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THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 

 

 
 THE MOSLEM W 
 OAS. INO RAB AN 
 
 EDITED, WITH A FOREWORD AND CLOSING CHAPTER, 
 BY 
 
 JOHN R.YMOTT 
 
 CHAIRMAN, INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL 
 
 NEW YORK 
 GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY 
 
First published « » »« 1925 
 
 Made and Printed in Great Britain. 
 Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 THE Moslem world of to-day is markedly different from 
 that of yesterday. The social and religious system of 
 Islam, for centuries the most rigid, exclusive, resistant, 
 and, as some would say, the most intolerant of all, 
 has during the first quarter of the present century, 
 and notably during the last decade, been undergoing 
 stupendous and well-nigh unbelievable changes. Almost 
 every Moslem land—in Africa, in Western, Central, and 
 Southern Asia, and in the East Indies—is ablaze with new 
 national and social aspirations and ambitions. Through- 
 out these vast regions the traveller in these days is 
 vividly conscious of the thrill of a new life. On every 
 hand he finds an earnest struggle to achieve a political 
 organization of a more democratic and constitutional 
 form. This is often coupled, however, with pronounced 
 hostility to Western governments. The most remarkable 
 event of all has been the abolition of the Caliphate. The 
 effect of this startling development has been like dropping 
 from its place the keystone of an arch, for true it is 
 that the Caliphate has been the binding centre of the 
 extensive and imposing arch of Pan-Islamism. This 
 weakening of the sense of solidarity and moral unity of 
 the Moslem peoples will be felt increasingly. In profound 
 and far-reaching significance it may be likened to the 
 break-up of the Holy Roman Empire. Almost as 
 
 vil 
 
viii FOREWORD 
 
 wonderful has been the social upheaval, the most im- 
 pressive evidence of which is the elevation in so many 
 Moslem countries of the status of women. 
 
 The renaissance of Arabic culture, the rapid multi- 
 plication of periodicals and of book and pamphlet 
 literature, the great increase in the numbers of Moslem 
 youth in schools and colleges of Western learning, and 
 the rising and surging tide of new thought, all bear 
 witness to a notable intellectual awakening. The new 
 search for truth and the ferment of dynamic and even of 
 revolutionary ideas are exerting a great emancipating, 
 liberalizing, and transforming influence. The larger 
 political and intellectual freedom leads inevitably to 
 greater religious freedom. Reactionary conservatism, 
 inertia, and intolerance are giving way to the spirit of 
 scientific inquiry. Moslem teachers and writers reveal 
 that they have a growing realization of the weaknesses 
 of Islam as a religion to meet the social, national, and 
 international demands of the modern age or to satisfy 
 the searching questions of the mind and the deeper 
 longings of the heart. They seem to be aware of the 
 disintegrating processes within and the dangerous im- 
 pacts from without. With increasing numbers of Moslems 
 the old complacency has given way to a genuine solicitude 
 and to a hopeful spirit of reform. A re-evaluation of 
 Islam as a religion is taking place, and Moslem thinkers 
 are seeking to restate both their offensive and their 
 defensive apologetic. 
 
 A Moslem world undergoing such varied, such exten- 
 sive, such profound, and such momentous changes is 
 of supreme interest and concern to all Christendom. 
 As a matter of fact, the attention of Christians is to-day 
 riveted on Islam as at no time since the Moslem invasion 
 of Europe. And well it may be. The position, trends, 
 
FOREWORD 1x 
 
 and purposes of a religion of over 230,000,000 adherents 
 necessarily have large meaning to the Christian religion, 
 with its world mission and programme. The fact that 
 possibly as many as seven out of every eight Moslems in 
 the world are living under the flag of one or another 
 Christian nation serves to accentuate their significance 
 to all who bear the Christian name. The attitude and 
 welfare of the followers of Islam have a vital bearing 
 on the international and interracial relations of man- 
 kind, and, therefore, on the peace of the world. Now 
 that the world has found itself as one body, it can no 
 longer be a subject of indifference to any part of the 
 world, and most certainly not to any Christian people, 
 what conditions obtain and what the tendencies, ideals, 
 and ambitions are in any other part. Such vital and 
 burning issues as we see now absorbing the Moslem 
 peoples present a challenge and an opportunity to the 
 Christian faith. The threatened and impending dis- 
 integration of Islam calls for an adequate substitute. 
 Only Christ and His programme can meet the need. 
 The new generation in whose hands rests the destiny of 
 all the Moslem lands—a generation which has so recently 
 come under the spell of the modern age, and whose 
 brain and heart are beginning to surge with new thought 
 and social passion—make an irresistible appeal to 
 Christians everywhere to present in their message, in 
 their lives, and in their relationships, a winning and 
 convincing apologetic. 
 
 This matter of the attitude of Christians and of 
 Christian nations toward Islam and its adherents is 
 most vital and pressing. What the attitude of Christians 
 is to be will determine that of Islam to Christendom. 
 Great is the need of Christianizing the impact of the 
 so-called Christian nations upon the Moslem world. It 
 
x FOREWORD 
 
 is to be feared that much of the diplomacy, the territorial 
 designs, the administrative policy, and the commercial 
 activities of Christian Powers have been and still are 
 non-Christian as judged by their effects. The spread 
 of Western materialism and of the corrupt influences 
 of modern civilization, unless the adequate counteracting 
 and transforming energies of vital Christianity are more 
 largely brought to bear, will result in making the last 
 state of Moslem lands worse than the first. 
 
 There is need, likewise, on the part of the Christian 
 movement, as it comes to the Moslem world, of exercising 
 larger toleration. Happily the modern approach of 
 Christian missionaries to Moslems is a much more positive, 
 constructive, fraternal, and co-operative one than 
 generally obtained in earlier days. Only as the pro- 
 gramme of Christianity is based upon a sympathetic 
 understanding of the Moslems (and upon unselfish co- 
 operative service with them) is there any prospect of 
 winning them, but along that pathway there is infinite 
 hope. With such intimate and helpful contacts, and 
 with such an atmosphere of faith as this attitude and 
 practice will afford, there must be presented the message 
 of the living Christ and His redemptive Gospel. In 
 this way only will there be broken the spell of fear, 
 fatalism, and despair which rests upon multitudes of 
 Moslems, and will there be imparted to their lives the 
 superhuman faith, freedom, and hope which only He 
 communicates to men. 
 
 The twenty-three papers which constitute this volume 
 of composite authorship present with real comprehension 
 and living interest many of the more important aspects 
 of the Moslem world of to-day and describe the causes 
 underlying the tremendous changes which have taken 
 place in Islam in recent years. They show convincingly 
 
FOREWORD x1 
 
 why this situation is one of urgent interest and concern 
 to all Christendom. With penetration and sympathy 
 they reveal the attitude which should characterize 
 Christian nations and Christian Churches, as well as 
 individual Christian workers. The authors of the various 
 papers have been in intimate and vital contact with 
 Islam, most of them for a long period of years. Their 
 interest has not been merely academic but one of heart 
 concern as well. They have prepared their contributions 
 without collaboration with one another. The aim in 
 the volume has not been to present a complete and 
 symmetrical treatment of all aspects of Islam, nor to 
 treat all Moslem lands, but rather to present a composite 
 view of those phases of the subject which to-day are of 
 most living interest and which most need to be lifted 
 into prominence. 
 
 The editor has made no attempt to unify the points 
 of view of various authors. Because of this fact it is 
 somewhat remarkable to find such a consensus among 
 so large a group of writers of widely differing background, 
 experience, and outlook. In order to bring the volume 
 within the desired limits, and to avoid certain repetition, 
 it has been necessary to abridge a few of the papers. 
 It need hardly be added that each writer is responsible 
 for the views set forth in his paper. 
 
 We have been unable to provide references for all 
 quotations because of inability to reach certain of the 
 writers within the time limit set for publication. More- 
 over, it has been impossible to be entirely consistent 
 in transliterating Arabic and other oriental terms. 
 General usage has been followed rather than scholastic 
 precision attempted. Particular recognition is given 
 to Henry H. King and Charles H. Fahs for their pains- 
 taking collaboration in the processes of editing and 
 
X11 FOREWORD 
 
 proof-reading. We are also under obligation to Professor — 
 J. C. Archer of Yale University, Professor R. 5. Mc- 
 Clenahan of the American University at Cairo, and 
 Professor W. G. Shellabear of the Hartford Seminary 
 Foundation for bringing their expert knowledge to bear 
 in the review of the various manuscripts and for many 
 invaluable suggestions. Thanks are also due to the 
 editors of Zhe International Review of Missions for 
 permission to use in amended form the materials of the 
 last chapter. 
 Joun R. Mort. 
 
CHAPTER 
 
 If 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 TV 
 
 VII. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 FOREWORD 
 Joun R. Mott 
 
 THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 
 
 CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 
 JamMEs L. BARTON 
 
 -THE RENAISSANCE IN THE MOSLEM NEAR 
 
 EAST : : : : : 
 JuLius RICHTER 
 
 THE CALIPHATE YESTERDAY, TO-DAY, AND 
 TO-MORROW : 3 é g ‘ 
 D. S$; MARGOLIOUTH 
 
 THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE AND 
 THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE . } ; 
 ANONYMOUS 
 
 FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM : 
 Basin MATHEWS 
 
 ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM . ‘ 
 C. SNoucK HURGRONJE 
 
 THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
 WESTERN ISLAM ‘ F J i 
 
 MurRRAY T. Titus 
 xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vii 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 47 
 
 61 
 
 79 
 
 a5 
 
X1V 
 CHAPTER 
 
 VIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
 TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 
 Joun E. MERRILL 
 
 PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 
 
 OF ISLAM . , ‘ : u ; 
 SAMUEL M. ZWEMER 
 
 SoME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE 
 
 WoRLD oF ISLAM ; : y : 
 CONSTANCE E. PADWICK 
 
 WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM 
 WoRLD—FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RE- 
 SULTS ; ‘ ; : } : 
 
 WILLIAM H. HALL 
 
 WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM 
 WoRLD—CHANGING FACTORS fk ; 
 PauL MONROE 
 
 INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN 
 EGYPT AND PALESTINE ‘ , : 
 W. A. STEWART 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN 
 THE ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR AND 
 MIDDLE EAST . : : : : 
 
 CAROLINE M; BUCHANAN 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN 
 IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST 
 AFRICA, ; : ‘ £ y 
 
 I, Lirias TROTTER 
 
 [PAGE 
 
 ish BH 
 
 123 
 
 157 
 
 169 
 
 183 
 
 199 
 
 2iI 
 
 231 
 
CHAPTER 
 
 VG 
 XVII. 
 XVIII. 
 
 XIX. 
 XX. 
 XXII. 
 
 AXIT. 
 
 AXITI. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN 
 THE ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA i: é 
 RutH E. ROBINSON 
 
 THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND 
 ISLAM : : ; : ; : 
 RENNIE MAcINNES AND HERBERT DANBY 
 
 ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND 
 THE EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 
 W. H. T. GAIRDNER 
 
 THE MysTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM . 
 GEORGE SWAN 
 
 NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC . 
 ARTHUR JEFFERY 
 
 CHRIST'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM , 
 PauL W. HARRISON 
 
 THE IssuE BETWEEN ISLAM AND CHRIS- 
 TIANTU YS Ors 4 : ; , 
 ROBERT E, SPEER 
 
 THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD . 
 Joun R. Mott 
 APPENDIX . . ; ; 
 
 XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 249 
 
 263 
 
 279 
 
 291 
 
 305 
 
 325 
 
 341 
 
 361 
 
 383 
 
 391 
 

 
THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 
 CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 JAMES L. BARTON, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 Senior Foreign Secretary, American Board of Commissioners 
 for Foreign Missions 
 

 
CHAPTER I 
 
 THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 
 CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 
 
 IsLAM, in its doctrine, its traditions, and its practices, 
 has been declared to be stereotyped beyond possibility 
 of change. Principal Fairbairn,! Sir William Muir,’ 
 Lord Cromer,’ William Gifford Palgrave,‘ Lord Houghton,’ 
 and Stanley Lane-Poole, as well as others, have taken 
 the ground that Islam is inflexible, unprogressive, in- 
 capable of adapting itself to new conditions, stationary. 
 Palgrave says: “It justly repudiates all change, all 
 development,’’ and Lord Houghton adds: ‘‘ Whatever 
 savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy 
 and defection.”’ 
 
 If this is true, then we should expect little influence 
 on the Islamic world from contacts with Western civiliza- 
 tion. While theoretically Islam may not change in form 
 or in practice, the fact remains that marked modifications 
 have taken place, especially within this generation, and 
 many others are indicated. Most of the divisions in 
 Islam are evidence of internal change both in beliefs 
 and in practices. 
 
 1 Contemporary Review, 1881, p. 806. 
 
 2 Annals of the Early Caliphate, London, 1883, p. 459. 
 
 3 Modern Egypt, New York, 1908, vol. 2, p. 202. 
 
 4 Narration of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern 
 Arabia, London, 1865, vol. 1, p. 372. 
 
 5 Quoted by Samuel Graham Wilson, Modevn Movements 
 Among Moslems, New York, 1916, p. 12. 
 
 3 
 
4. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 We shall consider, first, what are the impacts between 
 Islam and the Western world; and, secondly, what 
 influences upon Islam are resulting from these impacts. 
 
 Since Islam ceased to expand by conquest, Moslems 
 have remained largely aloof from the rest of mankind. 
 Also in the world of art, literature, education, science, 
 commerce, and civilization they have seemed to occupy 
 spheres by themselves. They generally occupy areas 
 not attractive to the ordinary traveller and commercial 
 agent. Moslems have not sought outside contacts, and 
 have offered little inducement for the approach of other 
 peoples. It is only within this generation that the 
 Islamic world has experienced the shock of external 
 impacts. These have come about through a variety of 
 sources and of changed conditions. 
 
 In the first place, Mohammedan countries have been 
 invaded by Western tourists and travellers in increasing 
 numbers and for various purposes. At the same time, 
 many Moslems have found their way into Western lands. 
 This intervisitation has been facilitated by newly con- 
 structed railroads, steamship lines, and automobile 
 routes. Railroads in India, Turkey, Persia, Syria, Egypt, 
 North Africa, and even in Arabia are comparatively 
 recent. Public automobiles are in regular service in 
 North Africa, Arabia, India, Persia, and in many other 
 _ Moslem countries. The Moslem world has begun to 
 travel, and Moslem lands are being invaded by travellers, 
 concessionnaires, and commercial agents from the outside. 
 
 The minds of the Moslem youth have been awakened 
 from the lethargy of centuries, furthermore, by the 
 impact of Western learning. Modern education has 
 entered most Moslem countries. Up-to-date colleges 
 and universities have been established in many of the 
 great Moslem centres. Mohammedan youth were slow 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION’ 5 
 
 to avail themselves of the advantages these institutions 
 offered. Taking note, however, of the advantages 
 gained by non-Moslem students through Western 
 learning, Moslem youth have begun to seek these ad- 
 vantages for themselves. In increasing numbers Moslem 
 men have sought education abroad in most of the great 
 centres of learning in Europe and America. The attend- 
 ance of Moslem students in mission schools and in 
 modern institutions in Moslem lands has greatly in- 
 creased since 1920. Western schools in Turkey and 
 Persia are overcrowded, and are turning away Moslem 
 students who are almost demanding admission. Among 
 Moslems in India school attendance has risen from 
 3 per cent. thirty years ago to 15 per cent. at the 
 present time. Mohammedans of the East Indies, and, 
 in fact, of nearly all Moslem lands, are seeking modern 
 education. 
 
 A third means of contact with non-Moslem lands has 
 been an increased knowledge of Western languages. 
 Modern events have demonstrated to the Islamic world 
 that Arabic and native vernaculars alone are inadequate 
 to meet the demands of the present age. While they 
 may regard Arabic as a sacred language, Moslems are 
 discovering that it is not the language of world commerce 
 or of that learning which permits profitable contact 
 with the West. European languages have necessarily 
 found a place in the more advanced modern Islamic 
 schools, while from the first these languages have con- 
 stituted an important part in the curricula of all Western 
 schools in Moslem countries. English, French, and 
 German have commanded the largest places. 
 
 With the acquisition of a Western language there 
 inevitably follow a desire and a demand for literature 
 in that language. This influence, constantly upon the 
 
6 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 increase, is arousing new ambitions and is implanting 
 in the minds of this Moslem generation ideas out of 
 harmony with tradition. Eighteen sets of the Ency- 
 clopedia Britannica were sold in two years to Arab 
 customers by a single book-shop in Iraq. New ideas 
 which have no place in the old Islamic scheme of the 
 universe are coming in like a flood. 
 
 The effect of the war has been revolutionary and 
 startling. Moslems of many countries were involved, 
 and upon different sides in the conflict. The Arab and 
 the Turk, the Turk and the Indian Moslem, fought each 
 other. In nearly all of the national armies there were 
 Moslem contingents. The call for a 7zhad had failed, and 
 Moslem was arrayed against Moslem in deadly combat. 
 Nationalism came to the front and religion receded. The 
 war took Moslems into lands strange to them and among 
 peoples hitherto unknown. Old seclusions were forcibly 
 broken up. Moslems of many races were thrown into 
 a whirlpool of nations. 
 
 The spectacle of Christian arrayed against Christian 
 revealed the lack of solidarity in the Christian world 
 and destroyed in the minds of many Moslem leaders 
 that fear of and respect for the Christian domination of 
 Moslem races. The Indian Moslems caught new visions 
 of independence. The Arabs dreamed of a new Arab 
 kingdom. Egypt determined to throw off a foreign 
 yoke. North Africa entertained a hope of autonomous 
 self-government. Persia adopted a constitution. Turkey 
 achieved a new measure of independence. The Moham- 
 medan world awoke from the war with ideals of democracy 
 as opposed to the old conception of theocracy. 
 
 Among the influences and results of the impact of 
 Western life upon the Islamic world, the first to be 
 considered is the multiplication of contacts which have 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION (! 
 
 forced intelligent and observing Moslems to note the 
 differences between the two civilizations. This has led 
 to sharp discussions as to the merits and demerits of the 
 two. The place of women among the nations of the 
 East is a matter of comment. The low state of education 
 in Moslem countries, and especially among women, has 
 been interpreted as one of the chief causes for the back- 
 ward state of Islamic civilization. It is only within the 
 last few years that the Persians have begun to realize 
 the vast superiority of Occidental education. In Arabia 
 there is a growing conviction that Islam is not up-to-date, 
 that the powerful nations in the West have won their 
 place in the world through education and through better 
 social laws. The educated Moslems of all countries are 
 beginning to see the economic and social values in modern 
 philosophic and scientific principles and in Western 
 social and economic truths. The pull is towards those 
 ideals prevalent among Christian nations and away from 
 traditional Islam. 
 
 S. Khuda Bukhsh, an Indian Moslem and an Oxford 
 graduate, contrasts many of the customs of Islam with 
 those of Christian nations to the detriment of the former. 
 The present Turkish Government has gone to the extreme 
 limit in officially adopting national, economic, and social 
 lawsand regulations which forcenturies have been regarded 
 as contrary to the teachings of Islam. The abrogation 
 of the Caliphate and the expulsion of the Caliph was a 
 radical and startling step taken in order to prevent 
 interference in the modernization of Turkey by an 
 unprogressive religious hierarchy. 
 
 Eshref Edib Bey made the following statement in 
 St. Sophia in Constantinople to a vast Turkish audience : 
 
 “In an epoch when all the inhabitants of the earth 
 are advancing into new realms of science, in a period 
 
8 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 when all cities and all nations are going through an 
 evolution toward a final ideal, let us escape from this 
 laziness which has caught us in its grasp. Let us free 
 our lives from this dark veil of ignorance.” ! 
 
 When intelligent Moslems began to appreciate the 
 deficiencies in their own systems they began to agitate 
 for better education among their own peoples. This 
 movement for better schools has already gained great 
 momentum in Persia, Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, North 
 Africa, and Malaysia. Moslems in India are establishing 
 colleges like the Moslem colleges at Aligarh, Vaniyambadi, 
 Peshawar, Hyderabad, and Lahore. Even the Amir 
 of Afghanistan, in his earnestness to spread education, 
 has instituted travelling schools for nomadic tribes. 
 French, Italian, and German professors and doctors 
 have been imported to conduct the more important of 
 the national schools. Christian Literature in Moslem 
 Lands reports that “ there is a striking post-war desire 
 for education, and there are crowded schools everywhere. 
 Ability to read is everywhere coveted,” 
 
 Social changes are no less revolutionary. This fact 
 is most apparent in the new freedom for women and 
 in the agitation over plural marriages, hitherto assumed 
 to be one of the constant features of Islam. An educated 
 Indian Moslem recently spoke of the hideous deformity 
 of Moslem society, and of the vice and immorality, the 
 selfishness, self-seeking, and hypocrisy which are corrupt- 
 ing it throughout the world. 
 
 A prominent Turkish lawyer in Constantinople who 
 recently printed a series of six articles in one of the 
 leading Turkish papers of that city upon the subject 
 of marriage and divorce, says : 
 
 + Reported to the writer by a missionary of the American 
 Board, 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 9 
 
 “ The younger men revolt against the Moslem custom, 
 and declare that such things ought not to be allowed in 
 the twentieth century. These younger men look upon 
 Moslem polygamy and divorce as a curious antique.” } 
 The author advocates the promulgation of a law forbidding 
 the marriage of more than one wife. He also declares 
 that Turkish women are demanding the registration and 
 publication of marriages, “‘ a custom adopted everywhere 
 in the world.” This forceful article called out but 
 little protest. The founder of the sect in the Punjab, 
 India, known as “‘ the people of the Koran,’ says that 
 he considers polygamy as bad as fornication. A National 
 Assembly of Albanians recently held at Tirana declared 
 that their fundamental principles of independence include 
 the prohibition of polygamy and the abolition of the 
 wearing of the yashmak used by women to cover their 
 faces. In Turkey and in Persia the use of the veil by 
 women is rapidly becoming obsolete. 
 
 This sweeping social change affecting the place of 
 women in society is greatly aided, in fact has its origin, 
 in the new education that is reaching the women and 
 girls as well as the men of all Moslem countries. The 
 new and the old jostle one another throughout the 
 Islamic world to-day in the spheres of education, social 
 transformation, and religious discussions. The fathers 
 for the most part cling to the old, while the younger 
 generation have a genuine desire to lift the entire social, 
 intellectual, and religious order to new levels. 
 
 A new spirit of mutual tolerance is also to be noted. 
 There are yet many who believe that Mohammedans 
 are universally bloodthirsty and cruel, and that it is 
 impossible to have friendly relations with them. Within 
 
 1 Translated for the writer from Igdam, a Constantinople 
 paper, by the Rev. Charles T. Riggs. 
 
10 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 a single decade in Western schools and universities, in 
 relations of host and guest, in conversations upon matters 
 of morals and religion, in the formation of treaties as 
 well as in the contacts of war, there has been created 
 a new measure of mutual appreciation. Moslems have 
 not hesitated to declare that there is much in Christianity 
 that they admire and accept, while Christians have 
 learned that the followers of Islam are not wholly bar- 
 baric. Familiarity and better acquaintance are producing 
 an increasing measure of mutual respect. 
 
 A desire for democracy in place of theocracy is an 
 outstanding example of change of ideal which has been 
 carried into practical operation in Turkey. Within 
 twenty years Turkey represented a government whose 
 sovereign regarded himself, and was acclaimed by the 
 people, to be the Shadow of God on earth. He claimed 
 divine and absolute authority over his own people, and 
 through his office as Caliph a large measure of authority 
 over all Moslems. The Sultan has been deposed by his 
 own subjects, the Caliphate abolished, and a constitu- 
 tional democracy established which makes no claim for 
 authority above that of the voice of the people. Turkey 
 has separated Church and State. 
 
 Persia has adopted a constitution which gets its 
 authority from the people. Egypt has set aside eccle- 
 siastical law in civil affairs. If the common interpreta- 
 tion may be accepted, the fifth stripe in the new flag 
 of democratic China gives to the Mohammedans of that 
 country a status equivalent to that of a racial group. 
 The government of Iraq under King Feisal does not 
 claim divine sanction. More important than written 
 constitutions and regulations is the constantly rising 
 spirit of freedom that is spreading to all Moslem peoples. 
 Nationalism is a vital force among Moslems to-day, 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 11 
 
 setting aside divine fiat law and substituting laws that 
 spring from the will of the people. 
 
 Within a century there has never been a time more 
 propitious for a general Moslem uprising than the period 
 immediately preceding the Great War. Throughout 
 his reign the Caliph, Abdul Hamid II of Turkey, assid- 
 uously cultivated Moslem unity. His emissaries pene- 
 trated the great Moslem centres preaching the strength 
 and solidarity of that religion which was destined 
 by Allah to become the one supreme, dominant religion 
 of the world, and the Caliph of Islam, the one triumphant 
 ruler. Contacts and alliances with European nations 
 aided in furthering the design. Mecca and Medina were 
 used as centres from which to propagate among all 
 Moslem peoples the gospel of unity and ultimate victory. 
 
 The supreme moment came at the outbreak of the 
 Great War, when the call went forth from the Caliph to 
 all the faithful to rise and strike for Moslem liberty. 
 The complete failure of the call for the jzhad is a matter 
 of history. There is far less possibility of a coalition of 
 the Moslem peoples of the world now than there was 
 at that time. Pan-Islamism has become impossible. 
 Turkey has lost her peculiar relationship to the Moslem 
 world by the abolition of the Caliphate and the expulsion 
 of the Caliph. Arabia is hopelessly divided; Egypt 
 claims fellowship with no other Moslem country ; Persia 
 is under a constitution ; India seeks self-government at 
 home, but contemplates no alliance with outside coun- 
 tries; the Moros are content under American rule; the 
 Moslems in the Dutch East Indies have a rising spirit 
 of self-determination ; and Russian Moslems are held 
 by the Soviet régime. There appears to be no chance 
 whatever for a new spirit of Pan-Islamism to get a foot- 
 hold in any Mohammedan country. 
 
12 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Even though Pan-Islamism is no longer practicable, 
 religious leaders in the Turkish Grand National Assembly 
 have attempted to secure the passage of laws for the 
 protection of the faith and for the punishment of the 
 religiously careless. Lord Ronaldshay, in his India, 
 a Bird’s-Eye View, says: 
 
 “The views which the Mohammedan deputation [of 
 the All-India Moslem League] placed before the Viceroy 
 in 1906 were those of a community acutely conscious 
 of the fact that it differed fundamentally in its religious, 
 social, and ethical ideals from the majority of the in- 
 habitants of the land in which it dwelt; and further, 
 that, faced with a movement in the direction of the 
 democratic constitutionalism of the West, it was in 
 danger of losing that which it desired above all things 
 to maintain, namely, the individuality which it derived 
 from its participation in the world of Islam.” 
 
 This awakening to new perils constitutes a real Islamic 
 achievement. It brings a unity in action as well as 
 unity in spirit and resistance, binding together races 
 and different nationalities. It presents a new and 
 formidable barrier to an approach that would further 
 disintegrate Islam. In the attempt to save itself from 
 the disastrous results of the higher criticism of its sacred 
 books and ancient traditions, a new barrier is erected 
 against other religions. 
 
 Soon after the Chinese Republic was formed, the more 
 enlightened and energetic among the men in the Moslem 
 communities in various parts of China began banding 
 themselves together into societies in order to stir up 
 and promote a new enthusiasm for their faith. In 
 Mesopotamia the old and the new jostle one another 
 with confusing and startling contrasts. Modern innova- 
 
 VP Are. 249. 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 18 
 
 tions like the motor-car, aeroplanes, moving pictures, 
 Western intoxicants, a great increase in _ periodical 
 publications, are more and more becoming a part of the 
 daily life of the Arab and fire him with a new vision of 
 another golden age. The religious leaders are aroused by 
 this unprecedented awakening of the Arab youth which 
 shows a corresponding apathy toward religious ideas 
 and practices. The religious forces are arousing them- 
 selves to stay the rising tide of unbelief. 
 
 A prominent Indian Moslem, Mr. Jafar Ali Khan, 
 recently said : 
 
 “The combined attacks of Christian Europe against 
 the integrity of Islam and the covert and overt designs 
 of Western Powers against the remnant of Turkey have 
 made too deep an impression upon the mind of Moslems 
 to be easily effaced.” 
 
 The defeat of the Turk united the loyal followers of 
 the Prophet in India against the British and drove them 
 to make with the Hindus a common cause against “ their 
 common enemy.” With them the question was not so 
 much religious as political. They defended their faith 
 in order to present a united front in their resistance. 
 They have belittled religious differences in order to 
 strengthen the bands of resistance. Moslems every- 
 where are beginning to see in the flood of new literature 
 and the multiplying modern Press a new agency for the 
 solidification and unification of their co-religionists 
 perhaps as powerful as the Mecca pilgrimage. In Syria_ 
 and Egypt, as well as in other Moslem countries, there 
 is a general effort to produce a new religious literature 
 that will reconcile modern science and ancient Islam. 
 To this one phase of modern thought the intelligent 
 world of Islam is devoting its best energies. The Wah- 
 
14 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 habi movement in Arabia and the Ahmadiya movement 
 in India are but results of this attempt to meet new 
 conditions. 
 
 A reinterpretation of Islam in terms of modern 
 science has become necessary if the new generation of 
 enlightened men and women are to be held true to the 
 faith. None see this more clearly than do the intelligent 
 Moslem leaders who view with uneasiness the spread of 
 Western learning in all Moslem countries and among 
 both sexes, attended by a loss of religious zeal. A 
 writer in China says: 
 
 “The impact of modern thought is producing results 
 which tend to cause a breaking away from orthodox 
 Chinese Mohammedanism. This is due in part at least 
 to a feeling that Islam is unable to meet the demands 
 of modern hfe. Attempts are being made to meet 
 these demands.”’ 
 
 Stewart Crawford of Beirit writes: 
 
 “The methods of Western higher criticism are being 
 adopted by some of the younger scholars in Islam, who 
 are attempting a new exposition of the literature and 
 the tendencies of their religion. The orthodox leaders 
 are disturbed by this new freedom in the use of the 
 sacred book. But they are unable to check the tendency 
 of modern education to create new forms of religious 
 activity and of personal piety in the Moslem world.” 
 
 S. Khuda Bukhsh says : 
 
 “Mohammedans are free to adopt whatever is good 
 in any civilization. All religions are alike in their 
 governing principles. There is nothing in the teachings 
 of Mohammed which conflicts with or militates against 
 modern civilization. Modern Islam, with its hierarchy 
 of priesthood, gross fanaticism, appalling ignorance, 
 and superstitious practices, is a discredit to the Islam 
 of the Prophet.” 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 15 
 
 Therefore he calls for reforms, intellectual, social, and 
 religious, and refers to the present as “‘ the dawning era.’ 
 
 Modernism in Islam is an attempt to bring the thought 
 and the life of Moslem peoples into harmony with the 
 present age and to reconcile Oriental learning and tradition 
 with the new literature, new ideas, and modern science. 
 The modernist preaches a gospel of free inquiry, of a 
 tolerant spirit, and of a higher morality. The reformers in 
 Egypt, in public addresses and in writings of all kinds, 
 are advocating under the watchword “ Back to the 
 Koran,” or “‘ Back to Mohammed,’’ a break with the 
 great body of tradition. Some of these devotees of 
 modern interpretation are inclined to idealize Mohammed. 
 They all, however, appear to agree in the purpose to 
 break with antiquated customs and laws and to bring 
 Islam into harmony with Western thought. One of 
 the modern methods of the reformers is to introduce 
 textual criticism. This method is demonstrated in the 
 publication of the Woking Koran, with parallel Arabic 
 and English texts and in a binding like that of an Oxford 
 Bible. 
 
 The contention for liberty of thought, of interpretation, 
 and of action, with the spirit of independence increasing 
 as modern education and the spread of modern literature 
 become more general, opens a fresh door of approach 
 to the Moslem world and provides a common ground 
 for a new Christian approach. Wherever the idea 
 prevails that it is not a sin to discuss philosophy and 
 religion, a formidable barrier is removed. Wherever the 
 right to doubt the authority of ancient traditions is 
 conceded, discussion and inquiry will inevitably follow. 
 
 Dr. Zwemer tells us that ‘‘ in the city of Meshed, once 
 as exclusive as Mecca itself and still the glory of the Shia 
 world, there is complete liberty. Moslem newspapers 
 
16 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 criticize the Moslem ecclesiastics.’”’ Dr. Robert E. Speer 
 reports that a Moslem editor told him that there was 
 no hope for Persia until the power of Islam is shattered. 
 There seems to be a widely expressed opinion in Persia 
 that the spirit of constitutional government and that 
 of Islam are forever incompatible. This same idea 
 prevails in Turkey; the conservatives declare that 
 constitutional government has destroyed the power of 
 Islam, the liberals that it has given liberty to Moslems 
 to think and act according to the dictates of their con- 
 sciences. The Press in Turkey is free to discuss religion 
 and life as it has never been before. In the treaty be- 
 tween Great Britain and the King of Iraq, signed in 
 1922, there are articles giving religious liberty, freedom 
 of conscience, and the free exercise of all forms of public 
 worship. Dr. Zwemer reports that extensive corre- 
 spondence with missionaries in many Moslem mission 
 fields brings out the general expression of a hope that 
 they are facing the dawn of a new day of liberty. 
 
 In Malaysia the hitherto unruffled waters are being 
 stirred and the symptoms of awakening life appear. 
 Western education, eagerness for scientific enlightenment, 
 thirst for modern intellectual equipment, are the tokens 
 of the new day. The Ahmadiya movement has absorbed 
 some of the principles of Christianity, especially upon the 
 side of ethics. It is a sign of progress in the direction of 
 intellectual emancipation. An educated Turk recently 
 said to a missionary : 
 
 “ Of all the forms of liberty, that of the liberty of 
 conscience is the most essential and the most sacred. 
 A man who is not free to choose and to declare his belief 
 loses hold of his own soul. The purposes of education 
 and instruction ought to be to prepare the individual 
 to be self-reliant and not to depend upon society. It 
 
IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 17 
 
 ought to develop and strengthen character more than 
 intelligence.”’ } 
 
 The Rev. J. Tackle, of India, writes : 
 
 “ The spiritual revolt against a cold formalism, ration- 
 alism, and traditionalism, in the Islam that preaches 
 a lonely, inaccessible, unfeeling deity, is spreading 
 everywhere.” 
 
 Dr. Speer reports that there is in Persia a manifest 
 dissatisfaction with Islam among the thinking people. 
 There is talk among the intelligent part of starting a 
 Protestant movement in Islam. The desire for social 
 reforms, now so general throughout the world of Islam, 
 presents a common ground for arousing a new interest 
 in the larger spiritual needs of society and the race. 
 
 Gottfried Simon writes : 
 
 “T have noticed discontent with the teachings of 
 Islam among those Moslems who have come into contact 
 with Christianity, and also among Malay pilgrims, who, 
 on returning from Mecca, cast away their turbans and 
 give strong utterance to their indignation at the practices 
 of Mohammedanism.”’ 
 
 The Sultan of Sulu, the Mohammedan religious leader 
 of all the Moros, not only patronizes the schools among 
 his people but sent his daughter to the United States 
 for further studies after she had completed the course 
 taught in local schools. The Moslem Albanians have 
 practically broken with Islam by the prohibition of 
 polygamy, the exposure of the faces of their women, the 
 abolition of ceremonial ablution, prostration, and genu- 
 flections in prayer. In Egypt there is a growing feeling 
 of national unity between Moslems and Christians which 
 
 1 Reported to the writer by the Rev. Dr, William N. Chambers, 
 of Adana. 
 
 3 
 
18 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 is now assuming more the appearance of permanence 
 than heretofore. 
 
 Islam of a generation ago is passing into new forms. 
 Religious, social, and intellectual revolutions are in 
 progress in the Islamic world. This movement is more 
 general and more fundamental than any similar religious 
 movement since the Reformation. It seems to be but 
 at the beginning. Awakened intellects will not brook 
 fanatical dictation. Blind tradition cannot stay the 
 rising tide of reason as applied to religion. Moslem States 
 are falling into line with the world sentiment in favour 
 of intellectual and religious freedom. Propagation of 
 Islam by force is no longer advocated. A free Press 
 is regarded everywhere the sign and guaranty of personal 
 freedom. Modern education is accepted among Moslems 
 of every country. In its train follow an awakened Press 
 and re-evaluation of Islam as a religion to meet the 
 needs of a people and a State. 
 
THE RENAISSANCE IN THE 
 MOSLEM NEAR EAST 
 
 BY 
 DR. JULIUS RICHTER, 
 
 Professor of Missions, University of Berlin 
 
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 Leer 
 
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CHAPTER? UL 
 
 THE RENAISSANCE IN THE MOSLEM NEAR 
 EAST 
 
 THE Near East has an area almost as great as the United 
 States and about half as many inhabitants. Yet its 
 population is much more diverse than even that of 
 the United States. Even leaving aside the Oriental 
 Churches, there are the Egyptians and the Arabs, the 
 different Syrian aboriginal tribes like the Druzes and 
 the Nusairis, the Turks and the Kurds, the many Persian 
 tribes and the Afghans ; almost all of them with different 
 languages, traditions, and outlook. Yet in spite of 
 all differences there has seemed to be a curious homo- 
 geneity of the higher life. It was the world of Islam 
 with Mecca as its heart, Cairo as its head, and Con- 
 stantinople as its hands. 
 
 The situation has been changed considerably during 
 the last twenty-five years by that world-wide movement 
 outside of the old Christian countries which we describe 
 as the world renaissance. We remember that wonderful 
 century from 1450 to 1550 in the history of Europe. 
 For seven centuries Western Europe, apart from the 
 greater part of the Balkans and of Russia, had been an 
 isolated peninsula shut off from the rest of the world 
 by a cordon of Moslem countries, reaching from Spain 
 and Morocco in the West across North Africa and Asia 
 
 Minor to the White Sea. And this seclusion had been 
 21 
 
22 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 so absolute that even the name of the prophet Mohammed 
 and all but the haziest tradition concerning India and 
 China had been lost. 
 
 It is true, Europe had built up in this isolation a 
 remarkable civilization, a beautiful architecture with 
 wonderful cathedrals, astounding systems of theology 
 and philosophy, and a good deal of beautiful poetry. 
 But the material which they worked upon was always 
 more or less the same. They were like children who, 
 with the same small wooden blocks, one day build a 
 house, the next day a church, the third day a castle. 
 So their systems in one generation were realistic, in the 
 second nominalistic, in the third sceptic. But there 
 was no wide enlargement of their scope and outlook. 
 
 Then from the midst of the fifteenth century the 
 scene changed rapidly. Venetian and Florentine traders 
 advanced into the Near East; Christopher Columbus 
 discovered America; Vasco da Gama found the sea 
 route to India. New worlds and wide realms of know- 
 ledge dawned upon that generation. The art of book | 
 printing, the compass, gun powder, and numerous other. 
 inventions followed. The great civilizations of Greece 
 and Rome rose out of their graves with their wonderful 
 poets, philosophers, historians, sculptors, and architects. 
 An unheard-of mass of new material of knowledge and 
 learning really flooded Western Europe like a rising tide. 
 The astounding fact was that in connexion with this 
 new spiritual flood a great number of first-rate men 
 arose, indeed a larger number of brilliant geniuses than 
 have lived contemporaneously in Europe in any other 
 age : painters like Raffael Sanzio and Leonardo da Vinci, 
 sculptors like Michelangelo, poets like Dante, Petrarch, 
 and Boccaccio, politicians like Machiavelli, religious 
 reformers like Savonarola, learned men like Erasmus 
 
THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 28 
 
 and Reuchlin, and many others. It was the famous 
 cinquecento, the high-water mark of literary Europe. 
 
 Yet altogether there were interesting and instructive 
 differences among the countries in which the humanitarian 
 Renaissance was centring. Half of Europe in the same 
 century experienced that deep religious revival movement 
 of the Protestant Reformation. These nations were 
 rejuvenated in the deepest springs of their national life. 
 They became the advancing nations of Western and 
 Northern Europe, Holland with its wonderful expansion, 
 Great Britain with its world-wide colonial empire, Sweden 
 almost suddenly emerging out of its northern remoteness 
 under Gustavus Adolphus, Germany with its wonderful 
 spiritual development of philosophy by Leibnitz, Im- 
 manuel Kant, Schelling, and Hegel, of poetry, by Lessing, 
 Schiller, and Goethe, of music, by Haydn, Mozart, 
 Beethoven, and Richard Wagner, almost all of them 
 grown on the ground of the German Reformation. On 
 the other hand, those nations which rejected and crushed 
 the Protestant revival movement, like Italy, Spain, and 
 Portugal, were spiritually and morally and soon, also, 
 politically crippled. The wonderful flower of their 
 springtime did not yield fruit because it lacked the 
 spiritual vitality of the Protestant Reformation. 
 
 The application of this marked historical parallelism 
 is interesting with regard to every Asiatic country. It 
 is particularly striking in the Moslem Near East. It is’ 
 a well-known fact that those countries have cultivated , 
 a reactionary conservatism and an intolerant fanaticism. 
 Al Azhar University at Cairo and other similar centres 
 of Arabic learning have maintained a medieval scholas- 
 ticism of an extreme character. And the whole life of 
 the Moslem population has been regulated by the 
 supposedly divine law of the Sharia and by an enormous 
 
24 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 mass of senseless superstition. And as in a stuffy house 
 with closed windows and barred doors, the political 
 and religious leaders were quite reluctant to let in the 
 fresh breeze of the modern life. One needs only to 
 remember the reign of Abdul Hamid in Turkey, hardly 
 two decades ago. 
 
 Now the situation has totally changed since the be- 
 ginning of this century. Every country has opened its 
 doors, however reluctantly, to the modern world life of 
 Europe and America, and, by reason of the fact that 
 the Near East lies just before the doors of Europe, the 
 rising tide is the more irresistibly flooding country after 
 country and district after district. The more highly 
 educated classes who, particularly in Paris, but later in 
 London and Berlin too, have come under the influence 
 of modern civilization, in their wholesale admiration of 
 everything European and modern have fallen into 
 agnosticism and scepticism. Many families of the 
 middle class are trying to get the best out of the changed 
 conditions, and order their members to learn each at 
 least one of the world languages, to be prepared for all 
 chances. And behind them all there are the blind and 
 fanatical leaders of the old Moslem régime, the wlama and 
 muftt and kadi, who feel the sources of their influence and 
 of their income slipping away, and the broad masses 
 of the ignorant lower classes, farmers and craftsmen, 
 who in their conservatism resent all innovations and 
 are the easy prey of the reactionary agitation of their 
 religious leaders. 
 
 Again, this transformation of the Moslem Near East 
 presents very different aspects in the different countries. 
 In some, like Persia, there is a curious divergence between 
 an extremely fanatical and imperious priestly class and 
 broad masses of modernist people who welcome the 
 
THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST ~ 25 
 
 foreigner, and even the missionary and his gospel, with 
 open arms. In others, like Egypt, which have become 
 high-roads of world traffic and of globe-trotters, the 
 European and modernist influence is permeating all 
 classes and districts. In others, again, like Turkey, a 
 despotic dictatorship is attempting brutally to crush 
 all non-Turkish influences and concerns as well as the 
 old-Turkish reaction, maintaining its reckless autocracy 
 in the face of almost equal opposition from modernism 
 and from reaction. In a country like Afghanistan the 
 modern light has been longest and most definitely shut 
 out and a change only now seems slowly to appear. 
 
 Of course all this transformation of the Moslem Near 
 East is deeply influencing the Protestant missionary 
 movement. It is opening new doors and pointing to new 
 opportunities. Yet it seems not to be in the matter 
 of accessibility that the central problem of Christian 
 missions lies. It is a far larger question looming in the 
 background. Will there be, parallel to the humanitarian 
 Renaissance, a strong, deep religious revival movement 
 which can do for the Islamic countries what the Protestant 
 movement did for Western and Northern Europe? 
 
 It is hardly possible that such a religious revolution 
 and rejuvenation will come out of Islam itself. Whoever 
 has watched its sterility, its petrification and disintegra- 
 tion during the last half-millennium, particularly since 
 the Turkish sultans became dominant in the Near East, 
 will not doubt that its spiritual vitality is spent. What 
 there is left of really or of seemingly vital forces is in- 
 significant and insufficient for so great a task. It is 
 one of the tragic events of modern history that the 
 Caliphate has been given up by the Turks of their own 
 free will. The Caliph was at no time a spiritual head 
 like the Prophet or the Pope. 
 
26 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Yet if it was one of the main purposes of Mohammed’s 
 mission to win the recognition of Allah as the legitimate 
 sovereign of the universe and to subject all nations to 
 his absolute divine law, the function of the Caliph was 
 after all the central religio-political office in the Moslem 
 community. Its bearer represented the claim to uni- 
 versal rule. The idealism and the fanatical hope of 
 one-eighth of the human race has centred for a millen- 
 nium round this curious idea, which has now been 
 abandoned. The Turks have expelled the last Caliph 
 from their country ; he is living as an exile somewhere 
 in Europe. The spurious attempts of other Moslem 
 rulers to adopt the title and claim of the Caliph have 
 been futile. 
 
 It has sometimes been alleged that the Moslem dervish 
 orders retained that vitality from which a spiritual 
 restoration of Islam might develop. Yet he who has 
 studied the Senussi movement in Italian Tripoli or the 
 Ikhwan movement in Central Arabia sees almost no 
 chance in that direction. 
 
 Yet in the time of the Reformation, too, the inspiration 
 of the religious revival in most countries came from out- 
 side, from Wittenberg and Geneva. Will it in our age 
 come from Christendom? The really central question 
 is: Has a missionary Protestantism vital power and 
 Spiritual energy enough to flood the spiritual deserts 
 of modern Islam with the rising tide of a spiritual revival 
 which will lead to a religious reformation and trans- 
 formation ? ‘That such an evolution is possible can hardly 
 be doubted. Islam and Christianity are near enough 
 one to the other to be deeply influenced by each other. 
 Half of their spiritual heritage they have in common. 
 And the spiritual development of Islam in the first few 
 formative centuries from Mohammed to al-Ghazali 
 
THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 27 
 
 was largely under the influence of Hellenized Christianity 
 or Christian Hellenism. 
 
 Here we are confronted with a crucial question: 
 Has modern Christianity a convincing and comprehensive 
 gospel which is able not only to command the full and 
 unreserved allegiance of the Moslem, but also to yield 
 the vitalizing and transforming power of a spiritual 
 reformation? Evidently a reduced Christianity of the 
 First Article, just claiming Jesus as a saintly prophet of 
 the fatherhood of God and of the brotherhood of man, 
 has not this power. It can only purge Islam of some 
 real or apparent excrescences and effect a deepening 
 of some of its issues. It would mean no change of 
 religion. It would simply attempt to bring about a 
 similar reduction in Islam as it has attempted in Chris- 
 tianity. The impotence of an intellectualized and 
 impoverished Christian message in its reaction upon 
 Islam is its final sentence. An eloquent declaration 
 that the unbroken resistance of Islam is no reflection 
 upon the vitality of Christian missions scarcely hides 
 this awkward fact from the standpoint of the superficial 
 onlooker. And all undertakings of Christian philan- 
 thropy and of social helpfulness are no real and effective 
 substitute for a poor and ineffective message. 
 
 So Moslem missions become the very Hic Rhodus, 
 ic salta of modern Protestantism in its missionary 
 function. We remember how, in quite similar cir- 
 cumstances, St. Paul in his letter to the Galatians 
 developed his fundamental conception of Christianity 
 against the shallow Jewish monotheism of his day. Is 
 not modern Islam, crystallized in a bulky system of 
 theology, in many lines somewhat similar to the old 
 Judaism of the scribes and of the Talmud? Will it, 
 then, not be a wise plan to consider very carefully the 
 
28 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 apologetics and polemics of St. Paul to see clearly our 
 issue and its possibilities ? The apostle is quite definite 
 in his assertion that it is not any actions of our own 
 that bring about the righteousness of God, but the 
 divine love revealed in the reconciliation through Jesus 
 Christ. It is on this objective fact of salvation through 
 God’s love and mercy that he puts the whole emphasis. 
 
 Yet, to be quite clear about the difficulty and perplexity 
 of our task, is it not helpful for us to realize that, after 
 all, Christian missions among the Jews failed in the first 
 two centuries, and Jewish missions have never recovered 
 from that fundamental failure? And evidently our 
 chances with regard to the Moslems in our generation 
 are not greater, or even so great. Yes, we have the same 
 renaissance in contemporary Islam which Judaism ex- 
 perienced in the first century in its vital touch with the 
 Hellenistic civilizations. And men like the Jewish 
 philosopher Philo show how far that renaissance went 
 and how deeply it modified the narrow Jewish con- 
 ception. Yet, besides Apollos, we know of scarcely one 
 Alexandrian Jew for whom this Hellenistic renaissance 
 became a bridge into the Christian faith. What con- 
 vincing proof have we that the effect will be more lasting 
 and more favourable in Islam at present? And our 
 missions are burdened with the wrong political traditions 
 of the so-called Christian Powers. 
 
 It is true, we ourselves are convinced that the decay 
 and downfall of political Islam and of the Ottoman 
 Empire was the unavoidable consequence of inner dete- 
 rioration ; yet we can understand how the overwhelm- 
 ing majority of the Moslems may see in it the treacherous 
 machination of a supercilious policy—not the saving 
 knife of the amputating physician, but the reckless avarice 
 of insatiable Powers preying on the poor ‘ Sick Man of 
 
THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 29 
 
 the Bosphorus.” It is this traditional hatred of the 
 European Powers, coupled with a deep-seated suspicion 
 of their motives, that renders all missionary approach 
 in Islam so difficult. And the widespread lack of 
 confidence on the part of the Christians, the fruit of 
 more than a thousand years of failures and defeats 
 in their relations with Moslems, enhances this difficulty 
 in our own camp. 
 
 Has the Protestantism of our time vitality and spiritual 
 energy enough to start a thoroughgoing religious revival, 
 a reformation which in this case really would mean a 
 transformation in the Islamic countries of the Near East ? 
 Only then would the renaissance mean the same, and 
 bring the same beneficent results, as in the cynquecento 
 of Europe. 
 
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Wit CATT PE AN Hy ts Lik DALY, 
 TO-DAY, AND TO-MORROW 
 
 BY 
 De SAuMARGOLIOUE HD Bitte: vl BoA: 
 Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford University 
 
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CHAPTER . IIT 
 
 THE CALIPHATE, YESTERDAY, TO-DAY, AND 
 TO-MORROW 
 
 AT the time when the Caliphate agitation was at its 
 height one of its spokesmen in England asserted that, 
 unless there were a Caliph who was an independent 
 sovereign, the daily prayers of all Sunni Moslems would 
 be invalid. This person was a Shii lawyer, and therefore 
 of doubtful authority on this matter; and indeed the 
 Sunni Lawbooks, which enumerate the conditions whereby 
 prayer is rendered valid, do not seem to know of this 
 condition. At the time when these lines are being 
 written there is no longer a Caliph who is an independent 
 sovereign ; for, though the abolition of the Turkish 
 Caliphate in March 1924 was immediately followed 
 by the assumption of the office by the King of the Hejaz, 
 who was then independent, this Caliph has since been 
 driven from his realm, and, having abdicated his kingship, 
 though not his Caliphate, can no longer give validity to 
 Sunni orisons, if the condition mentioned be really re- 
 quired. The North African Caliph lost his independence 
 in r9g1r; and it would appear that no other potentate 
 of consequence holds the office. The conference sum- 
 moned to meet in Cairo in March 1925 has been postponed 
 for a year; should it, on convening, succeed in making 
 an appointment, and should that appointment obtain 
 recognition among Sunni communities, the fact will 
 4, 33 
 
34 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 be that for many months the Islamic world will have 
 remained without an independent Caliph. This has not 
 happened since the death of the Prophet; many a 
 dynasty which claimed the Caliphate has fallen; but 
 hitherto there has always been another ready to take 
 over the torch. 
 
 The question of the Caliphate is rendered obscure by 
 certain assumptions, which, unless they are scrutinized, 
 are apt to mislead. The word khalifa means “ sub- 
 stitution,’ or ‘‘substitute.”” In pre-Islamic Arabic it 
 is used for “‘ viceroy ’’ ; when the Prophet left his capital 
 for raids, pilgrimage, or for some other purpose, he 
 would appoint a “substitute ’”’ to discharge his duties 
 during his absence. When he had departed on his 
 last journey, a substitute was required. Such a sub- 
 stitute should, of course, have been a prophet ; but his 
 followers made no claim to be the recipients of revelations, 
 and no credence was given in official circles to those 
 persons who took the opportunity to urge their claims 
 to prophetic gifts. The substitute could then discharge 
 only the sort of duties which were executed by those who 
 had acted as the Prophet’s substitutes during his life- 
 time. They could administer; but they could not 
 legislate. 
 
 A man’s natural substitute is his son; the hereditary 
 principle was even more widely recognized in the East 
 than in the West. Had Mohammed left a son, his right 
 to the succession would probably have been at least for 
 the time unquestioned; but his sons died in infancy. 
 He had, however, allied various influential persons to 
 himself, either by giving them his daughters, or by 
 himself marrying theirs; and from the relations thus 
 obtained his first five followers were chosen. The first 
 two were fathers-in-law ; the second two sons-in-law ; 
 

 
 THE CALIPHATE 35 
 
 the fifth a brother-in-law. The “substitute ’’ was in 
 each of these cases a member of the Prophet’s family ; 
 the last of this series founded a dynasty. Although it 
 is strictly correct to say that with this dynasty the 
 hereditary principle became established in Islam, yet the 
 fact should not be ignored that its founder’s predecessors 
 were all of them allied by marriage to the Prophet. 
 
 The reign of the first of these was very short; the 
 second, third, and fourth met with violent deaths; the 
 precedents for getting rid of an obnoxious Caliph by 
 violent means were thus established at the commencement 
 of Islamic history. The causes of the insurrection wherein 
 the third Caliph fell are obscure ; if the clue of cuz bono P 
 (who was the gainer ?) be followed, suspicion must rest 
 on Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, whose 
 adherents, the Shia, to this day look upon his three 
 predecessors as impious usurpers. But that murder 
 led to a war of succession, since the Prophet’s favourite 
 wife, whose father had been the first Caliph, had a grudge 
 against Ali, and was determined that he should never sit 
 safely on that throne ; she lent her influence to another 
 cousin of the Prophet, who presently fell in battle, but 
 whose son after some years set himself for a time on 
 the Prophet’s throne; while a brother-in-law of the 
 Prophet, who was related to the third Caliph, and claimed 
 to be his natural avenger, found in the Koran a text 
 which justified him in assuming the sovereignty, and, 
 being a man of consummate ability, founded, as has been 
 seen, an hereditary dynasty. Since the commencement 
 of the first War of Succession, just a quarter of a century 
 after the Prophet’s death, there has been no unity in 
 Islam. 
 
 The word khalifa, then, if taken literally as substitute 
 for the Prophet, but limited to administrative functions, 
 
36 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 implies that the Moslem community remained somewhat 
 as he left it: an Arab nation, ruled from Medina. But 
 in fact, after his death it spread by rapid conquest over 
 large portions of Asia, Africa, and Europe; and the 
 difficulty of communication, together with the sentiment 
 of nationality, rendered these provinces far harder to 
 retain than to conquer. Moreover, it was not forgotten 
 that the founder of Islam had organized an army and 
 raised himself to a throne in the character of religious 
 reformer; this furnished a precedent which able and 
 ambitious men could follow. Numerous persons in this 
 capacity took the title Substitute for the Prophet ; 
 several, finding it easier to advocate the claims of some- 
 one else rather than their own, founded kingdoms and 
 placed supposed heirs of the Prophet on the throne. 
 
 Now all these Caliphs were legitimate in the opinion 
 of their adherents. Sometimes those adherents were 
 few in number ; in several cases, as in those of the South 
 Arabian and in some of the African dynasties, the terri- 
 tory over which they ruled was neither extensive nor 
 thickly peopled; but the title which was won by the 
 sword was defended by argument. One who is a member 
 of the Moslem community may well hold that one dynasty 
 was legitimate and another usurping ; but those who are 
 outside the community have no criterion whereby they 
 can thus distinguish them. In modern Europe, owing 
 to the popularity of The Arabian Nights, the word 
 Caliphate naturally suggests Baghdad ; but the Abbasid 
 dynasty, with that city as capital for nearly the whole 
 of its duration, was at no time in control of the whole 
 Moslem community ; the family which they had displaced 
 founded a dynasty in Spain and North Africa, and 
 presently felt strong enough to resume the title of Caliph, 
 and ere long’ yet another Caliphate was established in 
 
OE eee.LTLTLTLhT — 
 
 THE CALIPHATE 37 
 
 Egypt. It is an accident that the fame of these Cali- 
 phates has found little echo in modern Europe. The 
 rulers whom they produced were, in the opinion of large 
 masses of men, “ substitutes ’’ for the Prophet. | 
 
 When an Arab made himself master of an Arabic- 
 speaking population, he usually took the title of Caliph ; 
 for to decline it would imply that he considered himself 
 dependent on, or at least inferior to, some potentate who 
 held it. The simultaneous existence of three Czsars 
 in Europe was due to similar considerations. But when 
 a foreigner made himself master of an Arabic-speaking 
 population, there was an incongruity in his assuming 
 the title of Substitute for the Prophet ; hence another 
 plan was followed. Some member of the legitimate 
 family was left in possession of the title, whereas the 
 real power was in the hands of the usurper. The date 
 A.H. 324 (A.D. 936) is of capital importance in Islamic 
 history, since in that year a Turkish officer, one Ibn 
 Raiq, for the first time made such an arrangement with 
 the Abbasid Caliph. For more than two centuries this 
 system prevailed in Baghdad, and it was afterwards in 
 a somewhat excessive form continued in Egypt. 
 
 In Baghdad, where the Abbasid family represented 
 the founders of the city, the Caliph was revered by the 
 population, and, though the foreign usurpers thought 
 little of deposing and blinding a Caliph who gave trouble, 
 they found it worth their while ordinarily to keep on 
 good terms with the Caliph, and were eager to ally them- 
 selves by marriage with the imperial family. The 
 Caliphs, therefore, under these usurpers enjoyed con- 
 siderable influence, and exercised it in judicial and 
 religious affairs; in consequence, they were able ulti- 
 mately to shake off the yoke and for a time assume 
 independence, The case was different in Cairo, which 
 
38 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 had been founded by another branch of the Prophet’s 
 family, and where, in consequence, there was no tradition 
 of loyalty to the Abbasid dynasty. When, therefore, the 
 able though unscrupulous Sultan Baibars accepted the 
 claim of a supposed representative of the Abbasids, and 
 received investiture from him, on condition that all 
 the functions of sovereignty were delegated to himself, 
 the sacrifice which he made to the sentiment of legitimacy 
 was small; for the suzerain whom he appointed was 
 entirely dependent on himself, and had no natural 
 following in the country. If, as a foreigner, he could 
 not be Caliph in an Arabic-speaking country, he by this 
 expedient secured himself against dependence on any 
 other Caliph. And these Egyptian Abbasids were 
 allowed no interference with any branch of public affairs. 
 
 When a foreigner was sovereign of a foreign (non- 
 Arab) Moslem population he had not to reckon with 
 the sentiment that has been mentioned, and could, if 
 he thought fit, assume the title Substitute for the Prophet. 
 This happened both in Turkey and in India. Other 
 titles were more familiar in these countries, just as in 
 England, though the King has the title ‘‘ Defender of 
 the Faith,” it is rarely used. Only the Ottoman Sultan 
 or the Moghul Emperor was Caliph not because he had 
 inherited the office from a relation of the Prophet, but 
 because he was a Moslem king. 
 
 The question therefore, Who is the legitimate Caliph 
 of the Moslems ? has about the same amount of meaning 
 as the question, Who is the legitimate king of the 
 Christians ? Neither of these communities constitutes 
 a political or even a religious unit; both are divided 
 into nations and into sects. The nations will have 
 their political and the sects their religious heads. 
 
 Yet there is one feature of the Islamic system which 
 
THE CALIPHATE 39 
 
 involves unity, and that is the Pilgrimage. Every 
 Moslem ought at least once in his life to make a pilgrimage 
 to Mecca ; and reverence to the Prophet requires as well 
 a visit to Medina, where his grave is. This is not feasible 
 unless these Sanctuaries and their approaches are in the 
 hands of a Moslem power; it must be the business of 
 some such authority to secure to the Moslems the chance 
 of discharging this obligation. Hence the power that 
 is in possession of the Sanctuaries occupies a peculiar 
 position in the Moslem world; and sovereigns who 
 were not in possession of these Sanctuaries have hesitated 
 to take the title Caliph in consequence. Normally, it 
 may be said, they have been in the possession of the 
 most powerful Moslem government of the time; and 
 so, when the Caliphate of Egypt had come to an end, and 
 a century later that of Baghdad also terminated owing 
 to the Mongol conquest, the Sherif of Mecca of the time 
 applied to the Moslem sovereign whom he supposed to 
 be the best qualified from the point of view of power 
 to take over the obligation. When the two Caliphates 
 of importance were the Ottoman and the Moghul, the 
 latter proposed that each of them should have possession 
 of a Sanctuary. 
 
 Although, then, the Ottoman Sultan could claim the 
 title Caliph on the principle that has been explained, he 
 first became de facto Caliph when he entered into possession 
 of the Sanctuaries ; and with the loss of them his title 
 lapsed, inasmuch as the Moslem community no longer 
 depended on him for the possibility of discharging their 
 duty of pilgrimage. At the time when the Ottoman 
 president abolished the office, which he could do only 
 for Turkey, there was good reason for thinking that 
 this question of the pilgrimage would soon become a 
 practical one; and the danger which this astute man 
 
40 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 foresaw has materialized. The Sanctuary of Mecca has 
 passed out of the possession of the King of the Hejaz 
 into that of the Wahhabi ruler, whose attitude towards 
 pilgrims cannot be certainly foreseen; correspondents 
 of the newspapers assure us that this ruler, so far from 
 interfering with the pilgrims, will encourage their arrival, 
 if only for financial reasons; but the ruler’s fanatical 
 followers may have something to say in this matter, 
 and they may well impose such conditions on pilgrims 
 as may make them unwilling to visit the Sanctuary so 
 long as the Wahhabi régime prevails. Moreover, while 
 these lines are being written, Jidda, the port of Mecca, 
 is still in the hands of the new King of the Hejaz, and 
 serious difficulty would be occasioned to pilgrims by the 
 port and the Sanctuary being occupied by mutually 
 hostile Powers. Possibly the ex-King of the Hejaz still 
 clings to his title Caliph because he hopes he may be 
 able to restore the situation. Certainly any real Caliph 
 would be compelled to clear it up. For the Sanctuary 
 of Islam ought not to bein the hands of a sect which, 
 in proportion to the others, is exceedingly small and 
 notoriously fanatical in its attitude towards those others. 
 
 When this difficulty is pointed out to Moslems, they 
 reply that the duty of pilgrimage is in the Koran made 
 conditional on ability; if the pilgrimage became im- 
 possible owing to the occupation of the Sanctuary by a 
 Power that did not permit it, then the obligation would 
 lapse. This view is clearly sound; but therewith the 
 sole factor which maintains unity in Islam would also 
 disappear, for it was by separating the religious from 
 the political capital that the founder of Islam secured 
 for his system the ability to outlast the constantly in- 
 creasing divisions and the rise and fall of dynasties. 
 The fall of a Caliphate could not affect this ; the posses- 
 

 
 THE CALIPHATE 41 
 
 sion of the religious capital by a fanatical sect would 
 seriously impair it. 
 
 There would seem, at the moment, to be two proposals 
 before the Moslem peoples: one, that representatives 
 should meet in Mecca to determine the future of the 
 Sanctuaries ; another, that such should meet in Cairo 
 to settle the question of the Caliphate. It is difficult 
 to suppose that the former of these congresses could 
 do more than register the wishes of the Wahhabi Sultan ; 
 he has on his side the logic of the “ stricken field,” which 
 few if any Oriental potentates have ever declined to 
 emphasize. The persons who attend such a congress 
 will certainly be unaccompanied by forces which would 
 enable them to resist legislation of which they disapprove, 
 and it is unlikely that those whom they represent would 
 be in a position to back them up. It is asserted that the 
 Wabhabis, on their entry into the Sacred City, proceeded 
 to perform a series of acts which would certainly move 
 the indignation of the bulk of the Moslem world; the 
 “ Station of Abraham ”’ itself with difficulty (according 
 to this report) escaped being broken up. The business 
 of the foreign representatives will, then, at best be to 
 communicate to those who despatch them the conditions 
 on which the Wahhabi conqueror intends in future to 
 permit the pilgrimage. Those conditions may be 
 
 acceptable to the Moslem community, or they may 
 ~ be otherwise. 
 
 The Cairene project admits of far greater liberty 
 of expression of opinion, for it is improbable that free 
 speech will be suppressed. On the other hand, though 
 the sheikhs of Al Azhar might well be consulted on 
 points of religious law, it is not clear how either they 
 or the delegates whom they invite could have any exe- 
 cutive power. They themselves, in their manifesto, 
 
A2 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 asserted that the Ottoman Caliph had forfeited his rights 
 owing to his proved inability to defend himself. In 
 order to be consistent, they will have to confine their 
 choice to a powerful prince. To select the Wahhabi 
 Sultan would be equivalent to identifying Islam with 
 Wahhabism: but the difficulties of choosing any other 
 Moslem potentate would seem to be enormous. If the 
 functions of their Caliph were to be purely passive, that 
 is, to be mentioned in public prayer—he would certainly 
 not be mentioned on the coins of any but his own State, 
 —it is improbable that the ruler of one Moslem State 
 would allow this to be done in his dominions for the 
 ruler of another State; and it is improbable that any 
 one of these personages would grasp at such a distinction. 
 If, however, the Caliph is to have duties as well as rights, 
 the recovery of the Sanctuary from Wahhabi hands 
 would be the first which would be incumbent on him. It 
 is exceedingly improbable that the sheikhs will find 
 any prince who is willing to undertake this. 
 
 Moreover, the appointment of a Caliph by sheikhs 
 and delegates is an innovation. Historical appointments 
 of Caliphs were appointments of sovereigns, heads of 
 governments ; and these could naturally be made only 
 by those who were actively engaged in public affairs 
 and had personal acquaintance with the possible candi- 
 dates. The ship of State could not be left for a moment 
 without someone at the helm; and, where there was 
 no actual law of succession, the court intrigue was the 
 natural and probably the best method of securing a 
 helmsman when the emergency arose. There is now 
 no State requiring a helmsman ; the Moslem world has 
 dispensed with a Caliph for a considerable period, and 
 it would be difficult to show that any Moslem had suffered, 
 at any rate to any extent which the existence of a Caliph 
 
THE CALIPHATE 43 
 
 would have prevented. This fact was conceded by the 
 Sheikhs when they decided to postpone their congress. 
 So far as a Caliph has any administrative duties, each 
 Moslem State has its Caliph, or government, already. 
 It is not conceivable that the choice made by sheikhs 
 and delegates will affect this matter even in the slightest 
 degree. 
 
 If, however, the Caliph to be appointed is to be merely 
 an ultimate authority on religious questions, his charac- 
 ter will be very different from that of former holders 
 of the title. If we take Harun al-Rashid as the type of 
 a Caliph—and his is the name most familiarly associated 
 with that title—it is quite certain that he, at any rate, 
 ostensibly subordinated his judgment to those who 
 had made a profounder study of the law than himself. 
 Having caught his son in the commission of a capital 
 offence, he would have executed judgment, but held his 
 hand when a jurist explained to him that he could not act 
 on his personal knowledge, but only on the attestation 
 of others. Certainly, among those who took the title 
 of Caliph, there were persons who were themselves 
 religious reformers ; the title was taken, in most of these 
 cases, after sovereignty had been won, and not in virtue 
 of their claim to purify religion. The interpreter of 
 the law is rather the Mufti, or the Sheikh al-Islam. 
 Qualified jurists usually are tenacious of the right to 
 dispute the rulings of the government Mufti, as the 
 famous Mufti, Mohammed ‘Abdu of Egypt, experienced. 
 Would the jurists resign this right in favour of a Caliph ? 
 And would the orthodox schools, which have lasted for 
 eleven centuries, agree to amalgamate ? 
 
 Forecasts that are based on general considerations 
 are at times rendered false by the sagacity of states- 
 men; such persons can find outlets where those who 
 
44 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 have neither the experience nor the astuteness see only 
 a blank wall. Hitherto, however, those students of 
 Islamic history who declared the Caliphate agitation to 
 be factitious and frivolous have been shown by the 
 event to be right. It remains to be seen whether the 
 future has any surprise for them. 
 
THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE 
 AND THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE 
 
 ANONYMOUS 
 

 
CHAP CER ULV: 
 
 THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE AND 
 THE: SPIRIT, OF THE’ AGE 
 
 THE word Caliph, in Arabic khaltfa, means successor, 
 and it describes the person holding this office as the 
 Successor of the Prophet Mohammed. As_ prophet, 
 Mohammed had no successor: his prophetic office came 
 to an end with his death. The Caliph succeeds only to 
 the rule and authority wielded by the Prophet. 
 
 The Moslem Caliphate has existed in different centres 
 successively for 1,292 years, and there have been times 
 when several rulers in different countries have claimed 
 the Caliphate, as, forexample, in Baghdad, in Spain, and 
 in Egypt. 
 
 The Caliphate has been held by different successive 
 dynasties (in Mecca, 632-660; in Damascus, 660-750 ; 
 in Baghdad, 750-1258; in Egypt, 1258-1517 ; in Con- 
 stantinople, the Ottoman Caliphate, 1517-1924). There 
 was also a Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and North Africa, 
 go8-II7I. 
 
 The Republic of Turkey put an end to the reign of 
 the Ottoman Sultans by a resolution adopted by the 
 Grand National Assembly, November 1, 1922, and it 
 discarded the name Ottoman in favour of the name 
 Turkish. That resolution declared that “‘ by the law 
 of fundamental organization, the Turkish Nation having 
 
 transferred its sovereign power to the moral personality 
 47 
 
48 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of the Grand National Assembly, the Sultanate ended 
 for all time on March 16, 1920,” when the Republic was 
 declared. A few days after the adoption of this resolution, 
 on November 18, 1922, Abdul Mejid Effendi, the heir- 
 presumptive, was chosen Caliph by the Grand National 
 Assembly without any definition of his powers. Thus 
 the Turkish Republic put an end to the Ottoman Sultanate, 
 but continued the Caliphate as a purely spiritual office 
 devoid of temporal power. 
 
 Historically, however, the Caliph has been a political 
 functionary rather than a religious one. He has pos- 
 sessed no spiritual functions which are not possessed 
 by all Moslems ; so it was only a question of time how 
 soon the Turks would perceive that there was no reason 
 for the continued existence of the Caliphate. 
 
 The next step was taken by the Grand National 
 Assembly in the beginning of March 1924, when it 
 abolished the Caliphate also and expelled Abdul Mejid 
 and all the members of the royal family from Turkey. 
 
 Abdul Mejid was the thirty-eighth Ottoman Caliph 
 and the ninety-fourth in the line of succession from the 
 death of Mohammed in 632 to 1924, not counting rival 
 claimants to the office, of whom there have been as many 
 as eight at one time (in the eleventh century). 
 
 The Ottoman Dynasty held the Caliphate from about 
 1517 down to the year 1924. The beginning of the 
 Ottoman Caliphate is generally attributed to Sultan 
 Salim, who is said to have taken it over from the Abbasid 
 Caliph in Egypt in 1517; but there is much vagueness 
 in the accounts of this event, and the Ottoman Sultans 
 often regarded themselves as appointed by God to the 
 Caliphate in accordance with two texts of the Koran, 
 38 : 25, “‘ and we have made thee a caliph on the earth,” 
 and 6: 165, ‘‘ He hath made you caliphs on the earth.” 
 
 
 

 
 INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE A9 
 
 The question now arises whether it is the Caliphate, 
 considered as an office pertaining to the whole world of 
 Islam, which has come to an end, or only the Turkish 
 Caliphate, which will be succeeded by that of some other 
 dynasty, as has been the case so often in the history of 
 Islam. In order to form any opinion on this question 
 we must understand the causes which led the Turks to 
 repudiate the Caliphate, and the effects which this re- 
 pudiation has produced among Moslems. 
 
 In the minds of the Turks religion and nationalism 
 have been held as synonymous terms—an apostate from 
 Islam was looked upon as a traitor to his nation. At 
 the present time there is a strong tendency towards 
 a purely secular nationalism divorced from religion. 
 The Grand National Assembly is animated by a strong 
 desire that Turkey should become a modern, progressive, 
 homogeneous Moslem State. The abolition of the 
 Caliphate is to be regarded as the result of this desire 
 pushing them to a series of steps rather than as a policy 
 deliberately conceived beforehand and consistently carried 
 out. Every step taken led the way to the succeeding 
 steps. 
 
 When the Assembly adopted a republican form of 
 government they did not at once realize that this would 
 lead them to abolish the Sultanate and the Caliphate, 
 but they were carried along on the strong tide of the 
 new nationalism. The creation of the Grand National 
 Assembly invested with both legislative and executive 
 functions robbed the Sultanate of its reason to exist, and 
 the decree of the Assembly only registered what was 
 already an accomplished fact. The Sultanate died when 
 the Republic was born. 
 
 The Caliph then remained, it was said, as a purely 
 spiritual leader—the religious head. The Caliph, how- 
 
 5 
 
50 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 ever, has never been a spiritual leader. He is no pope, 
 and there is no place for a pope in Islam. It is difficult 
 for Westerners to realize what a startling innovation 
 the deposition of the Caliph was in Turkey. The Caliphs 
 have not been theologians, nor have they proclaimed 
 new doctrines or interpretations of the Sacred Law: 
 the Caliphs themselves have been subject to the Sacred 
 Law, as all other Moslems are, and the interpretation of 
 that law pertained to the Ulama, or Scribes—the body 
 of men learned in the law. When the temporal power 
 was taken away from the Caliphs they were left without 
 any adequate content for their office—an office without 
 functions, for the Caliph is really a temporal sovereign 
 and not a spiritual head. 
 
 Mawardi (quoted by Sir Thomas Arnold, The Cah- 
 phate, p. 72), defines the functions of the Caliph as 
 follows: “‘the defence and maintenance of religion, 
 the decision of legal disputes, the protection of the 
 territory of Islam, the punishment of wrongdoers, the 
 provision of troops for guarding the frontiers, the waging 
 of war, jihad [or holy war], against those who refuse 
 to accept Islam or to submit to Muslim rule, the collection 
 and organization of taxes, the payment of salaries and 
 the administration of public funds, the appointment of 
 competent officials, and, lastly, personal attention to the 
 details of government’’—in a word, “the defence of 
 religion and the administration of the State.”’ Mawardi 
 was writing in the eleventh century, but his distinguished 
 contemporary, al-Beruni, recognized ‘‘ that what was left 
 in the hands of the Abbasid Caliph at that time was only © 
 a matter that concerned religion and dogmatic belief, 
 since he was not capable of exercising any authority in 
 the affairs of the world whatsoever.” 
 
 That was the period of the degradation of the Caliphate, 
 
INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 51 
 
 and in 1924 the Caliph had again fallen into like degrada- 
 tion. The Caliph had no power, either political or 
 spiritual; he had become a mere figurehead, whose 
 chief functions were to receive visits and to attend the 
 weekly ceremony of the Salamlik and of public prayer. 
 It was difficult to reconcile this empty existence with 
 the dignity and authority which history and tradition 
 have accorded to the Caliphs of Islam in the past. Abdul 
 Mejid could not be satisfied with such a life, and many 
 devout Moslems felt that such a position was not worthy 
 of the religious head of the Islamic world. Notably 
 the Agha Khan and Ameer Ali appealed to the Turkish 
 Government to define clearly the powers and the authority 
 of the Caliph and to give him a position commensurate 
 with the traditions of his high office and of its relations 
 with the world of Islam. Unfortunately, the Grand 
 National Assembly saw in their intervention only collusion 
 between these men abroad and certain parties in Con- 
 stantinople, and they looked upon it as a covert attack 
 upon the Republic. It seemed to them that the Caliphate 
 could be exalted only at the expense of the Republic. 
 The bad feeling between Angora and Constantinople 
 aggravated the difficulty. Turkey has virtually two 
 capitals, the old one, Constantinople, enjoying a unique 
 situation of unparallelled beauty on the European and 
 Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus, a city abounding in 
 historic associations, a centre of sea-borne commerce, 
 and exposed to European influences; and the new 
 capital, Angora, a small provincial town in Asia Minor, 
 removed from foreign influences, in the midst of a peasant 
 population, the terminus of a branch line of the Baghdad 
 Railway, and having no adequate buildings in which to 
 house the Government and its officials. The Caliph 
 resided in the old capital, and the seat of government 
 
52 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 was in the new. If the Caliph had been transferred to 
 Angora, where he would have been under the eye of the 
 Government, he might have enjoyed a longer reign. 
 Angora was exceedingly suspicious of Constantinople, 
 looking upon it as a centre of foreign intrigues and only 
 half-loyal to the Republic. Constantinople thought 
 that a provincial town like Angora could not understand 
 the problems of the metropolis or legislate wisely for 
 its foreign trade. 
 
 The Angora men regarded the Caliph as the centre 
 of intrigues hostile to the Republic and considered that 
 the religious head of Islam was likely to be dangerous 
 to the new State whenever it was weak. Abdul Mejid 
 is an upright man, sincerely desirous of promoting the 
 best interests of his people ; but the Assembly at Angora, 
 looking at him from a distance, invested him with other 
 traits of character, and became wholly estranged from 
 the Caliphate which had lost its traditional hold upon 
 them under the influences of the new nationalism. 
 
 The principal reasons which impelled them to abolish 
 the Caliphate were: 
 
 1. Economy. They desired to get rid of the expense 
 of supporting the former imperial family. 
 
 2. Fear. They feared that the members of this 
 family would always be wedded to the old régime and 
 would seek to restore it. They pointed to the plots. 
 and crimes which stain the history of the Ottoman 
 Sultans, and they thought that whenever the Republic 
 might be exposed to danger from without the members 
 of the old dynasty would become an internal danger. 
 
 3. Modernism. They wanted to become a modern 
 State which could take its place among the other nations 
 on a basis of equality with them. To this end they 
 believed that it was necessary to separate Church and 
 
INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 53 
 
 State. They proposed to do away with the Sharia 
 (Sacred Law) and with the medressés (religious schools), 
 to secularize education, and to remove the Department 
 of Worship from the Cabinet. 
 
 These changes, so radical and so sweeping, startled the 
 whole world; Turkey, and with her Islam, seemed to 
 be breaking with the past and starting on new careers. 
 
 At first it caused a great deal of excitement in the 
 Moslem world, which was taken quite by surprise at 
 this sudden measure. Protests were made in different 
 countries, notably in Syria and Palestine and in India, 
 where the Moslems looked upon the abolition of the 
 Caliphate as an attack upon the religion of Islam made 
 by an ungodly government. In Egypt the first excite- 
 ment seems to be giving place to acquiescence in the 
 action of the Turkish Republic on the ground that it 
 is a matter which concerns Turkey alone. This seems 
 to carry with it the implication that the Caliphate of 
 the Ottoman Sultans was merely a Turkish Caliphate, 
 and not one legitimate and valid for all the world of 
 Islam; but it has been generally held that the Caliph, 
 as successor to the Prophet, was in some sense the religious 
 head of the whole Moslem world. It remains to be seen 
 whether that world will allow the Caliphate to lapse 
 or whether it will revive the office in some new form. 
 A meeting of the Ulama held in Cairo called for a Moslem 
 congress to be held in 1925 to consider the question 
 of the Caliphate; but the convening of that congress has 
 been postponed for a year. 
 
 In Turkey itself the abolition of the Caliphate caused 
 astonishment and bewilderment to many devout Moslems 
 and to the common people generally. The question was 
 often asked, In whose name is the prayer to be offered 
 in the mosques on Fridays in connexion with the sermon 
 
54 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 (khutba) ? According to the best authorities the name 
 of the reigning Caliph ought to be mentioned in the 
 prayer. The National Assembly issued instructions 
 that prayer should be offered for the prosperity and 
 welfare of the Republic of Turkey. The religious feelings 
 of the people suffered considerable shock. In the past 
 the Turks have been held together by devotion to their 
 ruler and to their religion ; now it seemed to them that 
 the very foundations had been cut away from under 
 them. They missed the religious sanctions of their 
 long-established traditions. The Angora men _ con- 
 sidered that the functions of the Caliph are now vested 
 in the Grand National Assembly, which will discharge 
 them through a Council of Public Worship ; apparently 
 there is a loss of religious authority in the process of 
 change, which it will be difficult to restore. 
 
 The consternation caused to pious Moslems by the 
 abolition of the Caliphate may be compared to that felt 
 by their predecessors in Baghdad when Hulagu put 
 the Caliph to death, as described by Sir Thomas Arnold 
 in The Caliphate, pp. 81, 821: 
 
 “It is difficult to estimate the bewilderment that 
 Muslims felt when there was no longer a Caliph on whom 
 the blessing of God could be invoked in the khutbah ; 
 such an event was without precedent throughout the 
 previous history of Islam. Their suffering finds ex- 
 pression in the prayer offered in the great mosque of 
 Baghdad on the Friday following the death of the Caliph : 
 ‘ Praise be to God, who has caused exalted personages to 
 perish, and has given over to destruction the inhabitants 
 of this city. ... O God, help us in our misery, the like 
 of which Islam and its children have never witnessed ; 
 we are God’s, and unto God do we return.’ ”’ 
 
 1 Quoted from C, d’Ohsson, Histoive des Mongols, t. ili, pp. 
 251-4. 
 
INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 55 
 
 The Caliphate had lost much of its historic sanctity 
 in 1924; still, its abolition gave a severe shock to devout 
 Moslems, and many are still unreconciled to it. 
 
 Whatever view may be taken as to the importance of 
 the Caliphate, it can hardly be denied that it did con- 
 stitute a bond of moral unity among the Moslem peoples 
 of the world, and its abolition tends to weaken that 
 unity. 
 
 The Law of Sunnite Islam requires that there be a 
 Caliph. The author of the Sharhwl Muwakif says: 
 “ The appointment of an Imam [Caliph] is incumbent 
 upon the united body of Muslims according to the orthodox 
 law of the Sunnis.’’ The religious feelings and the 
 traditions of Moslems call for the appointment of a new 
 Caliph for all Moslems. 
 
 A commission from India is said to be urging that 
 Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the President of the Turkish 
 Republic, assume the office of Caliph. The argument 
 for this course is that the strongest Moslem ruler 
 should be the Caliph. Except in Turkey, Persia, Af- 
 ghanistan, Turkistan, and Arabia, the Moslems of 
 the present age live under the rule of non-Moslem 
 sovereigns. For them the possession of civil power is 
 not possible. 
 
 On the other hand, not all Moslems have accepted the 
 Ottoman rulers as Caliphs. The Shias do not accept 
 the Caliphate of the Ottoman Sultans, or that of any 
 living ruler. 
 
 “The Shiahs hold the twelfth and last historic Imam, 
 the Mahdi Mahomed, born in the middle of the third 
 century of the Moslem era, to be the Lord of the Age 
 and the Salvation of God; that though invisible, he 
 still lives and looks after the affairs of mankind, both 
 spiritual and temporal. They allow the title of Caliph 
 
56 ‘THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 to no one save the Lord of the Age, and deny that he 
 has appointed any deputy.” ! 
 
 So the Shias, numbering perhaps 15,000,000, must 
 be taken out of a universal Moslem Caliphate. Some 
 Moslems hold that the Caliphate really lasted only 
 thirty years. One Tradition represents the Prophet 
 as saying : 
 
 “ The Caliphate after me will endure for thirty years ; 
 then will come the rule of a king.” ? 
 
 The Sherif of Morocco is reverenced by his subjects 
 as Caliph, and there are claimants of this office in other 
 countries also. Hence, any Caliph who may be appointed 
 will not be universally recognized by all Moslems. 
 
 No Caliph who may be appointed can fulfil the historic 
 functions of the Caliphate, such as the guardianship of 
 the two sacred shrines of Mecca and Medina and the 
 civil power over all Moslems. 
 
 The sovereignty of the Caliph is incompatible with 
 constitutional government. Sell, in The Faith of Islam, 
 published in Madras in 1880, wrote words which sound 
 like prophecy at the present day. He says (p. 87): 
 
 “Tt is a fatal mistake in European politics and an 
 evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultan as the legal 
 Khalifa of Islam, for, if he be such, Turkey can never 
 take any steps forward to newness of political life.”’ 
 
 In view of this comment, it is highly significant that, 
 when Turkey awakened and desired to take a step towards 
 newness of political life, she should have felt constrained 
 to throw off both the Sultanate and the Caliphate. 
 
 1 The Times, London, September 24, 1924, “‘ Report of the 
 
 Conference on Living Religions within the British Empire,”’ 
 2 Sir Thomas Arnold, The Caliphate, p. 107. 
 
INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 57 
 
 In a revised and enlarged third edition, published in 
 1907, Sell prefaces this comment by quoting from 
 Cunningham’s Western Civilization (vol. 2, p. 118): 
 
 ““ The rule of the Caliphs was, in its ultimate basis, a 
 theocracy ; it would submit to no limitations, and the 
 objects which it set before itself, in the conquest of the 
 world to the Faith and the attainment of Paradise by 
 fighting for it, gave no scope for a doctrine of the re- 
 sponsibility of civil rulers and of duty to the governed.’ 
 
 “The Council of the Ulama in July, 1879, anent 
 Khairu’d-din’s proposed reform, which would have 
 placed the Sultan in the position of a constitutional 
 sovereign . . . declared [this] to be directly contrary 
 to the law. ‘ The law of the Sheri does not authorize 
 the Khalifa to place beside him a power superior to his 
 own. The Khalifa ought to reign alone and govern 
 as master. The Vakils [Ministers] should never possess 
 any authority beyond that of representatives, always 
 dependent and submissive.’ ”’ 
 
 Sell adds : 
 “This is one of the most important decisions of the 
 jurists of Islam.... It proves as clearly as possible that, 
 
 so long as the Sultan rules as Khalifa, he must oppose 
 any attempt to set up a constitutional government. 
 There is absolutely no hope of real reform.” 
 
 This was written over forty years ago, and it states 
 clearly the fact that this institution of Islam—the 
 Caliphate—is incompatible with the spirit of this age 
 and with reform. No ruler can accept this office without 
 either breaking away from the historic conception of 
 the Caliphate or parting with all ideas of progress and 
 reform. 
 
 Hence we come to the conclusion that the Caliphate 
 has lost its place in Islam because it is incompatible 
 
58 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 with constitutional government and reform. At the 
 same time, it is also true that, in losing the Caliphate, 
 Islam has lost a certain sense of solidarity and moral 
 unity, and this loss will make itself felt increasingly. 
 The Caliphate lost its reason for existence, and yet its 
 abolition takes from Islam a certain element of strength. 
 
FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 
 
 BY 
 BASIL MATHEWS, M.A., 
 
 Literature Secretary, World’s Alliance of Young Men’s 
 Christian Associations 
 
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 Lion 
 
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 GALE: OVATE AIA: Tied ad 
 
 Z wi auite EAs Vinee ahi! TRY hiya suet Ny , 
 SRY arp Oee RS Wiad AEM 4 
 
 
 
7 CHAPTER V 
 FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 
 
 WHILE watching a torrent of Egyptian youth from Al 
 Azhar University racing and roaring along the streets 
 of Cairo to demonstrate before Zaghloul Pasha, I won- 
 dered whether any generation has ever been swept from 
 ancient footholds by such a tidal wave as is surging 
 around and over the youth of the Moslem world to-day. 
 
 That almost untranslatable French phrase, le choc 
 des idées (carrying the sense not only of shock but also 
 of intellectual combat and of a cavalry-charge of fresh 
 thought), conveys something of the force of the sweeping 
 movement that is at this hour transforming the meaning 
 of life among the new generation of all Islamic peoples. 
 The fact that the waves break upon youth born and bred 
 within the most rigid, resistant, and self-complete of 
 the world’s religious and social systems makes the tur- 
 moil all the more turbulent and dramatic. 
 
 If we examine somewhat closely the causes of the 
 incident of that shouting procession of students (trivial 
 as it was in itself), we shall be carried to the heart of 
 many of the ideas that are changing life so radically 
 for youth. We shall also see some of the concentric 
 forces that are irresistibly driving those ideas home. 
 Any thoroughgoing examination of those ideas and 
 
 forces must seem inchoate and confused. For the 
 61 
 
62 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 whole movement of thought and feeling is as confused 
 as it is profound. 
 
 The fury that carried those undergraduates of Al 
 Azhar University along the streets was wrath against a 
 Labour Prime Minister in England who had just declared 
 his allegiance to the understanding between Britain 
 and Egypt by which the former retained its control of 
 the Sudan. The precise rights and wrongs of that 
 political question do not touch us here. The fermenting 
 idea, however, which surely is our concern, was a vehe- 
 ment nationalism issuing in an uncompromising and 
 unqualified clamour for self-determination. The facts 
 that this clamour by Egyptians for self-determination 
 for the Sudanese (who had not asked for it) overleaped 
 the banks of consistent nationalism and that the Egyp- 
 tian Prime Minister sent the demonstrating students 
 back to their studies of the Koran rather chastened, 
 only serve to illustrate the occasionally dizzy and un- 
 certain results of these whirling movements. 
 
 The Prime Minister, Zaghloul Pasha, was himself 
 perhaps the most astounding product of le choc des idées 
 that could be discovered in the post-war world. Within 
 some hours of this student demonstration the writer had 
 opportunity of unhurried talk with him. It took one’s 
 breath away to remember, first, that this man was the 
 first Egyptian to rule in Egypt (the oldest home of 
 civilization in the world) since the Persians overthrew 
 the Pharaohs over forty centuries ago; that he was the 
 first ruler whom the Egyptians ever elected by their 
 own will to supreme power; and that he who now > 
 exercised this supreme rule had only a few months earlier 
 been a rebel in exile from his own land. The concentra- 
 tion of nationalistic will and passion in Egypt that 
 brought Zaghloul Pasha to power had in Egypt actually 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 63 
 
 brought Moslem mulvis into Christian pulpits and Coptic 
 priests into Moslem mosques, bridging the yawning 
 religious chasm between Christianity and Islam in a 
 way that would have been incredible a decade earlier. 
 In a word, for the first time perhaps in Islamic history 
 political union with infidels was stronger than Islamic 
 exclusiveness. 
 
 Nationalism, then, with its practical policy of self- 
 determination, is the outstanding primary idea fermenting 
 in the mind of Moslem youth to-day. The idea of self- 
 determination was the central architectonic principle 
 of President Wilson’s Fourteen Points and of the Allied 
 war aims, and as such, it was shouted (to use Walt 
 Whitman’s phrase) “ across the roof-tops of the world,”’ 
 in all the languages of Asia as well asof Europe. This 
 fact is often forgotten when we hear the same principles 
 come back under such war-cries as Swaraj (i.e. “India 
 for the Indians’’) or “‘ Egypt for the Egyptians.”’ Cer- 
 tainly the West ought not to be surprised that nationalism 
 everywhere in the Moslem world is the fiercest of the 
 fermenting forces among youth. Whether you walk 
 in Delhi or Angora, talk with young Baghdadi merchants, 
 Arab camelmen, or Algerian senior schoolboys, listen to 
 the young bloods of an Afghan fighting force or the 
 newer journalists and poets of the Persian plateau, the 
 voice and accent are different, but the idea is in essence 
 one. 
 
 In the mind of Moslem youth the idea of the nation 
 has irreparably torn into fragments the enormous, heavy 
 tapestry of Pan-Islamism. Nothing parallel to this 
 has happened in the mind of any generation of youth 
 since the Reformation shattered the unity of the Holy 
 Roman Empire. In the case of Islam, as in that of the 
 Holy Roman Empire, a unity, semi-religious and semi- 
 
64 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 political in nature, has been shattered by a vivid series 
 of smaller, more intense national unities. These national 
 unities are, as indeed they were in the case of the Holy 
 Roman Empire, wholly political in character, yet they 
 call out a passionate devotion essentially religious. 
 
 The shock that the action of young Turkish nationalists 
 has inflicted on the older Moslem consciousness came 
 home to the writer in an unforgettable scene in the home 
 of the Sheikh of Nain. The writer had ridden across the 
 Plain of Esdraelon from Nazareth on a quiet pilgrimage, 
 following from place to place in the footsteps of Jesus 
 Christ and attempting, in visualizing His life in those 
 places, to find rest of spirit and mind from the almost 
 torturing pressure of the terrific problems of the post-war 
 world. There, on the slopes of Mount Moreh, lay the 
 primitive homes of the people of Nain. At the top of 
 the village was the sheikh’s home. 
 
 Calling upon him, we found that the Sheikh of Endor 
 had cantered across the corner of the plain to visit his 
 friend. Surely, one felt, no problem of the great world 
 of unrest could send even an eddy into this backwater 
 of remote simplicity. But within a few minutes the 
 two sheikhs, with an agitation and vehemence unusual 
 in Arabs holding authority, were urging me to bring it 
 about that the Prime Minister of Britain send to Mustafa 
 Kemal at once an appeal and a reprimand, calling on 
 him to cancel his horrible acts of destroying the Caliphate 
 in Turkey and of exiling the ex-Caliph. “It is wicked, 
 wicked,” they reiterated. “‘ He is a bad, bad man.” 
 If we can imagine a Mussolini in Italy abolishing the 
 Papacy and exiling the Pope; and if we can conceive 
 the horror and anger of, say, a devout Roman Catholic 
 in South America at the act, we arrive at some parallel 
 idea of the chasm that to-day lies between the old Arab 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 65 
 and the new Turk generation responsible for abolishing 
 the Caliphate. 
 
 Curiously enough, however, the same fire of nationalism 
 and the same desire for self-determination were burning 
 in the Sheikhs of Nain and Endor as in the young Turks, 
 for they went on to urge upon me with equal vigour 
 these questions: ‘‘ When are the British going to give 
 to the Arabs the self-government that they promised 
 to them during the war?” and “ Why do the British 
 favour the new Jews from Europe in Palestine more 
 than the Arabs who have been there for three thousand 
 years >?” 
 
 There we were, in that remote spot, with the problems 
 of white domination, of Asiatic self-determination, and 
 of race-antagonisms as between Asiatics (Arab versus 
 Jew), breaking in upon us in wave after wave. As I 
 looked round the faces of the dozen younger men who 
 had assembled from the village for the talk, it was clear 
 that for them these were the supremely absorbing issues 
 that were fermenting in their minds. Many of them 
 were certainly unable to read ; but they were discussing 
 issues identical with those that reverberate in the cloisters 
 of Al Azhar University and appear in the leading articles 
 of Moslem daily papers from Bengal to Morocco and 
 from Thrace to Abyssinia. 
 
 That discussion at Nain leads us to another cause of 
 the new ferment in the mind of young Islam. It is 
 that the end of the war saw a great extension of white, 
 and, in the technical sense, Christian authority over 
 Moslem peoples, due largely to the carving of Syria, 
 Palestine, Iraq, and Arabia out of the old Turkish Empire. 
 This intensified a hundredfold the already critical debate 
 of the Moslem mind as to Western civilization—the life 
 of Christendom. The moral standards of Western life 
 
 6 
 
66 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 —its diplomacy and commerce, its absorption in material 
 prosperity and in the expansion of its own control over 
 other peoples, above all its actions and motives during 
 and after the war—are challenged and debated with a 
 singularly sustained vehemence wherever the young 
 Moslem is assembled with his friends. They see, for 
 instance, in Western diplomacy, European and American, 
 a far more intense interest in oil than in Armenians. 
 They believe that all the acts of Western statesmanship 
 are dictated by the desire for imperial expansion or for 
 commercial gain, or for both. 
 
 Paradoxically enough, in odd contrast with their 
 moral condemnation of Western Christendom (a con- 
 demnation, be it noted, of which the touchstone is the 
 Christian standard and not the Moslem), we find a swiftly 
 increasing appreciation and imitation of Western tech- 
 nical science applied to raising the standard of living. 
 The sewing-machine and the telephone, the electric light 
 and the automobile, the typewriter and the dictaphone, 
 the rotary printing press, the street car, and the cinema, 
 may seem to be mere mechanical adjustments affecting 
 life in its externals. When, however, those forces push 
 ever in upon a life that has been practically static for 
 centuries they become means of distributing the leaven 
 through the lump. The sewing-machine is everywhere 
 to-day replacing the hand-sewing of four thousand years. 
 The writer met a caravan of camels striding down that 
 most ancient pass in the world, the Cilician Pass, and 
 carrying in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, of | 
 Cicero, and of St. Paul sewing-machines to the mothers 
 and daughters of Tarsus. This alone means that the 
 minds of the girls are moved toward the West that 
 produces these machines, and begin to work in new 
 modes. Adolescent boys and girls, the latter with 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 67 
 
 their mothers in the harem galleries, witness at the cinema 
 pictures of Western romance in which men and women 
 meet on an equal plane, and where women have the 
 freedom of the wide world—a world in which the relations 
 of the sexes are presented in terms of the choice of youth 
 by youth on a plane of personal attachment and choice. 
 Mary Pickford, Pola Negri, and Gloria Swanson, when 
 appearing on the film before tens of thousands of women 
 and girls in an environment of Moslem social conditions 
 and among people of a relatively low standard of lit- 
 eracy, are likely to be more potent instruments of social 
 revolution than a hundred books on the theory of the 
 family. For the millions of young men who see these 
 films also receive a fresh conception of womanhood in 
 which higher and lower qualities are strangely blended. 
 
 The discussion thus stimulated in the mind of the 
 younger generation is only one element in a fresh hunger 
 for new ideas. All the forces acting upon the younger 
 and more malleable minds, the shattering impact of 
 the war, followed by this intense ferment of discussion 
 on nationalism, self-determination, race conflicts, and 
 Western civilization, have combined to stimulate a quite 
 unprecedented inquisitiveness of mind in Moslem youth. 
 If any single thing was true of the pre-war Moslem mind 
 it was that it retained the strong, unbroken Islamic 
 sense of self-adequacy—the feeling that Islam was able 
 to say the last word on any issue. To-day that com- 
 placency is gone. Moslem youth is scanning the horizons 
 for other truth. Literacy has increased; but reading 
 has leaped forward in a still more startling way. In 
 particular, the young effendi class—the more intelligent 
 business and professional men and men of leisure—are 
 absorbing great quantities of this reading. 
 
 An examination of the bookshops frequented by 
 
68 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Moslems in Beirit, Constantinople, Agra, and Cairo 
 to-day as contrasted with, say, 1914, would reveal a 
 perfectly amazing development.t The writer found in 
 Beirit a score of bookshops in which a constant stream 
 of French fiction, of translations into Arabic, of European 
 and American literature, and of books written in Arabic 
 on a basis of Western reading, was eagerly absorbed. 
 Cairo has 217 printing presses from which the production 
 averages one book, brochure, or pamphlet in Arabic 
 each day of the year. | 
 
 A considerable and increasing proportion of these 
 books presents at either first- or second-hand a con- 
 siderable amount of material of current Western applied 
 science. The literature in many cases assumes the 
 open-minded yet critical attitude of twentieth-century 
 Western thought. Or it presents, through fiction, the 
 pagan, superficial aspects of the structure of the social 
 order of the life of Western Europe. Even the attacks 
 on Christianity in this literature are less and less from 
 a Moslem point of view and more from the point of view 
 of the destructive type of higher criticism which (though 
 already discredited by Western scholarship) is a useful 
 tool in the hands of the modern Moslem critic of Chris- 
 tianity. What is only just beginning to be realized is 
 that the very assumptions and methods on which that 
 higher criticism is built are drastically destructive of 
 the more rigid structure of Islam. 
 
 The widespread influence of these varied types of 
 literature leads to an outlook that is not Islamic and is. 
 not Christian. It is difficult to sum up its characteristics 
 in a generalization. But,asa whole, it may be described 
 
 1 See, for the whole of this subject, Christian Litevature in Mos- 
 
 lem Lands, New York, 1923. An authoritative report based 
 on thorough investigation. 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 69 
 
 as a careless, unsystematic agnosticism, cheerfully 
 cynical in outlook on the world, with few enthusi- 
 asms save those accompanying the assertion of inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 . This should lead to the recognition of the fact that, 
 to impregnate the mind of Moslem youth with secular 
 Western ideas, to break down through Western commerce 
 Moslem traditional habits of business, to replace peasant 
 industries with a highly organized factory system, is 
 not to move an inch nearer to Christianity. When at 
 dawn the factory siren calling youth to the factory has 
 drowned the voice of the muezzin calling to prayer, and 
 when the factory chimney has replaced the minaret, we 
 have not moved toward the Kingdom of God. 
 
 This increasingly secular point of view of the young 
 Moslem shows itself in astonishing ways that nearly take 
 away the breath of folk to whom the unity of the Islamic 
 religion, with its own social and political order and the 
 old idea of the brotherhood of Moslems of all races, have 
 come to be axiomatic. The most striking development 
 here, of course, is the view frankly taken by a considerable 
 number of young Turks that the great historic mistake 
 made by the Turkish people was in embracing Islam. 
 Islam, they say, has kept them in a backwater for cen- 
 turies, so far as secular progress is concerned. That, 
 they feel, is largely the reason why, while Western 
 civilization has leaped forward in wealth and power, 
 Turkish strength has steadily diminished. So they tend 
 to turn from Islamic to racial, political, and economic 
 unity and independence for the hope of the future. 
 The marvellous driving force that has inspired Mustafa 
 Kemal, perhaps the one essential genius in the world’s 
 politics to-day, the young Turks who act with him, and 
 the women, like his brilliant wife, who urge his policies 
 
70 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 forward, is the national conception sung by Mehmed 
 Emin Bey : 
 
 ‘Tam a lurk? 
 My language and race are great.”’ 
 
 ‘My language and race,’’ secular ideas, be it noted, 
 and not “ my religion,” or “‘ my social system.” 
 
 This divorce of race from religion, indeed this elevation 
 of race and nationality into a faith, this break between 
 Turkey and the Pan-Islamic policy, and the leaning of 
 the young Turk and the young Egyptian to Western ways 
 of life and even to Western ways of achieving their own 
 separation from Western governmental or financial 
 domination, means the dawning of a new day. 
 
 It is not, as might conceivably be the case in the 
 Islamic world, a new day simply for manhood. In other 
 chapters of this book the life of its womanhood is set 
 forth ; and in some places, as will be seen, little that is 
 new appears to be happening. When, however, Moslem 
 ladies in automobiles join in with nationalist processions 
 through the streets of Cairo and the women make speeches 
 in the street at times when the procession is held up ; 
 and when in centres like Angora, Constantinople, and 
 Cairo, Moslem women, inspired by a new ideal of family 
 life familiar already in the West, are organized to work 
 for a higher minimum age for marriage, equitable divorce 
 laws, the abolition of polygamy, and reforms in the 
 marriage laws, it is clear that a new day is beginning 
 to dawn here also. The writer has before him a late 
 Turkish newspaper in which the short story tells of the - 
 fight of a young Turk for the right to marry the girl of 
 his own choice, one who loves him and whom he loves, 
 against the fury of his father, a Turk of the old Moslem 
 school, who insists on his marrying a wealthy girl under 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 71 
 
 an arrangement made solely by the old man without 
 reference to the son’s wish or to the girl’s own desire. 
 This is typical of the new ferment regarding the relation 
 of the sexes, and of the chasm between the older and the 
 younger generations. It is also a symptom of the fact 
 that in the Moslem world, as everywhere, the ferment 
 of ideas is at once created by and reflected in the periodical 
 press of the whole area. The immense expansion of 
 newspaper publication in the Moslem world is one of 
 the most significant features of this new ferment of 
 ideas. 
 
 Young Islam is reading to-day well over 1,500 daily 
 and weekly papers, of which just over 700 are in Arabic 
 and as many as 350 are in Persian. The influence of 
 these runs far beyond the literate population. If you 
 go up the Nile Valley, for instance, among the fellaheen 
 villages you will see in each village a reader who, with 
 the youth as well as the older folk of the village around 
 him listening eagerly, reads aloud from the Cairo paper 
 the news and the comment of the day. 
 
 Cairo is, of course, both as the intellectual head of 
 Islam and as the nerve-centre of forces playing between 
 North Africa, Nearer Asia, and Europe, the place of 
 greatest ferment. But an isolated city like Baghdad, 
 cut off by desert from the play of the world’s life, has a 
 dozen newspapers and other periodicals that bring in 
 the story of the movements of the earth. 
 
 Among these movements from outside, Bolshevism is 
 the most active, but its successes have been sporadic 
 and local. Through all this post-war period, all over 
 the Moslem world, youth has been subject to the inter- 
 mittent waves of Bolshevik influence. In the first years 
 after the war a veritable tidal wave of Bolshevik pro- 
 paganda poured across the Caucasus into the Arabic, 
 
72 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the Persian, and the Afghan lands; into North India 
 and the Dutch East Indies ; down the A‘gean and across 
 Anatolia into Egypt and across North Africa. But 
 after the first enthusiasms were exhausted, and youth 
 had had time to compare promise with fulfilment and to 
 assess the actual working of the machine as contrasted 
 with the paper-scheme, a reaction set in. 
 
 The present reactions of young Islam to Bolshevism 
 are significantly different in the various countries con- 
 cerned. Oddly enough, the most vigorous effect of Bol- 
 shevik propaganda among youth in the Moslem world 
 is in the Dutch East Indies. There the relatively primi- 
 tive Moslems swing towards the most extreme phase of 
 sovietization, that is, clancommunism. This is natural, 
 as it fits their tribal background far more easily than 
 state communism in a national or racial sense. 
 
 In British India we find here and there fervid nuclei 
 of Bolshevik feeling. But, in relation to the total mass 
 of 70,000,000 Indian Moslems, the element is insignificant 
 and shows little sign of growth in volume or influence. 
 
 The furious early advance of Bolshevism like a forest 
 fire into Moslem Persia and on into Afghanistan burned 
 itself out almost as swiftly as it ran. Disillusionment 
 followed close upon the heels of enthusiasm. In Turkey 
 the hard, bright flame of nationalism has replaced all 
 other movements in the mind of youth. The liaison 
 between Angora and Moscow is a diplomatic affair— 
 having no relation to movements of the spirit. 
 
 This does not mean that Bolshevism has entirely 
 ceased to work as a leaven in youth. It may even be 
 that the Soviet idea of political working by occupational 
 groups (which is as old as the silversmiths at Ephesus, 
 led by Demetrius) may be severed absolutely from the 
 Marxist class-war communism with which it is associated 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 78 
 
 in Russia, and may be applied by the new generation 
 to the working of political institutions in Asia and Egypt. 
 
 At this point we need to warn ourselves against a 
 danger. The ‘sound and fury” of these violent tides 
 of human youth may hide from our eyes quieter, yet 
 deeper and, in the long run, often more powerful streams. 
 For instance, a close observer who penetrates into the 
 inner forces of the great centres of Moslem life to-day 
 will find sturdy and effective young personalities about 
 whom little is said and nothing written because they do 
 nothing sensational. He will also discover personalities, 
 many of them quite young men, who are quietly changing 
 the outlook of the neighbourhood, in places remote from 
 
 * the vehement modern centres. Their influence modern- 
 
 izes without occidentalizing ; it usually creates a more 
 open and friendly attitude toward the non-Moslem 
 world. It stands, as a rule, for a constructive and co- 
 operative spirit. 
 
 In a considerable—even a predominant—number of 
 cases of this kind that have come under the writer’s 
 own notice and that have been conveyed to him by 
 correspondents and in conversation, it has proved that 
 the power of those young men (and occasionally women) 
 has come from the fact that they have been educated 
 in one or other of the colleges and universities estab- 
 lished from America or Britain, or from both—established 
 not to make Western ideas dominant, but to train a new 
 and a truly Oriental young leadership. 
 
 They are proof, on the one hand, against the ‘ wild 
 and whirling words” of the revolutionary, whether 
 Bolshevik or anarchist, and, on the other hand, against 
 the blind, arrogant reactionary. 
 
 The young man in question may be a dentist or a 
 doctor, a journalist or a lawyer, a teacher or a servant 
 
TA THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of government. He has, however, in receiving his 
 education for the position that he holds and the work 
 that he does, received something else. He has absorbed 
 —say at Robert College, Constantinople; the Inter- 
 national College, Smyrna; St. Paul’s College, Tarsus ; 
 the American University at Beirfit ; the English College 
 at Jerusalem, or the American University at Cairo, or 
 the College at Asyfitt—a spirit of good-will, a capacity 
 for co-operation, a will to progress, a sense of equity 
 and of straight-dealing—in a word, the team-spirit. 
 
 It may well be that, at the end of the day, we shall 
 discover that the men who have in their lives this less 
 explosive ferment, this leaven of human strength of 
 character, this blend of progress with permanence, are 
 the real constructive forces of the new world in Moslem 
 lands. 
 
 The most recent communication that has come out 
 of a very difficult part of the Moslem world from an 
 experienced and authoritative source is unexpected 
 evidence of the working of this type of leadership on 
 the side of exploration in religious fellowship. The 
 writer says : 
 
 “Abundant evidence is at hand of the desire on the 
 part of members of all faiths for tolerant and practical 
 application of religious teachings to the common problems 
 of every-day life, character, and social relationships.” 
 
 In this connexion there has been formed in this centre 
 a prayer-circle of the faiths, in which discussions were 
 opened, for example, by a Greek Orthodox layman on 
 “Purity ’’; by a Persian Moslem on “ Religion and 
 Business ”’ (the interest compelling them to run to two 
 sessions); by a Tartar Moslem on “ Morality and Re- 
 ligion ’’ (running to three sessions) ; by a Greek Orthodox 
 
THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 75 
 
 layman on “ Service,’ and by an Armenian Protestant 
 on “ Religion and Life.’’ 
 
 It is, then, obvious to-day, wherever you touch the 
 life of Islam, that a profound disintegration of the fibre 
 of the old life is going on with a thoroughness and a 
 speed that increases every day. Looking back over our 
 argument, we see how this must be so. When we have 
 discounted all the ineffective and evanescent papers, 
 the play of the remaining thousand newspapers upon the 
 life of young Islam, from Constantinople in the North 
 to Khartoum in the South and from Morocco in the West 
 to Bengal or Java in the East, is incessant and transform- 
 ing. When it is viewed together with the steady and 
 increasing flow of popular books, the incessant flicker 
 of the cinema films in every city and town, the fresh 
 movement of life due to the penetration of the cheap 
 motor-car into areas where, a decade ago, the bullock- or 
 horse-wagon was the way of transport, the new linking 
 up of areas by which to-day the railway-train runs in 
 a night across the desert from Egypt to Palestine and 
 the motor-service dashes in less than twenty hours from 
 Damascus to Baghdad on a route which the camel could 
 barely traverse in a week, the total influence is seen to 
 be enormous. In addition, we need to note that large 
 numbers of Moslem young men now go every year from 
 North Africa to earn their living in France. There are 
 no precise figures available as to the number of Moslems 
 in France. The magnitude of the invasion, however, 
 can be assessed from the fact that of one of the most 
 primitive of the tribes—the Kabyles—r1oo0,o00 have 
 migrated to France, attracted by wages four times 
 higher than those paid in Algeria. It is said that 40,000 
 of this tribe (who are Berber in origin and whose fore- 
 fathers were Christian before the Moslem conquest of 
 
76 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 North Africa), are living in Paris, beside an unnumbered 
 host of Arabs and Turks and other Moslems, 
 
 It is not for us to draw inferences in this chapter as 
 to the attitude that should be taken by those outside the 
 Moslem world who care, as so many of us do care intensely, 
 for the future welfare of its peoples. What we may well 
 note here, however, is that so widespread and so deep a 
 ferment issuing in so manifold a transformation of out- 
 look among Moslem youth calls for a complete revalua- 
 tion and reconsideration of the attitude of Christendom 
 to the peoples of Islam. Progress can come only through 
 co-operation, and if the youths of Christendom and of 
 the Moslem world, as well as those of Farther Asia, are 
 to help each other, they must understand each other. 
 To do that, they must put aside the accepted attitudes 
 of past and even of present diplomacies. They must 
 cease to think of the Moslem mind as closed against new 
 ideas. Especially is it necessary that those who look 
 out on the world attempting to see it with Christian 
 eyes should revise radically the alinement of their thought 
 both as to the resistant attitude of the peoples of the 
 Islamic faith and as to the quality of the contacts which 
 the civilization of peoples who call themselves by the 
 name of Christ should have with those who have been 
 born in this astonishing day of new possibility. 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 
 
 BY 
 C. SNOUCK HURGRONJE, D.Sem.Litt., 
 
 Professor, University of Leiden; Counsellor to the Dutch 
 Mimstry of the Colones 
 
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CHAPTER VI 
 ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 
 
 THE map of the world, in its recently revised form, has 
 suggested to many sharp-sighted politicians the question 
 when and where the next war is to break out, and whether 
 it may be possible to prevent a renewed effort to settle 
 the political dissensions of mankind by a contest of brute 
 force. Hardly anybody will consider such a violent 
 solution as durable, but any other issue is despaired of 
 by the masters of diagnosis. Among the innumerable 
 obstacles to a peaceful settlement none seems to be 
 considered so insurmountable as the race conflict. Even 
 those who think it possible to arrive at a mutual under- 
 standing concerning questions raised by difference of 
 religion, language, civilization, or nationality, describe 
 the race problem as a chronic illness without remedy. 
 The racial characteristics are the only ones a man cannot 
 rid himself of from his birth until his death, and the 
 increase of the population of our globe, together with the 
 decrease of all distances, are unmistakable omens of an 
 acute racial conflict in the immediate future. 
 
 The Science of Races is too young to supply us 
 with a clear formulation of the problem. Anthropology, 
 archeology, comparative linguistics, and ethnography con- 
 tribute what they can to direct her steps, but her move- 
 ment still lacks security. The criteria she uses are ever 
 
 changing: there is not yet a map of races supported 
 79 
 
80 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 by the consensus of competent scholars. When treating 
 race problems of a practical nature even specialists, for 
 the sake of simplicity, recur to the popular colour criterion. 
 Many of them hold out before us terrifying pictures of 
 the dangers menacing the white man from yellow, brown, 
 red, and black races—dangers so enormous and so acute 
 that all other contrasts in the human world appear to 
 be mere trifles in comparison with them. 
 
 The measures recommended by some talented writers 
 in order to exorcise the approaching crisis are of a radical 
 and violent type. Their starting-point is the absolute 
 excellence of the white race, or at least of that part of 
 it to which they themselves belong ; so the preservation 
 of that portion of mankind is to be secured even at the 
 sacrifice of all the rest. We cannot help fancying that, 
 if such a view of the question came to be adopted by the 
 excellent race, a racial struggle would ensue, compared 
 with which the recent war would be no more than a 
 child’s game. But, although we must absolutely reject 
 all tactics of that sort as inhuman and impracticable, 
 we fully agree with the authors alluded to in deeming 
 the race problem even more baffling than that of the 
 establishment of political harmony between the nations 
 of Europe. | 
 
 Under such circumstances one is inclined to search for 
 illumination in history, for racial conflicts have demanded 
 solution from time immemorial, and an inquiry into the 
 attitude of such a large international community as 
 that of Islam concerning the question cannot fail to. 
 teach us some lessons. 
 
 Now we must bear in mind that the proportion of 
 the system of Islam to the preaching of Mohammed was 
 that of the full-grown tree to the seed from which it 
 sprang: its growth occupied about three centuries. The 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 81 
 
 scribes who taught and wrote during that period in 
 the central countries of Islam, Arabia, Egypt, Syria, 
 Mesopotamia, and Persia, though formally only inter- 
 preters of the “revealed” law, actually performed 
 legislative work. So deep was their conviction that they 
 only enounced what Mohammed would have said if he 
 had lived down to their time that they boldly attributed 
 their conclusions to the Prophet by means of fictitious 
 traditions. Whenever we want to know Mohammed’s 
 personal opinion, therefore, we should consult almost 
 exclusively the Koran as containing his authentic oracles. 
 The system of law, dogmatics, and mysticism which 
 assumed to fix everlasting rules for the individual, family, 
 economic, and political life of the Moslems, arrived at 
 completion in its main features only in the tenth century of 
 ourera. This system always left much room for difference 
 of opinion as to details. Besides that, there has always 
 been a gulf between doctrine and life in Mohammedan 
 society ; but, nevertheless, the Moslems all over the world 
 show a remarkable unity in most respects, and the 
 importance of their unanimous acknowledgment of the 
 all-embracing system as the ideal of their international 
 community can hardly be overrated. 
 
 Mohammed did not intend to preach anew religion. 
 As he conceived it, his religion was the only true one 
 from Adam down to the Day of Resurrection, preached 
 by all the apostles of God, his predecessors. Several 
 times in the Koran ! Allah is said to declare emphatically 
 that He sent Mohammed to warn a people, to whom no 
 warner had been sent before. Eleven times’? the word 
 “ Arabic ’’ occurs in the Koran : it is always to accentuate 
 
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82 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the fact that this revelation is given in clear Arabic, 
 without tortuous wording, so as to cut off all ways of 
 exculpation from the heathen Arabs, for whom it is 
 destined. There is no contradiction between these 
 explicit statements, that Mohammed, the Arabic prophet, 
 is sent to the Arabs, and other verses of the Koran, which 
 call Mohammed and his mission a blessing for “ man,”’ 
 ‘mankind,’ or “ the world.’’ On the one hand, these 
 words are not to be taken in their widest sense when 
 used by a man who during all his life had to do with 
 Arabs only and who left to his successors as an unachieved 
 task the subjection of Arabia to his religion. On the 
 other hand, the fact that he was charged with the con- 
 version of Arabia did not diminish the more inclusive 
 character of the religion revealed in his Koran, for his 
 was but the Arabic edition of the Eternal Book of Allah, 
 and, when Jews and Christians rejected his divine mission, 
 then in his mind this could be attributed only to corrup- 
 tion of their sacred scriptures, which in their unaltered 
 form could not but confirm what was revealed to him 
 by the only God, whom all of them adored. 
 
 The universalization of the Koran was the natural 
 consequence of the attempt of the newly Islamized Arabs 
 to conquer the world. The wonderful success of their 
 raids was undoubtedly due to the powerful impulse given 
 by Mohammed to the energy of the Arabs, united for 
 the first time under his banner; but this effect was not 
 foreseen by him, much less was it the execution of a plan 
 projected by him. 
 
 In full accordance with the former revelations, adhered 
 to by the ‘“‘ People of the Sacred Book” (Jews and 
 Christians), the Koran teaches the descent of man from 
 Adam and Eve (Hawwa), implying the equality of all 
 men, notwithstanding the variety of characteristics of 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 88 
 
 individuals or groups. The actual multiplicity of lan- 
 guages and colours is described in the Koran, next 
 to the creation of heaven and earth, as one of the mag- 
 nificent signs of Allah’s wisdom,’ without any attempt 
 to explain its origin. The Prophet of Arabia had no 
 reason to combat, from this point of view, the enmity 
 prevailing between human races; his application of the 
 principle of equality was directed against the tribal 
 fanaticism which divided the Arabs amongst themselves. 
 Mohammed did not succeed in eradicating the tribal 
 feuds of the Arabs altogether, but he enforced the universal 
 recognition of the principle of equality, and he united 
 all those tribes, whose division seemed hopeless, in such 
 a way that they were able to perform actions amazing 
 to the whole world. 
 
 The pregnant expression of Mohammed’s doctrine 
 of the unity of mankind is found in a passage of the 
 Koran * evidently directed against the mutual quarrelling, 
 sarcasm, scorn, and disdain occurring in the community 
 of Medina. The exhortation could therefore have in 
 view only Arabs, including perhaps a few Jewish followers 
 of Mohammed, African, Persian, or Greek slaves, and 
 some foreigners who happened to be staying there. 
 
 “The faithful are brethren; therefore make peace 
 between your brethren, and fear God. Haply ye may 
 obtain mercy. O believers, let not men laugh men 
 to scorn who haply may be better than themselves. . 
 Omen! We have created you from a male and a female, 
 and divided you into groups [the Arab word shu‘db, 
 used here, may denote tribes, nations, races or any other 
 division of men] and tribes, that ye might know [dis- 
 tinguish] one another. The noblest of you in the sight 
 of God is the most God-fearing ; verily God is knowing, 
 cognizant.” 
 
 * Koran: 30: 2%. 2 Koran : 49: Io-13. 
 
84 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 The difference of men in outward appearance and 
 qualities is explained here in a naive, teleological way 
 as serving to distinguish individuals and groups from 
 each other. Piety is called the only criterion for the 
 estimation of the value of man—his attitude, that is, 
 towards God and towards his fellow-creatures. 
 
 This supreme criterion was maintained in the system 
 of Islam. Thereon it based a division of mankind into 
 three main groups, almost identical with the grouping 
 of civilized, half-civilized, and savage men, current 
 amongst ourselves. That the degree of civilization was 
 made dependent on religion in the flourishing period of 
 Islam (A.D. 650-1000) goes without saying; such was 
 the prevailing opinion of the Middle Ages. The first 
 class were the Moslems, who enjoy the full light of revela- 
 tion ; the second the People of the Scripture, like Jews 
 and Christians, who, because of their rejecting the mission 
 of Mohammed, walk in the dusk, and whom the Moslems 
 may only by moral means try to raise to their own 
 height ; the third are the heathen, who are to be in- 
 corporated into human culture by persuasion or by 
 force, and in the worst case to be made innocuous to 
 the civilized world. The culture criterion was applied, 
 even independently of religion, so as to adopt into the 
 second class nations like the Parsis, who, although not 
 having sacred books recognized by Mohammed, were 
 assimilated to the People of the Scripture on account of 
 their social development. 
 
 Moslem world-empire, extending in the eighth century 
 from Morocco and Spain to the borders of China, having 
 absorbed a great part of the ancient empires and still 
 seeing large possibilities of extension, regarded in Southern 
 and Eastern Europe as a constant menace, represented 
 indeed in the early Middle Ages the acme of civilization. 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM _ 85 
 
 At that time no more vanity was necessary for Islam 
 to feel called upon to lead humanity to its destination 
 than there is now for white men spontaneously to under- 
 take such a mission. 
 
 As to the difference of races, the system not only stuck 
 to the Koranic edict, but it accentuated its contents 
 by fictitious sayings of Mohammed, in which not only 
 Arabic tribes, but nations generally, are put on the same 
 level. ‘‘ The Arab does not excel the non-Arab, unless 
 he is the more pious of the two,”’ is one of these sayings, 
 attributed to the Prophet. 
 
 It cannot surprise us that it proved necessary re- 
 peatedly to inculcate this principle, if we think of the 
 amazing energy shown by the Arabs in the triumphal 
 progress of Islam through the world. Once being 
 united by religion and having come out of their sterile 
 peninsula, those nomads proved able to govern the 
 cultivated nations succumbing to their fresh vital force, 
 to change the administration of the conquered States 
 to such an extent as their interests as overlords 
 required, and to induce millions to gather around their 
 Prophet’s banner. | 
 
 The Arabic language did no 18s miraculous work than 
 the Arabic armies. In almost all the central countries 
 of Islam it entirely supplanted the vernacular; to this 
 day foreigners are in the habit of calling Syrians, Meso- 
 potamians, Egyptians, and North Africans by the name 
 of Arabs. During the first century Islamizing a people 
 meant Arabizing it. The wonderful language of the 
 desert adapted itself with incredible suppleness as an 
 instrument for treating the most intricate theological, 
 jurisprudential, and philosophical problems, universal 
 history, geography, ethnography, grammar, and poetry, 
 with the utmost precision and grace. 
 
86 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Conversion to Islam in those days meant becoming 
 an Arab. The new Moslems adopted Arabic names, 
 they were annexed as “clients”’ to Arabic tribes, and 
 they tried as soon as possible to pass for genuine Arabs. 
 Moslem science and literature, indeed, owe more to 
 non-Arabs than to Arabs. When we speak of the rich 
 Arabic literature and of the prevalence of Arabic science 
 in the Middle Ages, we mean the international Moslem 
 science and culture which had Arabic for their means 
 of expression. It was only Persian, and some time later 
 Turkish, which succeeded in obtaining a place in the 
 second rank behind Arabic, and even that only after 
 swallowing a great part of the Arabic dictionary. Malays, 
 Moslem Chinese, Indians, Persians, Turks, and Egyp- 
 tians, all of them have accurately to recite the Arabic 
 Koran at the beginning of their religious instruction ; 
 the divine service they have to perform five times daily 
 is full of Arabic formule; on Fridays and on the two 
 official yearly festivals they attend an Arabic sermon. 
 Although fully authorized to pray in their mother-tongue, 
 on formal occasions they prefer praying in Arabic. In 
 the principal towns of all Islamic countries there are 
 men of letters able to converse in Arabic with their 
 colleagues at the other end of the world. | 
 
 The language is only one of many manifestations of 
 the uniformity of life and thought, shown by the Moslem 
 league of nations. Their common attitude is by no means 
 a copy of that of the Arabs at Mohammed’s time, any 
 more than the universal Arabic is identical with the 
 language of the Koran and of the ancient poets; but all 
 those expressions of human life show an Arabic stamp 
 characteristic of the central countries of Islam during 
 the three centuries of growth of the system. Two Mos- 
 lems, from whatever countries, arrive at mutual under- 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 87 
 
 standing in every respect sooner than two members of 
 any other international association. 
 
 The unrivalled success of the Islamized Arabs is a 
 phenomenon too complex to be explained by one or 
 two causes; but one of the important factors was cer- 
 tainly Mohammed’s strongly accentuated limitation of 
 his message to the Arabs. As circumstances transformed 
 that Arabic message into a universal one, Islam had 
 already become so Arabic to the very marrow that 
 non-Arabs had in some degree to change language and 
 life to feel at home in it. 
 
 This historical development was not fitted to make 
 Mohammed’s principle of equality deeply penetrate the 
 minds ofthe Arabs. The Moslem State of the first century 
 has rightly been called the Arabian empire. The Arabic 
 supremacy was felt by the subjected nations as a heavy 
 oppression, particularly by. those who had attained 
 the highest degrees of culture before Islam. The artificial 
 erafting of individuals, families, and even entire nations 
 on the genealogical tree of the Arabs served as a palliative ; 
 but its use was naturally limited, and not all converts 
 were willing to be naturalized in such a way. At length 
 they demanded acknowledgment of their equality or 
 even of their superiority on account of their own merits. 
 Most of the Arabs, in whom Islam had not even ex- 
 tinguished the pagan tribal particularism, were not at 
 once ready to accept such demands. They poured out 
 streams of ignominy on the heads of those barbarians 
 who dared to take up places near or above them at 
 Mohammed’s table. 
 
 Reaction did not fail to appear, however. After the 
 rise of the Abbasids (A.D. 750) Persians and Turks rose 
 to the highest ranks. In the second and third centuries 
 of Islam there flourished a rich literature of racial com- 
 
88 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 petition. The opponents of Arabic prerogatives, in their 
 turn, were not content with equality: they proffered 
 arguments from history, sacred and profane, to demon- 
 strate the inferiority of the Arabic race. Almost all 
 Islamized nations partook in this literary strife. The 
 non-Arab protagonists took their starting-point from the 
 verse of the Koran (49:13) wherein the division of 
 mankind into shu‘%b is mentioned, and they applied 
 this word specially to non-Arabian ‘races,’ and the 
 other one to the ‘‘tribes’”’ of Arabia. Therefore the 
 non-Arabian race-fanatics acquired the name of Shu- 
 ‘abiyya, “racists.” The Arabians vehemently contra- 
 dicted the arguments of the “ barbarians.’’ It is curious 
 to see all the finesse of Arabic prose and poetry used on 
 both sides in this sometimes amusing, in the bulk, dis- 
 tasteful, literature, and still more curious to observe 
 that some of the literary “racists ’’ are of pure Arabic 
 descent, whereas some of the defenders of the Arabic 
 prerogatives have no Arabic blood in their veins. 
 
 This literature of insult had its following, but this 
 was not the people in general, and least of all the scribes. 
 These honestly upheld the religious principle of equality, 
 albeit with just recognition of the nobility of the Arabs, 
 based on their merits for Islam. Thus the’ doctrine 
 admitted of no caliphs except those from Mohammed’s 
 tribe, the Koraish ; this rule was only the theory of what | 
 was practised for six centuries, down to the fall of the 
 Abbasids. Then, in the opinion of many interpreters 
 of the law, the marriage of an Arabic woman with a non- 
 Arab, of a woman of Koraish with a non-Koraishite, of 
 a female descendant of Mohammed with a man of another 
 family, is deemed to be a mésalliance, to be permitted 
 only for exceptional reasons. But even these modest 
 rules of nobility have never acquired the consensus 
 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 89 
 
 needed to give them dogmatic force. The opinions on 
 the connubium prevailing in different countries were in 
 a large measure dependent on social circumstances. 
 Since the Ottoman dynasty had obtained actual su- 
 premacy in the sixteenth century, the scribes as well 
 as the mass of the people gave up their opposition against 
 Caliphs of non-Koraishite or even of non-Arab extraction. 
 Pamphlets have been written by descendants of Mo- 
 hammed to defend the Turkish Caliphate, arguing that 
 the value of man is determined by merit, not by birth. 
 
 Practically in the Moslem world neither birth nor 
 colour has prevented men from reaching the highest 
 positions. Persians, Turks, Mongolians, Berbers, and 
 Negroes have occupied the most important state offices 
 and acquired the greatest fame in scholarship. Islam 
 offered a chance to all races, and all of them have availed 
 themselves of it in the measure of their talents. In the 
 mosque of Mecca during the lecturing hours students 
 and professors with all gradations of complexion: coal- 
 black, green (as the Arabs call a somewhat brighter 
 nuance), brown, yellow, and white, may be seen frater- 
 nally gathering, and the same variety is shown by the 
 citizens of the Holy City, sometimes even by the members 
 of one family. The old propensity to mutual scorn, 
 combated in the “ race-verse ’’ of the Koran, has not yet 
 entirely died out, but the principle of equality is respected 
 in practice as well as in theory. Moslem newspapers, 
 when discussing the actual policy of European States 
 with regard to Oriental countries, often take a pride in 
 stating that political injustice, as represented by man- 
 dates, protectorates, or colonies, where ‘“ natives”’ are 
 practically enslaved by their oppressors on account of 
 their colour and race, have never found support in Moslem 
 doctrine nor a place in Moslem history. 
 
90 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 The attempt of Islam to unite all mankind under one 
 banner has not been successful. The religious belief which 
 underlies this form of civilization was unacceptable to a 
 vast number, and the legal system, destined to regulate 
 the whole of human life by unchangeable rules, showed 
 too clearly the traces of the place where and the time 
 when it took its origin, to become the universal law. 
 Besides this, the early division of the theocratic Caliphate 
 ‘into numberless despotic kingdoms, making war upon 
 one another in spite of their Moslem doctrine, stood in 
 the way of the continuation of the union. But the 
 race-paragraph of the system of Islam contributed much 
 to the initial success and redounds to the perpetual honour 
 
 _of this international community. 
 
 Mohammed did not claim originality for his religion, 
 and Christianity, to which he so often referred, had 
 already removed the difference between Greek and Jew, 
 Barbarian and Scythian, bond and free. But the league 
 of nations founded on the basis of Mohammed’s religion 
 took the principle of equality of all human races so 
 seriously as to put to shame other communities. White 
 men’s churches kept closed to coloured Christians, a 
 missionary boycotted on account of his marrying a 
 negro woman, and the habit of lynching, are often quoted 
 by Moslems as instances of the backwardness of Christian 
 society. The ideal of a league of human races has indeed 
 been approached by the Moslem community more nearly 
 than by any other. | 
 
 1 Colossians, 3: II. 
 
THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
 WESTERN ISLAM 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 MURRAY T. TITUS, B.L., 
 
 District Superintendent, Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 North India Conference, Moradabad District 
 
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CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
 WESTERN ISLAM 
 
 MosLeM India, numbering 68,735,2331 persons, forms 
 the largest single group of Moslems in the world. Dr. 
 Zwemer points out, “‘ The province of Bengal has a larger 
 Moslem population than all Arabia, Egypt, and Persia 
 together. The number of Mohammedans in the Punjab 
 alone is nearly as large as in Egypt.’ Not only is it 
 the largest group in the world, but it is also probably 
 the most mixed group—mixed as to racial origin and sects. 
 Here are the Arab, Persian, Turanian, and Mongol all 
 blended with the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian strains in 
 a community which comprises most of the various shades 
 of theological opinion found in the Moslem world. The 
 Sunni, the Shii, the Wahhabi, the Ismaili, the modern 
 Mu'‘tazili, and the heterodox Ahmadi are all here. But, 
 in spite of these wide variations, there is present that 
 element of cultural coherence, characteristic of the 
 Moslem world as a whole, and an essential community 
 of thought and point of view that on occasion is able to 
 speak with authority through its various representative 
 bodies, like the All-India Moslem League, the Central 
 Khilafat Committee, and the All-India Educational 
 Conference, and the Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind. 
 
 Without question Moslem India very keenly feels her 
 
 1 Census of 1921, 
 93 
 
94 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 burden of responsibility for the welfare of the world of 
 Islam. Geographically she knows herself to be the centre 
 of that world, and, because of her contact with the deep 
 spiritual currents so natural to the life of India, she is 
 second to none in her zeal for the Faith. As The Muslim 
 Herald, Madras, puts it: 
 
 ‘* Situated as India is between the Far Eastern Muslims 
 and the Muslims of the Near East, holding easy inter- 
 course with Arabia, Persia, and Egypt on the one hand, 
 and the Far Eastern countries on the other, it is obviously 
 the duty of Islamic India to take the lead in advancing 
 Islamic learning.’”’ 
 
 It is with this same conviction of responsibility for the 
 Faith that the Ahmadi missionary goes to the ends of 
 the earth, and the Ali brothers urge the claims of the 
 Caliphate. 
 
 Moslem India to-day, therefore, is sensitive to all that 
 takes place in the whole Moslem world: trouble on the 
 Iraq frontier over the possession of Mosul oil, Egyptian 
 disappointment over the Sudan, the possibility of foreign 
 intervention in the settlement of the Hejaz affairs, the 
 triumph of the Riff armies, dissatisfaction of Palestinian 
 Arabs with the Mandate, are all broadcast to the ends 
 of India from day to day by the ever-growing Moslem 
 vernacular and English press, with the result that even 
 in the villages, to a large extent, Moslems are alive to 
 what is happening to their brothers in various parts of 
 the world, and are prepared to show their sympathy. 
 
 The attitude of the Indian Moslem is frankly Pan- 
 Islamic. Since the days of the well-known promoter 
 of modern Pan-Islamism, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, India 
 has ever shown a warm response to the extension of the 
 power and prestige of the Caliphate over the Moslem 
 nations of the world. Even during the Great War, when 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 95 
 
 Moslem Indians were fighting the armies of the Caliph, 
 they were ever and anon seeking to justify their seemingly 
 inconsistent action with the argument that, because they 
 were helping the victorious Allies, they would be able 
 on that account to help secure better peace terms for 
 the Caliph and the Moslem world, as a reward for their 
 loyalty. In fact, as soon as the war was over, the 
 organization known as the Central Khilafat Committee, 
 with headquarters in Bombay, was started, and large 
 sums of money were secured to press for the restoration 
 of Turkey to sovereignty, and to free Arabia, Syria, 
 Palestine, and Mesopotamia from foreign control, all of 
 which centred around the prime object of the preserva- 
 tion of the Caliphate. A delegation was sent to London 
 and to the Peace Conference at Paris, an extensive pro- 
 paganda was kept up in both India and England, and 
 great was the disappointment at the terms given to 
 Turkey by the ineffective Treaty of Sévres. The deep 
 interest of Indian Moslems in the preservation of the 
 Caliphate is clearly summed up in a paragraph of an 
 address presented by the Indian Khilafat Deputation to 
 the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, at Delhi on January 109, 
 1920, which reads: 
 
 “The preservation of the Khilafat, as a temporal no 
 less than a spiritual institution, is not so much a part of 
 their [the Indian Moslems’] faith, as the very essence 
 thereof ; and no analogies from other creeds that tolerate 
 the lacerating and devitalizing distinction between things 
 spiritual and things temporal, between the Church and 
 the State, can serve any purpose save that of clouding 
 and befogging the clearest of issues. Temporal power 
 is of the very essence of the institution of the Khilafat, 
 and Mussulmans can never agree to any change in its 
 character or to the dismemberment of its Empire.’’ } 
 
 1 The Indian Khilafat Delegation Publications, No, I, p. 6. 
 
96 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 But not only were the Sunni Moslems interested in the 
 preservation of the Caliphate. When it became known 
 that Turkey was herself making plans for the abolition 
 of her connexion with it, two of the leading Shii Moslems 
 of India, Sir Syed Ameer Ali and H.H. the Agha Khan, 
 submitted their famous letters of protest to Turkey, and 
 did all that could be done to show how seriously the 
 religious feelings and prestige of the whole Moslem world 
 would be injured by such a revolutionary step. 
 
 Then, of a sudden, came the message announcing the 
 banishment of the Caliph and the abolition of the Turkish 
 Caliphate. Reuter’s message, however, could not be 
 accepted as authentic by the distracted Moslem leaders. 
 Cables were sent in feverish haste both to the banished 
 Caliph and to Mustafa Kemal Pasha asking for authorita- 
 tive information. With what distress and consternation 
 the whole Moslem community was affected may be 
 gathered from a telegraphic reply to a message from 
 Mustafa Kemal himself in which he had verified the 
 information that had reached India. ‘This reply, dated 
 March II, 1924, sent jointly by the Central Khilafat 
 Committee and the Jamuat-ul-Ulama-1-Hind, reads as 
 follows : 
 
 “The news so far received from Turkey regarding 
 the abolition of the Khilafat has caused deep distress 
 and consternation among young Indian Moslem brethren. 
 The Mussulmans of India are not partisans favouring the 
 retention of the Khilafat as the monopoly of any par- 
 ticular family or the perquisite of any individual. They 
 entirely dissociate themselves from any desire to intervene 
 in the national affairs of their Turkish brethren, who are 
 quite competent to deal with them. But they are 
 deeply concerned with the question of the retention or | 
 
 1 Associated Press message, published in The Pioneey, March 
 16, 1924. 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 97 
 
 the abolition of the office of Khalifa itself, which is the 
 very essence of the Islamic faith, and was designed to 
 maintain and conserve the ideal of Islamic brotherhood 
 through a definite and well-established institution. It 
 is true that when, in the hour of his need, the Khalifa 
 called upon the members of the world-wide Moslem 
 brotherhood to assist him and his nation, the response 
 of the Moslem world was very poor; but it is equally 
 true that this was for want of a properly and effectively 
 functioning Khilafat organization. As a consequence 
 of this not only Turkey, but the entire Moslem world, 
 suffered grievously. But we learned our lesson in the 
 terrible school of suffering, and awakened at last to a 
 proper sense of the need of a reformed and renovated 
 Khilafat. 
 
 “Indian Mussulmans expected that Your Highness, 
 after achieving such a well-earned and signal success, 
 would revive Islam’s fundamental institution of the 
 Khilafat, purging it of such excrescences as were not 
 required by the Shariat, but were the growth of personal 
 greed and dynastic ambitions, and re-establish it on a 
 firm democratic basis. But the entire abolition of the 
 institution of the Khilafat, just at the time when the 
 Moslem world was showing unmistakable signs of an 
 awakening, destroys all our expectations. We believe 
 that the Khilafat and the Republic are not incompatible 
 with each other, and that the continuation of the Khilafat 
 after its reform will not only not be detrimental to the 
 internal unity of Turkey, but will also be a source of 
 strength to the Turkish nation in its relations abroad. 
 
 “We would, in any case, implore Your Highness and 
 the National Assembly not to belittle the importance 
 and advantages of the continuation of the institution of 
 the Khilafat, and its re-establishment on true democratic 
 foundations. The existence of the Khilafat does not, of 
 course, depend upon the good-will of any particular 
 Moslem nation or state, but Turkey, as the last great 
 Moslem Power, is best fitted to remain associated with 
 the Khilafat, and this connexion, we fervently trust, 
 
 8 
 
98 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 will benefit not only the rest of the Islamic world, but 
 Turkey herself. If the National Assembly’s decision 
 abolishes the institution of the Khilafat itself, it is bound 
 to cause a diversion and dissipation of energy and strength 
 in the Moslem world, and would open the door to the 
 mischievous ambitions of hosts of undeserving claimants. 
 Seventy million Indian Mussulmans appeal to their 
 brethren of the National Assembly to reconsider their 
 decision, so far as it relates to the abolition of the office 
 of the Khalifa itself, and give an opportunity to the 
 delegation of Indian Mussulmans, which desire to visit 
 Angora, to make fuller representation on the subject.” 
 
 This was the beginning of India’s rude awakening, 
 and ever since March 1924, Indian Moslems have been 
 seeking for the proper mental adjustment that will 
 enable them fully to understand what it is that Turkey 
 has done to herself and to the Islamic world. 
 
 The more liberal-minded are inclined to agree that 
 Kemal Pasha was right in removing the Caliphate from 
 Turkey. They are quite prepared to admit that the 
 Caliphate, as it has been constituted in the past, was 
 inconsistent with the development of a modern republican 
 form of government. Sir Muhammad Iqbal, the well- 
 known philosopher-poet of India, defends the action 
 of the Grand National Assembly in a scholarly essay on 
 Ijtihad. In discussing the point whether it is contrary 
 to the spirit of Islam to vest the Caliphate in an elected 
 Assembly, rather than in a single person, this learned 
 writer says : : 
 
 ‘ The religious doctors of Islam, in Egypt and India, 
 as far as I know, have not yet expressed themselves on 
 this point. Personally, I believe the Turkish view is 
 perfectly sound. ... The republican form of govern- 
 ment is not only thoroughly consistent with the spirit 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 99 
 
 of Islam, but has also become a necessity in view of the 
 new forces that are set free in the world of Islam.” } 
 
 Sir Muhammad and this school of political thinkers 
 agree that the Caliphate, or Universal Imamate, has failed 
 in practice, and that now the time has come for every 
 nation of the Islamic world “‘ to sink into her own deeper 
 self, temporarily focus her vision on herself alone, until 
 all are strong and powerful to form a living family of 
 republics.”” Then he conceives that in due time the old 
 Caliphate idea, born of Arabian imperialism of the earlier 
 centuries of Islam, will be displaced by a League of Moslem 
 Nations, “‘ which recognizes artificial boundaries and 
 racial distinctions for facility of reference only, and 
 not for restricting the social horizon of its members.” 
 
 The question that immediately began to be asked in 
 India after the banishment of the Caliph, Abdul Mejid 
 Khan, was, ‘‘ Who is Caliph?” The first inclination 
 was to hold to the view that the deposed Caliph was still 
 Caliph de jure, and should be recognized as such, since he 
 had been deposed, not by the world of Islam, but by 
 only one part thereof. Messages expressing warm affec- 
 tion and allegiance were immediately sent to him, and 
 in due course comfortable life-pensions totalling Rs. 6,000 
 per mensem, were granted him by the Nizam of Hyderabad 
 and the Begum of Bhopal. It is now recognized, of course, 
 that there is no Caliph, and accordingly reference to him 
 is omitted from the Friday sermon. 
 
 The assumption of the title and office of Caliph by 
 King Hussein of the Hejaz was met in India by prompt 
 repudiation. The reasons for complete dislike of this 
 
 1 The above and the following quotations from Sir M. Iqbal 
 are from an unpublished essay on Jjtihad which he very kindly 
 permitted the writer to use. 
 
100 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Hashimite family which are set forth in the following 
 editorial from The Muslim Herald, Madras, are alleged 
 to be their dependence on British bayonets and gold 
 for support of their pet schemes. The editor of the 
 Herald says: 
 
 “ The affairs in the Holy Land [Arabia] to-day de- 
 monstrate how unreal the Treaty Settlements in this 
 portion of the world have proved themselves to be. 
 These settlements aimed, it need hardly be said, at (I) 
 the unification of Arabia into a strong confederation; ... 
 (2) the constitution of a strong and, nominally, at any 
 rate, independent Muslim State such as would satisfy 
 the Muslim sentiment that the Holy Places should not 
 be under the protection of any but purely independent 
 Muslim States. Neither of these objects, however, has 
 the treaty fully secured. The Arab States are at present 
 as far from developing into a strong, unified confederation 
 under the auspices of the Sheriffians as they were ever 
 before. Kingdoms are not made strong and independent 
 at the mere wish of a foreign potentate. We see, there- 
 fore, the spectacle of all the three Sheriffian States—the 
 Hejaz, Iraq, Trans-Jordania—declining into nominal 
 dependencies at the mercy of an alien power for their 
 very existence. The Trans-Jordanian administration has 
 been dubbed incapable and corrupt; the Iraquian is 
 weak, and, at any rate, there is no contentment in the 
 land ; while, in the Hejaz, Hussein’s rule and his treat- 
 ment of all the Hajis especially stink in the nostrils of 
 the world at large. The Sheriffians’ sanction for their 
 tule is the British bayonet without which behind their 
 back they would have been nowhere now, and this very 
 support brings down upon them the execration of their 
 people, and makes their positions as insecure as that of 
 hated sovereigns can be with a people whose loyalty is 
 dependent on the sword of a dominating ally.”’ 
 
 . 1 The Muslim Herald, September 20, 1924, p. 7. 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 101 
 
 Since the “traitor ’’ Hussein is so cordially disliked 
 by all persuasions of Indian Moslems, it is not surprising 
 that the attack of Ibn Saud, King of Nejd, on the Hejaz 
 was welcomed rather than deplored. True it was that 
 bloodshed in the vicinity of the Holy Places was regarded 
 with regret, but, when it became apparent that Ibn Saud 
 was coming off victorious, feelings of regret were drowned 
 in feelings of joy over the abdication of Hussein, and 
 the King of Nejd was proclaimed the saviour of the Holy 
 Places of Islam. 
 
 As for the future of the Caliphate, Indian Moslems are 
 living in high hopes. Keen interest is being taken in 
 the proposed Moslem world conference to discuss the 
 future of the Caliphate, and to elect a Caliph. While 
 King Fuad of Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, and Ibn 
 Saud of Nejd are being mentioned as possibilities, yet a 
 Turkish Caliph is still the desire of many Indian Moslems. 
 As stated by the Muslim Outlook, Lahore, recently, ‘ the 
 chief reason why some Indian Muslims would like to 
 see the Caliphate restored to Turkey is because the 
 Turks are independent and able to defend their inde- 
 pendence.” 
 
 Before we go further in our study of the reaction of 
 Moslem India to specific developments in Turkey and 
 elsewhere, it is necessary to notice the Indian Moslem 
 attitude toward the whole general break-up of old ideas 
 and customs that have for long held sway, and have 
 been considered indispensable to Islam. In other words, 
 what is India’s attitude toward the modern view of 
 Ijtihad, or the “exercise of independent thought in 
 Mohammedan Law,” that is evidently prevalent among 
 the powerful leaders of Turkey? Perhaps, as Sir 
 Muhammad Iqbal suggests, “it is a bit too early to 
 judge the reaction ” in India, but at the same time, in 
 
102 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 his essay on Ijtihad above referred to, he makes some 
 very pertinent remarks which are worth considering : 
 
 “We find that the idea of Jjtihad, reinforced and 
 broadened by modern philosophical ideas, has long been 
 working in the religious and political thought of the 
 Turkish nation. We in India have practically no know- 
 ledge of the intellectual life of modern Turkey. Nobody 
 in India knows, for instance, that. Halim Sabit has 
 developed a new theory of Muhammadan Law grounded 
 on modern sociological concepts. The series of articles 
 in which he developed this theory was, as far as I know, 
 
 never translated in India. ... The little knowledge 
 that I possess of the thought-currents of Turkey is 
 derived from German sources. . . . If the renaissance 
 
 of Islam is a fact, and I believe it is a fact, we too, one 
 day, like the Turks, will have to re-evaluate our intellectual 
 inheritance, and, if we cannot make any original con- 
 tribution to the general thought of Islam, we may, by 
 healthy conservative criticism, serve, at least, as a check 
 on the rapid movement of Turkish Liberalism.” 
 
 The authority above mentioned, following the same 
 line of thought as that developed by Moulavi Cheragh 
 Ali, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, and Sir Syed Ameer Ali, 
 
 considers : 
 
 «That with the return of new life the inner catho- 
 licity of the spirit of Islam is bound to work itself out, 
 in spite of the rigorous conservatism of our doctors. And 
 I have no doubt that a deeper study of the enormous 
 legal literature of Islam is sure to rid the modern critic 
 of the superficial opinion that the Law of Islam is sta- 
 tionary and incapable of development. Unfortunately, 
 the conservative Moslem public of this country is not 
 quite ready for a critical discussion of Figh [canon law], 
 which, if undertaken, is likely to displease most people 
 and raise sectarian controversies.”’ 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 103 
 
 This Indian advocate of liberal ideas declares further 
 that the founders of the four schools of Moslem juris- 
 prudence never did claim finality for their reasonings 
 and interpretations. Therefore, he argues: 
 
 “The claim of the present generation of Moslem liberals 
 to reinterpret the foundational legal principles in the 
 light of their own experience and the altered conditions 
 of modern life is perfectly justified.” 
 
 On the question of the separation of Church and 
 State, as carried out in Turkey, our Indian authorities 
 are, generally speaking, true to the conservative tendency 
 that Sir Muhammad Iqbal indicates in dealing with 
 the whole subject of reform : 
 
 “There are at present in Turkey, two main lines of 
 thought represented by (1) the Nationalist Party, and 
 (2) the Party of Religious Reform. The point of supreme 
 interest with the Nationalist Party is, above all, the State, 
 and not religion.... They, therefore, reject old ideas 
 about the function of State and religion and accentuate 
 the separation of Church and State. ... I think it is 
 a mistake to suppose that the idea of State is more 
 dominant and rules all other ideas embodied in the 
 system of Islam. In Islam the spiritual and the temporal 
 are not two distinct domains. ... In Islam it is the 
 same reality which appears as Church looked at from one 
 point of view and State from another.... Islam isa 
 single, unanalysable reality, which is one or the other 
 as. your point of view varies. The truth is that the 
 Turkish Nationalists assimilated the idea of the separation 
 of Church and State from the history of European political 
 ideas, without understanding the nature of primitive 
 Christianity which-largely determined its evolution in 
 Europe, where State and Church confronted each other 
 as distinct powers with interminable boundary disputes 
 between them. Such a thing could never happen in 
 
104. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Islam, for Islam was from the very beginning a civil 
 society, having received from the Koran a set of simple 
 legal principles which, as experience subsequently proved, 
 carried great potentialities of expansion and development 
 by interpretation. The nationalist theory of the State, 
 therefore, is misleading, and open to grave objections 
 from the Islamic standpoint, inasmuch as it suggests a 
 duality between Church and State which does not exist 
 in Islam.”’ 
 
 The Nationalist Movement in Egypt and Turkey has 
 begotten a marked response in India. But this interest 
 seems to centre in the possible power that will be added 
 to the world of Islam from the strengthening of the 
 units in that world, rather than in the manner of actual 
 national development itself. It is well known in India 
 that the Turks are the leading nationalists of the world 
 of Islam, and that they are even inclined to place love 
 of country above love of religion. Maulana Muhammad 
 Ali, the great nationalist and Khilafat worker in India, 
 in an address in the Jama Masjid, Aligarh, immediately 
 following the announcement of the banishment of the 
 Caliph, expressed his disappointment in the Turkish 
 attitude toward Islam when he said : 
 
 “ During my stay in Paris had I not reason to weep 
 when one of our best coadjutors, who was a Turk, had 
 said to me at my own dinner-table, in all seriousness, 
 that the Turks would have fared better if they had never 
 embraced Islam ? ”’ 4 
 
 In India the attitude runs to the other extreme and 
 it is common to hear the expression, ‘‘I am a Moslem 
 first, and an Indian afterwards.”’ 
 
 It is doubtful if many Indian Moslems appreciate at 
 
 1 Associated Press Message of March 8, 1924. 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 105 
 
 all the strong national feelings of the Turks. Dr. Iqbal 
 thinks that the supplanting of Arabic by Turkish in 
 religious exercises is sure to be condemned by most 
 Moslems in India, and the following sentiments expressed 
 by Zia, the poet of Turkish Nationalism, as quoted by 
 him, would be resented rather than applauded by his 
 co-religionists in India : 
 
 “The land where the call to prayer resounds in 
 Turkish ; where those who pray understand the meaning 
 of their religion; the land where the Koran is learnt 
 in Turkish ; where every man, big or small, knows full 
 well the command of God; O son of Turkey! that land 
 is thy fatherland ! ” 
 
 In India Arabic still prevails as the language of religion, 
 and any move to displace it with Urdu or any other 
 vernacular would, as indicated above, be met with the 
 highest disfavour, for this would savour of disloyalty to 
 the universal Faith. 
 
 The Indian Moslem’s strongest reaction to the nation- 
 alist movements in other parts of the Moslem world is 
 to be found in the movement for the development of 
 a strong communal spirit. In fact, the present indica- 
 tions are that the whole of the Moslem population in 
 India is opposed to any further modification or extension 
 of the Reforms Act in India granting a larger measure 
 of Home Rule, unless and until the interests and position 
 of the Moslem community are more carefully safeguarded 
 than they are at present. The present position seems 
 to be to stress the development of a strong community 
 in league with the world forces of Islam above the de- 
 velopment of a programme of Indian Nationalists. To 
 this end, it is apparent, the present activity of the various 
 organizations is dedicated. The Khilafat Committee 
 
106 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 is interested chiefly in (zr) the coming Islamic World 
 Congress that is to elect a Caliph and provide for the 
 protection of the Holy Places in Arabia ; (2) the removal 
 of all foreign and non-Moslem influence from Arabia, 
 Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia (a group of countries 
 commonly called the Jazirat-ul-Arab) ; and (3) tanzim, 
 or the organization and improvement of the Moslem 
 community in India. , 
 
 Much emphasis is being laid on the so-called National 
 Islamic schools, chief of which is the Jama Mullia 
 Islamia, or the National Moslem University of Aligarh. 
 In these the aim, according to Maulana Muhammad Ali, 
 the founder of the Jamia, is to turn out not only young 
 men of culture according to modern standards, but also 
 true Mussulmans imbued with the spirit of Islam, and 
 possessing enough knowledge of their religion to be 
 able to stand by themselves as sufficiently independent 
 units in the army of Islam’s missionaries.} 
 
 Therefore in this programme of “ National ’’ education 
 an intimate knowledge of the Koran is regarded as a 
 necessity, likewise a good knowledge of Arabic and the 
 usual theological studies, including the commentaries on 
 the Koran, the Traditions, Canon Law, Systematic 
 Theology, and the History of Islam. In this connexion 
 there is no development that is more truly national, 
 while being at the same time Moslem, than the establish- 
 ment of the Osmania University in Hyderabad, Deccan, 
 where degree and post-graduate courses are taught 
 entirely in Urdu, English being taught only as a second 
 language. The Moslem University of Aligarh, the foun- 
 dations of which were laid by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 
 his Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, is still the 
 
 1 Muhammad Ali, A Scheme of Studies for National Muslim 
 Educational Institutions in India, pp. 4, 5. 
 
MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 107 
 
 premier Moslem educational institution of the country 
 and may be said to derive no small share of its present- 
 day interest in the progress and advancement of the 
 Moslem community in India from the example being 
 set by Turkey and Egypt. 
 
 The emancipation of woman, as it is being carried out 
 in the lands of the Near East, is viewed with mixed 
 feelings in India. There are many advocates of the 
 larger freedom among Moslems, and the tendency is in 
 some quarters for greater freedom to prevail. But it 
 is significant of the clinging conservatism of India that, 
 at the Bombay Provincial Moslem Ladies’ Conference, 
 held at Poona recently— 
 
 “While the ladies decided on going in for enlighten- 
 ment by resort to modern education, they did not lose 
 sight of the fact that they had special functions to perform 
 as distinct from those which the opposite sex were called 
 on to do. The Poona ladies pressed for reform on 
 cautious lines. They did not despise the purdah [veil]. 
 Indeed, their chief function there was to show how 
 enlightenment was not incompatible with the furdah, 
 and how they could learn the most effectively to dis- 
 charge the duties they had been called on by their Maker 
 to undertake, without throwing themselves into the 
 modern feminist movements in Europe and America. 
 It was their ambition to be better mothers and wives 
 [rather] than indifferent clerks or lawyers or states- 
 men.’ + 
 
 None the less, there are Moslem women who are fear- 
 
 lessly pushing forward the crusade to secure equal rights 
 
 for themselves and their sisters, so that the day will 
 
 come when Moslem women in India will be as free as 
 
 they give promise of being in Turkey and Egypt. In 
 1 The Muslim Herald, Madras, October 25, 1924, p. 6. 
 
108 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the matter of divorce, while in Turkey there is now 
 equality for men and women before the law, yet in India, 
 says Dr. Iqbal: 
 
 ‘‘ A Muslim woman who wishes to get rid of an unr 
 desirable husband cannot do so without becoming an 
 apostate. Nothing could be more distant from the aims 
 of a missionary religion.” 
 
 Therefore, in his opinion, a radical revision of the Mo- 
 hammedan law of divorce is badly needed. 
 
 From the foregoing discussion it is clear that Moslem 
 India is at the cross-roads. She realizes that her life 
 is vitally connected with the world-currents of Islam, 
 and she has the conviction that somehow she is the 
 special custodian of the faith of the fathers. Her liberal 
 leaders are striving to be progressive, but not too pro- 
 gressive. The masses are, for the most part, still led 
 by the orthodox mulvis, and reflect the mind of their 
 leaders in strong aversion to radical reform and in the 
 strictest adherence to all that is Moslem, so far as they 
 understand the term. Moslem India is awake. The 
 two things that have aroused her from her lethargy in 
 the last half-century are unmistakably the revolutionary 
 modern education movement, inaugurated by Sir Syed 
 Ahmad Khan, coupled with the unfading vision of a 
 federated world of Islam. Having the courage of their 
 convictions, Indian Moslems are not content to sit in 
 silence and let the world go by. They are ever ready 
 to take part in international Islamic affairs of moment, 
 and, in the words of William Lloyd Garrison, they are in 
 earnest, they will not equivocate, they will not retreat 
 a single inch, and they will be heard ! 
 
THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
 TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 JOHN E. MERRILL, Ph.D., 
 
 Principal, Boys’ High School, Aleppo ; formerly President, 
 Central Turkey College, Aintab 
 

 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
 TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 
 THERE is throughout Christendom a growing interest ~ 
 in the peoples of foreign countries. Of its extent in 
 America the success of publications like The National 
 Geographic Magazine and Asia is an index, while in 
 Europe it is of much longer standing. There is likewise 
 in Christendom a growing readiness to view the customs 
 and convictions of other peoples with toleration, and even 
 with sympathy. Yet, in the background, there exist 
 deep-rooted prejudices, and at any time a wave of 
 nationalism may accentuate racial incompatibilities and 
 sow afresh the seeds of distrust and ill-will. 
 
 Each of these tendencies has shared in forming the 
 sentiment of Christendom regarding the Moslem peoples. 
 During the war, and especially since the armistice, the 
 attention of Christendom has been focussed upon Islam 
 as never since those days when, in the sixteenth century, 
 Europe was threatened with invasion by the Turks. The 
 attitude toward the Moslem world which is to result 
 from this new interest is a matter of prime concern to 
 the future Christian Church. 
 
 For, in the first place, this attitude will determine the 
 future action of the peoples of Christendom toward the 
 peoples of Islam. A Christendom which sees in Islam _ 
 
 a menace will prepare for self-defence. A Christendom 
 111 
 
s 
 
 112 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 which sees in Islam an enemy will plan how that enemy 
 may be destroyed. A Christendom which sees in Islam 
 a rival faith will gird itself to compete for world su- 
 premacy. Only a Christendom which sees in the Moslem 
 peoples brothers and sisters in need of help will have the 
 will to help them. The past is full of proofs that fear, 
 hatred, and rivalry bear only bitter and costly fruits, 
 demonstrating their own futility. Only in the path 
 of helpfulness is there hopefulness, and we help sincerely 
 only those whom we sincerely love. 
 
 This attitude will determine, also, the future dis- 
 position of the Moslem people toward Christendom. For, 
 in a real degree, they may be expected to act toward 
 us as we have acted toward them. It is common know- 
 ledge that Moslems everywhere are in reaction now 
 against the imperialistic diplomacy of Christendom. 
 Christendom is reaping that which it has sown. 
 
 Educated Moslems in India, in Egypt, in Syria, and 
 in Turkey are reading books and articles written by 
 Christians about Islam. Often translations from these 
 publications appear in Moslem papers in the vernacular. 
 The tenor of a single article or of a single citation may 
 be regarded by Moslems as characteristic of the attitude 
 of Christendom in general, with corresponding effect 
 upon Moslem sentiment. | 
 
 Further, there are in Christian countries many Moslem 
 immigrants. They share the freedom of these countries, 
 but they suffer from their inequalities, and they realize 
 that often the best of these countries is withheld from 
 them. Their hearts fill with resentment and bitterness 
 
 < 
 
 at the exclusiveness and the unfriendly spirit manifested 
 
 toward them. “‘ We have nothing to say against the 
 American Government,” said a Moslem in conversation 
 not long ago, “‘ but we have many things to say against 
 
CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 113 
 
 the American people.” No doubt ignorance of the 
 language of the country and difference in religion have 
 contributed greatly to the peculiar isolation of the Moslems 
 in America. Without doubt, also, many Christians 
 could be found ready to extend a sincere and hearty 
 welcome, if the need were understood and the necessary 
 opportunity provided. Yet it remains true that the 
 Ahmadiya Movement, with its missionary centre for 
 America in Chicago, is able to conduct among the negro 
 population of that city an effective propaganda for 
 Islam, based upon the racial inequality which charac- 
 terizes Christian civilization, as compared with the / 
 brotherhood of Islam which knows no colour line. When 
 Moslem immigrants write of their experiences to their 
 relatives and friends at home, the report of this prevalent 
 unsympathetic attitude must have great weight in 
 forming an opinion unfavourable to Christianity. 
 
 In the Moslem countries, likewise, there have been for 
 centuries many representatives of Christianity, adherents 
 of the ancient Churches and representatives of Western 
 Christendom. The Moslems have not failed to study 
 with care the spirit of these Christians. There have 
 been happy instances in which Moslems have been 
 attracted. Said a Moslem not long since to a native 
 Christian in Turkey, “‘ If all the Christians had been like 
 you, these events [1915-19] would not have happened.” 
 It was a Moslem, attracted by the Gospel, who said years 
 ago, “If the Christians lived the Gospel, we all should 
 be Christians within fifty years.’’ Christians often are 
 not aware of the influence exerted silently by their 
 lives. Only a crisis may reveal it. But wherever 
 Christians, of whatever race, show themselves to the 
 Moslems as grasping, unreliable, and insincere, they can 
 but expect the Moslems to turn against Christianity. 
 
 9 
 
114 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 It may be added that the attitude of Christendom 
 toward Islam furnishes to Christendom an involuntary 
 revelation of its own spirit. Only the Christ-like heart 
 is perfectly Christian. The Moslem problem provides 
 an automatic test of the conformity of Christendom to 
 the mind of Christ. 
 
 The attitude of Christendom as a whole to the Moslem 
 peoples is made up of the sentiment and attitude of a 
 multitude of groups in Christendom. As typical, the 
 attitude of diplomacy and commerce, the attitude of 
 public opinion in general, and the missionary attitude 
 of the Churches may be selected. Study of this composite 
 attitude discloses the portentous fact that the attitude 
 of Christian peoples to the peoples of Islam rests chiefly 
 upon non-religious considerations, and that it is motivated 
 by purposes which are not truly Christian. 
 
 The attitude of diplomatic and commercial Christendom 
 toward the peoples of Islam is based confessedly upon 
 non-religious considerations. 
 
 The political relationships existing between Christian 
 Governments and their Moslem colonials, as well as be- 
 tween themselves and the independent Moslem Powers, 
 necessitate the adoption by them of diplomatic policies 
 toward the Moslems. Commercial relationships follow 
 diplomatic, and result, likewise, in the adoption of 
 policies on the part of commercial men. Many nations 
 of Western Christendom are involved in such relations. 
 Foremost are England in Egypt and other parts of Africa 
 and in India, and France in Africa and in Syria. Italy 
 has Moslem dependents in North Africa, Spain in Morocco, 
 Holland in the East Indies, and the United States in 
 the Philippine Islands. Russia includes Moslem peoples 
 in Western and Central Asia. These and still other 
 nations seek favourable relationships with Turkey, with 
 
CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 115 
 
 Persia, with the Arab States, and with Afghanistan. In 
 these relationships the attitude assumed by diplomatic 
 and commercial men is based usually and frankly upon 
 self-interest. At its best, the self-interest seeks mutual 
 welfare and is guided by mature judgment. The ac- 
 tivities which result are not without advantage to the 
 Moslem peoples, for the Christian Powers strive to main- 
 tain peace and order and to advance civilization. But 
 it is well understood that the Christian Powers expect 
 to retain a paramount influence, making secure their 
 own position, and leaving themselves free to execute any 
 project which they consider expedient. 
 
 In carrying out a policy based upon self-interest it is 
 essential that the Christian Powers should adopt what- 
 ever methods of dealing with the Moslem peoples may 
 appear most advantageous, and this is true not only in 
 general but specifically in view of the religious charac- 
 teristics of these peoples. For Islam as a religion enters 
 deeply into the lives of its adherents, giving them an 
 undertone of religious feeling, a unity, and a sensitiveness 
 that may not be disregarded. Therefore diplomatic 
 wisdom and commercial prudence are always at pains 
 so to act toward the Moslems as to forestall religious 
 opposition, and the oscillations of public feeling are 
 studied with great care. 
 
 Unquestionably every Christian nation which bears 
 responsibility for large numbers of Moslem colonials is 
 compelled to face serious problems respecting them. 
 Also, the most trifling incident may relate itself suddenly 
 to a national or racial solidarity, which is rooted in turn 
 in the international and interracial brotherhood of the 
 world of Islam. Therefore the need is definite and 
 urgent for the formulation by each of these nations of 
 an adequate Islamic policy. Our present interest in 
 
116 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 these policies has to do only with the motives on which 
 they may be based. And the significance of the fact 
 cannot be overestimated that, in general, the political 
 wisdom of Christendom, while recognizing the obligations 
 of those who govern toward the governed, has ac- 
 knowledged the determining factor in its treatment of 
 the millions of the Moslem world to be self-interest. Add 
 to this, also, the existence of urgent pressure from non- 
 official quarters, demanding more intensive study of 
 Moslem character, including its religious phases, in order 
 thereby to facilitate political control of the Moslem 
 peoples and their commercial exploitation. 
 
 Two references will serve as illustrations of this pressure. 
 Let it be remembered that the Governments mentioned 
 are regarded by the world of Islam as leading repre- 
 sentatives of the spirit and practice of Christendom. 
 
 A comparatively recent book,! publication of which 
 was not allowed during the war, summons the Govern- 
 ments of France and Italy to the study of Islam as a 
 religious movement, in order to take advantage of the 
 religious psychology of the Moslems, and so gain greater 
 power among them. It is declared that England already 
 has adopted such a policy in its dealings with Egypt, 
 and that the plans made for the re-Islamization of that 
 country show the highest degree of political wisdom. 
 A more recent article in the Revue du Monde Musul- 
 man (1923) cites the success of German diplomacy in 
 leading many of the Moslem peoples to see in Germany 
 their only true friend among the Christian nations, a 
 psychological asset of great political value. The article 
 then asserts that this psychological propaganda has been 
 continued by German commercial agents without abate- 
 
 1 L’Islam et la Politique des Alliés, adapted from the Italian 
 of Dr. Enrico Insabato. Paris, 1920. 
 
CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 117 
 
 ment, producing a corresponding advantage for German 
 trade. France should appreciate the immense prospec- 
 tive volume of commerce with the Moslem peoples, and 
 enter the same field. 
 
 The attitude of public opinion in Christendom regarding 
 the Moslem peoples rests, partly, upon knowledge of them, 
 and, partly, upon current presuppositions. Both are 
 chiefly non-religious. There is a growing popular 
 literature regarding the peoples of Islam, and it is 
 evident that Christians desire to learn more about the 
 Moslems. 
 
 This public opinion has no ulterior purpose as concerns 
 the Moslem peoples beyond that of forming an honest 
 judgment regarding them, and then alining itself 
 accordingly upon public questions where they are in- 
 volved. In attempting to do this, Christian public 
 opinion fastens upon two classes of facts. One is the 
 racial characteristics of some single Moslem nation. 
 These characteristics are then transferred to all Moslems. 
 The other is certain customs and characteristics which 
 are supposed to mark every Moslem as a Moslem, Public 
 opinion, for instance, has become confirmed regarding 
 certain racial characteristics of the Turkish people, and 
 these characteristics have coloured Christian imagination 
 regarding all Moslems. But quite other racial traits 
 distinguish the Arabs, the Malays, or the Chinese, who 
 may be equally good Moslems. Or, a traveller reports 
 some occurrence which has been observed by him in a 
 Moslem land. The incident may have to do with poly- 
 gamy, or slavery, or divorce, with observance of the 
 hours of prayer or of the fast, with patient endurance of 
 misfortune. A single event is generalized, and all 
 Moslems are imagined to be like those described, while 
 this may be far,from the fact. 
 
118 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 The substantial facts in view of which public opinion 
 regarding the Moslems is formed are those regarding the 
 degree of civilization in Moslem countries, the state of 
 commerce and industries, the conditions of family and of 
 social life, the administration of government, safety of 
 life and property, the means of education, the honesty 
 and morality of the people—facts other than those 
 concerning religion. Religious considerations, however, 
 are included, and there is a strong tendency to connect 
 social conditions among the Moslems with the religion 
 of the Moslems, as effect with cause. If the judgment 
 of Moslem institutions is favourable, it may be accom- 
 panied by the statement that the excellences of these 
 institutions are due to Islam. If the judgment is the 
 reverse, all evils among the Moslems may be looked 
 upon as the direct fruits of Islam. Going a step further, 
 public opinion then passes judgment upon Islam itself. 
 Islam may be declared a religion well suited to the 
 character and needs of its adherents, provided that they 
 are sincere. Or Islam and its adherents may be placed 
 under the severest anathemas. 
 
 These various phases of public opinion are reflected 
 constantly in the literature of Christendom. The most 
 marked feature to-day is an increasing cleavage between 
 those looking with toleration upon the Moslems and 
 those looking with hostility. The former attitude is, 
 in part, simply a reaction from extreme anti-Moslem © 
 propaganda. The harsher judgment arises especially 
 from sympathy with Oriental Christians who have 
 suffered so terribly at the hands of the Turks. The more 
 tolerant judgment often reflects sympathetic study of 
 Moslem literature and institutions or personal acquaint- 
 ance with Moslems of worth. In either case, a funda- 
 mental understanding of Islam as a religion has little 
 
CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 119 
 
 share in shaping the final judgment. Yet the essence 
 of Islam is religiousness. 
 
 In so far as the missionary attitude of the Churches 
 of Christendom rests upon a purely religious basis, it Wy 
 finds this basis largely in the traditional ideas regarding 
 Islam. These ideas had their source among the Oriental 
 Christians of the early Moslem centuries, and were passed 
 on by them to the Christians of Europe in the Middle 
 Ages, from whom they have been transmitted to us. 
 These ideas see in Islam a rival religion, late born, false 
 in its claims and in its teachings, evil in its licence and 
 in its commands, the religion of an invading enemy, 
 hostile to Christendom and to Christianity. The issue 
 of these ideas is a crusade of arms, as in the Middle 
 Ages, or a crusade of ideas, an anti-Moslem propaganda. 
 This latter is to demonstrate the superiority of Chris- 
 tianity, to force Moslems to confession of their errors 
 and to acceptance of the truth, and so to secure the down- 
 fall of Islam. | 
 
 In the minds of many earnest Christians, such a 
 missionary programme is looked upon as natural and 
 right. It is open, however, to serious criticism, trenchant 
 and vital. For such a purpose ignores deliberately the 
 best that there is in Islam, making no attempt to ascertain 
 the religious truth which it may contain. Such a purpose 
 is charged with feelings of Christian superiority, not 
 with Christian sympathy. Such a purpose wills the 
 destruction of a religious faith which others hold sacred. 
 How can such a purpose relate itself to the purpose of 
 Jesus, who came “not to destroy, but to fulfil’ the 
 aspirations of the human heart in search of God, as 
 truly as the premonitions of the Mosaic law ? 
 
 This type of missionary effort has not met with great 
 success, and the causes of its lack of success are inherent. ” 
 
120 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Had it succeeded, its success would have been as open 
 to criticism as is the success of any Holy War. If 
 spiritual success among the Moslem peoples is to be 
 expected, the Christian missionary enterprise, in utter 
 contrast to such a programme, must base itself upon 
 sympathetic understanding of the religious life of Moslems, 
 and upon loving service to them. 
 
PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 
 OF ISLAM 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 SAMUEL M. ZWEMER, D.D., LL.D., F.R.G.S., 
 Editor, ** The Moslem Worla”’ 
 
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 PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 
 OF ISLAM 
 
 “FLEET STREET may well envy the young Afghan 
 editors,’ said The Times of London in a notice of the 
 Afghan Press; ‘it is the golden age of journalism when 
 a nation is beginning to think, and truth is as fresh as 
 dew, and there is no bugbear of banality.”’ The present- 
 day ubiquity, activity, enterprise, and enthusiasm of 
 Moslem journalism have indeed created a new situation 
 full of promise and a new mentality among the masses. 
 Provincialism is on the wane even in the remote corners 
 of the new world of Islam. Before me lies a Malay weekly 
 published by Moslems in Borneo. On a single page there 
 are: an article on Islam in America, another on the new 
 mosque in Berlin, items regarding Aligarh College in 
 India, nationalism in Bengal, and an advertisement of 
 a Javanese Steamship Company that accommodates 
 Borneo pilgrims going to Mecca if they will embark at 
 Padang, Sumatra—a microcosm of interests. 
 
 The Press is at once a proof of the unity and solidarity 
 of Islam, and an infallible index to the surging currents 
 of thought in a sea of unrest. Moslem journalism is a 
 thermometer on which we may read the rising or falling 
 temperature of the spirit of Islam; a barometer that 
 records the approaching storm of suspicion and fanaticism 
 
 or the “ set fair ’’ of tolerance and diplomatic adjustment. 
 123 
 
124 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Some years ago Professor A. le Chatelier of Paris called 
 attention to the fact that the Press was more important 
 than the pilgrimage : 
 
 ‘Already the Press formulates the common thought 
 between the Moslems of Mindanao and those of Ada- 
 maoua ; between the Chinese Ahong and the Almamy 
 Peul of Futa. The African Zawiya of Bir Alali in Kanem 
 receives a newspaper from Irak, Arabia. The Cairo 
 Moayyad circulates from Fez to Peking. 
 
 “The Shurufa of Mecca formerly exercised a more 
 extended authority than that of the Khalif. People 
 came to fulfil their vows of pilgrimage from all corners 
 of the world. Pilgrims from China and pilgrims from the 
 Sudan: great Indian rajahs, Turkish viziers, Arabian 
 emirs. They came to the holy city to build themselves 
 up in living and deep faith against the contaminations 
 of the world. The pilgrimage had the value of a great 
 act of world-wide policy. To-day it retains only the 
 merits of a respected act of devotion. The pilgrimage 
 . by steamboat has introduced the great ensign of Cook 
 and Co. into the religion of the Prophet. Although the 
 Bedouins still form a religious barrier after their manner, 
 by preventing European tourists from profiting by its 
 agencies in accompanying their Moslem clients, the pil- 
 grimage is not what it was. It has given up its political 
 influence to the Press. One prays; one is exalted in 
 making the round of the holy Kaaba; faith is revivified 
 by the purity of the Ihram; one descends from Mina 
 with firm resolutions against Satan the Accursed. But 
 an article in the Moayyad, the Sabah, Habl-al-Matin, 
 or even The Observer of Lahore has quickly replaced the 
 Opinions conceived in the isolated metropolis of the 
 Hejaz, by the latest news from Cairo or Stamboul.”’ 1 
 
 The following brief survey of the periodical press in 
 the world of Islam, its present-day character and ten- 
 
 1 The Moslem World, 1911, p. 154. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 125 
 
 dencies, confirms the judgment of le Chatelier, and may 
 perhaps also justify the conclusions at the close of this 
 paper. 
 
 Because of the polyglot character and the wide sweep 
 of Islam, it is convenient to follow geographical divisions 
 in our treatment of the subject: 
 
 I. THE EXTENT OF PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM 
 1. Lurkey and Syna 
 
 All journalism in Moslem lands is of comparatively 
 recent date. The printing press was not introduced into 
 Turkey until 1728. The very rumour of such an innova- 
 tion spread alarm. Scribes saw that their profession 
 would be imperilled; theologians thought the new 
 project profane ; and scholars who cherished literature 
 were disturbed lest the art of calligraphy should be lost. 
 A fatwa secured from the Sheikh al-Islam, authorizing 
 the use of the press, is typical. It read as follows: 
 
 “ Question: If Zaid, who pretends to have ability in 
 the art of printing, says that he can engrave on molds 
 the figures of letters and words of books edited on 
 language, logic, philosophy, astronomy, and _ similar 
 secular subjects, and produce copies of such books by 
 pressing the paper on the molds, is the practice of such a 
 process of printing permissible to Zaid by canon law ? 
 An opinion is asked on this matter. 
 
 ““ Answer : God knows it best. If a person who has 
 ability in the art of printing engraves the letters and 
 words of a corrected book correctly on a mold and pro- 
 duces many copies without difficulty in a short time 
 by pressing the paper on that mold, the abundance of 
 books might cheapen the price and result in their in- 
 creased purchase. This being a tremendous benefit, the 
 matter is a highly laudable one. Permission should 
 be granted to that person, but some learned persons 
 
126 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 should be appointed to correct the book the figures of 
 which are to be engraved.”’ ! 
 
 In Egypt, the Government began journalism. The 
 first Arabic newspaper was published on November 20, 
 1828, at Cairo; its title was Al Wagai al Misnya. It 
 appeared in Turkish and Arabic. The next newspaper 
 was published twenty-nine years later, January I, 1858, 
 in Arabic-French under the title Hadikat al Akhbar, 
 at Beirfit, Syria. In 1869 Al Bashir, an Arabic journal, 
 appeared at Beirtit. In 1877 Butrus al Bustani, a 
 Christian, published the first number of Lisan-ul-Hal. 
 This became the leading newspaper, not only in Syria, 
 but for the Near East. The American Mission began 
 to publish a Christian newspaper and a magazine for 
 children in 1880. After that date newspapers appeared 
 in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. The growth of jour- 
 nalism in Egypt may be judged from these facts: in 1892 
 there were 40 newspapers ; in 1899, 167; in 1909, 144. 
 There was comparative freedom of the Press in Egypt. 
 
 So difficult, however, were conditions in the Ottoman 
 Empire that no attempt was made until 1832 to publish 
 a Turkish newspaper. In 1843 an Englishman, N. 
 Churchill by name, established a Turkish weekly, devoted 
 to foreign politics. The first non-official self-supporting 
 newspaper appeared in 1860. It was entitled Terju- 
 mani-A hval. 
 
 ‘““ The publication of this newspaper marked an epoch. 
 It was the first utterance of the Modern School, and in 
 twenty years it swept from the stage the crumbling 
 débris of five centuries of Asiaticism.”’ * 
 
 1 Ahmed Emin, The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured 
 ay: its Press, New York, 1914, p. 23 
 2 E. J. W. Gibb, A History af Ottoman Poetry, edited by 
 Edward G. Browne, London, 1907, vol. v, p. 26. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 127 
 
 The Press, however, continued weak. In August 
 1877 one of the few Turkish newspapers expressed itself 
 dissatisfied with the state of the Press, reminding its 
 readers “‘ that the Press can not only cause the progress 
 of a country, as often stated, but can also bring about 
 its ruin and destruction, if managed by short-sighted 
 and favour-seeking men.” In the Hamidian period 
 (1876-1908), journalism suffered censorship and suspicion 
 prevailed. In 1897 the Young Turks began to organize 
 and to carry on their propaganda through the Press. 
 Papers were published in Egypt, the Balkan States, 
 France, and Switzerland. Most of them were short-lived, 
 but they helped forward the movement toward liberty. 
 
 In r89r the agitation against the Sultan became serious. 
 Six daily newspapers, two political weeklies, and a 
 military gazette appeared, but the reactionaries won out. 
 Abdul Hamid’s dread of the Press so increased that he 
 would not authorize the publication of a single new 
 periodical. The censorship became more severe, with 
 the result that the number of papers circulating in rgor 
 was scarcely larger than that in 1873.1 
 
 July 25, 1908, marked the revival of the Press, and the 
 dawn of a new day. The censorship ceased. There 
 was an outcry of joy. Copies of the Igdam, of which 
 60,000 had been sold at one cent each, could not be 
 obtained for less than forty cents in the afternoon.’ 
 The number of publications, most of them of mushroom 
 growth, was enormous. Not only newspapers, but 
 monthly reviews of economics and sociology, popular 
 magazines, papers advocating new liberty for woman- 
 hood, and humorous publications appeared. Liberty, 
 
 1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
 Pp. 79. | 
 2 Ibid., p. 87. 
 
128) THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 equality, and fraternity, however, were not yet given to 
 editors. The new Government held the Press responsible 
 for the revolutionary outbreak of April 13, 1909. Papers 
 were suppressed, editors exiled or imprisoned. The 
 animosity between the old and the new parties was 
 extremely strong, and is reflected in their journalism. 
 But the new triumphed. Turkey’s defeat in the Balkan 
 War proved to be a moral victory for the liberty of the 
 Press. The daily Sabah wrote, April 2, 1913: 
 
 “Whatever the material losses of the war may have 
 been, there can be no doubt about the moral benefits 
 it brought about for us. It has created a new sort of 
 self-realization, it has given a new direction to our 
 national life, it has done away with the last barriers 
 between us and modern progress. In short, our defeat 
 means the final victory of modernism in Turkey.’ ! 
 
 Political liberty was accompanied by a feminist move- 
 ment, which found expression in such papers as The 
 Women’s World, and critically discussed the evils of 
 social life under Islam. Kecently one of the editors 
 of this paper took a ride in a military aeroplane, scattering 
 upon the assembled crowds feministic literature. She 
 was afterwards lauded by the Press as a popular heroine 
 and her portrait placed in the Military Museum.? | 
 
 Religious liberty followed in the wake of political 
 freedom. One newspaper published articles on such 
 subjects as ““ Was Mohammed an Epileptic ? ’’ and “ War 
 on Theologians.” In 1914 the number of Turkish news- 
 papers and magazines in Constantinople was: six dailies, 
 three humorous papers, five illustrated magazines, eleven 
 publications for children, two publications for women, 
 six religious journals, nine professional journals, five 
 
 1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
 p. 109. 2 Ibid., p. 110. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 129 
 
 military journals, and eight scientific reviews. This 
 does not include publications in non-Turkish languages. 
 Other centres of the Press are Smyrna, Brusa, Konia, 
 and Trebizond, each of which has its daily papers. The 
 number in other provinces, published in Turkish and 
 Arabic, is given as follows!: 
 
 Turkish, Arabic. 
 Adana 
 Adrianople 
 Aleppo 
 Angora 
 Baghdad . 
 Basra 
 Beirat 
 Dardanelles 
 Diarbekr . 
 ErzerOm 
 Hejaz (Mecca) 
 Jerusalem 
 Kastamani 
 Kharput 
 Mosil 
 Sivas 
 Syria 
 Valve 
 Yemen 
 
 blots acl 
 
 (Turkish and Arabic) 
 15 
 
 HE HRHRWWWwWwWHRRFWONnN RN OOAN UA 
 
 The actual number of periodicals at the end of 1913 
 in Turkey was 389. 
 
 “The present-day achievements of the Turkish Press,”’ 
 says Ahmed Emin, “the increasing specialization in 
 review literature, the attainment of a nearly perfect 
 equilibrium, and of possibilities for constructive work, 
 
 1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
 p. 118. 
 
 10 
 
130 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 only after four or five years of contest, struggle, and 
 agitation, must be highly surprising to everyone who 
 knows the previous conditions and realizes that there 
 was not even one self-supporting Turkish paper as late 
 as 1860, and that the development of the Press between 
 1876 and 1908 was coercively checked.” 1 
 
 A list of journals published in Turkey after the revolu- 
 tion ? includes no fewer than 800 publications in Turkish, 
 French, Arabic, Italian, and other languages. A small 
 percentage of these, however, are not Moslem. The 
 Turkish Press to-day, under the new Angora Government, 
 is represented at Constantinople by four reviews: Sebzl- 
 ar-Reshad (a religious journal); Mahfil (devoted to 
 mysticism); Ijtihad (positivist); and Yenr Majmoua 
 (literary). Of the daily Press, the following newspapers 
 are the more important: Igdam, Tanin, Tevhid-1-Efkiar, 
 Ilert, Vagit, Peyam-l-Sabah (which was suppressed in 
 1922), Vatan, and Aqsham. 
 
 In 1924 there-appeared in Constantinople a new pro- 
 gressive monthly Moslem periodical entitled Al Mthrab. 
 It is in the Turkish language, and deals with religion, 
 philosophy, and historical questions from the standpoint 
 of reformed Islam. The editor of the magazine is a man 
 of modern education and in touch with world movements. 
 
 At the new capital, Angora, the Press is also active 
 and is represented by the following papers: Hakim-i- 
 Mellia, Yen-Gun, Yem-Turkiya, and Shehir. 
 
 2. Egypt, Arabia, and Mesopotamia 
 
 The number of Moslems who speak Arabic has been 
 estimated at over 45,000,000. The Arabic Press, there- 
 
 1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by tis Press, 
 Pp. 139. 
 * Revue du Monde Musulman, 1909, pp. 97-139. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 181 
 
 fore, is found not only in the great centres of Arabic 
 learning, Cairo, Beirit, Damascus, Baghdad, and Mecca, 
 but in nearly every great centre of the Moslem world 
 and on its farthest border-marches. In Malta, for 
 example, there are two Arabic papers, the first of which 
 appeared as early as 1879; in Calcutta one appeared 
 in 1924. The revolutionary and nationalistic activity 
 of educated Moslems in the Near East, so often censored 
 or suppressed at home, found expression among groups 
 of Syrians and Egyptians abroad, who, as exiles, were ripe 
 for propaganda purposes, to serve Pan-Islamism, to oppose 
 the old Turkish régime, or to advocate Egyptian nation- 
 alism. Some of these papers were published in Cyprus, 
 others at Constantinople, in Switzerland, or in South 
 America. Arabic papers have also from time to time 
 appeared in Italy, France, London, Tiflis, New York, 
 and Philadelphia. Although over 95 per cent. of the 
 population in the Arabic-speaking world is illiterate, yet 
 the influence of the Press from its inception has been 
 more vital and far more widespread than in Turkish 
 lands. Egypt and Syria have set the pace as pioneers. 
 Of the Arabic Press one might say, “ Their line has gone 
 out in all the earth, and their word to the end of the 
 world.” The February 1914 number of Der Islam 
 contained some interesting notes by R. Mielck upon a 
 collection of Arabic newspapers and journals gathered 
 by Count de Terrazzi and recently purchased in Beirtt 
 for the Hamburg Kolonial Institut. This remarkable 
 collection contained 474 specimen copies of daily news- 
 papers, distributed as follows: Cairo 96, Alexandria 
 28, the rest of Egypt and the Sudan 6, Beirtit 60, Jerusa- 
 lem 5, Constantinople 16, Jaffa 3, Baghdad 33, Basra 
 9, Tripoli (Syria) 9, Damascus 22, Hama and Homs 11, 
 Lebanon 24, Aleppo 15, Latikia 3, the rest of Turkey 
 
182 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 13, Paris 12, Marseilles 1, London 4, Sardinia 1, Malta 
 1, Leningrad 21, Algiers 6, Morocco 3, Tunis 26, Tripoli 
 3, New York 12, Buenos Aires 5, Sado Paulo 8, Rio de 
 Janeiro 3, Montreal 3, the rest of America 8, Zanzibar 2, 
 Singapore 2. Also 239 journals distributed as follows: 
 Cairo 121, Alexandria 24, the rest of Egypt 7, Beirtit 
 34, Constantinople 1, Jaffa 1, Baghdad 4, Tripoli (Syria) 
 3, Damascus 5, Hama and Homs 4, Lebanon 8, Aleppo 
 2, the rest of Turkey 6, Marseilles 1, Algiers 1, Morocco 
 I, Tunis 4, Lucknow 1, New York 5, Buenos Aires 3, 
 Sao Paulo 2, Montreal 1. 
 
 It is significant of the rapid development of the Arabic 
 Press in Egypt that Hartmann, in 1898, gave the number 
 of current newspapers and journals in that country as 
 169. In the Terrazzi collection alone there are 282 
 Egyptian papers; doubtless many others have started 
 and failed within the intervening fifteen years. Such 
 activity is the more remarkable when we remember 
 that, in Egypt, strict censorship was exercised from 
 1914-22, or rather since 1909, as the law of 1881 for 
 the control of the Press was vigorously enforced under 
 sir Eldon Gorst after a period of liberty under Lord 
 Cromer.? 
 
 Not counting ephemeral productions, about ninety 
 periodicals are now published regularly in Egypt, of 
 which about fifty-seven are in Arabic (these, with 
 a few exceptions, are all Moslem-edited); there are 
 twelve in French, four in English, four in Italian, 
 eight in Greek, three in Armenian, one in Maltese, and 
 one in Hebrew. On account of their appeal to a larger 
 public, the daily newspapers naturally occupy the first 
 place, with consequently a wider circulation. Before 
 
 1 “The Press in Egypt,’ by Lady Drummond Hay, in The Near 
 East, August 21, 1924. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 133 
 
 the war the circulation of an Arabic newspaper rarely 
 exceeded 20,000 copies, but now 40,000 is the figure 
 reached by one daily, although the most popular paper 
 in English has less than 6,000 circulation. 
 
 The leading newspapers to-day are Al-Ahram, con- 
 sistently supporting the Nationalist Movement; Al- 
 Mokattam, until 1914 Anglophile and hostile to the 
 Nationalist Movement; Al-Balagh, inspired by the 
 Wafd (the extreme Nationalist so-called Delegation), 
 and the policy of Zaghloul Pasha; Wadinnil, until the 
 fall of. the Government resolutely but moderately 
 Zaghloulist ; Al-Mahroussa, having changed its politics 
 as often as its editors, now also Zaghloulist ; and Al- 
 Akhbar, though systematically opposing all and every 
 Government, favouring the Egyptian Nationalist Move- 
 ment. AJ-Siassa, the organ of the Liberal-Constitutional 
 Party, is anti-Zaghloulist.} 
 
 The leading monthly periodical is Al Manar, founded 
 by the celebrated Mohammed ‘Abdu, and continued 
 after his death by his pupil and spiritual legatee, 
 Rashid Ridha. Each number contains a section of 
 a new commentary on the Koran, articles on social 
 and moral reform, a question department, and book 
 reviews. The magazine is ably edited, always polemic, 
 and has a widespread, although rather limited, circu- 
 lation. 
 
 The Press of Egypt was victim throughout the whole 
 war-period of intrigue, instigation, propagandism, cen- 
 sorship, and suppression. The pulse of the Cairo Press 
 quickly responded to that of the nationalists of India. 
 It was sympathetic to Turkey, in spite of the censorship. 
 But, had it not been for such censorship, the fanaticism 
 
 1 “The Press in Egypt,”’ by Lady Drummond Hay, in The Near 
 East, August 21, 1924. 
 
184 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of the masses would have known no limit. Even a 
 paper like Al-Ahaly often appeared with blank 
 columns instead of text; nationalists tore up copies 
 of the Mokattam from the hands of newsboys ; news- 
 paper offices were attacked, and windows smashed ; 
 other papers sold their birthright for a mess of 
 pottage.? 
 
 Arabia depends almost entirely on Cairo for news. 
 Until very recently no paper or magazine was published 
 by Moslems anywhere in the peninsula with the exception 
 of meagre Turkish-Arabic Government bulletins at Basra 
 and Baghdad. In 1916, Al Kzibla appeared, published 
 at Mecca but, at first, printed in Cairo. Intended to 
 represent the Arabs and their new kingdom, it was a 
 political organ enthusiastically welcomed or violently 
 opposed, according to the trust or distrust of the Hashi- 
 mite lords of Mecca. With the Wahhabis under Ibn 
 Saud occupying the Hejaz, the importance of Al Kibla 
 has ceased for the present. 
 
 In Mesopotamia, Baghdad has five journals, Mosul 
 and Basra each two. The Press of Iraq is awakening. 
 Al Mufid and Al Istiglal take sides in discussing the 
 dangers or benefits of the Anglo-Iraq Treaty, in defending 
 or attacking the new Ministry, and in pioneer effort at 
 social reform. 
 
 3. Africa 
 
 The Barbary States were more tardy than Turkey. 
 The first newspaper published in Tunis was in 1862, and 
 
 1Cf. “The Native Press of Egypt,’’ The Egyptian Mail, 
 October 1910, and ‘“‘ The Moslem Press and the War,” The 
 Moslem World, 1915, Pp. 413-25. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 135 
 
 the Press of Tunis has never been vigorous or important 
 in its influence. We may mention, however, as a 
 speciality, two Jewish-Arabic papers published in Hebrew 
 script—Al Bustant and Al Muhatyr. The only daily 
 published in the country is called Az Zoharah, edited by 
 Abdur Rahman as Sanaldali. The Young Tunis Party, 
 corresponding to the Young Turkish Party or the Nation- 
 alist Party in Egypt, have an organ of their own called 
 At Tunisie. This appears also in a French edition. 
 Other papers are the Hadhini, Al Liwa, Ad Dhahak (a 
 humorous paper, as the title indicates), the Murshid, 
 Al Umma, and As Sawwab. Extracts from these papers 
 appear in the Revue du Monde Musulman. 
 
 Tripoli has only one or two Arabic newspapers, and 
 these, until the Italian occupation, were the official organs 
 of the Government. 
 
 In Algeria there is a vigorous daily Press at Algiers, 
 Oran, and Tlemsen. Morocco is the most backward 
 in regard to journalism. In 1905 the first newspaper 
 was published at Tangier. The only Arabic paper 
 published at Fez (1922) is a small four-page sheet, entitled 
 Akhbar Telegrafia (Telegraphic News). 
 
 A monthly paper in Swahili appeared (1923) as a pioneer 
 of the Press in that language. It is called Mambo Leo, 
 the meaning of which is “ News To-day.’ Yet this 
 small paper had a circulation of 7,500.1 
 
 In South Africa there are one or two vernacular papers 
 and a Gujarati-English paper, The Indian Views,’ con- 
 ducted by Moslems. It has a circulation in South and 
 East Africa. Madagascar has no distinctively Moslem 
 Press. A French paper is published by Moslems at 
 Mauritius. 
 
 1 Central Africa (Universities’ Mission), September, 1923, p. 6. 
 2 137 Grey Street, Durban. 
 
186 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 4. Persia 
 
 Journalism in this country has been treated fully in 
 a monograph by Professor E. G. Browne. Printing was 
 introduced a century ago and the first newspaper appeared 
 in 1851. Before the granting of the Constitution in 
 1906, however, only three or four papers appeared and 
 journalism was of no importance. The only periodicals 
 of value were published outside of Persia at Constan- 
 tinople, Cairo, London, and Calcutta.? The Calcutta 
 Habl-ul-Matin appeared in 1893, the Thuraiya (Pleiades) 
 in Cairo in 1898 and the Parwarish replaced it in rgoo. 
 With the Revolution journalism sprang into frantic life 
 led by the Suv-1-Isvafil (Resurrection Trumpet), Nasim- 
 1-Shemal (Breeze of the North), and Nusawat (Equality). 
 
 It would be a love’s labour lost to record the rise, 
 decline, and fall of the hundreds of newspapers, magazines, 
 and journals that vied with one another in proclaiming 
 the new era of liberty and the new day of education and 
 reform. The curious reader will find in Browne’s volume 
 every detail, including a whole series of inimitable Persian 
 political cartoons. He gives a list of all these earlier 
 Persian papers to the number of 350.3 Since November 
 I9Q15, 47 papers and magazines have appeared. Tehran 
 heads the list with 18 papers ; Shiraz has seven ; Tabriz © 
 and Resht four each, and Isfahan, Meshed, Kerman, 
 Kermanshah, Khoi, Bushire, Herat, Kabul, and Jalalabad 
 (the last three in Afghanistan) one or two each. But 
 this list, published in Kawa,‘ a Persian newspaper printed 
 
 1 The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia, Cambridge, 1914; 
 also his later work, A History of Persian Literature in Modern 
 Times, Cambridge, 1924. 
 
 2 Edward Granville Browne, The Persian Revolution of r905~ 
 Igo9, Cambridge, 1910, p. 242. 
 
 3 Also the list in the Revue du Monde Musulman, December 
 1909, p. 682. # No! 4, 1921: 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 137 
 
 in Berlin, is not altogether complete. Among the more 
 important literary magazines are: Avmaghan, Bahar, 
 Furugh-1-Tarbiyat, Danish (Meshed), Mimat-u-Hayat, 
 Firdausi, and Ivan Shahr (Berlin). 
 
 According to recent information! many of the Com- 
 munistic journals and those opposed to the new Govern- 
 ment have been suppressed. Among the more important 
 newspapers that remain are the following: Ivan, Itithad, 
 Bamdade-Roshan, Jahane, Zehan, The last-named re- 
 presents the feminist movement in Persia. 
 
 The boldness of the Press and its Pan-Islamic tendency 
 may be judged from the following editorial which appeared 
 in Fakr-1-Azar (Free Thought), a semi-weekly paper, 
 Meshed, Persia (October 9, 1922) : 
 
 “We are dead. The spirit of the nation and the spirit 
 of Islam has bidden farewell to the body of our national 
 life. If it is not so, where are the signs of life? Where 
 are there any evidences of the presence of the spirit of 
 Islam ? When the good news came of the triumph of 
 the victorious armies of Islam, where was our rejoicing ? 
 Where our glorious celebrations ? Where is that assembly 
 that sends a telegram of congratulations to our Moham- 
 medan brothers in the name of Islamic feeling? What 
 is the name of that party that invites their fellow country- 
 men to have a part in the universal joy in the world of 
 Islam ? 
 
 ‘“The Mussulmans of India, who are under the firm 
 heel of the English, and have no share in the blessing of 
 liberty, in this time of victory of the Kemalists have had 
 a whole series of celebrations, and face to face with the 
 partisans of Greece they have raised to heaven a shout 
 of joy over her defeat and degradation. 
 
 “Cries of congratulations and blessing are continually 
 rising from the throats of the oppressed Mussulmans of 
 
 1 Revue du Monde Musulman, 1922-3, p. 313. 
 
188 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Egypt, Mesopotamia, Morocco, Algiers, and elsewhere ; 
 and make the hearts of the enemies of the Kzbla and the 
 Koran tremble with fear and dread.” 1 
 
 5. India, Ceylon, and Afghamstan 
 
 The newspaper Press was introduced at the time of 
 the British occupation of Bengal; yet at the time of 
 the Mutiny there were only 19 Anglo-Indian papers and 
 25 in the vernacular for the whole of India. To-day, 
 among I,017 newspapers and 2,297 periodicals, the Moslem 
 Press is represented by 222 periodicals and publications 
 as follows: Madras Presidency, 26; Bombay Presi- 
 dency, 37; the United Provinces, 44; the Central 
 Provinces, 5; the Punjab, 84; Bengal, 24; Burma, 
 1; Bihar and Orissa, 1. According to languages these 
 Moslem periodicals are divided as follows: Urdu heads 
 the list with 149 newspapers and magazines edited by 
 Moslems; 25 appear in Gujarati, 14 in English, 13 in 
 Bengali, 8 in Malayalam, 6 in Sindhi, 4 in Tamil, and 
 t in Arabic. 
 
 In Bengal the leading vernacular periodical is an 
 illustrated monthly called Al Islam, of about seventy 
 pages. A recent number contained articles on “ The 
 Canon of the Old Testament,’’ ‘“ The Mohammedans in ~ 
 China,” “ The Library of Alexandria,’ and “ Islam and 
 the Race Problem.”” The Muhammad: is a weekly, 
 often violently anti-Christian. This has a large circu- 
 lation.” 
 
 India has several important Mohammedan papers 
 published in the English language. The Review of 
 Religions, published at Qadian, represents the original 
 
 1 The Moslem World, 1923, p. 411 
 
 2“ The Moslem Press of Bengal, ” by William Goldsack, 
 The Moslem World, 1917, p. 182. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 139 
 
 Ahmadiya Movement, but has lost its old-time vigour. 
 It has, however, a wide circulation outside of India. 
 A recent number contained a list of contributors from 
 Lagos, West Africa, to the building of the new mosque 
 at Berlin. The Comrade, of Calcutta, was the leading 
 English Moslem weekly until it was suppressed during 
 the war. The Muslim Outlook is a daily published at 
 Lahore, and The Moslem Chronicle appears at Madras. 
 The influence of the Indian Press may be judged from 
 the little magazine called Peace published in Dacca, 
 which often speaks of Islamic solidarity in terms that 
 would appear an exaggeration were it not that we find 
 in the same paper a list of 19 Moslem magazines, ex- 
 changes which the editor receives. These magazines 
 are published not only in India, but in South Africa, 
 United States, Java, France, and England. Whatever 
 else one may say about. the Ahmadiyas of India, they 
 are active. One of their latest methods of propaganda 
 is found in The Light, a bi-weekly four-page journal 
 published in English (Lahore). The editor is Mustafa 
 Khan, B.A. 
 
 “The paper desires to disseminate Islamic doctrines, 
 and to repudiate charges against Islam. Short articles, 
 letters, and questions will also be welcome. Non- 
 Moslems are also invited to send questions to be answered.”’ 
 
 A list of the subjects treated in the number of August 
 16, 1924, will convey a fairly satisfactory idea of its 
 
 character: ‘‘ The Position of Christianity ”’ ; “‘ Islam and 
 Christianity in Africa’’; ‘“‘ Moslem Mission in Ger- 
 many”; ‘‘ The Atonement ’’; ‘‘ A Study of the Bible.”’ 
 
 The last page is devoted to questions and answers. 
 The Islamic World (Lahore) is a new quarterly journal 
 “devoted to propagate and defend Islam against its 
 
140 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 hostile critics and to study the progress of Islamic thought, 
 literature, art, and civilization in the world.” 
 
 A complete list of all the Moslem newspapers published 
 in India and Ceylon is given in an appendix. 
 
 The first Moslem journal published in Afghanistan 
 appeared at Kabul in 1906. Under the progressive 
 Amir Amanullah, Afghanistan is arousing herself from 
 her sleep, and the two nationalist journals, the Aman-t- 
 Afghan, of Kabul (1919), and the Ittihad-1-Mashraqi 
 (Eastern Unity) (1920) of Jalalabad, aim at reflecting 
 the national enlightenment. Both journals are published 
 in Persian, and claim to be unofficial, though the inspira- 
 tion and control of the Amir’s Government are obvious, 
 as is the Bolshevist hand behind it. Subscription to 
 the Aman-i-Afghan is obligatory upon officials of a 
 certain grade, and is deducted by the Royal Office from 
 their salaries. 
 
 At one time Indian Moslems published a monthly in 
 Tokyo, Japan, in the English language. It was entitled 
 The Islamic Fraternity. The first number appeared 
 April 15, 1910, but it was soon discontinued ; the editors 
 were an Indian and an Egyptian Moslem. Islam has 
 never gained a foothold in Japan, but this effort at 
 propagandism is nevertheless suggestive. There is a 
 small group of Indian Moslem students in Tokyo and also 
 there are Moslem merchants in Yokohama and Kobe. 
 
 6. Dutch East Indies and Malaysia 
 
 The importance of the Netherlands Indies is evident 
 when we remember its vast population—49,350,834 
 souls,—the present revival of Islam, and the increasing 
 contacts between Insulinde and the Near East. Al- 
 though the percentage of illiteracy is still high, it is de- 
 creasing. The number of literates in Java alone is 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 141 
 
 estimated at over two million. The chief languages are 
 Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese. Various 
 Moslem societies exist for the revival of religion or of 
 nationalism on social and economic lines. All of these 
 live by the Press. The Sarikat-Islam, the Boedi-Oetomo, 
 and the Moehammadia are the best known, but there 
 are many others. The centres of publication are at 
 Surabaya and Batavia, but at many holy places and pil- 
 grim rendezvous there is also considerable activity. 
 Gressee and Demak are examples. A complete list of 
 native newspapers and periodicals, secured from the 
 Department of the Interior, gives the following Moslem 
 papers and periodicals: Java newspapers, 8; Sumatra 
 and other islands newspapers, 10; periodicals, Java, 
 24; periodicals in the outposts, 12; Moslem religious 
 papers, 5; Arabic newspapers, 3. The titles of some 
 of these periodicals are significant: Light of Sumatra, 
 Young Java, Young Sumatra, Light of India, Light of 
 Minahassa, Light of Islam, The Revival of Islam, Agree- 
 ment and Disagreement, The Area of Islam, etc. Their 
 variety and number, in a time of commercial depression 
 and general crisis, are surely a proof that Islam is awake. 
 Of the total, 16 are published at Weltevreden, Batavia, 
 ro each at Semarang and Padang, 9 at Jokyakarta, 7 
 at Solo, 5 each at Bandung, Surabaya, and Medan; the 
 others are scattered. Some of the papers are frankly 
 reactionary and advocate a return to the old Islam, 
 but the majority are progressive and desire reform, 
 educational and ethical. The contents of a single 
 number 1 of the Tyahaja-Islam are typical. This paper 
 is a diglot in Malay-Javanese. The advertisements, 
 with one exception, relate to Moslem schools, book- 
 sellers, and eating-houses. After an editorial (which 
 1 Issue of November 5, 1921. 
 
142 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 closes with a threefold Amen), the leading article is on 
 the Birthday of Mohammed. A second long article is 
 on Islam and Democracy. Then follow an appeal for 
 money to open a new Moslem school, a poem calling for 
 the better observance of the five prayer periods, a proposal 
 to unify the Moslem Press, and a reply by the editor, 
 who says that three small papers reach a larger circle 
 than one large one! The Javanese section has similar 
 matter, and in addition a Koran exposition with reference 
 to Thomas Carlyle’s Essay on Mohammed. 
 
 Apart from a score of Chinese political newspapers 
 and six Christian periodicals, there are over 90 news- 
 papers and other periodicals which are Islamic in their 
 outlook and influence, for even a general daily, under 
 the control of a Moslem editor or committee, cannot help 
 being an organ of propagandism.? 
 
 The Dutch East Indies are undergoing rapid evolution. 
 The daily Press proclaims it in unmistakable accents. 
 Processes which in Europe took long centuries are here 
 taking place in a decade. In Sumatra you may see, side 
 by side, the use of a needle fashioned from a thorn and 
 a Singer sewing-machine ; the smoking wool-wick and the 
 electric bulb; the untrodden forest and the Ford car, 
 with a Battak chauffeur whose grandfather was a canni- 
 bal! Single generations are separated by unbridgeable 
 gulfs mental and spiritual, and in the new day of light, 
 liberty, and more abundant life the Press is to the 
 front as pioneer and cynosure. 
 
 A survey of the contents of the Press in the Dutch East 
 Indies is regularly published by the Dutch Colonial 
 Government. This is also done, from the missionary 
 standpoint, by Dr. H. Kraemer from time to time in the 
 magazine called De Opwekker, and also in Mededeelingen. 
 
 1 For complete list see The Moslem World, 1923, pp. 39-49. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 143 
 
 7. China 
 
 Although the Chinese people had newspapers before 
 the discovery of printing in Europe, a Moslem Press did 
 not exist until very recent years. At the time of our 
 visit in 1917 we found only three or four Chinese-Mo- 
 hammedan newspapers or magazines. A Chinese-Arabic 
 periodical was then issued at Peking, but has been dis- 
 continued. 
 
 The Islamitic Review is a Chinese-Moslem newspaper, 
 published in Yiin-nan-fu, West China. A recent article 
 therein, received from Peking, gives a view of Chinese 
 Mohammedanism to-day : 
 
 “This is respectfully addressed to our .. . brethren 
 of Islam. Do not slumber, all of you! Quickly awake ! 
 At the present time this Moslem religion of ours has in 
 failure reached the extreme point; it appears that we 
 are about to perish. O brethren of our Faith, all of 
 you, make haste to think of some plan of remedy and 
 rescue ; otherwise, when our Moslem religion perishes, 
 probably we shall not be able to preserve our places of 
 worship and ablutions.... 
 
 ‘Brethren of our Faith, do not continue besotted 
 in sleep! Up quickly, and save our religion! Look 
 around at the present deplorable condition of our re- 
 ligion; it is day by day becoming more and more 
 decadent.” 1 
 
 From India we learn of a new International Moslem 
 Association (Shanghai) which has started a monthly 
 journal, The Light of Islam, in Chinese, with some English 
 and Japanese articles as well. 
 
 ‘a The principal object of this journal being to 
 awaken the slumbering Chinese Muslims and acquaint 
 them with the activities now widely spreading among 
 
 1 Isaac Mason, in The Moslem World, 1923, Pp. 413. 
 
144 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 their fellow disciples in the Western countries, and, on 
 the other hand, to teach and propagate the Sacred 
 Doctrines of Islam among the Chinese and the Japanese 
 who are ignorant of them... and to stimulate and 
 encourage our fellow Muslims of the Far East to form a 
 close connexion with those of other parts of the world, 
 so that we may ultimately establish a world-wide Asso- 
 ciation of pan-Islamism.”’ 1 
 
 The journal contains articles in Chinese, and many 
 illustrations of Moslem leaders and the antiquities in 
 China. 
 
 8. Russia 
 
 Here the chief centres of journalism are Bakhchisarai, 
 Kazan, Baku, Orenburg, and Leningrad. Kazan, where 
 several hundred books are published every year, is the 
 educational and intellectual capital for the 17,000,000 
 Moslems under Russian governments. Ufa is the head- 
 quarters of the Mohammedan ecclesiastical Assembly. 
 Orenburg, Tiflis, and Troitsk are also important. 
 
 Kazan has 6 Moslem newspapers, Tashkent 5, Ash- 
 qabad 3, Khoqand and Samarkand each 1. At Bukhara 
 the Moslem Press is also fairly active in the Arabic, 
 Persian, and Turki languages. Altogether about fifty 
 Islamic newspapers have appeared in Russia.? 
 
 The most important, and one of the earliest Moslem 
 journals, was the weekly paper entitled Millet, under the — 
 editorship of Ismail Bey Gasprinsky, the leader of educa 
 tion and reform. Another pioneer of the Press in Russia 
 was Ahmad Bey Agayeff. 
 
 In the Crimea there is an important newspaper called 
 Larjaman, and published at Bakhchisarai, with a circula- 
 
 1 The Muslim Herald (Madras), November 29, 1924. 
 * Hartmann, in Encyclopedia of Islam. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 145 
 
 tion of over 5,000. It first appeared in 1879, also under 
 the editorship of Ismail Bey Gasprinsky, but is now 
 conducted by Jaafer Seyid Amet. In the Russian 
 periodical Mir Islama (The Islamic World) reviews of 
 the Moslem Press appear from time to time.! 
 
 In the Caucasus the Moslem Press has its chief centre 
 at Baku. 
 
 In this connexion we may note that Islam in Bulgaria 
 has, as its chief centres of literary activity : Varna, Ras- 
 grad, Ruschuk, Shumla, Sofia, Philippopolis, and Burgas. 
 At the present time the following Turkish papers are 
 published there: Echali, Zia, Trundscha, and Muwazene. 
 
 9g. Europe, America, and Australia 
 
 Moslem journalism has entered the Western World. 
 The earliest magazine, which has continued publication, 
 is The Islamic Review, published by the Ahmadiya Move- 
 ment at Woking, England ; a Tamil edition appears at 
 Madras, India, and an Urdu edition at Lahore. At 
 Berlin a new Mohammedan magazine, called Al Liwa, 
 appears in three languages, Persian, Arabic, and German. 
 It gives a large amount of space to news regarding 
 Central Asian politics and Bolshevism. A more recent 
 publication, also issued at Berlin, is entitled Moslemische 
 Revue, of which Vol. I, No. 1 appeared in April 1924. 
 Three Islamic papers are published in France. In the 
 bi-monthly organ published by the Bureau d’Information 
 Islamique at Paris (24 Rue Taitbout), and entitled 
 Echos de l’ Islam, we find political news and propagandism 
 in favour of Pan-Islam. This magazine circulates in 
 Java and the Malay States. 
 
 There are one or two Mohammedan newspapers 
 
 1 Mir Islama, 1912, pp. 257-87. 
 11 
 
146 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 published in Brazil, the Argentine, and British Guiana ; 
 none in Trinidad. Five Syrian Arabic dailies are pub- 
 lished in the United States of America, and three maga- 
 zines. These are not all Moslem ; yet the Arabic Press 
 has a larger proportionate daily circulation than the 
 Chinese, Greek, or Yiddish newspapers. The number 
 of Arabic papers, beginning with 1 (1893-8), rose to 7 
 in rg1r, and to 13 in 1917. It has since decreased. Al 
 Hoda was established in 1898 as spokesman of Maronite 
 Syrians. It is pro-Zionist. The Kowkab America was 
 the first Arabic paper published. It was controlled by 
 Turkish influence and fear of the Turkish Government. 
 “ The hand of the Turk was still heavy on me,’ says 
 the editor, ‘‘ even on Pearl Street, New York.’’ 
 
 Some of the magazines and papers referred to, however, 
 although published in Arabic and read by Moslems, are 
 edited by Christians. The first magazine published by 
 Moslems in the English language in the United States 
 of America bears the title of The Moslem Sunrise. This 
 quarterly represents the Ahmadiya Movement. Its 
 first number contained a new year greeting, a prayer for 
 all its readers, followed by a transliteration and transla- 
 tion of Sura 31 : 13-20, the thirteen Commandments of 
 Luqman to his son. There follow some sayings of Mo- 
 hammed. An Australian Moslem tells how “ prohibi- 
 tion is prohibited” in the United States. In the course 
 of this article Jesus Christ is spoken of not only as a 
 ““wine-drinker’’ but also as a ‘“‘ wine-maker.” The 
 magazine has a large circulation outside of the United 
 States. On the inside cover a list of its agents abroad is 
 printed, and in a recent issue two pages are devoted to 
 lists of converts made in the United States. 
 
 1 Robert E. Park, The Immigrant Press and its Control, New 
 York and London, 1922, p. 56, 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 147 
 
 For some time a similar publication, entitled The 
 Moslem Sunshine, appeared at Perth, Australia. 
 
 II. THE CHARACTER OF PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM 
 
 After our geographical survey of the Press in the new 
 world of Islam, it remains to sketch briefly its character, 
 its outlook, and programme. 
 
 First of all, and everywhere, it looks forward. Eco- 
 nomic, social, intellectual, and spiritual movements are 
 stirring thought everywhere, although the currents often 
 run counter to one another and with terrific force. 
 Zionism, Bolshevism, commercialism, nationalism, im- 
 perialism, all have interests centring in the undeveloped 
 Moslem Near East, and each is a disintegrating factor in 
 the old world of thought and life. No wonder Turkey is 
 turning her back on the past and trampling on old 
 traditions. The cry of the reactionary is, “‘ Back to the 
 Koran and to Mohammed !”’ The problem of the progres- 
 sive Press is to get as far away from both as is decent and 
 safe. The educational revival, the renaissance of Arabic 
 as a world-language, the Feminist Movement—all are 
 topics for Moslem journalists to-day. The shattering 
 impact of the World War, race hatreds, the fall of the 
 Caliphate, the increased government.of Islamic peoples by 
 European Powers, the impact of civilization and of 
 missions, European scepticism, the rebellion against 
 traditionalism and external authority, the hunger for 
 knowledge of new scientific thought and invention, the 
 canvassing of the status of Oriental womanhood—all 
 yield the furor scribendi to the Moslem editors. 
 
 In Tunis, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt the Press has been 
 furiously discussing polygamy, its prevalence, and its 
 agreement or disagreement with Moslem ethics. One 
 
 / 
 
148 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 paper states that only 50 per cent. of the Egyptians 
 are polygamists! Another newspaper suggests the 
 promulgation of a law against polygamy on lines following 
 the precepts of the Koran, which require the husband 
 to support his wives without discrimination ; and sug- 
 gests that this law should make it compulsory for the 
 husband to give evidence, before a second marriage, 
 that he is able to support more wives than one, 
 
 In commenting on the Feminist Movement in Egypt, 
 Al Kibla, the semi-official organ of the Hejaz Govern- Y 
 ment, expresses indignation at the publication of a 
 portrait of Madame Zaghloul, in which she is seen unveiled 
 and seated among European and Egyptian men. Al 
 Kibla also criticizes Mustafa Kemal for allowing his 
 wife to accompany him on a military parade unveiled 
 and riding a horse. The article concludes by warning 
 Moslems not to violate Sharia, which forbids Moslem 
 women to show themselves unveiled except to their 
 husbands. 
 
 In the second place, Moslem journalism is religious— v 
 that is, it cannot get away from Islam. It challenges 
 Lord Cromer’s verdict that reformed Islam is Islam no 
 longer. The new wine is always put into the old wine- 
 skins. Thus, according to the Moslem Press, the Koran 
 has become “‘holy’’; Mohammed never conducted 
 aggressive warfare ; he was practically a monogamist, 
 and inculcated tolerance. Likewise, the Bible yields 
 proof-texts to establish the doctrines of Islam ; Western 
 civilization and Christianity are submitted to its acid 
 test. On December 24, 1920, a Cairo daily (Al-Ahaly) 
 wrote : 
 
 ‘‘ How curious and strange is the nature of man! To- 
 morrow Westerners will celebrate Christmas Day, the 
 day when forbearance was born with the birth of Jesus, 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 149 
 
 when the mercy of heaven came down to earth as He 
 came to it, and when the good news was heralded to all 
 that fraternity, love, and peace had come. One may 
 imagine, as one casts a look on them while they celebrate 
 this blessed day, and exchange good wishes and greetings 
 on its occasion, that the principles of Christ are still in 
 the hearts of His peoples, and that His generous com- 
 mandments are strictly obeyed by these peoples ; whereas, 
 if one looks well, one clearly sees that they are in one 
 valley, and the principles of Christ in another. 
 
 ‘““ Injustice is up and justice is down; slavery is per- 
 manent; the mighty continue to consume the rights 
 of the weak, and without feeling any remorse; the 
 influential trespass upon the humble, without feeling 
 any shame; the wealthy, who only care to fill their safes 
 with money, look as if they would suck up the blood 
 of the poor without feeling any pain in their hearts.” 
 
 On the other hand, the Press often speaks in terms of 
 the highest praise of Jesus Christ. On Christmas Day, 
 1921, Al Ivag, Baghdad, had an editorial beginning : 
 
 “On the morning of December 25, nineteen hundred 
 and twenty-one years ago, the ray that leads to the right 
 path appeared in Bethlehem as a bright star, and His 
 light spread over the East and the West. On that 
 day was born the Image of Love and the Great Child. 
 
 “He spent His days calling people to the Truth and 
 guiding them to the right path. He was a good shep- 
 herd who sheltered His sheep and defended them against 
 the wolves. He was pure of heart, and His hidden 
 thoughts were clear. He was humble, like a blessed 
 ear full of wheat-grains, and that in an age when error 
 had a universal rule, and when the wolves longed to be 
 ferocious lions so as to enslave others. Man’s inner- 
 most thoughts had been covered with a tissue, the warp 
 and woof of which were pride and arrogance. 
 
 “ All His life He was loved by the poor and the good, 
 and was shunned by the arrogant and the proud. He 
 
150 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 showed love to the poor and to the weary, and revolted 
 against the tyrants and oppressors. He devoted His 
 life to the assistance of humanity, which was suffering 
 from persecution, colonization, and that warfare which 
 man wages against his brother. 
 
 ““ Neither the greatness of the Caesars nor the sophistry 
 of the priests could turn Him away from His purpose, 
 for how can perishable greatness and apostate priest- 
 hood wrestle with immortal glory ? 
 
 “The greatness of Cesar has passed away, the Nero’s 
 page in history is,a dark one ; but time has failed to efface 
 the greatness of the Apostle of Love, and His page in 
 history remains white, with no spots on it.” 
 
 A small section of the Moslem Press (especially the 
 Ahmadiya) uses the arguments of liberal Christianity and 
 Western infidelity to combat the Scriptures and Christian 
 missions. The sinlessness of Jesus is assailed, His 
 virgin birth ridiculed, His death, resurrection, and 
 ascension caricatured. Paul invented the Christianity 
 of the Churches ; Jesus was a true Moslem. Al Manar, 
 Cairo, recently gave an account of the Modern Church- 
 men’s Conference held in Cambridge, August 1921, 
 and maintained : 
 
 “|, . That the thinking clergy of England and America 
 have been approaching almost automatically the theo- 
 logical position of the Unity of God, so that there has 
 been no need, as in the days of old, for Islam to resort 
 to the sword and the battle.... And so, of course, the 
 day is not far distant when idols will be demolished and 
 churches razed, while true piles will be erected to the 
 worship of Amighty Unity in accordance with the laws 
 of Mohammed, the master of men.” 
 
 Vituperation of Christian missions and of certain 
 Christian doctrines is still found in some religious perio- 
 
 1 Cf. ‘‘ A Moslem View of Christianity,’’ by Samuel M. Zwemer, 
 in The Missionary Review of the World, November 1924. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 151 
 
 dicals of India and Egypt, but it is far less common than 
 a decade ago. 
 
 Some editors proclaim an Islamic renaissance, and 
 others sound its death-knell. It depends on tempera- 
 ment and temperature. What a contrast between the 
 voice of The Crescent, Colombo, and that of The Islamic 
 Review, Woking, almost of the same date! The former 
 draws this roseate picture : 
 
 “The Islamic world seems to be on the threshold of 
 a great renaissance. For long, mysterious murmurs, 
 presages of a coming revolution, have been echoing 
 from the colourful cafés of Stamboul through the vaulted 
 halls of Al Azhar and of Aligarh to more Eastern climes 
 where the followers of the Prophet congregate into 
 Brotherhoods of Purity. Under the impact of Western 
 civilization, the East is slowly awakening to a conscious- 
 ness of its own soul, and the time cannot be far distant 
 when it shall once more resume its own self-appointed 
 search for the Holy Grail, with something of the high, 
 ancient earnestness that brought forth religions and 
 philosophies and stayed the flight of time.” 
 
 But The Woking Monthly, quoting from a mosque 
 sermon at Woking, said : 
 
 ‘“ There has been many a dark hour in the history of 
 Islam, but never any so dark as the present. We, the 
 present-day Moslems, have indeed fallen on evil days. 
 Our past glory has forsaken us. Our might, our honour, 
 have deserted us. To our rivals, our days are already 
 numbered. It is true that, to a certain extent, we have 
 awakened and realized the critical nature of the situation 
 in which we find ourselves ; but, likeaman who has been 
 enjoying a deep slumber and is awakened, all of a sudden, 
 by some turmoil around him, we are rushing about in 
 utter darkness to avoid what we perceive to be an 
 imminent danger. Confusion has seized our senses ; 
 
152 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 and, though the danger is within our purview, yet we 
 cannot properly locate it. Death is staring us in the 
 face, and the struggle for self-preservation has just 
 begun.”’ 
 
 While this call for social and religious reform occupies 
 so large a place in present-day journalism, we note an 
 alarming feature. According to Joseph Castagné, the 
 Russian Soviet has obtained control of some of the leading 
 Russian Moslem newspapers, and since 1921 has been 
 engaged in a systematic effort to make Islam the ally of 
 Bolshevism, not only in Russia, but also in all Central - 
 Asia. Two Usbek journals, Ingilab (Revolution) and 
 Kyzyl Batrak (The Red Flag), both published at Tashkent 
 under Mohammedan editors, preach Communism to all 
 Turkistan. The last-named paper appears in Tatar, 
 Kirghize, and Russian, as well as in the Usbek language, 
 and the total circulation in these four languages is over 
 37,000.1 
 
 In Java the Russian Soviet has its secret agents and 
 succeeded once and again in winning over certain leaders 
 of the Sarikat-Islam and their Press to the Third Inter- 
 national programme.’ 
 
 In Persia Soviet propaganda has been active in the 
 Moslem Press since the appointment of a Bolshevik 
 Minister at Tehran in 1921. At Resht a Communist 
 paper called The Red Revolution is distributed gratuitously. 
 Georges Ducrocq mentions many other Bolshevist- 
 Moslem journals, such as Hallaj, Badr, Toufan (The 
 Deluge), etc.2 Some of these were ephemeral and others 
 were suppressed, but the Soviet influence continues in 
 
 1 Joseph Castagné, “‘ Le Bolshevisme et l’Islam,’’ in Revue du 
 Monde Musulman, October 1922, pp. 68-73. 
 
 * Idem, December 1922, pp. 70-81. 
 8 Ibid., pp. 127-33. 
 
JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 153 
 
 the Persian Press. Two Turkish papers are also men- 
 tioned, Yemi-Dunya (Baku), edited by a follower of 
 Karl Marx, and Yemi-Hayat (Angora), a Communist 
 journal. Strict censorship and government precautions 
 have hitherto prevented an alliance of Bolshevism with 
 Islam in the Press of India and Egypt.’ 
 
 In conclusion, we emphasize the importance of 
 modern journalism in moulding not only everyday 
 thought but the language and literature of nations. 
 The newspaper has freed the Arabic language from 
 much of its old bombastic and affected style, has 
 adopted or invented new words, and broken through 
 religious prejudices by its illustrations and advertise- 
 ments. 
 
 Literature itself has entered upon a new career of 
 beauty and power by the fructifying mind of great races 
 awakened by modern science, art, and culture in the 
 Press. 
 
 Poetry and the fine arts, history, archeology, and the 
 natural sciences are coming to their own in modern Moslem 
 journalism. The child has a larger place than in the 
 old world of Islam. Womanhood has secured a forum | 
 and popular education its great advocate in the daily 
 newspaper. In many reforms—for example, the Prohibi- 
 tion Movement-——the Moslem Press is an ally of Christian 
 missions. It is, therefore, increasingly important to 
 make a careful and sympathetic study of the contents 
 of the daily papers and periodicals. We must cultivate 
 friendly relationships with the large and influential 
 body of editors and journalists. They are the leaders 
 of the leaders, and control the thought of the masses. 
 
 1 Joseph Castagné, “‘ Le Bolshevisme et l’Islam,’’ in Revue du 
 Monde Musulman, December 1922, pp. 207-10. 
 
 2 [bid., pp. 218-21. 
 
154 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Of present-day journalism in the new world of Islam 
 the words of Kipling are also true: 
 
 “The Pope may launch his Interdict, — 
 
 The Union its decree, 
 
 But the bubble is blown and the bubble is pricked 
 By Us and such as We. 
 
 Remember the battle and stand aside 
 While Thrones and Powers confess 
 
 That King over all the children of pride 
 Is the Press—the Press—the Press !’’ 
 
SOME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE 
 WORLD OF ISLAM 
 
 BY 
 CONSTANCE E. PADWICK, 
 Church Missionary Society, Catro 
 

 
CHAPTER X 
 
 SOME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE WORLD 
 OF ISLAM 
 
 In Amman, the Arab capital of Trans-Jordan, one can 
 never forget the Arabian desert where the heart of Islam 
 beats. The little city lies in a cleft made by the Jabbok 
 through the breezy Moab uplands, and these bare pas- 
 tures are an ill-defined barrier between the settled 
 pastures of Palestine and that untamed desert. Three 
 miles away the railway, with uncontrollable passengers 
 who travel on the roof if they feel so minded, makes a 
 tangible link between Amman and the Hejaz itself. 
 The greater houses have ladies or slaves from Mecca 
 or Medina. In the market street, full of flashes of gold 
 and orange head-draperies, tawny figures talk the 
 purest language-of-the-desert Arabic as they watch the 
 mending of harness or the making of a pair of yellow 
 boots under personal supervision. There, in the Amman 
 market, the desert man finds links with the outside 
 world. The train that goes to Ma’an comes from 
 Damascus with gossip of the French official world. It 
 takes up a load from Haifa with cheap clocks, cheap 
 crockery, tin toys, and even sweetstuff made in Europe. 
 The rudimentary brown road (mended last summer by 
 prisoners who were Wahhabi warriors raiding from Nejd) 
 takes cars to Jerusalem with its tourists and the daily 
 train for Egypt. 
 157 
 
158 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 That market street of gunsmiths, camel-harness 
 makers, and cafés is not a literary centre, and what books 
 are sold there are sold in a luxury-shop along with cheap 
 mirrors, tin trains, masks, bottles of scent, and slabs 
 of unutterably stale chocolate. Yet, when books are 
 rare, each one read counts the more, and, after inquiry 
 as to where books were sold in the capital, I stood among 
 the dusty rattle-traps and had the pile of literature 
 pulled down, that I might finger it and see what that 
 corner of the Moslem world was reading, when it read 
 at all. 
 
 The Korans were left on the shelf. The shopman 
 explained that it would have been counted a shameful 
 deed in the Amman market to offer one to me, a Christian 
 woman; and I could but agree to the deprivation, 
 though I should have liked to see whether the presses 
 of Stamboul or of Cairo were supplying that part of the 
 Arab world. The pile of books before me was quickly 
 classified. There were a few grubby linguistic works 
 on the Arabic language, with instructions for writing 
 letters in good Arabic style, and flowery examples of 
 figures of speech. These came to Amman from Damascus, 
 that home of Arabic belles-lettres. There was a little, 
 a very little poetry—true poetry of the desert from the 
 days before Mohammed, songs of one ‘Antar, son of a 
 warrior of Nejd by a black slave-girl, his spoil of war. 
 ‘Antar, so the books say, spent his youth as a camel-herd 
 among slaves, and only forced his way to his father’s 
 recognition by deeds of daring in a tribal war. His 
 sixth-century poems are fierce songs of desert loves and 
 desert raids that have an antique flavour when read 
 among the electric trams of Cairo, but do not read as 
 out of date among the Arabs in the Amman market. 
 These were printed in Beirit. But the greater part of 
 
LITERATURE IN ISLAM 159 
 
 the pile before me was made of stories in leaflet form. 
 Right well I recognized them, with their poor paper and 
 their poorer type. They were the same stories of crime 
 and venture that are sold for a cent or two at the tram 
 terminus of Cairo; poor in language, very poor in 
 thought ; grubby enough sometimes in morals as in 
 exterior; but stories, and therefore beloved on the desert 
 borders as in the public gardens or the tramcars of 
 Cairo. 
 
 Damascus, Beirfiit, and Cairo had thus contributed to 
 the spiritual culture of Amman; but perhaps the most 
 significant contribution came from Stamboul. I grew 
 insistent that there must be some books concerned with 
 higher things, and, under pressure and secretly, another 
 little pile was revealed tome. A Syrian friend barricaded 
 it with his body from the public view while the infidel 
 woman turned over the pages of a specially blessed book. 
 It was a prayer-manual compiled by a sheikh who died 
 some three hundred years ago and was buried at Mecca, 
 as his book does not fail to state. His Arabic work, 
 with a few Turkish marginal notes as introduction, is 
 a book of those devotions wherein lies the religious 
 strength of Islam. There are directions to the worshipper 
 as to the times at which the prayers are most beneficial, 
 and the ritual and number of repetitions, with ejacula- 
 tions, and the benefits to be obtained from blessing the 
 name of the Prophet. There are the ninety and nine 
 names of Allah, and the two hundred and one names of 
 Mohammed for devout repetition. There are litanies 
 of obsecration : 
 
 “I pray to Thee by the greatness and majesty and 
 glory and power and might which Thy Throne upholds. 
 
 “T pray to Thee by the power of Thy guarded secret 
 Names which none of Thy creatures know. 
 
160 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 ‘TI pray to Thee by the power of the Name which 
 Thou didst lay upon the night and it darkened, and upon 
 the day and it was called forth. . 
 
 “TI pray to Thee by Thy great ‘and Greatest Name by 
 which Thou hast called Thyself. . 
 
 ‘““T pray to Thee by the Names by which Thou hast 
 called Moses, upon whom be peace. 
 
 ‘“T pray to Thee by the Names by which Thou hast 
 called Aaron, upon whom be peace. .. .” 
 
 So it runs on, full of the ancient sense of the magic 
 power of a Name, and full of pieties, for this is a book of 
 personal devotions in the singular number, just such a 
 book as Berber doorkeepers of Cairo croon over to them- 
 selves on the benches before their lords’ gates. It meets 
 the human need for something more warm and personal 
 than the official worship of Islam. And it meets it 
 by lavishing honour and devotion upon the person of 
 Mohammed. The manual warms up to hymns of which 
 the closing note is, “And this our Mohammed, he is 
 our Lord.” 
 
 This little, cheap, popular work of devotion could not 
 in Amman market-place be sold to a Christian for fear 
 of the indignation of passers-by. It was, however, after 
 a little parleying, laid in my hands as a “ gift,”’ I in my 
 turn making the shopman a “ gift’? of money. And 
 so we exhausted the literature offered to that corner of 
 the Moslem world, yet not quite all its literary contacts ; 
 for some of the official class are of Turkish extraction 
 and education, and have in their houses libraries in 
 French, from which they bring out for the Christian’s 
 benefit objections to his Faith based on modern philosophy 
 and modern scientific or economic theories. And again 
 an influence, semi-literary since it demands the art of 
 reading and looking at pictures, is the cinema show, which 
 
LITERATURE IN ISLAM 161 
 
 takes place every night hard by the mosque, in the centre 
 of the town. Strange and lurid must be the view which 
 the Arab audience receives of the life of Western and 
 so-called Christian lands ! 
 
 That tiny trickle of literature into the out-of-the-way 
 Moslem town has been described thus in detail because 
 it is strangely representative of great streams of literary 
 influence poured out upon the whole Moslem world, and 
 more especially upon the Arabic heart of it, each stream 
 constituting a several challenge to those who believe that 
 Christ is the rightful Master of the thought of men. 
 
 And, first, the Korans on the shelf that were held sacred 
 from the touch of a Christian are the representatives 
 of all that prolific output of Koranic literature, text, 
 comment, law, theology, which the Moslem presses of 
 Cairo (to name only the greatest of many renowned 
 centres) steadily grind out, and which travels thence to 
 Java or South Africa, to India or Brazil, or to a score 
 of other lands. This literature, be it remembered, is 
 directly responsible in its spiritual attitude (though not 
 in any particular precept on that point) for that estimate 
 of the Faith of Christ which made it seem outrageous 
 for a Christian woman to touch the sacred book. This 
 literature, which trains men in amassing texts and 
 authorities and in a certain dialectic skill in using them, 
 offers to the Christian Church intellectual positions to 
 be captured, but yet more, a spiritual attitude to be 
 changed and prejudices to be broken down for the 
 rightful Lord of human thought. 
 
 But next, those elegant letter-writers and poetry 
 books may stand for all the world of Arabic belles-lettres, 
 a world sometimes of naive charm, sometimes of piled-up 
 luxuriant verbiage. It is a strange phenomenon, this 
 polite literature of the great Moslem tongue whose 
 
 12 
 
162 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 periods exercise such fascination over her children. It 
 would sometimes seem as though the intellect of Arabic 
 creators had gone all to the elaboration of this magnificent 
 vehicle for human thought and then had failed of thoughts 
 worthy of such a language. Certain it is that an educa- 
 tion in such literature tends to breed readers who are 
 content to be paid in words and to gloat over fine periods 
 rather than over fine thought. If books of Moslem 
 theology give the sense of intellectual positions to be 
 won and spiritual attitudes to be changed, books of 
 Arabic belles-lettres suggest rather a great instrument 
 waiting until the rightful Master shall play upon it. 
 The people of Christ in East and West have been 
 strangely without ambition here. Some have coveted 
 for Him the use of the Arabic tongue because of the area 
 it covers and the number of souls who speak it. Shall 
 we not add to that aspiration another, based on the very 
 magnificence of the language? Who but He can raise 
 this great instrument to its fullest beauty and nobility 
 by taxing it to express the thoughts of One who spake 
 as never man spake? Would that all institutions of 
 Christian learning besought the Lord daily to inspire 
 some genius among His people of the East to bend this 
 language to His will. 
 
 The stories were the largest element in the pile of 
 books—forlorn-looking street-leaflet stories. And that 
 fact speaks loudly of a human need. The other books, 
 the Koranic works, the high Arabic literature, the sheikh’s 
 prayer-manual, have a group or an order to praise, 
 support, and recommend them. But these little street — 
 stories there are none to praise. They found their way 
 from Cairo to the desert border simply because of the 
 human desire for a story. Who will awaken the Church 
 to the meaning of this situation ? Moslem lands to-day, 
 
LITERATURE IN ISLAM 163 
 
 with the modern increase of primary education, have a 
 new population of half-readers or stuttering readers who 
 cannot attain to the glories of high literature, but who 
 are, like all normal human beings, hungry for stories. 
 The recent survey of literature conditions in Moslem 
 lands brought in strong appeals for more story-books, 
 Christian in spirit and message, from Egypt, Syria, 
 Arabia, Algeria, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Persia, India, Java. 
 Even while this chapter was in the writing a letter 
 arrived from a government education official in Jerusalem, 
 a Palestinian, who writes: 
 
 “One of the sad points one cannot help noticing about 
 the schools of all types in the Near East is that the 
 pupils are slaves to the textbooks, and I believe that 
 one of the chief reasons for this slavery is the great 
 shortage of light reading-matter.”’ 
 
 Scores of the schools of the Near East are conducted 
 in Christ’s name by missionary societies, and “ slavery 
 to textbooks” is a strange result of education in the 
 name of One who said, “ The truth shall make you 
 free’ ! 
 
 Here, then, is a situation and a challenge. A challenge 
 first to the Church in the West that provides and controls 
 mission finance. It would seem a hard thing for the 
 Western man even to picture the difference that would 
 have been made in his life if the story element that 
 surrounded his youth had been anti-Christian in its 
 influence. It is hard for him to realize how many 
 unconscious impulses to admire and love the right 
 would go with the stories that inspired them. The 
 influence of stories has been so overlooked that the man 
 they trained will, as a supporter of missions, often refuse 
 to feed Christ’s lambs with them, forgetting that the 
 
164 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 teaching methods of his Saviour honoured the human 
 love of a story, and desiring to publish in that Saviour’s 
 Name no literature but tracts. Or the same Western 
 man, as a missionary in the East, will be assaulted again 
 with distrust of the value of a story, and will leave—nay, 
 has left—his Eastern co-workers no sense of the vocation 
 of the Christian story-teller and story-writer. When 
 will the Eastern world see an order of Christian story- 
 tellers gathering groups by the wayside? And when 
 will she see an output, generous in spirit and quantity, 
 of cheap, engaging stories in print with pictures to 
 match ? 
 
 That last hidden element in the bookseller’s stock, the 
 prayer-manual, represents the most deep and spiritual 
 influence of Islam on its children. It recalls to us the 
 whole network throughout the Moslem world of sheikh 
 or guru and pupils, grouped often in one of the numerous 
 and far-spread dervish orders. At its best the literature 
 of these movements has expressed the mystical faith 
 and given hints of the ecstasy of the saints of Moslem 
 mysticism. But such books, mostly medieval, are for 
 the very few. On its more ordinary levels this literature 
 meets the need of the common man for direction and 
 fellowship of the spirit, even though it be but fellowship 
 in common rhythmic movements for self-hypnotism. 
 This whole literature, whether in its rarely frequented 
 heights or in its common manifestations—in the puthi 
 of the Bengali villager or the wivd of the dervish order, 
 murmured over in odd moments by an Egyptian shop- 
 keeper—all this stands as an almost unheeded challenge 
 to a Church which easily forgets how normal, frequent, 
 and full of rich meaning in her life at its best are the 
 words ‘‘ I was in the Spirit.” Where, in the Church’s 
 whole approach to the Moslem world, is the man or 
 
LITERATURE IN ISLAM 165 
 
 woman deliberately set apart to write the message of 
 the Inward Way ? 
 
 Challenging, then, in their way are all of the handful 
 of Moslem books found that dayin Amman. Challenging, ~ 
 too, is the witness that they bear to the cosmopolitan 
 life within the cosmos of Islam. The Arab of Amman 
 was drawing his reading from Mecca, Damascus, Cairo, 
 and Stamboul. It is this fact of the unity of product 
 and consumption within Islam which gives special 
 point to the proposals mooted at the General Conference 
 at Jerusalem, 1924, for a bureau to promote co-operation 
 among all Christian writers and circulation agencies in 
 the Moslem world. Christians must be shamed into 
 acting together in this matter when the counter unity 
 is a fact. 
 
 But still more challenging to the man who is Christ’s 
 are those two non-Moslem strains of influence that reach 
 Amman, as they reach the whole Near Eastern world, 
 through the European books from which anti-Christian 
 arguments were drawn, and through the cinema, which 
 has come to stay. Through book and picture the West | 
 is giving its message to the East. Shall books and Vv 
 pictures carry every message but the message of Christ ? 
 
A ie ess ey ‘ 
 Da NAN Ty Mera an MO To 
 “ay 4 ay ae 8 
 
 Bhd eet , ey 
 PRAM A EON bi It Shir! 
 
 ie aetbalcat 
 reheat 
 ' oe & awe re v cot 
 re WELY qe WY 
 
 hi Weert 
 Py r¢] te) ih 
 
 Susie's Bante i ia Wig 
 PTE: ORD 
 
 
 
WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 —FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RESULTS 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 WILLIAM H. HALL, M.A., D.D., 
 
 Principal, Preparatory School, American University of 
 Beiriit 
 

 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 —FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RESULTS 
 
 THis chapter is divided into three parts: the first, 
 historical, in which is set forth something of the in- 
 tellectual debt which Western peoples owe to Moslem 
 lands ; the second, an outline of the Western educational 
 forces at present at work in Moslem lands; and the 
 third, some comments on the purpose and results of 
 Western education in Moslem lands. 
 
 THE INTELLECTUAL DEBT 
 
 In Muir’s Annals of the Early Caliphate: occurs this 
 statement : 
 
 “It was through the labours of these learned men 
 [certain scholars of Baghdad] that the nations of Europe, 
 then shrouded in the darkness of the Middle Ages, be- 
 came again acquainted with their own proper, but 
 unused and forgotten, patrimony of Grecian science and 
 philosophy.” 
 
 In like manner Coppée, in his Conquest of Spain by 
 the Avab Moors,? maintains : 
 
 “These Arabian adventurers were to achieve a moral 
 triumph far nobler [than arms], to make an intellectual 
 
 1 Sir William Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate, London, 
 1883, Pp. 453. 
 * Henry Coppée, History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab 
 Moors, Boston, 1881, vol. 2, pp. 297-8. 
 169 
 
 / 
 
170 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 incursion which was to be acknowledged with gratitude 
 in the schools of Oxford, and to be permanently felt ‘as 
 far as the confines of Poland and the Highlands of Scot- 
 land.’ They were now to throw a flood of light upon the 
 darkness of western Europe; and while, directly, they 
 were imparting secular knowledge, they were. . . indi- 
 rectly to rouse Christendom, and bind all its components 
 together in a grand rally for the Christian faith,—positively 
 to instruct and thus negatively to strengthen.” 
 
 Just what forces combined to rouse Western Europe 
 from its Dark Ages and bring on the Renaissance no one 
 can finally state. But certain it is that the influence of 
 Arab learning played no small part in the great awaken- 
 ing. There were three main channels through which this 
 learning of Moslem lands penetrated to the countries 
 of Europe: the pilgrims and Crusaders returning from 
 Palestine ; the Arab scholars and schools of Sicily ; and 
 the Arab Moors of Spain. Through these three sources 
 Europe came in touch with the philosophy, science, 
 mathematics, and medicine of Moslem lands. 
 
 While Europe was slumbering in the darkness of 
 ignorance brought on by the barbarian invasion that 
 overthrew the culture of Rome, learning of all kinds 
 was flourishing in the lands of the Caliphs. The city of 
 Baghdad became an intellectual centre to which were 
 drawn the scholars of all lands and faiths. Harun al- 
 Rashid, of Avabian Nights fame, and his successors 
 patronized every form of learning. They caused books 
 to be gathered from all countries into a great library 
 at Baghdad. Scholars from Persia and India, from 
 Syria and Egypt, were encouraged by royal favour. 
 The works of Aristotle, lost to the Western world, were 
 translated into Arabic, and in this form passed on to 
 Europe. Ibn Sina, known to Europe as Avicenna, born 
 
EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 171 
 
 in far-away Bukhara about 980, was the recognized 
 authority in the interpretation of Aristotle. 
 
 Medicine and medical science flourished. It is said 
 that in the eleventh century there were 6,000 students 
 of medicine in Baghdad alone. There were well-ordered 
 hospitals in Cairo, Damascus, and Baghdad. Geography 
 and mathematics were developed to a high degree. 
 These Arab scientists had conceived of the spherical 
 shape of the earth, had measured the angle of the ecliptic, 
 had studied algebra, trigonometry, and analytical 
 geometry. They had brought from India the so-called 
 Arabic numerals on which our present decimal system 
 is based, thus displacing the cumbersome Roman nota- 
 tion. In short, to such an extent did the study of science 
 advance and so enthusiastically was it encouraged by 
 the Abbasid Caliphs, that they were accused of infidelity 
 to religion and the Koran. 
 
 While this intellectual activity was going on amongst 
 Moslem people, Western Europe was sleeping under the 
 spell of the Dark Ages. A portion, at least, of the 
 awakening was due to the scholars and the learning of 
 Arab lands. 
 
 Then, by the turn of fortune’s wheel, came the invasion 
 of Turk and Tatar; and the Dark Ages, lifted from 
 Europe, settled over the Arab people who recently had 
 done so much for the bringing of dawn in the West. 
 And thus there has been left to the West an intellectual 
 debt, an inheritance of obligation to “send the light ” 
 of education to lands that were once the centre of learning, 
 
 Dr. E. G. Browne closes his lectures on Arabian 
 Medicine! with this observation : 
 
 “ Above all there has grown in me, while communing 
 
 1 Edward G, Browne, Avabian Medicine, Cambridge, 1921, 
 p. 126, 
 
172. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 with the minds of these old Arabian and Persian physi- 
 cians, a realization of the solidarity of the human in- 
 telligence beyond all limitations of race, space, or time.”’ 
 
 It is the preservation of this solidarity that is the call 
 to-day for “‘ Western education in Moslem lands.”’ 
 
 WESTERN EDUCATIONAL FORCES AT WORK IN 
 MosLEM LANDS 
 
 In estimating the evangelizing agencies in non- 
 Christian lands one is prone to think solely in terms of 
 Protestant mission institutions, and to overlook the 
 educative influences that radiate from the non-Pro- 
 testant missions, the commercial enterprises, the con- 
 nexion established by emigration, and the government 
 school systems. All of these, it must be remembered, 
 are contributing their portion, whether great or small, 
 to the transforming of life and thought. 
 
 There are three special lines along which the develop- 
 ments of Western lands are now, in turn, helping to pay 
 to the Moslem lands the educational debt contracted 
 during the medieval Dark Ages. First, there are the 
 government systems of education; second, the non- 
 Protestant missions of Europe; and third, the school 
 systems under the patronage of American and European 
 Protestant missions. 
 
 Within less than a century there has been a general 
 awakening throughout the Moslem world to the need of 
 introducing Western systems and Western methods of 
 education. As governments of these lands have been 
 brought into closer relations with the governments of 
 Europe they have realized the vast difference that has 
 separated their people from those of the West. With 
 the introduction of modern machinery and modern com- 
 
EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 178 
 
 mercial productions they have come to realize that, if 
 they are to compete on anything like even terms, their 
 youth must receive a training similar to that given the 
 youth of Europe. 
 
 This realization has led to the formulation of educa- 
 tional laws, the appointment of ministers of education 
 in cabinets, the making of plans for national systems of 
 education, and the appropriation of funds for school 
 purposes. Hence we find in practically every Moslem 
 country of the Near East—North Africa, Egypt, Pales- 
 tine, Syria, Turkey, Persia, Mesopotamia—a system of 
 public education well outlined, provided for by national 
 laws, and supported by the public treasury. In prac- 
 tically every case these public systems are based on some 
 European system. The grading of the schools, the 
 content of the course of study, the departments of the 
 university, and the granting of degrees are all repro- 
 ductions, in the main, of the French system. 
 
 Where these countries have been under the guidance 
 of some foreign Power the systems have become more 
 efficient in operation, as in Egypt and Palestine and 
 portions of North Africa. In the more independent 
 districts, as in Turkey and Persia, the systems exist 
 chiefly on paper. But in every country the desirability 
 of the Western system is recognized by the enactment 
 of the law and the organization of the system, at least 
 on paper. Too often the promoters of these systems 
 seem to think that their value lies in the university alone, 
 take great pains for its establishment, and give too little 
 thought to the long years of primary education upon 
 which, as a foundation, the university must be built. 
 But, nevertheless, there is the positive and official 
 recognition of the value of the Western method. The 
 laboratory, hospital, library, and museum are recognized 
 
174 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 as the proper means of instruction. An official seal has 
 been placed on the value of the scientific method of 
 education as developed in the West, in contrast with the 
 method of tradition as practised in the religious schools 
 of the East. And in this the educational leaders are 
 but receiving back again their own method after nine 
 centuries. | 
 
 In evaluating the educational progress of Moslem lands 
 during the past fifty years and in forecasting its probable 
 influence in the years to come, proper weight must be 
 given to these governmental systems, fashioned on 
 Western models. As in Palestine, where there is a 
 comprehensive school system, efficiently administered, 
 with teachers trained and schools inspected, the impact 
 of this government programme must be the same power 
 for elevation of the people as is public education in 
 America or Europe. An efficient educational system 
 and superstition cannot long exist side by side. 
 
 After the government school systems should be 
 considered those educational systems established and 
 maintained by numerous non-Protestant bodies. In 
 nearly all the Moslem lands there will be found such 
 schools as those of the Jesuit Fathers, the Fréres, the 
 Mission Laique, or the Italian schools. Whether or 
 not we approve in all cases of their methods, or agree 
 with the content of their curricula, we must concede 
 that no study of Western education in Moslem lands 
 would be complete which did not take account of the 
 fact that earnest men and women, confident of the 
 uplifting value of their mission, are making their con- 
 tribution to the mental development of the youth of 
 the East and have a part in the thought-growth of the 
 people. 
 
 The Bull of Pope Paul III in 1540, which first formally 
 
EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 175 
 
 recognized the order of the Jesuits, specified the teaching 
 of boys and ignorant persons as part of the work for 
 which they were established. Throughout the history 
 of the order teaching has been prominent. At one 
 time they were the schoolmasters of Europe. Later, 
 banished from France, they became active in the conduct 
 of schools in the colonies. In Moslem lands they have 
 been promoters of education in language, history, and 
 science. There are many fine scholars amongst them, 
 and their educational influence has been widely extended. 
 
 A clerical teaching order known as the Fréres main- 
 tains a very extensive system of schools throughout 
 the entire Near East. Their schools are well attended, 
 and their course of instruction is one of the best of all 
 the Western systems working in the East. Side by side 
 with them, and not always, one regrets to state, in the 
 greatest harmony, is a French lay order, the ,Mission 
 Laique. This mission believes that Western, and 
 especially French, culture is worth extending to other 
 people. It is a non-religious but not an unreligious 
 body of teachers. 
 
 Other orders and missions might be enumerated, but 
 those mentioned suffice to show that many educators 
 from Europe are giving their lives to the work of in- 
 structing the people of Moslem lands in the thought and 
 method of the West. 
 
 “A church on every hill-top and a school-house in 
 every valley,” used to be the boast of Puritan New 
 England. This same sentiment might well be echoed 
 by Protestant missions the world over. Education has 
 ever been taken for granted as a first result of mission 
 work, 
 
 Christian mission work in Moslem lands began a 
 little over a century ago. That century has been an era 
 
176 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of miraculous growth in world communication. The 
 rapid development of these means of communication and 
 transportation, the enormous increase in emigration with 
 the attendant reports sent back to friends, the penetra- 
 tion of commercial products—these, together with other 
 contacts with the West, have given an increasing demand 
 for the knowledge and training that could come only 
 through schools of the Western type. 
 
 Protestant missions have not been slow in meeting this 
 demand. At first education seemed about the only 
 means of contact with a people who were practically 
 closed to appeal in any other way, save perhaps through 
 medicine. As a result, the educational phase of mission 
 work amongst Moslems has assumed rather a larger 
 proportion of attention than in other fields. There 
 have been developed complete systems of schools be- 
 ginning with the kindergarten and extending through the 
 high school, college, and professional schools, systems 
 so complete that they afford a boy or girl as thorough a 
 training as can be obtained in many a Western land, 
 even up through the medical profession in its various 
 branches, or the fitting for a teacher, preacher, business 
 man, or engineer. 
 
 PURPOSE AND RESULTS OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN 
 MosLEM LANDS 
 
 Western Education is chiefly distinguished by the 
 application of “ the scientific method ”’ to all departments 
 of human knowledge. This method is the following out 
 of the Pauline text, ‘‘ Prove all things, hold fast that 
 which is good.” In this it is directly opposed to the 
 Oriental method of memorizing texts and _ traditions. 
 The one is advancing with face to the future, believing 
 
EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 177 
 
 that the best of truth is still to be discovered ; the other 
 advances with its face to the past, believing that the 
 golden age lies in the years gone by. 
 
 It is a dictum of Western education that the final goal 
 of education is the formation of character. Oriental 
 education demanded the memorizing of catechisms and 
 commentaries, but made no impact on character. In 
 contrast with this, Western education emphasizes 
 reality—the taking of beliefs and theories and making 
 them vital in the practice of every-day living, and in the 
 formation of character. Moreover, Western Christianity 
 says, ‘‘ Character can best be developed when the spirit 
 of Jesus is dominant in an individual life.’’ 
 
 When Western education comes into Eastern lands it 
 does not try to make Westerners of Eastern peoples, but 
 rather to give them the Western scientific method recast 
 in the Eastern moulds. Western Christian education, 
 instead of permitting the “scientific method to run 
 rampant and undirected, leaving a train of doubt, takes 
 the scientific method and interprets it in the light of 
 faith and devotion.” 
 
 The findings of the Jerusalem Conference, 1924, state 
 that in the past the chief use of mission schools has been 
 as an approach, a means of entrance for other forms of 
 mission work. But, now that changing conditions have 
 rendered this no longer necessary, the school “‘ has been 
 set free for its direct educational task.” They further 
 state that, in view of the new self-consciousness aroused 
 by the war-years, the new purpose of Moslem peoples 
 to demonstrate their ability to make proper use of 
 Western appliances and methods of thought— 
 
 “ , . It seems necessary, not only to re-emphasize our 
 former aims of educational work, but also to state the 
 
 13 
 
178 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 necessity of sympathetically guiding students in their 
 historical and scientific studies.”’ } 
 
 The regional conference for Syria and Palestine ex- 
 pressed the chief object of educational work as follows : 
 
 “ This Conference would reaffirm that the prime object 
 of educational work should be to train men and women 
 of such Christian character that they will be able to help 
 their people develop a proper social and economic life, 
 both national and international, to lay a firm foundation 
 of honest, upright moral character, and to find the source 
 of that character in Jesus Christ as Saviour from sin and 
 Lord of life. But the specific object should be the train- 
 ing of intellectual leaders who, untrammelled by the 
 traditions of the past, whether Christian, Moslem, or 
 Jewish, shall do their thinking freely for themselves. 
 They do not need dogma and convention so much as 
 the mind of Jesus of Nazareth, so that they may awake 
 to the eternal fact of truth in Him.” ? 
 
 From these quotations it will be seen that Western 
 Christian education in Moslem lands has a far wider task 
 than to use its schools primarily for developing a point 
 of contact. Everywhere the contact has already been 
 made. “ Reports from all fields indicate an increasing 
 desire on the part of Moslems for the education given in 
 missionary institutions.”” They have come to believe 
 in and to trust the results of the physical, intellectual, 
 and moral training of the students committed to these. 
 schools. That confidence should not be betrayed by 
 use of the schools for narrow propaganda. Rather should 
 they be devoted to training in the understanding and use 
 of the methods and results of modern scholarship. 
 
 1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, New 
 
 York, 1924, p. 21. 
 2 Ibid., pp. 111-2. 
 
EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 179 
 
 Western education, with its Western spirit of demo- 
 cracy, its belief in the open mind, its questioning of all 
 forms of knowledge, and its insistence that all things 
 must be tested and proved, is already an established 
 fact in Moslem lands. The government systems of 
 education are modelled on this pattern. Many young 
 men and women have been sent to the universities of 
 Europe and America and are returning to their homes 
 with the method and spirit of the West. Extended 
 commercial and political relations are rapidly aiding 
 in spreading this Western method, as opposed to the 
 unquestioning acceptance of traditional dogma and 
 dictum. Forces with untold possibilities are thus being 
 released. Just here comes the opportunity of Western 
 Christian missionary education. 
 
 Amid this rising tide of inquiry, doubt, and infidelity, 
 there must appear men and women of faith and training 
 who will be as light-houses guiding to a future of sanity, 
 tolerance, and truth. ‘In no case will it be possible 
 to compete quantitatively with government and other 
 institutions,’ says the Jerusalem Conference. For the 
 educational institutions that are established is re- 
 commended, therefore, “‘the thorough and scientific 
 organization of Christian schools and their adequate 
 equipment so that they may be equal or superior to any 
 non-Christian schools in the community.” } 
 
 The curriculum and teaching in these schools should 
 accept fearlessly the method of the day. The mission 
 institution will lose its opportunity if it in any degree 
 adopts the Oriental system of authority, of “ This is 
 the creed,” or ‘“‘ Thus it has been written.’’ Whether 
 in questions of science, in questions of history, or in 
 
 1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 79224, - 
 New York, 1924, p. 22. 
 
180 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY | 
 
 questions of religion, it must be in the lead in the inquiry 
 after truth. It cannot apply one method in the class- 
 room of science and another in the class-room of religion. 
 It dare not apply the tests of the “ scientific method ” 
 to the claims of Islam, and refuse the same application 
 to the claims of Christianity. It must face the facts 
 in fairness and faith. It must resolve that its students 
 shall go forth to be the lighthouses, respected for their 
 learning, trusted for their honesty and frankness, followed 
 for their forward look, and beloved for their likeness to 
 Christ. 
 
 Education is, in itself, a primary missionary force. 
 The North Africa Conference recorded that “ the govern- 
 ment schools are preparing our way by breaking down 
 prejudices and opening out new horizons.’ This is 
 the effect of all systems of modern education. The 
 Western Christian mission schools should be in the lead 
 in exercising this leadership; they should at all times 
 retain Jesus’ outlook on the abundant life. 
 
 When one seeks for the results of Western education 
 in Moslem lands he will find them not primarily in tables 
 of statistics, but in a constant increase of those who can 
 read and write; in higher ideals of social and political 
 life; in more hygienic conditions for the community ; 
 in horizons that stretch out beyond the village, the sect, 
 and the race, and begin to include mankind; in the 
 breaking down of superstition, prejudices, and intole- 
 rance ; in thoughts lifted above the routine task of living, 
 to the glory of life. The processes are slow; the results 
 are difficult to calculate; but they are just as worth 
 while for the youth of Moslem lands as for the youth 
 of Western lands, and just as real. 
 
WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 —CHANGING FACTORS 
 
 BY 
 PROFESSOR PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 
 Director, International Institute, Teachers’ College, Columbia 
 University, New York 
 

 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 —CHANGING FACTORS 
 
 A DISCUSSION of Western education in Moslem lands 
 involves the consideration of several factors which would 
 not have entered into the situation a few years ago. 
 
 The first of these is the fact that there now exists 
 among Arabic peoples, both Christian and Moslem, a 
 well-defined renaissance of Arabic culture and hence of 
 Arabic education. This renaissance reveals itself in a 
 revival of literary activity ; in the publication of nume- 
 rous newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets; in the 
 establishment and more generous support of schools ; 
 in increased school attendance; and in stimulation of 
 the political agitation now occurring throughout these 
 lands. It is also shown in a more suspicious or even a 
 hostile attitude towards Western educational institu- 
 tions. At the same time, there may exist in some of 
 these lands an intensified interest in Western culture or 
 in certain aspects of it and consequently in the schools 
 which represent it. 
 
 It is quite possible that the Arab overestimates the 
 importance of this new cultural movement, especially 
 in terms of the old learning. The Arab is inclined to 
 say that because algebra and chemistry originated with 
 his forefathers, and because they were the transmitters 
 
 of Aristotelian learning to the West, therefore the Arab 
 183 
 
184 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 student in this present movement can rapidly become the 
 peer of the scientists and the scholars of the West. But 
 it is just as possible that the Western educator may 
 underestimate the significance of this renaissance and 
 the strength of the attachment which the Arab—or 
 any member of a suppressed race or people—may have 
 for his own culture. The Westerner is inclined to under- 
 estimate the stimulus which the renewed vitality of 
 Arabic culture may give to the Moslem people. He 
 may fail to realize that such a revival is likely to arouse 
 hostility to his own culture, for Western culture, more 
 forceful and aggressive, tends to ignore and suppress 
 that of any weaker or backward people. Above all, 
 he may fail to see how much assistance the apostle of 
 Western culture or religion may gain by admitting the 
 inherent value of the native culture and the significance 
 of its renewed vitality. An infusion of this new vitality 
 into his own work, through sympathetic appreciation 
 and co-operation, may afford a way out of an awkward 
 situation where the two cultures seem to have reached 
 a hostile vis-a-vis. 
 
 This Arab renaissance affects Syria, Palestine, Meso- 
 potamia, Egypt, and, by indirection, the other Moslem 
 lands. 
 
 The second factor demanding consideration is that all 
 Moslem lands and all Moslem peoples have received a 
 new political stimulus, are striving for political organiza- 
 tion in modern form, and are endeavouring to throw off 
 any political restraint or control exercised over them by 
 the Western Powers. This political renaissance began 
 perhaps a generation ago, certainly as early as the Young 
 Turk movement in 1909. It was greatly stimulated 
 during and immediately after the World War and by the 
 wmpasse later reached by the French and British policies. 
 
EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS — 185 
 
 It was recognized as a vital political fact by the Con- 
 ference of Lausanne. This political development assumes 
 its own peculiar form in each country and with each 
 people. 
 
 In Turkey this has taken the form of a nominal 
 Republic under a dictator and controlled by a small but 
 determined faction. This faction, conscious that the 
 Western Powers had made prey of the East by dividing 
 its forces, have now retaliated by dividing the forces of 
 the West and thus obtaining independence. Chagrined 
 by the failures and the weaknesses of their own people, 
 as well as resentful of their oppression and exploitation 
 by the West, the Turks have determined to succeed even 
 at the cost of their ancient capital, one of the great historic 
 cities, now seemingly dying. In the endeavour to get 
 rid of elements of political weakness, they have sacrificed 
 some of the most important economic elements in their 
 social structure through the exchange of population and 
 the elimination of the Greek and Armenian peoples. 
 
 In Egypt a new constitutional monarchy is replacing 
 the English occupation. Notwithstanding the obvious 
 advantages conferred by English rule, these rulers them- 
 selves have recognized the inevitability of the political 
 forces at work. This long training under the English, 
 together with taxable assets sufficient to support any 
 fairly efficient government, gives greater promise for 
 the political future of Egypt than can be hoped for in 
 the case of any other new political entities of the Moslem 
 world. 
 
 Palestine is restive under a British protectorate or 
 mandate which gives nominal control of the local 
 government to 15 per cent. of the population. Syria 
 is even more restive under a French protectorate which 
 has not yet made evident, to the Syrians at least, that 
 
186 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 its chief interest is in the welfare of the people living 
 under the mandate. 
 
 The ancient Empire of Persia is dallying with the idea 
 of a republic. With judgment unusual in these days 
 of political phantasies, she chooses, for the present at 
 least, a constitutional monarchy tempered by a dictator- 
 ship rather than a dictatorship clothed in the disguise 
 of a republic. For a true republic she certainly will not 
 be ready before a generation of modern schooling. 
 
 Iraq—home of ancient monarchies—is experimenting 
 with a constitutional monarchy, with a king and a very 
 active legislative assembly, under the military protec- 
 torate of a British mandate sanctioned by a negotiated 
 treaty. 
 
 In addition to the cultural and political forces a third 
 factor is to be taken into account. In all these lands 
 there is a distinct movement towards the separation of 
 the State and the Church. Since in the old Turkish 
 Empire, which covered most of the territory under 
 consideration, State and Church were identical, and in 
 the other lands were closely associated, this change is 
 of profound significance. 
 
 As has been the case in all such instances of Church 
 and State closely bound together and of schools in the 
 hands of the Church, this transition is of special signifi- 
 cance to education. In the Protestant Reformation of 
 Western Europe, where the Church became an established © 
 Church, as it did in most lands, education long remained 
 under its supervision. Where the Reformation was 
 largely political, as in England, educational foundations 
 as well as ecclesiastical foundations were destroyed for 
 political ends, and learning suffered greatly in conse- 
 quence. 
 
 The immediate effect of the disestablishment of the 
 
EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS _ 187 
 
 Church in Moslem lands must inevitably be a great 
 curtailment of education, due to the destruction of the 
 old system, with its trust funds held by the Church. 
 To balance that loss stands the effort of the Government 
 to furnish facilities for modern education. These efforts 
 are likely to be woefully inadequate, yet will be jealously 
 guarded, especially from any encroachment by eccle- 
 siastical authorities, either native or foreign. 
 
 The changes produced by these three new factors are 
 so profound that it must be recognized that the past of 
 Western education in Moslem lands is now a closed 
 chapter. This fact is perfectly obvious to all concerned 
 in the work in Turkey. It is little less obvious, but 
 perhaps as profoundly true, in all the other lands under 
 discussion. | 
 
 Western education in these Moslem lands of the Near 
 East entered a new epoch with the close of the World 
 War. There are now demanded a new policy and a new 
 programme which call for the most serious consideration. 
 Much thought is now being given to the problem by all 
 concerned. 
 
 For those not on the ground, but interested in the 
 problem, one further factor must be borne in mind. The 
 various Moslem countries present very diverse situations. 
 In Turkey there is a hostility to all Western Governments 
 and all Western enterprises, due to her experiences of a 
 century past. There is a suspicion of, if not a direct 
 hostility to, Western education, especially mission educa- 
 tion, owing to the fact that it has been directed toward 
 the minority peoples and not toward the Turks. Whether 
 or not this suspicion is justified, it undoubtedly exists. 
 Furthermore, there exists a hostility to these schools 
 on the part of the Turkish people as well as of the Turkish 
 authorities, based upon the belief that they have been 
 
188 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 directly responsible, in part at least, for the political 
 misfortunes of Turkey. And while it can be proved that 
 such schools have taken no part whatever in agitation, 
 or in any overt act against the established authorities, 
 it cannot be denied that there is in Western education, 
 as interpreted by Americans, even by American mis- 
 sionaries, a political bias hostile to the traditional 
 political ideals and practices of the East. It cannot be 
 maintained that this education produced the modern 
 Bulgaria without admitting that it had some influence 
 on the political ideas and aspirations of the other minority 
 peoples of the old Turkish Empire. This situation, how- 
 ever, is of the past, even if the hostility is not. The 
 present problems are entirely new. Turkey, with the 
 form of a modern republic, with the social minorities 
 eliminated and the Moslem Church disestablished, presents 
 an entirely new situation and demands on the part of 
 Western educators an entirely new policy. What shall 
 this policy be ? How shall the West disarm hostility or 
 suspicion ? What shall it aim to contribute to the 
 Turks ? What shall it aim to accomplish for Western 
 culture and for Christianity ? 
 
 These same questions arise but with varying incidence 
 in the other Moslem lands. In Egypt the hostility toward 
 mission educational work is less pronounced. This may 
 be due to the facts that in this country contacts with 
 the West have been chiefly political, have been for many 
 years past with one Government only, and have been of 
 a benevolent and beneficial character. It may be due 
 in part to the fact that there has always been a minority 
 Christian population, native to the land, and causing 
 little or no political difficulty. 
 
 In Syria the immediate problem lies chiefly in the 
 adjustment of policy and the political mandatory power. 
 
EDUCATION: CHANGING FACTORS — 189 
 
 The French plan in the mandate territory is to work out 
 their educational programme chiefly through the Church, 
 which means chiefly through the Roman Catholic religious 
 orders. At present, then, there are two distinct problems 
 of adjustment in this area. The one is with the native 
 population. Since this is part Christian, part Moslem, 
 the situation is much easier than where the native popula- 
 tion is entirely Moslem. The other problem is adjustment 
 with a mandatory Power accustomed to use the Church 
 as an instrument of government and to this end to give 
 the Church large authority over education. 
 
 The most that can be asked or expected is a working 
 agreement of tolerance. The situation is very greatly 
 eased by the facts that the one leading mission educational 
 institution has long been cosmopolitan in the composition 
 of its student body and staff and that it has sent its 
 graduates into important positions of social and govern- 
 ment service throughout the Near East. Furthermore, 
 it has served the Arabic peoples of the old Turkish Empire 
 and has for its backing the Arabic sentiment in so far 
 as this is indifferent or hostile to the old Turkish political 
 domination. 
 
 In Persia also a more friendly attitude is found toward 
 the Western schools. Despite the fanaticism and igno- 
 rance of the masses of the people, the mission schools 
 are patronized by the families of the best classes; not 
 only by those of the landed gentry, as is chiefly the case 
 in Egypt, but also by the official class. 
 
 Altogether the new conditions, political, cultural, and 
 religious, call for a policy differing in many respects from 
 that of the past, and present a new opportunity through- 
 out the Moslem lands. While antagonisms, hostility, and 
 suspicion are still present, yet there is nevertheless a 
 greater opportunity. 
 
199 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 The Turkish authorities may restrict the privileges 
 of the mission school; they at least recognize its influence 
 even with the Moslem population. They may try to 
 sever all religious instruction and influence from the 
 schools ; they are at least doing the same thing with the 
 schools for Moslems. The profound political, eccle- 
 siastical, and cultural changes which have taken place 
 indicate a willingness to learn or at least a willingness 
 to consider new evidence and to change from immemorial 
 custom. Hostility to Western power and culture, even 
 in India, does not imply an unwillingness to learn from 
 these contacts and to profit by them. While it must 
 be recognized that there is a new Sensitiveness and a 
 renewal of fanatical intolerance throughout the Moslem 
 world, felt even as far away as with the Moros of the 
 Philippines, this again is but the reaction of the masses 
 to the conviction of their leaders that Western culture and 
 Western schools, and even Western religion, are making, 
 or have the opportunity of making, a new and a more 
 forceful appeal to the Moslem world. 
 
 A few of the changes in policy made necessary, or at 
 least desirable, by the new situation may be indicated. 
 
 Obviously, all non-governmental work will have to be 
 carried on under closer government supervision than 
 heretofore. It would, therefore, seem desirable that 
 Western education should seek to adapt itself more 
 closely to government standards than in the past. The 
 essential things in mission education are its purpose, 
 spirit, and method. Institutional organization and 
 arrangement of curriculum materials are not so essential. 
 It seems unwise for mission educators to sacrifice so 
 much of their main purpose for the preservation of those 
 externals to which they had been accustomed in the 
 West. 
 
EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS | 191 
 
 Education is now recognized as a great political power, 
 just as heretofore it has been recognized as a great 
 religious power. It is but natural that all these new 
 organizations, not yet assured of their stability, should 
 seek to control education as a means of strengthening 
 their hold on the people. Western education, mission 
 education, should further this end by assisting public 
 education wherever possible, by complying cheerfully 
 with minimum political requirements which perhaps are 
 seldom required in our own country, and by seeking to 
 demonstrate to the political authorities and to the public 
 at large that private initiative in education, including the 
 enterprises of mission or Western education, can con- 
 tribute to general progress and welfare. Such contribu- 
 tion may be made by experiment, by demonstration of 
 superiority in certain lines, by caring for special ability, 
 and by the introduction of elements which the Government 
 can never control or command. 
 
 In Persia, where there is a receptive attitude on the 
 part of the officials to Western ideas, this can readily be 
 done. In Turkey, where the attitude is suspicious, if 
 not hostile, it will be far more difficult. In Egypt, and 
 wherever there is a desire to learn from democracy, even 
 though democracy is only partially conceived, the position 
 just outlined can easily be taken by Western education 
 with profit to both parties. 
 
 A second need is adjustment to the actual life and 
 needs of the community, to the culture of the people. 
 This is more difficult because it is less tangible than is 
 adjustment to the policy of the Government. The latter 
 may call for diplomacy and modification of externals ; 
 the former demands close study, great insight, and modi- 
 fication of essentials. It may be that approach to the 
 life of the people, now more open and sensitive than 
 
192 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 ever before, can be better made through agriculture 
 and industry than through the learned professions. It 
 may be that the school-teacher or the trained agricul- 
 turist or artisan is a far more important person to produce 
 than the physician, the government official, the diplomat, 
 the lawyer, or the merchant. 
 
 It is even possible that investigation of the daily 
 routine of life in home conditions, in industrial process, 
 in rural custom, followed by judicious attempts to 
 improve this routine, is more important, and a more 
 direct way to the end sought than the production of 
 a few religious teachers who follow the traditional 
 formal routine. 
 
 The concept of salvation as the saving health of a 
 community, or of society, or of a people, as well as of 
 selected individuals, has been slow to dawn upon the 
 religious world. Its dawn is even more retarded in the 
 smaller world of religious or mission education. Perhaps 
 the new day of opportunity in the Near East awaits such 
 a dawn. Certainly the new opportunity for such a closer 
 approach to the people now exists. They are conscious 
 of their many defects, conscious that their own Govern- 
 ment cannot fully meet these deficiencies. In many 
 instances they are awaiting just such leadership. The 
 significance of the educational work of the Near East 
 Relief enterprises lies in its intimate connexion with the 
 whole life of the child and hence with the entire life of 
 the communities of which these children become members. 
 This seeking the good of society rather than merely that 
 of the person educated is particularly the thing which 
 mission education should demonstrate for the members 
 of retarded groups. 
 
 Looked at from another point of view, the present 
 situation offers a third aspect of the new opportunity 
 
EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS — 198 
 
 and the need for a new policy. Clearly the chief contri- 
 bution which Western education can offer to native’ 
 education is to lead the way by experimentation and 
 demonstration. Its endeavours should be more novel, 
 its achievements more specialized, than those of the 
 usual governmental and private native efforts. It can 
 never compete in quantity ; it should excel in quality, not 
 only of products but also of types of endeavour. Western 
 education in the Orient should not be tied down too 
 closely to an imitation of the traditional models. Western 
 educators abroad should be conscious of the fact that 
 what was standard in their own experience is rapidly 
 being changed in the homeland through subsequent 
 experience ; that educational conditions at home are not 
 static if they are vitally alive ; so that Western education 
 abroad should not be static. Efficiency or success in 
 the conventional is not sufficient. It may be adequate 
 for the individual student; it does not suffice for the 
 society to which this education is on mission. 
 
 In this closer approach to the life of the people it is 
 evident that the educational work itself should be shared 
 in by the people of the country concerned. Not only on 
 the teaching staff, but in administration and control, 
 native co-operation should be more largely sought. 
 This is not so simple a proposition in the Near East as 
 it is in the Far East, though even there it is far from 
 simple. The point is, that so long as this mission educa- 
 tion remains wholly alien, so long does it miss its main 
 purpose of entering fully into the life of the people, and 
 thus ceasing to be wholly Western or alien, but becoming 
 a common Christian product and possession, 
 
 One final point of profound change may be mentioned 
 although its possibility may be a debated question. It 
 is closely related to the point previously made. If 
 
 14 
 
194 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 education should seek to influence the entire life of the 
 community, then one of the best ways of doing this 
 would be to demonstrate its efficiency in the entire life 
 of certain small communities, just as now it seeks to 
 accomplish its main purpose by influencing a few in- 
 dividuals. Especially with mission education, which 
 seeks to make a demonstration of the superiority of a 
 life of reason, of faith, and of right conduct—of the 
 unity of life, physical, economic, social, spiritual—it 
 would seem that the most effective way of doing this is 
 to show changes wrought in the life of some entire com- 
 munity. Strangely enough, this has seldom been at- 
 tempted, and that only recently. Progress in rural life, 
 in agriculture, in health conditions, in industrial relations, 
 has been improved in our Western world by such group 
 demonstrations. It is high time that Western education 
 in Eastern lands made serious attempts of this kind. 
 Whether old or new in policy is urged, there arises the 
 more fundamental question of the place and function 
 of a mission education in Moslem lands. Why should 
 Christian men and woman devote either their funds or 
 their lives to this work ? What is its need, its justifica- 
 tion? What are its results? The answer given by 
 those native leaders who patronize or favour the schools, 
 and that given by the Western educator experienced in 
 the work, are fundamentally the same. The one out- 
 standing responsibility, the one outstanding contribu-/ 
 tion, of mission education is character-building. While 
 strong moral traits may be developed by the Oriental 
 home, or even by the Oriental religion or social life, this 
 is not usually the case. And, even if it is, the school 
 has little to do with the result. The home and social 
 organization may furnish efficiency ; the native religion 
 may furnish social motives and moral ideas ; the school 
 
EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS 195 
 
 may furnish knowledge. But it is the vital organic 
 union of these factors which constitutes character, and 
 that union the mission school can and does bring about 
 far oftener than does any indigenous agency. For this 
 reason thoughtful native teachers welcome the mission 
 school. 
 
 In addition, the Western school contributes a number 
 of other results which the East consciously needs. One 
 is a training in democratic ideas and practices, for which 
 all these people are now reaching out. Another is the 
 idea of efficiency, the working over of knowledge into 
 conduct, of which the native schools have little concep- 
 tion. Another is that of the harmonious co-operation of 
 several national and religious groups which in their 
 natural condition are always hostile. Still another is 
 the concept of education as affecting the life of the 
 community, its concept as the vital social or political 
 influence in contrast with the external or physical force 
 represented by public officials or soldiery. In this last 
 respect Western education needs to assume a more 
 definite leadership in agriculture and in the direction of 
 commerce and public health than it has hitherto done. 
 
 Whether viewed from the standpoint of opportunity, 
 of policy, of achievement, or of function, Western educa- 
 tion in Moslem lands is now facing a crisis, and both needs 
 and deserves the sympathetic interest and support of 
 the homeland. 
 
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INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN 
 EGYPT AND PALESTINE 
 
 BY 
 W. A; STEWART, -F.RS.A., 
 
 Director of the Egyptian School of Arts and Crafts, Cairo ; 
 Inspector of Industrial Arts and Crafts to the Egyptian 
 Government 
 
‘. AEN 
 Po ECE 
 
 .% 4 
 
 
 
CHAR PERT AIL 
 
 INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN EGYPT 
 AND PALESTINE 
 
 ALTHOUGH it may not be quite correct to say that Moslem 
 art has never been creative, it is generally admitted 
 that it has always shown great powers of absorption ; 
 it has made use of whatever forms of art came to it and 
 has moulded them to its special requirements. 
 
 This is very evident in India and in Egypt. Both 
 countries had a pronounced native art much older than 
 the earliest Moslem work, and in both countries there 
 are traces of the influence of this older work in the Moslem 
 ornament and architecture. In Egypt the Early Fatimid 
 work is strongly reminiscent of the Greek, Roman, and 
 Byzantine ornament upon which it is undoubtedly 
 based. The ornamentation of the mosque of Ibn Tulun 
 in Cairo is almost a frank importation of the decoration 
 of the mosque at Samarra which Ibn Tulun had seen 
 when a boy, and this again is very Byzantine in 
 character. 
 
 In much earlier work there is a use of living forms of 
 birds, animals, and human figures which still further 
 indicates the Byzantine parentage, and this use of 
 figures, though discontinued in the Saracen art of Egypt, 
 continues in that of Persia and India, and becomes quite 
 a characteristic feature, particularly in the art of painting, 
 
 which was never so highly developed in Egypt as in 
 199 
 
200 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the more eastern Moslem countries. Egypt has never 
 developed the art of the painted picture as an end in it- 
 self. All Egyptian art has ever had a basis of utility. In 
 ancient Egypt the tomb and the many sides of a complex 
 religion connected with the ritual of burial and the welfare 
 of the soul in the after-world of the spirit demanded a 
 form of decoration that was more in the nature of a 
 pictorial list of necessary objects and events than of an 
 esthetic interpretation of nature. 
 
 It is true that in the long series of tomb reliefs and 
 paintings we find work that reaches great heights of 
 artistic achievement, but such work is the exception, not 
 the rule, and is proof of the poetic and imaginative 
 temperament of the craftsman overcoming the difficulties 
 and limitations of his routine work. In Saracen work 
 also we find that all art seems to have had a basis of 
 utility. It is the art of the craftsman rather than that 
 of the artist as we think of him to-day, an art concerned 
 with the decoration of buildings, books, and articles 
 of domestic use, not with pictures. 
 
 A ceiling becomes a wonderful maze of complex ara- 
 besques in colour and gold; a brass bowl is adorned 
 with scrolls in engraving and silver inlay; a Koran is 
 beautiful with pages marvellously illuminated, with 
 details of form and colour so delicately worked that we 
 are amazed at the patience and skill that produced it. 
 But the decoration is always decoration. We look in 
 vain for the picture painted for its own sake, or for the 
 sculptured figure that was an end in itself. It follows, 
 therefore, that Moslem art, as it has continued to our 
 times, should have become more and more the art of the 
 craftsman. It no longer exists in Egypt outside the 
 native workshops, where indeed the traditions are still 
 alive but linger on in a feeble condition, degenerating 
 
NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 201 
 
 more and more into a copying and repetition of what 
 has been done before. 
 
 Egypt is awaiting another influence from outside, and 
 it is certain that that influence will come, or is already 
 coming, from Europe. 
 
 If we examine the educational system in force in 
 Egypt, it is not difficult to understand why art has not 
 developed. Art has been almost entirely neglected. 
 Drawing, in an elementary form, is part of the curriculum 
 of primary and secondary education; but esthetics, 
 the history of art, and its influence upon mankind, have 
 -never been dealt with. 
 
 Pictures and music have in the past been looked upon 
 as frivolous and unnecessary. The average young Moslem 
 is not concerned with these things, and has no conception 
 of the ennobling influence of creative art upon life. The 
 craftsman who may be still capable of producing some- 
 thing fine is looked upon as a workman, a member of 
 the lower classes, and is rarely given the encouragement 
 or payment which real skill deserves. The painting is 
 regarded as little better than a photograph, and its 
 essential qualities are but rarely understood. 
 
 We see, then, that there are no traditions of art, and 
 that the rising generation has none of the artistic in- 
 fluences which surround the European and American 
 child in the house and in the school, to stimulate and 
 guide it. 
 
 We must now examine what is being done to remedy 
 these conditions. J’or many years students from Egyp- 
 tian schools have been sent on educational missions to 
 Europe, where they have imbibed a little of the culture 
 and refinement of life in the great educational centres. 
 These young men, on returning to Cairo, miss the ex- 
 hibitions, the music, and the theatres to which they 
 
202 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 have grown accustomed in Europe, and this rising demand 
 for something more than the usual café life of Cairo has 
 produced the beginnings of a local drama which promises 
 to develop rapidly into a fine local art of the theatre. 
 Already plays are being produced in Arabic which are 
 genuine creations based on the social life and problems 
 of the people, not merely translations of European plays. 
 The new drama has brought with it a little group of 
 local scene-painters, some of them trained in Italy and 
 France, and they are taking their part in the revival of 
 theatrical art. Egyptians have much natural talent 
 as actors, and a really living drama shows signs of healthy 
 growth. 
 
 A school of fine arts and a school of artistic crafts have 
 been established. Nothing great has so far been achieved, 
 but several students from these schools have been sent 
 to France and England and have done work which is 
 full of promise. A little group of local student painters 
 has held exhibitions in Cairo which had sufficient interest 
 to justify the formation of an arts society. This society 
 holds an annual exhibition of painting, sculpture, and 
 decorative arts, to which any local artist, of whatever 
 nationality, may contribute. The last exhibition was 
 officially opened by His Majesty King Fuad, whose 
 kindly sympathy in the movement is doing much to make 
 it officially recognized by the Government as of con- 
 siderable educational importance. The barriers of pre- 
 judice and official neglect are being broken down by the 
 force of public opinion, and in this there is great hope 
 for the future. 
 
 The Arts Society has for president H.H. Prince Yousef 
 Kamal, a man whose wide knowledge of Oriental art is 
 a great help. He is an enthusiastic collector, and his 
 palace at Mataria is a treasure-house of beautiful objects 
 
NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 2038 
 
 which will some day become the property of the national 
 museum. His Highness is keenly interested in the 
 society, has himself endowed the school of fine arts, and 
 has sent the best students for further training in Paris. 
 
 But all efforts to train artists will be futile without 
 more general local patronage, and this is at present the 
 great difficulty. Education has been so lacking in the 
 arts that the general public does not yet appreciate the 
 work of the artists. To overcome this difficulty a 
 special Committee of Fine Arts has been recently formed 
 to advise the Ministry of Education on changes in its 
 courses of study, and to encourage in every possible way 
 the local artists and craftsmen. A sum of {£10,000 
 (Egyptian) was voted by Parliament to this Committee, 
 and with this sum several students have already been 
 sent to Europe. Grants have been voted to local music 
 and drama, and a book on the history of art is being 
 translated into Arabic. The history of art is to be 
 introduced into the curriculum of primary and secondary 
 schools, and music and eurythmics are to be taught. 
 
 Large sums of money are allocated for further develop- 
 ments in the industrial schools, particularly for the 
 weaving and carpet-making industries, and it is proposed 
 to set up a modern dye-works in order to improve this 
 very important industry, upon which the beauty of so 
 many other crafts depends. It is intended to build as 
 soon as possible specially designed schools for the fine 
 arts and for the arts and crafts. Both these schools 
 are at present housed in old buildings which are un- 
 suitable and badly lighted. 
 
 A proposal has been made to the Public Works Ministry 
 that some control be exercised over the designs for all 
 buildings in the city to ensure that they maintain a 
 standard of dignity and beauty and conform to a general 
 
204 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 scheme; also, that state buildings include decoration 
 of the interiors in order to give local artists an opportunity 
 for exercising their art in mural painting. With some 
 such state patronage and encouragement a lead will be 
 given to the public, for without patronage art cannot 
 exist. Hitherto there has been no control of private 
 building other than that required by certain regulations 
 of sanitation and public safety. Styles of every de- 
 scription have been erected, and the confused effect and 
 general lack of taste and suitability to climate and 
 traditions is very lamentable. State buildings also have, 
 so far, shown no tendency to adopt a local style of archi- 
 tecture, with the exception of the court-house at Asytt. 
 In this building a most praiseworthy effort has been 
 made to use a modified Arabic style of architecture with 
 the limitations imposed by the materials of construction, 
 namely, sand-bricks. The result is a dignified, unos- 
 tentatious structure whose decorative features are the 
 logical outcome of a right use of material. 
 
 In Lord Kitchener’s period of office a scheme was 
 drawn up to impose the Arabic style on all buildings 
 erected in the vicinity of the ancient mosque of Sultan 
 Hassan in order that this noble monument should have a 
 fitting setting. Some of the work was completed, and 
 the houses approach the old Arabic buildings in beauty 
 and dignity. With so many examples of the flower of 
 Moslem architecture in the city of Cairo, it is a pity that 
 more effort has not been made to keep up the tradition 
 and to adopt a style of state architecture that, while 
 allowing for the requirements of modern conditions, 
 would be in keeping with the old monuments which are 
 the charm of Cairo. Unfortunately, Egyptian authorities 
 prefer the more florid styles of the French Louis, and have 
 used these styles in both public and private buildings. 
 
NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 205 
 
 They cannot bring themselves to decide upon the Arabic 
 style as an official state architecture. It is looked 
 upon by most of them as out-of-date and unsuitable to 
 modern conditions of life; but that this is not the case 
 is amply proved by the experiments of one or two Euro- 
 peans who have built houses in the Arabic style with 
 ereat success. The French authorities in Morocco have 
 used the Arabic style for their public buildings, and the 
 style has been adopted by local notables for their private 
 houses. This has led to a revival of ceramic art and of 
 Arabic carving in wood and stone, and the example 
 might very well be followed in Egypt, where so many fine 
 models already exist. 
 
 There has been much discussion as to the style of art 
 which should be encouraged in Egypt. There are 
 many people who regret that the Arabic style is dying 
 out, and who urge that European art should not be 
 encouraged. There is a certain amount of work being 
 done in the style of ancient Egypt, but this period of 
 history is further from, and more foreign to, the modern 
 Egyptians than Arabic art. Again, painting, as repre- 
 sented by the picture, does not exist in Arabic art. It 
 is, therefore, somewhat difficult to decide what should 
 be done. In my opinion, it is advisable to give every 
 possible opportunity for the development of talent, to 
 make the scheme of training very wide, and to base 
 it upon the study of historic examples and upon nature, 
 but to leave style severely alone. Style will come by 
 itself, and will be the expression of what the people 
 themselves bring to their art. It cannot be imposed 
 from outside, and it is a mistake to attempt to do so. 
 Already some of the local painters who have come under 
 the influence of French impressionist art show signs of 
 becoming mere copyists of this style of painting. They 
 
206 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 do not know that the work of Monet, for example, is 
 based upon a very sound knowledge of drawing. The 
 quick and easy brushwork attracts them, and their own 
 efforts to imitate this show a sad lack of knowledge of 
 real structure. 
 
 The national library contains a rich collection of fine 
 oriental miniatures which could well be studied. They 
 are as important in their way as are the paintings of 
 Europe, and they should have their influence in the making 
 of a native school of Egyptian art. 
 
 The country needs an art gallery. It has fine museums 
 of Arabic, Coptic, and Egyptian work, but no general 
 art gallery where students who cannot afford to travel 
 may ‘study the various schools of painting. The Art 
 Society intends to do something to this end by holding 
 occasional international exhibitions by invitation, from 
 which it hopes to make purchases towards a national 
 collection. It also proposes to offer awards to local 
 artists and craftsmen. There is, therefore, considerable 
 activity towards a revival of art in Egypt. Undoubtedly 
 there are two vital needs: further propaganda to stimu- 
 late the public appreciation for the finer things of beauty 
 in life, and more general education in esthetics. 
 
 There is no doubt that the Egyptians have artistic 
 ability. Within certain limits they show very con- 
 siderable taste. In native costume, for example, one 
 seldom finds a mistake. The colours of the silk caftans 
 of the sheikhs are beautiful; the silk-weaving craft of 
 Cairo is still one of very real excellence, and should 
 be encouraged in every possible way. It depends upon 
 the continuance of native costume ; and this is tending 
 year by year toward the vanishing point. By the 
 younger students, who wear European dress, it is looked 
 upon as old-fashioned and almost a symbol of lack of 
 
NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 207 
 
 civilization; but it is still the official dress for sheikhs 
 at the Houses of Parliament and at court receptions. 
 This is as it should be, and one hopes that the King will 
 maintain a regulation which gives dignity to so valuable 
 a national possession. In Egypt and Palestine almost 
 every district has some characteristic feature of its own, 
 either of colour or of form. The production of the special 
 materials and colours is in many cases a local industry 
 with age-long traditions, and it would be a real loss to 
 the interest and beauty of Eastern life if European 
 costume, with its monotony of form and colour, became 
 universal. 
 
 We have noted that education in crafts is already going 
 on, but it will be a long time before the students now 
 being educated in artistic crafts begin to influence the 
 actual output of local workshops. 
 
 The conditions of these shops are most primitive. In 
 the provinces, jewellers, brass workers, makers of inlay 
 work, and weavers use the most elementary tools 
 and methods, sometimes even still those that must have 
 been employed in the days of the Pharaohs. One does 
 not regret that the tools and methods are primitive, but 
 there seems to be no inspiration in design and very little 
 skill in drawing. Old Arabic geometrical patterns are 
 often so broken and badly drawn as to be almost unre- 
 cognizable, and copies of old Egyptian forms have lost 
 all the beauty and refinement of line that make them so 
 interesting in the originals. 
 
 Woven patterns are produced by the draw-loom 
 system of the Middle Ages and the patterns are, in con- 
 sequence, very limited in size of repeat. The increasing 
 use of the Jacquard loom will gradually open the way 
 to greater variety of design, but education in drawing is 
 very necessary for all the crafts in order to raise them 
 
208 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 to higher artistic excellence. Improved methods of 
 work must also be introduced or many of the crafts will 
 be unable to compete with the imported products from 
 Europe and Japan. In the weaving industry, for example, 
 there is a great deal of wasted and costly hand-labour 
 in all the preparatory processes, which could be done by 
 modern machinery to cheapen the final product. 
 
 Egypt has no need to go through the long, slow develop- 
 ment of Europe in the textile industries. Her weavers 
 are very Skilled in the essentials of their craft, and there 
 seems to be no reason why up-to-date machinery should 
 not be introduced. The traditions and Oriental character 
 of her products could be retained, but modern methods 
 must, sooner or later, be introduced or one of her largest 
 industries will shortly be unable to exist. 
 
 Whatever religious objections ever existed against the 
 representation of living or human forms in art are gradu- 
 ally dying out. There is a growing interest in the art of 
 portraiture, and portraits, often of native ladies, are 
 frequently shown in the exhibitions of the Society of 
 Arts. Egyptian ladies are taking a very prominent part 
 in the revivalofart. They helped to organize and support 
 the first exhibition of pictures, and several of them con- 
 tribute work, both in painting and in sculpture. By their 
 propaganda in the homes they are doing a great deal to 
 widen the interest in art among their people, and one 
 hopes that the Government will take a more serious 
 interest in a revival that is already proved to spring 
 from the desires of the people themselves. 
 
 Further stimulus from outside will doubtless be needed, 
 but the germs are already planted, and, with sympathetic 
 support and encouragement, the future should be full of 
 hope. 
 
MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN 
 IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR 
 AND MIDDLE EAST 
 
 BY 
 CAROLINE M. BUCHANAN, Litt.D., 
 
 American Girls’ College, Cairo 
 
 15 
 
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CHAPTER XIV 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
 ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR AND MIDDLE 
 EAST 
 
 In the station square at Cairo there stands a statue to 
 commemorate the renaissance of Egypt. The artist has 
 carved a marble sphinx as a fitting reminder of Egypt’s 
 ancient glories and a symbol of her age-long sleep. At the 
 side of the sphinx is an Egyptian woman, her hand 
 stretched forth to end that slumber by her arousing 
 touch. Looking at that outstretched hand, and into 
 the beautiful face, one is thrilled by the thought of the 
 part that the Oriental woman is already playing, and the 
 greater part she may still play, in the awakening not 
 of Egypt only, but of the whole of the Near East. What 
 could she not achieve, faith whispers, if out of her eyes 
 looked the spirit of Jesus, and, exchanging the yoke of 
 Islam for His blessed yoke, she attained in His service 
 true liberty of soul, “ the liberty wherewith Christ hath 
 made us free’! 
 
 From Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; from Egypt, 
 the Sudan, and Abyssinia; from Arabia, Palestine, 
 Syria, and Turkey; from Mesopotamia, Persia, and 
 Central Turkistan to the Dutch East Indies, we hear 
 the confident voices of the few women who have stepped 
 out into a degree of social liberty ; the cries of those who 
 
 are struggling to be free; and the unhappy murmur of 
 211 
 
212 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the women and girls who are, as yet, ignorant of any 
 world outside of their four walls. We get far more than 
 glimmerings of progress along educational, literary, 
 political, social, and religious lines. 
 
 In direct opposition to Islamic tradition and practice, 
 Moslem women in the Near East are beginning to demand 
 an education. A definite organized movement has gone 
 forward in Turkey ; and a compulsory education clause, 
 which includes girls, was placed in the Constitution of 
 Egypt in April 1923, when the first complete Con- 
 stitution was secured, although neither country, as yet, 
 has been able, because of lack of teachers, buildings, and 
 equipment, fully to enforce the education laws. 
 
 In Turkey, especially, there have been rapid strides 
 toward the goal. Ina Teachers’ Association which met 
 in 1924 in Angora, Constantinople alone supplied 1,000 
 women delegates, and Angora 200. In Smyrna there is 
 the fine large Training School for Girls, and the public 
 schools are devoting much time and money to the normal, 
 or teacher-training, departments. 
 
 There is a growing desire for a liberal, thoroughgoing 
 education. No longer do the best families depend upon 
 governesses: the girls are sent to school, and later to 
 the Constantinople College for Women or to the Uni- 
 versity, where women are now on an equal footing with 
 men. In this co-educational institution there are women 
 students in science, literature, and law. Twelve women 
 entered the medical class in 1924. The same year there 
 were three women candidates for degrees in law. Many 
 women have studied abroad, among them several pro- 
 minent Turkish women doctors of medicine. Without 
 doubt the women of Turkey lead in the educational 
 movement of the Islamic world. 
 
 Egypt is travelling along rapidly in the footsteps of 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 213 
 
 Turkey. The first girl to be sent abroad for her educa- 
 tion went in rgo1, and in 1924 there were, in England 
 alone, twenty-one young women students sent from 
 Egypt by the Ministry of Education. Besides these, 
 many are studying at their own or their parents’ expense, 
 in France, England, and Germany, and a few in the 
 United States. Art, domestic science, physical training, 
 medicine, nursing, kindergarten, special teacher training, 
 and law are the subjects which are studied. 
 
 In October 1924, Miss Nebaweeya Moosa, one of the 
 young women who were educated abroad, was made 
 Superintendent of Girls’ Schools in Egypt, a position 
 never before occupied by a woman. This remarkable 
 woman quite independently some time ago opened her 
 ‘“ model school.”” She is the only woman who has been 
 decorated by the King with “‘ The Order of the Nile.’ 
 Her book, Woman and Work, in Arabic, is of unusual 
 merit. The Educational Council, which consists of 
 four men inspectors and Miss Nebaweeya Moosa, meets 
 with the Minister of Education to discuss the conduct of 
 the schools. 
 
 From the time of the establishment of the first girls’ 
 school by the American Mission in 1856, up to 1903, that 
 mission and others led in girls’ education. Even in 1906, 
 there were in all Egypt, with its 11,000,000 inhabitants, 
 only 33,280 girls in government schools, Now the 
 Government has opened girls’ schools in every city and 
 in almost all the towns along the Nile, and the number 
 of pupils has increased to 99,402. The American Girls’ 
 College in Cairo graduated its first Moslem student in 
 1916, and since that time young women are remaining 
 in the college in increasing numbers until they complete 
 the course. Men no longer fear to marry educated wives. 
 Neither are the fathers and mothers afraid of Christian 
 
214 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 schools, and Moslem young women are sent to mission 
 schools in Egypt with absolute freedom. The number 
 of women who can read (seven out of every thousand in 
 191g) is rapidly increasing, although the proportion of 
 literates is still pitifully small (fifteen out of every thou- 
 sand in 1921-22). One of the most hopeful signs of 
 progress is the willingness of the Moslem girl to become 
 a teacher. We see this even among the richer class. 
 Women are pushing their daughters into the medical 
 professions also. The spirit of service has come only to 
 the few in Egypt, it is true; but these few are leaders, 
 and in consequence benevolent and industrial schools 
 for girls are springing up. 
 
 In Persia education for girls is now being successfully 
 promoted by the Persians themselves. Bishop Linton 
 says: ‘‘ Christian schools have always been in the fore- 
 front in education in Persia, and setting a standard which 
 Persian schools have sought to reach.” 
 
 From the new Mesopotamia comes word of a great 
 thirst for education, including the education of girls. 
 A member of the family of the Nagib of Baghdad, head 
 of the religious aristocracy, approached a missionary, 
 saying, ‘“‘ If you will establish a school for girls in Baghdad 
 I will guarantee you sixty girls from the Nagib family.’’ 
 To have the Arabs realize the value of an education for 
 their daughters indeed gives one a real thrill. 
 
 Syria is much to the front in the Moslem woman’s 
 educational movement. Even from conservative Damas- 
 cus girls are being sent to Beirit for their education, 
 a thing much condemned a few years ago. A writer 
 from Syria says: 
 
 “Tt is impossible to give statistics, but the proportion 
 of educated women in Syria is much higher than it was 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 215 
 
 ten years ago. The girls are crowding into our schools, 
 and the fathers say they are sending them to our mission 
 schools because of the moral training the school gives.”’ 
 
 From Dr. J. Kelly Giffen, a pioneer missionary in the 
 Sudan, comes the word that even there, in the black 
 belt, women and girls from Islamic homes are learning 
 the value of education, and making great sacrifices for 
 it. He gives many striking examples. 
 
 A missionary from Atbara writes of a Sudanese woman 
 who was left a widow when her children were young : 
 
 “She works hard in order to earn enough money not 
 only to feed her children, but also to send them to school. 
 These schools and their methods of education are spoken 
 of very appreciatively by Sudanese women. And it is 
 not only the material advantages of a good education 
 for which they look. Those who have had a mission 
 education are very anxious for their children to come to 
 Christian schools and to receive the same teaching which 
 they found to be an inspiration and help to themselves, 
 a teaching of which they see the effect in character and 
 in life.” 
 
 A missionary who has laboured long in the Near East 
 says: 
 
 “TI am convinced that the emancipation of the Oriental 
 woman, that is, raising her status to that of her Western 
 Christian sisters, carries the key to the whole Islamic 
 situation.” 
 
 Again, quoting one who has studied the situation in 
 Turkey : 
 
 “Those who watch the march of events both in Con- 
 stantinople and in Angora are amazed at the swiftness 
 of the development. Unveiled faces were seen for the 
 first time in 1908, following the first revolution. To-day, 
 in Angora, the chic modern wives of the members of the 
 Grand National Assembly, headed by Latife Hanoum, 
 
216 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the accomplished and progressive wife of Mustafa Kemal 
 Pasha, dress in European garb, visit the movies with their 
 husbands, and have their ‘at homes’ where men and 
 women, Turkish, European, and American, freely mingle. 
 
 “In Stamboul one finds about seven in eight of the 
 Moslem women going unveiled to and fro through the 
 streets. Even a school-girl can go alone through the 
 streets without exciting remark or attracting criticism. 
 Husbands and wives walk arm-in-arm, and young men 
 and women may be seen intent upon jaunts here and 
 there. 
 
 “In public vehicles the dividing curtains and partitions 
 have been removed and women may sit where they 
 choose, though custom is still sufficiently strong to hold 
 them rather closely to the older places. There are some 
 who enjoy breaking away and venturing into the hitherto 
 forbidden sections.” 
 
 When Aishat at Temour, the poetess, wrote her first 
 book in 1896, the Feminist Movement in Egypt was born. 
 Her poetry expressed in beautiful cadence the upward 
 struggles ofa woman’ssoul. She wrotein Arabic, Persian, 
 and Turkish with equal ease. Then came Kasim Amin, 
 a daring writer whose first book, on The Emanctpa- 
 tion of Woman, was published in 1898. For this he was 
 criticized, ostracized, and considered almost a mad- 
 man. Among his faithful friends was Saad Pasha 
 Zaghloul, to whom was dedicated his second book, The 
 New Woman, written in 1900 and rewritten in 191r. No 
 doubt this book has done more than any other single 
 agency in bringing about the strong movement which 
 is pushing everything before it to-day. Another strong 
 reformer was Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, who was exiled 
 for his views on the emancipation of woman and other 
 changes in the Sharia. Mansur Fahmy wrote denouncing 
 the Prophet because he was not in favour of women’s 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 217 
 
 advancement, thus making himself unpopular with the 
 conservatives. 
 
 All this time the reader must see a background of 
 girls’ schools filled with Western influence. This would 
 not be a true picture without that background. In 1873 
 the first government girls’ school was opened, and it 
 belonged to the Wakf (private religious endowment) 
 of the third wife of the Khedive Ismail Pasha, who gave 
 it to the Ministry. In 1908 the Lady Cromer Dispen- 
 saries were opened, and, acting on this incentive, the 
 Egyptian ladies formed an association which established 
 at Abdin in rg1z a dispensary called, after its founder, 
 “ Ain al Hayatt.”” In March 1914 Lady Byng formed 
 an International Club for women in Cairo. Again, the 
 ‘Egyptian ladies wished a society which would be 
 more exclusively for Egyptians,’”’ and in May 1914, with 
 the princesses heading the movement, they formed 
 “The Association of Egyptian Women for Social and 
 Intellectual Improvement.” It had but one meeting ; 
 then came the war. 
 
 In 1919, after the political upheaval and the excitement 
 which followed had subsided a little, women began to 
 see that there were at least two ways in which they could 
 help their countrywomen: by forming societies and by 
 publishing magazines entirely dedicated to their own 
 interests. Three societies were formed, ‘“‘ The New 
 Woman,” “ The Young Woman’s Club,” and ‘‘ Al Nahda 
 al Nisaiya ’’ (The Feminist Movement), with a magazine 
 of its own by the same name. In joining this last- 
 named society each member must dedicate herself by 
 oath to the cause of virtue, patriotism, and service. 
 
 From Iraq comes the word by a trusty messenger : 
 
 ‘“ The Woman’s Movement here is getting under weigh. 
 Our latest development on these lines is a woman’s club 
 
218 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 which is now being organized and to which, it is said, 
 all the leading Moslem ladies of Baghdad have promised 
 to belong. The rules of the new association have been 
 published in the local press and have aroused much 
 interest and one or two heated editorials. At present, 
 it may be said that the more conservative Moslems are 
 marking time and watching what the next move will be 
 before preparing their counter-move. 
 
 ‘““ Meanwhile, a little flutter has been occasioned by 
 one of the government girls’ schools asking to be allowed 
 to start a troop of Girl Guides. The Boy Scout Move- 
 ment has been remarkably successful, and the infection 
 has now apparently spread to the other sex. The idea 
 of young girls marching through the streets and bazaars 
 with arms swinging, and banners flying, has sent a thrill 
 of horror through the old conservative circles. ‘ The 
 young civilization of the West’ [from our girls’ schools], 
 bitterly complains the Mufid, the Baghdad Arabic daily, 
 ‘ which is not in line with the traditions and good breeding 
 of our women, is slowly poisoning the nation. The Girl 
 Guide Movement is wholly alien to our ideas, and in a 
 country which has been backward for five hundred 
 years these innovations are inadvisable. The Minister 
 of Education ought to draw up a curriculum of instruction 
 for the girls’ schools which is in keeping with our beliefs 
 and traditions and in consonance with the noble honour 
 of the Arab people.’ 
 
 “ And so the battle rages. But, in view of the success 
 of the Boy Scout Movement, one feels that it is extremely 
 likely that the girls will get their way.”’ 
 
 The veil, which for many years was worn by Christian 
 women, is now rapidly disappearing in most of the cities. 
 The sight of unveiled Christian Egyptian ladies has 
 become so common that Moslem ladies may appear in 
 the same way without attracting attention or criticism. 
 
 Ever since their establishment, the American Mission 
 girls’ schools in Egypt have held their commencements 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 219 
 
 without any reference to harem customs. No screens 
 or curtains separate the large audiences of men and 
 women ; princesses, pashas’ wives, mothers and sisters 
 of the “sweet girl graduate”’ sit in plain sight of the 
 princes, pashas, beys, and ministers, fathers and brothers. 
 Here, with face unveiled, the young woman who is to 
 receive her diploma takes her place upon a raised platform 
 with her fellow students and performs her part in the 
 programme. Because this is an established custom for 
 this particular day in her life, all accept it as right and 
 proper, with never a word of criticism. 
 A writer from Syria says : 
 
 “There is a very marked Woman’s Movement in 
 Syria, including Moslem, Druze, and Christian women. 
 A large society of women of different religious faiths 
 meets once a month in Beirfit to discuss matters of 
 interest to women. The president is a devoted Protestant, 
 and the society was started by Syrian Protestant women. 
 
 “The women still wear the veil, and seem to be stricter 
 in this particular than in other Moslem countries. This 
 summer, however, young Moslem women in the Christian 
 villages in the Lebanon went about everywhere with 
 their veils back, carrying sticks and walking freely with 
 an athletic stride. One young Moslem woman, smart 
 and educated, is taking her freshman college year at the 
 American Girls’ School in Beirft. She hopes to go to 
 America next year and study medicine; then she plans 
 to come back and work for the emancipation of other 
 Moslem women.” 
 
 In Palestine the women seem not much interested in 
 the political situation, and are more exclusive than in 
 some other countries. From one of the Christian girls’ 
 schools we have the following : 
 
 “Our girls attend the religious services gladly. The 
 brothers and fathers are liberal, also some of the relatives, 
 
220 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 particularly those who are educated. There is decided 
 progress in the homes, which are much cleaner ; the food 
 is better cooked, and the general living on a much higher 
 level.”’ 
 
 In our information from physicians in Eastern lands 
 we find but two bright pictures. One, the readiness of 
 the women to come to the hospitals, and to bring their 
 girls, to listen to the word of the doctors, and even to 
 submit willingly to necessary operations; and the other, 
 brighter still, is the relief which promises to come from 
 the distinct movement to raise the age of marriage. The 
 background in all their writings is so black that in some 
 cases one can but faintly see the outline. Dare we insert 
 one dark picture here in this hopeful chapter? If we do, 
 let it be from the pen of that great-hearted Bishop Linton, 
 of Persia, who has given us his book of wondrously clear 
 Persian sketches ?: 
 
 “Those shadows! They are so intensely deep that it 
 hurts even to attempt to sketch them in here. Some 
 cannot be put in, not at any rate by a man. Here is 
 what a hospital nurse in Persia once wrote; only, perhaps, 
 it would be better if you would read it when you are 
 alone. You may want to kneel down and pray. It is 
 too unutterably sad to be read and lightly forgotten. 
 The part that is not written is the saddest. 
 
 ‘““* Just for the day or two petted and feasted, pleased 
 and decked with bridal robes—a happy little queen. 
 The next? ... May God forgive!... 
 
 ‘““* Her mother brought the little child to see if foreign 
 skill could even then restore the little trembling frame ; 
 knowing that he who owned her could, if he chose, cast 
 her out as a useless, broken toy—divorced, dishonoured, 
 and by all despised. 
 
 “A little child! I saw her as she waited in the 
 
 1 The Rt. Rev, J, H. Linton, Persian Sketches, London, 1923, 
 pp. 118-21. 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 221 
 
 C.M.S. hospital, and never can I forget her piteous cries, 
 the horror staring from her fear-glazed eyes, from which 
 all childishness had fled. She crouched, like some wild, 
 tortured animal, trust in everyone, all childish hopes, 
 forever gone. A quivering, outraged form; a broken, 
 wounded life; a terror-stricken heart! Surely that 
 was enough for any child to bear. No, not enough ; 
 for still that mother (was she worthy of the name ?) 
 refused to promise that for two short years a time of 
 respite should be given to the girl for healing of the 
 body and mind. 
 
 “ “So from the hospital that little one was borne, with 
 piteous cries and frantic pleas for help, back to that 
 husband in whose heart was not one drop of pity, back to 
 a life far worse than death. A little child of nine!’ 
 
 “ And now it is the hour of prayer; I listen as that 
 husband approaches his God and I hear him say, ‘O 
 God, the merciful, the compassionate’!!! There is 
 clearly something wrong somewhere ! 
 
 “Suppose that it were your little girl of nine! If 
 you are a parent I think you will understand. ... 
 
 “One day a Persian boy came to me and said: ‘I 
 wish, sir, you would come to our house and help us.’ 
 I asked what he wanted me todo. Hesaid: ‘ You know 
 my little sister?’ Idid. She was a little girl apparently 
 seven or eight years of age, just like any English girl of 
 that age, bright, happy, joyous. He went on: ‘ Well, 
 she is to be married next week ; I wish you would come 
 and see my father and try to stop it.’ 
 
 ““T went to the father, and spent a whole afternoon 
 pleading and arguing with him. In the end he turned 
 to me and said: ‘She is eight years old, and it is time 
 she was married!’ And the boy burst in with, ‘ She is 
 not yet eight years old!’ 
 
 “So she was married—to a man of thirty-five, whom 
 she had never yet seen! And all the light was darkened, 
 all the joy and innocence of childhood were blotted out. 
 And ‘ she is not yet eight years old....’ 
 
222 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 “But here, again, is a light across the shadows. I 
 want to guard against misconception. There is a growing 
 feeling against child marriage, and I know of a small 
 society among Persian women whose members are 
 pledged not to give their own daughters in marriage till 
 they are sixteen years old. Old schoolboys, too, have 
 told me that they will neither marry a child wife nor 
 give their own children in marriage till they are grown 
 up. But, with the example of their Prophet before them, 
 the struggle is an uphill one. Nevertheless, the social 
 problem in Persia is beginning to cut deep into the hearts 
 of her thinking men and women, and herein is great 
 hope for the future. The best of her people are asking 
 whether there is any solution, and, if so, where it lies.” 
 
 Just here it is of great interest to note that recent 
 legislation in different Eastern countries will greatly 
 benefit women and girls when put into execution, and 
 it will grant privileges of justice and equality of which 
 we never dreamed a few years ago. This is notably true 
 of Turkey. In Egypt also there has been like progress. 
 On March 16, 1923, at a meeting of ladies at the house 
 of Madame (or Hoda) Charaawi Pasha, it was decided 
 to form a new society, to be called ‘‘ The Egyptian Femi- 
 nist Union for Woman Suffrage.’’ Nine points were 
 drawn up as the definite aims of the union, and presented 
 at the International Woman’s Convention by Hoda 
 Charaawi in Rome, and later in the woman’s delegation 
 in Paris. They were then presented to serve as a basis 
 for laws in the new Constitution. The nine points are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. To raise the moral and intellectual level of woman 
 in order to realize her political and social equalities 
 with men from the point of view of laws and manners. 
 
 2. To ask for free access to higher schools for all 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 223 
 
 girls desiring to study, and equal privileges to be given 
 with the boys and young men. 
 
 3. To reform customs relating to the arranging of 
 marriages so as to allow the two parties to know each 
 other before betrothal. 
 
 4. To reform laws in regard to marriage so that the 
 real spirit of the Koran might be interpreted, and thus 
 preserve woman from the injustice caused by bigamy 
 exercised without reason, and from repudiation taking 
 place without serious motive. 
 
 5. By laws to limit the age of consent to marriage for 
 a young girl to sixteen years. 
 
 6. To open active propaganda for public hygiene, 
 particularly with reference to child welfare. 
 
 7. To encourage virtue and to fight against im- 
 morality. 
 
 8. To fight against superstition and certain eustoms 
 which do not accord with reason, even though mentioned 
 in the Hadith (like the Zar, Charms, etc.). 
 
 9g. To open propaganda in the Press on the aims of the 
 society. 
 
 Already five of these points have been under con- 
 sideration in Parliament. It will be seen that these 
 aims cover a comprehensive field: intellectual and moral 
 equality, education, marriage reforms, hygiene and 
 sanitation, and a battle against superstition and im- 
 morality. There is a voiceless reproach in these moderate 
 demands plainly stated—ghosts of old sorrows seem to 
 lurk in them. 
 
 Through the help of the League of Nations, Bishop 
 Linton, of Persia, was able to secure laws for the benefit 
 of the little carpet-weavers. These reforms have more 
 than an indirect influence upon the health and happiness 
 of the poor wee mothers of that land. These laws, 
 especially No. 4 and No. 5, are significant: (4) that the 
 minimum age of workers in the factories be eight years 
 
224 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 for boys and ten for girls; (5) that no children under 
 fourteen work more than eight hours a day. These 
 laws prevent the bodies of the little girls, who formerly 
 were married when only eight or nine years of age, from 
 becoming deformed. 
 
 Even from Chinese Turkistan around Kashgar, we 
 have the word that there is a little forward movement 
 in the life of women and girls. They have begun to 
 be tidier in person and in their home, and they really 
 seem to love to work. They are more self-respecting, 
 and are beginning to thirst for knowledge. The custom 
 of giving away their small girls in marriage is slowly 
 disappearing under the influence of Christianity. The 
 missionary adds : 
 
 “Our Turkistan women have the liberty of joining 
 dervish sisterhoods and of going to these meetings, but 
 otherwise they have no religious or social liberty and are 
 not advanced sufficiently to care anything about politics.”’ 
 
 In answer to the question, Is polygamy still the rule 
 among all classes, and what kind of family life is preva- 
 lent ? there come answers varied as the different countries 
 of the Near East. 
 
 In Turkey, as might be expected, we get the word: 
 
 ‘Polygamy is practically prohibited. We are inclined 
 to believe that it is much less common than is supposed. | 
 Practical economic difficulties arise in carrying out 
 polygamy; also its unpopularity among the women 
 themselves is probably a deterrent factor. But the 
 easy divorce laws result in something approximating to 
 polygamy.”’ 
 
 In Egypt, polygamy is practically a thing of the past 
 among the educated and high-class Moslems. But among 
 the simple people in the villages one finds that the custom 
 still prevails. Here there are many plural marriages 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 225 
 
 because it is easy to take on another wife when economic 
 conditions allow it. Perhaps one-third of the men of 
 the peasant class either have more than one legal wife 
 or at least are living with more than one woman. The 
 desire to have a big family of children is still common 
 with them. A man’s idea of affluence is to marry another 
 wife as soon as he has sold his cotton, and until education 
 reaches the class in which this view prevails polygamy 
 will still hold sway in Egypt. 
 
 If the law of marriage now under consideration is 
 actually passed it will be a serious matter for Moslem 
 social life, if not for the religious prestige of Islam, which 
 is most sensitive to any attack on the position of women, 
 simply because it is conscious of the weakness of its 
 position. Hence the progress made shows victories 
 which at first do not appear to Western eyes. 
 
 From several sources in Persia come answers which 
 show that, as regards polygamy and family life, conditions 
 are just the reverse of those in Egypt. There is no 
 strongly organized movement toward reform. 
 
 “In all wealthy houses polygamy is prevalent. This 
 may not cause as much sorrow as one could expect, owing 
 to the absence of higher ideals. On the other hand, 
 in one chief’s household the head wife went through 
 agonies of jealousy and grief because she could not get 
 her husband to hold the ideal of monogamy which she, 
 independent of Christian thought, cherished.” 
 
 “Among the poor people one wife is much more 
 usual. But this does not do away with the evils of 
 divorce and temporary marriages. Family life under 
 these conditions cannot reach a very high standard, 
 and yet it is surprising what a lot of family affection 
 there is. According to the religious law, girls are of 
 
 1 See The Moslem World, July, 1923, p. 309. 
 16 
 
226 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 marriageable age at nine, but among the more en- 
 lightened people there is a feeling against this, and many 
 girls do not marry until fourteen or fifteen.” 
 
 From Syria and Palestine we have the reliable in- 
 formation that, although there is much heart-breaking 
 complaint against the marriage and easy divorce system, 
 nothing as yet has been attempted by the women in the 
 way of petitions to change the code. A missionary 
 who has lived and worked long in Syria says: 
 
 “ Polygamy is not prevalent, but successive divorce 
 is appallingly common. I know one sixteen-year-old 
 girl who was married three times and divorced twice 
 within a year. She had been married and divorced once 
 before I knew her. Of course, under such conditions 
 there is almost nothing of what we can call family life.”’ 
 
 From Arabia we have the word of a high government 
 official and of a missionary who has spent nearly half a 
 century in that land. The latter says: 
 
 “While polygamy is rare, frequent marriage and 
 divorce are prevalent. One man who had been married 
 and divorced eighteen times brought his young wife 
 of fifteen to the doctor for examination. When the 
 result of the examination showed that she was not in 
 fit condition to become a mother, the man wished to 
 divorce her. Since I left he had divorced his nine- 
 teenth and married his twentieth wife.” 
 
 From Turkistan it is said : 
 
 “ Polygamy is the rule only among those who can afford 
 to have more than one wife at a time. The family life 
 is patriarchal, but divorces are very common.”’ 
 
 From the Sudan and Abyssinia we find that poly- 
 
 gamy is still the rule. Quoting from one who is perhaps 
 the best authority from the Sudan we have : 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 227 
 
 “ There is an existing state of things in social life that 
 makes family life, as we understand it, an impossibility. 
 Then, too, there is the keeping of concubines and their 
 children that makes anything but the herding of women 
 and children impossible. It is not a family, but a flock, 
 a herd, to which the women must submit without choice. 
 This will probably give way eventually with the entire 
 abolition of slavery.”’ 
 
 From Iraq, the new Mesopotamia, we find the same 
 brave fight going on against polygamy as we have in 
 Turkey and Egypt. Perhaps this last country to awaken 
 shall be the first in attainment. 
 
 From Dr. Kelly Giffen we have the summing up: 
 
 “ The psychology of the situation is not easily under- 
 stood, but the explanation which seems most reasonable 
 is, first, that the Moslems of the Sudan, and perhaps of 
 the whole Moslem world, have been longing for something 
 more satisfying than the Koran and the religion of Mo- 
 hammed bring into their lives. This longing probably 
 existed quite generally before the war, as we know that 
 it didin many cases. Then came the war, and there was 
 a releasing of all previous bonds in religious and moral 
 conduct. I make no attempt to explain what it was 
 that broke these bonds, but certainly we must recognize 
 that there is a new liberty and the people have a new 
 vision. It may not be the one we wish for them, but 
 it is a new vision, and indicates a turning from their 
 age-old beliefs, either for better or for worse. This 
 brings new opportunity, and increased responsibility to 
 lift Christ into the field of the vision of the soul which 
 longs and looks for something but knows not what. But 
 we know it is Christ.” 
 

 
MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
 ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST AFRICA 
 
 BY 
 I. LILIAS TROTTER, 
 Honorary Secretary to the Algiers Mission Band 
 
UNE HEL ILE SHY 
 
 PAO ELAM: 
 
 S Prueiye, PARR 
 
 t v) ' 
 
 % i 
 
 i] f 
 
 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
 ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST AFRICA 
 
 ELEVEN or twelve words, carrying a dim sense of a needy 
 throng—the title means little more to those who have 
 never crossed the Mediterranean ; it carries no pictures. 
 And as in our nursery days the pictures come first, then 
 their meaning, so come and look at a few of them. 
 
 Turn over two or three pages of the picture-book. 
 The first is a long blank wall in a city street, unbroken 
 save for a barred slit here and there, and an arched door- 
 way, roofed with painted rafters, red and green. Within 
 is a dark vestibule with stone seats, tiled to the vaulting 
 in quaint colouring. Then another door, which may 
 not be opened by any of the men residents above the 
 age of ten or twelve, without a warning cough. That 
 cough enables all the women to fly to their rooms except 
 those of the family of the entering male. 
 
 If you are a woman you may walk straight in with 
 the one sentence, ‘‘ O mistresses of the house!’”’ Then 
 you are in a court, marble-tiled, recessed with Moorish 
 arches and twisted pillars. Grouped together or scattered 
 here and there are delicate-featured women, in robes of 
 every tint, egg-shell-blue and silver, apricot and pale- 
 green, trying to forget yesterday’s sorrows and _ to- 
 morrow’s fears in laughter and gossip, as they work at 
 
 their household tasks. 
 231 
 
232 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Then turn the page, and up and away through the 
 fig-trees and the dim peacock-colour of the prickly-pear 
 hedges, you will see a troop of mountain-women swinging 
 down the path, lifting a hand now and then to steady the 
 earthen water-jars on their heads, and draped like Roman 
 matrons, in flowing crimson of woollen material, hanging 
 from the shoulders on heavy silver brooches. The little 
 girls who trot alongside have imitated the brooches by 
 means of a bit of orange-peel, with a mimosa-thorn 
 thrust through as fastening. 
 
 Turn another page, and, far back, where the mountain 
 land dips to the desert, you will find the womenkind in 
 mud houses, proportioned like palaces, with palm trunks 
 for their pillars. Women in indigo cotton robes are 
 silhouetted against the tan walls. A touch of pea-green 
 or orange gleams here and there, and a glitter of silver 
 from massive amulets slung on the breast. Dear coffee- 
 coloured babies in one scanty garment tumble about the 
 sand floor. 
 
 Out and away once more, where the palms scatter in 
 a thin line, you will find the tent-woman, heavy-featured 
 and dense as compared with the others limited in her 
 horizon to the little camp that is her world, and with 
 hardly a chance of hearing of another one, even of the 
 earthly type. Out and away again, in regions ever more 
 remote, these Bedouin live and die. 
 
 Multiply all these groups by the hundred thousand 
 and add as many other contrasting ones, and you still 
 will not have seen “ the women of North-West Africa.’’ 
 They number, so far as they can be numbered, well over 
 7,000,000 from Tripoli to Morocco, including the Sahara. 
 
 Athwart these lands is being driven the plough of 
 Europe. The regions of the inaccessible shrink year by 
 year. Autos thread the defiles and climb the plateaux 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 2338 
 
 to link the markets, the camel sways bewildered from 
 the jarring Citroén car that breaks up the peace of the 
 sand-dunes. It will all serve, in due time, we believe, 
 in opening highways for God’s service. And it may well 
 be that this ploughing, as it touches the lives of the girls, 
 will bring the same result. 
 
 This upheaval is as yet in its initial stage, and, as with 
 the work of the literal ploughshare, it is not to the outward 
 beautifying of the field. The gorgeous wild-flower 
 colouring of the East is destroyed and buried, and a 
 curious crop of anomalies tends to spring up in its place. 
 The former sense of native demureness is crossed with 
 the first seeds of liberty ; the roots of superstition twine 
 still under the surface, and threaten to strangle the new 
 ideas of a universe that is governed by law, not by demons. 
 These and a dozen other incongruous elements go along 
 with the hat and pinafore that surmount the old-time 
 robe of the go-to-school child. 
 
 Weare truly glad she is learning toread. Her husband 
 of the future may or may not be glad that she knows how 
 to write ; we remember cases where such knowledge is 
 feared, for the troubles of the new home can no longer 
 be hidden from father and brother as of yore. We hope 
 that the up-turned soil of her mind may yield a harvest 
 in days to come, but at present she is in a transition 
 stage that is full of risks, with centuries behind her of 
 womankind kept in leash and now being suddenly freed 
 in the midst of coast towns where the worst elements of 
 East and West flourish together. 
 
 We are only at the very outset of the problem, so we 
 cannot as yet judge its issues. Before the war scarcely 
 a girl obtained any education; now, on all sides, ex- 
 cellently organized schools are being opened in Algeria 
 and Tunisia, and others are being started in Morocco. 
 
234 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 With true discernment of the make-up of the little Eastern 
 maidens, mental training is given only in the morning 
 hours, and the afternoon brings rest to the unaccustomed 
 brain by employment in needle-craft and weaving. 
 
 In the inland towns, where the streets are less full 
 of danger than in the coast cities, our workers feel that 
 the immense awakening of latent possibilities in the 
 keen-witted young lives more than counterbalances all 
 that can be said against the venture. 
 
 Farther south, Islam still holds practically undisputed 
 sway, and the girl is kept in permanent ignorance of 
 anything beyond the household lore that has been passed 
 down from mother to daughter since the days of Eve. 
 In deference to their official superiors, the Arab postman 
 and policeman and two or three others will send their 
 daughters to the newly opened girls’ school, and there 
 it stops. The highest estimate of the literacy of woman 
 (putting its standard at reading and writing, and including 
 French education as well as Arabic) would be about 
 2 per cent. in Algeria, less in Tunisia, and almost nil 
 in Morocco. But whatever results have been attained 
 are the achievements of the last ten years only. 
 
 The two factors that have worked towards this sudden 
 stride have been, first, governors of the land who have 
 laid themselves out to meet the needs of the natives 
 on far more understanding lines than of old, and, second, 
 a consciousness of those needs awakened in the native 
 men by contact with Europe during the war. Young 
 Arabs and Kabyles in large numbers went off to the 
 fighting line or to help in the work that lay behind the 
 trenches. Even now, if you cross to France, you will 
 find the decks thronged with them, and, if you watch 
 through the last half-hour before landing, you will 
 see in Marseilles harbour the strange sight of one red 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA = 235 
 
 fez after another flung into the water and left floating 
 there, to be replaced by the cap that will make its owner 
 indistinguishable from the European. What this means, 
 as a symbol of riddance from the cramp of Islam, those 
 will realize who know all that the fez implies to dwellers 
 in this land. 
 
 First and foremost, the vision of Europe has brought 
 a dawning desire for changed conditions in domestic 
 life. The North African has seen there the civilized 
 home, with husband and wife sharing their interests 
 and their friendships, the girls in free enjoyment of their 
 teens, the growing lads still sheltered instead of being 
 flung out into the pollution of the streets. The Algerian 
 native does not contemplate any such upheaval of social 
 conditions, of course, but he would like a wife with some 
 outlook on this new world with which he has become 
 familiar—some intercourse beyond the scandal of the 
 compound and the alternate coaxing and screaming 
 about new finery and leave to go to a féte. 
 
 So, before long, the demand for wives with the elements 
 of education will create a supply in such regions of the 
 country as are in touch with the European shore. The 
 young schoolmasters and the pensioned non-commis- 
 sioned officers of the native regiments share this new 
 outlook towards woman’s education, though in their 
 case it is through a less direct contact with France. 
 
 It is among these surroundings that we expect the 
 lead to be given. The bourgeois class and that of 
 officialdom above it do not seem to us at present aroused 
 on the subject. At any rate, their womenkind take slack 
 interest in the movement towards liberty in the Near 
 East. Egypt and Turkey are in disfavour—the former 
 among the authorities on account of its subversive ten- 
 dencies, the latter among the Arabs through ancient 
 
236 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 tyranny—and their influence does not tell. The high 
 tide of progress in these houses of the well-to-do seems 
 to have reached only the mark of reading French news- 
 papers and novels, with an occasional taxi-drive, incog- 
 nito, in French costume, and in exceptional cases a 
 journey to Paris with the husband under the same 
 conditions. No leader has ever arisen among them 
 suggesting anything further; so the trend towards 
 progress seems likely to arise from the class below. 
 
 The land is peopled by two different kindreds: the 
 well-known Arabs and the mysterious aborigines, Berbers 
 as they are generally named, whom the Arab cornered 
 when he overran the coast, but never conquered. Cor- 
 nered they are still, in certain districts of mountain and 
 desert, with an origin unknown, a tongue unrelated to 
 any other, and an industry and independence that stand 
 in sharp contrast with the lazy easy-going of the Arab 
 usurper. In the plains the two groups intermingle. 
 
 Those most in evidence of the Berber races are the 
 Kabyles, in possession of the hill country that borders 
 the Bay of Algiers to the east. Here alone do we come 
 in contact with their women. Another detachment of 
 their tribes inhabits the Aurés Mountains, near Biskra, 
 and is known to us only by photographs, showing stately 
 creatures with a massive outline of brow and chin. 
 Farther south, among the Beni M’zab, no woman is 
 allowed to stir from the tribal cities, and not an in- 
 dividual of her sex has ever reached the northern towns. 
 Farther still, in the recesses of the desert, lies another 
 branch, the Touaregs, and here the innate forcibleness 
 of the Berber women has thrown to the winds the lightly 
 borne yoke of Islam, and they keep the archives in quaint 
 square characters, bring up the children, sit on the 
 councils, obtain respect for the unmarried girls under the 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA = 2387 
 
 soubriquet of “‘ little queens,” while their men, in black 
 muffler veils, and on their running camels, go out to 
 pillage and to fight. The first gleam of God’s dawn has 
 not reached these women yet. 
 
 But the Kabyle woman we know well, and from the 
 grandmother, her white hair dyed carrot-red with henna, 
 to the smallest specimen of girlhood, forcefulness marks 
 them all. A woman has more than once held a brother- 
 hood together during the interregnum caused by her 
 husband’s death: Lella Khadija, Kabylia’s snow-crested 
 peak, is named after one of these. 
 
 Material for Christ is surely there, and it is being 
 steadily sought, for the land of the Kabyles is the best 
 worked for God’s Kingdom along these coasts. It re- 
 mains to be seen how they might rise to leadership if 
 they had right of way, though numerically they are far 
 below the Arabs. 
 
 As yet the women, taking them all in all, are queens 
 in slavery. <A feast is being held in the stone hut, and 
 the men sit shoulder to shoulder round the wide wooden 
 footstool that serves for table; the bowl of semolina 
 is crowned by a stewed fowl. [From this the neck and 
 claws are thrown to the woman huddled in the corner. 
 That is her legitimate portion. She has fed the chicken 
 with her own scraps; she has modelled the bowl with 
 its quaint criss-cross of orange and black and red colours 
 pounded from stones that she knows. She has rolled and 
 steamed the raw grain for hours. So be it: she shall 
 have the neck and the claws, 
 
 Well for her if contempt such as this were all: it is 
 but the drifting straw that marks the undertow; and 
 when we know something of the force of the stream of 
 injustice against these rock-like characters, we wonder 
 that life in their villages can pass as quietly as it does. 
 
238 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 “Her general make-up is strong through suffering,’’ 
 writes one who has passed half a life-time in those 
 villages. ‘“‘ Her native humour and brightness come 
 touchingly to the surface, but tears lie just beneath.” 
 
 For the tribal code that frames her destiny is con- 
 siderably more drastic than the Koranic law of the Arabs. 
 Here are a few of its pronouncements. kemember, as 
 you read them, that the so-called ““ woman ”’ may be a 
 child of nine or ten. 
 
 “The Kabyle woman has no hereditary right.’’ ‘She 
 has no right of property except to the clothes she wears.”’ 
 
 “In marriage she is sold by her father, or, failing him, 
 by his nearest male relative, who receives the price.’ 
 
 “She has no consent to formulate. Marriage can be 
 imposed on her even by force by the man having authority 
 over her.”’ 
 
 “The husband may repudiate his wife when he pleases 
 without being obliged to formulate a reason.’’ ‘“‘ She has 
 not the right to repudiate her husband,” and in no case, 
 under any pretext, can she claim divorce from the law. 
 She may leave her married home, however, and take 
 refuge with her father if he consents to receive her. 
 She then declares herself in a “state of insurrection ”’ 
 against her husband. 
 
 “The Kabyle husband can, in repudiating his wife, 
 declare that he ‘sets a price on her head.’ In this . 
 case, the woman, although repudiated, cannot marry 
 another man unless the latter pays first to the former 
 husband this integral sum, as ransom. Meanwhile she 
 is ‘ put out of circulation.’ ”’ 
 
 “The children belong to the father. During marriage 
 the mother attends to them. If she is put away she 
 becomes a stranger to them.”’ 
 
 ‘As part of the marriage ceremony, the husband beats 
 the young bride over the threshold, in token that she is 
 now under his power.”’ 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 2389 
 
 ““ The husband feeds and clothes his wife as he pleases. 
 The complaint of the woman is not admitted.” 
 
 ‘If a married man dies, his wife becomes part of his 
 succession. She is transmitted with it. She remains 
 “hung to his death.’ ”’ 
 
 The tragedies of these mountains go unbroken into 
 the dim depths of the past. Will a break in them come 
 now? It may be, for a brave French magistrate here 
 and there, and an answering sense of chivalry awaking 
 in some of the younger Kabyles, have produced successful 
 appeal to law more than once of late. 
 
 Meantime, among both Kabyle and Arab womanhood 
 (and, even among the latter, this begins in the early 
 teens) one of the most intense needs is that shelter-homes 
 and rescue-homes should be opened from end to end of 
 the land for the shattered young lives that result from 
 ruthless marriage and divorce and tossing from household 
 to household that we cannot call homes. No such 
 shelter exists to our knowledge, and the cry of one little 
 lost sheep after another, as it slides down the moral 
 precipice, must reach the ear of the Good Shepherd. 
 Surely He will soon be calling some to go with Him “ to 
 seek and to save’ from among them. 
 
 Polygamy cannot be said to be the rule. It is not 
 principle that tells against it, but expense, for often the 
 Wives, especially in the coast towns, require each to have 
 a separate establishment. Probably in the shopkeeper 
 class two wives would be the common thing, and in 
 the classes above this plurality would be the rule rather 
 than the exception, sometimes extending to three or 
 four. In the houses of the well-to-do, and in the interior, 
 it is usual for all to live under one roof with separate 
 apartments. As to family life, in the villages, especially 
 in Kabylia, it is at its lowest ebb, men, women, children, 
 
240 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 poultry, and even sometimes sheep and goats sharing 
 one hut. In the towns, among the poorer classes, one 
 room is still the rule, and often with bad over-crowding. 
 Especially among the Kabyles we have known of as 
 many as eighteen in one room, four or five families, each 
 of which has its own corner. Where a whole house is 
 owned, it is generally shared in patriarchal fashion with 
 sons and their wives, the whole being usually under the 
 dominance of the old grandmother, who rules the house 
 forcibly and resists innovations of any kind. 
 
 In the sorrows of their lot, the Kabyle women and 
 the Arab women meet, and they share the darkness 
 of mind and spirit of which we shall speak anon. In 
 character they differ widely. The Arab woman is 
 vivacious, affectionate, supple, often vusée—seeking to 
 go round a difficult position that the Kabyle women 
 would set out to take by storm—marvellously in- 
 telligent, when we look at the age-long limitations of 
 her past. 
 
 The Arab woman does not strike one as so tragic as 
 the Kabyle, for the Arab has adapted herself comfortably 
 to the creed which the Kabyle feels was forced on her 
 people by the sword of old. The Arab toys with her 
 chains, and is proud to be secluded. The power of 
 fatalism, so deeply rooted in Islam, helps her to live on 
 with her heart buried in the graves of her babies—often 
 laid there through the foolish love that refused them 
 nothing—or torn over the wretchedness of the daughter, 
 concerning whose marriage she had spent months of 
 intrigue ; or broken over the waywardness of the son of 
 whom she was so proud when he first showed his manli- 
 ness by beating her. She cannot reason about these 
 things—cause and effect are in an unrecognized realm ; 
 she smothers and stamps all questioning under the fiat, 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: -NORTH-WEST AFRICA 241 
 
 “It is decreed,’’ and goes on mechanically preparing her 
 own woes over again. 
 
 The religious life of the Arab woman, as you follow her 
 into the inland districts, becomes more and more marked 
 by a crude intensity. It looks like fanaticism; it is 
 really concentration. She will take you by the shoulders, 
 in the desert villages, and cry ‘ Shehedi, shehedi,”’ that 
 you may be induced to repeat the formula of witness to 
 Mohammed which she believes to be the passport into 
 heaven. She is interested in you; she likes you; surely 
 she should win you to go there too. Beyond that, 
 she knows nothing but that she should fast throughout 
 the Ramadhan moon, and this she does with touching 
 faithfulness. Where the sense of spiritual need is numb 
 or dead, these two elements, representing faith and 
 works, are her pride, as a good Moslem. Where a spark 
 is awake she holds on intensely to these same two points, 
 not daring to let them go, for she has nothing more. 
 Is that her fault, or ours ? 
 
 It is only where the brotherhoods of mystics hold 
 sway, in mountain and desert, that the women seem to 
 get any farther in dim seeking for God. We are only 
 just beginning to get into contact with these movements 
 on the women’s side, though we knew that certain orders 
 had organized sisterhoods attached. <A glimpse of a tiny 
 zikrv of women in the desert, a day spent in the mother- 
 house of a sisterhood in a holy city, a friendship with a 
 beautiful ‘‘ Marabouta’’ soul in the mountains, who 
 gave herself to God in gratitude for restoration from 
 illness, and spends her time in comforting and helping 
 others—these come within a year’s experiences. They 
 only make us feel our ignorance of the unseen brooding 
 of the Spirit over this chaos of darkness. 
 
 When it comes to the cities and the inland towns, the 
 
 17 
 
242 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 religious life of the women becomes diluted, so to speak. 
 There is now, for the most part, no intensity at all. 
 The social element predominates at the cemetery ren- 
 dezvous on Fridays and still more at the “ Ziara’”’ pil- 
 grimage to the Saint’s tomb where the country-side 
 gathers periodically. Nothing more is expected till she 
 reaches the age of forty ; then, if so minded, she begins 
 to tell her beads and to attend the mosque services in 
 the women’s gallery in preparation for the world to 
 come. 
 
 Even then, as before, there is no thought of religion 
 having any bearing on daily life; love as “ the fulfilling 
 of the law ’’—neighbour-love in its true sense—has little 
 place. They give to each other, it is true, only it is on 
 a co-operative system. ‘“‘I gave her three duros at her 
 baby’s seventh-day feast; may the sea be upon her 
 if she does not the same by me at my son’s wedding.”’ 
 And the quick wits and idle days and complicated house- 
 holds all serve as tinder to the Southern fire of jealousy, 
 and intrigues are kindled without end until no one can 
 trust her neighbour. They become used to playing a 
 double game all round till a curious duality of mind 
 and character becomes a part of their make-up. 
 
 It is only the tender mother-love that shines true and 
 clear, though so ignorantly applied that the little ones 
 will be exposed to moral risks such as to make innocence 
 practically impossible after babyhood. All the time 
 the mother will be torturing herself with fears concerning | 
 the invisible demon powers that she imagines are making 
 for their ruin. 
 
 If we are asked what is the prevailing background in 
 the heart of a native woman of these coasts, from child- 
 hood to old age, and in every rank and condition, we 
 should say it is the grip of fear. There are fears well 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 248 
 
 founded, and enough of them—the fear of her husband’s 
 anger and consequent divorce, fear of the day when old 
 age will bring contempt and neglect, fear of the power 
 of venomous tongues around her and their effect on the 
 mother-in-law who grudges her the position in which she 
 herself has placed her, or on the autocratic grandmother 
 who dominates the household. But these are less terrible 
 than the haunting of the charms and spells that may be 
 thrown over her and the untoward chance that may 
 arouse the wrath of the demons towards her and her 
 children. We know a young wife who is being delibe- 
 rately and purposely driven into insanity by the constant 
 suggestion that it is threatening her through the powers 
 of darkness. 
 
 So much has been written of late concerning the 
 prevalence of animism in Islam that there is no need to 
 relate instances. A chapter could easily be filled with 
 them, but we are dealing now with the broad outlines 
 of the Arab woman’s life, not with details, and there 
 is yet more to be said about these outlines. 
 
 We have traced the shadows of her character, but have 
 not told what a lovable thing she is, and what powers 
 of mind and character have lain dormant through the 
 bleak centuries of Islam, awaiting God’s spring. Bright- 
 ness and endurance of life-long injury and wrong, powers 
 of hard work and patient self-sacrifice, are all there, some- 
 times latent, often visible, and the girls, if they had the 
 chance of being trained, might be developed as keen 
 students or as good housewives, with a civilized standard 
 of cleanliness, infant welfare, and health culture. All 
 these are impossible while Moslem rule prevails and while | 
 girls are shut away at twelve or thirteen for the short 
 interval before marriage. Their powers of being and 
 doing are stunted past recall in the stiff soil of Islam. 
 
244 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 So we rejoice in the breaking up that lets in God’s free 
 light and air. 
 
 Let us hold the simile clearly in our minds, however. 
 The ploughshare is one thing, the seed is another. Civili- 
 zation, education, the trend towards liberty—all serve 
 to prepare the way with their sharp thrusts into the 
 age-long wilderness ; but they are not the seed, they have 
 no vitalizing power for man’s spiritual being. “ He 
 that soweth good seed is the Son of Man.” 
 
 That sowing by the Son of Man through His servants 
 began only a generation ago, and in these lands, constitut- 
 ing for the most part a French colony or protectorate, 
 the seed-basket of hospital and school work has been in 
 little use. Direct evangelism is wide open, and only 
 limited by the time and strength of the few workers ; 
 industrial effort and hostels are supplementing it, and 
 already the first green shoots are coming through. 
 
 All is as yet in that initial stage. ‘“* First the blade,” 
 and the fear is always that, by reason of the fallow 
 ground of Islam around, it will stay there, undeveloped. 
 The women converts, unless they can be married to 
 Christian husbands, must continue secret. disciples. 
 Each one belongs, in the eye of the law, to her nearest 
 male relative, and, if he is still a Moslem, he will not 
 dream of the disgrace of letting her stand out for Christ 
 in his home. Throughout the country, around the 
 mission stations, there are souls whose trust and allegiance 
 have been transferred to Him, and who dimly try to 
 please Him; but the stages of “the ear,” and “ after 
 that the full corn in the ear,” await the time when God’s 
 power reaches the men. The future of the women is 
 bound together spiritually as well as socially with that 
 of their fathers, brothers, husbands. The colporteur 
 who brings the books to the men and the boy-lover who 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 245 
 
 wins a hearing from the lads, are steadily helping on the 
 day of grace for the women. 
 
 While we wait for that dawn, who can tell what can 
 be done by mere presence, bringing them into touch 
 with Christ’s love shed through human hearts and lives. 
 To “‘lay down ”’ for their sakes time and strength and 
 inclination, every day and all day long—that is the only 
 way in which we can show Him to them in a fashion that 
 they can understand. “He saved others, Himself 
 He cannot save’’—the highest missionary calling lies 
 in a faint, far-off reflection of those words. 
 
 And when the soil has been softened and prepared 
 by earthly love, the vision of Christ crucified may break 
 in far and wide on the men and women of North-West 
 Africa, awaking the life-springs that will work on through 
 blade and ear into a multiplying power around them 
 that will bring the sheaves at last. 
 
PE Hear 
 F. Vl 
 
 Ai bai 
 
 
 
MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
 ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA 
 
 BY 
 RUTH E. ROBINSON, B.A., M.A., 
 Editor, “‘ The Treasure Chest,’ Bangalore 
 
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CHAPTER XVI 
 
 MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
 ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA 
 
 THOUGH it is sometimes dangerous to generalize about 
 conditions in so large a country as India, there is on 
 the whole surprising agreement regarding the changes 
 that are taking place in the life of Moslem women in 
 all parts of the land. Prolonged contact with England’s 
 civilization, subtle currents of influence, pressure of new 
 ideas—all these have produced a restlessness, a vague 
 discontent, and a desire for escape into a world that fills 
 the mind and heart. The war, the Caliphate agitation, 
 the Nationalist Movement in India, the emancipation of 
 women in Egypt and Turkey, have penetrated to the 
 zenanas, and have given the women an interest in a, 
 world outside their own. 
 
 One of the noticeable features of recent years is the 
 awakening of the Moslems to a consciousness of the dis- 
 tance they lag behind the other communities. Especially 
 startling is their illiteracy. For Christians the pro- 
 portion of literates is 32 per cent. among men and 18 
 per cent. among women; for Hindus it is 15 per cent. 
 among men and 14 per cent. among women; but for 
 Moslems it is only 8 per cent. among men and a half 
 of one per cent. among women. In this matter the 
 traditional Islamic prejudice against women’s education 
 
 249 
 
250 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 is a determining factor. The Census Report of 1921 
 contains an admirable statement on this point *: 
 
 “Though the number of literate women throughout 
 India is still small and their proportion very low... the 
 fact remains that there has been steady advance in the 
 education of girls in the last twenty years. Literacy 
 is an indication rather of culture than of civilization, 
 and, while there is nothing inherent in the Indian tradition 
 that should prevent the development of the education 
 of the male population, the case is. . . different in regard 
 to women. The spirit both of Brahmanism and of Islam 
 is distinctly opposed to the education of the female sex ; 
 and there is little doubt that the women of India owe the 
 erowing facilities offered them for acquiring literacy 
 to the influence on the male section of the community 
 of foreign standards and ideals. That the education 
 of women is unnecessary, unorthodox, and dangerous, 
 is still the standpoint of a large section of Indian society. 
 It is still the predominant attitude of the Mohammedans 
 of the better class, though, in the case of their men, the 
 ability to read and write is. ..a religious obligation. ... 
 The scheme of life which orthodox tradition imposes on 
 the women of India presents obstacles to education which, 
 if not insuperable, are at least formidable. The customs 
 of purdah*® and of early marriage limit the number of 
 girls in the schools and necessitate the withdrawal of. 
 the majority before they have had a fair opportunity 
 to acquire any lasting knowledge of letters, while the 
 orthodox attitude of society towards women who accept 
 any public position accentuates the difficulty of obtaining 
 the necessary supply of professional teachers. It is 
 only, or at least chiefly, when the general advance of 
 
 1 Census of India, 1921, vol. 1, part I, p. 179. 
 
 * Literally, a curtain. A word used in India to express the 
 seclusion in which the high-class women live. They see no men 
 but those who are relatives, and never go outside of the women’s 
 quarters. 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 251 
 
 male culture has reached well beyond the stage of mere 
 vernacular literacy that the atmosphere becomes favour- 
 able to real progress in the instruction of women; and, 
 if the extent and progress of literacy among females 
 usually follows closely the statistics for males, it is because 
 the higher cultural advance of the latter, which causes 
 the improvement of the condition of women, is built 
 up on the basis of elementary literacy.”’ 
 
 That there can be no great improvement of the com- 
 munity until some of the cruel and wasteful limitations 
 have been removed from the life of its women is a slowly 
 penetrating idea which, more than any other, has produced 
 the spirit of unrest. Two classes of women have hitherto 
 been comparatively untouched by this movement: the 
 very poor and the very rich. The lower classes are 
 for the most part too preoccupied with the daily problem 
 of how to make a living to give attention to education. 
 The women of wealth and high position are in general 
 quite satisfied with their comfortable, settled existence, 
 and are besides firmly bound by convention. 
 
 The older women of all classes are almost without 
 exception strongly conservative. The spirit of progress 
 finds its expression in a comparatively small handful of 
 the younger generation—some hundreds, or possibly 
 thousands at most, out of 35,000,000 women. These 
 are confined almost entirely to the middle classes, being 
 chiefly daughters of professional men and lower-grade 
 government officials. Their protest takes three direc- 
 tions: the demand for an opportunity to study, the 
 demand for an opportunity for self-expression through 
 taking part in the world’s work, and a demand _ for 
 freedom from humiliating and intolerable social dis- 
 abilities. 
 
 The demand for an opportunity to study is meeting 
 
252 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 with a steadily widening acceptance. Thousands of 
 girls are now studying in primary and middle schools ; 
 scores are in high schools; two are in Queen Mary’s 
 College, Madras; thirteen in the Isabella Thoburn 
 College, Lucknow ; one has received the degree of M.A. 
 from the Aligarh University, and another from the 
 Lucknow University ; one has taken a medical degree 
 from King George’s Medical College, Lucknow, and, 
 after going to England for further study, has been given 
 charge of a Dufferin Hospital in India, and her four 
 sisters are now studying in King George’s Medical College. 
 Several others are studying privately for degrees. 
 
 Moslem men as well as women are so waking up to 
 the necessity of education for girls that, in view of the 
 paucity of good schools of their own, they are willing 
 to place their daughters in Christian institutions. This 
 applies to towns and cities, not to rural areas. In Madras 
 there are not sufficient schools at present to meet the 
 demand from Moslems. A missionary in Gujarat says that 
 if she had had the funds to open a school when the head 
 mulvi approached her on the subject a short time ago, 
 she would have had all the Moslem girls in the town as 
 pupils, although it was understood that Christian teaching 
 would be given. A missionary in Colombo believes 
 that numbers would attend boarding-schools specially 
 opened for Moslem girls. Even in places where the 
 number now attending school is small, missionaries say 
 that the attendance would be increased if Arabic were © 
 taught as well as the vernacular. The present educa- 
 tional opportunity is almost limitless. 
 
 The younger generation’s attitude towards education 
 is indicated by one of the speeches at the first session 
 of the Bombay Presidency Moslem Ladies’ Conference 
 held at Poona in October 1924. In the report given in 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 253 
 
 The Daily Telegraph and: Deccan Herald (Poona) we 
 read : 
 
 “Mrs. Moulvi, proposing a resolution, made a stirring 
 speech on Moslem female education. She deplored 
 that Moslem men had wronged Mohammedan women 
 by neglecting their education, treating them at the most 
 as a fine delicate piece of household furniture, unfit to 
 be moved about. Moslem men were under the impression 
 that Mohammedan women possessed neither head nor 
 heart, and were meant for nothing more than serving 
 their husbands as cooks, and hence were treated worse 
 than domestic slaves. They had been given to under- 
 stand that such services were the only part they were 
 fitted to play, and, marvel of marvels, most of them were 
 quite satisfied with their miserable fate. She therefore 
 appealed to the women of Islam to open their eyes 
 and follow the revolutionary changes in female society 
 in Egypt and Turkey. She concluded by asserting that, 
 purdah or no purdah, what was wanted was education. 
 -Purdah was sure to disappear sooner or later if education 
 was widely spread amongst the ladies of Mohamme- 
 danism.”’ 
 
 It is inevitable that along with education should 
 be mentioned progress in literature. Very little exists 
 especially written for women. A prominent Moslem 
 lady of Lahore edits Tahzib-un-Niswan for women, and 
 the wife of the treasurer of the Aligarh University edits 
 Phul for children. A missionary in Bengal mentions a 
 newly started magazine in Bengali for Moslem women. 
 *‘ It contains no political or religious articles so far, but 
 seems to aim at arousing women to prove themselves 
 not the slaves of men, but their equals.’”’ The same 
 missionary says that, in work among the ignorant villagers, 
 she has found the ordinary Bengali books too difficult, 
 and so has prepared simple Bible stories for them in their 
 
254 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 own village dialect, which is known as Mussalmani- 
 Bengali. ‘‘ They willingly buy these books to serve as 
 readers, and so gain knowledge of the truth with every 
 reading-lesson. Even middle-aged women beg us to 
 take them on as pupils, and our opportunities in this 
 direction are almost unlimited.”’ A missionary in Delhi 
 emphasizes the need of books for women of the better 
 class “‘ written from a Moslem point of view by one 
 steeped in the life of the women themselves.’’ Probably 
 no form of work would have so powerful an influence 
 as a well-planned literature of this kind. 
 
 The demand for self-expression through engaging in 
 the real work of the world has resulted in such achieve- 
 ments, when given opportunity, as place women’s ability 
 beyond question. The most conspicuous example of 
 leadership among Moslem women is that of the Begum 
 of Bhopal, whose enlightened government of her State 
 and whose courage in prohibiting liquor in its territory 
 (1923) have ranked her among the most progressive of 
 Indian rulers, while the educational and social reforms 
 in her own State and her influence over all Moslem India 
 through her position as Chancellor of the Aligarh Uni- 
 versity mark her as a pioneer in those fields. Other 
 women have taken part in social service, particularly 
 child welfare work. Women like Lady Mohammed Shafi 
 of Simla and the late Begum Bibi Amman, the mother | 
 of the Ali brothers, have done much to bring women — 
 forward by addressing women’s meetings and organizing 
 purdah parties. A Moslem woman was appointed in 
 1924 an honorary magistrate in Bombay. 
 
 The fields so far entered by Moslem women have been 
 chiefly education and medicine. The larger number 
 have become teachers, but some have been appointed 
 educational inspectresses in Indian States. Nursing 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA Zoo 
 
 claims the largest number of those in the medical depart- 
 ment, but several have become assistant doctors, and 
 at least one has become a dentist. A few have also 
 entered the field of journalism by contributing magazine 
 articles of interest to women, writing novels, and editing 
 papers. 
 
 To women such as these the miseries of genteel leisure 
 are only too apparent. Even though, in some cases, 
 learning and professionalism are carried on in the seclusion 
 of the zenana, life has become to them a thing of richness 
 and colour through their many interests and preoccupa- 
 tions. Although to others the idea of a woman’s earning 
 her living is still distasteful, these have come to the 
 conclusion that women who live the parasitic life are a 
 cause of weakness, economically and intellectually, to 
 their community. 
 
 It is in the answer to the third demand, for freedom 
 from social disabilities, that those have most reason to 
 rejoice who long to see Moslem women given a chance 
 to live in a liveable way all the relations of life. For this 
 demand is resulting in the setting up of new social 
 standards for woman in Islam. We need to remind 
 ourselves of her enormous handicaps—a minimum of 
 education; a marriage contract wholly determined by 
 man, to which she does not give her assent, but simply 
 submits ; a marriage relation in which the relationship 
 is not fixed by any rule of life, but is dependent on to-day’s 
 caprice and to-morrow’s mood ; and finally, subordina- 
 tion to a whole system of society in which law, organiza- 
 tion, and custom have all combined to fix her in a position 
 of inferiority. Is it any wonder that she is slow in coming 
 out of her shell and realizing herself as an independent 
 force? The interests opposed to her have secured for 
 themselves so long a start that the Moslem woman will 
 
256 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 have a longer road to travel than most to secure her 
 rights. But itis heartening to see the steps already taken. 
 
 The first of her social disabilities, polygamy, has met 
 with such criticism from outsiders that twenty years 
 ago Mr. (now Sir) Syed Ameer Ali was led to offer his 
 interpretation of the law of the Koran which says that 
 a man may marry two, three, or four wives if he can 
 be just to them; but, if he cannot, then he should marry 
 only one. The new view offered, it will be remembered, 
 was that the word “ just ’’ means conscientiously just, 
 and, since no man can possibly be conscientiously just 
 to more than one wife, Mohammed intended that he 
 should have but one.* This is one of a number of in- 
 stances of the way in which Moslem thinkers have faced 
 circumstances and endeavoured to harmonize the precepts 
 of Islam with the progressive conditions of modern 
 civilization and life—courageous efforts at reform which 
 command our deep interest and sympathy. Partly as 
 a result of this liberal interpretation, public opinion 
 against polygamy has been growing. Often a man of 
 high position refuses to give his daughter as second or 
 third wife to a man. At the All-India Moslem Ladies’ 
 Conference of 1924 a resolution was passed by the members 
 declaring that they would not countenance the marriage 
 of their daughters to men already married, and that 
 they would try to persuade their friends to take a similar 
 stand. It is interesting to note that, five years before, 
 a similar resolution failed to be passed by this organiza- 
 tion. A young woman who then advanced this view 
 was opposed by some of the other members and bitterly 
 denounced by the local Moslem Press.? 
 
 Divorce is still lamentably common, especially among 
 
 1 Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, p. 190. 
 2 See The Moslem World, April 1919, p. 172. 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 257 
 
 the poorer classes and in village communities. In no 
 respect do their social limitations bear more heavily on 
 the women thanin this. Although theoretically protected 
 by the provision made for divorce in the marriage settle- 
 ment, it often proves impossible in practice to collect 
 the sum so promised. Not only are the women too 
 ignorant and inexperienced to fight for their rights because 
 of their narrow up-bringing, but they are also far more 
 afraid of public opinion than men, and the very act of 
 appearing in court is usually enough to put them beyond 
 the pale of respectability, since that is considered ‘‘ coming 
 out of purdah.’’ Hence, a divorced woman—divorced 
 in many cases for the most trifling reason—is a helpless 
 outcast, conspicuously unwelcome in any home. But 
 among the educated classes a man who divorces his wife 
 is coming to be regarded with disapproval, and the 
 practice is not so common as it was a generation ago. 
 
 On one point, that of the purdah system, or the seclusion | 
 of women, Moslem society still refuses to give way, though 
 there is an increasing volume of opposition to it. The 
 upper classes cling tenaciously to it, the women regarding 
 it as a badge of aristocracy. At the Bombay Presidency 
 Moslem Ladies’ Conference, 1924, the president warmly 
 defended the system, though she is said to have been the 
 only reactionary among the three hundred delegates. 
 A constantly increasing number of women in cities 
 appear at lectures and public gatherings, but almost 
 invariably veiled if it is a mixed audience. A missionary 
 mentions having been at a dinner-party in Aligarh at 
 which the wives of some of the professors in the Aligarh 
 University appeared unveiled and moved with the greatest 
 freedom and sociability among the guests. But such 
 episodes are all too rare. Almost the sole exception 
 hitherto made is in the case of girls attending school and 
 
 18 
 
258 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 college at a distance from their homes. The purdah is 
 abandoned by them during the school term, but resumed 
 when they return home for their holidays or after com- 
 pleting their education. It is naturally these girls who, 
 having had a taste of freedom, resent being forced back 
 into seclusion, and it is probable that their daughters 
 will enjoy the liberty that they now so much desire. 
 There is a certain justification for conservatism on this 
 point. Even those men who, in theory, are in favour of 
 abolishing the purdah (and the men are as a rule much 
 less conservative on social questions than the women) 
 fear that its sudden withdrawal would result in wide- 
 spread abuse of liberty and in social disintegration. It 
 is natural to wish that such a change should come gradu- 
 ally. But the breeze of new ideas stirring among old 
 time-worn restrictions and conventions tells us that the 
 system cannot live long. It is already doomed, and 
 must go. 
 
 The emancipation of Moslem women is proceeding along 
 lines intellectual, economic, and social. Is it also pro- 
 ceeding along the line of religion? This is less evident 
 than the other three, yet even here are signs not without 
 significance. There is unquestionably an appreciable 
 number of unbaptized Christians in Moslem homes, and a 
 still larger group of sincere inquirers. But there is also 
 opposition. kemembering the natural conservatism of 
 the Moslem woman and her extreme pride in her faith, 
 remembering also the admirable traits of that faith 
 and her belief in its vital contribution to the religious 
 life of the world, we cannot find it surprising that she 
 usually glories in Islam or tries to prove that it is essen- 
 tially the same as Christianity. Especially in circum- 
 stances where she feels that her religion is challenged, 
 however indirectly, there is a natural desire to put 
 
LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 259 
 
 herself on the defensive. At the Isabella Thoburn College 
 nine Moslem students banded themselves together in 
 1922 into a club called the “Anjuman Nau-Nihalan 
 Islam ’”’ (“‘ The Association of Nine Young Plants of 
 Islam ’’), whose purpose was to foster loyalty to their 
 religion. Such a reaction is almost invariably the first 
 result of the impact of Christianity against Islam. But 
 here and there some who have been touched more deeply 
 than others through some experience of life have expressed 
 their dissatisfaction with Islam and their sense of its 
 emptiness and formalism. The story of the death of 
 Christ touches the hearts of such women, and Christian 
 ideals of love and service make an undeniable appeal 
 to them. To deepen these impressions until through 
 their surrender to Christ Moslem women reach their 
 highest freedom must be the endeavour of those who 
 sympathize most intensely with their longing for in- 
 tellectual and social freedom. It is impossible to forget 
 that their aspirations will never be fully satisfied until 
 they have realized the higher freedom of the spirit. 
 
 We shall probably have to wait a while for the big 
 things to happen. It is, after all, only a tiny fraction of 
 the whole that has been touched by the new spirit. The 
 movement is virtually leaderless, though it has the 
 enormous asset of an idealistic impulse. But the revolu- 
 tion it implies is tremendous. Its making good rests 
 with the women themselves. Will they have sufficient 
 insight and foresight to ally themselves with that which 
 will give each individual personality its truest freedom ? 
 
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THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND 
 ISLAM 
 
 BY THE RIGHT REV. 
 RENNIE MACINNES, D.D., 
 Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem, 
 
 IN COLLABORATION WITH THE REY. 
 CANON HERBERT DANBY, D.D. 
 

 
CHAPTER XVII 
 THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 
 
 WHEN estimating the resources at our disposal for 
 spreading the Gospel throughout the Moslem world, few 
 Western Christians think, and then only as an after- 
 thought, of including the ancient Oriental Churches. 
 Not only is it the exception to look upon these ancient 
 branches of the Catholic Church as assets in the Christian 
 cause: some would even regard them as liabilities. 
 This attitude of mind, though not incomprehensible, is 
 to be regretted. 
 
 Soldiers who have guarded the outposts and suffered 
 the first shocks and full force of the enemy’s onslaught, 
 and, though all but exterminated and cut off from all 
 outside material support and moral encouragement, have 
 yet held tight to their posts—such soldiers, however 
 wounded and helpless, however limited in outlook and 
 enterprise, and however lacking in resource and initiative, 
 can only inspire feelings of respect and veneration in the 
 hearts of fellow-fighters in happier, more successful, 
 and—let it not be forgotten—easier fields. Such soldiers 
 
 1 Under the vague heading, ‘‘ Ancient Oriental Churches,”’ 
 we include the Orthodox Eastern Church (commonly but quite 
 erroneously known as the “ Greek Church ’’)—and particularly 
 those portions of it included in the pre-war Ottoman Empire, 
 the Armenian Church, the Coptic (including the Abyssinian) 
 Church, the ‘“‘ Nestorian ’’ Church, and the Jacobite (‘‘ Syrian 
 Orthodox ’”’) Church, 
 
 263 
 
264 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 in our Lord’s cause are the ancient Oriental Churches. 
 They are all that is left of the Christian outposts in 
 Western Asia, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, on which fell 
 the first, freshest, and most powerful blows of the re- 
 current Moslem campaigns from Khalid to Tamerlane. 
 Their Christian brethren in the West could not, and, sad 
 to relate, at a later stage would not, help them: the 
 battered remnants have remained where they fell, 
 wounded by the wayside, neglected and isolated, and 
 despised by their earthly rulers. Neglect, isolation, and 
 contempt have been their lot these thousand years and 
 more; the world had no other reward to offer them 
 for their adherence to Christianity, though ease and 
 worldly honour might have been theirs by the simple 
 process of acknowledging the Prophet; yet they held 
 to the faith, endured the cross, and despised the shame. 
 It is thoughtless presumption in Christians of the West 
 to pass by such age-long devotion to our Lord and Master, 
 or to give a condescending glance at these Oriental 
 Churches as “interesting historical survivals.”’ The 
 lot of the Christian of the West, compared with that of 
 the Christian of the East, has been cast in a fair ground : 
 his life has been easy and well-ordered, his suffering 
 in the cause of Christ has been negligible. He has scant. 
 right, in the sight of history, to any claim of proved 
 superiority over his Christian brother of the East. 
 
 In the double light of experience and faith we shall 
 be blind indeed if we do not see in the ancient Oriental 
 Churches potential allies and valuable assets in our work 
 of rewinning to Christ the peoples of Egypt and Western 
 Asia, now under the sway of Islam. Those outposts of 
 the Christian Faith, so long isolated and even forgotten, 
 are no longer left to fight alone their grim struggle for 
 survival: the West, very late in the day, moved by 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 265 
 
 the missionary ideal, has, in groping around the un- 
 Christian East, regained touch with these worn and 
 weathered pickets. Time has had its effect on them. 
 Their moral and material resources have been exhausted 
 almost to the limit of endurance, But they have endured. 
 They are now in the condition of a relieved garrison : 
 no longer need they remain in the same state of acute 
 tension, with every fibre of their being strained to its 
 utmost in the simple effort to exist. That strain is for 
 the most part gone. They are free once more to take 
 their true place in the ranks of the Church Militant and 
 to reinvigorate their almost atrophied powers of spiritual 
 growth and progress. ‘Theirs need no longer be a purely 
 passive and defensive réle. The younger, fresher fighter 
 from the West must devote himself with loving care 
 towards re-equipping his veteran brother fighter: there 
 is the strongest possible call for the outpouring of sym- 
 pathy and inspiration to wipe away the enforced lethargy 
 of ages which has cramped the aggressive possibilities 
 of these Eastern Churches, hemmed in and overpowered 
 by sheer numbers and political oppression. 
 
 Now, throughout a large part of the East—with some 
 grievous exceptions—the more positive political oppres- 
 sion is past. In place of a ruling power instinctively 
 hostile, is found a power friendly or, at the least, neutral 
 in its sympathies. There is little to stand in the way 
 of the hoped-for reaction of the ancient Eastern Churches 
 to the fresher idealism which is the contribution of the 
 Christian West to the despairing languor of the Christian 
 East. It is in our power to offer moral encouragement 
 and material aid—but not conditionally, and not with 
 any feeling of condescension; we may only make the 
 offer in the spirit of privileged help. 
 
 One of the deeply rooted ideas, held consciously or 
 
266 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 unconsciously in the mind of Western Christianity when 
 contrasting itself with Eastern Christianity, is that the 
 latter wholly lacks the missionary ideal, and that this 
 missionary ideal is the monopoly of the Christian West. 
 Though this is patently true of the present, some ac- 
 quaintance with the history of the Oriental Churches 
 quickly convinces us that this was not always the case. 
 So long as the Eastern Churches retained any semblance 
 of freedom of action they manifested a missionary enter- 
 prise, zeal, and initiative, and a spirit of personal sacrifice 
 in the missionary cause of Christianity, such as have 
 never been equalled, let alone surpassed, by the efforts 
 of the comparatively recent missionary work of the 
 Churches of the West. For fourteen centuries the 
 missionary ideal was pursued by one or other of the 
 Eastern Churches; not until they were all but exter- 
 minated and their activities heavily fettered by political 
 oppression and social degradation, applied sometimes 
 crushingly and always severely by their Moslem rulers, 
 did their missionary powers droop and wither. 
 
 Long before the evangelization of England from Rome, 
 and while the Celtic Church was still grappling with the 
 heathenism of Ireland, the west of Scotland, and parts 
 of England, Oriental Christians, with their base suc- 
 cessively at Antioch, Edessa, and Seleucia-Ctesiphon, 
 were fighting, and fighting with magnificent success, 
 their Lord’s cause away in the Far East. From Maz- 
 deism the Edessene Church made innumerable conquests, 
 and the first ‘‘ National Church,’’ in the modern sense of 
 the term, was set up in Persia. This Church was wholly 
 cut off by political boundaries from the Roman Empire. 
 
 1 The precise nature of the obstacles placed by Islam in the path 
 of the growth of Christianity we shall touch upon elsewhere in the 
 chapter. 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 267 
 
 Its bishops could take no direct part on the @cumenical 
 Councils, and its language, Syriac, was such as did not 
 enable it easily to follow the subtleties of Byzantine 
 doctrinal interpretation and definition. This political 
 isolation and this unadaptability in language were largely 
 to blame for the Nestorianism on the one extreme, and 
 the Monophysitism on the other, which finally separated 
 the Churches east of Antioch and south of Alexandria 
 from Byzantine orthodoxy, and branded them as heretical 
 in the eyes of the West. But of all this the rank and file 
 of the Edessene and Persian Churches knew, and could 
 know, little. They preserved the faith, and took every 
 means of teaching the faith, as it was known to them. 
 
 The Persian Church in the reign of Shapur II, in the 
 middle of the fourth century, endured the heaviest 
 and bitterest martyrdoms known in the whole history 
 of the Church. The historian Sozomen gives the total 
 of 16,000 martyrs who died in Shapur’s reign. Un- 
 daunted by such persecution, they pressed on with their 
 missionary work and penetrated the wildest parts of 
 the world’s surface—through Tibet into China, and 
 southwards to India. Buddhist ritual, to this day, pre- 
 serves traces of early Christian ritual; the present 
 Mongolian alphabets are plainly relics of the Syriac 
 Christian culture introduced centuries ago by the Persian 
 Christian missionaries ; and the old Syriac language and 
 liturgy are still to be heard on the Malabar coast in the 
 south of India. Before the final catastrophe of the 
 Tamerlane invasion the Nestorians had created an 
 enormous Asiatic Church, consisting of no less than 
 twenty-five metropolitan sees, missionary centres through- 
 out Khurasan, Turkistan, India, and China. 
 
 Again, from the Eastern Christians of Edessa the 
 Gospel was taken to Armenia as early as the third century, 
 
268 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 and it was the Coptic monks of Egypt who, in the fifth 
 and sixth centuries, revived, reorganized, and preserved 
 Christianity in Abyssinia; while the greatest national 
 conversion in history, that of the Russian nation, was 
 the fruit of Byzantine Christianity at the end of the 
 tenth century. 
 
 Farther East, where Islam had not yet gained its 
 ascendancy, the Church of Persia persisted in its mis- 
 sionary work for centuries after the Hijra. Its Patriarch 
 and metropolitans were honoured in the courts of the 
 Mongol Ilkhan rulers of Persia in the thirteenth century, 
 and converts were made within the reigning family 
 itself, It was long confidently supposed in the West 
 that the Mongol rulers and their followers were Christians, 
 or on the point of embracing Christianity ; it was a 
 long-cherished idea that, though the Crusaders were driven 
 out of the Holy Land, a united effort of Christian princes 
 of the West and Mongol allies from the farther East would 
 yet again eject the Moslems from Palestine.? 
 
 History, therefore, leaves us in no uncertainty as to 
 the inherent missionary enterprise of our Christian 
 brethren of the ancient Oriental Churches, such time as 
 the least semblance of freedom and growth has been 
 permitted them. Whenever our thoughts turn to ques- 
 tioning what they are doing, or what they can do or 
 ought to do towards furthering the faith among non- 
 Christians, we have no right to overlook what they have 
 done in the past. 
 
 The fact, however, to be faced is that during the 
 centuries of Islam’s existence the ancient Oriental 
 
 1 In 1287 we find a Nestorian Christian, a Mongol, the “‘ arch- 
 deacon ’”’ of the Patriarch Yaballaha III (also a Mongol) present- 
 ing himself at the court of the English king, Edward I, with the 
 objectjof negotiating such an alliance, 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM — 269 
 
 Churches have not advanced the Christian cause against 
 Islam, but have, to a greater or less extent, retreated 
 before it. There is an old rabbinical saying: ‘‘ Judge 
 not thy brother till thou art in his place.’ We may 
 not pass judgment on the supineness of Christianity 
 under Islam until we know better the position in which 
 these Oriental Christians found themselves once the 
 flood of Islam had overwhelmed them. It is a hard 
 saying, but, humanly speaking, missionary endeavour 
 becomes possible only when there is an acknowledged 
 or unacknowledged moral, and even material, ascendancy 
 in the would-be missionary or missionary body. Such 
 an ascendancy the Eastern Churches failed to preserve 
 before the wave of Islam. It was no inherent superiority 
 in Islam which crushed them, but the combination of 
 internal dissension, political subservience, and failure 
 to retain their old spiritual life and vigour. 
 
 What, then, was the lot of those Christian bodies 
 which still survived under Moslem political rule? Some 
 would have us believe that they, as “people of the 
 Book,’ enjoyed the amplest toleration.* Our attention 
 is called to the decree? said to have been issued by the 
 Caliph Omar after the capture of Jerusalem : 
 
 “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate ! 
 This is the security which Omar, the servant of God, the 
 commander of the faithful, grants to the people of Aelia 
 [Jerusalem]. He grants to all, whether sick or sound, 
 security for their lives, their possessions, their churches 
 and their crosses, and for all that concerns their religion. 
 Their churches shall not be changed into dwelling-places, 
 nor destroyed, neither shall they nor their appurtenances 
 
 1 Sir T. W, Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, London, 1896, 
 passim, 
 2 Abu Tabari, Annales (Leiden, 1885-93), vol. 1, p. 2405. 
 
270 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 be in any way diminished, nor the crosses of the in- 
 habitants nor aught of their possessions, nor shall any 
 constraint be put upon them in the matter of their 
 faith, nor shall any one of them be harmed.”’ } 
 
 This document may be genuine, and this policy may 
 have been pursued for a brief space ; but the history of 
 Christianity under the Moslems tells a very different 
 story of the treatment consistently meted out in later 
 centuries to those who still clung to the faith of the 
 Church in Moslem lands. ‘“‘ Toleration’’ was certainly 
 extended in return for the payment of 7zzyah (the capita- 
 tion tax imposed on dhimmis, non-Mohammedans living 
 under Mohammedan rule); but what a “ toleration ’’!?* 
 A more accurate picture of the conditions is given in 
 another ordinance? likewise attributed to the Caliph 
 Omar, but obviously belonging to a later age which sought 
 primitive sanction for what had become established usage : 
 
 “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate ! 
 This is a writing to Omar b. al-Khattab from the Christians 
 of such and such a city. When you marched against us, 
 we asked of you protection for ourselves, our posterity, 
 our possessions and our co-religionists; and we made 
 this stipulation with you, that we will not erect in our 
 city or the suburbs any new monastery, church, cell, or — 
 hermitage ; that we will not repair any of such buildings 
 that may fall into ruins, or renew those that may be 
 situated in the Moslem quarters of the town; that we 
 will not refuse the Moslems entry into our churches 
 either by night or by day; that we will open the gates 
 wide to passengers and travellers; that we will receive 
 
 1 de Goeje, M. J., Mémoire sur la conquéte de la Syrie, Leide, 
 1900, pp. 143 ff.; Leone Caetani, Annali dell’ Islam, Milano, 1910, 
 vol. 3, p. 957. 
 
 2 Gottheil, Richard J. H., Dhimmis and Moslems in Egypt 
 (Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey 
 Harper), Chicago, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 382-4. 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 271 
 
 any Moslem traveller into our houses and give him food 
 and lodging for three nights ; that we will not harbour 
 any spy in our churches or houses, or conceal any enemy 
 of the Moslems; that we will not teach our children the 
 Koran; that we will not make a show of the Christian 
 religion nor invite any one to embrace it; that we will 
 not prevent any of our kinsmen from embracing Islam, 
 if they so desire. That we will honour the Moslems and 
 rise up in our assemblies when they wish to take their 
 seats ; that we will not imitate them in our dress, either 
 in the cap, turban, sandals, or parting of the hair; that 
 we will not make use of their expressions of speech, nor 
 adopt their surnames; that we will not ride on saddles, 
 or gird on swords, or take to ourselves arms or wear 
 them, or engrave Arabic inscriptions on our rings; that 
 we will not sell wine; that we will shave the front of 
 our heads; that we will keep to our own style of dress, 
 wherever we may be; that we will wear girdles round 
 our waists; that we will not display the cross upon our 
 churches or display our crosses or our sacred books in 
 the streets of the Moslems, or in their market-places ; 
 that we will strike the bells in our churches lightly ; 
 that we will not recite our services in a loud voice when 
 a Moslem is present; that we will not carry palm-branches 
 or our images in procession in the streets; that at the 
 burial of our dead we will not chant loudly or carry 
 lighted candles in the streets of the Moslems or their 
 market-places ; that we will not take any slaves that 
 have already been in the possession of Moslems, nor spy 
 into their houses ; and that we will not strike any Moslem. 
 All this we promise to observe, on behalf of ourselves 
 and our co-religionists, and receive protection from you 
 in exchange; and, if we violate any of the conditions 
 of this agreement, then we forfeit your protection and 
 you are at liberty to treat us as enemies and rebels.” 
 
 Thus no ingenuity was spared in harassing the Chris- 
 tians, in impressing upon them, and demonstrating to 
 
 atl 
 
272 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 their Moslem neighbours, the degraded social status of 
 all who persisted in their adherence to Christianity, and 
 in suppressing any possibility of healthy internal develop- 
 ment or of propagating the Christian Faith among those 
 that were without. Add to this the fact that real or 
 supposed prosperity among non-Moslem sections of the 
 community marked them down as obvious victims of 
 extra fiscal oppression whenever the State was in need 
 of revenue—and we shall see how effectively Christianity 
 was hedged in and held under, not only by the outside 
 world’s assumption of the degradation then synonymous 
 with Christianity, but also by the lowering of moral 
 standards thereby induced among the Christians them- 
 selves. The wonder is, not that Christianity failed to 
 make any headway in such circumstances, but that it 
 survived at all under the imposed burdens of restrictions 
 and enforced sense of social inferiority. 
 
 It is true that the last century has seen a change. 
 The stigma of social degradation had largely been removed 
 long before the war, and political changes since have 
 tended, or are tending, to place the adherents of all 
 religions on a basis of complete equality ; outside op- 
 pression may no longer be brought forward as an excuse 
 
 for loss of spiritual life. But it requires more than a ,- 
 
 decade or two to wipe out the effects of centuries. Modern 
 psychological jargon speaks of an “ inferiority complex ”’ ; 
 and such a thing it is, to a very great extent, which 
 centuries of Moslem rule have endeavoured to instil 
 into the moral being of the ancient Oriental Churches. 
 In the nature of things the attempt could never have 
 achieved complete success, yet some results of the treat- 
 ment, both in the ruling and in the victimized races, were 
 bound to endure for a time. These results cannot be 
 eliminated at once; they will be eliminated still more 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 278 
 
 slowly if members of the free, untrammelled Churches 
 of the West thoughtlessly perpetuate the process of 
 centuries of Islam, by adopting a similar pose of super- 
 cilious contempt. 
 
 In these ancient Churches we may hope to find allies 
 in the advancing of Christ’s cause—but they are allies 
 who have already fought and suffered ; they have suffered 
 wounds and sickness the like of which we, in the provi- 
 dence of God, have been spared. These points we 
 must never forget; they should guide our thoughts 
 in all our relations, actual and possible, with them. 
 God has not suffered them to perish. He still has work 
 for them to do. It is our part not to pass judgment 
 on what they are doing or ought to do, but to discover 
 how it may be in our power to help them to recover 
 the health and vigour of their youth. We know that 
 they are endowed with special gifts which make them 
 eminently suitable and well equipped in the struggle 
 against the ranks of Islam—in the very nature of things 
 they must possess an intimate personal knowledge of 
 Mohammedanism’s popular forms, its particular weak- 
 nesses and its particular strength; they already have, 
 what the Western Christian can never wholly acquire, 
 an intimate acquaintance with followers of Islam; they 
 have many things in common with their opponents— 
 language, traditions, environment, history, and social 
 usages. These strong points in their armour are too 
 obvious to need stressing. But it would be foolish to 
 blind our eyes to the other side of things, the positive 
 weaknesses in these ancient Churches. Not merely 
 have they lost their old missionary zeal, but they regard 
 the notion of the conversion of the Moslems with actual 
 abhorrence. Too often any reference to the call to 
 missionary effort and to our responsibility to try to 
 
 19 
 
274 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 win the Moslems arouses in them obvious astonishment ; 
 they would argue that such people are beyond the pale, 
 that we may not degrade our holy things by giving them 
 to the dogs! Thus a colporteur on the Cairo station 
 platform once offered a Bible for sale to a Moslem; a 
 native Christian standing by indignantly struck the 
 Bible out of the man’s hand on to the ground, and rebuked 
 the colporteur most sternly for “‘ casting pearls before 
 swine.’’ And this, unhappily, is the attitude of mind 
 of a very large proportion of the native Christians of 
 the East to-day. 
 
 Rightly, therefore, can we believe that we have much 
 to contribute to the well-being and effectiveness of the 
 Christian East—the conviction that the Christian must 
 strive to maintain a standard of life worthy of his Master, 
 and that Christianity, by its very nature, must needs 
 be aggressive; that the Christian believer must needs 
 offer the glad tidings to those who have never heard. 
 Also we have educational resources and institutions, 
 we have an accumulation of knowledge in missionary 
 work throughout the world, we have organized bodies 
 of devoted workers, all of which we can gladly place 
 at the disposal of our fellow-workers of the Eastern 
 Churches. In other words, our part is to work and pray 
 that God will use us as a means to strengthen the hands 
 of the remnants of these ancient armies of Christendom, 
 to strengthen the moral of these veterans—a moral 
 which has been so sorely tried by centuries of oppression 
 and solitude. 
 
 The process of working side by side has already begun, 
 yet results have been very slow to show themselves. 
 In more than one of these Oriental Christian communities 
 a younger generation has arisen whose members have 
 come into close contact with the ideals of the Western 
 
ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM) 275 
 
 Churches and have learned to re-examine their own 
 Church and fellow Christians in the light of this contact. 
 They begin to see how it may be in their power to put 
 aside much that, while it made for security and preserva- 
 tion, clogged the forward action of their Church. Gene- 
 rally speaking, and of course not forgetting a very few 
 individual and isolated examples to the contrary, there 
 is amongst the laity some desire for wider education and 
 reform; but this is not altogether a longing for more 
 spiritual life, but is mixed up with the desire of acquiring 
 national independence. The majority of missionaries 
 who work amongst Moslems would emphatically say that 
 there are not yet any indications of a real desire among 
 Eastern Christians to evangelize the Moslems. But a 
 real step forward has been taken in that a generation 
 is arising which has learned to see in the Western Churches 
 allies in Christ and not, as they have long feared, some- 
 times with reason, merely rival claimants to the allegiance 
 of the native Christians. How such mutual confidence 
 can, in practice, be called forth may be illustrated by the 
 fact that the period of closest contact with the Coptic 
 Church in Egypt was when the Church Missionary 
 Society developed its most definite evangelistic work 
 amongst the Moslems—when both Moslems and Copts 
 became convinced of our sincerity. 
 
 The ancient Oriental Churches can never be more 
 than a blunted weapon in the campaign of Christianity 
 against Islam until, by aid from without and by spiritual 
 revival within, they shall, by life and conduct, again 
 win that respect from the Islamic races which they have 
 lost so long. Centuries of oppression have not failed 
 to leave their mark on both oppressor and oppressed. 
 Travellers in the East have not been slow to say hard 
 
276 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 things of native Christians who have come under their 
 notice—that they are backboneless creatures, Christians 
 only because their fathers were Christians before them, 
 that their religion is only an external armour of inherited 
 habit and belief, that they are, so to speak, crustaceous 
 rather than vertebrate in their spiritual construction. 
 Christians of the West who contemptuously sit in judg- 
 ment on Christians of the East should realize that this 
 is not the way to help them. We shall only confirm 
 them in that loss of respect if we ourselves treat them with 
 contempt ; we shall then be continuing, with deplorable 
 results, that same work which Islam began and carried 
 on for 1,300 years—of deliberately striving to make 
 Christianity something despicable! Islam all but suc- 
 ceeded in its attempt ; must it be left to fellow Christians 
 to complete that work ? 
 
 Beginning with sympathy, we must, on our part, 
 learn to respect and honour these Churches and create, 
 so far as lies in our power, conditions which shall justify 
 such respect and honour. Oriental Christianity, the 
 spiritual mother of all Christianity, will then the better 
 hold high its head before Islam and, freed from the 
 bondage of contempt, not wholly earned but largely 
 imposed from without, be at liberty to play a real and 
 full part in the evangelization of the East. We may 
 leave the rest to God and His guidance. 
 
ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND THE 
 EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 W. H. T. GAIRDNER, B.A., 
 Secretary, Church Missionary Soctety, Cairo 
 
Cie MA CUNT IMMOD MATES at a ate 
 oi 4 taker om H TUE HECK KORY f MT, Tbe 
 
 aN el its Spat: 
 aa & i UATE, ee a 
 
 oni. » jelae Wi ms hpennstaad a om he 
 
 }. 
 
 7, vy 
 
 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND 
 THE EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 
 
 Is it not now universally recognized in every mission 
 country that the problem of problems and the hope of 
 hopes is the evangelization of that country by its own 
 Christian community? The following thought-sequence, 
 which occurs in a paper recently read before Oriental 
 and missionary leaders in Cairo, would probably be 
 accepted by all as possessing almost mathematical 
 cogency. We cannot do better than to begin with it, 
 and immediately thereafter consider why it is ten times 
 harder to turn the theoretical syllogism into a practical 
 one in the Moslem East than in any other part of the 
 mission-field. For this procedure will take us straight 
 to the heart of our subject. 
 
 “We are all agreed that when Jesus Christ founded 
 His Church He purposed to spread His message of salva- 
 tion everywhere by means of that Church. 
 
 “We are all agreed that this work is the main duty 
 of the Church as a whole; that Christ’s congregation in 
 this world is not intended to live to itself, not even to 
 build up itself in holiness, but to live for its evangelizing 
 task. The community whose entire energies are spent 
 in maintaining itself will ultimately lack the energy to 
 do even that. 
 
 “We are all agreed, then, that if this task and this 
 ideal are universal, it must be made the conscious aim, 
 
 279 
 
280 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the enthusiasm of the lesser communities included within 
 the Church Universal—that is to say, of each denomina- 
 tion and of each local congregation of each denomination ; 
 and that this, again, should mean that all the families 
 and individual members of those congregations have the 
 same conscious aim, the same enthusiasm. It is only 
 by particularizing, in ever-narrowing circles of applica- 
 tion, that any campaign is won: as was discovered, for 
 example, in the Great War or in the spiritual warfare 
 of the Early Church. 
 
 “We are all agreed that the responsibility for the 
 evangelization of each whole country is and must be 
 mainly, indeed almost entirely, upon the local Christian 
 community, denominations, congregations, families, and 
 church-members in that country. 
 
 “We are all agreed, again, that the ultimate aim of 
 all missionary work initiated in every country from the 
 outside is the evangelization of the non-Christians of 
 that country. 
 
 “We are all agreed that the missionary societies 
 entered the Mohammedan lands of the East for just this 
 purpose, and that this is the immediate or ultimate 
 aim of every society and of every missionary in those 
 lands. 
 
 “So, then, the abiding test of the success of missionary 
 work in these lands will be, how far the Christian Church 
 which has been influenced or raised up by missionary 
 effort does take up and prosecute the evangelization 
 of the non-Christians of these lands: for assuredly only 
 thus, and not by the performances of foreigners, however 
 devoted, can the task be accomplished or even carried 
 on in a healthy way. 
 
 “If these things be true, we are then agreed that the 
 abiding test of the success of missionary work in Moham- 
 medan lands will be how far the Christian community 
 in these lands, and especially that community which has 
 been influenced or raised up through missionary effort, 
 takes up and prosecutes the evangelization of Islam.”’ 
 
ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 281 
 
 If these things are so, why is it that the old Oriental 
 Churches are more causes of despair than of hope in this 
 regard ? Nay, why is it that the Reformed communities, 
 whether Anglican, Presbyterian, or Congregational, 
 which have been raised up in Near Eastern lands during 
 the last eighty years, numerous, powerful, well-educated 
 though they be, are an almost complete disappointment 
 in the very matter which, as we have seen, touches their 
 actual vaison d’étre? This fact is too unquestionable 
 to be denied, too serious not to be faced, and, let us at 
 once say, too simply intelligible not to be treated with 
 sympathy. Indeed, it is only when the causes of the 
 disappointment are frankly faced that they can be 
 clearly understood, only when clearly understood 
 that they can be appreciated with sympathy, and 
 only when they are appreciated with sympathy that 
 they can be changed. And changed they must be if 
 the syllogism remains so inexorably true, and if the 
 mission Churches continue, nevertheless, to be such a 
 disappointment in the one thing for which they were 
 founded by their great pioneers. 
 
 In the first place, the old Oriental Churches, such as 
 the Greek-Orthodox, Coptic, Gregorian, and Uniate 
 communities, have a long non-evangelistic and non- 
 “ proselytizing ’’ tradition behind them reaching back 
 to before Islam. And they are also, taken broadly, 
 inert, timorous, and destitute of evangelistic fire. The 
 Reformed communities mentioned above are composed 
 of ex-members of those Oriental communities and their 
 descendants, not of converts from Islam, who are either 
 non-existent or form (except in Persia) an infinitesimal 
 and unassimilated element in these communities of 
 hereditary Christians. 
 
 There seem to be three main difficulties. The first 
 
282 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 and fundamental one is the age-long pressure of a con- 
 quering, a domineering, and an unsparing state-religion : 
 a religion which has made “ proselytism’’ and even 
 preaching criminal offences ; a religion which has barely 
 conceded to the depressed members of other faiths the 
 right to exist, and then only on the express condition 
 that they kept themselves to themselves, i.e., did not 
 fulfil what we have seen above is the law of their being ; 
 a religion which has caused its adherents to accept acts 
 of kindness, friendliness, and Christian service as the 
 due of a lordly from a menial people ; which has attributed 
 even such acts and services to cowardice, to ulterior 
 motives, to the mean currying of favour; and which 
 thus has discounted, neutralized, and spoiled the very 
 conduct in which Christ most reveals Himself, and by 
 which men are impressed and won. 
 
 With all the centuries of this treatment, and the deep, 
 inherited thought-attitudes created by it, has come fear, 
 distrust, disbelief in the possibility of the Christianizing 
 of such people. And, with the attitude and power of 
 the governing class largely unchanged to-day, how can 
 we expect the Christian community in the East to clear 
 at one leap the 1,400 years that separate it from the 
 days when Christianizing and conversion of non-Christians 
 were part of normal Christian life ? 
 
 The second difficulty is that the historic development 
 of religious communities in the East has tended to turn 
 them all into something resembling nations, the governing 
 bodies of which are charged with a multitude of duties 
 concerning the personal and social and political status 
 of their members: the direct result is the disinclination 
 to admit outsiders, and the denial of the desirability or 
 even possibility of conversion, along with a strong develop- 
 ment of those feelings of antipathy and antagonism which 
 
ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 283 
 
 are associated with national community-feeling. We 
 are thus faced with another colossal historic difficulty 
 with a standing of a millennium and a half. 
 
 The third difficulty is the fact that too often the 
 Christian communities have been disappointed in converts 
 from Islam, some of whom should never have been ad- 
 mitted, others of whom ran well and then turned traitor. 
 The fact that some of these failures were directly due to 
 soil and atmosphere uncongenial to the new plants, does 
 not weaken the point, while it strengthens another one, 
 namely, that until there exists in the East a Christian 
 Church in which converts from Islam can be at home, 
 missionaries will continue to work almost in vain. 
 
 These enormous and baffling difficulties must be 
 bravely, truthfully, sympathetically recognized, without 
 the slightest assertion or feeling of moral or spiritual su- 
 periority in any quarter. Onlyso can we begin to face and 
 to attack these Anakim which, while the Christian Church 
 was in bondage, have occupied these lands of promise. 
 
 Moreover, what makes these difficulties acute, and the 
 failure which they spell so serious, is the fact that the 
 small number of Christians who have come out from 
 Islam have remained, on the whole, an unwelcome, un- 
 wanted, and unassimilated element in Oriental Christian 
 communities, in the “‘ Reformed ’”’ no less than in the 
 “ Orthodox.’”’ We here come to the core of that which is 
 to-day the problem and for the solution of which we must 
 look to to-morrow. The reasons—if you will, the excuses 
 —for this strange, disconcerting, baffling fact have 
 already been sufficiently analysed. But we simply 
 cannot accept the fact as necessary or as permanent. 
 For if the ultimate success of the evangelistic enterprise 
 depends upon the way in which it is taken up and finally 
 taken over by the Oriental Christian community, this 
 
284 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 is only to say that it depends upon the extent to which 
 that community becomes a home for those who turn 
 from Islam to Christ. For the Church or congregation 
 which desires to be, sets out to be, and succeeds in be- 
 coming, a home for those converted to Christ from 
 Islam is in itself a gospel—the best, highest, and most 
 Christlike gospel of all: the gospel that will be most 
 easily loved by those without, and will most powerfully 
 attract them to enter. Precisely such a Church will 
 certainly be the one most forward in preaching to non- 
 Christians in the ordinary sense of the word. 
 
 Therefore, to see these congregations and communities 
 as homes for those who are not yet Christ’s but for whom 
 Christ is seeking, is the supreme task, the highest ideal, 
 the fairest dream. Only in such nurseries can new-born 
 souls thrive. Only when the soil of Christ’s garden-plots 
 is thus congenial to these new plants will they survive 
 the shock of transference from their native soil and thrive 
 and grow and flower and yield fruit. 
 
 There is a special reason why this holds true in Moslem 
 mission lands. Whatever we may think of Islam, it 
 has markedly stood for a brotherhood, a universal 
 brotherhood of a sort. It may be that many of the 
 manifestations of this brotherhood are imperfect, un- 
 spiritual, even most injurious to those without. But, 
 from the point of view of those within, it does stand 
 for something—with many for much, with some for 
 everything. If this is so, it is obvious that unless we 
 can show them a brotherhood that is higher, better, 
 more spiritual, warmer, tenderer—in one word, truer 
 —they will marvel how we have the face to preach to 
 them at all. And contrariwise, a people so familiar 
 with the idea of brotherhood will specially appreciate 
 the real thing when they see it. 
 
ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 285 
 
 How, then, shall the three baffling difficulties mentioned 
 above be faced and then wrestled with and overthrown ? 
 
 To the first must be opposed once more the ideal of 
 Christian courage and hope. In spite of all, the mentality 
 is not just the same to-day as it was in 1725 or in 1825. 
 The ideas of civil and religious freedom, at least, have 
 been given a start. So the moment is favourable for 
 the Church to re-learn hope. But in any case it needs 
 to re-learn courage. And why should not those races 
 which withstood 1,300 years of persecution and dying 
 for being Christians, be equally willing to withstand per- 
 secution—aye, and even death—for being evangelists ? 
 And the missionaries must be willing to suffer both 
 persecution and death with them. 
 
 To the second difficulty must be opposed the original 
 conception of the Christian Church, whose specially warm 
 fraternal love within the spiritual brotherhood did not 
 in the least spell chilliness, much less hostility, to those 
 without ; but rather guaranteed a universal friendliness 
 and an all-embracing benevolence, the very qualities which 
 most of all attracted souls to join the fellowship, so that 
 they might share the more intense warmth within. 
 
 To the third difficulty missionaries must oppose a 
 revised procedure and make a candid confession of many 
 mistakes in the past, such as unwisdom, hastiness, in- 
 efficient pastoral care, insufficient co-operation with one 
 another and with their Oriental fellow-Christians. 
 
 But are these suggestions practical? In order to 
 change a situation which has been wrong for 1,500 years, 
 and which is still to-day difficult and complicated to the 
 last degree, the most practical thing is to analyse it as 
 clearly, as fearlessly, and as lovingly as possible, and then 
 ‘to concentrate attention on changing the thoughts which 
 for historical reasons have been warped so long. For 
 
286 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 thoughts are practical things, because they lead to 
 actions. While missionaries, in their haste to act, perhaps 
 call thoughts unpractical things, Oriental mothers are 
 busy instilling the old thoughts into another generation 
 of children, which will inevitably produce the old actions 
 and attitudes and will continue to thwart the glorious 
 plans of the Divine Son of Man. 
 
 If, then, it is almost a new philosophy of Christianity 
 and its history that is involved, this can be taught only © 
 by leaders of Oriental Christianity, by the clergy, minis- 
 ters, evangelists, elders, school-teachers, and church- 
 members, who are fathers and mothers. It is to them 
 the appeal must be made, thus to learn and thus to teach : 
 to let this beautiful idea be known and loved, the idea 
 of their Church as a home for the souls shivering in the 
 cold without, or as a garden-plot for the wild plant 
 transplanted thither. Let these folk get the right 
 attitude, the attitude of welcome, of friendliness, of 
 sympathy for the cruel difficulties of the newly baptized. 
 This demands clear thinking, clear teaching, and clear 
 leading from those responsible for planning, for instruc- 
 tion, and for guidance. 
 
 From history and experience we know that similar 
 thought-campaigns have been waged in the West and 
 have prevailed to change minds to action—but not with- 
 out time and travail. One sees here a truly vast enter- 
 prise, an enterprise as definite and as great as that of 
 the Student Volunteer Missionary Movement in the 
 West, although the emphasis will be on education rather 
 than on life-service, education that will begin at the very 
 centre—in the synods, the clerical and ministerial 
 assemblies, and will radiate to the very circumference, 
 to the general membership of every local congregation ; 
 education which shall be definitely planned and con- 
 
ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 287 
 
 trolled, and carefully watched and regulated by those 
 who shall be responsible for oversight ; education behind 
 which shall be the dynamic of continual prayer, and 
 which shall work itself out by sermon and address, study- 
 circle, textbooks, and example ; education to be applied 
 to congregation, schools, and home, to the end that 
 public opinion and social consciousness may be changed 
 —nay, that change may be wrought in something even 
 deeper and more dynamic than consciousness, namely, 
 the sub-conscious life that is the deposit of the inherited 
 and accumulated thought and feeling of the centuries. 
 
 Who is sufficient for these things? Surely no one. 
 They call for the impossible. Nevertheless, there come 
 to mind fragments of words, old yet ever new: ‘‘ And 
 nothing shall be impossible to you”; “only have 
 faith ! all things are possible to the man who has faith ”’ ; 
 and, “‘ I have found all things possible—in my dynamic, 
 Christ.”’ 
 

 
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THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 
 
 BY 
 GEORGE SWAN, 
 Secretary, Egypt General Mission 
 
 20 
 
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CHAPTER XIX 
 THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 
 
 ‘* With a measure of light and a measure of shade 
 The world of old by the Word was made ; 
 By the shade and light was the Word conceal’d, 
 And the Word in flesh to the world reveal’d 
 Is by outward sense and its forms obscured ; 
 The spirit within is the long-lost Word, 
 Besought by the world of the soul in pain 
 Through a world of words which are void and vain, 
 O never while shadow and light are blended 
 Shall the world’s Word-quest or its woe be ended, 
 And never the world of its wounds made whole 
 Till the Word made flesh be the Word made soul! ”’ 
 
 ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE, 
 
 Is it not true that at the back of all religions there is 
 the quest of the knowledge of God? In the words of 
 St. Paul, ‘‘ God... hath made of one blood all nations 
 of men... that they should seek the Lord, if haply they 
 might feel after Him, and find Him.”’1 Some seek Him, 
 ab initio, by the deductive or inductive processes of 
 philosophy ; others, taking as their basis a revelation which 
 they accept, seek by defining and systematizing this 
 revelation to come to a clearer conception of the Deity; 
 while still others seek in various ways a personal ex- 
 perience of God. It is these last who are generally 
 termed the mystics of any given religion. Against this 
 Acts. 57:::26,°27. 
 291 
 
292 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 we must always bear in mind that great mystics, like al- 
 Ghazali in Islam, were often philosophers and systematic 
 theologians as well as seekers after a personal and inward 
 experience of God. 
 
 For every individual, however, who truly seeks after 
 God there are multitudes who are satisfied with the 
 results of others’ search, who adopt a philosophy, a dogma, 
 a creed, a ritual with more or less credulity or imitate 
 the processes which some revered saint found helpful 
 as he “ practised the presence of God,” or sought to 
 reproduce the ecstatic condition which he believed to 
 be communion with the Infinite. When we come to 
 _study the mysticism of the masses of Moslem lands we 
 find it, with very few exceptions, thus imitative and 
 traditional. 
 
 For the first six centuries of Moslem history mysticism 
 was largely individualistic, except for occasional schools 
 that gathered round those who had become famous for 
 their mystical attainments, and who had also the gift 
 of passing on to others the acquisitions of their contem- 
 plative life and their intuitively gained knowledge of 
 God. As we approach the close of this period we begin 
 to find less strict individualism. The number of really 
 great mystical teachers has so increased as to have 
 become an important factor in the life of every Mos- 
 lem country. They have become eclectic, recognizing, 
 criticizing, and adopting much of the learning and 
 experience of other mystic teachers, now generally 
 known as Sufis. In their eclecticism they do not confine 
 themselves to Islam, and so we find, taking one example 
 only, a very strong Neo-Platonist influence derived from 
 the great work of the Pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite 
 of Alexandria, a work which, through the translation 
 of Johannes Scotus Erigena, profoundly affected the 
 
MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 293 
 
 mysticism of Europe, and which accounts for many of the 
 similarities between medieval Catholic and Arab mysti- 
 cism. This systematizing of mystic lore became concrete 
 and generally available by the writing of certain famous 
 books, such as Qutu ’1-Qulub, by Abu Talib al-Makki 
 (d. A.D. 996); the Risdlatw’l-Qushayriyya, by Abu’l- 
 Qasim al-Qushayri (d. A.D. 1074); and, greatest of all, 
 the Ihya’u ‘Ulam ad-Din, by al-Ghazali (d. A.D. IIII). 
 It was this book that dispelled the fears of the Moslem 
 world as to the orthodoxy of Sufism, and therefore did 
 much to facilitate the popular movement which led to 
 the formation of the dervish orders, a movement which 
 very probably commenced under the influence of Abd 
 al-Qadir al-Jilani, who died only fifty-five years later. 
 &. The transitional period is quite admirably portrayed 
 in the life of Abu’l Hasan ash-Shadhili. As those who 
 know Arabic literature will acknowledge, that which 
 we in the West recognize as biographical material is 
 generally wanting in it; but, fortunately, in a small 
 book issued by the Shadhili Order, we have a real picture 
 of Mohammedan life in North Africa in the beginning 
 of the twelfth century A.D., which bears internal evidence 
 that it was compiled from contemporary sources. 
 Ash-Shadhili was brought up in the ordinary Koranic 
 school of his village, Ghamara, in Morocco, possibly also 
 in Fez, but moved when yet quite young to Tunis. He 
 early became interested in Sufi teaching, his interest 
 deepening into a veritable quest. He heard that the 
 saint of saints, the Qutb-al-Ghawth (Axis of Aid), was 
 to be found in Iraq; he therefore set out right across 
 North Africa, through Arabia, to Mesopotamia in search 
 of the Qutb, hoping through him to be initiated more 
 fully into the gnosis, the. esoteric knowledge of 
 God. We read of encounters with wild beasts and 
 
294 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 evil men, we read of the jealousy and persecution of 
 scholastic theologians, we read of miracles that God 
 performed on behalf of His servant, and of wonderful 
 mystical experiences which he encountered on the way. 
 On arrival in Iraq, the reputed Qutb told him that he 
 was mistaken ; the one whom he sought was in Morocco, 
 living a hermit life in a cave near Ras-al-Jabal. Ash- 
 Shadhili made his way back the three thousand odd 
 miles, and found it even so. Both journeys were full 
 of incident. They comprised quite long stays in some 
 of the towns, just how long we cannot learn; pupils 
 attached themselves to him in each town; he had con- 
 siderable influence on the rulers of the countries, con- 
 firming what we gather from other sources of the power 
 the saints wielded in affairs of government at that period. 
 The more enthusiastic pupils left all to follow him when 
 he moved off on his quest ; as we read we are strongly 
 reminded of the schools of the prophets and of that lower 
 form of prophetism, hints of which are to be found 
 throughout the whole history of Israel after the entry 
 into Canaan. 
 
 Having met the Qutb and stayed with him some days, 
 he professed to have received great inward knowledge of 
 God and of the things of God and the assurance that he 
 himself was to be the future Qutb, God’s pivot of the 
 universe. After this we read of several more pilgrimages 
 to Mecca and a growing reputation as a saint, especially 
 in Egypt. We get glimpses of popular interest in his 
 movements, his teachings, and his miracles. Incidentally 
 we get a new conception of the unity of the Moslem world, 
 with its constant pilgrim caravans moving to and from 
 Mecca, generally counting in their numbers one or more 
 ' notable Sufi saints, their protection to the caravan 
 more greatly prized than that of a band of soldiers. 
 
MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 295 
 
 Their words and works form the main topic of conver- 
 sation through the weary months of travel, and, as the 
 pilgrims return once more to their homes, they bring 
 with them many wonderful tales of the saints that 
 accompanied them, and of others they have met, and the 
 still greater number of those of whom they have heard. 
 One often is astonished at the remarkable unity of the 
 Moslem world, even its uniformity in so many respects ; 
 perhaps these great and leisurely pilgrim caravans 
 during all the centuries prior to the advent of the loco- 
 motive and steamboat may supply us with the reason. 
 Abd al-Oadir al-Jilani died about thirty years before 
 ash-Shadhili was born, but Ahmad al-Bedawi, who is 
 generally looked upon as the founder of dervish orders in 
 Egypt, died some nineteen years only after ash-Shadhili, 
 and it is doubtful whether the full organization of their 
 orders took placein their life-time. In the lives of both 
 al-Jilani and ash-Shadhili we getithe picture of the whole 
 world going after the more notable of the saints, from 
 the Sultan on his throne to the poorest vendor in the 
 streets. That the movement towards definite organization 
 began under Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani is maintained by 
 the orders themselves. He was a great teacher at Bagh- 
 dad, and became so popular that no building in the city 
 was found large enough to hold his audiences. He seems 
 to have been pre-eminently a preacher, and several 
 collections of his sermons are still procurable in the 
 ordinary Arab bookshops; but the remarkable thing is 
 that, though admirable as sermons, probably quite the 
 best in Islamic literature, they are singularly devoid 
 of mystic lore or of principles that could have moulded 
 the customs and practices of the orders. This is also 
 true of most of the standard works of the dervish orders ; 
 one looks for mysticism and finds orthodoxy. It is 
 
296 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 puzzling why this should be. Is it that they fear their 
 esoteric teaching may by the printed page become 
 available for the uninitiated, or is it their eagerness to 
 convince the schoolmen that they are orthodox? A 
 suggestion for the development of the Qadiriya Order, 
 which is worth serious consideration, is based on the 
 fact that Abd al-Qadir had forty-nine children, and 
 that at least eleven of his sons followed him as teachers 
 in his school of mysticism, and several travelled and 
 became heads of Qadiri orders in other countries, notably 
 Spain. It may be to the organizing ability of one of 
 them that we must look for the system which is prac- 
 tically the basis of all dervish orders. 
 
 The organization is so good, and the dervishes can be 
 so readily marshalled and a fanatical fighting force so 
 quickly mobilized from peaceful peasants and pedlars, . 
 that all foreign governments desiring to maintain their 
 power in Mohammedan countries have had to invent 
 some secret method of controlling the orders. Even at 
 the present time in Egypt, when dervishism has tre- 
 mendously dwindled from the effect of the impact of 
 Western civilization, one’s first impression, on seeing 
 a great dervish procession, as on the Prophet’s birthday, 
 is that of its disreputability; but, as one continues to 
 see order after order pass with its banners, the impression — 
 grows of an immense latent and possibly sinister power. 
 
 At the head of each order there is a Sheikh al-Sajada. 
 He is either an hereditary descendant of the founder of 
 the order or one who owes his position to what might be 
 termed a species of “ apostolic succession,” each head 
 of such an order appointing his successor and investing 
 him with the official cloak, or turban. The sajdda is 
 generally the traditional prayer-carpet, or sheep-skin of 
 the founder of the order, who, though dead perhaps for 
 
MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 297 
 
 almost six centuries, has a very effective place in all its 
 functions. This is specially true of Abd al-Qadir al- 
 Jilani, who is a very living and beloved personality to 
 every Qadiriya dervish, and a little knowledge of whose 
 life and most famous sayings will be found to be an 
 “open sesame ”’ to the heart of many a dervish, even to 
 those who belong to other orders. 
 
 The Sheikh al-Sajada generally has four young hench- 
 men, or nugaba. These form his innermost circle of 
 pupils, and usually it is one of these who follows him 
 in office in those orders where the headship is by appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 The next official is the Wakil Sheikh al-Sajada, the 
 agent or substitute of the head of the order. It is he 
 who is usually the active, organizing head, the Sheikh 
 al-Sajada sometimes being an infant in the hereditary 
 orders and in the others being more noted for the con- 
 templative ecstatic life than for the administrative. The 
 orders very often have considerable material effects 
 that need careful administration, besides the natural 
 duty the Wakil has of holding together a widely scattered 
 order with a host of minor officials responsible to him. 
 
 Next in order comes the Khalifa, who is the local 
 representative or vicar of the Sheikh al-Sajada. In 
 large cities there may be many Khuldfa of the same 
 order, in which case one bears the name of Khalifat al- 
 Khulafa, vicar of vicars, and is the responsible local 
 head. 
 
 Then come the great mass of Ikhwan, or brothers. 
 These comprise both fully initiated dervishes who are 
 wholly given over to the contemplative life and earn 
 a bare subsistence in a very humble walk in life, and 
 those whose connexion with the order is more or less 
 loose and who are engaged in the ordinary pursuits of 
 
298 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 life, like the tertiaries of the old monastic orders. To 
 this latter class belong the great masses of the people, 
 mostly quite illiterate, or having only the education 
 of the Koranic schools. It is rarely that those who have 
 had even a simple Western education join the orders ; 
 by such the orders are despised. 
 
 In addition to these heads and sub-heads there are 
 teaching and initiating sheikhs who may or may not 
 hold other office. They are generally called by the name 
 of Am, a word which in ordinary language means a 
 paternal uncle, but in the idiom of the orders is equivalent 
 to the spiritual director of the monastic orders. The 
 word possibly may have reference to the distinctive 
 turban which he wears, and which in pre-Islamic times 
 was given by the Arabs as a sign of acknowledged lord- 
 ship. His apostolic succession of the gnosis is always 
 given in terms of having been invested with this turban 
 through an unbroken chain of sheikhs, often going back 
 to the immediate entourage of the Prophet Mohammed. 
 
 All small manuals of the orders have reference to the 
 implicit obedience that must be paid by the novice to 
 his Am. R.A. Nicholson, in his valuable book entitled 
 The Mystics of Islam,1 to which the reader who desires 
 to pursue this subject might well turn for his first studies, 
 does not exaggerate in speaking of the obedience expected 
 from the novice as “ grovelling submission to the autho- 
 rity of an ecstatic class of men, dependence on their 
 favour, pilgrimage to their shrines, adoration of their 
 relics, devotion of every mental and spiritual faculty to 
 their service,’ and as being deplorable in its practical 
 results. But there still remains a worse feature, and that 
 is that the novice must accept the saintliness of his 
 teacher in spite of every evidence to the contrary. This 
 
 1 London, 1914. 
 
MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 299 
 
 most demoralizing position has for its foundation the 
 encounter of Moses with the ever-living saint al-Khidr, 
 recorded in the Koran, Sura, 18 : 64-81, and highly and 
 grossly developed in dervish books to cover every form 
 of open and flagrant vice. 
 
 We have looked at the hierarchy of the orders, but to 
 account fully for all the phenomena we meet we must 
 seek to comprehend the extraordinary reality of the un- 
 seen to the Eastern mind. Dr. Duncan B. Macdonald has 
 brought this out well in his book entitled The Religious 
 Attitude and Life in Islam. To the Mohammedans the 
 unseen world all around is peopled with the saints of 
 Islam. The true governors of the world are the members 
 of the parliament of saints, which meets every night in 
 the more immediate heavens; living saints take part 
 in this with the departed ones; the chief of all the 
 saints, the Qutb who presides, is always a living saint. 
 No wonder, then, that the cult of saintsis the outstanding 
 feature of the Moslem masses, and that it has restored 
 to Islam all the features of a gross animistic idolatry 
 which had almost disappeared on the first impact of the 
 original militant monotheism. 
 
 We are confining ourselves, in this article, to things 
 as they are and not dealing with the idealistic system 
 that has been conceived and developed by some of 
 Islam’s best thinkers and has been the stimulus to much 
 of its best poetry. One does, on rare occasions, meet 
 individuals who really seek to use these systems in their 
 quest of the knowledge of God; one does occasionally 
 meet men who have some claim to saintliness. But 
 these are so rare that the student wishing to obtain 
 first-hand information of the orders is often tempted 
 to think that he has been misled in believing that the 
 
 1 Chicago, 1909. 
 
300 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 religion of the dervishes is the real religion of the Moslem 
 masses. On every hand he finds complete ignorance of 
 the system, even of the simplest technical terms of the 
 orders; he finds the teaching sheikhs to be gross im- 
 postors, vile parasites of the Moslem community; he 
 finds the officers using their office to make a living by 
 cheap magic. But if he goes further in his studies, and 
 especially if he lives with an open and observant mind 
 amongst the people in towns and villages least affected 
 by Western influences, he will come to see how far-reaching 
 are the influences of Islamic mysticism. 
 
 The ultimate proof of the falsity of any philosophy les 
 in its outworking in following generations. This is 
 especially true of the pantheistic and mystical philosophies 
 that underlie the religion of the dervishes. In their 
 beginnings often very attractive, they produced some 
 noble lives and they inspired much of the very best 
 of Islamic poetry; but undoubtedly their full fruit is 
 to be found in the debasing ideas of the Moslem masses 
 of to-day. They may use the dervish prayers, some of 
 which are beautiful, and also the zzkyv, or repetition of 
 special phrases designed for the purification of the soul’s 
 diseases, wholly with the idea of piling up merit; they 
 may attend the public performance of zikvs only because 
 of the pleasurable emotions there stimulated; their 
 minds may be wholly uneducated and densely ignorant ; 
 yet it will be found that the really formative influences 
 that mould their lives are to be found in the mysticism 
 which has degenerated into dervishism. 
 
 Missionaries going to Moslem lands are apt to take 
 for granted that the religion of the land is the religion 
 of the Koran and the Traditions; they may become 
 skilful in dialectics, and remove every ground for further 
 belief in Islam, and yet never touch the true heart religion 
 
MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 301 
 
 of the people. The whole vast problem of a sympathetic 
 approach to the masses of Islam remains as yet practically 
 unsolved, and it will remain so as long as there exists the 
 tendency to leave the subject as a specialized study for 
 the few. Every missionary to Moslems must get to 
 work at it, and must supply his information to the mis- 
 sionary body asa whole. It is not so much the informa- 
 tion of Orientalists and experts that we desire as the 
 practical advice of missionaries who can tell us how 
 to convince these people that they are being beguiled 
 of their “‘ reward in a voluntary humility and worshipping 
 oi angels ’’ by men who are “ vainly puffed up ”’ by their 
 fleshly minds, “which things have indeed a show of 
 wisdom in will-worship, and humility, and neglecting 
 of the body ; not in any honour to the satisfying of the 
 flesh,” and who can tell us how to present to them in 
 an acceptable way ‘the riches of the glory of this 
 mystery ... which is Christ in you, the hope of glory.”’ 
 
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NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 
 
 BY THE REV. 
 ARTHUR JEFFERY, M.A., M.RA.S., 
 
 Professor, School of Oriental Studies, American University, 
 Cairo 
 
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CHAPTER XX 
 NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 
 
 THE contacts with Western life and thought have not 
 been without their influence on the apologetic literature 
 of Islam which rises out of the perennial religious con- 
 troversy between Islam and Christianity. On the one 
 hand, there has been a stirring of new life in the old ortho- 
 dox apologetic; and, on the other hand, the new intel- 
 lectualism which has come about as a result of Western 
 education, and which has brought to birth the reform 
 movements of India and Egypt, and the heretical sects, 
 such as the Bahais and the Ahmadiyas, has resulted 
 in an entirely new type of apologetic written from these 
 new points of view. 
 
 The apologetic literature of the old orthodoxy at the 
 present day is little more than a rehash of the old work 
 of Ali Tabari, Ibn Hazm, and Ibn Taymiyya, who all 
 wrote before the fifteenth century; but there is a new 
 note of “ awakeness ’’ to modern conditions in many of 
 the pamphlets and tractates called forth by the successful 
 work of Christian missionaries in Egypt, Syria, Turkey, 
 or India. Some are urgent warnings to Moslems against 
 Christian hospitals and schools, and against the circula- 
 tion of Christian books. And some are replies to Christian 
 books whose effective attack has roused Moslems to 
 counter-attack. One such pamphlet, very well known 
 in Cairo, is called Poisoned Arrows: A Reply to those 
 
 21 305 
 
306 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 who Disturbed the Thoughts, Pretending they were En- 
 lightening the Minds: Arrows Aimed at the Breasts of the 
 Rascal Preachers. | 
 
 Both in the attacks on Christianity and in the defence 
 of Islam there is a valiant attempt to adapt the new 
 arguments to modern circumstances. Two very in- 
 teresting instances of this are: (a) the curious attempts 
 being made to defend polygamy and hold it up as a 
 solution of the social evil; and (d) the endeavours to 
 defend Mohammed. The unorthodox, of course, can 
 throw tradition overboard, and thus get rid of uncom- 
 fortable facts handed down about the Prophet. The 
 orthodox writer, however, is bound to acknowledge 
 these facts. So they have evolved the theory of the all- 
 round man. Every prophet, they say, came with a 
 special message to his own age. The age of Jesus was 
 given up to debauchery and needed an example of as- 
 ceticism ; so Jesus was an ascetic. But Mohammed was 
 the seal of the prophets, the culmination of the prophetic 
 line ; so it was necessary that he should give men an 
 all-round example. He was married to give men an 
 example of married relations; he went to war to give 
 men an example of courage in the fight ; andsoon. In 
 answer to the question why Mohammed needed so many 
 wives, they say that marriage is the most important 
 of human relationships, and men need more detailed 
 example there than in other things; so, as men marry 
 different types of women, it was necessary for the Prophet 
 to give in his own life an example of how life should be 
 lived with each kind of woman. Thus, with Khadija, 
 he gave an example of how to live with a wife older than 
 oneself; with ‘Aisha, how to live with one younger than 
 oneself; and so on, with all his wives according to their 
 several types. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 307 
 
 Turning to the unorthodox and reforming apologetic, 
 we find that it turns round much the same problems as 
 the older, orthodox polemic, but is characterized by a 
 new attitude. 
 
 In the first place, it is better instructed. When the 
 Shulamite maiden in Canticles 5: 16 tells the daughters 
 of Jerusalem that her beloved is “ altogether lovely,” 
 the older apologetic found in the Hebrew word Mah- 
 madim a prophecy of the coming of Mohammed. The 
 new controversialist is sensitive to the crushing weight 
 of philological argument, and makes no such blunder. 
 The older apologetic, again, made great collections of the 
 so-called miracles of Mohammed, and was content to 
 record such incidents as the following, set forth in the 
 Izhar al Haqq. 
 
 “It is said that Jabar one day killed a sheep, and, 
 after he had prepared it and cooked it, he served it to 
 the Prophet at table. Everyone ate of it, but the Prophet 
 said, ‘Eat, but do not break the bones.’ When they 
 had finished, the Prophet put the bones together, placed 
 his hands over them, and muttered a few words, and 
 lo! the sheep became whole again, got up, and wagged 
 its tail.” 
 
 The modern apologetic has faced up in some measure 
 to the facts of modern knowledge and the demands of 
 modern scholarship, and tries to write its new apologetic 
 in terms of this. 
 
 Secondly, it is freer. It is not bound by tradition, as 
 is orthodox Islam. The Bahais get out of this difficulty 
 by teaching that with the Bab there came a new revela- 
 tion which superseded that of orthodox Islam. A new 
 start was again made in Baha’ullah, who superseded the 
 Bab, and so all the authority of the earlier dispensation 
 has come to an end, and they are free to write their 
 
308 ‘THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 new apologetic in the light of the new revelation. The 
 Ahmadiya Movement, also, to some extent found the 
 same freedom through teaching the Messiahship of its 
 founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. The ration- 
 alistic reformers, both those of the Aligarh School in 
 India and their confréres in Egypt, free themselves 
 by making onslaught on the validity of tradition. Gold- 
 ziher, in his epoch-making. Muhammedanische Studien,} 
 has brought to a head for European Orientalists the 
 -attack on Moslem Tradition, and has shown its 
 utter worthlessness; but even earlier than Goldziher, 
 the exigencies of the controversy with Christianity 
 had forced Moslem writers in the East to seek to be freed 
 from it. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the 
 Aligarh Movement, led the way, and his disciples 
 followed. 
 
 Moulavi Cheragh Ali, in his Critical Exposition of the 
 Popular ‘‘ Jihad,” * and his Proposed Political, Legal, and 
 Social Reforms under Moslem Rule,’ for example, charac- 
 terizes various Traditions as “spurious and fictitious,” 
 “not based on any critical, historical, or rational prin- 
 ciples,” “‘unblushing and fabulous,” “‘ one-sided and 
 imperfect.”” Ameer Ali also pays scant respect to 
 tradition, and Sir Abdur Rahim, in his Muhammadan 
 Junsprudence,t states that “zeal gave rise to many 
 a false and inaccurate Tradition.”’ So Muhammad Badr 
 of Egypt, in his little book, The Truth about Islam,® tells 
 us that in his school “ the Traditions as a whole are 
 becoming more and more neglected, and the Qur’an is 
 regarded in the light of pure reason and modern science.”’ 
 
 1 Ignacz Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, Halle, 1899. 
 
 2 Calcutta, 1885. 3 Bombay, 1883. 
 
 4 Abdur Rahim, The Principles of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, 
 London. > Cairo, IgIo. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 309 
 
 Some of the Ahmadiya writers also have taken this way 
 out. 
 
 And not only is it tradition from which they seek 
 to free themselves, but from the whole body of law which 
 has grown up through the centuries around the primitive 
 kernel of legislation contained in the Koran. 
 
 “ Tt was only from some oversight,”’ writes Cheragh Ali, 
 “ that in the first place, the civil precepts of a transitory 
 nature, and as a mediate step leading to a higher reform, 
 were taken as final; and in the second place, the civil 
 precepts adapted for the dwellers of the Arabian desert 
 were pressed upon the neck of all ages and countries. 
 A social system for barbarism ought not to be imposed 
 on a people already possessing higher forms of civiliza- 
 ton. 3 
 
 This freedom, of course, gives them the right of private 
 interpretation, and makes it possible for them to make 
 a new face to the attacks of Christianity. 
 
 Thirdly, it has newer and better weapons, using 
 Christianity’s own methods and availing itself of weapons 
 provided by modern rationalism and other movements 
 in the West. At its feeblest this is seen in the readiness 
 of the Moslems of the new movements to adopt Christian 
 methods of propaganda. For example, there is a Muslim 
 Book and Tract Depot, at Lahore; and Hamid Snow, 
 an English convert to Islam, has produced a Moslem 
 Prayer Book and Catechism. Sheikh Rashid Ridha has 
 made great plans in Cairo for a Missionary Training 
 School to equip missionaries of Islam to proceed to 
 Christian countries. Sheikh Shawish’s ill-fated maga- 
 zine, Al-Hidayah, was an effort to copy Christian 
 religious magazines. The Ahmadiya Movement par- 
 
 1 Moulavi Cheragh Ali, A Critical Exposition of the Popular 
 ** Jihad,’ p, xcii, Calcutta, 1885. 
 
310 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 ticularly, both in its organization and in its publications, 
 follows closely the Christian model, and the Bahai 
 propaganda is shot through and through with Christian 
 ideas. 
 
 At its keenest, this third characteristic is seen in the 
 diligent way in which the anti-Christian material pro- 
 duced in the West is used to attack the work of the 
 Christian missionaries in the East. Sometimes this is 
 used in rather an insincere way, as by the Syrian writer 
 Salim at-Tannir, who has exploited many of the ultra- 
 critical theories of European writers in order to make 
 it seem to the Moslems of the East that what is being 
 preached by the missionaries is no longer believed by the 
 intellectuals of the West. Usually, however, it is used 
 quite sincerely as a new weapon of offence. Examples 
 of this are Sheikh Rashid Ridha’s use of the “‘ Pagan 
 Christs ’’ theory of Drews and J. M. Robertson, in order 
 to prove that the great doctrines of Christianity are little 
 more than a working over of old pagan theology; or 
 Sheikh Hifnawi’s attempt in his Kafayat at-Talibin to 
 work up evidence that modern Christianity is based, not 
 on the Scriptures, but on the traditions of the Fathers. 
 
 A very interesting illustration of this point is found 
 in a curious volume that would appear to be unique in 
 the annals of Moslem polemic. It is called Al-Madhhab 
 av-Ruhant (The Spiritual Sect) by Abdallah Abahi, 
 and gives a long account of the origin and growth of 
 Spiritualism, and its rapid spread among the Western 
 nations, expounds and defends the main teachings of 
 Spiritualism, and then, from this ground, proceeds to show 
 that, while Islam can agree with the results of such 
 teaching, Christianity cannot and thus is self-condemned. 
 
 Full advantage has also been taken of all favourable 
 references to Islam in the works of European writers. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 311 
 
 The Muslim Tract Depot of Lahore, for instance, publishes 
 typographically attractive pamphlets giving the favour- 
 able judgments of Carlyle, Bosworth Smith, and others. 
 In Cairo there has been published in Arabic a translation 
 of Tolstoi’s favourable account of Mohammed and 
 Islam. The Woking group have been even more am- 
 bitious, and have published by private subscription 
 such considerable works as John Davenport’s Apology 
 for Muhammad and the Qur'an, and the seventeenth- 
 century lucubration of one Henry Stubbe, or Stubs, An 
 Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, 
 with the Life of Mahomet and a Vindication of him and 
 his Religion from the Calummies of the Christians. 
 
 This newer apologetic, of course, is addressed in the 
 main to a new public, the Western-educated classes, and 
 much of it is intended for European consumption rather 
 than for use in the East. Both in India and in Egypt 
 we find considerable use made of the English language. 
 Anti-Christian pamphlets are published in North Africa 
 in French, and the compendious Izhar al Hagq has been 
 issued in that language. The Ahmadiya community 
 has works in English, French, and German, and we hear 
 occasionally of the prospects of a magazine in Japanese. 
 
 The apologetic is naturally two-sided—an attack on 
 Christianity, and a defence of Islam. The attack on 
 Christianity mainly concerns the validity of the Scriptures 
 and the great Christian doctrines of the Trinity, the Per- 
 son of Christ, and Redemption. The defence of Islam 
 in turn is mostly as relates to the Koran as the Word of 
 God, the Prophetship of Mohammed, and such questions 
 as holy war, the position of women, etc. 
 
 In its attacks on Christianity, the older apologetic 
 was largely contented to make long collections of supposed 
 contradictions and variations in the historical accounts 
 
312 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of Chronicles as compared with Samuel and Kings, or 
 among the four Evangelists. For example, 2 Samuel 
 xxiv: I, states that God moved David to number the 
 children of Israel, while r Chronicles xxi: 1, says that 
 the instigator was Satan. Or, again, Matthew, in chapter 
 viii, tells of the cleansing of the leper after the Sermon on 
 the Mount, then the curing of the centurion’s servant 
 after Jesus entered Capernaum, and lastly the cure of 
 Peter’s wife’s mother. In Luke, however, the cure of 
 Peter’s mother-in-law came first (chapter iv), then that 
 of the leper (chapter v), and later the centurion’s servant 
 (chapter vii). And soon, as is drawn out in great detail 
 in such works as the Izhar al Haqq, Al-Ajwiba as-Saniya, 
 Lisan as-Sidg, and many other of the old polemical 
 masterpieces. The new school, however, is much more 
 subtle. Dr. Tawfiq Sidqi, a disciple of Sheikh Rashid 
 Ridha, is a good example of their method. In his Nazra 
 fi Kutub al Ahad al Jadid, he utilizes such works as 
 Cassel’s Supernatural Religion,! to work out an argument 
 against the authenticity of the New Testament. First, 
 the uncertainties of patristic testimony are worked 
 up to demonstrate the weakness of the external evidence 
 for the Gospels’ being the work of their traditional 
 authors. Then internal evidence is examined in detail, 
 and John’s Gospel, for example, is disposed of by the 
 author’s supposed ignorance of the topography of Pales- 
 tine. Attempts are also made to find origins of New 
 Testament incidents and logia in Talmudic and other 
 sources. Thus, Matthew’s story of the Temptations 
 is asserted to have its origin in a Buddhist source claimed 
 to be much older than Christianity ; and so on. 
 Missionaries on the field no more see eye to eye on 
 questions of Biblical criticism than their brethren at 
 1 Walter R. Cassel, Supernatural Religion, New York, 1912. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 3138 
 
 home, and these writers have been quick to take advantage 
 of this fact by entrenching themselves in positions from 
 which they know quite well the liberal scholar can drive 
 them, but dare not for fear of betraying the position of 
 his more conservative brethren. 
 
 It is noticeable, also, that the theory of the Abrogation 
 of the Christian Scriptures has dwindled to quite in- 
 significant proportions in the works of the newer school. 
 In the Woking version of the Ahmadiya Commentary 
 on the Koran,! for instance, we find that in the interests 
 of the new apologetic for the Koran the orthodox doctrine 
 of Abrogation in the Koran is denied 7m toto, and con- 
 sequently the claim of the abrogation of previous Scrip- 
 tures has to be toned down to a statement that a new 
 and universal law like Islam of course supersedes a 
 national and limited legislation like that of Moses. 
 
 The old orthodox argument was to accuse Christianity 
 of polytheism, and to prove that it was contrary to 
 reason to believe in a metaphysical puzzle like the Trinity 
 or to believe that God was capable of generation. Sheikh 
 Rashid Ridha and his followers here again draw on Drews, 
 Kalthoff, and J. M. Robertson to prove that the Christian 
 ideas are but a rehash of paganism. More effective, 
 however, is a recent writer, Mr. Muhammad Amir Alam, 
 in an interesting little book, Islam and Christianity,’ 
 in which he maintains that Jesus may be called the 
 Son of God in a moral and spiritual sense, yet in that 
 same sense we are all in some measure equally sons of 
 God. He quotes very effectively in this connexion 
 from Dr. Rashdall’s speech at the Conference at Cam- 
 bridge in the summer of 1921, on the real humanity of 
 
 1 Maulvi Muhammad Ali, The Holy Quyr’an, containing the 
 
 Arabic Text with English translation and Commentary, Woking, 
 1917. * Calcutta, 1923. 
 
314 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 Jesus, though apparently he has not grasped the full 
 significance of all that scholar’s words. 
 
 The Bahais have taken over into their system the 
 concept of Incarnation, and their attitude on the question 
 is that, while Jesus was certainly the Incarnate Word, 
 God manifest in the flesh, yet He was a manifestation 
 only for His own day. Incarnation did not stop with 
 Him, and in our day Baha’ullah was the Divine Essence 
 manifested in human form. 
 
 One might have expected a similar claim to have been 
 made by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who founded 
 the Ahmadiya community; but, while he claimed to be 
 the Messiah and to come in the spirit and power of Jesus, 
 he has only ridicule for the divine Sonship and the 
 Trinity. On the latter, indeed, he could stoop to write 
 in the Review of Religions, vol. 1, p. 280: 
 
 “The manner is very amusing in which the three 
 Persons of the Trinity shifted the responsibility of the 
 reformation of mankind from one to the other. There 
 was the Father, who, having a certain superiority, in 
 name if not in reality, thought of restoring man to his 
 original state—one should think it means the savage 
 state, for the human progress has been gradual from a 
 lower to a higher stage—but he found his hands tied by 
 the strong manacles of justice. Out of filial reverence 
 the Son offered himself, but when he came into the 
 world he went away with the empty consolation that 
 the third partner shall come and teach them all truths 
 and guide them into all truth. The third Person, being 
 only a pigeon, found himself unable to undertake the 
 teaching of truths, but thought he had done his duty by 
 teaching the Apostles a few dialects, which they were 
 thus able to speak stammeringly.”’ 
 
 The very core of the matter, of course, is redemption, 
 and curiously enough it is the modern writers who are 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 315 
 
 mostly concerned with it. Muhammad Din, the head 
 of the Ahmadiya community in Chicago, goes to the 
 heart of the difficulty when he writes: ‘‘ A Moslem has 
 to reject crucifixion, because otherwise he has to believe 
 in the supreme value of sacrifice.”’ } 
 
 Some writers argue against the ‘‘ barbarous nature ”’ 
 of the doctrine, maintaining that “ evolution ’”’ has led 
 us beyond such conceptions as lie behind the Christian 
 theory. This very modern attitude of the Western- 
 educated, evolution-indoctrinated Moslem, is taken by 
 Amir Alam in the work above mentioned. Thus he 
 writes (p. 27): 
 
 “This doctrine is worse than unnatural. It is bar- 
 barous. The notions of vicarious atonement may be 
 traced to the savage custom of sacrificing an animal 
 for the expiation of sins. Its roots lie deep down in the 
 prehistoric idea of primitive heathenism, or in the un- 
 developed brain of a fetish worshipper of the Dark 
 Continent. It establishes to the hilt the fetish wor- 
 shipper’s notion of animal sacrifice to appease his angry 
 spirits. This is horrible—-too horrible for a modern man. 
 To think of the innocent Lamb of Nazareth as having 
 been sacrificed on the cross for the redemption of the 
 sins of mankind by the Just and Merciful God, is too great 
 a contradiction... God_is just.’’ 
 
 Sheikh Rashid Ridha has devoted a special brochure, 
 Aqidat as-Salb wa’l-Fida (Belief in Crucifixion and Re- 
 demption) to giving an exposition of his “‘ Pagan Christs ”’ 
 theory. He works along his usual lines, showing that 
 some early Christian heretical sects did not believe 
 that Christ had died; that some modern European 
 writers have evolved a ‘‘ swoon theory ”’ to explain the 
 Resurrection ; that the conception of a God who dies 
 
 1 The Moslem World, 1924, Pp. 23. 
 
316 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 and rises again was associated with various heathen 
 salvation cults ; that originally there was nothing mystic 
 about the death of Christ, but that later it was turned 
 into a mystery by theologians who were acquainted 
 with the old pagan mystery-religions. 
 
 The founder of the Ahmadiyas was so impressed with 
 the necessity of explaining away the Sacrificial Death, 
 that he also revived the “‘ swoon theory,” and then added 
 to it a garbled version of Nikolai Notovitch’s weird story 
 that Christ had journeyed to India and studied the 
 wisdom of its wise men. Notovitch made the journey 
 take place before the baptism by John, but the Mirza 
 apparently had forgotten the details of the story, so he 
 makes the visit take place after Jesus had recovered 
 from the swoon on the cross, and links this story to his 
 theory that the Afghans are the “lost tribes’ of Israel, 
 the ‘‘ lost sheep of the House of Israel ’’ to whom Jesus 
 came to preach. He even asserted that he had found 
 the tomb of Jesus in Srinagar in Kashmir, where he was 
 buried after reaching the age of one hundred and twenty. 
 
 As regards the defence of Islam, the old orthodoxy 
 ' has written a whole library of books on the miraculous | 
 ~ eloquence of the Koran and its sublime beauties. Rah- 
 matu'llah says that its divine nature is proved by the 
 fact that one never grows tired of reading it. Ibn 
 Taymiyya says that, since the smallest verse of the 
 Koran is a miracle of eloquence and elegance, the whole 
 book contains thousands of miracles. Al-Jili says that 
 all that is contained in all religious books is contained 
 in the Koran, that all the Koran is contained in-the 
 opening sura, that all the sura is contained in the Bis- 
 millah (the conventional phrase which heads each sura’ 
 but one), that all the Bismillah is contained in the B, 
 and all that is in the B is contained in the point that | 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 317 
 
 is beneath it in the Arabic script. This attitude has 
 naturally been reflected in the older apologetic, which 
 devotes considerable space to elaborating the proof of 
 the divine qualities of the Koran. 
 
 “Tn the modernist books this type of argument is 
 conspicuous mostly by its absence. Certainly they 
 argue that the Koran is a divine book and the final 
 revelation from God, but theyare keenly alive to the results 
 and methods of Biblical criticism, and will make no 
 claim that may entangle them in an impossible position. 
 In fact, the modern school works almost exclusively at 
 attempts to reinterpret the Koran in the light of modern 
 knowledge. Its vivid realism is taken as symbolical, 
 the sensual joys of Paradise being symbols of spiritual 
 delights (a theory as old, however, as the Mu‘tazilites) ; 
 its limited morality and historical blunders are carefully 
 explained away; and a book is produced which would 
 hardly be recognized by the old orthodoxy. Muhammad 
 Badr, for example, writes !: 
 
 “The ultra-figurative language of the Qur’an lent 
 itself to such misconstruction to a peculiar degree. The 
 stories told in many cases, when regarded in their true 
 light of rhetoric device, are allegories of most poetic 
 fashion. Read literally, they are incredible.”’ 
 
 The result is the rise of a new type of commentaries. 
 In Cairo these are appearing in Arabic. There is Tan- 
 tawi’s Tafsir, of which only the first part has yet appeared, 
 which claims to be able to find aeroplanes, electricity, 
 etc., all foretold in the Koran, and which performs 
 wondrous acrobatic feats of exegesis. There is Moham- 
 med ‘“Abdu’s Tafsiy being edited by Sheikh Rashid Ridha, 
 of which Parts 2~7 are on the market, Part 1 having 
 
 1 The Truth about Islam, p. 25. 
 
318 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 been apparently suppressed. This commentary is 
 characterized by all Mohammed ‘Abdu’s careful scholar- 
 ship, and is a noble attempt at a rationalistic interpreta- 
 tion of the Koran, not too far removed from orthodoxy. 
 The most outstanding examples of this tendency, however, 
 are the English commentaries produced by the Ahmadiya 
 Movement. Each of the rival parties within this com- 
 munity has made this attempt, but only that of the 
 Woking group is complete. The old original party at 
 OQadian have published the preliminary sections of their 
 commentary and promise its speedy completion ; but their 
 method, so far as one can judge from the parts issued 
 already, does not seem to differ much from that of The 
 Holy Qur'an; Containing the Arabic Text with English 
 Translation and Commentary, by Maulvi Muhammad Ali, 
 of Lahore. Here we find the Koran dressed up in Biblical 
 garb, carefully doctored for English consumption. Let 
 us take just one illustration of its method from the 
 Sura of Joseph. 
 
 First, the translation is doctored. Take, for example, 
 the passage which tells of Jacob’s sight being restored. 
 The story runs that Jacob had become blind through 
 weeping for his lost Joseph; so, when Joseph revealed 
 himself to his brethren in Egypt, and learned of his 
 father’s condition, he sent his shirt to be cast in his — 
 father’s face, whereat he would recover/his sight. Let. 
 us place the two versions side by side (italics are ours) : 
 
 Ordinary Version Ahmadiya Version} 
 
 “Go with this shirt of mine *“Take this my shirt and 
 and cast it on my father’s face, cast it before my father; he will 
 (and) he will vecover his sight: come to know and come to me 
 then come to me with all your with all your families.’ And 
 
 1 Maulvi Muhammad Ali, The Holy Quyr’an, chapter xii: 
 93-6, p. 493, Woking, 1917. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 319 
 
 Ordinary Version (continued) 
 
 family.’’ Now when the cara- 
 van set out their father said, 
 “Verily I perceive the smell 
 of Joseph, unless you are 
 making mock of me.’”’ They 
 said, “‘ By God, you are in 
 your old error.’’ Then, when 
 the bearer of good tidings 
 came, he cast it on his face 
 and he was restored to sight. 
 
 Ahmadiya Version (continued) 
 
 when the caravan had departed, 
 their father said, ‘‘ Most surely 
 I perceive the greatness of Jo- 
 seph, unless you pronounce me 
 weak of judgment.’’ They said, 
 “By Allah, you are most 
 surely in your old error.’’ So, 
 when the bearer of good news 
 came, he cast it before him; 
 so he became certain. 
 
 Secondly, the commentary is made to match. All the 
 old commentators take the passage in its natural sense, 
 and have various reasons to give for the healing properties 
 of the shirt. But this is not to modernist taste, and a 
 way out is found by giving forced meanings to certain 
 words. He makes “ smell’? become “‘ power ”’ or “ pre- 
 dominance,’ interprets “seeing’’ as “‘ mental percep- 
 tion,’ and says that ‘‘ when Jacob saw Joseph’s shirt 
 he would possess certain knowledge of Joseph’s abiding 
 place.”” To get over the difficulty of a blind man’s 
 seeing the shirt, he contends that the word in the 
 previous sentence does not mean blindness of the 
 eyes, but only “the filling of the eyes with tears.”’ 
 The references to the Arabic authorities, whether 
 lexicographers or commentators, are throughout quite 
 misleading. 
 
 Thirdly, there is continual suppression of fact. For 
 instance, in this story wherever there is the possibility 
 of suggesting that the Koranic story is an improvement 
 on that of Genesis, the Biblical story is quoted and 
 commented upon; but there is nothing said about the 
 fragmentariness of the Koranic story which really assumes 
 the Biblical record as its background, nor is there a word 
 about the fact, perfectly well known to the author, 
 that many of the Koran’s numerous embellishments on 
 
320 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the story of Genesis are merely reproductions of Jewish 
 apocryphal tales from the Talmud and Midrashim. 
 
 Much the same method of reinterpretation is followed 
 in depicting the character of the Prophet. The new 
 apologists take but little account of the old argument 
 from the wondrous miracles of the Prophet, or of hunting 
 for Old Testament prophecies which he may be claimed 
 to have fulfilled. They seek rather to explain away 
 what to Western eyes are the very obvious defects of 
 his character, and present before us a highly idealized 
 picture of— 
 
 ‘“‘ His complete trust in God, his refraining from showing 
 the slightest impatience, his calm and severe manner, his 
 noble and dignified manners, his unshaken activity and 
 zeal in the performance of duties entrusted to him, his 
 perseverance, his fearlessness of his enemies, his forgive- 
 ness of injuries, charity, courage,” 
 
 etc., which, of course, is just taking over the picture of 
 Jesus and applying it to Mohammed, as Tor Andrae 
 in his brilliant study ! showed was done in the work of 
 the early theologians. It is curious to note that some 
 Moslems have felt so strongly the contrast, when Moham- 
 med has been compared with Jesus, that they have 
 attempted to besmirch the character of the latter. Mirza 
 Ghulam Ahmad, of Oadian, for instance, accused Jesus 
 of having committed the sins of drunkenness, lying, 
 cowardice, gross disrespect to his mother, blasphemy, 
 rudeness, and fondness for the company of loose women. 
 A little Syrian tract goes further in this direction, making 
 charges so foul that they cannot even be recorded here. 
 
 The modern attempts to explain away jihad, or the 
 Holy War, follow the same lines. Words have to be 
 
 1 Tor Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben 
 seiner Gemeinde, Stockholm, 1918. 
 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 321 
 
 given unusual meanings, traditions cast aside, and 
 history interpreted to show that all Mohammed’s wars 
 were defensive, and fighting for the faith save by spiritual 
 weapons has never been part of Islam. So with regard 
 to the position of women. Syed Ameer Ali’s essay on 
 the Legal Position of Women in Islam is a masterpiece 
 in the setting forth of half-truths in order to convey a 
 false impression, and is sad reading when compared with 
 a frank, sincere investigation such as Mansur Fahmy’s 
 excellent monograph, La Condition de la Femme dans 
 lV’ Islamisme. 
 
 The conclusion one comes to, from the study of these 
 works of modern Moslem apologetic, is that perhaps the 
 greatest contribution Christianity can make toward 
 the solution of the present problems of Islam is educa- 
 tion. It is Western education that has caused the 
 already enormous advances from the old position, and 
 it seems very clear that larger doses of that same thing 
 will reveal how untenable the present positions are. 
 Christianity has nothing to fear from the fullest exposure 
 to the light of modern knowledge. Islam has everything 
 to fear, and, let it be said, everything to gain. 
 
 22 
 
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CHRIST’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM 
 
 BY 
 PAUL W. HARRISON, D.Sc., M.D., 
 
 Medical Missionary of the Reformed Church in America, 
 Kuwait, Arabia 
 
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CHAPTER XXI 
 CHRIST’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM 
 
 t. His VALUATION OF MEN 
 
 “ Wuy don’t we allow you to come and set up a mis- 
 sionary hospital here on the Pirate Coast?” The 
 speaker was a Sharja merchant. ‘‘ Because, if we admit 
 you, just behind you will come the English with a telegraph 
 office and a consulate. And we, after that? Nothing 
 but vassals! ’’ Nor was the man, in the bitterness of 
 his hostility, a fool or blind, and the justification for his 
 attitude has been given, not by alien rulers, but by the 
 missionaries themselves. Do they not associate with 
 these rulers and cultivate their friendship at every possible 
 opportunity ? Do they not reckon a decoration by the 
 alien power that rules the country as the achievement 
 of a lifetime? A traveller returns home to announce 
 that the greatest political asset of the colonial adminis- 
 trators in a certain province is the reputation of the 
 resident medical missionary. Thus it is that the Gospel, 
 in its appeal to the hearts of the Moslems, must carry 
 on its back the whole evil weight of Western imperialism. 
 
 The trouble is that, deep down in his heart, the mis- 
 sionary too often believes that the only hope of the 
 Gospel lies in its support by Western bayonets. Unless the 
 protection of Western Governments, with their military 
 
 power, is given to the missionaries, their lives will not 
 325 
 
326 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 be safe, and they cannot proclaim the Christian message. 
 Unless that same worldly and un-Christian power is 
 prepared to protect the lives of converts from Islam to 
 Christianity, we shall never have any. To expose the 
 converts to the rigours of persecution with no protection 
 except that of God in heaven would be hopeless. To 
 expect missionaries to live thus unguarded, outrageous. 
 
 The Moslem understands this sort of thing. In his 
 mind, too, religion and political imperialism are tied up 
 in the same bundle. Every Moslem missionary is the 
 advance agent for Moslem imperialism—an imperialism 
 that is satisfied with nothing short of world dominion— 
 and in this conflict of political imperialism he will fight 
 to his last breath. 
 
 But sometimes it is possible to escape from this reputa- 
 tion. “I amnot an Engleezee. I am an Americanee,”’ 
 and among the Arabs America enjoys a reputation for 
 international unselfishness which I am afraid is un- 
 deserved. So it seems possible that this missionary is 
 not the advance agent of Western imperialism, in spite 
 of his white skin. ‘“‘ What is your name ? ’’—this by the 
 doctor to a venerable patriarch of the desert who had 
 come to the Bahrein hospital for treatment. The man 
 leaned over and whispered confidentially into the doctor’s 
 ear: ‘“‘My name is Mohammed. I told the man who 
 writes our names in the book at the door that my name 
 was Khalid, for no doubt he is sending all our names 
 back to America as converts to Christianity.”” The book 
 at the door had been started so that discharged dispensary 
 patients could be followed up, but we had to drop the 
 
 plan. How foolish! One of the medical missionaries . 
 
 ‘whom I used to know treated free those who would come 
 early and listen to an earnest Christian talk which preceded 
 the clinic. Those who failed to listen to the talk were 
 
 . ‘ 
 eee ——— 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 327 
 
 compelled to pay for their treatment. The Moslem 
 understands this too. Determined, unresting propa- 
 ganda in favour of a religious system he believes in. He 
 is probably more or less of such a propagandist himself. 
 
 The missionary, as a keen and enthusiastic lieutenant 
 of Western imperialism, offers nothing new to the Moslem. 
 Such things he finds in his own faith. This is equally 
 true of the missionary who is simply a propagandist for 
 a Western religious system. Extremes meet on this 
 platform. The extreme liberal regards a redeemed 
 social order as the Kingdom of God. It constitutes his 
 whole religious system. In comparison individual re- 
 demption is contemptible, if indeed it is not a pure myth. 
 The extreme conservative names his system God’s will 
 and glory. In that he sees something so inexpressibly 
 _ great that the eternal destiny of men is that of insects 
 in comparison. There is nothing in these ideas that 
 puzzles the Moslem. He has beds for them both in the 
 caravanserai of his own theology. 
 
 But, when He talked with the woman at the well, 
 Christ evidently believed that He was facing the supreme 
 value of all eternity. He was not concerned about 
 any religious system, and still less about any political 
 imperialism. He was eager to save this woman. Here 
 is something that the Moslem knows nothing about. 
 That individual men are mere insects as compared with 
 a religious creed or system he understands. That all 
 the religious systems in the world, all the creeds, all the 
 rituals, all the world’s ecclesiastical pronouncements, 
 and all its political organizations are insects compared 
 with individual men, the only real eternal value in God’s 
 universe—this he does not understand. That we seek 
 men because of their supreme incomparable value, be- 
 cause they are the only thing on the earth beneath or 
 
828 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 in heaven above that God cares anything about—for 
 the Moslem such an idea is treason to God and religion 
 when seen from the outside, and a dazzling new truth, 
 with divine power in it, when seen from the inside. 
 
 This is a vision of truth that makes heavy demands 
 upon the missionary. It means that an attitude of 
 comradeship with these men must run deeper, if that be 
 possible, than even the supreme objective of missionary 
 work, which is giving men eternal life. Standing by 
 itself, the desire to give men eternal life opens the door 
 to very subtle and dangerous temptations. The Moslem 
 recognizes this, even if the missionary does not. Every 
 Pharisee was eager to give men eternal life, or would have 
 been had his system been built on Christian theology. 
 Zeal for men’s souls while we care not at all for them 
 personally, detest their company, and prefer to keep 
 away from all intimate acquaintance with them, is a 
 very hideous form of hypocrisy. Christ loved men, 
 loved to be with them, loved them for their own sake, 
 and found pure joy in association with them whether 
 or not there was an opportunity to preach. He was 
 like a jeweller who loves to handle and study and admire 
 pearls even though he makes no profit in the process : 
 like an artist who loves to sit before fine paintings with 
 no thought at all regarding their effect on his ability 
 or wealth. The way to bring Christ’s message to the 
 Moslem is to imitate His attitude. 
 
 2. His FAITH IN THE TRUTH 
 
 A boy from inland Arabia brought his friend to the 
 Bahrein hospital for treatment. Both of them were 
 members of the great Wahhabi fraternity, the most 
 fanatical of the orthodox Sunni Moslem sects. During 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 329 
 
 their stay the Shias of Bahrein celebrated the Muharram 
 festival. The Shias are the great heretical sect of Islam, 
 and the Muharram celebrations embody in a condensed 
 form all their heresies. The boy went with me to see 
 the celebration. He was overcome with horror. ‘“ Do 
 you have such things in Nejd?”’ I asked, not for in- 
 formation, but to draw him out. His reply came with 
 difficulty because of the intensity of his repulsion. 
 “Such things in Nejd? In the domain of Abdul Aziz ? 
 They would be killed if they tried it.”” The words seemed 
 to stick in the boy’s throat. He did not even call down 
 God’s curse upon them. A little later we were visiting 
 . a Shia district in Mesopotamia. It was a medical visit, 
 and we were in high favour. One of my hospital assist- 
 ants questioned the sheikh’s attendant accompanying 
 us. ‘Are there any Sunnis here?” ‘‘ Sunnis?” re- 
 peated the man in great contempt. “‘ Praise the Lord, 
 there is not an infidel in all these parts.” 
 
 This clash of rival coercive religious systems the 
 Moslem understands. Nothing is more agreeable to his 
 unregenerate nature. His history is made up of little 
 else. Therefore he understands, unfortunately, a large 
 amount of our missionary work. For coercion is of 
 many kinds. Physical coercion, with death as the final 
 penalty for resistance, is now, we hope, decades and 
 centuries in the past, so far as we are concerned. But 
 the milder forms of coercion, rewards for listening to 
 the Gospel, and such punishment as we are in a position 
 to inflict for refusing to listen—coercion of that sort is 
 still with us. Intellectual coercion, hammering down 
 old religious conceptions, and hammering in our new ones 
 by sheer force of a superior intellect and training, is 
 only now ceasing to be fashionable. How many books 
 can be collected designed expressly to train missionaries 
 
3830 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 for just that sort of work? The Moslem understands ~ 
 this sort of thing perfectly. He glories in it. 
 
 “The trouble with your religion,’ I told a leader 
 of the Wahhabi brotherhood, “‘ is that its foundation is 
 coercion.’ | 
 
 “‘ Coercion,” he replied, “‘ is not its foundation. Coer- 
 cion is its crown.” 
 
 Missionaries of that kind belong in the Moslem camp. 
 A very different atmosphere surrounded Christ. He had 
 such faith in the hostile crowds that He addressed and 
 who eventually crucified Him, such a faith in them and 
 in the truth, that He desired His message to receive no 
 help whatever from any source. Naked and unadorned, 
 unexplained and undefended, in its divine power Christ 
 knew that it would draw men by virtue of its own inherent 
 attractiveness, and save them once they accepted it. 
 The clash of rival coercive systems the Moslem under- 
 stands. Faith in a divine message and in men such as 
 Christ showed, and such as He expects us to show, leaves 
 the Moslem either utterly puzzled or divinely charmed. 
 
 And this, too, makes profound demands upon the mis- 
 sionary. We have the same message to carry that Christ 
 had. We have every reason for the same faith in it 
 that He showed. But no man can have the faith that 
 Christ showed in His message unless he has, to some 
 extent, the same comprehension of it that Christ had. 
 Until something of the divine height and depth and 
 breadth of that message is visible, its divine power will 
 be as a fairy-tale. There never was, perhaps, a more 
 unfortunate fad in missionary work than the present 
 one which lays the major emphasis upon understanding 
 the religious system of the people we work with. Ninety- 
 nine out of every hundred missionaries would be far 
 better advised to devote every hour sacrificed to an 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 331 
 
 understanding of some non-Christian faith to a pro- 
 founder study of their own message, and a deeper ac- 
 quaintance with their own Christ. 
 
 3. His UNIVERSALITY 
 
 In the opinion of the Moslem true religion is insepar- 
 able from its Arab attire. His dream of the universal 
 triumph of Islam is simply the hope that the world will 
 put on these Arab clothes, just as the Christian, and too 
 often the missionary, hopes to see the day when the 
 whole world will put on the political and social and 
 religious clothes of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Christ was not concerned with these traits that are 
 so dear to our Western hearts. He had never a word 
 to say about cleanliness, or order, or thrift, nor even 
 education or representative government. He sent forth 
 His message in the superb confidence that it was suited 
 to men who were hospitable but not clean, mystical 
 instead of orderly, generous and not thrifty. This 
 undisturbed confidence that the divine message will 
 work out in all sorts of races diverse results in life and 
 practice and creed, all according to the will of God, who 
 is the source of the message and the power residing in it— 
 such faith is the basis of the missionary’s universality, 
 as it was of Christ’s. The Moslem finds it staggering 
 and impossible, but none the less supremely beautiful. 
 
 4. His CONCEPTION OF GOD 
 
 But the evaluation of religious systems is as the dust 
 of the balance in comparison with the supreme value of 
 men, faith in the divine message as capable of winning 
 men, not by means of coercion, but by virtue of the 
 power of God which it contains, and confidence in its 
 
882. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 universality based upon its divine character, All of 
 these, new and outstanding contributions to the Moslem 
 mind as they may be, are only scattered rays of the great 
 incandescent divine truth which stands at the centre of 
 Christ’s teachings, a truth not merely heretical but 
 highly offensive to orthodox Islam, namely, that God, 
 the omnipotent Creator, is not a distant judge, but an 
 affectionate Father. ‘‘ Sahib,’ said an old man to me 
 as he took me from the Sunday morning service to see 
 his sick boy, “‘ I have listened to many sermons in the 
 mosques, and I never heard anything like that before. 
 Is it really true that God, the Creator of all things, the 
 Almighty, looks down upon us with the eyes of a father 
 upon his children ? None of our mullahs ever told me 
 anything as beautiful as that.’”’ I have watched many 
 audiences, large and small, listen to this good news, and, 
 obnoxious as it is to orthodox Islam, I think I have 
 never seen it presented without obviously captivating 
 the listeners. This conception is not merely a new 
 contribution to the spiritual furniture of a Moslem. It 
 is not simply a useful addition to his comprehension of 
 the universe. It revolutionizes the whole world in which 
 he moves. 
 
 I have never seen this truth fail to captivate those 
 who listened, but that does not mean that those who 
 listened became Christians. It is one thing to recognize 
 the beauty of a conception, and quite another to be 
 convinced of its truth. This idea, as simple as it appears, 
 once it is accepted to be true simply turns the world 
 upside down for the Moslem. Scarcely anything in the 
 whole realm of family relationships is more fundamental 
 than the fact that the father has individual relations 
 with each of his children. The last thing wanted is 
 for one child to coerce another and to dictate to him his 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 333 
 
 relationships with their common father. Each child 
 comes to his father himself, and the father takes personal 
 and individual interest in him. But, if God is really our 
 Father, this means that there is absolutely no place in 
 religion for coercion and intolerance, and none for the 
 conceit and self-satisfied superiority which is the backbone 
 of Islam’s strength. It seems remarkable that this 
 splendid conception of God, which stands at the centre 
 of Christ’s revelation to us, has not been stressed more 
 in dealing with Moslems. Possibly because too many 
 Christians have not been dominated by it, as is indicated 
 by the present epidemic of vituperative and even coercive 
 intolerance in the Christian Church itself. For no man 
 can be intolerant and coercive toward other Christians 
 without rejecting the picture of God that Christ brought 
 us and erecting in its place an idol of his own manu- 
 facture. 
 
 This conception of God gives us also a conception of 
 salvation that goes beyond anything that the Moslem 
 even understands. The Moslem feels the need for the 
 forgiveness of sins, but he rejects all idea of Christ’s 
 sacrifice as making that forgiveness possible. To the 
 Western mind, the price which was paid for our for- 
 giveness in the sacrifice of Christ has been the most 
 appealing element in the whole divine work of redemption. 
 Perhaps because the point has been the subject of much 
 controversy, perhaps because the Arab mind differs 
 from ours, the presentation of this seems to repel rather 
 than attract him. To his realization of the need for 
 forgiveness the Moslem adds a somewhat washed-out 
 repentance as a necessary preliminary to forgiveness ; 
 but that is all. The price of forgiveness he does not at 
 all realize, and the climax and crown of the Christian 
 view he knows nothing about, that forgiveness has for 
 
334 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 its object restoring the prodigal to his place in the 
 family of God. 
 
 5. His DEFINITION OF DISCIPLESHIP 
 
 Christ’s definition of discipleship has also a strong 
 attraction for the Moslem, an appeal as powerful perhaps 
 as the great central vision of God’s Fatherhood itself. 
 Not only is God our Father. Christ is our Good Shep- 
 herd. Some years ago, in an effort to determine what 
 aspect of Christianity makes the greatest appeal to the 
 Moslem, we tried various presentations, all by means 
 of intimate personal talks. The different reactions 
 that the message produced were carefully written down, 
 and at the end of the year we had some interesting 
 records to study. The greatest appeal was made to 
 these men by what might be called the mystical aspect 
 of the Gospel, and of the material available we found 
 the parable of the Good Shepherd the most useful of 
 all. 
 
 We learned another thing, the necessity for repeated 
 presentation of the same material if the message is to 
 be understood and appreciated. It is hard for us to 
 realize the strangeness of the religious ideas that we 
 bring to the Moslems, trained as they are in an entirely 
 different atmosphere. The parable of the Good Shepherd, 
 repeated every day for perhaps two weeks, leads to a 
 comprehension of the truth that is very beautiful. “Sit. 
 down here, sahib, and I will tell you the story to-day,” 
 said a Kuttar Bedouin to me once after he had been with 
 us about ten days. The Arabs are wonderful story- 
 tellers, and Iam sure that he told it much more graphically 
 than I had ever done. He explained how Christ wants 
 to be a shepherd to those who are willing to follow; how, 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 335 
 
 just as the shepherd leads his sheep out in the morning 
 and finds them nice clean water to drink, and fresh green 
 grass to eat, so the Good Shepherd leads us to those 
 experiences, and that knowledge that will nourish our 
 spirits, and give us strength of soul. He explained how, 
 just as the shepherd protects the sheep from the wolves 
 of the desert and from the thieves of the town, so Christ 
 protects His sheep from the temptations that rise within 
 their own hearts, and those that Satan sends against 
 them from without. And, finally, the shepherd leads 
 the sheep home as the sun is setting, and so Christ wants 
 to lead us home to our Father’s house when our sun 
 sets. The truth had penetrated far deeper than mere 
 comprehension in that man’s mind: it was easy to see 
 that it had gone down far enough to grip powerfully his 
 very soul, 
 
 The missionary working among Moslems becomes more 
 and more convinced that the kernel of the Gospel comes 
 to them as an entirely new contribution. They have 
 little or nothing of its essential elements in the entire 
 landscape of their minds. But the theory of the Gospel 
 is a small contribution, if indeed it is any. The essential 
 contribution of Christ to the Moslem lies in that real 
 contact with God and that participation in the divine 
 life which He offers. If the missionary can bring the 
 Moslem to accept Christ, and so enter into eternal life, 
 he has succeeded. Failing there, we have failed. The 
 humanitarian aspects of missionary work have caught 
 the public eye, and as a result the foreign missionary 
 enterprise now enjoys an abnormal, indeed a very harmful 
 degree of popularity. One of the reflex results of this 
 popularity in essentially unChristian circles has been an 
 increased emphasis upon the humanitarian by-products 
 of the enterprise and their elevation to a false position 
 
336 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 as perhaps the real reason for carrying on missionary 
 work at all. 
 
 This is a complete reversal of Christ’s programme. 
 The introduction of education and civilization first, and 
 the redemption of individuals afterwards, is not the way 
 He told us to do it. Moreover, experiments have been 
 made, and they teach the same lesson. In Mesopotamia 
 a full-fledged Anglo-Saxon political system has been set 
 up. Western education has been introduced, a sanitary 
 and health service has been organized. It has been done 
 by men of great ability and of unquestioned integrity 
 and good intentions. The result of that splendid ex- 
 periment is that never have the Arabs of Mesopotamia 
 been so dominated by greed as to-day. Their hearts 
 have never been devoured by such acute unrest and 
 discontent. Immorality and drunkenness have never 
 been so common. Christ undoubtedly has a large 
 contribution to make to the social order in Mesopotamia, 
 but He has nothing to do with the present experiment. 
 The contribution that Christ wants to make to Meso- 
 potamia now is the redemption of individual Arabs. The _ 
 social order that He will one day create will grow out 
 of their minds, not out of ours. 
 
 Moreover, it is not by attention to creeds that we 
 shall accomplish the results that Christ wants. A very 
 attractive young Arab in Bahrein became interested in 
 the Gospel. He studied it earnestly for two years, and 
 finally became thoroughly convinced of the fact that 
 Christianity is the true religion. He was baptized, and 
 in six months had made shipwreck not of his faith only, 
 but of his old morality and diligence as well, ending 
 with a more deteriorated character than before. 
 
 It is possible to change the professed creeds of some 
 men by physical force, and those of others by intellectual 
 
 
 
CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 337 
 
 arguments, but coercion of any sort is utterly unable 
 to introduce the divine life into a man’s heart. What 
 we need for that is missionaries who can spread it by 
 contagion. Men of excellent ability and training are 
 wanted, of course, but ability and training do not spell 
 success in this enterprise. The missionary from within 
 whom flow rivers of living waters, who is a radiant centre 
 of divine life, is the man the situation demands. The 
 man whose soul is dry had better work somewhere else. 
 Our main business is to reflect Christ as a mirror, and 
 the missionary who does that, however imperfectly, will 
 not only be a magnet to attract the unreached Moslem : 
 he will also be a guide and a helper to the recent convert. 
 There are few greater pleasures for me than to sit on 
 the floor of my Arab reception-room with two very 
 splendid Christians drawn from Islam by a missionary 
 of this type. It is not a meeting for formal instruction 
 in doctrines or Biblical history. Each of us reads a 
 passage from the Bible which has been a real transmitter 
 of life to his own soul, and explains what he has found 
 in the passage. We discuss the messages and pray to- 
 gether, and find that a meeting of this sort really helps 
 to bring the divine life into our souls, 
 
 Christ, then, comes to the Moslem with a new vision 
 of God and of man and of spiritual freedom. He offers 
 a salvation which consists of a new relationship to God, 
 and a participation in His divine life. The missionary’s 
 task consists in showing men the vision, and in helping 
 them afterwards to participate in the divine life. 
 
 23 
 
; AC he 
 MOAT 
 
 : ea gist Me 4“ i Ah mh 
 Lak ) Peete ') bir) ara! 
 naam Mi aig 
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 ona SEAR Ee ee Pak aaa: 
 
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 song Wars dealt 
 
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 ‘Hic sed fis 
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 fhe): Ag ah igaahat bg h DEN yp: aape sts babe ee weet 
 rats “ih ie ait s i Sp: aap ay aha wee ini is ei 
 
 rat i iis eh RS aa Sette i aA 
 
 feuthihy parts AEN LyaRyE Hy (ay wire 
 
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 ra | saith - 
 
 
 
THE ISSUE BETWEEN ISLAM AND 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 BY: 
 ROBERT E. SPEER, M.A., D.D., 
 
 Secretary, Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian 
 Church in the United States of America 
 
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 net, HW Henan, seated ied | 
 
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CHAPTER XXII 
 THE ISSUE BETWEEN ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 
 
 THERE is an issue between Islam and Christianity. 
 Historically it was Islam that raised it. Christianity 
 was already in the world with its message and claim. 
 Islam arose to dispute and supersede these. But this 
 bare statement needs various qualifications. 
 
 In the first place, it appears to have been only corrupt 
 or inadequate representations of Christianity with which 
 Mohammed came into contact. We cannot be sure how 
 widely he travelled or what his opportunities were for 
 really knowing Christianity, but it would appear that he 
 met it in forms far removed from spiritual truth and 
 simplicity. Tradition records that he led a successful 
 trade caravan for Khadija into Syria, where he encoun- 
 tered Christianity of the type which had survived there 
 with its almost polytheistic caricature of the doctrine 
 of the Trinity and its exaltation of Mary into the place 
 at least of the consort of the Deity. 
 
 In the second place, the Koran and the Traditions 
 adequately show that Mohammed had no true conception 
 of Christianity at all, Both in the Koran and in the 
 Traditions many of the references to the Bible or to 
 Christian doctrine are grotesquely confused. ‘‘ Having 
 heard a Mary mentioned in the story of Moses and 
 
 1 William Muir, The Life of Mahomet, London, 1861, vol. ii, 
 
 p. 19. 
 341 
 
342 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 another in the story of Jesus, it did not occur to him to 
 distinguish between them.” 1 And Mohammed’s know- 
 ledge of Jesus and of His teaching was of the slightest, 
 while the whole world of Paul’s thought was stranger 
 to him. In reality, then, the issue of Mohammed with 
 Christianity was with a Christianity with which pure 
 Christianity would have an issue almost as deep. 
 
 In the third place, Islam’s attitude, at the very first 
 at least, was not one of clear hostility to Christianity. 
 Mohammed’s view was that it simply preceded and 
 prepared for him. ‘‘ Remember,” said he in the Koran, 
 “when Jesus the Son of Mary said, ‘O children of 
 Israel! of a truth I am God’s apostle to you to confirm 
 the law which was given before me and to announce an 
 apostle that shall come after me, whose name shall be 
 Ahmad.’ ”’? 
 
 And there are various friendly references in the Koran 
 to Christians. “‘ Thou shalt certainly find those to be 
 nearest in affection to them [i.e. to Moslems] who say, 
 ‘We are Christians.’ This, because some of them are 
 priests and monks, and because they are free from 
 pride.’ This kindly feeling did not last long, but 
 the change was due, in the Moslem view, to the perversity 
 of Christians, who ought to have recognized in their own 
 Bible the prediction of Mohammed as a prophet to excel 
 Jesus ‘ and who must have done so but for the corrup- 
 
 tions and alterations in the Bible.’ Something of the 
 
 earliest attitude of Mohammed has returned into modern 
 Islam. A strong spirit of conciliation can now be found. 
 
 1D. S. Margoliouth, Mahommed and the Rise of Islam, New 
 York, 1905, p. 6. 
 
 2 Koran; 61: 6, 3 Koran: 5: 85. 
 
 4 W. Goldsack, Mohammed and the Bible, Madras, 1915. 
 
 6 Sir Syed Ahmad, The Mohammedan Commentary on the Holy 
 Bible, ‘‘ The Seventh Discourse.”’ 
 
 OE aS ee ee ee 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 343 
 
 Some hold that, after all, the various religions, Islam 
 and Christianity among them, are only many different 
 doors into the same house. 
 
 “Standing opposite Fort William, a missionary heard 
 the Mussulmans and Chinamen saying, ‘ There are very 
 many gates into Fort William—there is an hospital 
 gate, a water gate, and others. Now, sahib, it is just 
 the same in regard to heaven. Chinamen get in at one 
 gate, Mussulmans in at another, and Hindus in at 
 another.’ ’’ 1 
 
 Others hold that Islam is only a richer extension of 
 the partial and preparatory revelation of Christianity, 
 that both are expressions of the one true religion existing 
 from the time of Adam to Mohammed, and propagated 
 by all the great succession of 124,000 prophets, con- 
 taining the same fundamental truths and moral precepts, 
 but differing in outward and ceremonial observances. 
 Still other Moslem reformers of to-day are ready to make 
 many concessions regarding historical Islam in the 
 interest of a broad and synthetic religious view. As 
 Mr. Theodore Morison, the Principal of the Aligarh 
 Muslim University, wrote, these reformers— 
 
 ce 
 
 . . . Believe that in their faith are enshrined the 
 great truths of religion and morality, but that in the 
 past they have misread the Word of God, and that narrow- 
 minded mollahs have expounded it amiss.” ® 
 
 Christians should be foremost to feel and to express 
 the spirit of kindness and consideration. In our relations 
 to Islam it is Raymond Lull, and not the Crusaders, that 
 must furnish our model of approach : 
 
 1W, A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
 IQIO, Pp. 322-3. 
 2 The Spectator, December 29, Ig00. 
 
344 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 ‘“‘T see many knights going to the Holy Land beyond 
 the seas and thinking that they can acquire it by force 
 of arms; but in the end all are destroyed before they 
 attain that which they think to have. Whence it seems 
 to me that the conquest of the Holy Land ought not to 
 be attempted except in the way in which Thou and Thine 
 apostles acquired it, namely, by love and prayers, and 
 the pouring out of tears and of blood.”’ ! 
 
 But, while we are bound to welcome and to exceed 
 any mood of conciliation which we may find in Islam 
 to-day, we must not deceive ourselves on either of two 
 points. In the first place, while Islam, as may be shown, 
 is not the rigid and impregnably convinced power it has 
 been deemed, there is still deep conviction there on the 
 part of five groups: (a) sincere and thoughtful Moslem 
 scholars, (b) men of reformed and tolerant views who 
 believe that Islam has a place among the forms of ethnic 
 religions, (c) mystics of deep emotional experience,’ 
 (z@) simple-hearted people to whom the prayers and 
 religious life of Islam are a habit of reality, and (e) the 
 men to whom Islam is a social and political fanaticism. 
 In the second place, Islam and Christianity are not the 
 same religion, nor are they alike in either their primary 
 or their secondary principles. Thoughtful Moslems are 
 as clear on this point as we are. Our issue with Islam 
 is not superficial. It is fundamental. I am sure that 
 a thoughtful Englishman is right on this matter when 
 he writes in a unique little book, Five Years in a Persian 
 Lown : 
 
 “In the case of Islam there are really not many [points 
 in common] to note, and in support of this statement I 
 
 1S. M. Zwemer, Raymond Lull, New York, 1902, pp. 52-3. 
 * D. B. Macdonald, Aspects of Islam, New York, I9gII, pp. 
 145-209. 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY B45 
 
 may relate a story told by an officer of Indian troops. 
 One day a Mohammedan, in the course of a conversation, 
 said to him: ‘ Of course, sahib, your religion and ours 
 are very near together. Your Christ is one of our 
 prophets.’ My friend replied: “What do you mean? 
 Of course Christ is one of your prophets, but to us He 
 is more than a prophet; He is the Son of God, and the 
 pattern of our lives. Besides, there is hardly a single 
 practical point where Mohammedans and Christians are 
 not entirely at issue. The man looked up and said: 
 “Sahib, you have read the Quran, and you have read 
 your Bible. I always make that remark to Christians : 
 I made it to a padre the other day: and they almost 
 always say, ‘“‘ Very true; Mohammedanism has a great 
 deal in common with Christianity.” Well, Sahib, when 
 they say that, I know that they have not read the Quran 
 and they have not read their Bibles.’ ”’ 
 
 And Mr. Malcolm sets down his own deliberate judg- 
 ment : 
 
 “In Mohammedanism, in spite of its greater preten- 
 sions, almost every apparent truth crumbles into mere 
 truism or actual falsity the moment that you try to 
 make it the basis of anything practical. Also, the more 
 I read of the life of Mohammed, the more convinced I 
 am that the radical rottenness of the system is due to 
 his original teaching. . I firmly believe that the diffi- 
 culties in the Islam of to-day are due rather to the 
 essential wrongness of the system than to its corruption 
 by the masses,”’ } 
 
 Of all the religions in the world, there is none as to 
 which Christian missions are more justified and by which 
 Christian missions are more demanded than Islam, The 
 fundamental issue between Islam and Christianity is 
 
 1 Napier Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town, New York, 
 1905, Ppp. Vil, vill, 64, 65. 
 
346 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 found just where too often they are supposed to resemble 
 each other, namely, in their idea of God. Each is mono- 
 theistic. As over against idolatry and polytheism and 
 pantheism, Christians feel a strong sense of agreement 
 with Islam and they seem to themselves to breathe a 
 purer air when they pass out of a Hindu temple, with 
 its idols, and often its obscenity, into the austerity and 
 simplicity of a Mohammedan mosque. And also there 
 can be no doubt that Mohammed thought he was setting 
 forth the true conception of God, which in some measure 
 the Jews and Christians whom he knew had corrupted. 
 Even so, however, he believed that it was the same 
 God. ‘“ Our God and your God is one,”’ says the Koran. 
 But they are not the same God at all. In the prevalent 
 Moslem view there are seven attributes of God, and 
 ninety-nine names. The attributes are life or unity, 
 knowledge, power, will, hearing, seeing, and speech. 
 The early Moslems, the companions of Mohammed and 
 their followers, held, however, that inquiries into the 
 nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. It 
 was sufficient, as Mohammed had taught them, to— 
 ‘‘Say: He is God alone: 
 God the eternal |! 
 
 He begetteth not, and He is not begotten ; 
 And there is none like unto Him.’’! 
 
 Moslem apologists for Islam have sought to Christianize 
 the God of Islam. Syed Ameer Ali first describes the 
 Christian doctrine, and especially the historic view of 
 Jesus and His revelation of God as Father, and then 
 transfers the whole Christian conception to the Allah 
 of Mohammed.? But the facts of history cannot be so 
 
 . + hora) 112: 
 
 * Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, Revised 
 Edition, 1922, pp. 143-52. 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 347 
 
 easily dissipated. The Moslem view of God has been seen 
 both in itself and in its effects to be defective in its un- 
 moral autocracy, its irresponsible fatalism, its implica- 
 tion in human sin, the mere verbalism of its compassion, 
 its inadequacy in holiness and love, the capriciousness 
 of its justice, its repudiation of the conception of father- 
 hood, and its denial of the possibility of incarnation and 
 of the immanence and indwelling of God.! 
 
 Two testimonies from outside the missionary ranks 
 will suffice : 
 
 Johannes Hauri, in his study of Islam, says: 
 
 “ What Mohammed tells of God’s omnipotence, omni- 
 science, justice, goodness, and mercy sounds, for the 
 most part, very well indeed and might easily awaken 
 the idea that there is no real difference between his 
 God and the God of Christianity. But Mohammed’s 
 monotheism was just as much a departure from true 
 monotheism as the polytheistic ideas prevalent in the 
 corrupt Oriental Churches. Mohammed’s idea of God 
 is out-and-out deistic. God and the world are in exclusive, 
 external, and eternal opposition.” * 
 
 And James Freeman Clarke calls it the ‘‘ worst form of 
 monotheism,’ and says : 
 
 “Islam saw God, but not man; saw the claims of 
 deity, but not the rights of humanity ; saw authority, 
 failed to see freedom—therefore hardened into despotism, 
 stiffened into formalism, and sank into death. . .. Mo- 
 hammed teaches a God above us; Moses teaches a God 
 
 1 W. A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
 I9IO, pp. 231-43; S. M. Zwemer, The Moslem Doctrine of God, 
 New York, 1905; W.H. T. Gairdner, The Muslim Idea of God, 
 London, 1909; W.R.W. Gardner, The Quranic Doctrine of God, 
 Madras, 1916; W. Goldsack, God in Islam, London, 1908. 
 
 * Johannes Hauri, Der Islam, Leiden, 1881, p. 44. 
 
348 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 above us, and yet with us; Jesus teaches—God above 
 us, God with us, and God in us.” 3 
 
 It is the business of Christians, in love and joy, to make 
 known the God of Jesus Christ to Moslems. 
 
 Bound up in this fundamental issue between Islam 
 and Christianity is their difference with regard to Jesus 
 Christ Himself, with regard to sin from which Christ is 
 the only Saviour, and with regard to the life of salvation 
 in Christ, its ideals and its power. It is true that our 
 Lord is assigned a place among the tens of thousands 
 of recognized prophets. He is even ranked among the 
 first six: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and 
 Mohammed. He is recognized to have worked miracles. 
 “And we gave unto Jesus, the son of Mary, manifest 
 signs and strengthened him by the Holy Spirit.””? But— 
 
 “There is no one cardinal fact concerning the Life, 
 Person, and Work of the Lord Jesus Christ which is not 
 either denied, perverted, misrepresented, or at least 
 ignored in Mohammedan theology.’ 
 
 And the Koran is explicit. The office of Jesus was 
 temporary and local. He was only the prophet to the 
 children of Israel, and even as such was superseded by 
 Mohammed. 
 
 “‘ Jesus is no more than a servant, whom we favoured 
 
 with the gift of prophecy ; and we appointed him for 
 an example unto the children of Israel.’’ ‘ 
 
 And again : 
 “ Christ the son of Mary is no more than an apostle ; 
 other apostles have preceded him ; and his mother was 
 
 1 James Freeman Clarke, Ten Great Religions, Boston, 1895, 
 Part II, p. 68, and Part I, p. 483. 
 
 2 Koran: 2: 81. 
 
 3'W. A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
 IQIo, P. 244. * Koran: 43: 59. 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 8349 
 
 a woman of veracity : they both ate food [i.e. were human, 
 not divine beings].”’ ! 
 
 In the view of Syed Ameer Ali Jesus was only a 
 human teacher deified by his subsequent worshippers.* 
 The Christian conception of Him as the Incarnate Son of 
 God, Redeemer and Saviour of men, Revealer of the 
 Father, Supreme and Living Lord, is a conception so 
 totally different from anything in Islam that so long 
 as Christians hold it they are bound to seek in love to 
 persuade Moslems of its truth and to share with them its 
 joy. 
 
 The Moslem and Christian conceptions of sin are 
 necessarily as widely variant as their ideas of God. Sin, 
 in the Moslem view, is “a conscious act of a responsible 
 being against known law.’’* Some hold that there are 
 seven great sins; idolatry, murder, false charge of adul- 
 tery, wasting the substance of orphans, taking interest 
 on money, desertion from jihad, and disobedience to 
 parents. Others add wine-drinking, witchcraft, perjury, 
 and other sins, Mohammed’s declaration was ; 
 
 “““ The greatest of sins before God is that you call another 
 like unto the God who created you, or that you murder 
 your child from an idea that it will eat your victuals, 
 or that you commit adultery with your neighbour’s wife.’ 
 All sins except ‘ great’ ones are easily forgiven, as God 
 is merciful and clement.”’? 
 
 The Moslem ideas of sin and righteousness are legalistic. 
 
 ‘“ Nothing is right or wrong by nature, but becomes 
 such by the fiat of the Almighty. What Allah or his 
 Prophet forbids is sin, even should he forbid what 
 
 1 Koran: 5: 79. 
 
 * Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, 1922, p. xxxviii, 
 
 3 Samuel M, Zwemer, Islam: a Challenge to Faith, New York, 
 1907, p. 121. 
 
3850 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 seems right to the conscience. What Allah allows is 
 not sin and cannot be sin at the time he allows it, though 
 it may have been before or after.” 1 
 
 In Islam— 
 
 “There is an absolute denial of the statement, upon 
 which most Christians more or less consciously base their 
 belief in the perpetuity and absolute nature of the law 
 of human morals, that ‘in the image of God created 
 He man.’ Consequently we shall afterwards find that 
 in Islam there is no belief in the permanency of the 
 moral law, for nothing is thought by the Mussulman 
 to be necessarily permanent except things connected 
 with the nature of God ; and, as our nature differs entirely 
 from that of the Creator, the law given for it cannot be 
 necessarily permanent.”’ ? 
 
 Sin is infraction of imposed law, not bias of nature, 
 nor flaw of character, nor a fundamental congenital 
 taint in humanity. 
 
 And, even as to deliberate infractions of known law, 
 some of the Moslem teachers have found a method of 
 safe sin, through the attribute of mercy in God. Ina 
 paper on the Mohammedan question in Missions, the late 
 Henry O. Dwight of Constantinople told this incident : 
 
 ‘In travelling in Turkey, I once fell in with a Pasha, 
 governor of one of the provinces of Asia Minor. He 
 was a most agreeable and even attractive man, and during 
 the voyage, which lasted several days, we talked on almost 
 every conceivable subject of interest to plain and decent 
 men. 
 
 “This sensible and well-meaning man showed me 
 the corner-stone of his character one evening at table 
 in the cabin. He asked me to take a glass of wine with 
 
 1 Samuel M. Zwemer, Islam : a Challenge to Faith, New York, 
 
 1907, pp. 121-2. 
 2 Napier Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town, New York, 
 
 1905, p. 82. 
 
 =. 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 351 
 
 him. I declined. Then the Pasha said: ‘ You may 
 
 think it strange that I, a Mohammedan, should ask 
 
 you, a Christian, to drink with me when wine-drinking 
 
 is forbidden by our religion. I will tell you how I dare 
 
 do this thing.’ He filled his glass, and held it up, looking 
 
 at the beautiful colour of it, and said: ‘ Now, if I say 
 
 that it is right to drink this wine, I deny God’s commands 
 
 to men, and He would punish me in hell for the blasphemy. 
 
 But I take up this glass, admitting that God has com-, 
 manded me not to drink it, and that I sin in drinking 
 
 it. Then I drink it off, so casting myself on the mercy | 
 of God. For our religion lets me know that God is too, 
 
 merciful to punish me for doing a thing which I wish to! 
 
 do, when I humbly admit that to do it breaks His com-. 
 mandments.’ ” 
 
 And Dr. Dwight added : 
 
 “Let it not be supposed that there is no recognition 
 of sin in Islam. It is everywhere denounced. But it 
 is everywhere regarded as wrong by the decree of God. 
 God’s decree can make vice virtue. Sin calls for retribu- 
 tion, not reform. Repentance is simply regret for the 
 punishment of sin. Mohammed put his seal upon this 
 materialistic view of repentance when one of his com- 
 panions asked him what should be done with the body 
 of a man stoned to death for adultery: ‘ Bury him,’ 
 said the Prophet, “as a good Mussulman, for he has 
 repented with such a repentance that, if it were divided 
 among the whole human race, it would suffice for all.’ 
 In fact, it seems to be thoroughly wrought into the 
 intellect of the Mohammedan that character is an en- 
 dowment of God which cannot be changed. The very 
 idea of a change of character is omitted from the Koran.” 
 
 Those who hold to the Christian doctrine of sin and 
 wrong cannot refrain from making it known to Moslems 
 in order that they may share the salvation of Christ. 
 
 If there were space it could be shown fully that Islam’s 
 statutory conception of moral and social principles is 
 
352 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 fundamentally different from Christ’s living principle 
 of spiritual freedom and loyalty, and that the oft-praised 
 Moslem idea and practice of brotherhood are partial and 
 illusory and radically inferior in theory and in fact to 
 the fellowship of Christianity. 
 
 In spite of all that has been said and written of late 
 years to defend Islam against the charge that its teach- 
 ing and influence degraded woman’s position, fostered 
 slavery and war, and retarded social progress, the Mo- 
 hammedan people know that historically these charges 
 are true, and the present-day efforts of the apologists 
 and the earnest struggles of the Moslem peoples are 
 evidence of the new life that is moving through the 
 whole world of Islam, Turkey has already dealt remorse- 
 lessly with the theory of the unity of Church and State 
 and the supremacy of the Caliph, The Wahhabis are 
 awake again and reasserting ideas, some good, some 
 bad, which contradict much of the new apologia. The 
 women are discarding the veil, perhaps too hastily, and 
 seeking education and freedom. Reformers are speaking 
 out, some boldly, some timidly. Kaveh, a monthly 
 magazine published by young Persians in Berlin, recently 
 printed a series of articles on famous men. In the article 
 on Martin Luther in the issue of October 2, 1921, the 
 writer praises the deliverance which Luther wrought for 
 the human mind from ecclesiastical control and calls 
 for similar reforms in Mohammedan laws, as regards: 
 
 1. Considering others than Moslems unclean. | 
 
 2. The imprisonment of women by the purdah system. 
 
 3. The legalizing of polygamy. 
 
 4. The ease of divorce. 
 
 5. Deeming those of religions other than “ ahl-i- 
 kitab ’’ 1 infidels and worthy of death. 
 
 1 Ahl-i-kitab (people of a book), e.g., Christians, Jews, Sabians. 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 3538 
 
 6. The restriction of religious teaching to the Arabic 
 language. | 
 
 In Azad (Freedom), a paper published in Tabriz, Persia, 
 but later suppressed, appeared an article on January 1, 
 1922, entitled ‘‘A Medicine for Those Tied to Moslem 
 Ecclesiastics,’”’ declaring : 
 
 “In every point all Moslems over the world are low, 
 poor, unclean, without civilization, foolish, ignorant, 
 and in general they are two hundred years behind 
 American and European Christians and even behind the 
 Zoroastrians. If it were only in some places that we 
 found Islam in this condition we might attribute the 
 results to some other reason, but where we find Islam 
 everywhere in the same condition we can see no other 
 reason but Islam itself.”’ 
 
 One of the most highly educated men in Persia has 
 written picturing the low ideals and attainments of life 
 in Moslem lands, and declaring : 
 
 “The fountain-head or source of all these evils which 
 bid fair to swamp and disrupt the whole country is the 
 present religious system of Islam.” 
 
 These testimonies could be multiplied indefinitely, 
 and they are reinforced by the judgments of quite im- 
 partial observers. ‘“‘ The great intolerance of Moham- 
 medanism,’’ says Professor Sir Flinders Petrie, ‘‘ and the 
 lower position accorded in law and practice to women 
 will always be a bar to its surpassing in civilization the 
 races of other creeds.” 
 
 Both in Persia and in Turkey the women are already 
 beginning to cast off the old shackles. As recently we 
 came out of the mosque of St. Sophia in Constantinople, 
 we met a company of seventy or eighty Moslem school- 
 girls coming in in a body. They wore their black tchar- 
 
 24 
 
354 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 scheffs but not over their faces. As they went by with 
 their laughing eyes and ruddy cheeks unconcealed, they 
 vividly illustrated the change that is taking place. The 
 old ideas still hold with such a tenacious grip, however, 
 that many Moslem women have no hope. One of the 
 ablest apologists for the old order in Tabriz is a Moham- 
 medan woman who was educated in Europe and who 
 returned with bold ideas which she has come to despair 
 of realizing, and who is now preaching the doctrine of 
 resignation to the inevitable. The subjugation of woman 
 to the ownership of man is not inevitable, however. It 
 is inevitable that human society will ultimately rebel 
 against any estimate of woman which prevents her 
 rendering her full service towards social progress. It 
 is a tribute to the durability of the fine elements in 
 womanhood that they have not been crushed out under 
 the influences of Islam, and no small part of Persia’s 
 hope is to be found in the undestroyed capacities of 
 Persian women. 
 
 The forces which are struggling throughout the Moslem 
 world for freedom and life are the results in large part 
 of the contacts of Islam with Christianity. Christians 
 owe it both to their Gospel and to the Moslem people 
 to share with these sturdy, loyal folk the Light that is 
 the True Light and the Power of the Risen Christ. Let 
 there be no hesitation. There is in Christianity what 
 Islam lacks and what the Moslem people need and have 
 a right to have. Mohammed and Mohammedanism have 
 never had a more efficient defender in the West than Mr. 
 R. Bosworth Smith, the biographer of John Lawrence. 
 ‘But, knowing Islam, Mr. Smith knows, too, the missionary 
 duty which is owed to it by Christians. In an address 
 before the Fellows of Zion’s College on February 21, 
 1888, he said : 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 355 
 
 “ The resemblances between the two creeds are indeed 
 many and striking, as I have implied throughout ; but, 
 if I may, once more, quote a few words which I have 
 used elsewhere in dealing with this question, the contrasts 
 are even more striking than the resemblances. The 
 religion of Christ contains whole fields of morality and 
 whole realms of thought which are all but outside the 
 religion of Mohammed. It opens humility, purity of 
 heart, forgiveness of injuries, sacrifice of self, to man’s 
 moral nature ; it gives scope for toleration, development, 
 boundless progress to his mind; its motive power is 
 stronger even as a friend is better than a king, and love 
 higher than obedience. Its realized ideals in the various 
 paths of human greatness have been more commanding, 
 more many-sided, more holy, as Averroes is below Newton, 
 Harun below Alfred, and Ali below St. Paul. Finally, 
 the ideal life of all is far more elevating, far more majestic, 
 far more inspiring, even as the life of the founder of 
 Mohammedanism is below the life of the founder of 
 Christianity. 
 
 “Tf, then, we believe Christianity to be truer and purer 
 in itself than Islam, and than any other religion, we must 
 needs wish others to be partakers of it; and the effort 
 to propagate it is thrice blessed—it blesses him that offers, 
 no less than him who accepts it; nay, it often blesses 
 him who accepts it not.”’ ! 
 
 But it is felt by some that the real virtues of the 
 Moslem peoples and the solid tenacity of Islam are 
 perhaps better for these peoples than any Christian efforts 
 to unsettle them, or if not so that at any rate our efforts 
 are hopeless and small. In a recent illuminating book 
 entitled India, a Bird’s-Eye View, the Earl of Ronaldshay 
 speaks of the insistent strength of the call of Islam. 
 Surely this strength is there. No one can go among 
 
 1 Frank F, Ellinwood, Oriental Religions and Christianity, 
 2nd Edition, New York, 1896, pp. 218, 219. 
 
356 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 the Moslem peoples without feeling it, and without a 
 deep and friendly regard for all the good qualities of 
 courage and loyalty and democracy and vigour found 
 among them. But also no one can know them without 
 realizing how great is their need of Christianity and how 
 much Christianity would do to lift them into greater 
 things. The Moslem world is backward in education, 
 in morality, in hope, in resolution, and in brotherhood. 
 Burton’s Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah is only one 
 of many inside views of the real weakness and hollowness 
 of Islam. Vambéry, in Western Culture in Eastern Lands, 
 makes clear enough the need and the doom of the old 
 Mohammedanism. The Young Turk has taken the new 
 and old road of secularism. The old religion is gone 
 for him, and he thinks no new religion is necessary in its 
 place, unless it be the religion of nationalism elsewhere 
 already antiquated. The simple truth is that the old 
 Islam drew its strength from some of the good basic 
 elements in the human material it worked on, from some 
 partial truths about God, and from the acceptance or 
 even the consecration of human forces which were sure 
 sooner or later to work out social ruin. There is only 
 one remedy. It is not primarily political or educational. 
 It is religious. The Moslem peoples need to know and 
 love and obey God as revealed in Christ. The issue for 
 the Mohammedan world is not Mohammed and Christ. 
 It is not Mohammed or Christ. Itis Christ. It is Christ 
 or decay and death. The only true Islam is surrender | 
 to Christ. Then life and freedom. le 
 
 There is, then, this deep issue between Islam and 
 Christianity. But there are many Moslems to-day who 
 do not hold to the Moslem ideas which are at variance 
 
 1 ‘‘ Islam, an Arabic word, implying submission to God ”’ 
 (Irving, Mahomet, vol. i, p. 72). 
 
ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 357 
 
 with the Christian conceptions. Just as Buddhists 
 have departed from the teaching of original Buddhism 
 in the direction of Christian ideas of God and immortality 
 and the soul and its relation to the world, so Moslems 
 are prepared to assent to many Christian doctrines. 
 Syed Ameer Ali seeks to Christianize all the great teach- 
 ings of Islam. As time goes on this attitude of mind 
 among Moslems willextend more and more. Our attitude 
 toward them must be one of entire good-will and friend- 
 ship, of patient appreciation of their problem and of 
 humble penitence for our own shortcomings and our 
 failure to understand and to present persuasively the 
 Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only Saviour 
 of Jew or Gentile, of Moslem or Christian. 
 

 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM 
 WORLD 
 
 BY 
 JOHN R. MOTT, M.A., LL.D., 
 
 Chairman, International Missionary Council ; Chairman, 
 World’s Student Christian Federation 
 

 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
 
 THE chain of conferences of workers among Moslems, 
 held February, March, and April, 1924, in different parts 
 of Northern Africa and Western Asia, and culminating 
 in the General Conference in Jerusalem, were most timely. 
 Several considerations accentuate their timeliness. The 
 recent extensive and profound changes in nearly all parts 
 of the Moslem world called for a fresh orientation of the 
 work of Christian missions to this important part of the 
 missionary task. The remarkable developments within 
 Islam rendered a fresh, united study imperatively ne- 
 cessary. It was recognized that experiences of recent 
 years in other parts of the world-wide missionary move- 
 ment should be made available to those engaged in mission 
 work among Moslems. The need felt in the home base 
 countries of knowing the mind and wish of the workers 
 throughout the Mohammedan lands, as well as the 
 desire of the missionaries and native leaders in these 
 lands for opportunity to speak with united voice to the 
 Churches in the West, made these gatherings peculiarly 
 opportune. It is difficult to see how they could have 
 been held even six months earlier, and the Christian 
 movement would have suffered loss had they been deferred 
 another year. 
 
 These assemblies of missionaries and leaders of native 
 
 Churches were held at the initiative and under the 
 361 
 
362 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 auspices of the International Missionary Council. Three 
 Regional Conferences were followed by a General Con- 
 ference in Jerusalem, April 3-7, which was attended 
 by delegations from each of the preceding gatherings 
 and also by deputations from other areas of the Mo- 
 hammedan world, including Arabia, Iraq, Persia, Turki- 
 stan, China, British India, and the Dutch East Indies. 
 Although the conference was limited to eighty persons, 
 this number included outstanding missionary adminis- 
 trators, educators, medical and social workers, and 
 other recognized leaders of the Christian forces of all 
 parts of the Mohammedan world, reaching from North- 
 West Africa to the Dutch Indies, and from Central Asia 
 to the heart of Africa, as well as workers from the mission 
 boards of Europe and America engaged in work for 
 Moslems. There were present not only missionaries, 
 but also leaders of native Churches, including distinguished 
 converts from Mohammedanism. In the annals of Chris- 
 tian missions there has never been brought together 
 such a representative and influential company of the 
 leading minds at work on the problems of Christian 
 missions to Moslems. 
 
 The entire membership of the conference was divided 
 into ten Committees of Findings on the following sub- 
 jects : Accessibility and Occupation, Evangelization, the 
 Christian Church, Christian Education, Christian Leader- 
 ship, Christian Literature, Women’s Work, Medical and 
 Social Needs, Co-operation, and Spiritual Dynamic. 
 Each Committee of Findings based its work on surveys 
 and papers prepared and circulated in advance, on the 
 findings of the various Regional Conferences, on the 
 discussions of the General Conference, and upon the 
 constructive, corporate thinking of the committee itself. 
 The last long day of the conference was devoted to receiv- 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 363 
 
 ing, discussing, amending, and adopting the reports 
 of the ten committees. The findings, which have been 
 printed and made available for Christian workers among 
 Moslems and for missionary societies related to work 
 in Moslem lands, have served to co-ordinate the ex- 
 perience, thinking, and vision of workers among Moslems 
 throughout the world. They constitute an up-to-date, 
 prophetic view of work among Moslems. 
 
 The conferences were in no sense legislative bodies. 
 Their findings have no more weight or worth than the 
 weight of the truth and insight which they embody. 
 This, however, should be great indeed as we think of 
 the personnel and their exceptional background, rich 
 experience, and wide outlook. 
 
 Particular attention is called to the following among 
 many points brought out in the discussions and findings, 
 as reflecting the common mind of the delegates and as 
 being of special concern to all who have at heart the 
 extension of the Kingdom of Christ. 
 
 t. The conferences revealed unmistakable evidences of 
 the weakening or disintegration of Islam. This is true 
 politically. Generally speaking nationalism is taking 
 the place of Pan-Islamism. The Turkish Moslem, for 
 example, is becoming more Turk than Moslem. The 
 abolition of the Caliphate has had a profoundly disturbing 
 effect not only in Turkey but also throughout the Mo- 
 hammedan world. There are signs on every hand of 
 the weakening of the social hold of Islam. This is 
 illustrated in the changing position of women, especially 
 in the cities: for example, in the postponement of mar- 
 riage and the greater freedom of choice on the woman’s 
 part, in attendance of women at lectures and entertain- 
 ments, in the formation of women’s clubs, in the larger 
 liberty in the use of the veil, and in the ever-growing 
 
364 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 demand for education. The spread of Western in- 
 dustrialism and the startling development of the material 
 aspects of modern civilization have had a marked dis- 
 integrating influence. I asked one of the most eminent 
 professors of Al Azhar in Cairo what gave him greatest 
 hope for Islam. He replied, “‘ I see no hope ; materialism 
 is overwhelming us.” 
 
 Intellectually great changes are observable. On every 
 hand one encounters a hunger for knowledge. A new 
 mentality is being developed as a result of contact with 
 Western science and civilization during the war. Above 
 all, one is impressed with the religious unsettling among 
 Moslems. Many are sorely perplexed, and do not know 
 where they are going. There are multiplying evidences 
 of rebellion against tradition and external authority. 
 Much of the old bigotry and fanaticism have gone. There 
 is a spirit of inquiry abroad, combined with a determina- 
 tion to make the most of themselves and of the new day. 
 Many workers bear testimony that no longer do they 
 encounter the proud, self-satisfied Islam which they 
 knew before. 
 
 2. The marvellous accessibility of the Mohammedan 
 world to the friendly and constructive ministry of the 
 Christian religion was also revealed. The discussions of 
 the conferences led to the conclusion that perhaps four- 
 fifths of the 235,000,000 who constitute the population of 
 the Moslem world are now increasingly accessible to. 
 every method of missionary approach. This may be 
 said of all British India, the Dutch East Indies, Persia, 
 Mesopotamia, China, the Balkans, the whole of North 
 Africa, and likewise Central, East, and West Africa, with 
 the possible exception of Northern Nigeria. Whole 
 regions and entire classes of people who never before 
 were reached by the message of Christ have now become 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 365 
 
 physically accessible. There have been rapid and fasci- 
 nating developments in ease of communication through- 
 out North Africa and the Near East by the construction 
 of thousands of miles of railways and modern highways, 
 the use of automobile transport, and the air post. Even 
 the Sahara has within a few months been crossed re- 
 peatedly by automobiles, and a railroad is now under 
 construction. The trip from Baghdad to Damascus, 
 which formerly required weeks, has, within a year, been 
 reduced to nineteen hours. 
 
 Political conditions have become much more favour- 
 able in nearly every field unless it be Turkey. Many 
 governmental restrictions have been removed. Colonial 
 governments once hostile to missions among Moslems 
 have become more and more friendly and in some cases 
 are even supporting medical and social missionary 
 programmes. The new mandates for the Near East, 
 and the new Constitution promulgated in Egypt, contain 
 definite promises of religious freedom. The war brought 
 vast numbers of Moslems into direct contact with Western 
 civilization and opened their eyes to a new world. Moslem 
 men and women of wealth and social position are visiting 
 Christian lands in increasing numbers, and _ literally 
 thousands of Moslem students have gone from Asia and 
 Africa to European student centres. A multitude of 
 labourers from North Africa are streaming into France. 
 It was stated at the Jerusalem Conference that more 
 Moslems annually visit Paris than Mecca. Contacts 
 between Moslems and European Christians are un- 
 parallelled in extent and influence. 
 
 Attention should also be called to intellectual accessi- 
 bility. In almost every Moslem land education is being 
 actively promoted by the Government as well as by 
 Christian missions, and the rate of literacy is rapidly 
 
366 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 increasing. The rising generation is gaining an entirely 
 new outlook because of the newspaper, books, the cinema, 
 and the theatre, while modern pictorial advertising has 
 created a hundred points of contact with Western civiliza- 
 tion. A far larger proportion than formerly of pupils 
 and students in the mission schools and colleges of the 
 Near East and Southern Asia are Moslems. The same 
 is true of parts of Africa. A missionary stated at the 
 conference in Egypt that formerly in Abyssinia parents 
 forbade their children to look in the direction of the 
 mission schools ; now they bring them to these schools. 
 He added that the parents may not wish to change their 
 own religion, but allow their children to do so. This 
 suggests the new religious hospitality or accessibility. 
 Workers from every field testified to the new willingness 
 to hear the gospel message as well as to the larger response. 
 Certainly a remarkable change has taken place in the 
 attitude of Moslem men and women to the Gospel. They 
 are attending meetings more largely ; they gladly accept 
 literature ; they are buying and reading the Bible 
 more and more. Religious prejudice is being broken 
 down in every conceivable way. Professor Levonian 
 at the Jerusalem Conference reported that a daily 
 paper in Constantinople had for seven months been 
 conducting a discussion on the Personality of Christ. 
 The problem in the Moslem world to-day, therefore, 
 is not that of accessibility, but one of adequate 
 multiplication of workers, of a better distribution of 
 the forces available, and of augmenting the spiritual 
 forces. 
 
 3. Relatively there has been a neglect of Moslems on 
 the part of the Protestant Christian forces. We are not 
 comparing the Protestant forces on the one hand and 
 those of the Roman Catholic or Eastern Church Com- 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 367 
 
 munions on the other, for these other great bodies have 
 likewise overlooked work for Moslems. But in proportion 
 to their importance and extent Protestant missions to 
 Moslems have received vastly less attention, fewer mis- 
 sionaries, and less adequate financial backing than those 
 to any other great. non-Christian religion. Notwith- 
 standing that the Lucknow Conference in rgrr laid the 
 facts before Protestant Christendom, the following areas 
 or countries in which the population is wholly or pre- 
 dominantly Moslem are still practically unoccupied : 
 Afghanistan, the provinces of Hejaz, Asir, Nejd, and Ha- 
 dhramaut in Arabia, Russian Turkistan, parts of Siberia, 
 Bukhara, the eastern part of the Malay peninsula, and 
 Socotra; also the Moslem populations of Madagascar, 
 Albania, Bulgaria, Jugoslavia, the Crimea, Georgia, and 
 Russia in Europe, Tripoli in North Africa, the French 
 Sudan, the great Aurés Mountains, Saharan Atlas ranges, 
 the central populous mountain region of Morocco, and the 
 vast Sahara itself—fields having in them a total popula- 
 tion of nearly 40,000,000. The Mohammedans of China, 
 numbering over 8,000,000, have scarcely a missionary 
 devoting himself entirely to them. The 69,000,000 
 Moslems in India also present a field largely unoccupied, 
 for very little special work is carried on among them. 
 It was pointed out in the Jerusalem Conference that 
 in large cities like Bombay, Lucknow, Delhi, and Lahore, 
 where formerly there was special effort to win Moslems, 
 to-day there are no missionaries wholly devoted to the 
 task. Even taking into account all the missionaries who 
 are giving portions of time to Moslems, it must be admitted 
 that, in proportion to the total number of more than 
 5,000 missionaries in India, the aggregate amount of 
 time bestowed upon the Moslem task is almost negligible. 
 Even in the Near East and the Nile Valley only a very 
 
368 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 small number are wholly engaged in Christian work 
 among Moslems. 
 
 In the Moslem world there are probably 100,000,000 
 women and girls still unreached. Miss Trotter, the 
 pioneer and spiritual leader of an heroic band of women 
 workers in North Africa, said, ‘‘ Each of these Moslem 
 women needs a human soul lashed alongside in sympathy 
 and prayer. If we could place a hundred thousand who 
 had their hearts on fire we could touch the problem.”’ 
 Facts like these brought to the attention of Churches 
 in the West and students in the universities and semi- 
 naries, should correct a widespread misconception that 
 the demand for missionaries is less urgent than formerly 
 and likely to diminish rapidly in the future. This cer- 
 tainly is not the case in by far the larger part of the 
 Moslem world. The dearth of Moslem converts is to 
 be explained largely on the ground of the extreme shortage 
 of workers equipped and set apart especially for this 
 undertaking. 
 
 The surveys conducted in certain Moslem fields show 
 an excessive concentration of forces in a few main centres, 
 resulting in a corresponding neglect of vast areas. More- 
 over, the preoccupation of a majority of missionaries 
 with appointed tasks in institutions, or in the work of 
 general supervision, leaves the number definitely devoting 
 their whole time to work for Moslems very small indeed. 
 In certain fields, such as Syria and Palestine, the present 
 number of workers might prove to be sufficient were they 
 more advantageously distributed. It seemed to be the 
 opinion of the delegates at the different conferences 
 that the mission boards should re-examine the assignment 
 of workers in the light of greatly changed conditions. 
 Certain missions and Churches need to catch a new 
 perspective and to bring about an entire readjustment 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 369 
 
 of emphasis and effort. In some fields, chiefly in the 
 Near East, the time has come when the native evangelical 
 Churches should be led to constitute themselves the chief 
 agency for the evangelization of Moslems by shifting 
 the emphasis of their work from missionary activity 
 among the Eastern Churches to direct effort for Moslems. 
 As a Greek priest said to one of the delegates, ‘‘ We 
 should not work in each other’s nets, but launch into 
 the deep.”’ 
 
 4. Moslems can be converted, Moslems have. been 
 converted, Moslems are being converted. In each area 
 one of the most rewarding inquiries was the following, 
 ““Do you know of definite cases of the conversion of 
 Moslems ? If so, give the circumstances and indicate 
 the influences which were brought to bear.’’ The dele- 
 gates were requested to speak from personal knowledge 
 only. The answers constitute a most remarkable record 
 of the vital and conquering power of the Christian faith, 
 Representatives from all parts of the vast Moslem world 
 recounted with particularity and with thrilling effect 
 incidents among the most interesting and impressive 
 to which the writer has ever listened. Some workers 
 confined themselves to describing single cases of con- 
 version, others told of whole groups brought to Christ. 
 A few were able to bring in reports of scores or of hundreds 
 of converts of whom they had first-hand knowledge. 
 Missionaries from Abyssinia and from the Dutch Indies 
 told of even thousands of baptized Moslems. 
 
 There are also, in the judgment of some missionaries, 
 what in the aggregate amounts to a multitude of secret 
 inquirers and disciples of Christ. In one conference a 
 prominent missionary said, “‘ I believe there are so many 
 secret seekers and inquirers at present that if ten people 
 in this room would throw their weight toward the winning 
 
 25 
 
370 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 of these men and women we could soon tell, not of tens, 
 but of hundreds turning to the leadership of Christ.” 
 The cumulative evidence of these witnesses reminded 
 one vividly of the corresponding stage in missionary 
 work for Hindus and for the ancient literati of China. 
 The impression is too widely prevalent in the Churches 
 at the home base that work for Moslems is comparatively 
 fruitless and hopeless. The truth of the matter is that 
 the time has come to reap. Whereas formerly indirect 
 methods of approach were necessary on account of 
 government restrictions and Moslem opposition and 
 fanaticism, yet in many Moslem lands to-day the way 
 is open to widespread and direct evangelization. The 
 minds of the Moslems are now in a plastic and impression- 
 able state, and must be given the Christian message. 
 
 5. The positive, constructive, irenic, and sympathetic 
 approach, method, and spirit now largely prevail in 
 Christian work among Moslems, as contrasted with the 
 negative, destructive, polemic, and unappreciative. Only 
 along the pathway of heroic and sacrificial experience 
 on the part of workers who have devoted all their powers 
 to the task, and who deserve all praise for their prophetic, 
 pioneering ministry, have the deeper lessons been learned 
 and has the way been prepared for the larger fruitage of 
 to-morrow. The following excerpts reflect the virtually 
 unanimous attitude and practice of the representative 
 companies of missionaries and native leaders who attended 
 the conferences. ‘“‘ Avoid all negative and_ unfruitful 
 controversy and rely on the positive preaching of Christ 
 crucified and the implications of His Cross, supporting 
 one’s appeal to the Moslem heart by the testimony of 
 one’s own personal experience.’ ‘“‘ Winning men by 
 winsome truth is the true basis of approaching Moslems.” 
 *‘ The controversial method is to be avoided and the 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 371 
 
 Christian worker should seek, through the spirit of love, 
 to find points of contact in the Moslem’s own faith and 
 experience through which he can lead him to Christ.” 
 “ Seek the highest and best in the Moslem peoples and lay 
 hold of that and build upon it.”” Our message has been 
 too much occupied with the weakness of Islam rather 
 than with the power of Christianity. The present is 
 a time for working quietly. The Moslems are pulling 
 down their own house, but they do not want foreigners 
 to do it. Let us continue to present the all-sufficiency 
 of Christ rather than to make polemical attacks upon 
 Islam. When a new and a true conception of Jesus 
 Christ is created in the Moslem mind, they will be drawn 
 unto Him. 
 
 6. Is there need of a shifting of emphasis in the methods 
 employed to reach Moslems ? It is difficult and probably 
 impossible to reflect adequately the mind of the different 
 conferences, but there are some outstanding impressions 
 from the many debates on the subject. 
 
 In every field work among and for the very young 
 should be emphasized. While this may seem like a 
 truism, there is every reason for giving priority to such 
 work in Moslem lands. The blighting influence of Islam 
 begins very early. The little children, therefore, should 
 be brought to Christ before mentality and character 
 have set in Moslem moulds. On this point the experience 
 of the missions in Algeria, as set forth in the findings of 
 the North Africa Conference, is fresh and convincing. 
 Without shadow of doubt the method most likely to 
 produce permanent results is that of work among children. 
 
 Educational missionary work in the past has been one 
 of the most effective means of ensuring the entrance into 
 new Moslem territory, the holding of ground already 
 occupied, and the gaining of a hearing for the Christian 
 
372 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 message. It has also been indispensable as a means for 
 raising up and training an adequate leadership for the 
 Christian forces. Christian education still constitutes 
 one of the best methods of approach to Moslems. The 
 demand for the expansion of such work is increasing in 
 every field. Even where government systems of educa- 
 tion have been established there is still recognized need 
 for the character-building processes of Christian educa- 
 tion. It should be up-to-date and second to none in 
 point of educational efficiency. 
 
 As was strongly emphasized in Jerusalem, there is 
 clear and universal testimony that the present situation 
 in the Moslem world creates a need for literature as a 
 dynamic and penetrating instrument of Christian educa- 
 tional evangelism altogether without parallel in range 
 and urgency in the literary history of Moslem peoples. 
 Literacy is rapidly increasing in most Moslem areas. 
 This is developing an ever-expanding demand for litera- 
 ture. In these days every printing press in Islamic 
 lands should be working up to its capacity. The con- 
 ferences brought out even more, however, the importance 
 of emphasizing the qualitative aspect of the subject. 
 The discussions were based on the splendid piece of 
 survey work set forth in the volume, Christian Literature 
 in Moslem Lands, which had been placed in the hands 
 of every delegate. The General Conference acted una- 
 nimously on the recommendation which came up from © 
 each of the regional meetings, as well as from North 
 America and Great Britain, and set up a Co-ordinating 
 Committee on Christian Literature for Moslems, with 
 Bishop MacInnes as chairman. The prompt and generous 
 backing of this new policy by the mission boards will 
 satisfy the demand of discerning workers in the entire 
 Moslem field. 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 373 
 
 Medical work is still one of the most valuable and 
 efficacious means employed in work among Moslems. It 
 not only relieves human suffering, but manifests power- 
 fully the spirit of Christ, obtains a hearing for the Christian 
 message where other means fail, and is a fruitful agency 
 for widespread evangelization. 
 
 Social work is especially needed because Islam con- 
 stitutes a close society, social as well as religious, and 
 makes provision for the whole life. New converts should 
 be received into an equally organized community to 
 satisfy that need for brotherhood which the Moslem always 
 craves. If we recognize and deal with religious feelings 
 and theology only we shall fail, because of the enormous 
 weight of social conditions binding the Moslem in every 
 detail of practical life. Social activities cannot replace 
 but should accompany, aid, illustrate, and complete 
 the direct teaching of the Gospel. The Jerusalem 
 Conference placed special emphasis also upon social 
 reform, including infant welfare, child marriage, child 
 labour, general conditions under which industry is carried 
 on as to hours of labour, living wage and sanitary 
 condition of factories, temperance reform, elimination 
 of opium, hashish, and coca-leaf and their derivatives, 
 traffic in women and children, and prevention of cruelty 
 to animals. 
 
 7. More thorough and more highly specialized training 
 for missionaries and native leaders is absolutely essential. 
 Christian work among Moslems to-day is such as to 
 require workers who not only possess the largest native 
 ability but also have acquired the most complete prepara- 
 tion. In addition to general culture and professional 
 training for special types of activity which are necessary 
 for work in any field, there are two lines of preparation 
 so vital that they are regarded as indispensable. 
 
3874 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 a. Training in linguistics which will develop facility 
 in mastering the languages, both colloquial and classical, 
 used by the people. 
 
 b. Thorough training in Islamics which will impart 
 real understanding of the mind and heart of the Moslem 
 to-day. The scheme of training should include historical 
 Islam and also contemporary mystical and other move- 
 ments within Islam. A limited number of carefully 
 selected workers should be set apart by the missions to 
 specialize on Islam with a view to their directing the 
 studies of other workers on this subject. The pro- 
 gramme of preparation exhaustively outlined in the 
 booklet entitled The Presentation of Christianity to Mos- 
 lems, and issued by the Board of Missionary Preparation 
 of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America, 
 was strongly endorsed by the Jerusalem Conference. 
 The Cairo School of Oriental Studies was also commended, 
 and it was advised that similar schools be established in 
 large areas which cannot be adequately served by this 
 institution. 
 
 8. If we depend largely on the Oriental Churches to 
 meet the situation as it exists to-day in the Moslem 
 world, we shall miss the present opportunity ; never- 
 theless, faithful and persevering efforts should be put 
 forth to enlist their full co-operation. The question 
 recurs from time to time, In view of the fact that the 
 Oriental or Eastern Churches are located directly in front 
 of large sections of the Moslem world, why not let them 
 at least divide the responsibility of evangelizing the 
 Moslems? With this in mind the writer had extended 
 interviews with the Patriarchs, Metropolitans, Arch- 
 bishops, and other ecclesiastical leaders, as well as educa- 
 tors, of the various Eastern Churches. This included 
 the Greek Church proper, the Armenian Church, the 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 3875 
 
 Syrian Church, the Coptic Church, the Abyssinian Church, 
 the autonomous Churches of Roumania, Bulgaria, and 
 Jugoslavia, as well as representatives of the Russian 
 Church who are at present so widely scattered in lands 
 outside Russia. Few, if any, of the outstanding present- 
 day leaders in the realm of thought and action of any 
 of these great Communions were overlooked. Each one 
 was asked this question: “‘ What is the present policy 
 or programme of your Communion with reference to the 
 evangelization of Moslems ?’’ In every case the answer 
 indicated that they had no such plan or programme. 
 This, then, led to another question: “‘ Why has your 
 Church no such programme?’ Various reasons were 
 given, but the serious fact in every instance was that 
 they were not ready at the present time to co-operate 
 in this vast and urgent undertaking. 
 
 One came to the clear conclusion, therefore, that we 
 could not in the near future depend upon these religious 
 bodies for any large reinforcements. Nevertheless, a 
 careful study of the impact of these Churches on the 
 Moslem world will convince one of the great desirability 
 and necessity of leading them to undertake a missionary 
 programme. It was encouraging to meet here and 
 there, especially among the younger clergy and teachers, 
 an intelligent and sympathetic response to the appeal 
 for co-operation. Moreover, the work of the Student 
 Christian Movement in the Near East in recent years has 
 revealed the large possibilities in the direction of enlisting 
 among the students who are members of the Eastern 
 Churches volunteers for aggressive Christian work on 
 behalf of Moslems. This is one of the largest unworked 
 leads. Moreover, one cannot speak too highly of the 
 sympathetic attitude of not a few of the present-day 
 leaders of these Churches. The Committee on the Church 
 
376 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 at the Brumana Conference well expressed the thought 
 of the various conferences in the following finding : 
 
 ‘“‘ The missionary societies and native Churches should 
 use every practicable means, especially through friend- 
 ship, to reinspire the Oriental Churches with the apostolic 
 and missionary spirit which characterized them in the 
 days of the early Church, and to encourage both in- 
 dividuals and the Churches as a whole, now that recent 
 changes have made it possible, to take their full share 
 in the evangelization of the Moslem world.”’ } 
 
 A deeper note was struck at the Jerusalem Conference 
 by the Committee on Christian Leadership : 
 
 “As the sufferings of Christ win human hearts, so the 
 loving service of those who have suffered most at Moslem 
 hands will most powerfully attract those who are now 
 opposed to Him. Native leaders, therefore, have a 
 peculiar opportunity to give irresistible evidence of the 
 power of Christ.’’? 
 
 g. The time has come for bringing about closer co- 
 operation among the leaders of the Christian forces 
 at work among Moslems. For several years the need 
 has been recognized of a closer co-operation among the 
 missionaries and other Christian workers in the Moslem 
 fields. The Cairo and Lucknow Conferences and their 
 related activities revealed the advantages to the mis- 
 sionary cause resulting from more intimate fellowship 
 and collaboration in planning and in effort. While these 
 benefits are now being realized by the workers of India 
 and China through their well-planned and efficient 
 National Christian Councils, and in more limited areas 
 such as Egypt, Syria, and Palestine through inter-mission 
 
 1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, 
 New York, 1924, p. 109. * Ibid. p..20% 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 377 
 
 councils, there has been no arrangement which has 
 made possible united action on the part of the workers 
 throughout Northern Africa and the Near and Middle 
 East. The following finding unanimously adopted at 
 the Jerusalem Conference is, therefore, highly significant, 
 and it is believed that its fulfilment now in progress 
 will do much to ensure the carrying out of the many 
 other important resolutions of the recent series of con- 
 ferences and the realization of the high hopes entertained 
 by the delegates and by all others who have at heart 
 the highest welfare of the work of Christ among Moslems : 
 
 “The conference has reviewed with interest the 
 development of the National Christian Councils in China, 
 Japan, and India, enabling the Christian forces in those 
 areas not only to increase opportunities for co-operation 
 on the field, but to speak with a united voice to the 
 home Church. 
 
 “ The Conference is convinced that the time has come 
 for the formation of a Council representing the various 
 Christian agencies and conferences in North Africa ; 
 Egypt, Northern Sudan, and Abyssinia; Syria and 
 Palestine ; Turkey and the Balkans; Arabia and Meso- 
 potamia; and Persia. We, therefore, recommend that 
 a Preliminary Committee be appointed at this time to 
 formulate a plan for a Council for Western Asia and 
 Northern Africa, to present it to the various agencies 
 concerned, and to confer with the International Missionary 
 Council concerning affiliation to that body. Pending 
 the adoption of the permanent plan of organization the 
 Preliminary Committee shall seek to conserve and promote 
 the realization of the findings of this and of other com- 
 mittees of the Conference.” } 
 
 ro. Our Christian faith is involved and, in fact, is at 
 stake in the way in which we at this time deal with the 
 
 1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, 
 New York, 1924, p. 41. 
 
878 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 
 
 need and opportunity presented by the Moslem world. 
 To prove the validity of our faith we must bring Christ 
 to the entire Moslem world. Archbishop Whately has 
 said, ‘‘ If my faith be false, I ought to change it ; whereas 
 if it be true, I am bound to propagate it.’”” There is 
 no middle ground. We must either modify or abandon 
 our faith or be logical, consistent, and apostolic and expand 
 our plans and practice so as to give all Moslems oppor- 
 tunity to know Christ. The fact that there are still 
 difficulties apparently insurmountable and that the 
 conquering of them inevitably calls for great sacrifice, 
 and, perchance, martyrdom, does not break the force of 
 our obligation. 
 
 To preserve our faith, or to maintain its purity, vitality, 
 and conquering power, we must give ourselves more 
 largely to its propagation by persuasive message, and, 
 above all, by contagious character, throughout the vast 
 areas of the Moslem world. We need to remind ourselves 
 in all solemnity of those early Christian Churches which 
 existed in thousands across the breadth of North Africa, 
 not to mention parts of Western Asia, and which have 
 disappeared leaving no living trace, and to ask ourselves 
 what was the reason that for over a thousand years 
 Islam reigned supreme where once these Churches 
 witnessed for Christ. Moreover, the state of certain 
 of the Oriental Churches to-day, and even of sections 
 
 of the Roman Catholic Church, and of the Protestant. 
 
 Communion here and there which have neglected their 
 missionary responsibility, and thus lost their world- 
 conquering power, are present-day evidences and warnings 
 of the danger. 
 
 The essential victory or ultimate triumph of our 
 Christian faith is involved as well as its validity and 
 vitality. A Gospel which cannot, after being adequately 
 
 a 
 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 379 
 
 brought to bear upon Moslems, win their minds and 
 hearts and command the allegiance of their wills, must 
 fail to satisfy the deepest longings and the highest ex- 
 pectations of the followers of other religions and of those 
 without any religious faith. Ultimately, therefore, the 
 triumph of the Christian cause in other foreign fields and 
 at the home base is involved in what takes place in the 
 heart of the Mohammedan world. The most searching 
 experience and possibly the most creative hour in each 
 of the conferences was the consideration of the topic, 
 “What has Christ to bring to Moslems which they 
 cannot under any circumstances obtain from their own 
 religion or from any other source?’ The corporate 
 thinking and intercession of those memorable hours 
 confirmed the faith of everyone as to the absolute 
 uniqueness, supremacy, and sufficiency of Jesus Christ 
 the Living Lord. 
 

 
APPENDIX 
 LIST OF MOSLEM NEWSPAPERS IN INDIA 
 
£4 Ni eR 
 
 Ae YE 
 
 un NOLY oP ? 
 
 ae. ey M4), 
 MN, y WK 
 
 7 } ’ 
 
 i’ ° eal 
 By Hy aa" | 
 Aa 
 
 r 
 
 
 
LIST OF MOSLEM NEWSPAPERS IN INDIA}? 
 
 Name of Paper. 
 Azad Hind 
 Dar-ul-Islam 
 Gnana Survyan 
 
 Hakeem and Vythian 
 
 Hythayath 
 
 Islam Dootan 
 Kerala Chandrika 
 Malabar-Islam 
 Mukhbir-1-Deccan 
 Muneerul Islam 
 Muslim Akhiam 
 Muslim Sahakan 
 Nilgir Times 
 Qasim-ul-A khbar 
 
 Quam Report 
 Rahban-Deccan 
 Risala-t-al-Maalij 
 Risala-t-Atalig 
 
 Risala-1-M ahbub-un- 
 
 Nazar 
 
 Risala-i-Now-Nthal 
 
 Risala-Wais 
 Risala-un-Nisa 
 
 1 This was secured from the Indian Government through the 
 Rev. William Paton, Secretary of the National Christian Council. 
 
 I. MADRAS PRESIDENCY 
 
 Language. 
 
 Urdu 
 Tamil 
 Tamil 
 English 
 Malayalam 
 Malayalam 
 Anglo-Malayalam 
 Anglo-Malayalam 
 Urdu 
 Malayalam 
 Malayalam 
 Malayalam 
 English 
 Urdu, Tamil, and 
 
 English 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 
 383 
 
 Where published. 
 Triplicane 
 Madras 
 Vijiapuram 
 Madras 
 Calicut 
 Kayamkulam 
 Travancore 
 Cochin State 
 Madras 
 Kayamkulam 
 Travancore 
 Calicut 
 Ootacamund 
 Madras 
 
 Madras 
 Hyderabad 
 Afzalgang 
 Hyderabad 
 
 Hyderabad 
 Hyderabad 
 Hyderabad 
 Hyderabad 
 
384 
 
 Name of Paper. 
 Sahifa 
 Saiful Islam 
 Shamsul Islam 
 Sugathara Bodhint 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Language. 
 Urdu 
 Tamil 
 Malayalam 
 Tamil 
 
 2. BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 
 
 A ftab-e-Islam 
 Akhbar 
 Akhbar-e-Islam 
 Al-Az1z 
 Al-Hagqiqat 
 Al-Haq 
 Al-Islam and Momin 
 Mitra 
 Al-Kamal 
 Al-Khashif 
 Al-Wahid 
 Bag-e-Momin 
 Baha News 
 Bahare Majlis 
 Fayze Am 
 Gulzart Sukhan 
 
 Insaf 
 
 Irfan 
 Ishaat-e-Islam 
 Ismaili 
 Kathiawad 
 Khilafat 
 
 Khilafat Bulletin 
 Manhar 
 
 Memon Mitra 
 Memon Samachar 
 Merchants Advertiser 
 Mohib 
 
 Muslim Herald 
 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Anglo-Sindhi 
 
 Gujarati 
 
 Gujarati 
 Arabic-Sindhi 
 Arabic-Sindhi 
 Gujarati and Urdu 
 English and Persian 
 Gujarati 
 
 Gujarati 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Gujarati 
 Urdu 
 Gujarati 
 Anglo-Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 English 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Gujarati 
 Urdu 
 
 Where published. 
 Hyderabad 
 Madras 
 Karunagapalli 
 Madras 
 
 Rajkot Para 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Jodiya 
 Larkana 
 Sukkur 
 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Larkana 
 Karachi 
 Amreli 
 Karachi 
 Bombay 
 Ahmedabad . 
 Poona Canton- 
 ment 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Upleta 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Bombay 
 Karachi 
 Bombay 
 Limbdi 
 Bombay 
 
APPENDIX 385 
 
 Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
 Political Bhomiyo Anglo-Gujarati Ahmedabad 
 Rahe Najat Gujarati Bhavanagar 
 Roznama-e-Khilafat Urdu Bombay 
 Sat Panth Prakash Gujarati Ahmedabad 
 Sind Zamindar Anglo-Sindhi Sukkur 
 Sultan-ul-A khbar Urdu Bombay 
 Talim Sindhi Hyderabad 
 Tohid Sindhi-Arabic Karachi 
 Vafadar English, Gujarati, § Navsari 
 
 and Urdu (Baroda) 
 
 3. THE UNITED PROVINCES 
 
 Agra Akhbar Urdu Agra 
 Al Bashir Urdu Etawah 
 Al Bureed Urdu Cawnpore 
 Aligarh Gazette Urdu Aligarh 
 Al Imdad Urdu Muzaffarnagar 
 Al Khalil Urdu Bijnor 
 Allahabad Advertiser English Allahabad 
 An Naztr Urdu Lucknow 
 Dabdaba-1-Sikandart Urdu Rampur State 
 Darbar Urdu Agra 
 Dilchasp Akhbar Urdu Fatehpur 
 Hagqiqat Urdu Lucknow 
 Hamdam Urdu Lucknow 
 Hamdard Urdu Cawnpore 
 Indian World English Cawnpore 
 Inqilab Urdu Lucknow 
 Iqdam Urdu Moradabad 
 Ittthad Urdu Amroha 
 Jadu Urdu Jaunpur 
 Mansur Urdu Bijnor 
 Mashahir Urdu Budaun 
 Mashniq Urdu Gorakhpur 
 Mecca Medina Urdu Moradabad 
 Medina Urdu Bijnor 
 
 26 
 
386 APPENDIX 
 
 Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
 Millat Urdu Meerut 
 Maanf Urdu Azamgarh 
 Mukhbir-1-Alam Urdu Moradabad 
 Natyar-1-Azam Urdu Moradabad 
 Najat Urdu Bijnor 
 Nagib Urdu Budaun 
 Nawad Urdu Bulandshahr 
 Nizam Alam Urdu | Cawnpore 
 Oudh Punch Urdu Lucknow 
 Paigam Urdu Fyzabad 
 Pardah Mashin Urdu Agra 
 Rahouma Urdu Moradabad 
 Rohilkhand Gazette Urdu Bareilly 
 Rozana Akhbar Urdu Bareilly 
 Sayyarah Urdu Lucknow 
 Shia College News Urdu Lucknow 
 Surmani-t-Rozgar Urdu Agra 
 Tabligh Urdu Agra 
 Zarif Urdu Saharanpur 
 Zul Qarnain Urdu Budaun 
 
 4. THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR 
 
 Adib Urdu Nagpur 
 
 Al Burhan Urdu Burhanpur 
 
 Gulzar-1-Hakimt Gujarati Khamagaon 
 
 Sasimi-1-Saha Urdu and Gujarati Narsinghpur 
 
 Taj Urdu Jubbulpore 
 5. BURMA 
 
 Arakan News English Akyab 
 
 6. BIHAR AND ORISSA 
 
 Islah Urdu Raghunathpur 
 
Name of Paper. 
 Ahale Hadis 
 Atnul Islam 
 Al Jamaya 
 Al Kamal 
 Al Rafique 
 Bahadur 
 Bangrya Moslem 
 
 Sahitya Patrika 
 Bengal Presidency 
 Gazette 
 Dhumketu 
 Hanter Phatker' 
 Inqilab Zamana 
 Islam Darshan 
 Jadu 
 Mohammadi 
 Mussalman 
 Noakhali Hitaishi 
 Noakhaht Sammilant 
 Peace 
 Ratnakar 
 Rayat Bandhu 
 Sonar Bharat 
 Sultan 
 
 Ahl-1-Hadis 
 Akhtar 
 Al-Azz 
 Al-Burhan 
 Al-Bushra 
 Al-Falah 
 Al-Faqth 
 Al-Fazl 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 47. BENGAL 
 Language. 
 
 Bengali 
 Bengali 
 Arabic 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 Bengali 
 
 Bengali 
 
 English-Bengali 
 Bengali 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Bengali 
 
 English 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Bengali 
 
 English 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Bengali 
 Bengali-English 
 Bengali 
 
 8. THE PUNJAB 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 English 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 
 1 Or Hunter Phatkar. 
 
 387 
 
 Where published. 
 Calcutta 
 Dacca 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Nator 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Dacca 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Noakhali Town . 
 Noakhali Town 
 Dacca 
 
 Asansol Town 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 Calcutta 
 
 Amritsar 
 Lahore 
 Batala 
 Lahore 
 Qadian 
 Jullundur 
 Amritsar 
 Qadian 
 
888 APPENDIX 
 
 Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
 Al-Hakam Urdu Oadian 
 Al-Hakim Urdu Lahore 
 Al-Islam Urdu Lahore 
 Al-Kamal Urdu Lahore 
 Al-Mailij Urdu Amritsar 
 Al-Munir Urdu Lahore 
 Al-Quaaish Urdu Amritsar 
 Angora Urdu Amritsar 
 Anwar-us-Sufia Urdu Lahore 
 Doctor Urdu Lahore 
 Dur-i-Najaf Urdu Sialkot 
 Farug Urdu Qadian 
 Hamdard Urdu Lahore 
 Hazar Dastan Urdu Lahore 
 Hubb-i-Watan Urdu Miani 
 Humayun Urdu Lahore 
 Hurriyyat Urdu Lahore 
 Indian Architect Urdu Lahore 
 Indian Cases and 
 
 Statutes English Lahore 
 Intikhad-1-Lajawab Urdu Lahore 
 Inqilab Urdu Lahore 
 Ishatat-1-Islam Urdu Lahore 
 Isha’ atul-Quran Urdu Lahore 
 Islah Urdu Ludhiana 
 Islamic World English Lahore 
 Ismaili Sadaqat Urdu Rawalpindi 
 Istiglal Urdu Panipat 
 Ittthad-ul-Islam Urdu Amritsar 
 Kakkezai National 
 
 Magazine Urdu Lahore 
 Kashmiri Urdu Lahore 
 Manzar Urdu Lahore 
 Mashir-ul-Attibba Urdu Lahore 
 Mister Gazette Urdu Lahore 
 
 Muhabbat Urdu Lahore 
 
Name of Paper. 
 Mussalman 
 Muslim Outlook 
 Muslim Rajput 
 Muzarah 
 Nagshband 
 Nur 
 Nusrat 
 Patsa Akhbar 
 Payam-1-M uhabbat 
 Phul 
 Political Rahnuma 
 Political Rahnuma 
 Punjaht Khiyalat 
 Rafig-t-Sadigq 
 Rafiq-ul-Talim 
 Rahnuma-t-Sehat 
 Ratlway Union 
 Riaz-1-Hind 
 
 Risala-1-Anjuman-t- 
 
 Himayat-1-Islam 
 Rissala Suilej 
 Rissala Shetkh 
 
 Qanungoyan 
 Sanaat 
 Shahab-1-Urdu 
 Silk-1-Marwanid 
 Styasat 
 Sufi 
 Tabib 
 Tabligh 
 Tabsirat-ul-Atibba 
 Tafrth 
 Tadib-un-Nisa 
 Tahnk 
 Tahzib-ul-Niswan 
 Tauhid 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Language. 
 
 Urdu 
 English 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 Urdu 
 
 Where published. 
 
 Sodhra 
 Lahore 
 Amritsar 
 Jullundur 
 Sialkot 
 Oadian 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Amritsar 
 Batala 
 Batala 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Amritsar 
 
 Lahore 
 Ludhiana 
 
 Lyallpur 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Batala 
 Lahore 
 
 Pindi-Bahauddin 
 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Shahdara 
 Lahore 
 Oadian 
 Lahore 
 Lahore 
 Amritsar 
 
890 APPENDIX 
 
 Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
 Ustant Urdu Batala 
 Watan Urdu Lahore 
 Zamindar Urdu Lahore 
 Zamzama Urdu Lahore 
 Zaraat Urdu Lahore 
 Liafat. Panch. Urdu Lahore 
 
 Zulrfigar Urdu 7 Lahore 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abahi, Abdallah, Al-Madhhab ar- 
 Ruhani referred to, 310 
 
 Abbasid, Caliphs, science encouraged 
 by, 171; dynasty at no time in 
 control of entire Moslem com- 
 munity, 36 
 
 Abbasids, rise of the, 87 
 
 Abdin, dispensary opened at, 217 
 
 ‘Abdu, Mohammed, founder of Al 
 Manar, 133; of Egypt, famous 
 Mufti, 43; Tafsir referred to, 
 317-18 
 
 Abrogation of the Christian Scrip- 
 tures, the theory of, 313 
 
 Abyssinia, Coptic monks of Egypt 
 revived Christianity in, 267-8; 
 polygamy still the rule in, 226-7 
 
 Abyssinian Church, The, 263 
 
 Accessibility, increased by change in 
 Moslem Near East, 25 ; of Moslem 
 lands, 4; of the Moslem world to 
 Christian influences, 364-6 
 
 Adamaoua, the Moslems of, 124 
 
 Adana, Turkish papers published in, 
 
 129 
 Adrianople, Turkish papers published 
 
 in, 129 
 
 Afghanistan, Bolshevism in, 72; the 
 extent of present-day Moslem 
 journalism in India, Ceylon, and, 
 138-40; the first Moslem journal 
 published in, 140; Indian Moslems 
 mention among possibilities for 
 the Caliphate the Amir of, Ior; 
 modern light shut out from, 25; 
 travelling schools for nomadic 
 tribes instituted by the Amir of, 8 
 
 Africa, extent of present-day Moslem 
 journalism in, 134-5; plan for a 
 Council of Western Asia and North- 
 ern, 377 
 
 Agayefi, Ahmad Bey, a pioneer of the 
 Moslem Press in Russia, 144 
 
 Agha Khan appealed to Turkish 
 Government, 51, 96 
 
 Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam, of Qadian, 
 founder of Ahmadiya Movement, 
 308; quoted regarding divine 
 Sonship and the Trinity, 314 
 
 391 
 
 Ahmad, Sir Syed, The Mohammedan 
 Commentary on the Holy Bible 
 referred to, 342 
 
 Ahmadiya, Commentary on the Koran, 
 313; community in Chicago, 315; 
 Press uses arguments of liberal 
 Christianity, 150; version of the 
 Koran, see Holy Qur'an. 
 
 Ahmadiya Movement, follows the 
 Christian model, 309-10; has 
 absorbed some of the _ ethical 
 principles of Christianity, 16; The 
 Islamic Review, published at Wok- 
 ing, England, by the, 145; The 
 Moslem Sunrise represents the, 
 146; result of the attempt to meet 
 new conditions, 14; The Review of 
 Religions represents the original, 
 138-9; teaches Messiahship of 
 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad,of Qadian,308 
 
 Ahmadiyas of India, 139 
 
 Ahong, the Chinese, 124 
 
 ‘Ain al Hayatt,’’ a dispensary at 
 Abdin, 217 
 
 ‘Aisha, 306 
 
 al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, exiled for 
 his views on the emancipation of 
 women, 216 
 
 al-Bedawi, Ahmad, founder of the 
 dervish order in Egypt, 295 
 
 al-Beruni quoted, 50 
 
 al-Ghazali, from Mohammed to, 26; 
 great mystics, like, often philoso- 
 phers as well, 292; Ihyau Ulim 
 ad-Din referred to, 293 
 
 al-Jilani, Abd al-Oadir, dervish orders 
 started under the influence of, 293 ; 
 founder of the dervish orders, 295 ; 
 still a living personality to every 
 Qadiriya dervish, 297; a teacher 
 at Baghdad, 295 
 
 al-Jili on the Koran, 316-17 
 
 al-Khattab, Omar b., agreement of 
 subject Christians with, 270-1 
 
 al-Khidr, the ever-living saint, 299 
 
 al-Makki, Abu Talib, Qdadiw’l-Qulub 
 referred to, 293 
 
 al-Qadir, Abd, 296 ; 
 Abd al-Qadir. 
 
 see also al-Jilani, 
 
392 
 
 al-Qushayri, Abu’l-Oasim, Risdalatu’l- 
 Qushayriyya referred to, 293 
 
 al-Rashid, Harun, patron of litera- 
 ture, 170; typical Caliph, 43 
 
 Alam, Muhammad Amir, Jslam and 
 Christianity quoted, 313; referred 
 
 to, 315 
 
 Albania, break with Islam shown by 
 recent legislation in, 9, 17 
 
 Aleppo, Turkish and Arabic papers 
 published in, 129 
 
 Algeria, excellently organized schools 
 being’ ‘opened in, 233; has a 
 vigorous daily Press at Algiers, 
 Oran, and Tlemsen, 135; literacy 
 statistics of women in, 234; 
 migration to France of 100,000 
 Kabyles from, 75 
 
 Algiers, a vigorous daily Press at, 135 
 
 Ali, reign of, 35 
 
 Ali, Maulana Muhammad, founder of 
 the Jamia, 106; quoted, 104 
 
 Ali, Maulvi Muhammad, The Holy 
 Qur'an referred to, 313, and quoted, 
 318-20 
 
 Ali, Moulavi Cherdgh, cited, 102; 
 Critical Exposition of the Popular 
 ““ Jthad”’ quoted, 308, 309; Pro- 
 posed Political, Legal, and Social 
 Reforms under Moslem Rule quoted, 
 
 30 
 
 Ali, Muhammad, A Scheme of Studies 
 for National Muslim Educational 
 Institutions in India cited, 106 
 
 Ali, Syed Ameer, appealed to Turkish 
 Government, 51, 96; cited, 102; 
 Legal Position of Women in Islam 
 
 referred to, 321; pays scant 
 respect to tradition, 308; The 
 Spirit of Islam quoted, 256, 
 
 referred to, 346; view of Jesus 
 Christ held by, 349 
 
 Aligarh, Moslem college at, men- 
 tioned, 8; National Moslem Uni- 
 versity of, 106 
 
 Aligarh Muslim University, the 
 Begum of Bhopal chancellor of, 
 254; an instance of disregard of 
 purdah at, 257; mentioned, 252; 
 Phul edited by the wife of the 
 treasurer of, 253; the Principal of, 
 quoted, 343; rationalist reformers 
 of the, attack validity of tradition, 
 308 
 
 All-India Educational Conference, 93 
 
 All-India Moslem Ladies’ Conference 
 of 1924, 256 
 
 All-India Moslem League, 93; views 
 placed before the Viceroy in 1906 
 by the deputation of the, 12 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Am, the teaching and _ initiating 
 sheikhs, 298 
 
 Amanullah, Amir of Afghanistan, 
 140 
 
 America, attitude of Indian Moslem 
 women toward the feminist move- 
 ments of Europe and, 107; atti- 
 tude toward Moslems of people of, 
 112-13; colleges and universities 
 established from Britain or, 73; 
 commercial relations in Philippines 
 of the. United States of, 114; 
 enjoys unmerited reputation for 
 international unselfishness, 326-7; 
 extent of present-day Moslem 
 journalism in Europe, Australia, 
 and, 145-7; Moslem and Arabic 
 newspapers and magazines pub- 
 lished in the United States of, 146; 
 Moslem youth sent to universities 
 of Europe and, 179 
 
 American education manifests poli- 
 tical bias hostile to East, 188 
 
 American Girls’ College in Cairo, 213 
 
 American University, Beirit, 74 
 
 American University, Cairo, 74 
 
 Amet, Jaafer Seyid, editor of Tar- 
 jaman, 145 
 
 Amin, Kasim, The Emancipation of 
 Women, also The New Woman, 
 referred to, 216 
 
 Amman, 157, 158, 159, 160, 165 
 
 Amman, Begum Bibi, the late, 254 
 
 Ancient Oriental Churches, and of 
 Eastern Christians, education ne- 
 cessary to change to action the 
 mind of the, 286-7; and Western 
 Christianity, improvement in re- 
 lations between the, 274-5 ; causes 
 of the modern decline of the, 268- 
 72; converts from Islam have 
 not been assimilated in the, 283; 
 definition of the term, 263; the 
 duty of Western Christianity 
 toward the, 274, 275-6; effects of 
 centuries of oppression upon the, 
 272-3; long-standing non-evan- 
 gelistic and non-proselytizing tra- 
 dition of the, 281; look ‘with 
 abhorrence upon conversion of 
 Moslems, 273-4; the missionary 
 history of the, 266-8 ; the mission- 
 ary ideal of the, 266; oppression 
 of the, under Moslem rule, 269-72, 
 282; potential allies in the cause 
 of evangelization of Islam, 264; 
 should receive from the Christian 
 West the contribution of its fresher 
 idealism, 265 
 
 Andrae, Tor, Die Person Muhammeds 
 
INDEX 
 
 in Lehre und Glauben seiner 
 Gemeinde referred to, 320 
 
 Anglo-Oriental College, India, 106 
 
 Angora, bad feeling between Con- 
 stantinople and, 51; new capital 
 of Turkey, 51; the Press at, 130; 
 seat of government in, 51-2; 
 Teachers’ Association’s meeting 
 held in, in 1924, 212; Turkish 
 papers published in, 129; Yent- 
 Hayat, a communist journal pub- 
 lished at, 153 
 
 Angora Government, the Turkish 
 Press at Constantinople under the 
 new, 130 
 
 Animism in Islam, 243 
 
 Animistic idolatry being restored to 
 Islam, 299 
 
 Annales, Abu Tabari, quoted, 269-70 
 
 Annalt dell’ Islam, Leone Caetani, 
 cited, 270 
 
 Annals of the Early Caliphate quoted, 
 169; referred to, 3 
 
 ‘Antar, songs of, 158 
 
 Anti-Christian material produced in 
 the West used to attack the Chris- 
 tian missionaries in the East, 310 
 
 Antioch, a base of ancient Oriental 
 Christendom, 266 
 
 Apollos, the Alexandrian Jew, 28 
 
 Apologetic, adaptation of new argu- 
 ments sought by the present-day 
 Moslem, 306 ; call to Christians to 
 present a winning and convincing, 
 ix; defence of Islam as a factor in, 
 316-21; increasing acceptance of 
 Christian conceptions in Moslem, 
 356-7; literature of Islam of the 
 orthodox type largely influenced 
 by the work of Christian missions, 
 305-6; literature of the old 
 orthodoxy, the present-day, 305-6 ; 
 a new type of Moslem, 305; re- 
 statement of Moslem, viii; the 
 unorthodox and reforming Moslem, 
 307-21 ; writers, differences among 
 missionaries regarding Biblical cri- 
 ticism utilized by Moslem, 312-13 
 
 Apologetics, Moslem, methods of, 148 
 
 Apology for Muhammad and _ the 
 Qur'an referred to, 311 
 
 Approach, chief use of mission schools 
 as an, 177; contention for Moslem 
 liberty of thought provides a 
 common ground for a Christian, 
 15; for Christianity through the 
 Arabic language, 161-2; to Chris- 
 tian work among Moslems, the 
 positive, constructive, irenic, and 
 sympathetic, 370; to Islam ren- 
 
 398 
 
 dered more difficult by distrust of 
 Moslems and lack of confidence on 
 part of Christians, 29; Raymond 
 Lull should furnish the model of, 
 
 343 
 
 Appropriation of £10,000 (Egyptian) 
 voted by Parliament to the Com- 
 mittee of Fine Arts, 203 
 
 Arab, and medieval Catholic mysti- 
 cism, similarities between, 293; 
 women and the Kabyle compared, 
 240; women, need of shelter- 
 houses and rescue-homes for the 
 Kabyle and, 239; women, poten- 
 tialities in the character of the, 
 243; women, religious life of the, 
 241 
 
 Arabia, depends almost entirely on 
 Cairo for news, 134; extent of 
 present-day Moslem journalism in 
 Egypt, Mesopotamia, and, 130-4; 
 frequent marriage and divorce pre- 
 valent in, 226; hopelessly divided, 
 II; unprecedented awakening of 
 the youth in, 13; the Wahhabi 
 movement an attempt to meet new 
 conditions in, 14 
 
 Arabian Medicine quoted, 171-2 
 
 Arabic, and Turkish, a table of 
 periodicals published in, 129; as 
 a sacred language, 5; culture, 
 renaissance of, vili; language, an 
 aid to Moslem unity, 85 ; language, 
 approach for Christianity offered 
 through, 161-2; language freed 
 by the newspaper from much of 
 its bombast, 153; mewspaper, 
 circulation of an, 133; newspaper 
 in Cairo, the first, 126; number of 
 Indian periodicals in, 138 ; number 
 of Moslems who speak, 130; 
 Persian, and ‘Turki languages 
 represented in the Press of Bu- 
 khara, 144; plays being produced 
 in, 202; Press found in nearly 
 every great centre of the Moslem 
 world, 131; Press in Egypt, 
 growth of the, 132; renaissance, 
 existence of an, 183; renaissance, 
 tendency of Westerner to under- 
 estimate the importance of, 184; 
 still persists in India as_ the 
 language of the Moslem religion, 
 105; style of architecture effec- 
 tively employed in Morocco, 205 ; 
 style of architecture promoted in 
 Cairo by Kitchener, 204; sup- 
 planting of, by Turkish condemned 
 by Indian Moslems, 105 ; taught in 
 the National Islamic schools of 
 
394 
 
 India, 106; works of Aristotle 
 translated into, 170 
 
 Arabs, and Berbers in North-West 
 Africa, 236; and Kabyles, effect 
 of residence in France upon young, 
 2 — 
 
 Architecture, Arabic style of, recom- 
 mended, 205 
 
 Argentina, Mohammedan papers in, 
 
 146 
 
 Aristotle, Arabs transmitters of the 
 learning of, 183; works of, 
 translated into Arabic, 170 
 
 Armenia, Gospel taken to, by the 
 Eastern Christians of Edessa, 267 
 
 Armenian Church, the, 263 
 
 Arnold, Sir T. W., The Caliphate 
 quoted, 50, 54; The Preaching of 
 Islam referred to, 269 
 
 Art, gallery needed in Egypt, 206; 
 history of, to be introduced into 
 the Egyptian schools, 203; in 
 Egypt, women taking an important 
 part in the revival of, 208; Moslem, 
 imitative rather than creative, 
 199; the young Egyptian does not 
 understand the ennobling  in- 
 fluences of creative, 201 
 
 Arts, exhibitions in Cairo, 202; 
 society, formation in Cairo of an, 
 202 
 
 Ashqabad, Moslem newspapers at, 
 
 144 
 ash-Shadhili, Abu’l Hasan, life of, 
 
 293-5 
 
 Asia and North Africa, plan of a 
 council for, 377 
 
 Asiatic Church of the Nestorians 
 before the Tamerlane invasion, the 
 enormous, 267 
 
 Assembly, the Mohammedan eccle- 
 siastical, at Ufa, 144 
 
 Association of Egyptian Women for 
 Social and Intellectual Improve- 
 ment, The, 217 
 
 Asyit College, 74 
 
 at-Tannir, Salim, 310 
 
 Atbara, education at, 215 
 
 Attack on Christianity, 311 
 
 Attacks on Christianity in modern 
 Islamic literature, 68 
 
 Attitude, Christendom challenged to 
 make a revaluation of its, 76; 
 Christian, toward Islam, viii—xi; 
 held by Christians of the West 
 toward the ancient Oriental 
 Churches, 264; missionary, of the 
 Churches of Christendom, 119; 
 Moslem, toward Christianity, ix; 
 of Americans toward Moslems, 
 
 INDEX 
 
 112-13; of diplomatic and com- 
 mercial Christendom toward Islam, 
 114-15 ; of Indian Moslem women 
 toward feminist movements of 
 Europe and America, 107; of 
 Moslem India toward emancipa- 
 tion of women, 107; of sympathy 
 must be shown to converts from 
 Islam, 286; of repugnance held 
 by ancient Oriental Churches to- 
 ward conversion of Moslems, 273- 
 4; toward Christianity friendly, 
 Islam’s early, 342-3; toward 
 Christianity produced by Moslem 
 literature, 161 ; toward Islam that 
 Christians should hold, 357 ; which 
 Western Christianity should adopt 
 toward the ancient Oriental 
 Churches, 273-5 
 
 Aurés Mountains inhabited by a 
 detachment of Kabyles, 236 
 
 Australia, the extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in America, 
 Europe, and, 145-7 
 
 Avicenna, see Sina, Ibn. 
 
 Azhar, Al, 61, 62, 65; sheiks of, 41 
 
 Aziz, Abdul, in the domain of, 329 
 
 Bab declared to have brought a 
 revelation superseding that of 
 orthodox Islam, the, 307 
 
 Badr, Muhammad, The Truth about 
 Islam quoted, 308, 317 
 
 Baghdad, al-Jilani a teacher at, 295; 
 the capital of the Abbasid dynasty, 
 36, 37; the former intellectual 
 centre of Islam, 170; has five 
 journals, 134; hospitals in, 171; 
 the Naqib of, 214 ; newspapers and 
 periodicals of, 71; students of 
 medicine in, 171; Turkish and 
 Arabic papers published in, 129 
 
 Bahai propaganda shot through and 
 through with Christian ideas, 310 
 
 Bahais, and Ahmadiyas, 305; have 
 taken over the conception of the 
 Incarnation, 314; teach that Bab 
 came with a revelation that super- 
 seded that of orthodox Islam, 307 
 
 Baha’ullah, the, 307, 314 
 
 Bahrein, example of the young Arab 
 of, 336; hospital, 326, 328 
 
 Bakhchisarai, a centre of Moslem 
 journalism, 144; Tarjaman pub- 
 lished at, 144 
 
 Baku, a centre of Moslem journalism, 
 144; the chief centre of the Moslem 
 Press in the Caucasus, 145; Yent- 
 Dunya, a Turkish Socialist paper 
 published at, 153 
 
INDEX 
 
 Balkan War, Turkey’s defeat in the, 
 a moral victory for the liberty of 
 the Press, 128 
 
 Bandung, Moslem periodicals pub- 
 lished at, 141 
 
 Barbary States more tardy in journal- 
 ism than Turkey, 134 
 
 Basra, has two journals, 134; Turk- 
 
 _ ish and Arabic papers published in, 
 129 
 
 Batavia, a centre of Moslem publica- 
 tions, 141 
 
 Bedouin women, life of, 232 
 
 Begum of Bhopal, the, Chancellor of 
 Aligarh University, 254; conferred 
 a life-pension on the deposed 
 Caliph, 99 
 
 Beirit, Syria, Al Bashir appeared at, 
 in 1869, 126; girls being sent for 
 their education from Damascus to, 
 214; poems of ‘Antar printed in, 
 158; Turkish and Arabic papers 
 published in, 126, 129 
 
 Bengal, Al Islam the leading Moslem 
 vernacular periodical in, 138; list 
 of Moslem newspapers in, 387; 
 Moslem population of, 93; a new 
 magazine for women started in, 
 253; number of Moslem periodi- 
 cals in, 138 
 
 Bengali, number of Moslem periodi- 
 cals in, 138 
 
 Beni M’zab, no woman allowed to 
 stir from the tribal cities among 
 the, 236 
 
 Berbers and Arabs in North-West 
 Africa, 236 
 
 . Berlin, Moslem periodicals published 
 in, 136-7, 145, 352 
 
 Bhopal, the Begum of; see Begum 
 of Bhopal, the. 
 
 Biblical criticism, differences among 
 missionaries regarding, utilized by 
 Moslem apologetic writers, 312-13 
 
 Bihar and Orissa, list of Moslem news- 
 papers in, 386; number of Moslem 
 periodicals in, 138 
 
 Bir Alali, the African Zawiya of, in 
 Kanem, 124 
 
 Biskra, Kabyles inhabit the Aurés 
 Mountains near, 236 
 
 Board of Missionary Preparation of 
 the Foreign Missions Conference of 
 North America, The Presentation 
 of Christianity to Moslems referred 
 to, 374 ea ae 
 
 Boedi-Oetomo, a Moslem society in 
 the Dutch East Indies, 141 
 
 Bolshevik propaganda active in the 
 Moslem Press of Persia, 152-3 
 
 395 
 
 Bolshevism, as a force in the Islamic 
 world, 71-3; in the Press of India 
 and Egypt, 153 
 
 ‘‘ Bolshevisme et lIslam, Le,” in 
 Revue du Monde Musulman, 1922, 
 cited, 152, 153 
 
 Bombay, Presidency, list of Moslem 
 newspapers in, 384-5 ; Presidency, 
 number of Moslem periodicals in, 
 138 
 
 Bombay Presidency Moslem Ladies’ 
 Conference held at Poona, 1924, 
 107, 252-3, 257 
 
 Books, by Christians about Islam, 
 interest of educated Moslems in, 
 112; for women from a Moslem 
 point of view, a missionary of 
 Delhi urges the need of, 254; 
 need for story-, 162-4; slavery to 
 text-, 163; sold to Moslems since 
 1914, 68 
 
 Boy Scout Movement remarkably 
 successful in Iraq, 218 
 
 Brazil, Mohammedan papers pub- 
 lished in, 146 
 
 British, mandate in Iraq, 186; 
 Moslems and Hindus in India make 
 common cause against the, 13; 
 protectorate in Palestine, 185 
 
 British Guiana, Mohammedan papers 
 in, 146 
 
 Brotherhood, a fundamental idea in 
 Islam, 284; the original Christian 
 ideal of, must be revived, 285 
 
 Browne, Edward Granville, Arabtan 
 Medicine quoted, 171-2; A His- 
 tory of Persian Literature im 
 Modern Times, The Persian Re- 
 volution of sgo5-rg09, and The 
 Press and Poetry of Modern Persia 
 referred to, 136 
 
 Brumana Conference, report of the 
 Committee on the Church, of the, 
 quoted, 376 
 
 Bukhara, the Moslem Press active 
 at, 144 
 
 Bukhsh, S. Khuda, cited, 7; quoted, 14 
 
 Bulgaria, chief centres of Moslem 
 literary activity in, 145; Western 
 education produced modern, 188 
 
 Bureau d’Information  Islamique, 
 Echos de lIslam, Paris, published 
 by the, 145 
 
 Burgas, a centre of Moslem literary 
 activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Burma, list of Moslem newspapers in, 
 386; Moslem periodicals in, 138 
 
 Burton, Sir Richard, The Pilgrimage 
 to Al-Medinah and Meccah referred 
 to, 356 
 
396 
 
 Bushire, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Bustani, Butrus al, 126 
 
 Byng, Lady, formed an International 
 Club for Women at Cairo, 217 
 
 Byzantine, nation, the greatest 
 national conversion in history that 
 of Russia by the, 268; orthodoxy, 
 the early Eastern Churches and 
 their separation from, 267 
 
 Caetani, Leone, Annali dell’ Islam 
 referred to, 270 
 
 Cairo, Al Kubla first printed at, 134; 
 American Girls’ College, 213; 
 Arab literature in Amman drawn 
 from, 165; Arabia depends for 
 news almost entirely upon, 134; 
 Arabic style of architecture im- 
 posed on a certain section of, 205 ; 
 Berber doorkeepers of, 160; con- 
 ference summoned to meet in, 
 postponed, 33, 53; contributed to 
 culture of Amman, 159; electric 
 trams of, 158; the first Arabic 
 newspaper in Egypt published at, 
 126; formation of an arts society 
 in, 202; hospitals in, 171; the 
 intellectual head of Islam, 21, 71; 
 Lady Byng formed an International 
 Club for women in, 217; meeting 
 of Ulama held in, 53; Moayyad 
 circulates from Fez to Peking, the, 
 124; Moslem presses of, 161; 
 ornamentation of the mosque of 
 Ibn Tulun at, 199; output of the 
 217 printing presses of, 68; plans 
 made for a Missionary Training 
 School for Moslems in, 309; Press 
 favourable during the war to 
 Turkey, 133; proposed congress 
 in, to settle question of Caliphate, 
 41; statue in the station square 
 of, 211 
 
 Cairo Conference, referred to, 376 
 
 Cairo School of Oriental Studies, 
 commended, 374 
 
 Calcutta, in 1924 one Arabic paper 
 ‘appeared in, 131; the leading 
 English Moslem weekly of India 
 until suppressed during the war 
 was The Comrade, of, 139 
 
 Caliph, Abdul Mejid Effendi chosen, 
 48; appointment of the, by 
 sheikhs and delegates an innova- 
 tion, 42; at no time spiritual head 
 like the Prophet or the Pope, 25; 
 fell into degradation, 51; function 
 of, the central religio-political 
 office in the Moslem community, 
 26; futility of recent attempts of 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Moslem rulers to adopt the title 
 and claim of the, 26; has not in 
 past been interpreter of Moslem 
 law, 43; Islamic World Congress 
 to elect a, 106; Moslem world has 
 for considerable period without 
 injury dispensed with a, 42; 
 Mufti interpreter of law rather 
 than the, 43; Mustafa Kemal 
 Pasha being urged to assume 
 office of, 55 ; the Nizam of Hydera- 
 bad and the Begum of Bhopal 
 conferred life-pensions on_ the 
 deposed, 99; North African, lost 
 independence, 33; political rather 
 than religious head, 48, 49-50; 
 powers of the, 34, 47; recovery of 
 sanctuaries from Wahhabi first 
 duty of the new, 42 ; resided in the 
 old capital, 51-2; Sunni prayers 
 invalid through absence of a, 33; 
 Sunnite law requires that there 
 be a, 55; title of, usually assumed 
 after the winning of sovereignty, 
 43; see also Caliphate. 
 
 Caliphate, abolition of the, vii, 7, 10, 
 25; 33; 48, 49, 52-4, 55, 96-8 ; 
 agitation, influence upon Indian 
 women of the, 249; declared to 
 be inconsistent with the republican 
 form of government, 98; different 
 successive dynasties of the, 47; 
 Fatimid, 47; foreign usurpers of 
 the, 37; has existed in different 
 centres, 47; has failed in practice, 
 99; incompatible with spirit of 
 age and reform, 57-8; Indian 
 Moslems and the, 95; Indian 
 Moslems hope to see the, restored 
 to Turkey, tor; King Fuad of 
 Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, 
 and Ibn Saud, King of Nejd, 
 mentioned in India as possibilities 
 for the, ror; proposed congress in 
 Cairo to settle the question of the, 
 41; Sultan Salim founder of the 
 Ottoman, 48; succession to. the, 
 34, 36; temporal power very 
 essence of the, 95 ; see also Caliph. 
 
 Caliphate, The, Sir Thomas Arnold, 
 quoted, 50, 54, 56 
 
 Cambridge, Dr. Rashdall’s speech at 
 the Conference of 1921 at, referred 
 to, 313; Modern Churchmen’s 
 Conference held in, 150 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, Bosworth Smith, and 
 others, Muslim Tract Depot prints 
 pamphlets giving favourable judg- 
 ments of, 311; Essay on Moham- 
 med, referred to, 142 
 
 —. ee eee 
 
INDEX 
 
 Cassel, Walter R., Supernatural 
 Religion referred to, 312 
 
 Castagné, Joseph, ‘‘ Le Bolshevisme 
 et Islam,” in Revue du Monde 
 Musulman, quoted, 152, 153 
 
 Caucasus, Baku the chief centre of 
 the Moslem Press in the, 145 
 
 Censorship, became more severe in 
 Turkey, 127; Egyptian Press 
 during the war the victim of, 133; 
 from 1909 to 1922 Egypt was under 
 strict, 132; has prevented an 
 alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
 in the Press of India and Egypt, 153 
 
 Census of India, r92z, quoted, 250-1 
 
 Central Khilafat Committee, and 
 the Jamiat-ul-Ulama-t-Hind, joint 
 reply to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, 
 96-8; sent a delegation to Lon- 
 don and to the Peace Conference 
 at Paris, 95; mentioned, 93; 
 started, 95; see also Khilafat 
 Committee. 
 
 Central Provinces, and Berar, list of 
 Moslem newspapers in, 386; num- 
 ber of Moslem periodicals in the, 
 138 
 
 Ceylon, the extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in Afghanistan, 
 India, and, 138-40 
 
 Chambers, Rev. Dr. William N., of 
 Adana, quoted, 16-17 
 
 Change, Divisions in Islam evidence 
 of internal, 3; evident since the 
 beginning of the century in every 
 Moslem land, 24; Islam under- 
 going revolutionary social, 8; 
 marked throughout Islam to-day, 
 18 ; possibility of, in Islam denied, 3 
 
 Charaawi Pasha, Hoda, formation of 
 “The Egyptian Feminist Union 
 for Woman suffrage ’’ in the home 
 oir 2e2 
 
 Chatelier, Professor A. le, of Paris, 
 quoted, 124 
 
 Chicago, the Ahmadiya community 
 in, 315 
 
 Child labour in Persia restricted by 
 laws secured by Bishop Linton, 
 223-4 
 
 Child marriage, conditions in Persia 
 produced by, 220-2 
 
 Child welfare, 223, 242 
 
 China, attempts to reconcile Islam 
 and the demands of modern thought 
 in, 14; extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in, 143-4; gives 
 to Mohammedans a status equiva- 
 lent to that of a racial group, 10; 
 Mohammedans of, 367; organized 
 
 397 
 
 efforts to promote Islam in, 12; 
 Persian Church carried missionary 
 work into, 267 
 
 Chinese, Mohammedan newspapers 
 and periodicals, only three or four 
 in 1917, 143; Mohammedanism 
 to-day, a view of, 143; political 
 newspapers in the Dutch East 
 Indies, 142 
 
 Christendom, attitude toward Islam 
 of diplomatic and commercial, 
 II4-15; missionary attitude of the 
 Churches of, 119; phases of opinion 
 regarding Islam reflected in litera- 
 ture of, 118 
 
 Christian, attitude toward Islam, 
 viii; Church, challenge to the, 
 163-4; conception of Jesus 
 Christ totally different from the 
 Moslem, 349; conceptions, in- 
 creasing Moslem acceptance of, 
 356-7; countries, Moslem immi- 
 grants in, 112-13; domination of 
 Moslem races, war destroyed fear 
 of and respect for, 6; educational 
 institutions, willingness of Indian 
 Moslems to place their daughters 
 in, 252; faith, there is involved the 
 essential victory of our, 378-9; 
 ideas, Bahai propaganda _ shot 
 through and through with, 310; 
 missions burdened with the wrong 
 political traditions, 28; missions 
 failed for the first two centuries in 
 their work among the Jews, 28; 
 missions, orthodox apologetic liter- 
 ature of Islam to-day largely 
 affected by the work of, 305-6; 
 model, the Ahmadiya Movement 
 both in its organization and in its 
 publications follows the, 309-10; 
 newspaper, in 1880 the American 
 Mission began to publish a, 126; 
 work, among Moslems, the posi- 
 tive, constructive, irenic, and 
 sympathetic spirit, method, and 
 approach in, 370; writers, bureau 
 to promote co-operation among, 
 165 
 
 Christian Literature in Moslem Lands 
 cited, 68; quoted, 8; referred to, 
 68, 372 
 
 Christian Literature for Moslems, 
 Co-ordinating Committee on, 372 
 
 Christianity, and Islam near enough 
 one to the other to be vitally 
 influenced by each* other, 26; 
 accused of polytheism, 313; and 
 Islam, redemption the core of the 
 issue between, 314-15 ; and Western 
 
398 
 
 civilization keenly discussed by 
 Moslems, 65; attacked increasing- 
 ly from the standpoint of higher 
 criticism in the West, 68; duty of, 
 toward Islam, 354-5; education 
 perhaps the greatest contribution 
 to Islam to be made by, 321; 
 fundamental issue between Islam 
 and, is their idea of God, 345-6; 
 has modern, a gospel capable of 
 producing a spiritual reformation 
 of Islam? 27; inculcation of 
 secular Western ideas does not 
 bring Islam nearer to, 69; Islam 
 cannot be reformed by a reduced, 
 of the First Article, 27; Islam held 
 to be a richer extension of, 343; 
 Islam’s early attitude toward, 
 friendly, 342-3; issue between 
 Islam and, fundamental, 344-6; 
 the Koran and the Traditions show 
 Mohammed had no true conception 
 of, 341-2; Mohammed had access 
 only to corrupt or inadequate 
 representations of, 341; Moslem 
 Press adopts arguments of liberal, 
 150; the only remedy for the ills 
 of Islam, 356; outposts of, 264; 
 reforms in Islam due largely to 
 contacts with, 354; ‘scientific 
 method ”’ should be applied, not 
 only to claims of Islam, but also to 
 claims of, 180; spiritual develop- 
 ment of Islam influenced by 
 Hellenized, 27; unorthodox Mos- 
 lem apologetic uses the methods of, 
 
 309; Zaghloul Pasha produced 
 closer relations between Islam 
 and, 6 
 
 » 03 
 
 Christians, attitude toward Islam 
 that, should hold, 357; influence 
 exerted in Moslem countries by, 
 112; of the West, attitude toward 
 the ancient Oriental Churches held 
 by, 264 ; rejected divine mission of 
 Mohammed, 82; should be fore- 
 most to feel and express the spirit 
 of kindness, 343 
 
 Church, the Abyssinian, 263; and 
 State separated in Turkey, 10; 
 the Armenian, 263; challenge to 
 the Christian, 163-4; the Coptic, 
 263; the Eastern Orthodox, 263; 
 the Edessene, made innumerable 
 conquests from Mazdeism, 266; 
 effect in Moslem lands of dis- 
 establishment of the, 186-7; the 
 enormous Asiatic, created by the 
 Nestorians, 267; the Jacobite, 
 263; the Moslem Indian view of 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 the separation of the, and State, 
 103-4 ; movement toward separa- 
 
 tion of State and, 186; the 
 ‘** Nestorian,”’ 263; supervision of 
 education, 186; the ‘“ Syrian 
 
 Orthodox,” 263 
 
 Church Missionary Society in Egypt, 
 the, 275 
 
 Churches, the ancient Oriental, 263 ; 
 
 disillusioned by frequent dis- 
 appointments in converts from 
 Islam, the, 283; in the East, 
 
 historic developments have tended 
 to turn the, into something like 
 nations, 282-3 
 
 Churchill, N., in 1843 a Turkish 
 weekly was established by, 126 
 
 Cinema, influence of the, 67 
 
 Cities of North-West Africa, religious 
 life of Moslem women in the, 241-2 
 
 Citroén car, the, 233 
 
 Clarke, James Freeman, Ten Great 
 Religions quoted, 347-8 
 
 Coercion in missionary work, 329-30 
 
 College for Women, Constantinople, 
 212 
 
 Colleges and universities, increasing 
 numbers of Indian girls now 
 studying in, 252; Moslem, at 
 Aligarh, Vaniyambadi, Peshawar, 
 Hyderabad, and Lahore, 8; Mos- 
 lem youth sent to European and 
 American, 179; power of con- 
 structive element in Moslem youth 
 of to-day due to education in, 
 established from America or 
 Britain, 73; up-to-date, estab- 
 lished in many of the great Moslem 
 centres, 4 
 
 Colombo, boarding-schools for Mos- . 
 
 lem girls needed in, 252; The 
 Crescent, of, quoted, 151 
 Commentary on The Holy Qur’an, 319 
 
 Commentary on the Koran cited, 
 
 313 
 
 Committee of Fine Arts, formed in 
 Egypt to advise the Ministry of 
 Education, 203 
 
 Communism, Inqgilab and Kyzyl 
 Bairak preach, to all Turkistan, 152 
 
 Conciliation, a strong spirit of, can 
 be found in present-day Islam, 
 342-3 
 
 Condition de la Femme dans I’Is- 
 lamisme, La, referred to, 321 
 
 Conference, findings of the North 
 Africa, with reference to work for 
 the young, 371 
 
 Sepaneee of Lausanne, ‘mentioned, 
 165 
 

 
 INDEX 
 
 Conferences of Christian Workers 
 among Moslems, brought together 
 most representative and influential 
 group of such workers ever assem- 
 bled, 362; found there had been 
 relative neglect of Moslems on the 
 part of Protestant Christian forces, 
 366-9 ; organization of the, 362-3 ; 
 revealed the marvellous accessi- 
 bility of the Moslem world to 
 Christian influences, 364-6; re- 
 vealed the weakening and dis- 
 integration of Islam, 363-4; 
 timely, 361 
 
 Conferences of Christian Workers 
 among Moslems, 1924, quoted, 
 177-8, 179, 376, 55 
 
 Congress, Islamic World, to elect a 
 Caliph, 41, 106 
 
 Constantinople, bad feeling between 
 Angora and, 51; College for 
 Women, 212; a daily paper of, 
 conducted a discussion of the 
 Personality of Christ, 366; the 
 number of Turkish newspapers and 
 magazines in, 128-9 ; old capital of 
 Turkey, 51; sent I,000 women 
 delegates to the Teachers’ Associa- 
 tion meeting in Angora in 1924, 
 212; the Turkish Press to-day at, 
 130 
 
 Constitutional Government adopted 
 by Persia, 10 
 
 Conversion, of Moslem lands by 
 indigenous missionary forces, syl- 
 logism regarding, 279-80; of 
 Moslems looked upon with abhor- 
 rence by the ancient Oriental 
 Churches, 273-4; of Moslems 
 possible and of actual occurrence, 
 369; of a woman married to a 
 Moslem impossible, open, 244; to 
 Islam, elements involved in, 86-7 
 
 Converts, from Islam have not been 
 assimilated in the ancient Oriental 
 Churches, 283; from Islam must 
 be received in the attitude of 
 friendliness, 284, 286 
 
 Co-operation, among the Christian 
 forces at work among Moslems, 
 closer, 376-7; between native and 
 Western education, 193 
 
 Coppée, Henry, History of the Con- 
 quest of Spain by the Arab Moors 
 quoted, 169-70 
 
 Coptic Church, The, 263 
 
 Coptic monks of Egypt revived 
 Christianity in Abyssinia, 268 
 
 Council of Western Asia and North 
 Africa, the plan of a, 377 
 
 399 
 
 Crafts, in Egypt, education in, 207 ; 
 a school of artistic, 202 
 
 Craftsman, looked upon as a workman 
 rather than as an artist, 201; 
 Moslem art increasingly the art of 
 the, 200 
 
 Crawford, Stewart, of Beirtit, quoted, 
 14 
 
 Crimea, Tarjaman an 
 newspaper of the, 144 
 
 Critical Exposition of the Popular 
 ‘* Jihad” cited, 308; quoted, 309 
 
 Criticism, differences among mission- 
 aries regarding Biblical, 312-13 ; of 
 the missionary programme, I19 
 
 Cromer, Lady, Dispensaries opened in 
 1908, 217; Lord, Modern Egypt, 
 referred to, 3; period of liberty of 
 the Press in Egypt under Lord, 132; 
 verdict of Lord, challenged by 
 present-day Moslem journalism, 148 
 
 Crucifixion, the Moslem view of the, 
 315 
 
 Crusaders, model of approach to 
 Islam should be furnished by 
 Raymond Lull, not by the, 343 
 
 Crusaders of the Twentieth Century 
 quoted, 343, 348; referred to, 347 
 
 Cunningham, William, Western Civilt- 
 zation tn tts Economic Aspect i 
 Ancient Times quoted, 57 
 
 Cyprus, Arabic papers published in, 
 131 
 
 important 
 
 Dacca, Peace, published in, 139 
 
 Damascus, girls being sent to Beirit 
 for their education, 214; men- 
 tioned, 158, 159, 165, 171 
 
 Dardanelles, Turkish papers pub- 
 lished in the, 129 
 Davenport, John, Apology for 
 
 Muhammed and the Qur'an referred 
 to, 311 
 
 de Goeje, M. J., Mémoire sur la 
 conquéte de la Syrie referred to, 270 
 
 Decoration the outstanding purpose 
 of the art of Egypt, 200 
 
 Delhi, the need of books for women 
 urged by a missionary of, 254 
 
 Demak, publication activities at, 141 
 
 Democracy, desire for, in Turkey, in 
 place of theocracy, Io 
 
 Democratic and constitutional forms 
 of government sought on every 
 hand, vii 
 
 Dervish orders, absence of mystic lore 
 in the standard works of the, 295-6; 
 orders despised, 298; orders in 
 Egypt, founder of the, 295 ; orders 
 recognize al-Jilani as their founder, 
 
400 INDEX 
 
 295; orders started, 293; orders, 
 vitality of the modern, 26 
 Dervishes, organization a _ strong 
 factor in the strength of the, 296 
 Dervishism, 300 
 Development of Modern Turkey as 
 Measured by its Press, The, cited, 
 127, 128; quoted, 125-6, 128, 
 
 129-30 
 
 Diarbekr, Turkish papers published 
 in, 129 
 
 Din, Muhammad, head of the 
 Ahmadiya community in Chicago, 
 
 315 
 
 Discipleship, Christ’s definition of, 
 
 3 _ 
 
 Disintegration, forces making for, in 
 Islam, 75 
 
 Divorce, evil in Syria, 226; evil, 
 temporary marriages and the, 
 225-6; in Moslem India, 257; 
 Moslem law in India governing, 
 108; Moslem polygamy and, 9; 
 quotation from a Turkish lawyer 
 on marriage and, 8-9; system in 
 Palestine, the easy, 226 
 
 Drama, the beginnings of a local, 202 
 
 Drews, Pagan Christs theory of, 310, 
 313 
 
 Ducrocq, Georges, referred to, 152 
 
 Durban, Central Africa published at, 
 
 135 
 
 Dutch East Indies, Bolshevist pro- 
 paganda in the, 72; Moslems have 
 a rising spirit of self-determination 
 in the, 11; Moslems of the, seeking 
 a modern education, 5; periodical 
 survey of the Press of the, 142; 
 population of the, 140; present- 
 day Moslem journalism in Malaysia 
 and the, 140-2 
 
 Dwight, Henry O., 
 quoted, 350-1 
 
 in Missions, 
 
 Eastern Churches, see Ancient Orien- 
 tal Churches. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Law set aside in civil 
 affairs in Egypt, 10 
 
 Edessa, a base of ancient Oriental 
 Christendom, 266 
 
 Edessene and Persian Churches, isola- 
 tion of the early, 267 
 
 Edib Bey, Eshref, quoted, 7 
 
 Education, agnosticism in many 
 Moslems a product of Western, 24 ; 
 art almost entirely neglected in the 
 Egyptian system of, 201; as 
 political power, 191; changes in 
 policy necessary in, 190-2; Com- 
 mittee of Fine Arts recently formed 
 
 in Egypt to advise the Ministry of, 
 203; contribution of Western 
 education to native, 193; dervish 
 orders despised by those having 
 even the rudiments of a Western, 
 298; desire of Moslems for, as 
 given in missionary institutions, 
 178; effect of disestablishment of 
 Church in Moslem lands on, 186-7 ; 
 failure to provide efficient systems 
 of primary, 173; first means of 
 contact with Moslems, 176; for 
 girls being successfully promoted 
 by the Persians, 214; girls being 
 sent from Damascus to Beirfit for 
 their, 214; government systems 
 of, 172; including that of girls, 
 compulsory, in Egypt, 212; in 
 crafts in Egypt, 207; increase in 
 numbers of Moslem youth receiving 
 a Western, viii, 4; indirect in- 
 fluence of Western, £31908. uaa 
 Moslem lands entered a’ new 
 epoch, 187; intelligent Moslems 
 have begun to agitate for better, 8 ; 
 in the Near East, 173; low state 
 of, particularly among women, a 
 cause of the backwardness of 
 Islamic civilization, 7; Ministry in 
 Egypt sending young women 
 abroad for study, 213; Moslem 
 women in the Near East beginning 
 to demand an, 212; movement, 
 India aroused from her lethargy by 
 the revolutionary modern, 108; 
 Mrs. Moulvi’s resolution on female, 
 
 253;  mecessary to rouse the 
 
 ancient Oriental Churches and 
 Eastern Christians to action, 286-7; 
 need of Western systems in Moslem, 
 172-3; of girls in North-West 
 Africa, 233; of women, eagerness 
 of men and women in India to 
 promote the cause of, 252; of 
 women in Egypt, progress of the, 
 212-13; of women in India, 250-1 
 
 of women in Mesopotamia, en- 
 thusiasm for the, 214; of women 
 in Turkey, an organized movement 
 for the, 212; perhaps Christianity’s 
 greatest contribution to Islam, 321; 
 place and function of mission, in 
 Moslem lands, 194-5; renaissance 
 of Arabic culture and, 183; results 
 of Western, 180; value of scientific 
 method in, 174; Western, an 
 established fact in Moslem lands, 
 179; Western methods of, in 
 Moslem lands, 172-3; Western, 
 opposed to Oriental method, 176-7 ; 
 
INDEX 
 
 women and girls in the Sudan 
 learning the value of, 215 
 
 Educational, systems maintained by 
 non-Protestant bodies, 174; work, 
 prime object of, 178 
 
 Educational movement, classes of 
 women in India reached by the, 
 251 ; in Syria, the Moslem women’s, 
 214; of the Islamic world, women 
 of Turkey lead the, 212 
 
 Educational opportunity among girls 
 of India at present almost limitless, 
 
 252 
 
 Edward I of England visited by the 
 archdeacon of Yaballaha III, 268 
 
 Egypt, after the war, societies formed 
 by women in, 217; and Turkey in 
 disfavour in North-West Africa, 
 235-6; and Turkey, legislation to 
 ameliorate the condition of women 
 in, 222-3; art gallery needed in, 
 206; art in, awaiting a new 
 influence from outside, 201; art 
 of, strongly imitative, 199; the 
 art of the painted picture as an end 
 in itself never developed in, 200; 
 censorship has prevented an 
 alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
 in the Press of India and, 153; 
 the Church Missionary Society in, 
 275; compulsory education clause 
 in the Constitution of, 212; claims 
 fellowship with no other Moslem 
 country, I; commercial relations 
 of Great Britain in, 114; contacts 
 with West mainly political in, 188 ; 
 decoration the outstanding object 
 of the art of, 200; desire to learn 
 from democracy in, 191; educa- 
 tional systems more efficient in 
 Palestine, portions of North Africa, 
 and, 173; education in crafts in, 
 207; the extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in Arabia, 
 Mesopotamia, and, 130-4; the 
 first government girls’ school in, 
 217; first Arabic newspaper in, 
 126; founder of the dervish orders 
 in, 295; the Government began 
 journalism in, 126; a growing 
 feeling of national unity between 
 Moslems and Christians in, 17; 
 growth of enrolment of girls in 
 government schools in, 213; the 
 growth of journalism in, 126; has 
 set aside ecclesiastical law in civil 
 affairs, 10; immense latent power 
 of the dervishes in, 296; large 
 sums of money allocated to indus- 
 trial schools in, 203; _ literacy 
 
 27 
 
 401 
 
 statistics among the women of, 
 214; modernism everywhere felt 
 in, 25; Moslem young women 
 attend mission schools in, 214; 
 Miss Nebaweeya Moosa made 
 Superintendent of Girls’ Schools in, 
 213; need of up-to-date machinery 
 in, 207-8; new constitutional 
 monarchy in, 185 ; newspapers and 
 periodicals in, 130-4; non-observ- 
 ance of harem customs at gradua- 
 tion exercises of American Mission 
 girls’ schools in, 218-19; passage 
 of the marriage law now under 
 consideration in, 225; plans for 
 the erection of new arts and crafts 
 schools in, 203; polygamy in, 
 224-5; proposal regarding control 
 of designs of public buildings in, 
 203; rapid disappearance of the 
 veil in, 218-19 ; a school of fine arts 
 and a school of artistic crafts 
 established in, 202; students sent 
 on educational missions to Europe 
 for the schools of, 201; sum of 
 £10,000 granted to Committee of 
 Fine Arts by the Parliament of, 
 203; textile industries in, 208; 
 women taking a prominent part in 
 the revival of art in, 208; young 
 women sent abroad for study by 
 the Ministry of Education of, 213 
 
 ‘‘Egyptian Feminist Union for 
 Woman Suffrage,’ formation of 
 the, 222 
 
 Ellinwood, Frank F., Oriental Re- 
 ligions and Christianity referred to, 
 355 
 
 Emin, Ahmed, The Development of 
 Modern Turkey as Measured by tts 
 
 Press quoted, 126, 127, 128, 129, 
 
 130 
 
 Emin Bey, Mehmed, quoted, 70 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, eighteen 
 sets sold in two years to Arab 
 customers in a single book-shop in 
 Iraq, 6 
 
 Encyclopedia of Islam referred to, 144 
 
 Endor, Sheikh of, 64 
 
 England, The Islamic Review pub- 
 lished at Woking, 145; rule of, in 
 Egypt being replaced, 185 
 
 English, India has several important 
 Mohammedan papers in, 138; 
 language used extensively in Mos- 
 lem Apologetic in India and Egypt, 
 311 ; number of Moslem periodicals 
 in, 138 
 
 Equality, Mohammed preached prin- 
 ciples of, 83, 89 
 
402 
 
 Erigena, Johannes Scotus, 292 
 
 Erzerum, Turkish papers published 
 in, 129 
 
 Ethnic elements, North Africa con- 
 tains two distinct, 236 
 
 Europe, attitude of Indian Moslem 
 women toward the feminist move- 
 ments in America and, 107; cer- 
 tain that the new influence needed 
 in Egyptian art will come from, 
 201; the extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in America, 
 Australia, and, 145-7; influence 
 of, upon the status of women in 
 North-West Africa, 235; isolation 
 of, during the Middle Ages, 21-2 ; 
 Moslem youth sent to universities 
 of America and, 179; parallel 
 between the Near East and the 
 Catholic countries of, 23; the 
 plough of, 232; Renaissance in, 
 22-3; Renaissance and Reforma- 
 tion in, 23; students from Egyp- 
 tian schools sent on educational 
 missions to, 201 
 
 European writers, Moslem apologists 
 take advantage of favourable refer- 
 ences of, 310-11 
 
 Evangelization, of a country by its 
 own Christian community a pro- 
 minent missionary goal, 279; of 
 Islam, ancient Oriental Churches 
 should be viewed as allies in the 
 cause of, 264; of Moslems, assimi- 
 lation of converts in the Christian 
 community a pre-requisite of, the, 
 284; Wway is open in the Moslem 
 world to widespread and direct, 
 
 370 
 
 Fahmy, Mansur, La Condition de la 
 Femme dans VIslamisme referred 
 to, 321; wrote proving that the 
 Prophet was not in favour of 
 women’s advancement, 216-17 
 
 Fairbairn, Principal, in Contemporary 
 Review, referred to, 3 
 
 Faith of Islam, The, quoted, 56, 57 
 
 Family life in Kabylia, 239-40 
 
 Feminist, movement accompanied 
 political liberty in Turkey, 128; 
 movement in Egypt, commented 
 upon in Al Kibla, 148; movement 
 in Persia represented by Zehan, 
 137; movements in Europe and 
 America, attitude of Indian Moslem 
 women toward, 107 
 
 Fez, Akhbar Telegrafia the only 
 Arabic newspaper published at, 135 
 
 Fine Arts, a school of, 202 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Forgiveness of sins, Moslems do not 
 understand the price of, 333-4 
 France, Arabic papers published in, 
 131; three Islamic papers pub- 
 lished in, 145 
 
 French, Anti-Christian pamphlets in, 
 311; protectorate in Syria, 185 
 
 Fréres, schools of the, 174 
 
 Fuad, King of Egypt, mentioned in 
 India as candidate for the Caliphate, 
 101; officially opened the last arts 
 exhibition in Cairo, 202 
 
 Futa, the Almamy Peul of, 124 
 
 Gairdner, W. H. T., The Muslim Idea 
 of God referred to, 347 
 
 Gardner, W. R. W., The Qurdnic 
 Doctrine of God referred to, 347 
 
 Gasprinsky, Ismail Bey, editor of 
 Millet, 144 
 
 General Conference at Jerusalem, 
 proposals mooted at the, 165 
 
 German diplomacy, success of, in 
 leading Moslems to believe Ger- 
 many their only friend among 
 Christian nations, 116 
 
 Ghamara, 293 
 
 Gibb, E. J. W., A History of Ottoman 
 Poetry quoted, 126 
 
 Giffen, Dr. J. Kelly, quoted, 215, 227 
 
 Girl Guides, a Government school for 
 girls in Iraq seeks to start a troop 
 of, 218 
 
 Girls, being sent from Damascus to 
 Beirit for their education, 214; 
 a definite clause in the Constitution 
 of Egypt, providing for compulsory 
 education, including that of, 212; 
 a fine training school for, in 
 Smyrna, 212; first government 
 school in Egypt for, 217; in 
 government schools in Egypt, 
 growth of enrolment of, 213; 
 learning to read in North-West 
 Africa, 233; now studying: in 
 primary, middle, and high schools, 
 colleges, and universities in India, 
 251-2; Persians successfully pro- 
 viding education for, 214 
 
 God, fundamental issue between 
 Islam and Christianity in their idea 
 of, 345-6; of Islam, Moslem. 
 apologists have sought to Christian- 
 ize the, 346; the Moslem view of, 
 347; the seven attributes of, 
 according to the Moslems, 346 
 
 Goldsack, William, God in Islam 
 referred to, 347; Mohammed and 
 the Bible referred to, 342; ‘* The 
 Moslem Press of Bengal,” in The 
 
 
 

 
 INDEX 
 
 oped World, 1917, referred to, 
 
 13 
 
 Goldziher, Ignacz, Muhammedanische 
 Studien referred to, 308 
 
 Good Shepherd, parable of the, 334-5 
 
 Gorst, Sir Eldon, control of the Press 
 in Egypt strictly enforced under, 
 
 132 
 
 Gottheil, Richard J. H.; Dhimmis and 
 
 - Moslems in Egypt referred to, 270 
 
 Great Britain, commercial rela- 
 tions in Egypt of, 144; colleges 
 and universities established from 
 America, or, 73; has aroused keen 
 nationalistic feelings by favouring 
 the Jews in Palestine, 65; treaty 
 of 1922 between Iraq and, 16 
 
 Gressee, publication activities at, 141 
 
 Groups, division of mankind into, 84 ; 
 in Islam which still hold deep con- 
 viction, 344 
 
 Growth of Islam, 36, 82, 84, 85 
 
 Gujarat, need for a girls’ school in, 
 252 
 
 Gujarati, number of Moslem periodi- 
 cals in, 138 
 
 Haifa, mentioned, 157 
 
 Hamburg Kolonial Institut, collec- 
 tion of Arabic newspapers and 
 journals purchased in Beirit for, 
 131 
 
 Hamid, Abdul, would not authorize 
 the publication of a single new 
 periodical, 127; II, failed in his 
 attempt to project a jihad, 11 
 
 Hanoum, Latife, wife of Mustafa 
 Kemal Pasha, 215-16 
 
 Harem customs, non-observance of, at 
 graduation exercises of American 
 Mission girls’ schools in Egypt, 
 218-19 
 
 Hartmann, cited as to number of 
 papers in Egypt in 1898, 132; in 
 Encyclopedia of Islam, referred to, 
 144 
 
 Hassan, Sultan, mosque of, 204 
 
 Hauri, Johannes, Der Islam, quoted, 
 
 347 
 Hay, Lady Drummond, ‘‘ The Press | 
 
 in Egypt,” in The Near East, 1924, 
 referred to, 132, 133 
 
 Hazm, Ibn, 305 
 
 Hejaz, government, Al Kubla, the 
 semi-official organ of the, 148; 
 King of the, 33; railroad link 
 between Amman and the, 157 
 
 Herat, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Hifnawi, Sheikh, Kafayat at-Talibin, 
 referred to, 310 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 403 
 
 Higher criticism in the West furnish- 
 ing increasingly the materials for 
 attacks upon Christianity in modern 
 Islamic literature, 68 
 
 Histoire des Mongols quoted, 54 
 
 History of the Conquest of Spain by the 
 Arab Moors quoted, 169-70 
 
 History of Ottoman Poetry, A, quoted, 
 126 
 
 History of Perstan Literature in 
 Modern Times, A, referred to, 136 
 
 Holy Quran, The, referred to, 313; 
 containing the Arabic Text with 
 English Translation and Com- 
 mentary, quoted from and dis- 
 cussed, 318-20 
 
 Home Rule, in India, Moslems op- 
 posed to granting a larger measure 
 of, 105 
 
 Hospital and school work in North- 
 West Africa, 244 
 
 Houghton, Lord, quoted and referred 
 to, 3 
 
 Hussein, King of the Hejaz, Moslems 
 of India promptly repudiated 
 assumption of title of Caliph by, 
 99-100 
 
 Hyderabad, Moslem college at, men- 
 tioned, 8; the Nizam of, see Nizam 
 of Hyderabad, the; Osmania 
 University at, 106 
 
 Hygiene, propaganda for public, 223 
 
 Ibn Tulun, imitative character of the 
 ornamentation of the Mosque of, 199 
 
 Idealism, the opportunity of the 
 Christian West to impart to the 
 ancient Eastern Churches its 
 fresher, 265 
 
 Ihy@’u Ulam ad-Din referred to, 293 
 
 Ijtihad, India’s attitude toward, 
 1o1-2; Sir Muhammad Iqbal’s 
 essay on, quoted, 98, 102, 103, 108 ; 
 a positivist journal, 130 
 
 Ikhwan, movement in Central Ara- 
 bia, 26; or brothers, the, 297-8 
 
 Immigrant Press and tts Control, The, 
 quoted, 146 
 
 Impacts, between Islam and the 
 Western World, enumerated and 
 analysed, 4-6; influences of the, of 
 Western life, upon Islamic world 
 discussed, 6-18; of Christians upon 
 Moslem countries, 112; of govern- 
 ment educational programme on 
 peoples, 147 
 
 Imperialism, every Moslem mission- 
 ary an advance agent for Moslem, 
 326; the missionary asa lieutenant 
 for Western, 327 
 
404 
 
 Incarnation, the Bahais’ conception 
 of the, 314 
 
 India, Ahmadiya movement a result | 
 of the attempt to meet new condi- 
 tions in, 14; the Ahmadiyas of, 
 139; Arabic still prevails as the 
 language of the Moslem religion in, 
 105 ; assumption of title of Caliph 
 by King of the Hejaz repudiated by 
 the Moslems of, 99-100; attitude of 
 women of, toward purdah, 107; 
 attitude toward feminist move- 
 ments in Europe and America 
 manifested by Moslem women of, 
 107; Bolshevik feeling in British, 
 72; censorship has prevented an 
 alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
 in the Press of Egypt and, 153; 
 chief aims of the Khilafat Com- 
 mittee in, 105-6; Christian mis- 
 sionary work for Moslems _ is 
 seriously undermanned in, 367; 
 classes of women reached by the 
 education movement in, 251; 
 conspicuous examples of leadership 
 among the Moslem women of, 254 ; 
 divorce in Moslem, 257; duty of 
 Islamic, to take lead in advancing 
 Islamic learning, 94; eagerness of 
 men and women to promote the 
 cause of women’s education in, 
 $52); educational opportunity 
 among the women of, 252; eman- 
 cipation along religious lines of the 
 Moslem women of, 258-9; extent 
 of present-day Moslem journalism 
 in Afghanistan, Ceylon, and, 138- 
 40; girls now © studying 
 increasing numbers in primary, 
 middle, and high schools, colleges, 
 and umiversities in, 252; has a 
 vision of a federated world of 
 Islam, 108; has several important 
 Mohammedan papers in English, 
 138; hostility to Western power 
 does not indicate unwillingness to 
 learn in, 190; influence of the 
 Caliphate agitation upon the life 
 of women in, 249; the influence of 
 the Press in, 139; King Fuad of 
 Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, 
 and Ibn Saud of Nejd mentioned 
 as possibilities for the Caliphate by 
 the Moslems of, ror ; list of Moslem 
 newspapers in, 383-90; literacy of 
 the women of, 250-1; literacy 
 statistics among the women of, 
 249; magazines for women in, 253; 
 the marriage relation and the 
 Moslem women of, 255; Moslem, 
 
 in 
 
 INDEX 
 
 at the cross-roads, 108; Moslem 
 attitude toward emancipation of 
 women in, 107; Moslem law 
 governing divorce in, 108 ; Moslem 
 opinion in, as to the abolition of the 
 Caliphate, 98 ; Moslem population 
 of, 93 ; Moslem population opposed 
 to a larger measure of Home Rule 
 in, 105; Moslem, to-day keenly 
 sensitive to all that goes on in the 
 Moslem world, 94; Moslems com- 
 bining with the Hindus against the 
 British as their ‘‘ common enemy ” 
 in, 13; Moslems of, and the 
 Caliphate, 95 ; Moslems of, and the 
 war, 94-5 ; national Islamic schools 
 in, 106; the Nationalist movement 
 among Moslems in, 104; Orthodox 
 mulvis still lead the Moslem masses 
 of, 108; Persian Church carried 
 missionary work into, 267; poly- 
 gamy in Moslem, 256; Press of 
 Cairo responded to pulse of the 
 nationalists in, 133; professions 
 entered by the women of, 254-5; 
 progress in literature for women in, 
 253; purdah system still cherished 
 by the Moslem women of, 257; 
 reaction to nationalist movement in 
 other parts of the Moslem world 
 shown by Moslems in, 105; separa- 
 tion of Church and State as viewed 
 in, 103-4; surprising agreement as 
 to changes taking place in the life 
 of women in, 249; tanzim, or the 
 organization and improvement of 
 the Moslem community in, 106 
 
 India, a Bird’s-Eye View, cited, 355; 
 quoted, 12 
 
 Indian Khilafat Deputation to the 
 Viceroy, Delhi, January 19, 1920, 
 address quoted, 95 
 
 Indigenous missionary forces, a 
 syllogism regarding the conversion 
 of Moslem lands by, 279-80 
 
 Insabato, Dr. Enrico, L’Islam et la 
 Politique des Allhiés cited, 116 
 
 Insulinde, contacts between the Near 
 East and, 140 
 
 Intellectual awakening resulting from 
 increasing tendency of observing 
 Moslems to note differences between 
 their own and Western civiliza- 
 tion, 7 
 
 International and interracial rela- 
 tions, Islam and, ix 
 
 International Club for women formed 
 at Cairo by Lady Byng, 217 
 
 International College, Smyrna, men- 
 tioned, 74 
 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 International Missionary Council, 
 conferences of Christian workers 
 among Moslems held at the initia- 
 tive and under the auspices of the, 
 361-2 
 
 International Moslem Association, in 
 Shanghai, 143 
 
 International Women’s Convention in 
 Rome, 222-3 
 
 Interracial and international rela- 
 tions, Islam and, ix 
 
 Iqbal, Sir Muhammad, quoted, 98-9, 
 102, 103-4, 108 
 
 Iraq, Boy Scout Movement remark- 
 ably successful in, 218; a brave 
 fight against polygamy going on in, 
 227; experimenting with a con- 
 stitutional monarchy, 186 ; govern- 
 ment of, does not claim divine 
 sanction, 10; the Press of, 134; 
 Treaty of 1922 between Great 
 Britain and, 16; the Woman’s 
 Movement in, 217-18; see also 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 Irving, Washington, Mahomet, re- 
 ferred to, 356 
 
 Isabella Thoburn College, 252, 259 
 
 Isfahan, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Islam, definition of the Arabic word, 
 356 
 
 Islamics, need of more training of 
 missionaries in, 374 
 
 Ismaili, 93 
 
 Ismail Pasha, Khedive, 217 
 
 Issue, between Christianity and Islam 
 fundamental, the, 344-6; between 
 Christianity and Islam, redemption 
 the very core of the, 314-15; 
 between Islam and Christianity, 
 differing idea of God the funda- 
 mental, 345-6; between Islam and 
 Christianity raised historically by 
 the former, the, 341 
 
 Italian schools in Moslem lands, 174 
 
 Italy, Arabic papers published in, 131 
 
 Izhar al Haqq, a French version of, 
 311; quotation from, 307 ; referred 
 to, 312 
 
 fofaebe Church, The, 263 
 
 alalabad, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Jama Masjid, the, Aligarh, 104 
 
 Jamia Millia Islamia, see National 
 Moslem University of Aligarh. 
 
 Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind, and _ the 
 Central Khilafat Committee, joint 
 reply to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, 
 96-8; mentioned, 93 
 
 Japan, Islam in, 140 
 
 Java, 140, 141 
 
 405 
 
 Jazirat-ul-Arab, 106 
 
 Jerusalem, English College at, 74; 
 Turkish and Arabic papers pub- 
 lished in, 129 
 
 Jerusalem Conference, 1924, finding 
 on co-operation adopted by the, 
 quoted, 377; findings of the, 177-8, 
 179; report of the Committee 
 on Christian Leadership, quoted, 
 376; revealed need of literature 
 in the Christian work for Moslems, 
 372; specially emphasized need of 
 social work, 373 
 
 Jesuit Fathers, schools of the, 174-5 
 
 Jesus Christ, according to the Koran, 
 348-9; and the woman at the 
 well, 327; character of, applied by 
 modern Moslem apologists to 
 Mohammed, 320; Christian con- 
 ception of, entirely different from 
 Moslem, 349; conception of God 
 of, 331-4; definition of disciple- 
 ship of, 334-7; essential contri- 
 bution to Moslems of, 335-6; 
 faith of, in mankind, 328-31; 
 highly praised in the Moslem Press, 
 148-9, 149-50; the humanity of, 
 313-14; universality of, 331; 
 valuation placed on individual men 
 by, 325-28; view of Syed Ameer 
 Ali regarding, 349 
 
 Jews, failure for the first two cen- 
 turies of Christian missions among 
 the, 28; keen nationalistic feelings 
 aroused in the Moslem world by 
 the controversy in Palestine 
 between Arabs and, 65; modern 
 Islam likened to the _ shallow 
 monotheism of the, 27; rejected 
 the divine mission of Mohammed, 
 the, 82 
 
 Jidda, port of Mecca, in the hands of 
 the Wahhabis, 40 
 
 Jihad, Abdul Hamid IT failed in his 
 attempt to project a, 11; failure 
 of the call toa, 6 ; modern attempts 
 to explain away, 320; waging of, 
 one of the functions of the Caliph, 
 
 50 
 
 Jizyah, or the capitation tax, 270 
 
 Jokyakarta, Moslem periodicals pub- 
 lished at, 141 
 
 Journal, the first Moslem, published 
 in Afghanistan, 140. 
 
 Journalism, begun in Egypt by the 
 Government, 126; the call for 
 social and religious reform occupies 
 a large place in present-day Moslem, 
 152; character, outlook, and pro- 
 gramme of present-day Moslem, 
 
406 
 
 147-54; the -extent of present- 
 day Moslem, 125-47; the extent 
 of present-day Moslem, in the 
 Dutch East Indies and Malaysia, 
 140-2, in Egypt, Arabia, and 
 Mesopotamia, 130-4, in Europe, 
 America, and Australia, 145-7, in 
 India, Ceylon, and Afghanistan, 
 138-40, in Persia, 136-8 ; has freed 
 the Arabic language of much of its 
 bombast, 153; the importance 
 of modern, 153; in Africa, extent 
 of present-day Moslem, 134-5; in 
 China, extent of present-day Mos- 
 lem, 143-4; in Egypt, the growth of, 
 126; in Russia, extent of present- 
 day Moslem, 144-5; Moslem, 
 religious, 148; a new situation 
 produced by the modern Moslem, 
 123; sprang into frantic life in 
 Persia with the revolution, 136; 
 see also Journals. 
 
 Journals, more than 800, published in 
 Turkey after the revolution, 130; 
 see also Journalism, Newspapers, 
 the Press. 
 
 Judaism, experienced in the first 
 century a renaissance similar to 
 that through which Islam is now 
 passing, 28 
 
 Kaaba, the round of the holy, 124 
 
 Kabul, Aman-i-Afghan published at, 
 140; the first Moslem journal 
 to appear in Afghanistan pub- 
 lished at, 140; the newspapers of, 
 136 
 
 Kabylia, family life in, 239-40 
 
 Kabyle, and Arab women compared, 
 the, 240; and Arab women, need 
 of shelter-homes and rescue-homes 
 for the, 239; tribal code regard- 
 ing marriage, 238-9; women, 
 character, hfe, and status of the, 
 237-8 
 
 Kabyles, effect of residence in France 
 upon young Arabs and, 234-5; 
 immigration to France of the, 75; 
 inhabit the Aurés Mountains, 236; 
 the most in evidence of the Berber 
 races, 236 
 
 Kalthoff drawn upon by Sheikh 
 Rashid Ridha and his followers, 
 
 313 
 
 Kamal, Prince Yousef, 202 
 
 Kanem, the African Zawiya of Bir 
 Alali in, 124 
 
 Kashgar, 224 
 
 Kastamani, Turkish papers 
 lished in, 129 
 
 pub- 
 
 Kazan, a Aagtons of Moslem journal- 
 ism, 14 
 
 Kemal Bastia: Mustafa, 55, 64, 69, 
 96-8, 148, 216 
 
 Kerman, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Kermanshah, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Khadija, 306 
 
 Khalid, 264 
 
 Khalifa, definition of, 34, 35, 47; 
 the local representative of the 
 Sheikh al-Sajada, 297 
 
 Khalifat al-Khulafa, or 
 vicars, 297 
 
 Khan, Jafar Ali, quoted, 13 
 
 Khan, Mustafa, editor of The Light, 
 
 139 
 
 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, cited, 102; 
 laid the foundations of the Moslem 
 University of Aligarh, 106; the 
 revolutionary modern education 
 movement inaugurated by, 108; 
 writings of, referred to, 308 
 
 Kharput, Turkish and Arabic papers 
 published in, 129 
 
 Khilafat Committee, chief aims of the, 
 105-6; see also Central Khilafat 
 Committee. 
 
 Khoi, the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Khoqand, 144 
 
 Khutba, 53-4 
 
 Kibla, enemies of the, 138 
 
 King George’s Medical 
 Lucknow, 252 
 
 Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 154 
 
 Kitchener, Lord, 204 
 
 Koran, Ahmadiya, Commentary on 
 the, 313; Ahmadiya writers seek 
 freedom from the body of law that 
 has grown up about the kernel 
 of legislation in the, 309; al-Jili 
 on the, 316-17; and Traditions 
 show Mohammed had no true 
 conception of Christianity, 341-2; 
 a brother-in-law of Mohammed 
 defends his claim to succession 
 through a text in the, 35; Al 
 Manar contains articles on the, 
 133; cannot be sold to Christians, 
 158; cited, 81; dissatisfaction 
 with the religion of the, in Islam, 
 227; enemies of the, 138 ; invoked 
 to protect women against abuses. 
 of the Moslem marriage laws, 223 ; 
 Jesus Christ *according to the, 
 348-9; law in the, requiring 
 husband to support wives without 
 discrimination, 148; missionaries 
 apt to take it for granted that the 
 religion of the land is that of the, 
 300; the modernist Moslem view 
 
 vicar of 
 
 College, 
 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 of the, 317-21; the orthodox 
 theory of Abrogation in the, 313; 
 provisions of the, regarding poly- 
 gamy, 256; quoted, 83, 318-19, 
 342, 346, 348; Ramatu’llah on 
 the, 316; referred to, 83, 88, 146; 
 taught in the National Islamic 
 
 schools, 106; the Woking, 15; 
 ‘see also Holy Qur'an. 
 Kraemer, Dr. H., survey of the 
 
 contents of the Press of the Dutch 
 East Indies by, 142 
 
 Kuttar, a Bedouin, paraphrases the 
 parable of the Good Shepherd, 
 334-5 
 
 Lagos, West Africa, contributors 
 from, to the building of the new 
 mosque at Berlin, 139 
 
 Lahore, an article in The Daily 
 Observer of, 124; The Islamic 
 World published at, 139; The 
 Light, published at, 139; Moslem 
 college at, mentioned, 8; Muslim 
 Book and Tract Depot at, 309; 
 The Muslim Outlook published at, 
 139; Tahzib un Niswan, published 
 at, 253; Urdu edition of The 
 Islamic Review, published at, 145 
 
 Lane-Poole, Stanley, referred to, 3 
 
 Languages, Arabic regarded as sacred 
 among, 5; European, have found 
 a place in the more advanced 
 modern schools, 5; knowledge of 
 Western, a means of contact 
 between Islamic and non-Moslem 
 lands, 5; of the Dutch East 
 Indies, the chief, 141 
 
 Lausanne, Conference of, 185 
 
 Law, built up from the Koran, 
 Ahmadiya writers seek to free 
 themselves from the, 309 
 
 Leadership, among Moslem women in 
 India, conspicuous examples of, 254 
 
 League of Moslem Nations pre- 
 dicted, 99 
 
 League of Nations, founded on Mo- 
 hammed’s religion, 90; through 
 the aid of the, Bishop Linton of 
 Persia secured laws for the restric- 
 tion of child labour, 223-4 
 
 Legal Position of Women in Islam, by 
 Syed Ameer Ali, referred to, 321 
 
 Lella Khadija named after a Kabyle 
 woman, 237 
 
 Leningrad a_ centre 
 journalism, 144 
 
 Levonian, Professor L., 366 
 
 of Moslem 
 
 Liberty, of conscience declared by an | 
 
 educated Turk to be the most 
 
 | 
 
 407 
 
 essential of all forms of liberty, 16 ; 
 a feminist movement in Turkey 
 accompanied political, 128 
 
 Linguistics, need of more training for 
 missionaries in, 374 
 
 Linton, The Rt. Rev. J. H., Persian 
 Sketches quoted, 220-2; quoted 
 214; secures passage of laws to 
 restrict child labour in Persia, 223-4 
 
 Literature, attitude toward Chris- 
 tianity produced by Moslem, 161 ; 
 a constant stream of French, 
 European, and American, 68; 
 demand for, follows acquisition of 
 a new language, 5; for women in 
 India, 253; French, in Amman, 
 160; general attempt in Moslem 
 countries to reconcile modern 
 science and ancient Islam by means 
 of a new religious, 13; of Islam 
 to-day attacks Christianity in- 
 creasingly from the standpoint of 
 the higher criticism of the West, 
 68; need of, in Christian work for 
 Moslems, 372; phases of opinion 
 regarding Islam reflected in Chris- 
 tian, 118; found in Amman 
 included a prayer manual compiled 
 by Sheikh, 159-60, 164; prolific 
 output of Koranic, 161; rapid 
 multiplication of book and 
 pamphlet, viii 
 
 Tees Arabic papers published in, 
 
 Pacenon: Isabella Thoburn College, 
 
 252; King George’s Medical Col- 
 lege, 252 
 
 Lucknow Conference, 1911, referred 
 to, 367, 376 
 
 Lucknow University, 252 
 
 Lull, Raymond, should furnish model 
 of approach to Islam, 343 
 
 Luqman, thirteen commandments of, 
 to his son, referred to, 146 
 
 Ma’an, 157 
 Macdonald, Dr. Duncan B., Aspects 
 of Islam referred to, 344: The 
 
 Religious Attitude and Life im 
 Islam referred to, 299 
 
 Machinery, need of up-to-date, in 
 Egypt, 207-8 
 
 Madagascar has no_ distinctively 
 Moslem Press, 135 
 
 Madras, The Moslem Chronicle 
 
 appears at, 139; Presidency, List 
 of Moslem newspapers in, 383-4; 
 Presidency, number of "Moslem 
 periodicals in, 138; Queen Mary’s 
 College, 252; Tamil edition of 
 
408 
 
 The Islamic Review published at, 
 145 
 
 Magazines for women in India, 253 
 
 Mahomet, by Washington Irving, re- 
 ferred to, 356 
 
 Malabar coast, Syriac language and 
 liturgy still to be heard on the, 267 
 
 Malayalam, number of Moslem 
 periodicals in, 138 
 
 Malay-Javanese, Tiahaja- -Islam a 
 diglot of, 141 
 
 Malaysia, the extent of present-day 
 Moslem journalism in the Dutch 
 East Indies and, 140-2; signs of 
 awakening in, 16 
 
 Malcolm, Napier, Five Years in a 
 Persian Town quoted, 344-5, 350 
 
 Malta, two Arabic papers in, 131 
 
 Marabouta soul, a beautiful, 241 
 
 Margoliouth, D. Dy Mohammed and 
 the Rise of Islam referred to, 342 
 
 Marriage, agitation over plural, 8; 
 and divorce prevalent in Arabia, 
 frequent, 226; conditions pro- 
 duced by Moslem child, 220-2; 
 demand that the age of consent to, 
 for a young girl be fixed at sixteen 
 years, 223; laws in the Kabyle 
 tribal code, 238-9; the movement 
 to raise the age of, 220; passage 
 of the law of, now under con- 
 sideration in Egypt a serious 
 matter for Moslem prestige, 225 ; 
 reform of laws in regard to, 
 demanded so that women may be 
 protected against bigamy without 
 reason and repudiation without 
 serious grounds, 223; reform in 
 customs of, demanded so that two 
 parties may know each other 
 before betrothal, 223 ; relation and 
 Indian Moslem women, the, 255; 
 Turkish writer demands reforms 
 in the laws governing, 8-9 
 
 Marriages, registration and publica- 
 tion of, demanded, 9 
 
 Marseilles harbour, 234 
 
 Mason, Isaac, The Moslem World 
 quoted, 143 
 
 Mataria, Prince Yousef 
 palace at, 202 
 
 Mauritius, a French paper published 
 by Moslems at, 135 
 
 Mawardi, quoted, 50 
 
 Mazdeism, the Edessene Church made 
 innumerable conquests from, 266 
 
 Mecca, Al Kibla published at, 134; 
 Arab literature in Amman drawn 
 from, 165; has given up its 
 political influence to the Press, 124 ; 
 
 Kamal’s 
 
 INDEX 
 
 indignation at the practices of 
 Islam shown by Malay pilgrims 
 returning from, 17; Moslem duty 
 of pilgrimage to, 39; proposed 
 congress in, to settle question of 
 Sanctuaries, 41; sanctuary of, in 
 hands of Wahhabi ruler, 40; 
 Sherif of, 39; the Shurufa of, 
 formerly exercised a more extended 
 authority than the Khalif, 124; 
 slaves from, 157; Turkish and 
 Arabic paper published in, 129 
 
 Medan, Moslem periodicals published 
 at, I4I 
 
 Medical work, for Moslems, 373; for 
 women in the Near and Middle 
 East, 220 
 
 Medicine, students of, 171 
 
 Medina, 36, 39; slaves from, 157 
 
 Medressés, Turkey proposed to do 
 away with, 53 
 
 Mejid Effendi, Abdul, chosen Caliph, 
 48 ; expelled from Turkey, 48; 
 misunderstood by Assembly at 
 
 Angora, 52; not satisfied with 
 empty existence, 51; see also 
 Caliph. 
 
 Mémotre sur la conquéte de la Syrte 
 cited, 270 
 
 Meshed, complete liberty in the city 
 of, 15; Danish, published at, 137; 
 the newspapers of, 136 
 
 Mesopotamia, Anglo-Saxon political 
 system in, 336; enthusiasm for 
 the education of women in, 214; 
 the extent of present-day Moslem 
 journalism in Egypt, Arabia, and, 
 130-4; the journals of, 134; see 
 also Iraq. 
 
 Methods employed to reach Moslems, 
 the need of shifting the emphasis 
 in the, 371-3 
 
 Mielck, R., notes by, 131 
 
 Mindanao, the Moslems of, 124 
 
 Miracles of Mohammed, the so-called, 
 307 . 
 
 Mission Churches, 281-3 
 
 Mission Laique, schools of the, 174-5 
 
 Mission schools, in Egypt, Moslem 
 young women attend, 214 
 
 Missionaries, aim of National Islamic 
 schools to train Moslem, 106; and 
 native workers, need of more 
 thorough training of, 373-4; dif- 
 ferences among, regarding Bib- 
 lical criticism utilized by Moslem 
 apologetic writers, 312-13; in the 
 East, anti- Christian material pro- 
 duced in the West used to attack 
 the, 310; must understand the 
 
INDEX 
 
 heart religion of the Moslem masses, 
 300-1 ; protection of converts and, 
 necessary, 325-6 
 
 ‘Missionary, as lieutenant for Western 
 imperialism, the, 327; attitude of 
 the churches of Christendom, the, 
 119; forces, a theoretical syllogism 
 regarding the conversion of Moslem 
 lands by indigenous, 279-80 ; goal, 
 the evangelization of a country by 
 its own Christian community a 
 prominent, 279; history of the 
 ancient Oriental Churches, 266-8 ; 
 ideal of the ancient Oriental 
 Churches, the, 266; institutions, 
 desire of Moslems for education as 
 given in, 178; main business of, 
 to reflect Christ, 337; surveys of 
 Moslem fields show uneven dis- 
 tribution of Christian workers, 
 368; work, coercion in, 329-30 
 
 Missionary Training School for Mos- 
 lems at Cairo, plans for a, 309 
 
 Missions, arguments of Western 
 infidelity and liberal Christianity 
 used by the Moslem Press to 
 combat the Scriptures and Chris- 
 tian, 150; educational phase of, 
 176; growth of, in Moslem lands, 
 175-6; hampered by Western im- 
 perialism, 325; in many reforms 
 the Moslem Press is an ally 
 of Christian, 153; neglect of 
 Islam by Christian, 366; mnon- 
 Protestant, 172; revised _ pro- 
 cedure necessary in the work of 
 Christian, to Moslems, 285; 
 students from Egyptian schools 
 sent to Europe on educational, 
 201; vituperation of Christian, 
 I50-I 
 
 Moab, 157 
 
 Modern Churchmen’s Conference, 
 1921, account of, quoted from Al 
 Manar, 150 
 
 Modern Egypt, Lord Cromer, cited, 3 
 
 Modern Movements among Moslems 
 
 _ quoted, 3 
 
 Modern thought, adoption in Syria of 
 methods of Western higher criti- 
 cism to make Islam conform to, 
 14; attempts to reconcile Chinese 
 Mohammedanism with the de- 
 mands of, 14; declaration of S. 
 Khuda Bukhsh that Moslems are 
 free to conform to the demands of, 
 
 14 
 Modernism, defeat of the Turks in 
 
 the Balkan War hailed as a victory 
 
 for, 128; in Islam described, 15 
 
 409 
 
 Moehammadia, a Moslem society in 
 the Dutch East Indies, the, 141 
 Moghul Emperor, Caliph only because 
 a Moslem king, 38; proposed that 
 he and the Ottoman Emperor each 
 have possession of a Sanctuary, 39 
 
 Mohammed, as an all-round example, 
 306; as prophet'has no successor, 
 47; Caliph means successor to 
 Prophet, 47; did not intend to 
 preach new religion, 81-2, 90; 
 endeavours of present-day ortho- 
 dox Moslem apologetic to defend, 
 306 ; enforced principle of equality, 
 83; fictitious sayings attributed to, 
 85; fictitious traditions regarding, 
 81; the formula of witness to, 241 ; 
 had contact only with corrupt 
 and inadequate representations of 
 Christianity, 341 ; had no true con- 
 ception of Christianity, 341-2; Jews 
 and Christians rejected divine 
 message of, 82; the so-called 
 miracles of, 307; reinterpretation 
 of the character of, 320; substi- 
 tutes of, 34-5, 37; Wwrongness of 
 the Moslem system due to the 
 original teaching of, 345 
 
 Mohammed and the Bible referred to, 
 342 
 
 Mohammed and the 
 referred to, 342 
 
 Mohammedan Commentary on the 
 Holy Bible, The, referred to, 342 
 
 Monet, the work of, in relation to 
 Egyptian art, 206 
 
 Mongol, conquest terminated Bagh- 
 dad Caliphate, 39; Ilkhan rulers 
 of Persia honoured the Patriarch 
 and metropolitans of the Persian 
 Church, 268 
 
 Mongolian alphabets relics of Syriac 
 Christian culture, the present, 267 
 
 Monophysitism and Nestorianism 
 due largely to) isolation of early 
 Eastern Church, 267 
 
 Moosa, Miss Nebaweeya, made 
 superintendent of Girls’ Schools in 
 Egypt, 213; Woman and Work by, 
 referred to, 213 
 
 Moral and social principles, Islam’s 
 statutory conception of, contrasted 
 with Christ’s living principle of 
 spiritual freedom, 351-2 
 
 Morison, Theodore, Principal of the 
 Aligharh Moslem University, in 
 The Spectator, quoted, 343 
 
 Morocco, Arabic style of architecture 
 successfully employed in, 205; 
 excellently organized schools being 
 
 Rise of Islam 
 
410 
 
 opened in, 233; literacy statistics 
 of women in, 234; most backward 
 in journalism, 135; Sherif of, 56 
 
 Moros, attitude toward Western 
 education of Sultan of Sulu, 
 religious head of all the, 17; con- 
 tent under American rule, the, 11 
 
 Moslem Doctrine of God, The, re- 
 ferred to, 347 
 
 Moslem Prayer Book and Catechism, 
 by Hamid Snow, 309 
 
 ‘Moslem Press and the War, The,”’ 
 in The Moslem World, referred to, 
 
 134 
 
 ‘Moslem Press of Bengal, The,’’ in 
 The Moslem World, cited, 138 
 
 ** Moslem View of Christianity, A,’’ 
 in The Missionary Review of the 
 World, cited, 150 
 
 Moslem World, The, quoted, 124, 
 137-8, 143, 315; referred to, 134, 
 142, 225, 250 
 
 Moslem world-empire, 84 
 
 Mosul, has two newspaper, 134; 
 Turkish and Arabic papers pub- 
 lished in, 129 
 
 Moulvi, Mrs., resolution of, on female 
 education, 253 
 
 Mufti, Mohammed ‘Abdu of Egypt 
 famous, 43; or Sheikh al-Islam, 
 rather than Caliph, interpreter of 
 the law, 43 
 
 Sn a al Jurisprudence quoted, 
 30 
 
 Muhammedanische Studien cited, 308 
 
 Muharram festival, 329 
 
 Muir, Sir William, Annals of the Early 
 Caliphate, referred to, 3; quoted, 
 169 
 
 Mulvis, Moslem masses of India still 
 led by the orthodox, 108 
 
 Music and pictures looked upon by 
 the Moslem as unnecessary, 201 
 
 Muslim Book and Tract Depot, at 
 Lahore, 309; prints pamphlets 
 giving favourable judgments of 
 Carlyle, Bosworth Smith, and 
 others, 311 
 
 Muslim Idea of God, The, referred to, 
 
 347 
 Mussalmani-Bengali, Bible stories for 
 Moslem women prepared in, 253-4 
 Mu'tazili, mentioned as one of the 
 Moslem sects found in India, 93 
 Mystic lore, available sermons of 
 al-Jilani devoid of, 295; in 
 standard works of the Jewish 
 orders, absence of, 295-6 
 Mysticism, far-reaching character of 
 Islamic, 300; of the first six cen- 
 
 INDEX 
 
 turies of Moslem history largely 
 individualistic, 292; of the masses 
 of Moslem lands imitative and 
 traditional, 292; similarities be- 
 tween medieval Catholicand Arab, 
 293; which has degenerated into 
 dervishism the really formative 
 influence that moulds the life of 
 the Moslem masses, 300 
 
 Mystics, brotherhoods of, and wo- 
 men in North-West Africa, 241; 
 defined, 291 
 
 Mystics of Islam, The, quoted, 298 
 
 Nain, Sheikh of; mentioned, 64 
 Naqib of Baghdad, 214 
 
 Narration of a Year's Journey 
 through Central and Eastern Arabia 
 quoted, 3 
 
 National, and social aspirations, new, 
 vii; Islamic Schools, see Schools, 
 National Islamic. 
 
 ‘National Church,’ set up in 
 Persia, the first, 266 
 
 National conversion, the greatest, in 
 history, 268 
 
 Nationalism, and other similar ideas 
 predominant in Turkey to-day, 
 69-70; attitude of Indian Moslems 
 toward, 104; a vital force among 
 Moslems to-day, 10; in Palestine, 
 65; in widely separated parts of 
 the Moslem world one encounters 
 the same fire of, 65; Moslem 
 societies in the Dutch East Indies 
 for the revival of religion or, 141; 
 the outstanding idea fermenting in 
 the minds of Moslem youth to-day, 
 63 
 
 Nationalist, journals of Afghanistan, 
 two, 140; Movement, Al-Akhbar 
 favours the Egyptian, 133 ; Move- 
 ment in Egypt, Al-Ahram supports 
 the, 133; Movement in Egypt, 
 Al-Mokattam formerly hostile to 
 the, 133; movements in other 
 parts of the Moslem world, the 
 Indian Moslem’s reaction to, 105 
 
 National Moslem University of 
 Aligarh, chief of the National 
 Islamic Schools of India, 106; 
 still the premier Moslem educa- 
 tional institution of India, 106-7 
 
 ‘‘The Native Press of Egypt,’ in 
 The Egyptian Mail, 1910, referred 
 
 to, 134 
 
 Near and Middle East, medical work 
 for women in the, 220 
 
 Near East, attitude of Moslem India 
 toward emancipation of women in 
 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 the, 107; demand for an educa- 
 tion by Moslem women of the, 
 212; extent and ethnic composi- 
 tion of the Moslem, 21; parallel 
 between Catholic countries of 
 Europe and the, 23; polygamy in 
 the, 224-7; Protestant missionary 
 movement deeply influenced by 
 transformation of the Moslem, 25 ; 
 public education in the, 173 
 
 Near East Relief, significance of 
 educational work of the, 192 
 
 Nejd, ‘Antar of, 158; the domain of 
 Abdul Aziz, 329; see also Ibn 
 Saud, King of Nejd. 
 
 Neo-Platonist influence on Islam 
 detected, a strong, 292-3 
 
 The ‘‘ Nestorian ’’ Church, 263 
 
 Nestorianism and Monophysitism due 
 largely to the isolation of the early 
 Eastern Church, 267 
 
 Nestorians created an enormous 
 Asiatic Church, 267 
 
 Newspaper, in Egypt, the first Arabic, 
 126; in 1880 the American Mission 
 began to publish a Christian, 126; 
 the first non-official self-supporting 
 Turkish, 126; Lisan-ul-Hal be- 
 came the leading, in Syria and 
 the Near East, 126 
 
 Newspapers and periodicals, Bolshe- 
 vist, in Persia, 152-3; Bolshevist, 
 in Turkey, 153; in Afghanistan, 
 140; in Africa, 134-5; in Arabia, 
 134; in the Dutch East Indies, 
 140-2; in Egypt, 130-4; in 
 Europe, America, and Australia, 
 145-7; in India, 138-40; in 
 India, list of Moslem, 383-90; in 
 Japan, 140; in Mesopotamia, 134 ; 
 in Morocco, 135; in Persia, 136-8 ; 
 
 in Syria, 126; in Turkish and 
 Arabic published in Turkey, a 
 table of, 129; number of, in 
 
 Constantinople, in 1914, 128; 
 number of, in Java, 141; number 
 of, in Persia, 136; number of 
 Moslem, in Russia, 144; only 
 threeor four Chinese-Mohammedan, 
 in 1917, 143; Pan-Islamic ten- 
 dency of, in Persia, 137-8; see 
 Press ; see also Journals. 
 
 New York, Arabic papers published 
 in, 131 
 
 Nicholson, R. A., The Mystics of 
 Islam quoted, 298 
 
 Nizam of Hyderabad conferred a 
 pension on the deposed Caliph, 99 
 
 North Africa Conference, findings 
 of the, quoted, 180; referred to, 371 
 
 411 
 
 North-West Africa, the awakening 
 of women in the inland towns of, 
 234; brotherhoods of mystics and 
 women in, 241; Egypt and Turkey 
 in disfavour in, 235-6; girls 
 learning to read in, 233; the gri 
 of fear among native women of, 
 242-3; influence of Europe upon 
 the status of women in, 234-5 ; life 
 of desert women in, 232; mountain 
 women in, 232; polygamy in, 239; 
 two main ethnic elements in, 236; 
 urban life of Moslem women in, 231 
 
 Notovitch, Nicolai, the weird story 
 of Christ’s journey to India, by, 316 
 
 Nuqaba, or four henchmen of the 
 Sheikh al-Sajada, the, 297 
 
 d’Ohsson, C., Histoire des Mongols 
 quoted, 54 
 
 Omar, Caliph, a decree of, 269 
 
 Oppression, the effects of centuries 
 of, upon the ancient Orthodox 
 Churches, 272-3, 282 
 
 Oran, a vigorous daily Press at, 135 
 
 Orenburg, a centre of Moslem 
 journalism, 144 
 
 Organization, of the Conferences of 
 Christian workers among Moslems, 
 362-3; of the Qadiriya dervishes, 
 296-8 
 
 Oriental Churches, the ancient, 263 ; 
 status of the, with reference to the 
 evangelism of Islam, 374-6; see 
 also Ancient Oriental Churches. 
 
 Oriental Religions and Christianity 
 referred to, 355 
 
 Orthodox apologetic, stirring of new 
 life in the old Moslem, 305 
 
 Orthodox Eastern Church, The, 263 
 
 Orthodoxy, the present-day apolo- 
 getic literature of the old, 305-6 
 
 Osmania University in Hyderabad, 
 Deccan, conducted in Urdu, 106 
 
 Ottoman, Caliph asserted to have 
 forfeited his rights through in- 
 ability to defend himself, 42; 
 Caliphate, the, 47, 48; Sultan 
 Caliph not by inheritance but 
 because a Moslem king, 38 ; Sultan 
 first became de facto Caliph when 
 he entered into possession of the 
 Sanctuaries, 39; Sultans, resolu- 
 tion ended reign of the, 47-8 
 
 Outposts of Christianity, the ancient 
 Oriental Churches viewed as rem- 
 nants of, 264 
 
 Padang, Moslem periodicals pub- 
 lished at, 141 
 
412 
 
 Pagan Christs theory of Drews and 
 . M. Robertson used in the 
 ‘Moslem attack on Christianity, 
 310, 313 
 Painting, the new drama has pro- 
 moted the art of scene, 202; of 
 pictures in Egypt never developed 
 as an end in itself, 200 
 
 Palestine, comprehensive — school 
 system in, 174; the easy divorce 
 system in, 226; educational 
 
 systems more efficient in Egypt, 
 portions of North Africa, and, 173 ; 
 keen nationalistic feelings aroused 
 in the Moslem World by the con- 
 troversy between Jews and Arabs 
 in, 65; restive under British pro- 
 tectorate; 185; women not much 
 interested in the political situation 
 in, 219-20 
 
 Palgrave, William Gifford, Narration 
 of a Year’s Journey through Central 
 and Eastern Arabia quoted and 
 referred to, 3 
 
 Pan-Islamic tendency of the Persian 
 Press, 137-8 
 
 Pan-Islamism, attitude of the Indian 
 Moslem frankly that of, 94; the 
 break between Turkey and, 70; 
 Echos de V Islam an organ of, 145; 
 has become impossible, 11; shat- 
 tered in the mind of Moslem youth 
 by the conception of the nation, 
 63; a world-wide Association of, 
 44 
 
 Paris, nine points on the emancipa- 
 tion of woman presented in the 
 woman’s delegation in, 222-3 
 
 Park, Robert E., The Immigrant 
 Press and Its Control quoted, 146 
 
 Patronage, and encouragement of 
 artistic endeavour, need of state, 
 204; Egyptian art suffers the need 
 of local, 203 
 
 Periodicals, Moslem, see Newspapers 
 and periodicals. 
 
 Persia, advance of Bolshevism into 
 Moslem, 72; child labour in, 
 restricted by law, 223-4; conditions 
 in, produced by child marriage, 
 220-2; ° dallying with idea of a 
 republic, 186; discontent among 
 thinking Moslems encountered by 
 Robert E. Speer in, 17; divergence 
 between fanatical priestly class and 
 broad masses of modernist people 
 in, 24; educational systems exist 
 mainly on paper in, 173; educa- 
 tion for girls successfully promoted 
 by Persians themselves in, 214; 
 
 INDEX 
 
 the extent of present-day Moslem 
 journalism in, 136-8; the feminist 
 movement in, represented by 
 Zehan, 137; First ‘“ National 
 Church ”’ set up in, 266; friendly 
 attitude toward Western schools 
 in, 189; has adopted a constitu- 
 tion, 10; opinion that the spirit of 
 Islam and constitutional govern- 
 ment are forever incompatible is 
 widely expressed in, 16; Pan- 
 Islamic tendency of the Press of, 
 137-8; Patriarch and metropolitans 
 of the Persian Church honoured by 
 the Ilkhan rulers of, 268; poly- 
 gamy in, 225-6; receptive attitude 
 in, 191 ; Soviet propaganda active 
 since 1921 in the Moslem Press of, 
 152 
 
 Persian, Aman-i-Afghan and Ittihad- 
 1-Mashraqi published in, 140; 
 Press, the Soviet influence con- 
 tinues in the, 152-3 
 
 Persian Church, endured the heaviest 
 martyrdoms known to _ history, 
 267; Ilkhan rulers of Persia 
 honoured the Patriarch and metro- 
 politans of the, 268; penetrated 
 with its missionary work through 
 Tibet into China and India, 267 
 
 Persian Sketches quoted, 220-2 
 
 Person Mohammeds in Lehre und 
 Glaube seiner Gemeinde, Dte, re- 
 ferred to, 320 
 
 Perth, Australia, The Moslem Sun- 
 shine published at, 147 
 
 Peshawar, Moslem college at, men- 
 tioned, 8 
 
 Petrie, Professor Flinders, quoted, 353 
 
 Peul, the Almamy, of Futa, 124 
 
 Philadelphia, Arabic papers pub- 
 lished in, 131 
 
 Philippines, commercial relations of 
 United States of America in the, 
 114 
 
 Philippopolis, a centre of Moslem 
 literary activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Philo, the Jewish philosopher, men- 
 tioned, 28 
 
 Pilgrimage, duty of, made conditional 
 in Koran on ability, 40; one 
 unifying feature of Islamic system,. 
 38-9; to Mecca and Medina duty of 
 every Moslem, 39 
 
 Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah, 
 The, referred to, 356 
 
 Policy, need for formulation of an 
 Islamic, 115-16 
 
 Polygamy, defence of, as a solution 
 of thesocial evil, 306; discussedjin 
 
 
 
INDEX 
 
 the Moslem Press, 147; founder 
 of ‘‘The people of the Koran”’ 
 quoted regarding, 9; in Moslem 
 India, 256; in the Near East, 
 224-7; in North-West Africa, 239 ; 
 National Assembly of Albanians at 
 Tirana prohibits, 9; younger men 
 call Moslem, a curious antique, 9 
 
 Polytheism, Christianity accused of, 
 313 
 
 Poona, Bombay Presidency Moslem 
 Ladies’ Conference held at, 252-3 ; 
 Bombay Provincial Moslem Ladies’ 
 Conference held at, 107 
 
 Pope Paul III, Bull of, 174-5 
 
 Preaching of Islam, The, cited, 269 
 
 Presentation of Christianity to Moslems, 
 The, referred to, 374 
 
 Press, the Arabic, found in nearly 
 every great centre of the Moslem 
 world, 130-1 ; arguments of liberal 
 Christianity and Western infidelity 
 used by the Moslem, 150; at once 
 a proof of the unity of Islam and 
 an index to the surging currents of 
 thought, 123; Bolshevism in the 
 Moslem, 152-3; the daily and 
 weekly papers issued by _ the 
 Moslem, 71; 1873-1901 a period 
 of difficulty for the Turkish, 127; 
 freedom of the, in Turkey, 16; 
 growth of the Arabic, in Egypt, 132; 
 held responsible for the revolu- 
 tionary outbreak in Turkey, April 
 13, 1909, 128; in Egypt, compara- 
 tive freedom of the, 126; the 
 influence of the Indian, 139; in 
 many reforms Christian Missions 
 have an ally in the Moslem, 153; 
 July 25, 1908, marked the revival 
 of the Turkish, 127; Mecca has 
 given up its political influence to 
 the, 124; the Moslem and Arabic, 
 in the United States of America, 
 146; Moslem, often speaks in 
 terms of highest praise of Jesus 
 Christ, 149-50; Moslems see a new 
 agency for solidification in the, 13 ; 
 of Cairo sympathetic during war 
 with Turkey, 133; of Egypt 
 victim of censorship and sup- 
 pression during war period, 133; 
 of Persia, Pan-Islamic tendency 
 of the, 137; of Tunis has never 
 been vigorous or important, 135; 
 period between 1876 and 1908 one 
 of coercion of the Turkish, 129-30 ; 
 pears: survey of the, of the 
 
 utch East Indies, 142; present- 
 
 day achievements of the Turkish, 
 
 ~@ 
 
 418 
 
 129-30; the progressive Moslem, 
 of the present day is forward-look- 
 ing, 147; propaganda in the, for 
 the Woman’s Movement in Egypt, 
 223; the Russian Soviet has won 
 over to the programme of the Third 
 International some of the leaders of 
 the Sarikat-Islam and their, 152; 
 the Soviet influence continues in 
 the Persian, 153; Soviet pro- 
 paganda active since 1921 in the 
 Persian, 152-3; Turkey’s defeat in 
 the Balkan War a moral victory for 
 the liberty of the, 128; typical 
 topics of discussion of the present- 
 day Moslem, 147; see also Journal- 
 ism, Journals, and Newspapers. 
 
 Press and Poetry of Modern Persia, 
 The, referred to, 136 
 
 * Press in Egypt, The,” cited, 132, 133 
 
 Principles of Muhammadan Juns- 
 prudence, The, quoted, 308 
 
 Printing press, not introduced into 
 Turkey until 1728, 125 
 
 Prohibition movement promoted by 
 the Moslem Press, 153 
 
 Proposed Political, Legal, and Social 
 Reforms under Moslem Rule cited, 
 308 
 
 Protestant missionary movement, 
 deeply influenced by the trans- 
 formation of the Moslem Near 
 East, 25; hampered by distrust of 
 natives of European powers, 29; 
 has the, sufficient vital power to 
 bring to Modern Islam a spiritual 
 revival and religious reformation ? 
 26, 29; Moslem missions the test 
 of the, 27 
 
 Pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite, of 
 Alexandria, influenced strongly the 
 course of Moslem mysticism, 292-3 
 
 Public buildings, proposal to the 
 Public Works Ministry of Egypt 
 regarding, 203-4 
 
 Public opinion regarding Moslem 
 peoples, 117-18 
 
 Punjab, list of Moslem newspapers in 
 the, 387-90; Moslem population 
 of the, 93; mumber of Moslem 
 periodicals in the, 138 
 
 Purdah, attitude of Indian ladies 
 toward, 107; system, women of 
 India still cling to the, 257 
 
 Qadian, The Review of Religions 
 published at, 138 
 
 Qadiriya Order, development of the, 
 296 
 
 Queen Mary’s College, Madras, 252 
 
414 INDEX 
 
 Quranic Doctrine of God, The, referred 
 to, 347 
 
 Race, conflict between Arabic and 
 non-Arabic, 87-9; -conflict in- 
 surmountable obstacle to peace, 79; 
 the divorce of, from religion, 70 ; 
 Science of, 79-80 
 
 “* Racists,’ 88 
 
 Rahim, Sir Abdur, Muhammadan 
 Jurisprudence quoted, 308 
 
 Rahmatu’llah on the Koran, 316 
 
 Raiq, Ibn, usurped power in A.H., 
 324, 37 
 
 Ramadhan moon, the, 241 
 
 Rashdall, Dr. Hastings, referred to, 
 313 
 
 Rasgrad, a centre of Moslem literary 
 activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Raymond Lull quoted, 344 
 
 Redemption, the core of the issue 
 between Christianity and Islam, 
 314-15 
 
 Reform, present-day Moslem journal- 
 ism devotes much space to the call 
 for social and religious, 152 
 
 Reformation, can missionary Pro- 
 testantism bring modern Islam a 
 religious? 26; renaissance and 
 Protestant, 23 
 
 Reforms, in Islam an acknowledg- 
 ment of charges as to its historic 
 influence and tendency, 352-4; in 
 Islam due largely to contact with 
 Christianity, 354; the Moslem 
 Press an ally of Christian missions 
 in many, 153 
 
 Reforms Act, in India, Moslems op- 
 posed to further extension of the, 
 
 105 
 
 Relations, between the ancient 
 Oriental Churches and Western 
 Christianity improved, 274-5; 
 between Far Eastern and Near 
 Eastern Moslems, 94; between 
 Islam and Christianity brought 
 much closer by Zaghloul Pasha, 
 62-3; commercial, of Great 
 Britain and United States of 
 America in Moslem lands, 114; 
 of the sexes influenced by cinema 
 showing scenes from Western life, 
 6 
 
 7 
 Religion, emancipation of Moslem 
 women of India along the line of, 
 258-9; increased freedom in, 
 viii; re-evaluation of Islam as a, 
 
 Vili 
 Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, 
 The, cited, 299 
 
 Religious life, of the Arab woman, 
 the, 241; of Moslem women in the 
 cities and towns of North-West 
 Africa, 241-2 
 
 Religious systems, 
 coercive, 329-30 
 
 Renaissance, existence of the Arabic, 
 183; failure of Westerners to 
 realize the significance of the 
 Arabic, 184; in contemporary 
 Islam and that of Judaism in the 
 first century, 28; the Moslem 
 political, 184; of Arabic culture, 
 the, viil; part played by Arab 
 learning in the, 170-1; situation 
 changed in the Moslem Near East 
 in the last twenty-five years by 
 the world, 21; some _ editors 
 proclaim, and some sound the 
 death-knell of, an Islamic, 151 
 
 Republican form of government, 
 Caliphate declared to be incon- 
 sistent with, 98 
 
 Resht, has four newspapers, 136; 
 The Red Revolution distributed 
 gratuitously at, 152 
 
 Resurrection, the swoon theory of 
 the, 315-16 
 
 Revival, hardly possible that there 
 will come out of Islam itself a 
 strong religious, 25; has mission- 
 ary Protestantism sufficient vital 
 power to bring to modern Islam a 
 spiritual . ? 26 
 
 Rice, W. a "Crusaders of the Twen- 
 tieth Century quoted, 343, 348; 
 referred to, 347 
 
 Ridha, Sheikh Rashid, again draws 
 on Drews, Kalthoff, and J. M. 
 Robertson, 313; Agqidat as-Salb 
 wa’l-Fida referred to, 315; editing 
 Mohammed ‘Abdw’s, Tafsir, 317- 
 18; has planned a Missionary 
 Training School for Moslems in 
 Cairo, 309 ; Nazra fi Kuiub al Ahad 
 al Jadid referred to, 312; the 
 spiritual legatee of Mohammed 
 ‘Abdu, 133; Dr. Tawfik Sidqi, a 
 disciple of, 312; uses the Pagan 
 Christs theory in attack on Chris- 
 tianity, 310, 313 
 
 clash of rival 
 
 Riggs, Rev. Charles T., quotation of © 
 
 translation from Igdam, 9 
 Robert College, 74 
 Robertson, J. M., Pagan Christs 
 theory. of Drews and, 310, 313 
 Rome, nine points in the emancipa- 
 tion of woman read before the 
 International Woman’ s Conven- 
 tion at, 222-3 
 
 —— ee 
 
INDEX 
 
 Ronaldshay, Lord, India, a Bird’s- 
 Eye View, quoted, 12; referred to, 
 355 
 
 Ruschuk, a centre of Moslem literary 
 activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Russia, conversion of, by the Byzan- 
 tine nation the greatest national 
 conversion of history, 268; extent 
 of present-day Moslem journalism 
 in, 144-5; number of Moslem 
 newspapers in, 144-5 
 
 Sacrifice, Moslems repelled by 
 Christ’s, 333-4 
 
 St. Paul’s College, mentioned, 74 
 
 Saints, the cult of, the outstanding 
 feature of the Moslem masses, 299 
 
 Salim, Sultan, founder of the Otto- 
 man Caliphate, 48 
 
 Salvation, concept of, as saving 
 health of society slow to dawn on 
 religious world, 192 
 
 Samarkand, 144 
 
 Sanctuaries, divided between Otto- 
 man and Moghul Caliphates, 39; 
 should be in possession of Moslem 
 power, 39 
 
 Sanctuary, of Mecca in the hands of 
 the Wahhabi ruler, the, 40; re- 
 covery of the, from Wahhabis the 
 first duty of the Caliph, 42 
 
 Sarikat-Islam, a Moslem society in 
 the Dutch East Indies, the, 141; 
 the Russian Soviet has won over 
 certain leaders and sections of the 
 Press of the, 152 
 
 Saud, Ibn, King of Nejd, Indian 
 Moslems welcomed attack on 
 Hussein by, ror; mentioned by 
 the Moslems of India as possible 
 Caliph, tor; proclaimed saviour 
 of the Holy Places of Islam, ror 
 
 School, of fine arts has been estab- 
 lished in Egypt, 202; the first 
 government girls’, in Egypt, 217; 
 for girls in Smyrna, a fine training, 
 212; work in North-West Africa, 
 hospital and, 244 
 
 Schools, Amir of Afghanistan has 
 instituted for nomadic tribes 
 travelling, 8; being opened in 
 Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, 
 233; contributions of the West- 
 ern, I95; English, French, and 
 German in the curricula of all, in 
 Moslem lands, 5; for Indian 
 Moslem girls, need of Christian, 
 252; free access to higher, asked 
 for all women wishing to study, 
 222-3; growth in enrolment of 
 
 415 
 
 girls in Egyptian Government, 213 ; 
 history of art to be introduced into 
 the Egyptian, 203; in Egypt, 
 Moslem young women attend, 214 ; 
 in Smyrna, training departments 
 in the public, 212; large sums of 
 money allocated to Egyptian 
 industrial, 203; movement for 
 better, in Persia, Turkey, Arabia, 
 Egypt, North Africa, and Malaysia, 
 8; National Islamic, 106; of the 
 Jesuit Fathers, the Fréres, the 
 Mission Laique, or the Italians, 
 174-5; of Western learning, in- 
 crease in numbers of Moslem 
 youth in, viii; plans for erection 
 in Egypt of new arts and crafts, 
 202; students sent to Europe on 
 educational missions from Egyp- 
 tian, 201; thousands of Indian 
 girls now studying in primary and 
 middle, and scores in high, 252; 
 under patronage of Protestant 
 missions, 172 
 
 Science, development of, in eleventh 
 century, 171; the general effort 
 in Moslem lands to _ reconcile 
 ancient Islam and modern, 13; 
 Moslems show a swiftly increasin 
 appreciation of Western applie 
 technical, 66 
 
 Scientific method, official seal placed 
 on the, 174 
 
 Scriptures, the attack on the validity 
 of the, 311-12; the theory of 
 Abrogation of the Christian, 313 
 
 Secular point of view increasingly 
 evident in Moslem youth of to-day, 
 69 
 
 Seleucia-Ctesiphon, a base of ancient 
 Oriental Christendom, 266 
 
 Sell, Edward, The Faith of 
 quoted, 56-7 
 
 Semarang, Moslem periodicals pub- 
 lished at, 141 
 
 Senussi movement in Italian Tripoli, 
 
 Islam 
 
 26 
 
 Sermons of al-Jilani devoid of mystic. 
 lore, 295 
 
 Sévres, Treaty of, 95 
 
 Shafi, Lady Mohammed, of Simla, 
 254 
 
 Shanghai, a new International Mos- 
 lem Association, at, 143 
 
 Shapur II, The Persian Church en- 
 dured heaviest martyrdom known 
 to history in reign of, 267 
 
 Sharia, changes in the, 216 ;, Moslems 
 warned not to violate, 148; Tur- 
 key proposed to do away with, 
 
416 
 
 53; whole life of Moslem popula- 
 tion regulated by, 23 
 
 Sharja merchant, 325 
 
 Sharwish, Sheikh, 309 
 
 ** Shehedi, shehedi,’’ the formula of 
 witness to Mohammed, 241 
 
 Sheikh al-Islam, or Mufti, 43, 125 
 
 Sheikh al-Sajada, the, 296-7 
 
 Shelter-homes, need of, among Ka- 
 byle and Arab women, 239 
 
 Shias, adherents of Ali, 35; do not 
 accept Caliphate of Ottoman 
 Sultans, 55-6; the great heretical 
 sect of Islam, 329; of Bahrein, 329 
 
 Shii, 93 
 
 Shiraz has seven papers, 136 
 
 Shumla, a centre of Moslem literary 
 activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Shu‘ ib, 83, 88 
 
 Shu‘ tbiyya, 88 
 
 Sidqi, Dr. Tawfik, 312 
 
 Simon, Gottfried, quoted, 17 
 
 Sin, and righteousness, Moslems hold 
 legalistic ideas regarding, 349-51 ; 
 the Moslem and Christian concep- 
 tions of, 349-51; the Moslem 
 definition of, 350 
 
 Sina, Ibn, recognized authority on 
 interpretation of Aristotle, 170-1 
 
 Sindhi, number of Moslem periodicals 
 in, 138 
 
 Sivas, Turkish papers published in, 
 
 129 
 
 Smith, R. Bosworth, Carlyle, and 
 others, Muslim Tract Depot prints 
 pamphlets giving favourable judg- 
 ments of, 311; in an address 
 before the Fellows of Zion’s College, 
 quoted, 354-5 
 
 Smyrna, a fine training school for 
 girls in, 212; much money being 
 devoted to teacher-training depart- 
 ments in public schools in, 212 
 
 Snow, Hamid, Moslem Prayer Book 
 and Catechism by, 309 
 
 Social, and religious reform, present- 
 day Moslem journalism devotes 
 much space to the call to, 152; 
 aspirations, new, vii; changes in 
 Islam revolutionary, 8; _ evil, 
 attempt to defend polygamy as a 
 solution of the, 306; standards for 
 Moslem women, the setting up of 
 new, 255; work specially needed, 
 
 373 
 Societies, formed by women in Egypt 
 after the war, 217; for the revival 
 of religion or nationalism in the 
 Dutch East Indies, Moslem, 141 
 Socotra, Island of, 367 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Sofia, a centre of Moslem literary 
 activity in Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Solo, Moslem periodicals published 
 at, I41 
 
 South Africa, one or two vernacular 
 and a Gujarati-English paper con- 
 ducted by Moslems in, 135 
 
 South America, Arabic papers pub- 
 lished in, 131 
 
 Soviet, influence continues in the 
 Persian Press, 153; influence over 
 the Moslem Press of the Russian, 
 152-3; propaganda active in the 
 Moslem Press of Persia since 1921, 
 152; the Russian, has its agents 
 in Java, 152; Russian Moslems 
 held by the régime of the, 11 
 
 Spain, children of al-Qadir became 
 heads of Qadiri orders in, 296 
 
 Speer, Dr. Robert E., cited, 16, 17 
 
 Spirit of Islam, The, referred to, 256, 
 
 346 
 
 Spiritual revolt against formalism in 
 Islam, 17 
 
 Srinagar, the tomb of Jesus asserted 
 to be in, 316 
 
 Stamboul, most significant literary 
 contribution to Amman from, 159 ; 
 prevalence of unveiled women in, 
 
 216 
 
 State, the Moslem Indian view of the 
 separation of Church and, 103-4; 
 movement toward separation of 
 Church and, 186; Turkey has 
 separated Church and, 10 
 
 Student Christian Movement in the 
 Near East, referred to, 375 
 
 Student Volunteer Missionary Move- 
 ment in the West, 286 
 
 Sudan, polygamy still the rule in the, 
 226-7; women and girls from 
 Islamic homes learning the value 
 of education in the, 215 
 
 Sufis, or mystic teachers of Islam, 292 
 
 Sufism, fear of Moslem world as to 
 orthodoxy of, dispelled, 293 
 
 Sulu, the Sultan of, 17 
 
 Sumatra, and other islands, news- 
 papers of, 141; progress in, 142 
 
 Sunni mentioned as one of the Moslem 
 sects of India, 93 
 
 Supernatural Religion, by Walter R. 
 Cassel, referred to, 312 
 
 Superstition a dominant factor in the 
 life of native women in North-West 
 Africa, 242-3 
 
 Surabaya, a centre of Moslem publica- 
 tions in the Dutch East Indies, 
 141; Moslem periodicals published 
 at, 141 
 
INDEX 
 
 Surveys in certain Moslem fields 
 show excessive concentration of 
 missionary forces in certain centres 
 to neglect of rest of field, 368 
 
 Swahili, Mambo Leo a pioneer of the 
 Press in, 135 
 
 Switzerland, Arabic papers 
 lished in, 131 
 
 Syria, adoption of methods of 
 Western higher criticism to make 
 Islam conform to modern thought 
 in, 14; the extent of present-day 
 journalism in Turkey and, 125-30 ; 
 immediate problem adjustment of 
 policy and mandatory power in, 
 188-9; the Moslem women’s 
 educational movement in, 214-15 ; 
 polygamy and the divorce evil in, 
 226; restive under French pro- 
 tectorate, 185 ; Turkish and Arabic 
 papers published in, 129; the 
 Woman’s Movement in, 219 
 
 Syriac, Christian culture, present 
 Mongolian alphabets relics of, 267 ; 
 language and liturgy still to be 
 heard on the Malabar Coast, 267 
 
 ** Syrian Orthodox’’ Church, The, 
 263 
 
 pub- 
 
 Tabari, Abi, Annales quoted, 269-70 
 
 Tabari, Ali, 305 
 
 Tabriz, Azad, a paper published in, 
 quoted, 353; has four news- 
 papers, 136 
 
 Tackle, The Rev. J., of India, quoted, 
 
 17 
 
 Tafstr, 317-18 
 
 Tamerlane, from Khalid to, 264; 
 invasion, the, 267 
 
 Tamil, edition of The Islamic Review, 
 published at Madras, 145 ; number 
 of Moslem periodicals in, 138 
 
 Tangier, the first newspaper pub- 
 lished at, 135 
 
 Tantawi, Tafsivy referred to, 317 
 
 Tanzim, or the organization and im- 
 provement of the Moslem com- 
 munity in India, 106 
 
 Tartars, invasion of the, 171 
 
 Tashkent, Zngilab (Revolution) and 
 Kyzyl Bairak (The Red Flag) both 
 published at, 152; Moslem news- 
 papers at, 144 
 
 Taymiyya, Ibn, 305 
 
 Teachers’ Association held a meeting 
 in 1924, in Angora, 212 
 
 Teacher-training departments, public 
 schools in Smyrna devoting much 
 money to, 212 : 
 
 Tehran, has 18 papers, 136; Soviet 
 
 28 
 
 417 
 
 propaganda active in the Moslem 
 Press of Persia since the appoint- 
 
 ment in 1921t of a_ Bolshevik 
 Minister at, 152 
 Temour, Aishat at, the Egyptian 
 
 poetess, 216 
 
 Ten Great Religions quoted, 347-8 
 
 Terazzi, Count de, collection of news- 
 papers and journals gathered by, 
 131; number of Egyptian papers 
 in the collection of, 132 
 
 Textile industries in Egypt, 206-8 
 
 Third International and the Sarikat- 
 Islam, 152 
 
 Tibet, penetration of early Persian 
 Church into, 267 
 
 Tiflis, an important Moslem centre, 
 144 
 
 Tirana, National 
 Albanians at, 9 
 
 Tlemsen, a vigorous daily Press at, 
 
 Association of 
 
 135 
 
 Tokyo, The Islamic Fraternity pub- 
 lished at, 140 
 
 Toleration, need of exercising more, 
 in approach to Moslems, x 
 
 Tolstoi, an Arabic translation of the 
 favourable account of Mohammed 
 and Islam by, 311 
 
 Touaregs, a branch of the Kabyles 
 inhabiting the recesses of the 
 desert, 236 
 
 Tourists and travellers from the 
 West exerting an increasing in- 
 fluence upon Islam, 4 
 
 Traditions, becoming more and more 
 neglected, 308; fictitious, 81; 
 missionaries apt to assume that 
 Islam to-day is the religion of the 
 Koran and the, 300 
 
 Training of missionaries and native 
 workers, 373 
 
 Trans-Jordan, 157 
 
 Tripoli has only one or two Arabic 
 papers, 135 
 
 Troitsk, an important Moslem centre, 
 
 144 
 
 Trotter, I. Lilias, 368 
 
 Tunis, Al Bustani and Al Muhatyr 
 published in, 135; As Sawwab 
 published in, 135 ; first newspaper 
 published in, in 1862, 134; Mur- 
 shid, a newspaper of, 135; Party, 
 the Young, 135; Press of, never 
 vigorous or important, 135 
 
 Tunisia, excellently organized schools 
 being opened in, 233; literacy 
 statistics of women in, 234 
 
 Turkey, Abdul Mejid Effendi ex- 
 pelled from, 48; Agha Khan and 
 
418 
 
 Ameer Ali appealed to Govern- 
 ment of, 51; and Egypt in dis- 
 favour in North-West Africa, 
 235-6; Angora new capital of, 51 ; 
 the beginning of journalism in, 
 126; Bolshevik mewspapers in, 
 153; the break between, and Pan- 
 Islamism, 70; Cairo Press during 
 the war sympathetic to, 133; 
 despotic dictatorship in, 25 ; educa- 
 tional systems exist mainly on 
 paper in, 173; effect of the war on, 
 128; ended reign of Ottoman 
 sultans, 47-8; the extent of pre- 
 sent-day journalism in Syria and, 
 125-30; freedom of the Press in, 
 16; Grand National Assembly of, 
 47, 48, 49, 51; the hard, bright 
 flame of nationalism in, 72; has 
 lost her peculiar relationship to 
 rest of Moslem world by abolition 
 of the Caliphate, 11; hostility to 
 Western enterprises and schools in, 
 187-8 ; Indian Moslems prefer to 
 see Caliphate restored to; Io1; 
 legislation in, to ameliorate the 
 condition of women, 222-3; more 
 than 800 journals published after 
 the revolution in, 130; nominal 
 republic in, 185; one of the 
 tragic events of modern history 
 that Caliphate has been given up 
 by, 25; an organized movement 
 for education of women in, 212; 
 past of Western education closed 
 chapter in, 187; polygamy in, 
 
 224; presents new situation to 
 Western educators, 188; the 
 printing press introduced into, 
 
 125; progress in the emancipation 
 of women in, 215-16; proposed to 
 do away with the Sharia and the 
 medressés, 53 ; secular and national- 
 istic ideas in, 69-70; separation of 
 Church and State in, 10;  sus- 
 picious attitude in, 191; women 
 of, lead in the educational move- 
 ment of the Islamic world, 212 
 
 Turki, Arabic, and Persian languages 
 represented in the Press of Bu- 
 khara, 144 
 
 Turkish and Arabic, a table of news- 
 papers published in, 129 
 
 Turkistan, Ingqilab and Kyzyl Bairak 
 preach communism to all, 152; 
 little progress in the life of women 
 in Chinese, 224; polygamy the 
 rule only among those who can 
 afford it in, 226 
 
 Turks, invasion-of the, 171 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ufa, the headquarters of the Moham- 
 medan ecclesiastical assembly, 144 
 
 Ulama, meeting of, held in Cairo, 
 53; or Scribes interpreters of the 
 law, 50 
 
 United Provinces, list of Moslem 
 newspapers in, 385-6; number of 
 Moslem periodicals in the, 138 
 
 Unity of Islam, 90 
 
 Unoccupied areas, of the Moslem 
 field, population of the, 367; of 
 the Moslem field, under-occupied 
 
 and, 367-8 
 Unorthodox Moslem apologetic, 
 addressed in the main to the 
 
 Western educated classes, 311; 
 better instructed than the ortho- 
 dox, 307; freer than the ortho- 
 dox, 307; uses Christianity’s own 
 methods, 309 
 
 Urdu, edition of The Islamic Review 
 published at Lahore, 145; num- 
 ber of Moslem periodicals in, 138 
 
 Vambéry, Armin, Western Culture in 
 Eastern Lands referred to, 356 
 
 Valuation of men, Christ’s, 325-8 
 
 Van, Turkish paper published in, 
 
 129 
 
 Vaniyambadi, Moslem college at, 8 
 
 Varna, a centre of literary activity in 
 Bulgaria, 145 
 
 Veil, rapid disappearance of the, in 
 Egypt, 218, 219 
 
 ' Wafd, Al-Balagh inspired by the, 133 
 
 Wahhabi, conqueror to permit pil- 
 grimage, 41; fraternity most 
 fanatical of Sunni sects, 328; 
 mentioned as one of the Moslem 
 sects found in India, 93; Move- 
 ment a result of the attempt of 
 Islam to meet new conditions, 13-- 
 14; Sultan has on his side the logic 
 of the ‘‘ stricken field, ’’41 ; warriors 
 taken prisoners and used for road- 
 mending, 157 
 
 Waite, Arthur Edward, quoted, 291 
 
 Wakil Sheikh al-Sajada, defined, 297 
 
 War, effect of the, upon Islam revolu- 
 tionary, 6; effect of the, on Turkey, 
 128° 
 life of women in India, 249; 
 Moslem Indians and the, 94-5; 
 Moslem youth has lost the com- 
 placency that marked its attitude 
 toward Islam before the, 67; of 
 Succession, first, 35; shattering 
 impact of the, in influencing the 
 mind of the Moslem youth, 67 
 
 influence of the, upon the — 
 
INDEX 
 
 Weakening and disintegration of 
 Islam, 363-4 
 
 Weltevreden, Batavia, Moslem perio- 
 dicals published at, 141 
 
 West, attitude toward the ancient 
 Oriental Churches held by Chris- 
 tians of the, 264; opportunity of 
 the Christian, to impart to the 
 ancient Eastern Churches its 
 fresher idealism, 265; scientific 
 method of education developed in 
 the, 174 
 
 Western, civilization keenly debated 
 by Moslems, 65; education 
 awakening the minds of the 
 Moslem youth, 4; education 
 established fact in Moslem lands, 
 179; education, results of, 180; 
 educators facing new situation in 
 Turkey, 188; governments, hos- 
 tility to, vii; ideas on. secular 
 subjects do not bring Islam nearer 
 to Christianity, 69; imperialism a 
 hindrance to Christian missions, 
 325; imperialism, the missionary 
 as a lieutenant for, 327; infidelity 
 used by Moslem Press to combat 
 Scriptures and Christian Missions, 
 150; intellectual debt to Arab 
 peoples, 169-72; languages, a 
 means of contact of Islamic with 
 non-Moslem lands in the increasing 
 knowledge of, 5; learning, in- 
 crease in the numbers of Moslem 
 schools and colleges of, viii; life 
 and thought have had their effect 
 on Moslem apologetic, 305 ; models, 
 governmental systems fashioned 
 on, 174; Oriental method of 
 education opposed to, 176-7; 
 reading in Moslem lands, 68; 
 school, contributions of the, 195; 
 technical science imitated by the 
 Moslems in raising the standard of 
 living, 66 ; ways of life, the leaning 
 of the young Turk and the young 
 Egyptian toward, 70 
 
 Western Christianity, and the ancient 
 Oriental Churches, improvement in 
 relations between, 274-5; the 
 duty of, toward the ancient 
 Oriental Churches, 274, 275-6 
 
 Western Civilization in tis Economic 
 Aspect in Ancient Times quoted, 57 
 
 Western Culture in Eastern Lands 
 referred to, 356 
 
 Whately, Archbishop, quoted, 378 
 
 Wilson, Samuel Graham, Modern 
 Movements Among Moslems, quota- 
 tion from Lord Houghton cited, 3 
 
 419 
 
 Woking, group have published John 
 Davenport’s Apology for Muham- 
 mad and the Quran, and other 
 books, 311; The Islamic Review 
 published at, 145, quoted, 151; 
 version of the Ahmadiya Com- 
 mentary on the Koran, 313 
 
 Woking Koran, The, see Holy 
 Qur'an. 
 
 Woman’s Movement, in Iraq, 217-18 ; 
 in Syria, 219 
 
 Women, abroad for study, Ministry 
 of Education in Egypt sending 
 young, 213; and the new day in 
 the Islamic world, 70; Arab and 
 Kabyle, compared, 240; the 
 Association of Egyptian, for Social 
 and Intellectual Improvement, 
 217; attend mission schools in 
 Egypt, Moslem young, 214; 
 attitude of Indian Moslem, toward 
 feminist movements in Europe and 
 America, 107; Bible stories in 
 Mussalmani-Bengali prepared for 
 Moslem village, 253-4; brother- 
 hoods of mystics and, in North- 
 West Africa, 241; character, life, 
 and status of the Kabyle, 237-8; 
 character of the Arab, 243 ; classes 
 of, in India reached by the educa- 
 tion movement, 251; conspicuous 
 examples of leadership among 
 Indian Moslem, 254; eagerness in 
 India to promote the cause of 
 education for, 252; elevation of 
 status of, viii; emancipation of 
 Moslem Indian, along the line of 
 religion, 258-9; enthusiasm in 
 Mesopotamia for the education of, 
 214; free access to all higher 
 schools asked for, 222-3 ; in Cairo, 
 Lady Byng formed an_Inter- 
 national Club for, 217; in the 
 cities and towns of North-West 
 Africa, Moslem, 241-2; in Egypt 
 after the war, societies formed by, 
 217; in India, literacy of, 250- 
 1; in India, magazines for, 253; 
 in India, changes in the life of, 
 249; in the Moslem world still 
 unreached probably number 
 100,000,000, 368; in Palestine not 
 interested in political situation, 
 219-20; in the Near and Middle 
 East, medical work for, 220; in 
 the Near East beginning to demand 
 an education, Moslem, 212; in 
 Stamboul, prevalence of unveiled, 
 216; in the Sudan learning the 
 value of an education, 215; in 
 
4:20 
 
 Turkey, an organized movement 
 for the education of, 212; Indian 
 attitude toward the emancipation 
 of, 107; influence of the Caliphate 
 agitation upon the life of Indian, 
 249; influence of Europe upon the 
 status of, in North-West Africa, 
 234-5; legislation to ameliorate 
 the condition of, 222-3; life of 
 Bedouin, 232; life of desert, in 
 North-West Africa, 232; literacy 
 statistics of, in Algeria, Tunisia, 
 and Morocco, 234; literature for 
 Indian, 253; little progress in the 
 life of, in Chinese Turkistan, 224 ; 
 low state of education among, a 
 cause of the backwardness of 
 Islamic civilization, 7; the mar- 
 riage relation and Indian Moslem, 
 255; mountain, in North-West 
 Africa, 232; the need of books for 
 Mohammedan, 254; need of 
 shelter-homes for the Kabyle and 
 Arab, 239; the new freedom of, 
 and the agitation over plural 
 marriages, 8; nine points on the 
 emancipation of, 222-3; of Egypt, 
 literacy statistics among the, 214 ; 
 of India, effect of the emancipation 
 of women in Egypt and Turkey 
 upon the, 249; of India, literacy 
 statistics among the, 249; of 
 India, professions entered by the, 
 254-5; of India still cling to the 
 purdah system, 257; of North- 
 West Africa, awakening of, 234; 
 of North-West Africa, the grip of 
 fear in the life of the native, 242-3 ; 
 of Turkey lead in the educational 
 movement of the Islamic world, 
 212; progress of the education of, 
 in Egypt, 212-13; progress in the 
 emancipation of, in Turkey, 215- 
 16; religious life of the, 241; the 
 setting up of new social standards 
 for, 255; the significance of the 
 Press to Moslem, 153; sweeping 
 social change in Moslem countries 
 greatly aided by the new education 
 reaching, 9; the Syrian Educa- 
 
 INDEX 
 
 tional Movement among, 214; 
 taking a prominent part in the 
 revival of art in Egypt, 208; 
 urban life of Moslem, in North- 
 West Africa, 231 
 
 World War, 184, 187 
 
 Yaballaha III, 268 
 
 Yemen, Turkish paper published in, 
 129. 
 
 Young, importance in every Moslem 
 field of work for the, 371-2 
 
 Young Tunis Party, the, 135 
 
 Young Turk Movement, the, 184 
 
 ‘“ Young Woman’s Club, The,’ in 
 Egypt, 217 
 
 Youth, complacency no _ longer 
 characteristic of Moslem, 67 ; ideal 
 of Pan-Islamism shattered by the 
 nationalistic conception in the 
 mind of the Moslem, 63; national- 
 ism has replaced other move- 
 ments in the mind of Turkish, 72 ; 
 of Islam to-day actuated pre- 
 dominantly by secular ideas, 69, 
 70; unprecedented awakening of 
 the Arab, 13 
 
 Yiin-nan-fu, The Islamitic Review 
 published at, 143 
 
 Zaghloul Pasha, Saad, Al-Balagh 
 inspired by, 133; mentioned, 61, 
 216; significance of, 62 
 
 Zaghloulist, Al-Siassa anti-, 133; 
 Wadinnil until the fall of the 
 Government resolutely, 133 
 
 Zia, the poet of Turkish nationalism, 
 quoted, 105 
 
 ‘ Ziara’’ pilgrimage, the, 242 
 
 Ziky of women in the desert, 241 
 
 Zion’s College, an address of Mr. R. 
 Bosworth Smith before the Fellows 
 of, quoted, 354-5 
 
 Zwemer, S. M., The Moslem Doctrine 
 of God referred to, 347; cited, 15, 
 16; ‘‘A Moslem View of Chris- 
 tianity,” in The Missionary Review 
 of the World, referred to, 150; 
 quoted, 93; Raymond Lull quoted, 
 
 344 
 
 Made and Printed in Great Britain. 
 Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. 
 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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