and Joiner's Affiftant\ 
 
 CONTAINING /\\f 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES 
 
 FOR 
 
 MAKING ALL KINDS OF JOINTS, AND VARIOUS METHODS 
 OF HINGEING THEM TOGETHER ; 
 
 FOR HANGING OF DOORS ON STRAIGHT OR CIRCULAR PLANS; 
 
 For fitting up WINDOWS and SHUTTERS to answer various Purposes, 
 
 WITH RULES FOR HANGING THEM: 
 
 For the Conftru£tion of Floors , Partitions, Soffits, Groins , Arches for Mafonry ; 
 for conftrufting Roofs in the bed Manner from a given Quantity of Timber : 
 
 For placing of Bond Timbers ; with various Methods for adjufting Raking 
 Pediments , enlarging and diminifhing of Mouldings; taking Dimenfions for 
 Joinery, and for fetting out Shop Fronts . 
 
 With a new Scheme for conftru&ing Stairs and Hand-rails, and for Stairs, 
 having a Conical Well-hole, &c. &c. 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 
 
 EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS ROOFS EXECUTED, 
 
 WITH THE SCANTLINGS, FROM ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 With Rules for MORTICES and TENONS, and for fixing IRON STRAPS, See. 
 Alfo Extracts from M. Belidor , M. du Hamel, M. de Buffion, &c. 
 
 On the STRENGTH OF TIMBER, with Practical Obfervations. 
 
 Illuftrated with SEVENTY-NINE PLATES, and copious Explanations. 
 
 By PETER NICHOLSON, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE CARPENTER’S NEW GUIDE, &C. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR I. AND J. TAYLOR, AT THE ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, 
 OPPOSITE GREAT-TURNSTILE, HOLBORN. 
 
 r /97* 
 
 Carpenter 
 
 *£. i ■ <1 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 T N my former publication, The Carpenter's New Guide , I have laid down 
 and treated on many ufefulparts of the Carpenter and Joiner’s profefiions j 
 yet upon examination and reflexion, there appeared various branches of 
 which no notice had been taken by any author ; and as fome of thefe are of 
 confiderable importance and of frequent application, they appeared not un- 
 worthy of my attention and confideration j and the more fo, as it is neceflary 
 thofe cafes ffiould be belt underftood, which moll frequently arife in bufinefs : 
 of thefe examples, which occur every day, is the major part of this book 
 compofed ; and which mull be confidered as a Supplement to, or Second Part 
 of, the Carpenter’s Guide, although in fome inftances the fame fubjeefts arc 
 again treated of in this book ; of thefe I muft fay the examples are totally 
 different, and the principles on which they are explained new, and in fome 
 cafes better — and will I flatter myfclf tend to the eafe of the workman and 
 the perfection of the work. 
 
 Of Soffits an entire new example is fhown for covering an oblique 
 cone, which may be applied where the furface is any part of an oblique 
 cone : the next example is for covering a foffit which is level at the crowm 
 and fiuing upon the fides and I muft obferve this method is preferable to 
 my former one j yet neither of thefe problems will be abfolutely true in prac- 
 tice, as a plane furface can never apply with abfolute accuracy to fuch a wind- 
 ing furface ; but either rule will anlwer the workman’s purpofe. 
 
 On the fubjedb of Groins or Crofs-arches, are given fome lines, the prin- 
 ciples of which are entirely new and preferable for practice to any before pub- 
 liihed. I have taken this opportunity of introducing fome new inventions 
 applicable to Arches for Mafonry : on this fubjedt we have no inftrudtions in 
 
 the Englifh language, 
 
 A i 
 
 Of 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 Of the heft conftruftions of naked Floors, and of the proper difpolal of 
 Bond-timbers in walls, fome examples are given, with explanations of the 
 various parts j thefe cannot fail of being peculiarly ufeful to the young build- 
 er : of fimilar ufe alfo will be the example for framing Partitions. Among 
 the various new examples in that very important part of building, the Roof, I 
 have introduced a different fcheme to that in the Carpenter’s Guide, for form- 
 ing one, the plan of which is a trapezium j by the conftrudlion here laid 
 down, the eye will not be offended by the roof’s winding, for all the fides* 
 according to this conftrudlion, are planes j and therefore, if the top be paral- 
 lel to the horizon, it will be either a triangle or a trapezium, and the roof 
 will not wind at all. To this article is properly added fome ufeful examples 
 for Sky-lights, and one entirely new is given of a conical figure, cutting 
 through the inclined fide of a roof ; of which it may be obforved, that the 
 curb on the inclined fide of the roof is the perfpedtive reprefentation of the 
 circle A , B 3 C, D, &c. Plate 21, or bale of the cone, when the eye is at 
 the vertex, K. 
 
 On the fubjetft of Niches, I am enabled to offer fome new and ufeful rules, 
 of which I beg leave here to obferve, that on Plate 22 is very fimple in its 
 conftru&ion, and may readily be put in pra&ice ; the method of fixing the 
 ribs differs from that defcribed in the Carpenter’s Guide ; but the principles 
 of getting the curve of the ribs is the fame j yet I muft obferve, the former 
 method is the ftrongeft and beft, if the niche is to be lathed and plaiftered : 
 the prefont example is better adapted for a niche intened to be boarded. 
 The defign on Plate 23, is not lo proper foi Carpentry, - as all the ribs re- 
 quire backing, and each requires a particular centre, as having a different 
 curve. This and the following example therefore are given as hints to the 
 workman, Blowing the various methods of conftru&ing niches, applicable or 
 proper for plaifterers work, and maybe attended with advantages when cir- 
 cumftances require a varied conftru&ion. On Plate 25, is ftiown the manner 
 of conftrufting a circular niche in a circular wall j the manner of getting the 
 curve of the ribs is the fame as defcribed in the Carpenter’s Guide, but the 
 manner of fixing them is better adapted to practice, requiring fewer lines and 
 lefs time to execute. 
 
 To the young or inexperienced workman, the next plate will be of pecu- 
 liar ftrvice, though explaining lo familiar a fubjedt as framing of Angles, 
 which are applicable to Dados, Skirtings, Backs and Elbows, Troughs, 
 Water- fpouts, &c. 
 
 An 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 v 
 
 • An ufefui manner of taking Dimenfions without taking the angles is fhown 
 in the example of a foffit on pannelling of any kind, for which a piece of 
 framing may be wanted. 
 
 In thofe inftances which I have, and not improperly, called every-day ex- 
 amples, I hope my prefent labours will be particularly ferviceable to work- 
 men in general, by the explanations of the true principles of Hinges, and 
 by the numerous examples applicable to every fituation. The methods of 
 making Joints for the purpofe of being Hinged together, and alfo the methods 
 of hingeing them, is fhown in the moft ample manner, and forms a very valu- 
 able article to every Joiner, wilhing to excel in his profdTion ; and I think 
 it fcarcely poffible but in the moft difficult fituations fomething will be found 
 applicable ; and it is poffible they may all come into ufe, in going through an 
 extenfive bufinefs. 
 
 The next article is not of inferior importance, and the principles here laid 
 down willlead to fure methods for Hanging of Doors in general, and for find- 
 ing the meeting joints of folding doors; for in general, doors are not hung 
 to the beft advantage ; and few workmen know any certain method by which 
 to adjuft properly the meeting-joint of folding-doors. When folding-doors 
 are hung upon a ftraight plan, it is true they require but little bevel, and are 
 therefore generally done by guefs ; but if they are hung upon a circular plan, 
 to open inwards, then a rule is abfolutely neceffary, they will elfe be in dan- 
 ger of being made too narrow. 
 
 In the whole range of the Joiner’s bufinefs there is no part which requires 
 more fkill and accuracy than in what belongs to Windows, I mean Safhes, 
 their Frames and Shutters, and which have never yet been explained it has 
 been my endeavour to give inftru.dions proper for fetting out windows and 
 Hi utters for various purpofes, and to ffiow a true method for cutting ffiutters 
 neceffary for any opening. I muft here obferve, thefe plates will be of 
 fingular ufe to perfons in fetting out work for Building, as well as to work- 
 men. 
 
 A general method for enlarging or diminifliing of Mouldings is fhown ; 
 alfo the methods for finding the Mitres of raking Mouldings for ftraight or 
 for circular pediments. That for ftraight pediments is not very different from 
 the one in the Carpenter’s Guide, but is fhown rather more clearly here ; but 
 the method for mitering a circular pediment, and particularly for the mould- 
 ings, has never before been fhown : connedted with this is the method for 
 fetting out cornices for Shop fronts. 
 
 On 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 On that important and intricate part of the bufinefs Stair-cafes, to which 
 I have given particular application and attention, 1 have now the latisfadKon 
 to make public, leveral great improvements and new articles. On Plate 60, 
 is fhewn a method different from that in the Carpenter’s Guide, for glueing 
 up a rail in thicknefs, and which is plainer and more eafily underftood. Then 
 follows a method accurate and true, for executing a Stair-cafe and Hand rail, 
 either out of the folid, or in thicknefs, when the well-hole is in the form of 
 a fruftrum of a cone j a folution or true method for which has never been 
 fhown in any work. Finally, there is a method for cutting the but-joints and 
 for placing the falling mould to the folid piece after its being plumbed, a 
 rule very much wanted in pradtice, and which will render the application of 
 the moulds abfolutely certain. 
 
 Having thus enumerated the heads of contents of this part of the book, 
 and pointed out their ufefulnefs in practice, it remains only for me to fay, 
 that as in my former work I have united Theory and Practice, in this I have 
 joined to the practical part fome ideas of Embellifhments, giving to the doors 
 and windows the fafhionable mouldings, pannels and jambs. 
 
 It may be proper for me here again to obferve, that this book will 
 not fuperfede or render ufelefs my former publication 1 The Carpenter's New 
 Guide , by no means the fubjedts, a few inftances only excepted, are totally 
 different: the two volumes will form a complete treadle on the Carpenter and 
 Joiner’s bufinefs : befides, the Elements or Principles, as the bafis of prac- 
 tice, laid down in the beginning of the Carpenter’s Guide, I earneftly recom- 
 mend to be well underftood by every one who wilhes to attain to eminence 
 and accuracy in the profeffion ; for whoever fhall attempt the practical parts 
 of the Carpenter’s bufinefs without a due knowledge of the principles, will 
 be like a fhip at fea without rudder or compafs, the port may be obtained 
 but the labour will be great and the event doubtful. 
 
 My endeavour has been to give articles of abfolute ufe only, for as to a 
 number of curious fpeculations which rarely come into pradtice, I fee no end 
 to inventing them j and I muft fay, that from my profeflional habits of teach- 
 ing, I am but too well qualified to judge of the deficiency of young work- 
 men, arifing from defedt of education, or from juft principles having never 
 been laid before them. 
 
 On that fubtile fubjedt, the proportional Strength of Timber, on which I 
 gave fome obfervations and calculations in my Carpenter’s Guide, I was in 
 hopes that I fbould have been able to reduce the theory of {bindings to an 
 
 arithmetical 
 
Y 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 arithmetical rule, of confequence certain, and of general application i I have 
 to lament that all my endeavours, aflided by feveral gentlemen well verfed in 
 mathematics, have hitherto been unfuccefsfuL — As the bed fubftitute for a juit 
 rule for proportioning fcantlings, 1 have lubjoined examples of roofs of the bed 
 repute, with accurate meafurements to the parts i fome of thefe having dood 
 the ted of time, are entitled to great credit as examples ; of thefe, the roof 
 of St. Paul’s Cathedral mud certainly dand fore mod, as well for magnitude 
 as merit ; of the others, fome parts may juftly be conddered as beacons of 
 caution, the dangers of which I have endeavoured to point out : of the more 
 modern ones I have to obferve, their magnitude call them into important 
 notice, and from the principles on which they are conftruded, I fee no reafon 
 to doubt their durability. I beg leave here to return my thanks to the fe- 
 veral Gentlemen who have favoured me with communications for this part of 
 my work. 
 
 The roofs which I meafured I have the fatisfadion to fay, were all in good 
 repair and free from any cracks or flaws arifing from unneceflary thruds or 
 tranfverfe drains ; neverthelefs, thefe examples fhould not be followed with- 
 out caution and confideration, as it is poflible a roof may be too drong or 
 heavy, as well as too weak j there are certain pofitions in which if the tim- 
 bers are fixed, the number of braces may be leflened, and the fcantling of 
 the timbers be much reduced which will occafion lefs drefs upon the walls, 
 and greatly leflen the expence of the work ; nor fhould we ever defpair of 
 making advances in fcience. 
 
 Connected with Roofs are the fubjeefts Mortices, Tenons, King-pods, 
 Iron-draps, and Joggles for braces or druts, on which the practical Carpen- 
 ter will find much uleful information, tending to point out the condrudion, 
 bed adapted to their feveral circumdances. 
 
 As the Strength of Timber is to all practical Carpenters a fubjed of the 
 fud magnitude, at the concluflon of this work the reader will find much very 
 important and ufeful information relative thereto, extracted from the works 
 of the mod celebrated mathematician and philofophers who have written on 
 the fubjed j thefe principally are Frenchmen, and when I name M. Belidor, 
 M. du Hamel, and M. de Buffon, nothing more need be faid, only that their 
 refearches were aided by the liberality of the old French Government j for 
 ample funds and apparatus, with the whole of the foreds in France, were at 
 their command, properly to invedigate and to experiment this important 
 branch of fcience : other great names are quoted, and upon the whole I have 
 7 much 
 
 %■ 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 much reafon to hope, this part of my labours will be productive of much 
 good to my countrymen and of praife to myfelf. 
 
 And here it is but juftice to make my acknowledgments to the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica, where, under the article Strength of Material, an ample dilcuf- 
 fion of this fubjeCt will be found, with all the mathematical demonftrations 
 neceflary to the fubjeCt; forming a complete hiftory of tne lefearches which 
 have been made by the various mathematicians and philofophers of Europe 
 on this interefting fubjeCt. 
 
 To conclude, I have to hope, that what has been accumulated with no 
 fmall portion of labour and pains to me, will be attended with a correfponding 
 benefit to the Public, this only will give an impetus Efficient to carry me on 
 in this intricate path of practical fcience. 
 
 PETER NICHOLSON. 
 
 P. S. I beg leave here to obferve, as the information may have its ufes, 
 that upon enquiry I find the domical roof in my Carpenter s Guide, Plate 48, 
 to be nearly alike in conftruction with the roof of the dome of the Pantheon, 
 in Oxford-ftreet, as originally executed by Mr. James Wyatt, Architect; 
 alfo, that the roof, Plate 43, of the fame work, is nearly fimilar to the one 
 executed by that gentleman, over the ftage, when the Pantheon was convert- 
 ed into an Opera-houfe. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Plate 
 
 S OFFITS, to draw the covering of an oblique cone — — 1 
 
 •• ■■■ to draw a foffit fluing from the plan and level at the crown, when both the 
 outfide and infi.de arches are elliptical — — — 2 
 
 Groins, to draw and fix the ribs of a plaifter groin whofe plan is rectangular, and the 
 
 arches to interfeCt each other at their common height — "“3 
 
 to draw and fix the ribs of a Welch groin — 1 — — 4 
 
 Arches for Masonry, to find the points of an elliptical (lone arch cutting oblique 
 
 in a ftraight wall, See. — * — — 5> 6, 
 
 Floors, SeCtion, plan with the girders, plan of a double floor — — 
 
 Plans and elevations with feCtions, (hewing the bond-timbers in the wall, and 
 
 the manner of framing — — — 
 
 Partitions, trufied partition, with two doors in it — — 
 
 Roofs, to find the ftrongeft poflible roof Out of a given quantity of timber — 
 
 to make a roof when the plan is a trapezium — — 
 
 - to fix and deferibe thf* ribs in a dome, when the plan is a circle and the eleva- 
 tion a fegment of a circle — — 
 
 to cover the whole of a fpheroidical dome with one mould only, when the plan 
 
 is a fedlion, pafling through the tranfverfe axis of the fpheroid, &c. — 
 
 ■■ — to cover a fpheroidical dome with boards, having all their joints in plains, per- 
 pendicular to the tranfverfe axis of the dome — — 
 
 * to fix a conical top over a fquare room — — 
 
 to determine the interfedlions of a conical fini(h over any fquare room, the dia- 
 meter being equal to the diagonal of the fquare — — 
 
 to fix the ribs of a fpandrel dome (landing over a fquare plan — — 
 
 to find the interfeClion of the ribs of a fpandrel dome, &c. as plate 17 
 
 Sky-Lights, to place the ribs of a conical (ky-light, fo that their diftances (hall be 
 
 proportional to the degree of curveture of the plan, &c. — 
 
 to draw the curb of a conical (ky-light placed on the inclined fide of a roof, &c. 
 
 Niches to draw the ribs for the top of a niche, the head being a femicircle, and the 
 plan a fegment — — 
 
 to find the ribs of a fpherical niche which is the fegment of a circle on the plan,- 
 
 and a femicircle on the elevation — 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 — 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 — 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 — 22. 
 
 — 23- 
 Niches 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Plate 
 
 Niches to delcribe the ribs of a niche when parallel to each other, whofe top is part 
 of a globe, Sec. — < — 
 
 To draw and fix the ribs of a circular niche in a circular wall — 
 
 Of Fixing Grounds. 
 
 Of Laying Floors. 
 
 Mitering >— — 
 
 Of Taking Dimensions — — 
 
 Hingeing, the principles of hanging doors, Sec. — 
 
 Of Placing Hinges — — 
 
 Of Doors, method of making double margin — 
 
 Of Hanging Doors. 
 
 to find the true bevel for hanging— to find the joints for folding — 
 
 ■ to find the bevel on the edge, when on a circular plan, to turn on the convex 
 
 fide — ■ — 
 
 - to find the meeting joint of folding-doors, when the hinges are on the concave 
 fide — , 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 to 33 
 
 — 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 Of Doors, elevation and fedlion of folding-doors, to open a communication, &c. 
 
 fedlion of the above, (bowing the conftrudlion, Sec. — — 
 
 elevation of folding-doors, to (hut quite out of the way, to open a communica- 
 tion, &c. — — _ , 
 
 — — elevation of a j ib door — - — . 
 
 of conftrudling the bafe-mouldings of a jib-door, by a circular motion in the 
 
 joints — — ™ 
 
 to find the joint of a jib-door, the joint to be a plain — — 
 
 —i — to hang folding-doors, fo as to open or (hut together, called Sympathetic-doors 
 Sash Frames, the conftrudlion — — — 
 
 Sash Sills and Sashes — — — 
 
 Shutters, the conftrudlion — — 
 
 — — elevation and plan of a window, when the wall is not thick enough to admit of 
 
 fedtion of the above — __ 
 
 " plan, &c. as before, and to (hew the fame finifhings as if there were boxes 
 
 different fedlion of ditto — , — __ 
 
 plan, &c. of (hutters, which will (how uniform whether the (hutters are open 
 
 or (hut — 
 
 parts of the foregoing at large — _ _ _ 
 
 when the frame is out of the fquare, &c. — 
 
 * plan and elevation of (hutters to the foregoing example — 
 
 Of Diminishing and Enlarging Mouldings, Sec. — 
 
 Of Raking Mouldings ftraight or circular — 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 Of Setting out Shop Fronts on a circular plan 
 
 — 52 
 
 — 53 
 
 — 54 
 
 — 55 
 
 — 56 
 
 — 57 
 
 — 58 
 
 Stair- 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 xi 
 
 Stair-cases, to draw the fcrole of a hand-rail to any number of revolutions 
 
 to find the form of the veneers for glueing a rail in thicknefs — 
 
 to draw the elevation of a hand-rail and the ends of the fteps for ftairs, the 
 
 well-hole being the fruftrum of a cone — - — 
 
 — — — to find the falling mould to the above — < — ~ — 
 
 Moulds, to find the moulds for making a hand-rail in thicknefs, when the welj- 
 hole is the fruftrum of a cone — — < ^ — 
 
 the fame continued — — ■ *•— 
 
 to find the moulds for making butt-joints for a rail, when got out of the folid 
 
 Additional defcription to Plate 29. 
 
 Examples of Roofs which are built. 
 
 60 
 
 St. Paul’s Cathedral — - — 
 
 St. Paul’s Church, Covent Garden — 
 
 Ifiington Church • — ~ 
 
 St. Martin’s Church ■— 
 
 Chapel of Greenwich Hofpital — 
 
 Drury-Lane Theatre — 
 
 Birmingham Theatre — 
 
 Tower of the York-Buildings Water- Works 
 Defign for a Spire and for a Turret — 
 
 Of Tenons and Mortices, according to their pofition 
 Of Iron Straps and King Posts 1 — 
 
 66, 67 
 
 — « 68 
 
 Of the Strength of Timber — 
 
 Belidor’s Experiments — 1 
 
 Buffon’s ditto — 
 
 Du Hamel’s ditto — ■ 
 
 Of the abfolute Strength of Timber — • 
 
 Practical Obfervations — 
 
 To cut the ftrongcft poflible Beam, out of a round Tree 
 Conclufion — 
 
 Additional Defcription to Plate LXXIX 
 
 THE 
 
PI. 2. 
 
THE 
 
 CARPENTER and JOINER’s ASSISTANT. 
 
 EXPLANATIONS, See. 
 
 PLATE L 
 SOFFITS. 
 
 To draw the covering of an oblique cone . 
 
 ET ABC be the moft oblique fe£lionof the cone through its axis, and B 12345, 
 See. be the bafe for half the cone, divide it into any number of equal parts at the points 
 1234, &c. through thefe points draw, 1 P, 2 j^, 3 P, 4 0 , &c. ; perpendicular to A B 
 join CP, C CP, CO, See. ; then draw P K , j^ 7 , P H y O G, Sec. refpe&ively per- 
 pendicular to CP, J^L, C P, C O, &c. and refpe&ively equal to P 1, 2, P 3, O 4, Sec. 
 
 through the points P, P, /, H, C, P, &c. deferibe the arc r, P 9, K p y to H n y G m y 
 & c * Then take any of the equal parts, as from B to 1, or from 1 to 2, round the 
 femicircle ; put one foot of the compafs in B crofs the next arc at «, then put one foot in 
 a crofs the next in b y then put one foot in b crofs the next in c 3 and in this manner proceed 
 through all the points, till you arrive at h the laft point j then will BabcdefghC , 
 be the edge of the covering of the half cone. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 SOFFITS. 
 
 How to draw a fojft Jluing from the plan and level at the crown when both the outfide 
 
 and infide arches are elliptical. 
 
 Let A B D C be the plan of a door or window having a foffit of this nature, and let 
 AFC y BED , be the outfide and infide arches, divide half of the arch DEB , as 
 P 1 2 34 5 E into any number of equal parts, as fix, and produce A B and CD , the 
 
 ^ two 
 
2 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 two Tides of the plan, till they meet in G ; from the points C, D and G, draw the lines 
 C^>, D O, and G P, perpendicular to C G; make D 0 and C Q refpeftively equal to the arc, 
 D E and C F\ through the points ^and O draw the line QO P, cutting G P in P on 
 G ; with the radius G P defcribe the quadrant P X. , divide the arc PX into as many equal 
 parts as the arc DE is divided into at; i, 2, 3, 4, 5, draw lines 5.5, 4^3?, &c. parallel 
 toXG, cutting GP atr, r, q, p y and 0 , take the diftance G H, from 5 defcribe an arc at b y 
 take the diftance between D 1 or 1 and 2 on the arc D E, then on D crofs the former 
 arc at then take G /, on r, defcribe an arc at /, then with the fame diftance as before,, 
 viz. between D 1 or 1 and 2, on b defcribe an arc cutting the former at i ; then take- 
 G K , and on q defcribe an arc at k ; then again, with the diftance D 1 on /, crofs the 
 arc k at k. Proceed in this manner to find the points /, m> and n y then will the points 
 D, h, /,*,/, w, and n y coincide refpedtively on the arch at D 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and E y which 
 will give one half of the curve for the arch D E P, the points G, w, v, u, t , r, r, to cover 
 the arch CF A will be found by making hw, i v> k «, / 1 , m r, and n r, equal to their 
 correfponding diftance H W r IV \ K U, L % M S } and N R ; a curve being traced 
 through thefe points will give one half of the foffit, from this a mould may be made that 
 will give the other half. 
 
 PLATE IIL 
 GROINS. 
 
 How to draw and fix the ribs of a plaijler groin whofe plan is reft angular and the arches 
 to interfeft each other at their common height. 
 
 Let G H I K L M be one of the arches given, Handing over A B CD E F on the plan, 
 or in any other pofition parallel to it; let N y O, P, R, S, be the piers on which the 
 ribs are to ftand. 
 
 Take any points G , H y /, K y Z, and M y at pleafure, from thefe points draw lines 
 M F f L E e 7 K D d y I C c y &c. perpendicular to the bafe ABODE F y cutting the an- 
 gular rib g h at the joints a y b y Cyd y e y f', from thefe points draw perpendiculars a g, bh y 
 c i y dk y el y and f m y to g h ; alfo through the points <7, by c , d y and e t in g h No. 1, draw 
 parallel lines to the other fide of the groin a a gy bbby cciy ddk y e e /, and f f my cut- 
 ting i k at the points a y b y c y d y <?, and f ; then make all the diftances a gy b h, c ;, dk y e l y 
 f m y in No. 1, and No. 2, equal to correfponding diftances, A G y B H y C /, D K y E Ly and 
 F My will be points in half of the arches at No. 1 and No. 2, from which the curve of 
 the rib may be completed. 
 
 The fixing of the ribs of the groin may be as follows : 
 
 Put principal ribs acrofs the piers each way, alfo acrofs the diagonals; then put 
 ftraight ribs acrofs thefe parallel to each fide of the groin, meeting on the diagonal rib 
 in order to fix the laths. 
 
 PLATE 
 

 Lofu1tm. lhhhsht<i . by J SrJSfayforJToTbortl , July 2 • 
 
TI-IE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 3 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 GROINS. 
 
 How to draw and fx the ribs of a TFelfn groin by an eafy method. 
 
 In order to have a correct idea of the manner of finding the lines of this groin, it will firft 
 be neceflary to know the manner in which the ribs are to be fixed. 
 
 The rib over B is one of the body range, the rib at A is one of the fide arches cut- 
 ting under the former; the principal ribs are firft fixed acrofs the piers, then ftraight ribs 
 ,may be notched acrofs the under edge of the principal ones, fo as to meet each other ex - 
 a&ly at the interfe&ion of the two fides of the groin. 
 
 How to defer ibe an angle rib for this groin . 
 
 Divide the half arch C D E F G H into any number of parts at the points 
 Z>, £, F , G, through thefe points draw the parallel lines C O, D TV, E M y F X, &c. 
 parallel to the body range of the groin cutting the other fide of the groin produced, at 
 O, N, M , Z, K ; then on I as a centre, with the diftances IK, I L, / M, I N, and 
 I 0, as radii, deferibe the quadrants O o, Nn,Mm, L /, and Kk , cutting the fide of the 
 groin produced at 0 , », m, /, k\ through thefe points draw lines 0 c, n d, me , If ,&c. 
 parallel to O /, cutting the body range at c, d, e,fg\ through thefe points draw parallels 
 c If d V, e S, / R, &c.; alfo through the points C, D, E , F, G, draw the parallels 
 C U, D F, E S, &c. cutting the former at U, % 5, R , which will give the feat of the 
 angle. 
 
 Flow to trace and back the angle rib. 
 
 From the angle of the pier at 2V, and the middle of the feat of the angle at U, join 
 NU, cutting the lines D T, E S, F R, and G at the points, v, w, *, and y > 
 draw the line z y parallel to U Z, diftant from each other the thicknefs of the rib, cutting 
 CU, D T, E S, F R, and G at z, V, W, X,T\ through the points IT, u , v , F, w, TV, 
 x, X, y, T, draw the perpendiculars U G, u c, v D, V D, w E, /T*, x T, XT ; make 
 « r, F d, TV e, Xf and on No. 2 , refpectively equal to u c, t d, s e , r/, and y and 
 through the points r, <?, /,£, »*, No. 2 , draw C c, Z></, T T/, G^, parallel to GZ> 
 cutting 17 G, 77), 5 £, &c. at D, £, T, and g\ then will CD E FG be one of the 
 backing lines, and edefg the other. 
 
 B 2 
 
 PLATE 
 
4 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 ARCHES FOR MASONRY. 
 
 T i find out the points ofi an elliptical Jlone arch cutting oblique in a Jlraight wall. 
 
 Divide half of the arch B C perpendicular to A F , fig. i. into any odd number of equal 
 parts, two of which parts are fuppofed equal to the thicknefs of one of the ftones on the 
 under fide of the arch ; this is done fo that there may be a ftone in the middle of the arch, 
 inftead of a joint. Then the diftances between i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. contain each two parts. 
 Find one half of tbefoffit at fig. 3, as is ftiown in the Carpenter’s New Guide, fig. A . 
 plate 2. Then will 1, 2, 3, &c., in fig. 3, be the moulds for the underfide of the ftones, at 
 I, 2, 3, &c. in fig. 1 ; the widths of the moulds at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, &c. are refpe&ively 
 equal to C L, 1 a, 2 b, 3 c , & c. in fig. I. Then the rhomboides E , M \ G , Z, will be a 
 mould for the joint C L, it will be enough to defcribe any one of the joints. Suppofe 
 7 g at fig. 1, draw g e perpendicular to A C, cutting D E , at e , and 7, 5 m, parallel to it ; 
 from e, draw e 5 perpendicular to g e, then take the diftance 5 m , in fig. 1, and fet i t 
 from 7 to m , at No. 7, draw 7 g perpendicular to it, equal to 7 g at No. 1, join mg in No. 
 7, continue m 7 to h , make m h , at No. 7, equal to E M, at fig. 1, then complete the 
 parallelogram, mg i h , will be a mould for the joint 7 g , at No. 1. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 ARCHES FOR MASONRY 
 
 In plate 5. has already been (hewn the method for finding the lines of an elliptical arch, 
 cutting obliquely into a ftraight wall, by a general method which may be applied to cir- 
 cular walls ; but in this I {hall {hew a more particular rule which will be fhorter in prac- 
 tice for this kind of arch* 
 
 Firft find the foffit as in fig. 2, for the underfide of the arch ; now in order to find the 
 levels of the fide joints, at B , C, D , E , F , G , &c. draw parallels B £>j C R,D S, E T, See. 
 cutting the face of the wall at R, 5 , T, See . ; from thefe points draw the perpendiculars 
 y, R r, S s, T /, Sec. to the lines B £>■, C R, Sec. ; take 0 b , on P , crofs the perpendi- 
 cular ? , at q , draw p q , then take 0 c, on P, crofs P r at r, and join P r ; take 0 d 
 on P, crofs 5 s at j, join P s ; in this manner proceed to find all the other lines P t, P u, 
 P v, P w. Sec. then will P q, P r, P s. Sec. make angles with the line O P, which the 
 end of each joint muft make with the underfide refpedlively at the joints P, C, Z>, E , P, & c. 
 
 PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 S 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 ARCHES FOR MASONRT. 
 
 Of a Jlone arch in a circular wall. 
 
 The defcription of this arch is fimilar to that of the elliptical arch, cutting -obliquely 
 into a ftraight wall, as has already been defcribed in plate 5. That is, the moulds for the 
 underfide of the ftones and the joints will be found, as in that plate ; but the fronts of the 
 Rones muft be wrought circular to the plan, or perpendicular, on the elevation ; therefore in 
 order to bring the face of each ftone, forming the arch, to the true curve of the wall, a 
 ftraight edge applied to the face of each ftone, which muft be in a dire&ion which would 
 be perpendicular when put in its place, which line may be found as follows : from the ele- 
 vation draw a perpendicular line a b , cutting the top of the joint of the ftone at <7, and the 
 fide at b , then the ftone being wrought on four fides, the face will be eafily wrought by 
 keeping the ftraight edge always parallel to a b . 
 
 PLATE VIIL 
 OF FLOORS. 
 
 Fig. r, the perpendicular fe&ion of a houfe through the windows. 
 
 A A A A A) fedtion of the walls through the windows. 
 jB } tie beam. 
 
 g g g g, See. the wall plates, on which refts the tie beams, girders and binding joifts. 
 
 C, a girder cocked down to the wall plate g. 
 
 D D D } binding joifts in the floors. 
 
 £, e , e, are the ends of the bridging joifts, running over the binding joifts. 
 
 /,/,/, the ends of the deling joifts which are chafed at one end in the binding joifts. 
 
 Fig. 2. The plan of a floor with a girder^ /hewing how to place the fame. 
 
 No girder, or ftrong tie, ftiould be placed over any opening, and as the beft method of 
 laying girders, is to have them exadtly in the middle of the room and parallel to the walls 
 on each fide ; but as this is not always practicable, as in the prefent example, there being 
 an opening, or window, in the middle of the room j therefore* that the girder may divide 
 
 the 
 
6 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the room, as near as pofiible, into two equal parts, let the one end of the girder reft upon 
 the pier that is neareft to the middle, and the other at the fame diftance on the contrary 
 fide in the oppofite wall. 
 
 A A A A, &c. plan of the walls. 
 
 G G G Gy the flues. 
 
 r, r, r, r, r, thicknefs of the brick work, from the outfide of the fafh frame to the out- 
 ride of the wall. 
 
 a , <7, <?, a, a , &c. plan of the wall plates. 
 
 C, C, the girder. 
 
 e , <?, <?, ^,&c. the joifts framed into the girder C and into the tail-trimmers T, T, T, &c. 
 
 T] T] F] &c. tail-trimmers, in order to prevent the ends of the timbers, as much as 
 poflible, from going into the wall ; according to the regulations of the building a£t. 
 
 JT y JTy hearth trimmers. 
 
 Ky K , K , a fix inch partition between the rooms. 
 mm, a nine inch wall enclofing the flairs. 
 
 Fig. 3. Plan of a double fioor. 
 
 In this the fame letters refer to the fame things as in fig. 2 . 
 
 DDDyDDDyDDDy &c. binding joifts, their fides are (hewn at D D 2 ), in fig. 1 . 
 *, x, x, x , &c. bridging joifts. 
 
 L A, the ftair-trimmer. 
 
 M, M \ M \ Angle joifts framed into the flair trimmer, L L. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 OF FLOORS. 
 
 No. I. Plan and two elevations , with fediions , of naked flooring and walls , Jhewing 
 how to conflrudi the bond timbers in the wall , alfo the manner of framing the floors for 
 fmall buildings , or buildings of the third or fourth clafs. 
 
 Plan of the flooring. 
 
 BBBBBBy plan, or a horizontal fedlion of the brick work. 
 
 C, C, windows. 
 
 Z), chimney. 
 
 E , flue. 
 
 Fy door. 
 
 gggg, &c. common joifts. 
 
 h h h by trimmer joifts framed into the common joifts. 
 
 m mm m, &c. keys to (Lengthen the joifts. Fig. 1. (hews the edge or top of a key. 
 Fig. 2. the fide of ditto. Fig. 3. a key framed into the joift. Fig. 4. fide view of a joift, 
 (hewing the mortife to receive the key. 
 
 No. 
 
jF/oorsScBoj'ul2?-mlfer's. 
 
 N?2 . 
 
 London . l\ib tithed .by I fcj Taylor Meibom , July i 'Sijy 6 - 
 
T’/'M/sfWZhr/iftoj/ . 
 
 /.on Jo/i Tubltsh/d 7>pl£rJ.7}n/7or Holhom , July i %pt>. 
 
7 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 No. 2. E levation of the window fide of the room . 
 
 C, C, windows. 
 
 ccc c, Sec. the breadth of the recefied part of the window. 
 k /f, bond timbers under the window. 
 
 a a a a. Sec. the ends of the joifts of the floor above the windows. 
 
 b b by a wall plate for the joifts. 
 
 dd d and d d dy bond timbers in the wall. 
 
 <>, <?, e , e , Sec. the ends of the bond timber in the fide walls. 
 
 «, », «, Sec. the ends of the bond timber from the recefs of the windows. 
 A A A A, the joifts of the floor, below the window. 
 
 No. 3'. Elevation of the chimney fide of the room. 
 
 The letters of reference are the fame as to No. 2. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 TRUSSED PARTITIONS . 
 
 Deftgn for a trujfed partition^ with door-ways in it. 
 
 5, B , 2?, 5, By & c. the ends of the joifts of the floor, above the partition. 
 
 C, C, C, C, keys put between the fteady joifts, when they have along bearing, and 
 to {Lengthen the floor. 
 
 a a a tf, thicknefs of the floor. 
 
 D D D D, top of the partition. 
 
 Ey is, queen pofts. 
 
 F y A, braces, to keep the building fteady, 
 
 G G Gy lintle-piece over the doors. 
 
 H y Hy Hy door pofts. 
 
 ly Iy braces for the lower partition. 
 
 K K Ky bottom of the partition. 
 
 Ly Ly joifts going into the girder M. 
 
 My the girder {hewing the tenons. 
 
 «, iiy «, k, Sec. are upright quarterings. 
 
 PLATE 
 
8 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE XI. 
 
 OF ROOFS. 
 
 The width of a roof being given , and the quantity of timber to make it , to find, the height 
 fo that it Jhall be the firongefi pojfible. 
 
 Fig. i. Let AB be the width, or fpan, between the principal rafters : on it defcribe a 
 iemicircle, A d e B •, divide A B into three equal parts at the points a and b ; from thefe 
 points draw the perpendiculars a d and b e , cutting the circle in d and join Ae and d B , 
 cutting each other at the point C ; then will C A and C j B, be the upper edge of the prin« 
 cipal rafters, wich will alfo conftitute the height of the roof. 
 
 Fig. 2. is a defign for another roof, made on the fame conftrudlion, for a fmaller fpan. 
 
 Names of the timbers. 
 
 A B , the tie beam. 
 
 C L, the king poll mortifed and bolted into the tie beam at L. See alfo No i. 
 
 //, braces mortifed into the king poft. 
 
 A C and C B, are principal rafters mortifed into the tie beam, at A and B , (fee No. 6.) 
 and into the king poft at C, and alfo into the braces. 
 
 G, G, feaions of the wall plates, which are let into the tie beam in order to bind the 
 walls of the building together. (See No. 6.) 
 
 F, T, pole plates. 
 
 K-y Ky feaions of the purlines, 
 ridge tree. 
 
 H Hy and h h, common rafters fupported at the bottom by the pole plates F, F, in the 
 middle by the purlines, K, Ky and at the top by the ridge tree, m. 
 
 No. i, the king poft, and tie beam to a larger fcale. 
 
 No. 2, upper fide of the tie beam (hewing the mortife. 
 
 No. 3, wall plate, fhewing how'it is made to receive the tie beam. 
 
 No. 4, underfide of the tie beam. 
 
 No. 5, and 6, end of the roof to a larger fcale. 
 
 PLATE 
 
Jukj/.y. 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 9 
 
 PLATE XII. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 To make a roof when the plan is of the form of a trapezium. 
 
 Let AB CD be the plan, bifedt all the angles L A M. \ G B H, ^ C P and 0 D X, 
 refpe&ively, by the right lines A E, B E, C S, and D R , which will give the feat, or plan, 
 of the hips. Through E, the interfe&ion of the lines A E and B E, draw X Y parallel to 
 A B, cutting the fides of the plan in X, and Y ; from E, draw E a perpendicular to XI , 
 equal to the intended height of the roof ; draw a X and a Y, which will give the hip raf- 
 ters to ftand over X Y j alfo through E, draw E R, and E S, refpeftively parallel to A D, 
 and B C, the plan of the roof cutting the plan of the hips D R and C S, at R and S, 
 through R and 5 ; draw Z R S ^cutting AD, and B C, at Z and then will E RS 
 be a flat on the top. 
 
 To find the hip rafters. 
 
 From E draw E E, perpendicular to B E, equal to Eaj join E E, and E E will be 
 the length of a hip rafter, to ftand over E E, on the plan. 
 
 To find the angle at the back of the hip rafters. 
 
 Draw any line G H, perpendicular to E E, cutting it at /, and the plan at G and H j 
 through /, draw lb, perpendicular to EE, cutting BE in b\ make Ik equal to 1 b, 
 join G k and k H\ then will Gk i/be the angle fought. 
 
 PLATE XIII. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 ■How to fix and def crib e the ribs in a dome , when the plan is a circle, and the elevation a. 
 
 fegment of a circle. 
 
 METHOD I. 
 
 Fix the principal ribs, as are fhown at A B, C D,E F, and G H, in the elevation and 
 plan, fig. I and 2 ; then cut out fmall notches in their outer edges, in order to receive the 
 crofs bars, which cut the principal ribs at right angles, the fides of each bar being in planes, 
 
 C tending 
 
IO THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 tending to the centre of the dome : fixing the bars in this manner is extremely eafy, as all 
 the crofs ribs are of the fame curve as the principal ribs ; thefe crofs ribs being well fixed, 
 by this method it will be as ftrong as any.trufied dome and much lefs expenlive. 
 
 METHOD II. 
 
 On the other half is fhown the principal ribs a t I K, L M \ and A B , at the elevation, 
 fig. i j and on the plan, at fig. 2, the principal r bs a e filled in between by parallel jack 
 ribs j the manner of finding the centre of them is as follows : fuppofe b c , on the plan, to be a 
 jack rib ; continue it till it meet the oppofite fide, at d\ then b:fe£t b d, by a perpendicular 
 o a e, at a ; make a <?, equal to A O on the elevation ; then with a radius 0 b , defcribe the 
 arc b e i it will be the curve required. 
 
 PLATE XIV. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 Mow to cover the whole of a fpheroidical dome with one mould only y tvhen the hafe or 
 plan of this dome is a feflion, paffing through the tranfverfe axis of the fpheroid , or any 
 ether feftion parallel to it. 
 
 Let A B CD be a plan of the dome, which is a fedtion ; through the tranfverfe axis of 
 a fpheroid, let B D be the conjugate axis ; divide one quarter of the plan B A , into any 
 convenient number of equal parts, as fix j from thefe points draw lines, 1 h a, 2 / ^,3^ r, 
 4/^, See. j parallel to the tranfverfe axis A C, cutting the conjugate B D, at the points 
 b, r, d , and e ; from B make B 8, equal to half of any of the equal diftances, as between 
 B and 1, or between 1 and 2, &c. ; draw f n to the centre, cutting 1 tf, 2 b, 3 r, Sec. at the 
 points h , /, £, /, m ; from the point B , in the line A C, at No. 1, ftreich out the arc B A \ 
 of the quadrant, at fig. 1, on the plan, as at 1, 2, 3, 4, See. through thefe points, draw ordi- 
 nates at right angles to A C\ from the feveral points 1, 2, 3, 4, & c. in A C, No. 1, makt. the 
 feveral diftances 1 />, 2 /, 3 Sec. equal to their correfponding diftances, Bfah^b /, c k , Sec . 
 on the plan, which will give points through which the curve may be completed. The 
 manner of fixing the ribs of this dome is fo fimilar to plate 1 5, page 1 1, that no other de- 
 feription is neceflary ; other differences are plain by infpe&ing No. 3. 
 
 PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 XI 
 
 PLATE XV. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 How to cover a fpheroidical dome with boards , having all their joijls in plains , perpendi- 
 cular to the tranverfe axis of the dome. 
 
 Fig. i, the fide elevation, fhowing the edges of the ribs at A and B , which are perpen- 
 dicular to the plan, and parallel to each other. 
 
 Fig. 2, the plan, one half fhowing the plan of the ribs as at A A, B By and CC. 
 
 Fig. 3, the end elevation, which (hows the ribs at A A A, B B By C C C, which are all 
 circular ; acrofs thefe ribs are fixed fmaller ribs, of the fame curve as the plan, as is fhown 
 in the plan and end elevation. No. 1, fhows the middle rib C C; on the plan fig. 2, No. 2, 
 fhows the rib BB on the plan, and No. 3, the rib A Ay on the plan, or A A Ay on the eleva- 
 tion i each of the principal ribs are notched on the upper edge, In order to receive' the crofs 
 ribs, as is fhewn at No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. 
 
 How to cover the dome. 
 
 On the elevation, fig. 1, take any equal parts as at a , by r, d , and according as you think 
 the width of a board will admit ; now to find the curve of any board, fuppofe one to bend 
 acrofs d e ; through the points e and d draw the flraight line e dh meeting the axis at h ; 
 then on h , as a centre, with a radius h d defcribe a circle, will be one edge of the board, 
 and with a radius h e^ defcribe a circle, will give the other edge of a board for that place ; 
 in the fame manner all the other boards will be found. 
 
 PLATE XVI. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 How to fix a conical top over a fquare room . 
 
 Let A B Cbe half the plan of the room, and D F E be the half plan of a curb to which 
 the ribs are all fixed at the top; the hyperbolical arches a g by b h c, on each of the four 
 fides are all of the fame height ; in order to fix the ftraight ribs b A i k , / w, See. which are 
 alfo fhown on the plan F 2 ?, / K, L M, See. the manner of finding the hyperbolical curves, 
 a g by bb Cy is fhown in the next plate. 
 
 C 2 
 
 PLATE 
 
12 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE XVII. 
 
 ROOFS, 
 
 How to determine the interjections of a conical finijh over any fquare room , the diameter 
 of the bafe of the cone being fuppofed equal to either of the diagonals of the fquare , as 
 
 KLflrl M. 
 
 Bifedl the diagonal L K y at the point N y by the perpendicular /V W\ make NJV equal 
 to the height of the cone; then draw the fides L W y and K TV ; bife£l the fide M K of 
 the fquare at o; on the point N y with a radius N a defcribe an arc a A y cutting the diagonal 
 L K y at A; then take at pleafure the points B y C y and D y between A and K y and with the 
 feveral radii N B y N C, and N D y defcribe arcs Bb y C c y and D d y cutting KM at the 
 points d y c and b ; from the points A y B y C, and D y draw A E y B F y C G y and D H perpen- 
 dicular to the diagonal K L y cutting the fide TV K y of the cone, at E y F y G y and H ; at the 
 points a y b y c y d y eredf perpendiculars a e y bf y cg y and d h y to the fide M L ; make each of 
 the diflances a e y bf y c g y and d h equal to their correfponding di fiances,.// E y BF y C G y and 
 J) H will give the edge of one half of the curve for that fide, from which all the other 
 may be traced ; the fhadowed parts on each of thefe curves fhow the foot of the ribs fo as 
 to bring it to the curb at the top. 
 
 PLATE XVIII. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 How to fix the ribs of a fpandrel dome Jlanding over a fquare plan. 
 
 C D y D E y fg. i. are two fides of the plan; A F B is half the plan of the curb ; fig. 2. is 
 the elevation, in which is fhewn the manner of fixing the ribs on two fides of the plan ; a b 
 the elevation of the curb, correfponding to A EB on the plan; cfd y and d g e y are ribs placed 
 on each fide of the plan, which fupportthe vertical ribs which form thefpherical furface;and 
 thofe vertical ribs fupport the curb afb- y on afb is placed a fky-light to admit of light to 
 the flairs or room ; this fpandrel dome is to be finifhed with plaifter and confequently the 
 ribs mufl be at a near diflance to each other at their widefl places (about one foot or lefs 
 from centre to centre). 
 
 PLATE 
 
Jifjo/s. 
 
 L ondcn .Tubh‘*ti<ui bv 1 £-J .Taylor Jin [bom . -full/ z x . * iffiC 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 *3 
 
 PLATE XIX . 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 To find the ;„urf^nof tU rlls of a_ fpandrel done, w hofo fm tn i, a S ; W nfi imnt of 
 a circle , Jlandmg over a fquare plan , « in plate 17. 7 J 
 
 fquare plan ’ and ktD£FB be a reaion ° f * he d °- - *• 
 
 and^r 7°!" 7l m ° f °" e qUarter ° f the ribs > as are ' 1 >o™ «UC, ™ SL RT 
 and <9 G, fo that Q G is parallel to D C or A B, the f.des of the r t’ ’ 
 
 the feveral radii VG, V I, V L, V N , and V C, defcribe arcs G 7 I T \ Z ’ W “ h 
 
 cutting D B the bafe of the angular rib at * /, /, and , . ££ £ . * ^ &c ’ 
 
 each perpendicular to D B, cutting the diagonal rib at h i * a ’ d 
 
 the diftances G H, IK, L M and N D on l • ’ ’ ’ d ° ’ then m ake all 
 
 /*, an d « 0 ; and iron h «f plts^ H P M » ^ * «, 
 
 nnder edge of the curfe for LZlll^JcT/ 7 <77 
 
 wh.ch is alfo fliown complete on each fide of the fquare clan' no ’ f ’ r ’ VC ' 
 circular fegments as are ihown on each fide of the f 7 Z *’ P '**' ° f the 
 
 angles to the plan A BCD, the ribs will then tU„d inTe^t" UP * ^ 
 
 PLATE XX* 
 
 SKT-LIGHTS. 
 
 "" """ ’",? 4 7 “r 7— 
 
 , ( .t Brn . : / Curm,ure °f *>>• llanwhen ,t is .lUphal. 
 
 the conjugate; on F, with the femi-conjugate defeibe hf a .ad Tr^- “* “* * ° 
 gate at B and the tranfverfe in £ , dig de L utd^ 77 , CU "“ 8 ^ W* 
 
 f u .ntend to have ribs in each quadrant': 7^ 7„VS 
 
 E 2 if & c cutting E G C Tl l n ° U u gh *' P ° mtS J ’ 2 > 3. 4, draw lines F . / 
 
 parallel to B C th r r ’ ’ &C ‘ ’ through ,hc P 0,nts <> h draw / /, f JT, / Z, &c. 
 p. .Uel Z c, the tranfverfe axis, cutting CH a, I, K, L, &c. ; from thefe points draw 
 
 lines 
 
the CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 lines to the centre at F, cutting the circumference of the plan at I, N, 0 , &c. for the 
 place of the ribs. 
 
 On the other fide of the plan the ribs are divided equally at P, & and 5, where it 
 will appear that the fpaces towards the tranfverfe axis A P, P & a PP ear t0 ° S reat 0 
 thofe at the extremity of the conjugate, viz. B S , -Si?. 
 
 PLATE XXL 
 
 SKY-LIGHTS. 
 
 How to drew the curb of a conical Jky -light placed on the inclined fid, of a roof thebafe of 
 the con, being a circle, parallel to the horizon, and the ante of the cone perpendicular 
 
 to its bafe. , , 
 
 Let ay be the inclined fide of the roof, and let the vertex of the cone be at K, and let 
 K jt^be the axis of the cone j draw K 1 and KA making equal angles with . KQ, cun g 
 the inclined fide of the roof at . and ^wany line A I perpendicu tar to the ®» W 
 the cone, cutting thefides K A and K I of the cone at xf and /, and 
 
 then on £ with the radius i^onf?./, deferibe a femicircle JB ^ EFG ^/’ ° 
 
 . , i c a. r :u s a t ABC D, &c. from each plan at B, C, A E , See. draw 
 
 lines from their angular points, each perpendicular to A /, cutting A l near N, 0, P, •?,. 
 &c. from AT, 0, P, *, te draw lines to the vertix at K, cutting a y at n o f £ r s , 
 bifedt a v at V, through v draw Uv V parallel to A I, cutting the fines of the cone at 
 utslrl on VV deferibe a femicircle W from * draw „ perpen icular to 
 UV cutting the femicircle at I ; make o/from » perpendicular to ay equal tot , 
 ' 11 Abe the tranfverfe axis of an ellipfis, and vf will be the conjugate, round 
 whkh deferibe the femi-ellipfis abedefghy, which will give one half of the curve for 
 The curt- in the fame manner you may proceed with the infide of the curb, which has w« 
 for the tranfverfe axis; then by drawing perpendiculars to ay, from n, o, p, f, > 
 tutting thtcurb at * < d. fg h, will give the places of the ribs, and by drawing them to 
 
 q will give their feveral directions. 
 
 PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 35 
 
 PLATE XXII. 
 
 NICHES. 
 
 How to draw the ribs for the top of a niche , the head being a Jemicircle and the plan a 
 
 fegment. 
 
 Let ABC be the plan of the niche, then one half, as A B or B C, will give any one 
 of the ribs which are to be fixed upon the front rib at a y b } c, d } e y equally fpaced, and to 
 mitre together upon the back at E. 
 
 PLATE XXIII. 
 
 NICHES. 
 
 To find the ribs of a fpherical niche which is the fegment of a circle on the plan y and a 
 femicircle on the elevation , the ribs not to tend to the centre of the fphere y but to a point 
 in the back of the front rib of the niche. 
 
 Let A E, B E y C Ey and D E be the plan of half of the ribs; now, in order to find a 
 rib ftanding over any of thefe plans, fuppofe over B Ey produce it out to T, cutting the 
 circumference of the plan at F make F M equal to B E on B F, as a diameter; de- 
 fcribe a part of a circle FI from M; draw MI perpendicular to M Fy cutting the 
 arc at /, then will the arc F I be the under edge of the rib, ftanding over E B ; the 
 breadth of the ribs may be what is thought proper : all the other ribs are defcribed in the 
 fame way by producing their plan to the oppofite fide of the circumference. 
 
 Note. Be careful that each rib be backed to the plan, as is Ihewn in the ribs FI, G K y 
 and R I. 
 
 PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 26 
 
 PLATE XXIV. 
 
 NICHES. 
 
 How to defcribe the ribs of a niche when parallel to each other , whofe top is part of a 
 globe , the plan being the fegment of a circle and the elevation a femicircle. 
 
 Draw the plan and elevation of the ribs ; from the centre C of the plan, and with the 
 radius C L draw the infide circle of the plan all round, produce the ribs till they meet 
 the oppofite fide of the plan at /, F G , CD ; through C the centre of the plan draw 
 MCN, parallel to K R L, the face of the niche, which will cut the plan of the ribs pro- 
 duced at A and B , on the points CA and B , as centres ; with the radii C l, A F , and B C, 
 refpedtively defcribe arcs I TV, F V, and C C T ; and from the points G and D draw the 
 lines G H and D E , perpendicular to the plan of the ribs, cutting the bafe cf 'them 
 at H and E ; then again, on the centres A and B, with the radii A H and B E re- 
 fpeCtively, defcribe arcs HU and E S ; then will I TV be the infide of the rib at No. 1. 
 and F V, and HU, the infide and backing of the arch No. 2 ; likewife CT and E S , the 
 infide and backing of No. 3 ; the outfide lines, reprefenting the width of thefe arches, 
 muft be taken according to the difcretion of the workman. 
 
 Note .~-' The ribs No. 1, 2, and 3, correfpond to the plans marked 1, 2 , and 3. 
 
 PLATE XXV. 
 
 NICHES. 
 
 How to draw and fix the ribs of a circular niche in a circular wall, by an eafy practi- 
 cable method. 
 
 Let Abed be a plan of the infide of the wall A B CD, the infide of the ribs of the 
 niche which are all drawn towards the centre at E, that is the middle of the plan of each 
 rib, will pafs through E the centre of the niche; take either of the diftances E A, E B, 
 E C, &c. and with that diftance take any points H, G, and F, at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, 
 as centres, and defcribe arcs B I K, CL M, and D N, which will be the infide of each 
 rib 5 draw the radius of each, that is B H, C G, and D F. 
 
 How 
 
 4 
 

 I, on don Ttibltrhuf ht/ J faj Taylor* Sit 7bom , .Tidy 1 6 . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 17 
 
 How to cut the ribs to the face of the circular wall. 
 
 Pi cm By C, and Z), at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, make the diftances B by C r, and Z) Z, 
 refpedtively equal to B b, C c, and D d, on the plan; from the points by r, and d at 
 No. 1 , No. 2, No. 3, draw b K P, c M R, and d NT, refpe&ively perpendicular to 
 B H, C G y and D F, cutting their circle in K, My and 2 V; then will B Ky C My and 
 D Ny be the length; on the infide of each rib take the little diftance be, c by from the 
 plan, and at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, make be, dh, equal to them.; draw e I U, h L Vy 
 lefpeciively parallel to b A P and c M Ry and the diftance of the parallel lines IUy K P 
 and MRyLVy will fhow the bevel of each rib fo as to anfwer the face of the wall ; No. 4* 
 fliows the manner of fixing the ribs, which muft be perpendicular to the plan, and, to keep" 
 the ribs fteady, a circular rib may be fixed acrofs the backs, whofe infide will be a part of 
 the fame circle as the back of the ribs. 
 
 OF FIXING GROUNDS. 
 
 Grounds are framed pieces of timber attached to the wall, going round windows, 
 doors, or any other opening in buildings, in order to fix an architrave or any other kind 
 of moulding upon them ; in thefe cafes all grounds ought to ftand perpendicular to the hori- 
 zon, that is, in workmen’s terms, to be plumb face and edge, and great care ought to be 
 taken 111 fixing them perfedly firm and folid in every part, for on their accuracy depends 
 the well finifhing of all the infide work; and if in plaifter, it ought to be floated to 
 them, and the firmly fixing of the architrave will depend much on their folidity. 
 
 In fixing grounds for windows, the fafh frame ought to be carefully fixed firft, and to 
 ftand quite perpendicular, or plumb; be careful that the face of the ground ftand quite 
 parallel to the face of the fafh frame, and to projed about three-fourths of an inch 
 from the face of the naked brick-work, fo as to leave a fufficient fpace for the thicknefs 
 of the plaifter. The edge of the ground ought to be in the fame plane with the edge of 
 the fafli frame (that is, in workmen’s terms, out of winding). The edge of the architrave 
 when finilhed, is to ftand about three-eights of an inch within, the inner edge of the fafh 
 frame, fo that a perpendicular line down the middle of the grounds, ought to ftand exa&ly 
 oppofite to a perpendicular line down the middle of the fafh frame. 
 
 LAYING OF FLOORS. 
 
 The true excellence of a floor is, that it be perfedly level ; but experience teaches us 
 that the nature of wood will not admit of its being made perfedly level, for as every floor 
 has always a certain degree of weight in itfelf, fo it will have a certain degree of finkino- 
 from the laws of gravation, in thofe places where it is not fupported, until the moifture is 
 quite dried out of the wood, and confequently there fhould be a certain degree of fifing or 
 cambering in the floor (about one inch in 20 feet), fo that it fhould be as near to a plane 
 
jS THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 as poffible when it is fettled, or the moifture is dried out. But notwithftanding grounds 
 fhould be perpendicular, and floors horizontal, yet we are often obliged to facrifice thefe 
 perfections, to fuit other conveniences, as will be {hewn in the inftruaions for hanging 
 
 ioors. 
 
 PLATE XXVI. 
 
 MITERING. 
 
 Fig. i, the method of mitering dodo together at any exterior angle of a room. 
 
 jV0f£.—*In fixing this together, you may drive in brads from each fide. 
 
 Fig. 2, the method of fixing troughs together or any reftangular wooden veffel. 
 
 Fig. 3, the method of putting dodo or fkirting together at any interior angle of a 
 room; this is alfo ufed for water trunks. 
 
 Fig. 4, the manner of fixing and finishing two pieces of framing together at the angle 
 cf their meeting with a returned bead, in order that the joint fhould not be (hewn . this 
 is only ufed in common finifhings ; in good finifhings, a fmall three-eight bead is only 
 ufed at the joint, keeping the angle entire. This is the beauty of .joiner’s work, to fhow 
 all angles as {harp as poffible : fome finifh without any bead at the joint, as in fig. 6, where 
 the joint is made asclofe as poffible and well glued together; and if it fhould be required 
 to be ftronger, you may glue blockings in the angle, which will keep it firm. 
 
 Fig. 5, is another method of mitering; this is not fo ftrong as fig. 1, as it has no 
 butment. 
 
 In blueing up large work, all the edges that are to be glued, ought to be put before a fire 
 fo as to be well warmed, and then to be immediately glued, taking care at the fame time 
 that the glue is as hot as poffible, for glue never holds well when it is chilled or cold. 
 
 PLATE 
 
. Jfeasa n nt/ . 
 
 London : Publish'd by I & J. Tun lor Holborn Julyi 'Pt/yS. 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 19 
 
 PLATE XXVII. 
 
 OF TAKING DIMENSIONS . 
 
 Three ftraight lines, AB , CD, and E F, being given to make a triangle, if any two 
 are greater than the third, 
 
 Fig. 1, make H G equal to A B on H j as a centre ; with a radius, E F, defcribe an 
 arc at I on G, as a centre ; with the radius C D defcribe an arc, cutting the former at / ; 
 join HI and G /; then will HG I be the triangle required. 
 
 By this rule (as fig. 2) may a piece of boarding or wainfcotting be fitted into any tri- 
 angular fpace ; if the fides of the fpace are irregular, it will be beft to fit pieces into each 
 feparately ; then lay the angular points together according to their places, and you may pro- 
 ceed as in defcribing a triangle. 
 
 Fig. 3. Suppofe it were required to take the meafures of a fofiit, without ufing any 
 bevel, firft make an eye drawing of it, as is fhown at fig . 3 ; then meafure the length of 
 each fide, and one of the diagonals ; and if one of the fides is curved, you muft meafure 
 the rife of that curve and mark on the fketch ; then you may defcribe it as is fhown in fig 4, 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 HINGEING. 
 
 I he principles of hanging doers, Jhutters , or fiaps , with hinges . 
 
 The centre of the hinge is generally put in the middle of the joint at a , fig. 1 ; but in 
 many cafes there is a necelfity for throwing back the flap to a certain diftance from the 
 joint : in order to effect this, fuppofe you wanted the flap, when folded back, to be at a cer- 
 tain diftance, as a b in fig. 2, from the joint; divide a b in two equal parts at the point c , 
 which will give the centre of the hinge ; the dotted lines b d e f fhows the pofition when 
 folded back. 
 
 Note . — The centre of the hinge muft be placed a fmall matter beyond the furface of the 
 door or fhutter, otherwife the one will not fold freely back on the other. 
 
 It muft alfo be obferved, that the centre of the hinge muft be on that fide that the rab- 
 bet is on, otherwife it will not open without the joint being conftru&ed in a particular form 
 which will be afterwards fhown. 
 
 Fig. 3, fhows the fame thing opened to a right angle. 
 
 D 2 
 
 PLATE 
 
20 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT* 
 
 PLATE XXIX. 
 
 OF PLACING HINGES , &c. 
 
 How to bang two fiaps y or doors , fo that when they are folded hack , they Jkall be at a 
 
 certain dijlance from each other . 
 
 This is eafily accomplished by means of hinges having knees projecting to half that 
 diftance, as is plainly fhown by fig. I ; this fort of hinges are ufed in hanging the doors of 
 pews, in order to clear the moulding of the caping. 
 
 'To make a rule joint for a window Jhutter , or for any folding flaps whatever.. 
 
 Let a, fig. 2, be the place of the joint ; draw a c , at right angles, to the flap ftmtter or 
 door j take r, in the line a c y for the centre of the hinge; take the plain part a b, according 
 as the workman {hall think proper, on c,\ with a radius c h , defcribe the arc b d> then will 
 a b d be the true joint. 
 
 Note. The knuckle of the hinge is always placed in the wood, becaufe the farther it is 
 in the wood the more of the joint will be covered, when it is opened out to a right angle, 
 as in fig. 3 ; but if the centre of the hinge was placed the leaft without the thicknefs of 
 the wood, it would (how an open fpace, which would be a defed in workmanfhip. 
 
 PLATE XXX. 
 
 OF PLACING HINGES , &c. 
 
 How to make the joints of Jlyles , which are to be hung together when the knuckle of ther 
 hinge is placed on that fide that the rabbet is on - 
 
 Let C be the centre of the hinge, M I the joint on the fame fide of the hinge ; K L the 
 depth of the rabbet in the middle, of the thicknefs of the ftyles, perpendicular to K M and 
 L F , the joint on the other fide, parallel to K M\ bifeCl: K L at H, join H C on H C, 
 defcribe a femicircle C I H y cutting K Mat /, through the points I and H ; draw / H 
 G cutting F L at < 7 , then will F G I M be the true joint; but if the rabbet were made in 
 the form M K L F y neither of the ftyles could move round the joint or hinge; C,fig. 2, 
 fhowsthe ftyles to one third part of the fize of fig. i. folded back ; fig. 3. fhows how to 
 perform the fame, by means of a circular joint, whofe centre is the centre of the hinge. 
 
 PLATE 
 
loruien . Publish/ il fy/li-J. Tin tor. TfoTbimi . .. Tuh, / / 
 
IfnJon Pttbhj-fud tylt-J.Tau/or J/ottwrn .Titb/r’^qf . 
 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 21 
 
 PLATE XXXI. 
 
 OF PLACING HINGES , &c. 
 
 How to form the edges cr joints of door fiyles , that are to be hung to each other , Jo that 
 
 the door may open to a right angle , and jhow a bead to correfpond exaftly to the knuckle 
 
 of the hinge. Alfo the manner of cmfruSiing the hinges for the various forms of 
 
 joints, fo as to be let in equally upon each fide. 
 
 Fig. i, No. i, fhows the edge of a ftyle, or it may in fome cafes be a jamb, on which a 
 bead is conftrufted exaftlyto the fize of the knuckle of the hinge, and rabbetted backwards, 
 equal to half the thicknefs of the b;ad: the manner of conftru&ing the rabbet will be fhown 
 as follows : 
 
 Through C, the centre of the bead, which muft alfo be the centre of the hinge, draw 
 C B D perpendicular to E F \ draw AG parallel to it, touching the bead at G; make 
 G .//equal to G C, the radius of the bead ; join C A \ make A B perpendicular to AC, cut- 
 ting C D at B, then will GABD be the joint required. 
 
 No. 2, fig. i, fhews a part of the hanging ftyle conftru&ed fo as to receive the edge of 
 No. i. 
 
 No. %,fig> L fhows the above hinged together, with common butt hinges. 
 
 Note. It muft be obferved in this, and all the following examples of hinges, that the 
 joints are not made to fit exactly clofe, as there muft be allowed in working fufficient fpace 
 for the paint. 
 
 Fig. 2, No. i, and 2. The manner of conftru&ing thefe, being only a plain joint at 
 right angles to the face of the ftyle, no farther defcription is necefiary. 
 
 Fig. 2, No. 3 , fhows No. i, and 2, hinged together, and fhows the particular con- 
 ftrudfion of the hinge fo as to be feen as a part of the bead, and the ftrap part of the 
 hinge to be let equally into each ftyle ; this conftru&ion of the hinge will admit of a bead 
 of the fame fize exadlly oppofite to it. 
 
 Fig. 3> No. i, and No. 2. The manner of conftru&ing the edges of ftyles to be 
 hinged together with common butts, to be let equally into each ftyle : the manner of 
 conftrudfing this joint is fo plain, by the figure, that it would be iifelefs to give a defcrip- 
 tion of it. No. 3, the two pieces hinged together. 
 
 PLATE 
 
22 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE XXXII. 
 
 OF PLACING HINGES , &c. 
 
 Methods of jointing Jlyles together fo as to prevent feeing through the joints, each fide of the 
 Jiyles to finijh with beads of the famee fi%e exactly oppofite to each other , and for the 
 Jirap part of the hinges to be let in equally into both parts or Jlyles . 
 
 Fig. i, No. i, and 2, the manner of conftru&ing the joint before hinged together. 
 
 Fig. 1, No. 3, {hows No. i, and 2, hinged together with hinges made in the form of 
 common butts. 
 
 F ig. 2, No. 1, and 2, {hows another method of conftru&ing the joints before hiiwed 
 together. 
 
 No. 3, {hows No. 1, and 2, put together, and the particular form of the hinges for the 
 joint. 
 
 PLATE XXX111. 
 
 OF PLACING HINGES , & c . 
 
 The principle of concealing binges, flowing the manner of making them , and of forming 
 the joint of the hanging Jlyle, with the other Jlyle connected to it by the hinges , either 
 for doors or windows. 
 
 Fig. i, for a window. 
 
 A, infide bead of the fiafh frame. 
 
 B , infide lining. 
 
 C, ftyle of the Ihutter. 
 
 Let a be the mterfedhon of the face of the Ihutter, or door, with that of the infide linin'* 
 of the falh frame. 0 
 
 a r the face of the infide lining. 
 
 Bifea the angle/* a r by the right line a a*, now the centre c being determined in that 
 line, fo that the knuckle of the hinge may be at a certain diftance from the face pa of the 
 {flutter ; through c draw the line d d , at right angles to a a ; then one fide of the hinge 
 muft come to the line c d , the binge being made as is {hewn by the figure. 
 
 How 
 
London .Published, by IK' .7- Taylor . SoTborn , ,TuI// i ijyS . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 23 
 
 How to conjlrufi the jamb to be clear of the Jhutter. 
 
 On c , as a centre, with a radius c a , defcribe an arc, a w, and it will be the joint required. 
 
 Note. When thefe fort of hinges are ufed in fhutters, the ftrap part of the hinge may 
 be made longer on the infide lining, than that which is connected with the fhutter. 
 
 Fig. 2, is the manner of hanging a door on the fame principle : the fhadowed part muft 
 be cut out, fo that the other ftrap of the hinge my revolve ; the edge, c d, of the hinge, 
 will come into the pofition of the line a a , when the window is fhut in. 
 
 Here the ftrap part of the hinge may be of equal lengths. 
 
 Fig. 3, the common method of hanging fhutters together, the hinge being let the 
 whole of its thicknefs into the fhutter, and not into the fafh frame. 
 
 By this mode it is notfo firmly hung, as when half is let into the fhutter and half into 
 the fafh frame, provided the infide lining is of fufficient thicknefs. 
 
 Note. The centre of the hinge in this muft be in the fame plane with the face of the 
 fhutter, or beyond it, but not within the thicknefs. 
 
 Fig. 4, the method of hanging a door with centres. Let ad be the thicknefs of the 
 door, and bifeft it in b ; draw b c perpendicular to a A; make b c equal to b a, or b d’, on 
 c (the centre of the hinge) with a radius c a> or c d , defcribe an arc; a e d will give the 
 true joint for the edge of the door to revolve in. 
 
 ' ' PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 ' OF DOORS. 
 
 The method for making double margin doors. 
 
 Fig. 1, yf, A, top rails. 
 
 F, F, top, or frize pannels. 
 
 C, G, frize rails. 
 
 D, Z>, middle pannels. , 
 
 F, F, Lock, or middle rail. y 
 
 F, F, bottom pannels. 
 
 G, G, bottom rails. 
 
 FT, 22, outfide ftyl es. 
 
 /, /, middle ftyle, fhowing two ftyles. 
 
 This door is a kind of deception for a pair of folding doors; it is frequently ufed 
 for an outfide door, where the door is wanted to open all on one fide. 
 
 In 
 
H 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 In order that this fort of door may appear a complete deception, there will be fome dif- 
 ficulty in making and putting on the furniture; to accomplifli this, the lock may be con- 
 ftru&ed with a long bar, or rod, to reach from one of the middle ftyles to the jamb ; and 
 the rail itfelf may be glued up hollow, fo that the bar of the lock, and bolts, may work as 
 eafy as poflible. 
 
 Fig. 2, fedtion of the ftyle HR , with part of the plan of one of the rails. 
 
 Fig. 3, fedlion of the middle ftyle ; this and fig. 2, are fliown to a larger fcale than the 
 following. 
 
 Fig. 4, part of the lock rail, fhowing the double tenon which goes into the ftyle. 
 
 Fig. 5, one of the wedges that wedges the ftyles and rails together. 
 
 Fig. 6, part of the middle ftyle, fhowing the tenon which goes into the bottom rail, 
 fig. 7: this tenon is made double. 
 
 Fig. 7, part of the bottom rail, fhowing how it is made to receive the middle ftyle. 
 
 Fig. 8, the thicknefs of fig. 7, fhowing the wood that is left in the middle to receive 
 the tenon of fig. 6. 
 
 To find how far a door made in the manner of fig. 9, will clear the floor , when opened to a 
 
 right angle. 
 
 Fig. 9. Make the angle BAD , equal to the angle B A E\ make A D equal to A E ; 
 alfo make the angle ABC equal to the angle A B G, and make B C equal to B G s 
 join D C; then will AB CD be the true pofitionof the door. 
 
 And the angle D A F, will be double the angle that the bottom of the door will make 
 with the floor, when it is opened to a right angle. 
 
 OF HANGING DOORS. 
 
 Having treated thus fully on the various kinds of hinges adapted to fundry purpofes, 
 before I conclude the fubjeft, it may be proper to make a few obfervations upon, and to 
 give fome rules for, hanging of doors, fo as to clear the ground or carpet. 
 
 ift. Raife the floor under the door as much as may be neceffary, according to the 
 thicknefs of the carpet, &c. 
 
 2d. Make the knuckle of the bottom hinge to projeft beyond the perpendicular of the 
 top hinge about one-eight of an inch, this will throw the door off the floor. 
 
 Note. The centre of the top hinge muft project a little beyond the furface of the door, if 
 the hinge is let equally into the door and into the jamb ; otherwife, if the centre lay in the 
 furface of the door, it ought to be placed at the very top, which is feldom done. 
 
 3d. Fix the jamb, on which the door hangs, away from the plumb-line, fo that the top 
 of the jamb may incline to the oppofite jamb about one-eight part of an inch, this will 
 have the effedl to clear the door off the floor. 
 
 4th. Make the door, when fhut, to projedf at the bottom towards the infide of the room, 
 about one-eighth of an inch, which may be effected by giving the rabbet the quantity of 
 inclination requifite. 
 
 Note 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 25 
 
 Note. — Although any of the above methods properly applied will make a door fwing 
 fufficiently clear of the floor, yet as each one feparately will require to be done in fo great 
 a. degree as to offend the eye, I do not recommend them in nice work, but would rather 
 advife a combination of them all to be ufed, thus : 
 
 Raife the floor about one-eight of an inch under the door ; make the jamb on which the 
 door hangs incline to the oppoffte jamb about one-eighth of an inch ; make each rabbet 
 that flops the door project at the bottom one-eighth of an inch to that fide of the room 
 on which the door opens. Now thefe feveral methods pra&ifed in the above fmall degrees, 
 which will not be perceptible, will throw the door fufficiently out of the level when 
 opened to a fquare ; that is, it will be at leaft half an inch when the height of the door is 
 double its width. Again, 
 
 5th. An invention has lately been introduced called Riftng Hinges , which are made with 
 a fpiral groove winding round the knuckle; but as this method introduces an error in 
 workmanfhip, I cannot well recommend it, for the door ought to be clofe fitted in, except 
 fufficient room for the painting (for which workmen ufually allow a fpace the thicknefs 
 of a half crown), and as the door is continually rifing on the fpiral groove, it will be 
 neceflary either to cut away part of the hanging ftyle at top, or elfe to cut the foffit to 
 allow room for the door to rife on the hinge ; this, when the door is ftiut, has an aukward 
 and unworkman-like appearance. 
 
 6th. This purpofe would be completely anfwered by adopting a door in the form of 
 the antique doors ; that is, the bottom to be wider than the top, the jambs having the 
 fame inclination. This figure is introduced, not for the purpofe of its being adopted in 
 general ufes, though it will clear the ground fufficiently, and it will fall to of itfelf ; its 
 properties are. 
 
 Fig. 9. Make the angle BAD equal to the angle B A E ; make A D equal to A E ; 
 alfo make the angle ABC equal to A B (?, and make B C equal to B <?, join D C\ 
 then will A B C D be the true pofition of the door when folded back, and the angle 
 D A F will be double the angle that the bottom of the door will make with the floor 
 when it is opened to a right angle. 
 
 7th. For common or ordinary purpofes, fuch as warehoufe or fhop doors, &c. the fol- 
 lowing eafy method is ufeful, as it will fufficiently clear the ground, and the door will 
 always fall to of itfelf. 
 
 The top hinge may be a common butt hinge, the bottom one muft have a knee to 
 project out, thefe hinges muft be placed in fuch a manner, as that a line drawn through 
 their axis ftiall touch the door at the top and cut the floor beyond the furface of the door 
 an inch and a half or more, according to circumftances. 
 
 There is another kind of hinge which is applicable to gates or rough work ; the upper 
 hinge may be of the common conftrudfion, but the lower one is made with a circular 
 knee, and is fixed in the partition out of the plane of the joint of the door ; the axis of the 
 hinges, as in the former cafe, muft be in a line with the top of the door, gate, &c. 
 
 E PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 a6 
 
 PLATE XXXV. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 How to find the true bevel for hanging any door. 
 
 Fig. i. Let a be the centre of the hinge ; on the width of the door a b defer ibe a fe- 
 micircle b c e d a, cutting the other fide of the door at c and d. Join a d and b c> which 
 will be the proper edges of the door, in order to make it open freely. 
 
 Note. — The bevelling on the fide a d is of no other confequence than to make the fides 
 uniform. 
 
 How to find the joint for a pair of folding doors. 
 
 Fig. 2. Let h and g be the centre of each hinge; bifedf h g by a perpendicular a b r 
 cutting the thicknefs of the door at a and b ; "bifedf a b by the perpendicular c d at e ; 
 make e c and e d each equal to half the thicknefs that you intend the rabbet to be. Sup- 
 pofe you intended the flap g a c df t o open ; draw a line from d to the centre of the hinge, 
 at g ; on d g deferibe a femicircle d f i g, cutting the other fide of the door at f ; join f d y 
 and through c draw c k parallel to it ; then k c df will be the proper joint. 
 
 Note. — If you put a bead at the joint, it ought to be exadlly in the middle of the door.. 
 
 PLATE XXXVI. 
 
 OF DOORS . 
 
 How to find the bevel on the edge of a door when it is executed on a circular plan , and 
 the door to turn out on the convex fide of the circle . 
 
 With regard to the circular door, fig. i, all that is required is to make the angle a b c 
 either a right angle or greater than a right angle (for a right angle is the leall that any 
 door will admit of) formed by the edge of the door, and a line drawn from the centre of 
 the hinge to the oppofite angle. 
 
 For the folding doors . 
 
 F ig. 2. Let a and b be the centres of the hinges on the plane; join the points a and b 
 by the right line a b and b.fedt it by a perpendicular c d e at c, cutting the thicknefs of 
 
 the 
 
- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' • 
 
 
 
 
 
 . : V • ■ -T. , .• 
 
 i 
 
 
27 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the door in d and e ; bife 6 t d e by a perpendicular gf h at f ; make f h and f g each equal 
 to half the thicknefs of the rabbet; join h b \ on it defcribe the femicircle h i k £, cutting 
 the other fide of the door contrary to the knuckle of the hinge at t ; join i h through g ; 
 draw g l parallel to it; then will / g h i be the proper joint for the meeting of the two 
 doors. 
 
 PLATE XXXVII. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 How to find the meeting joint of folding doors when the hinges are placed an the concave 
 
 fide of the door. 
 
 Fig. i. Let a and b be the centres of the hinges; join a b and bife& it by a perpen- 
 dicular c d e at c, cutting the thicknefs of the door at d and e ; bifedt d e by a perpendi- 
 cular g f h 1 cutting d e at/; mak efh and f g each equal to half the thicknefs of the 
 rabbet ; join b k ; on it defcribe a femicircle h i k cutting the other fide of the door 
 -contrary to the hinge at i ; join i h 9 and through g draw g l parallel to it, cutting the 
 concave fide of the door at / ; then will i h gl be the joint fought. 
 
 Demonjlration, 
 
 Let the door a l g h i remain in its place; now the angle b i h being a right angle, 
 confequently the perpendicular b i will be the fhorteft line that can be drawn from the 
 point b to the line I H; now let the half door be turned round the hinge at b ; the point 
 i will then defcribe a circle whofe centre is the hinge at b\ then will i h be a tangent to 
 that circle at therefore the angle at i will touch no other part of i h y that is, the edge of 
 the other door, but at i. 
 
 If round the centre of that door that opens, as fig. 2, you defcribe circles on each 
 fide of the rabbet, and the edges of each door be made circular, it is plain it will alfo open 
 in this cafe. 
 
 E 2 
 
 PLATE 
 
28 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 PLATE XXXVIIL 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 Elevation end feftion of a pair of folding doors to open a communication between two 
 rooms , or to make two rooms into one upon any occafion. 
 
 Fig. i, the elevation of the folding doors. 
 
 abed, and A BCD, hanging ftyles hung to the jambs at a b and A B. 
 c def, and CD e f the two doors hung to the hanging ftyles at c d and CD j the fha- 
 dowed parts denote the hinges. 
 
 Fig. 2, the plan or rather a horizontal fe&ion. 
 
 The feveral parts of this door are fhown at large in the next plate. 
 
 Oar one fide, of this plate the hanging ftyle is pannelled, and on the other fide it is reed- 
 ed. The former will be proper when the hanging ftyle is very wide, and the latter when 
 it is very narrow. 
 
 PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 Horizontal fetiions of the foregoing plate, Jhowing completely how the different parts ef 
 the work are connected with each other . 
 
 Fig. i, a fe£tion of the jamb poft. 
 
 3 , b, fe&ions of the grounds flufh or in the fame plane with the plaifter. 
 
 E, e, outfide and infide architraves. 
 ggg, line of the plinth. 
 
 C, jamb lining. 
 
 H, hanging ftyle. 
 
 J, ftyle hung to the hanging ftyle H, by means of the hinge m. 
 
 Fig. 2, half of the plan, fig. i, fhowing the door folded back ; the parts in fig. 2 
 have the fame references as fig. i. 
 
 Fig. 3, the joint or hinge at m in fig. I, with part of the ftyle hinged together to a large 
 fize. 
 
 F ig. 4 and 5> ftiows how the joint muft be made before hinged together. 
 
 Fig* 
 
Jjoo/'S. 
 Hi/./ . 
 
 Icrulon .fid) fished , bit //• J .Tiylnn Holhcrn Jidi/ fi/ijpf) . 
 
r/.3y. 
 
ZonJan.'AhlishaJ Iry I S? J.Taijlor Botbom .July 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Fig. 6, the moulding of the door fhown to a larger fize. 
 
 This method is advifeable where you have no opportunity of making the doors Hide into 
 the partition, as is fhown in plate 40 ; but whenever that opportunity offers I fhould pre- 
 fer it, as no door can be feen when {hut into the partition, which not only keeps them 
 entirely out of the way, but makes the molt complete appearance. 
 
 PLATE XL. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 Elevation of a pair of folding doors to be Jhut quite out of the way , in order to 
 
 open a com?nunication between two rooms , or to throw both into one on any occafion . 
 
 Fig. 1, elevation of the door. 
 
 Fig. 2,. plan of half the door to double the fize of fig. 1. 
 
 A , plan of the outfide Ryle. 
 
 B and C, plans of the hanging Ryles. . 
 
 D, one of the metting Ryles. 
 
 G G G, and g g g, framed partitions diflant from each other, in the clear, the thick- 
 nefs of the door« 
 
 F F F, the fpace or cavity for the door to work in, which muR be made fufficiently 
 wide to receive one half the door entirely within, or nearly fo ; doors of communication 
 for general ufesmay be conRru<Sted in this larger door, in which cafe the middle pannels or 
 doors may be hung to the others, at r, e y e, e , fo that they will open like any other com- 
 mon folding door j this method therefore combines utility and convenience, and is a com- 
 plete deception. The firR leaf of the door, A B , fig. 2, muR run in a groove at the top 
 to make it Ready. 
 
 The manner of making and hanging the joints B C, fig. I, are already fhown in; 
 plate 32, fig. 2, No. 1. 
 
 Fig. 3, a fe&ion of the Ryle next to the partition to a larger fize, with part of the 
 plan of the bottom rail, fhowing a fmall part of each partition. 
 
 Note. — In fetting out work of this kind for pra&ice, one half of the plan ought to be. 
 completely drawn out. 
 
 PLATE 
 
3 ° 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 -j 
 
 PLATE XLI. 
 
 OF DOORS . 
 
 The elevation of a Jib door ; that is, a door which has the fame finijhings and appear- 
 ance as the room in which it is placed , fo that it may be known to be a door as little as 
 poffble. 
 
 Fig. i, the elevation of the door, fhewing the bafe and furbafe mouldings of the 
 other parts of the room. The top part of the door may be flufh framing, which will be 
 covered with paper as the other parts of the room. The bottom part, as in general, lined 
 with half-inch fluff, running in the fame direction as the dado, in order to fliow a 
 continuation of the dado ; afterwards the bafe and furbafe moulding are fixed. 
 
 Fig. 2, the plan of the door. 
 
 A , the thicknefs of the bafe moulding. 
 
 B, the thicknefs of the lining. 
 
 C, the thicknefs of the pannel. 
 
 X>, the lock ftyle. 
 
 £, the mountain. 
 jF, the hanging ftyle. 
 
 Fig. 3, the furbafe moulding to a larger fize. 
 
 Fig. 4, the bafe moulding to a larger fize. 
 
 The manner of hanging a door of this conftruCtion will be {hewn in the following 
 plates. 
 
 PLATE XLII. 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 The manner of confiruSling the bafe moulding of a fib door by a circular motion in 
 
 the joint. 
 
 Fig. 1, the elevation of the moulding. 
 
 Fig. 2, feCtion of the door and jamb. 
 
 From A \ the centre of the hinge, draw A B perpendicular to the face of the door; make 
 jAB equal to the projection of the furbafe moulding in fig. 1. Make all the projections 
 
 Ag f 
 

 Fit,. 2 
 
 -4V 
 
 ' ' , - / 
 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 _ jy 
 
 * 
 
 > 
 
 / 
 
JOoruIon 7}/7>7 a<-7?*y/ ftyl 9c *L7frit7orJ£cZbom , Juh/i 
 
./V./3 
 
 Fut'l 
 
 0 
 
 Iowbn -.TubVshcd by IkJ.Tybr Bolbom July x'J i 7 y6 . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Jg, Ah , and Ai, equal to all the projections of the fillets in fig. i ; through the points 
 J9, g, h, /, draw parallel lines ; make 5 C equal to the projection A B , and join A C 
 cutting the parallel lines at d , f ; then from the centre A with the radii Ad , A e, and 
 
 A f defcribe arcs d k, el , and f m, for the joint of each fillet, and the jamb muft be 
 cut out to fit thefe joints; but there muft be about one-fixteenth part of an inch left 
 v/hole on that edge next to the door ; and fince the door defcribes one quarter of a circle, 
 there muft alfo be one-fixteenth part of an inch cut out of the bafe moulding ; this will appear 
 a fmall defeCt when the door is fhut, becaufe it will appear open where it is cut away in 
 the furbafe ; but not being more than one-fixteenth part of an inch, will nearly be covered 
 by the paper. 
 
 Fig. 3 , fhows the projections of the mouldings along the diagonal A r, which is to be 
 applied on the back of the furbafe moulding, in order to be a guide to work it out circus 
 lar on the back. 
 
 PLATE XLIII. 
 
 OF DOORS * 
 
 How to find the joint of a Jib door , fb that it Jhall open freely at the hanging fide , and. 
 
 the joint to be a plane. 
 
 Fig. 2 . Let C, the centre of the hinge, be in the fame plane with the dado, and alfo- 
 with the joint C E. 
 
 C E> the thicknefs of the door at the joint, which produce till it cut the oppofite fide 
 of the baie moulding at A\ make A B equal to AC\ join B C, and from B draw B H 
 perpendicular to DC', then will B D be the true line on which the furbafe moulding muft 
 be cut perpendicular to the floor. The fhadowed part fhows a part of the jamb lining 
 cut out fufficient to let the furbafe moulding move in it. 
 
 Note .— -The jamb lining muft not be cut quite through, but there muft be a fmall fub- 
 ftance of wood remaining, otherwife the whole cavity of the door will fhow when it is 
 open. 
 
 Alfo remember to put a blocking in the interior angle oppofite to the hollow part,, 
 which is cut out in order to let the the furbafe moulding move in it, if the thicknefs of 
 the jamb lining is not fufficient. 
 
 The bottom part of the door may revolve on a centre or pivot in the floor, by this 
 means the centre will be quite concealed. 
 
 The upper part may be hung with butt hinges, and the centre of the hinge muft be in 
 the fame plane with the face of the door, fo the joint upon the hanging fide will always 
 be ciofe. 
 
 Fig. i, the elevation of the joint. 
 
 PLATE 
 
32 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOlNER’s ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE XLI\ r . 
 
 OF DOORS. 
 
 How to hang folding doors fo that each door Jhall opert or Jkut together , called 
 
 Sympathetic Doors. 
 
 Fig. i, the lower part of the folding doors, fhowing two cranks under the floor *, c-c 
 fhows the centres of the cranks ; the two cranks are connected together by means of a 
 rod A A. 
 
 Fig. 2, the plan of the cranks ; c c their centres ; A A the red fixed to each crank as in 
 the elevation, fig. I. 
 
 How to find the pofition of the cranks fo that they Jhall have the mojl ejfett to open or 
 
 Jhut the door. 
 
 Fig. 2. Join c c the centres of the hinge, make the angles c c A y and c c 5 , each half a 
 right angle ; then complete the quadrants A B , and A B ; then will A B be the diftancc 
 that each crank ought to move, fo as to make each door open to a right angle, and which 
 will open with the greateft eafe. 
 
 Fig. 3, (hows the elevation of a crank to a larger fcale, D is the fide of a ftrap 
 made on the crank, in fig. 4, fhows the plan of the fame. This ftrap is ferewed to the 
 under fide of the door, in order to keep the crank firm. 
 
 E , in fig. 3, fhows part of the edge of another ftrap made to the crank, which is 
 ferewed to the edge of the door upwards ; this does not fhow in the plan fig. 4. Thefe 
 two ftraps will perfe&ly fecure the cranks and keep them firm. 
 
 PLATE XLV. 
 
 A SASH FRAME. 
 
 The conjlruftion of a fajh framt^and the manner of putting the fever al parts of it together. 
 
 Tig. 1, the elevation of the fafh frame. 
 
 AB CD, the outer edge of it. 
 
 The dark perpendicular lines E F, G H, are grooves whofe diftances are from the edges 
 of the fafh frame L M, and K /, equal to the depth of the boxing, together with 
 
 three-eights 
 
7)rsrj / -. 1 ' . 
 
 -PZ44- 
 
 L on don .TubbrheJ by Z (’■ Taylor Bblbom Julr/ 
 
-Sr/sA By, / nr. 
 
 [ntli'/olf I)//* / t j’A >f/ //// 1 9C % T. Tat// »r. Ho /bo ?7i , Jn/ y 
 
Lnntion IbiHuhed by I £• J.Tnylnr TTofborn Juh i’.'i - rid 
 
33 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 three-eights of an inch more that is allowed for margin between the face of the (hatter, 
 when in the boxing, and the edges ML, and K I, of the fafh frame next to the bead. 
 Fig. 2, horizontal fedlionof the fides, fhowing alfo the plan of the fill. 
 
 Fig. 3, a vertical fedtion of the fill and top, fhowing the elevation of the pulley Ryle 
 m and n ; the pulleys let into the pulley piece. 
 
 F ig. 4, the horizontal fedfionof the fides, fhowing alfo a plan of the head of the fafh frame. 
 Fig. 5, the elevation of the outer fide of the fafh frame ; the outfide lining being taken 
 away in order to fhow the work within the fafh frame. 
 
 f g , the parting ftrip fattened by a pin; e d, one of the weights connedted to the fafh 
 by means of a line going over the pulley c ; the other end fixed to the edge of the fafh. 
 Note.—^ The weight e d is equal to half the weight of the fafh. 
 
 Fig. 6, the head of the fa(h frame before put together. 
 
 Fig. 7, the edge of fig.- 6. 
 
 Fig. 8, the edge of the bottom, fhowing the manner of putting the ftyles into it. 
 
 Fig. 9, the plan of Jig. 8. 
 
 PLATE XL VI. 
 
 SASH SILLS AND SASHES . 
 
 Fig. i and 2, fe&ions of window fills, with fedtions of the under rail of the fafh, 
 fhowing the beft modes of conftrudting them in order to prevent the weather from driving 
 under the fafh rail. 
 
 A, fedfion of the bottom rail of the fafh. 
 
 B , fed! ion of the bead tongued into the fill. 
 
 C, fedtion of the fill. 
 
 Fig. 3, fedfions of the meeting rails, with the fide elevations of the upright bars. 
 
 C, rabbet for the glafs, 
 
 D, a fquare. 
 
 E and F, an aftragal moulding. 
 
 G, fillet. 
 
 Note. The fmall letters denote the fame parts of the under fafh. 
 
 Fig. 4, fedfion of an upright bar, with the plans of two horizontal bars, fhowing the 
 manner in which they are put together fo as to keep the upright bars as ftrong as poffible. 
 
 F The 
 
34 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 The thicknefs of the tenon in general comes about one-fixteenth of an inch to the edge 
 of the hollow of the aftragal, and clofe to the rabbet on the other fide. 
 h h a dowel to keep the horizontal bars ft ill firmer together. 
 
 Note. — The fame parts in this have the letters of reference the fame as fig. 3. 
 
 Note alfo, there is no rabbet made for the glafs on the infide mettihg rail ; a groove ish 
 made to anfwer that purpofe. 
 
 PLATE XL VII. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 S Niton sfi common J "butters and JaJh frame * 
 
 Fig. 1, Ay feftion of the architrave of windows. 
 
 B , ground for the architrave. 
 
 F, back lining of the boxing, tongued into the ground By and into the infide lining G % , 
 of the fafti frame. 
 
 Gy the infide lining of the fafii frame. 
 
 Hy the infide bead. 
 
 /, the pulley piece. 
 
 Ky the parting bead. 
 
 Ly outfide lining. 
 
 My back lining. 
 
 CCCy the front fhutter hung to the infide lining of the fafh frame G by means of the 
 hinge a. 
 
 back flap or fhutter hung to the front {hotter by means of the hinge b. 
 
 E E Ey another back flap hung to D D 2 ), by means of the hinge c. 
 
 As in a window the whole of the light fhould be (hut out, the principle of fetting out 
 the {butters is, that each boxing fhould contain as many fhutters as will cover one half, 
 that is from the centre of the hinge to the centre of the window. 
 
 0 P ^ Ry plan of the lower fafh. 
 t the rabbet for the glafe. 
 
 Py a fquare. 
 
 an aftragal moulding. 
 
 Ry a fmall fquare or fillet. 
 
 Fig. 2, the method of hingeing two back flaps together, ftiowing the manner of pla- 
 cing the hinge, when room is {canty in the boxes. 
 
 PLATE 
 
.L v adorn Hil/tshrfl hylic . / Toy /or. Ho Zhora , July l ' ,e iyod . 
 
'S‘/////r r.y . 
 
 Fig. 1 . 
 
 -^onifonlrih fished bylfcJ.Targ^rHoVhorn , July i fljyfi. 
 
TOE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 35 
 
 PLATE XL VII. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 Elevation and plan of half a window adapted for a Jl air cafe , when the wall of the 
 building is not Efficiently thick to admit of room for boxing. 
 
 Fig. i, elevation of half the window. 
 
 Fig. 2, plan of the window to double the fize of the elevation in order that the parts 
 niay be more diftindtly feen. 
 
 E F, the breadth of the fhutter, which is hung to a hanging ftyle U, and the hanging 
 ftyle G is hung to the fafh frame by the hinge at h. 
 
 The whole breadth of the fhutter E A, together with the breadth of the hanging ftyle 
 at G , that is i h, ought to cover exa&ly half the breadth of the window, or half die rabbet 
 at A, more than half the breadth of the window, 
 if, architrave; /, background; K, back lining. 
 
 The panned ed part A BCD , at fig. i, reprefents the fhutter of which E F, in fig, 2, is 
 the breadth. 
 
 The hanging ftyle and fhutter is hung together by means of a rule joint, as before de- 
 fcribed in plate 29. 
 
 Under the fhutter A B CD , is ahead R , and continued acrofs the fafh frame to ferve 
 for a capping ; P is a vertical bead continued in a line with the edge, at Z>, of the 
 
 rule joint. 
 
 O and Hy pieces of wainfcotting coming flufh with the bead i 5 , M. the fkirting board. 
 
 PLATE XLIX. 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 A fe Elion oj the preceding window , to a larger fcale. 
 
 A, architrave moulding. 
 
 B, ground. 
 
 C CC> back lining. 
 
 jD, the lining, or the return of the window. 
 
 E E the fhutter hung to the hanging ftyle F, which is hung to 
 
 the fafh frame by th* 
 
 hinge at a. 
 
 F z 
 
 G 7 die 
 
3 & THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 G, the infide lining of the fafh frame. 
 
 H , infide head. 
 
 /, parting bead- 
 X, outfide bead. 
 
 L, back lining. 
 
 M, the parting flip for the weights A r and 0. . ' 
 
 N and O, weights. 
 
 P, ground fixed upon the plug. 
 
 the plug. 
 
 R, pulley piece. 
 
 PLATE L. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 'The flan, front, and fide elevation , and fed ion of a window proper for a building where 
 the walls are not thick enough to admit of room for boxings , which will Jhow the 
 < fame fniflo as if there were boxes for the Jhutters. 
 
 Fig. i, front elevation of the window. 
 
 The dotted lines abed, reprefent a piece of framing. 
 
 The odier fide, A B CD, reprefents a Aiding flutter in the wall. 
 
 The framing is fuppofed to be removed in order to {how the flutter. 
 
 Fig. 2, the fide elevation and fedtion, fuppofing the flutter removed. 
 
 a, an architrave moulding. 
 
 b, foffit. 
 
 c, top of the faw frame. 
 
 d, capping tongued into the fafh frame fill. 
 
 Fig. 3, horizontal fedbion and plan of the window, twice the fize of the elevation. 
 g g, fefion of the framing as flown by a b c d,fig. 1, by dotted lines. 
 h h, plaif ering on the wall. 
 i i , a flutter hung to the fafh frame at m. 
 ff, fedlion of the Aiding flutter, which runs on rollers. 
 
 k k, a flap which is let into a rabbet and hinged at the edge p p, fo that when the flap is 
 turned round, the hinges out of the rabbet, and the flutter i i turned to the face of the 
 window, there will be a clear paflage for the flutter ff to run out. 
 
 Njtr . — Although there is only a fop for the back of the flutter at the bottom, yet it is 
 quite fufficient as it is fopped on both fides at the top, and as the edge of the flutter 
 fhould never be entirely out of the boxing. 
 
 This is more clearly fhown by the parts drawn larger in the next plate. 
 
 PLATE 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 37 
 
 PLATE LI. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 Different feftions of the foregoing plate. 
 
 Fig i, horizontal fedtion through the fide of the window- 
 A \ architrave moulding. 
 
 P, part of a piece of framing. 
 
 C, part of the fhutter. 
 
 Z), plaifter or rendering upon the wall, 
 p, the front fhutter hung to the fafh frame at jr. 
 
 F, back lining. 
 
 G, infide lining of the fafh frame. 
 
 If infide bead of the fafh frame. 
 f pulley piece. 
 
 K , parting bead. 
 
 Z, back lining of the fafh frame. 
 
 M , parting ftripe. 
 
 2f outfide lining. 
 
 Fig. 2, vertical fedtion through the top of the window. 
 a , architrave moulding. 
 
 ground over the window. 
 
 (f fedtion of part of the fhutter. 
 
 O, foffit. 
 
 P, top of the fafh frame. 
 
 N \ horizontal outfide bead. 
 h h , infide horizontal bead.. 
 
 Fig. 3, vertical fedtion through the fill of the window. 
 
 P, edge of the framing. 
 
 C, edge of the fhutter. 
 
 fill rabbetted out at £, and tongued into the fafh frame fill, 
 
 S , a flap hung to J^, by means of the hinge, at n \ then by turning the front fhutter 
 upon the window, and by turning up the fmall flap *9, there will be a clear paflage for the 
 fhutter C to run in. 
 
 PLATE 
 
3 * 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE LII. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 Plan , elevation and feflion, of a window with flutters, which -will flow uniform and 
 cojnplete whether the flutters are open or flut. 
 
 Fig. i, plan or horizontal fcdion at A B, fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2,- elevation or front of the window. 
 
 Fig. 3, vertical fedion at C , D , fig. 2, and fide of the window. 
 
 E , thicknefs of the pilafter or architrave. 
 
 I‘\ a bead ftuck on its edge parting the edge of the pilafter from the fhutter. 
 
 G , the breadth of the fhutter. 
 
 H and /, a bead and fquare to correfpond to the thicknefs of the architrave and bead, fo 
 as to fhow the fame finifti on each edge of the fhutter ; one edge of this finifhes againft 
 the fafh-frame above, and the fame edge below -finifhes againft the back of the window 
 down to the plinth. 
 
 X, another fquare equal to the projedionof the capping. 
 
 A, bead of the fafh-frame. 
 
 M, thicknefs for the under fafh to run in. 
 
 JV \ parting bead. 
 
 O, the thicknefs for the upper fafh to run in. 
 
 P, outfide lining and bead. 
 
 4-^, the thicknefs of the outer brick work. 
 
 This is further explained on the next plate. 
 
 The principal fedions are fhown to a larger fcale in the next plate. 
 
 a a , Unties made of ftrong yellow deal or oak. 
 
 h , the top of the ground. 
 
 c , the architrave fixed upon the ground b. 
 
 d d, the foffit tongued into the top of th# fafh-frame e , and on the other edge into the 
 head architrave C. 
 
 //, a hollow fpace between the foffit d d, and the lintles a a\ the under edges of the 
 Unties a a , are generally about four inches and a half above the camber of the outfide 
 of the window; but it may be lefs when there is any neceffity for it, as for example, 
 when you have very narrow grounds it may come down within a quarter of an inch of 
 the foffit. 
 
 The face of the pulley ftyle of every fafh-frame ought to projed beyond the edge of 
 the biick-woik about three-eighths of an inch; that is, the diftance between the face 
 of each pulley ftyle ought to be lefs by three-quarters of an inch than the width of the 
 window on the outfide, fo that the face of the fhutters ought to be in the fame plane with 
 •the brick work on the outfide. 
 
 PLATE 
 
London Jiibhtffusd bo Lt ' L. Lot/ / or. Tfofbom , *J~uh/ 
 
SA utters. 
 
 
 LondamPubli.rhsd bn T £ % »/. Taylor Sbbhorn . July . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT 
 
 39 
 
 PLATE LIII. 
 
 SHUTTERS . 
 
 Parts of the foregoing at large . 
 
 Fig. i, plan of the fhutters.. 
 
 Ay the outfide lining. 
 
 By the pulley piece. 
 
 C, infule lining. 
 
 Dy back lining and outfide bead.. 
 
 E and F , weights. 
 
 Gy parting ftrip. 
 
 Hy parting bead.. 
 
 /, infide bead. 
 
 K and Ly plan of the falh-frame. 
 
 My plan of the infide bead. 
 
 Ny plan of the capping. 
 
 R Ry a hanging ftyle hung to the fafli frame at a, 
 
 S Sy a fhutter hung to the hanging ftyle at e. 
 
 TTy another ftiutter hung to S S at n if neceftary. 
 
 P Py a door hung to the architrave at m, falls upon the hanging ftyle R R b y means oft 
 a rabbet. 
 
 Note . — The door muft fail in a rabbet at top and. bottom. 
 
 Uy a ground to fix the architrave upon. 
 
 Vy, the architrave fixed upon the ground. 
 
 Wy back lining. 
 
 When the -window is to be fhut in, the door P P is to be turned round the hinge m y . 
 parallel to the face of the fafh-frame. 
 
 Then the ftiutters R Ry S Sy TTy being turned out on the hinge ay and on their feveral 
 hinges, will cover that part of the window for which they were intended. The door P 
 may then be clofed, and the whole will have a uniform and neat appearance. 
 
 To- find the fiplay ofi the grou?td b c. 
 
 Draw a line from the centre of the hinge at a to the edge of the ground at b ; on a b- 
 as a diameter, defcribe a circle cutting the back lining of the boxing at c % , join c h and it. 
 will be the bevil required. 
 
 PLATE. 
 
V THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE LIV. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 Front and two fide elevations of a window , the fajh frame being out of the f quart , or an 
 oblique angled parallelogram ; fhowing how to confrudt the fdes of the window , fo 
 that the futters fall make an equal margin round the edge of the faf frame when the 
 window is fut\ and alfo to fit their boxings. 
 
 Fig. i, elevation of the window; AB CD being the edge of the fafh frame next to 
 the bead, and E F G H the margin for the window fhutters. 
 
 The difficulty of fitting up a window of this kind may be furmounted if the following 
 obfervations are attended to : the points K and /, fig. 3, being taken at the diftance E F t 
 fig. 1, and the point R , fig. 3, being made to correfpond to A", fig. 1, the middle of the 
 metting rails, then 
 
 Make the angle R IF A, fig. 3, equal to the angle K E H^ fig. 1 ; through R and I 
 draw R S and I M parallel to K L ; then K I M L will be the front (butter, and R S 
 the parting bead, in cafe the fhutters are to be cut. 
 
 Fig. 2 is conftrufted in the fame manner as fig. 3; that is, by making the angle 
 TOP equal to the angle E IF A, fig. 1 ; the points 0 T N being previoufly made to 
 correfpond to H A and G, as on the other fide. 
 
 Fig. 3, A and A, Unties. 
 
 A, the top of the fafh frame. 
 
 A), the foffit. 
 e , ground. 
 
 G, fafh frame fill. 
 
 A, (tone fill. 
 
 PLATE LV. 
 
 SHUTTERS. 
 
 Plan and elevation of the futters to the foregoing example ; fijowing the manner of hang- 
 ing and cutting the futters when the faf frame is an oblique angled parallelogram , 
 or out of the fquare , as workmen call it. 
 
 Let D C and A A, fig. 2, be the top and bottom ends of the fhutters parallel to each 
 other ; now, in order that the fhutters may fit clofe into their boxing, and alfo clofe into 
 the window-frame, the centres of the hinges to each flap muft a£t in lines perpendicular 
 to D C or A B. 
 
 How 
 

SZ/r/Z/e/'-v. 
 
 Ft a. 2 ■ 
 
 /V.M. 
 
 Zoruirn Published by It' J Taylvr HoIboiQ , J <ih/ 1 f . 
 
 . . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 41 
 
 How to fet out the flutters. 
 
 Make A e and D f fig. 2, equal to the breadth of the front fhutter a b y fig. 1, and draw 
 the line f e; then will A D f e reprefent the front fhutter, and f e the edge on which 
 
 the next flap will join to it ; then if the angle D f e be not a right angle but obtufe, 
 
 from / draw f g perpendicular to D C ; then will f g be the line on which the centres 
 of the hinges muft be placed. In the fame manner B C q r will reprefent the fhutter 
 on the other fide; B r q being the obtufe angle, and r f a perpendicular to A B for the 
 
 centres of the hinges for the joint q r: thefe two extreme joints being done, all the 
 
 other joints h k /, m «, and 0 p t ought to be all perpendicular to the ends D C and A B 
 of the fhutters : then will the centres of the hinges be parallel to, or in the fame line with, 
 the joint. 
 
 How to find the breadth of the flaps which hang to the front flutters, jo that they may 
 
 be as wide as pojfble. 
 
 From the points A and C, the obtufe angles, draw A v and C u perpendicular to the 
 lines, or ends of the fhutters, A B and DC; make v a and A b equal to the breadth of 
 the rabbet ; and from the point f and in the line of the centres of the hinges, make/ c, 
 f h t and g d> g i, refpeaively, equal to / a, f w, and g b, g A\ then will e fh i be 
 the flap required ; and it is plain from the nature of this window, that the other flap 
 0 q r p muft: be the fame figure as the flap e f h /, but inverted. 
 
 The other flaps may be filled in as the width of the window will admit. 
 
 Note . — I have given this example, not that I would in fo diftorted a cafe confiderit as 
 worth the trouble it muft neceflarily coft (it would be better certainly to rebuild it), but 
 becaufe the method is a general one and will apply to all cafes, and becaufe I would advife 
 the accurate workman never to truft to the fafh-frame being abfolutely fquare, for they 
 feldom are ; and if the variation be ever fo fmall, there will be a very confiderable error in 
 the ends of the fhutters when inclofed in the boxings, if the rule contained in this example 
 be not attended to. 
 
 G 
 
 PLATE 
 
42 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE LVI. 
 
 OF DIMINISHING AND ENLARGING MOULDINGS , 
 
 From a given Entablature or Cornice , to draw another fimilar to it , of any given. 
 
 height . 
 
 Let & be the height of the given entablature; from b , in yf 3 , draw b <j, making 
 any angle with A b from b ; make b a equal to the height of the intended cornice ; join 
 A a, then from all the heights on A h draw lines parallel to A a , cutting b a , and from 
 thefe points in a b draw perpendiculars; then, in order to find the projections, bring all 
 the projections of the given cornice to the line D E, and from the projections in the 
 line D E draw lines to B ; make B K equal to b k, and draw K L perpendicular to B K , 
 cutting all the projections drawn from D E to the point B ; from k draw k f perpen- 
 dicular to b k ; from k make all the diftances from k to / equal to the correfponding 
 diftances from K to L, which will give the projections of the cornice. In the fame 
 manner may the projections of the architrave be found, as is plainly fhown by the eor« 
 refponding letters G H and g h.. 
 
 PLATE LVIL 
 RAKING MOULDINGS . 
 
 How to deferibe all kinds of raking mouldings for pediments , whether flraight or 
 
 circular . 
 
 Fig. i. Elevation of a circular pediment. 
 
 Fig. 2. Elevation of a triangular or ftraight pediment. 
 
 How to deferibe the raking mouldings of pediments , fuch as fig. I and 2, for working the 
 
 face or front moulding . 
 
 Fig. 3 and 6. Let B c b a A, at No. i,be the given moulding; in it take any points 
 a b c at pleafure; from thefe points draw lines c c r, b b and a a a, parallel to the 
 
 fillets B B B or A A A of the pediment ; from the points A a b c B draw the perpendi- 
 culars A Dj a d^ b £, and c f\ draw any line D E at right angles, to A D., a d, b e, c f 
 
 and B E , cutting them in the points Z>, d r e^f E. 
 
 In fig. 3, draw any line AD at right angles to the rake, cutting one edge of the upper 
 fillet at Z>, No. 2 ; from D, No. 2, make the feveral projections d e f E equal to d e f E 
 
&//’///// u Mf >///(/ > // f/.S . 
 
 /y..; 7 . 
 
 London Tubhshed 7>r/ 7&' J Taylor HoTbom , ,Tuh/ i . 
 
Setting out S// op Fronts 
 
 JY.Jfi. 
 
43 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 at No. I ; in No. 2 draw the perpendiculars AD a d,b e, c f and B Ey cutting B B By c c c, 
 b b by a a ^ at the points by c , and it will give points in the curve through which it 
 may be traced. 
 
 In fig. 6 draw any line A D to the centre of the pediment, cutting the lines A A Ay 
 a a ayb b by c c CyB B By and D E at Ay Gy by c, 5 , Z) ; from, thefe points draw lines D Ey 
 B By c Cy b by and a a tangents to their refpective curves ; then make all the projections 
 D d e f E in No. 2, equal to thofe at No. 1, and from the points D d ef E at No 2, draw 
 lines parallel to A Dy cutting the tangents in the points a b c By through which points 
 the curve may be traced. 
 
 How to find the return moulding at the top in fig. 3 and 6. 
 
 Draw any line D E at No. 3, parallel to D Ey No. 1, making all the projections from 
 D tod e f Ey at No. 3, equal to their correfponding diftances D d ef E at No. 3; from 
 the points d ef Ey in No. 3, draw the perpendiculars D Ay d ay e by f c and E By cutting 
 B B By c c Cy b b by a a ay and A A Ay at the points A a b c By will give points in the curve 
 through which it may be traced. 
 
 Fig. 4 and 5, want no other explanation than what has already been defcribed to fig. 3 
 and 6, as they differ only in form, and not in method. 
 
 PLATE LVUT. 
 
 OF SETTING OUT SHOP FRONTS ON A CIRCULAR PLAN. 
 
 How to draw a cornice or moulding of any kind , which is a very flat fegment of a circle 
 
 on the plan. 
 
 Let A By fig. 1, be the length of the fegment, and C D the projection; join D A and 
 D By make the angles D A Mand D B R equal to the angle A D C\ continue M A at 
 pleafure to o ; alfo produce CD to / and R B to r, make the diftances Ay ky A l, A 
 Any A 0, and D ey Df D gy D h, D likewife Bp, B q, B r, B s, B t, equal to 
 the projections of the cornice, fig. 2, at u, Vy Wy x, y, z; then make a triangular piece of 
 thin board, fig. 3, E F Gy in the following manner ; that is, make E I equal to A Cy and 
 I F perpendicular to it equal to CD ; join E Fy and draw F G parallel to E I ; make 
 F G equal to F Ey or more if you pleafe; join G E ; then will E F G be the form of 
 a piece which will defcribe all the arcs A Dy k ey If m g, n hy and 0 /, which will give 
 one half of the cornice i the other half will be defcribed in the fame manner. 
 
 G 2 
 
 Given 
 
44 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Given two Jlraight lines inclining to each other , and a point in one of them , to find a 
 point in the other, fo that if both lines were produced till they meet each other , the 
 point of interfeftion of the two lines may be the fame dijlance from each point ; alfo 
 to find a third point , which Jhall be equally dijlant from the interfettion , and alfo 
 from the other points. 
 
 Fig. 4. Let A B and CD be the two lines given, and A the given point; through 
 yf draw any line A G , cutting CD in G; on G, as a centre, with any radius, defcribe the 
 arc H D, cutting G A and G D in H and D ; on A. , with the fame radius, defcribe the 
 arc B K L I, cutting A G at X ; make B I equal to D H\ bifeft K I at L, and draw 
 A L C, cutting D C, produced at C, another point in the circumference; make the 
 angles E A B equal to the angle L A B ; make A E equal to A C, and the point E will; 
 be the third point required. 
 
 PLATE LIX. 
 
 STAIR-CASES. 
 
 How to draw afcrollof a hand-rail to any number of revolutions that the width of the 
 
 rail will admit. 
 
 Draw a circle A B C D E F G H , about three inches diameter, and divide the circum- 
 ference into as many equal parts as you may think neceflary ; in this example it is in eight 
 parts, at the points A , B, C, D, E , F, G, and H v through all thefe points, and from, 
 the centre /, draw lines Q. M, \ PL, OS, NR: now fuppofe that Ik is the diftance 
 you intend the centre of the fcroll to be from the beginning of the twill ; from k draw 
 k 16 Perpendicular to Ck- t on k, with the radius k C, defcribe the quadrant C 1234, 
 5, &c. cutting k C at C, and f 16 at 16 r now fuppofe it were required to make two 
 revolutions in this fcroll, and fince every revolution contains eight parts, there muft be 
 16 in two revolutions; therefore divide the quadrant into 16 equal parts, and dtaw lines 
 x 5 h x 4 13 12 0, 1 1 p. See. perpendicular to k C, cutting it at /, m, n, 0, See ; from I 
 
 make 1 L, 1 M, IN, See. equal to their correfponding diftances II, 1 m, In, 1 0, See.. 
 and trace a curve round thefe points to the eye. 
 
 The outlide curve being now formed, the infide one will be ealily obtained by fetting 
 the thicknefs of the rail from the point K , L, M, N, &c. towards the centre I, and a curve 
 being traced round thefe points will give the infide of the rail 
 
 PLATE 
 
" 1,111 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 4-5 
 
 PLATE LX. 
 
 STAIR-CASES. 
 
 How to find the form of the veneers for gluing a rail in thicknejfes. 
 
 Let fig. 1, be the plan of the rail, and the points o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, be the ends of the 
 fteps on the winders. Let a 0 be one of the flips on the flyers. Let ABC be the pitch- 
 board, fig. 2, of the flyers ; from C draw C D perpendicular to C B , and make C D equal 
 to the circumference of the circular part round o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 ; through D 
 draw D E perpendicular to DC-, then with your height-rod fet up the heights of as 
 many flceps as you have winders, which in this example is eight; join E C; from E 
 apply the pitch-board E I H, whofe bafe El is perpendicular to £ ft; from the points 
 E and C, in the line E C, make E G and C Peach equal to the hypothenufe of the pitch- 
 board, that is, A C or E H\ then defcribe the parabolas H K G and FRA , which will 
 complete one edge of the falling mould; the other edge will be completed by drawing 
 the line parallel to it ; the other falling mould, fig. 2, will be completed in the fame 
 manner, only with this difference, by taking the circumference round the inffde at h c d 
 e , inftead of o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ; take M C, fig. 2, and apply it from o to f in 
 fig. 1 ; then draw f g , cutting the infide of the rail at c\ then take b c and apply it from 
 N to 0 , by which means the curve from P to ^ may be traced from R to F , and the 
 whole curve a z x v Pt j^may be traced from A Z X V R T F , as follows ; divide the 
 bafes A B and a b of the pitch boards, fig. 2 and 3, into the fame number of equal 
 parts; draw ordinates TZ, TV X^ U V, B R, in fig. 2, and y z, w x, uv , bp , in fig 3 ; 
 draw PP, parallel to B P, in fig. 1, and r f parallel to bp in fig. 2; divide R B fig. 2, 
 and rb, fig. 1, each into two equal parts, or any other number of like parts at S and s , 
 draw ST and st parallel to B P, and bp\ then make all the ordinates rf s t, b p, u 
 w x, and y %, equal to the correfponding ordinates R P, S T r B P \TJ P, TV X> and TZ ; 
 then a curve being traced through the points a> z, x , p, /, f will give the true curve 
 
 of the under fide of the falling mould in fig. 3, to correfpond exactly to the under edge 
 AZ XV P T Fy of fig. 2. 
 
 PLATE LXI. 
 
 To draw the elevation of a hand-rail and the ends of the Jleps for (lairs , the well-hole. 
 
 being the frujlum of a cone. 
 
 On each end of the fruftum, at A B and a b as diameters, defcribe a femicircle and 
 divide the circumference of each into half the number of equal parts as there are intended 
 
 to 
 
4 6 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 to be fteps ; from the points i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. draw lines perpendicular to A B and a b , 
 cutting them at O, P , i^, i?, Tj ?/, Vy and 0, />, r, fy /, u, v ; divide the perpen- 
 dicular height C c into one part more than the number of fteps on the plan ; that is, 
 divide C c into 21 equal parts, which will give the height of as many fteps; a l will be 
 the firft ftep on the fide A a of the cylinder ; m n will be the end for the fecond ftep, by 
 drawing a line from V v ; w x will be the end for the third ftep, by drawing a line from 
 11 Uy and y z for the fourth, until you get to the other edge of the fruftum b By which 
 will complete one half of the flight; from thence you muft draw the fteps in the fame 
 order towards the fide A a for the other half. 
 
 To find, the line of the hand-rail on % the frujlum. 
 
 From the top of each ftep draw lines in the direction v Vy it Z 7 , t Ty &cc. ; on each of 
 thefe lines fet up the height of the balufters from the top of each ftep upwards ; and 
 through thefe points trace a curve and it will give the line of the rail. 
 
 To draw the plan of the rail. 
 
 Draw a line A By at fig. 2, equal to XT, the diameter of the fruftum, fig. r, at the 
 top of the rail; divide it into two equal parts at c ; on c as a centre defcribe a circle A 
 HIKLBCDEFy which will reprefent a fe&ion of the conical fruftum through 
 X T. Alfo take half L My fig. 1 ; on f, fig. 2, as a centre, defcribe a circle cutting 
 A B at a and b\ divide A a into any number of equal parts, as 10 ; alfo divide the 
 circumference of the outward circle, beginning at Ay into as many equal parts at Ay Hy /, 
 Ky Ly By Cy Dy Ey Fy Ay as the line or diftance between the fame diameters A a is divided 
 into; then draw the radii c Hy c /, c Ky c Ly &c. ; make c h equal to the radius c a of the 
 leffer circle, and one of the parts of A a ; c i equal to c a and two parts ; c k equal to c a 
 and three parts; proceed in this manner, augmenting each fucceeding radius one part 
 more than the preceding one ; then a curve being traced through all the points, will give 
 the plan of the rail. 
 
 To draw the plan and elevation of the ft air-cafe. 
 
 This elevation of the well-hole, fig. 4, is found in the fame manner as in fig. 1. The 
 plan at the fteps, fig. 3, is found in the fame manner as fig. 2, by taking A By fig. 1, for 
 the diameter v B of the outward circle at fig. 3, and a b the diameter of the lower 
 end of the fruftum, fig. 1, inftead of XT and L M ; then the fpiral line abedefghi 
 klmnopqrftuv will be the plan of a line touching the under angles of the fteps. 
 
 This ftair-cafe is a complete circle, as in fig. 3, and the fteps are equally divided round 
 the circumference at 1, 2, 3, 4, See. to 20; from thefe points draw lines tending to the 
 centre, ending at the fpiral line or plan of the rail ; the elevation and ends of the fteps in 
 fig. 4, are found from the height-rod, and from its plan fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 5, the ftretch-out of the plan of the rail in fig. 2, which is explained on the' 
 next plate. 
 
 PLATE 
 

 P1.6'l 
 
 Stair- cases 
 
 ty-4 
 
 I o ndon Phtb h. Sir, f , fitly. itSjp 6. by IS' J.Tay lor, ffijyh JTo Tbom . 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 47 
 
 PLATE LXII. 
 
 To find the falling mould for the preceding fair-cafe. 
 
 Take the ftretch-out of fig. 5 , in the laft plate, and apply it to A V, fig. 2 , and mark 
 all the fteps upon that line, which are twenty in number ; make V W perpendicular to 
 A V , on V Witt up the height of twenty fteps ; the dotted lines being drawn from the 
 treads and heights of the fteps, and a curve being drawn, will give the under edge of the 
 falling mould. 
 
 To find the face moulds for each quarter of the rail . 
 
 Lay down the plan and thicknefs of the rail as fig. i, the manner of finding the curve 
 line of it for the infide of the rail has been ftiown in the laft plate ; then a line di awn equi- 
 diftant round it, whofe breadth is equal the thicknefs of the rail, will complete the plan, 
 as is fhown by the fhaded part; divide the circumference round the infide of the rail 
 into parts refpeftively equal, A B, Z C, Y A and X i 5 in fig. 2 ; then to find a face 
 mould for any of the parts, fuppofe A B on the falling mould, fig. 2 , which correfponds to 
 a b y on the plan fig. I ; 
 
 Draw the chord a b y and the joints a l and b r, cutting the outfide of the rail at / and 
 r ; through the points /, a y b , r, draw perpendiculars c C, a A y b B y and dr D y cutting 
 a b at r, a y b y d y from the points a and b make a T and b B refpeaively equal to A a , and 
 B Z , fig. 2 ; through the points T and B r parallel to a b , draw t C, cutting c L C at C, and 
 d r D at v ; through the points C and B draw C B D ; take any number of intermediate 
 points r, fi, g y at pleafure, in the chord a Z>, and from thefe points draw lines e E y f F y 
 g G, cutting C B at £, F y G ; then from all the points C, A y £, F, G y B, Z>, draw 
 lines perpendicular to CD; then make all the diftances E H y F /, and G K, equal to 
 their correfponding diftances e h y f /, g k\ and the diftances C L y A M y E N y F O, G P y 
 B D R -, then a curve being drawn through the points A y H y /, K y B , will form the 
 infide of the mould, and another curve being drawn through Z-, M y N y O y P y R y 
 will give the outfide of the mould ; join the points L A y and B R will give the ends for 
 a plumb or perpendicular joint to the plan of the ftair, fo the mould for this quarter 
 will be completed. 
 
 In the fame manner the other moulds for the rail will be found, by taking the heights 
 Z z y C y y . for the fecond mould, and T y, Da for the third ; x X y 1 5 w for the foui til 
 mould. . 
 
 Fig. 3, (hows the manner of drawing the plan of a rail of this kind with a pair of 
 compafl'es. 
 
 Let O Abe the radius of the conical fruftum at the top of the rail, and O n the radius 
 
 of the fruftum at the bottom of the rail ; divide the difference A a , into four equal parts; 
 
 . round 
 
43 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 round the centre O, conftru£t a fquare whole Tides are each equal to one of the four parts 
 of A a , the centre 0 being the centre of the fquare 1234, and two of its Tides being 
 parallel to A O ; produce the Tides of the fquare 1234, towards G, AT, /, K -, take the 
 radius O A . , made lefs by half the Tide of the fquare, and on the point 1, as a centre, de- 
 fcribe the quadrant B G, cutting 1 G at B, and 1 if at C; on 2 as a centre, with the dis- 
 tance 2 G, defcribe the arc G D, cutting 2 H at G, and 2 / at D j on the point 3, with the 
 diftance 3 D, defcribe the arc D E, cutting 3 K at E ; laftly, on 4, with the diftance 
 4 E, defcribe the arc E F, cutting 1 G at F, will complete the infide of the plan of the 
 rail near enough for any pra&ice ; then if B G be the thicknefs of the rail, the outfide of 
 the rail G, H, /, K> will be completed by going round the centres 1234, in the fame 
 order. 
 
 Fig. 4, {hows the plan of a rail for a conical well-hole to three flights of flairs. 
 
 Note. The plan of thefe rails are the fame curve as the fpiral of Archimedis. 
 
 PLATE LXI 1 I. 
 
 MOULDS. 
 
 How to find the moulds for making a hand rail in thickneffes , when the well is the frufum 
 
 of a cone. 
 
 Let D E and de be the top and bottom diameters of the fruflum, equal to FG and 
 
 f g on the plan ; and D d, E e> the flant Tides ; on D as a centre, with the diftanee 
 
 D E , defcribe a circle E K C, cutting D d at K, and D E at E -, make the arc KC equal 
 to the arc K E , and on d , as a centre, with the diftance d c defcribe a circle cutting 
 
 b 
 
 D d at k and d e at e ; from k make the arc k c equal to the ark k e , through the points 
 C and c draw the line Cc ; alfo through D and F, draw D E \ then on G, as a centre, 
 
 with the diftance CD defcribe an arc DIB , cutting Cc at /, and C D at D ; make the 
 
 arc / B equal to the arc ID-, on c , with the diftance c d , defcribe an arc d i b, cut- 
 ting Cc at /, and c d at d‘, make the arc i b equal to the arc id-, join C B, cb , and B b, 
 and proceed in this manner as far as may be thought neceflary; then the points 
 A, B , G, Z), E , and a , £, c , d , e , will be in the circumferences of circles of which the 
 vertex of the cone is the centre - 9 a circle may be deferibed round anv three of thefe points 
 by means of a lath, as is fhown in plate 58, fig. 3. This is a neceflary preparation for 
 the next plate. 
 
 PLATE 
 
— 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 49 
 
 PLATE LXIV. 
 
 Let Bb be the flant fide of the cone, containing twenty Reps ; A B and a b be two 
 arcs found as in the laft plate, by means of a lath, of which the vertex of the cone is their 
 centre; divide a A and b B, each, into twenty parts or heights of Reps, beginning at the 
 bottom } then, with the fame lath through each two correfponding points, draw circles by 
 means of the before-mentioned lath ; from B and b, make the arcs B A and b a , equal to 
 the circumferences at the top and bottom of the fruftum, fig. r, whofe diameters are A B 
 and a. b, and divide each of thefe circles into twenty equal parts, or treads, at I, 2, 3, 4, 
 &c. and 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. then a c will be the height of the firft Rep, and d e the height 
 of the fecond ; by drawing a line from 1 to 1, in the fame manner f g, h 1, k /, &c. will 
 be found by drawing lines between 22, 33? 4 4 ) & c * un ^'d you have got to tne top at x>. 
 The Reps being now compleated, the rail will eafily be found as follows : Draw lines 
 c C,eD, g E,cF,e G, &c. through the points 1, 1. 2, 2. 3, 3. 4, 4. which will all tend to 
 the vextex of the cone ; then make all the heights c C, e D, g E, h F, f Gy See. equal to 
 the height of the baliRers, and draw a curve through all the points ; C, D, E, F, G, will 
 give the under edge of the falling mould, and a line being drawn above, parallel to, at the 
 thicknefs of the rail) will, give the upper edge, which will be a mould for one of the thick- 
 
 jpefles. 
 
 PLATE LXV, 
 
 T 0 find the moulds for making butt joints for a rail , when got out of the fohd . 1 
 
 Let fig. 1, be the plan of the rail bed , and bed the two Rdes of the circular part; 
 a A and d e, the breadths of two common Reps at the beginning and end of the winders ; 
 make the whole Rretch-out of the Rrieght line ABODE, fig. 2, equal to abode, 
 round the outfide going upwards,/^. 1 ; that is, make A B, in fig. 2, equal to a b,fig. 1 ; 
 the laR common Rep in the afeent before the winders , B CD m fig. 2, equal to the cir- 
 cumference of the femi-circular part b e d, fig. 1, and D E, in fig. 2, equal to d e \ 011 
 the outfide, fig. 1, the firR common Rep immediately af.er amending the winders, draw 
 the lines BE, D G, and E H, perpendicular to A E ; make B F equal to the height ot 
 one Rep ; make D G one Rep higher than the number of winders that is m this example ; 
 fuppofe the circular part to contain eight winders, then D G will be equal to the 
 height of nine Reps ; make E H equal to the height of ten Reps j then join A F, F G, 
 G if, and deferibe the parabolical parts A I, and K H, and the under edge of the Ru- 
 ling mould will be completed ; the upper edge will be formed by drawing a line parallel 
 to it, equal to the thicknefs of the rail. 
 
 tr Bifect: 
 
So THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Bifeft the ftretch-out of the circular part B D , at C; from C draw C ^perpendicular 
 to A E , cutting both edges of the falling mould at L and M\ bifedf L M at N, and 
 through N draw OP at right angles .to the falling mould, cutting it at O and P ; 
 through the points O and P, draw 0 and PR, each perpendicular to A E , cutting 
 
 A E at ^and R, let 5 f be the joint on the ftreight part ; then from the points S and 
 
 T, draw S U, and T V perpendicular to A E, cutting it at U and V \ then take the dis- 
 tances CR and in fig. 2, and apply them in the middle of the circular part, fig. i, 
 from c to r, and from c to q, and draw to the centre r Z, and q Z, cutting the infide of 
 the rail at r and q ; alfo take the diftances B V and B U , fig. 2, and apply them from b 
 to v, and from b to «, fig. 1 ; then draw v v, and u u at right angles to the rail, cut- 
 ting the other fide at v and u ; then through the points u and r on the infide of the rail, 
 fig. 1, draw the chord u r ; then from all the points «, u, v, v, q, q, and r, r, draw 
 lines u u s, u r, v t, v t , and q 0 , &c. each perpendicular to the chord line u r; 
 
 then complete the fedfions of the rail 1 1 s j, and 0 0 p p, as are ftiown at the fhadowcd 
 
 parts, and draw the chord line i o to touch thefe fedlions without cutting them. Then 
 take any number of intermediate points, as 5, 6, 7, 8, in the chord u r, and draw 
 the lines 5 5, 6, 6, 7 7, 8 8, perpendicular to u r, cutting the chord of the face mould 
 s 0 , at the points 5, 6, 7, 8 ; continue the lines u r, and r y>, till they cut the 
 chord line of the face mould so, at 0 and 9 ; through all the points, s , 0, 5, 6, 7, 8, o, 10, 
 9, draw lines perpendicular to the chord of the face mould s 0 , for ordinates, points being 
 found in each of them correfponding to thefe ; on the plan and lines being traced through 
 thefe points, the face mould X will be completed in the ufual manner. 
 
 N. B. The fmall letters on the fedlions of the face mould, and fitnilar capital letters ofi 
 the falling mould, fhew correfponding places in each. 
 
 How to cut the joints. 
 
 The fluff mull firft be cut out by the face mould, and the joints made exactly plumb, 
 according to the face mould, as is fhown b y fig. 3 and 4. 
 
 To make this appear plain, of fig. 3 and 4, are different views of the folid rail got 
 out by the face mould X. Fig. 3, fhows the top and convex fide of the piece that 
 is to make the rail ; take the diftance 9 p from the chord line of the face mould down 
 the perpendicular, fig. 1, and fet it from 9 to p in fig. 3. Then apply the fhadowed 
 part of the falling mould at fig. 2, which is to correfpond to the block of the rail, fig. 3, 
 that is, apply the point S , the upper edge of the lower end of the falling mould at 
 fig. 2, to the point s at fig. 3, and bend the falling mould round until the point P, the 
 lower edge of the upper end of the falling mould, coincide with the point p ; draw a 
 line all round by the falling mould, it will fhow how to cut off the ends of the rail, and will 
 alfo give the upper and lower edge of the rail. Fig. 4 fhows the concave fide of the piece, 
 in order to fhow the ends ; having fimilar letters of reference as before. From s, in fig. 4, 
 draw s s at right angles to s b 3 then cut off the end through the line s s , as is fhown at 
 fig. 3, and through the points s, t , as is fhown at fig. 4. The upper joint will be 
 found in the fame manner, that is, by drawing the line p p at right angles to 9 p, then 
 1 cut 
 
THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 51 
 
 cut off the end through the line p p , in fig. 4, and through p 0 , as is fliown in the other 
 View, fig. 3. If great accuracy is required in fquaring the rail, make an infide falling 
 mould, which apply the under edge of the upper end to the point p in fig. 4, and the up- 
 per edge of the lower end of the falling mould to the point r, and draw lines above and 
 below by the two edges of the falling mould, and it will give the form of the upper and 
 under edges of the rail. By this method of proceeding, the workman will be enabled 
 to cut out the fluff of a: hand rail with very great accuracy. 
 
 Addition to the Defer iption of PLATE XXIX. 
 
 For making of rule joint, fig . 2, 3, obferve that if there is not a Ipace about one- 
 fixteenth of an inch between the ftraps, when the hinge is fliut, it will be neceffary that 
 no light be feen through the joint, to work the ftile B on the ou tilde, half a fixteenth fur- 
 ther on than exactly fquare, to accommodate which you muft take as much from tlye 
 ftile A. 
 
 But if there is the requifite fpace between the ftraps, then the above obfervation does 
 not apply, and it is better the hinge fhould be thus,. 
 
 H 2 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
roofs 
 
 WHICH ARE BUILT. 
 
 In the Preface I have ftated my reafons for giving thefe Examples ; 
 it is only neceffary here for me to fay, that the following are 
 taken from my own actual meafurements, viz. St. Paul’s Cathedral, 
 Iflington Church, St. Martin’s Church, the new roof of Covent-Gar- 
 den Church, the Chapel of Greeriwich-Hofpital, and the Tower o 
 the York-Buildings Water-works. The old roof of Covent-Garden 
 Church I have been favoured with from a Gentleman's drawing, 
 who measured it at the time of the repairs in 1795 * 
 
 The roofs of Drury-Lane and Birmingham Theatres were copied, 
 by permiflion, from the original drawings. 
 
54 * 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 PLATE LXVI. and LXVII. 
 
 Of the Dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral , London. 
 
 A a a A A^ a dome of brick, two bricks thick, which, as it rifes every five feet, ha's 
 a courfe of excellent brick of 18 inches long, bonding through the whole thicknefs- 
 1 his dome, it may be proper to obferve, was turned upon a centre, which was laid with- 
 out any ftandards from below to fupport it. Every ft ory of the fcaffolding being circular, 
 and the ends of the ledgers meeting as fo many rings, and truly wrought, it fupported itfelf j 
 and as it was both centering and fcaffolding it remained for the ufe of the painter, there 
 being a fpace of 12 feet between it and the dome. T. his machine was original of the kind. 
 
 Although the dome wants no butment, yet, for greater caution, it is hooped with iron in 
 this manner : a channel is cut in the bandage of Portland ftone, in which is laid a double 
 cnain of iron, ftrongly linked together at every ten feet, and the whole filled up with lead. 
 
 This dome was afterwards painted in a moft beautiful ftyle by the celebrated Sir James 
 
 B B b b B B, is a cone built with bricks, one foot fix inches in thicknefs, and is alfo 
 plaiftered and painted ; part of this cone may be feen from the flooring of the church 
 thiough the opening at a a , the top of the interior dome. 
 
 The timber work is well fupported by the brick cone B B b; the horizontal or hammer 
 beams CC , D D> EE , F F, being curioufly tied into the corbels <?, #„/, K , with iron 
 
 cramps, which are well bedded into the corbels with lead, and bolted to the hammer 
 beams. 
 
 Between the trufTes of the roof is carried the flairs which lead to the Golden Gallery 
 at the top of the dome. 3 
 
 The dome is boarded from the bafe upwards, and therefore the ribs are fixed horizontal 
 at near diftances to each.other, in the fame manner as is Ihown in my example of a domical 
 roof, Plate XlII. of th.s work, where the fides of all the ribs Hand in planes tending to 
 the centre of the dome. The fcantlmg of the curve rib of the trufs, is to inches by f ri 
 at the bottom, and 6 inches by 6 at the top. 
 
 The fides of the dome are fegments of circles, the centres of which are marked in the 
 pate, and which, if continued, would meet at the top, and forma pointed arch. . 
 
 n the top of the dome is built a cupola of Portland ftone, which is twenty-one feet 
 
 diameter, and near fixty-four feet high, fupported by the cone, and by the timber work 
 Of the trufles. 
 
 The conftruSion of this dome is an admirable example of the fltill and great matbema- 
 tical knowledge of Sir Chrijlopher Wrtn % 
 
 PLATE 
 

5 S 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 PLATE LX VII. 
 
 A trufs of the dome to a larger fcale, fhowing the manner in which the iron cramps 
 are fixed to the corbels and bolted to the hammer beams. The horizontal bars, <7, £ 
 <r, */, are about four inches fquare, and about the fame in number as are fhown in the plate. 
 A a, part of the ftone work which fupports the fteps or breaks, immediately under the 
 
 curve of the dome. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scantling of the timbers. 
 
 
 A Poft — 
 
 
 7 
 
 in. by 7 
 
 M Strut — • — » 5 
 
 in. by 8 
 
 B Strut — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 in. by 8 
 
 N Hammer beam — 8 
 
 in. by 
 
 C Hammer beam 
 
 — « 
 
 8 
 
 in. by 7* 
 
 0 Poft — — 10 
 
 in. by 1 r^ 
 
 D Poll: — 
 
 — 
 
 
 in. by 84 
 
 P Poft fupporting the curve 
 
 and 15 by 84 at bottom. 
 
 
 
 rib of the dome — • 10 
 
 in. by n| 
 
 E Brace — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 in. by 8 
 
 Curve rib of the 
 
 F Strut — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 in. by 8 
 
 dome — — 10 
 
 in. by ii£ 
 
 G Hammer beam 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 in. by 10 
 
 at bottom, and 6 in. by 6 
 
 H Poft — 
 
 — 
 
 
 in. by 94 
 
 at top. 
 
 
 I Poft — 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 in. by 94 
 
 a, b , c, </, e , &c. fmall hori- 
 
 
 K Strut — 
 
 
 5 
 
 in. by 8 
 
 zontal rafters — • 4 
 
 in. by 4 
 
 L Hammer beam 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 in. by 10 
 
 R Wall plate — 8 
 
 in. by 12 
 
 The diameter of the dome is 104 feet, and in the circumference there are 32 trufles. 
 ; It may be obferved that the fcantling of none of the timbers in this dome is fo great, as 
 in many churches. 
 
 
 PLATE LXVHI. 
 
 Of the old and new Roofs of St. Paul’s Churchy Covent Garden . 
 
 The beautiful portico of this Church is of the Tufcan order, and is executed according 
 to the rules of Vitruvius, who. fays, that the mutules or cantilivers of the cornice ought 
 to project a quarter of the height of the columns, which requires the roof to have a pe- 
 culiar confirmation, which is fhewn in thefe trufles. 
 
 Fig. 1, the roof to the Church, as executed by Inigo Jones i and which was confirmed 
 by the unfortunate fixe in 1795. 
 
 PLATE 
 
56 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT* 
 
 ' PLATE LXVIII. 
 
 Fig. i. The old roof. 
 
 A A) the tie beam proje&ing over each wall about feven feet, which 
 is the proje&ure of the mutules, being in length about 72 feet, and 50 
 feet 2 inches in the clear of the walls — —— 
 
 B 5 , the king poft — — 
 
 C C, D £>, E £, braces halved into each other, and alfo into the 
 
 king poft B B — — "* 
 
 F F, one of the queen pofts — — — 
 
 (r, one of the ftuds — — 
 
 H H , one of the principal rafters - — — 
 
 /, one of the principal braces — — ** 
 
 i i i i /, purlines — — 
 
 k k , common rafter — — “ 
 
 The diftance- between the trades about 10 feet 6 inches 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 16 in. by 12 
 1 2 in. fquare, 
 
 12 in. by 8 
 12 in. by 12 
 10 in. by 10 
 12 in. by 10 
 12 in. by 8 
 12 in. by 10 
 6 in. by 4 
 
 Fig. 2. Trufs for the neiv roof. 
 
 A A , the tie beatw, which cambers 6 inches on the clear of the church ; 
 the length of the beam being the fame as in the old trufs 
 B B , one of the queen pofts (in the fmall part) 
 
 C, collar beam , — 
 
 i), king poft (14 in. at the j ogle) — * 
 
 Ej brace — — — % 
 
 F F\ one of the principal braces, or an auxiliary to the principal rafter 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 16 in. by 12 
 84 in. fquare. 
 10 in. by 3 
 8.4 in. fquare. 
 8 in. by 74- 
 
 in order toftrain the beam A A y and keep it from being bent over the 
 walls by the weight of the roof (at top 84 in. fquare) — at bottom 10 in. by 84 
 
 g g , ftuds on one fide of the roof in order to ftrengthen the bearing of 
 the principal rafter — — 1 ^ * n * ftl ua re. 
 
 H If the principal rafter fupported by the ftuds g, g, queen poft B B , 
 
 and king poft D (at top 84 fquare) — — at bottom 10 in. by 84 
 
 /, i, the purlines on one fide, fupporting the fmall' rafter K K ■ 9 
 
 K K , the fmall rafters — — — 6 in. by 3^- 
 
 L X, wall plates — — 12 hi. by 10 
 
 The dotted lines in the middle compartment (hows the manner in which this loof is 
 framed under the cupola j the diftance of the trufs is about 10 feet 6 inchesj as in the 
 eld roof. 
 
 At 
 
J.cndon.J’ublL/heil July by l He J. Taylor 56 Biyh Bo Horn . 
 

LondoruPiUi&rKaLi Jut>‘, zj^6, fyy l $eJ.7lt>'tor, £6, ff\<fh ttotbonv . 
 
EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 57 
 
 At firft fight one w<Suld be led to think the timbers of the old roof are placed fo as to 
 make it very ftrong ; but the want of proper butments, or joggles, at the bottom of the 
 queen poft, together with the frequent cutting or halving the pieces together, render 
 it altogether very infirm, and I think much inferior to the modern roof, fig. 2 ; where 
 every timber performs its proper office, in flrengthening the roof, and in refilling the ac- 
 tion of the wind, the weight of fnow, &c. It mull alfo be obferved in favour of the 
 modern improvements in carpentry, that a trufs of the old roof contains about 273 folid 
 feet of timber, whereas the new roof contains only about 198 feet in each trufs. 
 
 The prefent roof was put up in 1796. Mr. Hardwick, Architect. Mr. Waplhott, 
 Carpenter. 
 
 PLATE LXIX. 
 
 Of the roof of IJUngton Church. 
 
 The fpan of this building is forty-eight feet eight inches, within the walls; the length 
 of the beam / X, is thirty-one feet three inches from the infide of one rafter to the in- 
 fide of the other, which is in two thicknefles, as is Ihown by fig. QR i c and d re- 
 prefents the fpace cut out to receive the braces. 
 
 The braces a <z, b £, c c, d f are halved into each other, and are 11^ inches broad, 
 and feven inches thick; the king poft CD, and the pieces E F and G H y are in two 
 thicknefles, each piece being let in on each fide of the trufs into the braces, leaving a 
 fmall fpace between them, and are all bolted together at the interfedlion of the braces. 
 
 The pieces CD, E F, G H, are each 1 foot broad ; the thicknefles, together with the 
 fpace between them, is one foot four inches ; the diftance between the truffles is 12 feet. 
 
 I should be cautious of ufing this kind of conftrudlion, viz. coveing the ceiling fo much 
 into the roof. Had the collar beam I K , beeu placed as low as M £, fo as to have taken 
 the whole fpan to the walls, the trufs would have been more fafe, and have taken lefs 
 timber. 
 
 This roof was built about the year 1752; Mr. Dowbiggin, Architedl, Mr. Stimfon, 
 Carpenter. 
 
 The conftrudlion of this roof is ingenious but complicated. It takes a great quantity 
 of timbers, and the frequent interfeaion and halving of which is very objectionable. The 
 timbers are too much parallel to each other, producing only quadrilateral forms, which 
 are always liable to revolve at the angles ; whereas the ftrongeft poflible conftru&ion for a 
 roof mull be fought in a triangle ; and the timbers fo placed, or a roof conftruaed on fuch 
 principles, that is, with feweft quadrilaterals, will certainly bet he ftrongeft poflible : 
 With thefe confiderations and maxims, and with due refpea to the roof before us, I have 
 fhewn an exam pie, fig. 2, fuited to a fimilar purpofe, and which mull be confidered as evi- 
 dently ftronger, and as taking much lefs timber. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
58 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Fig. 2. This trufs is conftrudted fo as to have one, two, or three purlines between 
 the principal rafters, as circumftances may require : if only one purline is required, the 
 proper place will be at M, in the middle of the rafter, with the butment at -V, interfering 
 the principal brace and the tie beam. In this cafe the braces GO, G /, C £, may be 
 omitted, which will render the trufs more fimple, and yet (trong enough. 
 
 If two purlines are ufed, they of courfe will be placed over the braces I and L, 
 
 If three purlines are requifite, the rafter D 5 , ought to be divided into four equal parts 
 and the braces /, M, L , ftiould then be immediately under the purlines ; thus every crofs 
 (train will be thrown off the timbers, and every other (train which they receive late- 
 rally, will be from their own weight only ; wherefore the timbers may be very (light and 
 yet fufficiently (trong. 
 
 The brace A B is double, bolted together at A \ and (trongly united by an iron (trap to 
 the other brace at the point B r where alfo they are bolted together through the head of the 
 king po(t : The rafters D B , and B H, may be (trongly united by an iron (trap over 
 their tops. 
 
 The brace C L runs between the double brace A B , to which it is bolted at the inter- 
 fedtion. The piece E O is fattened to the principal rafter and the tie beam by an iron 
 (trap, which (trongly unites the three together. The brace G I is double, one half on 
 each fide the brace E 0 , the tie-beam, and the rafter, to each of which it is bolted at the 
 feveral interfedtions. The butment of this brace is fecured by the (training-piece F. 
 
 The pitch of this roof may be very low, even less than that of fig. i, and yet be fuffi- 
 ciently (trong : by fo low a pitch, the beauty of the building will be increafed ; indeed it 
 may with propriety be adapted to the proportion of a pediment to a portico, if required. 
 
 PLATE LXX. 
 
 Of the roof of St. Martin's Church » 
 
 Fig. I, the whole trufs entire. 
 
 Fig. 2, half of the (ame to a larger fcale ; (hewing the fcantlings, lengths and bear- 
 ings of the timbers. 
 
 The breadth of this building, within the walls, is about fixty-nine feet ; the breadth- 
 of the fide ailes, reckoning from the centre of the columns to the walls is nearly 
 fourteen feet five inches and a half ; the breadth of the middle ailes, from centre to 
 centre of the columns is about thirty-nine feet eleven inches. The form and manner of 
 framing this roof, according to the extent and height, is judicious $. but the fcantling of 
 the timbers is much more than fufficient to refill the weight of the covering, force of the 
 wind, &c. The br2ce A B , fig. 2, might have been omitted y it anfvvers no purpofe to 
 the (trength of the roof, as the upright pod, which it feemingly fupports, is upheld by the 
 column, which will prevent it from defeending ; this roof is well and fufficiently braced 
 throughout, fo that there is no danger of fwerving either on one fide or the other. 
 
 The church was built about the year *1721. Mr. John Gibbs, Architect. 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
6g feet 
 
 40 Feet 
 
 \ 
 

I 
 
 London JubU.thed July /. i-yo' by It ' ./. Taylor, Sff Biyh flolbom . 
 
EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 59 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 A , principal rafter 
 
 - 13 in. by 10 
 
 ZZ, poll over the column - 
 
 14 in. by qi- 
 
 at bottom, and 11 by 10 at top. 
 
 /, brace - 
 
 7 in. by 7 
 
 By principal brace 
 
 14 in. by 10 
 
 Ky brace - 
 
 7 in. by 7 
 
 at bottom, and 1 1 
 
 by 10 at top. 
 
 Z, poll - 
 
 8 in. by 9 
 
 C, king poll 
 
 - 9 in. by 9 
 
 My hammer beam 
 
 14 in. by 9* 
 
 Z>, ftrut 
 
 - 7 in. by 
 
 Ny brace - 
 
 8 in. by 8 
 
 if, queen poll 
 
 - 8 in. by 9^ 
 
 Oy brace - 
 
 8 in. by 8 
 
 F, ftrut 
 
 - 7 in. by 7 
 
 Py poll in the wall 
 
 
 G t collar beam 
 
 14 in. by gt 
 
 horizontal rafters 
 
 4 in. by 6 
 
 ■ 
 
 PLATE LXXI. 
 
 Of the Roof of the Chapel of the Royal Hofpital at Greenwich. 
 
 After the fire at the Hofpital in 1779, which did confiderable damage to the Chapel and 
 to the wing, it became neceflary nearly to rebuild the whole of the Chapel, Mr. James 
 Stuart being then furveyor; under his eye and care it received its prefent beautiful 
 decorations. The roof, PI. 71, was conftru&ed by Mr. Samuel Wyatt, about 1785. 
 
 The roof is flat on the top, and the conftrudllon is perhaps as ftrong and Ample as 
 could be contrived for a platform ; the king poll: is of iron, and the joints are well 
 fecured by iron ftraps. It extends 51 feet in the clear and is a good example, materially 
 varying from the general form of roofs. 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 A A \ the tie beam, the whole length 
 is 57 feet, and the clear within 
 the walls of the chapel is 51 
 feet 14. in. by 12 
 
 By an iron king poll - 2 in. fquare 
 
 Cy C, queen polls - - 9 in. by 12 
 
 Z), Z), Z), Z), braces - 9 in. by 7 
 
 E, collar beam - - 10 in. by 7 
 
 Ey ftraining piece - - 6 in. by 7 
 
 G G, G G, the principal rafters 10 in. by 7 
 hi hj by h-y &c. common rafters lay- 
 ing in a horizontal direction 4 in. by 6 
 H, a camber beam supporting the 
 platform - - 9 in. by 7 
 
 The dillance between the trufles is about 7 feet. 
 
 I 2 
 
 PLATE 
 
6o 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT, 
 
 PLATE LXXII. 
 
 Of the Roof of Drury-Lane Theatre . 
 
 This roof has certainly great merit, the conftru&ion is fimple, and the accommodations 
 the moft ample poflible. By dividing the breadth of the building into three parts the roof 
 is kept low, and the fcantling of the timbers is much reduced. The trufles are 15 feet 
 apart, and 80 feet 34 inches fpan in the clear; the roof is about 200 feet long. Very ample 
 accommodations for the Carpenters and Painters are obtained in the middle fpace which 
 is 32 feet wide : the fides are divided into drefling rooms, {lore rooms, &c. the ceilings of 
 which are flat. 
 
 This roof was built in 1793, Mr. Henry Holland, Architect ; Mr. Edward Grey 
 Saunders, Carpenter. 
 
 The figures (hew a trufs entire, and half of a trufs to a larger feale. 
 
 Scantlings , &c*. 
 
 /f, beams 
 
 IO in. by 7 
 
 /, common rafters 
 
 5 in. by 4 and 2~ 
 
 B , principal rafters 
 
 7 in. thick 
 
 X, beams 
 
 - 15 in. by 12 
 
 C, king polls 
 
 12 in. by 7 
 
 Z, polls 
 
 15 in. by 12 
 
 D, ft ruts 
 
 5 in. by 7 
 
 principal braces 
 
 14 in. by 12 and 12 
 
 P, purlines - 
 
 9 in. by 5 
 
 Nj ftruts 
 
 - 8 in. by 12 
 
 F , ridges - 
 
 i \ in. thick 
 
 0, oak trufles to the middle 
 
 <j, pole plates 
 
 5 in. by 5 
 
 bearing of beams 
 
 - 5 t in- by 4^ 
 
 H, gutter plates framed into 
 beams 
 
 12 in. by 6 
 
 P, {training beams 
 
 12 in. by 12 
 
 PLATE 
 
J 
 
 

EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 6r 
 
 PLATE LXXIII. 
 
 Of the Roof of Birmingham Theatre, 
 
 The fpan of this roof is 80 feet, the conftruCtion of the trufs is well adapted to its 
 purpofes, being fimple and requiring but little timber confidering its magnitude. An 
 open fpace of 19 feet 6 inches wide and 18 feet high, is left in the middle for the various 
 work-rooms, &c. neceffary for the fervices of the theatre. The thruft of the long braces, 
 My My againft the foot of the king poft G, is effectually counteracted by the ftraining 
 
 fill 
 
 There is in this roof an adfnirable provifion, which I think fhould never be omitted in 
 roofs of large extent, to guard againft the poilibility of accident from rot or decay at the 
 ends of the beams on the wall j the pieces marked i£, are placed parallel with the walls 
 at about 7 feet diftance from the ends of the beams, to each of which it is /ecured by 
 an iron bolt j and for a fimilar purpofe the inner plate B is an addition to the ufual one C y 
 the wall being too thin to admit a plate proportioned in width, to the fpan of the roof. 
 
 The truffes are about 10 feet apart. 
 
 - 1 f 
 
 This roof was conftru&ed by Mr. George Saunders, Architect, in the year 1794° 
 
 Fig. 1, (hews half the trufs to a larger fcale. 
 
 Fig. 4, {hews the trufs- entire. 
 
 Scantlings . 
 
 Ay oak corbal 
 
 9 in. by 5 
 
 I Iy principal rafters 
 
 12 and 9 in. by 9 
 
 By inner plate 
 
 9 in. by 9 
 
 K Ky common rafters 
 
 4 in. by 24 
 
 Cy wall plate 
 
 - - 8 in. by 5^ 
 
 L Ly principal braces 
 
 9 and 6 in. by 9 
 
 Dy pole plate 
 
 7 in. by 5 
 
 M My common braces 
 
 6 in. by 9 
 
 Ey beam 
 
 15 in. by 15 
 
 N Ny purlines 
 
 7 in. by 5 
 
 Fy {training beam 
 
 12 in. by 9 
 
 0 Oy upper ditto 
 
 - 6 in. by 4 
 
 G Gy king poft of oak, in the {haft 9 in. by 9 
 
 Py ridge piece 
 
 9 in. by 2 
 
 H Hy queen poft of oak, 
 
 in thefhaft 7 in. by 9 
 
 {training fill 
 
 5-f b y 9 
 
 Fig. 5, 6. Methods of fcarfing beams. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2, 3. The fame, to a larger fcale. 
 
 
 
 The example, fig, 6 
 
 may be continued to 
 
 alraoft any length by breaking the joints as 
 
 fbewn. 
 
 PLATE 
 
62 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 PLATE LXXIV. 
 
 The manner of framing the Tower or Spire of the Water-works at York Buildings 
 
 in the Strand , London . 
 
 Fig. i, the elevation of the whole fpire, naked, confilting of fourteen ftories, fhowing 
 the manner of framing the timbers. 
 
 Fig. 2, the upper part to a larger fize, fhowing the dimenfions of the timbers and the 
 manner of framing the top. 
 
 Fig. 3, plan of the top, fhowing how the ribs are framed into the king poft, and to 
 keep the ribs ftill more fecure all the ends are bolted into a circular ring, whofe centre 
 is the centre of the king pofL 
 
 Fig. 4, a fedtion of the tower, fhowing the braces at the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 5, the manner of fcarfing the angular pofts. 
 
 The plan of this building is an odlagon, each fide at the bafe on the outfide of the 
 framing is 9 feet, and each fide at the top is 2 feet inches. The ftories are about 7 
 feet 10 inches high, from the upper fide of one floor to the upper fide of the next. 
 
 It may be proper here to obferve, it would have added much to the ftrength of this 
 fpire, if all the timbers had been framed together as in the upper ftory, fee fig . 2. 
 
 The ftrudlure was built by Mr. James King, a Gentleman of confiderable eminence as 
 a Carpenter, who was engaged in many large works, particularly in the building of Weft- 
 minfter Bridge. 
 
 This Tower was built, I have much reafon to fuj^pofe, previous to the year 1729. 
 
 Te 
 
..... . M wnrwKr . - •• — — w 
 
Tl.yS 
 
EXAMPLES OF ROOFS 
 
 ^3 
 
 To increafe the variety of Towers or Spires, I fhall now give a Defign for 
 a Spire, and a Defign for Turret, with the manner of hanging the Bell. 
 
 PLATE LXXV. 
 
 Defign for a Spire , which may be covered with lead , flowing the timbers or manner of 
 
 framing it. 
 
 Fig. 1, the plan. P and R S\ are fleepers ; A Ay B B, C C, D Z), are beams on 
 which the angle pofts are fixed at^,^, The ends of thefe beams ftiould be confi- 
 
 derably longer than fhewn, which ought to be worked into the wall or timber-work of 
 the bafe, fo that the a£tion of the wind may be refilled by as broad a bafe as poffible. 
 
 Fig. 2, the elevation. The bars are equi-diftant ; thofe in the fides are in the middle 
 of the adjoining ones, by which the mortices are at an equal difiance: thus the angle 
 pofts will be kept as ftrong as the nature of the thing will admit. The proportion of 
 the fpire is as 5 to 3. 
 
 Fig. 3, another method of framing the floor or plan for a fpire. 
 
 Defign for a Turret proper for a Chapel , & c. with the trufs for hanging the bell. 
 
 The bafe of this turret may be of fione, in the form of fteps, or a pedeftal, the bafe- 
 ment is therefore framed fquare to a certain height ; the upper part then takes a circular 
 form; the finifbing, at the upright pofis, may be either pilafters or columns, fupporting an 
 entablature, with a domical or other roof. - 
 
 Fig. 4, plan of bafement or floor, which is fquare; the fupports or pofis being 
 placed at K , Z, M, N. The upper part being circular, the pofts are placed at 
 A , Z, L, D , Z, F y G , //, forming a circle of the diameter propofed. 
 
 Fig. 5, elevation of the turret; A , B , L, Z>, the pofis which form the upper or circular 
 part of the tower, againft which the pilafters, &c. are to be fixed. P and i^are the pofts 
 which form the bafe or fquare part of the turret. O O, a ftretcher, under which are the 
 ends of others, which brace or bind the fquare or pedeftal part of the turret. S S , and 
 S £, the braces which fupport the bell. 
 
 Fig. 6. the elevation on the other fide, {bowing the trufs to fupport the bell; R R the 
 poll ; S S , and *9 S braces. If this turret is finifhed with a cornice, frize, and architrave, 
 the fpace between the circular rings at the top may be filled in with blockings, prope r 
 o fix them to.. 7 
 
 Of 
 
64 
 
 THB CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Of Mortices, Tenons, Iron Straps, &c. 
 
 The foregoing plates of Roofs having exhibited a variety of the beft examples, 
 in form, conftru&ion, and magnitude, and fuited to moft occafions of im- 
 portance 3 to complete the fubjeft, I fhall, in the three following plates, 
 give examples of, and demonftrate the beft eonftruftion of Mortices and 
 tenons, and the beft pofition for placing Iron Straps on the ends of beams, to 
 fecure them in their places; matters of the greateft importance to the Prafii- 
 cal Carpenter , and without a due knowledge of which, the beft conftrudtion 
 may be fpoiled in the execution. 
 
 PLATE LXXVI. 
 
 Of Tenons and Mortices , according to their pofition. 
 
 Obferve. If a piece of framing is to ftand perpendicular, fuch as partitions, See. and if 
 there be no preflure on either fide, or an equal prelTure be on each fide of the framing, 
 then it will be beft ro have the mortice and tenon in the middle of the wood, as AB. 
 Further 
 
 Obferve , in framing for floors. Sec. where the preflure is entirely on one fide, the mor- 
 tices and tenons ought to be neareft to that fide on which the preflure is, becaufe if a piece 
 is cut out on that fide on which the preflure is, the timber or beam will be but little 
 weakened, if a piece of hard wood is drove tight into the cavity or notch : in flooring, 
 where the weight of the materials and every additional weight tend to prefs downward, 
 the whole ftrefs or ftrain will be upon the upper fide of the timbers, wherefore the mor- 
 tice and tenon ought to be as fhewn at C } Z>, is, F\ that at C, Z), is the moft Ample 
 method. A, F, is another method by which to obtain more ftrength in the tenon by an 
 additional fhoulder or bearing below, which is further aided by the inclined butment or 
 bearing above. 
 
 Gj the manner of framing together an angular wall-plate for a hip-rafter, with the dra- 
 gon beam to fupport the rafter. 
 
 ZZ, the hip rafter, fixed into the dragon-beam, jfhewing its tenon, and the manner in 
 which it is cut, to be fixed on the wall-plate. 
 
 /, one of the wall-plates, fhewing the halving to receive the other plate, and the cut- 
 ting, for dove-tailing the angular brace. 
 
 X, Z, the manner of tenoning hip or principal rafters. 
 
 M t another method much in ufe for cutting the feet of the principal rafters, in order to 
 give them a double refiftance on the tie-beam 3 but as the beam in this cafe is neceflarily 
 cut acims the grain, in order to receive the rafter, that part of the tie-beam, which is 
 1 left 
 
London TuhKthcd Jtih/ i-ijyS tvl SL'JlTaylor, ■>{> JSroh TLoTbom ■ 
 
EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 6S 
 
 left {landing, to receive the heel of the rafter, is eafily fplit away ; a more effectual method, 
 therefore, of obtaining a double refiftance is fhown at N, where the focket is cut parallel 
 to the grain of the wood. 
 
 O, fedtion of the tie-beam acrofs the focket, {hewing the mortice of N. 
 
 P, the upper fide of the tie-beam, {hewing the focket and mortice of the fedtion O. 
 the manner of {trapping a king-poft to a tie-beam, {hewing the braces and joggles. 
 
 The beft form of a butment for a brace, which is joggled into a king-poft, is to have the 
 end of the brace which forces againft the joggle, perpendicular to the Tides of the brace; 
 by this means it will have no tendency to Hide to one fide or the other, but will keep firmly 
 on its butment. 
 
 P, a fedtion of the king-poft and tie-beam, {hewing the manner of wedging and tighten- 
 ing the ftrap, with a fingle wedge, in order to draw the tie-beam clofe to the king-poft. 
 
 S , a fedtion of the fame part, to a larger fcale, with a double wedge, which will adt 
 much eafier than a fingle wedge in driving, as it will have lefs adtion upon and refiftance 
 from the ends or crofs grain of the wood. 
 
 PLATE LXXVII. 
 
 OF IRON STRAPS , &c. 
 
 In order to ejiablijh a rule for the hejl method of fixing Iron Straps, it is necejfary 
 to enquire in what manner a trufs is affetted by the different prejfure of the purlines 
 which fupport the fmall rafters and the coverings which alfo will demonjlrats the true 
 ufe and fervice of the King-Post. 
 
 Fig. i. Let the two rafters CZ), and c Z, be firmly fixed to the tie-beam D d , and the 
 upper ends C r, be fixed to the king-poft E , the joggles being at right angles with the 
 rafters. — It is evident if a weight adts upon the point P, the vertex of the trufs, it will 
 not defcend ; for fuppofe the rafters to revolve at the points Z), d , to defcend, the points 
 C, r, muft come nearer to each other ; but this cannot be fo long as the top of the king- 
 poft is incompreflible, and therefore neither the king-poft nor the rafters can defcend. 
 Inftead of a weight adting at A, fuppofe a weight hung or fufpended there, adting in the 
 diredtion of the king-poft E e ; a weight thus fufpended will endeavour -to make the king- 
 poft defcend, the fame as when adting at A", now in the endeavour of the king-poft to 
 defcend, it muft force upon the rafters C D and c d ; fiat as thefe are faft at their hut- 
 ments or points Z), <Z, the force which adts at the points C, r, will pufli the rafters in 
 the diredtion of CD and c d, confequently the force of the thruft will terminate on the 
 
 K tie- 
 
66 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 tie beam, at the points D, d y and will endeavour to extend the beam. Wherefore if this 
 trufs fhould fail, the rafters mull burll, and the tie-beam be broken by tenfion. 
 
 Now if this roof has purlines which Hand upon the points A , B y a , b y a force ailing 
 on thefe points will eafily bend the rafters, wherefore it will be neceffary to find fome 
 fixed points in order to keep the points A , B , a , b , from defcending, or, in other words, 
 to prevent the rafters bending. To this purpofe fix the fide-pofts / k and h g y 
 under the purlines B y b , and alfo put in the braces / e y and b /, fo that the hutments at 
 /, e y i y h y may be at right angles to the direction of the braces ; then the points B y b y can- 
 not defcend, for they are fupported by the points e , /, on the king-poll, which was fhown 
 to be immoveable, and therefore the points B and b y will alfo be immoveable : further, 
 the Ihoulders at l and h y will prevent the fide-poll l k and h g y defcending, and confe- 
 quently if the braces / k , and g k y are placed under the points A and a y and are firmly 
 fixed to the bottom of the polls / k y and b g y the points A and a will alfo be fup- 
 ported. 
 
 As wood is more apt to fhrink Tideways than in length, fo the king -polls and fide-polls, 
 in confequence of the perpendicular pofition of the grain of the wood, and alfo in propor- 
 tion to the quality of the wood, will be liable to Ihrink, the rafters of confequence will 
 defcend ; this mull be guarded againll by the application of iron llraps in proper pofitions, 
 as will be afterwards fhown. 
 
 To obviate all the objections of the fhrinking of the king-poll, we have inllances of 
 their being being made of iron, as in the roof to Greenwich Hofpital, Plate 7 1 ; and this 
 might be ufed with propriety in the circumllances of the rafters butting againll each other, 
 as in fig. C y PI. 78. See alfo this further applied in fig. 1, PI. 79. 
 
 On the fhrinking of the king-poll, it fhould be obferved, that in a roof of 50 feet fpan, 
 where the rafters are 30 feet long, a fhrinking of half an inch at the king-poll will oc- 
 cafion the whole of the roof to defcend nearly one inch ; and if the pitch is lefs than a 
 third, the effeCt will be increafed. 
 
 Fig. 2. Section of a trufs for a circular building. A B y the king-poll, which mull- 
 have as many Tides as there are trulfes in the roof, G C and H D are tie-beams, affixed to 
 the king-poll, E C and F D y are the principal rafters: now it is evident from the mere 
 weight of the materials, that the timbers of this roof will defcend or fall down, if fome 
 method is not taken to prevent it ; — for- fuppofe the joints C y Z), E y F y G, H , to be 
 loofe, then the heads of the rafters wiH prefs againll the king-poll at A y and the bottom 
 of the rafters forcing againll the tie-beams at C, Z>, will feparate them from the bottom 
 of the king-poll B ; but if the tie-beams are firmly fixed to the king-poll, then this roof 
 will be fecure. Now the method I propofe for effecting this, is, to tie all the beams to 
 the king-poll as a common centre by means of an iron llrap, in the form of fig. 3, con- 
 filling of as many branches as there are tie-beams to be united ; this figure alfo Ihows the 
 plan of the roof. Now the centre of this llrap being made fecure to the king-poll, and 
 an arm being bolted to eacfy of the tie-beams, will I think render the whole fecure and 
 permanent. Fig. 4, is a feCtion of the llrap, {hewing the bolts and crofs nuts which are 
 to be let into the king-poll, to fallen the plate up to the bottom of the king-poll. Fig. 5, 
 
 is 
 
EXAMPLES OF ROOFS. 
 
 67 
 
 is another method of fattening the plate to the king-poft, by flraps or braces, croffing the 
 centre of the ttrap at right angles, and which is to be teightened by wedges. Fig . 6, 
 is a plan of the fame. 
 
 Fig. 7. The manner of joggeling a pair of braces into the bottom of a king-poft, 
 when its threkrrefs will not admit of fquare joggles. This figure alfo (hews the method 
 of uniting or fufpending the tie-beam to the king-pott, by an iron bolt and nuts, as ex- 
 prefied by the dotted lines. 
 
 Fig. 8. Is another method of joggeling the braces with bevel joints, when the bottom 
 of the king-pott is narrow ; but by this method the braces are liable to Hide away from the 
 joggle, if there be not a tenon fufficiently ftrong to prevent it. Some carpenters make 
 the tenon in the form of an ifcofceles triangle, as a b c, of which the fide a c , is equal 
 to ab \ but this method cuts and weakens the king-poft too much : the beft kind of 
 tenon under thefe circumftances, is as fhown on the other fide by the dotted lines. 
 
 Fig. 9. A method of ftrappinga pair of braces to a king-poft, and fufpending the tie- 
 beam : that part of the king-poft on which the braces reft being liable to fhrink, the 
 braces of confequence muft follow, by which the principal rafters loofing their fupport* 
 will bend ; now if a ftrap is fixed, as fhewn by this figure, the braces will be kept fecure 
 in their pofition, and the rafters of confequence will not bend. 
 
 PLATE LXXVIII. 
 
 OF IRON STRAPS . 
 
 Fig. A. The upper part of a king-poft and principal rafters, ftrapped together. The 
 ftrap is here fixed in the direction of the rafters, and if well bolted to the rafters it will 
 prevent them coming nearer together at the top in cafe the king-poft does fhrink ; confe- 
 quently the rafters will not fall in : wherefore the roof will always be maintained in the 
 exatft pofition as firft executed. 
 
 Fig. B. Straps are frequently fixed in this manner: that is, perpendicular to the 
 edge of the rafter ; but this will not prevent the upper ends of the rafters coming nearer 
 to each other, for the braces which are fuppofed to a£l againft the bottom of the king- 
 poft, or the fwag of the tie-beam, will force down the king-poft, and the form of this 
 ftrap will not prevent the ends of the rafters clofing to the head of the king-poft, in caf® 
 it has fhrunk : but if a pur line, or any particular weight be over the ftrap, then the pofi- 
 tion for refilling that weight will be good; but in the confirmation of a roof purlines are 
 feldom or never placed at the head of a rafter : the only force which a£ts in the direction 
 
 K 2 of 
 
*8 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of this ftrap, is the weight of this portion of the rafter, which is inconfiderable when com- 
 pared with the quantity of force which a&s in the diredtion of the rafters. 
 
 Fig. C. Another method of ftrapping the principal rafters to a king-poft. When the 
 ends of the rafters meet, as in the eonftrudtion fhown by this figure, the roof will be but 
 little liable to fwag or fall in, in the middle; as there is no fubftance between the rafters,, 
 there can be no fhrinking. 
 
 Fig. D. Shows the method of ftrapping the principals to a king-poft, in circum- 
 ftances where the rafters are liable to two preflures, viz. one, in the direction of their 
 length, and the other perpendicular to that direction. 
 
 Fig. E. The manner of ftrapping a collar-beam to a principal rafter. If a roof has 
 a collar-beam and a king-poft ; and, if the ftrap which unites the principals to the king- 
 poft be placed in the middle of the principal rafter, as fig. A, fo ought the ftrap which 
 fixes the collar-beam to the rafter to be placed in the middle of the principal rafter. 
 
 Fig. F. Is in another method for the fame purpofe : but fuppofing the feet of the raf- 
 ters to be extended by the weight of the .roof, which will endeavour to extend the collar- 
 beam, then this ftrap will turn round upon the back of the rafter, and confequently the 
 rafter will be feparated from the collar-beam - now the conftrudtion of the ftrap, fig. Ey 
 is perfectly fecure from fuch a ftrain. 
 
 Fig. G. A ftrap proper for fixing a brace to a principal rafter. When the ftrap 
 which unites the king-poft to the principal rafters is fixed in the middle of the rafters, as 
 at A. , then this is the belt pofition, becaufe when all the ftraps are fixed alike, they keep 
 the edges of the rafters in ftraight- lines. 
 
 Fig. H. The method of ftrapping a brace to a principal rafter: when the ftrap which 
 unites the king-poft to the rafters goes over the upper edges of the rafters, as is fhown in 
 
 fig' 3> i* 1 - 79- 
 
 PLATE LXXIX. 
 
 OF IRON KING-POSTS. 
 
 Fig. I. Is a defign fora trufswith king-pofts and queen-pofts of iron, with ftraps going 
 over the rafters; the feet of thefe pofts are made in form of a faddle, and therefore the 
 braces will have a firm butment againft the iron, and will not be fubjedt to be loofe or 
 flack by the fhrinking of the tie-beam. The tie-beam is hung up by bolts through the 
 bottoms of the faddles at BA and C : B C is a ftraining-piece, the ends of which lie in 
 the faddles B C, and butt againft the braces D E and F G f thereby keeping the butments 
 at D and F fecure. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 Fig. 2. The faddle at A, to a larger fcalc, {hewing the hutment of the braces by 
 dotted lines, either with a triangular butment, as ABC, fo that it may have a fquare 
 butment, or the braces may meet each other in the line A D. 
 
 Fig. 3 . Shews another method in addition to thofe already defcribed, by which to 
 hang up a king-poft to the rafters, the ends of the rafters being in contad: The upper 
 end of the ftrap is made in two branches going over the rafters at right angles to each 
 other. The bottom of the ftrap is made wider, that it may be bolted in two places in 
 
 IN my former publication, I have given feme inveftigations and rules for calculating the 
 proportional ftrength of timber, founded upon the theory of the celebrated Galileo, which 
 differs but little from the truth as will be hereafter fhown: the theory fuppofes the timber 
 to have no degree of elafticity, and the texture perfedly uniform, in which cafe it will 
 be neither comprefTed nor extended, and when it breaks, all the particles will be 
 at once. The rule upon this fuppofition for finding the relation of the ftrength of diffe- 
 rent pieces of the fame texture, will be accurately the proportion of the numbers ari- 
 fing by multiplying the fquare of the depth of each piece by its breadth, and divided by 
 its length : confequently the harder, non elaftic or more briftle, a piece of timber is, 
 the nearer will it correfpond to this rule. Wherefore it appears that the rule which will 
 apply for finding the relative ftrengths of one fpecies of timber, will not fuit for other 
 
 kinds whofe textures are of a different natuie. 
 
 From the preceding confiderations, therefore, it appears we muft not hope to find a 
 rule which {hall apply to fcantlings of all timbers generally ; and the only means on which 
 
 the breadth, by this means to have a greater refiftance. 
 
 ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 muft place any hope of difeovering a rule for afeertaining the relative ftrengths of 
 •erent kinds of timber, is from the refulfof a great number of experiments made on 
 . .. . ,rn,rarv. and ution a lars:e feale. But the labour 
 
7 ° THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Belidor’s Experiments. 
 
 The column B , contains the breadths of the pieces in inches ; the column D, contains 
 their depths; the column L contains their lengths ; P the weight (in pounds) which broke 
 them, when hung on their middles. 
 
 In order to obtain the belt idea 
 of the ftrengths of pieces of dif- 
 ferent dimenfions, with more 
 certainty, three pieces of each 
 dimenfion were tried, a medium 
 among them being more accu- 
 rate than a Angle experiment. 
 
 The column M contains the 
 mediums. 
 
 The experiments were made 
 on oak, of equal quality, and 
 tolerably well feafoned. 
 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 L 
 
 P 
 
 M 
 
 Experiments i ft, ends loofe 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 400 
 
 4i5 
 
 405 
 
 406 
 
 Experiments 2d, ends firm- 
 ly fixed 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 624 
 
 608 
 
 Experiments 3d, ends loofe 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 810 
 
 795 
 
 812 
 
 805 
 
 Experiments4th,ends loofe 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 157° 
 
 r.580 
 
 1590 
 
 1580 
 
 Experiments5th, ends loofe 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 6 
 
 185 
 
 J 95 
 
 180 
 
 187 
 
 Experiments 6th, ends fixed 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 285 
 
 280 
 
 285 
 
 1550’ 
 
 1620 
 
 1585 
 
 283 
 
 1585 
 
 Experiments 7th, ends 
 loofe 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 Experiments 8 th, ends 
 
 loofe. 
 
 T 2 
 
 oJL 
 
 3 6 
 
 1665 
 
 i 6 75 
 
 1640 
 
 1660 
 
 . ^ com P ann g experiment the ift, with experiment 3d, the ftrength appears propor- 
 tional to the breadth, the length and depth of each piece being the fame. 
 
 By comparing experiments the ift and 4th together, the ftrength appears as the fquare 
 of the depth nearly, the breadth and length being all the fame. 
 
 By comparing experiment the ift and 5 th together, (hows the ftrength to be nearly as 
 the lengths, inverfely, the breadth and depth of each piece being the fame. 
 
 By comparing experiments 5 th and yth together, (hows the ftrengths, nearly in proper- 
 ty to the breadth, multiplied by the fquare of the depth, the length being the fame in 
 both. 
 
 By comparing experiments ift and yth together, (hows the ftrengths to be as the fquare 
 of the depth, multiplied by the breadth, and divided by the length. Experiments ,ft and 
 2d, fnow the mcreafe of the ftrength by faftening the ends, to be, in the proportion of 2 
 to 3. Experiments the Jth and 6th, (how the fame thing. 
 
 By 
 
ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 7i 
 
 By the above experiments it appears that the rule founded upon the Galileon hypothefis 
 for finding the comparative ftrength of timber, is nearly true. But as it would be wrong 
 to draw conclufions from timbers of fo fmall fcantling, as in the above experiments, we 
 fhall, after making the following obfervation, give an abftradf of the experiments of M . 
 Buffon and thofeof^f. du Hamel , men of acknowledged abilities, who were dire&ed by 
 the government of France to make experiments on this fubjedt; and who were fupplied 
 with ample funds and apparatus for the purpofe, and had tne choice of the beft fubjedfs in 
 all the forefts of France. The reports of M. BufFon may be found in the memoirs of the 
 French Academy, for the years 174^ I 74 L 174^5 17^8, and thole of M. du Hamel, in his 
 work, Sur l’ Exploitation des Arbres , et fur la Confervation et le Tranfportation de Bois . 
 
 But we obferve, the chief caufe of the irregularity in fuch experiments, is the fibrous, 
 or rather plated texture of timber, which confifts of annual additions, whofe cohefion with 
 each other is vaftly weaker, than that of their own fibres. Let fig. 4, PI. 79, reprefent the 
 fedtion of a tree, and A B C D, and a b c d, the fedtion of two battens, to be cut out of it, 
 for experiment j let A and a d ', be the depths j and D C, d r, the breadths \ the batten 
 A B Cd, will be the ftrongeft; for the fame reafon that an affemblage of planks, fet edge 
 ways, will be ftronger than the fame number of planks lard above each other. 
 
 M. Buffon found that the ftrength of A B CD, was to that of a b e d, in oak, nearly as 
 8 is to 7. 
 
 The authors of the different experiments, we have reafon to fear, were not very careful 
 that their bars had their plates all difpofed the fame way. 
 
 As great beams occupy much, if not the whole, fedtion of the tree, and from this it has 
 happened that their ftrength is lefs than in proportion to that of a fmall lath or batten ; for 
 which reafon a fet of experiments ought to be carefully made on each, as all large buildings 
 require a great number of both kinds : as girders and other beams for fupporting large 
 weights, fo fmall bars or battens are employed in making joifts, rafters, purlines, &c., all 
 of which are for the purpofe of carrying or difcharging weights. 
 
 M. de Buffon’s Experiments. 
 
 The following table exhibits a number of experiments on bars of found oak, clear of 
 knots, each bar being four inches fquare. 
 
 The column No. 1, contains the length of the bar, in feet, between the two props. 
 
 The column, No. 2, contains the weight of the bar, the fecond day after it was felled, in 
 pounds. 
 
 The column, No. 3, contains the number of pounds neceflary for breaking the bar in a 
 few minutes. 
 
 The column, No. 4, contains the number of inches it bent down before breaking. 
 
 The column, No, 5, contains the number of minutes that each refpedtive piece \yas in 
 breaking. 
 
 u 
 
72 THE CARPEN TER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 In this table t*wo bars were tried of each length, 
 each of the fir ft three pairs confifted of two cuts of 
 the fame tree ; the one found next to the root, was 
 always found to be theheavieft, ftiffeft and ftrongeft ; 
 from which M. BufFon recommends a certain and 
 fure rule for eftimating the goodnefs of timber by 
 its weight ; he finds that this is always the cafe 
 when the timber has grown vigoroufly, forming 
 thick annual layers. But he alfo obferves that this 
 is only during the advances of the tree to maturity, 
 for the ftrength of the different circles approach 
 gradually to an equality during the healthy growth 
 of the tree. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6o 
 
 5350 
 
 3-5 
 
 29 
 
 
 56 
 
 52 75 
 
 4-5 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 4600 
 
 3 75 
 
 i5 
 
 
 6 3 
 
 4500 
 
 4-7 
 
 J3 
 
 q 
 
 77 
 
 4100 
 
 4.85 
 
 14 
 
 
 71 
 
 3950 
 
 5-5 
 
 12 
 
 I o 
 
 84 
 
 3 62 5 
 
 5.83 
 
 15 
 
 
 82 
 
 3600 
 
 6-5 
 
 1 S 
 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 3050 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 2925 
 
 8 
 
 
 Experiments on other fizes were made in the fame manner : a pair, at leaft, of each length 
 and fcantling was taken ; the mean refults is contained in the following table. The bea^s 
 were all fquare, and their fizes in inches are placed at the head of the columns, and their 
 length, in feet, in the firft column. The column A exhihits tbe ftrength which each of the 
 five inch bars ought to have by the theory. 
 
 M. Buffon, found by nume- 
 rous experiments, that oak tim- 
 ber loft much of its ftrength by 
 drying or feafoning, and there- 
 fore in order to fecure unifor- 
 mity, his trees were all felled in 
 the fame feafon of the year, were 
 fquared the day after, and tried 
 on the third day. Trying them 
 in this green ftate, gave him an 
 opportunity of obferving a very 
 curious phenomenon. 
 
 When the weights were laid 
 brifkly on, nearly fufficient to 
 break the log, a fmoke was ob- 
 ferved to iftue from each end, ac- 
 companied with a hi fling noife, 
 which continued while the tree 
 was bending and cracking; 
 owing to the ftrain which muft 
 arife by the bending of the log, 
 in which ftate it muft be both 
 compreffed and extended. 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 A 
 
 7 
 
 53 12 
 
 11525 
 
 00 
 
 \D 
 
 Ln 
 
 O 
 
 32200 
 
 47649 
 
 11525 
 
 8 
 
 4550 
 
 9787 
 
 15525 
 
 26050 
 
 39750 
 
 10085 
 
 9 
 
 4025 
 
 8308 
 
 i3!5° 
 
 22350 
 
 32800 
 
 8964 
 
 10 
 
 3612 
 
 7125 
 
 1 1 250 
 
 19475 
 
 27750 
 
 8068 
 
 12 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 6075 
 
 9100 
 
 i6i 75 
 
 23450 
 
 6723 
 
 14 
 
 
 5300 
 
 7475 
 
 13225 
 
 19775 
 
 5763 
 
 16 
 
 
 4350 
 
 6362 
 
 1 1000 
 
 i6 375 
 
 5042 
 
 18 
 
 
 3700 
 
 5562 
 
 9 2 45 
 
 13200 
 
 4482 
 
 20 
 
 
 3225 
 
 4950 
 
 8375 
 
 00 
 
 4034 
 
 22 
 
 
 29 75 
 
 
 
 
 3667 
 
 24 
 
 
 2162 
 
 
 
 
 3362 
 
 28 
 
 
 I 775 
 
 
 
 
 2881 
 
 From 
 
73 
 
 ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 • 
 
 From the above experiments fome conclufions refpeaing the law of the ftrength of oak 
 timber may be deduced, from which it will be feen whether the theory already eftabhfhed is 
 fufficiently accurate, or if not, they will ftiow in what manner it ought to be correfted. 
 
 M. Buffon confiders the experiments upon the five-inch bars, as the ftandard of compa- 
 rifon, having both extended thefe to a greater length, and having tried more pieces of each 
 
 length. . , 
 
 The theory determines the relative ftrengths of bars of the fame fe£ion, to be mver e y 
 as their lengths ; but if the five experiments in the firft column, be excepted, there will be 
 found a very great deviation from this rule : thus the five-inch bar of 28 feet long, fhould 
 have half the ftrength of that of 14 feet or 2650 ; whereas it is but 1775 ; the bar of 14 
 feet fhould have half the ftrength of the feven feet, or 5762, whereas it is but 5300 ; and in 
 like manner the fourth of 11,525 is 2881 ; but the real ftrength of the 28-inch bar, is but 
 1775. The column 4 , exhibits the ftrength that each of the five-inch bars ought to have, by 
 the theory, which decreafes much flower than thofe fhown by the experiment ; and there- 
 fore it appears, that the ftrength of different pieces of timber decreafe much quicker than 
 that of the inverfe ratio of their lengths ; but in what ratio precifely, the ftrength decreafes, 
 would be almoft impoflible to know, as there is not a fufficient number of experiments for 
 the purpofe ; the few that have been tried are fo very anomalous, as will appeal by taking 
 the differences between thofe in the third column, found by the experiments, from their 
 refpedtive numbers under 4, in the feventh column, as found by the rule, which are re- 
 fpeaively, 298, 656, 943,648, 463, 692, 782, 809, 69251200, 1106; by comparing 
 thefe numbers together, it is eafy to fee the impoflibility of difcovering any progreffxon, or 
 regular increafe ; for example, the third difference is greater than any of the preceding, and 
 lefs than any of the proceeding, excepting the two laft, and therefore it appears, that no rule 
 can be founded on thefe experiments, for finding the relative ftrength of timber, but what 
 will in many cafes differ very confiderably from that which ought to correfpond to it , in 
 the table however, the rule given in my former calculations may, if fomewhat corrected, 
 correfpond nearly with the five-inch bars, as follows : from the length of the required 
 piece, take the feven feet length, and multiply the difference by the number I 474 > an ^ di- 
 vide that produft by the length, and fubftrad the quotient from the number of .pounds 
 found by the former rule, and the remainder will be the anfwer. 
 
 M. Buffon uniformly found that §ds of the weight which was fufficient to break a beam, 
 at firft, fenfibly impaired its ftrength, and frequently broke it, at the end of two or three 
 months, and one half of this weight brought it to a certain curvature, which did not in- 
 creafe after the firft minute or two, and may be borne by the beam for any length of time. 
 
 One-third feemed to have no permanent effe& on the beam ; but it recovered its redli- 
 lineal fhape completely, even after it had been loaded feveral months, provided that the 
 timber was feafoned when firft loaded ; that is to fay, one-third of the weight which would 
 quickly break a feafoned beam, or one-fourth of what would break one juft felled, may lie 
 on it for ever, without giving the beam a fet. 
 
 The agreement of the numbers, found by the rule of the breadth, being multiplied by 
 the fquare of the depth, appears to deviate lefs from the experiments of Buffon, than that 
 
 L of 
 
74 
 
 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of the inverfe ratio of the length ; but even this rule applied to fofter woods, will differ 
 greatly from the truth, which muft be evident when we confider a beam juft breaking, that 
 it will be ftrongly compreffed on the fide neareft to the axis of fradure, and the oppofite 
 fide will be greatly extended, confequently there muft be fome point between the fulcrum 
 and the oppofite fide, which will neither be extended nor compreffed, and all the fibres lying 
 between this point and the fulcrum, being in a ftate of compreffion, and therefore have 
 little refiftance in preventing the fradure, thofe fibres on the other fide only are exerted. 
 
 This is fully verified by fome curious 
 
 Experiments made by M. Du Hamel. 
 
 He took 16 bars of willow, two feet long and half an inch fquare, and fupported them 
 by props under the ends, he broke them with weights hung on their middle. He broke 
 four of them by weights of 40, 41, 47 and 52 pounds, the mean is 45. 
 
 He then cut four of them yd through, on the upper fide, and filled up the cut with a thin 
 piece of harder wood, ftuck in very tight; thefe were broken 48, 54, 50 and 52, the mean 
 of which is 51. 
 
 He cut other four half through ; they were broken by 47, 49, 50 and 46, the mean of 
 which is 48. 
 
 The remaining four were cut yds, and their mean ftrength was 42* 
 
 Another fet of experiments ftill more remarkable. 
 
 Six battens of willow, 36 inches long, and 14 fquare, were broken by 525 pounds, at a 
 medium. 
 
 Six bars were cut yd through, and the cut filled with a wedge of hard wood, ftuck in 
 with little force; thofe broke with 551 pounds. 
 
 Six bars were cut ~ through, and the cut was filled up in the fame manner; they broke 
 with 542. 
 
 Six bars were cut fths through, and loaded till nearly broken; were unloaded and the wedge 
 taken out of the cut ; a thicker wedge was put in tight, fo as to make the batten ftraight 
 
 again, by filling up the fpace left by the compreffion of the wood ; this batten broke with, 
 577 pounds. 
 
 Of the absolute Strength of Timber. 
 
 The ftrain which arifes by pulling timber in the diredion of its length, is called Tenfion* 
 this ftrain frequently occurs in roofs, and is therefore worthy confideration. 
 
 The abfolute ftrength of a fibre, or finall thread of timber,, is the force by which every 
 part of the fibre is held together, which is equal to the force that would be required to 
 pull it afunder, and the force which would be required to tear any number of threads afun- 
 der, is proportional to all of them ; but the areas of the fedions of two pieces of timber 
 compofed of fibres of the fame kinds, are as the number of fibres in each ; and therefore the 
 ftrength of the timber, is as the area of the fedions. 
 
 Hence all prifinatic bodies are equally ftrong ; that is, they will not break in one part 
 more than another. 
 
 Bodies; 
 
ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 7S 
 
 Bodies which have unequal fe&ions* will break at their fmalleft part, and therefore if 
 the abfolute ftrength which would be required to tear a fquare inch, of each kind of timber 
 be known, we {hall be able to determine the ftrength of any other quantity whatever. 
 
 The following table is taken from MufchenbroekV experiments, he has defcribed his 
 method of trial minutely ; the woods were all formed into flips fit for his apparatus, and 
 part of the flip was cut away to a parallelopiped y of an inch fquare, and therefore the 25th 
 part of a fquare inch in fedtion 5 the abfolute ftrengths of a fquare inch were as follows. 
 
 Locuft tree, 
 
 lb. 
 
 20,100 
 
 Jujeb, 
 
 18,500 
 
 Beech Oak, 
 
 17,30° 
 
 Orange, 
 
 i 5 > 50 ° 
 
 Alder, 
 
 13,900 
 
 Elm, 
 
 13,200 
 
 Mulberry, 
 
 12,500 
 
 Willow, 
 
 12,500 
 
 Afh, 
 
 12,000 
 
 Plum, 
 
 11,800 
 
 Elder, 
 
 10,000 
 
 Pomegranate, 
 
 lb. 
 
 9 > 75 ° 
 
 Lemon, 
 
 9 > 2 5 <» 
 
 Tamarind, 
 
 8,750 
 
 Fir 
 
 8,330 
 
 Walnut, 
 
 8,130 
 
 Pitch Pine 
 
 7 > 6 5 ° 
 
 Quince, - 
 
 6,750 
 
 Cyprefs, 
 
 6,000 
 
 Poplar, 
 
 S,5oo 
 
 Cedar, 
 
 4,880 
 
 M. Mufchenbroek , has given a very minute detail of the experiments on the afli and 
 walnut, {fating the weight which will be required to tear afunder flips taken from the four 
 {ides of the tree, and on each fide in a regular progreffion, from the center to the circum- 
 ference. The numbers of this table, correfponding to the two timbers, may therefore be 
 confidered as the average of more than fifty trials made on each, and he fays that all the others 
 were made by the fame care, and therefore there is no reafon for not confiding in the refults. 
 
 Practical Observations. 
 
 The following obfervations on Woods, will be of great ufe to the practical carpenter in 
 making a proper choice of timber, according to the purpofes he may want to employ 
 it for. 
 
 ift. The wood immediately furrounding the pith or heart, is the weakeft, and its inferiority 
 is fo much more remarkable as the tree is older. Mufchenbroek ' s detail of expei iments is 
 decidedly in the affirmative. M. Buffon , on the other hand, fays that his experience has 
 taught him that the heart of a found tree is the ftrongeft, but he gives no inftances i it is 
 certain, from other experiments, on large oaks and firs, that the heart is much weaker 
 than the exterior parts. 
 
 2d. The wood next to the bark, commonly called white or blea, is alfo weaker than the 
 reft, and the wood gradually increafes in ftrength as we recede from the centre to the blea. 
 
 3d. The wood is ftronger in the middle of the trunk, than at the fpnnging of the 
 branches, or at the root, and the wood of the branches is weaker than that of the trunk. 
 
 4th. The wood on the north fide of all trees, which grow in the European climates, is 
 
 L 2 the 
 
, 76 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the weakeft, and that of the fouth fide is the ftrongeft ; and the difference is moft remark- 
 able in hedge-row trees, and fuch as grow fingly. 
 
 The heart of a tree is never in its center, but always nearer to the north fide, and the 
 annual coats of wood are thinner on that fide. In conformity to this it is a general opinion 
 of carpenters, that timber is ftronger whofe annual plates are thicker. The trachea, or air 
 veffels, are weaker than the fimple ligneous fibres. Thefe air veffels are the fame in dia- 
 meter and number of rows, in trees of the fame fpecies, and they make the vifible feparation 
 between the annual plates. Therefore when thefe are thicker, they contain a greater pro- 
 portion of the fimple ligneous fibres. 
 
 5th. All woods are more tenacious while green, and lofe very confiderably by drying 
 after the tree is felled. I ftiall here conclude thefe obfervations with the following ufeful 
 problem. 
 
 To cut the JlrongeJl Beam pofiible , out of a round Tree , whofe Section is a given Circle . 
 
 Fig. 4. PI. 79. Let A E B Fy be the feilion, draw the diameter A By and divide it into 
 three equal parts at c, and e , and from either of thefe points, as ey draw e E, perpendicular 
 to A By cutting the circumference at E , and draw A E and E B ; and through the points 
 A and By draw A F and B F y refpeitively parallel to E B and E Ay cutting each other at 
 Fy and A E B F will be a feitiori of the ftrongeft beam that is poflible to be cut out of the 
 tree ; A E B Fy for the fquare of the depth A E or F By multiplied into the breadth E B 
 cr F Ay is then the greateft that can be produced. 
 
 From this it is plain, that the ftrongeft beam which can be cut out of a round tree, does 
 not contain the moft timber, for the greateft rectangle that can be infcribed in a circle is a 
 fquare, and therefore the fquare F G H Iy is greater than the reilangle A F B Ey and yet 
 is not the ftrongeft. See alfo the explanation and obfervations on fig. 4, from which much 
 ufeful information may be deduced, when timber of peculiar ftrength is wanted. 
 
 The Gomprejfion of timber is another confideration worth our attention. 
 
 In confidering ftrains of this kind, it is abfolutely impoffible to conceive how a piece of 
 timber that is perfectly ftraight, can be bent, crippled or broken, by any force whatever add- 
 ing at the extremes. But fuppofe the fmalleft force whatever, ailing in the middle, in a 
 direction perpendicular to the length ; this force will be fufficient to give it a fmall degree 
 of curvature, and if a ftrong force be fuppofed to ail at the ends at the fame time, each 
 prefiing the timber in the direilion of its length, thefe forces will greatly contribute towards 
 breaking it. 
 
 It is eafy therefore to conceive, that if a piece of timber be the leaft bent whatever, or 
 if the fibres of that timber are not quite ftraight, that there is a certain force which, if ail- 
 ing at the ends, will break it. Thus fuppofe the column A C By fig. 9, refting on the 
 ground at By and loaded at the top with a weight Ay ailing in a vertical direition A By 
 and if the fibres, or the piece AC By is the fmalleft degree crooked, the degree of curva- 
 ture 
 
ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 77 
 
 ture by the preffure at the two ends, will be increafed until the fibres are bent to their ut- 
 moft extent, and the fmalleft addition at the ends will break it. ... 
 
 The fir ft: author who has confidered the compreffion of columns with attention, is the 
 celebrated Euler , who publilhed in the Berlin Memoirs for 1757 , if Theory on the 
 Strength of Columns. The general propofition eftabl.fhed by this Theory, is that the 
 ftrength of prifmatic columns is in the dired quadruplicate ratio of their diameters and 
 the inverfe ratio of their lengths: he profecuted this fubjea in the Peterfburgh Com- 
 mentaries for 1778, confirming his former theory. Mufcheulreik has compared the 
 theory with experiment, but the comparifon has been very unfatisfaflory ; the difference 
 from the theory being fo enormous as to afford no argument for its juftnefs, neither do 
 they contradia it ; for they are fo very anomalous as to afford no conclufion or general 
 
 rule whatever. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 THE ftrength of materials arifes immediately or ultimately from the cohefion of the 
 parts of bodies It is neceffary to have feme notion of that intermedium by the inter- 
 vention of which an external force applied to one part of a lever, ,o,ft or 
 p L, occafions a drain in a diftant part. This can be nothing but the cohefmn between 
 fhe parts, which we call ftrength : it feems hardly neceffary to fay a tree or timber, 
 fubjea of theprefent difcuffion, is formed of numerous longitudinal fibres, which y an- 
 nual growth are formed into rings, or concentric circles, and compelling the trunk o 
 ftero of a tree, which by their united force of cohefion, refill reparation, which may c 
 called abfolute ftrength, being exerted in the fimpleft form, and not modified by any re- 
 lation to other circumftances. The place or part where this fraflure takes place, may 
 
 be called the feaion of Mure. , 
 
 There is a certain determinate curvature for every beam which cannot be exceeded, with- 
 out breaking it ; for there is a certain reparation of two adjoining particles, that puts an 
 end to their cohefion. A fibre therefore can be extended only a certain determinate pro- 
 portion of its length. The ultimate extenfion of the outer fibres muft bear a certain pro- 
 portion to its length ; and this proportion is the fame with that of the thicknefs ( w ic is 
 generally called the depth; to the radius or curvature, which is therefore determinate. 
 
 & The feaion of Mure may be thus explained : that part is called the fulcrum which is 
 the exterior part of the concave fide in the feaion of Mure; thus the fulcrum of Jig. 6 
 and 7 , is at /, but in fig. 8 it is at C\ and is the fulcrum to the.lever C B. 
 
 When a piece of timber is breaking, that place of the timber which is in the fame plan 
 
 with the Mured part, and which feems to be entirely without motion is called the axis o f 
 
 fraaurei 
 
* 
 
 78 THE CARPENTER AND JOINER’S ASSISTANT. 
 
 fra&ure ; to explain this more fully, fuppofe A B , fig. 6 and 7, to be a piece of timber 
 (viz. a joift, &c.) fufpended by ropes going over publies at C and D j fuppofe a weight G 
 K to be iaid on the middle, juft lufficient to break it when counteracted by two weights 
 E and F, fufpended over the pullies C and Z>, fig. 6, or as in fig. 7, fupported by two 
 props or walls ; now as the quality of the timber is more or lefs flexible, the curvature of 
 the beam A H B, will be more or lefs, and juft before it begins to break the fibres on the 
 convex, or under fide, A H B, will be much extended while thofe on the concave or 
 upper fide, K I A, will be much compreffed; it is evident, therefore, there muft be fome 
 ine between the upper and under fides in the fracture which is at reft, or which fuffers 
 neither expanfion nor compreflion. This line in the fedion of fratfure is called the axis of 
 fracture, and will be always neareft to the concave fide, and more or lefs diftant from it as the 
 wood is harder or fofter ; and perhaps in general cafes it will be about one-third of the total 
 epth of the timber from the concave fide. This may be confidered as the reafonsfor what 
 is faid refpeding mortices' and tenons, when deferring the beftpofitions for them ; for as 
 the principal energy of the material is employed in refilling the expanfion of the fibres 
 and occupies two-thirds of the depth or nearly fo; fo whatever portion of ftrength the 
 other third part contributes by refilling compreflion, there will be no lofs of ftrength, but 
 rather gam, if a part is cut away, as for mortices, if the fpace be well filled with a hard 
 body (See Du Hamel’s Experiments), provided it be not too hard, for then it will eat into 
 the abutting parts. For it is evident, the tendency to refill compreflion, will be rather in- 
 creafed than decreafed by the foreign body thus drove in; but in cutting away the under 
 or convex fide, no foreign matter whatever can increafe, nay can make up, the ftrength which 
 is loft by delfroying the continuity of the fibres. Further, a mechanical reafon may 
 be thus deduced : — becaufe the fame quantity of fibres if cut away from the convex fide, 
 would, if folid, make a greater refiitance on the convex fide, than the fame number of 
 fibres on the concave fide, becaufe the fibres on the concave fide are nearer to the axis of 
 fradture than thofe on the convex fide; but the greater diftance the fibres are from this 
 axis, the more will they refill fra&ure. We wilh this faeft to be well confidered and un- 
 derftood by all practical men, as it will tend to prevent many errors which may otherwife 
 anfe to the great detriment of their work. It alfo fully eftablilhes the rule, that whatever 
 is to be cut away for the purpofe of mortices, &c. muft be done on the concave fide, which, 
 in inftances like fig.. 6 and 7, is the upper fide ; but if the adion of the weight or pref- 
 
 fure is changed, as in fig. 8, then the mortice muft be cut on the under fide, which is be- 
 come the concave fide. 
 
 Thefe figures 6 and 7, are (hewn in pofitions the moll common in which beams are liable 
 to be broken by ftrains ; the prelTure on each wall is equal to half the weight of the beam 
 anc of the weight G ; this will clearly appear by confidering fig. 6 , for the weight G , and 
 t le weight of the beam, muft be confidered as one total, for they both unite to break the 
 oeam in the fame di region, and therefore the fum of the weights E and which a Cl in 
 an oppofite direction, viz. on the under fide, muft be equal to the weight of the beam and 
 the weight <?, together ; that is, each weight muft be half, wherefore the walls which 
 
 perform the fame office as the weights, carrying each a half of the weight of the beam with 
 its load G 
 
 7 
 
 A little 
 
ON THE STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 
 
 79 
 
 A little more to illuftrate this fubjeft : fig. 8, is a beam fupported by a prop CD in the 
 middle, and weights E and F are hung to the ends fuificient to break it ; here the axis of 
 the fra&ure will be neareft the under edge of the beam, as that is the convex and com- 
 preiTed fide. In this cafe it is evident that the preflure upon the prop at C is equal to the 
 weight of the beam, together with the two weights E and F\ \ and this preflure would be 
 the fame at C, if one half of the beam A B , that is A G, was built in a wall, and the axis 
 of the fracture would not be varied, and the ftrain on the upper or convex fide G, by the 
 weight F, would be nearly the fame, if the end at A in the wall, had liberty to turn down- 
 wards j but if it is built clofe above and below, it will fupport a weight greater than F. 
 
 Addition to the Defcription of PLATE LXXIX. 
 
 By fome accident the following defcription belonging to Fig. 4, Plate 79, was omit - 
 ted , viz. That the ftraps at the ends of the tie-beam are not of the ufual conftru&ion, 
 but run in the direction of the beam round the ends of the rafters, and are fixed by 
 bolting the other end of the ftrap to the tie-beam* 
 
 FINIS. 
 
Lately publijhedy hy the fame Author : 
 
 I. THE CARPENTER’S NEW GUIDE, being a complete Book of Lines for 
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 lations on the Strength of Timber. Quarto, bound, 12s. 
 
 II. THE STUDENT’S INSTRUCTOR, in drawing and working the Five Orders 
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 well deferves the attention of the Antiquary and the Artifi , for 
 its purity of dcfigti and elegance of ornament. 
 
 Specimens of Gothic Architecture , feleded from the Parifh Church 
 of Lavenham, in Suffolk, on 40 Plates quarto. Price 18s. 
 half bound, and on large Paper il. 5s. 
 
 Gothic Ornaments of the Cathedral Church of York, by J. 
 
 Halfpenny. 105 Plates, large Quarto. 61. 10s. half bound. 
 The Ancient Buildings of Rome, accurately meafured and deli- 
 neated, by Antony Def go detz, with Explanations in Frenchand 
 Englifh ; the Text tranilated, and the Plates engraved, by the 
 late Mr. George Marjhall, Architect, 2 vols. imperial folio, 
 with 137 Plates. Price 5I. 5s. half bound, or 4I. 14s. 6d. 
 fewed. — Defgodetz’s Antiquities has ever been highly valued by 
 Amateurs and Profeffors, for the Accuracy of the Meafurcments, 
 and the Choice of elegant Subjects. The IVork includes Defigns at 
 large of the following celebrated Structures , viz. the Pantheon , 
 Temple of Bacchus , Temple of Vefia at Rome \ Temple of Vefia 
 at Tivoli \ Temple of For tuna Virilis, Temple of Antoninus and 
 Fauf ina , Temple of Concord , Temple of Jupiter Stator, Temple 
 of Jupiter Tonans , Temple of Mars the Avenger , Froniifpiece 
 of Nero , Bafilica of Antoninus, Forum of Nerva, Portico of 
 Sept i ini its Sever us. Arch of Titus , Arch of Septimius, Arch of 
 the Gold faiths, Arch of Conjlantine , The Colifeum , The Amphi- 
 theatre at Verona, The Theatre of Marcellas , The Baths of 
 Dioclefan , and the Baths of Paulas Emilias. 
 
 The Rudiments of Ancient- Architecture ; containing an Hiflo- 
 rical Account of the Five Orders, with their proportions, and 
 Examples of each from Antiques : Alfo, Extracts from Vi- 
 truvius, Pliny , &c. relative to the Buildings of the Ancients; 
 Calculated for the Ufe of thofe who wifli to attain a fum- 
 mary Knowledge of the Science of Architedure; with a 
 Didionary of Terms: illuftrated with 11 Plates. — 
 Boards, 6s. 
 
 Ejfays on Gothic Architecture , by the Rev. T. Warton, Rev. 
 Bentham, Capt. Grofe, and Rev. J. Milner, lliuifrated 
 with 12 Plates of Ornaments, &c. feleded from Ancient 
 Buildings ; calculated to exhibit the various Styles of dif- 
 ferent Periods. The Second Edition, with a Lift of the 
 Cathedral^ of England and their Dimenfions. Alfo 2 New 
 Plates. Odavo. 103. 6d. Boards. 
 
 The Builder's Price Book : containing a correcl Lifi of the Prices 
 allowed by the mojl eminent Surveyors in London to the fcveral 
 
 H 
 
 Artificers concerned in Building ; including the Journeymen's 
 Pt * ices . A new edition, corrected ; by an Experienced Sur- 
 veyor. Sewed 3s. i If 
 
 The New Vitruvius Britannicus, confiding of Plans and c 
 Elevations of Modern Buildings, public and private, ereded ■ 
 in Great-Britain by the molt celebrated Architects , engraved f 
 on 72 Plates, from Original Drawings. By G. Richardfon 
 Architect. Imperial Folio, half bound, 5I. 15s. 6d. 
 
 Sketches for Cottages, Villas , &c. with their Plans and appro- {( 
 priate Scenery, by John Soane ; to which is added SixDefigns 
 for improving and embellifhing Grounds , with Explanations by 
 an Amateur, on 54 Plates, elegantly engraved in Aquatinta.5j 
 2I. 1 2S. 6d. half bound. iHr 
 
 Plans, Elevations, and Sections of Buildings, executed in the^l 
 Counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, York/hire, IViltfhire , lVarwick-^\ 
 Jhire , Staffordjhlre, Somerfctjhirt, 6cc. by John Soane , Archited,'^ | 
 on 47 folio Plates. 2I. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Plans, Elevations, and Sedions, of Noblemen’s and Gentlemen's 
 Houfes, Stabling, Bridges public and private, Temples, and 
 other Garden Buildings, executed in the Counties of Derby, 
 Durham, Middleiex, Northumberland, Nottingham, York, 
 Ellex, Wilts, Hertford, Suffolk, Salop, and Surry ; by 
 James Paine, Archited, 2 vols. with 176 very large foil 
 Plates. 61. 16s. 6d. half bound. 
 
 The Defigns of Inigo Jones , confifting of Plans and Elevation 
 for Public and Private Buildings; including the detail of th 
 intended Palace at Whitehall; publiflied by IV. Kent , wit 
 fome additional Defigns. 2 vols. imperial folio. 4I. 4s. i 
 fheets ; or half bound, 4I. 12s. 
 
 Plans, Elevations, ard Sedions, of the Houfe of CorreBion fi 
 the County of Midllefex, eroded in Cold Bath Fields, Lo 
 don; together with :he Particulars of the feveral Materials 
 be contraded for, ard manner of ufing the fame in buildi 
 N. B. This Work isengraved from the original Defigns, a 
 publiflied with the Anhority of the Msgiftrates, by Char 
 Middleton , Archited. Engraved on 53 Plates, imperial foli 
 Half bound. 2I. 12s. (d. 
 
 Hints for Dwellings, coni fling of Original Defigns for C 
 tages, Farm-Houfcs, ^illas, &c.— Plain and Ornament 
 with Plans to each, u which fluid Attention is paid 
 unite Convenience and llegance with Economy. Includi 
 fome Defigns for TovvnHoufes. By D. Laing, Archie 
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 Sketches for Country Houfes Villas, and Rural Dwellit 
 calculated for Perfons of moderate Income, and for c 
 fortable Retirement. Alfo »me Defigns for Cottages, w’ 
 may be conflruded of thtfimplefl Materials ; with P 
 and General Eftimates. B ffohn Plaw , elegantly engr 
 in Aqua Tinta on Forty-To Plates, Quarto, il. i? 3 
 in Boards. ^ H 
 
C 2 3 
 
 ertne Ornee , or Rural Improvements , a Series of Do me flic and 
 Ornamental Ddigns, fuited to Parks, Plantations, Rides, 
 Walks, Rivers, Farms, he. confifting of Fences, Paddock 
 Houles, a Bath, Dog-kennels, Pavilions, Farm-yards, Fifli- 
 ing-houfes, Sporting-boxes, Shooting-lodges, Single and 
 Double Cottages, he. calculated for Landfcape and Pictu- 
 re fque EfteCts. By John Plaw , ArchiteCL Engraved in 
 Aquatinta on 38 Plates, with appropriate Scenery, Plans 
 and Explanations : Quarto. In boards, il. 11s. 6d. 
 ural Architecture, or Dcfigns from the Simple Cottage to the 
 Decorated Villa, including tome which have been executed. 
 By John Plaw. On 62 Plates, with Scenery, in Aquatinta. 
 Half bound, 2I. 2s. 
 
 he Architect and Builder s Mifcellany , or Pocket Library ; 
 containing original PiCturefque Defigns in Architecture, 
 for Cottages, Farm, Country, and Town Houfes, Public 
 Buildings, Temples, Green-Houles, Bridges, Lodges and 
 Gates for Entrances to Parks and Pleafure Grounds, Sta- 
 bles, Monumental Tombs, Garden Seats, &c. By Charles 
 Middleton , Architect, on 60 P.ates, coloured, il. is. bound, 
 j Familiar Architecture ; confifting of Original Defigns of Houles 
 for Gentlemen and Tradefmen, Parfonages, and Summer 
 Retreats; with Back-fronts, Sections, he. together with 
 Banqueting-Rooms, and Churches. To which is added, 
 the Mafonry of the Semicircular and Elliptical Arches, with 
 practical Remarks. By the late Thomas Rawlins , Architect. 
 On 51 Piates, royal quarto, il. is. 
 
 Crundens Convenient and Ornamental Architecture ; confifting 
 i of Original Defigns for Plans, Elevations, and Sections, be- 
 ginning with the 1 arm -ho ufe, and regularly attending to the 
 1110ft grand and magnificent \ ilia; calculated bothfor Town 
 and Country, and to fuit all Perfonsin every ftation of Life, 
 with a Reference and Explanation in Letter-prefs, of the Ule 
 of every Room in eachfeparate Building, and the Dimenfions 
 accurately figured on the Plans, with exaCt Scales for the 
 Meafuremcnt. Engraved on 70 Copper-plates, 16s. boards. 
 A Series of Plans > for Cottages or Habitations of the Laboura , 
 either in Hufbandry or the Mechanic Arts, adapted as well 
 to Towns, as to the Country. To which is added, an Intro- 
 duction, containing many ufeful Obfervations on this Clafs 
 of Building, tending to the Comfort of the Poor, and Advan- 
 tage of the Builder; with Calculations of Expeoces. By the 
 late Mr. J. Wood , of Bath, Architca. A new Edition, 
 with 30 Plates, large qto. 15s. in hoards. 
 
 The Country Gentleman's Architect , in a great Variety of new 
 Defigns for Cottages, Farm-houfes, Country-houfes, Villas, 
 
 ! Lodges for Park or Garden Entrances, ' and ornamental 
 wooden Gates, with Plans of the Offices belonging to each 
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 1 Book Cafes, Secretary and Book Cafes, Library Cafes, Library 
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 * Bafon Stands, -Wardrobes, Pot Cupboaids, Biacivets, Hang- 
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 .1 ditto, Bed Pillars, Candle Stands, Lamps, PierGIafies, 1 erms 
 for Bufts, Cornices tor Library Cafes, Wardrooes, he. at 
 large. Ornamented Tops for Pier Tables, Pembroke Tables, 
 Commodes, he. he. in the plaineft and moft enriched Styles, 
 with a Scale to each, and an Explanation in Letter-prefs. 
 Alfo the Plan of a Room, Blowing the proper diftrihution of 
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 ■Defigns, engraved on 128 folio Plates: from Drawings by 
 1 A. Htppelwhite and Co. Cabinet Makeis, Bound, 2I. 29. 
 lye's Natural Hijlory of Britifb Birds , Lawn and coloured 
 
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 rttvius Britannicus, 3 vols. Halt bound, 61 . 16s. 6d. 
 it Continuation to ditto, 2 vols. Hal bound, 81 . 8s. 
 y/nber's ( Sir William) Treatife 01 Civil Architecture, 
 
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 bribers' s Differtation on Oriental Gardening, 4to. 9s. 
 
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 Shell's Plans and Views of B tidings, &c. Large Folio. 
 
 aards, 3I. 3s. . _ . 
 
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 V, Pi an s, Elevations, he. ot loblemens Seats, he. folio, 
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 and Elevations of Holkharn-Iall in Norfolk. 2S. 
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 Richardfon on the Five Orders , folio. Boards, il. f is. 6d. 
 
 Nut/Joell's Plans for Houfes, oCtavo. Boards, 5s. 
 
 The Cabinet Alaker and Uphclferer's Drawing Book , by She- 
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 Newton's Tranjlation of Vitruvius , 2 vols. folio. 
 
 Nicholfon' s Principles of Architecture, 3 vols.8vo. 2I. 14s. 6d.bds. 
 
 A Treatife on Theatres , including fome Experiments on Sound, by 
 G. Saunders , Architect, with Plates, quarto, Boards 10s. 6d. 
 
 Reports, by J.Smeaton , CivilEngineer, quarto, Vol. I. 18s. boards. 
 
 Repertory of Arts, he. 14 vols. odtavo. 
 
 Perronet fur les Ponts , 2 tom. 
 
 Belidor I Architecture Hydraulique , 4 tom. quarto. 
 
 Nouvelle Arch. Hydrallique , par Protiy, 2 tom. 
 
 Leupold Theatrum Machinarum , 9 parts, in 5 vols. folio. 
 
 Piranejis Works, complete, 20 vols. large folio. 
 
 Rafael' s Ornaments of the Vatican, 3 Parts, Folio. 
 
 DiClionaire d' Architecture, Civile, Militaireet Navale,par Roland, 
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 Dr. Brock Taylor's Alethod of PerfpeCtive made cafy both in Theory 
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 Art of Peripcftive eafy and familiar, to adapt it entirely tothe 
 Arts of Delign, and to make it an entertaining Study to any 
 Gentleman who fhal 1 choofe fo polite an amufement. By 
 Jofoua Kirby, llluftrated with 35 Copper-plates. Tire third 
 edition, with feveral Additions and Improvements. Elegantly 
 printed on imperial Paper. Half hound, il. 16s. 
 
 The PerfpeCtive of Architecture , a Work entirely new : deduced 
 from the Principles of Dr. Brook Taylor, and performed by 
 two Rulesof univerfal application. llluftrated with 73 Plates. 
 Begun by command of his prefent Majefty when Prince of 
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 The Defcription and Ufe of a new Injlrument called the Archi- 
 tectonic SeCtor , by which any Part of Archite&ure maybedrawn 
 with facility and exaCtnefs. By Jofoua Kirby, llluftrated with 
 25 Plates; elegantly printed on imperial paper. Half 
 bound il.ios. 
 
 The two Frontifpieces, by Hogarth, to Kirby’s PerfpeCtive, 
 may be had feparate, each 5s. 
 
 Thirty Capitals of Columns, with Six Frifes, from th e Antique. 
 Engraved in Aquatinta by G. Richardfon, on 18 Plates. 4to. 15s. 
 
 Ddigns for Shop Fronts and Door Cafes, 01127 Plates. 4to. ios.6d. 
 
 Ddigns for Monuments , including Grave-foncs , Compartments , 
 Wall-pieces , and Tombs. Elegantly engraved on 40 quarto 
 Plates. Half bound, 1 6s. 
 
 Defigns for Chimney Pieces, with Mouldings and Bafes at large 
 on 24 quarto Plates. 10s. 6d. 
 
 The Student's InfruCtor , in drawing and working the Five 
 Orders of Architecture ; fully explaining the beft Methods 
 of ftriking regular and quirked Mouldings, for diminilhing 
 and glueing of Columns and Capitals, for finding the true 
 Diameter of an Order to any given Height, for ftriking the 
 Ionic Volute circular and elliptical, with liniftied Examples 
 or a large Scale of the Orders, their Plancecrs, he. and fome 
 Defigns for Door Cafes, by Peter Nicholfon, engraved on 33 
 Plates oCtavo. Price 6s. bound. 
 
 The Carpenter's New Guide, being a complete Book of Lines 
 for Carpentry and Joinery, treating fully on PraCti cal Geo- 
 metry. Soffits, Lines for JLoofs and Domes, with a great 
 Variety of Defigns for Roofs, Trolled Girders, Floors, 
 Domes, Bridges, he. Stair Cafes and Hand-rails of various 
 ConftruCtions. Angle-Bars for Shop Fronts, and Raking 
 Mouldings, with many other Things entirely new : the whole 
 founded on true Geometrical Principles: the Theory and 
 PraCIice well explained and fully exemplified 0078 Copper- 
 Plates: including f6me Practical Obfervations and Calcula- 
 tions on the Strength of Timber, by P. Nicholfon. 4m. 1 5s. 
 
 The Carpenter's and Joiner's AJfifant^ containing Practical Rules 
 for making all Kinds of Joints, and various Methods of hinge - 
 ing them together ; for hanging of Doors on ftraight or cir- 
 cular Pians ; for fitting up Windows and Shutters to anfvvet 
 various Purpofes, with Rules for hanging them ; for the Con- 
 ftruCtion of Floors, Partitions, Soffits, Groins, Arches for 
 Mafonry ; for conftruCting Roofs in the beft Manner from a 
 given Quantity of Timber; for placing of Bond-Timbers ; 
 with various Methods for adjufting Raking Pediments, en- 
 i^Sging and diminifliing of Mouldings, taking Dimenfions 
 for Joinery, and for fetting out Shop Fronts; with a new 
 Scheme for conftruCting Stairs and Hand-rails, and for Stairs 
 having a conical Well-hole, he. he. To which areadded. 
 Examples of various Roofs executed, with the Scantlings 
 from aCtual Meal’urements : with Rules for Mortices and 
 Tenons, and for fixing Iron Straps, &c. Alfo Extracts from.. 
 M. Belidor, M. du Hamel, M. de Buffon, he. on the 
 Strength of Timber, with Practical Obfervations. llluftrated 
 with 79 Plates, and copious Explanations.. By Peter 
 Nicholfon. Quarto. Price 1 8s. bound. 
 
 The Carpenter and Joiner's Repoftory ; or, a new Syftem of Lines 
 and proportions tor Doors, Windows, Chimneys, Cornices and 
 Mouldings, for finifhing of Rooms, he. he. A great Variety 
 of Stair-Cafes, on a Plan entirely new, and eafy to be under- 
 ftood. Circular-circular Soffits, Hewing and winding in ftraight 
 and circular Walls, Groins, Angle Brackets, circular and 
 
 elliptical 
 
elliptical Sky-lights, and the Method of fquaring'and pre- 
 paring their circular Bars, Shop Fronts, Ac. By IV. Pain , 
 Joiner. Engraved on 69 folio Copper-plates. Bound, 16s. 
 
 Pain's Briti/h Palladio , or the Builder s General Affijlaitt ; de- 
 monftrating, in the molt eafy and pradical Method, all the 
 principal Rules of Architedure, from the Ground Plan to the 
 Ornamental Finifh. Iliuftrated with feveral new and ufcful 
 Defignsof Houles, with their Plans, Elevations, and Sedions. 
 Alfo clear and ample Inftrudions annexed to each Subjed in 
 Letter-prefs ; with a lift of Prices for Materials and Labour, 
 and Labour only. 7 his work will be univerfally ufeful to all 
 Carpenters , Bricklayers , Mafons , 'Joiners , Plajlerers , and others 
 concerned in the feveral Branches of Building , 6 cc. compre- 
 hending the following Suhjeds, viz. Plans, Elevations, and 
 Sedions, of Gentlemen’s Houles. Deligns for Doors, 
 Chimneys, and Ceilings, with their proper Embellifhments in 
 the moll modern tafte. A great Variety of Mouldings, for 
 bale and furbafe Architraves, Impofts, Frizes, and Cornices, 
 with their proper Ornaments for Pradice, drawn to half fize : 
 to which are added, Scales for enlarging or IclTening at 
 pleafure, if required. Alfo, great variety of Stair-Cafes ; 
 Blowing the practical Method of executing them, in any cafe 
 required, viz. Groins, Angle-brackets, circular-circular flcw- 
 ing and winding Soffits, Domes, Sky-lights, Ac. all made 
 plain and eafy to the meaneft capacity. The proportion of 
 Windows for the Light to Rooms. Preparing Foundations; 
 the proportion of Chimneys to Rooms, and Sedions of Flews. 
 The principal Timbers properly laid out on each Plan viz. the 
 manner of framing the Roofs, and finding the Length and 
 Backing of Hips either fquare or bevel. Scantlings of the 
 timbers, figured in proportion to their bearing. The Method 
 of trulling Girders, fcarling Plates, Ac. and many other 
 Articles particularly uftful to all Perlons in the Building Pro- 
 feffion. The whole corredly engraved on 42 folio Copper- 
 Plates, from the original Deligns of JVilliam and James 
 Pain. Bound, 16s. 
 
 ’The Practical Houfe Carpenter , or Youth's lnjlruClor : containing 
 a great Variety of uletul Deligns in Carpentry and Archi- 
 tecture : as Centering for Groins, Niches, Ac. Examples for 
 Roofs, Sky-lights, Ac. The Five Orders laid down by a New 
 Scale. Mouldings, Ac. at large, with their enrichments. 
 Plans, Elevation, and Sections of Houles for Town and Coun- 
 try, Lodges, Hot-houfcs, Green-houfes, Stables, Ac. Dcfign 
 for a Church, with Plan, Elevation, and two Sections ; an 
 Altar-piece, and Pulpit. Deligns for Chimney-pieces, Shop 
 Fronts, Door-cafes. SeCtion of a Dining-room and Library. 
 Variety of Stair-Cafes, with many other important Articles 
 and uleful Embellifhments. To which is added, a Lift of 
 Prices for Materials and Labour, Labour only, and Day-prices. 
 The whole iliuftrated and made perfectly eafy by 148 quarto 
 Copper-plates, with explanations to each. By William Pain. 
 The fourth Edition, with large Additions. Price 18s. bound. 
 -V. B. This is PAIN’s laft Work. 
 
 The Practical Builder , or Workman's General Ajffant ; Blow- 
 ing the molt approved and eafy Methods for Drawing and 
 Working the whole or feparate part of any Building : as, 
 the Ufe of the Tramel for Groins, Angle-brackets, Niches, 
 Ac. Semicircular Arches on blowing Jambs, the preparing 
 and making their Soffits; Rules of' Carpentry, to find the 
 Length and Backing of ftraight and curved Hips, Trufles for 
 Roofs, Domes, Ac. Trulling of Girders, SeCtions of Floors, 
 Ac. The proportion of the Five Orders in their general and 
 particular Parts: Glueing of Columns; Stair-cafes, with their 
 Ramp and twilled Rails, fixing their Carriages, Newels, Ac. 
 Frontifpieces, Chimney-pieces, Ceilings, Cornices, Archi- 
 traves, Ac., in the neweft Tafte; with Plans and Elevations 
 of Gentlemen’s and Farm-houfes, Barns, Ac. By W. Pain , 
 Architect and Joiner. Engraved on 83 quarto Plates. Bound, 
 12s. A new Edition, with improvements by the Author. 
 
 The Carpenter's Pocket Directory: containing the bell Methods 
 of Framing Timbers of all Figures and Dimcnfions, with 
 their feveral Parts; as Floors, Roofs in Lcdgments, their 
 length and backings; Trufted Roofs, Spires, and Domes, 
 Trulling Girders, Partitions, and Bridges, with Abutments; 
 Centering for Arches, Vaults, Ac. cutting Stone Cielings, 
 Groins, Ac. with their Moulds : Centres for Drawing Go- 
 thic Arches, Eilipfes, Ac. With the Plan and Sedions of a 
 3 arn. Engraved on twenty-four Plates, with Explanations, 
 by IV. Pain, Architect and Carpenter. Bound, 5s. 
 
 ' Builder's Complete AJfiJlant ; or, a Library of Arts and 
 * 'deuces , abfolutely ncccllary to be underftood by Builders 
 nd Workmen in general, viz. 1. Arithmetic, vulgar and 
 ecimal, in whole Numbers and Fractions. 2. Geometry, 
 ineal, Superficial and Solid. 3. Architedure, univerlal. 
 
 Menfuration. 5. Plain Trigonometry. 6. Surveying of 
 and, Ac. 7. Mechanic Powers. 8. Hydroftatics. li- 
 ft rated by above Thirteen Hundred examples of Tines, 
 perficies, Solids, Mouldings, Pedeftals, Columns, Pilafters, 
 tablatures, Pediments, Impofts, Block Cornices, Ruftic 
 oins, Frontifpieces, Arcades, Porticos, Ac. proportioned 
 Modules and Minutes, according to Andrea Palladio j 
 by equal parts. Likcvvife great Variety of Trufted 
 
 Roofs, Timber Bridges, Centerings, Arches, Groins, Twiftc 
 Rails, Compartments, Obelifks, Vafes, Pedeftals for Buftcj 
 Sun Dials, Fonts, Ac. and Methods for raffing heavy Bodic 
 by the force of Levers, Pulleys, Axes in Peretrochio, Skrewj 
 and Wedges; as alfo Water, by the common Pump, Crane 
 Ac. wherein the Properties and Preflure of the air on Watei 
 Ac. are explained. The whole exemplified on 77 larg 
 quarto Copper-plates, by Batty Langley . The fourth edition 
 2 vols. royal odavo* Bound 15s. 
 
 Decorations for Parks and Gardens ; Deligns for Gates, Garde) 
 Seats, Alcoves, Temples, Baths, Entrance Gates, Lodges 
 Facades, Profped Towers, Cattle Sheds, Ruins, Bridges 
 Green-houfes, Ac. Ac. Alfo a Hot-houfe, and Hot- wall 
 with Plans and Scales; neatly engraved on 55 Plates, odavo 
 1 os. 6d. fewed. 
 
 Defigns in Architecture ; confifting of Plans, Elevations, am 
 Sedions for Temples, Baths, Caffines, Pavilions, Garder 
 Seats, Obelilks, andother Buildings; for decorating Pleafure- 
 grounds, Parks, Forefts, Ac. Ac. by John Soane. ° Engraved 
 on Thirty-eight Copper-plates, odavo. Sewed, 6s. 
 
 Grotefque Architecture , or Rural Amufement; confifting oi 
 Plans, Elevations, and Sections, for Huts, Summcr^anc 
 Winter Hermitages, Retreats, Terminaries, Chinefe, Gothic 
 and Natural Grottos, Cafcades, Ruftic Seats, Barns, Mofqucs, 
 Morefque Pavilions, Grotefque Seats, Grecnffidulcs, Ac! 
 many of which may be executed with Flints, irregular Stones * 
 rude Branches and Roots of Trees; containing 28 ne\V 
 Defigns, with Scales to each. By IV. Wright, ^ A rehited; 
 Odavo. Sewed, 4s. 6d. 
 
 Ideas for Rufic Furniture , proper for Garden Chairs, Summer 
 Houles, Hermitages, Cottages, Ac. engraved on 2^ Plates! 
 odavo. Price 4 s. 
 
 Deligns for Gates and Rails, fuirable to Parks, Pleafure-j 
 Grounds, Balconies, Ac. Alfo fome Defigns for Trellis* 
 Work— on 27 Piates. By C. Middleton, Odavo. 
 
 The Carpenter's Treafure : a Colled ion of Deligns for Temples, fc 
 with their Plans; Gates, Doors, Rails, and Bridges, in the 
 Gothic Tafte, with Centres at large for Striking Gothic 
 Curves and Mouldings, and fome Specimens of Rails in the 
 Chinefe Tafte, forming a Complete Syftem for Rural De- 
 corations, by N. Wallis , A related. Sixteen Plates, odavo; 
 Sewed, 2s. od. 
 
 Gothic Architecture Improved , by Rules and Proportions in many- 
 grand Defigns of Columns, Doors, Windows, Chimneyj; 
 Pieces, Arcades, Colonnades, Porticos, Umbrellas, Temples!' 
 Paviliions, Ac. with Plans, Elevations, and Profiles, geome- 
 trically exemplified. By B. £? T. Langley. To which is 
 added, an Hillorical Difcourfe on Gothic Architedure. On 
 64 Plates, quarto. Bound, 15s. 
 
 The Modern Joiner i or a Colledion of original Defigns for • 
 Chimney-Pieces and Door-Cafes, with their Mouldings 
 and Enrichments at large; by N. Wallis , Archited.^- 
 Quarto, 8s. 
 
 Outlines of Defigns for Shop Fronts and Door Cafes , with the 
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[ 4 ] 
 
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 n 
 
 FINIS. 
 
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