guides at front of the bed ; 
 on this bar are two adjustable stop-collars, and on the carriage 
 a third guide, which strikes the stop-collars and so forces the 
 bar along, at the same time moving the strap-forks ; this bar is 
 kept in position by a balance-weight. This machine is designed 
 to cut both backwards and forwards — one tool one way and the 
 other the other way — a number of plates, of course, being planed 
 together. This is a good, strong, and well-finished machine, the 
 only objectionable feature being the narrowness of the table and 
 the extra length the carriage has to travel in order to bring the 
 second tool to the end of the plate, which is about 2 ft. 9 in. 
 
 On a stand facing Zimmerman’s is a plate-planing machine very 
 similar to the foregoing one, the difference being in the table, 
 which has three projections cast to it, about 4 ft. square, one at 
 each end and one in the middle ; this enables broad plates to be 
 fixed without overhanging. The reversing motion is by open 
 and cross bolts, and the carriage is fitted with one tool-holder 
 only, which is circular and revolves in its bearing, thereby 
 enabling the cut to be taken either way but not both •ways. A 
 fair job, but not so well finished as J. Zimmerman’s. 
 
 There is also a railway-wheel lathe, diameter of face plates 
 4 ft. The two plates run loose on large bosses cast to the head- 
 stocks or standards. They are put together in halves and 
 
237 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 fastened with bolts. The bearings are hollow, carrying in their 
 centres brass V blocks and caps, in which the axle-journals run. 
 At the back of the headstocks, and wfith their spindles projecting 
 towards the V blocks, are small poppet headstocks ; these are 
 used to keep the axle right endways, and also to centre them so 
 as to adjust the V blocks. In this lathe no dependence is placed 
 on the bearings of the face plates, which merely act as drivers. 
 The V blocks, in my opinion, are much too light for the w r ork. 
 In other respects this is a very fair piece of workmanship. 
 
 An internal curvilinear slotting machine, adapted for slotting 
 the curved sides of cranks or any large internal curves, is by 
 Londeman and Slee, Chemnitz. The main frame of this machine 
 resembles in form that of an ordinary slotting machine, and is 
 fitted with the ordinary compound slide and rotary tables. In 
 place of the ram (as in a vertical si otter) this machine is fitted 
 with a semi-revolving spindle driven by a worm wheel which is 
 keyed on between the two bearings, and the worm shaft runs 
 lengthways, and in front of the frame and at the back end 
 carries a set of pulleys (large and small) for open and cross 
 bolts ; in the top side of worm wheel is cut a T slott which carries 
 two stops, these stops as the wheel revolves strike a lever in 
 connection with the strap forks similar to a planing machine 
 reversing motion, the large and small pulleys producing a quick 
 return motion. The vertical feed is by ratchet, the spindle 
 being similar to a drill spindle with screw feed. A large, strong, 
 and well-finished machine, but too costly for the work it will do. 
 
 A small slott-drilling machine, by Constantine Plaff, Chem- 
 nitz, is a copy of Sharp and Furnival’s, with this exception, that 
 the table is carried by a centre bracket, which prevents any long 
 article from being slotted across ; this is a decided fault. A 
 good average job as regards workmanship. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 A 4-spindle multiple drilling machine, by Ste. Houget and 
 Jerton Bede and Co., Yerviers, consists of a base plate, on which 
 stand two uprights ; across the uprights and cast with them is a 
 slide carrying four heads, and sliding up the front of them is the 
 table ; the four heads are adjustable in pitch by means of one 
 screw running along the bottom of slide and working in a nut in 
 each head; these nuts are round brass bushes, with a collar at each 
 end, and they revolve in their bearings, or are fixed as required ; 
 when fixed and the screw turned, the carriage is of course tra- 
 versed, and when loose, stationary ; by this method all four 
 carriages or any of them can be moved by means of one screw 
 
238 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 only. The spindles work in long solid bearings the full depth 
 of the head, and are driven by a shaft running along front of 
 slide (in a recess) which is geared to the spindles by screw wheels ; 
 the ends of spindles are split in four, chased taper, and a nut 
 run on which closes the four parts equally and grips the tool. 
 The self-acting feed motion is by worm wheels on the spindle 
 screws, which are worked by four worms sliding on a continuous 
 shaft ; this shaft is driven from the screw-wheel shaft either by 
 a pair of cone pulleys, or for a quicker motion by a wheel running 
 into a pinion. The pinion and driven cone each run loose on the 
 worm shaft, and between the two is a friction clutch (sliding on 
 a key), which can be thrown into either pinion or pulley, or rest 
 between them. The table is adjustable vertically by two inde- 
 pendent screws, one at each end. This is the most faulty part of 
 the machine, as the table will require to be set parallel with the 
 slide every time it is elevated or lowered, which is a troublesome 
 and unnecessary job, providing the machine was properly con- 
 structed. The countershaft works in bearings at the back and 
 bottom of uprights. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Exhibits a patent slott-drilling machine. This machine is very 
 similar in form to the foregoing multiple drill, but in this case 
 the uprights, baseplate, and slide are all cast together; the 
 double gearing is carried by brackets at the left-hand end of the 
 slide, and works the spindle by means of a sliding shaft and a 
 pair of bevels. The sliding motion for the head is accomplished 
 by a crank disc and wrought-iron connecting rod ; the crank 
 disc is let into the slide (its face being flush with the face of the 
 slide), and is keyed on a short shaft running through the slide ; 
 at the other end of this shaft is keyed a worm wheel, which is 
 worked by a worm and shaft driven by a cone pulley on the end 
 of the gearing shaft ; two self-acting feed motions, one for ordi- 
 nary boring and the other for slott drilling. The table slides up 
 the front of uprights, and is fitted with compound slides. The 
 head is adjustable in stroke, but not in position. A very good 
 strong tool, well finished, and without any useless work in it. 
 
 France. 
 
 The tool makers of France exhibit a small number of light 
 flimsy tools, comprising lathes, screwing machines, and small 
 drilling machines, all of which are unworthy of notice. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Messrs. Hind and Son and Messrs. D. New and Co., Notting- 
 ham, exhibit a number of tools, consisting of wheel lathes, slide 
 
Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 239 
 
 and screw cutting lathes, slotting machines, &c., all of which are 
 inferior in workmanship. They are not wanting in strength, 
 and not bad in design; but, in my opinion, these two makers are 
 surpassed by all their foreign competitors. 
 
 Messrs. Sharp, Stewart, and Co., Manchester, exhibit a 
 patent radial slotting machine ; a railway wheel and tire drill- 
 ing machine, for drilling from the inside wheels and tires on 
 their axles ; and other machines ; but as full particulars can be 
 obtained in England of them, it is not necessary to give them 
 here, especially as my space is limited. 
 
 Mr. G. L. Scott, Manchester, exhibits his patent wheel- 
 moulding machine, capable of moulding wheels from 12 in. to 
 7 ft. diameter. This machine is now so well known and in such 
 general use, that it is unnecessary to describe it in detail. In 
 my opinion no foundry ought to be without one. 
 
 America. 
 
 Messrs. Wm. Sellers and Co., Philadelphia, exhibit a patent 
 planing machine, to admit about 3 ft. 6 in. between the 
 uprights. In the uprights, bed, table, and tool boxes there is 
 nothing new; the novelty consists in the driving motion and the 
 arrangement of the strap forks. 
 
 The pulleys are three in number, the centre one being fast and 
 double the width of the two outside loose ones. On the pulley 
 shaft, which runs across the bed, is keyed a bevel pinion, working 
 into a large bevel wheel; this wheel is keyed on the end of a 
 worm shaft, running through the bed at an angle of about 30 
 deg. to the centre of it. In the centre of this shaft is a worm, 
 which works into a rack on the underside of the table; the 
 teeth of this rack are at right angles to the centre line of bed, 
 and the angularity of the worm shaft is such as to make the 
 teeth of the rack and worm parallel. I believe, in stating that 
 the teeth of the rack are at right angles to the centre line of the 
 bed, I am hardly correct, as they are at a slight angle about 1 
 deg.; this causes the drag to be a little to one side, but the 
 friction of the worm in the rack being the reverse wa}% is sup- 
 posed to counterbalance this. 
 
 The reversing motion is by open and cross belts, and the 
 arrangement of the strap forks, and the motion for working 
 them, is very ingenious and complicated; its action is such as to 
 always throw the one belt off the fast pulley before the other has 
 commenced to drive at all, also the forks are always locked when 
 the machine is either standing or working. This machine is very 
 
240 
 
 Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 well finished, and of good proportions, but I do not see any 
 improvement in the method of working it, either over the rack 
 or screw system; on the other hand, I think it is decidedly 
 objectionable in having two belts, and also a very awkward 
 machine to fit up and bore, especially when the bed is very wide 
 and long, as it will necessitate the use of a very long boring bar. 
 The bevel wheel also, in a large machine, will, I think, become a 
 very large and clumsy thing. 
 
 A 9-inch slotting machine, by the same firm, is a very good 
 single-geared machine, fitted with loose slide for ram, which can 
 be lowered, so as to support the ram when taking heavy cuts 
 near the table. The whole machine is rather light, but has very 
 good and long bearings. All the tools by these makers are 
 remarkable for the quality of the tooWork on the lathe ; the 
 bed, carriage, and slides are planed with a “broad cut,” and 
 are not touched by hand. The planing is, indeed, a splendid 
 job, and is the finest I ever saw. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 In drawing my conclusions, I may say that I was very much 
 disappointed with the exhibits from my own country ; there are 
 but five exhibitors, and the quality of their work you will be able 
 to judge from my remarks. It appeared strange to me that not 
 one of our Leeds tool-makers were represented. 
 
 Germany and Austria contributed very largely indeed, and 
 much of their work shows great skill, and is certainly done by 
 first-class workmen, but at what cost I am unable to say. 
 
 I was sorry to see so many of the tools with so much bright 
 and useless work about them, which, though it makes them much 
 more costly, does not at all add to their real value. Had the time 
 and labour spent in polishing and getting up such things as 
 wheel-lathe beds, &c., been spent on larger wearing surfaces, 
 more suitable materials, and in many cases better designed 
 curves and more graceful forms, it would have been greatly in 
 their favour, and have added much to their appearance. This does 
 not apply to Messrs. Sharp, Stewart, and Co., Messrs. Sellers, 
 and Co., of America, and a few other makers, as their tools were 
 made for use and not show, and presented to my eyes a much 
 more pleasing sight. 
 
 One thing struck me very forcibly, and that was the entire 
 absence of novelty in design. Almost every tool exhibited, no 
 matter by what nation, is an almost exact copy of English 
 manufacture, and if altered at all it is for mere alteration’s sake, 
 
Engineers' Machine Tools. 
 
 241 
 
 and not for any improvement ; in fact, the whole of the tools 
 exhibited are of English origin. 
 
 I had expected to see a larger assortment of tools for the 
 manufacture of railway plant, such as axle-turning lathes, wheel 
 presses, spoke-bending machines, tyre-rolling mills, &c., but 
 with the exception of wheel lathes, and one or two drills, they 
 were not exhibited at all, although they now form a very im- 
 portant class of tools. 
 
 The castings and materials, I found, with but very few 
 exceptions, exceedingly good, the bright and faced work exhibit- 
 ing no blows or defects of any kind. Special care has, no doubt, 
 been taken in the production of all the things exhibited, but it 
 is a proof of what the foreigners are able to do. 
 
 My opinion, after a careful survey, is that the Germans, 
 Austrians, and Americans, are quite as competent to manufacture 
 machine tools as ourselves, though from all I saw they are either 
 very dull at designing, or else (which is, perhaps, the most 
 probable) they find it more profitable to make use of designs 
 already matured and worked successfully in this country. 
 
 Comparing the luhole of the English exhibits with those of 
 Germany and Austria, we are entirely put in the shade; I am 
 glad to say though that this country was very badly represented, 
 and must not be judged by her exhibits at Vienna, or else in 
 place of standing A 1, she will sink below Germany, Austria, 
 and America. 
 
Silk-Weaving Machinery. 
 
 By JOHN RANDLE, Mr. Oswald Pike's, Manchester. 
 
 N commencing my work in the Exhibition, I was very sorry 
 
 to find that France, Switzerland, and England, the prin- 
 cipal silk-weaving countries, had not one machine exhibited. 
 This crippled my resources to a great extent, and renders my 
 report, which would otherwise have been interesting, meagre 
 and of no value. 
 
 There was only one ribbon loom in the Exhibition, and that 
 was in the Austrian Department. It is on the Swiss principle, 
 and is what we, in this country, would call a plain loom. The 
 loom was at work, and was making a ribbon with plain middle 
 and round edge, which is one of the easiest patterns to make. 
 It contains two sides, with the usual fixtures, breast piece, knee 
 roller, back roller, warp cratch, back rack, jack ladder, healds, 
 back reeds, front reeds, weights, and lathe. When the warps 
 are put into the cratch and ready for the loom to be put to 
 work, the end of the warp is put on over a pulley in the back 
 rack, then round a pulley with a weight hanging to it, 
 over another pulley in the back rack, then brought down in 
 front, drawn through the back reed, and put round the back 
 roller through the healds and front reeds ; and, when the 
 usual cards are fixed, the loom is ready to start, and makes 
 the ribbon. The working of the shuttles I liked very much 
 indeed. In the bottom of the shuttle is cut what is called 
 a rack. The shuttles are sent backwards and forwards by a 
 slide in the bottom of the lathe, which works from the end. 
 This slide turns the little cogs that send the shuttles backwards 
 and forwards across the silk. They work admirably and easily. 
 
 The construction of the warp in the English looms is, I think, 
 much better than that in the Austrian. There is no back rack 
 to the English. The warps are put into the cratch, and the 
 warp bobbins have a groove at the end. A cord is wrapped once 
 round one end, is fastened to the front of the cratch, and a wire 
 hook is put under a little wood lever, and then another weight 
 hooked on at the end. The lever has nicks in, so that one can 
 weigh the warps to any pressure one likes. The warps work 
 straight down from the bobbins, and there is no more trouble 
 with the weights. A man minds the loom with twenty or twenty- 
 four shuttles long, and a young woman picks up the warps. The 
 Austrian loom weights hang all about the back, and the man 
 
Silk- Weaving Machinery. 
 
 243 
 
 has to pick up his own warps at the front of the loom, and can 
 only mind one with eight or ten shuttles. From this it is evident 
 that the English weaver can do a far greater amount of work in 
 a day than the Austrian, and can also do it much better, because 
 he has nothing to do but mind his work and keep out the faults, 
 whereas the other cannot but let faults be made in his work 
 while picking his warps up. The case of ribbons which I saw 
 is not worth commenting upon. The pattern was very plain; it 
 was plain middle with satin and round edge. The same can 
 be said of the Jacquard ribbons, which had only old common 
 figures down the middle. 
 
 The hours of labour and rate of wages I did not ascertain, as 
 the person minding the loom was not to be found after the first 
 day of my being in the Exhibition. During the week there were 
 four looms brought from Switzerland : one for broad ribbons, two 
 for narrow, and one broad for elastic weaving. Before I came 
 away I had the pleasure of seeing one of them working without 
 any silk in, to get it smooth, and it was exactly the same as the 
 one I have described above. I ascertained the hours of labour 
 and wages from one of the men putting the looms up, which are 
 eleven hours per day; wages on the ribbons from twenty to 
 twenty-four shillings per week, and on the elastic thirty shillings, 
 but I am doubtful as to the truthfulness of this statement. I also 
 made inquiries of a Berlin cloth-weaver, and learned that the cloth 
 weavers in Berlin work eleven hours per day, and earn fifteen 
 shillings per week ; to this my informant added that the work- 
 people are not satisfied, and are agitating for higher wages. 
 As to the hat-trimming weavers I was told that at Elberfeld and 
 neighbourhood they get more money and work less hours than 
 the cloth- weavers at Berlin. Knowing that the English masters 
 have a great deal to contend with in German goods being brought 
 into the English markets so cheap, I determined not to come 
 home without learning more about this class of weaving, and 
 I accordingly broke my journey at Elberfeld on the road home, 
 and was there informed by one of the largest firms, that 
 in summer time their weavers work from five o’clock in the 
 morning until seven and eight o’clock at night. When I say how 
 they work it will be believed the hours of labour are correct. 
 I then went to a place in the country called llonsdorf, and all 
 through the village on both sides there is nothing but hat- 
 trimming weaving. It is all done by hand in the weavers’ own 
 dwellings, and, having no masters, the hours of labour are of 
 course regulated by themselves. In each house I could see one, 
 two, and three looms, but most of the houses had two. The 
 
 r 2 
 
244 
 
 SilJc- Weaving Machinery. 
 
 men, women, and children work the- looms. I went into three 
 or four of what they called warehouses, but they are the least 
 pretentious of that name I have ever seen. The first one looked 
 to me as if it had been a coach-house ; the entrance was a large 
 door-way, and it looked more like a hen-roost than anything else. 
 The second floor was the warehouse — it had the appearance of an 
 English hay-loft. The weavers fetch their work out in blue 
 bags. I went into one or two of the houses, but could not 
 ascertain the wages. I found nothing in the looms worth 
 reporting upon. They are Swiss make, the same as I have 
 mentioned before. They have an iron rod which comes up at 
 each end in front of the loom from the lathe arms, and is then 
 fastened to a pole across the front of the loom. By pushing the 
 pole down the loom is turned. 
 
 In the silk dress weaving the only improvement I found was 
 in the English department. In weaving a dress it takes as many 
 colours as the dress is to consist of, and consequently a shuttle 
 for each colour. In former times, when weavers had woven enough 
 of one colour they had to stop the loom to change the shuttle 
 for the next colour. The first improvement was a shuttle box 
 to hold three or four, and as the different colour was wanted the 
 box would rise and fall, but it appeared very clumsy. The last 
 improvement I saw at the Vienna Exhibition was a good and 
 neat one. The box that contains the shuttles is a round one 
 worked by a little Jacquard at the end of the loom, and as 
 the cards go round, it turns the shuttle box and picks out the 
 colour wanted. The working of this improvement is very nice. 
 
 Before closing my report I have one more machine to mention, 
 and perhaps all will understand it better if I call it a machine 
 for winding sewing cotton on bobbins. It fills many bobbins at 
 once. The large bobbins with cotton on are placed at the 
 back of the machine, brought over a rod in the centre, and put 
 through an eye which is fixed to a guider that moves backwards 
 and forwards to guide the cotton level. The bobbins are put on 
 a spindle close to the guider, and under the spindle is a little 
 trough. On the opposite side to the spindle is another trough, 
 and while the machine is going the man puts an empty bobbin 
 in. When the bobbins are full the man takes hold of the lever, 
 the machine stops, the spindle draws back the full bobbin and 
 drops it in the trough, and then comes forward ; the trough 
 on the opposite side places the empty bobbin on the spindle, 
 then goes back to its place, and off goes the machine again 
 without the man either touching bobbin or cotton. It is a 
 splendid machine, and was made in Manchester. 
 
PART II 
 
 REPORTS BY ARTISANS 
 
 FROM 
 
 BIKMINGHAM, 
 
 WITH 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REPORT, 
 
 By W. C. AITKEN. 
 

INTRODUCTORY REPORT. 
 
 By W. C. AITKEN, 
 
 THE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE BIRMINGHAM CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, WHO 
 ACCOMPANIED THE BIRMINGHAM ARTISAN REPORTERS. 
 
 T HE following Reports are the result of a desire expressed by the 
 Committee of the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, on the 
 19th of June Jast, requesting me to accompany a number of artisan 
 reporters, to be selected from those of the town, to visit and report 
 on various classes of manufactures, similar to those produced in 
 Birmingham, exhibited in the Austrian Universal Exhibition open in 
 Vienna, and to undertake the discharge of duties of a like kind to that 
 I was honoured with on the occasion of the International Exhibition 
 held in Paris in the year 1867. 
 
 On the last-named occasion the Chamber took advantage of the 
 assistance afforded by the Society of Arts in London ; then, however, 
 the sum of £500 was placed at the disposal of the Society by Her 
 Majesty’s Government, in order to aid the sending of artisans : the 
 sum named, aided by private subscriptions, in the end amounted to 
 £1,040.' Partial monetary assistance was only required then ; on that 
 occasion the Chamber contributed liberally, which was acknowledged in 
 the Official Reports of the Exhibition of 1867. In Mr. Coles’ Report he 
 states — “ A total sum of £1,040 ivas obtained , of which £187 was sub- 
 scribed by Birmingham , which ajypears to have been owing to the com- 
 munity taking collectively the greatest interest in the proceedings.” 
 
 The parsimonious policy adopted by Her Majesty’s Government in 
 reference to the Vienna Exhibition rendered any assistance in aid of 
 sending artisans to Vienna as reporters an impossibility. It became 
 evident ere the Universal Exhibition at Vienna opened its portals to 
 visitors, if valuable lessons were to be read therein, and artisan 
 reporters were to be sent, they could only be through such means as 
 those the Chamber adopted and carried out in connection with the 
 Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry at Manchester. 
 
 Mr. Larkins undertook for the Society he represented to convey the 
 reporters selected by the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce to 
 Vienna and back, with lodging and board en route, at a sum not 
 exceeding £10 each ; the reports of the Birmingham artisans to be 
 published by the Manchester Society, after being examined and 
 edited by myself ; the selected Birmingham reporters to accompany 
 those sent by the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry. 
 
 It was also agreed the number of Birmingham reporters should be 
 increased. A Sub-Committee of the Chamber, consisting of C. S. 
 Hawkes, Esq., chairman of the Chamber, Mr. S. Booth, chairman of 
 
 A 
 
iv Introductory Report. 
 
 the Sab- Committee, and Messrs. J. S. Wright, W. H. M. Blews, 
 Alfred Field, Edmund Tonks, and John Bragg, requesting me to take 
 the necessary steps for procuring applications from candidates anxious 
 to undertake the duty of reporters. Advertisements were inserted in the 
 various local newspapers. Eighty-eight applications were received. 
 
 I determined to apply the strictest test as to the knowledge pos- 
 sessed by the candidates in the trade to be reported upon, and the 
 following circular was sent to each applicant. 
 
 Visit of Birmingham Artisans to the Vienna Exhibition. 
 
 Your application has been received. You will observe that experience and 
 afnlity determine selection. A report has to be written. As a proof of your 
 descriptive power, express in as few words and as clearly as you can (on 
 foolscap paper, written on one side only), the description of 
 
 [Here was inserted description of construction, or rationale of process used 
 in trade, dc., of the applicant .] 
 
 The description is to be made from practical experience and observation. 
 No book description is to be copied. Your description will be tested by 
 reference to an experienced authority in your trade. Your name will not be 
 disclosed. 
 
 The circular produced descriptive papers from candidates in all 
 amounting to 40 ; many of the papers were very elaborate, carefully 
 and well written, the majority accompanied by drawings, where 
 such were requested. 
 
 The appeal made by the Birmingham Chamber to manufacturers 
 and others realised the sum of £196 14s. 
 
 The amount of the subscription was considerably more than on 
 the occasion of the Paris visit in 1867 ; then the cost of sending re- 
 porters amounted only to £4 10s. 4d. each, on the occasion of the 
 visit to Vienna the cost was £14 : i.e., to Vienna and back, £10; 
 Birmingham to London and back, £1 ; for Report, £3 ; necessitating 
 the reduction of the intended number of the reporters to ten, finally 
 selected as follows for : — 
 
 Sadlery and Harness .... 
 Gold, Silver, and Electro-plate 
 Design of Works in Metal, &c., more par- 1 
 ticularly Jewellery . . . ./ 
 
 Jewellery Manufacture .... 
 Brassfoundery, General and Cabinet 
 Tinplate Working and Japanned Ware . 
 Glass, Ornamental, and for Table Ser- ) 
 
 vice, &o j" 
 
 Guns (General Report) .... 
 Railway Carriage Building 
 Ironmongery, &c., &c 
 
 Frederick Thompson. 
 Frank G. Jackson. 
 
 J. W. Tones. 
 
 Arthur McKewan. 
 George Cashmore. 
 Henry Bishop. 
 
 Thomas C. Barnes. 
 
 Charles Hibbs. 
 Frederick C. Cowney. 
 Georoe Wakemkn. 
 
 Three were added, their expenses defrayed by their employers. 
 
 Labour Saving Machines . . . Henry Fowler. 
 
 Bell Casting, &c John Banister. 
 
 Gas Fittings ...... Edwin Parker. 
 
y 
 
 Introductory lleport. 
 
 \ 
 
 Two also, who entirely defrayed their own expenses, and kindly 
 handed me reports on — 
 
 Tubes and Rolled Metals .... Mr. James Grice. 
 
 Buttons, and Small Wares . . . Mr. S. Wall Richards. 
 
 The number of reports is fifteen. 
 
 To assist the reporters what to observe the following general 
 instructions and recommendations were given : — 
 
 To observe the extent to which Exhibits of the Special Industry each 
 representative is sent to report upon are displayed in the several 
 Industries of the countries exhibiting. How far such differ from 
 similar works made in England. Objects of a kind in the special 
 Industry of the reporter not made in this country, but which may be, 
 to compete with those produced by the manufacturers of other 
 countries. 
 
 The reporter to confine his attention to the speeial branch of Industry he 
 has been selected to report upon ; to form the first and primary object 
 of his visit: thereafter to visit Manufactories in his specialty or 
 trade, if time permit ; the results of such visits, if accomplished, to 
 be embodied in his report. 
 
 Reports to be written on ruled foolscap paper, leaving one inch margin on 
 left-hand side ; to be written on one side of sheet only. 
 
 General, special, and minute directions were also given for report- 
 ing on 
 
 Saddlery, Harness, Whips, and Works in Leather, as Portmanteaus and 
 Travelling Appliances. — Electro-plate and Gold, Silver, Plated Wares. 
 — Jewellery and Gilt Toys, including Chains. — Gas Fittings, Chan- 
 deliers, and Lamps. Plumbers’, Cabinet, and General Brass Foundery, 
 Bells and Tubes. — Tin-plate working, Coppersmithing, and Japanning. 
 — Glass used for Glazing, Table and Fancy Glass. — Buttons, Metal 
 Caps, Ornaments, and Tools. — Guns and Small Arms. — Labour 
 Saving Machines. — On General Ironmongery. — Railway Carriage and 
 Wagon Building. 
 
 Also to observe where opportunities offered as to 
 
 Influences affecting the character of the work, and trade generally, as : — 
 Cost of material, wages, conditions and divisions of labour, Education, 
 habits of life, amusements, &c. 
 
 The Birmingham artisan reporters left Birmingham on the 2nd 
 July, and met those of Manchester at the Bishopsgate Station, Lon- 
 don : recognition and fraternization was promoted by each wearing 
 in his button-hole a piece of crimson ribbon. The party were con- 
 veyed by rail to Harwich, by steamer to Antwerp, by railway to Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, en route by way of Dusseldorf, Elberfeld, Leipzig, Dres- 
 den, Bodenbach, Brunn, and Prague, to Vienna : reached, including 
 stoppages for purposes of sleep, refreshment, &c., on the morning of 
 the fifth day. 
 
VI 
 
 Introductory Report. 
 
 VIENNA. 
 
 Arrived at Vienna, kindly welcomed by the chief of the British 
 Commission, Philip Cunliffe Owen, Esq. ; by him introduced to 
 Baron Schwarz Senborn, Director General of the Vienna Exhibition; 
 received by him graciously, invited to partake of his hospitality ; 
 presented with a plan of, and escorted by him through the marvellous 
 and overwhelming Exhibition, which he had planned and executed 
 for the encouragement and improvement of the industries of Austria, 
 and those of other countries. It can be affirmed no body of British 
 artisans ever were honoured with or received recognition more grace- 
 ful and kind than that received at the hands of Baron Schwarz 
 Senborn, conferred by him on the English artisan reporters sent by 
 the Chamber, associated with those of the Society for the Promotion 
 of Scientific Industry, in all thirty-four in number. 
 
 THE WORK OF THE ARTISAN REPORTERS. 
 
 Provided with tickets of admission by the British Commission, and 
 catalogues — (no general catalogue could be procured). But the cata- 
 logue of the British division contained plans of the Exhibition build- 
 ing, showing the position of the united exhibits of each country — 
 and, with such aid to guide them, the reporters proceeded to 
 examine the class of exhibits each was required to report upon. The 
 Exhibition building in London in 1851 covered 800,000 square feet; 
 in 1862, 971,288 feet ; at Paris, 1867, 1,581,725 feet. At Vienna, 
 the Exhibition building, machinery, and east and west agricultural 
 halls, covered 2,501,200 feet. Add the fine arts building, 1,970,000 
 feet, and allow 500,000 for forty other buildings, and the aggregate 
 exhibiting space of the Vienna Exhibition was certainly not less than 
 5,000,000 feet, or 3J larger than the Paris Exhibition of 1867. The 
 vastness of the Vienna Exhibition may thus be realised, and the diffi- 
 culties arising from merely physical, apart from mental labour, under- 
 gone by your reporters, be better understood. The thermometer 
 indicated 95° in the shade ! 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 By general instructions given to the reporters, they were to make 
 memoranda sketches of parts of objects, or such as would supply 
 hints to aid their special industries : this was partially defeated by 
 officials. The value of the sketches made by the reporters, and 
 destroyed through the instrumentality of the officials named, cannot 
 be estimated. 
 
 WOOD-CUT ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Six of the Reports derive great value from descriptions aided by 
 means of wood-cut illustrations, fac-similes of sketches made in the 
 Exhibition. It should* be distinctly understood, these simply illus- 
 trate the application of a process, system of ornamentation, or forms 
 which appeared well adapted to the purpose to which they were 
 applied in articles exhibited. 
 
Introductwy Report. 
 
 Vll 
 
 As regards the value of these Reports it is not for me to speak ; 
 that, I leave to those who will peruse them. Of artisan readers I 
 hope there will be many. I would be unfaithful to the Birmingham 
 Chamber of Commerce, to the artisans who accompanied and con- 
 fided in me, did I not bear testimony to the faithfulness with which 
 each reporter discharged the duties of reporting. Readers seated 
 by the firesides of pleasant happy homes, who peruso this volume 
 written by their brother artisans, will scarcely realise the labour, the 
 toil of travel, or the amount of work gone through by the reporters, 
 the difficulties arising from a, want of knowledge of the various lan- 
 guages spoken, habits of the people among whom they sojourned 
 in the execution of their task, what long journeys they had in the 
 Exhibition Building itself to collect, examine, and compare, each, 
 the results of his own trade or industry, in a temperature which induces 
 lassitude, and to which Englishmen are not accustomed ; and there were 
 attractions many, and pleasant entertainments not a few, calculated 
 rather to distract than help the object in view. In the face of all 
 these difficulties, the information was collected and embodied in the re- 
 ports of the Birmingham reporters. Their industry is proved ; fifteen 
 reporters sent me unitedly 360 foolscap pages of MS. If my Lord 
 Lyttelton had seen it, he would have been convinced that to the artisan 
 population who sign with a x these reporters did not belong. The 
 handwriting of twelve was very excellent, of three not so good, but 
 still legible. What is attempted to be described is clearly described. 
 In many of the Reports there is graceful and thoughtful writing. 
 Several of them tell of the results arising from the education given in 
 other lands, and the beneficial results seen in the intelligence displayed 
 by their artisans. This, it must be remarked, is the result of 
 national systems of compulsory education, where creeds do not 
 lead to bickerings at School Boards, heedless of the cry rising 
 from every lane and alley — “ My people are perishing for lack of 
 knowledge.” Not a few of the reports refer to the superior methods 
 of teaching drawing in other countries, and the superiority of that 
 adopted by the French schools is clearly pointed out. Other 
 Reports speak of the advantages arising from museums of objects of 
 industrial art, the want of these, and one reporter asks “ of what use 
 is South Kensington to art workmen here (Birmingham), or in distant 
 parts of the country ? ” That reporter is correct. Loan collections 
 do not meet the wants of artisans in the provinces engaged in the 
 production of what furnishes us with the gratification of taste, adds 
 to our comfort, and largely increases the national revenue through 
 their exportation. Robbed of all prestige or trimmings, take away 
 sentiment, come to bare facts, the action of South Kensington is nil 
 in the provinces and on their industries ; its action has been similar 
 to that of the little urchin who inquired if grandma liked egg-soup. 
 On being answered in the affirmative, he informed her he was going 
 to get an egg ; he did — he boiled, kept, and ate it ; he gave the soup 
 
viii Introductory Report. 
 
 (i.e. the water) to his grandmother. The boy who got the egg, kept, 
 and ate it, is South Kensington ; grandma is represented by the pro- 
 vincial industries. The mighty claim is shadowed forth in one and 
 a-half millions of people visiting it annually — a very large proportion 
 of which undoubtedly belong to London — their purpose amusement ; 
 of those who go for the purposes of getting instruction there are com- 
 paratively few. South Kensington in all its glory is the result of 
 national money. Manufactures were ostensibly to be benefitted 
 thereby. The great centres of industry, that work in metal, blow 
 glass, convert clay into articles of use and beauty, or weave textiles for 
 use and ornament, do not directly benefit by examples in that Museum. 
 Let provincial artisans see to it, and ask, through their Parliamentary 
 representatives, that examples to aid them may be selected from the 
 Museum they have contributed towards erecting and furnishing, to 
 aid them in their daily calling, render them more intelligent and con- 
 versant with what is good in industrial art, the plain fact being that 
 grants for South Kensington in general do not get much attention 
 paid to them in the House. Members are rarely up in art as applied 
 to industry. “ It is simple savage ignorance and priggish pedantry 
 not to recognise the absolute necessity of examples of art easily con- 
 sultable by the public, who are consumers ; by the manufaturers, who 
 are producers ; and by the artist and artisans as students.” Arti- 
 sans ! strike against the annexation of South Kensington Museum 
 to the British Museum, but have from South Kensington examples 
 in your own town, and in our own museum, where you can and may 
 see what others did before you, and better than you in your own 
 trade. Examples to be useful to you must be placed where you 
 are living and working, to be practically useful. If your representa- 
 tives express your wishes truly, and South Kensington is made to 
 give up much of what it claims as its own, there will be enough left 
 to amuse even a million and a-half of Londoners and visitors from 
 the country, and Metropolitan manufacturers, their designers, and 
 artisans will still have more than their fair share to study from. 
 
 I again rovert to the Reports, and desire to impress upon readers, 
 that they were not written by professional reporters, but by artisans — 
 men who toil from morn, to eve, in factories and shops resounding 
 with the blow of the hammer, the music of the turning- lathe, and file. 
 The highest literary effort made previously by twelve of the number, 
 in all probability, never reached beyond letters to father, mother, or 
 friend : all, every one of the reporters, only received such limited 
 education as was accessible to their parents to give them thirty or 
 forty years ago. Each Report — all the Reports — illustrate what may 
 be done by and through Self-Help. 
 
 The stern necessity of space compels me to limit the length of this 
 Report ; thero is much that would have been said left unsaid, but 
 “ good wine needs no bush.” The Reports will speak for themselves. 
 Justice to the Birmingham reporters will be done in my own 
 
Introductory Report. 
 
 IX 
 
 Report, which will be published simultaneously with these, by the 
 Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, my regret as to want of space is 
 further increased by the same stern necessity compelling me to delete 
 many paragraphs from the Reports which quaintly, gracefully, in 
 some instances elegantly, told of incidents which occurred, habits ob- 
 served, buildings seen, museums visited, and scenery passed through. 
 The excision of these passages has been to me matter for regret. 
 
 Mutually participating in all the advantages enjoyed by the Man- 
 chester reporters, those of Birmingham desire to acknowledge the 
 kind, and genial, and thoughtful attentions of Philip Cunliffe Owen, 
 Esq., Chief British Commissioner at Vienna. Never were the wishes 
 of a Prince more faithfully carried out or loyally obeyed. To that 
 noble Austrian gentleman, Baron Schwarz,* who by word and deed 
 
 * Among the many pleasing incidents which marked the visit of the English 
 Artisan Reporters, there was not one more pleasant than that which occurred 
 at the banquet given to them by his Excellency Baron Schwarz Senborn. On 
 that occasion Baron Senborn requested each reporter to forward on his return 
 to England his photographic portrait, with name, address, and the industry he 
 reported upon. On their return, the Birmingham reporters held a meeting, at 
 which Mr. F. G. Jackson (Reporter on Works in Precious Metals) suggested that 
 the portraits asked for, instead of being sent separately, should be arranged in 
 a specially prepared album ; in this' the Manchester reporters concurred and con- 
 tributed, and sent their “ cartes ” to be introduced. The address which pre- 
 ceded tbe portraits was composed by Charles Hibbs, Reporter on Guns, aided 
 by suggestions received from Mr. W. G. Larkins. 
 
 To His Excellency Baron William Von Schwarz Senborn, First Director 
 of the Universal Exhibition at Vienna. 
 
 Mat it please Your Excellency, 
 
 On the occasion of the hospitable reception given by you to the English 
 Artisan Reporters, you expressed a wish to receive from each one his photo- 
 graphic portrait with name and designation. 
 
 Greatly impressed with the kindness that prompted such a wish, and with 
 all the kindness bestowed upon us by Your Excellency during our visit to Vienna, 
 we beg your acceptance of this Album as a mark of our respectful admiration. 
 
 The Welcome given to us by Your Excellency in the first hour of our 
 arrival, the cordial sympathy you expressed for our object, and your princely 
 hospitality, will never be forgotten by us. As the Director General of The 
 Vienna Universal Exhibition, we regard Your Excellency’s reception of us as 
 the expression of the good-will of Industrial Austria towards English workmen. 
 
 With the most pleasurable recollections of that Magnificent Exhibition 
 which has been the crowning result of Your Excellency’s many years’ labour 
 in the cause of industry, 
 
 We most respectfully subscribe ourselves, 
 
 Your Excellency’s obedient servants, 
 
 WM. G. LARKINS, 
 
 Secretary , Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry , Manchester. 
 
 W: C. AITKEN, 
 
 Representative of the Chamber of Commerce , Birmingham. 
 
 Manchester and Birmingham. 
 
 October 27th , 1873. 
 
 (Then followed the portraits of the various Artisan Reporters with their 
 Autographs, and the subject each reported upon.) 
 
 The illuminations, floral and heraldic, and the words which formed the com- 
 
X 
 
 Introductory Report. 
 
 acknowledged the British artisan reporters, and to them extended 
 his personal hospitality and regard, their thanks are given. Professor 
 Archer also gave of his knowledge; and the entertainments of Mr. 
 Berger Spence, of Manchester, and of the English exhibitors under 
 the presidency of Mr. W. Head (of Ransomes and Co.), are not, will 
 not, be forgotten by the Birmingham artisan reporters. 
 
 Finally, the display of industry in the Universal Exhibition, at 
 Vienna, the “ mightiest since the world began the countries passed 
 through, museums seen and visited, the honours gained and attentions 
 paid them, will, it is hoped, not be without their influences on the 
 future lives of the Artisan Reporters sent to Vienna by the Society for 
 the Promotion of Scientific Industry, Manchester (to its able and 
 energetic Secretary, Mr. W. G. Larkins, a very great measure of the 
 success attendant on the artisans’ visit is due — his zeal and determi- 
 nation overcame very many difficulties), and those sent by the Chamber 
 of Commerce, Birmingham. 
 
 Mayfield, Heathfield Road, Birmingham. 
 
 November 17 th, 1873. 
 
 mencement of the various paragraphs in the address were executed by Mr. 
 Jackson (on vellum); the body of the address beautifully engrossed, the portraits 
 arranged in sets of four, the album bound in dark russet-coloured morocco 
 chastely decorated with gold : white satin linings and gilding enriched the 
 interior of the boards. On the cover was introduced the monogram of Baron 
 Senborn surmounted a baron’s coronet, executed in saw-pierced metal, engraved, 
 enamelled, and gilt. Every portion of the album was executed in Birmingham. At 
 a meeting held on the completion of the album, it was determined it should be 
 forwarded to Philip Cunliffe Owen, Esq., Chief British Commissioner at the 
 Vienna Exhibition, for presentation. It was presented by him to Baron 
 Senborn, who acknowledged its presentation as follows: — 
 
 Vienna , Nov. 14 th, 1873. 
 
 Baron Schwarz Senborn to Mr. W. C. Aitken, Birmingham. 
 
 “ Until I send each reporter my photograph in exchange for the album 
 received with much satisfaction, please to thank each of my Birmingham friends 
 for their thoughtful and courteous present. The acceptance of their artistic 
 work has been most grateful to me.” 
 
Leather, Harness, Saddlery, Whips, Port- 
 manteaus, Purses, Pocket-books, do. 
 
 By FREDERICK THOMPSON, Foreman of Saddlery Works, 
 Messrs, Ashfords and Winder , Birmingham. 
 
 AVING had the honour of reporting to the Birmingham 
 
 Chamber of Commerce, in conjunction with the Society of 
 Arts, London, on Leather, Harness, Saddlery, &c., at the Paris 
 Exhibition, of 1867, and having been again selected by the 
 Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, acting with the Manchester 
 Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry, as one of the 
 artisans to report on similar exhibits at Vienna, I shall en- 
 deavour honestly and truthfully to discharge my duties in a 
 manner that I hope will reflect credit on myself and the trade 
 I represent. 
 
 In writing my Report on the productions of industry at Vienna 
 and its Exhibition, and feeling in no way biassed or fettered in 
 my opinions, I intend to compare the articles of the Vienna 
 Exhibition of 1873 (on their merits only) with those of the 
 Parisian one of 1867, carefully marking the progress made in 
 the six years’ interval — the novelties and specialities then intro- 
 duced, if they are still in the market of competition, or cast 
 aside as worthless ; also noticing the more modern inventions of 
 all nations, and describing them in as plain a manner as pos- 
 sible, by the aid of sketches or diagrams, wdierever I find them 
 to differ from our own in construction. 
 
 I do not consider it within my province to comment upon 
 anything but what is really connected with the business I am 
 delegated to report upon, unless it refers to the social position 
 of the workmen connected with the branches I represent. It is 
 my intention to confine myself strictly to these points. 
 
 I will, in the first instance, describe the articles connected 
 with my business, as I have seen them in actual wear, en route 
 to Vienna. Passing from Antwerp, through the first stages 
 of our journey, the most prominent feature to my mind, and 
 which struck me more forcibly than any other, was the remark- 
 ably handsome and powerful dray horses of Belgium. These 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips, dtc. 
 
 horses (Fig. 1), which appear to be characteristic of the country, 
 have short but finely arched necks, exceedingly high withers, an 
 immense sweep in the back (generally known in the trade as 
 saddle back), with massive, broad, fore and hind quarters, and 
 altogether stoutly built in proportion. To fit these horses the 
 collars must be from 26 in. to 29 in. long, and of great breadth. 
 The cart saddles must also have wider bearings than our English 
 horses require, and all the harness strapping cut extreme lengths. 
 Poles, not shafts, are invariably used for single, as well as for 
 pair horses. It is noticeable in Belgium, as in the other countries 
 I passed through, that the collars of horses differ from ours more 
 than any other portion of the harness ; this is especially so in 
 dray-horse collars, which are preposterously heavy. 
 
 Fig. 1 will explain the collar chiefly in wear in Belgium : it 
 has large wood scroll harness (a), plated brass, a false collar 
 underneath (b), thickly padded and quilted, forming a large 
 heavy looking roll outside the collar nearest the horse’s shoulders ; 
 the housing (c) is massive and square in shape, always maintain- 
 ing the same position, viz., lying over the horse’s withers. These 
 
 collars are very fanciful, generally covered with brass ornaments, 
 and the initials of the owner occupy the housing in letters of 
 brass, about four inches in length. The reins to drive a single 
 horse differ from ours in this respect, the driver having but 
 a single strap (d) in his hand, while we in England have a double 
 one. Sketch (Fig. 1) shows that the single strap (d) divides and 
 forms into two when nearing the horse’s collar ; the connected 
 reins (e) then pass over the housing, between the harness, and are 
 secured to the bridle in the usual manner. I may here remark 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
o 
 
 o 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , (£c. 
 
 that I do not see any advantage gained by this system of driving ; 
 certainly a few feet of leather are saved, but safety and comfort 
 are sacrificed ; for if the driver wishes to turn his horse on either 
 side, he must throw the single rein over the horse’s back to the 
 reverse side, and pull the rein ; if he intends to stay the horse 
 the force applied must be central ; no economy of time is arrived 
 at by this plan, but the reverse, as the action is slow compared 
 with that required in using our double rein. 
 
 The Belgian omnibus horses are, if anything, poorer, and more 
 razor-backed than our own, a sad contrast to the dray horses. 
 The collars are the same in style as before described (but, of 
 course, not nearly so heavy), fitted with false pads, but no 
 housings ; the traces are of rope, and the winkers square ; in 
 other respects the harness is similar to that used in England. 
 The carriage harness of Belgium varies but little from our own 
 in shape ; Prince of Wales collars are usually worn, and this 
 kind of harness is generally light made and well fitting. Leather, 
 
 I find, on the Continent, is used for purposes seldom seen in 
 England ; for instance, the massive doors of that magnificent® 
 edifice, Antwerp Cathedral, are covered and padded all over with 
 it ; this is not an exception, as I found it in many places during 
 my journey. 
 
 I find our Continental neighbours are behind us in act3 of 
 humanity, if we consider dogs used as beasts of burden to come 
 under that category ; for here we observed four-in-hand, two or 
 more abreast, and single harnessed dogs, employed nearly all 
 throughout Germany. The leather strapping for these ill-used 
 
 animals is similar to the harness 
 before mentioned, with the same 
 class of ornamental collars, &c. 
 
 The leather straps used to 
 open and close the windows of 
 railway carriages in Belgium vary 
 from ours in having a roller of wood 
 (Fig. 2) secured at the end of an 
 embossed strap, in such a manner 
 that it ensures the free working of 
 the roller (a) in the leather, thereby 
 giving a better purchase to the hand 
 in raising the window ; it also pre- 
 vents the inconvenience of mis- 
 chievous persons forcing the end of 
 the strapping between the window 
 and the door-frame, making it a work of labour and risk of 
 
 b 2 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
4 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , cfc. 
 
 breaking the glass to release the same. As we journey onwards 
 
 we find this wood roller is not 
 used, for in Prussia, on the Ber- 
 gisch-Miirkisch Railway, a strap is 
 used (Fig. 3) with a leather stop 
 (a) attached, composed of scol- 
 loped leather of graduating widths 
 wrapped round the strap three or 
 four times, and firmly secured by 
 sewing. 
 
 In Belgium leather has to give 
 place to wooden slippers for the 
 peasants ; these slippers are carved 
 out of the solid wood, and have an 
 exceedingly ugly appearance, but I 
 understand they can be bought as 
 low as sevenpence per pair ; this 
 perhaps accounts for so many being 
 worn (they are worn) by women 
 and children, as well as by men. 
 
 Railway guards and ticket collectors in Belgium, Prussia, 
 Saxony, and Austria wear neither belts nor pouches of any 
 kind, and all tickets are collected whilst the train is in motion, 
 by the collector walking along a board attached to the car- 
 riages. I need scarcely mention that this is a dangerous 
 practice, and would not be tolerated in England. 
 
 From what I could observe of the Prussian dray horses, they 
 are not at all to be compared to those of Belgium. The carriage 
 horses are fine animals, and most of them wear breast-collars, 
 both for town and country service. Leather strapping, I find, is 
 used by the blacksmiths in shoeing horses ; they do not hold the 
 horse’s hoof as our smiths do, but secure it firmly suspended by 
 means of leather straps constructed for that purpose. 
 
 In Saxony, as in most of the other countries en route to Vienna, 
 it is remarkable that very few vehicles with two shafts are to be 
 seen, except for car or light trap work ; it appears to be the 
 general custom, even for single-harness horses, to work with 
 a pole. This has an awkward and a dangerous appearance, for 
 the poles are fixed so very near to the ground that they seem 
 admirably adapted for the horses to kick over them ; they also 
 project about three feet in front of the horse. I also noticed 
 the agricultural departments adopt this fashion. They have 
 a cheaper (Fig.4), but I cannot say a better, way of supporting 
 the shafts of their light single-horse carriages and traps in 
 
Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , ct'c. 
 
 5 
 
 Saxony. This is accomplished by means of a strap (a) at the 
 extreme end of each shaft, and secured to the draught of the 
 harness (b) ; the shafts receive no other support whatever. The 
 result is, a swinging motion is observable. Neither is it so 
 strong and evenly balanced as our own tug and back-band 
 method. Saxony collars are entirely different in construction 
 and shape to the Belgian or the English ; they are in the 
 pointed style (Fig. 4), and stand up a considerable distance above 
 the horse’s shoulders. Long breechings in best harness are the 
 ruling fashion in this country, with a band over the horse’s back 
 and loins to support them. 
 
 In Dresden I observed troops of little girls, from six to eleven 
 
 Fig. 4 . 
 
 years of age, going to school with leather or canvas knapsacks 
 strapped over their shoulders, the same as the boys. Nets with 
 tine meshes, and of a white or drab colour, with edging of tassels, 
 are frequently used in Prussia, Saxony, and Austria to cover the 
 greater portion of the neck, shoulders, and backs of the horses, 
 to protect them from the heat and flies, the latter being very 
 troublesome ; they are something of the mosquito species ; their 
 bite is painful. These nets are used not only for agricultural but 
 for carriage horses. 
 
 Oxen are much employed, I find, in the countries enumerated, 
 for ploughing and other agricultural purposes : their harness 
 consists of bridles with winkers, collars, rope reins, and traces. 
 
6 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips, etc. 
 
 All throughout the journey or in the Exhibition I did not see 
 a single cart-horse collar of our shape and make. I cannot con- 
 ceive why they are not used ; they would be cheaper, not nearly 
 so heavy, and, I think, more suitable for the warm climate than 
 the ugly ponderous mass of leather work their horses have to 
 carry. Some of the cart saddles are similar to our English 
 make, but are raised on cither side of the trough, necessitating 
 more labour and material than ours, for what purpose I am at 
 a loss to understand, except for ornament. 
 
 As I am now rapidly approaching the end of my journey I 
 think it will be as well to call attention to the fact that the 
 Continent, or rather that portion we traversed, is a very poor 
 ^bark-producing country ; oak trees are very scarce indeed, and 
 the few I saw were tall and thin, not nearly so thick as some 
 of the branches on our own English trees. Most tanners 
 agree that oak -bark surpasses all other kinds of bark in producing 
 durable leather. I feel particularly anxious to ascertain for 
 myself what foundation the Germans have for producing good 
 leather. The other trees generally are of great height, but of 
 very poor substance, seldom exceeding the thickness of an ordi- 
 jiary man’s body. 
 
 England. 
 
 England’s productions in leather work generally stood well at 
 the Paris Exhibition of 18G7 for solidity and durability. I con- 
 sider England still maintains its position and prestige at the 
 Vienna Exhibition of 1873. 
 
 Our exhibits are small in number, yet a host within them- 
 "selves, compared to the acres of leather and leather work from 
 Germany and Austria ; nevertheless sufficient, no doubt, to give 
 the foreigners an impression of what we can accomplish in style 
 and quality. Still it is to be regretted we have not more 
 exhibitors from this most important community, for I find 
 London, Birmingham, and Walsall, the three greatest seats of 
 saddle and harness manufacture in England, if not in the.world, 
 have only two cases of saddlery each. London is represented by 
 only five exhibitors of leather, and other parts of Great Britain 
 and Ireland muster seven exhibitors. This is the extent of our 
 show in this the World’s Exhibition. 
 
 England still holds her own, and is able to maintain it, for 
 solid serviceable butt or sole leather of even substance and oak- 
 bark tannage. Messrs. Evans and Co., of Bristol, and Messrs. 
 Webb and Co., of Stowmarket, and other noted tanners, show 
 excellent samples of leather produced in this country. The 
 
7 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , d;c. 
 
 London houses are represented by Messrs. Dixon and Son and 
 Mr. J. S. Deed in japanned and enamelled hides and “splits,” 
 of a variety of grain, with excellent finish and pliability. 
 
 Messrs. Evans and Co. also show samples of hippopotamus 
 hide, untanned, semi-transparent, and some tanned hide of the 
 same animal ; they also introduce a novelty in this remarkably 
 stout leather by making it into boxes, fitted with locks and keys 
 complete. The table to support the weight of all their exhibits 
 is formed of this tanned hippopotamus hide, If in. to 2 in. in 
 thickness. 
 
 Buff basils from this country are good and large, and of a soft 
 nature. Oak-bark and soft white larch tanned basils are of good 
 quality, so also are harness, skirt backs, bridle, and stirrup 
 butts ; hogskins, self-coloured and stained, are fine, and of 
 good quality. 
 
 London is poorly represented in saddlery and harness ; one 
 case especially, Mr. B. Ellam’s, does not appear at all to 
 advantage, as it has only a back light upon it from over the top 
 of the show-case ; perhaps this is a benefit rather than other- 
 wise, as the articles exhibited are not up to the London standard 
 quality, either in material or workmanship ; over-crowding with 
 an assortment of saddles, harness, whips, and a host of other 
 things, in almost indescribable confusion, is observable. 
 
 Mr. Moody, of Woolwich, exhibits his royal patent pack- 
 saddle. (Fig. 5.) The first and most important feature in it is, 
 that it is constructed so as to fit the back of the horse. The 
 bars, or boards, of the saddle-tree are set at a sharp angle in 
 the front, then the bars are twisted, so that while it grips the 
 shoulders in front, it lies fairly on the back, giving an equal 
 bearing over the whole surface covered by the saddle. The 
 arches which connect the boards and form the head of the saddle 
 in front, and the cantle behind, are made of angle, or T iron, 
 the arch so turned as to present the flat part vertically and 
 
 outwards, with the flange facing inwards horizontally | 1, on 
 
 which the hooks, which are forged in one piece, rest, and are 
 secured to the arch with two rivets ; a blocked sole leather seat, 
 as used in the Nolan military saddle, is riveted on. This I 
 believe to be the best kind of arch that could be adopted, com- 
 bining the greatest possible strength with simplicity, lightness, 
 and good fit. The panels are quite unique, and a decided im- 
 provement on the old pattern saddles ; the back is formed of 
 tannedcanvas, and is first stuffed with straw. Now as a level and 
 smooth surface is a desideratum in these large panels, the straw 
 is stuffed horizontally in compartments or flutes, large one3 under 
 
Lcather y Harness , Saddlery , Whips , tfcc. 1) 
 
 the saddle to take the bearings, smaller ones down the sides ; 
 the ends of the flutes are stuffed vertically, which renders it firm 
 and prevents the straw from moving, or getting displaced, a 
 most desirable and important end attained by simple means. 
 The harness is very light indeed, being made of brown circular 
 web, which would do exceedingly well for a dry climate, but 
 which, if allowed to get wet, and not soon dried again, would 
 rot very quickly. The weight of the saddle is 24 lbs.; with 
 harness and baggage straps complete, 34 lbs. 
 
 Messrs. J. Drew and Co. show portmanteaus, trunks, and 
 cases, also a lady’s dress, imperial silk lined, and quilted 
 throughout strongly, but of medium style and finish ; also a 
 small travelling-case with chess-board on the top: this is marked 
 as purchased by his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. A 
 few hat-cases and bags comprise the remainder of their exhibits, 
 which are chiefly strong and solid, but not of first-class quality, 
 or finish. 
 
 Messrs. Swaine and Adeney, also of London, contribute a 
 handsome show of whips of all kinds, and walking-sticks, which 
 are convertible into driving whips by simply unscrewing and 
 reversing a plain mount at the extreme end of the stick (similar 
 to a fishing-rod joint). Four-in-hand whips are also exhibited. 
 
 Messrs. Brace and Co., of Walsall, and Messrs. Schlettcr 
 and Co., of Birmingham, are the other exhibitors of whips ; 
 these are marked in both cases with the name of the well-known 
 firm Messrs. W. and G. Ashford, of Birmingham. The above 
 arc the principal cases of whips sent from England. Those from 
 London, Birmingham, and Walsall, are an admirable collection * 
 of fine quality goods ; the mounts are solid, plain, and durable, 
 and contrast strikingly with some of the massive, ornamental, 
 and showy mounts in the other courts. Respecting the cases of 
 whips just mentioned, especially the Birmingham and Walsall 
 show, I noticed one thing which greatly marred the effect of their 
 appearance, that was the exceedingly dirty and tarnished state 
 of the mountings, which, to judge from what I saw, have not 
 be(?n cleaned for some time. Another conspicuous specimen of 
 folly is worth recording, if only to guard against it at future 
 Exhibitions, and that is in over-crowding the show-cases with 
 goods, so that nothing is really seen to advantage. 
 
 Mr. W. Middlemore, who is the only manufacturer who 
 exhibits from Birmingham, sends a handsome case of saddlery, 
 which shows exceedingly well, all the more effective because not 
 over-crowded, and every article exhibited is kept remarkably 
 clean and in order. This collection alone will give foreigners a 
 
I 
 
 10 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <£c. 
 
 good idea of what is being done in this town ; for when it is 
 taken into consideration that the same class of workmen who 
 made the articles exhibited frequently move from one place of 
 business to another, it is fair to presume that the saddlery 
 manufactured at one house of business in Birmingham must be 
 similar in style and workmanship to that executed at other 
 respectable establishments. Of course patents are an exception 
 to this rule, and Mr. Middlemore excels any other exhibitor as 
 regards the number of patent saddles ; he shows no fewer than 
 three distinct inventions, the most recent one being a “gent’s 
 patent arched metal-tree saddle” (Fig. 6), covered all over 
 hogskin, and composed of a blocked iron seat (a) with wood 
 bars (b) underneath, to take their bearings on the panel, or 
 padding of the saddle ; the wood bars are attached to or detached 
 from the seat at pleasure, by a simple, yet strong contrivance ; the 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 panels can also be removed in a few seconds, without any trouble 
 or inconvenience. Fig. 6 is a sketch of the tree without its 
 covering, or padding. This invention is shown for the first time. 
 The intention of the patentee is evidently to give elasticity to the 
 seat of the saddle for ventilation, freedom from sore backs, and 
 last, but not least, a more expeditious mode of manufacturing 
 saddles by a subdivision of labour, not attainable in the usual 
 method. Of course we cannot expect to find perfection in this 
 saddle at present; the invention being altogether new, will require 
 many improvements before it can be pronounced a perfect saddle. 
 Nevertheless, great credit is due to the inventor, Mr. Clay, who 
 has succeeded in bringing out a saddle on a new principle, and 
 lie will, no doubt, effect all the improvements required in detail 
 to convert it into a useful article. A patent Albion gig saddle 
 
11 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <f c. 
 
 (Fig. 7) is also exhibited on a similar principle, with block metal 
 seat (a) and blue enamelled leather centre, silver-plated beading 
 continued all round the cantle, and forming the hook for the 
 
 bearing-rein ; this blue centre is rather show}”, and will only suit 
 foreign markets. Another is shown with black japanned centre 
 and brass bead (b), neat and good, suitable for the home trade. 
 The next invention is one patented some time back. It is very 
 light, full shafts, self-colour, East India saddle, designated the 
 “ Patent Albert spring-seat saddle” (Fig. 8). The patent consists 
 of a number of spiral springs (a), firmly secured in the webs (b) 
 of the seat of saddle to give the re- 
 quired elasticity. This saddle is a 
 picture, almost faultless, both as regards 
 the hogskin and the workmanship. 
 
 The other novelty from the same house 
 is the patent Victoria coil spring-seat 
 saddle (Fig. 9), first time exhibited. This 
 is rather different from the others in 
 being a second-hand saddle, with a coil 
 spring (a), and has stood the test of a 
 whole season in the hunting field. An 
 Australian (Sydney) saddle I must not 
 omit to mention (as it is always a 
 pleasure to praise rather than to 
 condemn) for first-class hogskin and workmanship ; it is so evenly 
 stained, and so perfect in fit, and carefully constructed for 
 ventilation, that I have no hesitation in stating that this 
 Australian — and the light East India saddle before described — 
 are not to be surpassed in the Exhibition. A plain, strong, 
 iockey-union, Somerset, South American travelling saddle, with 
 holsters, valise pad, and side-bags complete; a graceful lady’s. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
12 Leathery Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <#c. 
 
 and a neat racing saddle, constitute the remainder of brown 
 saddles exhibited, all of which deserve praise for skill and 
 
 material. The bridles and fittings to 
 match all the saddles are of the same 
 class of carefully selected articles, a 
 charming contrast to the London exhi- 
 bits. Harness also is shown, Cape-cur- 
 ricle and horse, stained, with brass fit- 
 tings ; Australian cab harness, with 
 nickel mountings, fitted -with their patent 
 saddle ; a set of single-horse broughams, 
 silver on German wire whole buckles, 
 and a set of light American buggy har- 
 ness, square-pattern mountings, all of 
 which are well made. Mill-banding, 
 fire-buckets, hose-piping, helmets, &c., 
 are also shown. Portmanteaus and “railways” figure likewise 
 in this case from Birmingham. One of the latter has no strap- 
 ping whatever outside, for convenience in opening and closing ; 
 springs are used instead. This will do for small work, but not 
 for large trunks, which are greatly strengthened by the strapping 
 which encompasses them. Another portmanteau is shown, with a 
 registered bolt inside to secure the door, in place of straps. The 
 ■workmanship in the portmanteaus is not so good as in the other 
 articles ; carelessness is shown in the ornamentation, by over- 
 heating the tools used and burning the leather, as well as other 
 faults which are plainly observable. 
 
 All pretensions to show in this collection of saddlery has been 
 carefully avoided ; plain solid serviceable work has evidently 
 been the object of the exhibitor. I also noticed that there is 
 more of the machine element in this case of goods than in any 
 other in the Exhibition. Nearly all the articles are marked as 
 sold to persons of high rank. In my opinion this collection 
 deserves high honours for both material and workmanship. 
 
 Messrs. Schletter and Co., merchants, of Birmingham, show a 
 fine collection of saddlery, cigar-cases, &c., chiefly made in 
 Birmingham ; but these goods do not appear to advantage, being 
 overcrowded. Their solid calf purses and pocket-books, with a 
 fox’s-head trade mark (makers, Ashfords and Winder), scarcely 
 show at all by being put on the floor at the back of the other 
 goods in the show-case. This is to be regretted, as I did not 
 observe articles of this description in any of the other courts in 
 the Exhibition. 
 
 Walsall has no cause to regret its show of saddlery and saddle- 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <fr. 13 
 
 trees, contributed by Mr. Christy. His exhibit is remarkably 
 good, with the exception of a few details. The arrangement in 
 the show-case is admirable, no overcrowding, every article 
 exhibited being distinctly^ seen to advantage, and the whole so 
 clean and carefully attended to, that I did not observe a single 
 mark or soil upon them. This is another favourable contrast to 
 some of the other houses in the British Court. A lady’s saddle, 
 white doeskin, and quilted all over in design, sewn with blue 
 silk, of good shape and finish, is a delicate piece of workmanship ; 
 but if the rudely drawn imitation of a butterfly, stitched in the 
 design on the heads, had been omitted, it would have shown 
 greater taste. There is really no scientific arrangement in this 
 butterfly business ; in other respects, excepting an ugly border 
 in the quilted w T ork, it is a good soft and easy saddle. Another 
 lady’s saddle is shown of good workmanship, but I cannot truth- 
 fully state the same of the hogskin, which is too poor and 
 spotted for best work. The hunting saddles are creditably made, 
 but the curve in the hind facing is destroyed by nailing in the 
 panel without exercising sufficient care. Several other saddles 
 exhibited are also well made, but the hogskin is not so carefully 
 selected as in the Birmingham saddles. In this collection is 
 a best Australian pack-saddle, stained, and the best in this case 
 for shape, precision, and finish ; the curves are better attended 
 to, and the panel fits with accuracy, which is not so in some of 
 the others. All the saddle-trees are of excellent quality, and 
 fitted with nickel plates that will not tarnish or corrode. Not- 
 withstanding these few minor inequalities, it is, on the whole, an 
 exceedingly good collection. 
 
 Messrs. Brace and Co., Walsall, have greatly marred the 
 effect of their case by having too many articles pressed into too 
 small a space. One of the most prominent saddles to be noticed 
 is a lady’s, with doeskin eaves, of good material, as far as 
 I could observe, and of fair workmanship ; also a lady’s, plain, 
 of good finish, but of second quality hogskin ; a Somerset, and 
 a military saddle, some harness, &c., all of which, taken col- 
 lectively, are of good quality as regards material and manufac- 
 ture. The stirrup-irons, spurs, bits, <kc., appear of good quality, 
 but are in an exceedingly dirty and tarnished condition. 
 
 Messrs. Lennan and Co., of Dublin, show rather a large quan- 
 tity of saddles and harness, but nothing really remarkable. 
 
 This concludes my observation in the British department of 
 the Exhibition. I believe I have omitted no article novel in 
 design, material, or construction, and have sketched only such 
 as come under the head of inventions. 
 
14 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , tbc. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Before describing the exhibits of this great nation, I wish it 
 to be understood that sketching in the Exhibition is strictly 
 prohibited, unless permission is granted by each individual 
 exhibitor. To run counter to this law is to place oneself in 
 jeopardy of the authorities ; but how is it that foreigners — for 
 the French were the same in 1867 — refuse us this concession, 
 when perfect freedom was given them (if I am rightly informed) 
 at all our past Exhibitions ? 
 
 In the manufacture of saddlery and harness, I find from care- 
 ful inquiry we have no need to fear competition to any serious 
 extent from Austria, for I am informed from a native of Vienna, 
 and one in the business, that there are no wholesale houses at 
 all in the city or in the provinces, that he was aware of. They 
 are what we call in England front shops, or home establish- 
 ments. I am informed that the London saddles are held in 
 high repute in Austria. They buy their best saddles from that 
 market. Birmingham and Walsall come in for some of the 
 cheaper class. I find the Viennese have a strong prejudice 
 against any best work, except of London manufacture. The 
 London labels on saddles work miracles on the Continent, for 
 many of the reputed town-made saddles are supplied to London 
 houses from Birmingham and Walsall, labelled and by them dis- 
 tributed all over the world. The Vienna ^saddlers complain 
 greatly about the recent advances in English saddlery. They 
 are at the present time straining every nerve to manufacture 
 more saddles now than formerly on account of this advance. 
 The saddlers, harness, portmanteau makers, and the men in the 
 leather trade generally, work for weekly wages varying from 
 16s. to 24s. per week ; hours of work from 6 a.m. until 7 p.m., 
 but they do not work at the same rate as our workmen. Their 
 day of payment is Saturday. In some of the establishments 
 work is done on Sunday same as any other day. Trade societies 
 are in existence, but the men do not band well together. A 
 strike took place in May last among the saddlers at Vienna for 
 less hours and more wages. The men <Iid not succeed in their 
 efforts, but returned to their work at their old hours and wages. 
 The workmen in the trade generally are sober, but not indus- 
 trious. The employers give them poor encouragement, which 
 makes them neglectful and careless. If they were better managed, 
 a much better feeling would prevail between employers and em- 
 ployed than now exists. The workmen are fond of smoking, and 
 beer is their chief drink, even for breakfast. It is weak and 
 
Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , c£c. 15 
 
 cheap, but of good flavour, and well suited for the hot climate 
 of Austria (perhaps, the beer being so weak accounts to a 
 certain extent for the sobriety of the trade). I may add that 
 1 saw not one single case of drunkenness in Vienna during my 
 stay there. The workmen in the leather trade are chiefly 
 married men, but are not a saving body, — in fact, their earnings 
 are too small to keep a family and to make provision for old 
 age. Women as a rule are not employed in the trade. The 
 men have to do their own seaming and stitching ; sewing 
 machines are rarely used in any of the saddlery establishments. 
 Apprentices usually serve five years for board and lodgings, two 
 apprentices being engaged at each shop. Some of the military 
 work is manufactured at the arsenal in Vienna. From what I 
 could gather, there are no English 'workmen employed in the 
 saddlery trade ; and if they will take my advice, they will keep 
 away, for I am certain that neither wages, living, nor climate 
 will suit them. 
 
 Some of the respectable workmen in the trade reside a few 
 miles outside the city, where they can obtain cheaper lodgings, 
 at from 14 florins (3s.) per week and upwards. The remainder 
 muddle together in one room in Vienna, spending a great 
 portion of their time with their families at the cafes. 
 
 As it will not be necessary for me again to refer to the 
 element of labour in Austria, I may be permitted to remark 
 that nothing pained me so much as to observe the degrading 
 occupations to which females in the lower classes are subjected 
 in Vienna. Young girls from 14 years old and upwards are 
 constantly seen climbing ladders with the men, carrying up 
 bricks and mortar for building purposes, dressing bricks, or 
 breaking stones. I saw from 40 to 50 women, some with babies 
 on their knees, and other portions of their family playing about, 
 whilst they were breaking stones. Women we also saw at work 
 with the “navvies” on the railways and in the quarries, and 
 almost everywhere else where men are employed ; even in the 
 Grand Rotunda of the Exhibition, Bohemian girls were engaged 
 carrying up articles for building purposes. 
 
 In the Austrian as in many of the other foreign departments 
 in the Exhibition, I must refrain from mentioning the names of 
 exhibitors on account of their extreme length. 
 
 Respecting the show of leather in the Austrian collection, I 
 find it varies considerably, therefore I will not particularise 
 any one class, but give a general opinion respecting the whole 
 exhibits. Their brown and black calf and other light leathers 
 arc of good quality generally, • and I think equal to ours; but 
 
10 
 
 Leather, Harness, Saddlery, Whips, dec. 
 
 their hogskins arc poor, harsh, horny, and not well adapted for 
 saddle work. Stirrup and bridle butts, skirt and harness backs, 
 are also inferior to the English, in being loose, rough, spongy, 
 and not of good tannage. I also noticed that their sole leather 
 is not equal to our English manufacture, although some of it is 
 of great thickness, but it is generally loose and wanting firmness. 
 In japanned and enamelled hides, of a variety of grains, they 
 manage much better; in fact, they appear good japanners ; their 
 hides are soft, smooth, pliant, and have an excellent face, or 
 finish. Fancy skivers, roans, and moroccos, of many colours 
 and grains, for purses, boots, &c., are of much finer finish than 
 those shown in 1867. 
 
 Austrian saddlery is similar to our English make, and appears 
 better than previous exhibits, yet will not bear comparison with 
 those in the English Court for quality. Most of those shown are 
 of middle-class workmanship and material. On the whole the 
 Austrians are not good saddlers, but no doubt they will gain 
 a wrinkle from our exhibits. The prices of their saddlery are 
 enhanced in Vienna by the men having to do their own seaming 
 and sewing, and the sewing machine element not being much in 
 fashion. A lady’s saddle of inferior make and material, quilted 
 all over with small doe-ears, in safe and heads, is marked 95 
 florins ; a racing saddle, full shaft, poor and heavy, 30 florins ; 
 also a gent’s hunting saddle, about our second quality, 50 florins, 
 and so on in proportion ; but, of course, these are Exhibition 
 
 The other novelty is a gent’s saddle (Fig. 11), arranged in 
 such a manner that the rider is enabled to tighten the girths 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 prices. Only two novel- 
 ties are introduced in 
 the saddlery depart- 
 ment throughout the 
 Austrian Court. One 
 is a lady’s saddle (Fig. 
 10), with the near horn 
 or head (a) constructed 
 so as to fall down, by 
 means of an expanding 
 gusset (b) ; the inten- 
 tion of tnis invention 
 is to give greater fa- 
 cility to the rider in 
 mounting and dis- 
 mounting ; the saddle 
 has no leaping head. 
 
* 17 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , tfe. 
 
 of his saddle, without the inconvenience of dismounting, 
 This is accomplished 
 by means of a key, 
 fitting on a square 
 (a) in the skirts ; in 
 fact, there are two 
 squares on either 
 ' side of the saddle, 
 
 • each protected by a 
 circular metal plate 
 working on a rivet. 
 
 I cannot offer any 
 opinion on these in- 
 ventions, as I could 
 not find the person 
 who had charge of 
 the cases to obtain, 
 required permission 
 to inspect them. I 
 went repeatedly, in 
 company with an interpreter, to get an interview, but failed each 
 time. Some of the ladies’ saddles were showy in the extreme, 
 being quilted all over with fancy needlework insertions in design, 
 some with horses’ heads, and other animals. 
 
 Messrs. Wikede and Sons have a magnificent case of saddlery, 
 capacious, and composed almost entirely of glass ; it is, for 
 workmanship and material combined, one of the best in the 
 Austrian collection. Several ladies’ saddles are shown with 
 showy insertions, but, nevertheless, well made. I noticed that 
 the designs for the quilted work were carefully and well drawn, 
 a contrast to a great amount of the old-fashioned patterns put 
 on our English saddles. The racing saddles in this collection 
 are made very light in weight, some only 1 lb. complete. A 
 lady’s saddle, with seat and skirt in one piece of hogskin, is well 
 made, and shows what can be accomplished by some of the 
 Austrian saddlers. 
 
 Respecting the harness exhibited, it varies in quality as much 
 as the saddlery, some being fairly made, and others the reverse. 
 Tilbury tugs are very much used in Austrian light harness, and 
 patent Jeather fronts, sewn with flat silver wire, are frequently 
 seen ; also fronts neatly worked with white or coloured whalebone 
 in design, arc very tastefully executed. It is evident, where neat- 
 ness of design is required, the foreigners can manage it to perfec- 
 tion. Their favourite style for harness furniture is the cable pat • 
 
18 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , (£c. 
 
 0 tern, with whole buckles. Another kind is a fancy 
 scolloped pattern, with holes pierced all round the 
 buckles (see Fig. 12). Most of their furniture is 
 of a showy nature, with very few plain patterns 
 like our home trade. The Austrians do not manu- 
 facture such good harness mountings as our English 
 makers, but surpass us in having a greater variety 
 Fig. 12. of fancy patterns. Hoods of enamelled leather, 
 and quarter cloths of the same material, are worn in some cases 
 underneath the harness, placing the horses, as it were, in deep 
 mourning. Very light Prince of Wales’s collars are very 
 fashionable here for carriage horses. An elaborate set of white 
 enamelled state-carriage harness, with double-gilt buckles, and 
 one mass of ornamental chain and tassel work, with pads and 
 collars of the same material, padded with green quilted cloth, 
 and another set of black harness of a similar nature, nearly all 
 sewn in design with flat gilt wire, reminds me of the patience 
 of the Spaniards, who surpass all nations for showy state 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 harness. Hackney bridles, in some cases, arc showy, yet well 
 made ; a few especially so, in light coloured hogskin, and lined 
 underneath with blue velvet, showing a very narrow even margin 
 
19 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips, c£*c. 
 
 throughout the strapping. Pressed or stamped loops and pipes 
 are invariably used in foreign harness. I found them in nearly 
 every department of the Exhibition. Harness docks are much 
 longer than ours, and of extreme thickness. It will not be any 
 exaggeration to say that they are thrice as thick as we make 
 them in England. To crown their efforts in ornamentation, I 
 must refer to their dray-horse harness (Fig. 13), which is 
 . mounted with immense round double breaks (a), seven inches 
 long, and five inches in diameter, fitted with two tongs ; the 
 ornaments arc three and four inches in diameter, and collars (b) 
 of great weight and peculiar shape, with quilted false collars (c) 
 underneath. 
 
 They make a great show of mill-banding, from 1 in. to 24 in. 
 wide; it is well and firmly made, similar to ours in manufacture, 
 some being constructed by cutting the leather into long strips, 
 about J in. or J in. wide, and firmly fixing them together, so 
 that when complete only the edges of the leather arc visible. 
 They make this kind only where great breadth is required. 
 
 The whips in the Austrian department are conspicuous more 
 for their variety of mounts than for their sterling value. In 
 some of the cases very poor whips are shown, and in others of 
 much better quality, both in workmanship and material, but 
 not equal to the English in best work. Rhinoceros-hide stocks 
 are frequently met with ; also all that portion of the stock 
 forming the handle is wire-worked in many instances. 
 
 In dressing-cases, bags, purses, pocket-books, and other fancy 
 articles of a variety of patterns and neat manipulation, I must 
 give them the credit of surpassing us, and all such light leather 
 work. They manage somehow to turn fancy goods out in a 
 neat, clean, and tasty manner that our English workmen cannot 
 accomplish. I did not observe any solid calf purses, or pocket- 
 books, as are made and in such high repute in England. 
 
 I will now speak of their “railways” * and portmanteaus, which 
 our English makers can excel in solidity. I noticed one in 
 particular — a 27-in. best solid portmanteau — standing on its 
 end, with a few articles on the other end, certainly not of very 
 great weight, yet sufficient, by the pressure, to crush the 
 portmanteau out of shape. This is a sample of their solid 
 work. A “railway,” made of light hogskin, in our own style, 
 was well made ; and so I found generally throughout the 
 Exhibition, that where light leathers arc used in manufacture* 
 the Germans can manage them to perfection. The fashion for 
 
 * “ Railway,” in Saddlery, 
 travelling. 
 
 means cases med for packing clothes, Ac. in, for 
 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <Fc. 
 
 travelling appliances on the Continent is not so much in our 
 style of solid leather work, but composed of massive wood boxes, 
 covered with cloth or light leather, with exceedingly showy 
 metal mountings, brass bands, and other ornamentations. Fig. 
 14 well illustrates the style of trunk of this description, -which is 
 
 usually fitted with drawers, trays, and divisions. Some of these 
 articles are 4J ft. long by 3| ft. deep. Most of their knapsacks, 
 I find, are made of skins, dressed with the hair attached. Some 
 are fairly made, others the reverse. 
 
 I need not describe the exhibits of Hungary or Roumania, as 
 the remarks made on the Austrian exhibits will apply to both 
 these countries. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 The show of leather and leather work from this country is 
 great, but 1 failed to notice any marked improvement since 
 its magnificent show at Paris in 18G7, especially in saddlery and 
 harness, which stood remarkably well for material and workman- 
 ship. Perhaps the unsettled state of the country, owing to the 
 Franco-German war, may account, in a great measure, for their 
 not making the progress one might expect to find. Notwith- 
 standing these drawbacks, there are excellent samples of japanned 
 and enamelled leather, of good finish ; the calf and fancy- 
 coloured work arc also of a first-class character. I also noticed 
 the japanned cloth was so near the appearance of leather, that only 
 an expert could detect it. As for those of our English workmen 
 
21 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , etc. 
 
 who are under the impression that no one can touch us in light 
 leathers, or in saddlery, harness, or fancy-bag work, let them go 
 and see for themselves such a collection of leather and leather 
 work as is now exhibited in one of the out-buildings in connec- 
 tion with the Vienna Exhibition, and I feel confident they will 
 soon change their opinions, and come home with an acknowledg- 
 ment that we are very far from having the whole of the leather 
 trade in our own hands. Prussia will, in my opinion, be our 
 greatest competitor in leather and leather work; for it appears 
 to be the nearest approach to our English work I have met with 
 on the Continent or in the Exhibition. Their saddles are of 
 good shape, make, and material, but I did not observe any new 
 invention worth recording, neither did I find any saddles or 
 harness of such design as those exhibited in 1867. Harness in 
 this collection is good, and not quite so showy as former exhibits. 
 My impression, from careful investigation, is that the Prussians arc 
 rapidly throwing off the showy, outward ornamentation of their 
 goods, and aiming at plain, solid, durable work, which are really 
 the characteristics of English work. The collars and pads of the 
 carriage horses are exceedingly light and neatly made. Respect- 
 ing their bags, dressing cases, &c., &c., it would only be repeti- 
 tion to describe them, as they appear to be an exact counterpart 
 of those previously commented upon in the Austrian Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 - France. 
 
 Of course the exhibits from this nation are considerably smaller 
 in number compared to their magnificent display in 1867 at their 
 own Exposition. Nevertheless, I must admit, it is a good show 
 at Vienna. I am of opinion that the French manufacturers are 
 determined not to be behind any nation in the race of competi- 
 tion, for I perceive the quality is still kept up in their light 
 leathers ; also their patent and enamelled hides -would not dis- 
 grace a first-rate London house; they are smooth, soft, and have 
 a splendid finish. 
 
 In heavy leather they have made excellent progress. In har- 
 ness, bridle, and stirrup belts, they are not yet on an equality 
 with the English makers; they will still have to persevere with 
 this class of goods before they arrive at perfection. Of course it 
 depends greatly in the currying process, as I find a great many 
 of their hides are now of English tannage. Their fancy leathers 
 have a striking effect in their artistic arrangement ; but, apart 
 from this, they are of fine quality and colour. Calf- skins, black, 
 self, or coloured, are first-class, and some of the patent leather 
 
22 
 
 Leather, Harness, Saddlery, Whips, dec. 
 
 is painted in beautiful design. In hogskins they cannot compete 
 with us for quality. A new grain is shown for leather, being an 
 imitation of a crocodile skin, showing all the scales ; it has a 
 nice effect on some articles, but it is too large a pattern for small 
 purposes. 
 
 In brown saddles, the French improve, but not very rapidly; 
 the inventions introduced in 1867 have entirely disappeared, and 
 they have nothing new at Vienna worth recording. The only 
 approach to anything different to what they have shown before is 
 a girl’s pilch with the leaping head screwed through the bottom 
 of the near head ; it is an old English pattern, but now quite out 
 of date in modern saddlery. 
 
 Harness in this collection is fairly made on the whole, so also 
 are the portmanteaus, cases, &c. In the whip exhibits an im- 
 provement is apparent in design, but the show of these necessary 
 articles is very small indeed. Millbanding is not at all well 
 executed in the workmanship ; it is not nearly so good in this 
 respect as in the German or English departments ; the chief 
 failing is in the sewing, which is not well pulled in, either in 
 thread or in lace-work, the stitches generally lying loosely on 
 .the surface. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Russia contributes leather peculiar to that nation only. No 
 other country, I understand, has ever* been successful in manu- 
 facturing Russia leather. Many attempts have been made, but I 
 believe all resulting in failure as regards the lasting qualities of 
 its scent ; for in true Russia leather the scent never departs from 
 it. Moroccos, sheep, calf, kid, and a wonderful amount of furs 
 are displayed; also shoe leather of all kinds, and generally of a 
 fair quality, but not so good as the German leather. 
 
 The gig and carriage harness is of the same character and 
 style as that exhibited at the Paris Exhibition, viz., extraordinary 
 narrow strapping, such as $ and \ inch wide, and of great 
 thickness, but I find they have relaxed a little in our direc- 
 tion, as some of the harness is exhibited with J-inch bridles, 
 and the other parts in proportion. I also remarked that 
 the £ -in. strapping was not so thick and ugly as formerly 
 shown. I cannot say I admire the Russian style of harness; at 
 least the flashy portions of it. I will describe one set of horse 
 harness of this character. It is completely covered with studs 
 chiefly of £ in. diameter, sewn or riveted on the strapping 
 so that they nearly come into close contact with each other; the 
 noseband, 2 in. wide, is also covered with them ; and the harness 
 
Leather , Harness , Saddlery, Whips, d'c. 23 
 
 altogether is mounted with tassel, fancy chain, and other orna- 
 mentation. The collar wail or pipe part way down is formed of 
 polished wood, the remainder of leather, and is generally very 
 light in appearance. 
 
 The harness mountings in this collection vary from our patterns 
 more than any other nation ; for instance, the terrets have very 
 peculiar eyes, turned the reverse way to ours when in use. I can- 
 not conceive how the reins are to pass through them. I also noticed 
 polished wood, fitted with strapping of a semi-circular shape, but 
 for what purpose I confess I am at a loss to understand. There 
 are many points connected with their harness past my compre- 
 hension, to arrive at a just conclusion respecting the fitting of 
 this harness ; it should be seen in wear, instead of viewing it as 
 it hangs in confusion in the Exhibition. Military harness is 
 strong, and every strap is deeply fluted. 
 
 Fig. 15 is a section of a strap of this 
 peculiar harness. The collars are of an 
 immense strength, with part polished 
 wood pipes, and the traces cut double 
 width and turned over similar to a flat 
 dock : these are not so strong as an 
 ordinary sewn-made trace. Tilbury tugs 
 are also used in this country’s display. 
 
 The riding saddles are few in number, 
 with poor hogskin and middle-class workmanship. I observe 
 they are all hand-sewn ; so also is the harness. 
 
 Fie. 15. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Turkey has only a small show at Vienna, if that is all which 
 is contributed in the main building of the Exhibition. The 
 saddlery is similar in style to our English, but it is poor and 
 ill-formed, and composed of bad material. We must not take 
 this small show to represent the Ottoman Empire, when we have 
 seen such excellent samples of workmanship and material at 
 a similar Exhibition, so short a time back as in 1867. The 
 saddles of Oriental celebrity are too elaborate for me to describe, 
 being composed of silks, velvets, or cloth, with gold and silver 
 embroidery, and fancy tassel work richly executed, and quite out 
 of our line of business altogether. One bridle is rudely con- 
 structed, but has small sea-shells studded all over it, with the 
 addition of many bells and tassels. Leathers contributed are of 
 a fair quality, especially those in fancy colours. I cannot help 
 thinking there must have been more saddlery, &c., from this 
 great nation, but having no general catalogue to refer to, the 
 
24 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <£c. 
 
 number of exhibitors being large, and my time in Vienna but ot 
 short duration, I found it would only permit me thoroughly to 
 examine all the exhibits in the Exhibition, and a few only of the 
 numberless outbuildings in the grounds, which are, in fact, ex- 
 hibitions of themselves. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 To the Spaniards I must again award a ‘‘leather” medal for 
 their great patience and perseverance in fancy raised work ; they 
 certainly eclipse all nations for this class of ornamentation. A 
 lady’s saddle, of elegant design, with silver-tipped pocket, is 
 one mass of embossing ; even the facings are not forgotten. 
 Other saddles are produced by cutting out the designs in coloured 
 leather and sewing them on to rich velvets in beautiful con- 
 
 trasts ; these are remarkably well done. A few of the riding 
 saddles are in our style, and others quite different (see Fig. 16). 
 The harness and bridle work is all of the same ornamental 
 character, but only a small quantity is exhibited. 
 
 If a greater number of our English workmen in the trade had 
 an opportunity of seeing the Spanish saddlery, they would, no 
 doubt, be benefited by the lessons taught in graceful curves and 
 general harmony of design. We are, I am reluctant to confess, 
 far behind our Continental friends in originality of design ; for 
 instance, some of the patterns in the quilted work of Plnglish 
 saddles have been in use now for half a century or more ; it is 
 
25 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , cfcc. 
 
 exceedingly rare to see a new design. This is to be regretted, for 
 why should we in England not try to excel in the beauty, as 
 well as in the solidity of articles ? 
 
 Italy. 
 
 In the Italian Court, as in many others in the Exhibition, 
 I laboured under a disadvantage to get a fair view or touch of 
 their leathers, for they were hung up so high that it was next to 
 an impossibility to judge with any degree of accuracy of their 
 merits ; but in the few I could well examine, I came to the con- 
 clusion that the Italians will have to make greater exertions 
 to attain to the position of the English and Germans in the 
 leather trade. 
 
 The brown saddlery is similar to our English make in forma- 
 tion, but not in material or workmanship. Harness showy 
 generally, in some instances gaudy, with massive mountings and 
 extra wide silk fronts and large whalebone rosettes, tolerably 
 well made. Some of the harness-makers have caught the con- 
 tagion from the Spaniards in embossing, but not with the same 
 amount of patience, as the Italians do not sew their raised work. 
 
 Respecting the portmanteaus and trunks exhibited, one would 
 almost fancy the workmen had served a portion of their appren- 
 ticeship at the cooperage, for they put so many hoops around 
 their work, and what with hoops, clips, corners, and metal- 
 plates, I must really give them the credit of surpassing us in 
 metalising their work. It is observable that many of these 
 trunks have two hasps in one lock ; this is an awkward arrange- 
 ment, for we in England find one hasp quite sufficient to manage 
 in locking up a portmanteau. Most of these articles are of great 
 size, being four by three feet, and some even of a larger size. 
 All are of fair workmanship. 
 
 Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. 
 
 From these countries we have a fine collection of leopard, 
 tiger, black and white bear, and other skins for rugs and mats. 
 The leathers contributed are chiefly of second-rate quality. 
 Reindeer harness is very similar to that exhibited at Paris in 
 1867, being composed of a plain brown bridle, edges bound with 
 red leather, a band of similar make round the neck to carry 
 bells, a rudely-made collar with a plain back band round the 
 body, one only rope trace passing from bottom of collar between 
 the fore-legs of the animal, thence through a ring in centre as 
 belly-band, and so on. between the hind-legs, and secured to the 
 front of the sleigh in the usual manner. The whole of the 
 
26 
 
 Leather , Harness , Saddlery , Whips , <£c. 
 
 articles from these countries are very meagre indeed, so far as 
 leather and leather work is concerned. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 In writing of the exhibits of the beautiful country of Belgium, 
 it will be only just to speak in words of praise of their collec- 
 tion of leathers. They have excellent samples of sole, patent 
 enamelled, calf, and other leathers very similar to our own 
 English manufacture, and seem to make rapid advances on us in 
 this important branch of industry. In saddlery, harness, or 
 whips, I saw no exhibits whatever. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 About a dozen portmanteaus are exhibited from Switzerland 
 of gigantic proportions, similar to our English manufacture, but 
 with considerably less strapping ; they arc of good quality and 
 workmanship. I find a custom prevails in this country to throw 
 
 up the edges of the 
 portmanteaus, and, by 
 inserting strips of 
 leather inside, giving 
 them the appearance 
 of extra strong, solid 
 work. These broad 
 edges are stained of a 
 conspicuously bright 
 red colour, so that any- 
 one unaccustomed to 
 the trade would imagine 
 they were made of very 
 stout leather indeed. 
 Fig. 17 is a military 
 saddle. 
 
 A splendid though small collection of embroidered work in 
 gold and silver design on velvet saddles, entirely different from 
 our manufacture ; also a few railway portmanteaus of fair work- 
 manship. The leather exhibited is of medium quality. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 In saddlery only a few made of leather are shown, all of 
 which are of very inferior quality — rough and ill -formed. The 
 saddles for camels are richly embroidered on velvet in gold and 
 
 Greece. 
 
27 
 
 Leather , Harness, Saddlery, Whips, dc. 
 
 silver lacc. In the grounds of the Exhibition the Egyptians 
 show the manner in which they raise their water by means of 
 oxen. This is accomplished by harnessing the oxen with a 
 leather bridle, with cup-shaped winkers, to blindfold the animal, 
 and a rudely constructed collar, from the top of which a rope is 
 attached, and connected to a cross of wood similar to our thrash- 
 ing machines, which communicates with a large wheel fitted with 
 buckets similar to our river-cleansing appliances. 
 
 United States of America. 
 
 In this court only a very small collection of leather work is 
 observable, and nothing whatever out of the ordinary style, with 
 the exception of the edges of the portmanteaus being turned up 
 and riveted with copper rivets after they are sewn in the usual 
 way ; this adds greatly to the strength of these articles. The 
 sewing-machine element is more conspicuous here than in any 
 other department of the Exhibition (excepting the Birmingham 
 case) for saddle work. I noticed the panels, quilting, and raised 
 heads all sewn by machine labour. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Harness from Brazil is a poor collection, badly made, with poor 
 plated mountings. Coats, vests, trowsers, and broad-brimmed 
 hats are exhibited made of leather. The saddlery also is poor 
 and slovenly made, and the worst exhibited throughout the Ex- 
 hibition. Some are made in hogskin with velvet insertions, 
 showy, but of wretched workmanship. The “railways” and 
 portmanteaus are painted in panels nearly all colours ; it is 
 evident from their exhibits that they are fond of showy colours in 
 Brazil. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Nothing particularly to notice ; simply a few furs and skins 
 exhibited, and a very small amount of leather work. 
 
 India. 
 
 The Ordnance Department (Cawnpore) send excellent samples 
 of saddlery similar to our English military work, but, of course, 
 made adaptable to the climate of that country ; also samples of 
 buffalo and cow hide, drysalted with the common salt of the 
 country, and hides of the same description limed ; others grained 
 and shaved. They likewise contribute highly instructive speci- 
 mens of buffalo and cow hides, showing the results of the various 
 stages of tannage from one month until seven months consecu- 
 
28 
 
 Leather, Harness, Saddlery, Whips, (See. 
 
 tively. It will be observed that, at the end of the first month’s 
 tanning, the buffalo hide especially has a very hard, horny sub- 
 stance in its centre ; this is noticed more particularly when 
 cutting it, which is attended with some difficulty ; and examin- 
 ing its section, this horny substance decreases in proportion to 
 the amount of time it remains in the tan-pits. 
 
 Our Colonies (New Zealand and Australia) send but a very 
 small display of leather goods ; their hides are largely branded, 
 and are of a very red tannage. 
 
 China. 
 
 From China we have fine samples of skins and furs, but only a 
 very few saddles, rudely constructed, and complicated in a variety 
 of coloured cloths. 
 
 As my Report is now concluded I cannot allow the opportunity 
 to pass, without expressing a wish that all English workmen in 
 the leather trade will endeavour, by constant application, per- 
 severing industry, and good workmanship, to assist their em- 
 ployers to hold their own against foreign competitors ; for rest 
 assured — although many in the trade may scoff at the idea — the 
 French and the Germans are closely contesting with us for the 
 supremacy ; their japanned and enamelled hides and other light 
 leathers are beautifully finished ; also their saddlery, port- 
 manteaus, and harness work, which are, on the whole, fairly exe- 
 cuted, prove this to my mind. Then their fancy articles, such 
 as purses, pocket-books, bags, dressing-cases, &c., are, for neat 
 and clean manipulation, as well as design, really a study for 
 English workmen. 
 
Works in the Precious Metals, Electro- 
 plate, dc. 
 
 Influence of Schools of Art — Teaching Drawing, etc. 
 
 By FRANK GEORGE JACKSON, of Birmingham. 
 
 TTTIIATEVER may have been the architectural shortcomings 
 VV of the structure erected for the Paris Exposition of 
 1867, there is no doubt they were fully compensated for by 
 the almost perfect arrangements of the interior. The same can- 
 not be said of the Vienna “ Weltausstellung ” of 1873. Here 
 matters are reversed ; the building constructed for the purpose 
 being of great architectural pretensions, while the contents lack 
 that convenient arrangement which should facilitate the work of 
 examination and comparison of the competing exhibits of the 
 various countries now brought together. The peculiar classifica- 
 tion adopted, the magnitude of the building, exceeding by about 
 five times the last Paris Exhibition, and the absence of a complete 
 official catalogue, rendered the task of investigation one of con- 
 siderable labour. 
 
 The exhibits of decorative works in the precious metals and 
 electro-plate, are not nearly so numerous as could be wished, or 
 might have been expected, many distinguished names, both English 
 and foreign, being altogether absent from the list of contributors, 
 a fact very much to be regretted ; and, as might reasonably be 
 expected, the Austrian display is large, and to a consideration of 
 many of the individual exhibits we will now turn. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Amongst other excellent examples of decorative plate shown in 
 this division, the foremost is a centre-piece in oxydised silver, 
 exhibited by J. L. Herrman, of Vienna, of early Gothic design, 
 quadrangular in plan, the elevation of the lower part consisting 
 of four richly decorated gables, in front of which are four groups 
 of figures ; above these is another group arranged around an 
 ornamental support, carrying a glass dish for flowers. The 
 subject of the composition is evidently taken from the old and 
 familiar fairy tale of the “ Sleeping Beauty,” the various groups 
 indicating a state of activity suddenly arrested. The group in 
 
30 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , dec. 
 
 front represents the king and queen listening to a song by the 
 court jester, who accompanies himself on a mandolin. The one 
 to the left consists of a man-at-arms and a huntsman restraining 
 the ardour of a hound. The group to the right portrays inci- 
 dents in the royal kitchen : a stout cook is buffeting a blundering 
 “help,” whose fellow is engaged in sacrificing a struggling 
 goose. The fourth illustration shows a fat old cellarman and 
 a jolly friar, enjoying with great glee the sight of a strangely 
 attired dwarf drinking from a huge tankard. The crowning 
 group appears to represent the bower of the princess, and shows 
 the prince about to give the magic kiss. The general aspect of 
 the whole design is at once novel and unique ; the figures are 
 spiritedly conceived, and exquisitely modelled, while the careful 
 and distinctive chasing, as seen in the realisation of the various 
 textures, ably supports the efforts of the designer and sculptor. 
 As a piece of art-work, it is unsurpassed in the Exhibition. 
 This firm, in another case, show examples of ordinary electro- 
 plate, which, for style and finish, arc very indifferent ; the plain 
 surfaces very irregular and wavy, the decoration is mostly effected 
 by flat chasing, the ornamental mass deadened, the ground bur- 
 nished. This case also contains a toilet set in silver, partly 
 enamelled, including candlesticks and mirror, Renaissance in 
 style, panelled after the manner of the Quattrocento ; the 
 supports of the mirror are a little out of keeping, being of a 
 more florid character than the rest of the ornamentation. 
 
 V. Mayer und Sohne show a dessert-service in silver, combined 
 with black marble ; the effect is good, novel, and a change from 
 the usual glass plateaux ; it is designed in the Renaissance 
 style ; the modelling throughout is good, and the metal work 
 is executed with exceeding sharpness. The glass dishes used 
 in this service are very lightly and elegantly decorated with 
 engraving. The more ordinary plate is scarcely up to our 
 notions of electro-plate, but nevertheless is the best of its class 
 shown in this Austrian section. The decorative processes em- 
 ployed are etching and engraved outlines filled in by the applica- 
 tion of acid ; the latter has a pretty silky appearance. 
 
 E. Lackner has an extensive show of electro-plate ; the plain 
 surfaces are bad, but the decorations are light, elegant, and 
 mostly in the Renaissance style. A mirror, the frame of which 
 was decorated with pierced gilt-work on a silver ground, had an 
 attractive look. Some other articles for the toilette table 
 executed in the same style to match. 
 
 Erhard und Sohne . — Their display consists of jewellery, 
 plated and silver work ; caskets in oxydised silver, plateaux. 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate, ike. 31 
 
 photographic frames, and other fancy articles, amongst which I 
 noticed a careful enlargement of a tazza attributed to Cellini. 
 The plain surfaces of the plated ware arc bad, the mounts and 
 castings coarsely chased. 
 
 H. A. G-ranichstadteii s exhibit consists of silver work mostly 
 oxydised, the ornamental details well pronounced and sharp in 
 execution. The most noticeable feature in this case is the appli- 
 cation of niello to the decoration of candelabra ; the three articles 
 shown, necessarily simple in form, are Flemish in style, the plain 
 surfaces throughout being decorated with the black tracery in 
 niello ; the effect is novel, refined, and well worthy the con- 
 sideration of metal workers. They also show a toilet set, the 
 principal portion of which is decorated in the same manner. 
 
 Conraetz and Reuter show electro-plate metal-mounted glass, 
 and specimens of the incrustation of metals. Here again, like 
 most of the foreign plated work, the plain 
 surfaces arc very indifferent and unplea- 
 santly irregular. The decoration, of which 
 there is a profusion, is confined to engine 
 turning, relieving a diaper pattern and a 
 combination of flat chasing and etching 
 upon a ground bright. Two vases of this 
 shape were shown, entirely covered by 
 pierced metal work, the execution being 
 extremely neat. In the specimens of me- 
 tallic incrustation the ornamental tracery 
 is raised from the ground, and are fine 
 examples of the process. 
 
 Ludwig Rohm shows some clever adap- 
 tations of arrangements of mechanical ob- 
 jects to the construction of candelabra, 
 candlesticks, &c., produced in a kind of 
 polished black bronze. The compositions, 
 although not in the best taste, are neverthe- vase covered with pierced 
 
 t i • •, rpi „ metal, bv Conraetz and Beuter 
 
 less examples oi ingenuity, lnerewasone (Austria), 
 candlestick rather novel in form and treat- 
 ment finished in the same kind of bronze. 
 
 D. Uollenbacli has a very good display of assiettes montees, 
 centre-pieces, and candelabra, produced in steel bronze judiciously 
 relieved by gilding. They are excellent in design, and are highly 
 decorative. 
 
 Joh. Hueber und Saline, besides an excellent show of jewellery, 
 exhibit a vase in silver in the decorated Gothic style, evidently 
 a special work. It is principally wrought by the hammer. The 
 
32 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , <£c. 
 
 surface decoration consists of niello tracery. The whole design 
 is of very elegant proportions and a fine specimen of legitimate 
 metal work. 
 
 Markowitsch and Scheid have a very striking display of objects 
 decorated with niello, including napkin rings, cigar cases, boxes, 
 &c. They are exceedingly well executed. The ornamentation 
 is neat, elegant, and stylish. I am not aware of this method 
 of decoration being much employed in England; nor can I 
 account for the neglect of so legitimate a process, which has the 
 merit of being effective and at the same time comparatively 
 inexpensive. 
 
 The exhibit of Jgnaz Nowotny consists mostly of electro-plated 
 table-ware, the decoration of which is by engine-turning of a very 
 elementary character. The manufacture is generally rough and 
 coarse, while the forms lack purity of outline. 
 
 Koch and Bergfeld, have an important show. In the more 
 decorative pieces the vine is the principal clement in the orna- 
 mentation. The hollow ware is mostly embellished with engine- 
 turning. In several cases the ornaments are produced by en- 
 graved outlines, the mass of the pattern being deadened by the 
 application of acid or other means. This method seems to be 
 very generally used in foreign work ; it has a delicate appearance 
 when newly finished, but it is questionable whether it will stand 
 the wear to which articles of utility are necessarily subjected. 
 
 Josef Denk has a case of articles in white metal, German 
 silver, and brass polished, consisting of chocolate pots, urns, &c. 
 ^Surfaces better than those of the electro-plate shown in this 
 section ; the forms generally good. 
 
 H. Iiatzersoorfer shows some good samples of champ leve and 
 painted enamels mostly in the Renaissance style. Leaving the 
 Austrian division, we now enter that of 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Sy and Wagner , of Berlin, first claim our attention, from the 
 extent and quality of their display, consisting of art works, table 
 services, and presentation pieces. The works by this firm are 
 characterised by a severity and sharpness of detail, carried in 
 some cases even to hardness, which renders them distinct from 
 any exhibit of its class. Amongst other special works is a group 
 in oxydised silver, representing the Emperor of Germany sur- 
 rounded by his generals at Metz, standing upon a silver pedestal 
 of oblong form, on the front of which is a bas-relief, and at each 
 end a figure of Fame holding shields, on which are inscribed 
 victories. Also a shield of circular form, made for General 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , dc. 33 
 
 Werder, commemorative of the Franco-German War. The main 
 part is divided into four compartments containing bas-reliefs 
 illustrating war incidents ; the centre is occupied by a symbolic 
 group of eagles in combat, while the ornamental divisions and 
 outer borders are enriched with enamel portraits and heraldic 
 devices ; the effect of the latter is not quite satisfactory, as it 
 gives to the work, which is otherwise well executed, what artists 
 would call a “ spotty ” ap- 
 pearance. In this case is 
 shown a centre-piece in 
 silver of an original form. 
 
 The model was furnished 
 by the Crown Princess. It 
 consists of a nymph grace- 
 fully reclining on a rock 
 which rises from the centre 
 of a group of four shells, 
 the whole resting on an 
 ornamental silver plateau, 
 somewhat after the manner 
 of the subjoined sketch. 
 
 In another case they show 
 a large and very effective 
 centre-piece. The general 
 form is novel, the details 
 are sharp and clearly de- _ _ 
 
 •fir! i C 1 4- A FI?. 1 9. 
 
 lined, even to a iaillt. J\. Designed and modelled by the Princess Boyal of England 
 softer treatment in some (Crown Princess of Prussia). 
 
 parts would have added materially to the tout ensemble . I 
 noticed that on many works of this firm etching by acid was 
 freely used in the surface decoration where low relief was desired. 
 
 D. Vollgold und Sohne show mostly oxydised silver work, con- 
 sisting of centre-pieces, compotiers, &c. Amongst others they 
 have a centre-piece of 
 a vase-like form rising 
 from a hollowed base, 
 for the reception of 
 flowers; the modelling 
 throughout is careful 
 
 and decided, and the 
 general execution good. 
 
 There is also an en- 
 amelled plateau, the piftU}au decorated on Looking-glass Surface by D. Vollgold 
 general form of wnicil und Sobne (Austria). 
 
34 Works in the Precious Metals, Electro -plate, (See. 
 
 will be understood from the sketch of one corner ; it consisted 
 of a metal frame-work holding small plaques of blue enamel, 
 shown in sketch by horizontal lines. The glass of the plateau, 
 upon which rests the epergne, kc., is treated in a novel but 
 simple manner, differing from any other similar object in the 
 Exhibition. It is usual in such articles to have the glass plain, 
 the effect being cold and inharmonious ; but in this case it is 
 enriched by an ornamental border, produced, on the under side, 
 by engraving, or etching and gilding ; by this means the work 
 is not only rendered more ornate but a more harmonious com- 
 bination of materials is effected. 
 
 A. Delilius . Ecclesiastical work, mostly cast, of rather rough 
 execution, consisting of monstrances and chalices. One of the 
 latter, decorated with a kind of filigree ornamentation, had 
 a good effect. 
 
 Pavene and Sussmann exhibit some examples of champ lcve 
 enamel, and the application of the process to a great variety of 
 objects : pen trays, tazzas, and door furniture ; some of the 
 door levers or handles being highly ornate. 
 
 There are several other exhibits of plated ware in the Prussian 
 Section, but they are so coarse in design and rough in execution 
 it is not worth while to particularise. Leaving Germany, we now 
 turn to the display of 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Here we find many excellent exhibits. Amongst those who 
 call for special notice is, first, 
 
 A. Potnikoff, who shows some beautiful examples of niello and 
 etching combined, in the decoration of tea sets, small trays, waiters, 
 spoons, and various other articles of utility. The groundwork is 
 
 sunk by the acid process, and ge- 
 nerally gilt, the raised portions 
 finished by niello tracery, pre- 
 senting a very rich appearance. 
 Some of the borders arc after 
 the pattern shown in the an- 
 nexed sketch, the shaded part 
 sunk and gilt, the tracery gene- 
 
 Nieiio Decoration associated with Etching, &c. rally of an Oriental character in 
 By a. Potnikoii (iiubnia). niello ; a tankard decorated by 
 
 the above method being particularly successful. Next come 
 the contributions of 
 
 Owtschinnikow , who, besides many articles in niello, shows 
 a large and effective tankard decorated with “ repousse ” work. 
 
35 
 
 Works in the Precious Metcils , Electro-plate , d'c. 
 
 The relief is very high, and the manipulation decided, but wanting 
 in softness. At first sight the impression is that it is cast work 
 chased, but an examination proves that such is not the fact. If 
 the relief has not been assisted in the first instance by the use 
 of dies, or similar appliances, it is a master-piece of execution, 
 and shows a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the 
 material on the part of the producer. So perfect is the ground- 
 work that there is not the slightest indication of pull in tho 
 metal, notwithstanding the suddenness of the relief. 
 
 Ho/lie/e Rantsi. P. Klebnilcoff has silver work of careful 
 manufacture, chiefly decorated by enamelling, niello, and etching, 
 the application of Ac two latter methods being very similar to 
 that already described in the other Russian exhibits. The objects 
 consist of cups, cigar-cases, coffee sets, spoons, and albums. A 
 cover for a basin is here shown in the form of a folded serviette, 
 the edge of which is enamelled in imitation of embroidery (after 
 a Persian type). The idea is old, and perhaps is in questionable 
 taste, but the mode in w T hich it is carried out gives it an air of 
 originality, the effect being far from displeasing. The display of 
 Sasikoff \ consisting of table ware, is not nearly so complete or 
 so interesting as the one of 18G7 in Paris. The objects shown, 
 such as tankards, tea sets, spoons, &c., are of neat and careful 
 manufacture, but exhibit no striking feature requiring special 
 remarks. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Is well represented by J. M. Van Kempen , worker in gold and 
 silver. Amongst other important works is shown a large archi- 
 tectural composition, embellished with figures (evidently a pre- 
 sentation piece) ;* it is well modelled throughout, the execution 
 good, but there exists a feeling of want of proportion between 
 the figures and the architectural form on which they rest, de- 
 tracting from the general effect. A large cup or punch-bowl, 
 made for Prince Hendrick of the Netherlands, is a bold and 
 spirited work ; the cup is supported by two eagles effectively 
 modelled ; the upper portion of the bowl is decorated with a 
 very graceful frieze of griffins and foliage. Perhaps the most 
 ambitious piece in this case is a large vase illustrating slave 
 emancipation. On the summit of the vase is a figure of liberty, 
 and on each side groups contrasting slavery and freedom. The 
 style of the piece is Louis XIV. 
 
 Bonebakker shows tea services, &c., mostly plain. The sur- 
 faces are fair, much better than the generality of foreign work. 
 Style of ornamentation is Louis XV. A carefully modelled 
 
 D 2 
 
36 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , &c. 
 
 figure of “St. Cecilia,” after Raphael, is shown by this 
 exhibitor. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 The principal exhibitor is V. Chris- 
 tesen. He shows a large centre-piece 
 in oxydised silver, scarcely worthy of 
 this celebrated house. The specimens 
 of ordinary plate and silver work are 
 not numerous, but most of those exhi- 
 bited are good in form, have an excel- 
 lent surface, are well made, and very 
 tastefully decorated. The style of orna- 
 mentation generally adopted is Scan- 
 dinavian ; in some cases the patterns are 
 raised in imitation of filigree, as in the 
 claret jug here given ; besides the plate 
 work a good collection of filigree jewel- 
 - lery in the same archaic style is ex- 
 Fi g. 22 . hibitcd. 
 
 Claret Jug. by V. Chris tesen 
 ( Denmark). 
 
 Norway. 
 
 J. Tostrup exhibits a quantity of silver work, consisting of 
 filigree jewellery, and the application- of filigree and rolled 
 wire in imitation thereof to the embellishment of large works for 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Epcrgne, in which filling op with Filigree is introduced, by J. Tostrop (Norway). 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , $c. 37 
 
 table decoration and other purposes. There are several chalices 
 ornamented in this manner with good effect ; but by far the most 
 important piece shown is an epergne, striking from its simple 
 construction, and the application of filigree, &c. The sketch 
 (Fig. 23) will convey some idea of the general character of 
 the work. The part darkly shaded represents the black wood 
 base, the ornamentation on which consists of the rolled wire 
 similar to that used by jewellers, which the French call “gal- 
 leries.” 
 
 Spain 
 
 Shows some few specimens of silver and plated ware, but they 
 are rough in execution, and without any merit in design, mostly 
 “rococo” and feeble moresque ; the only exception being in 
 the case of an ewer and basin. 
 
 Placido Zuloaga has a case containing a very beautiful collec- 
 tion of articles in iron and bronze, damascened with gold and 
 silver, and some fine examples of carving in steel, consisting of 
 shields, daggers, vases, caskets ; and one vase, somewhat of this 
 form, besides being richly damascened, 
 had in the centre a piece of bright steel 
 carved and pierced, laid over a gold 
 ground ; the effect of the contrast thus 
 afforded between the brilliancy of the steel 
 and the rich sober tone of the rest of the 
 decoration is excellent, and worthy of 
 special praise. The style of ornamenta- 
 tion adopted in most of the works is the 
 moresque. The method that seems to be 
 adopted here is this : the patterns being 
 decided upon, the parts of the article to 
 be decorated, which are to receive the 
 gold, are roughened with sharp file-like 
 cuts, the gold is then applied and made 
 to adhere by pressure. The whole is then 
 finished by chasing, adding to the larger 
 masses of the ornamentation any requisite vase executed in steel, reposed 
 details. It differs in appearance from 
 Oriental w’ork, the ornaments being in zuioaga (Spain), 
 greater relief. A variety of this method is sometimes practised : 
 w’hen the pattern consists of fine tracery, it is effected by pricking 
 the outline with a sharp pointed tool, raising teeth like projec- 
 tions, and applying the gold threads by force. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
38 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals, Electro-plate , dec. 
 
 Fbance. 
 
 Gliristojie et C ie - have a very varied display, comprising 
 electro-plate, silver work, enamels, and metallic incrustations. 
 The quality of the former is not what might be expected from so 
 famous a house ; the plain surfaces are very indifferent, due, I 
 presume, to the use of a comparatively soft metallic base, and 
 the process of spinning instead of stamping or raising with the 
 hammer. The cast mounts are heavy, and in some cases alto- 
 gether disproportionate to the objects to which they arc applied ; 
 but as regards surface decoration much ingenuity and taste is 
 brought to bear. Many of the designs are etched with great 
 effect in mass and line ; others are chased in outline, and 
 “matted;” while again the combination of engine-turning and 
 engraving is thoroughly well developed. On a tea service I 
 noticed a peculiar treatment, apparently produced by etching 
 the whole body of the article, with the exception of some narrow 
 bands, being semi-deadened, and afterwards re-etched. The 
 texture being something like leather, the effect is novel, but it 
 seems to convey an idea of thickness and weight. Some of the 
 etched decorations have gilt grounds. Turning now to the more 
 decorative works in cloisonne enamels, &c., the display is 
 charming, and shows a wonderful advance since the last Paris 
 Exposition. The enamels are exquisite in form and decoration, 
 based for the most part upon Oriental types, but not slavishly 
 copied — not mere reproductions, but fruits of an intelligent 
 study of recognised authorities in this truly beautiful and ancient 
 art. Amongst the many examples shown, some are of large size. 
 One vase is made in sections, and connected together with metal 
 mounts. One example of a bowl-shape, holding a glass dish, 
 struck me as being very successful ; the ground was black 
 mottled with red, relieving a pattern based upon the common 
 dandelion. A large mirror, the frame of which was in enamel, 
 had a quaint and original appearance, interesting as showing the 
 variety of purposes to which this kind of decoration can be 
 applied. Great as the advance is which has been made in 
 enamels, it is quite equalled, if not surpassed, by the develop- 
 ment of the process of inlaying metals. To this latter mode 
 of decoration Messrs. Christofie have paid great attention for 
 a considerable time, the particular modus operandi being 
 peculiar to themselves. The process consists of sinking, by en- 
 graving or other means, the required pattern on the surface 
 of the selected article, and filling in the cavities with silver 
 or gold, as the case may be, by means of the electric depo- 
 
39 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , ct'c. 
 
 sition process ; any excess of metal being cleared away, and the 
 pattern brought flush with the surface. It is in this latter par- 
 ticular that the process is distinguished from that generally 
 known as “damascening,” which is more or less raised from 
 the ground. A great number of the works shown consisted of 
 bronze vases, decorated with gold and silver, are large and 
 important. The designs of many of these have a Japanese 
 motive, and arc singularly well adapted to the expression of this 
 kind of embellishment. 
 
 In the truly glorious display of F. Barbedienne, many objects 
 coming within the province of this paper were to be seen, the 
 most striking of which were two vases in cloisonne enamel, five 
 feet in height, the most perfect of their kind I have ever seen. 
 Although they are not the production of the house, but the work 
 of Japanese artists, they nevertheless testify to the taste and 
 love of art which seem to animate the direction of this house of 
 art manufacture par excellence. An octagonal table, with a 
 star-like arrangement in its designs, having a white ground and 
 blue ornaments, and executed in cloisonne enamel, evidently 
 Chinese, is exceedingly effective. He also exhibits a pair of 
 vases, in champ leve enamel, in developing which process 
 he has achieved a considerable reputation. The vases in 
 question arc made in four distinct pieces, and skilfully united by 
 metal mounts. The design is rather Persian in feeling, tlie 
 colouring harmonious and effective. A large corbcille in silver,, 
 for table decoration, modelled and pierced, showing a dark blue 
 glass lining, is a good example of composition in the style of 
 Louis XIV. The best example of silver work shown by this 
 exhibitor i3 to be found in a pair of candelabra in the same 
 style, elaborate in detail almost to an extreme ; the chasing is* 
 simply exquisite. Two candlesticks are exhibited, in which a 
 combination of metals has been employed ; the style here adopted 
 is that known as “Xeo Grec.” The pillar consists of a square 
 shaft of copper richly incrustcd with silver, supported by 
 griffin „ feet, also in silver. From the silver capital, com- 
 posed of masks, rises the nozzle made of copper, incrusted like 
 the pillar, and supporting a large glass nozzle pan. They are 
 exceedingly decorative, and afford a good lesson in Industrial 
 Art. 
 
 Among the display of bronzes by G. Servant i, some very good 
 examples of champ leve enamels, mostly confined to small vases 
 and tazzas, are exhibited. 
 
 A. Bertrand has a fine collection of art w’orks in galvano- 
 plastic, consisting chiefly of the reproduction of ancient objects 
 
40 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , (fee. 
 
 finished in oxydised silver. He shows also a large number of 
 caskets of modern design, finished in the same manner. 
 
 England 
 
 Is nominally represented by some half dozen firms, but prac- 
 tically by about half that number. First in importance comes 
 the display of Messrs. Elkington and Co ., the comprehensive- 
 ness of which is unsurpassed in the Exhibition. The variety in 
 their exhibit is remarkable, ranging from ordinary electro-plate 
 for daily use up to works of the most ornate character. The 
 decorative processes employed are numerous, in addition to the 
 more ordinary ones of flat-chasing, embossing, and engraving ; 
 they include niello, etching, damascening, incrustation of metals, 
 enamelling (cloisonne, champ leve, and painted), repousse in iron 
 and silver, and parcel gilding. As the original patentees of 
 the electro-plate, they are still the leading producers of this 
 
 kind of ware ; English tho- 
 roughness is noticeable in all 
 their ordinary productions, 
 perfect uniformity of surface, 
 indicating the quality of ma- 
 terial, and the care taken in 
 the manipulative processes. 
 The decoration of articles 
 made from sheet metal, such 
 as tea sets, dishes, &c., is 
 confined principally to en- 
 graving, embossing, chasing, 
 and the application of orna- 
 mentally rolled wire ; many 
 examples of the latter legiti- 
 mate mode of decorating uti- 
 lities are shown, the orna- 
 ments are in low relief, and 
 have a delicate appearance. 
 I append a water jug as an 
 illustration ; the embellish- 
 Fig. 25 . ment is here restricted to the 
 
 Water Jug. by Elkington. USC of the wire in question, 
 
 while the surface of the plain parts is such that it is doubtful if 
 the addition of engraving would at all improve its appearance. 
 A dessert service in silver is particularly striking from the 
 novelty of the decoration by enamel, and the simple elegance of 
 its outline, designed after the best period of Pompeian Art. 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro -plate, (See . 41 
 
 The more decorative works by this firm are numerous. The 
 “Helicon Vase” is a triumph of industrial art, executed in 
 repousse silver and steel damascened with gold, and consists of an 
 elongated plateau decorated with silver bas-reliefs. From its 
 centre rises a vase of oval form, introduced on which are bas- 
 reliefs representing the Muses, surmounted by a group of boys 
 holding the lyre of Apollo. At the foot of the vase are seated 
 two charming allegorical figures of Music and Poetry, with their 
 attendant genii. The conception of the whole work is exceed- 
 ingly graceful, the manipulation brilliant and free, while the 
 delicately-wrought details bear testimony to the artist’s thorough 
 mastery of the peculiarities and capabilities of the materials with 
 which he had to deal. There is also the now well-known Inter- 
 national Volunteer Challenge Trophy in oxydised silver, a bold 
 sculptural work allegorically representing Peace and War. 
 Another important work, commemorative of the Abyssinian 
 campaign, is a very spirited composition ; the general form 
 partakes of the pyramidal, and comprises a large silver pedestal 
 on which is introduced illustrations of incidents connected with 
 the expedition ; it is flanked on each side by lions ; this rests 
 upon a decorated ebony plinth, the whole supporting a finely 
 modelled group representing Victory standing over the prostrate 
 form of King Theodore. Besides the larger works just enume- 
 rated, they have many minor pieces of rare 
 excellence. Two small tazzas are executed in 
 repousse and damascened with gold. A small 
 vase in oxydised silver, illustrative of the 
 history of inventions, and some claret jugs of 
 classic form, may be mentioned. I subjoin a 
 sketch of one of the jugs. A vase and dish 
 is a fine and brilliant work. An exquisite, 
 although smaller work, is seen in the form of 
 a silver casket, decorated in the Italian Re- 
 naissance style, by the much neglected niello 
 process, and parcel gilding ; the ornamenta- 
 tion is of a very elaborate character, the sides 
 and cover panelled and filled in with grotesque 
 animals, and foliage here and there relieved 
 with gold tracery. The top of the casket is 
 surmounted by a small and finely modelled 
 group of satyrs. The whole work is novel in 
 effect ; it calls for special notice, not only on 
 account of the merit of the design, but also 
 from its indicating the desire of this firm to 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Claret Jug, by 
 Elkington and Co. 
 
42 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , c£c. 
 
 introduce this truly artistic process. The process may he 
 thus described : — After the design is completed, the parts 
 requiring to be incrusted with niello are sunk cither by engraving 
 or etching with acid, the cavities are then filled with niello (a 
 black compound of silver, copper, lead, and sulphur), and fused 
 by heat after the manner of enamelling. The superfluous 
 niello is then cleared away and polished to an even surface. 
 It is superior to enamel from its toughness, but, unlike enamel, 
 it is limited to one colour only, i.e. black. 
 
 Among the many specimens of Messrs. Elkingtons’ metallic 
 deposition, their ‘ ‘ Alhambra Table ” is a prominent example, 
 an adaptation of architectural details, taken direct from the 
 palace of Granada, and applied to the purposes of decorative 
 furniture. The table part partakes of the character of a side- 
 board, upon which rests a mirror with frame in the same style. 
 Perhaps the greatest success this firm has achieved in connection 
 with electro-metallurgy, is in the production of bronze statuary. 
 Several examples are shown in Burke and Goldsmith, after the 
 original models by J. II. Foley, 1I.A., and Hercules Overcoming 
 the CEnonian Stag, after an antique group found at Hercu- 
 laneum. They also apply this process very largely to the repro- 
 duction of copies of antique plate armours, &c., rendering with 
 fidelity the beauties and peculiarities of the originals. The 
 next important feature in this display is the collection of enamel. 
 In 18G2 this firm had practised the process of champ leve with 
 considerable success, applying it to various objects, and modi- 
 fying the process as occasion required. Many of the examples 
 now exhibited are evidences of the energy brought to bear upon 
 this branch of manufacture. Amongst the number an ice pail or 
 bucket, decorated with flowers, illustrations of the seasons, and 
 light scroll work ; it is divided into four compartments by an 
 ornamental Caryatis. The colours are brilliant and harmonious. 
 A jug and dish, in the Persian style, are also exceedingly meri- 
 torious works. Another and more important work is to be found 
 in their chess table, executed principally in champ leve and 
 painted enamel ; the ornamental portions and the chessmen in 
 the former, and the finely executed portraits of celebrated chess 
 players, with which the table is embellished, in the latter. Not 
 content with the success achieved in the champ leve method, this 
 firm has now taken up the more difficult, but at the same time 
 more artistic, process of cloisonne enamel. One piece, in imita- 
 tion of the Japanese “ cloisonne ” style of design, is a capital 
 realisation of the peculiarities of Oriental manipulation ; the 
 technical quality of the enamel is perfect. Amongst the examples 
 
43 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , ci'c. 
 
 of original designs there is a large tazza, fourteen inches in 
 diameter, the concave portion of which is covered with a 
 decoration illustrative of St. George Overcoming the Dragon ; 
 round the edge there is introduced a border of roses symbolical 
 of England. To those who arc acquainted with the difficulties 
 to be encountered in carrying out such a design in cloisonne 
 enamel, the result is very gratifying. The modus operandi 
 by which this example was produced, is as follows : — First, a 
 finished design is made, showing the proper colours to be em- 
 ployed ; a careful tracing of it is then prepared for the artist- 
 workman, to guide him in bending the strips of flat wire, which 
 vary in thickness according to the requirements of the design. 
 The outline of the whole composition is then minutely traced 
 upon the dish, and the bent wire placed edgeways thereon and 
 soldered to the metal of which the object to be decorated is 
 formed. The colours are then introduced into the cells thus 
 formed in a kind of paste and subjected to a great heat until 
 they arc perfectly fused ; it is then allowed to cool. The process 
 is repeated until the whole of the cells are quite filled. Finally, 
 the superfluous enamel is ground away and the dish is polished. 
 The champ leve differs from the above in that the cells arc cut or 
 carved out instead of being formed by partitions laid in , this 
 is done generally upon a “pattern,” and copies reproduced 
 by casting, or by electro-deposition; the manipulation of the 
 colours is effected in a similar manner to that used in the cloi- 
 sonne. It will be seen from this that the filigree or partition 
 method (i.e. cloisonne), as it is sometimes called, is by far the 
 most ingenious and most artistic of the two methods, as requiring 
 greater care and patience on the part of the producer. Before 
 closing these remarks it may be as well to state that of the 
 champ leve varieties the enamelling on deposited metal is the 
 most difficult, from the peculiar character of its texture. The 
 advantages to be derived from this mode of reproduction (i.e. by 
 electro-deposition) being fully appreciated by the firm, led them 
 to corpbat the difficulties they at first encountered ; the result 
 has justified their endeavours, and hence enamelling upon 
 deposited metal has become with them a speciality. The chess 
 table before alluded to (i.e. the Alhambric) is a notable example 
 of its application, and demonstrates the success of the experi- 
 ment. 
 
 Hancocks and Co. have an excellent and varied show, con- 
 sisting of electro-plate, silver work, and jewellery. Their ordi- 
 nary plate is good in surface and simple in decoration. Some 
 specimens in which the surfaces were semi-deadened — in one or 
 
44 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , d?c. 
 
 cases relieved by gilding, without engraving or chasing — had 
 a pleasant effect. I am told that it w r ears well, no rubbing 
 being required, as it is only necessary to clean them with water. 
 They show some good examples of table glass, mounted with metal, 
 lightly and neatly executed. A tea and coffee service decorated 
 with bright gilt-metal ornaments modelled and pierced, had 
 a rich effect. The large decorated works are numerous, massive 
 in style, and thorough in execution, distinct in character from 
 most of the German and French works in this class, not par- 
 taking of the hardness of the former nor the light playfulness of 
 the latter ; there is (if I may so express myself) a certain solid 
 gravity and look of earnestness about them. It may be some 
 
 of a much coarser kind than shown by some of the other English 
 houses. Much of the ornamentation is produced by the press in 
 
 would prefer more brilliancy 
 in the modelling; but for 
 my own part, if this were 
 added at the expense of 
 some of the sterner merits 
 of the works, I should much 
 prefer to take them as they 
 are. For example, examine 
 their now celebrated “Ten- 
 nyson Vase,” and compare 
 it with any French work of 
 a similar kind, although it 
 may appear somewhat dull 
 by contrast, yet, judging 
 both by the higher qualities 
 of vigorous drawing and 
 thoroughness of modelling, 
 it will be found more than 
 equal to the test. Many of 
 their race cups are spirited 
 in design ; one designed for 
 the Brighton Faces is very 
 appropriate in form (I give 
 rough sketch of its general 
 shape). Near to this case 
 is the exhibit of 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Race Cup, by Hancocka and Co., London. 
 
 Shaiv and Fisher , con- 
 sisting of ordinary table 
 ware in electro-plate and 
 Britannia metal, the former 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , &c. 45 
 
 imitation of engraving ; it is a cheap method of decorating, but 
 the degree to which it is apt to “pucker” the metal renders it 
 unfit for the decoration of any but the cheapest kind of ware. 
 Some of the better articles were chased and deadened similar to 
 some already noticed in the exhibit of Messrs. Christofle in the 
 French Section. 
 
 Benham and Son , amongst other articles, show some electro- 
 plate of good quality, comprising tea services, claret jugs/ 
 biscuit boxes. One of the latter had a pretty and simple deco- 
 ration — an imitation of filigree on a gold ground. They show 
 also some toast racks, composed of cricket-bats, rifles, &c., very 
 ingeniously arranged ; designed, I presume, to suit the taste of 
 those who are prepared to sacrifice the canons of art so that they 
 get a “ novelty.” 
 
 India, 
 
 Although not showing anything analogous to our electro-plate, 
 yet exhibits a variety of articles in metal and other materials. 
 The forms, generally traditional, have a degree of elegance and 
 simplicity which gives them great educational value. The vice 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Group of Goglets or Water Bottles (from Indian Court) in Metal inlaid with Silver 
 
 i.e. Bidery Ware. 
 
 of novelty-seeking has not yet vitiated the manufactures of this 
 country. It is interesting to note that when a form has once 
 been recognised as perfectly answering its special purpose, it is 
 
46 
 
 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro -plate, &c. 
 
 not from a mere freak of fashion, a3 with us — who profess to 
 believe that “a thing of beauty is a joy for ever,” thrown 
 altogether on one side, in order to take up, for its own sake, 
 some uncomfortable novelty ; on the contrary, with true art- 
 wisdom the natural desire for wholesome variety is met by adding 
 to old forms new graces and varying proportions. As an example, 
 examine the objects given in the sketch, Fig. 28. Here we have 
 the same bottle form running through the whole — they arc like, 
 but yet unlike. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 After a careful examination of the various exhibits brought 
 together in the present Exhibition, I find myself led to endorse 
 the opinions freely expressed in many quarters as to the un- 
 doubted superiority of English manufacture of utilities, both as 
 regards material and workmanship. With regard to electro- 
 plate, its pre-eminence is due in the first instance to the 
 superiority of the metallic base employed, which, while it is sus- 
 ceptible of a higher finish, and engenders a more careful mani- 
 pulation, is at the same time of a more durable character than 
 that employed by Continental manufacturers generally. The care 
 bestowed upon the foundation, if I may use the expression, is 
 peculiar to British industry, and is the distinguishing feature 
 from most of the foreign work. While with us, durability, even- 
 ness of surface, and solid workmanship are the chief considerations, 
 the manufacturers of other countries seem to concentrate their 
 attention upon ornamental construction and decoration, which is 
 often carried to excess. Utilities as a rule do not require a 
 great amount of ornament or complicated embellishment : to 
 forms well chosen for their fitness (for special purposes) should 
 be added simple ornamentations, while the construction arising 
 out of necessity should be light, consistent with perfect dura- 
 bility. It is a curious fact that these conditions are mostly 
 ignored by those countries who have a high reputation for the 
 production of decorative works ; this, I apprehend, arises from 
 their regarding an article of utility as an object for the display 
 of art, and, by making this their prime consideration, losing sight 
 of the necessities of the case and the purpose which the article 
 has to serve. Setting aside for a moment the redundancy of 
 decoration observable in French, German, and other foreign 
 work, it must be owned that they exhibit more ingenuity and 
 employ more processes in their ornamentations than we do. 
 While, altogether, they have very much to learn from us in the 
 way of manufacture, we can yet “take lessons” from them in 
 
Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , d'c. 47 
 
 matters pertaining to means and methods of ornamentation and 
 embellishment. If to Great Britain belongs the palm for the 
 solid manufacture of articles for daily use, to France is due the 
 wreath as the producer of decorative works. In comparing the 
 mass of exhibits in the French Section with those of other 
 countries, one cannot fail to be struck with their superior artistic 
 character — notwithstanding the individual works of unsurpassed 
 excellence to be found among the exhibits of other nations, many 
 of which it must be confessed, if not produced by French artists, 
 owe much to French influence. Their works generally have a 
 warmth and a brilliancy which betoken a natural love for and 
 a devotion to art, an unquestionable characteristic of the French 
 as a nation. 
 
 The Influence op Schools of Art — Methods of Teaching 
 
 Drawing, etc. 
 
 In decorative works England has made great progress since 
 the last International Exhibition in 1867, and the energy with 
 which many processes have been taken up and developed raises 
 strong hopes that we are becoming more artistic in our aspira- 
 tions, and that our latent love of art is at last manifesting itself. 
 The improvement is due in some few cases to the employment of 
 French artists, but there are notable instances in which it is 
 owing to the activity and the fostering of native talent. That 
 we are stirring in these matters of higher industrial art is 
 evident for many reasons, amongst them the increase of our 
 schools of art throughout the kingdom, and the strong desire for 
 a knowledge of drawing shown by the middle classes as well as 
 artisans. As in decorative manufacture we have somewhat to 
 learn, so have we much to acquire in devising a practical system 
 of art instruction that may bring about the end we desire. Our 
 present system of art instruction I believe to be defective ; our 
 schools are too much devoted to the making of drawings , 
 rather than producing draughtsmen; too much time is spent upon 
 mere manipulation at the expense of higher matters — neatness 
 of line is insisted upon while the form of which it is the boundary 
 is neglected. I am the more impressed with this view from 
 having examined the course of study adopted by the Ecole 
 Municipalc de la Ville de Paris, and exhibited in the Wcltauss- 
 tellung of Vienna, and comparing it with a similar exhibition of 
 school works at South Kensington, London : the leading character- 
 istics of the French drawings is realisation of form — that of the 
 English, neat manipulation. That I am not single in my opinion 
 as to the latter, I will quote from the “Report on the National 
 
48 Works in the Precious Metals , Electro-plate , dtc. 
 
 Competition of the Works of Schools of Art,” just issued from 
 South Kensington. Speaking of certain defects observed in the 
 figure drawings, the reporter states that some of them 4 4 showed 
 the danger of losing the general expression of the figure by 
 attention to too minute a mode of execution.” What is here said 
 of figure drawing, might be well applied to the other more 
 elementary stages. It is in the earlier stages of instruction 
 that the error which permeates our system commences: too much 
 encouragement is given to laborious manipulation of outlines — 
 retouching and mending for the purpose of obtaining pureness 
 of outline — a lifeless copying of outline rather than the spirited 
 realisation of form — a timid anxiety for neatness of execution 
 in each of the few attempts the student is enabled to make, rather 
 than by oft-repeated essays to realise form, leaving execution to 
 come as knowledge increases. Who would think of teaching 
 writing upon the same principle as drawing is generally taught ? 
 No one would dream of touching and patching up each 44 copy.” 
 On the contrary, the student’s success rests upon repeated efforts, 
 and not upon the trimming up of a few. The method of teaching 
 drawing might be assimilated to that pursued in teaching cali- 
 graphy with very great advantage. The effect of the errors just 
 pointed out is painfully apparent in the higher branches of art, 
 particularly in design. The previous training of the student 
 renders him unfit to grasp a tout ensemble ; and instead of first 
 considering the general effect and the leading lines of his compo- 
 sition, he loses himself in a mass of little details which have little 
 or no connection with each other. 
 
 It is to be regretted that there are but slender hopes that the 
 defects in our system will be remedied while the method of pay- 
 ment on results (a principle good enough in theory, but somehow 
 often bad in working) is in operation, as it tends to give per- 
 manency to the error by encouraging the production of works 
 for shoiv , the preparation of which is at the expense of the 
 student’s best interest, and an amount of feeble instead of 
 vigorous drawing is thereby generated. What is required is 
 more time drawing and more sketching from memory. 
 
 In all competitions in the higher branches of study, students 
 should be required to send in time sketches duly authenticated 
 along with their more elaborate drawings, the two works to be 
 judged together. Whatever maybe done in the way of reforming 
 our method of art instruction, let us hope that it will lead us 
 from the idea, that the sole aim of a school of art is to produce a 
 number of neat and respectable drawings, and direct us to the truer 
 one of developing real art power amongst the masses of the people. 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery, 
 
 Real and Imitation; also to Trinkets in Glass, Iron, &c. 
 
 By J. WILLIAM TONKS, Birmingham . 
 
 FTER a first walk through this vast assemblage of industrial 
 
 products I felt that it was only by the close, and, indeed, 
 by the exclusive study of one subject at a time, that any real 
 good was to be gained from visiting it. The space covered is so 
 enormous, the materials occupying that space are so diverse, 
 that any attempt at a general review would lead to confusion in 
 the mind and would be useless for all practical purposes. I soon 
 became convinced that my only chance of obtaining any benefit 
 from my successive visits was to mark out a definite line of study 
 and rigidly adhere to it, closing my eyes, as it were, to every- 
 thing else. This apparently narrow policy was difficult, and at 
 first distasteful, but I soon had good reason to rejoice that I had 
 acted upon it. As, then, I found it so useful to myself in visiting 
 the Exhibition, I shall endeavour, without further explanation or 
 any apology, to pursue a similar course in reporting upon what 
 I have seen, in the hope that by so doing I may be of some 
 small service to others. 
 
 It would naturally be expected that the Germans, being near 
 home, would be most fully represented in this Exhibition, par- 
 ticularly in the jewellery department, but few would be prepared 
 to see how little many of the other great manufacturing nations 
 have contributed in this direction. The French jewellery comes 
 next in point of number and importance, but in quality appears 
 lamentably below the standard which fashion and tradition have 
 assigned it. English jewellers are, with a few notable excep- 
 tions, unrepresented; while the Birmingham manufacturer of 
 trinkets and imitations, whose wares find their way to every 
 market, is here not to be found. Italy is better represented ; 
 but Switzerland has only one case of jewellery proper, and Spain 
 one, in which the work of the goldsmith is a subordinate feature. 
 Russia has about two cases proper ; Denmark two ; both of these, 
 
 E 
 
50 Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. 
 
 however, containing the work of one manufacturer ; while all I 
 can say as to the steel brooches and earrings of Belgium is that 
 if they were there I was unable to discover their hiding-place. 
 This most unequal representation of the industries of different 
 countries places a reporter under a serious disadvantage. In so 
 far as he reports with fidelity upon what he sees, in so far is he 
 liable to misrepresent great industries which are inadequately 
 represented in the Exhibition. I must therefore premise that, 
 in offering opinions and in drawing conclusions as to the applied 
 design exhibited in the jewellery of different nations, I simply 
 speak of what I have seen, and cannot hold myself responsible 
 for these opinions as if they were matured conclusions upon the 
 designing power of the nations themselves. 
 
 As the German display of gold and other jewellery is by far 
 the largest, it will be well to speak of it first. A careful survey 
 of these productions, and a general comparison with those of 
 other nations, leads to the opinion that the manufacturers arc 
 fully alive to the importance of design and earnest in their 
 efforts to cultivate it. There is a freshness and novelty in their 
 forms, a departure from old methods of arrangement in their 
 best examples, which continually suggests this. This was, how- 
 ever, often so random and irregular in the specimens exhibited, 
 I began to wonder whether the ideas carried out were the 
 result of study and careful attention to design, or freaks of fancy 
 rejoicing in that supposed blissful ignorance which knows no 
 rules of art. I had an opportunity of deciding this moot point 
 on my return from Vienna, and as it now comes in the way of 
 my subject I will venture to refer to it here. Hanau and 
 Pforzheim are the two great centres of the jewellery trade of 
 Germany, and in the former of these I was enabled to visit 
 a large manufactory where gems were chiefly mounted in silver 
 or in gold of eighteen-carat quality. I found there a profes- 
 sional designer sitting in a sort of glass case at one end of the 
 principal shop. It was his business to prepare designs for the 
 mounting of a number of gems from time to time entrusted to 
 him, and to arrange such gems harmoniously. Further, in order 
 to ensure that the lines of the intended ornaments should be 
 pure in form and correct in style, I noticed that he was accus- 
 tomed to shape or turn up with pliers the pieces of gold which 
 were to be their frames or boundaries. This shop was full of 
 young people, there being four or five to each adult, a prevailing 
 fault, as I afterwards found, in the shops of German goldsmiths ; 
 but nevertheless these young people were so far educated that 
 nearly all those who had attained the age of seventeen had 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 51 
 
 placed before them one or more of the designs referred to, which 
 they were engaged in working out. 
 
 So much for German efforts in design. Now as to the general 
 success of such efforts. They are often crude, they are more fre- 
 quently flighty, but, as I have already shown, they are genuine, 
 steady, and continuous efforts. When the designer limits him- 
 self by strict rules of art he often produces very beautiful effects, 
 and when lie goes beyond them he often surprises by the 
 novelty of his combinations, lie generally finds the path too 
 narrow for him ; his roving fancy leads him to astonish the mind 
 by some strange expedient, or some novel 
 application of an idea. If the centre of 
 a brooch is not attractive enough when at 
 rest he introduces an arrangement at the 
 back, so that it may slowly revolve and dazzle 
 the eyes. An earring is usually a drop 
 hanging lightly by means of a thin wire ; 
 but the warlike imagination of our German 
 designer gives us a sword with jewelled handle 
 apparently thrust through the lobe of a lady’s 
 ear. A cameo pendant and earrings are 
 quite removed from the common-place when 
 the cameos are set in diamond triangles and 
 surmounted by palm-trees. As this design 
 is a typical one and is exceedingly well car- 
 ried out, I have added a sketch of it as cor- 
 rectly as I can give it from memory. (Fig. 21).) 
 
 The set is in the case of Mr. Ilartung, of 
 Vienna. 
 
 Amid many excellences the besetting evil of German jewellery 
 is its incongruity with itself, and with the use it is intended to 
 serve. In this they may not be worse than other nations, but as 
 the cases of these makers exhibit the fact more palpably than 
 any others except the French, I am bound to refer to it here. 
 To illustrate my meaning, I will take' the case of a brooch, and 
 compare the modern German one with the ancient article which 
 fulfilled a similar purpose. The old Franks and Goths regarded 
 the brooch as a means of attaching firmly together upon the 
 breast, parts of the dress or mantle which must otherwise fly 
 open to the wind. They therefore made it a strong serviceable 
 ornament, often partaking somewhat of the character of a buckle 
 fastening, so as to convey more plainly the idea of holding 
 together the dress it was intended to fasten. Specimens of such 
 brooches are to be found in most of the museums in the larger 
 
 e 2 
 
52 Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. 
 
 German towns. They are not sufficiently studied ; for the modern 
 German brooch is too often a flimsy gim-crack article, the centre 
 being occupied by an assemblage of small claws or open settings, 
 containing gems, with a slight framework round it, over which 
 diamond or other sprays are flying, and a 
 number of drops dangling loosely at the 
 bottom, as indicated in Fig. 30. These 
 claws, drops, and spray ornaments are often 
 produced by machinery, so that the art of the 
 designer here -consists simply in scattering 
 them about the article in diverse positions. 
 The brooch completed may look, as some 
 ladies would say, very light and pretty ; in 
 fact it appears so fragile that the very idea 
 of a brooch as an article of \ise is lost, and 
 that of a mere ornament takes its place. 
 
 In order further to carry out his constant 
 yearning for variety of surface and diversity 
 of colour, the German manufacturer has 
 adopted a peculiarity which he probably 
 borrowed from the French, although he has himself much de- 
 veloped it. This is the custom of burnishing the rims, borders, 
 and other parts of gold decoration, bringing out by contrast the 
 coppery tint of the alloy against the dead coloured gold surface. 
 These surfaces arc occasionally still more varied in colour or 
 heightened in effect, particularly in the case of chatelaines, by 
 the introduction of tubes or bars of platinum. These violent 
 contrasts, though highly prized on the Continent, are repugnant 
 to English taste, as approaching too nearly the garish imitations 
 in gilt and plated worjc for which, I must add, some British 
 manufacturers are pre-eminent. 
 
 Another direction of German effort at novelty, if not at design, 
 is somewhat allied to the preceding, and deserves mention for its 
 daring violation of the recognised laws of Art. Having men- 
 tioned the alloy in gold, I must explain that by mixing similar 
 quantities of pure gold with various metals in different propor- 
 tions, a number of colours of alloyed gold maybe produced. 
 This was well known and extensively practised in Birmingham 
 some thirty years ago, chiefly in the manufacture of small 
 articles, such as scarf pins and earrings. The very liking for 
 such things has long disappeared in England ; but as a departed 
 fashion certainly revives, either in a new place or under a new 
 aspect, so this feature has been revived on a large scale. The 
 German exhibits at Vienna include a considerable number of 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 53 
 
 brooches, earrings, &c., of a merely imitative character, and 
 remarkable only for the success with which the various alloys of 
 gold are adapted to express the colours of leaves and the petals 
 of flowers. They consist often of the wild rose bloom, or other 
 wild flower of simplest form, with a few leaves round it ; but the 
 merit of the effect is in some instances so great that the flowers 
 appear to be of several colours which melt into each other like 
 rainbow tints. Still the mere imitation of a natural object in an 
 article intended for some definite use is always objectionable, and 
 this becomes more apparent when such an article is manufactured 
 for the purpose of fastening a dress, or clasping a lady’s arm. 
 In spite, however, of its many exaggerations, and frequent incon- 
 gruities, the German display of goldsmiths’ work at the Vienna 
 Exhibition is a refreshing one. It not seldom betrays an undue 
 straining after novelty, overshoots the mark, abounds in imita- 
 tions of objects natural and artificial ; it is redolent in brace- 
 lets loaded with every conceivable arrangement of straps, 
 buckles, palisades, and plaited work ; and it is replete with 
 examples of that everlasting truc-lover’s knot, which seems 
 specially created to fill up every vacant space in a gold orna- 
 ment, for it is stuck into every corner in any such article 
 without distinction, either plain or set indifferently with any 
 kind of stone. But, admitting all this, the German goldsmiths’ 
 work as a whole is more ingenious, more fertile in contrivance, 
 and shows more energetic striving after good design than the 
 displays of most other countries. Its best examples are simple, 
 based on geometric forms, and massive in character, approaching 
 the English ideal. The finish of the work is not, in my opinion, 
 so good as that of the very finest English w^ork, but is on the 
 average better than the average finish in England. 
 
 Having referred to the general design and character of German 
 goldsmiths’ work, strictly as such, for the sake of distinction, it 
 now remains to say a few words on its jewellery proper — the 
 arrangement and setting of gems. There arc two distinct 
 theories upon which an article of ornament containing gems may 
 be constructed, and it is according as we lean to one or other of 
 these theories that we shall approve or disapprove of any such 
 article when finished. The learned professor and the connoisseur 
 in Art, regarding an article of jewellery as complete in itself, 
 irrespective of the uses it is intended to serve, or the colours 
 with which it is to be worn, lay down the dictum that if such an 
 article is, in form and colour, harmonious with itself, it must be 
 considered a perfect work. This is one theory. But social 
 custom, and what we may call the best English taste, has, in 
 
54 Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 
 
 effect, laid down another law of a directly opposite character. 
 By this unwritten, but no less powerful regulation, the English 
 designer is forced to regard an article of jewellery not as a thing 
 complete in itself, required only to harmonise with itself in form 
 and colour, but as a part of the dress of the lady or gentleman 
 for whom it is intended. These diverse theories naturally 
 produce very different and important results. The Continental 
 jeweller, as a rule, goes upon the first of these theories, thinks 
 only of the harmony of the jewel with itself, and therefore does 
 not scruple to introduce in one article gems of different contrast- 
 ing colours. Thus rubies, emeralds, and even turquoises, may 
 be found in one ornament ; garnets and turquoises in another ; 
 diamonds, rubies, and sapphires in a third ; and so on. These 
 are usually so harmonised that thaeffect of the whole is pleasing ; 
 but it is obvious that the effect of such a jewel is less powerful 
 when the dress it is worn upon possesses any decided colour, and 
 its lustre may even be quenched for a time by the beauty of a 
 highly-coloured silk, or the brilliancy of a bold fringe or trim- 
 ming. The disadvantage also of such an ornament further 
 consists in this, that as it is already harmonised with itself, any 
 colour prominent in the dress it is worn upon necessarily over- 
 balances the harmony, and throws the jewel, as it were, out of 
 tune. 
 
 The English designer for fashionable jewellery must take a 
 different course. Custom demands that he shall introduce into 
 one jcw'el only one powerful colour, trusting to the good taste of 
 the wearer to display it only upon a dress which will harmonise 
 with it, and will more powerfully assist it by contrast. If a 
 sapphire, he may employ diamonds, but never emeralds or rubies. 
 If turquoises, he may accompany them with pearls or diamonds, 
 but never with coral. This fact is eloquently brought out in the 
 exhibits of Messrs. Hancocks, of London, upon whose display in 
 the Vienna Exhibition the reputation of British jewellery there 
 mainly depends. In their cases may be studied the complete 
 carrying out of the principle just advanced, and it remains 
 for the observant public to say which of the two theories is 
 correct. 
 
 The numerous varieties of gem-setting for which Austria is 
 chiefly known, are included in the class which embodies the 
 theory of several colours in each jewel. To illustrate the way 
 in which a large section of this work is done, and the mode of 
 design often pursued, let us take the case of a pendant. We 
 will suppose the most frequent centre, an enamel painting, or a 
 large turquoise shaped as shown in Fig. 31. Around this centre 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery, Ileal and Imitation. 
 
 the artist arranges a border of pearls. A little more colour it 
 required, so lie decides to indulge in a 
 following border of rubies. Next a row of 
 turquoises may be allowed to tone down 
 the effect ; and as the design is becoming 
 nearly the size it is intended to be when 
 finished, the outer shape must now be 
 decided on. This may take the form of 
 eight curves or scallops, in the centre part 
 of each of which a ruby may be very likely 
 inserted. Round each of these, following 
 the shape of the scallop or shell-curve, a 
 row of pearls may ensue ; eight turqoises 
 set in the corners outside between the 
 scallops, and the jewel is completed by a 
 drop and a loop in same style. It is not 
 well finished at the back, the setting is not 
 good ; it is not English taste ; but it may 
 be defended on the same ground that a 
 Mosaic floor may be defended. If it be true 
 that a jewel ought to have only one pro- 
 minent colour, and that it should trust 
 to the dress of the wearer to harmonise it, 
 then the whole thing becomes a mistake. 
 
 While speaking of the arrangement of colours in German 
 jewellery, one word must be said as to the sorting or matching 
 of gems of each kind, for setting in one and the same jewel. 
 The fact I have to notice is very observable to an English eye, 
 as, whether from a lack of Gothic taste or from the wealth of 
 our own country, every fashionable ornament in which gems arc 
 to be set must contain gems of each particular kind, perfectly 
 similar one to the other in colour and in shade or degree of 
 colour. Thus, if turquoises are employed, they must be all of 
 the same tint of blue, none must be paler or darker than the 
 others ; if pearls, they must be of precisely similar lustre and 
 hue ; If one inclines to pink, all must do the same, and’ so on. 
 So with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, <fcc. But on the 
 Continent, whether from choice or necessity, the jeweller generally 
 adopts the opposite course. lie seems to take a pleasure in 
 employing turquoises of different colours, and pearls of varying 
 hues or lustre, in one and the same article, adapting them often 
 with much art to various positions. The German nobleman who 
 wishes to present to his lady a splendid ornament, but who can 
 neither wait a number of years while a set of gems pcrfectly 
 
 Fig. Cl. 
 
56 Design as applied to Jewellery 9 Real and Imitation. 
 
 alike in colour is collected, nor can afford to pay an immense 
 price to the man who has patiently and vigilantly collected such 
 a series of precious stones, will probably prefer the German 
 mode of setting. The Earl of Dudley as naturally prefers the 
 English style. But this answer just given, though the natural 
 one, is by no means the only one which would be given to the 
 question. 
 
 As I look at ancient jewellery I am always interested and 
 sometimes touched by the desperate struggles of the unfortunate 
 designer to overcome the errors in selection of the gems made 
 by his ignorant but wealthy patron, who has in a fit of barbaric 
 love of display bought up everything which has been offered to 
 him : crystals, carbuncles, emeralds, cornelians, topaz — nothing 
 came amiss. But wme to the humble goldsmith entrusted with 
 this collection of lustrous blunders with orders to set them appro- 
 priately. It is the highest praise to the mediaeval jeweller to 
 say that he overcame such difficulties and such errors. 
 
 All I have seen of such work has led me to believe that the 
 ancient jeweller made the best of the gems he had to employ ; but 
 if he could have obtained these to his liking in form, colour, size, 
 and brilliancy, he would in very many instances have matched 
 the stones with the minutest exactness, and would often have 
 come very near to what I have called, by way of distinction, the 
 English style of setting. 
 
 It is a fact significant of the relative purchasing power of the 
 country, that the best gems indigenous to it are not found in 
 the Austrian display. The display of Hungarian opals is not 
 very large ; and it is in the exhibits of other countries that we 
 find the grandest specimens of these gems. 
 
 As a novelty, I must not forget to mention a very beautiful 
 cross for the Greek Church, in the case of Mr. Granichstadten, 
 the court jeweller of Vienna. It is set with emerald cameos of 
 the Saviour and Saints ; these cameos arc curiosities, as the 
 emerald is so fragile and even brittle a stone, that such carving 
 is a work of much danger and difficulty. It is questionable taste 
 to put a dead surface on a stone of high lustre like the emerald 
 by carving it ; but this is a moot point, which would equally 
 apply to glass engraving. 
 
 The large trade in jewellery set all over with Bohemian 
 garnets does not evoke much in the way of novelty of design, or 
 any new features in the manufacture. The kaleidoscope would 
 produce most of the arrangements employed, though it is 
 perhaps no discredit to the designs to say this, as the star 
 motives and flower forms usually worked upon are certainly 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery, Beal and Imitation. 57 
 
 best adapted to display the lurid lustre of these not very valu- 
 able gems. 
 
 There is much common silver niello work in the German cases, 
 none of it remarkable in form, much of it delicate in treatment, 
 but showing little beyond the simplest efforts at design. Amber 
 jewellery, of which there is very much, exhibited chiefly by pipe 
 makers, is particularly heavy and uninteresting. An ingenious 
 writer might draw an elaborate inference as to the relative 
 positions of men and women in Germany, from an analysis of 
 their brooches as compared with their pipes. 
 
 If, however, a notable comparison of the merits of German as 
 contrasted with English jewellery were required, both as to 
 design and manufacture, it would be found in the department of 
 black glass jewellery. A visitor looking first at the case of 
 Joseph Schubert, and going then direct to the matchless exhibit 
 of Whiteley, of London, would learn a lesson he could not easily 
 forget. Any further remark is unnecessary. Finally, as to the 
 gilt, or imitation jewellery, the Germans, if we may judge from 
 their cases, arc as inferior in style and finish as it is possible to 
 conceive, to both French and English makers. Much of the 
 work in that class exhibited is beneath contempt, and the marvel 
 is how it was admitted into the Exhibition building. Possibly, 
 however, it may be a compliment to these Continental brethren 
 of ours, to tell them that they are as yet unsuccessful in foisting 
 upon the public imitations of articles in gold and gems. 
 
 In chains, there is such an utter absence of anything remark- 
 able, except for close imitation of patterns which have been for 
 many years in use both in France and England, that it is hardly 
 requisite here to do more than register the fact. The German 
 designer appears as yet to have hardly begun to direct his 
 energies to the improvement of this branch of manufacture. 
 
 French Jewellery and Trinkets. 
 
 On finally parting with the German exhibits, scattered as they 
 unfortunately are through many parts of this immense building, 
 and entering the French Court, it is impossible to avoid an 
 involuntary feeling of disappointment. After the numerous and 
 beautiful cases illustrating German production, the French 
 department, as to its jewellery, appears miserably thin and poor. 
 The first thought arising in the mind is that the glories of the 
 French goldsmiths’ art have been decidedly overrated ; but on 
 closer inspection it seems more likely that the exhibits convey 
 no adequate idea of the extent of the manufacture, or of the 
 variety and novelty of its designs. The truth probably is that 
 
58 Design as applied lo Jewellery , Ileal and Imitation. 
 
 the disastrous war in which France has lately been engaged, and 
 particularly the long siege of Paris, have so far limited its pro- 
 duction, and impaired the purchasing power of its people, that 
 the jewellery trade there has received a blow from which it will 
 but slowly recover. 
 
 Speaking candidly of the French display as a whole, it must 
 not be imagined that it contains no fine specimens of artistic 
 jewellery. Bissinger, of Paris, has in his case quite a series of 
 cameos perfectly superb in their purity of design and delicacy of 
 execution. Rouvcnat has much gem work of great beauty ; 
 Mellerie has more, though the generally heavy character of his 
 designs seems to go beyond a perfect ideal of what such 
 decorations ought to be. I am bound to say that the style and 
 finish of the gold work of these and other first-class makers is 
 beyond all praise ; and that the setting of the gems in the works 
 exhibited is equal, if not superior, to that of any other country. 
 The French are believed to have introduced that system of setting- 
 bright and other gems as closely as possible in an article, so that 
 very little of the gold or silver in which they are set is visible. 
 They thus present a perfect galaxy of light or colour, or both ; 
 which gives a magnificence of effect such as no other style of 
 setting possesses. It is considered by art critics as in very 
 questionable taste to make court jewellery into mere exhibitions 
 of wealth in gems ; but there is, I fear, no chance of such pro- 
 ductions becoming less fashionable until the love of riches and 
 of gorgeous show cease to have a hold upon mankind. 
 
 In this department of gem work, the French, if they have 
 not maintained their ancient supremacy, at least divide tl^e 
 honours with England as to quality and artistic merit. There 
 is, however, in their exhibits nothing equal in splendour to the 
 jewels of the Countess of Dudley, now in the case of the Messrs. 
 Hancocks, which certainly are alone in the Exhibition for their 
 matchless beauty and grace. The law of taste I have referred 
 to as applying to English jewellery, under the name of the single- 
 colour theory, is almost invariably adhered to by the Paris gold- 
 smiths in their finest ornaments. Each jewel contains but one 
 positive colour, the dress of the wearer being expected to har- 
 monise it. 
 
 The mounting of cameos in gold or with gems has been pur- 
 sued with much sweetness and beauty of effect by French manu- 
 facturers exhibiting. I believe they have the merit of intro- 
 ducing into such work panels of ornament delicately pierced 
 through open borders. This was an old art revived, but 
 differently developed ; it became a fashion, nay, a rage ; it 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 59 
 
 extended far beyond the limits of France ; it has reached its 
 meridian of popular favour, and is now on the decline. In thus 
 declining, it may almost be said to have received its death-blow 
 from the hands of those who introduced it, in the extremes to 
 which it has been carried. A pendant for a lady’s neck is now 
 so pierced through and through, it is so cut and slashed, so per- 
 forated in every part, as to be positively objectionable. 
 
 Apart from these extravagances of style, which demand notice, 
 as they are so numerous, there are in the French cases many 
 notable instances of true and effective design. In a small col- 
 lection sent by M. Emile Philippe, by no means a demonstrative 
 exhibitor, there are a variety of articles exquisite in workman- 
 ship and pure in taste. With him the brooch takes a shape 
 much more reasonable, and much more like the ancient forms of 
 such articles than any of the specimens above referred to. This 
 brooch, as shown in Fig. 32, 
 is long and narrow, in fact, 
 precisely the form which 
 seems most suitable for cross- 
 ing and holding together the 
 parts of a lady’s dress. The 
 centre part of this brooch is 
 usually slightly raised above 
 the sides, while the ends and edges are often fitly enamelled in 
 colours upon flat surfaces. This enamelling in various colours 
 upon the surface of the article of personal ornament brings us 
 again to the vexed question already discussed (i.e., that of 
 various colours in one jewel). In justice to this art jeweller, 
 for he surely is one, it is only proper to state that his colours 
 are duly subdued, and kept in harmonious relation to the gems 
 which may occupy a prominent position in his ornaments. 
 
 Among the besetting sins of French designers of jewellery, 
 may be mentioned their love of imitating textile fabrics in works 
 of gold and silver. It has long been laid down by great 
 authorities as a rule of design, that it is false in art to imitate * 
 a manufactured article in an altogether different material. Thus, 
 for instance, tassels and fringes, which are appropriate in the 
 case of dresses, tapestries, or bed hangings, become now, ac- 
 cording to the recognised rules of good taste, altogether inap- 
 propriate when copied in metals such as gold and silver. Wc 
 are commanded to go to nature for our forms, motives, and 
 principles of design in all branches of manufacture, and arc not 
 allowed to pilfer or slavishly to borrow from one manufacture 
 the forms and modes in which it works. This last absurdity, 
 
60 Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 
 
 ■which I had hoped was fading in the light of a better day for 
 Art, has been carried a step further in Vienna. Tassels arc not 
 only suspended to earrings and brooches, fringing necklaces, and 
 used as terminations to chatelaines, but are coming out as 
 a novelty hanging to the ends of gentlemen’s Albert guards. 
 
 As a set-off to this apparently increasing evil, I must mention 
 that the efforts of the French designers of chains are often bold 
 and original. They afford evidence of a sincere desire to elevate 
 these articles above that wearisome lace, or twist, or rope 
 imitation which has done so much to demoralise this class of 
 goldsmiths’ work. When an article in metal is so constructed 
 as to deceive the eye on a casual glance into an impression that 
 it is a textile or other similar fabric, the boundary between the 
 arts is destroyed, and the article becomes, accurately speaking, 
 a display of artistic falsehood and folly. A gold 
 chain, however delicate it may be, should convey the 
 idea that it is composed of a metal, and a precious 
 metal. This praise, then, must be given to the 
 French chain makers, that they have aimed at, and 
 in some degree accomplished, this difficult task. 
 
 While indicating clearly the true character of the 
 material of which the chain is composed, they have 
 often adopted an ingenious method of diminishing 
 its apparent weight by an open pierced ornament in 
 four parts, which is a very beautiful feature (Fig. 33). 
 
 This effect is true to art, affording a most agreeable 
 relief to the eye, without necessarily diminishing the 
 strength of the chain itself. A novelty much affected 
 by French manufacturers, is the manufacture of 
 trinkets in oxydised silver, set occasionally with 
 garnets to very good purpose, but seldom with other 
 stones. This class of work affords a wide field for 
 the artist in repousse, whose model is cheaply re- 
 produced by means of casting or electro-deposition. Many able 
 imitative compositions of this kind are to be found in pendants, 
 earrings, solitaires, and cravat pins. 
 
 After all it is in gilt metal work and imitation jewellery that 
 the boldness of conception and richness of fancy for which the 
 French arc remarkable is most fairly displayed. Although here 
 we cannot avoid observing what a fearful chasm in their skilled 
 industry was caused by the late war, yet it is amazing with what 
 vivacity the French manufacturers have endeavoured to bridge 
 it over. Their imitation gems are brought out splendidly, arc 
 well cut, and have much of the colour and fire of the originals. 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. G1 
 
 The settings and ornaments in which they arc arranged are fre- 
 quently beautiful, though the fragile lightness and airy flimsineos 
 of treatment of many of the examples does not recommend them 
 to an English eye. If the Birmingham imitation jewellery had 
 been at all represented there, its style in the mass would probably 
 have been much more striking than the French display. Yet 
 it is but right to remark that the general excellence of such 
 Birmingham exhibit would arise from the fact that most of the 
 articles composing it would be copies of jewels which had been 
 originally designed and made in gold, had in that expensive form 
 caught the public taste, and had become so far fashionable as to 
 be worth pirating. The French imitation jewellery is, on the 
 contrary, more frequently original, and its makers must therefore 
 be superior to our own, at least if we are justified in taking into 
 consideration the genuineness and honesty of a design. 
 
 Italian Jeweller y. 
 
 On going from the French to the Italian Court, and passing 
 the master-pieces of wood-carving and Venetian glass, we come 
 at last to the greatest triumphs of the goldsmith’s art in modern 
 days, in the cases of Signor Castellani of Borne. This eminent 
 goldsmith, having for many years studied the characters and the 
 processes of manufacture of the exquisite gold ornaments of the 
 ancient Etruscans, which have been discovered from time to time 
 in various parts of Italy, has succeeded in reproducing their 
 main features to an extent never before attempted. Some of his 
 works rival the beauty and delicacy of the originals, and, what 
 is still higher praise, he has carried out upon the same principles 
 of art which these old-world goldsmiths followed, a number of his 
 own designs. These principles, which we see carried to a degree 
 of perfection such as we find in no other display in the Exhibition, 
 involve in the first instance the general rules of classic art — 
 simplicity and purity of outline, just divisions of surface, and 
 ornament obtained by an entirely conventional treatment of 
 natural forms. But beyond these is another and the most im- 
 portant principle of all, so far as it relates to our subject. It is 
 this : that all the art of the goldsmith should tend to display 
 and enhance the value of the material in which lie works by liis 
 delicate treatment and refined manipulation. Brass, being cheap 
 and plentiful, may properly be displayed in masses, and is fitly 
 seen in the bold lines of the cornice or the artistic sweep of the 
 chandelier. But gold, from its intrinsic value and its general 
 scarcity, is as naturally adapted to articles of smaller propor- 
 
62 Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. 
 
 tions, as it is also susceptible of an exquisite finish. Its extreme 
 ductility also should be taken advantage of by the art-workman, 
 and made to illustrate his best decorative ideas. Signor Castel- 
 lani has, then, carried out these demands of educated taste with 
 a skill and beauty which in these modern days is all his own. 
 Ilis articles are all studies of classic art-workmanship, and, soon 
 after the opening of the Exhibition, were every one deservedly sold 
 at prices which amazed every goldsmith who heard them stated. 
 
 If it is permissible in speaking of the productions of one who 
 has not only obtained an European reputation, but has gained 
 the position of an authority and a guide in the goldsmith’s art ; 
 if it is well, after examining so sweet a display of truth in design, 
 tenderness in form, and facility in execution, to give utterance 
 to a passing shade of regret, I would fain do it. The very deli- 
 cacy of this art-manufacture has led the goldsmith occasionally 
 to approach or to fall into the common error of imitating in gold 
 the fringes and drops of textile fabrics. 
 
 Next in point of excellence to Castellani, as exemplified in the 
 Vienna Exhibition, comes S. Bassano, of Venice. Ilis works, 
 which to my judgment are evidently designed to meet the 
 demands of English visitors to the Continent, are generally 
 decisive in form, often simple in treatment, with more plain 
 surface than is usual in the works of Castellani. He deals less 
 in Etruscan reproductions than the great Homan goldsmith ; and 
 though the classic spirit pervades his de- 
 signs, they are characterised by a certain 
 vigour and freedom which is as interesting 
 as it is refreshing. Ilis topaz and amethyst 
 cameo pendants are curious instances of this 
 daring spirit of innovation ; and although 
 it is uncertain whether the best taste will 
 condone the giving a dead surface to a 
 stone of high lustre and powerful colour 
 by carving it, one is almost inclined to 
 forgive the solecism for the bold and al- 
 most Gothic manner in which it is carried 
 out. The head, which is in high relief, 
 and dull in surface to show the details, lies 
 in a polished hollow, as shown in Fig. 34. 
 By the section it will also be seen that the edge of the pendant 
 is treated with corresponding vigour. 
 
 Coming now to the mosaic jewellery of Home and Florence, it 
 docs not appear, from the specimens exhibited at Vienna, as if 
 this art has made any progress during the past thirty years. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery, Beal and Imitation. G3 
 
 The workers seem to have become themselves fossilised into a set 
 of habits and tricks of design which are to a certain extent 
 beautiful, but the external sameness is profitless 
 and oppressive. As an exhibitor, Geraldini seems to 
 take the lead ; but judging from the display generally, 
 the art seems almost to have sunk into a mere 
 trade with visitors, who purchase examples as 
 souvenirs of their stay at the places where the 
 mosaics are produced. The poverty-stricken ear- 
 ring (Fig. 35), the brooch with its narrow rim of 
 gold, or what passes for gold, and its execrable 
 finish, arc much too frequent, and might therefore 
 almost be taken as types of this class of work. 
 
 A word must be said of the enormous quantity of 
 filigree work which forms the employment of so 
 large a number of the gold and silver smiths of the 
 South of Europe. This work is often very delicate Fig - 35< 
 in execution, sometimes pure in form ; but as it is usually 
 limited to the imitation in gold or silver of lace or other textile 
 fabrics, so I consider that it goes beyond the legitimate province 
 of the true art-worker in the precious metals. Its very delicacy 
 and apparent refinement will ensure it a sale among those of the 
 public who regard rather the fashion and the appearance of an 
 article than its adherence to any rules of art. I nevertheless 
 believe that its popularity will slowly but surely decline, as art 
 education on these subjects becomes more perfect and extended. 
 
 In the department of coral jewellery, for which Naples is so 
 well known, Ascione has some novel and pretty arrangements ; 
 also some curious and tasteful articles in tortoiseshell ; but this 
 kind of work, from its very nature, does not admit of anything 
 beyond the mere elements of design. 
 
 Swiss Jewellery. 
 
 At Geneva, whose manufactures are best exemplified in this 
 class at Vienna by the works of M. Lejeunc, we find the Swiss 
 gradually departing from those methods and styles of work 
 which the Italians chiefly affect, and coming nearer to the solid 
 and somewhat massive-looking gold work which is always sup- 
 posed to appeal best to English taste. The method of production 
 is evidently that of individual labour — the article is altogether 
 wrought by hand, and it is evident that it has frequently been 
 specially designed also. This is shown by the fact that there are 
 many attempts to bring out the character of different styles — 
 Egyptian, Assyrian and Roman. We are evidently going north- 
 
G4 Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 
 
 ward, for the differently coloured golds of the French and 
 Germans again become employed, and many of the tubes and 
 gold edges are polished bright. Some pretty and some very 
 ludicrous imitations of objects, natural or artificial, also appear 
 in gold. As an example, a golden guitar intended to serve as a 
 brooch, a pair of smaller guitars en suite to hang from the ears 
 of the same lady. 
 
 The Swiss are noted watchmakers, and are now adding to 
 their accomplishments in this direction great ability in the 
 design and manufacture of chatelaines and watch-holders. The 
 number and variety of these articles in the Exhibition suggested 
 that half the ladies on the Continent either wore or intended to 
 wear such ornaments ; if, as usual, such a fashion is about to 
 extend to England, its gold and silver smiths had better 4 4 take 
 time by the forelock.” . The Swiss chatelaine is an elaborate and 
 often a splendid ornament, in which gold of different colours is 
 employed with much advantage and effect, while in general the 
 designs are constructed upon a strictly geometrical basis, though 
 occasionally animals, birds and flowers make their appearance in 
 its compositions. Of these watch-holders the firm of Badollet 
 and Co. of Geneva, have exhibited many very fine specimens. 
 
 Not only on the chatelaine, but also on the back of the watch 
 itself, the Swiss find room for the display of much art — chiefly 
 by engraving and enamelling. This is a matter well worth con- 
 sidering, as nothing seems more appropriate on the back of a 
 watch-case than a variety of colours in enamel, harmoniously 
 disposed. The designs for Swiss watch enamelling are, as a rule, 
 simply esthetic in character, but the forms are often good, and 
 the colours well balanced. 
 
 Spanish Jewellery. 
 
 In passing over the very limited supply of Spanish jewellery 
 in the Vienna Exhibition, I must not omit to mention the 
 beautiful damascened work of Tcodore Ybarzabal, of Guipuzcoa. 
 His manufactures consist of genuine damascening of gold upon 
 iron ornaments, such as lockets, brooches, tazzas, <S:c., besides 
 arms, and it is not too much to add that the forms are good, 
 though often simple — the lines of the decoration are good, and 
 the distribution of the ornaments in gold over the spaces is very 
 true to art. The cost of these articles, moreover, is remarkably 
 small, and it was a matter of much surprise to British workmen 
 to find that the relative value of such difficult and delicate labour 
 was rated at so low a price. 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. G5 
 
 Danish Jewellery. 
 
 After the short excursus into Spain, we may pursue our journey 
 northward till we are met by the display of V. Christesen, of 
 Copenhagen. He is the only but the imperial representative of 
 the art of the goldsmith in his own country and in all Scandi- 
 navia. It is an approach to the work of Castellani in delicacy 
 of treatment and in purity of style, though in the character of 
 its forms and decoration it is as different from the style of the 
 great Italian as can well be conceived. It is, however, a singular 
 fact that its peculiar excellences have been attained by a course 
 of study on the part of Christesen equally earnest with that of 
 Castellani, in Italy, As Castellani examined the work of the 
 ancient Etruscans, so Christesen has pondered over the remains 
 which have come down to us from the ancient Scandinavians, 
 Celts, Franks, and Goths. After much care and close analysis 
 he set himself to reproduce the spirit of the ancient style, its 
 methods and principles, in articles adapted for modern use and 
 personal ornament. In this he has succeeded to a degree which 
 he, probably himself, never expected when he commenced ; and 
 his success is all the more laudable, as he has obtained it, not 
 by slavishly copying the examples left us by past ages, but by 
 working parallel with them, as it were, and by adding to their 
 worthy features the novel requirements of the nineteenth century. 
 The interlaced patterns, the spirals, the gold wire and bead 
 work, the ancient band decoration, is very beautifully employed, 
 on the surfaces of articles which often partake somewhat of the 
 present approved shapes. Many of these articles are exquisite 
 studies for the goldsmith, and the novelty of treatment adopted 
 opens a wide field for art workmanship such as must be admired 
 and purchased in the markets of the world. If, indeed, there 
 was one thing I could have wished for more in the exhibits of 
 Christesen, it was that he had availed himself still further of the 
 great variety of shapes and curiosities of treatment of ancient 
 personal ornaments. In a small museum in the Schloss, at 
 Mayence, I was struck with the scope, interest, and beauty of 
 these old ornaments, which are excellently illustrated there. In 
 order to render this collection as complete as possible, the lack 
 of original specimens was supplied by perfect fac-similes from 
 the museums of Copenhagen, Munich, Stuttgardt, and other 
 cities. I felt that there was room for study, and suggestive 
 materials worthy of the attention even of the great Danish 
 goldsmith. 
 
 The success of Christesen in his gold work is hardly extended 
 
 p 
 
G9 Design as applied to Jewellery , Deal and Imitation. 
 
 to his pieces in which gems are employed. Whether from choice 
 or otherwise, the very imperfect methods of setting stones which 
 existed in the earliest ages is carried out in these modern orna- 
 ments. Moreover, the gems are themselves as irregular in form 
 and colour as in ancient examples. I deplore this copying of 
 the accidental faults of jewellery in past times, to the causes of 
 which I have already referred, and deplore it the more, as in 
 many other respects Christesen has in his reproductions dis- 
 criminated so judiciously between the excellences and the defects 
 of his originals. 
 
 Russian Jewellery. 
 
 From the masterpieces of Denmark to the examples con- 
 tributed by Russia there is a quite wonderful transition. We 
 have quitted the fine outlines, the suggestive shapes, and the 
 splendid surface decoration of Copenhagen, and have got into a 
 land where jewellery is intensely German and Austrian, but 
 bolder, and often with a certain vulgarity 
 of style. Thus we have a gold monstrosity 
 called a bracelet, made in gold, to imitate 
 the figured linen cuffs worn by ladies. This 
 article is 2 ± inches wide. There is often 
 in this Russian work an admixture of suc- 
 cessive curves, as shown in Fig. 36, and 
 which prove the Eastern influence which is 
 here beginning to be sensibly felt. 
 
 The gem work of Russia is remarkable 
 only for its being very much assorted and 
 very badly harmonised in colour ; to com- 
 plete the indictment, the stones are usually 
 badly set. There are in the Russian col- 
 lection many articles having enamel paint- 
 ings in the centre, and, like the Austrian 
 jewellery, with which they arc identical in 
 style, set with rows of precious stones of 
 different colours, and this to such a degree 
 that the borders often overpower the colours 
 of the enamels. I believe that the best Russian jewellery is that 
 made in iron, for much of this is very pretty, the lines being 
 graceful, and the arrangement good. This class of work at least 
 avoids the evident and crying faults of the more ambitious pro- 
 ductions just referred to. 
 
 There are exhibited here a number of examples of Russian 
 peasant jewellery, and as this matter of the personal ornaments 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. (J7 
 
 of the poorer classes in all countries is now much discussed, I 
 will take the opportunity of making a few remarks on the subject. 
 While I have selected the Russian Department as offering a few 
 salient points for attention, I would by no means have it inferred 
 that its deficiencies are peculiar to itself. On the contrary, I 
 believe that the principles upon which these ornaments are con- 
 structed are very similar to those which operate in the manu- 
 facture of the lowest class of jewellery everywhere ; and it is 
 because I hold these general principles to be utterly false and 
 worthy of special reprobation, that I more particularly speak of 
 them here. In the first place, one of the 
 frequent ornaments used in the decora- 
 tion of their persons by the Russian 
 peasantry is evidently meant to be a 
 leaf. As a remnant of the far-off past, 
 it shows that the first savage idea of 
 decoration was derived from Nature, but 
 it shows also that this idea, which was 
 a true one to begin with, by not having- 
 been raised gradually into true orna- 
 ment, has been successively debased by 
 custom, instead of being raised by Art, 
 so that its very origin is now but dimly 
 seen. This leaf was probably at first 
 correctly drawn, with a stem to it, if not 
 connected with other leaves. But now, 
 as shown in Fig. 37, the leaf is rounded 
 at the end ; it has lost the stem, and, 
 more than this, the two inward curves 
 to indicate where the stem should come. This degradation was 
 probably enough, but it is not so. The next step is to put a 
 rude but continuous border round the bit of base 
 metal, to deprive it still more of any resemblance 
 to nature it might yet possess ; the climax of 
 debasement is reached when two small rings are 
 attached to one side of it to fasten it to some- 
 thing else equally devoid of any claims to art or 
 beauty. Such abound in peasant jewellery, and 
 are often hung to several rows of chains forming 
 necklets. Sometimes rows of small coins are 
 interspersed with these, or worn in rows below 
 them. Occasionally small coins, with a few bits 
 of silver or brass attached to them, arc employed 
 as earrings, or to form a grander chain or fringe (Fig. 38). This 
 
 f 2 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
G8 Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 
 
 may be again varied by two inverted crescents, in style evidently 
 coming from the East, forming a centre pendant, as in Fig. 39. 
 I believe from this and most of the peasant jewellery I have seen, 
 that, whenever the first natural ideas of men as to decoration have 
 been ignorantly copied from age to age, they have produced results 
 which are most debasing and pernicious. The first efforts of men, 
 however rude, in the decorations of their few articles of use and 
 ornament, are often beautiful as far as they go; 
 and why ? Because they are called into being 
 by wants keenly felt and clearly understood ; 
 because they fitly and aptly minister to their 
 'wants ; and finally, because the mind, un- 
 fettered by custom, nor provided with bad 
 models, generally draws its inspiration from 
 objects in surrounding Nature. The first 
 efforts of the savage usually move in a direct 
 line (the line of true Art), in so far as he is 
 uninfluenced by examples. The lesson learned 
 by me from peasant jewellery is — How all 
 Art is degraded ; how ugliness of form 
 becomes habitual ; how deformity becomes 
 admired and preferred to beauty ; when men 
 ignorantly persevere in blind imitations of 
 those things which existed before them. 
 
 Indian Jewellery. 
 
 Extremes often meet, though it is perhaps well, after discussing 
 the relapse of savage art into peasant jewellery, to examine the 
 works of a nation which has succeeded in keeping up a gold- 
 smith’s art for more than two thousand years. Whatever his 
 errors, there is no denying the evident facts that the Hindoo is 
 a skilful workman and that he has definite ideas of design. His 
 forms are often intricate, and, for purposes of comfort in wear, 
 arc largely composed of curves. If any angles occur in 
 his outlines or projections, they are generally so placed as 
 to avoid any dangerous contact with the arm or dress of the 
 wearer ; and so far an article fulfils the first requirements of 
 true Art. The delicate 'work in such a jewel is also usually pro- 
 tected by strong borders, which form panels on the surface, afford 
 division to the design, and so give a real as well as an apparent 
 strength to the ornament. Forms derived from natural objects, 
 leaves, stars, and flowers, form the appropriate bases of all their 
 interior decoration of the panels just mentioned. These arc 
 treated on purely conventional methods ; the work is always 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation. . GO 
 
 intricate in detail, but in good keeping. Their filigree ornament 
 is among the most perfect and delicate in the world. 
 
 So much for the beauties of the productions of these poor 
 Hindoo goldsmiths, who will so humbly sit down under the 
 verandahs of their English lords, with their little pans of char- 
 coal, and for a mere pittance and a few handfuls of rice will 
 fashion the gold weighed out to them into exquisite personal 
 ornaments. We must honour the delicacy of their manufactures, 
 and the praise must be still greater as they have for so many 
 ages, in spite of the deteriorating influences described in speaking 
 of peasant jewellery, kept up the style and merit of their works. 
 It only remains for me, however unwillingly, to say a few words 
 respecting their defects. Indian art is always the same, always 
 excellent, but the art-workman never gets beyond himself. 
 Possibly the genius of his religion keeps him stationary ; at any 
 rate he seems to have no desire (though perhaps it is because he 
 has no opportunity) to go forward to still greater excellence. 
 His forms, which are generally curved as above stated, may be 
 too frequently bulbous, while the intricacy of his lines forbid any 
 daring forms and preclude any bold flights of fancy. His deli- 
 cacy becomes occasionally mere artifice, and his love of subtlety 
 in design sometimes degenerates into mere cunning. Still, in 
 these days of rushing after novelty, regardless of precept or of 
 principle, the poor Hindoo "workman, with his thoughtful and 
 painstaking labour, deserves more attention than he often gets. 
 If he is incapable of pursuing the highest walks of art, he is still 
 more incapable of the machine-made abominations, of the wretch- 
 edly vulgar slipshod work which comes out of many modern 
 workshops in civilised countries and is dignified with the name 
 of “jewellery.” 
 
 Tunis Jewellery, 
 
 Which is to a small extent represented at Vienna, sends 
 some interesting filigree work, curious from its resemblance to 
 Indian jewellery as just described, though its forms arc less pure 
 and its manipulation less perfect. 
 
 Japanese Jewellery, 
 
 As it has been in previous Exhibitions, is also here unique 
 in its display of articles of jewellery containing quaint dimi- 
 nutive figures, and bas-reliefs in metals of various colours, re- 
 markable for their charming accuracy and skill in treatment. 
 
70 . Design as applied to Jewellery , Beal and Imitation . 
 
 It was a deserved compliment to their perfection that they were 
 nearly all sold in a few days after the opening of the Vienna 
 Exhibition. 
 
 I cannot avoid the belief that while we, as a nation, are equal, 
 and perhaps superior, to any of our Continental neighbours in 
 our best gem jewellery, in the finish of our work and the perfec- 
 tion of our setting, yet that the French and Germans are bidding 
 fair to surpass us in these respects, and are probably paying 
 more attention than ourselves to other branches of the gold- 
 smith’s art. France has done much, and may do more, to sup- 
 plant us in the favour of other nations to whom we formerly 
 exported many of our works in this class. Germany is already 
 beginning to monopolise some markets, although she is labouring 
 at present under some disadvantages. To begin with, there is 
 that curse of cheapness, which although it has obtained her some 
 business, has limited her too much to that kind of work, and 
 tended to cripple her efforts at design. This again forces em- 
 ployers to have several apprentices or boys to every man, in 
 order to cheapen work, and the system is a great evil. But 
 once let Germany get over these difficulties, and, if she manifests 
 the same energy as now, she must divide the markets of the 
 world with any competitor. 
 
 The condition and habits of the German working jeweller are 
 not altogether unfavourable to the development of the national 
 trade. He is one of many apprentices, and therefore must excel, 
 or he leaves a regular employ, and becomes one of the numerous 
 out-workers who earn a precarious subsistence by taking out 
 work commoner and cheaper than is usually done in the shops. 
 He is content in a humble sphere, works long, quietly, and 
 regularly, neither asks for nor takes his Saint Monday like his 
 British brother, and in the evening walks out, goes to a cafe , 
 takes his few glasses of beer, but seldom or never becomes 
 intoxicated. lie marries, and begins his humble home-life with 
 furniture which his wife’s industry often procures for him. II is 
 children he sends to school when forced to do so, but draughts 
 them off to work as soon as he can — girls and boys alike. Thus 
 he is docile and obedient, a living machine in the hands of his 
 employer. He fits into his place easily, and does what is required 
 of him well. Division of labour being in the jewellery trade even 
 more perfect in Germany than in England, much more is done 
 there with the same expenditure of money. This may not always 
 continue, but while it lasts the German maker of jewellery can 
 compete in price with the world. He also employs a professional 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 71 
 
 designer, so that he may be able to compete in the element 
 of style. 
 
 These facts, which all have more or less bearing on my subject, 
 suggest many obvious reflections. They show that the English 
 jeweller goes out into every market more heavily weighted than 
 his Continental neighbour. His labour costs him more, rent and 
 taxes cost more, and he has not often the advantage of a regular 
 designer. 
 
 The natural inquiry, therefore, that suggests itself is, What is 
 he to do ? He is not likely to be able to lower wages, even if he 
 wished, for men have been lately successfully agitating for higher 
 rates, lie cannot lower rentals, for house property in England 
 is daily becoming more valuable. Nor can he expect any material 
 reduction in national or municipal taxation. lie may improve 
 design in his works by the constant services of a professional 
 designer. This will be something ; but I believe more may be 
 done, both for him and for themselves, by the main body of 
 working jewellers, who in this matter are chiefly concerned. It is 
 in this part of the subject that I think the whole gist of the 
 question lies. 
 
 Every designer, and every manufacturer who is accustomed to 
 examine work made from drawings, knows what a wonderful 
 difference there is between the production of the man who can 
 draw well himself and that of the jeweller who is ignorant of 
 the art. One will give a true and beautiful line to every part of 
 the article ; but the other, without appearing to depart from the 
 drawing, and without being himself aware of any fault, will 
 preserve every measurement he can make, and yet mar every 
 feature of the ornament in working it out. The educated eye of 
 the workman is as important to the master and to himself as is 
 the idea of the designer ; and hence it is that it behoves British 
 workmen to do their part, and it is the most important part, in 
 assisting their country to maintain her position in the markets 
 of the world. 
 
 It should be clearly borne in mind that the German working 
 jewel ter spends at the board from ten to twenty hours per week, 
 on the average, more than the English journeyman. If the 
 British working jeweller has so many hours more leisure than 
 his German neighbour, why should he spend all that extra time 
 per week in amusement, idleness, or worse ? Would it not be far 
 better for a workman to exercise a little self-denial, to give up, 
 say, ten hours per week of the leisure he enjoys over and above 
 that enjoyed by his German brother, and to spend that time in 
 the study of the arts of drawing and design ? It will open his 
 
72 Design as applied to Jeivellery, Beal and Imitation. 
 
 own eyes to the beauties of his art, and enable him to take a much 
 higher position among his fellow-workmen, who may lack such 
 knowledge ; for employers are always quick to recognise such 
 ability as this study will give him. Yet more, this self-culture 
 will give to the workman higher pleasures and nobler aims in life. 
 If every such English jeweller would spend his leisure in the 
 regular study of art, I believe that there would be, even in three 
 years, such a change in the character of English jewellery as 
 would undoubtedly place it beyond competition for delicacy of 
 treatment and true harmony of form. 
 
 Our countrymen have all manual dexterity, they have ail 
 necessary ability to give to gold that exquisite finish of which it 
 is susceptible, and which is its distinguishing characteristic, but 
 they sadly want art education. They have besides many impor- 
 tant advantages over their German brethren. In addition to 
 their extra number of leisure hours, they are not compelled by a 
 paternal Government to leave their business, just as they are 
 beginning to get proficient in it, to spend from one to three years 
 in the drill-ground, in the canteen and the barracks. English 
 artisans are better fed, better clothed, and have in general more 
 vital energy. Let them therefore make the best of these advan- 
 tages, and employ their greater leisure for the good of their 
 country, their trade and themselves. 
 
 It is to them more essential that trade should not leave the 
 country than it is to the capitalist. That the jewellery trade is 
 in some branches leaving this country I am satisfied, and several 
 large houses have established manufactories on the Continent, 
 which enable them to compete in markets from which they would 
 otherwise be excluded. It will go on increasing until the British 
 artisan can raise himself to the occasion, and meet the demand 
 for art-workmanship which is growing more urgent day by day. 
 Men could once work by rule of thumb ; they must now work by 
 rules of science and by rules of art ; if they will not do this, they 
 must give place to others with nobler aspirations, larger brains, 
 and finer culture. 
 
 Manufacturers can only assist in this matter ; they can neither 
 persuade nor compel artisans to study art unless they are dis- 
 posed to do so. They can do much to facilitate such studies, 
 and can exert a very powerful influence on the rising generation. 
 They can raise museums, provide lectures, and initiate schools 
 of design when they do not exist ; they can support and improve 
 them when they do. If art-instruction is forthcoming, they can 
 do much to cause the young to attend such instruction. To 
 illustrate my meaning I may state that it has long been a 
 
Design as applied to Jewellery , Real and Imitation. 73 
 
 custom with the first firm of Birmingham goldsmiths, to receive 
 apprentices only on condition that parents or guardians will 
 undertake that the apprentice shall be regularly instructed in 
 drawing and design until he attain his majority. This has been 
 productive of the best results, and should be universally adopted. 
 In the manufactory referred to there is scarcely a man, certainly 
 not a young man, who cannot work from a drawing which may be 
 given him. If all jewellers would carry out such a regulation, 
 the result would be a general elevation of the artistic standard of 
 the work. 
 
 It must not be imagined for a moment, in thus closing my 
 Report on the jewellery of the Vienna Exhibition, that it is 
 intended to cast any reflection upon the English work exhibited 
 there. Having already shown my appreciation of the Court 
 jewellery displayed by Messrs. Hancocks, the black glass work of 
 M. WJjitcley, the goldsmith’s work for the middle and upper 
 classes exhibited by Thomas (the best of its kind), and the excel- 
 lence of the Scotch jewellery of Aitchison, I have summed up 
 the British exhibitors. 
 
 In conclusion, I trust that this great branch of our national 
 industry will still maintain its vigour, take advantage of all the 
 developments of Science and of all the advances of Art, that it 
 will appeal more and more to the improving taste of an en- 
 lightened public, and take and hold an honourable place in the 
 vanguard of Industrial Progress. 
 
Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manu- 
 facture. 
 
 By ARTHUR McKEWAN, Practical Jeweller, Birmingham, 
 
 IIE exhibition of jewellery was very large, yet there was not 
 
 a fair and equal representation from the different nations. 
 In this, as in all other kinds of exhibits, Austria had the largest 
 share, and in this “ speciality ” America had none, while several 
 of the minor and outlying nations sent very fair examples. The 
 exhibits varied more in character than quantity. Most of the 
 
 nationalities appear to have a separate and distinct e and 
 character in their jewellery, so that with a very little study one 
 may tell the local origin of most of the articles. This does not 
 apply so much to the more valuable and costly works in which 
 precious stones are introduced, as these are produced only by a 
 few of the European nations, which from their high-class 
 character are generally similar in style. But the difference 
 is more apparent in the jewellery worn by the middle and lower 
 
 We found in some of the exhibits from the Aboriginal tribes 
 of the South Sea Islands examples of ornaments for personal 
 adornment very true and suitable to the condition of the people : 
 necklaces, earrings, &c., were made up of bleached shells and 
 fish scales ; these were very light, white, and would contrast well 
 with the dark skin of their wearers. Ornaments were also made 
 from a dark-coloured bean ; these would be quite in accordance 
 with good taste. 
 
 From New Zealand came a few specimens, principally quartz 
 and gold nuggets, mounted in a light manner with a small bezel 
 of gold, surrounded by gold leaves, and twisted, evidently having 
 an English origin, and not remarkable either for originality 
 or beauty ; some agate stones were also treated in a similar way, 
 the collection indicating that the wealth and labour of the Colony 
 are not spent in producing jewellery. 
 
 classes. 
 
 South Sea Islands Ornaments. 
 
 New Zealand Jewellery. 
 
Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 /c 
 
 Japanese Jewellery. 
 
 The Japanese exhibited specimens of ornaments in their usual 
 quaint style ; they proved very attractive, for most of the samples 
 were sold. There was not the display of gold, or jeweller’s work, 
 about these, as in European jewellery, but they are works of art 
 made from very limited materials. For example, there were several 
 sets of studs of the ordinary size, about three-eighths of an inch 
 in diameter, on which the artist had introduced small figures of 
 men and women in relief on a dark or oxydised ground ; parts of 
 the figures were relieved by covering them with enamel or gold. 
 There were larger discs of a similar character for brooches and 
 bracelets covered with natural objects, such as birds, trees, and 
 flowers ; some also represented the sports and humours of Japan- 
 ese life, embodying its comic and tragic phases. These subjects 
 were worked out with such clearness and fidelity as made them 
 unique alike in conception and execution. There were no two 
 articles alike ; all the subjects were different ; there is therefore 
 every probability against their having been produced by dies. 
 Again, the lines were too sharp, the figures too sharply wrought 
 out, to admit of the idea of their having been stamped in dies. 
 They seem to be produced by hand labour, raised from the flat metal 
 by the “repousse” method; the gold, where shown, is either 
 inlaid (which is the most likely) or gilt by a process similar to 
 parcel gilding. The mounts or settings of these discs were very 
 rude, consisting in most cases of a plain bezel not very well 
 fitted turned over at the upper edge, and very little further 
 ornamentation given to it ; the workman evidently not wishing 
 to overpower the ornamental centre. 
 
 There were also some fine cut rock crystal examples in conical, 
 spiral, and convolvulus forms, suitable for solitaires and other 
 ornaments, very well cut, ard polished in their way a novelty. 
 
 Indian Jewellery. 
 
 The specimens from India were of a similar character to those 
 familiar to us through recent Exhibitions. There was also a 
 large and good collection of what we may term modern Indian 
 jewellery, by Watson of Bombay, consisting of some large 
 lockets and bracelets of a kind of repousse work, with figures 
 and scenes of Indian life and character worked up on the surface ; 
 these were very characteristic, with the defect usually prominent 
 in Indian work — the want of perspective. The figures are all 
 at the front, shown of equal size, and equally prominent, so the 
 subject loses its good effect. Another feature mars the appear- 
 
76 Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 ance ; it is the very rich bright yellow colour given to the work, 
 which perplexes and dazzles the eye in trying to' make out the 
 subject represented ; but the effect of the whole is very rich, 
 the cavities containing the colour making a gorgeous looking- 
 object, but this at the same time sacrificed the true value of the 
 artist’s skill in working up his figures. 
 
 Other examples had a different character; instead of the figures 
 worked up, the surfaces were covered with a profuse display of 
 rubies and emeralds, further embellished with very brilliant 
 enamels. With this feature noticeable is also the difference in 
 the way the gems are displayed to what they are with us. In 
 English jewellery the stones usually form part of the design, and 
 in so doing contribute to increase its beauty and worth ; in using 
 a number of stones we seldom isolate them, but usually mass 
 them into some ornamental form, subordinate to the shape of 
 the article on which they are placed. In the Indian jewellery 
 the general contour or shape is not so much studied (certainly 
 there is variety on a small scale), but the end desired is to 
 produce an effect with the stones in combination "with enamels ; 
 almost any ground would serve, the placing of the stones having 
 very little relation to the form of the ground work. An English 
 workman, in placing a number of stones on a round shield, in all 
 probability would choose some form to allow him to mass the 
 stones in the centre. The Indian scatters them all over, and not 
 placing two together, they look as if they had dropped on acci- 
 dentally ; but still the stones are so related to the enamels used 
 in conjunction with them, that the arrangement proves a good 
 one. With respect to the enamels, they constantly use very 
 brilliant colours, so disposing them that they intensify the display 
 of colour already given by the stones ; if we use enamel in con- 
 junction with rubies, it would be such a subdued colour as lilac, 
 or a contrast, as white ; but the Indian freely uses a red, not 
 alone, but in conjunction with white and black ; this, while it 
 prevents the single stone being seen to the best advantage, saves 
 it from an apparent isolation, and gives a gayer and livelier 
 effect to the whole. 
 
 The brilliance of their colours depends very largely upon the 
 gold they use being of such high quality (most of it being pure 
 or almost pure) ; still, with that admission, they obtain greater 
 clearness and brilliancy than we can. In the opaque enamels 
 they are being largely copied by other nations ; it is their habit 
 to put small clusters of enamel on different parts of the work, 
 painting small dots, stars, and other little marks upon them, 
 securing by these small details a work full and complicated. 
 
77 
 
 Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 The gold being of such good quality is consequently very soft. 
 To provide for that contingency it is usual to fill all their hollow 
 goods with cement melting at a low heat, which, when poured 
 in, sets very hard, and keeps the article from breaking. 
 
 The setting of the stones is very rudely done, most of them 
 being fastened in with the edge of the bezel, and very little care 
 being given to exhibit their beauty or brilliancy ; the stones are 
 seldom well facetted; they are chiefly in the convex shape 
 (known as tallow cut), thus preserving their size, but sacrificing 
 their beauty and fire. 
 
 The commoner kind of jewellery worn by the poorer classes 
 (for it seems customary for all classes in India to have some 
 jewellery adornment), as earrings, necklaces, bracelets, anklets, 
 or rings for the finger or to be worn in the nose — those shown 
 were made chiefly of silver filigree, or of small flat and other 
 ornamental pieces of metal strung together. Some very good- 
 looking necklets were thus made, being very primitive and rude 
 in construction, with no mechanical finish about them ; but, con- 
 sidering the appliances at hand used in their production, they 
 were not bad specimens of handicraft. One noticeable feature 
 in them is the absence of soldering as far as possible ; the effort 
 is to produce an ornament without the use of the lamp. For this 
 purpose they use a large quantity of wire, which they can readily 
 draw through their draw plates, or flat pieces they cut out of 
 thin metal ; and if decoration desired is to be more ornamental, 
 the flat pieces of metal are embossed with small punches, and the 
 small pieces are attached by rings and chains to form different 
 articles. By a repetition of these simple elements they produce 
 with a few forms a pleasing and complicated design. Some very 
 thick, heavy-looking anklets were exhibited, produced by casting, 
 and very roughly dressed up, the rough file marks left in as 
 though they had just been taken out of the vice. These were in 
 the form of a large ring about four or five inches diameter, the 
 ends not quite joining, finished off with a small ball. The nose- 
 rings, were in style very similar to the earrings, but much 
 larger, and for fastening on the inner cartilage of the nose by 
 springing the two ends of the ring of wire at the top close 
 together. Most of these rings, as well as the neck chains, worn 
 by the men and women, bore different names, which had some 
 religious or social signification. 
 
 Tunis Jewellery. 
 
 From Tunis were some specimens of jewellery of an Oriental 
 character, principally of silver filigree, wrought in different 
 
78 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 forms. Several patterns of earrings in the form of a canoe 
 suspended from each end by a chain from a small top. The 
 neck-chains were mostly made up of small thin discs of metal 
 attached to a rude chain by a single link. Also some silver 
 bracelets made of flat metal, with square edges inside, the band 
 perforated with a kind of saw-pierced work into scrolls and inter- 
 laced ornament, very roughly executed but artistic in idea. 
 
 Egyptian Jewellery. 
 
 In the collection from Egypt there was a large quantity of 
 jewellery, very unlike in character the relics of ancient Egyptian 
 art. Most of it was silver filigree work of the usual Eastern 
 type, with no noticeable difference from several exhibits of con- 
 tiguous countries, either in style or finish. In this collection also 
 were some heavy massive-looking anklets, armlets, and collarets, 
 quite plain and apparently solid ; contrasted with these were some 
 necklets with pendants attached, composed of small coins, tri- 
 angular pieces of flat metal, and small embossed ornaments, 
 united with pieces of tube, forming a kind of rough lace-work. 
 Some of the articles made of silver filigree were oxydised and 
 relieved in parts with gold and settings of turquoise. In one 
 exhibit there was a recognition of ancient forms in some repre- 
 sentations of the asp and scarabieus, executed in gold and 
 enamel ; the gold a dull yellow colour, the enamel of the “ clois- 
 sonne variety, i.e. the different colours of the enamel separated 
 by wires or narrow strips of gold, the edges of which arc seen 
 imparting an additional beauty to the enamel. 
 
 Turkish Jewellery. 
 
 The Turkish jewellery was of a similar character to the 
 Egyptian, but better made, with a higher class of finish. The 
 small coins and pieces of flat metal connected to chains formed 
 the leading idea. The settings of turquoises were more frequent 
 and the combinations better, forming in some instances the centre 
 to a flower, and used as studs for apparent fastenings in parts of 
 the work. There was also a large example of filigree work in the 
 form of a shield; the disc of metal to which the filigree was 
 attached was silver whitened, ornamented with parts in gold, and 
 further decorated by the introduction of rubies and turquoises. 
 The leading forms worked in the filigree were birds and leaves, 
 and the spaces filled in with scrolls. The whole of the filigree 
 enrichment is made of twisted wires, not as most of the English 
 filigree, i.e. of a single wire notched or knurled on the edges by 
 means of a pair of rolls ; the former has a very much more 
 
70 
 
 Jewellery, chiejly concerning its Manufacture . 
 
 artistic appearance when properly worked up, but the latter has 
 the advantage of fitting closer, is easier worked, and made more 
 
 quickly. 
 
 Greek Jewellery. 
 
 In the Greek collection, which was very limited, were some 
 waistbands, made of plain strips of silver, with wire-work studs 
 . at intervals : also some large silver buckles and clasps for 
 ^vaistbands used in connection with ribbons ; these were very 
 white, neat, and cleanly finished. 
 
 Russian Jewellery. 
 
 The exhibits from Russia were very characteristic, consisting 
 of large^ bracelets square and massive, the band flat, the edges 
 square, the ornament built up of parts in a compact form, 
 requiring, by its close conformation, some good fitting, which 
 was successfully accomplished in the article examined. Most of 
 the jewellery exhibited was in suites decorated with enamels of 
 green and dark blue ; others were ornamented with what is techni- 
 cally termed “gallery,” viz., a narrow perforated piece of gold 
 resembling a neat wire pattern ; portions of strips of gold forming 
 some of the ornaments w'ere lightened by saw-piercing a neat 
 scroll pattern in them. The whole of the examples were in the 
 severe and massive style peculiar to the Russians, yet all were 
 in good taste, all, while indicating strength, showed a clean and 
 neat finish. 
 
 Neapolitan Jewellery. 
 
 From Naples was sent tortoise-shell, coral, and lava jewellery, 
 consisting chiefly of carvings in coral of heads, figures, and 
 foliage ; some of these were very artistically executed and highly 
 finished ; the coral used was chiefly the intense red, the pale and 
 more expensive colour being in much smaller pieces ; the gold 
 mounts supporting them were very plain and simple. These 
 specimens were rendered the more interesting by the small 
 wooden models exhibited to illustrate the process of coral and 
 lava cutting, done mostly by means of lathes with a horizontal 
 spindle upon which is fixed stones of different sizes and quality 
 according to the article to be cut ; other lathes are used for 
 drilling. The piece of coral is fastened on a stick with cement, and 
 then ground into the required shape on the stones ; the cavities 
 obtained by drilling, and the carving work perfected with small 
 tools by hand. 
 
80 
 
 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 Italian Jewellery. 
 
 The proper art of the goldsmith was well represented from 
 Italy, by Castellani, Geraldini, and others, the chief feature in 
 the collection being the great use made of wire. The greater part 
 of the articles exhibited is covered with ornamental wire work, 
 made out of both plain and twisted wires, bent into beautiful 
 shapes, and laid on the plain surfaces with such cleanliness as to 
 render the detection of any marks of solder very difficult. The 
 forms used were very few and simple, and yet by the different 
 applications and combinations of these, beautiful designs were 
 produced. There was a marked absence of anything extravagant 
 or of any effort to produce anything very novel, but a free ren- 
 dering of ancient classical forms in a variety of designs. These 
 designs embraced some very rich mountings to cameos (for which 
 Italy is famous), consisting of a deep massive border, either with 
 a straight square edge, filled up with twisted wires of different 
 sizes, the front sloping towards the centre, and containing 
 a small fine design in scrolls of plain wire, or a deep round 
 border, ornamented with wires of different descriptions. Some 
 brooches had for a centre the ram’s-head (evidently cast), 
 wrought very full, surrounded with a border covered to a great 
 extent with fine ornaments of plain wire. Earrings of an 
 ancient form were shown, representing, in some instances, a 
 female head and bust, the lower part of the figure ending in 
 a flowing leafy scroll, which curled up at the back and termi- 
 nated in the wire forming the loop. The colour of the gold is 
 a very dead yellow, with no attempt at brightness or relief on 
 any part ; this harmonises with this style of work very well. The 
 surface ornamentation being very low, and the shapes usually of 
 a solid form, give a depth and body well in harmony with the 
 whole character of the articles. 
 
 The design of the different pieces appears to be well carried 
 out, evidencing skill and artistic knowledge ; but in what we should 
 call mechanical skill and finish in the construction, the Italian 
 workman is deficient. The pose and effect is carried out to per- 
 fection, but, in the matter of close fitting, or truth in the regu- 
 lation of parts, why, that is mechanical and not artistic, and so 
 it is rather carelessly done. Compare the Italian with the English 
 workman in this respect ; the Italian fascinates with the front 
 of a brooch, and disgusts with the back ; the English will more 
 likely please with the back than the front. My meaning is that to 
 a good Italian brooch will be found a weak fitting pin and a bad 
 fitting box, pieces of solder on which should have been cleaned 
 
Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 81 
 
 off. In a good English made brooch, the back is cared for as 
 much as the front, and will bear as close an inspection. 
 
 Swiss Jewellery. 
 
 The Swiss jewellery chiefly consisted of chatelaines or watch 
 pendants, having no very distinct style or character, but em- 
 bracing examples of all styles, both ancient and modern ; some 
 of these exhibited under Swiss names were made in Paris. 
 
 A large number of the commoner and inferior kinds were 
 made of silver, oxydised ; the designs of these partook largely 
 of strap and broad ribbon work ; they had a very heavy appear- 
 ance ; some, which w r ere of a light kind of ornament, built up 
 into a suitable form, displayed more taste. The gold examples 
 exhibited were in a much better style, being very light, graceful, 
 and embellished with leaves and flowers formed from red, green, 
 and yellow coloured gold ; platinum was also introduced, pro- 
 ducing by a simple arrangement a very good effect. One of the 
 chief attractions in the collection were the examples of chatelaines 
 attached to watch cases, ornamented in a similar style. These 
 W'ere in different styles of ornament, as Greek, Roman, Egyp- 
 tian, and Renaissance, wrought out in the full character of the 
 various periods they illustrated; enamels and precious stones 
 being Introduced. These were executed in a very finished manner; 
 the figures or ornaments were sharply defined and well wrought 
 out by the workmen. These examples were quite unique of 
 their kind, having nothing to compare with them in the whole 
 range of the jewellery exhibits. 
 
 In a higher class were some chatelaines of much finer quality; 
 these were attached to watches of superb make and finish as far 
 as the goldsmith’s work was concerned, and comprised a pair of 
 birds of Paradise, with the tails thrown up, connected with 
 a neat ribbon work set with brilliants; the birds set with precious 
 stones all over, comprising diamonds, sapphires, rubies, and 
 emeralds. The design of one example consisted of dolphins 
 artistically entwined and beautifully set with stones, in a similar 
 manner. Another example was a serpent designed in a beautifully 
 convoluted coil ; this, also, covered Avith gems of different 
 colours. The workmanship in these examples appeared to be 
 excellent; the forms were well worked out, the settings close, 
 the stones well cut, and the colours of the stones harmonised 
 well and were of excellent quality. 
 
 The manufacture of chatelaines to such an extent is a some- 
 what new feature in jewellery. Among the Swiss these articles 
 have received their earnest attention, owing (of course) to their 
 
 a 
 
82 Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 extensive watch trade. For the infinite variety and perfection of 
 the. manufacture of these chatelaines the Swiss deserve much 
 praise. 
 
 Spanish Jewellery. 
 
 The Spanish collection was a very small one, consisting only 
 of a few examples of gold filigree work of an ordinary kind, and 
 of a very dull yellow colour. A grand collar, belonging to some 
 Spanish order of knighthood, was exhibited in the collection ; it 
 had anything but a chaste appearance, being largely covered 
 with enamels of brilliant colours, and, for an article of such high 
 character, of very indifferent workmanship. The newest articles 
 which came under the term jewellery in this display were some 
 damascened or imitation of damascened iron lockets, crosses, 
 solitaires, and other ornaments. The iron being black, the 
 fine lines of inlaid gold and the silver being burnished bright, 
 were rather examples of the working of a new material than of 
 good manufacture. The make of these, apart from the inlaying, 
 was very rude and rough; in fact, there always will be, from the 
 nature of the material, greater difficulties in the way of making 
 a good and clear finish, than in the case of gold and silver, 
 which, from their ductility, apart from their intrinsic value, are 
 the most suitable of all metals for small and intricate works 
 Still, with improved appliances, it might be possible to -manu- 
 facture even these articles in a much better manner, and if so, 
 they would form a very interesting variety to our present stock 
 of jewellery. 
 
 Austrian Jewellery. 
 
 The Austrian exhibits have astonished the world, and in no 
 one department more than in the jewellery exhibited. Had the 
 quality been ever so inferior, the number of articles exhibited 
 would have been a redeeming feature. It seemed as though 
 nearly every jeweller in Vienna had determined to make some 
 show', whether it were advantageous or not, and as a result there 
 was a great deal of repetition, which it would have been better 
 to have avoided. While the large numbers exhibited gave a better 
 knowledge of the productive pow'er of the Austrian jewellers, it 
 did not give an exalted idea of their excellence. In the display- 
 made there was room for jewellery of all materials and kinds to 
 be shown, and this was accomplished ; it embraced every article 
 which could be included under the definition of jew’elleiy, from 
 a common ivory solitaire up to a diamond tiara. 
 
 In ivory, tortoiseshell and meerschaum were a large.collection 
 of small trinkets, solitaires, studs, &c. The solitaires were much 
 larger than we are accustomed to ; some oval-formed w'ere two 
 
83 
 
 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 inches long, and of a proportionate width; also some round 
 nearly as large, turned in different shapes, plain, lunette, 
 grooved, or as a broad tapering cone ; others were engraved, the 
 cut-out parts stained with black or blue colour ; others, inlaid 
 with monograms in gold or silver and neat ornaments, looked 
 very chaste and pretty. In this class of articles a large quantity 
 of amber was used. The amber being transparent, and sus- 
 ceptible of a high polish, made some very attractive articles. In 
 the chains made of amber the effect wa3 not so good; though 
 there was variety in the pattern of the link, yet such chains had 
 a thick and clumsy appearance. 
 
 The examples of gilt jewellery were good in design and style, 
 though entirely produced from dies, but in the execution coarse 
 and rough, the surfaces being left from the die, without being 
 polished; the grain of the metal was exposed along with any 
 defect which might have been on the surface of the die. Some 
 of these articles showed a very good attempt at a dead yellow 
 gild, in imitation of the deep dead colour given to best gold 
 •work, though it could be easily detected as an imitation on 
 account of the coarse granular surface (produced by the action 
 of the acid in depositing the gold). In the ornamentation there 
 was a great deal of “lapped” or bright surface, making a cheap 
 article stylish and showy looking. For style, design, and taste, 
 they were superior to English made goods of the same class and 
 price; for strength and general workmanship, they were inferior. 
 
 In silver all kinds of trinkets and articles of jewellery were 
 exhibited, freely covered with enamel, and largely ornamented 
 with niello. Niello has been used in large silver pieces for a 
 very long time, but its introduction into small articles of jewel- 
 lery is a new feature. In connection with silver it forms a very 
 nice contrast, and is capable of being applied to a very much 
 greater number of articles than it has hitherto been, especially 
 as its application is so simple and easy. The articles to which 
 niello was applied were mostly with plain surfaces, on which 
 ornamental lines, flowers, and scrolls were introduced. The 
 pattern for the reception of the niello is cither engraved on 
 the surface of the article to be nielloed, or the indentation to 
 hold the niello is produced in the die in which the “blank” is 
 stamped ; the niello is placed in, fired, then ground ; and the 
 work is finally polished all over. 
 
 In passing on to the gold jewellery, it is necessary to observe, 
 as a rule, in coloured gold only two qualities are used; these aro 
 either assayed or guaranteed to be 14 or 18-carat quality. This 
 rule is of rather recent introduction, and is well observed, espe- 
 
 .0 2 
 
84 Jewellery ^ cliiejly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 cially among the leading jewellers of Vienna, who find it to their 
 mutual advantage to have the gold of reliable quality in their 
 work, so that, in competition, they are on equal terms. So much 
 is this observed that every part of an article guaranteed must 
 be of the guaranteed quality. As an example, the following 
 instance may be stated : some breast pins of 18-carat quality 
 were sent from England, with stems made of bright, or 9-carat 
 gold — a custom that is universal with us in England — adopted on 
 account of the harder nature of the alloyed gold being better 
 adapted for the pin. They w T ere refused until the proper altera- 
 tion was made. In the boxes at the back of brooches and pendants, 
 the same strictness is observed, and a great many of them arc 
 jointed or made so as to open, that the jewel may be proved to 
 be of genuine metal. 
 
 Another advantage in the large use of 18-carat gold is the 
 better colour obtained on the work. The best Viennese gold 
 jewellery in this respect is very superior, having a soft, smooth, 
 dead surface, with what we term a “ satin bloom not a speckled 
 granular ground like that some “colourers” produce accident- 
 ally in trying to obtain a dead frosted appearance, nor the 
 light bright polish common to the cheap English jewellery. The 
 excellence of colour is to a large extent entirely due to the better 
 quality of gold ; the action of the acids and salts used in the 
 colouring not affecting the surface of the better quality gold to 
 the same extent as the inferior. Of course, as is well known, 
 the process of colouring gold is to decompose the gold and its 
 alloys ; this process is only continued long enough to dissolve the 
 alloys (silver and copper), thus leaving a film of pure gold on 
 the surface of the article. The better the quality of gold the 
 less the surface is destroyed ; 14-carat gold is about the lowest 
 quality of alloyed gold upon which a good colour is obtainable, 
 but in England a large quantity of jewellery is coloured of a 
 much lower quality. 
 
 The forms and shapes of the Viennese jewellery were very 
 varied, but the majority of the pieces had a combination of bright 
 and coloured gold; the bright parts worked in small lines of 
 relief, as in the centre of a brooch or bracelet, these being the 
 highest parts ; coming from under it all round there is a thin plate 
 of bright gold, showing a line about one-sixteenth of an inch wide, 
 and towards the edge of the article this is repeated again. 
 
 Another form used in connection with the bright lines of 
 relief was a brooch or bracelet with different outline, say 
 of a conventional leaf or flower; this had a centre-piece of 
 corresponding shape, but about one-sixteenth of an inch less all 
 
Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 So 
 
 round, leaving a narrow, square-shaped groove, the bottom 
 of which was a bright burnished plate, as shown in Fig. 
 40. (These sketches may 
 not be accurate in every par- 
 ticular, as they are done from 
 memory, the authorities of the 
 Exhibition forbidding very 
 , strictly any sketching, and 
 in some instances the ex- 
 hibitors objecting to taking 
 notes.) 
 
 Another kind of orna- 
 mentation largely taken ad- 
 vantage of was ribbon and 
 strap work, lying over a 
 plain gold ground, saw- 
 pierced into fine scrolls and 
 figures, and carved into 
 shape on the front ; this had 
 a very rich appearance, 
 being edged so as to throw 
 the perforated part a slight 
 distance from the gold plate 
 underneath. A great quantity of this kind of ornament was 
 introduced in broad bangle bracelets of from one to two 
 inches wide. Respecting these bracelets, the bangle is the 
 universal form, very few flat bracelets being shown at all ; this 
 is owing in a measure to the more speedy method of manufacture 
 than we have. Some bangle bracelets were exhibited in the 
 rough unfinished state, which showed the front and edges to be 
 formed in one piece by machinery, leaving only the lining to 
 be put in to complete the form. In the way of enamel there 
 were some marvellous things, not so much for beauty as for size. 
 Some broad bangle bracelets, lined and two inches wide, were 
 covered all round, back and front, with enamel of black and 
 turquoise colour. In some of these on the front was a large 
 spray of flowers set with small rose diamonds and pearls, flush 
 with the enamel. Also some large lockets, three inches long, 
 treated in a similar manner ; these were not coloured, but 
 18-carat gold polished bright, thereby avoiding the risk of break- 
 ing the enamel by the great heat necessary in colouring. Some 
 enamel jewellery of an Eastern type was also exhibited, the 
 surfaces dotted with bits of different coloured opaque enamels, 
 not cut in, but laid on, and looking very patchy and without 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
86 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture . 
 
 any evident design ; rather showy looking, much like a field of 
 wild flowers, and without any better arrangement. Another 
 class of jewellery illustrated was the red garnet worked up into 
 all kinds of articles, in the old style of red gold, with the cut- 
 down setting. In these there was not much novelty. The same 
 kind of mounting was adopted in rings, i.e. the garnets rising 
 tier above tier ; also the star and leaf forms, in the close-set 
 style. In some of the articles great relief was given to its usual 
 monotonous character by the introduction of pearls and tur- 
 quoise to form the centres of flowers, and beads and bands to 
 join ornamental rows of garnets ; this gave life and freedom to 
 what otherwise is a very rigid style. 
 
 In the high-class jewellery, composed principally of precious 
 stones, there was a great display, very large opals predominating. 
 A great number of these are found in the Austrian dominions. 
 One very large opal (oval in form) was mounted as a bracelet,, 
 and used as a tiara ornament alternatively ; this was made 
 to do double duty, by having the bracelet made of open 
 work, many-jointed, and very narrow ; when closed it fitted the 
 wrist, when open it encircled the brow. The stone had an 
 apparent division across the centre from top to bottom, one part 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 being of a milky white, the other full of fire and colour, shading 
 towards the edge into a fire azure blue. This was mounted so 
 that the more opaque part formed the bottom, the lighter and 
 
87 
 
 Jewellery , chiejly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 more transparent part the top, from which sprang a number of 
 rays set with brilliants, conveying the impression of rays of light 
 emanating from the stone. (Fig. 41 is a rough sketch from 
 
 memory.) 
 
 In the same case was a fine light spray of flowers, composed 
 of diamonds and turquoise ; the turquoise gave a very beautiful 
 appearance, being formed into a “forget-me-not” kind oF 
 . flower. The turquoise are just in sufficient quantity without 
 giving “the spray” an overpowering mass of colour, like 
 many similar things in other exhibits. It is very seldom that 
 turquoise are seen in such ornaments ; but in combination 
 with diamonds this treatment proved very effective, and produced 
 a very fine article at a comparatively low' cost. There was, also, 
 an emerald necklace of very great beauty, with ornamental con- 
 necting parts, set with diamonds, brilliants also surrounding the 
 emeralds. In another case was a large spray of flow'ers, with 
 long grass-like leaves combining, set with diamonds in the 
 leaves ; rubies and emeralds formed the flowers. This was sur- 
 mounted by birds set all over with small gems, consisting of 
 diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires in very beautiful 
 harmony. The design of this spray w r as very light and graceful. 
 Some large emeralds and sapphires w'ere cut in the convex form 
 (tallow cut), and used for the centre of flow'ers, where they 
 impressed less with their beauty than their value. One brooch 
 had a very good appearance, having a large emerald centre, sur- 
 rounded by chaste ornaments, set with brilliants, from which 
 depended an emerald drop, looped up by a festoon in the form 
 of a light cord set w T ith diamonds, connected in parts and to the 
 brooch by small emerald studs. There w*as a very good tiara 
 composed of a spray of flow'ers mingled with ears of wheat and 
 grass, the flowers and leaves being made of silver, the wheat of 
 gold, and the whole set with diamonds. 
 
 But the most chaste and finished articles w'ere in the case of 
 F. Hartung ; they were not the largest or most costly, but every 
 article in it was excellent, and displayed to great advantage. 
 Plenty of space was given to each article. The case was lined 
 with dark purple velvet. There were no very large stones, but 
 what there were, were of first quality. No massive pieces of 
 jewellery were exhibited in this case, but in brooches, bracelets, 
 earrings, and other ornaments there was a very close attention 
 to small details, and very great perfection in finish. Among 
 other special articles of jewellery a nearly naturalistic represen- 
 tation of a dragon-fly, the thin body of which was set so close as 
 to resemble almost one stone, covered with miniature facets; 
 

 88 Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 the wings set with diamonds, and yet altogether devoid of the 
 heavy appearance usually attaching to diamond work. Some fine 
 onyx cameos were also mounted on a light open spray, set with 
 diamonds falling round it, the stones having no bezel or apparent 
 attachment, yet the leaves were so arranged that by touching 
 the stone in different parts they afforded a firm setting for it. 
 
 A brooch with large sapphire centre, and an ornamental 
 diamond border surrounding it, forming the outside rim of the 
 brooch, the space between the border and the stone filled in with 
 an open piercing of scrolls, very fine, in red gold, and set with 
 rose diamonds, had a very chaste and beautiful appearance. 
 
 There were several other articles that well merit description ; 
 in the whole of them the arrangement of the stones and the 
 setting was of excellent quality ; the gold cut away clean and 
 clear from the stone ; and the stones were so arranged that the 
 whole space was filled up ; no spare gold to be seen but what was 
 thoroughly necessary; the grains rounded, clear, and bright, like 
 miniature burnished beads. 
 
 In most of the other exhibits there was great room for improve- 
 ment, spare spaces being left in an unfinished state. In looking at 
 the under parts of some valuable tiaras worth several hundreds of 
 pounds each, the file marks were plainly visible, and in the arrange- 
 ment of the stones there was the same want of care and attention. 
 In the matter of pearls there is extreme difficulty in getting- 
 several alike, especially in very large ones, and this seems to 
 have been recognised in the Austrian collection, for no attempt is 
 apparent to remedy this difficulty ; in some exceptional instances 
 attempts have been made to secure similarity, but not success- 
 fully. In diamonds, also, there are many shades of colour ; and 
 without proper combinations good intention is frustrated, as is 
 seen in several examples of very costly works. 
 
 The whole collection of Austria was very impressive, not 
 only, as already indicated, by examples of taste and beautiful 
 design and specimens of very excellently finished workmanship, 
 but also by the great display of wealth in the possession of such 
 rich and valuable gems in such an abundance. 
 
 German Jewellery. 
 
 The German collection in general character was very similar 
 to the Austrian, but not so large, nor exhibiting such costly 
 gems. The greater part was good coloured gold work of very 
 excellent quality and finish. The colour in some of the exhibits 
 was remarkably clear and fine, of a very soft dead colour. Most 
 of the work appears to be stamped in dies ; and this, with the 
 
89 
 
 Jeivellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 truly novel and excellent designs adopted, enables them to pro- 
 duce a bold vigorous-looking article at a much smaller cost than 
 if wholly made up by hand. Most of the articles have great 
 simplicity about them; the idea is very apparent and well wrought 
 out. There is a very similar use made of bright lines of relief 
 as has been already described as noticeable in the Austrian 
 jewellery. 
 
 > Some bracelets made up of tablets were exhibited, that is 
 square or other shaped pieces jointed together. The forms used 
 were chiefly square or octagonal, forming when united together 
 a handsome and massive-looking bracelet. These were well 
 made and fitted together, the joints being kept well out of sight. 
 
 Among the enamelled exhibits were some antique crosses, 
 inlaid with different colours of enamel, applied in various designs ; 
 on some were mediaeval heads and figures of a different character. 
 Also some specimens of translucent enamel on butterflies, small 
 solitaires, and studs of very brilliant colour. There was a 
 novelty, or what appeared to me a novelty, in some thimbles of 
 gold and silver ; there "were introduced, as substitutes for the 
 usual metal tips, pieces of agate and amethyst, cut to the shape 
 and set in, having small holes drilled in the stone similar to those 
 in the ordinary thimble. These stone-set examples united beauty 
 and durability. 
 
 French Jewellery. 
 
 The French collection had the peculiarity of the predominance 
 of bright red gold, worked into shapes and styles quite different 
 to the old red gold articles ; they were for the most part thin 
 wiry looking ornaments, arranged into a pretty-looking form, 
 interspersed in parts with coloured gold, but had a frail and 
 tinsellv appearance ; all these ornaments are produced in dies 
 and sold to the French jewellers by eminent firms, 'who cultivate 
 this branch of trade as their exclusive business. One firm of the 
 name of Decaux exhibited these “blanks” in the rough, as 
 they leave the dies, and very beautiful things they produce ; 
 these are purchased at a small percentage above the cost of the 
 gold, by the smaller jewellers, who put them together, and produce 
 a pretty article at a cheap rate. There is among the French 
 jewellers a constant effort after originality, a straining to bring 
 out something new ; in doing so they are aided by the natural 
 artistic genius they possess in a very high degree, enabling them 
 to set aside precedent and past historic models of art, to attempt 
 to create or create a style for themselves, and thus they show 
 a greater boldness in working out an idea than Englishmen. 
 Many of the exhibits were of a different character, the designers 
 
90 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 referring to antiquity for their inspiration ; chaste and classical 
 examples of jewellery in the antique style, as brooches, earrings, 
 and bracelets, demonstrated their assimilative power and genius : 
 some of these were worked out by having a coloured gold ground, 
 with oxydised figures thrown up in relief upon it ; others, in the 
 Renaissance style, were well carried out in different coloured 
 gold in combination with platinum. These had a much more 
 subdued and refined appearance than most of the exhibits. 
 
 There were also several splendid specimens of diamond work- 
 remarkable for purity of the stone, lightness of construction, 
 and elegance of design, apparently perfect in finish, and very 
 superior examples of setting. 
 
 The French cases also contained some very good ladies’ chains, 
 in the style known among us as the Albert. Many of these had 
 a neat brooch-like ornament to fasten on the breast, from which 
 hung two or three bits of chain, with small tassel-ends, the other 
 part of the chain reaching from the brooch to the watch, orna- 
 mented at intervals with small gold studs of various designs. 
 
 In the way of chatelaines there were several examples in 
 oxydised silver, very large, and artistically made, most of them 
 from the stampings in imitation of leaves and flowers. 
 
 Danish Jewellery. 
 
 In treating of Danish jewellery, the chief productions noticed 
 will be those exhibited by Christesen, of Copenhagen, whose 
 works -were chiefly all of coloured gold ; with- 
 out the adventitious aid of enamels or pre- 
 cious stones, he contrived to make some very 
 chaste and beautiful examples of jewelleiy, 
 in a style as unique as it was excellent. The 
 principal material used in ornamentation 
 was gold wire, cither plain or twisted, but 
 totally different in style to the Italian. The 
 brooches were frequently of a circular lu- 
 nette shape, which formed the ground of the 
 wirework, not in all examples soldered close 
 to the surface, but allowed to twine and 
 entwine into interlaced patterns, after 
 a modified Scandinavian type. Other 
 examples had the wires soldered two and 
 three together, worked in similar style, or 
 the patterns thus arranged simply attached 
 to a rim, leaving all the delicate tracery in 
 relief, like perforated lace. In lockets, while 
 
01 
 
 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture . 
 
 some were plain oval forms, ornamented with minute rings or 
 parts of rings and scrolls, in very fine wire, worked from the 
 centre in some rosette form, the surface of a dead yellow colour ; 
 others had the letter S worked in wire in a very artistic manner, 
 entwined with scrolls and graduated beads as terminations. 
 There was a revival of the old Scandinavian forms, notably in the 
 Fore (a kind of ancient brooch) ; these were all in dead gold, 
 and also overlaid with wirework. Fig. 42 is an illustration of the 
 form. 
 
 In bracelets there were evidences of a similar revival, the 
 hoop being a half-round with the ends passing each other on 
 the front, wi+h a thick and ornamental rounded termination, the 
 two parts passing belted together with a small Gothic* shaped 
 band. The colour given to these things was a dead yellow, not so 
 soft and smooth as that of the German jewellery, but, more like 
 the Italian, is well adapted for that kind of work to give the 
 fine strands of wire their proper relief. The workmanship on all 
 appeared very good ; the fine wires were cleanly soldered ; all 
 parts of the various articles appeared to be finished with great 
 neatness and delicacy. 
 
 English Jewellery. 
 
 The English jewellery was represented by two jewellers from 
 London and one from Edinburgh. Though not giving a fair 
 representation of English-made jewellery, yet the little exported 
 left no room for reproach. 
 
 The exhibit from Edinburgh comprised a large collection of 
 Scotch, and articles designed in the Celtic style, of very pure 
 design and excellent workmanship ; the nature of the design left 
 not much room for display, the stiffness and inflexibility of the 
 “ types ” selected preventing any comparison with foreign work. 
 Yet, not unfrequently, the stiffness in the designs was toned 
 down by an intelligent arrangement of suitable enamels, a free 
 introduction of the Scotch pearls, or the introduction of the 
 characteristic pebble and agate work for which the Scotch 
 jewellers arc celebrated, the metal work of which is made chiefly 
 from dies, the apertures for the reception of the stones being 
 pierced out by press tools, the stones cut to fit the spaces after- 
 wards, and fixed in with cement. There were crosses of the old 
 “revived” Celtic character very beautifully executed, and others 
 in which the “cairngorm ” (a dark gloomy-looking crystal) was 
 secured in a plain “ claw ” setting with very little gold visible ; 
 also brooches and earrings of modernised “Celtic ” design, pre- 
 serving the principles and spirit of the older examples ; but 
 
92 
 
 • Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 with modifications and different arrangements, distinguished by 
 the characteristic names, as the “Queen Mary,” or “ the Lome,” 
 which enhance their attractiveness to Scottish maidens ; all were 
 examples of skilful handicraft and well finished. 
 
 The chief exhibit from England was by Hancock, of London, 
 whose chefs -d'ceuv re were the jewels of the Countess of Dudley ; 
 these for value, artistic arrangement, and skilful workmanship, 
 were unsurpassed in the Exhibition. These having been often 
 already described, I need not further allude to them, beyond 
 saying, the stones forming the several suites were in exquisite 
 harmony with each other in colour and size, each and all set 
 with truth (that is the flat table of the stones of equal height in 
 the setting), and the gold surroundings cut with clearness and 
 precision, the grains being thrown up in beautiful form, and the 
 most minute parts treated with delicacy and care, the whole evi- 
 dencing great skill alike in design and execution. 
 
 In the ordinary class of jewellery there was not anything 
 striking or novel. In some of the goods there was a peculiar 
 use made of enamel (of the champ leve variety) a small cluster 
 of enamels laid on, in conjunction with precious stones, for 
 a ground to receive another colour painted on that, either a 
 little star or small dots. The colours introduced were generally 
 of a subdued character ; for example, in a pendant and earrings, 
 with gems of pink hue, pearls, diamonds, and emeralds, the 
 enamel was blue ground with white dots, or white ground with 
 blue dots. In another pendant and earrings, en suite , with 
 centres of “moonstones,” further embellished with diamonds 
 and rubies, the ground of the enamel was black with blue dots, 
 and a pale blue ground with dark blue dots. A cross made up 
 of exquisitely “saw-pierced” metal, with a brilliant gem-set 
 star-centre, from which ‘ * rays of light emanated ; the termina- 
 tion of the ends of the cross were set with diamonds and 
 pearls. A number of suites of jewellery and bracelets were also 
 included in the display of this exhibitor ; the ornamentation 
 derived from Egyptian and Assyrian decoration, the former 
 appropriately decorated with subjects in enamel, the latter with 
 figures produced by “ repouss^ ” and executed in very full relief. 
 The enamelling was of the opaque kind used by the Egyptian 
 jewellers of old. The characteristics of ancient Egyptian and 
 Assyrian ornament were faithfully preserved. Examples of gem- 
 set bracelets, very narrow, the gems set in straight lines, exhibited 
 the quality of the gems and the skill of the setter ; other 
 examples were made of all gold, as necklets, after Greek and 
 Roman “ motifs the joints producing flexibility completely 
 
93 
 
 Jewellery, chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 hidden at the back. Some Swiss enamels, with mounts, i.e. 
 wreaths of flowers executed in coloured gold, i.e. green gold 
 leaves, entwined with ribbon of yellow gold, an example sur- 
 mounted with the bow and arrow of Cupid was very tastily 
 arranged. The whole collection of Hancock indicated very high- 
 class taste and workmanship, though in the artistic treatment of 
 the materials there was not the freedom, originality, and light- 
 ness which characterised the French and German exhibits. 
 
 Respecting the conditions attaching to the production of jewel- 
 lery in Austria, we found they were different to our own. The 
 manufacturing jewellers are mostly in a small way of business, 
 and employ but few hands ; some of them are supplied by shop- 
 keepers with gold and stones to work up into different articles ; 
 others, while working at their own homes, are exclusively em- 
 ployed by one shopkeeper, working for him alone. Other retail 
 jewellers, who cannot afford this, are supplied by a workman who 
 works generally for the trade, and they cannot command one article 
 exclusively for themselves, as the wealthier retailers in a larger 
 way of business pride themselves upon doing. There is to a certain 
 extent the same division of labour ; as, for instance, the work- 
 man, when he has finished making an article, takes it back to 
 his employer, who sends it out again to the “setter.” There 
 are men who practise exclusively only enamelling, others en- 
 graving. One important difference has already been hinted at — 
 the workman coming directly in contact with the retailer. There 
 appear to be no “middle men,” or factors, who receive the 
 goods from the manufacturer and sell them to the shopkeepers. 
 This accounts for the smallness of the Austrian manufacturing 
 businesses, and in some measure for the cheapness of their (or 
 foreign) jewellery over that of England. 
 
 Special Technic Institution. 
 
 The advantages foreign workmen possess over ours are owing to 
 the existence of technical schools, where their children and youths 
 are taught the various branches of science bearing upon practical 
 industries, irrespective of the particular branch of trade they 
 may in future pursue; so. that in coming to any particular trade 
 there is the basis of knowledge brought, that the exigences of 
 business may develop into something eminently practical and 
 useful. For I conceive it to be one of the fallacies of technical 
 education that instruction should be given only in those particular 
 departments of science and art directly connected with certain 
 businesses; for if a wider ground is covered, -and science in general 
 
94 
 
 Jewellery , chiefly concerning its Manufacture. 
 
 taught, art included, particular industries may find a new 
 development, a fresh channel for expansion, by the application of 
 facts and knowledge gathered in the more extended course of 
 study indicated by me. Changes and improvements may thus 
 be effected, and greater perfection attained in the special branch 
 of the industry or trade selected by the workman, on the practice 
 of which he depends. Another advantage is, each workman is 
 thrown more upon his own resources ; he will be more self- 
 reliant for design — not as with us, this being left to the employer, 
 or to some one skilled in the profession of designer, thus with- 
 holding the motive and incentive to effort in that direction. 
 With the foreign workman there is every inducement to educate 
 himself for this purpose, knowing without it half his chance of 
 livelihood is gone. By constant practice and habit the faculty 
 for design is quickened and developed ; depending on employer 
 or designer alone, the talent for design, or ability to design, 
 might remain dormant and idle. If, then, there is a reason we 
 should increase the artistic skill of our country, and I think there 
 is, the Vienna Exhibition alone furnishes one. It will not be 
 done by Government grants, though they may be very useful, 
 nor by the erection of public schools, though they are very 
 needful, but by giving every facility for the cultivation and the 
 opportunity for the display of artistic taste to each individual ; 
 the thorough recognition by each of the advantages of and neces- 
 sity for personal effort, and an honest, earnest, united endeavour 
 on the part of employers and employed to work out the result. 
 
Metallic Tubing, Rolled Metal, do. 
 
 By JAMES GPwICE, Practical Tube Maker, Associated Reporter , 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 S PEAKING generally of this class of manufactures exhibited 
 in the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, I am decidedly of opinion 
 that the foreign productions (with the exception of one particular 
 instance to be presently noticed) arc in no way superior to what 
 is produced in England, the town of Birmingham especially. 
 
 In most cases (France excepted) there is a wtfnt of finish 
 about the work, which, while it has no additional claim to notice 
 as regards solidity or excellency of construction, makes it com- 
 pare most unfavourably with our own productions. To say the 
 least, the latter claim attention for a full maximum of sub- 
 stantial workmanship, whilst the amount of finish displayed is, 
 in nine cases out of ten, far before that of any foreign house as 
 represented at the Exhibition. 
 
 I shall proceed to notice in detail the most noteworthy 
 exhibits. 
 
 Notices oe Exhibits. 
 
 In the stand occupied by Ernest Krackhardt, of Brunn, I 
 found tubes varying from 6 to 12 in. diameter of hammered- 
 up copper and dove-tailed joints. These tubes are exceedingly 
 well made, the joints being neatly made, and >vcll brazed. The 
 drawn “lap” jointed tubes made by this house arc also very 
 good ; they range in sizes from 1 in. to 4 in. diameter, and 
 are 2(b ft. in length. The work produced by this firm ranks 
 amongst the best of any foreign manufactures in the tube-making 
 department. They also largely manufacture work for sugar re- 
 fining and distillery purposes. 
 
 Von Aron Hirsch und Sohn, of Halberstadt, showed a variety 
 of seamless tubes, both in copper and brass. They exhibited also 
 specimens of ordinary sheet metal, and pinion wire for clocks, 
 drawn from J in. to J in. diameter. They also exhibited a dis- 
 play of copper pans “ rose ” from sheet copper. 
 
 Ferd Dolainski and Co., Wien. — This house exhibited copper- 
 
96 
 
 Metallic lubing , Boiled Metal, dec. 
 
 drawn lap-jointed tubes, varying from 1 in. to 4 in. diameter. 
 These tubes are not well made, the joints being imperfect, the 
 tubes not straight, and the surface of the copper rough. 
 
 J. Aders, Neustadt, Madenburgh, exhibited a variety of seam- 
 less brass tubes, varying from J in. to 2\ in. diameter, and 22 ft. 
 long. These tubes are well made, having a smooth surface, and 
 very straight in the finish. 
 
 C. Ileikmann, Berlin, exhibited ordinary lap-jointed copper 
 tubes, varying from 1J in. to 3 in. diameter. There was dis- 
 played also a large sheet of copper, 41 ft. 6 in. long, 6 ft. 6 in. 
 wide, by J in. thick, which weighed 1 ton 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 8 lbs. 
 This sheet of copper is exceedingly large, but I could not compre- 
 hend the utility of it, still one cannot but pay a tribute to the 
 skill which is evidenced in its production. 
 
 In the Belgian Department I found a very good class of lap- 
 jointed iron tubes, but in making they had recourse to rivets to 
 hold together the joints before brazing them; but on the whole 
 they are a first-class lot of plain tubes, varying from 6 in. to 
 10 in. diameter and from 13 ft. to 14 ft. long, with wrought- 
 iron flanges on the ends. 
 
 I may as w T ell note here that the visitor curious in such mat- 
 ters suffers from want of proper information, there being no one 
 in attendance in this, as in many other instances, to give infor- 
 mation respecting the mode of production, character, or the 
 intended application of the exhibits. 
 
 D. Molian, Prussia, exhibited a good assortment of rolled 
 metal w T ire ; he also showed a roll of the thinnest and finest 
 rolled sheet metal that I have seen. It is a first-class specimen 
 of what can be produced in the art of metal-rolling, showing in 
 a pre-eminent degree to what thinness even brass may be brought. 
 The roll in question is as thin as gold-leaf before being beaten, 
 the colour good, the manipulation perfect, the metal free from 
 holes, and, altogether, the roll is a wonderful example of the 
 ductility of this metal. 
 
 Prominent among the Austrian houses, I found Messrs. C. II. 
 and II. Chandoir, Wien, exhibited samples of seamless tubes of 
 ordinary make. They also exhibited octagon tubes, seamless, 
 w T hich are very rough, and scratched on the surface. The same 
 description will also apply to their “reeded” and “twisted” 
 tubes. There was also shown a large bar of brass, apparently 
 4J- in. diameter and 14 ft. long ; also copper coils made of 
 tubes, but of no particular merit. A good assortment of copper 
 pans was also exhibited. They appear to me to have been ‘ * rose 
 by hydraulic pressure, there being sixteen “rose” in a body, or 
 
Metallic Tubing , Boiled Metal , dtc. 
 
 97 
 
 together. There were others of various sizes, as follows : — 
 Thickness, 24-wire gauge, 10 in. diameter, 7 in. deep ; 24 in. 
 diameter, 18 in. ; 3 ft. diameter, 4 in. deep. They also exhibited 
 good specimens of fine wire-drawing. 
 
 Following on the above firm I shall proceed to notice the 
 exhibit of Messrs. Zugmaver and Son, Waldejgon, N.O., who are 
 not exhibitors of tubes at all, but who displayed a large assort- 
 ment of copper pans, made from the single sheet. Many of these 
 are of very large dimensions, and of first-class workmanship. 
 
 But the question naturally arises, as it strongly forced itself 
 on my mind, whether the cost of production in this instance does 
 not exceed that of the old riveted and jointed process, as well as 
 that no advantage arises in other ways. To jny mind, the cost 
 of production in separate pieces and riveted must be much the 
 least expensive, as working them out of a single sheet must be 
 both tedious and expensive. 
 
 But perhaps, after all, the Austrians possess some secret in 
 brazing, which must be perfect of its kind ; it may be that some 
 of their large pans are brazed. All that I can say is, that, if 
 they are, the joints defy the closest scrutiny. I should scarcely 
 think it possible, but mention it as probable. 
 
 The perfection of these examples of manufacture cannot be 
 questioned. One of the pans has on it an iron flange. 
 
 As a specimen of the copper-rolling capacities of the Austrians, 
 this firm exhibited a sheet of the metal, in length, 17 ft. 7 in. ? 
 breadth, 8 ft. 7 in. ; weight, 5,229 lbs., or 2 tons 6 cwts, 
 2 qrs. 21 lbs. Having alluded to the large “coppers,” or pans, 
 the following dimensions of three of the largest will not be out 
 of place. One 11 ft. in diameter, 4 ft. deep, weight 13 cwts. 
 14 lbs. ; another 9 ft. 3 in. diameter, 4 ft. 6 in. deep, with iron 
 flange 4 in. wide all round the lip. 
 
 I do not think we produce anything equal to these in England; 
 at all events I never saw anything like them. This firm also 
 showed some very good specimens of ‘ ‘ tuyere ’ ’ pipes, or copper 
 pipes for blast furnaces. 
 
 Johann Liebig and Co., Niederlange, Wippling. — This firm, 
 also, exhibited some sheet metals of good width, and of about 21- 
 wire gauge. Everything in this exhibit is exceedingly good, and 
 the products equal those of many English houses. 
 
 While on the topic of sheet metals, I would notice that many of 
 the foreign productions (in sheet metal) are remarkably clear, free 
 from blemish, and of a peculiar yellow cast of colour, different to 
 that of English manufacture. 
 
 Carl Klein, Obewesterreich, exhibited a capital variety of 
 
 n 
 
08 Metallic Tubing , Rolled Metal , &c . 
 
 sheet metal, also brass and copper rods, some of the latter up to 
 1J in. diameter, and rods 2 in. square. The castings exhibited 
 by this firm are also most noteworthy for clearness, sharpness 
 of outline, and freedom from 4 4 sand holes.” 
 
 We now come to the French houses. Most prominent amongst 
 them stands Messrs. J. J. Lavoissiere et Fils, Paris. This is the 
 firm I alluded to in my introductory remarks as furnishing an 
 exception to the general quality of the workmanship displayed 
 at the Vienna Exhibition. They have a grand display of tubes, 
 built up in the shape of a square tower, with a turret at four 
 angles, and a passage in it which visitors passed through, 
 and examined their display. The tubes are all seamless, of all 
 sizes, varying from about f in. to 17 in. diameter, and from 
 10 ft. to 20 ft. long. The 17-in. diameter tube was over 20 ft. 
 in length, and is in itself a splendid example of what may be 
 effected in this particular branch of manufactures. Perhaps the 
 great majority of tubes exhibited at this stand are from If in. to 
 0 in. diameter, but, whatever their size, they exhibit a marked 
 excellence as regards manipulation ; they are, in fact, perfect 
 specimens of their class— 'without dents, clear in surface, free 
 from scratches, and straight as arrows. They also showed a 
 class of copper tubes, bulged in the 4 4 centres,” from | in. to 
 1£ in. diameter ; but for what purpose they are required I am 
 unable to conjecture. Tubes of this kind illustrate the fineness 
 and malleability of the metal of which they are made. This 
 firm shows a great superiority over other houses as regards the 
 size of their products, as well as for the quality of their work- 
 manship. They supersede the English tube manufacturers in the 
 former particular, while the skilled labour exhibited in the ordi- 
 nary sizes bear about the same comparison. It is a first-rate 
 stand of tubes, and these, taken as a whole, are far in advance 
 (as regards diameter) of any seamless tubes we produce. 
 
 The British Section. 
 
 This department of the Exhibition allotted to Tube Manufac- 
 turers is well represented by Messrs. Winfield and Co., Birming- 
 ham ; The Broughton Copper Company, Salford, Manchester ; and 
 by Messrs. Everitt, Allen and Co., Birmingham, the particular 
 excellence of whose manufactures is so well known. It is suffi- 
 cient to say, that the firm last mentioned shows a display of seam- 
 less boiler tubes, and also ornamental tubes, of various patterns and 
 sizes. They have also a good assortment of wire and rolled metal. 
 
 Messrs. Winfield and Co., Cambridge-street, Birmingham, 
 exhibited an excellent class of large-reeded, ornamental, and lap- 
 
99 
 
 Metallic Tubing , Rolled Metal, ci’c. 
 
 jointed copper tubes ; also brazed gas tubing and ornamented 
 tubes, the ornamentation produced by means of steel wheels, on 
 the periphery of which the design to be impressed on the tube is 
 sunk by a die-sinker. Of this variety of tubes the firm named 
 exhibits a great variety of patterns. It is, however, to bo 
 regretted, that the majority of the tubes were shown as dipped 
 or passed through aquafortis, and therefore did not show the 
 skin on the metal as it left the drawing-tool ; an injustice to 
 these exhibitors (inflicted by themselves), whose tubes enjoy a 
 deserved reputation for quality and finish. 
 
 Messrs. Collings and Wallis, of King Edward’s Road, Birming- 
 ham, had a nice collection of goods in their display of English 
 ironmongery. Among others a selection of ornamental tubes, 
 manufactured by Messrs. Grice, Grice, and Booth, of Birmingham. 
 
 The Broughton Company exhibited a class of tubes of various 
 descriptions — locomotive boiler tubes, and lapped-jointed copper 
 tubes ; also tubes for calico-printing rollers. Their lap-jointed 
 copper tubes are exceedingly good specimens of British work- 
 manship in this class of manufacture ; and, taking it altogether, 
 their display is creditable to English manufacture. 
 
 Whitley and Partners, Leeds, exhibited a good display of lap- 
 jointed copper tubes, seamless boiler tubes, and brazed gas tubes. 
 Their gas tubes in brass are rough on the surface, and appear as 
 if they had been sand-papered ; a very objectionable proceeding, 
 as it does not show the proper surface of the metal ; but, taking 
 them as a whole, they are very creditable. 
 
 In concluding these remarks, I would observe that there is 
 nothing in the French department of this class of manufacture 
 at all pretending to anything of a fancy character or description. 
 As for gas tubes, I cannot find one exhibit against England. 
 
 The superiority of France consists in her large seamless tubes. 
 In the ordinary sizes there is nothing special. 
 
 There is nothing particularly noteworthy in the Austrian and 
 Belgian Departments beyond what I have mentioned in the fore- 
 going Report. The workmanship is, in many instances, of an 
 ordinary description ; in fact, I have every reason to think that 
 many of their best exhibited specimens of lap-jointed copper 
 tubes are the produce of British industry and skill ; they so 
 closely resemble our own make, that no English maker could tell 
 the difference. 
 
 In the ornamental and fancy tube department England still 
 maintains her superiority of workmanship, when compared with 
 other countries, both for gas, chandelier, and brass foundery, and 
 other purposes. 
 
 n 2 
 
Bells. 
 
 By JOHN BANISTER, Bell Tuner ( Messrs . W . Blews and Sons , 
 
 Birmingham). 
 
 H AVING been requested to report upon bells exhibited at 
 the Vienna Exhibition, I beg to state — as well as my 
 ability will allow me — what I saw, and my opinion thereon. 
 
 The largest bells I examined were exhibited by Von Janaz 
 Hibzer und Sohn, Wiener, Newstadt. They were eight in number, 
 the largest weighing about four tons, the smallest about four 
 cwt. They were not intended to harmonise with each other, as 
 they had not been tuned, but to be used as single bells placed in 
 a tower where only one is required. The middle size I considered 
 to be of the usual quality of tone, but the two extremes I did not 
 approve, the largest being unnecessarily heavy, the smallest 
 being too small to produce a pleasant sound. A bell weighing, 
 according to my judgment, three tons is equally as good, and 
 sometimes better, than one weighing four tons, and therefore one 
 ton of metal is saved. Again, I consider no church bell should 
 weigh less than from five to six cwt. to produce a sweet tone. 
 The same firm exhibited two other bells much shorter (not so 
 deep, squatter) than those I have mentioned. If an experiment, 
 they are, in my opinion, a failure, the tone being much inferior 
 to others of ordinary shape or proportion. 
 
 The next I examined was a peal, nine in number, placed in a 
 frame erected for the purpose. The exhibitor’s name was not 
 shown. They had been tuned (that is why they are called a 
 peal) for the purpose of playing tunes; a finger-board, fitted with 
 keys connected, and attached to wires leading to the clappers, 
 allowed them to be played similar to a pianoforte. The key- 
 board being locked up, I could not test them ; I judged them to 
 be of the ordinary quality, the largest weighing about two and 
 a half tons, in the key of B flat. 
 
 I next examined four exhibited by Von Albert, Samassa, in 
 Laibach ; they were rung by a number of men every day, at 12 
 at noon, and 6.30 in the evening. The largest weighs about two 
 tons, the smallest about three cwt., which I believe to be 
 
Bells. 
 
 101 
 
 too small ; for this reason : it would not be heard one-half the 
 distance the large one would. By making it larger in diameter, 
 and thicker, it would produce the same note, be heard at a 
 greater distance, and be more musical. The largest I believe to 
 be good. The notes are as follows : — 
 
 They were rung by means of a rope attached to a lever fastened 
 to the stock the bell is suspended from. 
 
 As all the others I inspected were a fac simile of those I have 
 mentioned — except a bell made of steel I will speak of presently 
 — I will conclude my remarks upon foreign bells, and will add 
 all the castings were very good ; they are much decorated and 
 polished, but that I think almost useless, as they are generally 
 placed in a closed tower, and very rarely seen again ; they soon 
 become covered with dust, which hides the decorations. 
 
 The steel bell just mentioned weighed about four tons ; its 
 note was intended to be A flat, but it had other sounds almost as 
 loud, which caused it to be unpleasant, as these did not chord 
 well with the natural note. But to my judgment, cast-steel 
 bells, although only recently manufactured, are a failure ; for 
 two reasons : their tone is inferior to the bell-metal bell ; again, 
 in a short time, in consequence of the material not being so 
 dense as ordinary bell metal, they are far more susceptible of 
 oxydation, which, in falling off, must eventually alter the tone. 
 This is not of much consequence if a single bell, but if a set of 
 tuned bells, it would be of great consequence. 
 
 The only English bells I could find was a peal weighing in all 
 about three tons, exhibited by Messrs. Blews and Sons, of Bir- 
 mingham, and hung in a frame about 30 ft. high. When in a 
 tower, they will have wheels attached to the stocks, and ropes 
 attached to the wheels, exactly the same as are used in English 
 churches. They can be rung for joyful occasions, chimed for 
 church service, or used for tune playing, or playing the clock 
 quarters, such as the Westminster chimes. The notes are as 
 follows : — 
 
102 
 
 Bells. 
 
 Messrs. Blews and Sons also exhibit in the English Department 
 of the Industrial Hall a peal of fifteen musical hand-bells. They 
 are tuned and polished ; are two octaves in the key of C. Such 
 bells are, of course, well known in England, but they seem to 
 attract much attention in the Vienna Exhibition ; many persons 
 make inquiries what they are used for. It is almost unnecessary 
 to say they are for playing tunes with, either by hanging them 
 up and tapping them with a leather hammer, or three or four 
 men can hold them in their hands and strike the clapper against 
 the bell. 
 
 In conclusion, my humble opinion is, no improvement has 
 been made in the manufacture of bells for two centuries, except 
 the castings are better, and very little improvement in hanging 
 them. There are bells used now a century and a half old, as 
 good as they are made at the present time. 
 
 
Cabinet and General Brass Foundery. 
 
 By GEORGE CASHMORE, Brass Founders 1 Pattern Maher 
 (Messrs. James Collins and Son , Birmingham.) 
 
 UIE following Report is the result of careful observation and 
 
 deliberate conviction as to the comparative merits of the 
 contents of the various cases of brass foundery exhibited by the 
 several countries in the Vienna Exhibition, with the same or 
 a similar class of articles produced by the best Birmingham 
 manufacturers of brass foundery. 
 
 In examining the various articles, my attention was arrested 
 by the very great number of lock handles for doors, in the 
 Austrian and other courts, of a different form to those made 
 and used in England (viz. the ordinary door knob), which with 
 us are generally round and smooth, the worst possible form 
 to overcome any friction when the lock does not work freety. 
 The handles which I- allude to, so generally in use in Vienna, 
 are of a cranked or bent form, the leverage or increase of 
 power which can be applied to the cranked handle (over the 
 knob) being very much greater, demonstrating its superiority ; 
 it also admits of an opportunity for the display of ornament, 
 which the knob form cannot. The handle is, in form, simply 
 a crank or right angular piece of metal, the short leg of which is 
 fitted on to the lock spindle, the longer leg or lever to which the 
 pressure of the hand is applied, by which the bolt of the lock or 
 latch- is turned, being from 3 in. to 4 in. long. The rose and 
 escutcheon plates are united in one piece, outline ornamental and 
 surface plain. The castings were good clear work, free from 
 specks and saud-holes ; the finish (either burnished or polished) 
 was of good quality. 
 
 Other examples of a superior quality, more bold and massive, 
 were ornamental, the design and ornamentation generally being 
 such as not to render the cranked handle unpleasant for grasping ; 
 this principle is carried out in very much of their work with 
 success. The style of ornament most prevalent in this variety 
 
 Austrian Brass Foundery. 
 
104 Cabinet and General Brass Foundery. 
 
 was a free treatment of foliage after the Renaissance style. Some 
 of the best ornamental work was w T ell got up in the various 
 bronzes of steel and copper colour, some being bright dipped, 
 lacquered gold colour, and finished in good workmanlike 
 style. 
 
 Of door handles there were some few of the recognised English 
 form, but not of that profusion as in the other kind already 
 alluded to, the arms and plates being plain and polished ; very 
 little ornamental skill shown in those exhibited. But there are 
 examples of art workmanship, consisting of timepieces, stands, 
 and vases. Some were finished in a different style, accomplished 
 in the following manner : the casting patterns are all left quite 
 plain, smooth from the rifling, no matting being put on them ; 
 castings from the pattern w'ould therefore be smooth, and after 
 being fitted and polished are dipped bright ; then, with a brass 
 wire brush revolving in a lathe, scratched over the whole surface : 
 the effect of this kind of finish is very brilliant. Others were 
 scratched only, and have a film of gold deposited on the surface. 
 What examples there w^ere of both kinds of finish were good 
 examples of art workmanship. The cabinet and general brass- 
 foundery of Birmingham would be improved (especially as regards 
 its sale in Continental markets) if the style of finish alluded to 
 were more generally adopted. 
 
 Of hinges exhibited, those known to the trade as the “heave 
 off” preponderated, being used for the kind of windows known 
 as French casements, for the convenience of cleaning them 
 when required, some of the largest and best being about 
 10 in. long, with ornamental joints of about 1 in. diameter, 
 with knobs to match at top and bottom. The flaps were long 
 and of bracket-like shape, and covered with tastefully modelled 
 scroll-work, cast in bronze, dipped bright : a very good hinge, 
 its only weakness being the pin, which was too small in propor- 
 tion to the size of the hinge joint. A great quantity of the 
 hinges exhibited were in iron, the joint and flap covered with 
 a thin case or covering of brass. Some with knobs looked 
 like good work, the brass being even upon the surface and 
 polished ; others also of the same class of article, but not of 
 such good workmanship. The expense of fixing the brass upon 
 the iron would add somewhat to the cost ; nevertheless I think it 
 worth the consideration of manufacturers of hinges whether an 
 article to come between the iron hinge and the “all brass” 
 could be produced, which would last much longer than the cheap 
 brass hinges of Birmingham make. 
 
 As regards espagnolette bolts or fasteners, there was not 
 
Cabinet and General Brass Founder y. 105 
 
 a very great or artistic display. In finish they were very 
 fair work (as far as could be seen without handling, which 
 was not permitted as a rule ; there were, however, some ex- 
 ceptions, and the most had to be made of such opportunities 
 when they presented themselves). There are three varieties of 
 espagnolette bolts. One variety fastens with a hook top and 
 bottom of an iron rod the length of the door, the bolt being held 
 in its place by screws. Some were plain, others ornamental, 
 with a handle to match fixed to the bolt, which on being turned 
 to the right or left unfastens or fastens a window. A second 
 variety works by a turn of a knob or handle, which shoots a bolt 
 into socket plates fixed in the window-sills top and bottom. A 
 third variety is composed of three bolts, shooting out top and 
 bottom, and another which shoots from the centre. In some of 
 the espagnolette bolts locks are added, the box part being made 
 larger for this purpose ; or a three- tumbler lock, apparently 
 similar to Chubb’s (the lock construction not being displayed, 
 the exact motion cannot be described). The kinds first alluded 
 to are by no means new to Birmingham, the locking motion 
 excepted. Ours, with having two motions, are more simple, con- 
 sisting of a bell crank lever (instead of the disc), to each end of 
 which is jointed the bolt shoot, the knob being fixed to the centre 
 of the lever to give motion to the bolts ; the other, made here, 
 having three motions, being more complicated, consists of three 
 racks formed at the ends of the bolts gearing into a pinion wheel, 
 one on each side for the top and bottom motion, and another 
 along the bottom of the pinion for the centre bolt. 
 
 Of other kinds of brass bolts, as sunk “ slide,” none were ex- 
 hibited ; but in a case of iron bolts are some for a similar pur- 
 pose ; being rather different in the sunk part to those we make, 
 a greater amount of wood will have to be cut away to fit one of 
 these bolts upon a door, almost J of an inch more than the sunk 
 slide bolt we make for the same purpose. 
 
 Of staple bolts for cupboards, there were some few examples 
 with brass, and others with iron shoots, very indifferently 
 finished, being sanded, and deviation from the English bolt used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 Of sconces, those exhibited were plain and ornamental, some 
 of them rather inferior, both in point of design and finish, 
 the dead dipped examples not being a good colour, the few 
 jointed ones having no new feature ; the branch or scroll sconces 
 moving in a small socket are not modelled artistically. Of the 
 few I saw the castings were by no means good. 
 
 In castors there was a better variety and quality, the “cab- 
 
106 Cabinet and General Brass Founder y. 
 
 riole ” being the most numerous ; the frill castor, the greatest 
 number of which had a “frilling” of J-in. beads or dots, with plain 
 edges on each side of about £ of an inch, “ dead dipped ” and 
 burnished over the beads, the edges being used for an ornament 
 to the top of the castor socket, exactly like one in use with us. 
 The socket castors were of a fair quality, both round and square, 
 but rather light, both dead dipped and polished, and of similar 
 quality of workmanship to the previous ones already alluded to. 
 Of more bold and substantial socket castors, the best were 
 fitted upon the pianofortes. These castors had good bold sockets, 
 some of which were rather too straight to harmonise with the 
 taper of the legs of the pianoforte ; in finish they were dipped 
 and burnished, had good massive wheels, but in some examples 
 the pins to attach the horn to the socket appeared too small in 
 proportion to the size of the castor, the same rule applying to 
 the pin on which the wheel revolves in the horn. Pivot castors 
 also : the iron plate, or pivot, to which the horn which carries the 
 bowl is attached by the pin is similar also in shape to ours, the 
 finish of these castors being of very fair quality ; the horn and 
 wheel were brass. Another variety very numerous, the cabriole, 
 but having a spike (instead of a screw, as with us), is more easily 
 fixed, but more liable to become loose, or disconnected from the 
 work they are intended to assist in moving. 
 
 In pianoforte handles, the examples being fixed upon the 
 “fortes,” for convenience of moving if required, there were 
 three varieties of forms, most of them ornamental : some like the 
 box handle, with a square stop at the top, the handle working 
 in a projecting part on the plate against which the stop acts ; 
 the length about four or five inches ; rather strong and substan- 
 tial work. Others of the same form as a cash-box handle, but 
 as bold and strong as the above examples. Another variety 
 was of the same form as a modern drawer handle (much in use 
 here), but larger; about the same length as the others, but raised 
 up in a curved form, of sufficient height for introducing the 
 fingers when required ; projecting about one inch by two inches 
 wide ; fixed with screws, one on each side, and one on the top ; 
 foliage modelled over the surface in a similar style to the lock 
 handles already described, but not of such good quality ; the style 
 of finish, dead dipping, and burnishing of fair quality. 
 
 Of bell pulls and centre knobs, the greater number being plain 
 round sunk pulls, of like shape to those we use, there was very 
 little diversity in their design, and nothing very novel ; a fair 
 quantity of plain round sunk pulls with a flange rather broader 
 than with us, the sunk part flat at the bottom, not cup-shaped. 
 
107 
 
 Cabinet and General Brass Fonndery. 
 
 Those were the most numerous, and, generally polished, were 
 good-looking pulls, and well finished ; some more so than others. 
 Others were of a common quality, a flat plate nearly oblong. 
 Some were oval, with a round knob ; these were generally bur- 
 nished. Of pendent pulls there was no great variety. In this 
 particular pull there is scope for an infinite variety of design. The 
 main features of this pull consist of one or more plates with 
 standards, through which the slide works ; stops arc introduced to 
 regulate the length of the pull ; attached to the rod is the handle, 
 of which we have a great variety of patterns. All the examples 
 exhibited were polished, the quality of the work being varied as 
 those previously alluded to. Of centre door knobs there was a 
 good display, plain, polished, and ornamental, also finished in 
 various tints or colours of bronze (like the lock handles and 
 ornamental hinges). The style of ornament on the latter was 
 somewhat similar, and, as examples of art workmanship, much 
 better than the bell pulls. Many of these door knobs arc rather 
 more pointed than is usual with us, which, being a deviation, 
 gives character to the knob. Whether plain or ornamental, a 
 few of the examples of each were of first-class workmanship. 
 
 Of drawer handles there were a considerable quantity, one 
 of the varieties of which was the old familiar lion’s head and 
 ring, in a great variety of sizes, ranging from one to three 
 inches in diameter, finished in the usual style ; the dead dip- 
 ping of the head was not well done, neither was the burnish- 
 ing of the ring. Of other forms of drawer handles there are 
 a few of the “drop” class, jointed to a small clasp, with 
 shank to fix it by passing it through a small plate of a rather 
 fanciful form — it is very like an article made here for a similar 
 purpose ; — these were polished, and of very fair workmanship. 
 Another article for the same purpose, also similar to one of our 
 patterns, being the ring handle — the section being square, 
 chamfered edge, jointed to a small knob, with shank for fixing to 
 a plate similar to the previous one, also polished, was very fair 
 work.' The last variety was the same as our ogee, a very 
 common handle, various sizes, of bent shape, or curved and fitted 
 to a small knob and rose of ogee shape, not well finished in the 
 burnishing, the quality of finish not being equal to the usual 
 style of finish. 
 
 The great majority of the cabinet brass foundery was of common 
 quality, consisting of plain burnished lifting handles, with stops, 
 being of the usual shape, and working in knobs cast on the plate 
 (in oval form). The other variety was similar to the above 
 curved-shaped handle without stops, there being a projecting bit 
 
108 Cabinet and General Brass Foundery . 
 
 on the knob for the handle to stop against ; the handles were 
 finished as those alluded to previously. 
 
 In flush handles there were a fair quantity, but common 
 finished ‘ * sanded ’ ’ fronts, with burnished handle. Of the better 
 class of dead dipped ones I saw none of new form, there 
 being only the oblong frame containing a handle of the same 
 shape, some of which were a fair quality of work ; other 
 examples of the same kind, but workmanship inferior. 
 
 Cash-box handles were also shown, the quality of the same 
 being equal to the flush handles, the dipping not good, no new 
 variety observable. 
 
 Some very good examples of ornamental escutcheons, with and 
 without covers, some of which are modelled in the shape of a 
 scroll shield, of excellent form and good workmanship, some of 
 which were bronzed copper colour or black ; these were of as 
 good quality as the handles. A quantity of patterns of plain 
 oval polished and thread escutcheons for inlaying in wood were 
 exhibited, both examples very common work. 
 
 There was a variety of brass work we do not manufacture 
 exhibited, such as box irons, made in brass, larger and deeper, 
 admitting of their receiving a larger heater, which retains the 
 heat longer ; the heater is kept in its place by means of a sliding 
 door ; there were a great variety of sizes, some of which were 
 neither particularly fiat on the face nor remarkably well po- 
 lished, but still by no means bad work. 
 
 There are a few sash lifts, like those we make, but more 
 common ; one on a small angular-shaped plate, with two ears, 
 to which is jointed a flat-shaped lift : it occupies but little 
 space. These lifts are of a very inferior class of finish. 
 
 The screw and spectacle pulleys shown, either single or double, 
 are also light, unsubstantial, and very commonly finished. The 
 larger sized spectacle pulleys were better finished and more sub- 
 stantial work. 
 
 Of the sash screws exhibited, some were with the oval-shaped 
 head, like ours ; others had a crescent-shaped head, but plain 
 grip surface ; both examples polished. The next variety had 
 a wrought ring with knob, into which the screw is cast ; these 
 were dipped, but are not so good for the purpose intended as 
 those previously alluded to. 
 
 Hooks of various kinds. In some of the wardrobe hooks the 
 ornamental varieties had a screw cast in, with a rose to match, 
 which is loose, metal being saved thereby. Another variety, 
 about the same size, i.e., or 3 in. long, of the same shape, but 
 plain and burnished, the curved part ending with a small knob ; 
 
109 
 
 Cabinet and General Brass Foundery. 
 
 from below, where the screw is cast in, there drops a small hook, 
 giving it the appearance of a little hat-and-coat hook. In 
 cupboard hooks, in the examples of the square hook, the return 
 end is finished with a little ball. The lamp hooks also termi- 
 nate with a ball at the tip, being very fair examples of ‘ 4 tack 
 work.” 
 
 Having now exhausted the specialities of Austrian brass 
 foundery, I proceed to notice in the same manner 
 
 French Work. 
 
 In lock handles there was not so great a display as in the 
 Austrian Court ; yet some of those exhibited were very good 
 examples of art work, the bronzes introduced on the examples 
 shown being very good in colour, as also were those 4 * dipped 
 bright.” 
 
 Of door handles there were an excellent variety, both in point 
 of design and finish, more so than those of Austria or Russia ; 
 some of the handles of a good useful kind, used sometimes to 
 fix upon the centre of the door, like the centre knob with us ; 
 the examples of this kind being larger and bolder in every 
 way than the regular English door handle. They were both 
 straight and bent gripes, cast, and of tube, the roses, standards, 
 and gripes modelled in good bold forms, in same style as the lock 
 handles, and finished in the various colours of bronze and gold 
 of first-rate quality. 
 
 The chief features of this court are the examples of high art, 
 shown in a great variety of brass work for ornamental and decora- 
 tive purposes, as vases, large and small stands, timepieces, and 
 balustrades of good design, in the Italian style, bronzed, black, 
 and copper coloured, others finished bright, like those of Austria 
 previously described, but a much greater variety of all the styles 
 of finish for which the French are celebrated, and deservedly so. 
 
 The examples of hinges with ornamental joints were of good 
 design and workmanship, similar to the work previously named, 
 and of equal merit. Some iron hinges with thin brass cover, or 
 cased like those of Austria, and of the same quality of work, 
 were also shown. 
 
 Of espagnolette fasteners and bolts a great amount of artistic 
 ability was displayed on these and other articles which the 
 French exhibit, both bronzed, gilt, and silver plated ; some 
 have a well-modelled figure for the handle, the castings have 
 a good clear skin, the finish first-class. Some of these we 
 could copy to advantage in the manufacture of espagnolette 
 fasteners. Some of the best centre knobs are exhibited in this 
 
110 
 
 Cabinet and General Brass Founder y. 
 
 court, varying in size from about 2f in. upwards. Of the mortice 
 lock knobs and lock plates, the ornamental and plain polished 
 examples, the whole was fair good work. 
 
 Of picture rods, brackets, and knobs, there were exhibited a 
 few polished ; others were dipped and burnished, their finish 
 of average quality. 
 
 Pianoforte sconces, branch, jointed, and with straight stem, 
 plain and polished, were exhibited; one very good is fixed 
 upon a piano, the shield acting as a stop against the plate. 
 The piano handles and socket castors were also good, most of the 
 examples being dipped ; the ornamental not such good speci- 
 mens of art work as the centre knobs and door handles, but very 
 fair work. Ilat-and-coat hooks, single and double, plain and 
 ornamental, bronzed and burnished, were also shown, these being 
 good work. 
 
 The more common examples of cabinet brass work consisted 
 chiefly of the same class of work as that of Austria, the quality 
 the same, not being very good work. The flush handles, sanded 
 and polished, were neither flat nor good square work, and of 
 very indifferent quality ; one of these consisted of a plate of 
 oblong shape, 3 in. by f in., the handle jointed at the edge. 
 
 In window fittings, consisting of brackets, dipped burnished 
 rods, and lath brackets of similar quality, neither novelty nor 
 variety w r as apparent. 
 
 A few examples of common mortice knobs, plain burnished, and 
 mounts for china knobs, very light work of clear casting, w^ero 
 exhibited, but very commonly finished in the burnishing and 
 lacquering. The whole were prepared by Wilkes’s spindle. Of 
 
 Russian W ork 
 
 There was no great display. Some of the brass work upon the 
 pianofortes w^as of better quality than either Austrian or French. 
 The castors of the pianos harmonise better with the shape of the 
 leg. The pedals of the pianos were of brass, were both plain and 
 ornamental ; some were dipped, others polished, curved ; others 
 straight ; the castings of both common and best work being good, 
 as also the finishing. 
 
 The door handles were the long plate kind with cranked arms, 
 both plain and polished ; substantial if not artistic work. 
 
 The hinges were of the plain kind, and of iron with the brass 
 cover, also all brass hollow joints with plates covering the screw- 
 holes, others without the plates. The “skew” or “rising” 
 butt hinges were the only specimens of this kind of hinge shown, 
 these not good ; the steel joints have no height in the rise, nor 
 
Ill 
 
 Cabinet and General Brass Foundery. 
 
 are they well fitted in other respects. The finish, though not of 
 first-class style, was very creditable ; but the polishing and 
 squaring of them might be improved. 
 
 The most prominent and meritorious piece of work exhibited 
 by Russia is a pair of ornamental gates in brass, 14 ft. high, 
 10 ft. wide, and 1 in. thick, flat surface, sanded finish, of 
 geometric design of rather indifferent quality, the chief line not 
 having a graceful easy flow, rendering it unpleasant in tracing 
 the lines in their course, although the system of repeats is 
 adopted. The gates were cast in parts, the centre in one piece, 
 the sides in another ; the whole has a strong, bold, and durable 
 look, by no means discreditable. Russia, in these gates, shows 
 an example of enterprise which English manufacturers would do 
 well to imitate. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 As regards the more elaborate examples of high-art workman- 
 ship from France and Austria, reported on, 1 am not aware of 
 any English manufacturer who produces such excellent examples 
 of workmanship in brass as they exhibit ; yet I cannot but think 
 it is not our inability to produce them so much as it is whether 
 it will pay, this being the test to which all enterprise has to stand 
 n cabinet and general brass foundery. 
 
 In my judgment we are excelled in artistic ability in the last- 
 named works of high art, as the gates, in espagnolette fasteners, 
 ornamental hinges, and in the colours of the bronzes. 
 
 ' The articles in which we arc equal to them are plain or 
 ornamental centre knobs, bell pulls and levers (of which I 
 saw no examples in the Austrian or French Courts), letter 
 plates, and door handles ; those we excel in being hinges, plain 
 polished rising skews, and other butt hinges, of which we have 
 a great variety. In cabinet brass foundery generally I think 
 the work produced in our best houses is of more excellent work- 
 manship.. The brass foundery o ''Birmingham has improved of late 
 years, and doubtless will more so. A more practical turn is given 
 to scientific and art instruction, by lending to schools of science 
 and art some of the best examples of ornamental work, as examples 
 for the students to copy or model from, whose studies should be 
 guided by masters having a much more practical acquaintance 
 with the principal trades of the town ; these schools will then 
 be in a position to turn out a class of students having a much 
 greater amount of useful information on the theory and prac- 
 tice of design and ornamental art, as applied to manufacture, 
 
112 Cabinet and General Brass Foundery. 
 
 than they have done. Better means should be provided for 
 imparting to the workman a thorough knowledge of his trade ; 
 and thus we shall he placed in a position we want to he in, so that, 
 when other nations are putting forth all their strength, to mea- 
 sure theirs with ours, we may attempt something much more worthy 
 of Birmingham than we do on the present occasion, although we 
 do not exhibit very much. Doubtless manufacturers can give 
 reasons for not having done so ; still the fact remains. The 
 best houses in other trades find it worth their while to exhibit, 
 and they have gained and sustained the reputation which they 
 so well deserve. If the best houses in brass foundery had been 
 as well represented as other trades, we should have cut a much 
 better figure than we do ; and I do not hesitate to say we could 
 have surpassed them in good plain square work and equalled 
 them in some of their ornamental. We may congratulate our- 
 selves, but we must look to our laurels to maintain and im- 
 prove our position. 
 
 It is a matter of great regret that opportunities could not be 
 gained to visit the manufactories during the time at our disposal ; 
 many useful hints are gained by this means which cannot be by 
 any other ; but so much time being necessarily taken to view the 
 vast amount of work in the Exhibition, we were unable to do so. 
 
Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 By EDWIN PARKER, 
 
 Practical Superintendent of Manufacture of Gas Fittings, Birmingham. 
 
 I N visiting an Exhibition in a foreign country, much of its 
 usefulness is lost for want of a knowledge of the language 
 spoken in that country. Even with the aid of an interpreter 
 you don’t get the exact information you seek ; either because the 
 interpreter does not understand the subject you wish to ask 
 about, or he puts it in such a way your meaning is not properly 
 conveyed; whichever way it is, you frequently fail to get the 
 information you require. With that difficulty to contend with, 
 and not having the aid of an official catalogue, the greater part 
 of my Report will be the result of observation in going through 
 the various courts. 
 
 Chandeliers and other appliances used for lighting purposes 
 occupy a conspicuous place in this great show of international 
 industry ; their size and usually attractive colours, in some 
 measure, force attention even from those not particularly 
 interested ; to those who are interested, especially in my own 
 case, the examination is, to a certain extent, only a partial 
 one. To examine them properly, you want a glimpse of the 
 internal work, to see if there is any economy of metal, better 
 methods of casting or of construction as that is impossible in 
 an Exhibition, an outward examination must suffice. 
 
 The countries standing foremost in this section are Austria, 
 Germany, France, and Great Britain. There are other countries 
 who make a slight show, which I shall notice in due course. 
 
 Austria, 
 
 As might be expected, figures principally in glass chandeliers, of 
 which there is a very attractive show. In all glass chandeliers I 
 purpose noting the general appearance and method of construction 
 only, the quality of metal (i.e. glass), <fcc., belong to the Reporter 
 on Glass. (See Report of T. C. Barnes). Of metal chandeliers 
 there is a limited number. If I am correctly informed, there 
 are very few brass chandeliers made in Austria ; what they do 
 make are chiefly in zinc or iron, which is rather surprising, 
 
 i 
 
 
114 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings . 
 
 seeing that Vienna is one of the most brilliantly lighted cities in 
 Europe ; and as far as I could see, most of the magnificent hotels 
 and restaurants were lighted with bright metal chandeliers. 
 Hollenbach, of Vienna, exhibits a great variety of work, large 
 and small, for candle and gas ; the number of lights varying 
 from 5-light gas to 120-light candle. Most of the larger 
 chandeliers are richly gilt, clearly burnished, and of excellent 
 design ; reeded tube is used in some of the gas work ; others are 
 quite plain lacquered; the colour is good, and all well finished 
 throughout. 
 
 Ditmer’s (of Vienna) show consists chiefly of candle and oil 
 lamps ; many of them are made with a centre light with a large 
 opal reflector, so much in use on the Continent. The bronzed 
 articles are relieved with taste ; the finish is generally good. 
 
 Ritter and Hauser (Vienna) exhibit chandeliers for gas, 
 attractive to look at, but they will not stand too close an inspec- 
 tion. Where tube is used in the arms, the outlines are not good; 
 the casting and dressing very indifferent ; bronzing fair. 
 
 Grullemeyer (Vienna) has some compact gaseliers, hall lamps, 
 and brackets, chaste in design ; some of them cast, others made 
 up with tube ; the casting and making up good ; the lacquering 
 rather pale. 
 
 Wagner (Vienna) shows some pillar lamps and pedestals in 
 iron, excellent in design and casting, the bronzing of a superior 
 order. 
 
 Linsledt (Vienna) has some iron brackets for gas, very good 
 in design, the casting equal to that of Berlin. 
 
 Iloemer and Dantine (Vienna) exhibit apparently the work of 
 various makers. Where tube arms are used, they are generally 
 of indifferent form. The vestibule lights, by Valentine Teirich, 
 arc an exception ; they are free in design ; the ornamentation is 
 in excess to what we generally use in similar lamps ; the 
 bronzing is nicely done. Some pedestals for lamps are also 
 shown by them, which are very creditable. 
 
 Messrs. Lobmeyer (Vienna) have a large collection of glass 
 chandeliers, principally candle ; a goodly number are mixed 
 metal and glass. The metal parts are mostly gilt, others are 
 steel bronzed. The smaller lamps are very artistically made up, 
 chaste in design, and of delicate forms, varied by dish lights 
 with enamelled rings, which have a beautiful appearance. The 
 larger chandeliers are not so effective ; they are distinct from the 
 mixed metal and glass, inasmuch as they are all glass, but are so 
 constructed as to require metal supports for the arms, the said 
 metal being visible through the glass. As some of the outlines 
 
115 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 arc of doubtful form, they have anything but the appearance of 
 crystal chandeliers, as they are sometimes called in this country. 
 This is particularly the case in the 66, 120, and 175-lights. The 
 ornaments suspended by chain festoons are very primitive in 
 
 form. 
 
 Zhan, of Vienna, shows some large chandeliers, similar in 
 construction to Messrs. Lobmeyer. 
 
 Elias Palme, of Steinschonau, Bohemia, shows a number of 
 mixed glass and brass, for gas and candle, which arc creditable, 
 also glass which are of a different type to the Vienna make of 
 lamps. The metal connections are kept out of view as much as 
 possible. Where a number of lights are required, they are made 
 up in clusters, as shown in a 48-light for gas. The pendent 
 ornaments are better in form, as also are those in the display of 
 Messrs. Frenzel and Walter, of the same place, who have a 
 similar show. The making up is the same in principle. Some 
 etched dishes and vases are introduced w r ith good effect. 
 
 Klingmiiller (Prague) exhibits general fittings for gas and 
 water : main cocks, bracket backs, ball joints, pendent bodies, 
 &c., and water taps on the Lambert principle, finished well, and 
 smooth (of English shape). 
 
 The Model Gas Works (Vienna) show fittings. The patterns 
 are wanting in proportion; the casting is likewise bad; the 
 turning is fairly done. A pedestal for gas, 5-light, is also 
 shown, of fair design, iron gilt, but very roughly cast. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Is represented chiefly from Berlin ; there are only two excep- 
 tions (Iserlohn and Mayence). They are by far the greatest 
 exhibitors in metal chandeliers, &c. — show more than any other 
 country. 
 
 Schaeffer and Walcker (Berlin) exhibited largely in chandeliers 
 made of brass and zinc, several with a number of lights. Promi- 
 nent is a 48-light for gas, opal candles and globes gilt, with 
 figures folding clusters of lights ; the design is good, so is the 
 finish. The smaller lamps are also creditable in design ; in some 
 of them ornamental tubes are used ; if the tubes are not of English 
 pattern it is a very close imitation ; in some other firms, where 
 tube is used for branches, their shapes are indifferent. In the 
 steel and other stain bronzes they are invariably burnished before 
 bronzing; as they are “rivelled” badly the effect is not so good 
 as the English bronzes of similar colour. The scroll work is 
 exceedingly light ; the work is cast and finished fairly. In 
 another part of the Exhibition they also show general fittings — 
 
 i 2 
 
lie 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 mains, pendant bodies, &c. — all of them of English models, the 
 larger work machine-filed outwardly ; they were nicely finished. 
 As they were nailed down, further examination was impossible. 
 
 Messrs. Spina and Son (Berlin) make a very imposing show of 
 all descriptions of gas work in brass and zinc, or iron, bronzed, 
 lacquered, and gilt. A 96-light with opal candles is a good example 
 of a chandelier with a number of lights, well arranged and excel- 
 lent in design. If I mistake not, a flat tube about 1 in. by f in. 
 ornamented on the thinner edge, is used in this chandelier, 
 which would greatly economise the metal, and at same time have 
 the same effect as a cast piece. A free use of figures is made in 
 many of their lamps, treated conventionally ; these are placed at 
 the ends of arms holding lights. A flat reeded tube in a 6-light 
 looks exceedingly well. All the work of this firm is creditably 
 finished. 
 
 Kramne, of Berlin, like the other makers of the same place, 
 cast their scroll work very light (the other parts may also be 
 light ; of course I can only speak of the parts visible) ; at the 
 same time, by judicious arrangement, they have not a flimsy 
 appearance. The colour is very fair, the turned work and filing 
 rather roughly done. 
 
 Schaeffer and Hausclmer (Berlin) occupy a considerable space 
 with a varied assortment of zinc or iron and brass chandeliers, 
 brackets, and pedestals. Two bracket chandeliers, 3 and 5-lights, 
 deserve a word of commendation — free in design, and neatly 
 finished (they have the appearance of iron). A large dish-shaped 
 chandelier, five or six feet in diameter, with brilliants to fill up 
 panels of the body, has graceful figures in the centre, either 
 zinc or iron gilt. A large iron bracket with a figure holding a 
 cluster of 9-lights; also a pedestal of iron for 12-lights, with griffins 
 between each pair of arms, all famous for design, and cast well. 
 In a 6 -light the designer has been very daring : he has placed 
 Mephistopheles at the end of an arm to hold the light. In brass 
 they are not quite so successful as in iron ; the bright lamps are 
 not a very good colour, and in some cases the cocks are not at 
 right angles with the glass holder, which spoils what otherwise 
 would be a fair design. A lantern, silver bronzed and relieved 
 with green, has a nice effect. 
 
 Elstor (Berlin) shows a large bronzed chandelier with large 
 griffins ; also fittings rather lightly made. 
 
 Fischer (Berlin) exhibits fittings prominently ; and large main 
 cocks on the Lambert principle. 
 
 The Neptune Works show fittings strong and well made; some 
 of the main cocks on the Lambert principle are as large as 2 in. 
 
117 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings . 
 
 From Mayence (name of firm not given). The production of 
 this firm will bear comparison with the articles sent from other 
 parts of Germany. A 40-light zinc gilt chandelier is very mas- 
 sive. In a 15 and 18-light the flat tube is made good use of. In 
 the same lamps there is a neat arrangement for increased number 
 of lights without using the ordinary cluster. The same idea is 
 worked out in several others. The bronzing in some of the zinc 
 lhmps is dull and heavy. There are some water-slide chandeliers, 
 which is a rarity among foreign exhibits except where the centre 
 light is used. Hall lamps neatly made are shown ; no new 
 feature is introduced. The whole of the work by this firm is 
 fairly made. The designs are commendable. 
 
 Schmidt (Iserlohn) sends some massive brackets for candles. 
 
 Weyde, Ramp, Kettling and Co. (Iserlohn) have several chan- 
 deliers, lightly made, with ornamental tube arms. 
 
 France. 
 
 On entering the French Section, I was very much struck to see 
 so many candle chandeliers (a trade which is nearly extinct with 
 us in England, since gas has been so much in use). It may be 
 that the French monopolise what there is done in that way 
 from their superior designs, some of which are undoubtedly 
 works of art. 
 
 Barbedienne (Paris) displays a compact selection of chande- 
 liers, candelabra, and other forms of lighting apparatus, mainly 
 for candle and oil. The chandeliers are massive, rich in orna- 
 ment and in colour ; I think they must be gilt. Many of their 
 articles are steel bronzed. A pair of chaste candelabra of that 
 colour, with bright parts in relief, have a very good effect (not 
 with ornaments which can be detached, they are fixed wrought 
 parts of the articles). All the exhibits of this house are highly 
 finished; a great deal of false cored work is used, and, judging 
 from appearance, they must be very heavy in metal. 
 
 Lemaire (Paris) shows a number of mixed glass and brass 
 chandeliers, very showy, and of good colour. 
 
 Chabrie and Jean (Paris), although not a large collection, 
 have some articles worthy of note. A 2-light pendant, which 
 may be intended for a billiard-room, from the wide spread of its 
 arms, is a good specimen of finished work, not overdone with 
 ornament, and yet sufficient to give the necessary strength ; 
 it is steel bronzed, burnished and relieved with bright ornaments. 
 A bracket similarly treated looks exceedingly well. A circular 
 lantern, about 18 in. in diameter, is also well made. 
 
 Ernest Royer, Jules Graux, Buffet and Co., all of Paris, 
 
118 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 exhibit chiefly ornamental candelabra, &c., for candles and oil, 
 in which the care and the skill which distinguishes French work 
 is observable. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Salviati and Co., Venice, exhibit famous coloured and flint 
 glass in a 200-light chandelier, and in other examples less in 
 size. The brass connections are kept almost entirely out of 
 sight ; some of the shapes of the arms are very elaborate, and 
 such as I have never seen used for glass work before. 
 
 Bassano, of Venice, has a similar collection, including a 50- 
 light glass chandelier. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Is represented by one firm from St. Petersburg, who show a 60- 
 light chandelier for candles, made with twisted tube arms. The 
 wrought work w*e usually chase is left plain. In another 24 -light 
 chandelier, vine pattern, the grapes are of coloured glass. Both 
 of these chandeliers are gilt. There are also two church chan- 
 deliers, saw'-pierced, lamp in the centre, plated. There is nothing 
 to call for special remark in these chandeliers ; they show that 
 Russia is not entirely dead in work of this kind. 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 It might almost be said, is represented by Birmingham. Out of 
 eight firms exhibiting, seven are from Birmingham ; the one 
 exception is Messrs. Green, of London, w r ho send glass chande- 
 liers, one of considerable size, about 60 lights. 
 
 Messrs. Winfield and Co. have the most numerous and most 
 complete display of any firm from England, showing chandeliers 
 from 3 to 8 lights, an elaborate altar light, brackets, hall lamps, 
 star lights, gas stands, &c. The reputation they have so long 
 enjoyed for excellence of work is well maintained in the present 
 Exhibition. In looking round, it will be seen that other firms 
 have made great progress in producing good work, and are 
 running the race of competition in pretty close quarters with 
 Messrs. Winfield and Co. 
 
 Best and Lloyd send chandeliers, brackets, hall lamps, gas 
 stands, and lantern. Their display is not a large one, but for 
 colour, and neatness of finish, would be a credit to any firm. In 
 a pair of gas stands, some enamel is introduced with good effect ; 
 it might have been extended to some larger articles with advan- 
 tage. There is very little enamel shown in this Exhibition 
 applied to chandelier work. 
 
119 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 C. J. Philip and Son do not appear to have made any special 
 effort to produce anything new, the chandeliers they show being 
 the same as exhibited in Paris, 1807. 
 
 Messrs. Blews and Son exhibit chandeliers only, chiefly 5-lights, 
 of various colours, some of considerable merit, and generally 
 a very decided improvement on their former effort in 1807 at 
 Paris. 
 
 Ratcliff and Tyler have a style peculiarly their own, as is 
 shown in their 3 and 5 light chandeliers. They are all steel 
 bronzed, and relieved ; some are of a very novel form. Two 
 mediaeval corona, each of 8 and 10 lights, are also shown, picked 
 out in various colours. 
 
 Messrs. Partridge and Co. exhibit 3 and 5-light chandeliers, 
 and brackets. Some of them are of fair design, but generally 
 wanting in colour and finish. 
 
 Schletter and Co. (not manufacturers) exhibit a massive 5-light 
 chandelier, brackets, and hall lamps, rich in colour and highly 
 finished. 
 
 In taking a general review of the whole of the chandeliers 
 and gas fittings exhibited, those shown by each nation has some 
 quality in which they excel. It is said that one of the uses there 
 is in holding International Exhibitions is to bring about a sort 
 of blending of these various qualities, and so produce a perfect 
 article; that, to some extent, is no doubt true, but not altogether 
 so. As the modes of living, habits, taste differ, so the articles 
 they use differ to suit those tastes. In chandeliers the prevailing 
 rule is to make them “ stiff” (that is not to pull down). In the 
 German and French chandeliers, where a slide is required, the 
 centre light is used, be it for gas or oil. The consequence is 
 the French and German chandeliers are better filled up in the 
 shaft or centre. There is more scope for the designer. In many 
 of the chandeliers the arms are started higher up than with us, 
 enabling them to get some very graceful outlines, which in 
 sliding lamps w^ould be impossible. Even if the balance weights 
 are of gbod design, still there is a monotonous appearance in 
 a cluster of weights hanging in the centre of a chandelier ; 
 most of our chandeliers have to do the double duty of slide and 
 stiff ; they are generally arranged to suit the former. In large 
 chandeliers no comparison can be drawn ; in brass chandeliers 
 by English makers the largest showrn are only for six, seven, 
 or eight lights. In colour, where the work is bright and de- 
 pendent on the quality of the metal used for that colour, 
 English articles stand first ; there is, evidently, much more 
 copper used in the composition of the brass than in foreign work. 
 
 
 
120 
 
 Chandeliers and Gas Fittings. 
 
 In bronzes the steel bronze of various shades are universally 
 used. English goods in that colour bronze will stand the test 
 of comparison with either French or German. Of other bronzes 
 not much is attempted by English makers. In the red bronzes 
 there scarcely seems light and shade sufficient to get a relief ; 
 some excellent examples are shown by Messrs. Blot and Drouard, 
 of Paris, in that colour. Messrs. IVinfield show some figures in 
 this bronze, very creditably done ; and Messrs. Blews have a 
 5-light chandelier relieved with green, which, if not up to the 
 French model, is an attempt to get out of the beaten path ; the 
 same firm have also some figures bronzed, which are fairly done- 
 I am ‘informed that paper gilt is much in use in Germany in 
 the decoration (instead of burnishing the tube parts of chan- 
 deliers), which, of course, would be cheap. If it is used in goods 
 in the Exhibition, it is very neatly put on ; from the height 
 at which the chandeliers were hung, I was not able to detect it. 
 
 In general finish the English chandeliers and gas fittings hold 
 their own. In many instances, particularly among German 
 goods, where the form of arms, &c., depend upon the workman, 
 as where tube is used for arms or other purposes, the shape has 
 been and is anything but good ; of course, in cast arms the 
 modeller or pattern maker settles the outline. Another notable 
 feature in foreign goods is the absence of the principle so often 
 enforced by our teachers in art, that, where any part of an 
 article is indispensable, as in a tap for gas fittings, it is better 
 to make it form a part of the design than to put it in an incon- 
 venient place, or place it in some position where it has no con- 
 nection with the design. 
 
 The general condition of the workpeople belongs, I under- 
 stand, to another lieport. In the metal trades, in Vienna, wages 
 average 30s. per week; hours of work from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m.; an 
 hour for dinner out of that.* 
 
 * In Vienna there arc 900 workers in bronze (involving equal skill, if not 
 more, than in the manufacture of gas fittings) ; of these, 200 earn per week 
 from 12s. to 14s. ; 500, 14s. to 18s. ; 100, only 18s. to 22s. ; and 100 at piece- 
 work, from 14s. to 20s. The hours worked are from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., one hour 
 for dinner. Lampmakers and plumbers get 10s. per week. Smiths and iron- 
 workers, simply because the supply is below the demand, are the best paid 
 workmen in Vienna (in the metal trade) ; good men get 24s .,best 30s. per week. 
 Of German silversmiths there are 300; 200 get 12s. to 14s., and 100, 14s. to 
 20s. per week ; hours worked 12, 1 hour for dinner ; extra work is paid for at 
 3d. to 5d. per hour. Saw grinders (a riskisli and dirty trade) get from 14s. to 
 16s. per week. As a rule, the hours worked are longer , the wages lower , than 
 in England. — Ed. A. R. 
 
Tin and Japanned Goods. 
 
 By HENRY BISHOP, Practical Foreman , Messrs. Griffiths and 
 B ra vittj B inn in gh am. 
 
 N submitting this Report of my visit to the Industrial Exhi- 
 
 bition at Vienna, it is not necessary to dwell upon the 
 inconveniences incidental to so long a journey; suffice it to say 
 we arrived there on the fifth day after leaving Birmingham, and 
 about two hours later found ourselves at the Exhibition. We 
 were there introduced to Philip Cunlifle Owen, Esq., the 
 British Commissioner, and by that gentleman to II is Excellency 
 Baron Schwarz Senborn,/who gave us a very cordial and hearty 
 welcome to the Austrian capital. 
 
 Before proceeding further, I wish to mention that it is pos- 
 sible there may be exhibitors of whom no mention will be made 
 in this Report, and whose contributions I failed to discover. 
 The enormous size of the building, and the non-classification of 
 articles, rendered it a very tedious and difficult task to find 
 them out. 
 
 In the British Section there was not so much trouble, as each 
 of your reporters were furnished with an official catalogue con- 
 taining all the information necessary. Not so, however, with 
 the other sections : no such catalogue could be obtained, and at 
 every fresh visit to the building we were obliged to commence 
 a fresh voyage of discovery. 
 
 However, the result of nine hours per day, which I spent in 
 the Exhibition during the time I was at Vienna, I shall give in 
 as brief and concise a form as I trust will do justice to the 
 mission on which it was your pleasure to send me. 
 
 The great progress which English manufacturers have made 
 during the last few years, and the development of new ideas 
 which have been brought to bear in the production of superior 
 articles, led me to expect that the manufacturers of other 
 countries were progressing in the same ratio. It was, therefore, 
 with no preconceived notion of our own superiority that I visited 
 this Exhibition, but with a determination to carefully examine, 
 give credit to whom it was due, and report impartially between 
 all parties concerned. This being an Austrian Exhibition, 
 
122 
 
 Tin and Japanned Goods. 
 
 courtesy demands that I should assign to that country the first 
 place in this Report. I, therefore, commence with Vienna. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Messrs. Hardt and Co. exhibit an excellent assortment of 
 stamped hollow ware, consisting of saucepans, stew-pans, &c., 
 the whole well tinned and finished. 
 
 Puntclient. — A collection of straight-sided coffee filterers, the 
 whole of unplanished tin, but neatly made. A small zinc hip 
 bath, of new and pretty design, made up bright, the arm, rests, 
 and moulding nicely burnished. 
 
 Fig. 43.— Zinc Hip Bath, by Puntchent. 
 
 J. Schier. — A large case, filled entirely with jelly and other 
 moulds. A very extensive and good assortment, many of them 
 being quite new in design, representing several kinds of 
 fish, &c. 
 
 — Welchman. — Here was an excellent and varied assortment 
 of ship and railway signalling lamps. The workmanship and 
 finish being of a very superior class. 
 
 J. Kiliner , Lamp and Lantern Manufacturer. — A large 
 display of signalling and other lamps; the whole were made and 
 equal in every respect to those shown by Weichman. 
 
 France. 
 
 Gay , Paris. — This was an exhibit exclusively of jelly and 
 other moulds, mostly stamped; the patterns good, and many new 
 designs ; one large one, the model of a castle, was peculiarly 
 attractive and beautifully made ; a very expensive article. 
 
123 
 
 Tin and Japanned Goods. 
 
 Letancj. — Some very good jelly and pudding moulds, both 
 stamped and hand-made ; also some paste cutters of novel 
 design, one representing a cavalry officer in full length, with 
 epaulets on the shoulders and braiding of the jacket ; an in- 
 fantry officer, in full dress, with sword, &c. ; a bicycle, with its 
 rider, the wheels and other parts well delineated. Here was 
 also a very large vase, the parts stamped and put together by 
 hand ; an excellent piece of workmanship, but not an article of 
 general utility. 
 
 Letang t Foublantier , showed among other articles a quantity 
 of moulds, the whole very common, and in no respect to be 
 compared with those previously described. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 J. G. Stelling , Amsterdam. — Copper ship lamps of the ordi- 
 nary kind — workmanship and finish not equal to English manu- 
 facture ; cash-boxes, dressing-cases, knife-trays, letter-racks, 
 and other articles made exclusively of the patent printed tin- 
 plates. These I consider to be a Cheap- John class of goods, and 
 could only have been sent to this Exhibition to show the pur- 
 poses to which the material could be applied. A redeeming 
 feature in this department was some wrought copper goods, 
 which were fine specimens of raising by hand, and reflected great 
 credit upon the workman. 
 
 E. Cohen , Berlin . — Oblong, oval, and Gothic trays. These 
 were well planished, neatly wired and finished. A small assort- 
 ment of other goods of a very common description, comprising 
 dust-pans, sugar-boxes, funnels, and measures, all in plain tin. 
 
 A. Frank , Munich . — Foot-pans, toilet-jugs, and pails, grained 
 oak with black hoops, cheap and very common in make. A 
 quantity of culinary utensils made in sheet iron, and tinned 
 thereafter ; also a few articles of stamped hollow ware. These 
 were very good, and the whole well tinned and finished. Some 
 coffee filterers, common tin, but neatly made. 
 
 J. Weinhardt , Munich. — Among a variety of other articles 
 was one good toilet set, chaste in design, and japanned in a very 
 elaborate style ; a very expensive set. 
 
 Carl and Co., Lubeck. — Some stamped saucepans, stew-pans, 
 ladles, <kc. ; also an assortment of hand-made bellied pots, the 
 sides riveted, and seam round the centre of body ; bad imita- 
 tions of the stamped articles, very much broken in wireing, and 
 such as in England would be considered and sold as imperfect 
 articles. 
 
 B. G. Weismuller and Co., Dusseldorf. — A general and good 
 
124 
 
 Tin and Japanned Goods . 
 
 assortment of hand-made hollow ware ; also some good stamped 
 articles ; the whole well-tinned and finished. 
 
 C. A. Schwotzer, Zwoenitz. — A very small display of piece- 
 made tin goods of ordinary description; common, but very neatly 
 made. 
 
 Philippi and Ceto, Btromburg. — The articles shown by this 
 firm, though not numerous, are deserving notice ; more parti- 
 cularly a set of pudding moulds, varying from 8 in. to 13 in. in 
 diameter, each of them stamped from a flat disc of iron finished 
 off' by hand, and afterwards tinned, the only seam in them being 
 that of the pipes, which were brazed in at the tops. I was 
 much struck with this lot of moulds, which, for workmanship and 
 finish, were equal in every respect to similar articles made in 
 sheet copper. Beside these there was a good “nest ” of stamped 
 saucepans from 5 in. to 13 in. in diameter, the largest being 
 6f in. deep. They were well stamped, and the tinning of all their 
 articles was exceedingly good. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Tremouroux Brothers , Brussels , have a general assortment 
 of stamped work, which is very good, both in regard to the 
 stamping and tinning ; also some enamelled cast-iron hollow 
 ware, which is very good. Some coffee-pots and filterers shown 
 by them are very common. 
 
 Deloye , Masson , and Co ., Belgium. — An excellent lot of 
 stamped work, tea-kettles, saucepans, bellied pots, jugs, &c., are 
 well got up and tinned. They have also some stamped iron soup 
 tureens, richly enamelled in white, green, and gold, elegant 
 in design and execution, and reflecting great credit upon their 
 establishment. 
 
 England. 
 
 Having gone through my list of foreign exhibitors, I have 
 now to deal with those from England. 
 
 Messrs. Perkins and Son, London, exhibit a small but good 
 selection of shower, slipper, hip, and travelling baths, toilet 
 sets, coal vases, cash-boxes, sets of tea-trays, &c. One round 
 waiter, about 48 in. in diameter, which had evidently been got 
 up for this Exhibition, was beautifully inlaid with pearl, and 
 further ornamented with a good flower centre ; a set of raised 
 dish covers, and other tin goods of the ordinary description, the 
 whole of excellent quality and workmanship. This firm also 
 showed some stamped ware, the largest being a basin 24 in. in 
 diameter. These articles were certainly inferior in regard to 
 
125 
 
 Tin and Japanned Goods. 
 
 finish to many of those of the same description exhibited by Con- 
 tinental manufacturers. 
 
 Messrs. Codings and Wallis , Merchants and Factors , Bir- 
 mingham (manufacturers’ names not given). — In their depart- 
 ment was an excellent assortment of tin goods, and in my 
 opinion the best in the Exhibition. The japanned ware, which 
 comprised toilet sets, coal vases, tea-trays, waiters, (fee., were all 
 well executed. The waiters particularly were elaborately but 
 consistently ornamented with gold and pearl, the style and de- 
 coration altogether being chaste and elegant. This firm had also 
 a great variety of general and furnishing ironmongery goods, 
 which deserve, and, I have no doubt, will be dealt with by the 
 reporter for that ^speciality. 
 
 Messrs. Schletter and Co., Merchants, Birmingham (manu- 
 facturers’ names not given), in addition to a great variety of 
 other articles, had a good assortment of tin and japanned goods, 
 similar to those shown by other English firms, the whole exceed- 
 ingly well got up, and the japanned work richly ornamented. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I have now, so far as I know, gone through the list of exhibi- 
 tors of tin and japanned goods, and, in addition to the articles 
 already described, the copper works shown by several foreign 
 manufacturers deserve special notice. Besides those intended 
 for domestic purposes, I observe some wrought domes about 6 ft. 
 in diameter and % in. thick. I consider them extraordinary 
 specimens of copper raising, and it appears to me that greater 
 progress has been made in this than any other of the branches 
 on which I have reported. 
 
 Before closing the descriptive part of my Report, I may mention 
 that for what purpose some of the articles were sent to this 
 Exhibition I am at a loss to imagine. They appear to be a 
 miscellaneous lot, taken indiscriminately from ironmongers’ or 
 manufacturers’ stocks, simply for the purpose of advertising or 
 giving publicity to the various articles of their trade. For in- 
 stance, among other things, was a small glass lantern, which 
 had evidently been made a considerable time. The painting, 
 originally very gaudy, had become faded, and the article itself 
 was in a dilapidated condition ; perhaps the reason of its being 
 exhibited was to show the contrast between it and awe 11-madc 
 article. 
 
 From the description I have given of the articles enumerated 
 in this Report, it will be seen that our Continental competitors 
 confine themselves, in a great measure, to the manufacture of the 
 
126 
 
 Tin and Japanned Goods. 
 
 same class of goods, viz., stamped hollow ware, jelly and pud- 
 ding moulds, common tin and cheap japanned ware, and that they 
 make no pretensions whatever to the production of articles of a 
 superior sort. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to state, that originally 
 all articles of tin plate were made up of pieces soldered or 
 seamed together : those unsightly seams were a great disfigure- 
 ment to a good or expensive article. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Foxall Griffiths, late senior partner in the firm of 
 Griffiths and Browett, by means of stamping and burnishing, 
 was enabled to produce articles which are far better and more 
 durable than was possible under the old system. By the 
 “Griffiths” process, beauty of line and surface are secured, 
 and such articles as hot water, meat, salmon, and vegetable 
 dishes, soup, and sauce tureens, &c., arc made quite as elegant in 
 design, as the most costly of a similar description made in 
 silver or electro-plate ; but such as these, foreign manufacturers 
 of tin wares do not attempt to make. In fact, their object 
 appears to be to make for the million, and only such things as 
 are in every day-demand. In the show rooms of a Birmingham 
 manufacturer may be seen at a glance a far better, more ex- 
 tensive, and varied display of really good tin and japanned 
 ware, than could be found in the whole of this Exhibition, and I 
 am thoroughly convinced the English have nothing whatever to 
 fear from foreign competitors, in regard to those articles 
 for which Birmingham and the district stand pre-eminent. 
 
 But in justice to those who made even the commonest thing of 
 which I have spoken, I must admit that they are all characterised 
 by that degree of neatness which may be imitated with advan- 
 tage by many an English workman. The ship and railway 
 signalling lamps, to which I have referred, demonstrate the fact, 
 that both the Austrian and German makers are able and do turn 
 out such an article as cannot be surpassed by any English 
 manufacturer. Of any peculiar method they may have in the 
 production of their work, I am unable to speak, as, even if there 
 had been time, no facilities were afforded for visiting any of the 
 workshops or manufactories. On the question of wages I am not 
 able to say much. I find a custom prevails in Austria to a great 
 extent for the journeyman, if single, to live and board with 
 his employer. But the wages paid to those who live out, and 
 board themselves, are lower than what is paid in England, which 
 is counter-balanced by the very moderate sum charged for their 
 maintenance. 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 By THOMAS C. BARNES, Glass Worker and Artist , Birmingham . 
 
 X N presenting my Report on the glass trade, as illustrated in 
 the Exhibition at Vienna, I will address myself first to the 
 glass to be found in the 
 
 Italian Department. 
 
 One of the most striking and wonderful parts of the Exhi- 
 bition is that of the revival of the ancient art of glass-making 
 by Dr. Salviati and Co., of Venice. The beauty of their colours, 
 and lightness of their “ metals,” is peculiarly worthy of great 
 praise. We take, for example, one of their wine glasses. The 
 bowl is supported by a group of the most beautiful flowers and 
 leaves it is possible to conceive. The design is founded upon the 
 form of the delicate snowdrop ; the weight of the glass is not 
 more than an ounce and a half. A goblet with flat twisted 
 stem, like a corkscrew, the edge of the twisted ribbon of glass 
 adorned with the most delicate “pincing”* it is possible to 
 “run;” the stem is attached to a ribbed knob, placed on the 
 back of a beautiful white swan, the grace of the bend of the 
 neck of which was one of the most artistic features ; the foot 
 of the goblet was threaded with aventurine, and the top of the 
 bowl also, and yet the goblet only weighed 3} oz. ; the body 
 of the swan was blown in the ordinary way, a piece of metal 
 then “gathered” and sunk in the body, which was pulled up, 
 curved, and shaped to form the neck. A small flower vase, 
 light blue, and ribbed in a mould threaded at the top and 
 bottom with “aventurine,” t with four small knobs in the neck, 
 and globe body with light foot ; on each side were attached four 
 small handles to each knob ; there are also small “pincings” 
 
 * “ Pincing ” is produced with a pair of plier-like tools, the cheeks of 
 which have cut in them the device required. The heated glass is subjected to 
 their pressure ; the result is a reproduction of the ornament design sunk in 
 grip or mouth of the pliers. 
 
 t Aventurine, or “ aventarino,” as it is sometimes called, is a variety of glass 
 made only in Venice ; it is in colour that of a rich amber ; in it are suspended 
 particles of apparently gold, (familiar illustration) a glass of good sherry, with 
 particles of leaf gold floating in it. — E d. B.A.R . 
 
128 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 running down the four handles. It is one of the most beautiful 
 pieces of glass work I ever saw, so neatly, skilfully, and 
 beautifully blown ; not only is the blowing exquisite, but its 
 artistic merit is in harmony. The handles are of flint glass, 
 also pinced. The conception of this vase is masterly and artistic, 
 a great credit to the workman for the ingenuity displayed. So 
 delicate are the small parts, that many workmen in the trade 
 would think that they were not, or would have been produced in the 
 glass-house. There is a large flower basket made of glass, about 
 
 Fig. 44.— Group of Glass by Dr. Salviati and Co., of Venice. 
 
 14 inches in diameter, filled with a beautiful assortment of 
 flowers and grass, all made in glass, placed in the basket just 
 as if they were fresh gathered. There are flowers of every 
 kind, with different colours and shades, of colours so beautifully 
 put together, that my fellow workmen would think it impos- 
 sible that they w'ere artificially made. There is also a flower 
 vase stand composed of three different receptacles to hold the 
 flowers: one of the latter is delicate opal, the other ruby, and 
 another light blue, threaded with “ aventurine ” on the lips; 
 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 129 
 
 the three flower holders are attached together as a trefoil by 
 means of small pieces of flint glass. To cover the connection 
 of the flower holders to the stalk, there arc beautiful butterflies, 
 with their wings stretched out, apparently holding the three 
 flower holders. So artistically are the wings made to touch the 
 vase, the body of each butterfly so curved to give life and force, 
 they seem as if they were going to fly away from the place they 
 rested on. The wings of the] butterflies are variegated with the 
 most beautiful colours it is possible for even nature to give. 
 This stand is placed in a dish of light-coloured glass. This 
 is only one of the many great conceptions which prove the 
 ability of Salviati and Co. to produce the most perfect specimens 
 of the glassmaker’s art. There is scarcely anything in nature 
 but what they can produce, as flowers, flies, ducks, dolphins, 
 snakes, and other animals, too numerous to mention, created 
 and introduced on the works made by these celebrated Venetian 
 glass-makers. 
 
 There is also another of the most wonderful triumphs of art 
 in glass-blowing that man can conceive (a tazza), which I wish 
 to describe. The bowl of it is composed of the beautiful gold- 
 coloured glass, called aventurine, and of threads of white and 
 light-blue glass, plaited together as truly as if they were woven ^ 
 The bowl rests on three scrolls made in flint glass, the edges 
 threaded with ruby. Resting on these scrolls are dolphins, with 
 the tail of each supporting the bowl. The dolphins are not 
 - “moulded,” as we should make them in this country; they are 
 blown by the glass-maker, the fins and the eyes put on while in 
 the course of making ; they are beautiful and light, and their 
 colour delightful. There is not a gem got from the bowels of 
 the earth, but what the Venetians have copied the exact colour. 
 There are colours produced in Venice we, in England, have 
 never seen in glass. 
 
 The jugs of Salviati and Co. are very beautiful in shape, some- 
 of them most difficult to make. The handles of these are made 
 before the body ; they are made like a scroll, and then attached: 
 by two small pieces of flint glass while the body of the jug is 
 being made. The Venetians were the first to introduce the star- 
 sectioned form of handle into Europe. There was a jug 12 
 inches in height; its body was made and moulded in an 18-in. 
 ribbed mould, and thereafter ornamented with leaves, flowers, 
 and fruit. The flowers and leaves are attached by means of 
 small pieces of flint glass. These flowers, <fcc., are artisti- 
 cally arranged round the body ; and are tipt with the beautiful 
 colours and tints only seen in Venetian glass. The colour 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 and twistings of the leaves are grand masterpieces of skill and 
 ingenuity. 
 
 There is a great error entertained in this country by glass- 
 blowers, viz., that the Venetians make a great deal by means of 
 the “lamp.” It is not so. The attachment of the several 
 pieces which make up Venetian work is all done in the glass- 
 house. They have pincers to “pince ” the most delicate flowers 
 and leaves, and as they are continually in the practice of “pinc- 
 ing,” their tools are made more carefully and smaller than ours ; 
 they also use them more freely and skilfully, and accomplish 
 thereby works which excite our wonder. I had the pleasure of 
 being introduced to Dr. Salviati by Mr. Aitken and Professor 
 Archer. He told me that two of the best workmen, and the 
 families they were descended from, had been connected with the 
 glass trade of Venice for more than 300 years. 
 
 At Murano there is a special museum for glass, which contains 
 examples of Venetian make, some of which are very old. If a 
 workman has any difficulty, he at once goes to the museum ; so 
 they have all in their favour.* 
 
 1 now come to the chandeliers of Salviati and Co. They are 
 somewhat remarkable, and at once attract the attention of the 
 visitor. They are so . graceful you can look at them a long time 
 without the eye being disturbed by one feature which offends. 
 They are made remarkably light, chiefly of flint glass tipped 
 different colours. The shafts and arms of the chandeliers are 
 twisted ; to their bodies pinced leaves and flowers are attached 
 of various colours. 
 
 To form the round or oval frames for the looking-glasses, 
 for which Venice was celebrated, fern leaves and flowers, as 
 decorations, are freely used. A remarkable feature in the 
 production of Venetian glass was that it was ornamented with 
 its own material, the glass-blowers doing all the work, the 
 glass-cutter and the engraver being entirely left out. Before 
 closing this notice of examples of the “revived” glass of 
 Venice, 1 have to thank Dr. Salviati for his kindness in allow- 
 ing me the privilege, not only of taking notes, but letting 
 me handle everything I liked to examine, and trying the weight, 
 which was necessary for its more complete inspection. For 
 
 * The doing the “ work for the work’s sake ” principle which animates the 
 writer of this Report, shows he would take advantage of such a museum as that 
 at Murano. It is much to bo desired that artisans did visit museums more 
 generally than they do (where such aro founded for them). South Kensington 
 Museum is an admirable example of what a museum to aid industry should be. 
 Of it aud its effects, and those of museums generally, see Report published by 
 the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce. — Ed. B.A.R. 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 131 
 
 delicacy, grace, and refined beauty, the works of this house are 
 worthy of Venice in its palmiest days. 
 
 J. Bassano, Venice . — There are but few samples of blown work 
 in this display ; it is more remarkable for beads of the most 
 splendid description, some of which are enriched with glass filigree 
 of every pattern you can mention, incrustcd in the middle of light 
 green glass, Ac., &e. A great many flowers in glass are put 
 and worked on the outer surface, of different colours on black, 
 and dark amber ; also fine examples of imitation closely re- 
 sembling real pearls : these are produced by being blown at 
 the’damp singly, the scales of the roach or dace are ground up 
 in varnish and injected into the inside of the beads, which pro- 
 duces the pearl-like appearance. The scales used must be 
 stripped off the fish while living, or the glistening hue admired 
 so much in the natural pearl cannot be secured. 
 
 The Glass of Roumania. 
 
 B. C. Poppovits . — The glass of Roumania is very quaint in 
 shape and colour, but its clear or white glass is quite green. 
 There are some examples worthy of notice, the handles especially. 
 These are hollowed out so as to allow of a firm grasp, and are 
 so strong in appearance as to impress the idea that they will 
 
 Fig. 45. Group of Roumanian Glass, by Poppovits. 
 
 support the weight of wine or water the vessel is required to 
 contain. There is one thing against pouring the water or 
 wine out of these vessels exhibited. In the claret jug shown, its 
 lip is made flat at the top, which is greatly against pouring. 
 
 k 2 
 
132 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 One vase exhibited is a beautiful shape in the Roman style ; the 
 handles attached to it are different to any I have ever seen 
 made, and are very unique ; they are attached so as to form a. 
 double handle, that the fingers can be easily inserted. The 
 decanters and tumblers shown are very ordinary, also the other 
 examples of small glass work. There seems no evidence of a desire 
 to finish the work off clean. Whether the geographical position 
 of Roumania (as some think) has to do with it, I cannot say, 
 but their work seems to indicate indolence ; there seems to 
 be no spirit to carry out their work, no evidence of aspiration ; 
 the finish is such, that no country but their own would buy 
 their glass wares. 
 
 Chinese Division. 
 
 In it there was a very tasteful service of flint glass, blown, 
 cut, and of a good colour. A glass tea-pot and sugar basin 
 were also w T ell blown ; the cutting is not so sharp as it might 
 have been, and of a different style of ornament to what we 
 generally see. These examples were made with great skill ; 
 that they were appreciated is evident, as they were purchased 
 by L. Lobmeyer, of Vienna, one of the largest manufacturers in 
 Austria. There were boxes of ruby and flint, cut with expert 
 skill into small diamonds and other geometrical forms of cutting ; 
 and scent bottles, variegated with many colours, blue, black, 
 white, red, green, aventurine, and yellow, of the most beautiful 
 opaque glass. Some large specimens of glass rings had the 
 appearance of the material not having been properly fluxed. 
 The use of these appeared to me to be as bell-pulls ; they were 
 threaded like Venetian work with various colours ; although 
 they appeared rough, they had certain charms of colour which 
 strike the visitor. There is no doubt the Chinese workman, by 
 whom these rings were made, had a knowledge of the Venetian 
 w r ork. They have an ingenious method of joining these rings so 
 that you could scarcely detect w r here the joint was. The glass 
 buttons exhibited are delightful ; their different patterns and 
 beautiful colours are deserving of great praise. There is nothing 
 in the Exhibition, as regards glass buttons, so good in colour, or 
 so beautifully made. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 It is surprising to sec Portugal so backward in the glass 
 trade, being so close to countries where so many glass manufac- 
 tories exist ; the lamp shades are its best work. Their decanters, 
 jugs, clarets, wines, and tumblers, are inferior in colour and 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 133 
 
 make ; they are the worst patterns of handles I saw, so far as 
 the examination of the glass ware in the Exhibition is concerned; 
 the Portuguese articles put me in mind of work done in England 
 200 years ago, I do not think English work at the period 
 named would even reach the low standard of the Portuguese 
 examples. The progress Portugal has made has been greatest in 
 lamp shades. Their table-glass is not so good as some of it 
 examined by me in the Paris Exhibition ; the designs of the “com- 
 potiers ” were heavy ; the metal has no lustre in it. Industrial 
 enterprise does not appear to be very strong in Portugal. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 In this division the glass is very inferior ; the wine-glasses, 
 decanters, and other things are below the standard of those 
 exhibited by any country in the Exhibition. It is a curious fact 
 that the manufacture of glass was a few years since unknown in 
 Greece. It is only a few years since a glass-house was esta- 
 blished by a gentleman in order to revive the manufacture known 
 to the ancient Greeks, and worked by them skilfully and suc- 
 cessfully. 
 
 The colour of the flint glass shown is low, with no lustre in it ; 
 the ruby is too pale, and has no depth of colour. The material 
 for the making of glass is scarce in Greece ; there are disadvan- 
 tages arising from want of capital, and an industrial population 
 has yet to be created. The effort to revive an industry in a 
 nation again attempting to elevate itself has induced me to 
 examine and direct attention to the few examples exhibited. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 The improvement in the Russian Department is great since 
 the Paris Exhibition of 18G7. The advance made is deserving 
 of great credit. There are good examples of light work well 
 "blown, the forms artistic, the glass clear and of good colour. A 
 service of pale green, ornamented with fine gold work in the 
 Russian, style of ornament, has a beautiful effect (not overdone, 
 like some of the German work), and is well made, considering the 
 Russians are so young in the trade. The services of flint glass 
 wine-glasses, decanters, jugs, clarets, tumblers, and custard- 
 cups with handles, are very light and of good colour. The wines 
 are not “sheared” by the workman, but cut off at the top, 
 which takes away from the artistic skill of the maker. The 
 Russians follow out the mode of work of the Germans, and blow 
 their work in wooden moulds, a method which is calculated to 
 destroy the art of “ hand work.” The best piece of blown work 
 
134 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 shown was a flower vase with two twisted handles and a twisted 
 stem, which was well made : a large cut vase, three feet in 
 height, on a pedestal, but blown in pieces, in wood moulds, and 
 fitted together. This is the only piece of glass of any thick- 
 ness that you could judge by. In Russian there is not the 
 beautiful colour of English glass; the cutting is also inferior. 
 Fruit dishes of dark green glass, and enamelled with a design in 
 white and gold, were overcrowded with ornament. In many 
 examples the overcrowded decoration is done to hide the bad 
 making or the marks from the moulds used. Their fruit dishes 
 are beautiful examples of colour. So far as I could learn, the 
 specimens exhibited are made by the French and German work- 
 men, who have migrated to Russia through being encouraged by 
 the Emperor, to give his nation the advantages of the instruction 
 to be derived from skilled workmen from other countries. The 
 flint trade in table glass has not been known in Russia more 
 than twenty or thirty years, and has been taken up by the pre- 
 sent Emperor with great spirit. The external forms of Russian 
 glass articles are generally good and worthy of commendation. 
 
 Austrian Department. 
 
 J. and L. Lobmeyer . — This is the most extensive display of 
 glass in the Exhibition. They exhibit glass goods of every descrip- 
 tion. The most striking and peculiar are two large vases with 
 handles on each side decorated with cutting ; the body of the vase 
 close to the shoulder is cut, and concaved, to admit the fixing of 
 the handles quite close; the body of the vase is drilled for the 
 reception of metal screws introduced to hold the handles on fast. 
 The colour of the glass of these examples is not first-rate, but 
 passable. A light service of blown glass, the wines of which arc 
 sheared and well made, is especially worthy of notice. The 
 design of it is beautiful and well carried out, the engraving 
 well adapted to the form ; this is the finest service seen by me 
 in the Austrian Department. The wines of Lobmeyer were well 
 sheared (not like the majority of the German class), the stems of 
 these well “forged,” and the foot opened clear out. The 
 jugs, decanters, and dessert dishes, many of them blown in 
 wooden moulds, and with the fine engraving introduced on 
 them, deserve commendation. Their jugs are well made and 
 ornamented by engraving chiefly in the Greek style, figures being 
 very frequently introduced. The same firm has a “service” 
 blown in wooden moulds very light, mediaeval in shape, and well 
 decorated, remarkably clear, almost equal to blowing by hand 
 workmanship. A beautiful dish, blown hr hand and very light. 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 135 
 
 * “ Metal ” is the term used for glass by artisans, 'manufacturers, and others 
 in the glass trade. 
 
 Fig. 46. Group of Glass by J. and L. Lobmeyer, Vienna. 
 
 14 in. in diameter, shows skill in making and engraving. Its 
 decoration is a beautiful specimen of workmanship in the Renais- 
 sance style. It has been purchased for the Vienna Museum. In 
 several large oval dishes the artist expressed his meaning by the 
 most conventional treatment. A great many vases were ex- 
 hibited by this firm, decorated with pastes or sham stones 
 being attached to them by means of cement. The cased or 
 coated glass in this department is worthy of comparison with 
 any made in Europe ; the colours are excellent and equal all 
 over, but they cover their work (in decorating) with too much 
 gold, which is inconsistent with true art, suggests vulgarity, and 
 destroys the effect of otherwise excellent work. The chandeliers 
 exhibited by this Austrian firm are very extravagant; there is not 
 much beauty shown in their construction ; some of the pieces con- 
 necting the chandeliers are made very inferior. The colour of their 
 glass is not yet that of pure crystal, but a great improvement 
 has been made by them in their “ metal ”* since the Paris Exhi- 
 bition. They are approaching us very fast; there is no use at- 
 tempting to deny the fact, as it stands there to speak for itself, 
 and is visibly written on this splendid collection of glass produced 
 by Messrs. Lobmeyer. 
 
136 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 Henry HU rich, Vienna, shows some good examples of dessert 
 services, and a great quantity of coloured glass, green, enamelled, 
 and gilt, the general surface being entirely covered with enamel 
 colours. The vases are generally good, presenting much variety 
 of form. 
 
 J. E. Schmid, Vienna, occupies a prominent position in the 
 German Department, exhibiting a great quantity and variety of 
 articles for every-day use. His flower vases of twisted flint glass 
 arc a great success, well designed, and coming close to our 
 “flower” work. He has studied more closely the mode of 
 English work than that of any other country ; his work has, 
 therefore, a closer resemblance to that produced in our star 
 moulds in England than that of any other manufacturer in 
 Austria. An inkstand and flower vase united in one object, 
 executed in pure flint glass : the ornamentation, in the twisted 
 style, is as delicately worked, and the colour of the glass as beau- 
 tiful, as any seen by me. The wines and water jugs of this 
 exhibitor arc well made, and of a good colour also. 
 
 Joseph Conrath and Co., Leipzig. — The examples on this 
 stall are of the most beautiful colour, and well made. They are 
 elegant in form and decoration. The light green service is not 
 overcrowded with gold, like much of the glass work of Germany. 
 Light wine-glasses, goblets, tumblers, jugs, and clarets, are 
 blown clear and light ; but their wines are “ cut off” at the top, 
 not “ sheared,” which leaves them in an apparently unfinished 
 state ; however well they may be cut off, they are unpleasant to 
 drink from. 
 
 Mayer, Heitte, and Haida, Bohemia, exhibit a large table 
 made in glass, about 24 inches in diameter, and about 4 feet high, 
 standing on three legs, made in pieces ; the top is cut on the 
 under surface so that the upper surface maybe smooth. There is 
 some good workmanship shown on it, but the colour of the flint 
 metal, of which it is made, is low, with a tinge of green running 
 through it. 
 
 Hofman, Prague, has examples of glass cutting and engrav- 
 ing which are splendid ; the cutting is admirable, as showing the 
 prismatic colours ; there has been great attention paid to this 
 essential part. The making of the cut articles is generally good; 
 the colour of the glass equal to any shown by any of the Austrian 
 exhibitors. 
 
 E. Emanuel, Pelikan, Ha idee, Bohemia, furnishes for exhibition 
 some beautiful examples of brilliant coloured glass with novelty 
 in form and good ornamentation. The most remarkable features 
 arc seen in the production of their flower vases, 'which will bear 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 137 
 
 comparison with many of our English. The different parts of 
 the vases, when they are made separate, are neatly put together ; 
 the rings arc well made, and attached securely to the body of 
 the vase. The hanging baskets exhibited in this collection are 
 delightful in shape ; the designs are generally good. 
 
 J. Schneiber, Bohemia , has some good examples of flint, 
 ruby, and blue large vases, and a good deal of useful general 
 "Work ; the colour of the flint is passable ; the ruby is good ; 
 the coloured vases are well blown, but in moulds. This process 
 of blowing glass in wood moulds has been tried in England, 
 but, owing to the destruction of the moulds by the heat of the 
 glass, they speedily become unserviceable, and the process has 
 been abandoned. Vases or other articles blown in wood moulds 
 are not so clear as hand-blown. This firm exhibits a great 
 many articles, which for form and taste are worthy of great 
 praise; but the large pastes “stuck on” destroy the beauty of 
 the contour produced by the blowers, being opposed to the 
 principles of vigorous and good design. 
 
 T. Stergerwalds , Bohemia , has beautiful examples of flint and 
 coated work. A large vase flashed with blue on flint, the blue cut 
 through by the engraver ; the subject engraved is the vine, with 
 its fruit, leaves, and tendrils. The vase is well made and en- 
 graved, and has a grand effect. Two goblets in the Venetian 
 style, with filigree introduced, are deserving of great praise ; 
 the colour of the flint “metal ” is good. 
 
 Meyrs Neffe, Adolf, exhibits a light service of engraved glass, 
 well made ; the engraving introduced on it artistic, beautiful, 
 and in the Byzantine style ; the “ metal ” is good. This manu- 
 facturer has a great variety of colours, well blended. The 
 “stained ” glass is here conspicuous and excellent in colour ; the 
 “ruby ” stain good. Nobody but a judge would know' but what 
 the glass was coated by “flashing.”* It matters not how' common 
 the flint glass is from which the articles are made. It is singular 
 in England we do not make glass which stains so readily as that 
 of the Germans. There are some colours we cannot get by 
 staining, and those we do get are not so successful as those pro- 
 duced by the Germans. Their “metal” is better fitted to take in 
 the stain or oxide of metal used to produce the splendid colours. 
 We in England cannot come up to it; but in metal, where lead 
 
 * “Flashing” means, when the colour in its full depth would be too opaque 
 or dense, a thin cup or case of coloured glass is placed over a base of flint 
 glass in the course of the manufacture of the article. During the operation 
 the coloured glass case is spread by the workman all over the flint base. 
 
138 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 is used in its composition, tlie stain does not insinuate itself so 
 easily ; this is the reason why we in England cannot stain so 
 successfully the beautiful amber and other colours the Germans 
 produce. 
 
 Monitz Wentzel , Breslau , Glass Manufacturer to the King 
 of Prussia. — His examples are light services, blown chiefly in 
 wood moulds ; ‘‘wines” cut off at the “lips.” There are some 
 specimens of “sheared” work among the examples shown on 
 this stall, but not well made. Engraving, v T here introduced, is 
 beautiful and tasty, not over crowded ; style of ornament intro- 
 duced, Greek, “fret,” or “labyrinth,” beautifully executed, 
 which has a charming appearance. He also exhibits some designs 
 in cups, salvers, &c., of great beauty. His dessert dishes are very 
 light, though blown in wood moulds. 
 
 Harrach Gaff \ Neuivell, Bohemia , shows two large vases in 
 white and flint ; the white is ‘ ‘ dipt ’ ’ in water, thereafter 
 coated with flint, which gives them the appearance of marble ; 
 they are afterwards jewelled (the jewels, or paste, being attached 
 by cement) with ruby or green. Portraits of the Emperor and 
 Empress of Austria are painted in enamel on the fronts of these 
 vases (they are each five feet high) ; the handles are formed 
 of easy and artistically worked scrolls ; they are not made with 
 the vase, but are riveted to the body and neck. These vases stand 
 on pedestals of glass. There is also a twisted tankard, which 
 has been blown in a mould, with the representation of a goat in- 
 troduced on it, and then enamelled with black and white to re- 
 present the hair. 
 
 Some estimate may be formed of the extent and importance of 
 this establishment from the large quantities of work exhibited, as 
 vases, tazzas, compotiers, liquor services, toilet bottles, claret 
 jugs, all executed in flash colours, as white, ruby, flint, and all 
 richly cut or decorated with gold ; they are splendid illustrations 
 of Bohemian’ glass manufacture. This manufacturer exports a 
 great quantity of green glass of every description into England. 
 Much of the flint glass work is over crowded with engraving, 
 representing figures not very graceful. He has made great 
 progress, especially in the “shearing” the tips of “wines,” 
 tumblers, and other articles. 
 
 Franz Patline , Konig , and Co. — On this stall are selections 
 of cut glass toilet bottles, decanters, and scent bottles. The 
 scent bottles are cut in raised diamond patterns, well cut and 
 polished. The decanters are remarkable for the peculiarity 
 of their design. There are many angular cut decorations, which 
 gives the fullest amount of prismatic beauty of which glass is 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 139 
 
 susceptible. This firm produces and exhibits the best flint glass 
 in the Austrian Department. 
 
 Andreas , Luglus , and Son , Bohemia , exhibit a large mirror 
 glass (cast plate), 12 ft. by 6 ft., 1 J of an inch in thickness, which 
 is a splendid specimen of mirror glass; also coated blue and ruby 
 glass in sheet. This house is one of the most extensive in 
 Bohemia ; their mirrors are very clear and free from spots, and 
 are well silvered. The sheets of plate glass they exhibit must 
 have been produced at a great expense ; there were no flaws 
 visible, as there generally are in such large plates as those ex- 
 hibited by this establishment. 
 
 Edward Vopelius , Subzbeach, has an extensive display of 
 shades, milk pans, and good coloured bottles for wine ; his round 
 shades are very large, the oval shaped not so large. They are 
 not so clear or, so beautiful as I have seen in England. The 
 milk pans are well made, nicely designed, and are the best 
 examined by me in the Exhibition. 
 
 Wisthoff and Co.^Kunigsbnll. — This firm shows samples of 
 shades, champagne and other bottles of a light cold green, but 
 of a good colour. Their shades are not equal to those of English 
 manufacture ; but their bottles are more graceful in shape, and 
 there is more finish about them. 
 
 French Department. 
 
 The glass exhibited consists only of samples of sheet glass blown 
 in cylinders, 10 ft. long and about 12 in. in diameter. Professor 
 Archer directed my attention to these cylinders, and led me to 
 understand they were produced by mechanical means used in 
 blowing them ; they are beautifully cylindrical, and are of the 
 same thickness throughout. The shades the French exhibited 
 are well blown, clear, and large ; the milk pans shown are well 
 made, some of them made so that you can get a firm hold, by the 
 maker attaching a piece of glass on each side under the welt. 
 
 American Glass. 
 
 In this department there are some splendid specimens of show 
 glasses for exhibiting seeds and confectionary ; also, bottles for 
 containing drugs. They are splendid examples of glass blowing, 
 the designs good, and the several articles well made. I should 
 like to have examined some of their table glass, but there was none 
 exhibited, and only a few examples of “pressed”* glass (but not 
 
 * “Pressing” consists in the application of a press. Large moulds aro 
 hinged together, when closed ; heated glass, in a semi-fluid state, is introduced 
 into the mould ; to the screw of the press a plunger is fitted, representing the 
 
140 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 exhibited by a manufacturer); these consisted of wines, * * goblets, 
 and a few jugs. The show-glass covers were well made, some 
 of them produced by pressing the heated glass into metal moulds; 
 the colour of the metal is good. 
 
 Large sums have been expended by the Americans in the in- 
 vention of presses and machinery to press the semi-fluid glass 
 when heated. The glass-pressing process has revolutionised the 
 whole system of the flint glas3 manufacture ; many of the 
 articles produced by pressing closely resemble cut work, only the 
 practised eye can detect the difference. The tendency has been 
 so to reduce the cost of glass articles that its consumption has 
 increased tenfold. The Americans claim the invention of the 
 machinery employed, and I believe they were the first to produce 
 articles by pressing. The process has absorbed the surplus 
 labour in the glass trade, and some of the makers prefer it. 
 Having directed attention to the leading exhibits in the foreign 
 countries represented, I now turn to those in the English Depart- 
 ment of the Exhibition. 
 
 English Department. 
 
 Pellatt and Wood exhibit splendid articles of manufacture in 
 glass : a delightful service of light wine glasses, decanters, claret 
 jugs, dessert dishes, of entirely new patterns in form and orna- 
 mentation. A lightly cut service is beautiful, producing, by 
 skilful cutting, the splendid natural prismatic colours. The 
 engraving on the decanters I cannot speak too highly of. 
 A large water jug and basin in flint glass is beautiful in form 
 and cutting, a splendid piece of workmanship. This has been 
 executed in a very masterly manner. There are some “wines ” * 
 nicely made, very clear, and good in colour ; also some bowls 
 with corkscrew stems, lips well sheared, and turned out like 
 print. It is in examples such as these the difference shows itself 
 between the English and foreign glass. The jugs and clarets 
 arc well made ; there is vigour and form in the outline, and each 
 and all are creditable to those who produced them. 
 
 Edward Moore and Son , Newcastle . — The whole of their 
 examples exhibited are pressed, the design and colour good. 
 Dessert dishes roughed after pressing, showing the ornament 
 of the ivy plant, is introduced; the dish is “roughed” on the 
 
 interior of the vessel desired. By the action of the screw the plunger described 
 compresses the glass into every cavity of the mould. On the mould being 
 opened, and the plunger withdrawn, a perfect vessel is produced. 
 
 * “ Wines” and ‘‘wine glasses” are synonymous terms, the former being a 
 term used by manufacturers and artisans in the glass trade. — E d. B.A.R. 
 
I'ahle and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 141 
 
 surface with sand ; the ornament being in intaglio (or sunk), is 
 left bright, and looks well. These are the only English manufac- 
 turers who exhibit pressed work, which is well got up ; the 
 designs are creditable. 
 
 Daniells ’ (of London) display is remarkable, not only for 
 much grace and elegance of design being shown therein, but 
 their Hint is also pure. A beautiful Hower vase, with three 
 twisted rings, pieces of plain glass run round the holder, pinced 
 leaves and turquoise berries introduced, is splendid to look upon, 
 a masterpiece of artistic skill in design and make. The “motif” 
 is inspired by Venetian examples. There is a flower basket 
 executed in crystal glass, the design easy, the work well done ; 
 the joints of the handles are concealed by a mask. There is 
 also a service in flint glass, of a high order ; many of the pieces 
 are skilfully made. The engraving, where introduced, is 
 well designed, and executed with great care. One of the first 
 principles of decorative art is that ornament must hold a place 
 subordinate to utility, and when it interferes with utility it is 
 misplaced and vulgar. The exhibits of Messrs. Daniells hit 
 the right mark ; while they are beautified by ornament, it does 
 not interfere with their use. 
 
 James Green , London. — This is one of the most important 
 collections shown in the English Division ; the objects are made 
 of the purest crystal glass, most elaborate and artistic in style, 
 the forms chiefly copied from the antique. The “ wines,” jugs, 
 decanters, saltcellars, sugar-basins, arc excellent. The flint 
 service, ornamented by what is called in the trade “hobnail 
 cutting,” is a great success ; has been appreciated and purchased 
 by Professor Chandelon, of Liege, Belgium. A large goblet, 
 engraved and mounted in ormolu, the centre of stem an oblong 
 piece of glass faceted, is also a success ; it was purchased by 
 Justigrath Ahlemarm, of Berlin. There is also a chalice worth 
 attention ; it is mounted in ormolu, has a cover with a glass 
 cross on the top. The ruby-coated “wines,” decanters, and 
 finger-eups, &c., artistically cut, arc equal to any shown in the 
 Exhibition. A great many of the jugs, very well made, are 
 engraved in the Greek, Roman, and Renaissance styles. The 
 chandeliers exhibited by Green are excellent; many of the pieces 
 of which they are composed are faceted very skilfully. lie also 
 exhibits many good specimens of flower vases. 
 
 Copeland, London. — This firm is well represented in glass by 
 a few of the most elaborately decorated vases and jugs, dessert 
 and table services of every description. There is a jug in the 
 Greek style, graceful in outline, with floreated decorations and 
 
142 
 
 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 antique enrichments. An oval crystal vase with two handles, 
 the handles not so artistic, having been attached by two pieces 
 of metal. It would have been better had this vase been made 
 out of one piece of metal, as there would have been no difficulty 
 in doing so. The engraving is a masterpiece of skill. It is a 
 question whether such a piece of work has ever been produced 
 in modern times in this country, perhaps not in any other. It 
 was designed and executed by Paul Oppitz, * and took him 243 
 days to engrave. It ought to be considered a triumph of 
 industrial, artistic skill, and has been purchased by Sir Richard 
 Wallace. The works of this well-known firm in glass are high 
 in reputation, the colour of the glass splendid. 
 
 It is to be regretted England has not made a better represen- 
 tation of her glass trade. A debt of gratitude is due to the 
 manufacturers named for upholding its reputation, especially in 
 its speciality of flint glass of unequalled purity and brilliancy, 
 well cut, well blown, and skilfully decorated with engraving. 
 But the glass the English exhibitors display is not confined to 
 what has been alluded to ; some excellent examples are associated 
 with works in metal as those of 
 
 Elkington and Co ., Birmingham. — The glass exhibited in 
 connection with the silver and electro-plate of this firm combine 
 admirably with their metal mountings. 
 
 Winfield and Co., Birmingham. — The glass shades intro- 
 
 * The announcement of this vase brought to light an English example of 
 equal excellence, the difficulty attendant on its engraving being increased by its 
 being executed in “ relievo,” whereas that by Oppitz is in “intaglio.” The 
 English vase is the work of Mr. Nortliwood, of Stourbridge, Worcestershire, 
 and occupied his leisure for the long space of nine years. It is 18 inches in 
 height, double handled, amplioral in form; the “relievo” decorations consist 
 of the reproduction of the friezes of the Parthenon at Athens (Greece) ; these 
 have been copied with great accuracy, spirit, and freedom ; the relief of the 
 equestrian ligures is very considerable, the details well worked out. The other 
 parts of the vase are exquisitely adorned with Greek ornaments of the most 
 varied and graceful character, produced by etching, in which the engraver of 
 the vase is an adept ; also the delicacy and symmetry of the etched orna- 
 mentation is admirable. The healthful stimulus of a work done by an 
 English engraver on glass is calculated to encourage effort and emulation to 
 excel; the perseverance is to be admired which animated its producer to 
 expend his leisure time with so much earnestness, and is another example of 
 “ doing the work for the work’s sake,” of which there are too few examples 
 now-a-days, but is the means, the only means, by which success can be 
 achieved, — the feeling which animated the Cellinis, Matsyses, Yischers, 
 Pallissys, &c., &c., whose names are inscribed high on the bead-roll of 
 industrial art. The vase is now the property of Mr. J. B. Stone, of the 
 Union Glass Works, Birmingham, who has permitted me to transfer a re- 
 presentation of it to these pages, and has also contributed liberally towards 
 the expense of the wood- cut introduced, executed by a local engraver on 
 wood, Mr. Ordoyno. — Ed. B.A.R. 
 
Fig. 47 
 
 Glass Vase engraved by Mr. North wood, of Stourbridge, Worcestershire. England. 
 
144 
 
 ' Table and Ornamentid Glass. 
 
 cluced and associated with the well-made gas fittings of this 
 firm are of the highest order ; they are not to be matched in the 
 Exhibition. The exhibits of Messrs. Blews and Sons, C. J. 
 Phillip and Son, and Best and Lloyds, all show good examples of 
 lamp shades introduced. The German-made shades are greatly 
 inferior to these in every particular. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 In concluding my Report, taking all the glass exhibited, it is 
 my intention to draw a distinction between that of the various 
 nations as to their progress in the art of glass-making. I believe 
 no nation has advanced in the art of glass-making more than 
 Russia since the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Some people will say, 
 “ Well, there are many of the French and German workmen in glass 
 who have migrated there.” What matters ? If that country gives 
 encouragement to them, it is training her workers in glass. We 
 in England have done the same, and our glass trade has greatly 
 advanced in consequence. China exhibits beautiful specimens in 
 glass of various colours, and some of the best glass buttons I 
 have ever seen. The glass of Roumania is very inferior, still it 
 is putting forth a claim in the glass trade. Greece and Portugal 
 are very low in the scale ; we have nothing to fear from that 
 quarter. The whole of the German States have greatly im- 
 proved in the production of glass, as they have brought to bear 
 on it all their ingenuity and skill. I consider they have made 
 a great advance ; it is the nation w r e shall have to contend against, 
 especially in the styles similar to English work. Some of their 
 common wine glasses are good, and “sheared” on the lips, and 
 sold cheaper. But the best of the glass blown in the usual way 
 is very little cheaper than ours, accounted for not because the 
 work is produced cheaper as regards the blowing department. 
 
 But it is not so much a question of wages which renders their 
 glass cheaper, as how their glass is produced and its mixture. 
 They use no lead in their glass, and’sell by the dozen or in pairs. 
 Some of our articles are sold in England by weight in great 
 quantities. The making of their glass does not require the same 
 amount of heat as ours, being made softer. They use peat, wood, 
 and coarse slack as fuel in their furnaces, which gives them a great 
 advantage over us. It is no use denying the fact, they are treading 
 close on our heels ; but plenty of their work is sold which our 
 manufacturers would not let go out of their warehouses. People 
 buy German glass simply because it is cheap. Our position to-day 
 as glass-makers is far superior to that of any nation on the Con- 
 tinent, but the facilities Continental glass-workers have are 
 
Table and Ornamental Glass.' 
 
 145 
 
 greater than ours. Their general education is very much better ; 
 there is not a working man who does not belong to a guild 
 (especially in Austria). They have also courts of arbitration to 
 settle trade disputes, and institutions in which the education of 
 the working man is kept in view. Take, for example, the 
 Venetian workmen in glass : it is impossible to say too much of 
 their superiority as shown in the beautiful delicate forms they 
 produce. As Englishmen, we can see the improvement w’e have 
 made by adopting the Venetian style; the more w’e practise it 
 the better we get. English manufacturers are now producing 
 everything that is useful without putting the least engraving or 
 cutting upon it —a certain proof the Venetians were right. English 
 artisans in glass might have been equally as good, had they 
 commenced by working glass into ornamental instead of useful 
 forms. By energy and perseverance the English artisan has done 
 wonders, but the art training the people on the Continent 
 receive gives them the advantage over us. The progress made 
 through our institutions has done a great deal. Artists, or work- 
 men in glass, may produce excellent designs, but they will avail 
 very little unless the taste of the public is sufficiently cultivated 
 to appreciate them. We are beaten by the Continental nations 
 in design. They are trained from their youth upwards to know 
 the various styles of outline and ornament, and to adapt the 
 latter to suit the outline of the articles required to be made. 
 The German engraving is beautiful and chaste, but the cutting is 
 not so good as the English. There is one element in favour of the 
 English cutter : the English glass is softer in ‘ ‘ nature, ’ ’ but harder 
 and more brittle to the blower when he is working it ; foreign 
 glass is softer to the blower, which makes it harder to the cutter. 
 
 I must add, I should have liked to have seen more English 
 glass in the Vienna Exhibition. We arc the first nation, so far 
 as flint glass is concerned, having achieved the production of 
 crystal flint glass of such purity that no other nation can 
 approach us at present. My advice would be to keep to the 
 “ flower ” and ornamental work. I feel convinced the more we 
 practise it the greater will be our trade, because the foreigner 
 cannot blow these things in moulds, and the more our manufac- 
 turers introduce and cultivate “blowing without moulds” the 
 better. It ought to be the duty of every artisan connected with 
 my trade to do all that is in his power to elevate his trade. 
 
 By the application of capital and skill, by perseverance 
 and hard work, we have won our position in the glass trade. 
 
 I felt greatly disappointed no French table glass was exhi- 
 bited ; for what reason I could not ascertain. 
 
 L 
 
146 Table and Ornamental Glass. 
 
 I am glad to see the youths of to-day attending our schools of 
 art. It is the duty of our Government to give us every facility 
 in this direction, and to open all our museums when the working 
 classes can visit them to examine and study the works they 
 contain in fine and ornamental art. 
 
 Having made as careful an examination as time would permit, 
 and endeavoured to write an impartial Report, which I now sub- 
 mit to the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, by which I was 
 enabled to visit and report on the works in glass at the Vienna 
 Exhibition. I received much instruction by the visit, for which 
 I am very grateful. The lessons I have learnt, and the hints I 
 have received, I will put into practice in my trade. This I con- 
 ceive is my duty. 
 
Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 By S. WALL RICHARDS, Manager of Button Works 
 (Associated Reporter), 
 
 T HE exhibits of buttons in the Vienna Exhibition were so 
 scattered through the building that it was with the 
 utmost difficulty they could be found, suggesting by contrast the 
 superiority of design and arrangement of the Paris Exhibition, 
 1867, where a systematic classification and arrangement side by 
 side (the same products of different countries) could be studied 
 and compared with ease. The Commissioners of the Paris 
 Exhibition also prepared and set forth in the official catalogue 
 statistics of the numbers employed, rate of wages paid to men, 
 women, and children, and the number of hours worked per week 
 by the operatives in this trade. All this was wanting in the 
 Vienna Catalogue. As might be expected, Austria makes the 
 largest display of buttons in the Exhibition, showing considerable 
 improvement upon her exhibits at Paris, 1867, especially in the 
 manufacture of pearl buttons in large sizes. Fashion may have 
 given an impetus to this branch since that event, but it is signifi- 
 cant that the French manufacturers, who exhibited and excelled in 
 this speciality in 1867, do not now show a single case, or section 
 of a case, of pearl ; in fact, their exhibits are singularly free 
 from any examples of what they may be doing in this branch ; 
 it is, however, very suggestive of the monopoly now enjoyed 
 by the Viennese in their own markets. Climatic influences 
 affect the demand for pearl buttons in the South of Germany 
 — ladies’ light summer walking-out costumes are more extensively 
 worn, upon which pearl buttons are lavishly bestowed for use and 
 ornament, in sizes from 30 to 50 lines, black pearl to some extent 
 being also used. Military buttons are an important feature in all 
 the Continental exhibits ; the greatest advance made in this class 
 is observable in a Russian exhibit. Russian military buttons shown 
 at Paris were crude and roughly made, showing particularly 
 unskilled die-sinking ; the present exhibits-indicate a considerable 
 improvement, which may be accounted for by Russian manu- 
 facturers taking from their neighbours more skilled workmen. 
 I do not think it possible that native labour can have been 
 
 l 2 
 
148 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 trained to the pitch of excellence here shown in the time. 
 Another class of button that figured largely at Paris has dis- 
 appeared, viz. a composite article of glass and brass, the 
 centre glass, the outer rim in various coloured metals. These 
 were extensively w r orn a few years since ; they seem now to have 
 gone out of fashion entirely. France maintains her reputation 
 for skill and taste, and makes a fine, if not so extensive a display 
 as at Paris in 1867. Italy is either not fairly represented, or 
 she has undergone a metamorphosis ; the only exhibit, that of 
 Edoardo Taccini, Milan, led one to believe that the buttons shown 
 in this case were of German manufacture. There w'ere not any 
 of the grotesque examples shown at Paris. Sober colours in 
 horn, Florentine, pearl, bone, and vegetable ivory, prevailing. 
 There was one English exhibit only of buttons, that of Messrs. 
 Smith and Wright, Birmingham. 
 
 Glass Buttons. — Bohemia sends a large display of glass 
 buttons without the names of any manufacturers attached, 
 simply “ Bohemia.” The variety and excellence of the examples 
 shown is indicative of a different system being pursued in this 
 branch ; the materials are brighter and better. The excel- 
 lence of the glass, in the first place, being evidence of a 
 desire upon the part of the Bohemian glass-makers to cater 
 for the w^ants of the humble button-maker. I could not 
 ascertain if to any or what extent glass button-making was 
 carried on in connection with other branches of glass manufac- 
 ture that has made Bohemian glass famous. In England, the 
 glass button-maker is thrown entirely upon his own resources ; 
 he is invariably his own designer ; the poverty of outline and 
 crudeness of form in the shape of his button moulds is the 
 result of his want of a knowledge of drawing, even of the simplest 
 kind : this, combined with the difficulty experienced by the English 
 manufacturer in supplying himself with the raw material of 
 equal excellence with that of his German competitor, will, to 
 a considerable extent, account for his inability to hold his 
 own, and why a very large percentage of the glass buttons sold 
 in this country are of German and French manufacture. A 
 glass button does not afford (so one would think) any great 
 opportunity for design : the Bohemian case contained upwards of 
 three thousand different patterns. I called the attention of 
 a skilled English glass manufacturer to them, when he replied, 
 “They could be made” (i.e., copied) “in England by some two 
 or three individuals, with an effort.” In Germany they are pro- 
 duced by hundreds of artisans, and sold at a price so low, that 
 the English workman is bewildered. This would imply facility, 
 
Buttons and Small Wares, 
 
 140 
 
 great facility, in tlieir manufacture, and suggests to my mind the 
 control and co-operation of those engaged in the superior 
 branches of glass manufacture, even if glass button-making is 
 not actually affiliated to the higher branches. 
 
 Military Buttons claim a very large share of attention from 
 the Continental button-makers. The demand for this class of 
 button is always large and regular ; these buttons afford the best 
 test of the skill of the button die-sinkers of the different 
 countries. France deservedly stands highest with sharp, clear 
 designs, effectively worked up, though often only simple in their 
 arrangement. Messrs. Smith and Wright, of Birmingham, 
 make a considerable display of this class of button, very fairly 
 representing the average ^excellences of English die-sinkers. 
 There was more uniformity of merit in the exhibits of all the 
 Continental makers in this class than of any other, the stimulus 
 to excellence probably arising from their universal use, and 
 encouragement given by each of the Governments to native 
 labour. 
 
 Pearl Buttons . — This class wa3 largely represented by all the 
 German makers, in its various branches; the particular excel- 
 lence of the large sizes, say from 30 to GO lines, consisted in 
 the very bright surfaces ; they were as clear and as brilliant as 
 crystal glass ; the turning of the numerous designs was good. In 
 shirt pearl, English manufacturers are superior ; the best German 
 patterns were copies of Birmingham made articles. While the 
 demand for pearl buttons has steadily increased for the last few 
 years, the numbers employed in Birmingham (the seat of the 
 button trade in England) has fluctuated in a very curious man- 
 ner. For many years the trade has been good, but the restraint 
 imposed by the trade union that governs this branch has had 
 a baneful influence. In 1853, the society numbered 1,000 
 members, without women and boys; in 1867, 1,200 members, 
 without women and boys; in 1871, 8G4, including boys, but 
 not women. I believe the number has increased since, but 
 certainly has not gone beyond the strength of 1867. There 
 are supposed to be about 150 non-society men. However brisk 
 the demand may be in this branch, manufacturers have no means 
 of meeting it, hence surplus orders go abroad : this will probably 
 account for the great development of it in Germany, where trade 
 is not so hampered. 
 
 Perles . — There was but one exhibitor of this particular class 
 of button, Bapterosses, France. There were no new developments 
 of this button, and as they are less worn than ever, except in 
 the small sizes for shirts, which will probably never entirely go 
 
150 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 out, it is possible we may neither hear nor see more of them after 
 this Exhibition closes. 
 
 Linen Buttons . — France is represented in this class by Parent 
 and Co., Paris, with a few elaborately made half-ball buttons in 
 best white cloth, rather illustrating what can be made than what 
 are made and in regular demand. A few German makers show 
 samples of flat linen buttons and eyeleted, wretchedly finished ; 
 they have not made any advance in this branch since 1867. 
 Birmingham in this speciality stands pre-eminent for excellence 
 and cheapness ; the same remarks apply to Florentine buttons. 
 
 Brace Buttons . — Every exhibitor of buttons shows samples. 
 France takes the palm for expensive and chaste designs, princi- 
 pally four holes with raised letters, the groundwork either 
 plated or gilt, the letters oxydised black ; this is done by gilding 
 or plating the button, and then taking the gold or silver off the 
 surface by the application of a “lap” or “bob,” oxidising 
 afterwards the new surface. If letters were sunk in a solid 
 button, the effect by the above treatment would be reversed, viz., 
 white letters and black foreground. The finish on all the French 
 buttons was very neat and clean, showing truthful die-sinking 
 brought well up by stamping ; the majority of the other exhibits 
 were the reverse, inaccurate in design and slovenly in finish. 
 
 Horn Buttons. — J. Hill und Sohne, Austria, exhibited very 
 fair samples of horn buttons. In this case examples of wood 
 buttons were also shown by them, the latter similar in shapes to 
 those made in England, but with surfaces as smooth as glass, 
 and the blacks shining like jet. There were not any others that 
 require notice. 
 
 Livery and Crest Buttons . — Most exhibitors of metal buttons 
 showed samples of the above. This is the fine-art branch of the 
 button trade ; the merits or demerits of a “crest” rest almost 
 entirely with the die-sinker, who should not only be an 
 accurate draughtsman and skilful manipulator, but possess also 
 a considerable acquaintance with heraldry. The French have 
 taken up this branch and lavished time and talent upon it, 
 adding to excellent die-sinking the charm of colours as shown in 
 imperishable enamels. I ventured a prediction in reference to this 
 class of buttons shown at Paris, in 1867, to the effect, that, like the 
 Caesars, who live on Roman coins, the Imperial regime of France 
 might pass away, leaving nothing behind but “ buttons ” in im- 
 perishable enamel to record the past. Imperialism has gone ; 
 the buttons remain — the same that in 1867 revealed to the 
 world at large the remarkable development of this branch of the 
 button trade. Other nations, exhibitors, both then and now, are 
 
Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 151 
 
 immeasurably behind the French, and seem likely to be, notwith- 
 standing the less ostentatious rule of the Republic, under which 
 we may not expect much future encouragement to this adjunct 
 of the trappings of the court and royalty. 
 
 Steel Buttons . — There were no exhibitors of these buttons ; 
 they appear to have gone out of fashion ; though at Paris, 1867, 
 there was a considerable display. 
 
 Upholstery Buttons — or more properly nails, for though, as 
 shown in the case, the} r appear as buttons, they are attached to 
 furniture with a nail that is soldered inside or at the back of 
 the shell. Examples were shown gilt and plated, and plated 
 with oxydised surfaces, the designs all of a geometrical character, 
 so that, however arranged upon furniture, they would always appear 
 regular and harmonious. The effects produced were pleasing from 
 a judicious balancing of bright burnishing on perfectly level sur- 
 faces with dead or frosted interstices, or background ; whatever 
 kind of ornamentation was adopted, this rule was adhered to. 
 These very interesting examples were in the French Court, and 
 arranged with great taste. 
 
 Vegetable Ivory Buttons. — There were several considerable 
 exhibits in this class, very similar to English-made goods. The 
 only novelty I observed was a button in various sizes mottled in 
 different shades, with stripes upon it in a different colour : the 
 stripes radiating from the centre, either forming a star, or 
 dividing up the surface into segments. 
 
 SMALL WARES. 
 
 It would not be very difficult to enumerate the staple 
 trades of Birmingham, and the number of persons employed 
 in them ; it would, however, be a laborious task to ascertain 
 the number of trades carried on in the town that are not 
 staple, and their ramifications, with the thousands of per- 
 sons employed in them, that properly come under the designa- 
 tion of Small Wares. Kings and rulers take' no note of them ; 
 almost ephemeral in their existence, they rise up, exist for a 
 short period, and die, never more to be heard of. Often called 
 into existence by the fancies of fertile minds, or the fickleness of 
 fashion, they afford, to the energetic or the capable, means of 
 existence for a period, to be succeeded by something else as 
 transient ; the student of exhibitions of manufactures should be 
 alive to their changes, if anything really good is to follow' them. 
 What are small wares ? They comprise all the little articles 
 that are the necessaries and luxuries of life, in whatever materials 
 these may be made ; I purpose enumerating but a few, and only 
 
152 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares, 
 
 those that presented themselves to me as likely to be of profit or 
 interest to the producers of the Midland Counties. 
 
 Since the Paris Exhibition of 1867 a new trade has sprung 
 into existence, only to be a monopoly with the French and Ger- 
 mans, I mean the manufacture of small wares in tortoiseshell 
 and gold, such as brooches, earrings, charms, lockets, portmon- 
 naies, card-cases, &c. These productions must be very familiar 
 to everyone ; they have had an enormous sale throughout the 
 length and breadth of Europe, and especially in England: 
 it is now waning. English manufacturers have not enjoyed, 
 except to a small extent, this prosperity, simply because the art 
 knowledge and manipulation of tortoiseshell is so little under- 
 stood by them that they could not avail themselves of it. The 
 popularity of this new material for small wares consisted 
 mainly in its being so much in harmony with the tastes of the 
 people of England and the cities of the Continent. Gaudy 
 colours in ornaments are eschewed among the better educated 
 of all classes, especially when they take the form of the articles 
 enumerated above ; black, brown, or black and white, have 
 the greatest number of patrons. Black vulcanite small wares 
 have had an enormous run, on account of their resemblance to 
 jet, and greater cheapness. This new trade has taken root in 
 Birmingham, has thriven, and is now declining ; its application 
 has been more extensive than tortoiseshell and gold ; guard- 
 chains and bracelets for ladies have been extensively made in 
 addition. 
 
 In Paris, 1867, many French exhibits contained small wares 
 in imitation of “ oxydised silver,” such as brooches, sleeve 
 studs, watch guards, charms, and walking-stick handles, match 
 boxes, letter weights, necklaces, <fcc., &c. These were to be 
 seen exposed for sale in England soon after the Exhibition closed. 
 The demand was slack for a time. The English public now, how- 
 ever, are becoming familiarised with these productions ; and in 
 consequence they are now exposed for sale in every tradesman’s 
 window where this class of goods arc sold, sufficient proof that 
 foreign manufacturers arc stealing a march in this particular. 
 
 Russia exhibited small wares in Paris, 1867, in “niello” 
 card cases, cigar cases, lockets, &c. Considering for how long 
 a period gold and silver, with the' different changes niello has 
 been made to appear in them when intermixed with gems, &c., 
 it is not surprising that the astute foreigner should seize on niello 
 for a change and as a novelty. 
 
 Articles in niello are black and white, silver really, with the 
 prettiest designs. The difference between niello and black enamel 
 
Buttons and Small Wares . 
 
 153 
 
 consists in its toughness and its not being brittle as enamel, and 
 the black does not present the brightness that makes enamel 
 work so objectionable, if used in masses of ornament, it has also 
 an additional merit of improving by use. In the Austrian Court 
 there was a unique display of small wares in niello, consisting 
 of chatelaines, suspenders for ladies’ fans, bags, watches, or 
 umbrellas, seals, watch guards, lockets, solitaires, knife handles, 
 walking-stick handles, purses, card and cigar cases, umbrella 
 mounts, &c. The ornamentation of the smaller articles was invari- 
 ably in geometric patterns, as the honeycomb, or diapered, made 
 from sheet silver, or plated metal, with designs rolled on it ; in 
 others the patterns were stamped. A peculiarity of the niello 
 was apparent from its being bent into half a circle without its 
 chipping or cracking on the raw edge. 
 
 If the art of niello decoration is ever to take root in Bir- 
 mingham, Sheffield, London, &c., it will have to be developed 
 much in the same manner as the application of electro-gilding, 
 applied to small wares, has been. Some firm, as Elkington and 
 Co., will have to do for this process (new to England) what they 
 have done for extending the use of electro-gilding — viz., offer 
 their services to the numerous small ware manufacturers, and 
 undertake to niello anything that may be sent prepared for the 
 process, as they now undertake to electro-gild, electro-plate, or 
 bronze thousands of the different productions of Birmingham 
 every week. If some such arrangement can be made, a large 
 and permanent addition to the resources of Birmingham in the 
 small ware trades might be anticipated. If this new branch 
 of industry should take root in Birmingham, I see no reason, 
 with the varied purposes it can be put to, why an increase in the 
 prosperity of the town should not follow, and a more general 
 diffusion through the country at large of trinkets or ornaments of 
 dress, in better taste than those now worn, and of a more elevat- 
 ing and durable character. 
 
 Thimbles . — This is a branch of industry in Birmingham which 
 has a good deal of permanency in it, but not much of progress. 
 A real small ware, circulating through the length and breadth of 
 the land, found in the palace and the cottage, a thimble might be 
 made a medium for disseminating simple but correct ornamenta- 
 tion, without enhancing its prime cost to any very appreciable 
 extent. One Birmingham firm has improved this manufacture 
 very much. Durability and comfort — the former by introducing 
 steel in the crown of the thimble, on account of its durability, 
 the latter by enamelling the inside — are devices for accomplishing 
 thereby what are considered essentials in thimbles. 
 
154 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 In the Vienna Exhibition there was a case of thimbles, not at 
 all equalling Birmingham-made goods, so far as'finish and shapes 
 were concerned, but there was a novelty introduced in the crown 
 of the thimble in the shape of glass, instead of our steel tops. The 
 glass being of various colours, had a pretty effect in contrast with 
 the silver ; the hardness of glass must also be a great recom- 
 mendation in its favour. In the common class of thimbles this 
 novelty could not be introduced ; the examples shown were real 
 silver. This w T as the only novelty in connection with this exhibit. 
 There was the usual mistake made in ornamenting the rim 
 of the thimble we see at home ; pieces of wire were soldered 
 on the outer edge, bent and twisted in various forms to imitate 
 scroll ornament ; these were chased, so as to present a serrated 
 edge, as we see in lockets sometimes ; of course not always 
 left smooth ; the wire being indented with the chasing tool, 
 eannot always be quite smooth : the consequence is ladies say 
 they do not like thimbles with fancy edges, because they impede 
 sewing by catching the thread or cotton. Thimble decorations 
 should be surface decorations, as smooth as possible, presenting 
 no projections, irregular surfaces, or edges ; this has not been 
 done to its fullest extent in the samples alluded to. There are 
 innumerable engraved and impressed patterns, but there is no 
 process or method of ornamentation that offers or contains within 
 itself all the essentials without drawbacks equal to “niello.” 
 
 Hooks and Eyes . — A case w r as exhibited by a Spanish house 
 of hooks and eyes, unlike anything we see in England ; these 
 were all bright (doubtless preferred so for the Spanish market ; 
 they would not be appreciated out of it), made of fancy wires ; 
 they underwent a flattening process to give them the appearance 
 of * * swan bills, ’ ’ afterwards to appear in a variety of bright 
 colours, as brilliant blue, green, and red, with several shades 
 between. If this is a peculiarity of the Spanish trade, the English 
 hook and eye manufacturers have only to study it to obtain 
 a monopoly ; the hooks were so badly made, that it appeared 
 to rest with the colouring who supplies Spanish wants with this 
 article. Birmingham goods are immeasurably superior. 
 
 Needle Cases . — At the Paris Exhibition it was demonstrated 
 beyond all dispute that for needles combining quality of material, 
 clearly pierced and well-fashioned eyes, elasticity of temper, 
 points, &c., the productions of this country are unequalled. 
 Satisfied with their triumph on that occasion, attention appears 
 to have been given since by one Redditch firm (Messrs. W. Avery 
 and Son) to the creation and development of a new few feature 
 in connection with needles, viz., the construction of elaborate, 
 
Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 155 
 
 ingenious, and ornamental needle and pin cases. The stall of this 
 firm in the Exhibition looked more like a gilt jewellery depot 
 than anything else. The idea carried out by them (which is 
 patented) is capable of extensive application to other trades ; 
 though all the credit is due to them in its application to their 
 own trade. We are all familiar with the ordinary papers in which 
 needles are wrapped, packed, and sent away ; how, to open 
 a packet was probably the preliminary to scattering them on the 
 floor ! Now, by some twenty-seven different contrivances, patents, 
 and registered designs, Messrs. W. Avery and Son have created 
 a new industry in the Midland district, and added to the ladies’ 
 work table an elegant and useful object. These cases are strong, 
 in addition to being ornamental ; they demonstrate the feasibility 
 of an article of commerce being made, and that extensively, as 
 a covering or case only for something in universal use, of little 
 cost in itself, while the case will be perhaps double or treble the 
 price of the article it contains. The idea was a happy one, and 
 has succeeded doubtless beyond all expectation. 
 
 The ingenious cases, with easy motion for raising the needles, 
 or shutting them up again, are simply beautiful in their action, 
 but are so numerous and varied that a description of their various 
 “actions ” would read like a book of the specifications of patents. 
 The novelties are now so well known that to enumerate them is 
 sufficient. The “hedgehog ” pincase costs a thousand per cent, 
 more than the pins it contains — a gilt ornament to represent 
 the animal, the pins stuck in little perforations left in the back ; 
 the “butterfly,” — the needles concealed under the wing; and 
 there are about twenty-five other varieties, all differing from 
 each other. If a lady’s work table can be supplied with these 
 little elegancies, or novelties, in which cost is not the prime 
 consideration, why not go a little further, and provide something 
 more elegant or durable, viz., needle-cases in “niello?” Smooth 
 surfaces should be presented upon h, work table, and always in 
 connection with sewing and embroidery, especially when we 
 consider to what a great extent needlework is the accompaniment 
 of ladies. It is not at all uncommon to see ladies tatting, 
 or at some other similar amusement, when travelling ; how 
 essential it is, then, that these necessaries should be easily put 
 away or brought into use. Why too should not steel pen- 
 cases, or elegant little caskets, oxydised, or ornamented in 
 “niello,” become as fashionable, as useful, and ornamental as 
 needle and pin-cases. I throw out these suggestions for the pen 
 trade, and can see no reason why it should not be adopted. 
 
 Spectacles . — Capricious fashion has given an extraordinary 
 
156 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 impetus to this branch of industry. It may appear singular at 
 first sight that a failing attending increased age should be 
 assumed by the youth of the Continent of Europe (more 
 especially by blooming girls from seventeen to eighteen years of 
 age and upwards). I was struck with what appeared to me the 
 unusual number of young persons to be seen in Paris, in exhi- 
 bition, and on the boulevards, using the kind of spectacles called 
 “ folders,” only used in this country by persons of advanced age. 
 The same peculiarity was presented at the Vienna Exhibition; it 
 would be absurd to suppose all the young persons using them 
 were really near sighted. For out-of-door display the folder 
 affords an opportunity for showing a pretty gloved hand ; it also 
 serves the purpose of a “ domino,” giving the user the means of 
 reconnoitring without being recognised ; and it is also an indi- 
 cation of taste and social status. Some of these spectacles are 
 encased in pearl, others in ivory, with flowers carved on the 
 centre of the case ; some are of tortoiseshell and gold ; many 
 of the latter gold of 18 carat, with flowers in relief on the 
 surface in pale green, or deep red gold, being simply elegant 
 pieces of jewellery. 
 
 It may be asked who creates the demand for this class of 
 goods 1 Paradoxical as it may appear, my answer is the manu- 
 facturer. The attraction of the case of the “ folder ” is, in my 
 opinion, its charm and fascination. In every court of the Vienna 
 Exhibition — French, Belgian, Italian, and German — there were 
 samples of these elegant appendages, made in all the materials 
 named. This small ware is an illustration of the extent to which 
 art feeling and taste may be conjoined with an article whose 
 primary essential is usefulness. 
 
 Folders are made and sold to a considerable extent in this 
 country ; but what a contrast they afford to those of foreign make 1 
 The French have possession of English markets for the more 
 elaborate and highly-finished'examples, while home manufacturers 
 are content to produce plain gold rim folders, the manufacture 
 of which they look upon as an achievement. 
 
 I did not notice any folders in niello. The smooth surface of 
 the case is a recommendation for that kind of surface decora- 
 tion ; and should the art take root in this country, folder spec- 
 tacles are among the small 'wares its application might be 
 extended to. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 The many excellences that characterised French small wares 
 in the Paris Exhibition has been taken advantage of by the 
 
Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 157 
 
 Germans. The productions of the latter could not bo com- 
 pared with those of French manufacturers in 1867, so wide was 
 the gap that divided them. The Germans were feeble copyists. 
 The Vienna Exhibition reveals them now as very close imitators 
 in the more elaborate ornamentation of small surfaces. 
 
 The meerschaum pipe has developed in Germany (perhaps, 
 inspired) art workmen. The fanciful carvings of pipe-bowls are 
 proofs of great skill in that department of art. One of the 
 exhibits of richly-carved meerschaum in the “ Weltausstel- 
 lung ” contained a very handsome display of ivory solitaires, 
 or sleeve-studs, elaborately carved with a variety of designs, 
 mostly figure subjects. These are essentially small wares ; and 
 in an establishment where skill of so high an order was evinced 
 by the carved meerschaums, solitaires must be a small matter 
 indeed, but plainly not too small for careful attention. Instead 
 of the small wares lowering the prestige of the meerschaum 
 carvers, the workmen lift up the small ware into a higher region, 
 and make it a work of art. 
 
 This kind of competition small ware manufacturers of this 
 country are not in a position to cope with. Where mechanical 
 appliances alone are required, the inventive faculties of English- 
 men seem always equal to the occasion ; when artistic require- 
 ments make their demand upon the small ware manufacturer, 
 they find him like a ship without a rudder, almost always 
 isolated, though probably working and producing small wares 
 within the shadow of some manufacturer who has a high reputa- 
 tion for art productions, who may be employing modellers and 
 designers, and be disseminating works of high art among the 
 rich and educated. But the small ware manufacturer, whose 
 wares are for the million, should have it in his power to produce 
 something else besides the too often seen incongruities that 
 never called forth a feeling of love for the beautiful. Our great 
 middle class are continually being recruited from the ranks of 
 the multitude ; how unprepared many of them arc for the change ! 
 They should, and doubtless would, become patrons of art work, if 
 they knew how. 
 
 At the present moment the English small ware manufacturer 
 fights unevenly with his foreign rivals. I have never yet seen 
 any aids in our modern English towns, nor anything to inspire 
 workmen with a love of art. If a country was threatened with 
 invasion from fifty different quarters, and its Parliament resolved, 
 after careful deliberation, to make provision for its defence by 
 voting a sum of money for the strengthening of its weakest 
 points, what would be said if one only of those places appro- 
 
158 
 
 Buttons and Small Wares. 
 
 priated the whole of the money so voted for its own especial 
 defence ? I imagine the conclusion we should all come to 
 would be that it was an unwarrantable misappropriation of public 
 funds. 
 
 Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Wolverhampton, and 
 Walsall — these towns especially are threatened with invasion, 
 some of them, in fact, are overrun by the foreigner. Birming- 
 ham is particularly vulnerable at more than fifty different points. 
 What means of defence has it ? Birmingham small ware manu- 
 facturers see in their daily peregrinations foreign art productions 
 staring them in the face and pushing their own aside, and they 
 feel themselves powerless to resist. A large sum or sums of 
 money have been voted by the British Parliament for the purpose 
 of fortifying the^country and enabling it to resist, at least to 
 prepare for resistance. The immense collection of objects of art 
 at South Kensington, bought with the nation’s money, should be 
 our source of strength, if judiciously applied; but of what use is 
 South Kensington Museum to art workmen here, or in remote 
 and distant parts of the country ? 
 
 It is wearying to hear of the immense treasures of art that lie 
 hid from want of space in the “stores ” at South Kensington. 
 The duplicates and overflowings alone of the riches therein con- 
 tained would stock large museums in all our manufacturing 
 centres ; and yet we are hungering, nay, more, perishing in 
 some instances, for what is our own, wrongfully kept, and per- 
 versely denied us. 
 
 Paris is France, but London is not England ; it is wrong to 
 attempt to appropriate national funds for the purpose of en- 
 riching London beyond her needs, at the expense of all the 
 provincial towns. I have known a Birmingham manufacturer 
 send up to London one or two of his superior workmen to spend 
 a day at the South Kensington Museum, for the special benefit 
 of his business ; but the thing is impracticable for the town at 
 large. The temper of the provinces has been sorely tried on 
 this art question ; there is a limit even to the forbearance of 
 provincials. 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 By CHARLES HIBBS, Birmingham. 
 
 \ JOURNEY of 1,600 miles, to a great manufacturing 
 country like Austria, the home of a cultivated, ingenious, 
 and persevering people, whose rivalry galls us in so many 
 markets and in so many branches of our national industry — 
 that journey leading also through other countries (notably 
 Belgium), who are even more formidable competitors with us, 
 and ending in a capital where, in one building, was to be seen 
 the largest collection of labour-products ever gathered together, 
 seemed to promise a grand opportunity for making inquiries and 
 comparisons, social, economical, and industrial. With regard 
 to that particular industry which forms the subject of this Paper, 
 the mere announcement that Liege, the Belgian Birmingham 
 and chief seat of the Continental gun manufacture, was to be 
 taken on the way, seemed to open up a vista of possible research 
 into the conditions, modes, and facilities (natural and other- 
 wise) of production, that should be of the greatest possible 
 importance to those engaged in that industry at home. There 
 would be, it seemed, a chance of seeking out, and laying the 
 finger on, those causes which enabled our closest competitors to 
 outstrip us — now in cheapness, now in quality, now in some 
 new manifestation of ingenuity — ever in one point or other — 
 during the neck and neck race that we are constantly running. 
 Now, it w'ould seem, was the opportunity for discovering, once 
 for all, whether . the labour of the Continental artisan was in 
 reality cheaper than our own ; whether his natural conditions 
 were such, that he could maintain his working vigour at less cost, 
 or rear a family with less difficulty, than his compeer in England; 
 whether his habits were simpler, or his industry more sustained; 
 whether his industrial training had been more complete; whether 
 he expended his labour with more economy, so as to produce 
 greater results with less means ; whether, again, the relations 
 between himself and his employer were such, that clash of 
 interests was avoided, and harmony of purpose promoted, more 
 than with us; whether the operations of large factories were 
 carried on with less waste, because of the more perfect working 
 
160 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 together of the capital and labour interests ; whether there were 
 fewer points of difference on which strikes might arise, thereby 
 diminishing the cost of production by taking out the fatal 
 element of insecurity ; also, whether the actual manual opera- 
 tions were more ingenious or simple ; whether, and in what 
 degree, saving was effected by modes of work : lastly, whether 
 there was any advantage in the nature of the materials used; 
 whether they were more ivorkable , more facile to treat in 
 various ways, more uniform or reliable in their qualities. These 
 points, though by no means all, or even the most important of 
 those that enter into the great question of international com- 
 petition, are precisely those upon which artisan reporters are 
 best qualified to judge. They would bring to bear upon them 
 the special knowledge of experts, so to speak. Therefore, it 
 would have been of vast advantage if facilities had been afforded 
 for such a research ; and to no trade would the advantage have 
 been greater than to that which the writer had the honour to 
 represent. To pursue it effectually, however, would have re- 
 quired several reporters instead of one ; for, as regards the 
 manual operations alone, the great subdivision of labour which 
 prevails in the gun trade would have made it impossible to find 
 a man capable of pronouncing a competent judgment upon all 
 branches. But when it appeared that the facilities for examin- 
 ing the peculiarities of foreign gun manufacture would be limited 
 to viewing the productions of the various nations through glass 
 cases in the Exhibition, and when the pleasantly-shadowed-forth 
 visit to Liege resolved itself into a passing view of the city from 
 the carriage window and a stay of five minutes in the station, 
 it became clear that no such inquiry as that here indicated could 
 possibly be made. 
 
 The Vienna Exhibition is not nearly so w T ell adapted as the 
 Paris one of 1867 for the purposes of an artisan reporter. 
 That, it will be remembered, was an elliptical building, divided, 
 as to plan, by concentric circles and radial lines. Within 
 the various circles, or belts, were arranged the several classes 
 of products, grouped according to an easily understood prin- 
 ciple. Thus, the outer, and largest belt, contained machinery ; 
 the next, products of mining industry, forestry, &c., and the 
 next, articles that might be carried or worn on the person. In 
 this group were the portable arms. The radial lines divided the 
 various countries ; and the visitor could choose whether he would 
 inspect all the products of one particular country, or one particu- 
 lar product sent from different countries. In the first case, he 
 would proceed from the outside of the building to the centre. 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 1G1 
 
 passing through the belts one after the other, but keeping within 
 the radial lines which bounded the country he was exploring. 
 He would see all the exhibits of that country arranged in their 
 respective groups, from the machinery in the outer segment to 
 the fine arts in the innermost and smallest one. But if he 
 wished to examine one particular product, or group of products, 
 he would make his way to the belt which contained it, and walk 
 found it, passing out of one country into another. Nothing 
 could possibly be more convenient for purposes of comparison ; 
 and the Catalogue and Map of the Exhibition were so admirably 
 clear, that a minute’s study of them would enable the visitor 
 to walk straight to any object he desired to see. 
 
 The plan of the Austrian building is totally dissimilar. It 
 has one long stretch of Central Hall, or nave, 1,000 yards from 
 end to end, broken only by the Rotunda in the middle. Crossing 
 this nave are a number of transepts, at regular distances apart, 
 throwing out branches from the main trunk on either side. 
 Seen from the top of the Rotunda, the long roof of the Central 
 Hall, with those of its branching arms, form a stupendously 
 imposing sight. The space between these branches is also taken 
 up for exhibition purposes, mostly by large out-door exhibits, 
 which remain in the open air; but not seldom is the space 
 wholly or partially covered over, and turned into an additional 
 court or courts, which may be entered from one of the transepts 
 or from the Central Hall, and thus become a portion of the 
 interior of the building. The result is a somewhat irregular 
 ground plan, in which, with its avenues of glass cases, and miles 
 of counters and partitions, it is very easy to get lost. The 
 countries are arranged according to a rough geographical distri- 
 bution. Entering at the west end, we find ourselves in the United 
 States. To the left, on the same level, are South America and 
 the Brazils. Passing onward, we enter Great Britain, with her 
 dependencies. Branching off to the right, are Spain and 
 Portugal. France comes next, occupying a good space, in the 
 midst of which is an off-shoot, representing Switzerland. Then 
 Italy takes up a thin line right across. Passing this, we come 
 into Belgium, on the right of which lie grouped Holland, 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. We have now reached the 
 Rotunda, whose immense area — nearly 120 yards in width — is 
 filled indiscriminately with the exhibits of all nations. The 
 squares of courts which enclose the Rotunda are apportioned, 
 half to the New German Empire, and half to Austria; and for 
 some considerable space after we have crossed the Rotunda, we 
 continue to traverse Austria. Then come Hungary, Russia, 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 Greece, Egypt, Central Africa, Tunis, Roumania, China, Persia, 
 and Japan. Turkey and Siam conclude the journey, which 
 brings us out at the other end of the building, having passed 
 from the west to the east. 
 
 It will be easily conceived that to explore the whole of so vast 
 and scattered a collection as that which forms the Vienna Exhi- 
 bition, is no trifling task. Working onward with my plan in my 
 hand, and marking off my progress as I went, so as to ensure 
 that no spot was left unvisited, and that no ground was traversed 
 twice, it took fully two days to go through the main building 
 and its industrial annexes, and to mark down the spots where 
 fire-arms were to be found. I thought it better to do this, in 
 order that I might afterwards go through them on system, and 
 lose no time in comparing the products of one nation with those 
 of another. I will not record the trouble and vexation of spirit 
 which attended this exploration ; suffice to say, that I should 
 have done better if I had proceeded on the spirit of the old 
 adage, — “If you want to find a thing which is lost, look in the 
 unlikely places first.” 
 
 Now, if my gun-making and other kind friends will please 
 accompany me in imagination from case to case, I will endeavour 
 to describe what I saw, and to point out such specialities as my 
 commission of artisan reporter bound me to look for. Entering 
 by the west portal again, we come first upon a good display of 
 arms from 
 
 America. 
 
 Peabody, Sharp, Colt, Remington, Smith and Wesson, and 
 the Springfield Armoury are all well represented. The first 
 thing which strikes a professional eye is the absence of that 
 workmanlike neatness and finish which we are accustomed to in 
 work of corresponding quality. The military arms, for instance, 
 have an appearance of w r hat we should call “rough work,” in 
 comparison with the high-class article turned out from our 
 armouries ; and in shape, their clumsy, heavy, even ugly 
 appearance, almost offends the eye. Still, to pass them by with 
 such remark w’ould be to do them great injustice. There is in 
 the American work such an evident adaptation of means to ends, 
 such a direct aim at the use to be made of the weapon and its 
 various parts, such a palpable thrusting aside of all con- 
 siderations but those of serviccableness and durability, that the 
 merest glance below the surface impresses one strongly with the 
 thoroughly practical character of the transatlantic mind. The 
 things may be unsightly, but we feel that they are sound ; they 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 103 
 
 may not please the eye, but we know that they will answer the 
 purpose for which they are designed. There is the same air of 
 blunt sincerity and contempt of all disguise about the American 
 work which is said to characterise the Western settlers. It 
 seems to say, “ Here am I, just what I appear to be ; take me 
 or leave me.” A screw head is an unmistakable screw head ; that 
 and nothing more. It is not polished oft' level with the plate in 
 which it lies, nor is it deceptively made to appear a part of the 
 engraved design. It stands up clumsily from the surface, or it 
 lies buried a little below it, just as it happens, and it may, or 
 may not, fit the hole it lies in. But it looks like a good honest 
 screw, and we may rest assured there is a well-cut thread at the 
 other end. It must not be supposed that all the American work 
 is obtrusively coarse. The small Deringer, and Smith and 
 Wesson’s pistols are models of nattiness and handiness; but 
 about them there is clearly nothing that is gimcrack ; they aro 
 weapons, not toys ; they are (alas !) for use, and not for show. 
 
 Some parts of military weapons, shown in various stages of 
 completion, from the machines of the Springfield Armoury, have 
 the same want of clean finish, but an abundant evidence of sound, 
 rough, serviceable, solid work. Some day or other, perhaps, 
 our American Cousins will begin to pride themselves upon the 
 appearance of their really meritorious productions, in which case 
 the more accomplished of our artisans, of whom, unhappily, there 
 are often many to spare, will be at a premium amongst them. 
 
 There are a few guns, mixed up with other matters, in a case 
 here in Brazil, but there is nothing in them to call for our atten- 
 tion. We will get on, if you please, to 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 Where the whole gun-making trade of the greatest gun-making 
 country in the world is really represented by one firm. There 
 are some half dozen double breechloading shot guns by Alfred 
 Lancaster ; a trophy of barrels by the Henry Barrel Company ; 
 one or two military rifles by Soper, which are said to have been 
 loaded and fired sixty times in one minute ; one or two again by 
 Henry, showing his self-cocking action and side-lock systems ; 
 and beyond these few, exhibited as they are mostly for specialities, 
 the burden of sustaining the credit of England, for her extensive 
 and various gun manufacture, home and foreign, falls on AY cbley, 
 of Birmingham. Other Birmingham guns there certainly are in 
 the Catalogue, but after a weary search I became convinced that 
 they were only in the Catalogue. It is not my provincQ to play 
 the critic on the works of any individual manufacturer. My 
 
 m 2 
 
164 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 functions as an artisan reporter limit me, I conceive, to the 
 consideration of such differences of quality, style, construction r 
 and modes of manufacture as are to be found between the 
 works of different nations. But, while carefully avoiding 
 the province of a juror, it is perfectly allowable for me to say, 
 what it would be an unpardonable injustice not to say, that 
 in Messrs. Webley’s case the gun trade of England is worthily 
 represented. It is represented, as regards variety, by specimens 
 of nearly all the principal types of arms produced in the great 
 Midland Armoury. It is represented, as regards quality, by 
 a sufficient sprinkling of those high-class weapons, for the pro- 
 duction of which England yet stands unrivalled, which combine 
 all the possible excellences of use with the most absolute perfec- 
 tion of finish, and which yet have not about them one single 
 line of ornament that is superfluous or meretricious. 
 
 An International Exhibition is the place to see variety of 
 national characteristics. Here you may meet, in the ever 
 moving and changing crowd, types of every section of the great 
 human family. In build, in gait, in feature, in complexion, in 
 costume, striking differences appear, stamping each individual 
 with the distinctive characteristics of his nation. Look around, 
 and you will see the same distinctive nationality of character 
 stamped upon the works that they produce. The Mongol does 
 not differ from the Malay, the Caucasian from the Negro, more 
 than does the character of the work of men’s hands differ when seen 
 side by side in a collection like this. There is as much dissimilarity 
 between the craftsmanship of a French ouvrier and that of an 
 English artisan as there is between the two individuals : the one 
 light, vivacious, revelling in fancy ; the other grave, firm of 
 purpose, not to be diverted from his aim. The character of the 
 mind is impressed, in a thousand unconscious peculiarities, upon 
 the wrought product, as graphiologists pretend to discover it in 
 the handwriting. No doubt types of work, as of men, may as- 
 similate, and at last shade off into each other by such infini- 
 tesimal gradations, that the line of division is lost ; but we can 
 always recognise the true and parent type ; we can always refer 
 undetermined characteristics to an original standard. In hand- 
 ling a gun, for instance, such as these best quality sporting ones 
 in Messrs. Webley’s case, we are able to say positively, “This is 
 English.’’ An English sportsman, who wants his fowling piece 
 to fulfil the conditions of good shooting, easy handling, safety, 
 perfect action, and durability, and at the same time would like 
 it to be a possession he could be proud of ; in material and 
 finish, the best of its kind ; in form and decoration, an object to 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 165 
 
 satisfy the demands of taste ; in short, a piece of perfect work- 
 manship from end to end, would here be exactly fitted. If he 
 wanted a work of art, he would not be exactly fitted ; but the 
 chances are, that he would rather contemn the notion of a work 
 of art in connection with the sports of the field. If he were a 
 French sportsman, he would want something that would please 
 the fancy as well as bring down game ; and then the French 
 ouvrier would fit him best. 
 
 It is in this sense that I refer to Messrs. Webley’s as a good 
 representative collection. The character of the work is just that 
 which is ordinarily to be found in the show-rooms of English 
 manufacturers, and which is well known in the markets to which 
 English arms find their way. It was, I must confess, an occasion 
 of great pride to me to find, in a miscellaneous collection of 
 articles, no doubt taken from stock, and certainly in no sense 
 manufactured for exhibition purposes alone, work turned out from 
 a house bearing no name of old renown, which would bear com- 
 parison with the very best of that exhibited purely for show, by 
 the most celebrated art-producing armourers of the Continent. 
 
 Messrs. Webley show double and single shot guns, match rifles, 
 military rifles, and revolvers, &c., and an express rifle, the trajectory 
 of which is so low, that it can be fired from 200 to 500 yards with 
 the same elevation of sight. They have also a good display of 
 the serviceable revolvers supplied by them for the Irish con- 
 stabulary. 
 
 Lancaster’s small collection comprises double guns in pairs, 
 matched to a nicety. The finish appears to be all that can 
 possibly be desired. From England we next pass into 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Here we seem at once to have glided back into the Middle 
 Ages. The few guns exhibited are such as might have been 
 carried by the chivalric warriors of Castile, when marching forth 
 to do battle with the Moors of Grenada ; or such as might have 
 formed part of the ship’s stores of Christopher Columbus, in 
 that adventurous expedition which was to result in the discovery 
 of a New World. Quaint, strange, and obsolete are they, as the 
 characters of some old manuscript scroll, disinterred from the 
 muniment chest of an ancient chapter-house. A\ ith their 
 long, heavy barrels, barbaric furniture, and stocks queerly 
 curved, the reverse way to that affected by us moderns, 
 they remind one of the primitive weapons carried by our 
 old" arquebusiers, who, in the “ musketry instruction ” of the 
 Ilythe of that day, were directed not to aim high, lest their 
 
166 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 missiles should fly over the heads of their foes ; yet to take 
 heed that, in aiming low, the bullets rolled not out of their guns. 
 We have nothing to do with these, for they are shown only as 
 curious antiques , and our business is with the manufactures of 
 to-day; so, with a passing regret that we cannot secure them for 
 some museum, we leave them and bend our steps for 
 
 France. 
 
 A perfect feast awaits us here. The best makers of Paris are 
 represented, and specimens of those wonderful armes de luxe , 
 for which that great emporium of taste is celebrated, are here in 
 abundance. Some of them are old acquaintances, having no 
 doubt travelled from Exhibition to Exhibition since the era of 
 those institutions set in ; but others bear the blush of newness 
 upon them, and show that the hand of the armourer artist has 
 lost none of its cunning. I described this class at some length 
 in my Report upon Guns in the Paris Exhibition ; and I could now 
 repeat, though the sobering influence of six years has passed over 
 me, the expressions of surprise, pleasure, and deep admiration 
 which they then excited. I despair of being able to convey to 
 my English fellow-artisans a notion of the delicious beauty of 
 these choice productions. They must understand that the motive 
 which inspired their producers was not that of turning out an 
 instrument to shoot with, but an object of art, an ornament for 
 the cabinet, the private armoury, or the museum. I can well 
 conceive an English workman, proud of his craft, and justly so, 
 pointing me to one of the masterpieces of a Richards, or a 
 Purday, and defying me to find anything in the world to beat it. 
 Very well, but here is a gun with more labour and more expense 
 lavished upon its pair of cocks than there is in all that piece. 
 The mere decoration of this gun must have cost hundreds of 
 pounds, not made up by using a lot of gold and silver, but by 
 the value alone of the labour expended upon it. I quite agree 
 with my friend, the workman, that it is none the better gun 
 for all this frippery ; but that is not the point. The intention 
 and motive of it is different ; and here, my friend, is the dis- 
 tinction between the idiosyncrasies of the French and English 
 industries. 
 
 Here is a specimen from the case of M. Gastinnc Rcnnette. 
 The stock is surface-carved with tendrils of the vine. That is, 
 from the smooth polished surface of the walnut there rises an 
 elaborate design in clear but subdued relief, carved out of the 
 solid wood, and running along both sides of the butt, in many 
 a graceful line of foliaged tracery, twining and intertwining, as 
 
Guns and Pistols. 167 
 
 though the fairy hand pictured by the Minstrel of the North had 
 placed it there, 
 
 i* Then framed a spell, when the work was done,” 
 
 and witched it into solidity. The lock-plates, the guard, the lever, 
 the breech, are all carved — not engraved, but sculptured out of 
 the solid steel and iron — into leafage thick and tangled ; little 
 animals peering out, or disporting themselves among the under- 
 growth ; and not a form or a line untrue to nature, or out of 
 harmony with the general design. A thievish stoat, with a bird 
 in his mouth, climbs up a forked branch, and this forms the 
 cock of the gun. Fancy the wealth of art- training, and the 
 weeks upon weeks of patient labour bestowed upon a piece of 
 work like this ! Then it is parcel-gilt, encrusted, damascened, 
 and decorated in every style known to art metal -work. Yet the 
 whole effect is not that of over-enrichment or gaudiness, as I 
 am afraid it would be, were we to attempt the like. If it has 
 one merit more conspicuous than another, it is that of being 
 superlatively chaste ; and that it has nothing false in art about 
 it is proved by the crucial test that not one scrap of the orna- 
 mental seems as though it could be spared, or taken away with- 
 out destroying the beauty and completeness of the design. 
 
 Here is another, from the Atelier of Le Page. The design is 
 more bold, the subject is larger, and the relief is higher. The 
 figures stand out more from the ground. If it were repousse 
 work, we should say they were detached from the field. Com- 
 pared with the one just described, it is as the daring, muscular 
 alto relievo of Cellini to the low, soft, delicate relief of that 
 great work of Morel Ladeuil. The theme is again sylvan, but 
 incidents of the field and wood, classic and modern, employ the 
 genius of the artist. A stag hunt rushes along the iron work in 
 the body of the gun, to end in the heavy breech. On the strap 
 of the heel-plate, which is carried all round the heel of the 
 gun, a group of nymphs are equipping Diana for the chase. 
 Where the stock is carved, it is cut into bodily — not as in the 
 last instance — with a design as it were superimposed. Again 
 the effect is manifestly harmonious, and in strict fidelity to art. 
 There is nothing overdone, or ignorantly done. Over all there 
 is the impress of that true instinctive taste which is a French- 
 man’s second nature. If the simile be not too bold and irre- 
 verent, I would liken such a work as this to the dress of a 
 Parisian belle, in which everything is so exquisitely in keeping, 
 that each part helps and sets oft the rest : in which the richest 
 materials never look vulgar, and the simplest never look common : 
 
168 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 in which the fair wearer, in short, looks as fittingly and natu- 
 rally encased, as does a bird in its feathers, or a moth in its 
 many-coloured coat of velvet down. 
 
 Le Page has some pistols, with ivory stocks, inlaid, which are 
 very delicate in their ornamentation. Indeed, the methods 
 of enriching arms are legion : marqueterie and niello work, in- 
 crustation, saw piercing, frosting, the association of different 
 metals, besides those which have been named before, and many 
 others which are peculiar and unique. What sort of guns they 
 were under all this dress, I could not of course judge by looking 
 at them under glass ; but, so far as I could see, they appeared to 
 be of the best materials, and of admirable finish. Though so 
 utterly different to anything in his own line, I feel sure that any 
 good English workman would linger over them with delight, and 
 would also come away with the idea that there were capabilities 
 in his trade which he had hitherto never dreamt of. 
 
 France has also a good display of merchantable arms, mostly 
 from St. Etienne, the principal seat of the trade, where the 
 Government factories are. Three private firms exhibit such guns 
 as are to be found in our gun-makers’ shops, of qualities and prices 
 to suit ordinary customers. The chief feature about them is, 
 that they seem to go in for outward appearance more than ours 
 do. Their stocks are varnished where ours are buffed up and oiled; 
 their barrels arc eaten up, where ours are plain brown ; their 
 furniture is superabundant, where ours is cut down to just what 
 is necessary. You never see in the French guns any of that 
 affectation of quaker-like simplicity which is becoming the 
 fashion in our best work. Probably with the same eye to effect, 
 the French gunsmith makes a speciality of his “twist.” * He 
 produces the greatest varieties of figure ; sometimes in geometric 
 lines as fine and as regular as lace- work ; sometimes a feathery 
 or clouded pattern, and sometimes an ollapodrida of all patterns 
 in a single barrel. Some of these figures are really beautiful ; 
 others are merely peculiar. 
 
 * “ Twist” means the peculiar configurations observable on the surface of the 
 barrels of good and best quality of guns ; is produced by the manipulation of 
 the iron (frequently iron and steel) of which the barrels are made. Used up 
 horse-nails are made up into a “ bloom,” which is hammered out into a series 
 of narrow, thin strips ; these, being laid over each other, are welded into a 
 square rod. This square rod is twisted into a screw, by an ordinary and simple 
 process. It is hammered out again into ribbon. This ribbon is wound round 
 a mandril into a spiral. This spiral is welded into a tube, which, eventually, 
 forms the barrel of the gun. On the barrel being finished by the workman, 
 acid applied to its surface operates on the softer parts of the iron out of which 
 the barrel is formed, and reveals the consequent effects of the repeated weldings and 
 twistings alluded to. Hence the reporter’s application of “ twist.” — Ed. B.A.R. 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 1 GO 
 
 Vi itli regard to construction, the Frenchman still affects, as 
 he did in 18G7, the hack-action lock, and the breech-lever 
 working under the barrel, in the place of the fore-end. There 
 are few of bar pattern, even among the best; and of the com- 
 moner sorts, there are none. I do not like the colour they put 
 upon their iron work, it is a nasty, dead, uniform gray; not 
 clouded, as our case-hardened work is. Neither could I feel 
 altogether pleased with the shapes; the best guns even did not 
 seem to have that beauty of contour which our English eyes are 
 accustomed to. As to soundness and quality of work, I could 
 form but little opinion. In one or two of the guns most expen- 
 sively got up, I noticed a slight gaping of the breech joint at face, 
 which would here be considered a fatal defect; beyond this, I 
 saw no fault to call for notice. Pondevaux, a first-class medal- 
 list of 1862, has a small useful collection of sporting guns, as 
 good to look at as any here. 
 
 The prices marked upon some are not such as to frighten us; 
 we could produce the same quality for less money. Middle 
 quality breech-loaders range from 300 to 450 francs — i.e., from 
 £12 to £18. 
 
 The only case I obtained access to was that of Galard, of 
 Paris. I should take him to be a good practical gun-maker, 
 who knew the points of a gun well, and had an enterprising and 
 inventive mind. He does not disdain the allurements of art: 
 for he has a few very respectable armes de luxe , but the bulk of 
 his small collection is of a useful character. The attendant took 
 a revolver to pieces, and put it together again, in my presence, 
 without using a single tool, The stock comes away by pressing 
 a spring underneath, and lifting it out of a break-off joint; the 
 unturning of a thumb-screw releases the spring; the side comes 
 away, having been partially retained in its position by the 
 stock; and then the limbs lift out one by one, none of them 
 being pinned in their places, but having axles, which work in 
 pivot holes. The one spring serves as mainspring, trigger- 
 spring, and lever-spring. It is as sound and strong as need be, 
 and boasts to have fewer limbs than any other revolver in exist- 
 ence. There is also an ingenious arrangement for extracting all 
 the cartridges together. 
 
 Crossing Italy, where there is nothing to detain us, unless we 
 are irresistibly arrested by that wondrous galaxy of marble 
 statues stretching across the nave, we come into the territory of 
 our great rival. 
 
170 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 This is an awkward division to examine, by reason that some 
 of the guns are here, and some are yonder in the Rotunda. It 
 is nothing like the display in the Paris Exhibition, either for 
 quality, variety, or extent. Bayet Freres are the principal ex- 
 hibitors, a name I remember in the compact and representative 
 Belgian Departments there. I have little to add to what I then 
 reported, viz., that, in all salient points, the Belgian work seems 
 like a copy of the French. They aim at the same kind of 
 artistic adornment, and in style, finish, and other respects, the 
 only thing that distinguishes their work from the French is a 
 certain indefinable air of inferiority, that somehow makes itself 
 felt, though the scrutineer might be puzzled to tell why. It is 
 not that this or that point is inferior in any marked degree ; but 
 there is a general drop, like that which -would appear in the copy of 
 a great picture, done by some inferior hand. Every line and tint of 
 the original may be there, faithfully and mechanically copied, but 
 the inspiration that gave it life and character is away. My im- 
 pression is confirmed that the Belgians are great copyists, little 
 more. They take up every new idea as it comes out, and some- 
 times plod away till they make a success out of it, but sometimes 
 they are found wearily following a lead that everybody but 
 themselves has abandoned long before. In one branch, how- 
 ever, — and this, again, is a thing I formerly remarked, — 
 they seem quite up to the times, viz., in the manufacture of 
 revolvers. Parts of these are shown, in various stages, from 
 the machines, and so nicely have the cutters performed their 
 work, that very little remains for the hand-filer to do. We 
 can see how it is that they have cut us out so completely in 
 this branch ; at least, in that part of it which consists in pro- 
 ducing a neat, handy implement, and a somewhat complicated 
 piece of mechanism, at a low price. They have had the start : 
 they have got their machinery into good working order, and on 
 a sufficiently large scale, and they have passed through all the 
 preliminary difficulties of getting labour into harmony with the 
 new conditions. There is nothing in all this that we could not 
 do if we tried ; but two or three fortunes would be sunk before 
 we could get into the market with them, and meanwhile they 
 are covering all the demand, and there is no inducement to try. 
 Thus it comes about that Belgium has all but a monopoly in 
 making a certain class of cheap revolvers ; a monopoly even 
 encouraged by our gun-makers, who purchase them largely in 
 the filed state, have them proved and finished in England, and 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 171 
 
 sell them as English-made. For the general market they suit 
 admirably well : they have a sharp, agreeable action, a neat 
 appearance, and present a great variety of construction. The 
 12-shot or 20-shot revolver is a bit of a wonder in its way, and 
 it would seem a greater wonder if the purchaser knew at what 
 price it was originally turned out from the warehouses of Liege. 
 National supremacies in particular walks of industry are often 
 begun in this way. An individual manufacturer, with more 
 ingenuity, courage, or foresight than the rest, begins a new 
 trade. Others round him follow him up directly they perceive 
 his successes. The thing grows, and before the world is aware, 
 they have got such a hold upon the market that it is worth 
 nobody’s while to go against them. 
 
 These revolvers are too light for military use, but the 
 Belgians are now turning their attention to producing strong, 
 serviceable weapons, and no doubt will, in time, compete with 
 us in all the markets. There is one exhibited which seems a 
 sensible, solid article. The stock turns up on a hinge, and then 
 the side-plate can be moved round on a pivot, leaving the works 
 exposed. It is handy for oiling, &c. This revolver boasts to 
 have fewer pieces than that of Gralard. 
 
 In the Belgian Department are some guns and parts of guns 
 made of phosphor-bronze, a rich-looking material, almost as 
 much so as aluminium bronze. On looking at the case and see- 
 ing such things as chisels, scissors, and other cutting instru- 
 ments, made of the same alloy, I wondered for a moment 
 whether the long buried secret of the bronze ages had been 
 brought to light again — the secret of tempering brass to bear an 
 edge, which it is said the older nations possessed when iron and 
 steel were unknown. I had no opportunity of finding out how 
 far it had been found applicable to such purposes ; but with 
 regard to its use in fire-arms, I was afterwards led to understand 
 that a few awkward explosions, occurring after the metal had 
 been supposed to be fully proved and tested, had effectually 
 exploded its pretensions. 
 
 The prices affixed to some of the guns seemed to me rather 
 high. A breech-loading double gun, very plain indeed, was 
 marked £6 ; a muzzle-loader of the same quality, £2 16s. I 
 am afraid there is not much reliance to be placed in these Exhi- 
 bition prices ; they probably do not represent the manufacturer s 
 wholesale prices, but the retail price of the shopkeeper, the 
 manufacturers’ wholesale customer, who would be offended if his 
 profits were exposed. I know an instance of a manufacturer 
 showing in an International Exhibition who was obliged to re- 
 
172 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 price all his goods at the dictum of a powerful customer, he 
 having innocently ticketed them, in the first instance, at the 
 price at which he sold to the said customer. 
 
 The military guns shown are of all conceivable systems, and if 
 they represent faithfully the work actually done in the factories, 
 their trade must be extensive and various indeed. I took down 
 the names of more than fifty different breech-loaders in one case, 
 muskets and carbines. It would be an utter waste of time for 
 me to describe them. Most of them are well known here ; in- 
 deed, some of them seemed to me very suspiciously like English 
 make. But if it were not strictly a case of manufacturers’ 
 patterns, but a collection of the best known arms, in the nature 
 of a museum, the sending it there was a piece of enterprise 
 which rather took the shine out of us. 
 
 The German Empire. 
 
 Some of the guns are in the Rotunda, and some in one of the 
 large annexes outside, where I very nearly missed seeing them. 
 Those in the Rotunda are sporting guns from Breslau, Berlin, 
 Lubeck, Frankfort, &c., with some military arms from Sommerde. 
 There is a good finish about the Prussian work, and also a con- 
 siderable amount of taste shown in the production of some few 
 armes de luxe , 'which are not copies of the French. Seschener 
 and Co. show some sporting guns that would have puzzled our 
 fathers, being without locks. It is a breech action, like the 
 Martini, and the lever does all the business. 
 
 In the Annexe is a great gun-barrel trophy, and a quantity of 
 guns, pistols, &c., made wholly of phosphor-bronze. If this 
 material be not suitable for barrels, it might be used for some 
 other parts which are not exposed to disintegration by repeated 
 strain. It is really handsome in appearance, and must be easier 
 to w r ork than wrought iron. 
 
 There is a pistol by Carl Limmerman, of Gotha, which, for 
 delicate ornamentation, is a perfect gem. The general remark 
 I have to make about the Prussian work is that it is very good, 
 and that, while it has the usual Continental style, it is not 
 a slavish copy. Though it has plenty of features that would 
 much please an English brother of the craft, it has few, I think, 
 that would much instruct him. 
 
 Pausing on our way a little to view Krupp’s monster guns, 
 which are in an opposite pavilion, we enter the building again, 
 and make our way for 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 173 
 
 Austria, 
 
 Which has far the greatest display in the Exhibition. Again we 
 revel in the charms of art, for here are plenty of those bcwil- 
 deringly magnificent things which seem to throw our sober 
 productions into the shade. I will not indulge myself by 
 describing them in detail, for to do them justice would stretch 
 out this Report to an inordinate length ; and I have a misgiving 
 that many of my professional readers would think such a subject 
 hardly “germane to the matter” of gun-making. I will content 
 myself with mentioning two, which struck me as having some- 
 thing peculiar in their ornamentation. One was a gun, with 
 ivory scrolls and figures, exquisitely carved, laid on to the stock, 
 and held there by screws. In combination with the enrichment 
 of the metal work, this had a novel and imposing effect. The 
 other was a pistol, the iron inlaid with gold in threads as fine 
 as filigree, all over it, in a chaste and beautiful design. It was 
 of hardened colour, and the mystery to me was, how they had 
 managed to heat it to hardening point without melting the gold. 
 
 In the general and extensive collection of sporting arms, there 
 are many whose finish would take the conceit out of us, but very 
 many more that would only excite our contempt. I never saw a 
 greater contrast in work than between the good and the bad 
 Austrian guns. Again and again I walked backwards and for- 
 wards from the French to the Austrian Department, unable to 
 decide whether the Austrians were below the French in art, so 
 nearly did they come up to that high standard. Long and fondly 
 did I linger over the exquisite workmanship of some of the 
 pieces, and wonder whether English hands could possibly excel 
 it. And yet, turning, perhaps, to the nearest adjoining case, I 
 saw the vilest examples of scamped and slovenly work it has 
 ever been my ill fortune to look upon. One cheap gun was 
 actually coming to pieces as it stood in the rack. If these are 
 exhibited to show that they are equal to either extreme of 
 quality, well and good. Otherwise, it is difficult to see what 
 object their exhibitors could have in view. 
 
 Large as it is, there is not much to gather from this depart- 
 ment. Some of the best work might give us a wrinkle, as, for 
 instance, the get-up of their barrels, ribbed all round, or rather 
 fluted, with chasing on the edges. It looks very rich, but, after 
 all, the style is most suitable to those ornamental arms in which 
 we take little delight. The general features of the Austrian 
 work are heaviness and richness. All are more or less showy, 
 and all are heavy and lumpy, especially about the butt. 
 
174 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 Leopold Gasser lias some useful-looking revolvers, made of 
 wrought iron, and bored out of the solid. Parts are shown in 
 the course of machining. One complete revolver appears as if 
 sawn down the middle, in longitudinal section, to show the 
 interior. The Austrian Government establishment sends a few 
 illustrative specimens of the service arm, system Werndl, and 
 also of the machinery employed in making them. A complete 
 assortment of cutters are set out, with the parts of guns, 
 swords, and bayonets, which have been shaped by their means. 
 Gun-making by machinery is now an established fact, in every 
 nation which professes to be at all military. This Exhibition 
 has put that matter beyond doubt — hand-made military arms are 
 things of the past. 
 
 After Austria “the back of the work is broken,” as George 
 Stephenson used to say. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 We come upon a small collection of military rifles, systems 
 Ivrink and Berdan. The Krink is something like the Snider, 
 but the block requires to be thrown over quickly, and then it 
 jerks out the cartridge case. Another fact the Exhibition 
 brings out strongly — that breech-loading is the universal order 
 of the day. Not a single national weapon is shown of the old 
 muzzle-loading type. The science of destruction has kept pace 
 with the other sciences, and the deadly breech-loader has 
 become one of the emblems of civilisation. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Has a very interesting military collection, hidden away in one of 
 the annexes. Specimens are shown of the most ancient weapons, 
 such as might have been used by the soldiers of Margaret, the 
 Semiramis of the North and wearer of the triple crown of 
 Scandinavia. Then we have, in regular series, the more modern 
 arms, from those which armed the conquering troops of Charles 
 XII. to the converted muzzle-loader, and finally to the bran- 
 new service-arm of to-day, made by machinery, and of one of 
 the many unimprovable systems in vogue. Both guns and 
 machinery are quite up to modern mark. 
 
 Turkey and the East 
 
 Send guns and pistols of ancient date, loaded with barbaric pearl 
 and gold, which carry us back to the regions of romance, but do 
 not give us any useful business information. 
 
Guns and Pistols. 
 
 175 
 
 “ The pistols which his girdle bore, 
 
 Were those that once a pacha wore ; 
 
 Which still, though gemmed and bossed with gold, 
 
 Even robbers tremble to behold.” 
 
 Such pistols might have clone very well for Ilassan, in his chase 
 after the Giaour, but they would cut a sorry figure in action 
 against those marvellous “ repeaters” that the Western Exhibi- 
 tors have shown us. These yataghans, scimitars, and long 
 ivory-mounted fusils remind us that we have passed from the 
 new world to the old : from progress to stagnation; from the 
 restless activity and bustling rivalry of the West, to the dreamy, 
 fatalistic, gorgeous immobility of the East. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 This brings us to the end of the building, and my task. It 
 may, however, be necessary to sum up with a few general 
 remarks. I regret much that my opportunities of observing 
 were limited to outside show, and I fear that this Report will be 
 of little value to technical readers on that account. So far as the 
 review extended, it led me to two conclusions. First, that there 
 has been no new development to speak of since 1867; and second, 
 that the relative position of the different nations shows little, if 
 any, change. The industry had then entered upon a new phase: 
 it was accommodating itself to two new conditions, that of 
 loading at the breech, and that of machine manufacture. 
 Both these have grown, and grown rapidly; as I have already 
 remarked, their adoption is almost universal. The period havS 
 been distinguished by a plentiful crop of patents for systems of 
 breech action, and so far invention has been active, and a healthy 
 stimulus kept up ; but the trade has passed through no organic 
 change, like that which culminated about the year of the Paris 
 Exhibition. 
 
 I must confess to being vexed at seeing my own country so 
 scantily represented. But for the contribution of Messrs. 
 Webley, we should have been almost snuffed out. Whatever 
 reasons operate to prevent manufacturers exhibiting — and it is 
 not my business to go into them — the effect is to convey a 
 thoroughly false impression to a casual observer. Judging from 
 what he saw, he would probably arrange the gun-making nations 
 in a series, with Austria at the top, and England nearly at the 
 bottom. Perhaps the mistaken notions of any number of casual 
 observers are of little consequence ; but if these Exhibitions have 
 any useful purpose, it must be in presenting a faithful picture 
 of the industries of the world ; so that the nations may mutually 
 
176 
 
 Guns and Pistols. 
 
 instruct each other, and that all may know what progress has 
 been made in the arts of life. The burden of carrying out this 
 object should not, I think, be left to individuals, but should rest 
 a little on the public shoulders. The ideal 'way of carrying it 
 out would seem to be, that the Governments of the nations should 
 enter into a kind of partnership for the purpose ; arrange with 
 each other where, and at what time, the International gathering 
 should take place ; guarantee each other against loss ; and then, 
 each for itself, lend the utmost encouragement to its people to 
 exhibit and visit there. If half the glowing things that arc 
 always said about these Exhibitions be true, one could scarcely 
 conceive a better use of the public money than in promoting 
 them. Anyhow, it would be a graceful act, both to the exhibiting 
 nation, and to its own subjects, if each Government were to help 
 intending exhibitors, and relieve them of part of the enormous 
 trouble and cost. 
 
 I see no reason to reverse the conclusion I came to at Paris, 
 that there is nothing in the displays of the competing nations to 
 give us cause for alarm, In such progress as has been made, we 
 all seem to have been keeping pace together. The remark I 
 made then I now repeat, that they beat us in their speciality, 
 and we beat them in ours. The bugbear of foreign competition 
 has long ceased to have any terrors for me. Healthy competition 
 I hope we shall always have ; but that whose black shadow has 
 been held over us ever since I can remember, and which was 
 always coming to swallow us up utterly, I do not believe in. 
 Each Exhibition I see convinces me afresh, that though England 
 has worthy competitors, she is quite able to hold her own. 
 
Labour Saying Machines. 
 
 By HENRY FOWLER, Associated Reporter , Practical Superintendent 
 of Machinery ( Messrs . IF. Blews and Son , Birmingham). 
 
 rpO furnish a detailed Report upon Labour Saving Machines in 
 JL the Vienna Exhibition would take more weeks than I had 
 days at my disposal (neither do I consider an explicit description 
 of all machines necessary, even though they are specially adapted 
 to Birmingham manufacturers ; I shall, therefore, confine myself 
 to noticing the progress made, either in England or elsewhere, 
 since my visit to the Paris Exhibition. 
 
 On entering the Machinery Hall at the Vienna Exhibition, I 
 found myself in the department occupied by the United States of 
 America. I was surprised to find so small a space allotted to a 
 country which produces, if not the best machines in the world, 
 certainly stands second to none, and, it must be admitted, turns 
 out machinery of faultless workmanship, of modern design, and 
 tools of the newest and best description — a fact which is proved 
 by the number of Continental manufacturers making tools 
 exactly the same as their (American) patterns, as well as some 
 of our own, a few of which I shall presently refer to. 
 
 America. 
 
 Messrs. Sharp and Brown, and also the Pratt and Whitney 
 Company, both exhibit their excellent universal milling machines 
 for making cutters and spiral drills of every description ; also 
 their screw-making machines, to both of which I referred in my 
 Report of the Paris Exhibition. Both these firms send a few 
 machines for gun-work, which consists of milling, drilling, and 
 profiling machines: the workmanship and proportions of the 
 whole invite the scrutiny of the most biassed competitor. 
 
 Messrs. Sellers and Co. show a very superior wheel-cutting 
 machine for spur or worm-gearing. The frame that carries the 
 spindle in the cutter, either vertical or spur, or at any angle, for 
 worm wheels travels in a horizontal direction, with a quick run- 
 ning back motion, when the work moves by a self-acting arrange- 
 ment for another tooth to be cut. By the use of change wheels, 
 any pitch may be got ; the shape of the tooth is not turned to a 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 Labour Saving Machines . 
 
 template on the cutter in the ordinary way, but is cut on a 
 machine (not exhibited), which ensures the correct shape at the 
 back as well as the front of the tooth, as it cuts the clearance. 
 As the tooth of the cutter is ground on the front by an emery 
 lap, the true shape of the cutter is always preserved. 
 
 Baxter I). Whitney exhibits a complete set of machines for making 
 ordinary house-buckets, a detailed description of which would 
 occupy too much space. I may, however, just mention, that the 
 staves are cut to the required taper, then hollowed out for the 
 inside, then ploughed on one edge and tongued on the other, put 
 together, turned inside, grooved for the bottom, turned outside, 
 and the bottom cut out and levelled on the edge, entirely by 
 machinery. 
 
 England. 
 
 The next Department is Great Britain. Here are wood-cutting 
 machines for builders, joiners, and cabinet-makers’ work. England 
 is still in the front rank, but how long it may remain so is difficult to 
 calculate. Although its superiority to all other countries in design 
 and mechanical arrangements is obvious, its strides have not been 
 so great as either Belgium, United Germany, or Austria. This may 
 be accounted for, perhaps, in two ways ; the first, and most likely, 
 is, the nearer a thing approaches perfection the less striking is any 
 improvement ; secondly, United Germany now numbers among 
 its own, many manufacturers who at the time of the Paris 
 Exhibition were French exhibitors. It would be difficult to 
 say which of the following in this class of machinery makes the 
 best display, as the workmanship and design are equally 
 meritorious. One firm points out an improvement in one, 
 and another in another place. Worsam and Co., of Chelsea, 
 show a new machine for making the diamond and triangular 
 pieces for parquetry flooring, &c., cutting them with the greatest 
 precision, grooving and tonguing them at the same time. 
 
 Bobinson and Sons, of Bochdale, exhibit a moulding machine 
 for cutting circles or irregular shapes, specially adapted for 
 cabinet-makers. The spindle in this case is placed vertical on 
 a moveable frame on the top of the bench, and carries a double- 
 edged cutter ; the motion of the spindle can be easily reversed 
 by the operator to suit the grain of the wood. This firm also 
 show a dovetailing machine, in principle the same as one shown 
 by an American firm at Paris, but with several improvements, 
 among which is, the pitch of the dovetail can be altered by the 
 same leading screw. 
 
 Powis, James, and Co., of Lambeth, London, send a wood- 
 
Labour Saving Machines . 
 
 170 
 
 planing machine, the front of which is hung on hinges, so that 
 it swings back out of the way when it is necessary to get at the 
 cutter block. Underneath, attached to this machine, is an ex- 
 hausting fan, which receives the chips and blows them through 
 pipes into the stoke-hole of the boiler. This firm also contribute 
 a band saw to cut at almost any angle while the table remains 
 horizontal. The principle of this machine appears to be copied 
 from one shown by Dupriez, of Paris, at the Exhibition of 1867, 
 but has considerable improvements, and is much better made. 
 
 llansome and Co., of Chelsea, London, show an excellent 
 double tenoning machine, which can be so adjusted as to cut 
 tenons any distance apart and any length or thickness, the 
 shoulders equal or unequal as required. This firm also show 
 a morticing machine, the novelty of which consists in its being 
 able to reverse the tool without stopping the machine. This is 
 done by means of a small gut pulley placed on the top of the upper 
 bearingt ; he spindle carrying the chisel moves freely through 
 the pulley in a vertical direction ; a gut band, or rope, passes 
 round this over two guide pulleys to the shaft underneath ; two 
 stops are placed in this upper pulley in opposite positions, 
 preventing it from turning round, the gut, or rope, being slack 
 enough to slip until the workman releases the stop, when it in- 
 stantly moves half-way round. This machine travels more than 
 double the ordinary speed of morticing machines, in consequence 
 of not having to stop to reverse the tool, which greatly assists 
 the chisel in clearing out the core. All these firms exhibit band 
 and other sawing machines, also machines for planing, moulding, 
 morticing, tenoning, and general joinery, the workmanship and 
 design of which exceed all others shown. 
 
 Gr. L. Scott, Manchester, sends a machine for moulding large 
 spur, mitre, bevel, mortice, crown, and worm wheels. It consists 
 of a hollow iron spindle, working on a pin fired in the sand. 
 This spindle supports an adjustable radial arm, at the end of 
 which is an adjustable vertical spindle ; fixed to the bottom end 
 of this is a pattern of two or more teeth. This spindle is pro- 
 vided with a stop to regulate the depth the pattern can sink 
 into the sand : the spindle is lowered to the stop ; the sand is 
 then rammed between the teeth ; the spindle containing the 
 pattern is then wound up by a worm and wheel motion (which 
 prevents it running back). The centre spindle which carries the 
 whole of the machine is surmounted by a spur wheel, to which 
 is connected a dividing apparatus, with change wheels to regu- 
 late the pitch. This is turned round one or more divisions. 
 The front spindle is then lowered to the stop, and the operation 
 
180 
 
 Labour Saving Machines. 
 
 repeated. In the case of worm, bevel, or mortice wheels, a 
 separate tool is used at the bottom of the front spindle to carry 
 the pattern at any required angle. 
 
 A boiler rivet-making machine by C. de Bergue and Co., 
 Manchester, commands special attention. This consists of a 
 strong cast-iron disc about 2 ft. diameter, revolving at from four 
 to five revolutions per minute. On the edge of the disc are 
 inserted eight steel discs for holding the rivets. The hammer 
 carrying the die for shaping the head is worked by a strong 
 crank. At each eighth of a revolution of the disc, the hammer 
 comes down once, exactly corresponding with the position of the 
 die in the disc ; but a peculiar motion is given to this hammer 
 by a cam which causes it to follow for a moment the rotary 
 motion of the disc. An eccentric inside the disc forms the 
 resistance for the hammer, and also pushes the rivet out when 
 it arrives at the bottom. A pair of shears, worked at double 
 the speed of the hammer, is attached to cut off the “blanks,” 
 which gives time for changing the bars, and, thus a suffi- 
 cient supply of blanks is always kept up. This machine 
 makes thirty-five rivets per minute. 
 
 Sharp, Stewart, and Co., of Manchester, exhibit a novel 
 machine for shaping the inside of the rim of railway wheels. 
 It consists of a tool fixed on one end of a rocking lever, the 
 other end connected to a stud in the driving wheel. This 
 gives a curved motion to the tool equal to the length of the arm. 
 The wheel is placed on a horizontal table which has a worm and 
 wheel motion for the feed. The machine is very compact and 
 well-finished. 
 
 Passing over the departments allotted to France, Switzerland, 
 and Italy, where I saw nothing worthy of special notice, brought 
 me to the Belgium Department. I found there several steam 
 engines of excellent workmanship and design, with many 
 improvements ; but as it is not my province to report on this 
 class of machinery, I shall confine myself to the remarks I 
 have made. 
 
 Exhibitors in Belgium, Sweden, and United Germany. 
 
 The firm of Bead and Co. of Yerviers, exhibit a duplex lathe 
 of excellent workmanship, but an exact copy of Messrs. Whit' 
 worths’ of Manchester. 
 
 The firm of Munktoll, of Eskilstuna, Sweden, exhibit a three- 
 spindle drilling machine, and overhead motion, with friction 
 driving pulley, exactly like those made by Sharp and Brown, 
 of America. 
 
1S1 
 
 Labour Saving Machines. 
 
 Gschwindt and Co., of Baden, exhibit wood-cutting machinery 
 in general, among which arc planing machines for hard wood; 
 these have rollers carrying knives in a diagonal direction on the 
 top of the work. I had not an opportunity of seeing the machine 
 in operation, but the work that was left in the machine was well 
 done. This machine had an adjustable feed motion, which con- 
 sisted of a disc, driving a roller from its surface ; a screw on the 
 end of the spindle carrying the roller renders it capable of being 
 pushed nearer to or further from the centre of the disc ; this 
 of course alters the speed of the roller, although the disc travels 
 at a uniform speed. The whole of these machines were strong 
 and well made. 
 
 A very excellent machine was shown by A. Estcrer, Altot- 
 ting, Baiern, for planing twisted flutes in stone columns, 
 &c. This was similar to an iron planing machine in its con- 
 struction. The work is held in chucks at each end, supported on 
 metal bearings ; attached to ono end is a toothed wheel which 
 gears into a rack, working transversely with the table of the 
 machine; one end of the rack is made to slide longitudinally 
 along a bar placed horizontal at the side of the machine ; this 
 bar has a joint at one end, and the other end can be adjusted to 
 any angle with the bed of the machine. As the work travels 
 backwards and forwards past the tool, the rack slides up and 
 down the bar, which gives it a transverse reciprocating motion, 
 which, conveyed to the wheel attached to the chuck, also 
 gives a similar motion to the work. This arrangement is pre- 
 cisely the same as a gun-rifling machine, and only produces 
 the twist on the work; but in case of columns where the line or 
 surface is not straight, another motion is required to keep the 
 flutes an equal depth ; this is accomplished by means of a flat 
 iron bar fixed edgeways and parallel with the work ; the edge of 
 this bar is made the same profile as the work : a roller fixed to the 
 vertical slide of the tool-holder works on the edge of this bar, 
 which causes the tool to rise and fall according to the shape of 
 the work, the roller being kept down by a weight on a lever at 
 the back of the tool-holder." 
 
 Ludw, Loewe, and Co. exhibit a screw-cutting lathe, universal 
 milling machine, screw making-machines, and friction driving 
 pulleys, all of excellent workmanship, but exactly the same 
 design as Sharp and Brown of America. 
 
 Ateliers Ducomman, Mulhausen, Alsace, also show similar 
 machines. 
 
 Wagner and Co., of Dortmund, send a very good machine for 
 drilling three elongated holes at the same time through rail- 
 
182 
 
 Labour Saving Machines . 
 
 way metals for the bolts of the chair. The frame carrying the 
 three horizontal spindles is made to travel backwards and for- 
 wards by means of a connecting rod on a stud fixed to a disc, 
 with a slot to adjust the stroke, while the spindles are pushed 
 forward by the feed motion. They also exhibit a machine for 
 squaring the ends off, and a very powerful machine for bending 
 and setting rails ; also an excellent combined screwing, tapping, 
 and facing machine, and other machinery for similar purposes ; 
 all well made. 
 
 Many other firms in Germany, Austria, and Belgium contri- 
 bute all kinds of machines of the Manchester patterns, and of 
 equal workmanship, such as radial and other drilling machines, 
 boring, slotting, shaping, planing, and heavy w T heel-cutting 
 machines. 
 
 Steam hammers were shown by English, German, Austrian, 
 and Belgian manufacturers. The only new feature I noticed in 
 this class of tools is, that most of the makers now make much 
 smaller steam hammers, suitable for ordinary smiths’ shops, than 
 have been shown inTprevious Exhibitions. Davis J. Primrose, of 
 Leith, and the Kirkstall Forge Company exhibit some very 
 simple hammers of this description. 
 
 Sewing machines were shown in such abundance by almost all 
 countries, that to make a fair report of them w r ould occupy the 
 whole time and attention of a special reporter. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 I will conclude with a few remarks on the Viennese workmen. 
 I visited an engineer’s and machinist’s workshop connected with 
 the Austrian Commission. My attention was drawn to the 
 peculiar stiffness or want of mobility which characterises all 
 Continental workmen in all branches of my trade. The smith 
 at the anvil, the fitter at the vice, lack the elasticity and spring 
 of the English mechanic. 
 
Railway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 By FREDERICK C. COWNEY, Birmingham . 
 
 I N commencing to give a detailed Report of the Railway 
 Carriage and Wagon Department at the International Ex- 
 hibition at Vienna, I must, in the first place, solicit your kind 
 indulgence, inasmuch as it is my first attempt at anything of 
 the kind. The subject is of vast importance to the commercial 
 world, and requires somewhat careful handling. It is patent to 
 all that, as civilisation advances — and it advances with rapid 
 strides — the power of steam will assuredly follow in its wake, if, 
 indeed, it is not concomitant with civilisation itself. The birth- 
 place of steam-power is England, where it has developed rapidly 
 in almost every branch of industry. The railway interest is 
 spreading over the face of the earth, and like its sister, the 
 electric telegraph, the time is evidently coming when there will 
 be a perfect network of the railway system. England, at one 
 time, it is well known, was the only workshop for railway rolling 
 stock, but now other countries have joined in the race more, 
 especially America and the Continent of Europe ; and it behoves 
 this country to watch keenly that which is passing around her, 
 in order to hold her own. 
 
 I will now give my “impression ” of the railway rolling stock 
 between Antwerp and the city of Vienna. AVc left the former 
 city on the third of July, by rail. The carriages, which are 
 strongly constructed, are sombre and heavy-looking in appear- 
 ance. The third class carriages inside arc painted to imitate 
 oak, the partitions framed and panelled ; are not so comfortable 
 to travel in as those in this country. The seats are made a 
 convenient shape ; the backs are made hollow, which is tiring to 
 the system for very long journeys. The “ hoop sticks,” or roof 
 supports, are of iron, something after the following diagram pi, 
 and placed very close together, in some cases as many as six in 
 a compartment. The roof-boards are very narrow, and screwed 
 from the inside. The doors are lapplated from top to bottom. 
 The standing pillars have a strip of leather nailed down the 
 inside, in order to keep out all the draught, which is indis- 
 pensable for comfort in railway travelling. The doors are secured 
 
184 
 
 Bcdlway Carriage and Wagon Building . 
 
 with locks, the handles of this shape i — , and Spanish latches; 
 the commode handles run along the elbow rails and down the 
 standing pillars, within nine inches of the bottom. The guard 
 of the train walks along the step hoards, holding by the com- 
 mode handles, and examines the tickets while the train is in 
 motion, a system worthy of adoption in this country in many 
 respects, more especially as there are times when the guard’s 
 services are required before the train can be brought to a stand- 
 still, as in case of robbery or violence. The first and second 
 class carriages are far superior to those in this country for 
 comfort. The fastest trains very seldom exceed thirty miles an 
 hour, in consequence of the numerous curves and inclines, some 
 of which are very sudden, the engine of the trains, in some 
 instances, having to be assisted up by means of a wire rope, 
 which is worked by a stationary engine. The railways, however, 
 have a very neat appearance ; the metals are laid upon oak 
 sleepers, and secured by means of a “dog-head” bolt, there 
 being no “chairs,” as is the system in this country. There are 
 lavatories to most trains, which is very convenient in travelling 
 long journeys. 
 
 On arriving at the Exhibition, I proceeded to the Machine 
 Hall, which is half a mile in length, where most of the railway 
 carriages and wagons are exhibited. There is not a single rail- 
 way carriage or wagon exhibited in the British Department that 
 I could find, while Austria and most other Continental countries 
 are well represented. I walked round all the carriages and 
 wagons I could find, and to my surprise I found them all locked. 
 I had several keys with me, but they were useless, as their locks 
 arc very different to ours, so I contented myself with examining 
 the outside. They are all very heavy-looking-coaches, and 
 mostly panelled with iron, and generally painted of a very dark 
 colour. The composite carriage, in most cases, supposing it to 
 contain one first and two second class compartments, the first 
 class in the middle, is painted yellow, and the second class green. 
 There is no heraldry, nor a single garter of any description 
 whatever on these, and in some cases not a fine line to be seen. 
 The countries which exhibit are Austria, Prussia, America, and 
 Russia. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Prag Fern Ringhoffer, carriage and wagon builder, exhibits a 
 sleeping saloon. This coach is 23 ft. long, 8 ft. 8 in. wide, at 
 the elbow rails turning under about 3 in., gradually diminishing 
 from the elbow rail. The framework is made of oak, and 
 
185 
 
 Railway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 covered with sheet-iron panels, the panels having a very level 
 surface. The doors arc lapplated from top to bottom with very 
 heavy lapplate, measuring 1 in. The hinges arc very strong and 
 well made, measuring 3 in. by 4 in., the bottom one larger in pro- 
 portion to the turn-under of the body. The doors are prevented 
 from opening too far to damage the body by a round-headed iron 
 pin, which shuts against another with an india-rubber head. 
 These pins arc placed very close together, causing a great 
 leverage on the hinges, which in time will cause them to work 
 loose. The doors are secured by locks and Spanish latches; the 
 latches are placed very close to the bottom of the door, so that 
 it is impossible for the passengers to open them inside without the 
 assistance of the guard. The commode handles are made of 
 brass, running along the elbow rails and 18 in. down the standing 
 pillar, so that the guard can hold by them and walk along the 
 side of the train, to examine the tickets while the train is in 
 motion. There is a zinc gutter fixed to the cornice of the body, 
 to receive the water, carried off by means of a spout which runs 
 down the end of the body. The body overhangs the carriage sides 
 6 in., the ends 1J in., and stands 1 in. above the carriage, sup- 
 ported by four iron brackets, which are riveted to the side of the 
 carriage. The sides of the carriage are made of iron, this 
 shape I, measuring 9 in. by 3 in.; thickness of iron, f in. The 
 head stocks and bars are made of oak : head stocks, 9 in. 
 by 4 in.; middle bars, 9 in. by 4 in.; longitudinals, 9 in. by 3 in.; 
 diagonals, 9 in. by 3 in. There is a kind of an elliptic spring in 
 the centre of the carriage, to which each draw bar is attached ; 
 also six stepboard irons each side, three of which carry treads as 
 well as the stepboards ; the stepboards are carried past the end 
 of the carriage 1 ft. 2 in., and are 11 in. by 2 in. The treads 
 are made of sheet-iron well jagged ; the head stocks have cast- 
 iron end caps of a neat pattern. The guards are riveted to the 
 bottom edge of the carriage side ; the scroll irons arc put on in 
 the same way ; the bearing springs contain eight plates, 3 in. by 
 4 in. The draw-bar hooks and couplings are cleanly forged, and 
 the couplings are well screwed. The side chains contain five 
 links, the one nearest the hook being a round one, the other 
 being the usual shape. The buffer castings stand out 1 ft. 2 in. 
 from the head stock ; the buffer rods measuring 2£ in. in dia- 
 meter ; the springs for the buffers are in the castings. 
 
 The inside of the carriage is fitted up with great taste, and of 
 very good materials. There is a passage through the centre of the 
 carriage from one end to the other. The roof does not show any 
 “ hoop sticks ;” it is covered with drab cloth, and moulded round 
 
186 JRailivay Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 the sides and ends by a 9-in. moulding of walnut. It is divided 
 into panels by 1-in. mouldings. The sides and ends arc padded 
 and closely studded within 8 in. of the roof. The seats face each 
 other, and are supported by turned legs. There are two cushions 
 to each seat, the under ones being framed, so that they will draw 
 out and meet each other to form a mattress ; the cushions may 
 be drawn together. The backs, which are divided in the centre 
 and hinged, are let down to form a pillow, and when complete 
 make a very comfortable bed. The elbows are of an oval shape 
 and hinged, and are padded top and bottom. There are anti- 
 macassars to prevent the trimming being soiled by the head ; as 
 they get dirty, they are changed for fresh ones, which gives to 
 the carriage a fresh and pretty appearance. It is provided with 
 nets and rods ; the rods arc made of iron, and are gilt. There 
 is a silver-plated match-box with matches provided for each 
 person. The glass frames in the doors are made to lift up and 
 down. There are some pieces of walnut framing round the lights, 
 which are worked with springs, and as the light is lifted up it 
 will hold it in any desired position, which prevents all jarring, 
 keeps out all draught, and gives to the door a finished appearance. 
 The doors are provided with blue silk blinds, which are worked 
 by means of a spring roller. The carriage is supplied with hot 
 and cold water, which the passengers turn on at their pleasure. 
 There is a van attached to the train with apparatus for heating 
 the water while on the journey : the water is conveyed by means 
 of pipes to each coach. It is also supplied with a lavatory. 
 The walnut used in the interior is most beautifully figured, the 
 trimmings are very tasty, and the workmanship good throughout. 
 There is also a covered goods wagon, with sliding doors which 
 run on rollers, exhibited by Austria. The framework is of oak, 
 the “sheeting” of pitch pine. Both the wood and iron-work 
 are most beautifully got up. The whole of the iron-work and 
 springs are polished, and shine like silver ; it looks very well 
 indeed, but would not do for general use, as the iron would soon 
 get very rusty. It in other respects contains no special feature. 
 A coal wagon got up in a like manner is also exhibited. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Exhibits a sleeping saloon, a third class carriage, and one 
 wagon. The saloon is a large and heavy looking carriage, with 
 a platform at each end, and two doors. The body has a passage 
 through the centre. The framework is made of oak, covered 
 with iron panels, and has a turn-under of about 3 in., which 
 overhangs the carriage sides 1 ft. 6 in. The body is supported 
 
187 
 
 Bailway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 by seven iron brackets riveted to the carriage sides. The car- 
 riage sides are made of iron. The head stocks, bars, tables, 
 and longitudinals are made of oak. The wheels are made of iron ; 
 buffer rods with solid heads, the rod measuring 2| in. The body 
 is painted lake colour, mouldings black, picked out with ver- 
 milion. The carriage or under-frame is painted black, with 
 not a single line to relieve it. 
 
 The carriage is divided into three sections : sitting room, 
 sleeping compartment, and lavatory — the lavatory in the centre. 
 The coach is heated by means of a stove. The sitting room is 
 fitted up with two chairs, couches, and seats, with a small table 
 in the centre; couches and seats trimmed with scarlet plush 
 edged with silver and scarlet lace of a pretty design ; the table 
 is covered with a blue cloth, and moulded round the edge. The 
 trimming of the compartment is very tasty, and the material 
 used of very good quality ; the floor covered with a carpet to 
 match the trimming ; the roof covered with painted canvas of 
 a neat pattern, divided into panels. The doors which divide the 
 different compartments are veneered with walnut, and slide on 
 rollers. The compartment also contains tw T o cupboards and a 
 mirror, and at night is lighted up by four lamps, each having 
 two burners. The net rods are made of iron, and gilt. There 
 are two glass frames to each door, one of which is balanced by 
 weights. There is no ventilation whatever when the lights are 
 up. The sleeping compartment is divided into four sections, 
 with a passage through the centre. It contains sleeping accom- 
 modation for ten persons. The beds are placed one above the 
 other; these are hinged and supported by straps. The upper 
 beds are reached by means of a pair of small steps. The beds 
 have no pillows for the head. There is a small shelf, supported 
 by hinged brackets, for the use of the occupants. In other 
 respects it is fitted up similar to the other compartment before 
 mentioned. The third class and wagon have no special feature 
 to recommend them. 
 
 Russia also exhibits another coach by a Prussian maker for 
 Russia (I. C. Reifort and Co., Rockenheim). This carriage is 
 10 metres long by 3 metres wide, oak-framed, with iron 
 panels. The body overhangs the carriage sides 1 ft. G in.; the 
 body is supported by three springs each side, under-frame fixed 
 to the carriage sides. The carriage is entirely made of iron, and 
 carried by three pairs of wheels with bearing springs. The 
 buffers have elliptic springs. The construction of the coach is 
 called American and German. It differs from the other car- 
 riages in having a passage down the side, so that it shall not 
 
188 
 
 Bailway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 divide the carriage into two parts. It has a lavatory and stove 
 at each end, with a small compartment for the guard. The 
 lights may be covered up with a kind of padded shutter, to ex- 
 clude all light and draught ; it will seat twenty pasengers and 
 sleep ten ; it is fitted up with mahogany and scarlet plush, with 
 blue silk curtains for the windows, and it is ventilated by an ap- 
 paratus in the roof. The coach is painted. green and suitably 
 fine lined. 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 Hernalser Wagon Works, Aktien and Co., Vienna, exhibit 
 a specimen of a two-story third class carriage. Both stories are 
 very low, it being impossible to stand upright. The idea is to 
 economise labour, and to use up short timber which cannot be 
 used for ordinary coaches. There are steps at the end of the 
 coach to ascend to the second story ; they take away a great 
 deal of the room gained by having another story. The inside is 
 painted and grained to imitate oak ; the seats are down the 
 sides, wfith a passage through the centre of each storey. The 
 workmanship throughout is very rough. The carriage presents 
 a very ugly appearance to the eye ; a very little is gained by the 
 second story, and what is gained is to the discomfort of the 
 passengers. 
 
 America 
 
 Exhibits an American tramway car, manufactured by J. 
 Stephenson and Co. (under Young’s patent), New York. This 
 is a very compact-looking car, and does not differ very much from 
 those that were built at the Metropolitan Bailway Carriage 
 Works for Dublin. The American car does not carry outside 
 passengers, whereas those built for Dublin do. Length of the 
 body, 16 ft.; of platform, 3 ft. 6 in.; width of body at light rail, 
 7 ft. 7^ in.; width at waste rail, 7 ft. 2} in.; at bottom, 6 ft. 1 in. 
 There is a platform at each end and a door, eight lights each 
 side of the car, with neat landscapes painted above them edged 
 with gilt mouldings. There are two movable lights at the end 
 of car protected by three bars. The seats run down each side of 
 the car, supported by four turned legs 1J in. in diameter, which 
 are boarded and covered by movable cushions of green plush; 
 the backs of the seats are trimmed with the same material. 
 There is a caboose in the centre of the roof 7 ft. 9 in. long by 
 3 ft. 10 in. wide. The roof is supported by 18 hoop sticks made 
 of ash and framed 9 in. apart, with two stronger to support the 
 caboose. The roof contains a great amount of work occasioned 
 by the caboose. The side lights and blinds — the blinds made of 
 
189 
 
 Railway Carriage and Wagon Building . 
 
 pine — lift up and down ; when up arc secured by springs, very 
 awkward for the passengers to adjust, who must frequently get 
 their fingers pinched. An iron rod runs along each side of the 
 caboose to strengthen the roof ; leather straps arc attached to it 
 for the accommodation of the passengers to hold by w’hen getting 
 in and out ; and a mirror and paraffin lamp at each end of the 
 body. The lamp is a patent one, by F. 13. De Keravenen (patent 
 assigned to J. II. Bailey and G. A. Jones). The lamp works by 
 means of clockwork, working a small fan, which supplies air so 
 that the lamp will burn without the aid of a glass chimney. 
 The floor of the car is neatly carpeted. The strongest part of the 
 framing is made of oak ; the pole is made so that it will fit each 
 end of the car. The brake handles, commode, and all the door 
 furniture is silver plated. The wheels are Baddin’s Elastic Car 
 Wheels (Lynn, Massachusetts); the brake is worked by means of 
 cross levers. The middle panels are painted yellow ; the top 
 and bottom panels white fine lined to match ; in the centre 
 panel there is a painting of Grace Darling. The workmanship 
 is good throughout, with the exception of the painting, in which 
 there is plenty of room for improvement. 
 
 Model Hospital Car. 
 
 Facsimile of the railway car employed during the late civil 
 war in America used by the United States Sanitary Commission 
 for the transportation of the sick and wounded. The model 
 shows a system of heating and ventilation, and represents in 
 its general construction an ordinary American passengers’ rail- 
 way carriage ; scale 1 in. to the foot. Length of body, in- 
 cluding platforms, 14 ft. 11 in.; width of body, 2 ft. in.; 
 the roof overhangs the body 6 in., the platform 7£ in. ; the 
 sides of the coach are straight. There is a caboose running 
 almost the whole length of the body, and twenty lights on each 
 side, with Venetian blinds. It contains thirty beds in tiers of 
 two, one above the other, swung on india-rubber bands. There is 
 a surgery, with a medical chest and every necessary for medical 
 use, with boiler for hot and cold water, and washing apparatus. 
 The body is carried on two “boggy ” carriages at almost the 
 extreme ends of the car. The space between the boggies is 
 strengthened by iron girders. The wheels are made of iron. The 
 body is painted brown picked out with gold. On each side appro- 
 priate subjects are painted, i.e., an Angel visiting the wounded 
 on the battle-field ; a Nurse administering medicine to a sick 
 soldier ; American Eagle; Charity. It is a very good model, every 
 thing throughout being well arranged, with great care and taste, 
 
190 
 
 Bailway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 and must have proved a great blessing to the sick and wounded 
 in that disastrous war. 
 
 Welch’s Kailway Cattle, Sheep, and Horse-retreshment 
 
 Trucks. 
 
 No. 1. — The model represents an ordinary cattle truck, 
 and is equally adapted for the traffic in store or fat cattle. It 
 is constructed with a variety of plans for the refreshment and 
 stalling of cattle. In practical use one plan only would be adopted 
 in each truck. The animals can be loaded in loose order, as is 
 customary at present, which utilises the greatest available space 
 in a truck, and animals avoid fatigue by changing their positions 
 occasionally. The water troughs extend entirely around the 
 truck, doors included, enabling each animal to drink in comfort. 
 The sliding partition across the truck prevents the load of cattle 
 from pressing to one point of the truck ; it permits them to be 
 sorted, separates them into two bodies, and prevents the risk 
 of damage from crowding. The animals can be loaded or 
 unloaded from either side of the truck. The valve to supply the 
 water to the troughs is worked from either side, and by one 
 operation fills all the troughs, as the pipes retain no water 
 in them, it cannot freeze in them. Turning the wheel at the 
 end of the axle on the top of the truck ; lifts all the covers of 
 the troughs simultaneously, and opens all the troughs for the 
 cattle to drink from, and it closes them likewise (an important 
 operation, because cattle should be refreshed only, and not be 
 permitted to drink too freely while travelling). The covers 
 effectually close the troughs from dust and soiling. One man, 
 from either side of the railway, performs every operation 
 necessary for loading or unloading, or refreshing the animals. 
 Ventilation is good throughout these trucks. 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3 trucks are the handiest and most economical 
 stalled trucks for horses. The peculiar form of the sliding stalls 
 permits the animals to be loaded and unloaded from either side 
 in the quickest time, and the animals are not required to be 
 backed in unloading. These contrivances are much more simple 
 and effectual, and less expensive, than those of the horse-box now 
 in use on the railways. And a plant of these trucks, put into 
 use for the ordinary horse traffic of this country, would be most 
 advantageous for military purposes in shifting cavalry or artillery 
 horses in the quickest manner, and refreshing them on their 
 journey. None of the fittings and fastenings of these trucks 
 are complicated ; all are easy to move, and well suited to tho 
 rough work and the expedition required for the traffic in cattle. 
 
101 
 
 Railway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 Though not exactly within my province, though certainly con- 
 nected with wagons, I now direct attention to the 
 
 Round Brake 
 
 System (Schouberszky), which stops a train in ten seconds, 
 not only with the aid of engine-driver, brakesman, or any 
 passenger, but also by a self-acting power in case of rupture 
 or other injury to the train. The engine-driver, on whom 
 depends the speed of the train, has the means of increasing the 
 speed, but is unable to stop it quickly himself in case of necessity. 
 He is forced to alarm the brakesman to apply the brake to stop 
 the train. At present the method of working the brake by 
 manual power is very defective, as it involves a great loss of 
 time. While, on perceiving an obstacle on the line, the engine- 
 driver is whistling to give the signal for applying the brake, and, 
 perhaps, the guard is busy with his parcels, or shaking oft' his 
 drowsiness from many hours’ toil, going to the brake, and taking 
 hold of the handle, and with their comparatively feeble strength 
 pressing the block on the wheels, no small time may be lost. 
 Supposing all these, taken collectively, occupy only a quarter of 
 a minute, the train may already have run on a quarter of a 
 mile before it comes to a complete stand. But obstacles on an 
 occupied or damaged line — for instance, a train on the way, &c. 
 — are frequently invisible at such distances, in consequence of 
 curves, fogs, snowstorms, &c. These are of the greatest im- 
 portance wherever trains are running frequently ; in such cases, 
 not only the accidental stopping of the train, but even the 
 slackening of the speed by a train in front may cause a collision 
 with all its dire consequences. All those accidents of such 
 frequent occurrence might be prevented, if the engine-driver, 
 as the first who should perceive the danger, could by a single 
 movement of his hand stop the train, without the assistance of 
 the brakesman. 
 
 What the round brake is . — This contrivance for quickly 
 stopping the train presents a marked contrast, by its outward 
 appearance, to the brake at present in use — the blocks of metal 
 or wood pressed against the wheels in ordinary use being re- 
 placed by a disc, which simplifies the whole to such a degree 
 that the management of the brake demands only a very slight 
 exertion. The disc approaching the wheel is caught by it, and 
 the motion of the train causes the pressure to be exerted on the 
 disc, and immediately arrests the train, bor the quick operation 
 of such brakes (distributed along the train), a very watchful 
 agent is required ; such an agent is found in compressed air. 
 
192 
 
 Railivay Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 Air, so liberally diffused on the earth, possesses the property, if 
 subjected to compression (in a reservoir) to a degree twice that 
 in which it is in a free state, if permitted to escape through a 
 pipe, in its desire to establish an equilibrium, will accomplish 
 the task assigned to it with the astonishing rapidity of 1,000 
 feet in a second, corresponding to 750 miles in an hour. With 
 the aid of so active an agent there is no loss of time in applying 
 the brake. The air is conducted to each carriage by means of 
 slender tubes, similar to those used for pneumatic bells. The 
 pressure of air keeps by its arrangements the round brake a 
 certain distance from the wheels, but as soon as the compressed 
 air is applied, the operation of stopping the train is at once 
 accomplished. 
 
 The compound action of the entire series of round brakes 
 exert so powerful a friction, that the speed of the train rapidly 
 lessens. The stopping is effected imperceptibly to the passenger, 
 who feels no jolt or shock, because the resistance employed to 
 arrest the train, acts gradually, and is not in the least accom- 
 panied by a jolt. The pipes are laid throughout and alongside 
 the carriages. They are furnished with cocks placed, not only 
 on the locomotive, but on each carriage, within the reach of the 
 brakesman and passengers. By this brake anyone who observes 
 the possibility of a collision is able to stop the train, simply opening 
 the cock, to let free the compressed air. This facility of quickly 
 stopping the train will, there is no doubt, prevent many accidents, 
 the anticipation of which at present causes so much alarm to all 
 railway passengers. They will have a far greater sense of 
 security when they know the destructive speed of the train can 
 be so easily and quickly stopped by a brake so effectual as the 
 * ‘ round brake ’ ’ system of Schouberszky. It possesses every 
 quality for ensuring safety, which has been proved by repeated 
 trials in ltussia. Experiments were made outside the Machine 
 Ilall of the Exhibition, gave general satisfaction, and appeared 
 to prove its efficiency. 
 
 Ambulances. 
 
 Baron Munday exhibits a very excellent collection of ambu- 
 lances, kitchen wagons, goods carriages, and eight railway 
 wagons for use in the time of war, including stretchers of every 
 description, which can be arranged into every conceivable shape 
 for the carrying of the wounded ; also, several complete sets 
 of surgical instruments, blankets, bandages, medicines, &c. 
 The ambulances, kitchen wagons, carriages, &c., built according 
 to the instructions of “ the Baron,” by Lolner, Vienna; Lovati, 
 
193 
 
 Railway Carriage arid Wagon Building. 
 
 Turin; Killner, Paris ; and Adams, Westminster, London. I was 
 introduced to Baron Monday by the English Commissioner, Philip 
 CunliffeOwen, Esq., as the artisan reporter on railway carriage and 
 wagon building for England. The Baron gave me an invitation 
 to meet him next day to examine his collection, which 1 accepted. 
 He showed me through the carriages, &c., himself, and explained 
 everything connected with them, lie informed me he had been 
 several years in getting up the collection, entirely at his own 
 expense, and he must have expended several thousands of pounds. 
 In the time of war they were always ready, free of expense, for 
 the service of his own or other countries. 
 
 In concluding this Report, I have given a general idea of some 
 of the most salient features of the most important carriages and 
 wagons, &c., within the walls of the Exhibition building, but 
 unfortunately there were several which I had no opportunity 
 of examining, as they were locked ; being unacquainted with the 
 language, and without an interpreter, 1 was unable to explain 
 my desire to examine many. The carriages on the whole were 
 very heavy looking, and possessed no claims whatever to grace- 
 fulness of shape in outline ; they were, as a rule, painted all 
 one colour, and without even the crest of the company to which 
 they belonged. The insides of the first and second classes and 
 the sleeping saloons are certainly very much superior to our 
 own for comfort and general arrangements. I consider we have 
 very little to fear from Continental competitors in the art of 
 railway carriage building, though I would vre had in Bir- 
 mingham better means for instruction by professional draughts- 
 men. I am happy to say I have gained a little knowledge 
 through visiting the city of Vienna. The city, tq my mind, is 
 a [magnificent one. The sanitary arrangements, however, are 
 not what they should be, and the water for domestic purposes 
 is very inferior. 
 
 The mode of living is somewhat peculiar, to our Western ideas. 
 Parents have their favourite “cafes,” to which they repair with 
 their families to dine. I am proud to say I saw not a single 
 case of drunkenness, notwithstanding a great quantity of wine 
 and beer is consumed. The inhabitants, as a rule, are early risers, 
 and do most of their marketing before breakfast. Some curious 
 sights met us at every turn, as little milk carts going their 
 rounds, drawn by dogs, and sometimes a girl and a dog. This 
 latter exhibition I did not admire at all. There was something 
 revolting in the spectacle — a spectacle that would not be tolerated 
 in England. The streets of the city are pretty well watered 
 during the day. The water is contained in large barrels on 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 Railway Carriage and Wagon Building. 
 
 wheels, drawn by a horse. A hose, which is about five feet long, 
 is fixed to the end of the barrel, there being attached to the hose 
 a “rose” similar to that of a watering-can; the man in 
 attendance moves it by means of a rope from side to side as the 
 water escapes. The women here seem to do all the hardest 
 work, for we noticed them, sans shoes and stockings, and with 
 awfully short petticoats, pumping water into the barrels, whilst 
 the men sat smoking hard-by. I took the place of one of the 
 women at the pumps ; but after pumping about three minutes, 
 I was glad to be released. Tramways are much in vogue in 
 Vienna, though they seem to have no regulations as to the pas- 
 sengers they carry. The cars differ from those of this country ; 
 the sides are open, the roof supported by four corner pillars 
 and two intermediate ones ; the seats are crosswise, with a 
 passage down the centre. The inhabitants, who appear to be 
 a handsome race of people, are evidently fond of out-door 
 amusements, and the female portion of the population far from 
 being domesticated, forming a great contrast to the young women 
 of this country. Considering my short stay in Vienna, it cannot 
 of course be expected that I can speak of the education of the 
 Austrians. I will only add as regards myself, if I were not an 
 Englishman, I should like to be an Austrian. 
 
 
General Ironmongery. 
 
 By GEORGE WAKEMAN, Ironmongers * “Buyer" 
 {Messrs. Donald, McKenzie , and Co.), Birmingham. 
 
 I HAD the honour of being selected by the Birmingham 
 Chamber of Commerce (co-operating with the Society for 
 the Promotion of Scientific Industry, Manchester) to proceed to 
 Vienna in the capacity of reporter, the subject of my Report to 
 be “General Ironmongery.” 
 
 The term “General Ironmongery” is a very comprehensive 
 one, according to the present extent of the ironmongery trade, 
 including a great proportion of all manufacturing industries, but 
 more particularly those in which metal forms the principal 
 element. The names of, and the number of articles included, 
 are legion, and, in the limited space necessarily occupied by 
 this Report, it would be almost impossible to enumerate, much 
 less report upon, all these articles. I propose, therefore, 
 to deal only with those that came more directly under my 
 notice during the hurried w^ork of inspecting a vast collection 
 of products in so little time ; even those reported upon (at least a 
 large number of them) will, it is to be feared, receive but brief 
 notice. It may, however, be of advantage to allude to some 
 articles allied to those industries connected with my mission 
 which, though of importance, it was impossible to provide 
 special reporters for. 
 
 General ironmongery, as a distinct class, w*as not well repre- 
 sented by any Continental competitors. Of course I speak com- 
 paratively ; for there was no exhibit so general in the assortment 
 of useful articles, either for furnishing or builders’ purposes, 
 which at all equalled that of our townsmen, Messrs. Collings and 
 Wallis ; though it w’ould be open to objection, in an Austrian 
 sense, that the articles there shown were for purely English 
 requirements, and could therefore only be adjudged superior from 
 an English standpoint. It is true there was little lack either on 
 the part of Austria, Prussia, France, and even Russia and 
 Italy, so far as multifariousness goes in articles, no doubt more 
 or less used for all purposes; but in what we esteem to be 
 builders’ ironmongery and furnishing ironmongery, and what 
 
 o 2 
 
19 G 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 remains under the specific head of “general” ironmongery, the 
 foreign exhibits were in no sense individually complete. Perhaps 
 the apparent deficiency of particular articles was only a fancy 
 on my part, heightened by the ever-recurring change and fresh- 
 ness of patterns which meet us in our daily experiences of 
 factoring. Hence we may safely assume Continental require- 
 ments are not so great or varied in their charactar as those of 
 this country. We will, however, give every credit to foreign 
 exhibitors for any shade of excellence their manufactures possess, 
 also being strictly impartial. 
 
 Builders’ Ironmongery. 
 
 We will, firstly, notice a few of those articles which come 
 under this designation. In cut nails , as well as in every 
 other kind, Prussia and Belgium were large exhibitors, al- 
 though not special , who included in their exhibits all they could 
 get. The cut nails were of very fine sample, cut in all cases 
 from superior “sheet,” and fully a gauge, and sometimes two 
 gauges even, lighter than are our “fine clasp.” They were 
 remarkably straight cut, by which I mean not skewed , and were 
 calculated for perfectly straight driving — what, in this sense, our 
 joiners would call a desideratum. Well pointed and headed, 
 they had no bulge under the head, but were of one exact thick- 
 ness of material from point to head; and whatever pretence to a 
 shoulder there was about them, was in the cut shape of the nail, 
 being perhaps slightly wider near the head. They were excel- 
 lent nails for general joinery, and light, giving a preponderance 
 in count very largely over ours in consequence. The larger 
 nails, from 3J in. and upwards, were too light, and could not be 
 used for the same heavy purposes as our cut spikes, but in other 
 respects of the same clean, good, and apparently tough quality. 
 The wrought, or hammered nails, were, par excellence , the best 
 I ever saw. They were generally very fine square-shanked 
 nails, nicely and carefully tapered at the point. The heads 
 were rather large, almost pyramidical in shape, but what we 
 should, for want of a nearer term, still call “rose-head;” but 
 they were very evenly centred, almost ensuring a straight drive 
 by most unskilful strikers. It was obvious that these nails were 
 made of the best iron, and would cost something considerable, 
 there being also every evidence of really careful forging. Among 
 all that I saw there was no appearance of wasters, or burnt, 
 “ scaly,” or calcined ones, such as we are often obliged to see in 
 those at home. This may, no doubt, be often obviated by a better 
 price being paid for labour, and uniformly good iron being issued 
 
General Ironmongery . 197 
 
 by the nail-masters; for I have no possible doubt in my mind that 
 herein lies the root of all the complaints our customers at home 
 and abroad have occasionally to make respecting inferior quality. 
 A good hand-made well-hammered nail will always command a 
 market, and maintain a good price, in preference, for many 
 purposes, to any quality of cut nails, or even the various kinds 
 of cheap “patent.” Pointes de Paris nails were exceedingly 
 plentiful, being a peculiarly special Continental article. There 
 is a larger variety of these wire nails than we make here, 
 countersunk, and even round-headed. These are the common 
 nails of Continental countries, more used than even cut nails. 
 We now use them very largely in our own country for box- 
 making and for a number of other light purposes. It is not a 
 little gratifying to observe that our wire-drawers and others arc 
 so ably competing with Prussia in this respect. Tacks and shoe- 
 nails are mostly made of wire ; some of the tacks, and even 
 larger-sized nails, have very broad flat heads. Of course these 
 necessitate a superior and soft quality of wire, and I have no 
 doubt they also will soon be added to our other kinds of articles 
 of this class.* 
 
 Wood screws were neither satisfactory in point of quality or 
 price, and I should have thought were made from inferior wire. 
 The threads were jagged and shallow, and the ends very in- 
 differently pointed. Heads were large but well nicked. The 
 samples I examined did not prepossess me in their favour at all ; 
 they w’ould at best compare only with our cheaper and worst 
 qualities. Nettlefold’s screws are far in advance as regards 
 excellence of any, either in iron or brass, that were exhibited by 
 foreign makers of screws. I was fortunate enough to obtain a 
 list of prices, but on examination I found that the gauges of the 
 screws and the lengths were given in “millimetres.” So far as 
 I can ascertain, the German prices are net, but there is a small 
 discount allowed for cash, say, 2 per cent. ; whilst we all know 
 how much discount our trade lists are subject to, irrespective of 
 that usual for cash. The difference in net prices appears very 
 great indeed, so much so as to create some suspicion that the Ger- 
 man, as quoted, may not be correct. The round heads are charged 
 
 * I very much regret that price-lists and other desirable information were 
 not obtainable, except in rare instances, nor were prices generally marked 
 upon the articles. This condition of things will militate very much against 
 the completeness of my Report, because there was, as a rule, an absence of 
 printed information; and interpreters could not possibly bo available for 
 bo many reporters without incurring very heavy additional expense to the 
 Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, under whose auspices we were performing 
 our work. 
 
108 General Ironmongery. 
 
 the same as flat countersunk heads, which is somewhat in favour 
 of the German list, both for brass and iron. The brass screws 
 are of the same rough style and quality as the iron above named. 
 Brass and iron wire hooks, to screw and drive, are also made 
 similar to those manufactured by our leading firms, and similarly 
 proportioned in prices with the screws ; also rivets, with flat, 
 snap, or pan heads, of good quality, from smallest size to about 
 I or f in., about these I could procure no information as 
 to prices. 
 
 Locks. 
 
 There is a great peculiarity in Continental locks observable in 
 almost every class. The peculiarity is that there is nothing 
 English-like about them, either in appearance or internal con- 
 struction. What we call rim locks are scarcely ever larger than 
 5 in. by in. for ordinary use. They (the Continental) are 
 made of about 14-gauge iron, both rims and plates, the depth of 
 rims generally about £ in. or 1 in., which gives to the lock a heavy 
 and substantial appearance. The latch-bolts are very thick, so 
 are the locking-bolts, and fill up the depth between cap and 
 back-plate. The latch-bolts invariably are made with a flange at 
 the back, intended, no doubt, for a guide, so that when the bolt is 
 drawn in it is thereby prevented moving out of the hold. * This 
 is a good feature, and might very conveniently and with little 
 expense be applied to some of our common-class locks. The 
 “ followers ” in these locks are only single action, and spiral 
 instead of rein’d, or “Scotch,” <fcc., springs are the most common. 
 Wards are the exception, not the rule, in Continental locks of 
 almost every kind. Occasionally there is a plain bridge , some- 
 times a deep wheel without the bridge ; but, on the whole, it 
 might be supposed that no principle, nor any notion of a prin- 
 ciple, as to safety ever was dreamt of even; and in respect to the 
 common class of locks, as regards the security they afford, it is 
 scarcely equal to that afforded by the egregious sham of our 
 own, the “stub ward,” being pretty nearly as worthless. But 
 I would have the Continental locks in preference to our common 
 ones by a very great deal. They are, as I before said, really 
 substantial, everything being well fitted ; good followers, strong, 
 without any appearance of the excessive “pinching” of the 
 metal, in every available way. The cases are all bright, and have 
 
 * It is of frequent occurrence in common rim locks or latches, if the latch 
 head happens to be rather short, or the horns of the follower too long, that 
 the bolt is drawn into the lock and becomes wedged behind the plate, there 
 being no provision made for keeping the bolt always in position. 
 
General Ironmongery . 199 
 
 an ornamental drop over the keyhole (which would not look 
 amiss on ours) ; the staples are also well made, and match the 
 width of the locks nicely. In fact, these locks would be good, if 
 they only possessed good wards instead of that interminable 
 “ fancy.” Turn your head anywhere for a lock, and the fancy 
 key predominates. The above described are not peculiar to any 
 country, but are the usual make both for France, Germany, 
 Austria, Italy, and even Russia. I cannot conceive that the 
 price is very low, for although the cost of labour is really cheap 
 in comparison with that of our own country, yet the time neces- 
 sarily expended in their production must increase the cost very 
 much ultimately. 
 
 Mortice Locks. 
 
 Mortice locks are not much used on the Continent. Those I 
 saw of this class were chiefly confined to France and Russia ; 
 but my fancy inclined to the Russian, inasmuch as they nearly 
 resembled our English manufacture. There were, however, very 
 few, and chiefly made for light doors, never exceeding half an 
 inch in thickness, and with the same absence of any safety prin- 
 ciple byway of wards, but exhibiting the “fancy” and fancy- 
 bitted key, as in all the others. I was somewhat astonished to 
 find among the Russian locks a facsimile of Wilson’s patent 
 roller, or wheel-bolt lock. I call it a facsimile, but I do not 
 know whether it may not prove to be an original. I desired 
 just to pause a little at this lock, not because it may illustrate 
 anything new in the art of lock-making, but because the prin- 
 ciple of it might have some bearing on a controversy which has # 
 been going on for years among the initiated, respecting the 
 originality and genuineness of Wilson’s roller-bolt lock, so as 
 to entitle it to patent rights. In the Russian lock the principle 
 of the latcli-bolt is precisely the same as in Wilson’s ; — namely, 
 a solid roller is inserted in the head of the latch, and revolves 
 upon a pin, which is riveted through the bolt. Its action is 
 precisely similar to Wilson’s. Now the idea that occurred to 
 me was, that it is just possible for a lock to have reached this 
 country from Russia or elsewhere, with a roller-bolt, years ago, 
 the principle not being in general use, few' caring to notice it. 
 Wilson subsequently adopted, and perhaps, after sundry modi- 
 fications, patented it. 1 know that old locksmiths declare to 
 locks being made years before the date of Wilson’s patent, with 
 rollers in the latch-bolt heads. If the mention of this fact will 
 tend to elucidate the difficulty, my purpose will have been well 
 served. It may, however, be well just to call attention for a 
 
200 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 few moments to tlie principle or principles involved in roller- 
 bolt locks. The roller purports to obviate the friction caused 
 by the ordinary flat bevelled bolt when in contact with the 
 striker, or at least to reduce the friction to a minimum. More- 
 over, it is maintained for the roller principle that there is 
 greater ease and certainty in its action. While admitting that 
 this may be so in a degree, and that the friction is only nominal, 
 I am of opinion that all this pretty much depends upon, or at 
 least is regulated by, the strength and elasticity of the spring. 
 In this respect, also, may bevelled bolted locks be regulated, if 
 only care be taken to shape the bevels so as to reduce the friction 
 to the smallest degree. This may be done by slightly raising 
 the bevel up its centre or striking-line, and so limiting the 
 friction to that line, instead of distributing it all over the face 
 of the perfectly flat bevels, which is so common in cheap locks. 
 It will be obvious, then, that the extra expense of patented 
 roller-bolt locks might be spared, if only a little care (without 
 increasing the expense at all) were to be taken in the construc- 
 tion of the bevelled bolts. The extra advantages to be derived 
 presumably by the use of roller-bolted locks is not commensu- 
 rate with the extra expense which they entail on the consumer, 
 and in this lies (I fear) the reason why they have not been more 
 extensively used. 
 
 Cabinet Locks. 
 
 There were but few cabinet locks in the Exhibition ; but we 
 apply this term to locks of the rudest and commonest kinds, 
 creating quite an anomaly in this respect, because we are accus- 
 tomed to a general and proper idea that a cabinet is a respect- 
 able piece of furniture at least, but mostly understood to be of 
 a high order of workmanship. However, there w r ere locks here, 
 which, for convenience, we will call 4 ‘cabinet,” because, some 
 way or other, they are used on wood-work of certain kinds — it 
 may be boxes, or drawers, or cupboard doors, of various degrees 
 of respectability. We saw locks in brass and iron that might 
 answer all the purposes just enumerated. Some locksmiths 
 possess a notion already respecting the characters of their Con- 
 tinental locks, as it is not unfrequent for them to have to make 
 others of superior quality, “to fit place of lock sent.” These 
 Viennese cabinet locks (and we name them Viennese, because 
 they pretty fairly represent the whole) are made very shallow 
 to avoid cutting away much wood when fixing, for the lightness 
 of the wood in cabinet or any other similar work is charac- 
 teristic. These locks are mostly made of iron upon the old 
 
201 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 ‘‘back-spring” principle. The “fancy” here again predomi- 
 nates ; and to the innocents, who know little of “jemmies,” 
 “wedges,” or “skeleton keys,” they afford ample security, for 
 “where ignorance is bliss, ’ tis folly to be wise.” I daresay the 
 locks among the commonalty take best that possess the most 
 “click.” We sometimes come across people in our own land 
 who prefer a lock with plenty of “click,” and emphatically call 
 it “ a good ’un,” paying a price equal to their fancy, rather 
 than have a “Barrons” or good-levered lock, which works 
 “ noiselessly but sure!” But unless the work is neat, if we 
 •would only show as much care to have our locks as thin as pos- 
 sible, so as not to weaken the woodwork when fixed upon it, it 
 would be quite worth the trouble of doing. These kinds of 
 locks necessarily are cheap ; the material is so light, and wages 
 so low, that I fear it would be useless to attempt the introduc- 
 tion of our own cheap goods to supplant them on the soil of 
 their growth. 
 
 Padlocks. 
 
 Padlocks were more numerous in the Austrian exhibits than 
 in any other. They are nearly all made of iron, and circular 
 in shape. The shackles are not hinged, but pull in and out of 
 the case of the lock, much the same in this respect as some of 
 our improved kinds. The key-hole is never, however, centrally 
 fixed, and is generally skewed to suit the position of the inside 
 works. Bushes there are none, but invariably plain iron bars 
 or drops cover the key-hole. The quality was good (being 
 mostly either six or eight-levered), which showed me that for 
 some purposes at least the Austrians knew the value of good and 
 safe locks, and could make them if needed. There was no variety 
 in appearance ; all had the same well-made cases, and all were 
 brightly finished. Japanning or galvanising would appear to be 
 altogether unknown, or, if known, at any rate not applied to any 
 of the many practical purposes for which we have recourse to it. 
 But the foregoing is by no means an adequate description of all 
 the locks exhibited by Continental makers ; indeed it is but a 
 meagre representation of the medium and common kinds, and 
 for every-day uses ; were it otherwise, we could form but a sorry 
 idea of this now important branch of industry. There is yet a 
 style of lock-making of a very superior order, which, though it 
 may be here represented in its most specific form, illustrates to 
 the looker-on that facilities are not quite wanting, neither in 
 good tools nor better hands, for turning out some really excellent 
 work ; excellent in all the important points of security, compact- 
 
202 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 ness, high-class workmanship, as well as really beautiful and 
 artistic finish. I allude more particularly to safe door locks. 
 These locks are very substantially made, being invariably faced 
 with hardened steel, and also powder proof. In some of them 
 is observable very great ingenuity as respects their construction. 
 I saw a French lock fixed to a safe in which were four round 
 holes underneath the proper key-hole, which were, as it were, 
 sub-portions of the main lock. There seemed to be a change- 
 ableness about them, so that it would depend entirely upon the 
 knowledge of the holder of the sub-keys whether the safe may or 
 may not be opened. The sub-key, which answered for all four 
 of the sub-portions of this lock, was very similar in shape to 
 those of the ‘ ‘ China detector, ’ ’ but did not contain any slots up 
 the stem (which is quite solid, not being drilled), but slots or 
 notches of a transverse character, and turned upon the solid 
 stem, which are subsequently filed into various sized ovals to suit 
 the arrangement of levers. I was informed that these sub- 
 portions held or released the actions of the grand lock, accord- 
 ing to the order of using them. This lock w-as a very good 
 specimen of French work and ingenuity. As a whole, the French 
 exhibits in this respect were highly creditable, and some of them 
 exceptionably good. 
 
 Latches. 
 
 Latches are of the same make and style as the rim locks, with 
 slide bolts underneath the bottom rim. But others have a 
 cranked handle attached to end of the tail of the latch (w T hich 
 passes through the back rim), of an ornamental kind, by which to 
 draw back the bolt. In most cases there is a locking bolt to 
 these, to lock from the outside, which makes the latch really more 
 expensive than the rim lock. Of course none of these would be 
 suitable for general adoption, yet I should like to see the spiral 
 spring occasionally applied, and some patterns otherwise con- 
 veniently assimilated to the Continental locks for purposes of 
 trade in that country. I do not doubt but with some slight 
 approach to, or modifications of, their own patterns, our neigh- 
 bours might be disposed to give us some good orders, and parti- 
 cularly so, as I think, decidedly, our locks (unless the tariffs are 
 too prohibitory) would sell cheaper than their own. In Vienna 
 and other large towns of Austria and Gel-many there is a con- 
 stant demand for locks and other kinds of builders’ ironmongery. 
 
 Conclusions as regards Locks. 
 
 Of the tw’o leading exhibiting nations, France and Austria — for 
 competition runs high at the Vienna Exhibition — 1 am disposed to 
 
General Ironmongery. 203 
 
 view the Austrian productions more favourably than the French, 
 despite the fact that in the common class there was nothing to 
 commend them. It was, however, a real surprise to me to find 
 such extremes in this respect on the part of the Viennese ; for 
 while they showed their commonest as being those in daily 
 demand, they took good care to show' the best also, and this to 
 no little advantage, because a contrast so great and unexpected 
 would more readily excite the attention of the visitors. Among 
 a number of excellent specimens of this manufacture was one 
 even more novel in its construction than that already alluded to 
 in the French Department. This also w’as a safe lock, the plate 
 of which was circular, about 8 in. in diameter, made of hardened 
 steel, and very richly engraved. The works were fixed on the 
 back of this plate, similar in many w T ays to those of a timepiece, 
 and were let in and securely attached to the inner door of the 
 safe. In the plate of the lock were cut about eighteen aper- 
 tures, J in. long, and through these, projecting just slightly 
 above the surface, were revolving rings or rollers, with milled 
 edges on one side, exactly like those used in letter locks. Nine 
 rings w'ere lettered, and the remaining number were figured. 
 These, when moved round with the thumb and finger, might be 
 formed to spell a name, or give a number, which, to the initiated, 
 w'ould indicate that the lock was free to be acted upon by its 
 proper key. The application of this “roller-lock” principle, 
 complicated as it needs must be', rendered the picking of this 
 lock as near as possible futile to attempt. My inability to 
 describe more minutely all the arrangements of this ingeniously 
 constructed lock (which very much resembled the wheels and 
 cogs of a timepiece), as well as others of an equally interesting 
 kind, I very much regret. Not having the advantage of an 
 interpreter, on the one hand, and so few of the attendants at 
 the various stalls speaking English, and some of, to me, the 
 most important exhibits having no attendants or custodians at 
 all, made the work of getting information very difficult. 
 
 The ornamentation in the above classes of lock manufacture 
 is beyond praise, but it is pleasing to know that utility is not, 
 after all, sacrificed to the mere appearance, although, as far as 
 concerns the embellishments of safe locks, it is necessary that 
 they harmonise with the character of the safes they are intended 
 to secure, a short description of which I hope to find a little 
 room for a page or so forward. All these locks are, however, 
 specialities, and answer their purpose, if only to show English- 
 men, “the first lock-makers of the world,” what may be done 
 in other countries, if occasion requires; and Austria, perhaps 
 
204 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 more than any other country, has, for this Exhibition, put forth 
 all her strength, and taxed to the utmost all her ingenuity and 
 skill, to show to the world that, coincident with great legislative 
 reforms, the popularity of her institutions, and the largely 
 increased care evinced by the Government for the social welfare 
 of the people, together with the extension of national liberty — 
 coincident with all these has been the expansion of the national 
 mind, and the growth and development of her resources. 
 
 I have already called attention to the plain character of the 
 door locks, and the absence, pretty nearly, of mortice locks, 
 which arises probably from the fact that very few are used. If 
 this latter be so, it is necessary, in public and all other buildings 
 of a superior kind, to apply ornamental coverings to hide the 
 plainness of the locks ; consequently much attention has been 
 given to this branch of trade, namely, to lock cases. There was 
 marked cleverness both in the design and finish of these lock cases, 
 as also in the plates, which renders them positively admirable to 
 look at ; and one could not but think, for the doors of our banks 
 and public buildings, these, both in ornamentation and general 
 adaptability, are decidedly preferable to the plainness otherwise 
 observable, and due in great measure to the use of mortice locks, 
 for which we English appear to have a decided weakness. Of 
 course, work of this kind, produced as it is in France, and 
 equalled in Vienna, almost regardless of expense, does not find 
 its way, except to a very limited extent, into this country. This 
 is perhaps rather surprising, because we find in England no lack 
 of fastidiousness among our leading architects, as to the quality 
 and character desirable in those articles they are wont to suggest, 
 both useful and ornamental, to adorn and embellish their best 
 buildings ; nor, generally speaking, is niggardliness a prominent 
 feature in wealthy English employers of architects. I would not 
 disparage the efforts of some of our leading firms to produce 
 a really artistic class of goods, and to vie, as far as possible, 
 with our Continental competitors in this respect ; but unless 
 encouragement is held out to the workman, to induce him to 
 undertake the study, and to implant within him a determination 
 to master and excel in this advanced style, it will never be 
 accomplished to any appreciable extent. I think, however, I am 
 correct in stating one or more Birmingham firms do already 
 supply ornamental brass foundery, including cabinet and door 
 handles, centre knobs, espagnolctte bolts, bell-pulls, &c., direct 
 to Continental houses. This is gratifying to know ; and let us 
 sincerely hope we may in time be able to offer articles equal, 
 in an artistic point of view, to our neighbours, and also 
 
General Ironmongery. 205 
 
 have a good demand for similar high-class articles for use in 
 England. 
 
 Hinges. 
 
 In respect to hinges there is very little to say, certainly 
 nothing commendable in regard to the ordinary kinds. All door 
 hinges, or nearly so, are made with single joints; the flaps of the 
 hinges are only equal in length with the joints, so that a 4-in. 
 hinge consists of two 2-in. flaps ; they are generally of iron, broad 
 like projecting butts, and have ornaments as a rule at the top 
 and bottom of the joints. I saw among the Russian brass 
 foundery some really good and strong cover-plate butts, very 
 cleverly made, and polished, equal to our best class of brass 
 hinges. This w r as a surprise ; but Russia, in all her hardware, 
 approaches nearer to the English makes than any other country. 
 
 Brass Foundery. 
 
 In brass foundery were various kinds and qualities, both cast 
 and stamped. Of the stamped goods, such as key escutcheons, 
 ceiling roses, curtain bands, and cornices, they were in no re- 
 spect equal to our common Birmingham qualities. I was much dis- 
 appointed in the design and general appearance of the German 
 stamped goods, and with this, I think, we may venture to 
 dismiss them. I may add that I do not think they were represen- 
 tative specimens; certainly they are not worthy to be named in the 
 same category as our own. But all the Austrian, German, and 
 French general brass foundery goods are as a rule light for actual 
 utility, and like those of our second-rate makers. Ilat-and-coat 
 hooks were even lighter than our common, and nearly all made of 
 ornamental tube. If our patterns of cheap goods were not already 
 more than profuse, I would like to see a few patterns of orna- 
 mental ones japanned, with either brass or china knobs. I saw a few, 
 and they looked well as an assortment, and would, undoubtedly, 
 “take” here. Those who crave after the “cheap” will find 
 caterers to their fancy almost ad libitmn , so long as there 
 remains any elasticity at all in ideas, in originality and method 
 of contrivance, the natural results of competition. But in the 
 advanced styles of brass founder) 7 , whether by Austria or France, 
 there is not very much left to be desired in an artistic sense. 
 Handles for swing doors, lever lock handles, cabinet and drawer 
 handles, in gilt, ivory, and bronze, are among the most beautiful 
 productions of the kind I ever saw. They are, doubtless, very 
 expensive, as there appeared to be no stint of labour bestowed 
 upon them, and a study for those who desire to emulate their 
 artistic excellences. 
 
206 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 In Plumbers' Brass Foundery the two exhibits by Continental 
 firms examined by me were Austrian. The makers had been too 
 sparing of the metal; it must have required some tolerably clever 
 coring to produce several of the objects so light. Some of the 
 locks and unions were of immense size. The screwing and 
 general fitting appeared to be very carefully done. What most 
 struck me in connection with this class of work was, such a 
 saving was effected in metal. They should be tolerably low in 
 price, always assuming there is the same amount of machinery 
 employed as we should use in similar productions ; but whether 
 this be so or not, hand labour is cheap enough in Austria to 
 enable the Austrians to compete with us in this respect, for 
 really good and substantial workmanship in plumbers’ brass 
 foundery, looking at it from a buyer’s standpoint. We appear to 
 maintain our position intact as regards substantiality and ex- 
 cellence. 
 
 Furnishing Ironmongery. 
 
 Furnishing ironmongery requires a very brief notice here, 
 as there is little we require to know , after looking at our well- 
 stocked kitchens, in comparison to the variety or the quality 
 exhibited by our competitors at the Exhibition. The quality of 
 the tin wares for trade purposes was very indifferent, and caused 
 me some disappointment. I had gone there prepossessed with 
 an idea that the Germans certainly excelled us in this line. The 
 disappointment was an agreeable surprise. I am sufficiently 
 patriotic to wish that w r e may never be excelled ; it is always 
 a pleasure to know in what we do excel. No doubt these tin 
 goods were cheap, perhaps cheaper than those of our common 
 makers ; but they looked coarser, and, as far as I could judge, 
 were made of an inferior quality of tin ; whilst ours would 
 evidently scarcely exceed them in price, have a decidedly cleaner 
 appearance, and appear to be made of finer tin. I am, however, 
 not prepared to say anything in a technical sense ; this will be 
 amply done by a colleague, who will treat it as a speciality. (See 
 Report of Henry Bishop on “TinWares and Japanned Goods.”) 
 A “buyer” must, nevertheless, have an eye to the strength and 
 appearance of the article, as well as compare its value with 
 others ; my opinion is given accordingly. It may be possible for 
 foreign merchants to sell the German tin ware even in preference 
 to our own, but only in such cases where a fractional difference 
 in price is important and the goods can be shipped direct with- 
 out trouble to the merchant. Wages are very low in Austria 
 and Germany, and material such as we saw should be cheaper 
 
General Ironmongery. 207 
 
 than our own, hence we might expect their tin goods to come 
 ultimately a little lower in price than any we could produce. 
 
 Toilet Ware. 
 
 Of toilet ware and general japanned goods there were but few 
 exhibits ; these were of an astonishingly plain kind, chiefly Ger- 
 man. I have little to report on these, however, as the very 
 limited view I took of the exhibit would preclude any opinion as 
 to price or trade qualities being given. 
 
 Galvanised Iron Wares. 
 
 Galvanised iron wares are scarcely known. Zinc is largely 
 used for buckets, tubs, &c. I was told the price of a 13-in. zinc 
 bucket, seamed, with hoop bottom and plain wire bail, stamped 
 ears, would be as near as possible 2s. 3d., retail price. The 
 zinc could not have been heavier than about 26-gauge metal. In 
 brass culinary wares, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey were the 
 principal exhibitors, those supplied by Prussia being common, for 
 cheap trade. 
 
 Braziery and Copper Wares. 
 
 The brass kettles generally had copper bottoms, which had 
 the appearance of being “spun” on. These had plain brass 
 handles made out of stout sheet metal. These kettles have 
 no resemblance in quality to our own, but would doubtless 
 be much cheaper. The copper bottom is a desideratum at all 
 times, of which probably the Germans are well aware. Kettles 
 with “wells ” are commonly used on the Continent ; they are 
 similar to those recently introduced in Birmingham, and are 
 used chiefly for cooking ranges. The Russians and Turks com- 
 pete with each other in this industry; the latter having by far 
 the larger variety, in which there are indications of really good 
 'workmanship. Bowls, pans, dishes, tea urns, kettles, and pots, 
 &c., &c. are exhibited in great abundance. Those exhibited by 
 Russia are well “paned,” and would be a credit to many of our 
 experienced coppersmiths. The examples alluded to would not 
 compare in point of finish with those of English make, as none 
 have the nicely planished surface we give to these articles ; but 
 the coppersmiths of the countries named would doubtless produce 
 them at as little cost, and would be well able to supply their 
 home demand as well as we could for them. 
 
 Coffee Mills. 
 
 The Turks also make coffee mills and a number of other useful 
 articles for household requirements, suited for their own neces- 
 
208 General Ironmongery . 
 
 sities. They are rude, but much superior to any I had expected 
 to find. 
 
 Stoves. 
 
 The use of stoves on the Continent renders fenders and fire- 
 irons unnecessary, but there were a few examples of fire-irons ex- 
 hibited ; these of no interest to this Report. They can scarcely be 
 said to be made except as a special article by Continental makers; 
 at least, as far as I could ascertain. 
 
 Hollow Ware. 
 
 Cast hollow-ware goods were lighter cast than ours, in every 
 kind. Fine cast hollow ware is little used, and nothing of that 
 kind was exhibited. The enamelled ware was very well repre- 
 sented. It has not the hard, glassy appearance such as ours 
 has, but was still very clear, even, and the colours perfect. 
 Rough cast goods were also good, and left the moulds very clear 
 and smooth. Their castings of hollow ware are the thinnest I have 
 ever seen, and feel very light and “ handy.” 
 
 Wire Work. 
 
 Wire work, such as bird-cages, mouse-traps, sofa and chair 
 springs, check springs, chains, &c., &c., were all very good. I 
 think, in respect of chains and other goods, we already go to 
 Germany, and, at present, I fear we shall not be able to do 
 better. Of course, for all but small chains, we rely upon our 
 own industries providing for .our markets. How long even this 
 will continue in the face of high prices for material and increased 
 cost of labour, it is difficult to guess ; for trade is not so often 
 affected on the Continent by those convulsions which have so 
 sadly marred our own. There is always an evidence to point to, 
 when out of England, that the people of Germany, and of other 
 industrial portions of Europe, are more contented and settled in 
 their work. 
 
 Steel Toys. 
 
 Steel toys are a very important general industry, and which, 
 perhaps over every other, affects us in Birmingham most. We 
 know German goods of this class are extensively used in this 
 country to the detriment of our own better quality. A great 
 quantity of German toys are malleable cast-iron. Compared 
 with our own, in point of quality, they are, at best, not equal to 
 any degree of wear. The quality of the steel with which they 
 are faced is poor, being generally very soft. We can understand 
 how the Germans are enabled to sell them so cheaply, from the 
 
200 
 
 General Ironmongery . 
 
 fact before-named (malleable cast-iron frames), as well as that 
 the price of German steel is considerably cheaper than Sheffield 
 steel, and, moreover, as in every other industry in Germany, 
 wages are less. This fact reminds me, irrespective of inferiority 
 in the German goods, they are likely to sell more than hitherto 
 in this country. An effort is being made, evidenced in their 
 exhibits at Vienna, to assimilate their steel toys to the English, 
 and also slightly improving their quality, expressly for the 
 English market, and for transportation to our colonies. The 
 recent demands for wages on the part of our workmen, 
 which resulted in advancing the prices of the steel toys on 
 which they were employed, has not been without its effects in 
 Germany. The makers are increasing their exertions, and 
 filling up steadily, but perceptibly, the gap in the demand for 
 our goods with their own. It is to be feared, as a consequence 
 in our own centres, orders for English steel toys will not again 
 be likely to stand on makers’ books for twelve months un- 
 executed; if not indeed the very reverse. Germany possesses 
 every facility for doing an immense trade in every possible kind 
 of steel goods, joiners’ and other tools. 
 
 Anvils , Vices , c£c. — The anvils -were simply heavy, rude 
 masses of iron, having no compactness or shape about them. 
 The bick or horn partakes of no precise shape, ‘ ‘ neither round, 
 oblong, nor oval.” The face of the anvil is rarely flat; some 
 examined by me were decidedly uneven. An English workman 
 on such anvils could not possibly obtain the flatness or squareness 
 in his forgings for which he is justly noted. Of smiths’, en- 
 gineers’, and other vices, there were very few ; these chiefly small. 
 
 The Edge Tools are of a very peculiar shape all throughout, but 
 their mode of using them differs very much from ours, and, 
 no doubt, the Austrians think theirs as serviceable, or, perhaps, 
 more so. 
 
 Agricultural Implements. 
 
 The Spades , for the shape scarcely varies, "whether we call 
 them spades or shovels (rather, those that I saw were for digging), 
 were not unlike our shovels in the blade, only more abruptly 
 pointed. They are exceedingly thin, and arc made entirely by 
 hand. They are so thin, in fact, that it is necessary to make 
 them all “ treaded,”* for the double reason of saving the foot and 
 giving strength to the blade. The one gauged by me was about 
 No. 13 sq. at its thickest part. The tread is in one piece with 
 
 * That is to say, with longitudinal strengthening on the part where the foot 
 is placed in using the spade. 
 
210 General Ironmongery. 
 
 the blade, and is simply turned over after the blade is formed. 
 The sockets are of one piece also with the blade, and of uniform 
 thickness. These appear to be the most awkward of articles. 
 The ‘ c trees ” * of the spades are about 4 feet long, and ‘ 4 plain as 
 a pikestaff,” having neither crutch nor eye-handles, &c. These 
 spades, or shovels, were invariably black, and very rough, without 
 any sharpness on the edges, or signs of grinding whatever. 
 Hoes , on the contrary, are all bright, so ynlike any used for a 
 similar purpose in this country. There were some similar to a 
 very light “mammo.te,” measuring about 9 by 8 inches, with 
 square sockets ; others similar to East India necked hoes, and 
 shaped at the shoulder, are about 9 inches deep. Others again 
 are pointed shovel-shape, measuring about 9 by 10 inches, with 
 ferrules ; some again are heart-shaped, about 7 by 9 inches, 
 ribbed down the centre to a point, with square eyes ; and there 
 were also triangular hoes. All these were very rude, as indeed 
 was everything relating to edge tools, leaving ample room for 
 enterprise, and to teach the people better, quicker, and more 
 effectual methods of husbandry. Prussian Foi'ks are very similar in 
 shape to our own patterns, but whether for hay, dung, or digging, 
 all have the same straight handles. They are made of any 
 ordinary number of prongs, in square, round, or diamond shapes ; 
 there is generally a deep ferrule fixed on the handle, and a 
 washer with square hole, which exactly fits the end of the ferrule 
 through which the tang is driven up the handle. In none of the 
 edge tools did I see any approach to such improvements which 
 we have occasion to notice daily among our various makers. I 
 do not know what facilities the Germans have for production, 
 but should think there would not be much room for the in- 
 troduction of ours, excepting those on the most modern and 
 approved principle ; for instance, that of the changeable blade 
 and tubular tree, also the centre strapped, &c. (These are 
 improvements belonging to spades and shovels mainly, I am aware 
 of ; still there are improvements in forks that might be made 
 available for the same market.) Several very good exhibits by 
 Prussia of heavy edge tools , including adzes, hatchets, pick-axes, 
 miners’ picks, &c., as good as any I have yet seen, if the metal 
 is good. They were forged articles, looked good, and formed a 
 singular contrast to the Austrian edge tools. 
 
 Scythes , Hooks , dec ., are of a very peculiar kind, being all 
 hammered out of the solid by hand ; every mark of the hammer 
 is left in the blade. The one example now in my mind, which 
 
 * Trees are the shanks or handles. — Ed. B.A.R. 
 
211 
 
 General Ironmongery . 
 
 would illustrate the whole, is 21 inches long and 2£ inches wide, 
 and has been hammered out of a bar of steel 1^ inch thick, suffi- 
 cient being left to form the ‘ £ tange ” to turn down at the end, which 
 is attached to handle or stick. There is, however, a solid square 
 bead left all along the back of the scythe, to give it the required 
 strength. These scythes are not ground, but slightly smoothed 
 over, and hardened and brought back in “ temper,” as they had 
 a blue appearance, showing that they had been heated for some 
 purpose. Bagging hooks, &c., &c., were made on the same 
 principle, and in all points appeared as rude, and as different 
 from our own, as it was possible to conceive. The method of 
 sharpening these scythes, I noticed, was to “pane” them up a 
 little, very close to the edge, and then slightly pass the stone 
 along. 
 
 Platelayers’ Tools 
 
 Were very good, but only a couple of exhibits ; they were 
 of German manufacture. The beating picks appeared to be 
 much weakened through the largeness of the eye or the socket ; 
 others were similar. There was nothing particularly noticeable 
 in their goods ; and besides, the assortment, in each case, was 
 very small indeed, and not equal in appearance to the heavy 
 edge tools above. 
 
 Bolts and Nuts. 
 
 There were several small, but very good, assortments of 
 bolts and nuts. The forging, and screwing, and fitting of the 
 nuts were highly creditable. Those from Leipzig were parti- 
 cularly applicable for railway purposes, such as bolts, nuts, 
 rivets, spikes, doghead spikes, fish bolts, &c., &c., and were 
 as well made. There were also a few from the Westphalia 
 district and Baden. The Swiss also exhibited a few, including 
 some pretty fair quality coach screws; the threads of the screws 
 were, perhaps, not so deep or well cut as those of our best 
 makers, but they were, on the whole, very good. This appears 
 to be an important industry, though I do not think their pro- 
 ducing powers are equal to ours, and prices are higher somewhat, 
 no doubt. There was some excellent work in small screws 
 exhibited by a Baden firm ; they were “metal threaded ” screws 
 for clocks, watches, musical instruments, &c., &c., in brass and 
 iron — cheese-headed, round, and conical-headed ; also band or 
 strap screws, very well turned and screwed. It is matter for 
 astonishment, with all their appliances for turning out these 
 small special kind of screws so beautifully, ordinary Continental 
 icood screws should be so very inferior. 
 
 p 2 
 
212 
 
 General Ironmongery . 
 
 Iron Safes. 
 
 It is my impression we are being surpassed on the Con- 
 tinent in this very important branch of manufacture ; or at all 
 events, our pre-eminence is being challenged. The principle 
 of construction generally adopted in the examples exhibited 
 by Continental makers is that of the double door. The outer 
 door is about § inch thick, cased with steel, and barred ; the 
 inner door is about 4 inches thick, fire proof. Both doors are 
 made to work on the same hinge, and have the appearance of one 
 compact door when opened and shut. The inner door is fitted with 
 bolts, and otherwise secures the safe ; the outer one is in itself a 
 barrier to the would-be burglar, having a secure lock, and attaches 
 itself by other means to the inner door and the sides of the safe. 
 The bolts shoot cornerwise, thus securing all the sides of the 
 safe at the same time. There were other principles of fastening 
 illustrated, but all pretty nearly similar to the above. The safes 
 were thoroughly well made, with an immense power of resistance 
 alike to the manipulations of burglars and protection against 
 fire. The French safes, over and above the arrangement of 
 double doors, presented the novelty of a safe within a safe ; that 
 is, the inner one, which was fire-proof, rested upon feet at various 
 points, and was separated from the outer by about three or four 
 inches, being walled in, as it were, by the solid heavy outer case, 
 suggesting the destruction of the outer before any possible attempt 
 eould be made to force the inner safe. Another consideration 
 worth our notice, in respect to Continental safes, is that externally 
 they are stripped of every attribute which generally distinguishes 
 a safe. The Viennese, German, and French do not invite 
 attempts on the part of skilled burglars and safe-breakers, nor 
 stick large plates on the most prominent points, “Burglar 
 Proof,” “ Thief Proof, ” &c. These safes are made to imitate 
 some best pieces of drawing-room or dining-room furniture, 
 as cabinets, sideboards, chcffoniers, and even wardrobes. 
 Their appearance is light, elegant, with all the artistic decora- 
 tions introduced on best furniture, made of the most valuable 
 woods. The inside fittings, the drawers, and racks, and shelves, 
 are all well arranged and decorated ; and what the heavy, 
 massive, defiant characters of our safes has failed hitherto to 
 avert, may after all be averted by the simple and elegant wood 
 attire put on by Continental safe-makers. 
 
 English Ironmongery. 
 
 After days spent in the examination of the products of 
 Continental industry, it was agreeable to turn into the 
 
213 
 
 General Ironmongery. 
 
 English Section of the Exhibition ; the time, however, spent 
 among our English products was very limited, and but 
 little space will, necessarily, be occupied by any remarks I 
 may make upon those products. It was, in the first place, 
 noticeable, that in respect of a large number of articles 
 exhibited by Continental manufacturers, the comparisons with our 
 own were not in their favour. But we may not forget the fact 
 that in most of the countries whose exhibits have been alluded to 
 by me, we have worthy and honourable competitors in a very 
 large number of industries, and these, as compared with the 
 exhibits of the came countries a few years ago, point a powerful 
 moral, and ought to stimulate us to renewed exertion, in order 
 to maintain our hitherto proud position among the producing 
 nations of the world. It needs to tell what may be the con- 
 sequence to our future trade unless we fully prepare ourselves 
 for tliis rivalry, which is confirmed by the Vienna Exhibition. 
 But to return to the British exhibits. The hardware portions 
 were very few indeed, and English industry must therefore sa- 
 crifice a little credit in consequence ; a couple or so of Birmingham 
 exhibitors in hardware doing what should have been done by 
 manufacturing firms in this town and Wolverhampton, — as 
 exhibitors who have formerly been very successful in carrying off 
 awards at International Exhibitions were altogether absent. 
 
 The ironmongery goods exhibited by Messrs. Collings and 
 Wallis are of the ordinary best class, without any pretence to 
 extravagance or speciality in any of the articles, being intended 
 to show what we deem useful for everyday purposes. 
 
 Messrs. Schletter, of this town, also exhibited a case of articles, 
 but not so extensive as those of Messrs. Collings and Wallis, 
 although better selected perhaps as to those kinds of manufac- 
 ture likely to meet the Austrian requirements. 
 
 Messrs. John Rabone and Sons, of this town, had a very 
 excellent display of rules in box and ivory; spirit and plumb 
 levels, measuring tapes, squares, &c. &c. In this collection 
 there were no duplicates, and it consisted of the most useful, 
 substantial, and merchantable goods for all purposes. 
 
 The Patent Nut and Bolt Company exhibited in a case a com- 
 plete illustration of its trade, which would doubtless commend 
 itself to the attention of engineers and others interested in rail- 
 way plant. There were numerous and excellent examples of 
 Sheffield specialities which stood out in a severe contrast with 
 the many German exhibits of the same class. Among these 
 were Messrs. Spear and Jackson, Pearson, It. Smith and Co., 
 Ward and Payne, &c. There is a large quantity of Sheffield 
 
214 
 
 General Ironmongery . 
 
 goods sold on the Continent, but always where a really good 
 quality and not price is concerned. A few japanned goods of 
 very good quality were exhibited by Messrs. Perkins and Son, 
 of London, which w T as the only special exhibit I saw in this 
 manufacture of locks, apart from the general kinds contained 
 in the Birmingham ironmongery cases. There was an exhibit 
 by Messrs. Hobbs, of London, the principles of whose patents 
 are already known to us ; but they looked decidedly bare and 
 cold compared with those already referred to in the Viennese, 
 French, and other sections. The quality was, however, undoubted. 
 Messrs. Chatwood, of Bolton, also exhibited some of their patent 
 locks, which were very substantial, but not attractive, and, as 
 far as I could see, no opportunity was afforded for examining 
 into the principle of their locks. 
 
 Iron Safes. — Messrs. Milner, of Manchester, and Chatwood, 
 of Bolton, exhibited some good English examples, though they 
 lacked refinement. They are what they seem — English safes ! 
 
 Malleable Nails were exhibited in every variety, and of excel- 
 lent quality, by Mr. Thomas Francis, of this town. 
 
 English Edge Tools. — There were a number of very fine 
 exhibits in this class, containing every needful variety, and 
 must have suggested to any careful examiner that in this 
 and other respects the English were eminently practical 
 and utilitarian. I do not doubt, with a reduction of the 
 heavy tariffs usually imposed on this class of goods (as indeed 
 upon every class of goods), by Germany and Austria, but we 
 may be enabled to' push a large trade in these countries, and I 
 feel assured this Exhibition will materially assist in opening up 
 foreign markets for our metal manufactures. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 As before stated, it would be simply impossible to include in 
 this Report more than a bare moiety of the articles in which we 
 in Birmingham are deeply interested ; and of the greater portion 
 of those alluded to, it was not possible to make any comparisons 
 as to prices, or scarcely to obtain prices at all, for reasons already 
 explained. Some articles in the ironmongery trade I have not 
 even named ; others are only alluded to, which is due in a great 
 measure to the fact that they are specialities which will be dealt 
 with more fully in the reports of other Birmingham artisan re- 
 porters, with whom I was privileged to co-operate in the work 
 entrusted to us by the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce. 
 
PART III. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
mpljabctical |Cist of lltrtrtrtisers. 
 
 Berryman, Robert, 28, Wilson Street, Finsbury, London, E.C. 
 
 Bergue, C. De & Co., 10, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
 Boulton, William, Burslem, Staffordshire 
 Chatwood, Samuel, Lancashire Safe and Lock Works, Bolton 
 Coalbrook-dale Company, Coalbrook-dale, Shropshire 
 Davies, David, Viaduct Works, Crumlin, near Newport, Mon. 
 
 Doulton & Watts, Lambeth Pottery, London . 
 
 Doulton, H. <fe Co., High Street, Lambeth, London . 
 
 Erskine, F. & Co., 50, Withington Street, Pendleton, Manchester 
 Ferniiiough, John & Sons, Victoria Ironworks, Dukinfield, near Manchester . 11 
 
 Fleming, Thomas & Son, West Grove Mill, Halifax, Yorkshire . Front inside Cover. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 Back inside Cover. 
 
 . . . 7 
 
 . . . 16 
 
 17 
 17 
 14 
 
 Fowler, John <fe Co., 71, Cornhill, London, E.C. 
 
 Furness, W. & Co., Jasmine Street, Liverpool . 
 
 Galloway, W. & J. & Sons, Knott Mill Ironworks, Manchester 
 
 % 
 
 Green, Edward & Son, 14, St. Ann’s Square, Manchester . 
 
 Grice, Grice & Booth, Sheepcote Street, Birmingham 
 Halliday, J., Portland Works, Water Street, Newtown, Manchester 
 Hayward, Tyler & Co., 84 & 85, Upper Whitecross Street, London, E.C. 
 Hartley & Sugden, Atlas Works, Halifax, Yorkshire 
 
 Hill & Hey, Bond Street, Halifax, Yorkshire 
 
 Holt, John, School Street Works, off Toad Lane, Rochdale 
 
 Kenyon, John & Co., Sheffield 
 
 Massey, B. <fc S., Openshaw Canal Steel and Iron Works, Manchester | 
 Mather & Platt, Salford Ironworks, Manchester .... 
 Platt, Bros. & Co., Limited, Hartford Works, Oldham 
 
 Robinson, Thomas & Son, Rochdale 
 
 Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry .... 
 Sutcliffe, Wright, & Son, Green Lane, Halifax, Yorkshire 
 
 Taylor Bros., Adelaide Works, Sheffield ' 
 
 Twibill, Joseph, Economiser Works, Hulme, Manchester 
 Wilson, Alex. & Co., Vauxhall Ironworks, Wandsworth Road, Londou 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 . 8 9 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 11 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 10 
 
 } Facing front 
 inside Cover. 
 
 5 
 7 
 2 
 
 16 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
ARTISANS* REPORTS — ADVERTISE*! ENTS. 
 
 Vienna, 1873. 
 
 Paris, lSi*7. 
 
 Vienna, 1873. 
 
 __ vieuua, 10 
 
 C. Ds BERGUE & CO., 
 
 Engineers and Contractors, 
 
 10, STRAND. LONDON, 
 
 PUNCHING 
 
 AND 
 
 SHEARING 
 
 MACHINE. 
 
 To Punch 
 
 Shear all 
 
 thicknesses 
 
 of Plates 
 
 up to 
 
 Two Inches, 
 
 MAN l P AC IT 1 1 1 . 1 1 OF 
 
 Iron Bridges, Girders and Hoofing ; also of Punching and Shearing Machines 
 (Horizontal and Vertical), Plate Mill Shears, Girder Bivetting Machines, 
 Bivet Making Machines, Bivet Dressing Machines, Bail Straightening 
 and Punching Machines, Bending. Curving, and Blocking Machines, 
 Oast Iron Patent Permanent Way, Bail Levellers, &c, 
 
 Strangeways Iron Works, MANCHESTER. 
 
 Wauntreoda Works, CARDIFF. Tay Bridge Works, NEWPORT, DUNDEE. 
 
ARTISANS REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS, 
 
 PRIZE MEDAL, VIENNA EXHIBITION. 
 
 THOMAS ROBINSON & SONS have been Awarded the MEDAL FOB. MEBIT, 
 being the highest award for Wood-cutting Machine combining excellence and 
 perfection of material and workmanship, with large extent of production. 
 
 London, 1862.1 PRIZE MEDALS. [Paris, 1867. 
 
 THOMAS R0BINS0N& SONS, 
 
 Saw Mill Engineers 
 
 AND 
 
 WOOD-CUTTING MACHINISTS, 
 
 Rochdale, near Manchester. 
 
 London Office: 84, CANNON STREET, E.C. 
 
 Patent Portable Log and Teal Frame. High-pressure Horizontal Steam Engine. 
 
 M anufacturers of timber and deal frames, 
 
 Planing and Moulding Machines, Circular Saw Benches, and every 
 description of Wood-working Machinery. High-pressure Condensing and 
 Compound Steam Engines, Steam Boilers, Shafting, Gearing, &c. 
 
 Complete Sets of Machinery designed and arranged for Saw-mills, Planing 
 and Moulding Mills, Builders, Contractors, Shipbuilders, Carriage and Wagon 
 Works, Railway Companies, Government Arsenals, Dockyards, &c. 
 
 T. R. & Sons invite intending purchasers to visit their Works at Rochdale, 
 where complete Sets of Sawing and Wood- working Machinery may daily be 
 seen in operation. They can also show a complete Set of upwards of fifty 
 Machines, made specially for Railway Carriage and Wagon building, com- 
 bining all the latest improvements, in operation at a short distance from 
 London. 
 
artisans’ REPORTS — ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 3 
 
 VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1873, 
 Prize Medal awarded for 
 
 CIRCULAR SAWS. 
 
 TAYLOE BROTHERS’ 
 
 REGISTERED COLLAR ETCHING. 
 
 Ground by Patent Machinery, showing Shapes of Teeth, index Letters, Wire Guage and 
 
 Instructions for Ordering. 
 
 ADVANTAGES OF PERFORATED SAWS (Patent No. 2579).— Great Saving of Files. 
 Effectually Prevents Expansion. Half the amount <>t' Filing saved. Liability to FractWo 
 
 done away with. Keeps the Teeth of Uniform Size. Serves as a Guide to the Filer. Perforation-, 
 cut out bulk of what is generally filed away. Frequent Re-gulletting saved. 
 
 Manufacturers cf Saws, Steel Files. Edge Tools, Machine Knives, Matchets, Cane Knives. Ac. 
 Circular Saws for Wood Cutting Machinery, equally balanced, and warranted to run true. 
 Mill Saws, Mill Webs, Cross Cut, Pit and Frame Saws, specially tempered and 
 warranted best quality. 
 
 Short Saws of all kinds, with plain and ornamented Handles, Brass and Steel Plates. 
 Etched Blades, &c. Combination Hand Saws, comprising Two-foot Rule, Brass Tlatcd 
 Square, and Straight Edge. 
 
 MARKS—" Taylor Brothers'," U J. Taylor <$■ Son," A I. Taylor," '* Adelaide Saw Worts," and “ Melvin." 
 
 All Saws Toothed, Ground, Glazed, and Polished, by the most recent 
 improved Patent Machinery, 
 
 CIRCULAR SAWS MACHINE GROUND UP TO EIGHT FEET DIAMETER. 
 
 ADELAIDE SAW AND STEEL WORKS, SHEFFIELD. 
 
 6 
 
4 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 STEAM BOILERS AT THE VIENNA EXHIBITION. 
 
 THE 
 
 Diploma nf 23nmmr 
 
 (Being the highest distinction) 
 
 Has been Awarded to the 
 
 "GALLOWAY" 
 
 STEAM 
 
 BOILER. 
 
 Section of “ Galloway ” Boiler, showing arrangements of back 
 Hues, the furnaces being of the same construction as in the 
 common two-flued boiler. 
 
 The attention of Boiler Owners 
 is specially directed to the 
 superiority of this over every 
 other description of Boiler 
 for Economy and Durability. 
 
 Upwards of 3,000 now working in the United Kingdom 
 and on the Continent. 
 
 Prices and all other particulars will he sent on application to tliePatentees. 
 
 MAKERS OF THE 
 
 “GALLOWAY” 
 
 CONICAL WATER TUBES. 
 
 These Tubes are readily inserted into the Flues of existing Boilers, and 
 promote economy of fuel, ranging from 15 to 25 per cent., in- 
 creased circulation of water ana durability. 
 
 These Tubes have now been in use for Twenty Years, and 
 above 130,000 are now in work . 
 
 They can be fixed by any Boiler Maker, but can only be obtained 
 from the Patentees, 
 
 W. & J. GALLOWAY & SONS, 
 
 KISTOTT MILL IRON WORKS, 
 
 MANCHESTER. 
 
artisans’ reports — advertisements. 
 
 5 
 
 MATHER k PLATT, 
 
 ENGINEERS, 
 
 Salford Iron Works, 
 M A N C H E S T E R, 
 
 Patentees and Makers of 
 
 STEAM EARTH-d-ROCK-BORING MACHINES 
 
 For Artesian Borings and Mineral Explorations. 
 
 Improved Pistons and Air Pump Buckets. 
 
 HOT AIR SIZING & DRYING MACHINES. 
 
 Iron and Brass Valves and Taps for 
 Steam, Water and Gas. 
 
 IMPROVED MACHINERY FOR EACH OPERA- 
 TION IN CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 Bleaching, Dyeing and Finishing 
 Machines, 
 
 In every variety and detail, for Cotton, Linen and Woollen Goods. 
 
6 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 ALEX. WILSON & CO., 
 
 ENTGINTEERS, 
 
 Vauxhall Iron Works, 
 
 WANDSWORTH ROAD, LONDON, S,W. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF THE 
 
 “VAUXHALL DONKEY PUMPS.” 
 
 Jttetrals : 
 
 HAVRE AND NAPLES MARITIME EXHIBITIONS; 
 
 LONDON AND VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS. 
 
 Manufacturers of Bilge and Water Ballast Pumps, Railway Station 
 and other Pumps, Steam Stop Valves, Escape Valves, Check 
 Valves, Foot Valves, Safety Valves, and other Fittings. 
 
 SCREW ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAUNCHES, TUGS, 
 
 AND LIGHTERS. 
 
 The special attention of all users of Steam Power is called to the “VAUXHALL 
 DONKEY PUMPS,” which are the only reliable Donkey Pumps in use. They are patronised 
 by all the leading Shipbuilders and Engineers, and can be obtained from any Steamship 
 Furnisher at home or abroad. 
 
 Over 3,000 of these Pumps are now in use on board Yachts and Steamships, in Breweries, 
 Distilleries, Tanneries, Paper Mills, Cotton, Woollen, and other Spinning Mills, Bleach- 
 works, Dye-works, Chemical-works, Saw Mills, Collieries, Iron-works, Mines, and many 
 other places where steam is used. 100 per month are now being sold. 
 
 Size* 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 Gallons thrown 
 
 Horse-power of 
 
 Price. 
 
 
 
 inn. 
 
 ins. 
 
 per Hour. 
 
 Boiler supplied. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 ... 1 | 
 
 2i 
 
 120 
 
 8 
 
 £7 10 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 10 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 if 
 
 4 
 
 300 
 
 20 
 
 13 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 2{ 
 
 4 
 
 450 
 
 30 
 
 15 0 
 
 0 
 
 *8 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 700 
 
 40 
 
 17 10 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 2 \ 
 
 6 
 
 1000 
 
 GO 
 
 20 0 
 
 0 
 
 *10 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 1500 
 
 100 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 *12 
 
 ... 2| 
 
 ... 6 
 
 2000 
 
 120 
 
 30 0 
 
 0 
 
 Those marked (*) are double action. 
 
 A LARGE STOCK ALWAYS CN HAND, FROM WHICH ORDERS CAN BE EXECUTED WITHOUT DELAY. 
 
ARTISANS* REPORTS — ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 VIENNA, 1873, 
 
 FOR PROGRESS. 
 
 THE 
 
 COALBROOK-DALE COMPANY 
 
 Shropshire, 
 
 [RON - FOUNDERS. — Specialities : 
 
 . Entrance Gates, Fencing, Verandahs, Balconies, Tomb and other 
 Railing, Fountains, Vases, Garden Chairs, Monumental Erections, 
 Statues, Cooking Ranges, Stove Grates, Fenders, Hall Tables, and 
 Ornamental Castings generally; COLONIAL CASTINGS, STEAM- 
 ENGINES, BOILERS, MACHINERY, Ac. Ac. 
 
 LIST OF~MEDA LS. 
 
 Society of Arts, 1787 — The Gold Medal, to Mr. Darby, for the Iron Bridge, 
 
 „ ,, 1849 — The Gold Medal, for Castings. 
 
 The Exhibition, 1851 — The Council Medal (Class XXII.) 
 
 Paris, 1855 — Two First-class and one Second-class Medals. 
 International, 1862 — Bronze Medals (Class XXXI. and Class X.) 
 
 Vienna, 1873 — The Medal for Progress (Class VII.) 
 
 PLATT, BROTHERS & Co., Limited, 
 
 HARTFORD WORKS, 
 
 Oldham, near Manchester. 
 
 ENGINEERS, MACHINISTS, MILLWRIGHTS, IRON & BRASS 
 FOUNDERS, FORGE IRON MANUFACTURERS, &c. 
 
 OFFICES : — 
 
 HARTFORD CHAMBERS, 5, ST. ANN’S SQUARE, MANCHESTER; and 
 7, ROYAL BANK PLACE, GLASGOW. 
 
 Machinery for opening and ginning seed cotton. 
 
 Machinery for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotton, wool, and worsted. 
 
 Machinery for carding and spinning silk waste. 
 
 Power looms for all descriptions of plain and fancy cloths in cotton and wool. 
 
 Sizing, dressing, warping, beaming, winding, and reeling machinery. 
 
 Cloth folding and measuring machines. 
 
 Ilydraulic and cam bundling presses for yam and cloth. 
 
 Combing machines for cotton — Heilmann’s or Whipple’s patent. 
 
 Combing machines for worsted — Little & Eastwood’s patent. 
 
 New patent cleaning machines for cotton. 
 
 Crighton’s patent opening machines for cotton. 
 
 Hard waste breaking-up machinery. 
 
 Patent burring machines for wool. 
 
 Patent brick-making machinery. 
 
 Forging machines, horizontal and vertical drilling machines, planing machines, shaping 
 machines, cropping machines, saws, and other tools for mechanics’ and smiths’ shops. 
 
8 
 
 ARTISANS* REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 LONDON, 1862. 
 
 GREEN’S 
 
 1867. 
 
 PATENT 
 
 FUEL ECONOMISER, 
 
 For ]5teajvi Boilerjs & Furjuce^. 
 
 The only Prize given at the Vienna Exhibition for 
 Fuel Economisers has just been awarded to Edward 
 Green & Son, of 14, St. Ann's Square , Manchester , 
 and at Wakefield. 
 
 THE CRAND COLD MEDAL AT MOSCOW AND PARIS WAS ALSO CIVEN THEM. 
 
 This Apparatus, after having been applied to all sorts of Boilers, and subjected to 
 every variety of trial through a long period of years, still holds its position as the 
 best and most efficient means of Heating the Feed Water with the Waste or Residual 
 Heat from Steam Boilers, and thus effects a positive SAVING OF FROM FIFTEEN 
 TO TWENTY- FIVE PER CENT. OF THE FUEL, besides considerably reducing the 
 “ wear and tear” in the working of the Boilers, by furnishing, as it does, a constant 
 supply of Feed Water at a high and uniform Temperature. 
 
 The recent Improvements in the ECONOMISER, especially in the self-acting 
 Scraping or Cleaning Apparatus, render it still more worthy of general adoption. 
 
 N.B. — The ECONOMISER is now in successful operation to more than 2,500,000 
 Horse-Power, and giving universal satisfaction. 
 
 List of References, with numerous Testimonials, may be had from the 
 Original Inventors, 
 
 EDWARD GREEN & SON, 
 
 patentees anti icole i-Hafccrs, 
 
 WA K E F I E L D. 
 
 Offices: 14, St, ANN'S SQUARE, MANCHESTER, 
 
 Also at London, Glasgow, and Dusseldorf. 
 
ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 10 
 
 ALSO MEDAL OF MERIT VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1873. 
 
 JOHN KENYON & CO., 
 
 SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND, 
 
 STEEL CONVERTERS & REFINERS. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF 
 
 Cast, Shear, Bar, Spring, and Sheet Steel, 
 
 SAWS, FILES, EDGE TOOLS, 
 
 MACHINE KNIVES, &c., &c. 
 
 GKEN'ISIR^Ij MERCHANTS. 
 
 (corporate y KENYON, Sj MIDDLE WOOD, 
 MARKS, HH SHEFFIELD, and §j SHEFFIELD.) 
 
 CLEMENTZ & CO. . 
 F. A. KAEMPFFE . 
 KUEIBIG A FINGER 
 
 FOREIGN AGENTS:- 
 
 ST. rETERSBUEG.' 
 
 Riga. 
 
 Lisbon. 
 
 GEORGE KELLNER & CO. . . 
 
 A. G. RED PATH 
 
 A. RACK & CO 
 
 Odessa. 
 
 Oeorto. 
 
 Vienna. 
 
ARTISANS REPORTS — ADVERTISEMENTS 
 
 11 
 
 “THE UNIVERSAL” 
 
 STEAM P TJ M P. 
 
 No Tappets, AWARDED THE 
 Sorimrs HIGHEST HONOUR 
 
 Rods or Gear. VIENNA EXHIBITION 
 1873. 
 
 Requires 
 No Foundation, 
 can be slung 
 on Frame 
 in Pits. 
 
 r^rm 
 
 Specially- 
 Constructed 
 to Pump 
 Gritty Water, 
 Hot Liquor, 
 Tar, 
 Sewage, 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Selected by the Royal Commissioners of the British Department at the 
 Vienna Exhibition, for the supply of their Steam Boilers, and also exhibited 
 on the stand of the 
 
 £olc iUakcrs: 
 
 TYLER 5s CO. 
 
 84 & 85, WHITECROSS STREET, LONDON, E.O. 
 
 JOHN FEBNIHOUGH & SONS, 
 
 VICTORIA IRON WORKS, 
 
 DUKINFIELD, NEAR MANCHESTER, 
 
 MAKERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE IMPROVED LANCASHIRE BOILERS, 
 
 With Flues, made of Solid Welded Rings and Anti-Collapsive Flanged Seams, 
 with Cross- Water Tubes Welded in, having no Rivets inside the Flues. 
 
 This Boiler is more economical in raising Steam than the ordinary construction, 
 has more elasticity in the flue joints, and capable of greater resistance to the com- 
 pressive force, thereby strongly commending itself to St eam users. 
 
 BONE, SUGAR, SOAP AND OTHER PANS. KIERS, BOILER MOUNTINGS, &c., &c. 
 
 SHIPPING ORDERS RECEIVED THROUGH MERCANTILE HOUSES. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 181£. 
 
12 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 FEED WATER HEATER 
 
 FOE 
 
 STEAM 
 
 BOILERS 
 
 Berryman’s 
 Patent Excels 
 all others. 
 
 R. BERRYMAN 
 
 28, Wilson St. 
 
 FINSBURY, 
 
 LONDON, E.C. 
 
 Hundreds of these Heaters have been in use for Three Years, and are constantly being 
 adopted by many eminent Engineering Firms in both England and America. 
 
 Send for Free Catalogue, describing Boiler-feed Regulator, Steam Trap, &c. 
 
 WILLIAM BOULTON, 
 
 ENGINEER , BURSLEM, 
 
 Inventor, Patentee, and Manufacturer of latest improved 
 POTTER’S MACHINERY, also for making ENCAUSTIC 
 TILES, and for improvements in HEATING DRYING ROOMS by Waste Steam, 
 
 guaranteed without causing any back pressure. 
 
 Testimonals and Prices on Application. 
 
 HABTLEY & SUGDEjN, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 WROUGHT WELDED BOILERS, 
 
 For Hot Water Heating Apparatus and Kitchen Eanges, including 
 all Patterns of Saddle, Cylinder, and Back Boilers. 
 
 “GOLD MEDAL” Awarded at Royal Horticultural Show, 1872, for Best Hot Water Boiler. 
 
 Original Makers of the Patent Independent Dome Top, Tank, Crown, Atlas, 
 Phoenix, and other really Economical and Powerful Boilers. 
 
 All Boilers Tested to High Pressure before leaving the Works. 
 
 ATLAS AND PREMIER BOILER WORKS, HALIFAX. 
 
ARTISANS REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS, 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
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14 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 To Her Majesty the Queen 
 and H.R.H. the 
 Late Prince Consort, and 
 
 Their Royal Highnesses the 
 Prince and Princess of 
 Wales, 
 
 Watson's Self-Acting Syphon Ventilators. 
 
 HILL & HEY, 
 
 VENTILATING E2STQ-II STEERS 
 
 MALI FAX, YORKSHIRE. 
 
 SUCCESSORS TO CHARLES WATSON, Esq.. F.R.S.A., &c., 
 
 the Inventor and Patentee, and by apppointment SOLE MANU- 
 FACTURERS of his now well-known and valuable Ventilator, 
 with all the latest improvements in form and application, the 
 only effectual and satisfactory system of ventilation without violent 
 draught. 
 
 These Ventilators have been applied to nearly the whole of 
 "Windsor Castle, and the Royal Stables at Windsor, and to Sand- 
 ringham, for H.R.H. the PRINCE OF WALES. 
 
 t-IT To remove inducements to use worthless imitations and in- 
 ferior Ventilators, sold by those who know little or nothing of the 
 subject or its application, HILL & HEY now manufacture these 
 Ventilators at REDUCED PRICES, and the prices are as low as 
 possible, consistent with strength and good workmanship — strength 
 and quality is the test of cheapness. 
 
 Experience is essential to success in Ventilation. HILL & HEY 
 were the only managers and inspectors of buildings Mr. Watson 
 ever had, and their experience dates trom 1853. 
 
 H. & H. will forward Mr. Watson’s Letter and their Pamphlet, 
 with Testimonials, Designs, and description of the Ventilator on 
 application. 
 
 tgT Bereave of parties representing themselves to he who and what they are 
 not, and ojfenng '"patent ” improvements , where no patent has existed 
 or can exist. 
 
 WORKS-BOND STREET, HALIFAX. 
 
ARTISANS* REPORTS — ADVERTISEMENTS, 
 
 15 
 
 JOHN HOLT. 
 
 Inventor and Manufacturer 
 
 OF THB 
 
 
 •WIRE 
 
 CARD 8 : 
 
 Vfool. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 Samples and 
 List of Prices on application to 
 
 JOHN HOLT, 
 School Street Works, off Toad Lane, ROCHDALE 
 
 STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 FOR PARTICULARS OF 
 
 JOHN FOWLER Sc OO. 
 
 S 
 
 STEAM CULTIVATING APPARATUS, 
 
 Apply at Steam Plough Works, LEEDS ; or 71, Cornhill, LONDON, E.O. 
 
 GKRIOJlL GRICE cfc BOOTH, 
 
 INVENTORS AND PATENTEES OF 
 
 ORNAMENTAL METALLIC TUBES. 
 
 Makers of all descriptions of Brass and Copper Tubing, &c., 
 
 SHEEPCOTE STREET TUBE AND ROLLING MILLS, 
 
 BIRMINGHAM. 
 
 WRIGHT SUTCLIFFE & SON, 
 
 |}htmliers $ Saniterjr (SiTjjhtms, 
 
 Inventors and Patentees, and Sole 
 Manufacturers of their Patent 
 Cast Lead Sink Traps, Closet 
 Traps and Sink Grates, Pumps, 
 and other Bent Pipes, to prevent 
 noxious Gases from entering 
 Dwelling’s or Mansions through 
 Sinks, or Slop Stones, or Sewers. 
 
 AWARDED DIPLOMA OF MERIT, 
 
 VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1873. 
 
 COMPLETE 
 
 FIG I. 
 
 WITHOUT 
 
 V FIG.2. 
 
 ENTIRELY 
 
 WITHOUT 
 
 SOLDER 
 
 DIAGONAL 
 
 SYPHONS 
 
 TO BE OBTAINED OF PLUMBERS’ MERCHANTS. 
 
 Illustrated Price Lists on Application. 
 
 Works-GREEN LANE, HALIFAX. 
 
 I !M OWE PE1CE 
 
16 
 
 ARTISANS’ REPORTS ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE 
 
 PATENT 
 FILTER. 
 
 Those Filters are made for attachment to the 
 ordinary water main, or the supply pipe from 
 a cistern, or reservoir of any description. 
 
 The supply of water is regulated by the hand on the dial plate, on which three points are 
 indicated : Unfiltered, Filtered, and Cleansing. 
 
 One great advantage possessed by these Filters for domestic use is, that when once fixed 
 up, they not only require no re-filling with water, but no water can be obtained unfiltered, 
 unless the hand on the dial plate be turned to the point marked Un-filtered. 
 
 They can be instantly cleansed by turning the hand on the dial plate from a point 
 thereon marked Filtered to a point marked Cleansing. 
 
 For large Houses and Public Institutions, they can be fitted on the Water Main where it 
 enters the building, and will supply filtered water through all the ordinary taps in the building. 
 
 They are the only Filters that will filter water as rapidly as supplied by the Water Mains. 
 
 Their use will, to a great extent, prevent the scaling of Steam Boilers. 
 
 They are self-cleansing; will filter from 200 to 25,000 gallons per day; will cleanse river 
 water for manufacturing purposes, prevent river pollution, and take all solid matter out of liquid. 
 
 For Further Particulars and Price, apply to the Sole Maker, 
 
 «y> ns Li L; i d j & l . 
 
 PORTLAND WORKS, NEWTOWN, MANCHESTER 
 
 SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY. 
 
 President— THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF DERBY, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
 
 Chairman of Council—HUGH MASON, Esq. | Secretary— WILLIAM GEORGE LARKINS, Esq 
 O ffices— 11, MANCHESTER CHAMBERS, MARKET STREET. 
 
 WM. FURNESS & CO. 
 
 SAW MILL ENGINEERS 
 
 AND 
 
 Wood Working Machinists, 
 
 CLOBE WORKS, JASMINE ST., LIVERPOOL. 
 
 Improved Self-acting Saw Bench. London Office— 39, LOMBARD STREET E.C. 
 
 DAVIES’S PATENT SELF-ACTING STEAM STRIKER, 
 
 Silver Medal Awarded, 
 
 For Forging all kinds of Smith’s Work, being capable of Medi for I rogreu 
 taking the place of hand strikers at one or any number of 
 anvils. It will strike in a vertical or horizontal direction, 
 
 OR AT ANY ANGLE. 
 
 These strikers have been in'regular use for upwards of 
 seven years, and they have been supplied to Bridge 
 Works — Genera] Engineering Works — Wheelwright 
 Works — Iron Shipbuilding Yards — Stationary Engine 
 Works — Marine Engine Works — Biuss and Copper Works 
 
 — Gun Carriage Works— Gun Factories — Canal and River Vienna Exhibition , 1873. 
 Works — Bolt and Rivet Works — Collieries — Iron Works — General Smiths' Works — Locomotive Works 
 — Hydraulic Engineers. 
 
 Sole Makers — The Orumlin Viaduct Works Company, Limited, near Newport, Mon. 
 
ABTISAN8 REP0RT8 ADVERTISEMENTS 
 
 17 
 
 VIENNA EXHIBITION, 1873. 
 Medals for Progress and Merit. 
 
 |||D0ULT0N & WATTS, 
 
 'illP' Lambeth Pottery, London. 
 
 STONEWARE MANUFACTURED OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Sgraffitto Jugs of Original Shapes and Decorations. 
 Domestic Stoneware. 
 
 Filters fitted with Charcoal and Sand Filtering Beds. 
 Patent Air-tight Jars with Covers of Stoneware. 
 
 Chemical Vessels to withstand the Action of Acids ; Pumps 
 to lift Acids; Perforated Tiles for Draining Off Acids, 
 and for Maltsters. 
 
 PLUMBACO AND OTHER CRUCIBLES. FIRE CLAY FURNACES, LUMPS, ETC. 
 
 FINE ART TILES, 
 
 SHOW ROOMS — HIGH STREET, LAMBETH. 
 
 §|H. DOULTON & C0.|fg| 
 
 '^0' High Street, Lambeth, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF VITRIFIED STONEWARE DRAIN PIPES 
 AND SANITARY COODS. 
 
 Channels and Valves for the Conveyance of Sewage for 
 Irrigation. 
 
 Kitchen Sinks, Urinals, Closet Pans, Slop Sinks. 
 Boulton's Improved Vitrified Damp Proof Course. 
 
 STABLE BRICKS, COPINCS, PAVINCS, ETC., IN METALLIC STAFFORDSHIRE WARE. 
 
 Architectural Terra Cotta, Buff and Red, in every variety; 
 Glazed Terra Cotta for Panels, Medallions, &c., &c., 
 in Various Colours. 
 
 WORKS — High Street, Lambeth ; Rowley Regis, Staffordshire; Smethwick, 
 near Birmingham ; St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 
 
 SHOW ROOMS — HIGH STREET, LAMBETH. 
 
 The above Firms have been awarded 
 
 FIVE MEDALS FOR PROGRESS AND MERIT 
 
 At the Universal Exhibition, Vienna, 1873. 
 
i i 
 
 OHATWOOD’S 
 
 OCTUPLE PATENT 
 
 INVINCIBLE 
 
 Burglar and Fire Proof 
 
 SAFES. 
 
 n 
 
 This Sale won the only Medal at Vienna, 1873, for Fire and Burglar 
 Proof Safes, all others being simply for Fire Proof Safes only. 
 
 Bankers’ Well Safes, 
 
 Strong Booms, Doors and Frames, 
 Deed Chests, Gunpowder Magazines, &c. 
 
 I, OCRS FOI! EVERY PURPOSE. 
 
 Lancashire Safe ami lock works, Holton; 13. Cross Street. 
 Manchester; am! 120. Cannon Street. London, G.C. 
 
PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED WHEREVER EXHIBITED. 
 
 Dublin, 1865. Oporto, 1865. Paris, 1867. 
 
 Havre, 1868. Vienna, 1673. 
 
 Received the only Medal awarded for “Fire and 
 Burglar Proof” Safes, 
 
 All others being for Fire Proof Safes only. 
 
 SAMUEL CHATWOOD, 
 
 Bankets’ safe ana lock engineer, 
 
 INVENTOR AND PATENTEE OF THE 
 
 “INVINCIBLE" 
 
 Burglar and Fire Proof “ Intersected-Steel’ ‘ 
 
 Bank 8afe, 
 
 MERCHANTS’ COMPOSITE SAFES, 
 
 SAFES FOR PLATE, DIAMONDS, BOORS, PAUCHUKATS, &(. 
 
 Manufacturer of .Chatwood’s Patent “Invincible” Unpickable 
 and Gunpowder Proof Locks for all Purposes. 
 
 NOTICE.— Purchasers of these Safes are allowed 36 Hours' Test, with every 
 description of Burglars' Appliances, before delivery. 
 
 Price Lists and Testimonials Free on Application. 
 
 SAMUEL CHATWOOD, 
 
 LANOASHIBE SATE AND LOOK WOBKS, BOLTON; 
 
 13. Cross Street, Manchester: 
 
 error cewter library 
 
 iiii 
 
 mill 
 
 
 STR/EET.LOlSriDOISr E-C. 
 
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