Digitized by tine Internet Arcliive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/scienceofmoclernc01leig THE SCIENCE OF MOUERI^ COTTOIT SPINNIN^Gi MILL ARCHITECTURE ; MACHINERY FOR COTTON GINNING, OPENING, SCUTCHING, PREPARING, AND SPINNING, WITH ALL THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS; ALSO ARTICLES ON STEAM AND WATER POWER ; SHAFTING ; GEARING AND AMERICAN SYSTEM OF BELTING COMPARED ; GENERATION AND APPLICATION OF STEAM CRITICISED AND EXPLAINED ; BOILERS, BOILER EXPLOSIONS, &c. ; ALL TENDING TO SHOW WHERE THE OUTLAY OF CAPITAL MAY BE ECONOMISED, AND PRODUCTION CHEAPENED. BY EYAT^ LEIGH, C.E. MECHANICAL ENGINEER, U.S.A., AESOC I.N.A.^ JJI^C,, ,0P >ANCHESTET2, . l!'N&IiA;Nl> ; INVENTOR OF " COUPLED MULES" WITH " tUTTiNG-DP MOTION,'"' " SELF-STKIPPING CARDING ENGINE,' " LOOSE-BOSS TOP HOLLER," ETC. , , , , . Volume I. PALMER & HOWE, PUBLISHERS, I and 3, BOND STREET. Honlion : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO. MAY ALSO BE HAD FHOM EVAN A. LEIGH & CO., MACHINERY CONTRACTORS AND SHIPPERS, TOWN HALL BUILDINGS, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. EVAN LEIGH & SON, MERCHANTS AND SHIPPERS, 2, BRUNSWICK BUILDINGS, LIVERPOOL. r. A. LEIGH & CO., IMPORTERS OF MACHINERY, 103, DEVONSHIRE STREET, BOSTON, MASS., AMERICA. 1875. [the RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.] THE GE"^^ O^.Hl ih TO Sir WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Baronet, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ETC., AS A PRACTICAL AND ACCOMPLISHED ENGINEER, AND VETERAN IN SCIENCE, WHOSE WORKS ON MILL ARCHITECTURE, STEAM AND WATER POWER, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC., HAVE BEEN, AND WILL BE, A LASTING BOON TO MANKIND; ALSO, TO Sir THOMAS BAZLEY, Baronet, MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT, ETC., AS A MAN THOROUGHLY ACQUAINTED WITH THE COTTON MANUFACTURE, WHOSE LONG AND ASSIDUOUS LABOURS IN PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF COTTON, AND IN MANY OTHER USEFUL PUBLIC OBJECTS, HAVE CONFERRED GREAT BENEFITS ON LANCASHIRE AND THE COMMERCIAL WORLD, IS, BY PERMISSION, MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY THE AUTHOR. 4-7 PREFACE. rpHE object of this work is not only to illustrate modern cotton spinning, but to make its theory and practice plain, with a view to assist and interest both the juvenile student and inexperienced manager, by laying down simple rules, and explaining the nature of the various machines, their principles of action, and what constitutes their mechanical excellence or defect, as touching economy of production, which is the great desideratum of the intelligent and expert cotton spinner. The first source of cost is the interest on capital expended ; next the depreciation on buildings, machinery, and general plant ; then comes the labour required ; after which the consumption of fuel, oils, &c. To economise these, therefore, and bring down the cost of production to a minimum, is the great object in view. With this aim the author, who has had nearly half a century's personal experi- ence, dwells but little on present examples, which may be seen in every-day operation, but rather points to the inevitable future, taking care to advise no step but what is both safe and practical, and by which large sums of money may be saved in original outlay, and, consequently, in cost of production. The next thing will be to show the best arrangement and selection of machinery for producing good yarn ; also its general management with a view to economy in wear and tear, labour, &c. It is thought desirable, in order to give the student a thorough knowledge of the nature of cotton, to exhibit drawings showing the length of staple of the different varieties, which the author is enabled to do through the kindness of The Cotton Sujoply Association ; also to give a short history of the plant, with fibres magnified, and to show the mode of " ginning" cotton, as at present generally practised. In all criticisms of machinery a strict impartiality will be observed, and the names of machine makers will only be mentioned where necessary in connection with some invention or other peculiarity, and wherever this is done it must not be under- stood as any recommendation by the author. The principal object is to lay bare the truth and science of cotton spinning in its most advanced state, up to the day of publication. EVAN LEIGH. Manchester, January, 1871. CONTENTS OP VOLUME 1. THE COTTON PLANT : Varieties and Relative Values of Cottun : — Sea Islands Cotton . . . .2 Australian Cotton ... 2 Egyptian Cotton . . . .2 Brazil and other South American Cotton 3 Algerian Cotton . . . .3 West Indies .... 4 American Cotton . , . .4 African Cotton .... 6 Borneo and Java Cotton . . .6 East India Cotton ... 7 Indigenous Cotton grown in India . . 8 Cotton grown in India from New Orleans or American Peed . . . .9 Ditto from Sea Island and Egyptian Seed 9 China, Smyrna, and other Cottons . .11 Italian Cotton . ... . 11 COTTON GINNING : Churka or Roller Gin ... 14 Roller Gin with Fly Wheel . . .14 The Saw Gin .... 15 The Macarthy Gin . . . .15 The Double Macarthy Gin . . 18 The Knife Roller Gin . . .19 Patent Ginning Roller ... 21 The Lock- J aw Cotton Gin . . .21 Postscript. .... 22 COTTON MILL ARCHITECTURE : Fireproof Mills . . . .25 " India Mill" at Darwen : — Description of . . . .26 General Plan. . . . .26 Elevation of Central Tower, and Transverse Section of Mill . . . .27 Longitudinal Section through Engine House, &c 27 Elevation of Vertical and Horizontal Shaft- ing .... 27 Boiler House . . 28 Machinery ; Blowing Room — First Card Room — Second Card Room — Spinning Room . . . .28 Artificial Stone : — Grande Maitre Aqueduct . . 29 Suez Canal . . . . .29 Lower Egypt, Buildings in . . 3Ci Bricks, as a Building Material . . .30 MoRTAKS : Leaning Chimneys . . 31 Lime : Rich Limes — Hydraulic Limes . . 32 Concrete : " Beton Agglome're's" . . 33 Portland Cement . . . .34 Artificial Stone . . .35 GEARING VERSUS BELTING : American System of Driving Mills by Double Belts ... 37 Rule to find the Horse Power of . .41 Rule to find the proper Width of . 41 Piecing and Tightening Straps : — Harris's Patent Strap Fastener . . 43 MOVING POWER : Watt's Steam Engine . . .44 Heavy and Light Fly Wheels . . 46 Waste of Coal- . . . .48 COTTON SPINNING IN INDIA : Cotton Mill of One Storey at Bombay : — Blowing Room — Card Room — Spinning Room — Warping Room — Sizing Rooa-' — Weaving Shed — Reeling Room — Engine House — Boiler House . . 49 Gearing : — List of Wheels and Speeds . . 50 List of Pulleys . . . .50 List of Mills in the Bombay and Bengal Presidencies . . . .51 COTTON MIXING, OPENING, & SCUTCHING : Lord's Self-regulating Feeder . . 53 The Batting Flake ... 54 The First Scutcher . . . .55 The Fan and Dust Cage ... 56 Spiked Feed Rollers . . . .56 The " Cone Willow " Cotton 0[)ener . 57 The " Oldham Willow " . . .58 Hardacre's Cotton Opener . . 59 Crighton's Cotton Opener . . .60 CONTENTS OF PAGE Opening op East India Cotton : — Cotton Steaming Apparatus . . 61 Lord's Patent Cotton Opener . . 62 The Porcupine Opener . . 63 The Scutcher : — The Double Scutcher . . .65 Lord's Finisher Scutcher ... 66 Crighton's Single-Beater Finisher Lap Ma- chine . . . . .66 Crighton's Feed Eegulator . . 67 Dog-Tooth Roller . . . .68 Lap Selvages .... 70 Dust Cages . . . . .71 The Scutching Room : — Long-stapled Cottons ... 72 Surat and other Short-stapled Cottons . 73 Fireproof Scutching Rooms . . 74 MODERN SPINNING MILL AT BOLTON : Ground Plan (Machinery) . . .75 Douhler, or " Cheese " Machine . . 75 Gross Weight of Cotton used . . 76 Net Weight of Yarn produced . . 76 THE CARDING ENGINE : Differences of Opinion upon . . .77 Antiquity of Carding ... 77 James Hargreaves' Improvement . 78 The Carding Cylinder ... 78 Bourn's and Paul's Patent . . .79 Bourn's Specification ... 79 Paul's Specification . . . .80 Flats first used .... 82 Richard Arkwright's Card . . .83 His Early Struggles ... 84 Sir Richard Arkwright . . .85 Arkwright's Doffing Comb . . 86 Arkwright's Complete Carding Engine . 87 The Roller Carding Engine : - Tatham's Single Roller Carding Engine . 88 Advantages and Defects of Roller Carding . 89 Birch's Patent Card ... 90 Clearers . , . . .91 Speed of Rollers and Clearers . . 92 Roller Engine Bends . . . .93 The Double Carding Engine: — Description of . . . .94 Waste in Carding . . . .94 Striped Yarn ... .94 Faulkner's Roller Card . . .95 „ „ Specification of ,. 96 Pooley's Card . . . .97 Wilkinson's Roller Card ... 98 Adshead and Holden's Roller Card . . 100 The " Union" Carding Engine . . 101 VOLUME 1. PAQL Mason's Concentric Bend . . .102 Carding Engine, with ditto, by Howard and Bullough . . . .103 Breaker and Finisher Cards : — Finisher Carding Engine . . . 105 The Little Breaker and Finisher , .106 Buchanan's Self-stripping Card . . 107 Smith's Self-stripping Card . . .110 Evan Leigh's Self-stripping Card, 1st Patent 113 „ „ Finisher Lap Machine . 114 Piatt and Brothers' Improvement upon . 115 Knowles' Improvement , . . 115 Evan Leigh's 2nd Patent . . .115 Coupling of Flats . . .116 Wellman's Self-strijjping Card . .117 Specification of . . . .118 Important Modifications of Wellman's Prin- ciple ..... 121 Bayley and Quarmby's Patent . , 1 22 Economy of the Leigh Card . . 123 Finisher Card Altered to Leigh's Self-stripper 124 The Newhall Factory :— Description of . . . . 125 CuNNECTiNG Carding Engines together : — Albert Escher's System . . . 126 Evan Leigh's System . . . 126 Economy of Steel Rollers . , . 126 Hulme's Railway . . . 127 American Cotton Factory : — Harmony or " Mastodon " Mill . .127 Breakers . . . . .128 Finishers . . . . 128 Drawing Frames . . . .128 Duration of Large Belts . . .128 Connecting Carding Engines together : — Smith's Travelling Flat Card, improved by Leigh . . . . .129 Leigh's Self-Stripping Flat Card, old con- struction of . , . . 129 Leigh's Self-Stripping Flat Card, new con- struction of . . . .129 Flats, coupling of . . . 130 „ as they appear when at work . . 130 Carding Engine with the old kind of Flat 130 Finisher Card with all Flats . . 131 Wellman Card . , . .131 Wellman's Self-Stripper, improvements on 132 Union Carding Engines . . . 132 Self-Stripping Carding Engines (various) 133 Card Clothing : — Cards, Setting of . , . . 135 „ Setting of by machinery . . 135 „ Walton's Patent Material for . 136 „ Horsfall's Patent . . 136 „ Macintosh Cloth . , .136 CONTENTS OF VOLUJIE I. V How TO CocNT Cards : — Systems of couuting Cards . . 137 Cut, Definition of . . . . 137 Crown, Definition of . . . 137 Fillet, Ribbed and Twilled . . . 137 Feed Rollers : — Feed Rollers, Opinions on . . 137 „ „ Various kinds of . .137 Feed Roller, Bennett's . . .138 „ „ Tatham's Improved . . 139 Clothing op the Licker-in : — Object of Clothing the Licker-ia . 140 Calvert's Substitute for Licking-in Cards . 1 40 Subsequent inventions for Clothing of the Licker-in . . . .140 Clothing of Rollers , . . 141 Clothing Clearers .... 141 Clothing of Cylinders :— India Rubber Cloth Fillet . . 142 Spaced Fillet . . . . .142 Clothing Main Cylinders, Numbers of Cards suitable for . . . .142 Bend or " Keening" of the Wire . 143 DoFFER Clothing :— DofFer Fillets, fineness of . . .143 Twilled Dofler Fillet . . .143 Ribbed Fillet . . . 143 Dirt Roller Fillet : — . . . 143 Scale of Bend given to Cards for different purposes .... 143 Samples of Cards .... 143 Clothing of Flats : — Top Cards .... Fancy Roller : — Fancy Roller, why used, and its advantage . „ its value . „ „ its action Stripping the Cylinder without stopping the Card .... Bodmer's method of Stripping Cylinders . Rivett's plan of Stripping the Card Cy- linder by power John Elce & Co's plan of Stripping Cylin- ders in motion Gamble Card .... Further method of Stripping Cyhnders Cylinders : — Cylinders, Opinions on . Balancing Cylinders, Doffers, and iackers-in Cylinders, Practical Hints as to Wood Cylinders :— Methods of constructing Wood Cylinders Wood Cylinders, Durability of Sheet-Iron Cylinders : — Faulkner's method of making Cylinders, &c. 148 How TO ensure good Carding : — Methods of Grinding Cards . Grinding :— Plan of Grinding Cards — Present Grinding Roller — Horsfall's . Hand Strickles used in Grinding Roller Proposed New System of Grinding . Improved Roller Grinding Machine 144 144 144 144 145 145 146 146 146 146 146 147 147 147 148 143 150 151 151 152 152 LIST OF PLATES Facing I'age Frontispiece. Portrait of Evan Leigh, C.E. Plate I. Cotton Grown in the Sea Islands, &c. 2 » II. Cotton Grown in various parts of the World 4 i» III. Ditto ditto ditto . 6 )) IV. Cotton Grown in India . 8 )) V. Ditto from Native or American Seed 10 »> VI. Ditto, Summary of Results 10 >i VII. Cotton Fibres greatly Magnified 12 » VIII. The Saw Gin . 15 IX. India Mill, Over Darwen 26 X. Ditto, Greneral Plan of Card Room, &c. . 26 » XI. Ditto ditto ditto 26 Facing Page Plate XII. India Mill at Over Darwen : Engine House .... 26 XIII. Ditto, Vertical and Horizontal Shafting 26 » XIV. Bombay Spinning Mill 48 »» XV. Modern Spinning Mill at Bolton . 74 >j XVI. Ground Plan of a Mill 75 )) XVII. Newhall Factory . 125 >» XVIII. Harmony Mill 126 » XIX. Ditto Section and Turbines 128 5> XX. Union Carding Engine 132 n XXI. Self-Stripping Carding Engine . 133 (> XXII. Card Clothing for Carding Engines . 138 n XXIII. Ditto ditto ditto . 138 FIGURES AND Figure — . Rude process of Ginning in India PAGE . 7 » 14. Woman Ginning in India 13 >» 15. Churka or Roller Gin . 14 )> 16. Ditto with Flywheel . 14 ») 19. The Macarthy Gin . 16 »> 20. The Double Macarthy Gin . 17 >» 21. The Knife Roller Gin . . 19 j> 22. Ditto, Brakell's Patent 20 >> 23. The Lock-jaw Cotton Gin . 21 »> 24. "Saws "of Saw Gins. 23 » 25. " Grande Maitre" Aqueduct . 29 )) 26. Method of Driving by belts . 40 ») 27. Harris's Patent Strap Fastener . . 43 )) 28. Portrait of James Watt 45 )> 29. Preparing Cotton for Spinning (India) . 55 » 30. Bow Ginning .... 55 )> 31. Spiked Feed Rollers . 56 >) 32. Ditto ditto . 56 )> 33. Cone Willow Cotton Opener . 57 )> 34. The Oldham Willow (1) 58 1) 35. Ditto ditto (2) . . 59 LLUSTRATIONS. Figure 36. Crighton's Cotton Opener (1) . PAnE 60 >» 37. Ditto ditto (2) 60 )> 38. Cotton Steaming Apparatus , 61 >» 39. Lord's Patent Cotton Opener 62 » 40. Section of Lord's Patent Cotton Opener 62 41. Disc Fan ..... 63 ?> 42. Lord's Patent Opener with Pneumatic Tube ..... 63 43. The Porcupine Opener 64' I) 44. Cylinder of Porcupine Opener . 64 )) 45. External View of Double Scutcher, with Lap attached .... 64 )» 46. Ditto ditto ditto 64 >) 47. Section of Lord's Scutcher 66 )> 48 Lord's Finisher Scutcher 66 )» 49. Ditto ditto 66 )> 50. Lever and Rods 66 >» 51. Ditto, Lord's Feed Regulator 66 » 52. Single-beater Lap Machine . 66 53. Ditto, Side Elevation 66 54. Finisher Lap Machine 66 LIST OF FIGURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. vii PAGE Figure 55. Single Beater Lap Machine . . 66 „ 56. Single Roller of Feed Roller . . 67 „ 57. Shell of ditto . . . .67 „ 58. Ditto , . . . • 67 „ 59. Ditto . . . . .67 „ 60. Dust Cage . . . . 70 „ 61. Ditto . . . . .71 „ 62. Ditto ..... 71 „ 63, Ditto 72 „ 64. Bourn's Carding Engine . 79 „ 65. Paul's Carding Engine, No. 1 . .81 „ 66. Ditto ditto, No. 2 . 82 „ 67, Portrait of Richard Arkwright . . 84 „ 68. Arkwright's Complete Carding Engine 87 „ 69. Tatham's Single Roller ditto ditto . 87 „ 70. Section of above . . . 87 „ 71. Rollers and Clearers . . .87 „ 72, Birch's Roller Engine , . 90 „ 73, Clearers . . . . .91 „ 74. Ditto , . . . . 91 „ 75 . Double Carding Engine . . .94 76. Faulkner's Patent Carding Engine . 96 „ 77. Pooley's ditto ditto , . 97 „ 78, Wilkinson's ditto ditto . 99 „ 79. Adshead's ditto ditto , . 100 „ 80, Union Carding Engine . . 101 „ 8L Mason's Concentric Bend, by Howard andBullough . , .102 „ 82. Carding Engine, with Mason's Bend . 103 „ 83. Breaker Carding Engine (old style) , 104 „ 84, Old Method of setting Flats . . 105 „ 85, Finisher Card Engine (old style) , 105 „ 86. Buchanan's Self-stripping Card , . 107 „ 87, Ditto ditto . 108 „ 88. Detail of Buchanan's Card , . 109 „ 89. Portrait of Archibald Buchanan , 109 „ 90. Smith's Self-stripping Carding Engine , 111 „ 91. Portrait of James Smith . . 112 „ 92, Evan Leigh's Self-stripping Card , 113 „ 93. Details of ditto . 113 „ 94. Ditto ditto . . 113 „ 95. Evan Leigh's Finisher Lap Machine , 114 Figure 96, Evan Leigh's Self-stripping Card (Second Patent) . . . ,115 „ 97. Details of ditto . . . ,116 „ 98. Details of ditto . . ,116 „ 99, Improved Flats . . . ,117 „ 100, Wellman's Self-stripping Card (Side Elevation) . . , .118 „ 101. Ditto (Front Elevation) . . 119 „ 102, Bayley's and Quarmby's Patent , . 122 „ 103, Details of ditto . 123 „ 104. Details of ditto , . 123 „ 105. Finisher Carding Engine, altered to Leigh's Self-stripper . , 124 „ 106. Leigh's New Flat Card . . .129 ,, 107. Plan of Coupling Flats together, accord- ing to latest improvements . . 130 „ 108. End View and Part Section of ditto when at work , , . .130 „ 109. Leigh's Self-stripping Card (Third Patent) , . , ,130 „ 110, Section of Finisher Carding Engine (Leigh's Third Patent) , .130 „ in. Right-hand View of Leigh's Self-strip- ping Carding Engine . , . 130 „ 112. Left-hand View of ditto , . 130 „ 113. Portrait of George Wellman , ,131 „ 114. Wellman's Breaker Card, by Dobson and Barlow . . . ,132 „ 115. Wellman's Card with all Flats, by ditto 132 „ 116. Action of Fluted Rollers . . 138 „ 117. Ditto ditto , , 138 „ 118. Bennett's Feed Roller , . .139 „ 119. Tatham's Improved Feed Roller , 139 „ 120. Steel Ribbon, with top edge serrated , 140 „ 121. Ditto ditto ditto 140 „ 122. Fixing the Ribbon : Transverse Section 140 „ 123. Ditto Side view . 140 „ 124. Ditto Front view . 140 „ 125. HorsfaU's Grinding Roller, complete 150 „ 126, Ditto : Part Section of Hollow Shaft 150 „ 127, Ditto : Details of . , 151 „ 127' Ditto ditto . , ,151 „ 128, Ditto ditto . . .151 MODEEN THE SCIENCE OF COTTON SPINNING. THE COTTON PLANT. rilHIS wonderful plant is indigenous to most hot countries. In its wild, as in its cultivated state, it exhibits great variety of staple, which, like other plants, is much improved by careful culture. It grows in the greatest perfection where the climate is hot and the atmosphere humid ; hence the Sea Island Cotton of Georgia surpasses all other varieties in length and fineness of staple; that grown on the Edisto Island having the longest staple of all. SEA ISLAND COTTON. This variety always commands the highest price in the markets of the world for general excellence, silkiness, and beautiful gloss. Some parts of Australia, Tahiti, and other islands in the Pacific Ocean have climates and natural advantages capable of rivalling the productions of Georgia ; and would appear to be already doing so, judging from the falling off during late years in the quantity grown on the Sea Islands. The mean length of staple in the Sea Island varieties of cotton may be classed as follows ; viz. — Inches. Edisto Island Cotton has a mean length of staple of 2-20. St. Helena Island „ „ „ 1-78. Wassa and Hutchinson Islands „ „ 1'65. Wodamalan Island „ „ „ 1*63. John's Island and James Island „ ,, 1"60. 2 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. The total crop grown each year since 1855 of Sea Island cotton will be seen below ; — Bales. Bales. 1855-56 . . 44,512 1860-66 . No record. 185G-57 . . 45,312 1866-67 . . 32,228 1857-58 . . 40,5GG 1867-68 . . 21,275 1858-59 . . 47,592 1868-69 . . 18,622 1859-00 . . 46,640 1869-70 . . 26,507 Of this, Florida grows rather more than Georgia, and the latter rather more than South Carolina. AUSTRALIAISr COTTON. Australian cotton rivals Sea Island in length of staple and silkiness. At present it is grown, however, in but small quantities, and the crop is said to be rather uncertain. Australian of the best quality has a mean length of staple of 1-80. [See Plate I.] EGYPTIAN COTTON. Egyptian cotton ranks next in length and fineness of staple, also in silkiness of feel, but it has not the same bright colour as the Sea Island. When clean ginned, this cotton is said to lose less in carding and spinning than any other variety, that of the Sea Island excepted. It is used most extensively in the production of No. 60's to 90's yarn, or what are commonly called " Bolton Counts," from the fact that this yarn is spun more extensively in Bolton and its neighbourhood than in any other part of the world. Whilst the finest Sea Island can be spun practically into No. 200's to 300's yarn, the Egyptian is seldom used so high as No. 150's, and never now without being well combed. The invention of the combing machine has made it practicable to spin Egyptian cotton into much finer numbers than formerly, by efi^ectually cleaning it of the nep and dirt so commonly found on it. Egyptian cotton of the best quality has a mean length of staple of I'SOin. The quantity of Egyptian cotton at present grown amounts to about 310,000 bales per annum. The crop, however, is somewhat uncertain from occasional blight, high or low Nile. Great etforts have been made by the intelligent and enterprising Kedive, who now rules Egypt, to promote its growth. The Egyptian bale is now composed of six cantars of 931bs. each, and weighs nearly OOOlbs., being the heaviest Plate I. COTTON GROWN IN THE SEA ISLANDS. COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. DESCRirilON. SEA ISLAND OR LONG STAPLE. Place OP Gkowth. Sea Island. Edi&to Island. John's Island, James Island. St. Helen's Is. Wadamalan I. Wassa Island. Hutchinson I o 'S o a 1—1 o Eh Number . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Min. Length . ICO 1-40 1-90 1-40 1-45 loo 1-40 1-45 1 40 Max. „ 1-80 1-70 2-30 1-80 1-73 200 1-85 185 1-90 ■ 1-78 Mean „ 1-70 l'o5 2^ IGO 1-GO 1-63 1-65 1G3 — SEA ISLAND and AUSTRALIA, COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. DEscKirTiox. SEA ISLAND (continued). AUSTRALIA. Place OP Growth. BuU's Island. Pinkey Isl. Bluff Island. Cat Island. Florida Isl. Morcton Bay. o rH O a V '•B o & Number . 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 Min. Length . 1-30 1-20 IGO 1-20 1-30 150 IGO 1-40 130 Max. „ 1-75 1-60 200 IGo 185 1-80 200 1 GO 1-70 Mean „ 1-53 r40 ISO 1-43 lo8 1G5 1-80 150 1-50 VARIETIES AND RELATIVE VALUES OF COTTON, 3 of all cotton bales. It is interesting to see that useful animal the camel carry two of these enormous bales, slung like a pair of panniers, one on either side, and to watch it rise from the ground, the bales being saddled on while down. BRAZIL AND OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COTTON. Of the many varieties of South American cotton the Pernambuco is most esteemed for its length of staple and general good working qualities. Paraiba and Maceo rank next in quality, being both alike in staple, but rather shorter than Pernam; then come Aracate, Maranham, and Ceara, also alike, but still rather shorter. The staple, however, of all Brazilian cotton, although long, is much coarser than either Sea Island or Egyptian ; hence its unsuitability for very fine numbers of yarn. It is seldom spun alone, on account of its harshness and irregularity both in length of staple and cleanliness, but it mixes well with Egyptian and the American varieties, and is one of those cottons, the relative price of which should be watched by the expert spinner, as sometimes it will come in advantageously and elfect a saving in the mixing. The author once saved a penny a pound for a considerable time by using Brazilian and Surat cottons together, instead of American, when the latter was relatively dear. In working extreme cottons together in this way, no alteration should be made in the setting of the rollers, but the weight should be taken from the middle roller, as it generally is in thostles. Surinam and Peruvian cotton rank in staple almost equal with Pernambuco, but are rather more irregular. Inch. Pernams Cotton of the best quality has a mean length of staple of 1-35. Surinam and Peru „ „ „ „ „ 1'30. Maceo and Paraiba „ „ „ „ „ 1-20. Maranham, Aracate, and Ceara „ „ „ „ I W. The total quantity of Brazilian cotton at present exported amounts to about 300,000 bales, reduced to a weight of 4001bs. each ; but the bales, as they leave the country, weigh only about ISOlbs. each. ALGERIAN COTTON. In the French province of Algiers cotton is grown in small quantities, which ranks in staple with Egyptian. 4 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. WEST INDIES. Of the cotton grown in the West India Islands, that grown on the Union Island IS the best and longest in staple ; the St. Kitt's Island comes next ; both of which are fine and regular in staple. After these, the next in quality is the Carriacon, which is both shorter and more irregular, but not nearly so much so as the St. Vincent. Demarara cotton is small in supply, has a fine glossy staple, of good colour, but very irregular in length. Inch. Union Island Cotton of the best quality has a mean length of staple of 1-45 St. Kitt's Island „ „ „ „ „ 1-30 Caeriacon „ „ „ ,1 „ 1"20 St. Vincent „ „ „ » 105 It may be generally observed of West India cottons that they have a better colour, and are much finer in staple, than the Brazilian, and hence they mix well with Sea Island for fine spinning; but the quantity grown is very small, therefore few spinners use them regularly, from the precarious nature of the supply. They may however, sometimes be picked up to advantage. [See Plate II.] AMERICAN COTTON. American cotton, or that which grows in the Southern States of North America, is generally the most useful of all cottons, and is grown to a greater extent than any other variety. It is comprised under the various names of Orleans, Mobile, Uplands, Apalachicolas, Texas, Boweds, &c. Boweds is a name given formerly to the short- stapled Uplands cotton of Georgia, cleaned with the "bow gin;" but the saw gin, from its rapidity, has now displaced the more antiquated methods of ginning. Cotton, however, is frequently cut and much deteriorated in quality by this rapid ginning with the saw gin, which is also the cause of the small white nep found so frequently in American and other cottons carelessly passed through this machine. These little neps or knots are very difiicult to extract in the subsequent process of carding, and many of them are found adhering to the yarn and cloth after being spun and woven. Inch. New Orleans Cotton of fair quality has a mean length of staple of 1-10. Mobile, Alabama, „ „ „ „ „ 1-05. Georgia, South Carolina, Apalachicola (Uplands) „ „ 1*00. Tennessee, &c. „ „ „ „ ' „ 0-98. Texas, &c. „ „ „ „ „ 0 95. Plate II. COTTON GROWN IN VARIOUS PARTS of the WORLD. COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. Desckiption. EGYPT. WEST INDIES. SOUTH AMERICA. Place OP Growth. Egypt. j Union Isl. St. Kitt's I. Carriacon. St. Vincent. Pernambuco. Peru. Number . . . 1 2 1 2 o O 4 1 2 3 4 Min. Length . 1-40 1-20 1-30 1-20 110 090 1-20 1-10 0-90 110 Max. „ IGO 1-50 IGO 1-4'J 1-30 1-20 1-50 1-40 1-30 1-50 Mean „ 1-50 135 1-45 IGO 1-20 1-05 135 1-25 1-10 1-30 DESCniPTION. SOUTH AMERICA (continded). ALGIERS. Place OF Growth. Surinam. Aracatc. Maranliam. 1 Paraiba. | Ceara. Maceo. Algiers. o % Number . . . 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 J2 1 1 2 Min. Length 110 0-90 100 1-00 090 110 100 110 1-40 1-80 Max. „ 1-50 120 ISO 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-.30 IGO 1-50 Mean „ 1-30 105 1-15 115 110 1-20 115 120 150 1-40 VARIETIES AND EELATIVE VALUES OF COTTON. The vast amount of cotton grown in the United States will be seen from the following statement of the crop grown in each year since 1821 : — Year Year. Year 1821-22 . . 455,000 1837-38 . . 1,801,197 1852-53 . , . 3,262,882 1822-23 . . 495,000 1838-39 . . 1,360,532 1853-54 . . . 2,930,027 1823-24 . . 509,058 1839-40 . . 2,177,835 1854-55 . . . 2,847,339 1824-25 . . 569,249 1840-41 . . 1,634,945 1855-56 . . . 3,527,845 1825-26 . . 720,027 1841-42 . . 1,683,574 1856-57 . . . 2,939,519 1826-27 . . 957,281 1842-43 . . 2,378,875 1857-58 . . . 3,113,962 1827-28 . . 727,593 1843-44 . . 2,030,409 1858-59 . . . 3,851,481 1828-29 . . 870,415 1844-45 . . 2,394,503 1859-60 . . . 4,669,770 1829-30 . . 976,845 1845-46 . . 2,100,537 1860-61 . . . 3,656,086 1830-31 . . . 1,038,848 1846-47 . . 1,778,651 1861-65 . . . No record. 1831-32 . . 987,487 1847-48 . . . 2,347,634 1865-66 . . . 2,193,987 1832-33 . . . 1,070,438 1848-49 . . . 2,728,596 1866-67 . . 2,019,774 1833-34 . . . 1,205,324 1849-50 . . . 2,096,706 1867-68 . . . 2,593,993 1834-35 . . . 1,254,327 1850-51 . . . 2,355,257 1868-69 . . . 2,439,039 1835-36 . . . 1,360,752 1851-52 . . . 3,015,029 1869-70 . . . 3,154,946 1836-37 . . . 1,422,930 It will appear from the above statement that there is no definite record of the crop from 1861 to 1865, when the great civil war raged ; but the crop of 1861-62 was believed to be the largest ever grown. It will also be noticed that the recovery from the disorganisation caused by the disastrous war and subsequent liberation of the slaves has been slow and lingering ; but judging from last year's crop, and the receipts at the ports so far this season, it is gratifying to find that the progress is steady, and the time probably not far distant when the enterprising Americans will exceed all their former successful efibrts at growing cotton, and that with free labour ! According to the latest information, the number of acres under cotton cultivation in the Southern States of America is as follows, viz. : — States. Acres. Estimated yield. Bales. North Carolina 451,714 1751b. per acre 170,000 South Carohna 601,764 1701b. „ 220,000 Georgia 1,330,991 1731b. „ 490,000 Florida 140,909 1651b. „ 50,000 Alabama 1,437,172 1651b. „ 510,000 Mississippi 1,644,512 2051b. „ 725,000 Louisiana 920,700 2501b. , 495,000 Texas 900,937 2401b. „ 465,000 Arkansas 711,734 2451b. „ 375,000 Tennessee 626,184 1901b. „ 215,000 Other States 218,823 1701b 80,000 Total 8,985,440 1861b. average 3,795,000 6 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. I The foregoing is taken from the Report of the Commissioners of Agriculture, made at Washington, December, 1870, in which they state that about 12 per cent more land is under cotton cultivation this year than last, and the crop is estimated to be larger per acre than previously, which is no doubt owing j)artly to a favourable season, and partly to improved culture by the use of artificial manures, the stimulus of high prices, &c.* It remains to be seen what the effect of impending lower prices will have on the future quantity of cotton grown in the States under the new system of free labour. That cotton will recede again to its former level can hardly be expected. * P.S. — The actual cotton crop of 1870-71, predicted by the Commissioners of Agriculture to be 3,795,000 bales, amounted to 4,352,317 bales, which shows how unreliable early estimates are. AFRICAN COTTON. Of African cottons Port Natal cotton has the longest staple. Of that grown on the West coast of Africa, Lagada and Shire Valley are the best, ranking in length of staple with Maranhara ; Loanda cotton next ; while Lagos is much inferior to the others. Inch. Port Natal Cotton, of fair quality, has a mean length of staple of 1-20. Lagada „ „ „ „ „ 1-15. SiiiRE Valley ,, „ „ „ „ 1-15. Loanda „ „ „ „ „ 1-05. Lagos „ „ „ „ „ 0-90. BORNEO AND JAVA COTTON. The Sarawak of the former place ranks with Paraiba (South America), in length of staple, being better than the Java. Inch. Sarawak Cotton has a mean length of staple of . . . 1-20. Java Cotton „ „ „ ... 1-10. [^ee Plate III.] Plate III. COTTON GROWN IN VARIOUS PARTS of the WORLD. COMP ARATIYE LENGTH OF STAPLE. DtSUKIPTION. WEST COAST AFRICA. PORT NATAL. BORNEO AND JAVA. t UNITED STATES, Place OF Growth. Lacada. Shire Valley. Loanda. Lagos. Port Natal. j Sarawak. J ava. Mississii^pi. Number . . . 1 2 ■J 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 Mill. Length . 110 1-0!) 0-90 oso 1-00 0-90 110 1-00 0-90 0-90 Max. „ 1-20 130 1'20 1-00 1'20 1-20 ISO 1-20 I'SO 1-20 Mean „ 115 115 105 0-90 110 1-05 1-20 l-]0 110 105 VARIETIES AND RELATIVE VALUES OF COTTON. 7 EAST INDIA COTTON. The growth of cotton in India is of very remote antiquity, so remote that history fails to penetrate the gloom, or give any idea of how long cotton has been spun and woven there. The simplest and rudest possible machinery is even now used, each yard of cloth involving a vast amount of human labour; it being a singular and interesting fact that, although thousands of years must have elapsed since cotton was first manufactured in India, the same rude process of ginning, spinning, and weaving exists to a very great extent at the present day. One can hardly find a term sufficiently expressive to characterise the difi^erence between the natives of the eastern and those of the western hemisphere. " As far as the east is from the west," so widely do they difi^er in all things. Urged on by a ceaseless activity, the inhabitants of the western world know no rest or perfection in worldly affairs, whilst those of the eastern know no change, but are contented to live the lives of their forefathers over again, using precisely the same implements. " 0 happiness ! thou pleasing dream, where is thy substance found ?" A very high authority affirms that happiness consists not in the multitude of posses- sions, but in contentment with one's lot in life, be that what it may. Surely this must be the philosophy of the East, as it is there carried out to perfection. 8 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. In the West, however, the human faculties, being sharpened and improved by the pursuit of science and the development of nature's resources, a much higher standard of existence is attained. There can be no c[uestion which is right between the man who simply vegetates on the earth, following a sort of instinct as animals do, and he who cultivates his understanding, and so continually raises himself in the scale of creation. The conquest of India by G-reat Britain, and consequent introduction of the habits of the West into many parts of the country, has aroused the inhabitants from their lethargic state ; and in some districts a vast improvement is now taking place, not only in the growth of cotton, but in the habits of the people. The late American war also gave a great impetus to the growth of cotton in India, the indigenous varieties being supplanted to some extent, at the same time, by cottons grown from American seed. Indigenous Cottons grown in India. Of these the Hinginghaut and Dhollera Surat, Guzerat, Coompta, and Tinnevelly are the best. The best Surat, however, has a mean length of staple of 1-10, which none of the others attain. Next to these comes the Khandeish, which is pretty regular, and after this the others, as enumerated in their order below, in form to be seen at a glance, viz. : — Inch, Dhollera Surat, of the best kind, , has a mean length of staple of 1-10. Guzerat, Coomta, and Tinnevelly 105. Khandeish » » 100. Broach and Berar W 5> 0-90. Amedneggar an Madras n n »» 0-85. Trichinopolt, Belgaum, Gwaliqr, and Jeypoor )> » 0-80. Jullunder Doab » >» 0-75. Agra » » 0-70. Delhi 5) V 0-65. [See Plate IV.] Although the above represents the present relative value and length of staple of the well-known varieties of the native or indigenous cottons of India, still it must be borne in mind that, in consequence of the new light now dawning upon Indian agri- culture, this comparison may not hold good a few years hence, as improved irrigation, or the introduction of a railway into any particular district may cause a considerably improved cultivation of the soil. Nearly all the indigenous cottons of India are badly ginned with the rude native machinery which still exists, the seed being crushed in, to a large extent, instead of being extracted, therefore the cottons are full of leaf, sand, and dirt. Plate IV, COTTON GROWN IN INDIA. COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. Number , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Min. Length . 1-00 0-80 0-90 0-80 OGO 0-90 0-90 0-80 090 0 80 Max. „ 1-20 1-20 1-20 100 0-90 1-20 110 100 1-20 110 Mean „ 110 100 lOo 0-90 0-75 105 100 0-90 105 0-95 Deschiption. Place OP Growth. NATIVE OR INDIGENOUS. Surat. Guzorat. Broach. Dharwar. Tinnevelly, o o a ti 'H '> '3 !>r a a o & Eh COTTON GROWN IN INDIA (Continued). COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. Description. NATIVE OR INDIGENOUS. Place OP Geowth. Trichino25oly. Tinnevelly. Coimbatore. Candeish. Eerar. Eclgaum. Madras. 5 o I-H o g •7S a a I— I o & E-t Agra. Number . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Min. Length . OGO OGO 0-70 0-90 080 0-70 070 0-70 080 OGO Max. „ 100 090 100 110 100 100 100 0-90 0-90 OSO Mean „ 0-80 0 75 0-85 100 0-90 0-85 0-85 080 0-85 0-70 VARIETIES AND RELATIVE VALUES OF COTTON. 9 Cotton grown in India from New Orleans or American Seed. Dharwar cotton from American seed ranks the first in quality, having a mean staple of Travancore next, having a mean staple of Tenasserim „ coimbatorb „ GUZERAT „ „ BuNKAPOOR, Mysore, and Lingasoor Sheopoor Belgaum Bolarum V n Inch. 1-50 1-30 1-20 115 110 105 1-00 0-95 090 These are good useful cottons, especially the first-named. They are of a bright colour, and clean when well ginned. They are, however, coarser in staple than the natural American, less kindly to work, and more irregular. Although all the above varieties have been grown experimentally from American seed, only the Dharwar continues to be so grown for commercial purposes. Cotton grown in India from Sea Island and Egy^ptian Seed. Dharwar of the best quality has a mean staple of HOOBLEE Mysore Bengal Belarum n 71 J7 Inch. 1-65 160 1-57 115 100 All these cottons have a coarser staple by about 10 per cent than the natural Sea Island and Egyptian, and are apt to degenerate without fresh supplies of new foreign seed, which is owing to the more arid climate of India and the want of humidity. Irrigation may do much to supply this want, and, if it cannot alter, may greatly modify the climate. Those parts of India which lie in parallel latitudes with the Southern States of America are probably the best. Still the climate lacks humidity, and the quantity grown per acre falls much short of America.* * Since the above was in type, the result of some very interesting experiments made by T. Login, Esq., C.E., in the neighbourhood of Delhi, have been thus communicated to the Cotton Supply Association : " These experiments were with native seed, planted at the usual times, on the Egyptian system, and irrigated on the same plan. The result is that already about 300 lbs. per acre of clean cotton have been collected, and there is still a period of six weeks of the gathering season left. It is believed that between 500 lbs. and 600 lbs. will be secured. This is about /owr times as much as the ordinary yield under native cultivation, a result that is sure to arrest the attention not only of the Indian cultivator, but of the cotton manufacturers of England," C 10 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Accorcling to Mr. H. Rivett Carnac's Report in 1868, the total amount of land under cotton cultivation, in India, was 12,890,000 acres, and the total production was 2,297,500 bales, which were disposed of as follows : — Exported to Great Britain . . . 1,371,000 Exported to the Continent of Europe . 170,000 Exported to China .... 135,000 Retained for home consumption . . 621,500 2,297,500 bales of 4001b. each. This gives an average production of about 711b. per acre, which is considerably less than half the American growth per acre. The season for this cotton coming to market is from December to March inclusive. The following Table will show at a glance where this cotton is grown, and in what proportions : — Political Division. Name of Cotton. Acres. Estimated yield. Bales. Bombay Feudatories ... Central Provinces and 1 Nizam's Territories Punjaub sends to Kur- 1 Bengal N. W. P., and 1 Oudli j Sundries in Native States Sindb Sindli J 2,200,000 2,000,000 750,000 1,250,000 2,000,000 800,000 1,820,000 30,000 60,000 2,080,000 400,000 801b per acre 801b „ 801b „ 801b „ 50Ib „ 501b „ 801b „ 801b „ 501b „ 701b „ 501b „ 440,000 400,000 150,000 250,000 250,000 100,000 264,000 6,000 7,500 380,000 50,000 Grand Total 12,890,000 711b average. 2,297,500 \S(,Q, Plates V. and VI.] Plate V. Number . Min. Length ilax. „ Mean. ,, 21 22 23 2-t 25 26 27 28 29 80 0-70 070 0-70 0-50 115 090 090 0-90 110 080 0-90 0-90 0-80 0-so 1-50 r20 1-30 1 20 1-20 110 0-80 0-80 0 75 0C5 1-33 105 1 10 1-05 1 15 0-95 INDIAN COTTO H-(ConUnucd). COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. Description. Place OF Growth. FROM AMERICAN SEED (contindkd). Dharwar. Belfliaura. Travancore. Mysore Bolarum. Slieopoor. Tenasserim, o o ■73 T3 Number . . . 31 32 33 31 35 36 87 88 39 40 Min. Length . . 180 090 1-30 080 0-80 1 10 090 0 80 090 110 Max. „ . . 170 1-20 1-50 100 110 1 50 1-20 100 110 1-30 Mean. „ . . 1-50 105 1-40 0-90 095 1-30 105 090 100 120 Plate VI. Desckiptiojj. FROM SEA ISLAND AND EGYPTIAN SEED. Place OP Growtd. Belarum. Bengal. Mysore. Dharwar. Hooblee. BNDIAN COTTON (Continued). COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF STAPLE. Number . 41 42 43 44 45 40 47 48 49 50 ^lin. Length 0-90 100 140 1-50 1-50 1-30 0-90 1-40 1-20 140 ^lax. „ 110 1-30 175 170 ISO 1-70 MO 1 GO 1 50 1-80 Mean. ., 100 1 15 1-57 160 1-65 l'o5 100 1-50 1-35 IGO SUMMARY OF RESULTS From Plates I. — VI. LENGTH OP STAPLE. DIAMETER OF INDIVrOUAL FIBRES OR FILAMENTS. Place op dmTrrs. DSSCIIIPTIO}^ 07 COTTO:f. IN INCHES AND DECIMALS. FRACTIONS. IN DECIMALS OF AN INCH. FRACTIONS. Min. 1 Max. Mean. Mean. Min. ]\rax. Mean. Mean. United States . . . New Orleans or Uplands 0-88 1-lG 1-02 •^6 0 •000580 •000970 •000775 Sea Islands . . . 1-41 1-80 1-Gl 1 f. n " ^ I IJ 0 •0004G0 •000820 ■000G40 South America . . Brazilian 1-03 1-31 1-17 In" 1 u d •000G2O •C009C0 •000790 Egypt Egyi)tian 1-80 1-52 1-41 111" ■■■loo •000590 •000720 •000G55 Indigenous or Native . . . 0-77 1-02 0-89 R 0 " T u 0 •000G49 •001040 •000814 1 Tl ii J 1 Exotic or American . . . 0-95 1-21 1-08 •0OOG54 •00099G •000825 1 T .2 1 2 ^ Sea Island and Egyptian . 1-3G 1G5 1-50 •00059G •0008C4 ■000730 1 T3 u ET VARIETIES AND RELATIVE VALUES OF COTTON. 11 The importance of Bombay as a port for the shipment of cotton, in comparison with the other ports, will be seen below. Of the total amount of cotton shipped in 1868, the port of— Bombay shipped Cocanada Madras Tutocorin Calcutta Rangoon Total exported Bales. 1,224,000 32,000 124,000 84,000 200,000 12,000 1,676,000 The production of cotton in India has fallen off somewhat since 1868, which has been owing partly to bad seasons and partly to a diminution in the number of acres under cotton cultivation. It is probable, however, that this will be made up in the present season from the better cultivation of the soil, as great efforts are now being made in that direction. CHINA, SMYRNA, AND OTHER COTTONS. China Cotton. — This cotton is very bright in colour, and clean when properly ginned ; but it is difficult to gin, and has an exceedingly short staple. It only made its appearance in this country during the excessive prices caused by the late American war, and was lost sight of immediately on the return of more natural jDrices. Smyrna Cotton and other Levant Varieties have generally a good but irregular staple, much cut and otherwise spoiled in ginning. They are scarcely worth notice from their small and inconstant supply. Hope in their extensive production has been hitherto disappointed ; but there is nevertheless much land in the Ottoman empire which, under proper management, is well adapted for growing cotton. Italian Cotton. — This is grown principally in Sicily and Calabria in considerable variety, but small in quantity. One kind is perfectly red in its natural state. The staples range in length between Indian and American cotton. Nearly all that is grown appears to be consumed in the country. According to the Report of the Commendatore Devincenzi there is, however, abundance of land in Italy capable of growing cotton equal in quality to New Orleans, and plenty of cheap labour to grow it profitably, in competition with the United States and India. 12 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. In order to give the reader a more complete idea of the nature of cotton generally a view is appended of the fibres of cotton greatly magnified ; also the fibres of wool, flax, and silk greatly magnified. The difference between cotton fibres and woollen fibres is very striking, and there is also a great difiference between fiax and cotton. Silk, however, although an animal product, has fibres more resembling cotton than either wool or flax. [See Plats VII.] COTTON GINNING. /^INNING cotton means the separating of the cotton from the husk or berry, to ^ which it most tenaciously adheres ; some kinds having green, woolly seed, and others brown seed, like roasted coffee. Every boll of cotton has a berry inside, which resembles unground coffee. The earliest attempt at ginning of which we have any account, is the crushing of the seed and cotton together, by placing it on a flag and rolling a bar of iron over it with the foot, a method still practised in some parts of India, as seen below. Fig 14. 14 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Next comos the cliiirka or roller gin, whieli is made of two round pieces of hard wood fixed in a rude frame, as under. This machine is extremely simjDle, and pro- duces a better quality of work, but with much labour. Fig. 15. Below is a roller gin with fly wheel, which requires two persons to work it, one turning the upper roller with a staff, the other working the under roller with a crank and feeding the cotton at the same time. COTTON GINNING: THE SAW GIN. 15 Churka gins, with iron or steel rollers, have been made both for hand and power, but do not appear to have come into very extensive use. The Saw Gin. — Eli "Whitney, an American inventor, made the first great innovation upon the old systems of ginning, by introducing his celebrated Saw Gin. This machine got through the ginning process with great rapidity and at a much smaller cost than heretofore ; but unfortunately it cut and nepped the cotton very much, and especially so when carelessly used. Many attempts have been made to improve the saw gin, and to remedy its most glaring defects. These attempts have only been partially successful, as the difficulty to be overcome is inherent in the principle, and can never be entirely removed ; the day is probably not far distant, however, when this machine will be superseded by the Macarthy Gin, if nothing better be invented. The author has frequently bought "saw-ginned" Maranham cotton in the Liverpool market 30 per cent cheaper than " roller-ginned" Maranham on the same day, which shows how enormously the interest of the cotton growers must have suffered from defective ginning. " It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good," says the old proverb, which has been abundantly verified by the cotton growers outside the United States during the war, as they profited largely ; and, so long as the excitement lasted, immense numbers of gins were manufactured of a superior description and distributed over the cotton- growing countries of the world, which in due time will work their way, and prove to the cotton planter, that careful ginning, although it may be a little more expensive at the time, will enable him to realize a far greater profit in the end. In the general improvement in cotton gins above alluded to, the saw gin has undergone considerable modification, and is certainly now a much superior machine to what it was in the days of Whitney. The most powerful example of this machine is probably the double- cylinder saw gin, the drawings of which are from a large machine-making firm of Bolton. The cylindrical brush C (Figs. 17, IS) clears the saws and prevents a great deal of the nepping so common to saw gins, which, acting in combination with the dust-fan D. and the perforated cylinders or cages E F, is said to make far better work than heretofore besides getting through a greater quantity. In the use of this machine especial care should be taken to keep the circular brush in good order, as it is of the utmost importance that the saws be kept clear. Where the use of the saw gin is persisted in for short-stapled cottons, this appears to be one of its best applications. The Macarthy Gin. — This gin takes its name from the inventor, and is singularly well adapted for long-stapled cottons ; it will gin short staples also, either with smooth or woolly seeds. Although it does not get through the quantity of work of which the saw gin is capable, yet the quality is much superior. It is simple in construction, and 16 SCIENCE OF MODEEN COTTON tiPINNHTQ. acts thus : — B (Fig. 19^ is a roller, about 40 inches long and 5 or 6 inches diameter, covered with strips of leather about one inch wide, so fixed on as to form spiral grooves. C is a knife or doctor, which is fixed so as to press gently upon the roller B. The box on table K holds the seed cotton, the front part of the bottom of which is a wire grid, for Fig. 19. -The IMacarthy Gin. the seeds to fall through. The beater knife D is worked rapidly by the crank shaft N, and the connecting rods F. The roller B makes about 100 revolutions per minute, and being covered with strips of leather, draws the cotton in under the doctor or steel plate pressing upon it, but the seeds, being unable to get under the doctor, are held at COTTON GINNING : TEE MACAKTHY GIN. 17 the point of the knife or doctor, when the beater blade D comes up close to the doctor, which it passes slightly, and keeps tapping the seeds and loosens them, whilst the leather-covered roller is continually drawing the fibres through. By the time each seed has been hit two or three times by the beater it becomes denuded of the cotton, and falls down through the grid, under the gin. The beater D makes about 500 strokes per minute. The product of this gin, when in good order, is about 10 to ISlbs. of clean cotton per hour of short staple, and 20 to 60 lbs. of long-stapled cotton. A good improvement has lately been applied to this gin, in the shape of a self-feeder, or agitator of the seed cotton. This improvement had its origin in Egypt about five years ago, and is now generally adopted with new machines, and sometimes applied to the old ones. Fig. 20.— The Double Macarthy Gin. (E. & F. A. Leigh's Patent.) D 18 SCIENCE OP MODEKX COTTON SPINNING. Many attempts have been made to improve the Macarthy gin, such as having a double crank with two beaters, by which the beaters not only become balanced, but, with the same speed of crank shaft, would double the number of beats. Theoretically this is a great improvement, and, if cotton ginning were done by skilled labour, no doubt it would be extensively used. It is a very ingenious contrivance, and was brought out a few years ago, by a well-known machine-making firm in Oldham. Two very promising attempts at improving the Macarthy gin were made simul- taneously about seven years ago by two separate Manchester machinists, neither knowing what the other was doing, each inventor having the same object, namely, a Macarthy gin with two rollers. The idea of the first inventor (who had a few days' priority of the other) was to place one roller above the other, and have a sort of double beater acting upon them. The idea of the other inventor was to have the two rollers parallel with each other, with one beater acting on both edges, as seen above (Fig. 20 J, in which A A is framing, B the beater, CC leather-covered rollers, EE grids which press down the doctors DD. The seed cotton is put in the box F, on the top of the beater plate B, which oscillates rapidly to and fro, driving the seeds through the grids EE, from which they drop into the boxes GGr, the clean cotton falling under the gin. The former of these gins made little or no progress ; the latter was more suc- cessful for a time, and full of promise, from the vastly increased quantity of work it got through — being more than double that of an ordinary gin. It appeared to distance all competitors both in quantity and quality of work, and took the first prize at public exhibitions. Still it proved a failure ! Simple as it was, it had too many parts about it to be thoroughly comprehended by the native labouring population of Egypt, who had always been accustomed to single gins, as their fathers were before them. Being prejudiced against this innovation, they drank the oil given to them for lubricating the machines, and allowed the bearings to be cut down and spoiled. When the inventor went to see the first lot of twenty gins, after they had been at work a few months, he found them a complete wreck, which put an end to all his bright hopes of supplying the world with cotton gins. Macarthy gins are sometimes made of smaller size, to work by hand labour, with two men turning the cranks, and of a still smaller size called " Cottage Gins," which can be wrought by one person ; but as the principle is the same, they need not be dwelt upon, so the reader passes on to further attempts at improving this most important machine. COTTON GINNING : THE KNIFE ROLLEE GIN. 19 The Knife Roller Gin. — This gin (two views of which are shown below) first made its appearance in Oldham, but being abandoned by the makers who first took it up, on account of its alleged cutting of the staple, has been subsequently taken in hand by a large machine-making firm in Bolton, who assert that they have cured the defects complained of; and the machine, as now illustrated, has been contributed by them. Fig. 21.— The Knife EoUer Gin. Whether they have accomplished all that can be desired or not is a matter of opinion, but it is highly probable that something good will ultimately come out of this principle of ginning. The gin works thus : A (Fig. 21) is the leather-covered roller ; B is the knife roller, which is simply a shaft upon which a number of discs are fixed in a slanting direction, as shown. The peripheries of these discs are set close up to the doctor, and by their action, when the shaft revolves, push the seed aside to and fro after the leather roller and doctor have seized the fibres of the cotton. The pushing 20 SCIENCE OF MODEKN COTTON SPINNING. of the seed aside answers the same purpose as a beater. The seed cotton is thrown into the box L, on the top of the disc roller, which revolves at the rate of about 350 revolutions per minute, and the seeds fall through the semicircular grid H. COTTON GINNING: THE LOCK-JAW GIN. 21 There is a Patent Ginning Roller sold by the same firm, which they assert is more durable than leather-covered rollers, and that wear improves its draught. The material for renewing the rollers is supplied at one shilling per lb. If there be no mistake about this, it is an important thing, as the wear and tear of leather-covered rollers is a heavy item in a ginning factory. The makers of the new material recom- mend a small machine for covering the rollers, after which they are turned up and chased. It is not seen, however, why this material might not be put on in strips like sea-horse leather. The Lock Jaw Cotton Gin (Cowper's Patent). — This gin has a roller similar to the Macarthy, but it acts in a different manner. In place of the usual " doctor," there Fig. 23. The Lock Jaw Cotton Gin. 22 SCIENCE OF MODEEN COTTON SPINNING. IS a " moving nipping blade," which presses the fibres of the cotton to the leather roller, just at the moment the seed is detached by the action of the beater. The roller has a continuous motion, the same as in the Macarthy, but the " nipping blade," like the beater, is intermittent. There is also a fixed blade in advance of the nipper, which is set close to but not pressing upon the roller. The object sought to be accomplished by this is to prevent the gin choking, and effect a saving of power, as well as wear of the leather-covered roller, by avoiding the constant pressure which an ordinary doctor has upon it. In order that the nipping blade may hold the cotton down to the roller a sufiicient length of time for the beater to strike, and still avoid the rubbing friction on the leather, it is made to move a short distance with the roller, after making its nip, and pulls the cotton through. The idea in this machine is very good, and its application scientific, but the extra parts required to effect these difi*erent movements tell against it, as well as the addi- tional cost, and the danger is that it may be found too far advanced for the cotton- growing countries, and, without even a fair trial, be consigned, like the double-roller gin, to " the tomb of all the Capulets," as many other excellent inventions have been, that were both intended, and well calculated under more intelligent management, to ameliorate the present rude system of ginning. Such of these inventions as are based on true principles will not lie for ever dormant, but in due time will appear again, under a new garb it may be, simplified and imj)roved, but practically the same. Postscript. — Just before going to press, the author has had his attention called to two important improvements in the ginning of cotton which have recently come out. One of these has originated in India, and is the joint production of Mr. E. Jones, superintendent of the Dharwar Ginning Factory, and Dr. Forbes, of India, who some years ago brought out an improved Roller Churka Gin, to work by treddle or power. What the precise nature of this invention is does not appear from the report of it just published in the Times of India ^ further than that it is the working out by Mr. Jones of an improvement suggested by Dr. Forbes on his Roller Churka. This novelty is said to combine cheapness with simplicity, and will not cost one-half the Macarthy. One account says it is to be called " Dr. Forbes' Excelsior Gin," another states that its name will be " Jones' Eureka ;" all agree, however, that it is an improvement of considerable importance. COTTON GINNING . IMPROVEMENT OP THE SAW GIN. 23 The second invention above alluded to is of American origin, and is simj^ly a better method of making the " saws" of saw gins. Instead of the rough teeth cut in the circular saws, the outer edges or peripheries are formed of steel wire set in block tin thus — This wire being round and pointed at the top, not only gives a nice sharp tooth for picking the cotton from the seed, but leaves the bottom of the teeth round and smooth, and is said to prevent much of the " cutting" and " nepping" of the fibres which takes place under the old system. The larger figure is the side elevation, and the smaller one a cross section, showing the way in which the teeth are fixed by running block tin round them. The combined effect of these two improvements may have an important bearing upon the ginning of cotton ; and if to this be added the rapid recovery of the Southern States of America, the further development of the railway and irrigation systems in India, and the wonderful promise held out by Mr. Login's experiments, it becomes highly probable that the dreary depression which for nearly ten .years has hung over the cotton manufacture, occasioned by the short supplies of the raw material, will now speedily pass away. COTTON MILL ARCHITECTURE rpHE great improvement in mill architecture of late years cannot fail to strike the stranger visiting the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, and impress him with astonishment at the wonderful development and importance of cotton spinning. On the continent of Europe, in America, and even in India, new and gigantic establishments have sprung up, giving profitable employment, directly and indirectly, to millions of industrious people wherever they set foot, difiPusing civilisation, raising the value of property, converting the wilderness into smiling and prosperous villages, towns, and cities. Seeing that Cotton thus reigns supreme, any light, however feeble, that can be thrown upon the best mode of its manufacture becomes important. Before passing on to a description and critical examination of the various inge- nious machines employed in the manufacture of cotton, it is submitted that, although certain mills are pointed out as specimens of improved mill architecture, none of them reach the acme of perfection, as regards either their construction or the application of their moving power. Therefore whenever an advantage can be gained, be it ever so slight, no matter, provided it is an advantage ; be it a saving of outlay, of fuel, or of anything else, it is of consequence in a business so extensively practised. A modest amount of architectural display is not condemned ; it distinguishes the educated man from the vulgar, civilisation from barbarism ; but what is contended for is economy with equal efficiency, having a due regard for practical and known science. Circumspection is only required in applying known laws and principles which are daily manifested. It matters not if never employed before in such a particular way, so that they are truths, mechanical or architectural ; and it should be remembered that truth has no sympathy with narrow-minded prejudice. For what is an inventor but a man following close upon the track of Science, patiently waiting for her to unfold her hidden treasures ? Bringing to light a hitherto undiscovered fact, his inventive power creates some means of developing it into practical utility; and, so MILL architecture ; preliminary REMAR£S. 25 anticipating the future, he fills the place of pioneer in the economy of human existence. His cares are many, his responsibilities and difficulties great ; the most formidable, perhaps, of which is to overcome the prejudices of the age in which he lives when he brings forth a truth his patient research has discovered, but which, for a long time, the public fail to appreciate. Diverging from the beaten track, he is constantly seeking new and easier paths to facilitate the onward march of society. Often baffled, he learns to maintain a stoical equanimity of temper in success or failure. Always thinking, his mind becomes acute and his vision penetrating, as the smith's arm acquires strength by constantly wielding the hammer. His motto is " Nunquam dormio." His intentions are good, and his judgment seldom errs, but life is too short for him to carry out all the creations of his gorgeous fancy. He usually benefits society, sometimes amazingly, but generally more than himself. He is never satisfied ; were he so he would not have the ring of the true metal ! In this country, where iron and building materials are cheap, it is better that cotton mills be built fire -proof for two reasons : firstly, because they are more comfort- able and require less heating ; and secondly, that when all the anxiety of completing, filling, and starting a mill are over, the proprietor need not have his sleep disturbed by the fear of finding his property destroyed in the morning, and may leave it when necessary for business or pleasure without his mind being haunted by misgivings as to what may happen during his absence. Business is a pleasure when all is secure ; but a corroding care when insecure. To remove a cause of anxiety is surely worth something ; therefore, if it can be shown that a good and substantial mill can be constructed, fire-proof, at very little extra cost to one that is not so, argument on the subject is at an end, since it becomes a positive saving of capital by economy of insurance, at the same time lightening the cares of business. There are, however, differences of opinion upon this subject amongst spinners ; some contending that the modern system of lofty rooms so much diminishes the risk of being burned down, when a fire occurs, that it is hardly worth while now to build fire-proof. Both systems will therefore be illustrated in this work, and examples given of what is considered the best mill architecture of the present day, with some hints for its improvement in certain particulars ; after which the essays on and description of machinery will follow, with the best examples extant. But as the subject of improved mill architecture has a most important bearing on the object of this work, it will be recurred to again in future parts, when steam power and its transmission are discussed. A sweeping change will then be shown to be impending, not in the system of spinning cotton, or in the machinery employed therein, for the day has passed for great and striking improvements in spinning machinery. \\ hat- ever is done now in that way is only in detail, bit by bit, which, by the way, is not to be despised, but cannot produce a revolution in the system. What is really " looming E 26 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. in the distance," and likely to produce a great change, is a better apj)lication of steam power, a rescue of useless buried capital, and a saving of about one-half the fuel at present expended (on the average) upon every pound of yarn produced. THE "INDIA MILL" AT DARWEK Previous to entering upon any new ideas as to what will probably be done in the construction of Cotton Mills ere long, the reader's attention is directed to the frontis- piece of this number, showing an engTaving of one of the noblest specimens of mill architecture which this country atfords. This mill, which has recently been erected by Messrs. Eccles Shorrock, Brothers, & Co., may fairly be considered as a first-class type of the engineering skill of the day, as applied to manufacturing establishments. However opinions may differ as to the expediency of employing beam engines in modern cotton mills, there cannot be two opinions as to the quality of work here displayed, and the superb manner in which everything is carried out. For general excellence and solidity of workmanship this principle of driving had never greater justice done it; nor, perhaps, have these engines and millwright work ever been exceeded in elegance of design, as displayed by the proprietors and the engineers who have executed the work. The following description is partly taken from the Building News, published some time since, and partly from further particulars kindly furnished by the proprietors : — " The main building is 330 feet long, its width is 99 feet, and its height 90 feet, consisting of six storeys. The engine house, boiler house, and chimney stand against one side of the mill. The size of the engine house is 80 feet by 28 feet, and the engine bed contains 20,000 cubic feet of ashlar stone foundation. The boiler house is 100 feet by 75 feet, being intended for ten boilers. There is a cotton shed and twist warehouse 100 feet by 80 feet. The engineering and mill gearing are being executed by Messrs. Yates, of Blackburn ; all the entablatures and pillars being carefully got out to architectural proportions, more correctly than is usual in machinery. The total height of the chimney shaft, from the bottom of the foundation to the top of the iron cresting, is 310 feet, and from the ground line 300 feet. The base, of solid ashlar, is 20 feet square at ground line, and 42 feet high. The massive stone cornice is 35 feet long on each of the four sides. The shaft itself is built with red, white, and black bricks, with sand gritstone dressings, and is 24 feet square, and built perfectly plumb. The walls are 3 feet thick at top of stone base, reduced by " set-offs" on the inside to 23 inches at the commencement of main cornice, which is 255 above the ground. Many of the stones used in this cornice weighed as much as five tons each, and were hoisted by steam power. The balusters surmounting this feature are of cast iron, as Plate x GENERAL PLAN of CARD ROOM, ENGINE AND BOILEIR HOUSE, — < ® >— Scale of Eeei. So /o la io -n) so 60 70 do Sff /ao //o /2a /3i>Feel J-UL^-J 1 1 1 1 1 — 1 1 I I _J I \ I m V//. Wi^Mt-^/////^////t-^3 r i i H?! rr i i ir i i T, ri ^ ^ ^f' rf i t4J 1. I I I Ftff ft Platf: ,X mmiA mu PLATt, XMI SHAFTING, ENGINE& BOILER HOUSE. 1 MILL ARCHITECTURE : MILL AT DARWEN. 27 also are jDortions of the four vases at the corners. The crown mould of the cornice at the top of the shaft projects more than three times as far over the wall as it rests on it ; and was kept in its place by iron cramps until the cast-iron cresting was fixed upon it. This cresting contains about 20 tons of metal, and is composed of more than 300 castings. There is no bolting nor any particle of wrought iron in this por- tion of the work, the parts being kept together by slots and lugs. The whole weight of this cresting stands upon the brickwork, and keeps the upper stone cornice firmly in position. There is an interior and totally independent shaft, 180 feet high, to prevent the great heat from the boiler furnaces subjecting the wall of the outer and main shaft to unequal expansion and contraction. Mr. Ernest Bates, of Manchester, is the architect ; and the whole of the work has been done by day work, by workmen under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Edwards, clerk of the works, no contractor being employed." GrENERAL Plan. — Shows the arrangement of the machinery in first and second card rooms, with shafting, engine and boiler houses, &c. The bottom room is occupied by cotton stores, blowing and scutching, warerooms, &c. ; and three upper rooms by mules. It will be noticed that a strong double wall goes up to the third storey of the mill, which boxes off and gives solidity to the pedestals, &c., of the heavy gearing. [See Plate X.] Elevation of Central Tower and Transverse Section of Mill, through blowing, card, and spinning rooms, showing partition wall to supjoort the vertical shafting, likewise shafting in blowing room, transverse shaft in first and second card rooms, and shafting in spinning rooms. [See Plate XL] Longitudinal Section through Engine House and Elevation of Steam Engines. — The engine house contains two condensing steam engines, with cylinders each 51-incli diameter, on the beam principle. These engines have a 7-feet 6-inch stroke, and make 23- L strokes per minute, which gives a piston speed of 346^ feet per minute. 'No labour or expense has been spared to give solidity to the engine bed, which contains 20,000 feet of ashlar stone, as already mentioned, but unusual care has been observed in working the blocks to a true surface, examined by an iron straightedge, which had been carefully planed. Afterwards the stones were rubbed upon their beds and laid in cement. Some of these stones weigh over ten tons each. [See Plate XII.] Elevation of Vertical and Horizontal Shafting ; also Section through Engine and Boiler House, likewise Transverse Section through Boilers and Flues. [^-ee Plate XIIL] 28 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Attention is called here to the great judgment shown in having all the driving bevels on the upright shaft placed above the driven bevels on the line shafts, which arrangement completely takes away the pressure of the heavy upright shaft from the footstep ; by which much power is saved, and also wear and tear. Had these bevels been placed on the under side, as they are very generally found in other mills, the whole weight of the upright shaft (which with its bevel wheels and couplings will wTigh about twelve tons), would have rested on the footstep, causing it to heat and wear away. In many mills the heating of footsteps from this cause is very troublesome ; and as they wear away, the upper bevels are thrown too ebb in gear, and the bottom pair too deep, which sometimes causes a breakdown. Boiler House. — The boiler house contains six boilers, each of which is 28 feet long by 7 feet diameter, with two flues of 3 feet diameter each, the same having transverse connecting tubes ; room also being left for three smaller boilers when required. These boilers are manufactured of Bessemer steel plates of sufficient length to form the whole diameter of the boiler, leaving only one joint to each plate, which is double-rivetted, as well as those connecting the plates together. The flues are jointed upon Adamson's patent principle, which is efifected by turning up the ends of the plates while hot, and then rivetting the two flanges together. This plan not only strengthens the flue and makes a more perfect joint, but gives a slight longitudinal elasticity for taking up the expansion and contraction. The boilers are intended to carry 100 lbs. steam pressure. The feed pipes are perforated tubes, which extend some distance into the boiler, so as to diffuse the feed water, according to a patent taken out some time ago by Levi Leigh and Daniel Adamson. Green's Patent Fuel Economiser is used to heat the feed water on its passage to the boilers. Machinery. — The mill contains the following machinery : — Blowing Boom. 2 Cotton Openers, with 1 Toothed Cylinder and 1 Beater each. 8 Lap Machines, with 3 Beaters each. 8 Finishing Machines, with 2 Beaters each. First Card Boom. 84 Carding Engines, diameter of cylinders 45 inches ; of dofifers, 22 inches ; of lickers-in, 10 inches. They have each 2 Carding Rollers, with a Clearer to each ; and 44 Self-stripping Flats. Single carding. 6 Drawing Frames of 4 heads each, with 6 deliveries to each head. 8 Slubbing Frames, of 90 spindles each, in double rows. 12 Intermediate Frames, of 130 spindles each, in double rows 24 Roving Frames, of 180 spindles each, geared at both ends. MILL architecture: building materials. 29 Second Card Room. Contains exactly the same as the first. Loose boss top rollers are used in drawing and first slubbing only. Spinning Rooms. 48 Pairs of Self-acting Mules, 708 spindles in each mule, or 67,968 spindles, are contained in the three upper rooms and two small rooms near the carding, as shown on the Plan, all being twist gauge. It is contemplated eventually to raise the mill one storey higher, when, no doubt, the two smaller rooms will be filled with carding, and the six pairs of mules they at present contain be removed to the upper room, where eight pairs more could be added. At present the mill is expected to consume about 1 60 bales of cotton per week ; and when the other storey is added, about 200 bales will be consumed. ARTIFICIAL STONE. The cost of a building, especially if fire-proof, depends in a great measure upon the locality in which it is erected, and whether the place selected be abundantly supplied with brick or stone, or with clay to make bricks. In situations where bricks can be made on the spot, or where stone is plentiful, it has hitherto been difficult to rival them as building materials. Taking an extended view, however, of what is going on in different parts of the world, it will be found that in France wonderful things have been done with " Beton Agglomere," or Artificial Stone, which is much ' cheaper, and better for mill purposes and cottages, than either common bricks or natural stone — that is, if properly made. The manufacture of this material also is perfectly easy if proper rules be observed, but, like most things, it may be spoiled by carelessness and ignorant manufacture. Works of great magnitude and importance have already been executed with this material in France, where it was at first cautiously employed, but having been found to stand the roughest tests and improve with age, it is now extensively used. As an example of this a view is given (Fig. 25) of the " Grande Maitre" Aqueduct across the valley at Fontainebleau (the largest arch being 115 feet 9 inches span), for con- veying water to Paris, which appeared in Engineering some time ago. It is also extensively used in France for railway viaducts, &c., and in Paris for public buildings, and even for spiral staircases in shops, from basement to garret — a monolith. In Egypt the successful construction of the Suez Canal may be largely attributed to the huge blocks of artificial stone forming the breakwaters and walls which connect it with the Mediterranean Sea, &c. 30 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Lower Egypt is a country in which building materials are scarce, and it has often been suspected that many of the vast monuments of that interesting land must have been formed of artificial stone. This, however, is proved not to have been the case by the discovery, in the quarries of Upper Egypt, of immense blocks of stone, partly wrought into pillars, &c., thousands of years ago. By what mechanical means they were transported and raised in their places is not known. That the art of building among the ancient Egyptians must have attained a high standard will be seen from the following description of Alexandria : — " This once great city, built by Alexander the Great after the fall of Tyre, 333 years b.c, was, in its meridian glory, the most beautiful city in the world. The grandeur of its design may be judged from the description given of it by its conqueror Amon, who, when he took it 190 years later, described it as of immense extent, containing 4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 400 theatres and places of amusement, and 12,000 shops." But even this was exceeded by the grandeur of the still more ancient cities and monuments of Upper Egypt, such as Luxor, Thebes, Karnac, the Pyramids, &c. In one hall at Karnac there one hundred and fifty columns, some of which are 66 feet high and 30 feet in circumference ; and the statue of Memnon is estimated, when complete, to have weighed 887 tons ! Without digressing further, enough has been said to show not only that the art of building was well understood in those days, but the great probability is that the Egyptians possessed some mechanical power of which we know nothing. The works already executed, and thoroughly tested, in artificial stone are sufficient to convince the most sceptical of its rising importance to mill and cottage architec- ture : to the former, as tending to cheaper and drier establishments; and to the latter, as far more comfortable and convenient dwellings for the operatives employed, without increase of rent. Solicitude for the hapiDiness and well-being of all those engaged about a manufactory should never be wanting in the owner or manager, as it tends to success. It is like sowing good seed on fertile ground, which springs up and flourishes, jH'oducing sometimes fifty-fold, sometimes one hundred-fold. This care may be carried with advantage much farther than the mere comfort of dwellings ; and wherever the experiment has been tried of looking after the moral and intellectual wants, as well as the amusements, of those families located on the spot, it has always been gratefully appreciated, and redounded to the honour and satisfaction of the employer BRICKS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL. As before observed, where bricks can be made on the site of a mill and cottages, they have hitherto formed one of the cheapest and most substantial of building materials ; but this necessarily indicates a cold clay subsoil, which ought to be care- MILL ARCniTECTUEE : BUILDING MATERIALS. 31 fully guarded against. If this be neglected (which has almost invariably been the case), a cold, damp mill, requiring considerably more heating, is the sure result ; also damp, unhealthy cottages. This arises from the great absorbent power of common bricks, each one of which is capable of absorbing about a pint (or, say, one pound) of water ; and when set on clay, with indifferent mortar, water is drawn up by capillary attraction to a height of about thirty feet. If the reader would see how this is done, let him take a piece of lump sugar, the larger the better ; holding this in a vertical position over a glass of water, let the sugar just touch the fluid, when immediately it will be drawn by the capillary attraction to the highest particle of the sugar. As this drawing up of water, with bricks or other porous building materials, is continued until the weight of water they contain balances the pressure of the atmosphere at about thirty feet high ; it has, therefore, been estimated by Mr. Edwin Chadwick, C.B., and other scientific authorities, that a common cottage with external walls of one brick thick, consisting of 12,000 bricks, is capable of containing six and a half tons of water ! Stone is no better, some of the softer and more workable sorts of which will retain even more moisture than common bricks ; sandstone, deemed fit for building purposes, may contain as much as half a gallon per cubic foot. These are startling facts, which should never be forgotten when a mill and cottages are being put up. When buildings are erected on a sandy or gravel foundation, the absorbent power of the building materials need not be regarded, as there is no constant supply of moisture from below ; but when a clay foundation is unavoidable, the precaution of putting in a concrete foundation, made with a hydraulic lime, should never be neglected. When this is done properly, no moisture can penetrate it ; and if the ground fioor be laid with a good concrete, the mill or cottage will be as dry as if built on sand. MORTARS. It is very important in all buildings to have good and uniform mortar. This however, is seldom attended to as it ought to be, but left haphazard to ignorant labouring men to mix lime, sand, and water together at a guess, regardless of propor- tion to poor or rich limes ; and, consequently, their setting energy is sometimes nearly destroyed. In the erection of a tall chimney, for instance, the want of a proper knowledge of limes and mortars often becomes very conspicuous, and shows itself in the form of a crooked chimney. A leaning chimney may arise from the giving way of the foundation, when the whole column leans ; but a bent chimney is always caused by ignorance or careless- ness. If a slow-setting mortar be used, made from common lime, mixed on different occasions as the work proceeds, regardless of due proportions, it is evident that some 32 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. mixings will have more setting energy than others ; or if a slow-setting mortar be used, although carefully and uniformly mixed, it is almost certain that the chimney will be bent. It will be noticed that chimneys generally bend towards the west or south-west, because rain or moisture most frequently comes from that direction. Now it is evident that the porous building materials, be they brick or stone, absorb more wet on one side of the chimney than the other ; thus keeping the mortar soft on one side whilst it dries on the other; and the soft mortar getting compressed by the weight it has to sustain, naturally throws the chimney out of its perpendicular. This may be avoided to some extent, at an increased expense, by building only a few layers at long intervals, and so giving the mortar a chance of drying sufficiently before bearing the increasing weight. A little knowledge, however, comes in very useful here ; and by the simple use of an hydraulic lime, which sets quickly and indepen- dently of wet, the chimney may be erected with any desirable amount of rapidity, and at the same time the possibility of its bending be prevented. Lime. — ^As a knowledge of the nature of lime, which forms the cheapest matrix for building purposes, is essential to the builder, a short description of its properties and chemical constituents is here given. Lime, before being burnt or decarbonised, is a bluish hard stone, found in many parts of England and Wales, of which the blue lias variety is one of the best. The analysation of this limestone shows that it contains about — 72 per cent Carbonate of Lime. 20 „ Silica. 3| „ Alumina. 2^ „ Oxide of Iron. 2j „ Carbonate of Magnesia, &c. 100 About 75 per cent of this is soluble in acids, and the other insoluble. What are termed " rich limes," being nearly all pure carbonate of lime, have the least " setting energy." It is the silica and alumina which give the setting energy. Hydraulic limes, or those which set in or out of water, have about 80 per cent of carbonate of lime, 6 of alumina, and 14 per cent of silica. It is not expected that the millowner can enter deeply into the chemistry of limes when erecting his building ; but what he can do with the lime it is most convenient for him to procure is, to ascertain by trial the amount of sand and ashes it will bear and still retain a moderate amount of setting energy, and then see that it is mixed with the aggregates in proper and uniform proportions, and well ground in a mortar mill not less than twenty minutes, or from that to thirty minutes, using at the same MILL ARCHITECTURE: BUILDING MATERIALS. 33 time no more water than is absolutely necessary to give it proper consistency. Great care should be taken that sufficient water is given to moisten all the particles, other- wise it becomes a crumbly mass ; and if too much be given, its setting energy is destroyed. In foundation work on clay, however, unless a good hydraulic lime can be pro- cured that will set under water, lime must be rejected altogether, and Portland cement used in its stead. This can be procured in barrels in any part of the kingdom, and must be mixed with sand, broken bricks, furnace ashes, gravel, or other suitable aggregate, so as to form a good concrete foundation. When properly done, this will form a good solid foundation, and set in a few days, becoming as hard as stone, but (unlike it) impervious to water. Concrete. — Attention is particularly called to the value of concrete, which can be used advantageously, more or less in all buildings, whether of mill or cottage, in any situation, wet or dry, if properly manufactured. There are several ways of making concrete, but the best and safest is that made with Portland cement ; say, 5 parts Portland cement. 15 to 20 parts sand, according to quality of the Portland cement. Lot the above be well mixed together in a dry state, then sprinkle the mass with water gradually whilst being turned over, after which add about 75 parts of small or broken stones, all being well mixed together, so that the sand and cement fill up the interstices between the stones, which can all be done by turning it over by the hand r on a large scale it may be done by machinery. In France " Beton Agglomeres," or concrete for building purposes, is made on a large scale^ by a machine having a hoj^per, at the bottom of which is a revolving disc. The materials, after being mixed in a dry state, are thrown into this hopper, and whilst being agitated, receive a definite quantity of water from a small tap, and are then thrown into a trough, and passed on by an Archimedean screw to the end, where the concrete drops off into buckets. This is an ingenious machine, but it is possible to contrive something simpler and cheaper, that will do the work as well. The difference between rich limes and poor, or hydraulic limes, may easily be ascertained. When fresh from the kiln rich limes have a great avidity for water, and when slaked throw off considerable heat, with a hissing noise, some of the water applied being converted into steam by the caloric which was lying latent in the lime being now liberated ; the lime in the meantime crumbles and falls. If slaked in a pit, with a large quantity of water, the whole mass forms a pasty substance, or hydriate of lime, which of itself has very little setting energy, as there is a want of inherent F 34 SCIENCE OP 5I0DERN COTTON SPINNING. power to throw off the water, for which it has so great an affinity. Moreover it is liable to expand ; and as the particles are not sufficiently separated or diffused by the mere slaking, it should always be passed through a fine sieve, or be well ground before being used. Poor limes do not exhibit the same action on the application of water as the rich, because the poor, or hydraulic limes, contain a larger amount of foreign matter, such as silica and alumina, which is absent in the rich ; therefore they do not swell in bulk when mixed with water, but are quiescent, throwing it off again, and setting with a determined energy ; the reason of which appears to be that the foreign matter being thoroughly diffused through the lime, keeps its atoms apart. The theory of setting seems to be to separate thoroughly the particles of lime, which, in ordinary or rich limes, is done by an admixture of sand vvell amalgamated, when a common mortar is the result, this having however only a very moderate setting power. When broken bricks are ground to dust and mixed with the sand and lime a mucn stronger mortar is obtained, because the clay from which bricks are made contains silica, alumina, and generally oxide of iron, the very materials wanted to give rich lime setting energy. Foundry slag, and even cinders, strengthen mortar in the same manner, by giving the lime a hydraulic character ; likewise pounded stone of volcanic origin, or oolitic stone ; in fact, anything that contains alumina, silica, or carbonate of iron. When quick lime is used for the manufacture of concrete, it should be merely fallen, by applying a small quantity of water, then ground to fine powder, in a dry or nearly dry state, so as to give the greatest possible diffusion of the particles ; the lime then, being mixed with an aggregate of pounded bricks, and sufficient water to make it into a mortar, will be found to possess considerable setting energy, and form a concrete cement that may be increased in bulk by adding broken stones, broken bricks, sharp sand or gravel, to any amount not exceeding the capacity of the mortar cement to fill up all the interstices, as little water as is possible being used. What is meant by sharp sand or gravel is that which is free from soil or dirt, such as is found in the beds of rivers. If this be not at hand, it may be made sharp by washing the gravel or other aggregate, and thereby freeing it from soluble matter. Good concretes gain in induration or hardening with age, and are impervious to moisture, but more especially so when the matrix is Portland cement, to which pre- ference should be given when it can be had at moderate cost. Portland Cement. — This most valuable of all building cements has displaced Roman and other quick-setting cements to a great extent, the latter more costly article being used only where very rapid setting is required under water. Both Port- land cement and Roman cement are hydraulic ; and the former, like the latter, will MILL ARCHITECTURE : BUILDING MATERIALS. 35 set under water as well as out of water, but is much slower in hardening. Portland cement may, however, be made to set rapidly, but is never as strong when so manufactured. Its quality is determined more particularly by its weight per bushel, and its weight per bushel is determined by careful grinding after it comes from the kiln. If ground so as to weigh only about 701b. or 801b. a bushel it sets quickly, but gains less in indurating strength. It may be ground to so impalpable a powder as to weigh 1401b. per bushel or more, but that which weighs from 1051b. to 1151b. per imperial bushel is the most useful for general purposes, as it will set in about two or three days either in or out of water. Portland cement is merely an improvement upon what is termed Roman cement. Towards the latter end of last century an attempt was made to produce a cement or mortar which would vie with the ancient mortars of Greece, Rome, and Egypt ; these showed on analysis certain chemical constituents that were found in the London and other clays and the chalky cliffs which abound in the southern and eastern counties, also under the earth's crust in many parts of this kingdom, likewise in France and other countries. The clays contained the requisite silica and alumina, and the chalk contained the carbonate of lime. The result of these experiments was the production of Roman Cement, so called because it was supposed to have been before discovered by, or known to, the Romans when they were masters of Britain, as the mortars of old buildings erected by them in this country had similar constituents. It was made from about 45 per cent of clay, calcined and pulverised, and 55 per cent carbonate of lime. About thirty years later the improvement in the manufacture which got the designation of Portland cement took place. It is supposed to have obtained this name from its resemblance to Port- land stone. Its chemical contents are about 60 to 65 per cent of lime, 20 to 25 silica, 10 of alumina, and 5 per cent oxide of iron, — being about the same as a natural cement found on the French coast. This cement is nearly all manufactured in the neighbourhood of London, because of the abundance and cheapness of the requisite clay and chalk found there. A similar cement is also manufactured in Germany and other places, and it can be made anywhere, if the necessary materials exist, or something approaching thereto. After being properly manipulated and thoroughly pulverised, it is burned in kilns and then ground, and sold in casks. The manufacture and use of this cement is largely on the increase, and will probably alter the whole character of our buildings as its useful properties become more generally known. Artifical Stone is simply a mixture of sharp sand and Portland cement in various proportions, according to the strength required (say from one part of each, to four or 36 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. five parts sand to one of Portland cement), which are carefully mixed together in a dry state, and then water is added whilst the mass is still being turned over from a fine rose degging can, so far similar to the manufacture of concrete before described. It is then filled into moulds, a thin layer of the sand and cement mortar being put in first to form a face, or fill a fancy mould or ornament. Broken stones, or clean gravel shingle, or other suitable aggregate, may then be put in to fill up and make bulk, along with the other cement mortar, after which the whole can be topped up with the cement mortar to make a finish, and stamped down. It is better if the aggregate be mixed separately, with a little of the Portland cement, before being put into the mould, so that the particles of cement come in contact with the aggregate. No more aggregate should be used than the interstices of which can be filled by the cement mortar. The quantity of aggregate has little to do with the strength of the stone if all the interstices be filled, but the quantity of sand mixed with the cement at first has everything to do with its strength. Assuming the cement to be good of itself, the relative strength will be about as follows at different ages after mixing, viz : — If the breaking strength of cement mortar be at — One week. One month. Six months. Twelve months old. Neat cement say... 1001b 1501b 2201b 2401b. One of cement and I sand ... 22 „ .... 70 „ .... 123 „ .... 157 „ 2 sand.... 12 „ .... 30 „ .... 98 „ .... 103 „ „ „ 3 sand ... 6„ .... 13 „ .... 52 „ .... 72 „ It still goes on gaining in strength and induration with age, but less rapidly every year after the first twelve months. It becomes harder and much more durable than stone ; and when laid down alongside with granite, in steps or flags where there is considerable traffic, the granite wears first, and leaves the artificial stone apparently uninjured after years of wear. GEARING TEHSDs BELTING. " Seize upon Truth where'er 'tis found, On friendly or on hostile ground ; The flower's divine where'er it grows, Be it on thistle or on rose." OIMPLICITY, which in all mechanism is desirable, is more especially so in mill ^ gearing. Heavy, cumbrous, and rumbling gearing should be avoided as much as possible. It is always disagreeable and dangerous, because the breaking of a cog from any hard substance getting in the wheels often causes a fearful crash. The constant greasing required is also expensive, and produces much filth and unpleasant smell. Where capital is abundant and prejudice rife, men follow the beaten track. Where engineers abound, and there are stores of beautiful wheel patterns, together with cheap metal, the spinner seldom concerns himself much about this important subject, but leaves it to the judgment of his millwright, who often, in a roundabout way, turns this and that shaft at the speed he requires, and the thing passes off without further question or thought that unnecessary things entail a continual expense in driving. As youth is more daring and enterprising than age, so also is a young nation. -Looking around, one must accord to America the honour of many useful inventions. There, men's wits are sharpened by the higher rate of interest on capital, and less facility for performing any given undertaking. Give a man a certain thing to do with - limited means, and his ingenuity suggests a way of doing it ; so in America heavy gearing is almost entirely discarded, and broad double belts or straps substituted. — Much may be said, pro and con, on this subject. The wisdom or folly thereof depends upon the mode of application. When properly applied, there is no question that the noiseless and practical way in which belts do their work is preferable to gearing. If belting be improperly applied it makes all the difference. A main driving belt, to be rightly applied, should go through 3,000 or 4,000 feet of space per minute, and 38 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. be sufficiently wide to drive all the machinery and shafting it has to turn quite easily, when running in a slack state. A wide belt, moving with that velocity, on drums of large diameter, possesses enormous power. After a new belt has been tightened up once, it should work many years without again requiring tightening, and will do so if properly applied, and made of good material ; saving in the meantime all the grease, and labour of putting it on, which gearing requires, to say nothing of the horrid noise which heavy gearing makes. In America, the main driving belts are open straps, worked in this manner, and neatly boxed up, so that nothing is seen, nothing heard ; whilst in this country, the disagreeable rumbling noise of the heavy gearing of some mills can be heard, in country places, a mile off. Ask " John Bull" whether he would prefer driving his machinery by gearing or belting, and he will shake his head, and tell you he never minds the noise, he likes to be sure. "John Bull" is generally a shrewd fellow, but, as a rule, he does not, at present, understand what a belt is (^capable of when it runs through three or four thousand feet of space per .minute. Driving by belt or band has ultimately to be resorted to in all cotton spinning machinery ; therefore the question of certainty goes for nothing, when properly done, as one way is just as certain as the other. To apply belting to slow running shafts would be simply ridiculous. As speed has finally to be attained, it should be gained, as much as possible, at once from the periphery of the flywheel of quick running engines. The speed of engines, and diameter of flywheel, should be so adapted to each other that the rim of the latter will give off a speed of 3,000 to 4,000 feet per minute at least ; it being borne in mind that the power of a belt is exactly as the speed or space it runs through per minute. For example, a belt or strap of six inches wide, running through 4,000 feet of space per minute, will turn as much machinery, or give off as much power, as a belt of twenty-four inches will do that moves only at the rate of 1,000 feet per minute ; just as a man can lift four times more weight with a lever four feet long than he can lift with a lever one foot long ; therefore the quicker ^he speed the less is the expense of the belt. What has been said about slack straps applies to all heavy running machinery throughout ; it will be found also a great saving of power to have larger pulleys than is usual both on the shafting and frames, so that the straps can do their work easily. This saves wear and tear also to a great extent. When a strap is obliged to be tight in order to do its work, it pulls down at the shafting and up at the pedestals of the frame it is driving, thereby wearing out the steps, consuming more oil and absorbing power, besides pulling itself to pieces, in addition to which it slips and loses time. After a mill is settled to work there ought to be scarcely any piecing or tightening of - straps ; and if the precautions above enumerated be taken at the commencement, production will go on with greater regularity, and a very large saving, in the aggre- gate, will be effected. GEABING VERSUS BELTING. 39 As an example of what may be done with belts, the first which the author saw in an American factory was one driving 140 horse power from a drum of 9 feet diameter, and going at the speed of ] 30 revolutions per minute, and driving a shaft which had a drum of 7 feet diameter upon it. The strap was 24 inches wide, of double leather sewn together. It was asserted that this strap had run for seven years without piecing or tightening, having been tightened only once since it was newly put on. Being surprised at this statement, further inquiry was made in different mills, which fully confirmed what had been said as to the durability and ease with which these large belts do their work. If reflected upon, what an impressive lesson this teaches ! How delightful it would be in a mill if all the straps would run so long without piecing or giving trouble ! Yet so it would be were the same conditions observed. How much we vary from those conditions will be seen upon examination. For instance, we often see carding engines, with pulleys on the main cylinders 12 inches diameter, running at a speed of 140 revolutions per minute, which is equal to barely 440 feet per minute of space through which the strap moves, whilst the big driving- strap, above alluded to, goes more than eight times faster, being at the rate of over 3,673 feet per minute. The straps which drive frames and other machinery are not much quicker than those which drive the cards. Therefore the lesson taught by the big belt is imperative, namely, that there should be very light shafting run at a very quick speed with larger drums and pulleys ; then very little would be heard of strap- piecing or wear and tear of belts, working with less power and steadier production all the while. " Our American cousins" have taught some good things, and this is one of them. • In new countries men have new ways, and do not fix their principles by inheri- tance as they do in old countries — defending them with all the strength of prejudice, as being born heirs to them, and thereby missing many excellent things because they had never seen them done before. However true and palpable a new mode may be, it requires a long time to bring it into general use. In some American factories, one long belt is made to run the whole round from bottom to top of mill, turning every main shaft, passing where necessary over carrier pulleys, and working its way to and fro. This is not a good plan, as the belt is required to be of enormous length, and having all the stress upon it, is required to be sufficiently wide to take off all the power. It is likewise more costly than necessary, besides having other disadvantages. The simplest and best method of driving by belt, also the cheapest and most durable, is to convey the power from the main driving shaft direct to each room by a separate strap (as shown on the next page) ; and if more than one shaft is wanted in any of the rooms, to drive it from the other direct by a separate strap, apportioning the width of each strap to the power it is required to drive, and wherever a belt is necessarily short, allowing a little extra width. 40 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. The example below shows the best method of driving a mill of four storeys, in which two shafts are required in the bottom room, which may be driven direct from the first strap, as will be seen in Fig. 26, in which a represents the main driving Fig. 26. shaft, running 80 revolutions per minute, driven direct from the steam engine or other motor; 6 is a strong well-balanced drum, of 15 feet diameter, and about 3 feet wide, keyed on the shaft a, which, in making 80 revolutions per minute, gives off a speed on its periphery of 3,768 feet per minute ; h\, b2, 53, bi, b5, are strong pulleys about 6 inches wide, and 6 feet diameter, keyed on the respective shafts they have to drive, which will, in this case, make 200 revolutions per minute, but may, of course, be GEARING VERSUS BELTING. 41 varied to run faster or slower by putting on smaller or larger pulleys, but whatever else is done the speed of the straps must be kept up, for in that lies the whole secret of success in belt driving. The shaft a, if the power be steam, will be the crank shaft, and the drum upon it will act as flywheel, and have great centrifugal force, without being heavy, by reason of its speed. The pulley must be turned a little convex at the top, where every strap comes upon it, having a little flat space of 3 or 4 inches between every hump, to admit of boxing up each belt separately, and ensuring them running in their proper places. Should any belt break, as it runs in a separate box all the way up, it cannot in any way interfere with the other. When a belt wants piecing or tightening (a very rare occurrence), the ends are fixed in cramps, which are drawn together by screws. As the straps or belts ( G) in the above example are supposed to be 6 inches wide, each belt is capable of driving horse power, as the following rule for calculating the power of belts will show. B.ule to find the horse power that any given width of double belt is easily capable of driving. Multiply the number of square inches covered by the belt on the driven pulley by one half the speed in feet per minute through which the belt moves, and divide the product by 33,000, the quotient will be the horse power. Example: On referring to Fig. 26, it will be seen that the pulleys J 2, 53, hi, and 55, are each covered over by the straps C, Cl, Ci, and C3, to about one half their circum- ference, which, multiplied by 6, the width of the strap, gives 673 square inches, and the half of 3,768, the speed in feet per minute, being 1,884, it will be found thus : 1,884 X 673 33,000 = 38-4.22 Ans. Or nearly 38J horse power, which each of these double belts is capable of driving. The strap on the pulley b\ only covering one-third of the drum, or 448 square inches, the power will be thus : 1,884 X 448 83,000 = 25-567 Am. A little over 25^ horse power. Bule to find the proper width of belt for any given horse power : Multiply 33,000 by the horse power required, and divide the product first by the length in inches covered by the belt on the driven pulley, and again by half the speed of the belt. Example : Suppose a double belt is intended to pass through 4,000 feet of space per minute, and it clips the driven pulley 22 inches, what width of belt would be required to drive 15 horse power ? 33,000 X 15 22 -f- 2,000 = 11^ inches wide, Ans. G 42 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. If these rules, which the author has devised after very careful study of the subject, be compared with the single straps as at present used in cotton mills, it will be found that they considerably overshoot the mark, yet theoretically, single belts, being so much weaker and more liable to stretch than double ones, ought to have less strain upon them. The secret of the wide double driving belts running so mysteriously long without attention, will at once be seen when it is considered that single belts are, as generally used, made to drive three or four times more than they ought to do for their width and speed. For existing establishments where it is not convenient to alter the speed of shafting or size of drums, in driving machines with single straps, the following will come nearer to actual practice. Bute to find the width of belt for any given horse potver: Multiply 33,000 by the horse power required, and divide the product, first by the length in inches covered by the belt, and again by its speed. Example: Suppose a machine requires 1| horse power to drive it, and the strap runs 1,210 feet per minute, covering 20 inches on the pulley, what width of strap will be necessary } 33,000 X IJ H- 20 -r- 1,210 = 2 inches, Ans. If this rule is reversed, as per previous example, it will show that a two-inch strap moving at a speed of 1,210 feet per minute, and covering 20 square inches of the driven pulley, will turn 1| horse power. This, and more than this, is what single straps are made to do when driving machinery. Comparatively then, the strong double belts, working as per first rule, have exceedingly light work, which can be done with great ease while running in a slack state. Hence their durability ; and the nearer a user of belts can approach the rule given for double driving belts, the longer his straps will last. PIECING AND TIGHTENING STRAPS, 43 PIECING AND TIGHTENING STRAPS. A new and very simple method of piecing straps has recently been introduced, termed "Harris's Patent Strap Fastener," which dispenses with laces or stitching; and as it is said to answer the purpose very well, it is shown here. It consists of a light malleable iron casting, with inclined teeth, set as in sketch. A B Fig. 27.— A, B, C. Instruclions for Use: Lay the casting. A, teeth uppermost, on something solid, and put one end of the strap on one of the sets of teeth, as seen in section at B, and force or hammer it firmly on to them, as seen at C ; then place the other end of the strap on the opposite set of teeth, and force it down firmly in the same manner ; this done, the strap is ready for use. In applying this fastener, the strap not being weakened by making holes or bevelling, the joint is necessarily stronger than when laces are used. Care must be taken not to strike over both sets of teeth at the same time, otherwise the curve would be destroyed ; and the curve is that which gives the requisite angle to the teeth to prevent them from working loose. N.B.— In case of broad straps — say 6-inch,— use two 3-inch fasteners. To sepa- rate the strap from the fastener, run a knife between the teeth from end to end. MOVING POWER. A S steam power is now the most extensively used for driving cotton mills, it ■^-^ naturally comes first under consideration. An enthusiastic poet, some time ago, wrote the following prediction : — The first two of these predictions have been abundantly fulfilled ; but the last, with steam, is as impossible as the perpetual motion. When the justly-renowned James Watt so far perfected the steam engine as to admit steam at the top and bottom side of the piston alternately, and condense it in a separate vessel, driving his machinery and pumps through a beam, to one end of which hung the connecting rod, the piston and piston rod at the other, lilie a pair of scales in equilibrium, giving motion to the pumps by its oscillation, and converting the arc of the circle described at the piston end of the beam into a nearly perpen- dicular line, by his exquisite parallel motion, it was thought that science had reached its limit, and Watt's engine was accepted by the users of steam power as the acme of perfection. But in those days of hempen-packed pistons, it was neither considered safe or desirable to let the piston travel faster than 220 feet per minute, the standard speed fixed by Watt. So for a great number of years, say more than half a century, any innovation upon his principle and arrangement was looked upon with incredulity and disapprobation. When the hand of genius gives its final and triumphant touch to a machine that has wrought miracles and astonished the world, it is no wonder that an admiring public look upon it as almost divine, and consider it heresy to attempt to disturb it, as the whole subject is thought to be practically exhausted by so great a master. But " the light of other days " gradually fades like a dissolving view, as, little by little, innovations creep in. Perhaps the general introduction of the metallic piston and the advent of the locomotive were the first means of arousing the public from its Then shall thy powerful arm, 0 steam, afar. Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car ; Or, en wide-spreading wings, triumphant bear The flying chariot through the fields of air ! MOVING POWER: WATT'S INVENTION. 45 comfortable nap of fifty years' duration, by showing on our railways that a metallic piston could work practically at a far higher speed than 220 feet per minute,* This ancient barrier therefore is now broken down, and only used as a basis from which to calculate the nominal power of an engine and its value commercially. The alteration of speed and higher steam pressure are superseding the beautiful arrangements of the beam and parallel motion of Watt, together with the noble columns, side pipes, and entablature, which give his large engines such a majestic appearance ! Alas ! for the perpetuity of the greatest efforts of human ingenuity. Fig. 28.— Portrait of James Watt. However perfect and satisfactory an invention may appear to the contemporaries of the discoverer who produces it, as viewed in the light of his day, still changeful and imperfect are man's greatest efforts to Nature's simplest works, such as the smallest blade of grass, the hexagonal cell of the busy bee, which are the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever. How or why, then has this beautiful construction of Watt's failed ? A mecha- nical truth never fails ; but, like the law of gravitation, will endure to the end of * A locomotive piston sometimes attains a speed of 1,000 feet per minute, notwithstanding the short stroke. 4G SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. time : it has merely, for some purjooses, been superseded by another mechanical truth that was not known in his time. Watt's beam engine is as capable now of performing that service for which it was designed as it ever was ; nay, more so, because of the better workmanship in these modern days than was possible when its Inventor lived. It would be a very ungracious task to disparage the great ability and splendid constructive powers of Watt, or to write a word that would sully the fair fame of a man whose name will always be held in reverence as a benefactor of his species. As long as his theory of limited speed and low pressure steam held good, so far was his engine perfect. But now that a greater speed is attained, and steam used at a higher pressure, it is found inexpedient and dangerous to transmit the power through a lever, mounted on stilts, to the main shaft. Though some engine builders still j)ersevere in the use of the beam, and vainly hope, by adding strength to the different parts, to surmount these difficulties, it is quite plain however, that the position is untenable. Although Watt's condensing engine has been made for so long a period with a beam, it must not be forgotten that Watt himself suggested dispensing with that appendage in some cases. The beam of a steam engine is simply a compound lever, the natural vibration of which is equivalent to a pendulum of half its length ; therefore, as a pendulum of 39 inches long beats 60 strokes in a minute (according to the latitude of Greenwich), the proper motion of a beam is found by subjecting it to the same law, in proportion to its length from the centre. Now, whenever that motion is unnaturally accelerated, the momentum, acquired by its mass and heavy appendages, requires checking at every half stroke, which is a waste of power and a strain upon the parts — the more violent the greater the speed and weight. Therefore, adding strength and consequent weight to the beam and appendages, to sustain these shocks without breaking, is only aggra- vating the evil, and struggling, as it were, by brute force to overcome science and natural laws. Doubling the speed of a steam engine simply means doubling the power at the same cost ; or rather, it should be said, that the cost of a steam engine, per indicated horse power, is in the inverse ratio to the speed of piston. When an engine runs slow, massive foundations are required to hold it down, with heavy gearing to get up speed, and a ponderous fly-wheel to help it over the centres. These things are very costly. It is especially undesirable for driving machinery at its present rapid rate to commence with a very slow motion, not only on account of the extra outlay in engines, gearing, and foundations, but the jerking caused in getting over the centres, loss of power, and various other inconveniences. For instance, a great and unsuspected loss of power occurs with slow running engines, through the chill which the internal surfaces of the cylinders acquire by being so long in communication with the MOVING POWES. 47 condensors. Another loss is caused through the enormously extra weight of fly-wheels required and the friction of heavy shafts. Disastrous breakdowns often occur also with power established on this principle, when so much speed has to be brought up. It is like taking a short lever to lift a heavy weight. Ponderous beams may do very well for pumping engines where only slow motion is required, but it is thought erroneous to employ either the beam or heavy gearing when a rapid rotary motion is wanted. That modern practice has been tending in this direction may be seen in many new mills in which the beam engine, though not all of the heavy gearing, is altogether discarded. The greater the speed of the first motion shaft the lighter the fly-wheel required, and the danger less. Double the speed of a fly-wheel shaft, and one-fourth the weight of fly-wheel will suffice, the centrifugal power being as the square of the velocity. It should be parti- cularly impressed on the mind of the student that a heavy fly-wheel is not only a loss of power, but that the enormous force concentrated in its momentum cannot be suddenly checked when anything goes wrong — such as the breaking of a large driving wheel or shaft, — it goes ofi' at an accelerated speed, tearing down all before it. Hence so many fearful and expensive crashes where beam engines with heavy rumbling gearing are employed. Cannot all this be avoided, and power be made relatively as safe as a fire-proof mill over one that is not so ? This most certainly may be done, and the anxiety removed. Good and desirable things, generally, are only to be dearly purchased ; but here is a notable exception, for this great benefit may be had for less money^ less consumption of fuel, and steadier turning withal, which is of especial value. How then shall this desirable end be attained? Let prejudice be cast away and a common sense view be taken of the existing appliances of steam to a thousand other purposes than the driving of mills, and it will be perceived that as to the propelling of works without the expensive paraphernalia of beam, or heavy and noisy gearing, there is no mystery. Simplicity is always charming, but especially so about an engine and millwork. It saves the pocket, it adds to security, it lessens the interest of capital and depreciation. Example : Suppose it is required to run the main shaft in the bottom room 100 revolutions per minute ; take hold of that shaft at once with the engine connecting-rod, or with the piston-rod, if the engine be an oscillating one. A very light fly-wheel only will then be necessary to get the engine over 'the centre, and no gearing, or very massive founda- tion work will be required. The noise also will disappear. Theoretically, a fly-wheel of only one-sixteenth the weight would be required to what would be necessary for an engine making only 25 strokes per minute ; but as a smaller diameter of wheel would be put on the fast engine, the real difference in weight might be about nine-tenths less metal, and perhaps nine-tenths less cost for the fast than for the slow running fly-wheel. Nor does the advantage end here, for such an engine, complete, only costs 48 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. about one-fourth, or less than a fourth of the price of the 25-stroke engine per indicated horse power, and the turning is steadier. The consumption of coal is like- wise much less, for the power lost in turning the heavy fly-wheel, ponderous shafting, and gearing of the slow running engine is saved, and the cooling of the internal surface of the cylinder, already spoken of, is to a great extent prevented by the velocity. Much more will be said further on upon this important subject, but as the present part of the work is intended rather to illustrate mills as they are at present than as, it is believed, they ought to be established, the reader's patience will not now be further taxed on the subject of steam power and its application. When recurred to again, complete plans will be shown of engines and boilers capable of working with far greater security than at present upon 1^ to 21bs. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour. This statement will, no doubt, be received with incredulity by many, but when it is considered that the amount of Jatent heat in half-a-pound of coal is sufficient, if it could all be utilised, to work a horse-power one hour, the surprise is rather that so great a waste should continue to be made through common ignorance of natural laws. What is meant by working a horse-power one hour is equal to the raising of a weight of 33,000 lbs. sixty feet high in that time, or one foot per minute. Now, if with all the skilful appliances in generating and working steam to use up this heat (which is merely " sunshine" absorbed by plants, carbonised and stored up for man's use, in the bowels of the earth), a great portion of it is nevertheless wasted, and if, according to the calculations of a celebrated engineer, the coal fields of Great Britain will only last one hundred years at the present constantly accelerated rate of consump- tion and export, and England's glory sets with the exhaustion of her minerals, surely it is high time, both patriotically and commercially, to arrest this enormous waste, and thus lengthen the brief space of time left her as foremost of manufacturing nations. It is believed, however, that these calculations about the duration of the coal supplies of Britain are very inaccurate; but when it is considered that the consumption of coal in one year is probably as much as Nature required a thousand, or it may be ten thousand, years to produce and store up for the use of man, it becomes evident that the end of its lavish consumption for manufacturing purposes must come sooner or later by reason of advanced price, long before utter exhaustion takes place. COTTON SPINNING IN INDIA, COTTON MILL OP ONE STOREY ERECTED AT BOMBAY, INDIA. From the Design of Messrs. John Hetherington & Sons, of MancJmter. rpHE accompanying plan and two sectional elevations show a complete mill, witk ^ machinery, consisting of 23,040 mule and 8,064 throstle spindles, making a total of 31,104 spindles altogether; with an entire manufacturing establishment of 480 looms to convert the yarn into cloth, as under, viz.: — Blowing Boom: 2 Cotton Openers. 3 Scutchers, with two beaters each and lap attached. 3 Finishing Scutchers, or Spreading Machines, with one beater each. Card Boom: 60 Carding Engines, with cylinders 48 inches diameter. 9 Drawing Frames, of three heads and four deliveries each 12 Slabbing Frames of 60 spindles each. 24 Roving Frames of 120 spindles each. Spinning Boom : 32 Throstles, of 252 spindles each. 36 Self-acting Mules, of 640 spindles each, l|in. gauge. 4 Winding Frames, of 232 spindles each. Warjping Boom : 10 Warping Machines. 5 Twisting-in Machines. Sizing Boom : 5 Tape Leg Sizing Machines. Weaving Shed: 480 Power Looms. H 50 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Beeling Boom: 14 Cop Reels, 40 hank. Engine House. — Pair of Condensing Steam Engines, 80 horse power nominal. Boiler House. — Six Double-flued Boilers, 7 feet diameter, 32 feet long, each. Gearing. — The following is a list of the Gearing, with pitch of Wheels, diameter of Pulleys, &c. — Main driving shaft 80 revolutions per minute. LIST OF WHEELS AND SPEEDS. Bevel Wheels AAAAAAAA Mortice Wheels BBB Do. Do. C Do. Do. D Do. Do. E Speed. 80 80 80 80 80 Diameters. Ft. ill. Ft. in. 3 0 into 1 11 4 Ik n 2 3| 4 1 7i 4 0^ 1 10| 3 6 » 2 3 Speed of Driven Shafts. 120 Cross Shaft over Looms 160 „ „ over Spinning ... 231'1 do. over Roving & Slubbing 173-3 do. over Drawing & Blow'g 124-4 do. over Carding Engines ... No of Teeth. Pitch. ^ in. 2^ „ 2 „ Breadth. 4J in. '2 !> 5 » 5 „ LIST OF PULLEYS. Driving Pulley , Speed. Diameters. SPEEDS. Ft in. Ft. in. 173 3 0 into 1 8 310 Revolutions of Counter Shaft for Opener. 310 2 n „ 1 0 800 „ „ Opener. 173-3 3 0 „ 1 4| 385 „ „ Counter Shafts for Scutchers. 385 2 7^ 0 n 1600 „ ,. Beaters in Scutchers. 173-3 2 10 „ 1 9 270 „ „ Rollers in Double Scutchers. 138-5 1 3 „ 1 9 275 „ „ Rollers in Single Scutchers. 160 2 10| „ 0 10 560 „ Drums in Throstles. 160 2 0 » 1 4 232 „ „ Rims in Mules. 231 1 7| „ 0 11 415 „ „ Pulleys on Roving Frames. 231 1 1| „ 1 I 235 „ „ Pulleys on Slubbing Frames. 173 1 4 1 0 226 „ „ Pulleys on Drawing Frames. 124-4 1 7 „ 1 6 130 „ „ Pulleys on Card Cylinders. 124 1 7 „ 1 0 200 „ „ Grinding Machine. 160 0 11 „ 0 9^ 180 „ „ Winding Machine. 120 1 0 } 0 120 „ „ Looms, 9-8th wide. 120 1 0 „ 0 11 132 „ „ Looms, 7-8th wide. 120 0 6 „ 1 H 50 „ ,, Beam Warping. 120 1 11 ,y 1 1 210 „ „ Tape Leg Sizing Machine. The plan, common in India, of having all the machinery on the ground floor is undoubtedly the best in all hot and dry countries, and it may fairly be questioned if, where land is cheap, it can be beaten, in an economical point of view, by any other method, if the floors be of concrete, and the roof also, with lofty windows in the side walls, and a few dome lights, if those be not sufiicient. COTTON SPINNING IN INDIA. 51 Buildings of one storey, however, do not admit of architectural display in the same manner as mills built in several storeys, and all the instances we have hitherto had of them look paltry compared with the general plan of building in storeys, besides which they have not been either so dry or comfortable. Those lighted from above, on the same principle as weaving sheds, whilst well adapted for looms, are totally unfit for spinning machinery in our humid climate. The plan of building mills only one storey is, however, susceptible of great improvement both for comfort and appearance, and will be alluded to again hereafter. LIST OF MILLS. The following List of Spinning and "Weaving Mills, in the Bombay and Bengal Presidencies, was drawn up by the Cotton Commissioner, Mr. Harry Rivett Carnac, and issued from his office, at Nagpore, 12th August, 1869 : — Town. Names of Millownera or Company. Bombay Albert Mills Company ' Bombay United Spinning and Weaving Company .... Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company Great Eastern Spinning and Weaving Co. Limited .... Oriental Spinning and Weaving Company Alliance Spinning Company Victoria Spinning Company Limited Bombay Royal Spinning and Weaving Co. Limited.... Manickjee Petils Spinning and Weaving Company .... CooRLA j Bomanjee Hormusjee Spinning and Weaving Co. Lim. Ahmedabad... Ahmedabad Cotton Spinning and Weaving Company. DusKCOHiE ... Behadar Spinning and Weaving Company Broach Broach Cotton Mills Company SuRAT Jafifer AJi Spinning and Weaving Company Limited . Calcutta ., Cawnpore., Total Bombay. Goosery Cotton Mills Fort Glo'ster Cotton Mills. Elgin Cotton Mills Total. No. of SpincUeg. No. of Looms. Annual Con- sumption of Cotton Bales of 4001bs. 18,000 3,400 21,000 335 4,800 31,000 480 6,600 30,000 608 6,000 40,000 800 7,000 22,000 5,000 9,000 1,800 33,000 680 7,600 60,000 840 10,000 27,000 469 6,200 5,000 1,000 15,000 3,000 17,000 3,400 12,000 2,000 340,000 4,212 67,800 15,000 70 3,800 27,500 2,800 10,000 150 3,000 392,500 4,432 77,400 It will be noticed, from the list of mills above, that cotton spinning is making considerable progress in India; and how far it will ultimately extend becomes an interesting, if not momentous, question as affecting the demand for that important market for home manufactures. It may be observed, however, that as the prosperity 52 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. of India increases so will the consumption of cotton goods increase amongst that vast population, and ages may elapse before the manufacturers of the western hemisphere feel the effect of the competition. The wants of mankind are insatiable as means increase to gratify them, and no probable increase of mills in India can keep pace with the augmented demand. Moreover, as India is more of an agricultural than manufac- turing country, the same universal law which gives the greatest reward to capital when naturally invested may be expected ultimately to prevail, and it will be found that if the same amount of capital had been invested, and energy expended, in cultivating the soil, a better return would have been made. Moreover, the cost of transit between Europe and India is gradually being lessened and the speed accelerated, which must increasingly tell in favour of the western manufacturer. V COTTON MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. /^PINIONS somewhat differ as to the best method of mixing cotton when different ^ kinds are used, some preferring to mix a number of bales of each kind together, before willowing or scutching, and after making laps of each kind, mixing them on the second lapper by running one lap of long staple with two of short, or vice versa, as the case may be. Others, and by far the greater number, prefer to mix as large a number of bales together in a stack as is possible, in layers one upon another, and when used, raking them down, with an iron rake, from the top to the bottom, by which the mass is thoroughly blended. On the whole the latter plan is considered the best, and those spinners who have sufficient room and capital to make the largest mixings, spin the most regular numbers of yarn, the little loss in interest on capital which this occasions being amply repaid by extra and more regular production. It is found practically impossible, however good a judge of cotton a spinner may be, to select in the market another lot of cotton that will work, in all respects, the same as that just consumed; therefore a careful trial should be made every time a fresh stack of cotton is commenced with, as to the weight it will deliver at the carding engine, before the working or carding of it is proceeded with. It is unsafe to rest satisfied with the weight in which the laps come out, as some cottons lose more from sand, &c., in scutching, and less in carding, from better staple. When fully ascertained, after carding, it is better to put a little more or less weight on the weighing scales at the first scutcher, than to change pinions on the carding engine or drawing frame, as will shortly be shown. Another plan of mixing cotton (the invention of Mr. Edward Lord, of Todmorden, to whom cotton spinners are mdebted for the very ingenious device of a " self-regulating feeder"), is exceedingly well adapted to concerns where it is not convenient to mix a large stack of cotton together, — indeed, on the whole, it is questionable whether it be not more economical in any establishment than the stacking system. The way alluded to is to open six or eight bales of cotton, laid side by side, and for the mixer to take alternately a quantity from each bale, and deposit it in the mouth of a tube or funnel, which has a double bottom, the inner one of which is grated, and the lower or outer 54 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. bottom hinged so as to open when required, and close air-tight. The other end of this funnel is connected to a powerful fan, which, in drawing air, takes the lumps of cotton deposited in the mouth of the tube rapidly along with it, and being rolled over the grating, a good deal of sand and heavy seeds fall through the interstices, which are cleaned out occasionally, by opening the hinged bottom. This tube or funnel can either be placed in a horizontal or diagonal position, or be made of any required length, in a straight line or to turn a corner, so it is a very convenient application of pneumatics, and may be made to answer the purposes of conveying, opening, and cleaning cotton at the same time. A drawing of this machine will be shown in its proper place, under the head of COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. In the process of cotton opening regard must be had to the kind or description of cotton to be operated upon, as what is suitable for long staple cotton would be out of place for short staples. It is, therefore, proposed to take the various kinds in the same order as they are described in the article on the " Cotton Plant," the long staples coming first. Before scutchers were invented, — in the palmy days of cotton spinning, when mills were small, and profits large on each pound of yarn produced, — a halfpenny or a penny a pound spent on " batting" and " picking" cotton could well be afibrded. The old " Batting Flake" was a sort of stout frame, about three feet square, and stood about the same height. It had cords of rope tightly strung in parallel lines, about half an inch apart. These batting flakes were generally kept in the cottages about a mill, and the women would take out buntings" of raw cotton to bat and pick. The batting was done with two willow sticks, each a yard long. About half a pound to a pound of cotton was put upon the "flake" at a time; the woman then beat it with a batting stick, in each hand, skaking it up at the same time. She then stopped to pick out the motes, the heavy seeds generally falling through the ropes on the floor. After she had finished her bunting of 10 or 201bs. of cotton, she took it back to the mill, with the pickings, when it was examined, re-weighed, and entered in the books to her credit. The following laughable incident once occurred in those early times of the cotton manufacture: — A poor woman was bringing back to the mill her bundle of cotton; the wind being very high, her package was blown from her grasp, and, coming open, the cotton was carried away high in the air, and scattered about the fields and hedges in all directions, a number of boys being sent to chase it. After a hot run of about an hour all came back with pockets full of cotton ; after all, King ^olus got the greater part of it. This ancient mode of opening and cleaning cotton is only alluded to here because the quality of work produced by this method has never been exceeded for long stapled COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 55 cotton used in fine spinning. The cotton was thoroughly opened in this way without being " stringed," or the staple broken and damaged ; therefore, any opening machine which comes nearest in its action upon the cotton to the old method of batting is the best for quality. The primitive method of cleaning and preparing cotton for spinning with the distaff in India is not unlike batting, as will be seen below, in Figs. 29 and 30. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. As mills were built larger, and competition increased, the great expense of batting and picking, which involved also hand feeding of the carding engines, could not be tolerated, and the Blower or Scutcher machine was invented, and subsequently the " Lap Machine " and Dust Fan were attached, which effected so great a saving that the old batting system rapidly disappeared from all mills except those where the very finest numbers of yarn were spun. The first Scutcher was made by a person in Scotland, of the name of Snodgrass, who brought out many other useful inventions. His machine was worked for a con- siderable time without any lap apparatus, the cotton being taken from it and spread upon a feed table at the back of each carding engine. The late Mr. John Crighton, of Manchester, was the inventor and first maker of a Scutching machine with a lap apparatus attached, about the year 1814. These machines were afterwards made with two, three, and in some cases as many as six beaters. The quality of work from the first made " blowers " was so inferior to batted cotton that an attempt was made by the late Mr. de Jongh, of Warrington, to construct a machine which would bat cotton by DOwer with iron rods. It was, 56 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. however, a very dangerous machine to approach, and proved a failure. The same inventor was one of the earliest pioneers of the " self-acting mule." The addition of the fan and dust cage, however, to the blower made a wonderful improvement by drawing the cotton away from the beater, and preventing the " stringing " so much complained of at first, and which originated in the cotton being carried round by the beater. Another great improvement in cotton opening machines, on the scutcher principle, was the employment of spiked feed rollers of about three inches diameter, instead of the usual fluted rollers. This improvement was brought out by the late Mr. Robert Hyde, of the firm of Hindley and Hyde, of Ashton-under-Lyne. Mr. Hyde made a pair of feed rollers as an experiment, by putting cast-iron spiders on shafts of about one inch diameter. These spiders had about eight teeth, with a pap about If inch diameter, projecting about three-quarters of an inch from one side, and were bored out to fit the shafts on which they were fixed with keys, or with sunk set screws, thus : — Fig. 31. COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 57 This plan has been thought worthy of illustration, because it is doubtful whether any principle of opening raw cotton surpasses it for simplicity and effect. It is applicable alike for both long and short staples, the latter when taken from the bales being often compressed in hard lumps difficult to separate, but when passed through feed rollers of this description, and met by a rapidly revolving beater or toothed cylinder, the action of the spiked rollers is something similar to pulling the lumps of cotton separate by the fingers without breaking or injuring the staple. An opening machine of this description is capable of getting through a large quantity of cotton in a short time, if backed by a powerful fan, with large dust cages and good grids. The less long-stapled cottons are blown or scutched, the better; as when overdone they are apt to get " stringy," and card neppy afterwards. As they must be scutched, however, before a level lap can be made, especial care should be taken not to feed the cotton too thick. The " CoxE Willow " Cotton Opener. — This machine was invented about the year 1832, and had a great run as a powerful cotton opener and cleaner. It consists of a cylinder of a conical form fixed on a shaft or axis, to which motion is given. This cylinder has rows of pegs or teeth about three inches long and about four inches apart. It works in a conical casing, which has abo similar teeth that arc stationary, and set so as to come between those on the cylinder. There is ar Fig. 33. 58 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. internal casing of grids for the motes, seeds, and sand to fall through. These grids are set wider apart near where the cotton is fed at the smaller end of the cone. The cotton travels by the centrifugal action and the aid of a fan to the larger end of the cone, where it is thrown off. This machine is capable of opening a large quantity of cotton per day, and is used now in many mills, where it is preferred to anything else for opening American, Surat, and other short-stapled cottons. The " Oldham Willow " consists of a cylinder A (Figs. 34, 35), about 40 inches diameter, and about the same in width. It is furnished with several rows of pegs or teeth, the same as the Cone Willow, and works in a sheath or case furnished with stationary pegs. At the underside of the case there is a semicircular wire grid B, 4. Fig. 34. -The Oldham WiUow (1). hinged at one end. There is an opening in the front of the machine where the cotton or waste (for which it is mostly used) can be thrown in upon the wire grid C when the grid is let down from the cylinder. It is then closed up, and the grid, with the COTTON OPENma AND SCUTCHING. 59 cotton upon it raised up until it comes in contact with the spikes on the cylinder, when it gets well shaken up, for a few seconds ; the door is then opened, and the wire grid let down, when the cotton is thrown out ; after the opened cotton is removed, Fig. 35. -The Oldham WiUow(2). the operation is repeated. This machine is very useful for cleaning blower droppings, and some spinners use it for shaking up and opening raw cotton in small concerns. Haedacre's Cotton Opener. — This machine, which takes its name from the inventor, was an attempt to imitate the batting stick before spoken of, and consisted of a vertical shaft, on which were fixed arms or rods of iron, the whole revolving in a double case, the internal one being a circular grid through which the seeds and motes were thrown. Cotton being fed in at the top soon came in contact with the revolving arms or rods, and was beaten against the grid in its descent. It had not been in operation very long before it was improved upon by Mr. Crighton, of Manchester, who made the beater of a conical form, and fed the cotton in from the bottom, thus : — Raw Cotton is fed in the mouth of the pipe A when it comes in contact with the lower part of the first beater B, which is of a conical form. By the centrifugal 60 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. action of the beater arms and aid of the fan F, the cotton is drawn upwards and thrown out at the top, when it passes down a pipe to the bottom of the second beater, when the same tiling is repeated, and it finally passes out at the top of the dust cage Figs. 36 and 37. — Crighton's Cotton Opener. and lattice creeper, which conveys it away. This machine may be used with one of the beaters only. As the footsteps of these machines have been rather liable to heat, some improvement to prevent this has been effected by Messrs. Hetherington & Sons, and also lately by Messrs. Crighton & Co., the makers. The beaters are surrounded by grids, through which the dirt and motes are thrown. This machine has had a considerable run, and has been produced in the double form, as shown above, and is said, by the makers, to be capable of getting through 40,0001bs. of cotton per week. There is no doubt that that quantity of cotton may be put through the machine in the time named, but no wise spinner ought to attempt any such thing. COTTON OPENIJNG AND SCUTCHING. 61 It has also been constructed in connexion with a scutcher, to which the cotton traverses and comes off in a lap. This arrangement has certainly one advantage, viz., that the cotton put through is limited to the quantity the scutcher will do , for although this opener will get through a large quantity of cotton "per diem if given to it, when forced, like all other openers and scutchers, there is danger of stringing. OPENING OF EAST INDIA COTTON. This cotton comes packed so tightly in bales, screwed down by hydraulic power, that when taken out it is so matted together as to make it very difficult to separate wHhout breaking some of the fibres. In reference to Plate VII., showing the fibres of cotton greatly magnified, it will b3 seen that cotton is to some extent tubular, and must therefore be flattened with the enormous compression to which it is subjected, and, to a certain extent, injured. In order to restore it to its original state, an ingenious Cotton Steaming Apparatus Fig. 38.— Cotton Steaming Apparatus. 62 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. was invented, a few years ago, by Mr. Wanklyn, of Bury. It consisted of an iron cylinder, about 24in. diameter, and about 34in. long, hung on gudgeons, a little above the centre. Through one of these gudgeons a steam pipe is passed to the bottom of the vessel, which is furnished with a perforated plate about four inches high, and a lid at the top, which is made to screw down after the vessel is filled with hard lumps of cotton as taken from the bale. High-pressure steam being then turned on for about one minute, a wonderful effect is produced upon the cotton by the expansion of the fibres and opening of the lumps, without wetting the cotton, as might be supposed, the water arising from condensation, which is very small in quantity, being retained at the bottom of the can, and drawn off by a tap. After this treatment, the tightly com- pressed East India cottons are said to card and spin much better, and can be mixed with other cottons in the scutching room more freely. Lord's Patent Cotton Opener. — This machine has a beater B with seven crossed arms fixed on a horizontal shaft, as seen opposite (Fig. 39^. These arms are of cast iron, with steel plates bolted firmly to the ends, the first being about 18 inches and the last about 28 inches diameter, so as to form a sort of cone, and are surrounded by a conical Fit;. 40. Section of Lord's I'ateut Cotton Opener. COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 63 grid. The bars of this grid are stationary at the delivery end, but capable of adjust- ment by the lever I, at the smaller or feeding end, to vary the distance of the grid from the beater, according to the nature or quality of the fibres to be opened. At the upper end of the beater B is a disc fan C, a plan of which is shown at Fig. 41. This Fig. 4L fan and the fan G, which exhausts the dust cages E and El, draw the cotton with great force through the machine from the feed pipe A, which may be extended a con- siderable distance to the cotton mixing room, as mentioned under the head of "Cotton Mixing." The sickle H holds the hinged bottom of a dust box, which can be let down to discharge the motes and dirt that escape being deposited in the box K. A further illustration is given in Fig. 42 of this scientific application of pneumatics to a useful purpose, in which the cotton, instead of being carried away by the endless creeper F, and deposited in a loose state, is passed through another beater, and comes out in the form of a lap. On reference to the above it will be seen that the cotton is fed on the creeper at A, which carries it to the mouth of the trunk or funnel B B, when it is immediately carried away by the current of air through the grated trunks and pipe B 1 to the machine opener shown in sketch, which is exactly the same as the one already described except the extra beater and lap machine attached, as seen at D E. Although the feed part of the machine is represented here in the room above the opener, it must be understood, as before explained, that it may be a hundred yards or more off if required, and in any direction, above or below. The Porcupine Opener. — This has two horizontal cylinders, with teeth, as shown below. The first of these cylinders, marked A (Fig. 43) has twelve rows of cast-iron teeth; and the second, A 1, which is set immediately to follow, has only four rows of teeth. These beaters or cylinders run about 1,000 revolutions per minute. The raw cotton from the bales being fed by hand, on the lattice in front, which moves at the rate 64 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. of about six feet per minute, is drawn through the fluted feed rollers to the cylinder heaters, and passes over the stationary grid D to the dust cages B, Bl, which are exhausted from the interior in the usual manner by the fan C. It then passes through the pair of rollers E, and is carried away by the creeping lattice F, which has a surface speed of about 60 feet per minute, the same as the dust cages B, B 1, and the stripping rollers E. The stationary grid D is fixed on the top of a box, the bottom of which is hinged and held in its place by the lever G, which is occasionally removed to let out the motes and leaf as they accumulate in the box. Fig. 43.— The Porcupine Opener. A plan of the cylinder or porcupine beater is shown at Fig. 44. Fig. 44. Cylinder of Porcupine Opener. COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 65 This plan of one beater being placed immediately behind the other seems plausible. If examined practically, however, the advantage of the arrangement vanishes, as the cotton after it leaves the first beater is drawn rapidly forward by the action of the fan ; and as it is going along at about the same speed as the periphery of the second beater, the latter can have but very little efi^ect upon it. THE SCUTCHER. After the opening machine comes the " scutcher," or " blower," — termed gene- rally " picker" in America, — about the principle and general build of which public opinion seems now to be definitely settled, and machinists differ very little one from another in the construction of this machine, a fair type of which is given opposite, in Figs. 45 and 46. Although the general outward appearance of the different builds of Scutchers is much the same, still there are some details, of considerable importance, which should not be carelessly passed by; therefore, in order that the student may thoroughly understand this machine, and observe what constitutes its excellencies or defects, a number of sectional drawings, showing the internal arrangement by different makers, will follow. It will be noticed that there are several plans of leaf extractors shown in these machines. About these it may be observed, that those which clean themselves auto- matically, whether by vibration or otherwise, are all good, — far better than when the bars are stationary and boxed up, the simplest method being probably the best. In one example of these various scutchers the feed rollers are placed considerably above the centre of the beater, which is an undoubted advantage, as more of the fixed grid in front of the beater thereby comes into play, and the beater knives, which strike the motes and seeds with great force as they come through the feed rollers, have a fair chance of driving them through the bars immediately in front, whereas in the general mode of placing the centre of the feed rollers in a line with the centre of beater, two or three of the best bars in the grid are lost for any useful purpose. It is a good plau; also, to have serrated edges on two or three of the first bars in the grid, which assist materially in opening the cotton and loosening the seeds and dirt. In regard to the dust fans, a new plan has recently come out of having half fans, being vanes cast on a disc — one on each side — by which a more equal draft appears to be produced. This disc fan is similar to the one illustrated on page 64. The first section (Fig. 47) is that of a Double Scutcher, with mternal arrange- ments for extracting leaf and dirt, according to Lord, as given opposite. This machine, which is for making first laps, has the lever or piano feed motion, with single J 66 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. roller, but without the regulator attached; and the first feed roller, F, is placed above the centre of the cylinder beater A, in what is considered a favourable position to allow the beater to knock out the dirt through the bars G ; whilst the second beater Al is not so favourably situated to the action of the grid G. The leaf extractor is of longitudinal bars, and the bottom of the box is held up by a sickle, which lets it down for cleaning out, as shown. The first beater. A, has eight rows of teeth, and the second beater, Al, is an ordinary two-knife beater. The top dust cage, B, is about 20 inches diameter, whilst the lower one, Bl, is only about 12 inches diameter. It will be noticed also that the top cover is set eccentric from the cage. Fig. 48 shows a front view of Lord's Finisher Scutcher, exhibiting the action of the self-regulating feed, commonly called the Piano Motion. Fig. 49 is a side view of the same ; and Figs. 50 and 51 show the levers and rods. Referring to Fig. 51, it will be observed that the short end of the lever C hooks under the feed roller ; and the extreme end of it is either beveled off sharp (as shown) to suit short-stapled cotton, or rounded off if the staple be long, so that there will be a greater distance between the nip of the feed roller and the beater. The action of the piano motion is thus, viz. : — When a lump of cotton comes under any one of the levers C, it presses it down and raises the rod D. All the rods D are tapered at the bottom, and pass between two plates or castings of the trough form. Between each of the rods D is placed a small bowl, as shown in dotted lines. Fig. 50. Now it is evident that if any of these rods are lifted, the taper part, coming between the bowls, thrusts the whole of the pendant rods D aside, and the loose bowls also ; but as the rods are only free to move in one direction, the last of them, which is slotted to hold a connecting rod E, is immediately thrust aside, when it shifts the cone strap through the lever F, as seen in section of cone box. Fig. 49. By placing a sector wheel H at the short end of the strap lever, it moves another similar strap lever, as seen, and the strap is guided close to each of the cones K and L, the latter of which gives motion to the feed roller N through the worm M. By this very scientific and ingenious arrangement, the slightest variation in the thickness of the feed is instantly indicated, and every lump of cotton which passes under any of the levers C, is felt, and has its proportionate effect in regulating the feed. Mr. Lord has recently brought out another method of self-regulating feed to do without the cones and strap. This has not been sufficiently tried to find a place here, but will be illustrated further on if it proves a success. The next example (Fig. 52 J shows section of a Single-beater Finisher Lap Machine on Crighton's principle, in which it will be seen that the beater A has two knives ; and the feed rollers E are placed a little above the centre of the beater. The leaf extractor D is a travelling lattice with transverse bars, between the interstices of which light leaf is collected and emptied out under the machine as it revolves in the t COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING., 67 opposite direction to the course of the cotton. In this example the upper dust cage B is about 22 inches diameter, and the lower one 19 inches; and there is only one pair ol heavily-weighted callender rollers to condense the cotton before it goes on the lap. A side elevation of this machine is shown in Fig. 53, that also exhibits Crighton's Feed Regulator, which acts thus : — H is a small mitre wheel on the first motion shaft which drives the cam I through another small mitre made to slide in and out of gear on moving the lever X, when the lap knocks otf. When in motion the cam I oscillates the levers K and M through the connecting rod L. The lever M transmits its motion to the compound lever N through a movable pin or slide O. This compound lever has two connecting rods, P and PI, which operate on two catches fixed on the ends of two loose arms that rest on the feed roller end. These catches take into the ratchet wheel Y, keyed on the bottom feed roller, to which they give motion by both up and down stroke. When too much or too little cotton comes under the feed rollers, the rod R is lifted or dropped ; and through it the lever S which, having a short fulcrum, multiplies the space considerably, and transmits its motion through the levers T,U,V, and the connecting rod W, to the movable pin or slide 0, which slackens the feed or increases it, as the case may be. Another example (Fig. 54) is section of a Finisher Lap Machine as made by several makers. It has a triple knife beater (18 inches diameter), a stationary box leaf extractor with a let-down bottom, dust cages of equal diameter (about 23 inches), and four callender rollers to condense the cotton before being rolled up into a lap. It has two pairs of plain fluted feed rollers, to prevent slipping or snatching of the cotton. It is hardly necessary to refer in detail to all the letters in the figure, as it will be understood from the preceding descriptions. It may, however, be remarked that the plan of condensing the cotton by four callender rollers, by which the cotton gets pressed three times before being rolled on the lap, appears to have some advan- tage and works well in practice. The next illustration (Fig. 55) is section of a Single-beater Finisher Lap Machine, which differs in several particulars from those previously described. The first point is in the feed roller, which is a single roller a (Fig. 56) working in a shell b, which will be understood on reference to the enlarged drawings below. T'is-56. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59. 68 SCIENCE OF 510DEKN COTTON SPINNING, The shell h (Fig. 56j is serrated on the edge, and being set up to the beater, is screwed down fast to the framing. The pedestal which carries the feed roller a is made to move independently of the shell h\ and for short-stapled cotton is set close up to the edge of the plate, as seen in Fig. 58, but for long-stapled cotton is set as in Fig. 59. The serrated edge of the shell h may be best seen in Fig. 57, and is supposed to have a rough combing action upon the cotton, which contributes somewhat to loosen the leaf and dirt, and more effectually break it up. The feed roller a is what is technically termed a "dog-tooth" roller, which is made by fluting the roller first with a deep, coarse pitch flute, and then cutting grooves in it the whole length of the flute (as shown in Figs. 56, 57), which converts it into a sort of spiked feed roller. This kind of feed roller has many excellent properties, and ought invariably to be used in scutchers in place of fluted rollers. A pair of such rollers would be quite as effectual in preventing snatching as the two pairs of fluted rollers shown in Fig. 55. The next thing to be noticed in Fig. 55 is the vibrating grid D, which is supposed to clean itself, being operated on by the cam or snail L. It will be seen that this machine has three callender rollers ; the top one being heavily weighted, the cotton gets pressed twice. In practice the serrated edge of shell, or feed roller dish, has worked well, but it has been found to wear away fast when made of cast iron. This defect might probably be remedied by having a steel plate with a serrated edge screwed on in front of the dish ^, which after being finished, could be case-hardened, and easily changed when worn out. The right and left hand view of a modern scutcher here exhibited shows the external appearance of this machine as now generally manufactured. It has, how- ever, only arrived at its present state of perfection by slow degrees. When first brought out by Snodgrass it had simply a travelling lattice to take the cotton away as the beater delivered it. The next improvement was the addition of a fan, placed overhead, and one dust cage or perforated cylinder, which was a great improvement. After this the lap machine was attached by Crighton, of Manchester, which saved the hand feeding of the carding engines. Next came one or two important improvements by Lord, of Todmorden, who placed the fan below within the machine itself, and added a second dust cage, thereby dispensing with the creeper lattice between the beater and dust cages, which made a much more perfect and complete machine ; and, finally, the same inventor added the self-regulating feeder, which brought the machine up to its present state of perfection. It will be seen from the preceding illustrations that in all blowing rooms, as at present established, the finishing laj) machine is fed by three or four laps of cotton from the first lapper, with the idea of getting a more perfectly level lap at last. Theoretically this looks right, but practically the evenness of the finished lap depends very much on the action of the fan and dust cages. If the draught happens, from any COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 69 cause, to be stronger on one side of the dust cages than the other, the finished Lap will be thicker on the side where the draught is greatest. There is another cause of irregularity, which is not suspected, in finished laps made in this way, viz., the expan- sion of the first made laps from the preparing scutcher. Sometimes it happens that there are a number of laps on hand from the first machine ; these laps are continually expanding, the older they are the thinner they become. After the mill has been stopped at meals the finished laps will be lighter for a time ; they will also be irre- gular, from the three or four laps fed to the finishing machine moving oif at once, or nearly so, as the top part of a lap is always thinner than the bottom from the same cause — expansion. Singular as it may seem, a much more even lap may be made upon the first machine, where a regular given weight is fed upon a given length of the lattice feeder, than can be made upon the finisher machine, fed from three or four laps doubled. Even if the cotton be fed on one side of the first machine, or in a zigzag line, no matter, provided the right weight be put on as the lattice feeder moves, the lap will be regular in all parts. As the revolving dust cages draw the cotton against them, wherever a bare place presents itself it immediately gets patched over by cotton delivered from the beater ; and as soon as a bare place on the dust cage gets covered, the draught ceases at that point, and the loose cotton flies to the next bare place, no matter from which side of the beater it is delivered. From the foregoing remarks, and what has been said generally of the mischief occasioned by the overfeeding of scutchers, the reader will be prepared for the very strong and, what may seem, singular opinion, that cotton is best when opened and finished at one operation, so far as the scutching room is concerned, or at the most at two operations, viz., the opener and the lap machine. At the first blush this may seem erroneous, but it will bear examination ; thus : — Suppose a mill is producing 16,000 lbs. of yarn per week, and, besides the cotton openers, there are four double-beater lap machines, two of which are used for first lappers, and the other two for finishing machines, being fed by three or four laps from the first ; in this case each machine will have to scutch 8,000 lbs. per week (besides the loss in spinning), the beaters in all these machines making, say, 1,500 revolutions per minute. Now if all these lappers were so altered, that the feed rollers were run at only half the speed, the beaters being kept at 1,500 revolutions per minute, as before, the cotton would get just the same amount of scutching, with these important advantages, viz. : 1st. The cotton would never get stringed, as it would be sucked away from the beaters at once to the dust cages. 2nd. The dirt would be more easily extracted, as the beaters could strike it out better than when crammed through at double speed. 3rd. The machines would take far less power than when coming in contact with a thick layer of cotton like three or four doubled blankets pushed rapidly through. 4th. The feed rollers could be set closer to the beaters without the cotton 70 SCIENCE OF MODEKN COTTON SPINNING. being j cammed between them and the beaters. 5th. There would be less hurry in the room and less labour required. 6th. The cotton would be certain to card better, as no neps would be made from stringing. Practically, the feed rollers might go at less than half speed, as the loss of time in taking off the laps would be reduced one-half, as well as the labour in carrying them about the room and feeding the machines a second time. Any spinner who doubts the accuracy of the above reasoning may soon convince himself by trying the plan with one of his scutchers, which can be done by simply altering the feed rollers to about 7-16ths of their former speed, setting the feed rollers up a little closer to the beater at the same time. If the machine has a good " regulator " it will make a much more uniform lap than before ; if it has not, the cotton must be weighed when fed by hand. If a comparison be made at the carding engine between a lap so made against one on the ordinary plan, the difference will be sufficiently striking to convince the most sceptical. Lap Selvages. — There are few things in a mill of greater consequence than good lap selvages. When they are jagged and torn a great waste ensues at the carding engine by the continual dropping of cotton fibres at the ends of the doffers. Some- times the fibres curl up and form little lumps, after which they leave the comb and come off in the web, making an uneven place, which causes cloudy drawing, and those which fall either accumulate on the web plate until caught up and carried through, or fall on the floor to be converted into sweepings, which, besides making untidy work, amounts to a large loss in the aggregate. These jagged selvages arise from the faulty construction in the lap machine, and are produced thus : — The dust cages of lap machines have usually brass hoops at each end, soldered on to secure the wire web. These sheet brass hoops, as at present put on and used, are a source of infinite mis- chief, causing spinners a large amount of loss annually that might just as well be saved. If, instead of the sheet brass hoops, wrought-iron hoops were shrunk on and turned up true to a given diameter, and the framing of the machine sufficiently recessed, as seen at Fig. 60, in which A represents the framework, D the dust cage, C the hoop turned up true, and working in a recess in the framework A, with a margin of about l-16th of an inch clearance all round. Being bored out l-8th of an inch larger in dia- meter than the hoops, the selvages of the laps would be as thick as any other part, with cor- ners as sharp as if cut with shears. The reason Fig. 60. COTTON OPENING AND SCUTCHING. 71 of this is that there is a margin of l-16th of an inch of draught space round the hoop, which, together with the hoop being hid entirely in the recess, causes the draught of the fan to act close up to the framing, and produces, with certainty, this important result. In boring out the recess it becomes more perfect still if the framing be faced up true where the dust cages act. It unfortunately happens, however, that most of the lap machines at present working have the dust cages only just long enough to stretch across the machine, hoops included, and have the ends made up with a strip of leather, as seen at B, Fig. 61, in which A is the framing, D the dust cage, and B the leather or segments of wood, screwed to the fram- ing, the acting part of the cages, or wire gauze, being narrower than the lap. Now as no air can be drawn where the hoops are, the edges of the lap are torn by being dragged along the leather stopper or wood segments as the case may be. Where such is the case it would pay the spinner to have longer cages made and cut the framing, so as to let the hooped ends in, care being taken to turn them up true ; and where this cannot conveniently be done, the next best thing is to line the framing with polished iron plates, the same thickness as the breadth of the hoops on the dust cages, leaving the margin of l-16th of an inch between the hoops and the plates. A good selvage can be made in this way, and if the laps are then too narrow it is much better so than with jagged edges. Above all, however hooped, the ends of the dust cages should be turned true, and the plate or recess fitted as above described. The dust cages should be so fixed that there is a space of about an inch between the two cages, so that the cotton passing between them will not cause too great a pressure up and down, and they can revolve with ease. This will also admit of the iron plate which guards the ends passing be- tween them ; thus in Fig. 62 A is the framing, A 1 the polished metal plate, D the dust cage, and C the hoop working in the recess formed by the plate A 1. Fig. 61. Fig. 62, 72 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. In the section (Fig. 63^ drawn to a smaller scale, D is the upper dust cage, D 1 the lower cage, A 1 the front plate, and B the back plate. It is hoped that this diagram will enable the reader to understand thoroughly this important point. Care must be taken that there is a back plate B as well as a front plate A, and the two must meet together, forming a close joint be- tween the two cages, as shown at D 1. When the back plate B is omitted, cotton is apt to be drawn through by the fan after it has passed the point D 1, which is the case in those mills where bits of cotton are seen flying about the premises, and falling like flakes of snow, in a slovenly manner. In new machines the hoop C (Fig. 60^ should not only be turned true and run within the framing, but the latter should have a facing cast upon it to admit of planing where the dust cages fit in, which will make the selvage as perfect as possible. This point in a lap machine is really of so much importance that its proper construction cannot be too strongly insisted upon. It is believed that the loss, in various ways, arising from any machine working with leather packings, as in Fig. 61, is more than would suffice to buy a new scutcher every six months. The plan shown of recessing the framing to receive the hoops of the dust cage is not new, having been acted upon for some time by several of the best makers, but the turning of the hoops and careful boring of the recesses so as to leave the right margin of l-16th of an inch has not hitherto had the attention it deserves. THE SCUTCHma ROOM. The general formation of this room depends, in some measure, upon the kind of cotton intended to be used, the quality and numbers of yarn intended to be spun, and if for single or double carding. There can be no doubt that the operation of the scutching process is next in importance to that of carding. Generally speaking, the longer the fibre the less scutching it requires, on account of long-stapled cottons being liable to " string " or get knotted, which is very mischievous , but it always happens to fine Sea Island, Egyptian, Brazilian, and other long-stapled cottons, if handled too severely in the blowing room. Fig. 63. THE SCUTCHING ROOM. 73 The fibres of cotton have a natural tendency to curl, and if carried round the beater of the machine get knotted, or stringed, as it is termed. This stringing of the cotton is very injurious, because it forms neps that cannot all be removed by any subsequent operation, and therefore appear in the yarn. Various are the opinions of practical men as to the most desirable class of machinery in this operation; but before selection, in order to form a correct judgment, it must be decided as to what numbers of yarn are intended to be spun, and what kind or quality of cotton is intended to be used. If long-stapled cottons, such as Sea Island, Egyptian, Pernambuco, Maranham, &c., are to be used exclusively, very little scutching will be required, which is best done at one operation, being weighed from the mixing as it is fed on the lattice, marked in length for the purpose, and the feed rollers run slowly. The machine should have three beaters. The first beater should be a drum with teeth, the second and third plain beaters. The first feed rollers should be spider, the next dog-tooth, and the last feed should have one dog tooth roller only, working in a shell with serrated edge. One or two of the bars in the grids of the two first beaters should have serrated edges, and all the grids between the beaters and the dust cages, which are usually stationary, should be made to move so as not to get choked. The second pair of dust cages and feed rollers should go 50 per cent faster than the first pair, and the third pair should go 20 per cent faster than the second pair. The reason of this accelerated speed of the dust cages and rollers is because the cotton comes from the first beater in larger flakes, and consequently does not cover the dust cages as they revolve so completely as it does when more perfectly broken up, and is more apt to fiy to the sides where the draft is strongest. For short-stapled and lumpy cotton, such as Surat, it is necessary to make a greater difference than this. The same machine and plan may be used for American cotton. In concerns where the machines have only two beaters, a cotton opener is necessary ; and the double beater machine should have a pair of dog-tooth feed-rollers to the first beater, and one dog-tooth roller to the second, with shell and serrated edge-feeder. Surat and other Short-Stapled Cottons. — In opening and scutching these, at least two machines are necessary, and a steaming apparatus besides ; for the hard lumps and cakes of tightly-compressed cotton, which sometimes stick as if glued together, cannot be separated without injury by any means so readily and safely as they can by steaming. The plan of the scutching room will have to be arranged, as a matter of course, to suit the machines it is decided to use, and wherever practicable it should be so contrived that the cotton will pass straight on from the cotton store to the opening 74 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. and scutching machines, and the laps from these delivered at the most convenient point for the cards ; all turning back should be avoided as a waste of labour. Where it is intended to stack the cotton the bales should be elevated and opened in a room over the bins it is mixed in, and the latter be as convenient as possible to the scutchers. Some spinners prefer to hoist the bales of cotton to the top of the mill at once, and have their cotton store, mixing, and scutching in the attic, the card room being next below, then spinning all the way down, ending with throstles or looms on the ground floor ; the object being to save the labour of carrying the bobbins from the roving frames, when full and heavy, up stairs to be spun, and the sets of cops down again. This should never be done where the mill is not fire-proof, and, since the establishment of hoists, it becomes altogether unnecessary ; indeed such arrangement of machinery is very properly discarded in modern mills. Under any circumstances the scutching and mixing rooms should be fire-proof, as fires very often take place through hard substances, which have been packed up in the cotton, coming in contact with the beaters. A MODERN SPINNING MILL IN BOLTON: PLAN AND ELEVATION. [Contributed by Messrs. Cunliffe & Freeman, Architects.] T>LATE XV. — This shows a very neat and convenient arrangement of mill buildings for spinning the Bolton counts, and is a fair type of the new factories recently erected in that thriving seat of the cotton manufacture. As breaker and finisher cards are invariably employed in the Bolton system, as well as drawing, slub- bing, roving, and jack frames, it has been found convenient for mills of four storeys to add a shed to the card room, so as to get space sufBcient for the whole of the preparation machinery in the same room as the cards. This will be seen, on referring to the ground plan, as a continuation of the outer wall of the boiler house to the end of the mill, which adds about 24 feet to the width of the card room. Plate XVI. shows the ground plan and arrangement of machinery in another Bolton factory, so far as the carding and preparation goes. This mill contains 32,400 spindles (mules) for spinning No. 60's twist; the machinery in card room being divided into four systems or preparations, each of which is as under, viz. : — 10 Breaker and 10 finisher carding engines, 38 inches on wire, with Wellman's self stripper. 1 Drawing frame, with three heads of four deliveries each. 1 Slubbing frame, of 64 spindles, bobbin 5in. by lOin. lift. 2 Roving frames, 130 spindles each, or 260 spindles, bobbin 3|in. by Tin. lift. 4 Jack frames, 200 spindles each, or 800 spindles, bobbin 3in. by Gin. each. 9 Mules 890 spindles each, or 8,010 spindles to each preparation, lr%in. gauge. Between breaker and finisher cards is a doubler, or " cheese " machine, wherein 50 breaker ends are coiled into a lap or " cheese," of which two are placed behind the finisher card, so as to run off alternately, one lap being full, the other will be half. One doubler serves two systems. 76 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Drawing frame doubles 8 ends thrice, and draws 8 ends thrice ; part of hank J. Slubber draws or extends sliver 4| times, and winds it on bobbin 1^ hank. Roving frame doubles two ends into one, with a draft of 7, giving 3f hank ; six revolutions of spindle to one of roller. Jack frame takes two ends into one, with a draft of 6 ; hank bobbin 11 ; 10| revo- lutions of spindles to one of front roller. Mules double two ends into one, with a net draft of 5-45, producing 16 hanks per spindle weekly. The gross weight of cotton used per week is about ll,3601bs., which gives in net scutched laps about 10,6781bs., supplying 2,6701bs. to each system, equal to 2671bs. per breaker card, producing, less 10 per cent waste, 2401bs., or4-441bs. breaker carding per hour for 54 working hours per week. 2,4001bs. behind finishers equals 2161bs., or 41bs. per hour finisher carding. Part of hank, |. The net weight of yarn produced per week is about 8,5201bs. from ll,3601bs. gross weight of cotton. When cotton is at 9d. per lb. the total 2,840 lbs. of waste of all kinds will sell for about £35. 10s., which would restore 9471bs. of cotton at 9 suspended in its position over I"; it also has a fork or branch 0", which when the stripping apparatus approaches it, is struck by it, and causes the comb J " to be borne down, so that the teeth of it (J ") engage in the teeth of the strip card containing the strippings (this position is shown by the red lines in the drawings Fig. 1). This it does while the stripping appa- ratus is being moved over that top card nearest to the receptacle. Now after this top card is raised to position, the strip card moves forward to clean it, and in moving forward the comb J ' ' combs off all the strippings that have collected upon the strip card, drops them into the receptacle I", and then the weight N", upon the opposite end of the lever, causes that end to fall and brings the comb J > ' up into its former position. A front view of one end of the comb J", with the lever for holding it, and the receptacle beneath it, may be seen at Fig. 6. "Carding engines, with such an improvement attached as I have just described, maybe so constructed as to perform two or three times the amount of work which is done by the carding engines now in common use, because they will admit of having a very large carding cylinder with two or three times the number of card tops generally used, consequently they will cause a saving of room, of manual labour, and of expense. This invention is also applicable to some forms of the carding engines now in general use, with a slight alteration in a few of their parts. " Having thus described my invention, and the mode of its operation, I do not claim the mechanism used for the mere purpose of carding the cotton or other similar fibrous material, but what I do claim as new, and desire to secure by Letters Patent, is as follows, that is to say : — I claim in combination with a series of top cards of a carding engine not only a mechanism for raising one or more of such top cards and holding the same upwards, and afterwards depressing the same back into a place, but a mechanism for acting on and cleansing such top card or cards when or while so elevated, not meaning in the above to claim either the mechanism for moving the top card or cards, or that for cleansing it or them in their separate combination with the series of top cards, but to lay claim to both in their joint combination together, and with the series of top cards. " And in combination with the series of top cards and mechanism for raising and cleansing a top card and restoring it to its seat, I claim mechanism for moving the raising and cleansing mechanism in succession from one top card to another, and whether from one top card to the next one, and so throughout the series, or from one of them to the next but one, and so on, or in any other order, not intending by these claims to limit myself to the precise form of the parts herein described and represented, but to vary them as I may think proper while I attain the same ends by means substantially the same." As this self-stripping carding engine, the invention of Mr. George Wellman, of Lowell, in the United States, not only possesses much ingenuity and merit, but has met with a considerable amount of success in America and in this country also, it has been deemed best, in fairness, to give the specification entire, although somewhat lengthy. Moreover, Mr. Wellman's invention has been the basis of many important modifications of that principle by other machinists, and it would be impossible to do him full justice in describing his machine without quoting his own words, and reproducing his own drawings from the " Patent Records." Shortly after the Wellman card was introduced, two other self-strippers appeared at Stalybridge. Both of these were inventions brought out by influential parties, within a few days of each other, and were readv for work about the same time. 122 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. The first was a carding engine which purposed doing away with flats altogether, and substituting a series of small rollers on the top of the main cylinder, set close together, revolving with a very slow motion and stripped by a circular brush. This engine, the invention of Robert Wilkinson, has already been illustrated fvide page 99). The next was Bayley and Quarmby's patent self-stripping card. This patent bore date the 11th October, 1855, and was sealed the 8th April, 1856, just seven days later Fig. 102. — Bayley and Quaimby s i'utunt. than Wilkinson's. It was a very ingenious contrivance, as will be seen from Fi'ff. 102 above, and easily understood from their Specification given in abridged form : — "Fig. 102 shows side elevation of an ordinary finisher card, in which a' are brackets secured to the side frame on each side of the engine, to carry the pulleys required to support the endless chains carrying the stripper card or cards and the mechanism for stripping it. These brackets are marked a', and the pulleys h to are those which support and guide the endless chains i. Motion is given to the endless chains by toothed wheels c' on the ends of one of the feed rollers (c) which gear with wheels (c^) on the axis of the pulley h. The endless chains (i) are formed by jointed links of well-known construction ; those shown in the drawings are of the kind which form teeth on one side, which enter between teeth formed in suj^porting guide pulleys (h to h'), and by this means motion is given to the chains so that the stripper card or cards (k) carried by them is kept square. Those portions of the endless chains passing under the flats, rest and slide upon the bends (e'); this is best seen in Figs. 2 and 3, the first being a side sectional flipvat.irin showing part of the bend (e^) and cylinder (d'), chain (i) and stripper cards (k). THE CARDING ENGINE. BAYLEY AND QUARMBY's FATENT. 123 " It will be seen that the chain (i) (which is the same on each side of the engine) passes between the pins (e'^), holding the flats (e) and the card cylinder (d') over the upper surface and near the edge of the bend (e'), being kept in its place by a number of guides screwed on the bends, one of which is shown (marked e") in Fig. 103 and Fig. 104. Fig. 103, Fig. 104. " The stripper card or cards (k) are secured to a metallic plate or plates (k'), and the ends of those plates are jointed to parts which each form one of the links in the endless chains Ci). In the drawings it will be seen that two stripper cards (k) are used, each of them secured to separate plates The inclines which lift and slide the flats up their pins are formed on the parts I, to which the first stripper card plate (i-^) is jointed ; these inclines keep the flat up until the stripper card has got a little under it, and then allow it to drop by its own weight on the stripper card, and when both the first and tecond stripper cards have acted on the flat small inclines (/fc^j, formed on the second plate (k'), again slightly lift the flat till the stripper card is out of the way, and then allow it to slide down its pins (e^) into its carding position. . , . .In Fig. 103 it will be seen that the stripper cards are shown as acting upon two flats, and that the inclines are sliding a third flat up its pins The card roller ( m ), for doffing or stripping the stripper card or cards (k) is fixed in bearings supported from the brackets ('a 'j, carrying the pulleys ( and h'); and it has revolving motion imparted to it in the dii-ection pointed by the arrow by an endless band (m^) which passes round a pulley ( m'^) on its own axis, and one ( m") on the axis of the dofier cylinder (f) The card roller is dofi"ed by a dofier comb n, fixed to arms from a shaft fw'j supported in bearings secured to the frame which carries the card roller, and this shaft (n^) has oscillating movements given to it by a connecting rod C^^^ jointed with an arm (n') on its end, and a crank pulley made to revolve on a stud fixed in the bend It will now be seen that when motion is given to the endless chains (i^) in the direction pointed by the arrows, the stripper card or cards will pass from the front of the engine, and the inclines attached to the chains will slide the flats up their pins in succession and allow the stripper card to act on the underside of the flats and strip them, and then as the chains progress will allow the flats to drop in their places by their own weight in succession, till the whole of them are stripped." This engine appeared at first sight to be just the thing required for altering old cards, at a small expense, to self-stripping ; and, besides this, it was alleged to have many other advantages. After a fair and spirited contest conducted by the patrons of the Wilkinson card, in two separate mills, it was eventually abandoned in favour of the Leigh. The card produced at Messrs. Bayleys' mill did not work well in practice ; and Mr. Bayley, who was an intelligent and extensive manufacturer, had too much good sense to push it into public use after he became convinced of its defects. After this another impulse was given to the Leigh card ; the Wellman card also maintaining its ground, some spinners preferring the one, some the other, but both were extensively adopted with satisfactory results.* * The manager of a new mill in Bolton, in reply to special inquiries as to the advantages, saving of wages, &c., of the Leigh cards, stated that " for the manipulation of 208 carding engines in that mill, only £8 was paid weekly in 324 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SriNNINO The little carding engine, Fig. 105, has worked very satisfactorily. About nineteen years ago 80 cards in a fine-spinning mill were altered in this simple manner to self- stripping, and have run so long without breakage or mishap of any kind. The wire on some of the flats seems very little worse for the nineteen years' wear, and they are very handy to strip out. The front portion of the flats, together with the strip box, comb, and circular brush, are carried by one end of the compound lever A, a similar lever Fig. 105. — Finisher Card alters 1 to Leigh's Self -stripper. being placed on the other side of the card. These levers are keyed to the middle shaft D, which stretches across the engine, and are also connected together at B by wages, all hands told, appertaining to the cards. In another mill belonging to the same firm Avere 120 carding engines doing exactly the same kind of work, and of the same size, but not self-stripping, though as good cards as any of the ordinary make ; for these latter 120 cards £18 was paid in weekly wages. Besides this the self-stripping cards did seven per cent more work per card, and the quality was so much superior that a better price could always be obtained for the yarn made from them than could be got for that made by the other." As this statement showed a saving of about £1,200 per annum, in one room, in wages alone, the proprietor of the mill was some time afterwards questioned as to its truth, and he confirmed it, adding that it was not only the strippers' wages which were saved, but, to a large extent, those of the grinders and card-setters also. THE NEWHALL FACTORY. 125 a solid cast-iron shaft about three inches diameter, which acts as a balance \veight to the flats. When raised for stripping out the main cylinder, the lever is placed in the position shown by the dotted lines ; the weight B, having then the preponderance, holds them up till pulled down again. THE NEWHALL FACTORY. This factory, the establishment of Messrs. John Robertson and Co. (as shown in Plate XVII.), is situate at Bridgeton, Glasgow, and the following description of it is abridged from the Mining Journal : — •'The Newhall Factory, as it now stands, covers about 10 acres. It contains 150,000 spindlea and 3,200 power looms. Not less than 3,000 hands are employed, the great majority being women. Motive-power is supplied to the machinery by four pairs of engines, the largest being 800 indicated horse-power, 48 inches diameter of cylinder, and 6 feet stroke. These engines work up to a pressure of 401bs. They were built about 12 years ago by the well-known firm of Messrs. Musgrave and Son, of Bolton. The monster fly-wheel weighs 40 tons, and the other parts are in the same proportion. There are two other pairs of engines, the one horizontal and the other beam, driving off the same shaft, and of 400 indicated horse-power. They are fitted with Corlis valves, an American invention, which is coming into pretty general use in Scotland, and with the action of which many of our readers will be familiar. Jn regulating the speed of the engine with the throatle-valve, a difficulty has long been felt in obtaining the fullest expansion of the steam, the valve being placed so far from the cylinder ; but the Corlis valve, which resembles a large stop-cock, is shut by means of strong springs, and effectually prevents the wire drawing of the steam. It is now some six months since the Corlis valve was attached to these engines. The third pair of engines are of 800 horse-power indicated, and con- structed on M'Naught's principle. They have a 40-inch and 32-inch cylinder each, 6ft. stroke, and work at 40 strokes per minute, with a pressure of 501bs. To supply the engines with steam there are no less than 20 large boilers on the works. Five of them are Galloway, and the rest are Cornish two-flued boilers, and they consume, when in full work, about 60 tons of coal per day. " Although the Newhall Factory is altogether on a colossal scale, its most distinguishing feature is the weaving sheds, three in number, the largest of which covers 54,450 square feet of ground, or nearly an acre and a half. In this single department there are between 800 and 000 operatives, and from 1,400 to 1,500 looms. It is constructed with the most punctilious regard to due ventilation and light. The roof is in six spacious bays, running from east to west, and the light, which is reflected through the southern half of the bay, is so arranged that the sun can never affect the optics of the workers. Each division of the roof is supported on a series of light, graceful, iron pillars, and the <0! i^c 70 se so toe no /id /30 74C 7j<7 fest. 3 i I. .-,....] I , . J i___J ^, I L— J L-:i J 1..1--.J I — -J Third Story Cai Plat t., XV! i VATI 0 N -'(IK' -if^Mlf I "If ti L m, Mi- Mi.- M M fi it M M £ 1 ^ -pp -f?pi m w I m El mMi Ei 11 M .m .m .-^i m -pTl wf ^wf ri K^l s F1 Fl^i C £ H fi IL S ~ m m Wf w -m m m Wf p m/'^ m m m -^i ^ -w w m m m 'Wi apl Mas eL:M El-M M m M-M M\ iipf ''45i: :m fg'j :p-ii :m: :m :m m ifr^ii 7m .-^ |i ;nl Mm M IL: S S M. M M li- M ;rii L^i r,J FT in^ iFrji ri m Tf r FTl ^ ^ fT n ^ ^ ri ri n rl S i3 rl r rl r □ ^»rcake^r QcrcBir/ Bti^mes -ir0fi, Jimii'm/ &£ui l)(ikverie.s . Scale i^OJ^eet =13tchy. r r ri Xei'cifui / III' "f L Drawing Room 1^ El. -Ml O" D? HOIST Z?" £>? J CA LLOWAV, tITH: M«HeHt»TtH. CONNECTING CARDING ENGINES TOGETHER. 127 and proved an admirable remedy for preventing the lapping. Nothing more could be desired, all now worked satisfactorily, and the rest of the cards were altered to this principle at once, which saved a large number of cotton cans, and the labour of carrying them about, &c., showing on the whole a decided advantage. This having been accomplished thirty six years ago, wonder will naturally be excited why it has not been generally adopted ? The reason is believed to be this, viz., as the invention was never patented, for some time it was worked quietly, until a machine maker of the name of Hulme, from Stockport (whose men were putting up two throstle frames to fill a spare corner), came over, and seeing these cards working together he took a sketch of them, and applied the same principle to drawing frames as well as connecting cards, upon which he put his own name, and it acquired the designation of " Hulme's Railway." This had a great success for some time, and helped Mr. Hulme in getting orders for other machinery (as he subsequently told the author). Unfortunately, however, when Mr. Hulme took his sketch he did not notice either the large steel rollers or the extra top roller in front, and although in his application so many engines were not connected together as in the Macclesfield mill, neither had any single box in his drawing frames to go through as much as 4,000 lbs, of cotton per week, still they had not worked very long before they began to get out of favour through occasional heating and lapping, which at length raised a prejudice against the whole system, and it was rejected. Through this unfortunate introduction of the connection of cards, as above described, and the invention of the coiler, a good thing has been lost sight of in this country, but not so in America, where it is almost in general use. A practical example of this is shown on the Cardroom Plan of one of the " Harmony Mills," situate at Cohoes, New York.— Vide Plate XVIII. AMERICAN COTTON FACTORY. The example given in Plate XVIII. of an American Cotton Factory, is one of three mills belonging to Messrs. Garner and Co., all about the same size in machinery capacity ; but built in different styles of architecture, one of them being only two stories high. They each contain about 70,000 spindles, with about 1,500 looms, and are driven by turbines and belting as shown. Harmony Mill, No. 3, has the singular designation of the "Mastodon Mill," from a very interesting circumstance, viz. : whilst digging the foundations a bed of soft peat was encountered at one end which had to be excavated to a considerable depth before a solid foundation could be obtained. In doing this a complete skeleton of the huge extinct animal the Mastodon was found, which had, in all probability, lain there for thousands of years, being preserved by the pyrol igneous acid of the peat. 128 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. The above mill contains, besides the usual opening and scutching machines, 204 carding engines, viz., 96 breakers and 108 finishers. Breakers. — There are 16 breaker cards in each row. Two rows come together at the breaker lap head, making a lap about 19 inches wide, with 32 ends. Two of these being put behind each finisher card make laps of the proper width (64 ends), which come off alternately. Finishers. — There are 12 rows of finishers, 9 in each row. Every row has its drawing head where the nine slivers come together, and pass through rollers having a suitable draft with an " evener" to regulate the thickness, if a card happens to be stopped for grinding or stripping out. The evener is an admirable contrivance, which varies the speed of the front roller on the drawing box, according to the thickness or weight of the cotton going through ; thus, if an end happens to be down or the work be coming up too light, the front drawing roller is slowered in proportion, and if heavier it is accelerated accordingly by suitable mechanism. Drawing Frames. — There are four drawing frames in each row across the mill, two heads to each frame, six deliveries each head, making 48 deliveries each row ; on warf> three operations of drawing, weft two operations. The rest of the machinery is as usual, there being 32 jDairs of self-acting mules containing 38,912 spindles, and 190 ring spinning frames containing 30,780 spindles, or 69,692 spindles altogether ; also 1,540 power looms, with the usual accompaniments of winding, warping, dressing, &c. The turbine wheels driving this machinery are three in number, 98 inches diameter and 10 inches deep, under 25 feet waterfall, giving a power of 350 horses to each wheel, or 1,050 horse power in the aggregate. The Harmony Mills have been erected and set to work under the intelligent management of Mr. Robert Johnston and his son, Mr. D. J. Johnston, of the firm of Messrs. Garner and Co., who run altogether about 300,000 spindles and about 6,000 power looms, in Cohoes and elsewhere. In reply to the author's inquiry as to the duration of the large belts and the power they drive in the Mastodon Mill, Mr. D. J. Johnston writes — " Our new mill is " driven by bands, or as we say belts. The power is taken from the jack shaft from " pulleys 12ft. diameter, 2ft. 6in. face, and communicated direct to main lines in each " room by belts 24in. wide, double leather. These run 3,780 feet per minute, and are " six in number, driving from highest to lowest power 175 horse each ; required " tightening three or four times in the first three months, and never since. With " proper care will last 20 years ; with your English leather would last much longer. " The Boyden Turbine, described in the work sent you, is the best wheel made when " constructed with proper care, and has given effective power of upwards of 90 per cent ; " the general and safe estimate for them is 75 per cent. They are building a wheel " near Lowell, Massachusetts, that has given good results and promises well ; it is a " combination of the Fourneyron and Jonval Turbines." CONNECTING CARDING ENGINES TOGETHER. 129 The travelling flat card, originated by Smith, and altered by Leigh, may be said to have remained stationary for thirteen years ; the last improvement recorded being a patent obtained by Leigh in 1857, which was merely an improvement in the shape and arrangement of the flats and other details, and will be understood as follows : — rig. 106. Fig. 99 (page 117) represents a flat of the old construction ; and Fig. 106 represents a flat of the new construction. In Fig. 99 the surface from which the flats are ground will be seen at D, in the hollow between the back rib and the notch into which the set screw B takes. When the flats are passing over the top side of the card in an inverted position, the surface D slides over a plate fixed immediately under the grinding roller pedestals, and the flats are supported by this plate when the grinding roller comes down upon them. It is evident that unless the surface D be perfectly clean wlien the grinding roller is applied, those flats which had dust and dirt caked upon the surface would be raised up a little by it, and they would be more ground than the others, and thus rendered irregular. In practice this was found to be the case; for the grinding surface being thrown so far back from the end of the flat, it was exposed to dust and fluke, which in time got caked hard upon it and produced the mischief described. In the new flat. Fig. 106, the rib E is joined up to the notch F, which greatly strengthens the flat, and prevents its springing when the grinding roller comes upon it ; and the surface D is moved to the end of the flat opposite the carding surface C, which slides on the flexible bend. In this position it has two important advantages : the first of which is that it can be adjusted with greater nicety to the carding surface ; and the next, that it is outside the engine, where it can be seen and wiped down every time the engine is cleaned, whereas before it could scarcely be seen, and was so difii- cult to get at as to make it practically impossible to keep it clean, even by those who understood the importance of so doing ; therefore in a room full of cards it was sure to get neglected. R 130 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. Fig. 107 shows the plan of couiDling the flats together according to the latest improvements, with the grinding surfaces D D outside the chain at the ends of the Fig. 107. flats ; and Fig. 108 shows an end view and part section as they appear when at work, in which A is the bushed connecting chain, B the set screw which takes into the flats ; D D the surfaces from which they are ground, and C the carding surfaces that rest on and slide over the flexible bend which sets them and holds them bevel to their work. The segment of main cylinder and flats are shown full size in these flgures. Fig. 108. Fig. 109 shows perspective view of a carding engine made with the old kind of flat (after the bushed chain was introduced), in which / is the plate that supports the flats for grinding. Fig. 109.— Leigh's Self -Stripping Card (Third Patent). Scale J iucli = 1 foot. THE CARDING ENGINE: WELLMAN's SELF-STRIPPING CARD. 131 Fig. 110 shows a section of a finisher card with all flats ; and Figs. Ill and 112 exhibit right and left hand view of a card according to the patent of 1857, above mentioned, in which the flats slide over an arched plate in returning to their work, after being stripped by the comb g. The brush h may either be worked constantly or only put on occasionally. When worked constantly it has not only a tendency to keep the flats sharp, but in time wears the wire to a needle point, so that very little grinding is necessary. It should also be remembered that in this principle of carding, there are nearly three times as many flats as those in action ; therefore they do not in any case want grinding oftener than once in six months, and then only very lightly. Where circular brushes are used to each card, revolving slowly, at a speed of about 20 or 30 revolu- tions a minute, and set about one-sixteenth of an inch in the wire, the tops have been run two years without grinding. The Wellman card, before alluded to, has been much improved since its first introduction into this country from America. The makers who first took it up, Messrs. Dobson & Barlow, of Bolton, made considerable improvements in it, particularly in Fig. 113.— Portrait of George Wellman. 132 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. adapting it to a plan of setting flats with one screw at eacli end that had been recently patented by Mr. Thomas Arrowsmith, of Bolton, and which they materially improved upon before using it for the Wellman self- stripper, to which it was admirably adapted. Since then the same firm have brought out some further patented improvements upon Wellman's self-stripping flat card, called treble stripping, by which, they say, " the flats, through a simple and etfective arrangement, are stripped at various speeds, proportionately to the requirements of the cotton." Fig. 114, opposite, shows a breaker or union card made as above described, with latest improvements ; and Fig. 115 shows a finisher card with all flats, by the same makers. Several other patents have been taken out in this country for improvements, or alleged improvements, upon the Wellman principle of cardmg, the main features of which have been to enable the flats to be ground or sharpened on the engine whilst at work. Although the Leigh card had, like almost every other machine, its objec- tionable points, still it could be worked with less labour than the Wellman from the fact of the travelling flats being ground in their places, and there being greater facility for stripping out the cylinder, which could be done by turning up a cover without removing anything from the engine. As this was not so convenient in the Wellman card, the improvements above alluded to removed one of those defects by enabling the flats to be ground in their places,* as will be seen on referring to Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XX., which show a right and left-hand elevation of a carding engine just brought out by Messrs. Curtis, Parr, & Madeley, which is of the "Union class," and described by them as follows : — " Two oscillatinj arms (one upon each side of the carding engine) are swung on the bosses of the main cylinder l^edestals, and are connected by a cross shaft, on each end of which is keyed a chain wheel, over which are carried the lifting chains, into which they gear. Upon the cross shaft is keyed a spur wheel, driven by pinion, pulley, and strap, from the cylinder shaft. In each oscillating arm is fixed a maiji slide, with a traverse of about six inches, which has in it a second slide, with a traverse of about five inches and a half ; and also carries a revolving box, turning freely in a boss thereon. This box has on its inside face two guides, between which the Jlat end can slide : and has its top in the form of a rim or arc of a circle, the chord of which forms the same angle with the two guides as the wire on the flat with the flat end. Against the side of the oscillating arm, and parallel with the main slide, is fixed a planed bracket, having at its lower end a small bowl ; and so that when the box shall have made about one-fourth of a revolution or thereabouts (according to the bevel required in the flat), the aforesaid chord and the planed surface of the bracket shall form a right line. On the inside of the second slide is a stud with oscillating lever, to the upper end of which is fixed a second stud, upon which turns the lifter, the said stud passing between the legs of the revolving box, and carrying on its other extremity a bowl, capable of sliding between a pair of flanges on the inside of the main slide. This lifter is made so as to enclose the flat end on the bottom, end, and top, to which latter is attached a spring, which presses the flat on to the bend, and also steadies it during stripping, -fjui>j'm© ^AJiiDm© ij^](QmiE WITH 16 IRON FLATS. AS MADE BY JOHN HETHERINGTON & SONS. Scale of Feet. I ' I i M I I , , : i I , I I L , 72 1 b 3 o ' J ^ Feet. THE CAKDIXG ENGINE : FURTHER IMPEOVFMENTS. 133 screws ; and is made to describe an arc of about one-third of a circle by a pinion on the cross shaft gearing into a spur wheel working as an eccentric, a connecting rod oscillating on a tappet upon the stripper shaft. Beneath the stripper, and bolted to the two oscillating arms, is fixed the stripping hoard, and both are clothed with card wire, — the former with the points down, and the latter with the points back. "The flats are stripped alternately, and the mechanism works in the following manner: The lifting chains, revolving together by the revolutions of the cross shaft, bring the bowls which they carry against the under sides of the X brackets, which move simultaneously ; the lifters attached thereto raise the flat, the ends of which enter the guides upon the revolving boxes, and the bowls on the ends of the studs carrying the lifters traverse the straight portion of the guides on the main slides until they have attained a height of about two and half inches, and the flat is raised clear of the others. The said bowls here arriving at the curves in the guides, and the springs on the lifters pressing against the projections on the faces of the revolving boxes, they commence to revolve, and continue so doing until the second sUdes arrive at the top of their slots in the main slides. During this operation the latter have been prevented from rising by their box rims being in contact with the small bowls on the planed brackets until the flat is in a stripping position, when the flange or rim suddenly ends ; and all obstacles to the rise of the main slides being removed, the lifting chains carry all up together past the stripper (which is timed so as to meet the flat during its ascent), and the brush or grinding roller (whichever may be in use), and the chords on the boxes and the planed brackets on the arms are face to face, so as to prevent any vibration of the flat during ascent or descent. The stripper during the ascent of the flat has moved out of the way, and is delivering its strippings on to the stripping board, the front of which it clears a second time before the flat next in order is raised. The grinding roller is carried in two brackets above the stripper, and is driven from the cylinder shaft. The intermittent traversing motion is commenced by the action of the bowl on the chain, upon a finger on the toothed chain wheel, the corner of the fiat surface thereon falling into a hollow in the chain immediately under the said bowl ; and is continued by the action of the chain upon the teeth, when a corresponding hollow higher up the chain allows the revolution to be completed, the pinion having travelled over a space on the rack corresponding to two flats. The important advantages secured in this carding engine may be stated as follows : — " 1. The flats are stripped by self-acting mechanism, and with the least possible amount of wear and tear to the wire, necessitating little more than half the grinding usual in carding engines having stationary flats, and ensuring a corresponding saving in card wire ; in addition to which the flats are stripped so clean as to present the appearance of having been continually brushed out. " 2. The flats are ground without removal from the engine, and by self-acting mechanism, one grinding roller serving for about thirty carding engines. It can be placed in position or removed therefrom with the greatest facility, by screwing or unscrewing a single set screw, and may be transferred from one engine to another, without any readjusting to the surface of the flats (except such as is necessitated by a gradual wearing of the wire). It will be evident that the labour of carrying the whole of the flats in a mill to and from the grinding room to be ground, say once every week or ten days, is saved, and the damage to which the flats and card wire are thereby subjected is wholly avoided ; in addition to which no opportunity occurs for carelessness and neglect in the grinding of the flats. " 3. Each flat is turned up when being stripped, so that the spinner can see at a glance the state of the wire upon the flat, and the completeness of the stripping. When the carding engine is stripping at the rate of one flat per minute, the fiat is absent from the bend about ten seconds, and when replaced is lowered gently, and pressed closely on to its resting place before it is left. " 4 Card wire of any width, and of varying degrees of fineness, may be used for the flats of this engine, and more working flats are obtained than upon any self stripping card, under the same conditions at present in use. " 5. The various motions by which these results are obtained are slow and steady, the mechanism simple and so arranged as to render a break-down almost, if not quite, impossible." Another self-stripping card, which partakes more of the Buchanan than the Wellman, is made by Messrs. John Hetherington & Sons. The latest improvements, shown in Plate XXI., are thus described by Messrs. Hetherington : — " This self-stripping card diflers from the other systems now in use, inasmuch as the flats are placed upon pivots, and the bearings in the bend, in which these pivots work, are fixed concentric with the main cylinder ; and the adjustment takes place by the pivot being bolted to a slide on the ends of each flat, and regulated in position by a screw, as the wire wears down by grinding. " The arrangements of the pivots and bearings — true with the main cylinder and equi-distant from it — necessitates that (as the wire on each individual flat has to be accurately s»t to the wire on the main cylinder and as all the bearings 134 SCIENCE OP MODEEN COTTON SPINNING. are concentric) the points of the wire on each flat in the card will, when it is turned up, form as true a circle for the stripper to pass over and clean as these points did to the main cylinder when working ; and no variation in the length of the wire on the flat will (as the adjustment takes place between the point and the point of the wire) affect the truth of this circle. " A screw on the top of bend is arranged to set the flat to the desired heel, and after this is once set the ordinary adjustment of the flat to the wire on the cylinder will not afiect this heel. A similar screw, when the flat is turned up, allows the point of the wire to be levelled for stripping or grinding. When either of these screws is once set it need not again be disturbed. "The flats do not fall when they are turned back into their working position ; a small projection from a tooth of the segment wheel, which turns the flat back into its place, is allowed to come into contact with an inclined plane as the lever passes. This incline places the flat quite down before it is out of contact, so that it cannot fall or come down too quickly. "The stripping-card only passes over the wire in one direction, and the wire on the flat has not to clean the stripping-card. The wire on the flat is thus improved by the process of stripping. "When the flat is turned over the carder is enabled to see at once if the stripping is properly performed, and to assure himself that the flats are truly set to the main cylinder, and perform their work in an efiicient manner. " The stripping motion can be arranged that the back flats may be stripped in any desired proportion, say two, three, or four times, for the front flats once, so that the stripping can be exactly regulated to what is required, or what would be done by hand stripping. " Each flat can be lifted, turned over, stripped, and re-turned to its working position in about six seconds. The rapidity with which the stripping is performed does not allow time for the accumulation of fly in the empty space out of which the flat is lifted. " The flats are made of cast-iron, which precludes a possibility of their being afiected by the weather, and although so made are very light. " The strippings are conveniently collected in a box placed over the doSer. A roller stripped by the licker-in or a roller and clearer can be applied to this card without reducing the number of flats, or these flats are combined in any proportion with rollers and clearers. " Motion is given to the main cylinder A in the usual manner by a strap on the pulley A i (Fig 2). All the other motions are then obtained from the cylinder shaft. On the opposite end of cylinder shaft to A ' is the pulley A ^ (Fig. 1 ) which, through the strap and gearing shewn, drives the dofFer B, and it, from its opposite end, through the side shaft C, gives motion to the feed-rollers D, D, and lap-rollers E, E. The side shaft, C, also gives the reciprocating motion to the quadrant H through the gearing, Ci,C2,C3,C'«, and H ' , C * is fast on the side shaft, and, whilst the quadrant moves forward, gears into the bevel wheel -C-*, with pinion on its boss gearing into wheel H' on shaft which passes across the card, and has a corresponding wheel on the opposite end of it, gearing into a similar quadrant H, thus giving a uniform motion to the radial arms H H on each side of the card. " The radial arm is changed from the backward to the forward movement, and vice versd, by an exactly similar motion to that used in the slubbing, intermediate, and roving frames, and consists generally in changing the bevel wheel G* into gear with the bevels and alternately. The lever (Fig. 2) moves on the centre H^, and has an upward arm carrying the bevel C* with spur pinion on its boss. Two plates, G, Gi are bolted on the quadrant H. The catch I rests on the projection on lever H^. The plate G' lifts the lever G^ which slackens the chain between /i' and G* and (as the lever H sis firmly held by the catch I pressing on at h) causing the two springs J and Ji to be held in tension until released by the arm G^ lifting the catch I oSh, and allowing the lever Hs to swing on its centre 112, thus changing the bevel C*, on its upper arm, from to C^, and thereby altering the direction of the carrier H ' together with that of the quadrant H. " The carding flats F, F, F, are stripped by the forward movement of the stripping-card, which is carried between the radial arms on each side of the card. "The carding flat is previously turned over wire outwards in the following manner. On the ratchet wheel As (Fig. 1) are arranged the inclines a, a, a which raise the pall b and the incline 6^ on radial arm H. As the quadrant moves forward the incline b^ comes in contact with the finger F' on the carding flat, which it causes to revolve on its axis and to pass up and down the double incline b^, thereby turning the flat over, which, after being cleaned by the stripping-card F^, is gently lowered into its place by the toothed segment F^. " The radial arm having traversed over the flats, from the back to the front, the reversing motion is not allowed to make its full change until the small worm wheel has made a revolution, so that by this means the stripping card may be prevented working continuously if desired. " The flats nearest the feed end require cleaning oftenest, as in hand stripping ; this is accomplished by the fixing / changing the plane of the lifting pall b. The inclines a, a, a, on the ratchet As, are of different widths, and the CARD CLOTHING. 135 pall b usually travels in the outside plane of the broad inclines. It will be seen that the fixing /acting against the pall b by the lever b ' throws into the plane of the narrow inclines, causing the lifting and stripping of the flats in the same radial limit as the fixing/ to be twice (or more) as often as the others. The ratchet wheel As, and with it the incUnes a, a, a, is moved one tooth forwards every time the quadrant H returns by a stud 0 lifting the catch 0 ' , the lever 0 ^ preventing it slipping back. " Provision is made for any accident that may happen to the gearing by the Patent Self-acting Stop-motion N, which, if the wheels get choked, throws the bevel wheel C i on the side shaft C out of gear with the wheel on the end of dofier, instantly stopping the whole of the stripping motion, the feed rollers D, D, and the lap rollers E, E. " The general description of the working of the card is as follows : — The lap from the scutcher is placed on the lap rollers E E, which are driven from the feed rollers D D, through which the cotton passes. These feed rollers are driven from the doffer B by the side shaft C, thus proportioning the amount of feed to the amount of delivery. From the feed rollers the cotton is taken by the licker-in D i and carried forwards by the main cylinder A to the carding flats F, F, F, which thoroughly card the fibre, retaining the short cotton, seed, and dirt, and allowing the carded cotton to travel forwards to the dofier B, whence it is stripped by the eccentric comb K, and, passing through the callender rollers L L, is deposited in the usual way in the form of a sliver in the can M." It must not be understood as a recommendation, where the Wellman or other cards are described in the makers' own language, or any particular examiDle shown of this or that machinist's build ; for many respectable houses build self-stripping cards of the Wellman or Buchanan character now the original patent is out, the whole of which it would be simply tiresome to illustrate and describe. It is hoped that full justice has been done both to the Buchanan and the Wellman principles of stripping in the examples given, including the improvements of Messrs. Dobson & Barlow, William Higgins & Sons, Hetherington, and others. If no more be done than what at present exists, it is sufficient to show that the self-stripping of top cards or flats is already un fait accompli. Whether this or that mode of doing it is best is of little consequence : Time, which tries all things, will eventually settle the question ; but as self-stripping is only yet in its infancy, it is probable that, for some time to come, several different kinds will continue to be made. CARD CLOTHINa. Formerly cards were set by hand in a leather ground, by children and women, until a machine was invented to do the work. The first attempt on record to set cards by machinery was by Kay, of Bury ; but the successful machine was of American origin, and when first introduced into this country the patent was purchased by Mr. Dyer, of Manchester, and subsequently materially improved by Mr. James Walton. There is an old saying that he showed his wit who first invented clocks ; to which might be added, he also showed his wit who first invented the card making machine. This interesting machine is a beautiful and most ingenious contrivance, for which we are indebted to our Transatlantic cousins. Its importance and utility have proved quite equal to the admirable mechanism displayed in its construction. Prejudice, which is the constant companion of those persons to whom nature has not given 136 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. quick perceptions, battled with it for a long time, but has been discomfited, and finally vanquished, leaving triumphant, like truth, this small and elegant machine. In making this observation, it must not be understood as treating with any con- tempt people given to prejudice and unbelief. They have a salutary efi'ect in our social system ; checking undue enthusiasm, detecting humbug, and holding down the volatile and over-sanguine, they blend society in one harmonious whole, working- together for good ; developing sterling merit, they leave it standing out in bold relief, more clear and refined from the rasping it has undergone at their hands, of which this is a good example. The card making machine has not only been very useful in saving a most monotonous kind of labour, but it has brought into extensive use various other materials for ground work to substitute leather, that together with the saving in labour, has lowered the price of cards very materially. One of the best of these substitutes was Walton's patent material, which was cloth and indiarubber combined, the latter being all on the top side. After that came William Horsfall's patent, which was a mixture of woollen and cotton cloth, then vulcanised indiarubber and cotton cloth. Of all these materials, Walton's natural indiarubber has perhaps answered the best, and next to it Horsfall's material, and then Macintosh cloth cards. Leather is now almost entirely gone out of use for this purpose, except in some hot countries where there is still a lingering prejudice in its favour, for which it is believed no substantial reason can be shown. Both Walton's natural rubber and Horsfall's material are now used by all cardmakers, as the patents have long ago expired. Although indiarubber cloth and other substitutes had a degree of flexibility and evenness, which made it evident at a glance that those materials would certainly supersede leather, yet it has taken more than a quarter of a century to bring them fairly into use, so strong is prejudice against innovation. The author recollects being much pleased with the first indiarubber cards he tried, about 35 years ago, and after working them a few years very satisfactorily, asked an old experienced spinner what I he thought about the new substitutes for leather ? He at once denounced them all in the most unqualified terms, adding that there was nothing like leather for cards. As he spoke so decidedly, the author asked him in what particular manner he had found them to fail, as it was so contrary to his own experience. The reply was — Oh, I don't know, I have not tried any of them, nor will I ever try them, for I am sure they won't answer !" Verily, the old adage about leather will never die as long as that spinner lives. HOW TO COUNT CARDS — FEED ROLLERS. 1S7 HOW TO COUNT CARDS. In ordering cards it is necessary to name the numbers or counts required ; for instance, No. lOO's sheets, llO's or 120's fillet, &c. Now what is meant by lOO's is really 25 staples or teeth to the inch one way and 10 staples the other way, or 100 staples in four inches (the usual width of a sheet), being 250 teeth to each square inch. The American system of counting cards is difi'erent from the English, as they count by the wire gauge as well as by the numbers. Thus — Nos. 60's, 70's, 80's, 90's, lOO's, llO's, are, in American numbers, „ 28's, 30's, 31's, 32's, 33's, 34's, wire. The Cut means the length of wire which forms two points or teeth when stretched out, generally about lin. maximum cut for No. lOO's cards, from which they may go down to T I, -|, or less. For lapping rollers of very small diameter cards are sometimes used as short as fin. in the cut, and much more keened than is customary for large rollers or doffer fillet, it being clearly indicated that the smaller the diameter of the roller the shorter the cut, the finer the counts, and the more ought to be the keening or bend, to make the card look natural and work properly. (See Fig. 74, Page 91.) The Crown is the head of the staple between the points. It may be Ain., jin., more or less, as indicated by the fineness or coarseness of the numbers ; the object being to make all the points of an uniform distance on the face of the card, according to the counts. The difference between a ribbed and twilled fillet is in the mode of setting the wire. Fig. 27 (Plate XXII.) shows the back of a ribbed fillet, and Fig. 24 shows the back of a twilled fillet, which is supposed by some spinners to be better set for work ; but the twilled fillet always shows a spiral groove when wrapped round a cylinder, dofifer, or roller where the laps join, whilst the ribbed fillet joins up so close that the surface of the card is uniform throughout. For main cylinders when clothed with sheets they are generally set plain, as in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXIII., and vvhen clothed with fillets either twill or rib setting seems on the whole the best ; but for doffers or rollers ribbed fillet is undoubtedly the best, and looks the neatest. FEED ROLLERS. Like other things appertaining to carding engines, there is much difference of opinion about Feed Rollers. Formerly only two kinds were used, viz., plain fluted rollers, or plain shafts covered with coarse narrow fillet of needle or diamond-pointed wire. The latter was infinitely the better in principle ; but from want of judgment in the bend of thp wire, proper support of the feed rollers, bad clothing or improper s 138 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. setting, the rollers were apt to lap and the wire get crushed down at the ends and spoiled. When the fluted rollers were made sufficiently small in diameter to admit of the licker-in taking hold of the staple of the cotton they were apt to spring, if a lump or thick place in the feed came through, and allowed the cotton to be snatched in lumps or flakes, which spoiled the carding, and if made large enough in diameter to prevent this, the nip of the feed rollers was so far from the bite of the licker-in that the staple could not be held for the latter to have a combing action upon it ; therefore it was delivered in little lumps to the licker-in, and by the latter carried on in that state to the main cylinder, which is prejudicial to good carding. It will thus be seen that the proper action of the feed rollers and licker-in is very important, and that neither of the above-named plans of feeding is exactly what is wanted even for long stapled cotton, and totally unsuited for the shorter kinds. Where fluted rollers are used it is better to have a coarse deep flute than a fine flute, which not only holds better, but by one roller working deep in gear with the other the eff'ect as regards the nip is as though the rollers were smaller in diameter. (See Figs. 116 and 117.) Fig. 116 (half size). Fig. 117 (half size). A new light was thrown upon this subject about thirl y-three years ago by a simple invention, patented by Mr. Joseph Bennett, a spinner in Glossop, which will be seen in Fig. 118, represented in the next page. By means of a dished plate one roller is dispensed with, and the bite of the licker-in can come as close as may be desired to the nip of the feed roller. An ordinary fluted feed roller is very often used {Fig. 118) in connection with this shell, which is not good, because if set too close the cotton is apt to get wedged betwixt the rigid iron plate and the cards on the taker-in, when it gets forced into the wire of the latter, so that the main cylinder dees not clear it well, and, after working some FIG. I FIG. 2. f Zickei- ^. Atffh W^e set m- Zea&ier Macks ll |lj G.3. F FIG. 15. FIG. 13. FIG. 14. '1 1 ''\- FIG.4. V-^- ' -W- l - I' — ! ^ 1 1^-^- FIG.5. FIG. 6. J J J J J FIG. 7 Fl G.8 J.icTcef- Zt. An^Te Wire Set trbZ_.eather\BacL'< SV? 66 ^ze. FIG. 9. ll j J J j-JJ-j J : j 1 ^ J J J . d J J ii i J J j j 'i ; 1 1 j J i J J .1 ll u J J j J dmmmmmummmmmmmm FIG. 20. Li^Jcer hi Ztat Wire FIG.IO. F! G.2I, Fl G il Fl G.I2, u L'u U u J J J J . ■Ill i'. U L _J J J J Galloway lith mahchcstcr PLATE, XXIII © ^ [r^ ® @ [L © ^ I>a [I ffU ' 0 FOR CARDING ENGINES . FULL SIZE . Fl G : I. Fl 0: 2. FEED ROLLERS: BENNETT'S AND TATHAM'S IMPROVEMENT. 139 time, it gets choked to an extent which causes nepping. The choking of cards is, above all things, to be avoided ; for no engine can work well if either the cylinder or licker-in carries too much cotton. In consequence of this fault many spinners have abandoned the shell feeder altogether after trying it only with a fluted roller, which they certainly would not have done had they tried it with a card covered roller of suitable bend and form of wire, or with a Calvert roller, because in either of these the cotton can be drawn gradually from between the teeth of the roller, whereby the lumps are separated instead of being pushed in all at once, and held with a firm grip up to the point of the shell, as is the case with the fluted feed roller. An improvement has been made upon this kind of feed by Mr. John Tatham, of Rochdale, which is simple, and appears to be in the right direction. It consists in placing the shell on the top side of the feed roller instead of under it, thus, Fig. 119. Fig. 118. -Bennett's Feed Toller (half size). rigr. 119.— Tatham's Improved Feed EoUer. The dished plate or shell is narrowed at the ends to fit into the roller pedestals on which it rests, so that the hollow part just clears the wire flllet when no cotton is going through, acting as a weight to the roller. If the feed comes under too thick it can raise the dish a little vertically, when the cotton gets pressed down into the wire of the feed roller, and no snatching can take place, as there is a degree of elasticity where the licker-in takes hold of it, which is beneficial , the bend of the wire on the roller being in the direction of the motion, the licker-in keeps the roller clear from lapping. Both licker-in and feed roller are shown with the Calvert tooth, which is not indispensable, as they will work to the same advantage with other kinds of clothino-. 140 SCIENCE OP MODERN COTTON SPINNING. CLOTHING or THE LICKER-IN. After passing through the feed rollers, cotton first comes in contact with carding wire at the licker-in. It is then in a tangled and matted state, which naturally suggests a coarse, open wire on the first cylinder, just as a coarse comb would be taken first to open matted hair. It often happens also that bits of wood or other hard substances are found in the cotton which have escaped the scutcher, especially with the lower qualities ; these impurities would spoil ordinary cards, therefore it is a matter of necessity to have a very coarse card on the licker-in, or a substitute for such. An excellent substitute for licker-in cards was invented by Mr. Calvert, an American, about 20 years ago, which consisted in chasing a groove about Tein. deep and jin. or less apart, into which was wound and staked edgeways a narrow ribbon of steel serrated on the edge like a saw. This worked very well and kept clear, but had the disadvantage of being costly and difficult to repair. By a subsequent invention the steel ribbon was made in the form illustrated, with the top edge serrated (see Figs. 120 and 121), and rig. 123. Tig. 124. This plan has now given way to flattened wire of short cut, set as in Figs. 19, 20, 21 (Plate XXII.), which answers very well ; or to short needle-pointed steel wire, as in Figs. 13, 14, 16, 17 (Plate XXII.), which also works remarkably well. In reference to the latter, Mr. Daniel Foxwell states " that he has made thousands of " them, and claims for them the following advantages, viz : — 1st, they never carry " any cotton or make waste, but are always clean ; 2nd, they never want grinding ; " 3rd, they possess great durability, he never having known one to wear out. But " they cannot be used without a grid or under cover." CLOTHING OF ROLLERS — CLOTHING CLEARERS. 141 A similar kind of licker-in clothing is made of angle wire as in Figs. 1 and 2, 4 and 5 (Plate XXII,), which shows two kinds, one being coarse and the other fine. It will be noticed that these have no keen or knee bend, being merely set in strong leather at an angle as shown. This kind of licker-in can hardly be affected by any bit of wood coming in with the cotton, as it would saw it to pieces ; indeed they are almost proof against anything that is likely to appear in the cotton. Figs. 7 and 8, in same plate, is a finer angle wire card, with a longer tooth, bent to an angle or keen which is intended to give it elasticity. Figs. 10, 11 is a sample of needle-pointed wire of long cut with considerable knee bend, and Figs. 16, 17 is one of plain wire, which is ground up and sharpened in the regular way. CLOTHING OF ROLLERS. Fillets about one inch wide are generally used for rollers. Wire as fine as the dofifer fillet, having a shorter cut and more keen, would be best for this purpose, but in consequence of the rollers having to be taken out frequently for stripping the cylinders, and for being ground and brushed out themselves, they are carried about the room, knocked about with rough usage, &c., therefore it becomes necessary to clothe them with coarser wire to stand such treatment, otherwise the ends would be crushed down after a few weeks wear. For covering rollers of about six inches diameter a suitable keen is No. 6, Fig. 23, Plate XXII. CLOTHINO CLEARERS. Some spinners like to clothe their clearers with fine wire of a long cut and very little keen, to act, as they say, like a brush. About as much reason can be shown for this as for the clearers going at a surface speed of 400 feet per minute, which is none at all. The brush theory is altogether a mistake, for the clearer is not set into the roller to brush it out, but only near to it to take the cotton off, and put it on the cylinder again ; therefore straggling wires, standing in an almost vertical position, are very ill adapted for that purpose, being more calculated to produce neps. It is recommended that clearers be covered with the same fillet as the rollers, and that whatever numbers of card be selected up to lOO's, the cut should not exceed -f, and if finer cards than lOO's be put on, let the cut be only {%. It is frequently thought that by having a long cut card it will last longer, as there will be more wire to grind away before it is done. What appears to be, in this case, far-sighted policy, is really the reverse, for roller and clearer cards rarely, if ever, wear out, before they are rendered useless from the wire getting knocked down and abused. 142 SClEiNCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. If they could only be kept in their places, and cleaned by some gentle proces? without removing, much finer wire might be used than is now practicable, with a correspondingly beneficial result. CLOTHING OF CYLINDERS. In the olden time, when cards were set by hand in leather foundation, it was found most convenient to have main cylinders clothed with sheets four inches wide of wire, and about five inches wide altogether, leaving a margin of about half an inch of leather for the tacks on Ocich side, besides a small welt on one margin, to take hold of by the stretching pliers, which was afterwards cut off. This width of sheet became so fixed that cards were counted by the number of teeth in four inches. Now that cards are made by machinery, the wire can be set in cloth and indiarubber, which are excellent substitutes for leather, being both better and cheaper ; better, because india- rubber cloth, when properly made, is more uniform in texture, possesses greater elasticity, is free from soft places, blistering, or piecings. Such being the case, indiarubber cloth fillet, about two inches wide, is now much used in place of sheet cards, whether of leather, plain cloth, or indiarubber-coated cloth. Some spinners prefer to have their main cylinder fillets spaced at intervals of four inches, whilst others prefer it without spaces at all, which is thought on the whole the better plan. When a cylinder is covered with spaced fillet, but more especially with sheets, a much greater current of air is created ; the interstices causing the cylinder to act to that extent like a fan, blowing out dust, fluke, and fibres of cotton, which find their way out wherever there is the slightest aperture. Notwithstanding this, and the loss of about one-tenth of the cylinder carding surface by the spaces, as well as other disadvantages, many spinners are still to be found who have a deep- rooted prejudice in favour of sheets, alleging that they can be stripped out rather better, which is no doubt the case when cylinders are stripped out by hand card, but this is a very pernicious practice, as it damages the cards, and ought to be abandoned in favour of the circular brush with comb. When fillets are put on it is better to tack them only at the ends, as the slack caused by stretching (which will take place by the time they have worked a month or two) will run all to one end, where it may be easily tightened, after which it will run for years, generally till the card is worn out, without giving further trouble, if the fillet be a good one to commence with. If tacking otherwise than at the end is preferred, it should not be done until the card has worked a month or two, otherwise the slack runs up to the tack. The numbers of cards suitable for clothing main cylinders are No. 90, for general purposes ; No. 80, for coarse yarns ; and No. 100, for fine long stapled cottons. DOFFER CLOTHING — DIRT ROLLER FILLET. 143 The bend or "keening" of the wire should vary according to the diameter of the cylinder, thus : — For a cylinder of 36 to 40 inches diameter a suitable bend is 7 (vide Fig 23, Plate XXII.) ; for a cylinder 42 to 50 inches diameter 6 gauge. The proper length of cut is for No._80 90 100_ lj\m. lin. \liiL DOFFER CLOTHING. Doffer fillets should always be at least 20 points finer than the main cylinder cards, thus — If cylinders be No. 80 90 100 Doflfers ought to be No. 100 110 120 Width of crown inches 0145 0-125 0125 Bend or " keen" 7 6 5 Length of cut II I \l The "keen" above named is calculated for a dotfer of 18in. to 20in. diameter. If the dotfer be only 16in. or less in diameter, the fillet should have a point more " keen," and if the doflPer be 20in. to 24in. diameter, a point less. Some spinners prefer to make a greater difi^erence than 20 points in fineness of card between the doffer and cylinder, which is sound in theory, because when the cotton reaches the doflPer it has been thoroughly combed out and the fibres lie in fine parallel lines ; therefore the more points there are in the dotfer to take them off the better. When very fine doffer fillets are used, care must be taken to have them made of a correspondingly short cut and fine wire, also that the foundation (of whatever material made) be a suitable thickness, neither too hard nor too soft. Fig. 24 shows the back of a twilled doflfer fillet, and Fig. 27 shows the back of a ribbed fillet, the side elevation of which is shown in Fig. 26. DIRT ROLLER FILLET. Fig. 29 shows side elevation of a dirt roller fillet. Fig. 30 the face, and Fig. 31 the back of same. It will be noticed that this is an open set card having considerable keen or knee bend. Attention is called to Fig. 23 on this Plate, which shows a scale of the bend or keen given to cards for dififerent purposes. It ranges from 1, which is very slight, to 12 which is very acute. Figs. 3, 6, 15, and 22 show the teeth from each sample of card having no knee bend, and Figs. 9, 12, 18, 25, 28, and 32 show the different bends from each sample ; also the width of crown and length of tooth. 144 SCIENCE OF MODEEN COTTON SPINNING. CLOTHING OF FLATS. Top cards are now generally made from lin. to l^in. wide ; formerly, in the days of hand stripping, they were made from l^in. to 2in. wide, set in the twilled fashion. In counts they vary from 60's to lOO's, some spinners preferring them finer than others, or coarse set flats over the licker-in, and finer ones afterwards. Some like diagonally-spaced tops and others plain, as in Figs. 4 and 5 (Plate XXIII.) It is considered a good plan to have about every fifth top card clothed with wire of keener bend and opener set, similar to the dirt roller card (Figs. 29, 30, 31) on Plate XXII. In nailing on the cards great care should be taken to put them in a straight line both nose and heel of wire, and stretch them uniformly. FANCY ROLLER. For heavy carding a fancy roller, which is a roller that overruns the periphery of the cylinder, is sometimes used with advantage. Its object is to prevent the cylinder from choking, and thereby rolling and nepping the cotton. No engine can possibly card well unless the main cylinder is kept clear, therefore the fancy roller, by running about one-sixth faster on its periphery than the cylinder, lifts the cotton that would otherwise get wedged in the wire of the cylinder, and thereby admits of heavy carding. It may be applied to any part of the cylinder which is most convenient, but is generally put under or immediately over the licker-in; the former is its most natural, but the latter the most convenient position for setting. The value of a fancy roller depends upon circumstances. In situations where there is little room for the amount of carding required, and where quality is not so much an object, there is no doubt of its utility, when properly applied and carefully attended to ; but under other conditions its expediency may fairly be doubted. Those spinners who put 30 per cent more cotton through their cards by the use of the fancy roller, would do well to remember that it is a kind of cheap carding which is not all gain, as it requires power in driving, great care in oiling and setting, adds to wear and tear, and the quality of the work from heavy carding can never be relied upon ; besides the subsequent operations cost more, and the value of the yarn is less, therefore old and experienced spinners are seldom found hurrying cotton through their cards, as they find it more profitable, on the whole, to put down a few more engines, and card light. To those who card waste and spin shoddy the fancy roller is perhaps the most useful. The action of the fancy roller appears on the whole beneficial only where very heavy carding is demanded, and where the engines cannot be depended upon to stand true • but from the fact that the surface of the " fancy " runs in the same direction as carding: fancy roller. 145 the cylinder, only a little faster, it has to overtake and run past it, which is a very different kind of stripping to that effected by slow motions when the surfaces move in opposite directions. With the " fancy roller " it is necessary to strip out the cylinder occasionally by hand, when much cotton is often found wedged in the wire, which is detrimental to its proper action. This is especially the case where the fancy is not properly set and carefully attended to. There is comfort and safety in light carding ; but when cotton is pushed through the cards at an undue speed, the least negligence on the part of a carder or his assistants, the smallest variation in the quality of the cotton, a change from dry to wet weather, and a number of other small matters, are productive of irregularities in a mill, and consequent loss, which more than counterbalances the apjDarent saving in hurrying cotton through the carding engines. It has often been noticed by respectable and shrewd spinners, that "fast spinners," like " fast men," soonest run their course, and finish their work by coming to grief. There is such a thing as an abuse of machinery, as well as an abuse of Nature's laws ; and the haste to get rich by immoderate speeds is often punished in the same manner as intemperate habits or cruelty to animals. The fact is that God's blessings are showered abundantly upon all those of His creatures who have the wisdom to use and not abuse them, who conform to Nature's laws, and so comport themselves that they sail pleasantly down the stream of Time, in harmony with all creation. But let a man start up in opposition to known principles, and he soon gets entangled in the meshes of the net he weaves about himself. It has before been observed that where a fancy roller is used great care should be observed — first, that it is balanced to a nicety ; secondly, that it should be so driven that its periphery runs, with certainty, a little faster than that of the cylinder (say about one-sixth) ; thirdly, that it should be clothed with wire having nearly a straight tooth ; fourthly, that it should be set close to the cylinder, without touching, otherwise the cotton is driven down into the wire of the latter and gets wedged in. Various expedients have been resorted to for accomplishing the desirable object of stripping the cylinder without stopping the card, not only to save labour ; but every practical spinner knows well that whenever the cylinder begins to choke the carding becomes inferior and neppy. The late Mr. Bodmer, of Manchester, devised a very ingenious method of doing this, namely, by a plain iron roller having a slot in it nearly the whole length ; beneath this slot, inside the roller, was a screw having a right and left hand thread chased upon it. This thread carried a nut to and fro. A finger, in which a few wire bristles were inserted, worked in this slot, and the screw was driven by spur wheels carried round with the roller or fancy, and acted upon by suitable mechanism, the whole being accurately balanced. This, like many of Mr. Bodmer's other schemes, was more ingenious than useful, being too tickle and com- T 146 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. plicated to be practical, and it was therefore short lived. The principle of stripping a small portion of the cylinder at once was sound, hence it is mentioned. Mr. Rivett, of Prestolee, near Bolton, patented a plan of stripping the card cylinder by power, which appears to have considerable novelty and merit. This is accomplished by a knocking off motion which stops the card at any certain interval, turns the cylinder slowly backward, brings up a circular brush (with which every card is provided) under the engine, takes off the strips with a comb, and sets the engine on again. The only drawback to this is the necessary complication and expense added to the card in order to effect this desirable object, otherwise the work is efficiently done. Another way of stripping cylinders in motion has recently been introduced by Messrs. John Elce and Co , Machinists, of Manchester, which is simply to have a metallic licker-in (similar to Calvert's) which is run constantly over the speed of the cylinder on its periphery. A card roller or clearer is placed over it which strips it, and conveys the cotton to the main cylinder again. This is said to work well by several spinners who have tried it, and is very simple. It is thought that in this plan a difficulty may occur when the licker-in gets worn blunt and dull, as it cannot easily be sharpened. The Gamble card, which was introduced into this country from America a few years ago, effected the stripping of the cylinder by having three takers-in, all set up to the cylinder, the third one being run alternately quicker and slower than the latter on its periphery. Although adopted to some extent, its working has not been altogether satisfactory. Another way of stripping the cylinder is to have a fancy roller run fast and slow alternately, by simply putting the strap on and off the fast pulley at intervals. All the preceding methods of stripping the cylinder while in motion have objections, and it is not thought that the precise way of doing it in a sufficiently simple, practical, and masterly manner, has yet been discovered. What appears to be clearly indicated is to have something to pick out, or raise up at intervals, a little at a time, the cotton which gets wedged in the wire, without disturbing the general arrangements of the carding engine. CYLINDERS. It is curious to find that some spinners, men whose experience has been great and whose judgment is generally considered sound, have still a prejudice in favour of wood, and most decidedly object to iron cylinders. When closely questioned about their objection, it is found that some have never even tried what they object to, and others have had those they have tried so badly made — being heavy, clumsy, and out of balance — that they have become disgusted with a good principle through bad workmanship. CARDING : CYLINDERS. 147 Machinists cannot be too careful in balancing their cylinders, dofFers, and lickers- in accurately — most accurately. This however is very often much neglected, and generally imperfectly done ; the consequence is that the journals wear oval, and the shaking and tremor, which were bad from the first, get worse every day, until the spinner loses his patience, and sometimes throws them out in disgust, exclaiming that there is nothing like wood, as the cobbler said there was nothing like leather. If judiciously constructed, iron cylinders need not exceed in weight those made with iron rings and baywood lags. The dolFers, which are often considered perfect when true outside, also the lickers-in, should likewise be of iron, and as carefully balanced as the cylinders, else when they are run quick for grinding they jump and shake the whole card, rendering it impossible to grind them with perfect truth. Rough and careless machine makers should never have anything to do with a carding engine. It is they who are to blame for getting many an excellent principle condemned by the honest and industrious spinner, who judges by results, and is not expected to have a profound knowledge of mechanics, or of the laws of gravitation and centrifugal force. The necks or journals of carding engines should be of cast iron, and work in cast iron bearings, well polished out, with the sharp edges rounded off. This rounding of the edges, singular as it may seem, prevents the oil from running ofi', especially if the journals be a little reduced at the ends. Cast iron is of a porous nature, and absorbs oil equally over the whole journal. This constant absorption has the property, after working some time, of glazing or casehardening the surface, which attains a high polish, runs light, requiring little oil, and becomes, the longer it works, more and more indestructible. Great care should, however, be taken when they commence running to oil them well, otherwise, should they be bound in the steps, heat, and get dry, they will cut down rapidly ; indeed any other metal journal will do the same. What is wished to be impressed upon the reader is that cast iron, as a journal, when properly treated, is superior to either wrought iron or steel, which is always softer on one side than the other (unless it be cast steel), and is apt to wear oval. Wrought iron contains a great deal of sand. If steel be used for a journal of any kind it ought to be cast steel. WOOD CYLINDERS. There are three methods of constructing what are termed wood cylinders ; but more properly speaking, wood and iron combined. The first is with iron rings, to which are bolted dry deal lags, the rings being of course keyed upon the shaft. The next is precisely similar except that baywood lags are used (see Fig. 85). The other method is to build up the cylinder with baywood 148 SCIENCE OF MODEEN COTTON SPINNING. segments, the arms being made of wrought iron, and fixed in the segments as the work progresses. These segments are both glued and nailed together, and when completed form a very light cylinder, which stands, on the whole, if carefully made, pretty well, but cannot be entirely depended upon. Of the three it is thought those with the deal lags stand the best, and are, taken altogether, preferable to either of the others ; but wood cylinders, however made, may now fairly be looked upon as things of the past. No one using wood cylinders, especially on a ground floor, can possibly have that extreme accuracy which is now imperatively demanded in modern carding. SHEET IRON CYLINDERS. Another ingenious method of making cylinders and dotfers, the invention of Mr. Samuel Faulkner, cotton spinner, Manchester, is to key three or four iron rings on a cylinder shaft, turn them up, and cover them with sheet iron the breadth of the cylinder, which, after being painted, is covered with old card fillet cemented on or with a thin strap leather. This when set is ground up by applying an ordinary emery roller, when it is ready to be covered with card fillet, that may be spaced or full for the cylinders, and fastened at the ends by pegs in the rings, which makes a very light, true, and good cylinder when accurately balanced. Mr. Faulkner's invention possesses considerable merit, and deserves to be more appreciated by the trade than it has been. HOW TO ENSURE GOOD CARDING. Truth, which in a moral sense, may appropriately be termed the " life buoy " of commerce, as it supports a man in a most wonderful manner amidst the stormy billows and troubled waters which so often occur in the ocean of life, proving fatal to many a stately vessel ; — Truth, that magic virtue, morally so potent and beautiful, is physically of the utmost importance to the carding engine. Everything must be true, well balanced, and steady, or it is vain to expect good carding. This secured, and the cards put on very tight, the next point demanding attention is careful — very careful — grinding. The method of grinding cards (cylinders, doffers, and lickers-in especially are meant) as at present in vogue, is erroneous in principle, as will be shown. Any body or object that moves rapidly has a tendency to damage the matter with which it comes in contact, although it may be itself of a softer nature than such matter ; for instance, a soft tallow candle, shot from a gun, will go through an inch thick board, a lead bullet through an iron plate, &c. If two objects of equal strength and weight (two carriages for instance) coming in contact when going in opposite directions, the one that was going slowest at the time will receive the most damage ; therefore the surface of a HOW TO SECUEE GOOD CARDING. 149 grinding roller should go through more space than the cards operated upon, — but as practised now the reverse is the case. So the soft flexible wire of cylinders in rapid motion has an immediate tendency to blunt the cutting edge of the emery roller, receiving very little impression itself, thereby rendering it necessary to lay on harder with the grinding roller, which presses down and hooks the wire. Now, if one had microscopic eyes, he could perceive a certain wavy surface and hook on the wire, pro- duced by the violence of such grinding, and the jumping vibration caused too often by an unbalanced doffer put in rapid motion. Theoretically the grinding roller should run very quickly, after being balanced to a hair, and the card surfaces slow — very slow — but this is not practical under present arrangements. The good offices of the inventor are here required, and anyone who would contrive a method of taking a motion from the loose pulley, when the strap is on it, that would turn the cylinder, doffer, and licker-in slowly round, and at the same time drive the grinding rollers rapidly, would perform a good and desirable service to the trade. Assuming the cylinder, doflfer, &c., to be carefully ground with the emery roller, the next thing is to apply a stiff circular brush in the place of each emery roller, and run it at a rapid speed, the wire still going very slowly. These brushes should be set into the cards about one-sixteenth of an inch, and if run sufficiently fast whilst the wire is going slowly, will soon have a wonderful effect in polishing up the wire, and bringing the edge to a needle point, which is not so easily lost again. After this set the card surfaces as close as possible for work ; never mind if here and there they touch the cylinder a little, the effect will only be to rub off any possible inequality of surface, that will soon come right again by the application of the circular brush. Insist above all things in pushing up the surfaces, when little waste will be made, and the best quality of work obtained. Should there be the least tremor or vibration about the cards, arising from the causes above named, get rid of it immedi- ately, as it is vain to think of obtaining first-rate work unless such defects are removed. Carding is a delicate process. If anything gives way or gets out of truth, such as the swelling of wood cylinders in wet weather, and if the cards are set close as they ought to be, off goes the edge of the wire, the cotton gathers round the cylinder, and neps innumerable appear. Practically it is not possible to set engines with wood cylinders so close as iron ones, simply because they cannot be depended upon. It is also not possible to set engines which are out of balance as close as they ought to be, because of the vibration. Spinners who prefer wood cylinders have been heard to say, when reminded of their unstable nature, " Well, if they do fly out of truth, it is seldom they go more than the sixteenth of an inch!" They have been known however to err more than that after standing on a ground floor from Saturday till Monday, when the weather has changed from fair to rain ; but suppose a sixteenth, or half a sixteenth, what is the result? A fortune may be won or lost in a few years by 150 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. attention to or neglect of that particular point in the carding engine. Even the one-hundredth of an inch cannot be allowed between the doflfer and the cylinder, nor between the cylinder and the other carding points. When this matter is carefully attended to the best results may be expected. L<3t the card setter keep setting up the dotfer to the cylinder at suitable intervals in minute degrees, and at the same time bring down the flats or rollers to the cylinder until they almost rub ; by this means the cylinder will feel, as it were, any irregu- larities or imperfections in the rollers, flats, licker-in, or doff^er, and rub them off like a grindstone, without injury to itself, on account of the great speed of its surface. Of course this can only be done where the engines are constructed entirely of iron, and great care is employed. GRINDING. The present plan of grinding cards is quite unmechanical, and it is somewhat singular that so great an error should have escaped notice so long. Yet so it is, notwithstanding that this is a subject of the very utmost importance, both as regards the expense it entails and the general welfare of a spinning concern. The reader is referred back to page 70, where it is shown why the object acted upon should turn slowly and the grinding roller quickly. Although it is easy to demonstrate this, the remedy is more difficult, and it must be confessed that at present the way to overcome this important evil is not easily seen, but by directing attention to it the talent of the country may perchance be brought to bear upon it, and the difficulties will disappear ; if the theory now advanced is founded upon truth, a new system of grinding cards will be inaugurated. At present a grinding roller, of about Sin. or 9in. diameter, covered with coarse emery, is mounted over the cylinder or doflfer, and is made to revolve slowly, at the same time traversing a little endwise by suitable mechanism. Another contrivance, and much superior to the former, is a small drum or pulley, which is made to traverse to and fro across the cylinder or dofi'er, with a double threaded screw placed inside the hollow shaft on which it moves, as below (Fig. 125;. fig. 126. THE CARDING ENGINE : GRINDING. 151 Referring to the above, Fig. 125 shows a Horsfall grinding roller complete ; Fig. 126^ is part section of the hollow shaft, showing the double-threaded screw which is attached to one end of the shaft, whilst the hollow part is fixed to the other. The pulley a slides freely to and fro on the hollow shaft, and makes the same number of revolutions, being driven by the pulley d to the right, whilst the screw is driven in the same direction by the pulley d} to the left. As one of these pulleys is a little larger than the other, a traversing motion is given to the roller a by the finger 5, seen in Figs. 127 and 128. This finger passes through the slot in the hollow shaft, and Fig. 1271 Fig. 128.— Horsf alls Patent Grinding llollee. Fig. 127. works in the thread of the double screw c. When it gets to the end it takes into the other thread, and thus gives reciprocating motion. Care should be taken in the working of the roller that the difference in speed between the pulleys d and d^ is not great, otherwise the traverse of the grinding drum a would be too rapid, and the shock in traversing too great, which would soon destroy the finger b. A little space is left inside the pulley or drum a to allow sufiicient play to the finger in making the change from one thread to the other, during which time the grinding drum dwells, and allows the finger to get a fair hold of the thread before it moves the drum forward again. The maximum speed of the traverse across the cylinder of the drum a should not exceed once over and back again per minute ; therefore the difference between the two driving pulleys should be regulated accordingly, bearing in mind that the faster the roller goes, the less difference in diameter between the pulleys is required. This is far better in principle than an ordinary grinding roller : it ensures the cylinder being ground true, as it passes off the ends of the cylinder every time it moves to and fro. Of course it is a longer time in grinding any object, on account of the small surface of emery acting at once. Hand strickles are also extensively used, both made with curved and straight wood covered with emery, and they are likewise made from cloth. These latter are ready for touching up the cylinders and doffers very frequently, and are in almost 152 SCIENCE OF MODERN COTTON SPINNING. general use. Much mischief is produced by these strickles in grinding the cylinders, etc., hollow, loosening the wire, and hooking it. It would be better to discard them altogether, and to adopt some plan whereby a brush moving rapidly could be made to act upon the almost stationary wire. Indeed the whole system of grinding cards at present is erroneous. Perhaps the best way of inaugurating a new system of grinding cylinders and doifers would be to run a light shaft between two rows of engines, so placed that the engine straps would just be the proper length when taken off the card, about to be ground, and put upon the shaft. This shaft need revolve only about twenty revo- lutions per minute, and might be put in motion when required. A grinding strap should then be put upon the drum which gives motion to the engine, and drive the grinding roller from it. In this manner, without any complication, and at a small expense, the cylinders and doffers may be turned very slowly, and the grinding rollers very quickly, which is just what is wanted. Where there are not two rows of engines the slow shaft would be required the same for one row. It is believed that if the expense of this alteration were ten times as much as it only need be, it would pay the spinner to introduce it. In cases where engines are connected together, as in the example previously shown {Page 126), the shaft w^hich drives the doffers would suffice to turn the cylinders when grinding, by having a strap of the proper length for the purpose ; this would serve for all the cards, by being moved from one engine to another as required. A more efficient method of pointing cards is much wanted. The ordinary emery roller is both clumsy and ineffective, being difficult to keep true, and grinding the wire to a chisel edge. Several attempts have been made to supersede it, but hitherto apparently without practical result. For grinding the rollers and clearers of carding engines a machine similar to Fig. 129 opposite has for a long time been used with a cylinder covered with emery. This cylinder had a traverse motion endwise, and the rollers intended to be ground were set up to it. If this cylinder was covered carelessly, or by any means got out of truth (which was often the case), the rollers were not ground correctly, as a matter of course. An improvement worthy of notice has been made in this machine, by putting a Horsfall traversing grinder in the place of the cylinder, which is a great improve- ment. If the emery drum is made to traverse over the ends of the carding rollers it is sure to grind them perfectly true, even if it be out of truth itself. Fig. 129 repre- sents a grinding machine arranged in this manner wHh a Horsfall roller in place of the cylinder. INDEX TO VOLUME I. PAOE 1 PAOK ^iriCaQ OUbtUU • • • • D \_/OLtiOUj AUOtl ctllopll • • • • 2 Algerian Cotton • • . « 3 5> i^igypuan . - - • 2 American Cotton • • . • 4 Brazil and otter South Americati varieties 3 Australian Cotton 2 A 1 orPTl Tl . . . . . Xs-lgdidiU , • • • • 3 Artificial Stone .... 29 , 35 yj TV COU XllUiOfU • • • • 4 American system of Driving Mills by Double Belts 37 A TYl 01*1 T> _ • . . ^UlVl IvoiLl • • • • • 4 Antiquity of Carding 77 6 Arkwright's Doffing Comb 86 Borneo and Java . . • . (J „ Card 83 jj UtaSXi XllKlldtU , . • • 7 „ Early Struggles 84 jj xnciigenouo gruwu lu j-uuiti . . • 8 „ Sir Richard . 85 Grown in India from New Orleans and „ Complete Carding Engine 87 xinienctiii occti • • • 9 Advantages and defects of Roller Carding 89 f^v/^rtm in Tnrlia frriTTi Sea Islai.d and Adshead and Holden's Roller Card 100 Q ij Albert Escher's system of Connecting Cards 126 PTiinn Smvrna and Italian • • 11 American Cotton Factory, Illustrated 128 Cotton Ginning . • . . . 13 Apparatus for Cotton Steaming . 61 ^^nurKa or rvijiici yxiu. . • • . 14 Aqueduct, Grande Maitre 29 Pi-\ffrir» "IVTill A rpllif pfitiire . ■ . • ^-/OlitOU ItXIU XU. vlXii'CVUu.n-' • • • • 24 Concrete 33 Brazil and other South American Cotton 3 Uotton opinning lu luuia • . . . 49 Borneo and Java Cotton 6 Pnffnn Si-»innir»o- and WeavinsT Machinery in Bombay 50 Boiler House of the India Mills, Darwen . 28 Cotton ]\Iixing, Opening, and Scutching 53 Blowing Room of ditto ditto . 28 Crighton's Cotton Opener .... 60 Bricks as a building material 30 Cotton Steaming Apparatus 61 " Beton Agglom^r^s " . . . 33 Crighton's Single Beater Finisher Lap Machine 66 Blowing Room, Machinery, in one storey Mill at Bombay 49 „ Feed Regulator 67 Batting Flake (The old) . 54 Carding Engine, The .... 77 Bourn's Patent Carding Engine 80 Carding Cylinders, Bourn and Paul's Patents 78 Birch's Patent Carding Engine 90 Carding Engine, by Arkwright 83 Breaker and Finisher Cards . 104 „ „ The Roller, by Tatham 88 Buchanan's Self Stripping Card . 107 „ by Birch . . . . 90 Bayley and Quarmby's ditto 122 „ with Mason's Concentric Bend . 102 Breaker Carding Engines in the Harmony Mill con- „ „ by Faulkner .... 95 nected together 128 J, „ Breaker and Finisher . 104 Bombay Spinning Mill Plate XIV. byPooley . . . . 97 Belts, Duration of ... 128 „ „ The Double 94 Belting versits Gearing 37 „ „ Wilkin.son's Patent 98 Bow Ginning .... 55 „ „ The "Union" . 101 Bend or " Keening " of Wire Cards 143 „ „ Buchanan's Self Stripping . 107 Bodmer's Method of Stripping Cylinders . 145 „ „ Smith's Self Stripping 110 Balancing CyHnders, Doffers, and Lickers-in , 147 „ „ Leigh's Self Stripping, 1st Patent 113 „ „ Ditto ditto 2nd ditto 115 Coupling of Flats ..... 116 Cotton Plant, Varieties and Relative Values of 1 Carding Engine, Wellman's Self Stripping 117 INDEX TO VOLUME I. PAOE Connecting Carding Engines together, Escher's system 126 „ „ Leigh's system . 126 Cotton Factory, American . . .128 Cotton Fibres greatly magnified . . .12 Cotton Gin, The Macarthy . . , 17 „ The Double Macarthy, Leigh's Patent . 17 „ The Knife Roller . . . 19 Cotton Gin, Brackell's Patent . . .20 „ Saw, by Dobson and Barlow . 15 Cotton, Preparing for Spinning in India . . 55 Cone Willow Cotton Opener ... 57 Cotton Opener, by Piatt Brothers and Co., Porcu- pine Beater . . . . .64 Clearers, Covering Small . . . .91 Connecting Carding Engines together : Cards, Old Construction of . . . 129 „ New Construction of . . . 129 Carding Engine, with the Old kind of Flat . 130 Card Clothing : Cards, Setting of . . . . . 135 „ Setting of by Machinery . . 135 „ Walton's Patent Material for . .136 „ Horsfall's Patent . . .136 „ Macintosh Cloth . . . .136 Cards, How to Count : Cut, Definition of . . ' . . 137 Crown, Definition of . . . .137 Clothing of the Licker-in : Calvert's Substitute for Licking-in Cards . 140 Clothing of Rollers . . . . .141 Clothing Clearers ..... 141 Clothing of Cylinders : Clothing Main Cylinders — Number of Cards Suitable for . . . .142 Clothing of Flats . . . . .144 Cylinders : Cylinders, Opinions on . . . 146 „ Practical Hints as to . . . 147 Double Belts, American system of driving by . 41 „ Rules to find the power of . 41 Dust Cages, Importance of proper adjustment of .71 Double Scutcher, The .... 66 Dog-tooth Feed Roller . . . ,68 Defects of Roller Carding ' . . . 89 Double Carding Engine, The . . .94 Description of the Newhall Factory, Glasgow 125 Driving by Belts . . . . .128 Doffer Clothing : Dofifer Fillets, Fineness of . . .143 Dirt Roller Fillet . . . . .143 Engine, The Steam . . . . ,44 East India Cotton .... 7 Elevations of the Darwen Mill . . .27 PAGE Economy in Carding . . . .123 Escher, The late Mr. Albert . . . .126 Engine House at Darwen (Plate XII.) . . 26 External Views of Double Scutcher . . 64 Fan, The Dust, great utility in scutching . 56 Fu-st Scutcher, The . . . . .55 Feed Rollers, Spiked .... 56 „ Various . , . .56 Fireproof Scutching Rooms and Mills . . 74 Flats, When first used . . . .82 Faulkner's Patent Card .... 95 Finisher Carding Engines connected together 128 Finisher Lap Machine . . . .114 Fibres, Various, greatly magnified . . .12 Fireproof Mills ..... 25 Feed Regulator, Crighton's , . . .67 Finisher Carding Engine altered to Self Stripping 124 Flats, Coupling of . . . . .130 „ As they appear when at Work . . 130 Finisher Cards with all Flats . . . .131 Fillet, Ribbed and Twilled . . .137 Feed Rollers ...... 137 „ Opinions on . . . .137 „ Various kinds of . . . 137 „ Bennett's . . . .138 „ Tatham's Improved . .139 Fancy Roller, Why Used and its Advantage . 144 „ Its Value .... 144 „ Its Action .... 144 Further Method of Stripping Cylinders . . 146 Faulkner's Method of Making Cylinders, &c. . 148 Gin, The Churka . . . . .14 „ The Saw ..... 15 „ The Macarthy . . . . .15 „ The Double Macarthy ... 18 „ The Knife RoUer , . . .19 „ The Lock Jaw .... 21 General Plan, Darwen Mills . . . .27 Ground Plan, Mill at Bolton ... 75 Ginning Cotton in India . . . .13 Gamble Card 146 Grinding, Plan of Grinding Cards — Present . .150 Grinding Roller, Horsfall's. . . . 151 Hydraulic Lime ..... 32 Horse power. What is meant by . . .48 Heavy and Light Flywheels ... 46 Hargreaves, James . . . . .78 Hulme's Railway ..... 127 Harmony Mill . . . . .128 Harris's Patent Strap Fastener . . . 43 Hardacre's Cotton Opener . . . .59 How to Count Cards . . . 137 INDEX TO VOLUME I. PAGE How to ensure good Carding . . , 148 Hand Strickles used in Grinding Cards . . 151 Indigenous Cottons Grown in India . . 8 Italian Cotton . . . . .11 India, Cotton Spinning in ... 49 Important Modification in Wellman's Card . .121 India Mill, Over Darwen ... 25 India, Women Ginning Cotton in . . .13 Improved Flats . . . . .117 India Rubber Cloth Fillet for Clothing of Cylinders 142 Improved Roller Grinding Machine . . 152 J ava Cotton . . . . . .6 James Smith, Portrait of . . .112 John Elce and Co.'s Plan of Stripping Cylinders in motion ..... 146 Knife Roller Gin . . . . .19 Knowles's Improvement in Lap Machines . 115 Limes . . . . . .32 Lock Jaw Cotton Gin . . . . 21 Lower Egypt, Buildings in . . . .30 Leaning Chimneys . . . .31 Lord's Self- Regulating Feeder . . .53 „ Scutcher . . . . 56 „ Patent Cotton Opener . . .62 „ „ ,, with Pneumatic Tube 63 Long-stapled Cottons .... 73 Leigh's Self Stripping Card . . . .113 „ Finisher Lap Machine . . .114 „ Second Patent Card . . . .116 „ System of Connecting Cards . . 126 „ Self-Stripping Card, old and new, Construc- tion of . . . . . .129 Macarthy Gin, The . . . . .16 Machinery in Mill at Over Darwen . . 28 Mortars . . . ■ . .31 Moving Power . . . . . 44 Mixing Cotton . . . . .53 Modern Spinning Mill in Bolton . . 75 Mason's Concentric Bend . . . .102 Method of Driving by Belts ... 40 Mackintosh Cloth Cards . . . .136 Methods of Constructing Wood Cylinders . 147 „ Grinding Cards . . .148 Kewhall Factory, The . . . .125 Opening of East India Cotton . . . 61 Oldham Willow, The . , . .58 Opener, Lord's Patent Cotton ... 62 Old Method of Setting Flats . . .105 Object of Clothing the Licker-in . . 140 PAGE Postscript ..... 22 Portland Cement . . . .34 Pulleys, List of ... .50 Porcupine Opener . . , . .63 Paul's Carding Engine .... 80 Pooley's Carding Engine . , . .97 Portrait of Watt 45 „ Archibald Buchanan . . .109 „ Richard Arkwright ... 84 Portrait of James Smith . . . .112 Plan of Grinding Cards, Present . . .150 Proposed New System of Grinding . . . 152 Quarmby and Bay ley's Patent . . .122 Roller Gin, with Fly Wheel . . . .14 Rule to find the proper Width of Belts . . 41 Rude process of Ginning in India . . .7 Rollers and Clearers .... 88 Robertson John and Co., Mill belonging to . . 125 Ribbed Fillet ..... 143 Rivett's Plan of Stripping the Card Cylinder by Power ...... 146 Sea Islands Cotton .... 1 Saw Gin . . . . . .15 South American Cotton .... 3 Surat Cotton . . . . . .7 Smyrna Cotton . . . . .11 Shafting, Horizontal and Vertical . . .27 Stone, Artificial ..... 29 Suez Canal 29 Spinning Cotton in India ... 49 Speeds, List of, and Wheels . . . ,50 Scutching Cotton . . . ' . 54 Self Regulating Feeder, Lord's . . ,53 Spiked Feed Rollers .... 56 Scutching Room, The . . . .72 Spinning Mill in Bolton .... 75 Sir Richard Arkwright . . . .85 Speed of Rollers and Clearers . . . 92 Striped Yarn . . . . .94 Specifications, Faulkner's ... 96 „ Wellman's . . . .121 „ Bayley and Quarmby 's . . 122 „ Bourn's , . . .79 ,, Paul's .... 81 Self Stripping Card, Buchanan's . . . 107 Smith's Self Stripping Card . . ,110 Self Stripping Card, Leigh's 1st Patent . .113 „ „ Leigh's 2nd Patent . 116 Steel Rollers 127 Shell Feed Roller .... 67 Summary of Results . . . . .10 Single Roller Carding Engine ... 87 "Saws" of the Saw Gins . . . .23 INDEX TO VOLUME I. Shafting, Method of Driving by Belts . . 40 Spiked Feed Rollers . . . . .56 Section of Lord's Patent Cotton Opener . . 62 „ „ Scutcher ... 66 „ Piatt's Porcupine Opener . . 64 „ Crightou's Scutcher . . . .66 „ Piatt's Lap Machine ... 66 Single Beater Lap Machine . . . ,66 Smith's Travelling Flat Card Improved by Leigh 129 Self-stripping Carding Engines (various) . . 133 Setting of Cards ..... 135 „ „ by Machinery . . 135 Systems of Counting Cards .... 137 Subsequent Inventions for Clothing of the Licker-iu 140 Spaced Fillet 142 Scale of Bend given to Cards for Different Purposes . 143 Samples of Cards ..... 143 Stripping the Cylinder without Stopping the Card . 145 Sheet Iron Cylinders .... 148 Tatham's Single Roller Card . . . .87 Tatham's Improved Feed Roller Twilled Doffer Fillet Top Cards .... Union Carding Engine, The Union Carding Engines Varieties and Relative Value of Cotton , Vertical and Horizontal Shafting View of Double Scutcher, with Lap attached Various kinds of Feed Rollers West Indies, Cotton Grown in Waste in Carding Wilkinson's Roller Card , Wellman's Self Stripping C;ird Woman Ginning in India Willow, The Cone Cotton Opener Wellman Card .... Wellman's Self-stripper, Improvements ou , Walton's Patent Material for Cards Wood Cyhnders, durabiUty of INDEX OF PLATES & ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Arkwright's Complete Carding Engine . . Fig. 68 87 Adshead and Holden's Patent ditto . . » 79 100 Archibald Buchanan, Portrait of . . . >, 89 109 Aqueduct, "Grande Maitre" . . . » 25 29 Action of Fluted Rollers . . . . ,,116 138 Ditto ditto . . . . . ,,117 138 Bourn's Carding Engine . . . . „ 64 79 Birch's Roller Engine . . . . » 72 90 Buchanan, Self Stripping Card . . . . „ 86 107 »»>!>• ... „ 87 108 Breaker Carding Engine, old style . . . „ 83 104 Bay ley and Quannby's Patent ... „ 102 122 Bow Ginning . . . . . . ,, 30 55 Brakell's Patent Knife Roller Gin . . . „ 22 20 Bennett's Feed Roller . . . . . „118 139 Churka or Roller Gin . . , . . ,,15 14 Ditto ditto . . . , „ 16 14 Cone Willow Cotton Opener . . . . ,> 33 57 Creighton's ditto . . . , „ 36 60 Ditto ditto . . . , „ 37 60 Cotton Steaming Apparatus . . . „ 38 61 Cylinder of Porcupine Opener . . , . „ 44 64 Clearers ..... Figs. 73, 74 91 Carding Engine, with Mason's Bend . . . Fig. 82 103 Disc Fan ...... „ 41 63 Dust Cage . . . . . . „ 60 70 Ditto ..... Figs. 61, 62, 63 ... 71, 72 Double Carding Engine ..... Fig. 75 94 External View of Double Scutcher . . . „ 45 64 With Lap attached . . . „ 46 64 Finisher Lap Machine . . . . „ 54 66 Faulkner's Patent Carding Engine . . . „ 76 96 Finisher Carding Engine, Old Style . . . „ 85 105 Lap Machine, Evan Leigh's . . ,, 95 114 „ Carding Engine altered to Leigh's Self Stripper ,,105 124 End View and Part Section of Coupling Flats together when at work . . . . „ 108 130 Fixing the Ribbon : Transverse Section . . ,,122 140 Ditto ditto Side View . . . „ 123 140 Ditto ditto Front View . . . „ 124 140 INDEX OF PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PARE "Grande Maitre" Aqueduct .... Fig. 25 29 GinMacarthy ..... „ 19 16 „ Double Macarthy . . . . „ 20 17 „ Knife Roller . . ... „ 21 19 „ Knife, Brakell's Patent . . , . „ 22 20 „ Lock Jaw . . . . . ), 23 21 Ginning, Rude Process of . . . „ — 7 „ Woman in India . . . . jj I'i 13 Bow . . , . . . „ 30 55 Harris's Patent Strap Fastener . . , >> 27 43 Horsfall's Grinding Roller, complete . . . „ 125 150 Ditto ditto Part Section of Hollow Shaft 126 150 Ditto ditto Details of . . . „ 127 151 Ditto ditto .... „ 1271 151 Ditto ditto . . . . „ 128 ....... 151 Improved Flats . . . . . „ 99 117 James "Watt, Portrait of . . . . »> 23 45 James Smith, Portrait of . . . . „ 91 112 Knife Roller Gin, The .... „ 21 19 Lock Jaw Cotton Gin . . . . . „ 23 20 Lord's Patent Cotton Opener . . . » 39 62 „ Section of . . . . „ 40 62 Finished Scutcher . . . » 48 66 » >> )> ... „ 49 ...... 66 „ Feed Regulator . , . „ 51 66 „ Opener, with Pneumatic Tube . „ 42 63 Leigh's Self Stripping Card (First Patent) . „ 92 113 „ Details of ditto . . . Figs. 93, 94 113 ,, Finished Lap Machine . . . Fig. 95 114 „ Self Stripping Card (Second Patent) . , „ 96 115 „ Details of ditto . . . . Figs, 97, 98 116 „ Self Stripper Finisher Carding Engine . Fig. 105 124 Levers and Rod, altered to ... >» 50 66 Leigh's New Flat Card „ 106 129 „ Self-stripping Card (3rd Patent) . . „ 109 130 Left-hand View of Leigh's Self-stripping Carding Engines. . . . . . „ 112 130 Mason's Concentric Bend . . . . „ 81 102 Oldham Willow, The . . . . „ 34 58 Ditto ditto . . . . . „ 35 59 Old Method of Setting Flats . . . „ 84 105 Portrait of James Watt . . . . » 28 45 Ditto Richard Arkwright . . . „ 67 84 Ditto Archibald Buchanan . . . „ 89 109 Ditto James Smith . . . . „ 91 112 Preparing Cotton for Spinning . . . „ 29 55 Porcupine Opener The . . . . » 43 64 INDEX OF PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PACK Paul's Carding Engine, No. 1 ... Fig. 65 81 Ditto ditto No. 2 . . ,,615 82 Pooley's Patent Engine , . . , ,,77 97 Plan of Coupling Flats together, according to latest improvements .... „ 107 130 Portrait of George Wellman . . . . ,,113 131 Quarmby's and Ba.yley's Patent . . . ,,102 122 Ditto ditto Details of . . „ 103 123 Ditto ditto ditto . . „ 104 123 Kude Process of Ginning la India . . . „ 1 7 Rollers and Clearers . . . . ,,71 87 Right-hand view of Leigh's Self-stripping Carding Engine ,,111 130 "Saws "of Saw Gins . . . . . „ 24 23 Strap Fastener, Harris's Patent . . . ,,27 43 Spiked Feed Rollers .... Figs. 31, 32 56 Single Beater Lap Machine . . . „ 52, 53 66 „ Finisher Lap Machine . . Fig 55 66 Single Roller of Feed Roller . . . „ 56 67 Shell of ditto ..... Figs. 57, 58, 59 67 Single Roller Engine, Tatham's . . . Fig. 69 87 Section of ditto . . . . . . „ 70 87 Smith's Self Stripping Card . . . „ 90 Ill Section of Finisher Carding Engine, (Leigh's 3rd Patent) ..... „ 110 130 Steel Ribbon, with Top Edge serrated . . „ 120 140 Ditto ditto . . „121 140 Tatham's Single Roller Engine . . . . „ C9 87 Tatham's Section ditto . . . „ 70 87 Tatham's Improved Feed Roller . . . ,,119 139 Union Carding Engine . . . . „ 80 101 Woman Ginning in India . . . . „ 14 13 Willow Cone Cotton Opener , . . . „ 33 57 Willow, Oldham The ... Figs. 34, 35 58 Wilkinson's Patent Carding Engine , . . Fig. 78 99 Wellman's Self Stripping Card . . . ,,100 118 „ Side and Front Elevation . . . ,,101 119 „ Breaker Card, by Dobson and Barlow . „ 114 132 „ Card with all Flats, by ditto . . ,,115 132 Facing Patje American Seed Cotton grown in India from Plate Bombay Spinning Mill • ,> 14 ... 48 Bolton, Modern Spinning Mill • » Cotton Grown in Sea Island 1 ... ... 2 INDEX OF PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Fating Page Cotton Grown in Various Parts of the World . Plate 2 4 „ „ ditto ditto . . >j 3 6 „ „ in India . . . '. » 4 8 „ „ from Native and American Seed „ 5 10 „ Summary of Results . , . „ 6 10 „ Fibres greatly magnified . . » 7 12 Card Room, General Plan of . . . . „ 10 26 Ditto ditto . . . „ 11 26 Card Clothing for Carding Engines . . ,,22 138 Ditto ditto . . . . „ 23 138 Engine House ..... » 12 26 Ground Plan of a Mill . . , . . „ 16 75 Gin Saw, The ..... „ 8 15 Horizontal Shafting . . . . . „ 13 26 Harmony Mill . . . . . „ 18 126 Ditto Section and Turbines . . . „ 19 128 India — Cotton Grown in . . . . „ 4 8 India — Cotton Grown from Native or American Seed „ 5 10 India Mill, Over Darwen . . . . „ 9 25 „ Curd Room . . . . . „ 10 26 • . . • „ 11 26 Modem Spinning Mill in Bolton . . . „ 15 74 Newhall Factory, Glasgow . . . . » 17 125 Portrait of Evan Leigh, C. E. .... Frontispiece. Saw Gin, The ..... Plate 8 15 Self-strij)ping Carding Engine . . . . „ 21 133 Union Carding Engine .... ,» 20 132 Vertical and Horizontal Shafting . . - „ 13 26 A. IBELAND A^D CO., PBINTEBS, MANCEES^TEB. GET