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CHINESE CULTURE
AND CHRISTIANITY
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Chinese Culture and
Christianity
A REVIEW OF CHINA’S RELIGIONS AND RELATED
SYSTEMS FROM THE CHRISTIAN STANDPOINT
’ He y
' JAMES LIVINGSTONE STEWART
Professor of Philosophy and Comparative Religions, West
China Union University, Chengtu, Szechwan.
Author of “The Laughing Buddha,” etc.
“‘The world’s peace rests with China, and whoever
understands China socially, politically, economically,
religiously, holds the key to world politics during the
neat five centuries.’—JoHN Hay.
New Yorr CHICAGO
Fleming H. Revell Company
LoNDON AND EDINBURGH
Copyright, MCMxxvI, by
FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY
New York: 158 Fifth Avenue
Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave.
London: 21 Paternoster Square
Edinburgh: 99 George Street
To my many Chinese Comrades,
my Foreign Fellow-workers, and
the Big Four of my own Family,
These Pages
are put forth with the prayer
that they may play some small
part in China’s progress toward
Christ, and a Chinese Christian
Culture.
wr les
eee Lhe ®
oF et od ee i
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Foreword
the rallying-cry of a clamorous group in
China.
What is this “cultural invasion”? Let the agi-
tators themselves explain: !
‘“‘ Labourers, Farmers, Students, Merchants, All who
are oppressed! ” runs their manifesto, “ We do not
fear Imperialism as shown in machine-guns, in customs
conferences, in unequal treaties. What we do fear is
the subtle, invisible, cultural invasion of Christianity,
for it brings with it the deceptive instruments of ten-
derness and philanthropy. It is these activities that
destroy our nation, weaken our place among peoples,
make us insensitive, so that we think that ‘even the
thief is our father! ’
“ Fellow-countrymen! If we all become Christians,
and all China becomes Christianized, then Imperialism
will become like a great sword and an executioner’s
axe throughout the land, plundering our homes and
cutting us to pieces. We must organize, must unite,
must fight this force with all our might! ”
Those of us who know something of Christian cul-
ture cannot but stand astounded at such statements.
We are compelled to pause and inquire, “ Are we really
blundering? Is all our mighty effort to win China’s
millions to think and feel and will and live the Christ-
7
ct Oe Cultural Invasion! ” Such, today, is
8 FOREWORD
life, individually and socially, a monumental error?
Is Chinese culture good enough? Is it going to fit
into, and forward a new world-order, a day of peace,
prosperity and good will among men, for which the
great leaders of the nations are labouring?’ These
can only be answered by asking another question,
What is Chinese culture? The studies in this book
are an attempt, in part, to answer that pertinent
inquiry.
But not alone should those interested in the mission-
ary movement of our day be concerned. The Western
merchant, the soldier, the minister, the traveller, the
men of the consular, customs and other services are
more and more constantly coming into contact with
the vast multitudes in China. How impossible to com-
prehend their standpoint without a study of their
cultures! Imagine an Oriental, living in our midst
and seeking to adjust himself to our civilization, yet
knowing nothing of our predilections regarding white,
black and yellow races, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants
and Catholics; of our institutions of home and shop
and hospital, church and state; of our unwritten codes
affecting and concerning male and female, communica-
tion and commerce, hospitality and honour! In such
case our social structure would ever remain for him a
great, impenetrable maze. Good relations require
good understanding.
Then there is that wider circle of press, pulpit and
public life which seeks daily to understand the vast
Orient and interpret it to the West. How are those
who form it to construe outer movements without
FOREWORD 9
comprehending inner motives? The passing gener-
ation has almost exclusively been absorbed in the in-
vestigation, adaptation and accumulation of things.
In its eagerness it almost ignored the fact that things
exist only for men—all men. In its exploitation of
natural resources it thought of whole races, not as
ends but as means. Today, we, the descendants of
that generation, are brought up sharply by the sudden
and sullen rumblings of vast reactions and rebellions
among the patient, perspicacious peoples of the Orient.
We of the Occident must readjust our values, broaden
our vision, deepen our sympathies, correct our con-
tacts, or reap the whirlwind of wrong-doing and
misunderstanding.
We may accept as an axiom that all men desire to
live and that, in their best moments, most men desire
to live well. To do so requires proper adjustment to
men and things and to that invisible intelligence behind
both men and things which we call Spirit. Leaders of
peoples, down long centuries and in all lands have been
attempting these adjustments. Some have made but
poor adjustments based upon very primitive interpreta-
tions. It is our commission, today, to seek to remedy
these misinterpretations and maladjustments, and, in
the spirit of compassion, to co-operate for a better
world.
The expert in things Chinese will possibly find little
that is new in these studies. Indeed, he will probably
differ with some of their findings. The writer can only
claim that he has endeavoured, wherever possible, to
check his conclusions by discussions and investigations
10 FOREWORD
carried on during a score of years of residence among
his Chinese scholar and other friends, far in the heart
of China. He immediately acknowledges his indebt-
edness to the great sinologues of the past and to his
contemporaries of today, and he has tried, wherever
possible, to acknowledge such indebtedness.
Unfortunately, the valued lore of the real experts on
matters relating to China is scattered here and there in
various volumes, some of them quite difficult to secure.
The writer has sought to select some of this and ar-
range it in such form and order as he trusts will prove
convenient to the reader and serve, at least, as an intro-
duction for further investigations. Should these studies
be brought to the attention of some of great China’s
clever young leaders of today, the writer trusts they
will accept them, in the spirit of candour in which they
are written. As they, themselves, when concluding an
address, say with fine courtesy: ‘‘ Where I am in error,
_ please instruct me.” Doubtless our own Western cul-
ture will one day come to be richly benefitted by the
constructive criticism of these men. We, in turn,
would welcome this, to the end, that without as well as
“within the four seas all may be brothers.”
It should, I think, be stated that the substance of
these studies was given in lecture-form to students of
the Language School, West China Union University,
Chengtu, and, more recently, to the China group, in
the Canadian School of Missions, Toronto.
tl Pages
Toronto, Canada.
Contents
I
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION
Similarity of phenomena, East and West—Difference of
interpretation—Common classifications—Chinese primitive
conceptions—All conscious—All organized—All transform-
able—Crude classification—All ethical—Capable of help or
harm—Prostration of man’s powers—Transmigration of the
soul—Awe of ancestors—Buddhist benignity—Release of
life—Sorcerer strategy—Reincarnation illustrated . . .
TE
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
The human soul—Riddle of sleep—Dr. Tseng’s dream—
Calling back the soul—Cataleptic conditions—Clairvoyancy—
Demon possession—Boxer hypnosis—Star souls—Immortality
—The three souls—The soul accompanying the corpse—
Clothing—The coffin—Charms—Mourning ceremonies—Se-
lecting the grave—The pallbearers—Exorcisms—The funeral
procession—Ceremonies at the grave—Care of the grave—The
second soul, and the ancestral tablet—Animating the tablet—
Transfusion of spirit—A source of sorrow bata Bet
Il
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER
The third soul—Its terrain—The land of shades—Govern-
ment in shade-land—Other thoughts of the Hereafter—The
Buddhist Western Heaven—The ‘Taoist Heaven—Various
Hells—The Eastern Hell God—The punishments—Transmi-
gration, how effected—The six paths—The third soul’s pil-
grimage—Speeding the soul—Equipment for the journey—
Priestly precautions—On trial—Weeping wives—Priestly aid
—Three common ceremonies—The first ceremony, inviting
the soul—The second ceremony, releasing the soul—The third
ceremony, feeding the Rate Paneaeege tinea in eee to
their beliefs
IV
ANCESTOR WoRSHIP
The dead dependent upon the living—Six suppositions—
Worship at the grave—Extortionate exactions—Other require-
11
15
37
60
12 CONTENTS
ments—Idol processions—The dread of death—Funds sent
forward—The imperative of property—The imperative of pos-
terity—The effect upon the men of the nation—Effect upon
the women—FEffect upon the family—Effect upon society—
Effect upon the nation—International effects . . . ‘
Vv
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS
The primary elements—Two primary principles—The Ying
and the Yang—Evolutions and Revolutions—The Great Ex-
treme, and the Unlimited—Monism depicted—An algebraical
progression—The source of all phenomena—Further expan-
sions—Ancient charts—The two principles progress to higher
degrees—Historical origin in the Dragon Horse, and the Tur-
tle Writings—Later diagrams of these—Attempted solutions
—The expansions by the Emperor Wen—Supplements by
Duke Chow—The Book of Changes—Comments by Confu-
cius—Occidental interpretations—Devices for divination—
More modern methods—Other systems—Tied by tradition
VI
PHysics, PHysIoLoGy AND FuNG-SHUI
The five elements or “forms ”—Active and passive princi-
ples in each—Elements mutually creative and destructive—
Relative positions depicted—Resulting groups of fives in phe-
nomena—The nature of each element—The formation of the
five colours—Application to physiology—Deductions as to
disease—Prescriptions—Relation to the five senses—Fung-
shui—Prototype of the earth phenomena in the heavens—The
ten Heavenly Stems—The twelve Earthly Branches—Good
and evil star influences—The twenty-eight constellations con-
trol—Other factors affecting life and destiny—The horoscope
—How it hampers marriage—The locating of graves—Dragons
in the watercourses—Fatal fruitage of the five element theory .
VII
Taoist TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY
Lao-tze, traditional founder of Taoism—The philosophy of
Inaction—Tao the supreme law—Man should submit—
Lao-tze rebukes Confucius—The Tao-teh Ching—The disciple
Chuang-tze—Later misinterpreters—Alchemy and transforma-
tions—Methods of acquiring magic powers—The philosophers’
<0) 1 Me Teer eT AN SSI HLH a\bing Sao Manlioe graces as
Vill
Taoist Dririgs AND DEMONS
Lao-tze deified and worshipped—Innumerable minor gods—
131
. 151
CONTENTS
The Pearly Emperor—Attaining Immortality—Five degrees
of Immortals—Demon Immortals—Demon New Year—Hu-
man Immortals—Third Degree Immortals—Deified genii—
Celestial gods—The Western Royal Mother—Demons—The
Taoist Popes—Charms—Many priests a menace—A priestly
proclamation—Ten woes CT Aaa pe eae aed la FE
,
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE
Three traditional Emperors—Seven statesmen sages—The
Emperor Yao—The Emperor Shun—The Emperor Yii—The
tyrant Chie—Emperor Tang of the Shang dynasty—The ty-
rant Cheo-sin—The famous Chow dynasty—Chronicles of
Duke Chow—Confucius, the Statesman-Sage—Reforms his
native state of Lu—A wicked and warring generation—Seduc-
tion of his prince—Some details of his daily life—His love of
learning and loyalty to conviction—His task as transmitter—
Death of the rat B. Cc. 478—His ome ae down ay
centuries . :
x
ConFruciAN DoctTrRINES AND DEVELOPMENT
Some of the Sage’s great words and texts—The perfect
age—Confucius as practical politician—Supported yet circum-
scribed by the past—Early Chinese critics of Confucianism—
Lao-tze and Chuang-tze—Yang-tze and Moh-tze—Mencius,
his great disciple and defender—Persecution under the First
Emperor—Honour restored by the House of Han—The Three
Religions—Chu-fu-tze and materialism—The masses unsatis-
fied—Recent criticisms—The Classics under the new Repub-
lic—Conclusions . CN UE aR NC pli A RG EB a MI) GRUNTS 1
XI
BupDHISM IN INDIA
An imported teaching—Introduced into China, when and
how?—The founder of the faith, Siddharta—Youth makes
the Great Renunciation—The thought world of his day—
Siddharta’s search for peace and light—Wholly enlightened,
he becomes “ Buddha ”—The new light that came—The Tatha-
gata, or “ Self-Saviour ”—Teachings as contained in his First
Sermon—The Noble Eight-fold Path—Early missionary efforts
of Buddhism—Buddha’s death, about B. c. 480—Royal mission-
aries sent to Ceylon—Differences between Northern and
Southern schools—Northern or Great Vehicle . ;
XII
BuDDHISM IN CHINA
A universe of unlimited time—A world of unbounded
13
. 166
. 185
. 204
. 223
14 CONTENTS
space—Heavens and hells of wonderful complexity—The
thirty-two heavens—Locations of hells—Buddha exalted from
a teacher to a God—Mi-lei Foh, the Merciful, “ The Laugh-
ing Buddha ”—O-mi-to Foh, “ the Buddha of Boundless-Age ”
—Yoh-shih-foh, “the Healing Buddha’”—The creation of
Bodhisatvas, or “ Pu-sas””—Widely known Pu-sas—Wen-shu
—Pu-hsien—Ti-tsang—Kwan-yin, “ The Goddess-of-Mercy ”—
The Mahayana school in China—Idolatry related to allegory
—FEach idol has his own chief seat, and his special place in
the temple—Extravagant promises to worshippers—Charms,
magic formule, relics—Hinayana influences—Compromises
between the Northern and Southern schools—Buddhism
founded on fallacy SEs eee
XIII
IsLAM IN CHINA
Islam in China estimated—Birthplace of Mohammed—His
youth—Religious revelations—The Flight—In Medina—War
on Mecca—In praise of their Prophet—Six articles of faith—
Eight duties—Seven sins—Spread of Islam—Contemporary
history of China—Two contacts with China—1. The sea route
to Canton—Chinese records regarding this—2. The land route
to the North West—Mohammedan rebellions—Marks of the
Mohammedan in China—Special social customs—Mosques—
Propaganda—Pilgrimages to Mecca—Required practices—Re-
lations with Christianity—Contacts with other Chinese—
Islam’s contribution to Chinese culture—Aboriginal millions—
Early contacts with Chinese—Population—Terrain—Their
primitive culture—Their religions iil: oie cot ain
XIV
Recent CuutureE Contacts
Comparison of the cults—Confucian control—Effect on
commerce—On missions—On foreign relations—Treaty con-
cessions—Missionary privileges—Conquered but culturally
unconverted—Cautious concessions—Modern schools opened
—Changed attitude toward Christianity—The Revolution—
Military menace—New labour conditions—Confucian Classics
ousted—Christian conquests—The Renaissance, 1920-26—Anti-
Classic — Anti-military — Anti-capitalistic — Anti-religious—
Anti-Christian — Anti-Christian Education—Recent Educa-
tional regulations—Anti-foreign—Anti-Japanese and Anti-
British — Anti-Imperialism, Bolshevism, Communism — At
heart “ Pro,’ not “ Anti”—Power of the Student Class—The
. 236
. 257
struggle for the student soul today—A New “International” . 286
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 809
ENDEX 2 UI Cl Ee ii: ean . 312
I
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION
the world around. Whether seen in Asia or
America, the great panorama of the heavens
and the earth appears much the same in general out-
line. Day by day the sun rises and sets, advancing
and retreating as the seasons grow. In the East as in
the West the moon waxes and wanes, presents its horn
when new and its shadow-flecked surface when full.
Each orb has its occasional eclipses, when sudden and
mysterious darkness covers the earth.
The stars, too, shine forth in China as in the home-
land with fantastic groupings into forms of articles,
animals and men. The five planets creep up the sky
to descend again. The Milky Way, or, as the Chinese
term it, “‘ the Heavenly River,” spans the skies like a
sparkling scarf. Falling stars are frequent. Occa-
sional fragments reach the earth as aerolites to be re-
garded with awe; while, more mysterious still, great
comets sweep the sky, spreading splendour and terror
with their tails.
Nor is the phenomena of the air less familiar.
Clouds float high in fleecy grandeur, grow at times
into a great canopy overcasting all, or come racing
down before the winds, apparently black with rage,
15
Pa ork phenomena do not differ very widely
16 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
bristling with lightning-flashes and booming with thun-
der. This passes and the wind dies down to a zephyr
with occasional eddying gusts. Then big drops fall
heavily and the rainbow spreads an arch of single or
double glory on the horizon.
Below all this, the earth is wrinkled into far-
towering Tibetan and other mountain chains or multi-
tudinous hills, plateaus and plains. Dizzy snowcaps
and great glaciers send forth cold, crystal streams, to
turn into tumultuous torrents as they writhe among
the rapids, or, later, joining mighty rivers, flow east-
ward, sediment-laden, to the sea. Grass and shrubs,
flowers and forests, snails and snakes, bees, butterflies
and wild beasts innumerable, dwell among the moun-
tains. Fruits and grains, vines and vegetables, dogs
and cats, ducks, geese and chickens, horses, pigs
and cattle multiply on plains and plateaus. And
people, people, people—by rivers, roads and rural rice
fields, in villages, towns and teeming cities—dot and
dominate all.
Difference of Interpretation.
No; the contrast is not chiefly in phenomena. It
may seem so at first, but it becomes less and less so as
one becomes orientalised. Wherein then, is the differ-
ence, often so distracting? It lies in the different ways
in which we and they, our ancestors and theirs, have
interpreted phenomena. More accurately still, for the
difference again is more apparent than real, it lies often
in the different degrees of advancement which we and
they have made in this interpretation. In these differ-
ences of interpretation and progress in interpretation
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 17
lie many of the secrets which seem to sever China’s
culture from ours. Let us examine, briefly, her most
primitive theories of things.
Common Classification.
In our present-day investigation of phenomena, it is
very common to divide all things roughly into three
great groups, or kingdoms, namely, the animal, the
vegetable and the mineral. The latter we speak of as
matter and motion, regarding it as inanimate. The
vegetable world we consider as being of a higher order,
for it has life, though apparently unconscious. Animal
life we deem to be still higher, for in it we see con-
sciousness; man we place yet one step higher in the
scale, for self-consciousness is manifest. These ac-
ceptances are so common with us in our widespread
studies of science, today, that we take them as com-
monplaces, having almost forgotten that our fore-
fathers ever thought differently, and are prone to
regard with an air of superiority, if not with ridicule,”
more primitive interpretations.
Chinese Primitive Conceptions.
In China, however, especially among her masses, a
primitive conception of things still prevails. In the
first place, they look upon all things as living, animate.
Not only vegetables and animals, but stones and stars
and coal and minerals, all live and grow. Thus one
opposition to mining arose from the belief that to enter
the earth and dig out the veins and nuggets thereof,
was, as it were, to kill the goose that lays the golden
egg, to rob the very sources of primal supply—sources
which if let alone would send forth their fruitage in due
18 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
season. So, too, stars and stones must grow. Are
there not large and small among them, and are not the
little ones many and the large ones few? Indeed, it
has been difficult, at times, to convince even students
that stones do not grow. Are they not dug from below
the soil where they have gradually increased in size?
All is Animate.
In Chengtu, the capital of Szechwan, are a couple of
sacred stones which may further illustrate this thought.
One is called the Heavenly Horizon Stone. The tradi-
tion attaching to it is that it came from the horizon or
fell down from heaven. When it came no one knows,
but it was “very small” then and “has grown.” A
second such stone is in the old Manchu city. It is
called the Prop-Loom Stone. Centuries ago, says tra-
dition, a man was sent to find the sources of the Yellow
River. He wandered on and on until, one night, he
found his boat seized by a current, and apparently
carried up-stream. He discovered eventually that he
had left the earth, and was afloat on the Heavenly
River, thus quite evidently the source of the Yellow.
He was certain of his whereabouts, for he could see
there, on one side of the River, the Heavenly Herds-
man guarding his cattle and the Weaver Maiden—they
are allowed to visit each other but once a year, when
the magpies build a bridge with their bodies—on the
other. He had, moreover, a brief conversation with
the Herdsman, and on returning to earth was permitted
to bring away with him a small stone as a souvenir,
proof positive of his visit. Is not the stone still to be
seen, and has it not an indentation worn by propping
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 19
up the Weaver Maid’s loom? Of course it is big now,
but that is easily explained. It has grown. All things
are animate, all grow. That is the first thought in this
interpretation of things as they are held by the masses
in China.
All Conscious.
In the second place, all things are conscious. They
know all that is going on about them. Though you
may not always be able to discover their eyes, ears and
other organs, still they see and feel and act. This is
true of trees and stones as well as of animals. This
may sound childish, and it zs—literally so! It is the
conception of the childhood of the race, theirs and
ours, still being handed down. Perhaps you are able
to recall some of the almost-forgotten days when you
thought somewhat similarly yourself. I can. I re-
member well a great boulder-friend with whom we
played by the roadside near my old boyhood home.
Frequently, I recall slipping away stealthily to its side,
there to throw my arms about it and tell to it my tale
of woe, or pat its smooth surface as I shared with it
my joys.
But be the true origin what it may, that is the belief
of millions of the masses in China today. The stones
spoken of above have souls. They are intelligent. In-
deed, it is thought that at times they have ways of
knowing which we have not. We can know only the
past and the present. They also know the future. So
especially large or peculiar stones, trees and animals
are singled out and worshipped. The Heavenly Hori-
zon Stone and the Prop-Loom Stone, has each a temple
20 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
built about it and incense is offered daily therein.
Stone images of tigers, lions, turtles, etc., may be found
anywhere. They are worldly-wise. Worship them!
A large willow-tree in our locality will serve as an
illustration of the beliefs concerning the vegetable
world. It was recently discovered that one had be-
come especially enlightened. Immediately crowds
came from all the neighbouring homes and villages.
They wrapped it with red cloth and saluted it with fire-
crackers as a sign of congratulation. They worshipped
it with incense and prostrations. ‘Then they stripped
it of all its leaves and most of its bark, carrying these
home as aids in healing diseases.
All the world, then, of no matter what order is inéel-
ligent, to some degree, and much of it has foreknowl-
edge surpassing man. Such is a second step in this
primitive interpretation.
All Organized.
Thirdly, these living, thinking things about us are
organized. ‘They are not a rabble. They have appar-
ently copied themselves from the people of ancient
China—or vice versa, for the organization is much the
same, viz., emperors, kings, princes, etc. We need not
dwell upon it. Thus a temple to the “ King of Cattle ”
was upon one corner of the site purchased for West
China Union University. An old gateman, an espe-
cially shrewd and active man of sixty, will entertain
you for an indefinite time telling you of the “ Dog
King ” he once owned. In the days of which he tells
the old man was a gardener, and no strange dogs dared
come near the premises. Naturally his own was large
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 21
in size, white in colour and covered with long hair. His
especial insignia of office, however, was his tail, which
always stuck straight up in the air. He never lowered
it to others. The strange dogs might run out on the
street and bark, but he paid them no need. They
would run up to him and smell him for a moment as
salutation, then wagging their tails, go their way. Was
not that convincing? The world of things is all ani-
mate, intelligent and organized.
All Trans formable.
More mysterious still, these things have a power
which human beings do not possess. They have the
power of transformation. They can turn themselves
into other beings or things at will. Chinese literature
is full of stories, and the talk of the common people
full of tales which illustrate this belief. A work of
several volumes, called Liao Kiai (“‘Strange Tales
from a Chinese Studio,” translated by Giles) is es-
pecially prolific in recorded instances. One reads, for
instance, of a gentleman who one day obtained a large
turtle. He did not kill it, but allowed it to go. One
night, later, he was met by a big, burly, drunken fel-
low, who gave him all manner of abuse and would have
assaulted him had he not inadvertently mentioned his
name. Then all was changed. The winebibber be-
came suddenly sober, invited him to a beautiful home—
a palace, in fact—by the river bank, and feasted him
royally for many hours. Later, the hospitable host
divulged the fact that he was the prince of that river,
travelling in disguise. Then, suddenly, all was changed
again, and the gentleman saw nothing save the form of
22 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
a big turtle, waddling down and disappearing in the
stream. The turtle, the drunken bully and the river
prince were all one!
A student on the way to his examinations overtook
a big, brusque, hungry fellow, who, when offered food
and drink, devoured it by bowlfuls. As their route lay
along the same road, they travelled together for some
distance. Later, at the capital, while the student was
out for a picnic with some friends, the stranger again
appeared. Disgusted at some poetry of their own
which the students began reciting, the big fellow threw
himself in a rage upon the ground, suddenly turned into
a tiger, and ate up several of the company.
Stories of foxes who, as extraordinarily beautiful
damsels, fascinate young men, fill the book. Some-
times they are described as being married and making
faithful wives. A gentleman in Chengtu, named Cho,
had such a wife at one time. I am assured that she
raised quite a respectable family. Others bewitch their
victims, gradually stealing away their vitality and
breath.
Similar stories might be told of pigs, cows and
monkeys, bees, spiders and snakes. The animal world
is thus capable of transformation into human form.
This is also true of the vegetable and mineral king-
doms. Thus a man spending some time in a temple
saw frequently two maidens walking together. He
tried often to catch them, but when he did so they
invariably disappeared. Later, he discovered that one,
who was clothed in red had been a peony, while the
other, who had always appeared in white, had been a
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 23
lily. Trees, too, can transform themselves. They
usually appear to men in dreams and ask them to make
appointments at certain places. Arriving there, next
day, they find only a tree.
Similarly the king of a certain lake, observed float-
ing out in the moonlight, with a gay company, was, in
the morning discovered to be a big log. A flurry of
angry voices, attended by misfortunes to those who
have aroused their enmity, may be traced later to a
cluster of leaves, transformed invisibly into angry
fetishes.
So is it with minerals. Men have met the sun and
moon walking about the earth! Once, in ancient times,
the five planets came and dwelt with a certain monarch
and gave him sage advice. As for the stars, they are
constantly mingling with men. Whirlwinds and storms
are some such sprites embarked upon a journey. Little
whiffs of smoke which melt away in the atmosphere are
sure signs of some transformed gnome, and noxious
vapours are among the most subtle of antagonists. It
is especially dangerous to erect anything exactly oppo-
site a doorway, as this species seems to travel in
straight lines and will, if obstructed, fly straight into
the home, with disastrous consequences to the in-
mates. Thus the whole of the lower order of creation
is regarded in a way quite contrary to our Western
idea of things. It is animate and intelligent, well-
organized and capable of the most sudden and strange
transformations.
Crude Classification.
Long generations have naturally given a crude classi-
24 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
fication to these strange creatures. Popularly they are
spoken of as Jinn, Yao, Little Spirits and Ch’i. The
Jinn are, in general, lower forms of animal, vegetable
and mineral, transformed by contact with the human
body or some parts of it. The Yao are almost always
animals possessed of this transforming power. The
Little Spirits, invisible to grown-up people, but often
seen by small children, are diminutive dwarfs or elves.
The Ch’i is simply some form of noxious vapour. All,
however, can assume human, and other forms, at will.
All Ethical.
Finally, many of these transforming things can be-
come malevolent spirits, and are greatly feared by the
people, and tremendously influence their actions and
social life.
The effect of all this upon the popular Oriental
mind, reinforced by accumulated centuries of garbled
tales, and with the mysterious world all about to con-
firm the faith, cannot readily be imagined by an Occi-
dental. Here are inscrutable powers with which every
man must reckon. Naturally there are good and bad
among them. Some are simply indifferent flower-
fairies. Others are even of superior virtue. They have
cultivated their animal, vegetable or mineral essence,
as the case may be, and have, so, attained immortal-
ity. These rarely interfere with man in an antagonistic
way; they may even assist him. It is those of a malev-
olent nature, bent upon their own enrichment at the
expense, or even the destruction of mankind, that are
most generally spoken of, and most generally feared.
Thus the Little Spirits work all manner of mischief
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 25
in a household. Things are torn, spoiled, stolen. The
household rice, even while steaming, is saturated with
filth and rendered unfit to eat. An evangelist recently
told me of a sister’s house infested in this way. He
went in to pray with the family, when down came a tile
and hit him on the head. All an enemy needs to do is
to whittle a stick about the size and shape of a doll,
throw it into your home, and you will have a number
of such tantalizing imps with which to deal. Then you
must indeed beware, for, sickness, accident, even fire
and death, will follow speedily.
Children are constantly warned to beware of Jinn.
In no case must they allow their noses to bleed, or
excreta from their body to fall upon certain shrubs and
insects. The banana tree is especially to be shunned.
The penalty for carelessness will be to have these ex-
creta become Jinn, steal away the child’s vigour and
bring about an untimely death.
Women, too, often live in terror, especially at certain
periods of life when they should be most guarded and
serene of soul. For months before she brings a little
life into the world, the mother must be ever on her
guard. She must not eat rabbit soup or flesh, in any
form; in the event of her doing so, the little child
would surely be born with a hare lip. No one dare
move a bed, a cupboard, or any other article of heavy
furniture. These invisible forces (especially the earth
spirits) would undoubtedly retaliate by a possible de-
struction of life. To repair a building, even near by,
would send the woman into speedy retreat, or convul-
sions at the possible thought of dire consequences. Not
26 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
even a nail must be driven, for fear the result would
be that some of these lurking spirits might be pierced
through. This would inevitably mean a child born
blind!
The Yao are not less notorious for destruction to
man. Larger than Jinn, they command an even more
vindictive and subtle power, and work calamity on a
wider scale. They are said to be armed with flying
swords, which they can shoot out of their mouths and,
although their victims may struggle for a time, death
is sure.
A good illustration of the Yao is the sort that causes
drought. He is called a “ han-pah ” and is described
as having one eye in the top of his head. He has also
an upturned nose, which is the cause of the destruction
he brings; for, if it rains, of course the water runs
down his nostrils. When these freaks put in an ap-
pearance, therefore, there is sure to be a drought. Vice
versa, a drought is a sure sign that they are in the
neighbourhood. At such times, the whole community
must bestir itself. The Yao are to be seized and thrown
into a cesspool if that be possible; but who is ever so
clever? Men stand above the city gateways sprinkling
water constantly with the thought either of preventing
them entering, or of driving them from the city.
Another favourite way to get rid of the Yao is to give
a great theatrical to the rain-god. At the close, an
actor dresses up as a “‘ han-pah ” and secretes himself
somewhere. With a shout all seek him. When dis-
covered he is dragged forth to be hanged (actor
fashion) before the god. This is supposed not only to
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 27
please the god and get him to send rain, but also to
frighten away other lurking “ han-pahs ” lest a similar
fate befall them.
Prostration of Powers.
Brief as this outline is, enough has been said to show
the fact that this whole system of belief arises from an
inadequate interpretation of phenomena, and also to
furnish a glimpse of its disturbing effect upon the
people. It would be erroneous, however, to conclude
that all classes are held in its grip. There was a day
(as may be gathered from the evidence of literature
and institutions) when many even among the highest
of the nation were firm believers. The viceregal yamen
in the capital of Szechwan had a cave sacred to an
immortal fox, at which shrine the viceroys worshipped.
Today, the educated openly scoff, although in reality
not a few have failed to shake off such beliefs and still
hold them—secretly. As for the masses, they have
scant means of knowing otherwise. Fairies, fetishes,
fiends, surround them on every side. ‘These have
knowledge and powers which man, unaided, can not
successfully comprehend or combat. He must ac-
knowledge his inferiority, therefore, and prostrate his
powers before those of freaks about him.
Transmigration.
To all this primitive animism (as it is usually called)
with its fears and paralysis of progress among this pop-
ulous people, Buddhism, from quite another angle, has
contributed other distressing thoughts. It fs the simple
teaching that the souls of the wicked dead return to
this world, reborn as beasts, birds, dogs, cattle, snakes,
28 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
snails, and insects innumerable. The pictures upon
the walls of Buddhist temples depict this in detail,
showing how it has seized the popular imagination and
emotion. First are seen the ten great wards of hell,
with all their gruesome punishments. ‘Then, at the
end, stands the great wheel of transformation. As it
turns, the individual comes forth to this earth again,
born as official, man, woman, fox, frog, worm, etc., etc.,
etc., according to his degree of good or evil, while on
his former pilgrimage here. ‘Thus, in the world of
nature around them, these masses of mankind live in
constant thought and fear, not only of the fetishes
already described, but of the souls of friends, foes and
villains returned to life to worry or wound them.
It is to be noted that here, again, we are not wholly
alien to such a thought in our home lands. We have
still among us those who fear to touch a toad lest it
give warts, or to injure a frog lest it turn the cow’s milk
bloody; who believe a rooster’s crowing means guests
and a dog’s howling portends death. In China, there
is much of such credulous belief and interpretation.
One familiar rhyme runs as follows:
“When a dog comes, then riches,
When a pig comes, woes,
When a cat comes, run quickly,
And buy mourning clothes.”
Now pigs are among the most numerous stock-
animals in China, and are constantly being driven in
droves along highways leading to the markets. Being
as proverbially stubborn in the Orient as in the Occi-
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 29
dent, they, not infrequently, turn aside and force their
way into some open door. At once, there follows a
great consternation. This is not because such an ani-
mal has never crossed the threshold before. It is quite
possible that the houseman’s own wee porker is near—
tied by one leg to the door or serenely snoozing by the
bedside. It is rather, as the rhyme just quoted has it,
because of the poverty and ill-luck which this stranger
is supposed to bring. The driver makes frantic efforts
to get it away, but the owner of the house will not be
so readily placated. A lively tongue-tussle, so common
in China, follows. When it is finally argued out before
the whole colony of neighbours and passersby, all agree
that the householder must be apologized to, and given
a small sum in cash. Especially must a piece of red
bunting be hung up, to ward off evil and bring
good luck.
The consternation caused by a strange cat prowling
cannot readily be imagined by people in the West. It
is not a matter of firing a bootjack (if such were to be
had); rather is it regarded as a solemn warning that
the inexorable runners from the lower regions have
arrived in the neighbourhood and that someone must
prepare to start on the long journey.
Awe of Ancestors.
Yet even these forebodings are, comparatively speak-
ing, trifling, if compared with the awe and terror that
grips the mind with the thought that ancestors or
enemies may, and do inhabit various forms of animal
life about them. When a snake comes into a mud-
floored hut one would imagine that the first impulse on
30 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the part of its inhabitants would be to kill it or drive
it away. Not so the believer in transmigration. It is
the general conviction that a snake’s coming signifies
the visit of some ancestor. It is treated, therefore,
with all veneration. Prostrations are frequently made
before it, cash-paper and candles are burned and when
the reptile leaves it is graciously escorted upon its way.
Similarly, attacks by animals are attributed to evil-
minded spirits or enemies. A dog bites or a horse kicks
someone. ‘That is readily explained as an act of re-
venge from some antagonist of the past. Sometime,
somewhere, the unfortunate victim offended him and
he is now getting even. One of the tenants of our
university was recently gored by his water-buffalo and
died. It was quite evident that some enemy had
allowed himself to be sold into the owner’s possession
purposely to get revenge. The buffalo was pronounced
a reincarnation, and although the family could ill afford
to part with their only plow-animal he was severely
beaten and sold.
Buddhist Benignity.
Such severity, however, is contrary to Buddhist
teaching. It would have all life conserved and treated
with the utmost courtesy. The story of the Buddhist
priest who gently guided the fat louse back into the
ragged folds of his grey gown, with the remark, “ For-
sake not my poor provision, dear brother,” may be only
a story, but it is highly an illustrative one. Long ago,
the motive may have been a sympathy for the sacred-
ness of life; today, the motive is decidedly mixed.
With some it is doubtless the fear of injuring reincar-
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 31
nated being—who knows who? It cannot be a happy
thought to be picking the bones of a chicken, even if
one knew definitely, that they were those of a certain
former creditor. But with many, it is doubtless the
fear of incurring another revenge at the hands of their
enemy and that probably a more bitter one, some later
day. Naturally in China non-meat-eating societies are
everywhere common.
Release of Life.
The prevalence of such belief may be best seen at
the celebration of the great Buddhist festivity for the
release of life. This is held on the eighth of the fourth
moon each year. Masses of the people assemble in the
temples and by the riverside to release life, for it is the
anniversary of Buddha’s birth. In the temples there
is a ceaseless reading of the sacred books, burning of
incense, and “ kowtowing ” before the idols. By the
riverside, thousands of people line the banks, or pass
to and froin boats. Most important of all are the tubs,
old buckets, vats and cisterns filled with slugs, grubs,
crabs, turtles, eels, etc., diligently collected for days
previously from nearby fields and ponds and streams.
For a few cash the poorer people buy a nondescript
collection of these creatures in a bowl and cast them
into the stream. The more wealthy may invest many
cash or silver dollars and have such purchases set
free by servants. But the purpose is much the same.
It is the release of life, thus laying up merit for the
future and—equally important—doing good to possible
friends, now deceased, or avoiding revenge from some
Waiting enemy,
32 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
It, in no wise, appears to disconcert the faith of these
people that certain bare-legged coolies scramble about
in the water, seeking immediately to seize and sell
again the prisoners thus set free, or that everyone real-
izes that all were free before they were stored up for
sale. The purchaser has done his duty, has released
life. What more is to be expected of him? Old women
and the lower classes are naturally the best customers;
yet even the scholar who smiles in a superior way at it
all, not infrequently stops long enough to make a small
purchase. It pays to conform to public opinion, at
least, and who knows, in this strange world with all its
sophistries, but that there may be something in it,
after all? It costs little, and, in any case, one is on
the safe side. That everything is dear to Buddha’s
heart is generally agreed. Popular parlance even de-
clares that the little ringlets which invariably cover the
head of his image are swarms of snails which during
his lifetime habitually made their home in his hair.
Sorcerer Strategy.
When the depredations of these Jinns, Yaos and
spirits of the transformed dead become unendurable,
however, there is a more drastic way of dealing with
them than the kindly methods of Buddhism. This
shorter and sterner way is to call in the “ twan kung,”
a sorcerer of the Taoist school. You will find him in
his little shop upon the street, or, it may be, you will
only find his wife or his apprentice, for he himself may
be sleeping after a long night’s session at some needy
centre. In the shop will usually be found a large, low
bureau piled high with gods, big and little, by the
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 33
score. These are the real source of his might. It is
as their agent that he claims the power of being able
to detect the exact sort of fairy, fiend or fetish that is
causing sickness or other disaster in any household,
and it is by their aid that he can entrap the interlopers
and grant his customers release.
His visits to the household which is being disturbed
by unseemly visits of these various intruders are almost
invariably made at night. He comes with his gods—
for convenience usually painted on scrolls—and his
apprentices. These latter carry drums, gongs, horns,
etc., and the usual books of curses and charms. After
a careful examination of the place, and, invariably, a
comfortable meal, the sorcerer hangs up his scrolls,
worships them all in turn, and then the company line
up for the real work of the night. The books of charms
and curses are produced and the recitation begins.
At first this is slow and broken with occasional
beatings of gongs and drums, or blowing of horns. An
hour later, things have livened up a little. Two or
three hours farther on, and the noise and shouting can
be heard far and wide in the neighbouring streets. By
midnight or early morning, there is a sudden sky-
piercing shriek and shout of triumph accompanied by
the full powers of gongs, drums and horns. With wild
gesticulations the leader avers that the miscreants have
been driven forth from their victim. They are in-
stantly followed and cunningly entrapped in earthen
jars which have been set ready for their deception and
incarceration. Then, with a sudden swish of his wand,
the magician seals the jars, covers them over with
34 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
many-coloured cloths, and carries them forth to their
burial or to his home, where the jars remain as proof
of his skill and, incidentally, as an advertisement for
other needy customers. If, despite all this, or perhaps
aided by it, the patient should die, such is declared to
be his fate. The sorcerer did his best, but who can
withstand the decrees of the gods? ‘These fetishes and
fiends were, after all, their messengers. Who can
struggle against them?
Illustration of Reincarnation.
A recently recorded event may serve as a closing
illustration. Young Wong Kang had had reverses and
found it difficult to pay his pressing creditors. He
bethought him of an old uncle to whom, in happier
days, he had loaned a considerable sum of money.
Setting out on his journey, he discovered his uncle after
many days. On arrival, he found the old man dying.
Delicately he broached the matter of the former loans.
“True! ” sighed the dying man. “ Sadly true... .
I owe it all . . . but some debtors have deceived me.
4%. I die in povertys.7 eli cannot pay, va eas
“* But,” he murmured, “I will not forget. . . . I will
remember you when I reach the Yellow Springs ”—
then he sighed again and died.
The nephew was not heartless. He buried the aged
relative even at the cost of incurring more debts. Then
he wended his way stoically homeward. Arrived there,
he was somewhat enheartened to learn that an addition
had come to his household in the person of a baby
mule. He inquired carefully as to the day and hour of
its arrival, but made no farther comment, save to order
ANIMISM AND TRANSMIGRATION 35
that the most diligent care be given to its welfare, and
that it be excluded from all labour. It thrived wonder-
fully, growing up unusually large, docile and sturdy.
It seemed a costly pet to one so poor as Wong Kang,
but he rigidly refused to allow the animal to work.
One day, however, in his absence, a crisis came. The
old bullock that ground the rice fell ill. By stealth the
servants hitched up the mule in his place. He acted
nobly, going round and round the stones with aged
sophistry.
A few weeks later another crisis was encountered.
Again the overworked bullock failed them just in the
rush of conveying rice to market. The mule was
quietly hitched to the cart, when settling down to his
task he lugged the big load through wretched roads
a la mode noblesse oblige.
Then, on the return journey through the narrow
village streets, something happened. The cart was
passing a fruit-vendor’s stand when suddenly the mule
became transformed, as though possessed by some
maniacal power. He reared and lunged, snorted and
roared, struck out savagely with his feet and snapped
viciously with foaming jaws, until the vendor’s stand
and fruits were a mass of scrambled pulp and splinters.
As for the unfortunate vendor himself, he crouched
terror-stricken behind a neighbouring wayside idol,
praying wildly for deliverance. A moment later and
the infuriated animal plunged his way. Then the
courage of despair seized the wretched fellow and he
rushed out desperately armed with a leg of his broken
table.
36 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
“Hold! Hold! Don’t hit.... We'll pay! ”
shouted the muleteer. “It’s young squire Wong’s
mule...°.).” |
As the vendor heard these words, there was another
and an instant transformation. He fell prostrate
before the mule, while the latter stood towering above
him like a destroying angel.
““T know you! I know you! ” shrieked the fruit-
dealer at the infuriated quadruped, “ you’re old Uncle
Wong. I owe you that debt, but save me, save me,
and I swear to pay all . . . even double. .. .”
The mule turned his head sideways, gave the man a
gruesome glare out of his left eye, then backed out
and trotted quietly home.
The vendor paid up promptly. So did several others
whom the nephew did not know, most of them care-
fully adding liberal interest. Needless to say that all
knew that the gentle mule was the aged uncle returned
to earth.
Lest this story should appear to touch too light a
key, let us recall the reader’s mind to the bondage to
stones, stars, trees, animals and vindictive enemies to
which the masses of great China’s manhood and es-
pecially her patient womanhood are so widely and
bitterly bound by this imperfect and primitive inter-
pretation of nature.
Animism and Reincarnation! Such are two of the
widespread currents, still flowing strong in the religious
culture of this vast land.
II
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
HERE is another phenomenon not embraced in
our former classification of animal, vegetable
and mineral. It is even more intimately con-
nected with man, his weal and woe. It is the very man
himself, his soul. This also has its interpretation and
its story, which are bound up with such conditions as
sleep, dreams, catalepsy, trance, ecstasy, and life after
death.
Riddle of Sleep.
To begin with, there is the old riddle of sleep.
Where is the man while he is slumbering? His body
lies there, to all appearances unoccupied by its master
save that it is breathing. People pass to and fro, and
converse all about him. When he awakes he knows
nothing of what has happened. To the primitive mind
there seems but one interpretation. The man has
really been away. ‘The soul has somehow left the
body and gone off on a journey. When the individual
awakes, does he not recall travelling to distant cities,
meeting friends, visiting scenes he may or may not
recognize? It seems plain, therefore, that the soul can
separate itself from the body and go off upon adven-
tures of its own.
The Liao Kiai, previously mentioned, is full of such
37
88 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
wonderful dreams. Men travel to distant lands, visit
the next world, even travel through their future lives.
The story of a certain Dr. Tseng furnishes a good
illustration.
Dr. Tseng’s Dream.
Dr. Tseng was a young student who had just tried
for his doctor’s degree. Visiting a temple one day with
some companions, the party was detained by the rain
and Tseng fell asleep. Suddenly, in his dream, a
couple of criers came to.announce that he had really
passed his examinations. He hurried to Peking and
appeared before the emperor. The latter was most
gracious and appointed him to a very high position.
At first Tseng was just, but soon began to abuse his
powers. He forced property from the poor, revenged
old insults, even kidnapped a woman he formerly
fancied. Then he was accused, condemned, stripped of
all, and banished from the court to the far-off province
of Yunnan.
As he and his wife were trudging, footsore and heart-
broken, up a long mountain side, they were suddenly
attacked by robbers. The guard fled, Tseng cried for
mercy and told who he was.
“‘ Ho,” they shouted, “then you are the man who
has ruined us.”
The next instant he heard the thud of his own head
as it fell upon the ground. He was instantly seized
by two devils who whisked him off to the infernal
regions. There he suffered excruciating agony, among
other things having to drink in molten form several
millions of dollars he had squeezed from his coun-
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 39
trymen. Finally, after long and untold tortures,
he was placed upon the wheel of transmigration and
with a mighty whirl found himself again in this
world, this time born as a daughter of the basest
poverty.
His parents soon sold him (her) as a slave to a rich
man whose wife beat him and burned him with hot
irons. Then one day the rich man was killed by rob-
bers. ‘Tseng, who had escaped by hiding under the
bed, was accused of the crime and sentenced to death
by the slicing process. At this point Tseng’s com-
panions heard him moaning and awakened him. It
was surely time. During his dream he had travelled
through three stages of existence!
Calling Back the Soul.
This belief that the soul can leave the body during
sleep is the basis of much distress. Thus, a mother
riding home in her sedan with her child, after an
evening visit, lights three sticks of incense and places
them upon the roof of her chair, at the same time softly
calling her child by name. She fears that the child,
falling asleep, will lose its soul. The light and the
calling are to guide it safely home.
Playing about the home, children become frightened,
or ill. Then, if the child does not recover, the mother,
for seven nights in succession, stands before her door-
way, an egg in one hand and three sticks of incense in
the other. Slowly and sorrowfully she calls the child
by its pet name to return:
“Little Gold Baby,” she cries, “come back
again. If you have fallen into a ditch, if you are
40 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
in a well, if the dog has frightened you away, quickly,
quickly, little Gold Baby, come back home; come
quickly.”
Inside, another member of the family thinks to
soothe the restless little body by replying, ‘‘ It is com-
ing. It has returned.”
Next the egg is taken, tied about with black thread,
and wrapped with joss paper. All is dipped in oil and
ignited. The egg thus cooked must then be fed to the
child. ‘The thread which has taken on a seemingly
miraculous element (being well-wrapped with paper it
has not burned), is then tied about the child’s wrist—
the left if it be that of a boy, the right that of a girl.
This whole programme is a long, sorrowful process,
but is considered sure. The child’s soul, charmed by
the egg and tied by the mystic thread, cannot now
escape.
Should this all sadly fail, it simply means, to these
simple minds, that the soul was not properly called,
and so did not really return.
Naturally this idea of calling back the soul is not
confined to the illness of children. When an adult is
sick, resort is usually first had to medicine. But if
the illness does not respond to these lotions, then it is
common to call in a sorcerer (twan kung), as de-
scribed in our preceding chapter. His theory is that
the man’s soul has wandered away from the body,
and that some wandering demon has taken its place.
By means, therefore, of a god who has power over
demons, he attempts to exorcise it. The sick man’s
soul then returns—or does not. Possibly he has
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 41
wandered too far away, or his time to die may have
arrived.
Cataleptic Conditions.
Catalepsy, though apparently not very common, also
accounts for some strange beliefs. Men are reported
as falling into a comatose condition which may last for
days, to return later and tell strange tales of their
doings. Another story from Liao Kiai will serve as
an illustration of this and other beliefs:
In the province of Kwang-si there lived a scholar of
some reputation named Sun. He was born with six
fingers, was a simple-hearted fellow, believing too read-
ily all that people told him. He was accordingly
dubbed “ Silly Sun ” by his companions. In the same
city lived a wealthy, aristocratic family who had a
daughter of great beauty named A-Bao. Quite natu-
rally all the youths of the neighbourhood were rivals
for her hand.
One day, a few of Sun’s fellows, persuaded him, as
a joke, to apply, and he accordingly sent a go-between,
as the custom is, to present his appeal. Miss A-Bao
replied laughingly that if he would cut off his sixth
finger she would marry him. This Sun proceeded to
do, and, as a result, almost bled to death. Miss A-Bao
was rather taken aback when she heard the news, but
told the go-between that if Sun would now cut the
“Silly ” from his name, she would consent. Sun was
much piqued over this and tried to forget her.
At the time of the spring festival, however, when
“men and women go forth to worship at their ancestors’
graves, Sun heard that A-Bao would be at a certain
42 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
place and thought he would like to see the girl who
had made such a fool of him. He found her sur-
rounded by a large group of admirers. She was beau-
tiful, indeed—charming! When, after a time, she
moved away, and the group of young bloods was about
to depart, they found Sun apparently rooted to the
spot. By dint of dragging and pushing his friends got
him home where he threw himself upon his bed and
refused to stir.
He lay there in a state of unconsciousness, and
would not awaken when called. His people, thinking
that his soul had fled, went about the fields calling to
him to return. He showed no signs of recovery, how-
ever, and when they shook him he only answered in a
sleepy sort of a voice, that he was at A-Bao’s home.
Thereupon a magician was summoned. He secured an
old suit of Sun’s clothes, also some grass-matting and
proceeded to Miss A-Bao’s home and to her own room.
Summoning the spirit in due form, he went back
towards Sun’s house.
By the time he reached the door, Sun groaned and
recovered consciousness. He was then able to tell all
that had happened. When the young lady had left
the group on the day of the festival, Sun could not
bear to part with her, but had, he said, followed her to
her home. There he had remained for three days, till,
almost famished by hunger, he longed to run home and
get something to eat, but seemed to have forgotten the
way. He was able to describe all the articles of toilet
and furniture in A-Bao’s room without making a single
mistake.
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 43
Even then, it seems, Miss A-Bao’s heart remained
hardened. It was not until after a second attack of
catalepsy, which lasted three days and in which he was
quite as though dead, save that the part over his heart
had not grown cold, that the girl finally relented and
the pair were wed.
The story is, of course, only tradition, but it illus-
trates the common belief that, during such times, the
soul can leave the body and go off upon adventures of
its own.
Clairvoyants Are Common.
Telepathy and trance, too, are the bases of some
strange beliefs. Ability to throw oneself into a hyp-
notic state seems comparatively common. The result
is that Chinese clairvoyants are numerous. They are
usually old women, but men also practise the art.
Their customers are people in distress. Someone is ill
in the household, or business is failing, or some family
misfortune is spreading. It is presumed that the an-
cestors of the household know the remedy that should
be applied. Indeed, it is quite possible that it is they
who are sending these misfortunes as punishment for
some wrongdoing. Consequently, for three nights in
succession the applicant worships his three lines of
ancestry. Then, with a peck of rice, ninety-six cash as
fees, some wine, cash-paper, candles and incense with
which the medium is to worship her gods, he repairs
to the clairvoyant’s home.
After worshipping her idols, the old lady not infre-
quently lies down upon a couch and covers her face
with a red cloth. Then, after a time, she begins to call
44 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the visitor. Strange to say, she may call him by his
“private name ” which only members of his own fam-
ily know, or are allowed to use. She may even call
him by his long-forgotten “baby name.” Surely it is
his ancestors who are speaking!
Then he listens with awe-struck silence as she be-
rates him roundly, probably upon certain family affairs
that have been managed wrongly. These latter are
generally glaring generalities, but a few facts, due pos-
sibly to telepathy, are sufficient proof of the presence
of the ancestor. It seems quite clear to the supplicant
and others that the dead can at least temporarily take
the place of another soul and use the body for their
communication.
Demon Possession.
From this it is an easy step to the belief that men
may become possessed by spirits either of gods, dead
men or devils. Possession of the soul’s place, as we
have seen above, is a common explanation of sickness.
Possession by the gods is more rare. ‘The party offer-
ing himself for this purpose appears before the image
and worships it in the usual fashion. Then certain
abettors cluster about him in the dim light of the can-
dies. Slowly at first, but with ever-increasing clamour,
they read the appropriate books, and beat the neces-
sary gongs. Suddenly, the victim, who has been stand-
ing throughout, as though half in a trance, leaps into
the air with a shout. With a sword or stick in his
hand, he begins to lash about, sometimes wounding
himself severely. This goes on until he sinks exhausted
upon the floor, His inarticulate mutterings are, ’tis
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 45
said, the message of the god. He may even answer
questions in a rambling sort of way. But if the ques-
tioner cannot understand the abettors can, and are
naturally ready with an appropriate explanation of
the oracle.
Boxer Hypnosis.
A somewhat similar hypnotic ecstasy is often at the
basis of Boxer and kindred practises. At times, the
Boxers are half hypnotized by chanting their books
before the idols and beating of gongs as described
above. A man who drilled with them for a time and
later gave them up as dangerous, states the practise in
his squad as follows:
“The recruit was led out at night into the darkness
and ordered to place three sticks of incense upright in
the earth. Three more he was to hold in his right hand
at arm’s length, his eyes fixed upon both gleams of
light so as to keep them in a Straight line. Then the
operator stood behind him reading or rather chanting
charms about the twenty-eight constellations of star
spirits, at the same time slowly slapping the recruit
upon the shoulder.”
Thus, one by one, the recruits would become hypno-
tized and leap and shout at the least suggestion from
the commander. Struck or pricked, they seemed to
feel no pain, so that it was easy to persuade them and
others that they were invulnerable to shot and sword.
Most of the recruits were simple-minded, impish fel-
lows. Healthy, hearty, hard-working sons of the fields
were usually too difficult, and were sent away as unre-
sponsive to the star spirits’ influence,
ed
46 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Here, again, the belief is that the spirits of the gods
or stars come down and take possession of the man, so
it is they who speak and act, not he.
Star Souls. ;
These stars, it will be recalled, are supposedly the
souls, or at least the dwelling-places of the souls of
men. They have been men of note, rulers, statesmen,
men of high literary degree, or even evil men, notorious
in the life of the nation. Thus there are stars who
favour men and are lucky, while others are enemies of
men, or of the present rulers of the nation, and seek to
injure its citizens. Among these latter, comets are
most conspicuous. ‘They are the souls or abode of
some notorious rebel who wishes to stir up trouble in
the nation. Their appearance is a sure sign that “ sol-
diers and swords” will follow. The thought is that
after the comet’s appearance as a sign in the heavens
to all malcontents, it then descends and, taking pos-
session of some one as leader, usually the chief rebel,
commences his campaign. Naturally Halley’s comet,
in 1910, was looked upon as such a herald of woe,
and did much to predispose people to the belief that
the great revolution which followed, in 1911, was
inevitable.
Robbers and rebels are ever ready to use such as
omens of the anger of heaven against the nations’ rulers
and stir up riot to their own enrichment and to the dire
distress of peaceable citizens. Thus the fruits of this
seemingly simple belief in the freedom of the soul to
ramble at will, shows itself but too frequently in Boxer-
ism and rebellion with their attendant barbarities.
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 47
Immortality.
With the soul thus capable of detaching itself and
carrying on a separate career, it is easy for the Chinese
to believe in a life after death, that is, in the continued
existence of the soul. Indeed, according to the popular
belief, each individual has ten souls. More accurately,
he has three of one kind and seven of another. The
three former belong to the Yang or active principle
and are the spirit proper usually called “ hwen.” Dur-
ing life, they reside in the liver, etc. As to the seven,
they belong to the Yin or passive principle and are
therefore of the earth earthy. They are called the
animal spirits or “ pei.”” Some define them as the five
senses and the two arms. They are said to reside dur-
ing life in the lungs, etc. At death they scatter, or
enter the ground, so they need concern us no further.
Three Souls.
It is not so with the three ‘‘ hwen ” or spirits proper.
Each has its own destiny and history. One goes to the
grave with the body. The second resides in the ances-
tral tablet, while the third goes upon its great pilgrim-
age to the world of shades. Volumes have been written
upon the history of the latter, alone. We can only
sketch briefly the story of each. Let us first follow the
soul which accompanies the corpse to the grave.
The Corpse Soul.
The dead body is to be the eternal home of this soul,
and as the latter has its own ways and means of getting
back at the living should they neglect it, a proper fear
of consequences will command attention to its needs,
even should a proper affection be wanting. These de-
48 CHINESE COLTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
mands are by no means simple. Indeed, they require
the most minute care, endless anxiety, and much money
on the part of the mourners. Let us follow, for a time,
some of these demands of the dead.
Immediately at death, sheets of paper punched to
resemble strings of cash are burned. Some of this
pseudo-money is for the spirit’s own needs. Some, of
a peculiar shape, is to the star gods, which one by
one have presided over each year of the life of the
departed. t
Next, the body is bathed. This should be a simple
process. Usually, however, it is accompanied by great
trepidation. The fear is that the devils which may
have caused death, or others which, as we shall see,
have come to accompany the dead to purgatory, may
seize the attendant. Consequently, instead of being a
sad, tender rite, it is often turned over to a beggar, who
throws a few ladles of water over the body, and then
wipes it hurriedly. The rag used in the latter process
is then carefully burned. If the embers form them-
selves as writing characters then the deceased will be
born again as a man, if as flowers he will, in the
next life, be a woman, etc. The beggar then col-
lects one cash for each year of the deceased’s age
together with some of his old clothing as a reward, and
hurries away.
Clothing.
The hair of the deceased is then properly dressed,
and the body clothed. This clothing consists of the
dead man’s best garments or new clothing if need be.
If the family can afford it, a large number of garments
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 49
are placed upon the body. These are always in some
odd numbers, as five, seven, or nine, that is, the
“Yang ” numbers in the case of a man, and two, four,
six, etc., or the “‘ Yin ” numbers in the case of a woman.
If the dead has been an official, even though of a very
low rank, his official robes are used, so all may give
comfort and respect to the soul which is to reside
within.
The Coffin.
The coffin is also a matter of great importance. It
is to be the future house of this soul and body; so must
be strong and secure against wind and water. Ac-
cordingly the Chinese coffin is not made of such thin
boards as are used in the West. It is rather of great
slabs of tree trunk, five to seven inches thick. The
bottom is flat, but the lid is a great oval slab like the
sides. Even when empty, it usually takes half-a-dozen
men to carry it.
Being such an important matter, the coffin may have
been purchased many years before death. Indeed, it
is quite common, for a filial son to present his parents
with a coffin as a sign of great affection, early in life,
and for the latter to be long seen, placed to good ad-
vantage in the guest room. If it has not been secured
before, it must now be purchased. It is no time for
economy. The family will purchase to the limit of its
ability.
Arrived safely, the poor strew the bottom with pine
or palm branches, and the rich with soft silk floss.
Then the body is frequently wound with many yards
of cotton or silk, according to circumstances. This
50 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
latter not only serves as clothing but prevents the
bones from shaking apart, and thus disturbing the
rest of the soul.
It is also necessary to take proper steps to preserve
the flesh from decay. To this end, a small gold bean
is sometimes given the dying man. More commonly,
bracelets of jade or other ornaments of gold and jade
are used. Such was the last request of a little girl-wife
as she lay dying. In whispers barely audible, she
urged that her jade bracelet and hairpin be not for-
gotten. With the rich, golden images, rings and other
articles are occasionally buried. But the Chinese are
an exceedingly judicious and economical people and
most generally prefer to make paper representations of
things, which seem to answer quite as well in the spirit
world, and cost much less in this.
Charms.
After the corpse is properly placed and all is in
order, a priest approaches the bier, and with a few
muttered charms and appropriate gesticulations drives
out any demon that may be trying to occupy the coffin
with its rightful owner. Then the lid is quickly slid
shut, securely fastened and made water, air, and dust
proof by means of glue and shellac. To further guard
against evil influences, a bowl is placed upside down
upon the coffin lid; all is then made secure.
Mourning Ceremonies.
The coffin is placed in the great guest hall, or, if the
people are poor, in the living-room of the house. No-
tice has meantime been sent out to relatives and
friends, and, at the appropriate time, guests begin to
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 51
arrive. The eldest son, in case of the death of a parent,
kneels beside the coffin, and bows his head to the
ground three times in deep obeisance to each guest as
he enters. This son and all the family are dressed in
“ sack-cloth.” This is literally so, at least of the outer
garment, which is of coarse bagging. All mourners
wear white, that being the colour of the shadow world.
The guests bring gifts of food, money, fire-crackers,
complimentary essays and clothing.
In the case of the mother of a high official who died
recently in Chengtu, her photo was hung up in a large
guest-room, with a table before it upon which were
placed great candles, incense, flowers, the white stork
and other symbols. The mourners knelt by the table
and prostrated themselves as each guest approached.
Most of the guests presented complimentary scrolls in
pairs, or small banners with complimentary characters
written thereon.
Selecting the Grave.
During these days, if the matter has not already
been decided during the lifetime of the one now dead,
diligent search is being made for a suitable grave.
This, possibly, is the most vital of all the processes
arranged for the peace of the body and its soul. It
requires the calling in of the geomancer. He must go
forth for days, or weeks, or months, or even years, to
survey the country for conditions which will satisfy
the stars, the planets, the five elements, the Yin and
Yang, the wind and water, the elder and younger
brothers, many relatives and friends, and last but not
least, the Green Dragon and the White Tiger. When
52 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY —
all these conditions have been arranged, and, not im-
probably, the geamancer has secured a spot which he
himself can recommend at a good financial profit, the
funeral may at last take place.
Even then, there is a possibility that the deceased’s
family may be too poor, or the coffin may need to be
transferred to some distant province, or the time may
be unpropitious. Not infrequently, therefore, coffins
are kept in or about the home for long periods of time.
Indeed, in despair, the-family may rent a small space
for such in a neighbouring temple where, as the years
roll by, the wood decays, foul odours fill the air, and
disease germs destroy the living. Yet what matter if
the soul is presumably at peace? That is the vital
question with posterity.
The Pall-Bearers.
In most cases, however, especially in the case of the
poor, the burial takes place within a few days or a
week. The preceding day is given over to a feast at
which all the friends, relatives and others who have
sent gifts are included. ‘These are there again the
day of the funeral, each with his head swathed in a
strip of white cloth at the family’s expense. The
carriers come with their ropes, also poles for bind-
ing along the sides and ends of the great black
coffin, and smaller poles for their shoulders. Con-
trary to our Western thought of a solemn hush over
all, the scene is most animated. The carriers espe-
cially seem to vie with one another in shouting orders
at the top of their voices, which apparently no one
obeys. Light carriers may do for an ordinary indi-
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 53
vidual, but in the case of the wealthy there may be a
score or more.
Exorcisms.
When all are ready, the priest takes the bowl from
the top of the coffin and with a swish and muttered
exorcisms, smashes it upon the ground. [If any stray
devils have lodged therein, they are banished. He also
commonly kills a rooster by slicing its neck, then
throws it toward the entrance of the gateway. If the
head points toward the door, there is danger from evil
influences to the family. The dead bird must then be
buried at the cross roads, if possible, to prevent mis-
fortune. Another rooster is secured and tied upon the
top of the coffin. These birds, as everyone knows, do
not fear devils. Do they not crow in the early morning
or in the night and frighten them away? This one will
frighten any that might be inclined to come near the
bier as it is borne along.
Funeral Procession.
Then the procession forms. One man goes ahead
with cash paper to pay any tolls that may be exacted
by small officials of the shadow world. He is followed
by a man with a lantern or a torch to light the spirit
on its way. Next may come musicians, carriers of the
complimentary scrolls, priests in regalia, official um-
brellas, crowds of friends walking and then the spirit
tablet. This latter may be carried in great state in a
special pagoda-shaped conveyance, or, in the case of
the poor, in an ordinary chair, or even by the eldest
son in his hands as he walks along. After this follows
the bier, the sons of the dead and many friends and
54 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
relatives apparently assisting the chanting carriers as
they move slowly along. Behind these come other
members of the family, as the women and many
friends, riding mostly in chairs.
Ceremony at the Grave. j
Arrived at the grave, the ceremonies are simple.
The geomancer with his compass sees that the coffin is
in line with the earth’s pulse, kills the rooster which has
ridden as guard upon the bier to the grave, sprinkles
its blood about in a circle to protect the grave, and
affixes a few of the blood-stained feathers to the coffin.
The chicken itself is his property. The priests may or
may not say a few words inviting the departed to rest
in peace, and scatter some rice to feed hungry ghosts.
Then the earth is piled up about the coffin, for the
excavation is very slight, until a big, round hillock has
been made. Shortly after this the chief mourners
having secured some of the scattered rice and again
prostrated themselves, all the concourse deports.
Care of the Grave.
Three days later, these chief mourners must again
visit the grave to see that this home has been properly
made, and also to present wine, pork, incense, cash
paper and further prostrations. This is afterward re-
peated usually twice a year, about the spring and
autumn equinoxes. In addition, at such times, it is
common to make gifts of clothing, horses, serving men,
women, charcoal warmers, etc., even automobiles and
great palaces nowadays, all of paper, and send them
by means of fire to the departed, where they turn into
the “ real thing ” as required in the land of shades.
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 55
The more wealthy also plant trees about the spot and
many buy a small piece of adjoining land and erect a
house. This they rent to a trustworthy person at a
nominal sum that he may guard the grave especially
from thieves, who would rob the dead of their orna-
ments and clothing, and occasionally it is believed from
foreign devils, as we Westerners are named, who want
the bones, etc., to sell for medicine. Some say that, in
olden times, at the end of each dynasty orders came
for all graves to be levelled. These dead had been
the subjects of former Emperors while favourites of
heaven, but must now be destroyed as their mas-
ters had been. In recent history, however, this cus-
tom no longer prevails, and the dead soul, protected
and provided with the needs of his existence, as
described, rests on to endless days or until forgotten
by posterity.
This one soul of the departed is now presumably at
peace. We can only say presumably, however, for
should the grave have been improperly selected or there
be any lack of proper attention either before or after-
ward, then the unhappy soul will make even greater
trouble for its offspring. Thus graves are frequently
shifted again and again until the dead is seemingly
satisfied or the finances of the living are exhausted.
An evangelist assures me that his father’s grave has
been shifted at least thrice with the hope of avoiding
impending disaster and restoring prosperity to his
family.
The Second Soul and the Ancestral Tablet.
The story of the second soul is simpler but no less
56 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
significant in interpretation. As said, it goes at death
to reside in the ancestral tablet. This latter may be
but a simple strip of paper or a plain bit of board one
foot by four inches, with the appropriate characters.
On the contrary, it may be carefully painted in black
and gold, set in a small stand and have a miniature
house with a glass door, built over it. It is set upon a
special shelf, or great sideboard in the chief room of
the house, and thus in the place of highest honour.
The characters upon the back of the tablet, if there are
any, simply state the name and dates of birth and
departure of the deceased. Those upon the front are:
“This is the official spirit throne of our deceased an-
cestors, the perfect (because he had sons) father Wong
of (we dare not utter his given name which was)
Three Virtues, the venerable great man, and his
helpmate (née Chang) our venerated and honoured
mother.”
Animating the Tablet.
Care is taken in writing this for the first time
that the upright stroke to the right in the char-
acter for spirit and the dot over the character for
lord are omitted. The writing of this stroke and
supplying of the dot involve a vital ceremony. It is
really the animating of the wooden tablet into a
sort of sentient being, and requires the blood of the
eldest son.
For this important ceremony, some notable of the
place, aS a B.A., an M.A., the district magistrate or
some one still higher up, is invited. It is he who is to
complete the letters. Moreover, it is he who appar-
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 57
ently is inviting the departed, and so the greater the
dignity of the individual, the more honour and “ face ”
is given the departed soul, not only among the living
but among the various rulers, companions and sojourn-
ers in the land of shades. This is very important, for,
as we shall later see, there is as much need of social
standing, prestige and power in the shadow land as
there is in this land of light.
Transfusion of Spirit.
Pending the arrival of the distinguished guest, a seat
has been prepared for him much higher than the others.
Indeed, it may be high upon a table where a chair has
been arranged with suitable trappings. On his arrival,
he is led with appropriate ceremony to this seat of
honour, while the others, who are to act as his assis-
tants, are seated upon either side. The chief mourner
then approaches and, after due salutation, requests the
great man to invite his father’s soul to enter the tablet.
This the guest of honour proceeds to do in a loud voice,
seconded by his assistants. His words are most flatter-
ing. At the same time he holds his pen ready to make
the vital strokes. ‘The chief mourner, who has been
prostrate at the side of the table, then rises, and pre-
sents the tip of his finger. The latter has been wrapped
around with some thread or squeezed until the end is
red, and then pricked by a needle so that a few drops
of blood appear. This, usually the middle finger of the
left hand, he presents to the master of ceremonies who
dips the point of his pen in the living fluid and with
ceremonial stroke supplies the missing parts of the
characters.
58 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
To describe it all is simple enough, but the effect
upon the household is electric. A moment ago the
tablet was but a simple piece of wood. Now the soul
of the ancestor has entered and it is forever sacred, a
thing to be revered and worshipped, regarded with awe
and fear. No devotee of the Roman Church believes
more thoroughly in the transformed character of the
elements of the sacrament than does the family in the
transformation of the tablet. Through the transmis-
sion of blood, the ancestor has entered the inanimate
thing and made it forever animate and sacred. Later
on, it is reverently transferred to the top of the great
sideboard at the upper end of the guest room. There
it is made a guest of honour, or rather largely the ruler
over the affairs of the household, is regularly included
in meals and feasts, and resides in state, until possibly
some later generation may transfer it to greater honour
in the ancestral hall.
A Source of Sorrow.
The adventures of the third soul, its vicissitudes in
the land of shades, and the costly efforts of its family
to secure its release, we may well leave for another
study. Sufficient has been said here to show how the
mystery of the soul’s relations to its tenement of clay
fills the thoughts of these millions with misinterpreta-
tions, and their lives with terror or needless tribulation.
Graves have become too often, not spots of hallowed
memories and tender affections, but haunts of ghosts
and ghouls whose grim whims and fickle fancies, as
interpreted by some clairvoyant, are presumably back
of all family misfortunes, and must be atoned for at
PRIMITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 59
any price. The seemingly harmless wooden tablet in
the guest room is too often the final seat of authority
in the homes and hearts of the nation, more to be feared
than any other power of earth or heaven. Half-
demented unfortunates also believing themselves pos-
sessed by the souls of past heroes or genii, and followed
and abetted by dupes and vagabonds, raise perennial
riots with their bloodshed and distress. Even gentle
mothers, who struggle unceasingly to save some little
life while breath remains, when at last the body lies
cold, will at times abandon it in scorn, believing it to
have been the abode of some creditor, enemy or demon
come purposely to bring the family sorrow, poverty and
distress. Yes; the story of the soul with its supersti-
tions and bitter sequels, is assuredly one of the secrets
of China’s sorrows,
Iil
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER
O understand the story of the third soul, it is
necessary first to understand the Chinese con-
ception of the hereafter. The ordinary idea is
not difficult to grasp. ‘Indeed, it is very simple, for it
is but a duplicate of their land of the living with a few
significant exceptions. As some one has phrased it,
the hereafter is just “China ploughed under.” It
would probably be nearer the truth to say “ China
clouded over,” for it is the same terrain but in deepest
shadow.
Its Terrain,
Look again at a map of China proper—on the east
and south bounded by the boundless oceans, on the
north, mainly by the pathless desert, on the west, by
the barrier of the massive Himalayas. This great area,
in the east of Asia, has been divided into eighteen
provinces. Each province has been subdivided into
prefectures, each prefecture into districts or counties,
and counties again into small, village districts almost
corresponding to our townships, which, in turn, have
even smaller partitions comparable to school-sections.
Through these thread streams, rivers, roads and
mountain-ranges, while scattered everywhere are cities,
towns, villages and countless country homes. Over
60
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 61
all until recently—1911—ruled the Emperor, the Son
of Heaven, assisted by his various Boards. The great
provinces were governed by powerful viceroys, under
whom were prefects, under whom, in turn, were county
magistrates, and in ever-descending grades, village
elders and small local headmen.
The Land of Shades.
Now, to the ordinary Chinese view, the here and the
hereafter occupy the same site. The inhabitants of
the latter are, however, in darkness, whereas we are in
the light. Still they use the same roads and rivers as
their highways, with olden time tollgates and guards of
bridges. They are all around and about us. A com-
mon saying declares that three feet above our heads
there are spirits. They are even closer than that, for
they dwell, day by day, in all sorts of shadowy
places, such as wells, groves, dark rooms, graveyards
and old houses, to come forth especially at night
and assume control of the land occupied by the liv-
ing. Thus the night is their day, the evening their
morning, and, for consistency’s sake, midsummer
marks their New Year.
As to occupations, it may be said that, in the ordi-
nary sense of the term, they do not seem to have any.
They toil not neither do they spin; at least they do not
seem to indulge in agriculture, trade and commerce.
So for food and clothing (as we shall see later), they
are wholly dependent upon the generosity of the land
of the living. Still they have houses, tables, stools, etc.
An interesting story tells of a maiden of ravishing
beauty in the land of shadows, who enticing a mortal
62 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
thither, hid him for a time under an old couch, just as
tradition says they have done in our own lands of the
living. The spirits include all grades of rich and poor,
high and low, quite as here. The most unfortunate are
those absolutely without friends and posterity, who
have no one living to send them support and so are
dependent on the promiscuous charity of strangers.
Their lot is considered most pitiable. They are “ hun-
gry ghosts,” rushing hither and thither, begging, fight-
ing, fawning, struggling for existence.
Government in Shade-land.
These myriads of inhabitants in the land of shades
do not wander as a great mob. The Chinese mind is
too orderly for that. They have here again an almost
exact copy of the organization of government found in
the old Celestial Empire. As the proverb says, “‘ The
lands of darkness and light have one and the same
principle.” Over all is Heaven, or as that is too ab-
stract for some minds, a more personal power is sub-
stituted, namely, the Pearly Emperor. Under these
again are the various boards, viceroys of provinces,
prefects, county magistrates and smaller local officials.
Each of these has had a temple built for him which
may be still frequently seen here in the land of the
living. The Pearly Emperor in reality has his court
among the stars of the Great Dipper, or “northern
bushel measure,” as the Chinese term it, and other
officials of the land of shades may be represented by
other star clusters. But here on earth these temples
are placed so as to co-ordinate with living magistrates.
Thus the Pearly Emperor’s temple is in Peking; that
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 63
of the Viceroy of each province of the shadow land is
naturally in each provincial capital; that of the prefect
in each of China’s prefectures, etcetera.
As in the land of the living, the official nearest to
the people is the county magistrate, so also in the
shadow world a corresponding official is most inti-
mately concerned. Thus his temple is to be found in
every county town. It is known as the “ city-god”
temple or literally the “temple of the wall and
moat,” as the god presumably rules within those
boundaries. He has his prisons or “hells” as we
shall see, his judgment seat where he sits constantly
in state, as a great idol, and his lesser officials who
do his bidding.
He keeps a most accurate record of all the living and
the dead in his locality. The birth of every one is
presumably promptly registered in his books. The
span of years the person is to live is also laid down,
and from time to time any deeds of good or evil he
may commit are carefully recorded, as these may in-
crease or decrease his allotted time. His yamen run-
ners are especially well known and dreaded. The chief
one is called “The Uncertain,” possibly because no
one knows where he is nor when he may come that
way. With him go constables of hideous mien, cow
heads, demon tails, etc., the one possibly most to be
dreaded being that with hen feet. Thus; when a
man’s days of life according to his destiny are ful-
filled, this gruesome band issues forth from the city-
god temple of the district to which he belongs and
then no skill of man can save him. Willy-nilly, he
64 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
must go with his grim guards to answer at the tribunal
of his district god.
Other Thoughts of the Hereafter.
Such seems the conception, the primitive conception,
at the back of Chinese thought of the future world.
But during their long history other elements have also
entered in, so that it is now decidedly more confused.
These other elements have been largely contributed by
Buddhism, abetted liberally by Taoism. Each has its
separate ideas of heavens, while both commingle in
conceptions and depictions of hells. We turn next,
therefore, to some of these hopes and fears held forth
to doers of good and evil.
The Buddhist Western Heaven.
The Buddhists tell of a place far to the west, ruled
over by a Buddha known familiarly as “ O-mi-to Foh,”
that is Amitabha, or, as he is frequently called, the
Buddha of Boundless Age. This Western Heaven
which he governs is thus described according to Dr.
Edkins: “Ten million kingdoms of Buddhas separate
O-mi-to Foh’s world from ours. It is composed of gold,
silver, lapis-lazuli, coral, amber and cornelian. There
is no Sumeru mountain, nor iron mountain girdle, nor
are there any prisons for punishment. There is no
fear of becoming a hungry ghost, nor an animal by
transmigration, for such modes of life are unknown
there. There are all kinds of beautiful flowers, which
the inhabitants pluck to present as offerings to thou-
sands and millions of Buddhas that reside in other
parts of space. Birds of the most beautiful plumage
sing night and day of the five principles of virtue,
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 65
the five sources of moral power and the seven
steps of knowledge. The listener is so affected by
their music that he can think only of Buddha, the
Law and the Priesthood.” Others assure us, in
poetry, that,—
“ There 1s no region so happy and blest
As the heaven of Amida far in the west.
On the moment of reaching it, by a new birth,
The material body of man while on earth
Is exchanged for another ethereal and bright,
That is seen from afar to be flowing with light.
“ Happy they who to that joyful region have gone.
In numberless kaplas their time floweth on.
Around are green woods and above are clear skies,
The sun never scorches, cold winds never rise,
Neither summer nor winter are there ever known,
In the land of the Law and the Diamond throne.
“ All errors corrected, all mysteries made clear,
Their rest is unbroken by care or by fear.
And the truth that before lay in darkness concealed
Inke a gem without fracture or flaw 1s revealed.”
The Taoist Heavens.
The Taoist theories (which we will study later)
differ considerably from that of the Buddhist. The
former being a native sect, stick closer to the primitive
Chinese conception and place their heavens in various
regions of the Celestial empire. ‘Their immortal genii
live in quiet caves far up the mountain sides, in se-
questered valleys, in the wonderful realms of Mother
Wong among the Kuen Len Mountains on the western
66 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
border, or, better still, among the three wondrous isles
said to lie to the northeast, in the Yellow Sea, the
Islands of the Blessed.
Various Hells.
In striking contrast to all this, with its hopes of
future happiness are what are familiarly known as the
Buddhist or Taoist Hells. These may be seen in all
their realism worked out in wood, paint and plaster in
any temple to the city god, and also in “ Eastern Hell ”
temples. Just where this hell is actually situated is
confused. Some say each city god has one. Others
state that it is really situated beneath the city of
Fungtu here in Szechwan. As proof, a story is told of
a magistrate who entered the opening pointed out as
the entrance, wandered far into the awful caverns and
was only saved by repeating snatches of the sacred
books, a light gleaming forth to illumine his pathway
at each repetition. (Our personal investigation of this
dread gateway found only a small rock-hewn well, four
feet square and thirty feet deep; but who can stem the
tumultuous tide of tradition?)
The Eastern Hell God.
Probably the most consistent explanation of these
places of punishment is, that they are in charge of the
“‘ Eastern Hell” god, for he geverns all birth, or really
all rebirth. That is, he controls not only the punish-
ment, but the return to earth of all souls whose destiny
it is to enter again this realm of existence. However,
tradition is not noted for consistency in abstract specu-
lation, so the common people find no difficulty in be-
lieving many sides of these seemingly contradictory
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 67
statements. The following extracts from a little book
of the late Manchu dynasty, widely distributed by
those who would do good deeds, has had great influence
in at once summarizing and disseminating popular be-
liefs. ‘The regulations are supposed to be direct re-
scripts from the Pearly Emperor. These hells or
“earth prisons,” as they are called, are divided into
ten courts each with sixteen wards. Each court has its
special judge, while over all is Yenlo, the old Hindoo
Yama, ruler of the dead.
The Punishments.
In the Fifth Court, for instance, the sinners are hur-
ried away by bullheaded, horse-faced demons to a
famous terrace, where their physical punishments are
aggravated by a view of their old homes. Thus Dr.
Giles translates: |
“This terrace is curved in front like a bow. It
looks east, west, and south. It is eighty-one li
(twenty-seven miles), from one extreme to the other.
The back part is like the string of a bow. It is en-
closed by a wall of sharp swords. It is four hundred
and ninety feet high; its sides are knife blades; and
the whole is in sixty-three stories. No good shade
comes to this terrace; neither do those whose balance
of good and evil is exact. ,
“Wicked souls alone behold their former homes
close by, and see and hear what is going on. They
hear old and young talking together. They see their
last wishes disregarded, and their instructions dis-
obeyed. Everything seems to be undergoing change.
The property they scraped together with so much
68 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
trouble is dissipated and gone. The husband thinks of
taking another wife, the widow meditates second
nuptials. Strangers are in possession of the old es-
tates; there is nothing to divide among the children.
Debts long since paid are brought again for settlement,
and the survivors are called upon to recognize claims
upon the departed. Debts owed are lost for want of
evidence. ‘There are endless recriminations, abuse and
general confusion, all of which fall upon the three
families of the deceaséd. They in their anger speak
ill of him that is gone. He sees his children become
corrupt and his friends fall away. Some, perhaps for
the sake of bygone times, may stroke the coffin and let
fall a tear, then depart quickly with a cold smile.
Worse than that, the wife sees her husband tortured in
the yamen; the husband sees his wife victim to some
horrid disease, lands gone, houses destroyed by fire or
flood, and everything in utter confusion,—the reward
of former sins.”
The Sixth Court is a vast, noisy Gehenna, many
leagues in extent, and around it are sixteen wards.
“In the first the souls are made to kneel for long
periods on iron shot. In the second they are placed up
to their necks in filth. In the third they are pounded
till the blood runs out. In the fourth their moutks are
opened with iron pincers and filled full of needles. In
the fifth they are bitten by rats. In the sixth they are
enclosed in a net of thorns and nipped by locusts. In
the seventh they are crushed to a jelly. In the eighth
their skin is lacerated and they are beaten on the raw.
In the ninth their mouths are filled with fire. In the
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 69
tenth they are licked by flames. In the eleventh they
are subjected to noisome smells. In the twelfth they
are butted by oxen and trampled by horses. In the
thirteenth their hearts are scratched. In the fourteenth
their heads are rubbed till the skulls come off. In the
fifteenth they are chopped in two at the waist. In
the sixteenth their skin jis taken off and rolled up
in spills.” .
Transmigration.
“The Tenth Court deals with the final stage of
transmigration previous to rebirth in the world. It
appears that in primeval ages men could remember
their former lives on earth even after passing through
these gehennas, and wicked persons often took advan-
tage of such knowledge. To remedy this, a Terrace of
Oblivion was built, and all shades are now sent thither,
and are forced to drink a cup of forgetfulness before
they can be born again. Whether they swallow much
or little it does not matter; but sometimes there are
perverse devils who altogether refuse to drink. Then
beneath their feet sharp blades spring up and a copper
tube is forced down their throats, by which means they
are compelled to swallow some. . . . The wicked
and foolish rejoice at the prospect of being born again
as human beings, but the better shades weep and
mourn that in life they did not lay up a store of
virtuous acts, and thus pass away from the state of
mortals forever.”
The Six Paths.
From here they return to life again, entering one of
six paths into which all living beings can be born,
70 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
namely gods, titans, men, animals of various grades,
hungry ghosts and monsters. With a few of the
more philosophical of the followers of Buddha, the
prospect of entering into Nirvana, where all desires
and illusions end forever in annihilation, may form
the goal, but with the millions of this great land
these three, namely, an indefinite sojourn in the land
of shadows, with the hope of the Western Heaven
to allure or the horrors of an excruciating hell to
be shunned, form the stern realities ahead, after this
mortal has taken another step in the great drama of
transformation.
The Third Soul’s Pilgrimage.
Let us presume, then, that some mortal has reached
the limit of life accorded him by destiny, that already
the great Sheriff “ Uncertain ” and his motley runners
have arrived, and the soul is about to answer the in-
exorable summons. As we have followed the welfare
of the soul which accompanies the body and the soul
which enters the tablet, so also let us follow this third
soul in its wanderings, and the efforts of his friends
and family to save him from the purgatorial tortures of
the earth prisons.
Speeding the Soul.
These ceremonies differ in different localities, but
are in general as follows: As death approaches, one of
the first acts of the watchers is to make a hole among
the low roof tiles to allow the spirits to escape. The
soul, as formerly explained, is regarded as a sort of air.
Thus on one occasion, when a soul was imprisoned in a
bottle, it was seen curling upward on the withdrawal
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 71
of the cork, as a misty smoke or vapour. Lest, there-
fore, the soul, on the occasion of death, be hindered in
its flight, it is thought well to scatter the tiles. In some
cases the Chinese even take a long bamboo pole and
shoot it through the opening to make sure there are no
obstructions either natural or supernatural in the way.
Next a bowl of cold water is hastily poured. This
is, ’tis said, to give the soul a parting drink, or more
frequently to refresh the inexorable ‘‘ Uncertain ” and
his assistants after their rapid journey. A lamp is
also hurriedly lighted. This is to enable the departing
one to see his new surroundings, especially these hid-
eous, horse-headed, bull-bodied runners who have come
to drag him away. Later, when he becomes accus-
tomed to the land of shades, he will not need the light,
but for these first few days it is very necessary and is
kept constantly burning.
Equipment.
As the deceased is to go before the grim City God
for justice, it is of great importance that he have
friends, be properly clothed, and have a liberal supply
of money, all of which lessons sad experience has
taught abundantly true in the land of the living.
Accordingly, bundles of cash-paper are burned to the
gods who have governed the years of the deceased’s
life. Other cash is similarly burned to appease small
underlings, such as the keepers of bridges and toll gates
along the route. His “ passport,” stating his time of
birth, place of residence and other details necessary to
his proper identification, must not be omitted, and,
lastly, large bundles of paper cash, gold and silver, for
72 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the use of the plaintiff himself, to be used discreetly
as occasion may require, are added, for, though the
justice of the lower regions is thought to be largely
impartial, so far as the higher judges are concerned,
the underlings are true to their reputation in the next
world as in this.
Candles and incense in worship to these rulers of
the shadow world are also duly burned with many
prostrations on the part of the elder son and other
representative members of the family. Clothing is
likewise an important item if the deceased is to make
a good appearance. His body is dressed in the best the
household can afford. As many of the garments are
new, a small hole or some special sign is burned with
incense in one corner, that the deceased may readily
identify his own if stolen, as they may well be by
orphan spirits. Paper clothing, paper servants, houses,
books, boats, cash, and other requirements are also
sent forward by means of fire. For is it not presum-
able that souls whose own substance is a smoky va-
pour, at least during transition, can use money and
garments similarly transformed? |
Priestly Precautions.
It is also necessary to call a priest, either a Taoist
or a Buddhist will do, the latter being slightly the more
expensive. On arrival, he will inquire again all the
details as to the time of birth and departure of the
deceased, that he may thereby fix the date of a secret
and much-feared visit of the noxious element spirits
of the departed. According to this latter theory, the
noxious elements are in many places supposed to sink
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 73
into the earth to varying depths according to the one
of the six roads which the spirit may have taken. The
priest, who presumably knows all about these roads
and the depths, can tell exactly the time when these
dreadful influences will return. When the fatal day
arrives, the family prepare for the exact hour with
caution and fear, for many evil spirits will accompany
this baneful part of the shade, and will cast evil effects
upon any whom they meet. Accordingly, every nail
is carefully searched out and covered with a red
paper, lest the demons seek to hang the returning
soul thereon. A table is also carefully spread with
vegetables, rice and especially wine, for these, like
their earthly equals, love to imbibe. In the centre
of the table is placed another prime requisite—a
crock with a small neck. In it are placed one or
two hard-boiled eggs and by its side some chopsticks.
it is naively believed that the half-drunken demons
will spend their time seeking in vain to get the eggs
out with the chopsticks and that meantime the re-
turned soul will gain a respite, be able to look about
the home and, seeing the, preparations being made for
his future welfare, will return well pleased with his
posterity.
At the appointed hour of this unexpected visit the
family hasten in dread to some neighbouring home.
Not a soul is left behind, not even the hens, cats or
dogs. At the expiration, all carefully return. Grown
persons may fail to see any change in the appearance
of the viands, but children can readily see traces of
these much-feared visitors, especially on the floor.
74 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
This latter, unknown to the demons, had been previ-
ously strewn with ashes or sand, and now the keen eyes
of childhood can trace out marks of chains, or of the
hen feet of one of the intruders. Needless to say, the
priest and his long line of forerunners have cunningly
conjured up endless stories to explain and appease, but
especially to extort a few more much-needed cash—
this time not for use by the smoky spirits in the land
of shades.
On Trial.
Word must also be sent to the judge of the lower
regions in his court at the city-god temple. In some
parts of China, friends proceed thither and scatter the
floors with millet, rice, etc., to appease the underlings.
Naturally a fee is also given to the priests who have
influence with the keepers of the records in the other
world. One or more is employed to intermittently toll
a bell for possibly the whole forty-nine days during
which a ceremony usually lasts. As stated, it is dark
in the shadow land, but at each tolling of the bell light
flashes through hades, much to the benefit and honour
of the departed. As the latter is now supposed to be
in process of trial or confined awaiting the same, sons
and relatives go daily to the temple to burn incense,
candles, and cash paper, and worship the god. On the
last day, some even rub the posts of the temple lest
revengeful runners may have stuck the soul of the
deceased on nails, etc., or somewhere for future
extortion.
During these forty-nine days, nothing must be left
undone to secure the release of the departed. In the
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 75
land of the living, it has been found that the pleading
of mothers, wives and daughters is also effective, for
who can resist a woman’s tears? Accordingly, early in
the process, the women of the household, and not in-
frequently others hired to assist them, begin to pour
forth most piteous wailings and beseechings, reciting
at the same time the good deeds and noble qualities
of the departed. Near relatives dress liberally in
“sackcloth” if not in ashes, and literary friends
write elaborate scrolls and essays extolling the dead,
the essays, after reading, being burned for transmis-
sion. Apparently in China, as in other parts of the
world, “the wicked never die,” or if they die they
never have funerals and tombstones or other elaborate
eulogies.
Weeping Wives.
This weeping for the dead is evidently a very old
custom in China. We read that the great Emperor
Yao, who abdicated in 2255 B. c., nominated as his
successor a young man named Shun, and gave him
his two daughters in marriage. At the death of their
husband, these two ladies are said to have wept so
copiously their tears literally drenched the small bam-
boos round about the grave. Hence, to this day, a
certain species of that most wonderful of trees is called
“the bamboo of Shun’s wives.”
Priestly Aid.
Of all the agencies employed to free the soul from
its torments, however, those of the priests are pre-
sumed to be most efficient. As in our own country we
go to the lawyers when in legal difficulty, so in China
76 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the priests are presumably the class of society whose
duty it is to know the celestial codes. They know all
about the forms of procedure, the ceremonies neces-
sary, the wording to be employed and, especially, the
fees necessary—to insure success. The poor usually
employ the Taoist, the more wealthy the Buddhist or,
if comparatively well-to-do, both. ‘Their ceremonies,
which may last the forty-nine days, consist chiefly in
dressing in elaborate court robes, beating gongs, bells
and drums,—marching; bowing, kneeling and chanting
selections from sutras, long ago handed down from
India. Some of these are mere transliterations which
the priests themselves rarely understand, while fewer
still comprehend the doctrines often contained in these
abstruse philosophies. As to the Taoist, they are but
poor imitations of the Buddhist ceremony.
Three Common Ceremonies.
There are three ceremonies which even the poorest
seek to observe. As they are common practically
everywhere, we may give them in outline. They con-
sist in inviting the soul to return to its home, freeing
it from hades and feeding hungry ghosts.
The First Ceremony: Inviting the Soul.
As is frequently remarked in these pages, there are
constant inconsistencies in many of these strange be-
liefs. The soul, one might say, has already returned
of its own accord. How, then, seeing that it is already
in custody, can it come home? However, the idea
seems to be that he is allowed to return for another
look around or the priests have power to persuade the
officials of the underworld, so can secure his return at
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 77
an appropriate time. ‘The ceremony is thus described
in The West China Missionary News:
“Tf, according to the books, an auspicious day is
near at hand for the commencement of the elaborate
prayers for the dead, then the soul-summoning cere-
mony is left for the same day, otherwise it is proceeded
with at once.
‘“‘ Dressed in special robes, the priest or priests ar-
rive with cymbals and drums. Outside the main room,
say, in the courtyard, at each of five spots represented
in the five points, north, south, east, west and centre,
is placed a dish of confectionery, another of bean curd,
another of wine, together with the usual candles and
incense. Besides these, two other things must be
ready, namely, the Soul-leading streamer consisting of
long strips of white paper, cloth or silk upon which
appears written the name and place of birth of the
deceased, with some felicitous phrase affixed, and also
the Spirit Tablet, called the Wooden Lord, which is a
small rectangular board about a foot high, an inch
thick and three inches wide, with a base. On the tablet
is engraved or written somewhat as follows, ‘ Recently
deceased, illustrious father (surname and name given),
venerable, great one’s spirit tablet.’ On the back ap-
pears only the words, ‘ Complete Body,’ meaning that
he is entirely present.
“ The priest now grasps the wooden handle to which
the streamer is attached and, waving it, proceeds to
the five points mentioned, beginning with the east.
The filial son follows closely, bearing in his two hands
the tablet. As they arrive, cymbals and gongs are
78 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
struck, the candles and incense are lighted and priests
begin their incantations. Thus they sacrifice to the
spirit of each of the five points, that these may assist
in bringing back the soul of the deceased. At length
the soul obeys the priest’s summons and returns, and,
like any dustworn traveller, needs a bath.
“Out in the courtyard a sheet of matting is set on
edge, and the two ends are brought near together so
as to form a small circular room and doorway. Within
are placed a tub of water, a washcloth, combs, etc.,
also a bench. ‘Thither the procession moves and the
son places the tablet on the bench. While the soul is
presumably bathing the chanting goes on outside, and
in addition paper clothes, hat, coat, shoes, all complete
are burned so that there will be a full outfit for him
to don.”
Properly bathed, the soul presumably within the tab-
let, is led step by step across a structure composed of
benches, tables, etc., over which a web of cotton, called
the golden bridge, has been stretched. By this means
he enters his old home once more and is given a place
of honour at the top of the room. Before him are
spread out the usual foods, including wine for his re-
freshment or, as the saying is, to open the spirit’s
throat. He is now presumably free to look about his
old home and note all that his family are doing for
his release.
The Second Ceremony: Releasing the Soul.
The second night sees the clamour begin again. The
soul of the departed is presumably now in the midst of
purgatory, suffering the awful tortures which his un-
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 79
balanced account of good and evil has brought him,
and in dire need of aid. The priests alone can succour.
The source of their power is thus explained: In the
days of the Sung dynasty, that is, in the days when the
Normans ruled England, there lived a maiden, the
youngest of fourteen sisters. She was later happily
wedded to a worthy man named Fuh, and in due time
their home was brightened by the arrival of two little
sons. Alas, she and her husband began to develop
great covetousness. They craved to be. rich, and to
this end used many means of cheating and oppressing
their neighbours, as, for example, using a heavy steel-
yard in buying and a small bushel measure in selling.
For this the gods brought swift punishment, their two
sons being one day suddenly struck by a thunderbolt.
This flooded the mother’s heart with remorse and bit-
terness. She became reckless and wanton to an ex-
treme. Even the birth of another son could not check
her mad carousals. At length, in utter abandon, she
died, was tried by the judges of the land of shadows
and condemned to the blackest and bitterest halls
of hades.
Now this third baby boy was unknown to her liter-
ally a star. For the stars, as we have seen, are really
superior souls of some past generation living amidst
and lighting up the heavens. Are not scores of noted
men of history known to be stars born among men?
Such was this son. As he grew to manhood, he more
and more realized the wickedness of the life his mother
had led, realized it, yet pitied the remorse which had
driven her to such recklessness, and the consequent
80 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
sad fate she was suffering. He decided to become a
Buddhist priest, if by any means he might rescue her.
After years of reflection and purification, he deter-
mined to seek the earth prison and, braving its dangers
and horrors, to rescue her.
Long he searched through all the ten courts and
many score departments, but could find no trace.
Demons on every hand sought to thwart him, but his
purity could not be withstood. At last he realized that
she whom he sought must be in the uttermost dungeons,
those bitterest bournes of all from which no mortal
e’er returns even for metempsychosis. Thence he de-
scended, and after long and baffling search, discovered
that she was confined within the Iron City. This is so
named because its walls and gates are made of massive
iron plates and bands, so that escape is impossible.
There masses of demons guard the doors, rushing in
new souls as they arrive, pushing them promiscuously
through the small opening in the gates to the dungeons
and horrors within. Before this gate the priest found
himself. The guards sought by their utmost arts to
prevent his approach, but his good overcame all their
wickedness. Drawing near, he raised the iron staff
he carried, and with one mighty thrust burst open the
bars. Rushing in, he found his mother and led her
forth. Ever since that day, the priests, by invoking
his aid, may in like manner rescue other doomed
souls.
It is to dramatize this supposed event that many
assemble the second night. During the day tiles or
an old crock have been placed in each of the four cor-
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 81
ners of the room. As on the previous night, candles
are lit and much cash-paper and incens e burned. The
appropriate gods are again worshipped and their aid
secured. The priests appear with all their robes,
authority, sacred sutras and musical instruments. One
of their number is dressed to represent Mu Lien, the
rescuer of his mother. Amid much clash of cymbals,
clamour of gongs and chorus of voices, he slowly pro-
ceeds from corner to corner of the house. At each
point the wild clamour suddenly ceases for a moment,
as with one awful thrust the priest drives forth and,
—the tile or old pottery is in fragments. After
hours of such ceremonies the last corner is visited,
the last tile demolished, and in the small hours of the
morning the gates of hades are declared duly stormed,
the prisoner presumably rescued, the family free to
retire and the priests ready for another savoury meal,
and sleep.
The Third Ceremony: Feeding the Hungry Ghosts.
The last ceremony also deserves passing notice. It
is that of feeding the hungry ghosts. During the day
a procession of priests and mourners, having formerly
visited the temple of the Pearly Emperor to secure the
sacred water with which to give the shade its bath,
again seeks audience with His All Highness, to an-
nounce that all rites connected with the freeing of the
soul of the departed have been fully performed. It
only remains, therefore, to appease the souls of those
persons who have died heirless, or whose posterity have
failed to find them and who are therefore hungry
ghosts in the land of shades. Indeed, if some notice
82 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
of these is not taken they will, as the beggars and riff-
raff so frequently do at weddings and funerals on the
earth, make no end of trouble for the dead and through
him for the living.
Accordingly, upon the last night, the abbot or his
representative seats himself high upon a table perched
upon other tables, looking resplendent in all his regalia.
The priests present sit and march by turns, chanting
their books, kneeling, rising and beating their gongs.
Meantime a crowd of idlers, well knowing the climax,
crowd in and surround the place. After hours of wait-
ing, which only a Chinese crowd could do so patiently,
the abbot with many signs and special charms wrought
by his fingers, flicks forth little balls of rice or dough.
These are called “ ghost eggs,” and are intended to feed
the hungry ghosts. Asa matter of fact, however, these
starving spooks must be contented with getting but
““a smell,” which of course they could only “ eat”
anyhow. Hosts of hands outstretched from the
crowd eagerly seize the real substance, as the little
balls fly about, and carry them carefully home.
Why? Do not such, fed to little children, ward off
disease and visitations of disturbing devils, especially
during dreams?
Millions in Bondage.
Such is the story of the third soul. It is another
chapter to those subtle beliefs which have for centuries
held this great people in bondage. ‘The picture of
the Western Heaven or of the Islands of the Blessed
on the one hand and of the hells with their excruciating
horrors on the other, have had their influence, both for
HEAVENS, HELLS AND THE HEREAFTER 83
weal and woe, and in large measure still sway millions,
especially the women of the land. Indeed, even the
literati, while professing to treat all with contempt,
usually invite in the priests as do others.
IV
ANCESTOR WORSHIP
liners from America to Asia, one soon discovers
that the majority of the passengers are not the
Caucasians who monopolize most of the first and
second class accommodation, but rather the Chinese
chiefly stowed away in the stern or steerage. Looking
down from the main decks, they are seen swarming
about by scores, or squatted here and there in small
groups smoking, chatting, gambling. Later on one
learns that their numbers are not confined to the living.
There are also a score or more of dead, whose coffins
are among the most valued elements of the ship’s
cargo. Later still, if interested, one learns that these
passengers, both living and dead, come from many
parts of North America, from towns and cities as far
east as a Nova Scotia village or crowded parts of the
Bowery. It costs money to travel thus half round the
world even at third-class rates, and freight and express
charges greatly increase the expense. What can be
the motive that impels these hard-working, saving sons
of Han, many of them washermen and house servants,
to spend so lavishly of their means, and what, espe-
cially, can concern them to take a fellow-workman’s
worn-out body over continent and ocean to some far-
84
C ROSSING the Pacific by many of the great ocean
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 85
away, unnamed hillock among the multimillion graves
of China? It must be an all compelling thought, in-
deed, that thus calls men from all parts of the world to
wend their way home ere death o’ertake them, and
even stronger still, to constrain others to have these
bodies borne so far.
The Dead Dependent Upon the Living.
The answer is simple enough. It is ancestor wor-
ship. It is the seemingly harmless thought that the
dead not only live but are dependent on their offspring
on earth for all things. Such a simple proposition,
however, is capable of unlimited corollaries, and the
Chinese people, throughout their long centuries of his-
tory, seem to have developed these to the utmost. We
have already dealt briefly with some of these, in Chap-
ters II and III, speaking especially of the customs that
have gradually gathered about the treatment to be
accorded to each of the three souls. The tablet we
saw had to have its special ceremonies; the body
its special clothing, costly coffin, and grave selected
with minutest care; the soul which went to hades, its
score and more of demands as it proceeded upon its
perilous journey.
Six Suppositions.
These, and others which we should now state in
more detail, are based on the beliefs:
(1) That after death the soul still lives.
(2) That these dead are dependent upon the living
for all their needs, such as food, clothing, shelter, face,
funds, honour, prosperity, protection, etc., which they
enjoyed while upon earth,
86 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
(3) That all these things can be transferred to them
in some way, usually by burning paper imitations, but
oftentimes by means many times more expensive and
exacting.
(4) That these dwellers in the shadow world can
return good or evil to their posterity, and constantly
do so, according to the treatment accorded them.
(5) That the dead who are neglected by their de-
scendants, together with those who are without pos-
terity, are beggar spirits in the world of darkness, and
are forced to eke out a wretched existence, herding
together and competing with those who have died in
war, at sea, of starvation, or in foreign lands, and who,
in consequence of their burial places not being known,
or having no relatives to sacrifice to them, are entirely
dependent upon public charity, and
(6) That many of the ills that flesh is heir to, such
as sickness, business disaster, calamity and death, are
inflicted by these unfortunate “ orphan ” spirits, who
in attempting to avenge themselves, prey upon those
in the world of light who are responsible in any way
for their forlorn condition.
But believe these corollaries, and what follows is
the almost inevitable conclusion.
The funeral and other services formerly described
are therefore but the beginnings of a system of thought
which goes far to hold many of these great millions all
their lifetime in large measures of bondage. ‘Thus
each morning on rising the eldest heir must worship
the tablets, at each family meal bowls of food must
be prepared and placed before the same with prostra-
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 87
tions and an invitation to eat, quite as though the dead
ate and were still present there. On the first and fif-
teenth of each month special good things are expected
and special ceremonies, including usually the visit of
some one to the city-god temple to send funds to the
souls in hades.
Worship at the Grave.
Worship at the grave is also exacting. It takes
place at least twice a year. The principal time is in
the spring, about one hundred and five days after the
winter solstice. On any fine day during this season,
which lasts two or three weeks, members of families,
male and female, dressed in their best attire, repair to
their family graves. There they make such repairs as
the mounds may need. Many of the wealthy, indeed,
specially buy a few acres of land and erect a house
near their graves, renting all to a tenant at a mere
nominal sum on condition that he properly protect
their tombs.
The preliminaries completed, the worshippers pro-
ceed to make their annual offerings and perform their
devotions to their ancestors. The master of ceremonies
- in person, or some one in his presence, arranges the
various offerings, consisting usually of a fowl and fish,
and sometimes a pig, or more frequently still a pig’s
head with its tail in its mouth as indicative of the whole
hog. Wine, lighted candles and incense, miniature
houses filled with paper money, paper trunks filled with
paper clothing, a paper sedan chair, paper horses,
servants, books and pens, boats, etc., etc., according to
the supposed wishes of the deceased, are also supplied.
88 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
All the paper material is arranged before the family
graves with scrupulous care as to their order of dignity,
then set on fire. The wine is poured on the flames, and
as all is thus being transmuted and transmitted to the
ancestors of the family, now sojourners in the land of
shades, the master of ceremonies and all members of
the family, including the little children, kneel, bowing
their heads to the ground nine times in most formal
reverence.
The autumn ceremony is not so exacting, though
many go forth to worship and provide winter clothing,
funds and charcoal burners for the deceased. But the
spring occasion can be omitted by none. The various
guilds have their special servants who go to send gifts
to members buried in some distant province. High
officials may be excused the neglect of other pressing
duties while these are performed. Even a highway
robber will often seek to return home at this season to
perform his filial duties. This care of the dead is a
duty which none unfamiliar with the land can fully
appreciate.
Extortionate Exactions.
Naturally priests and other sharpers are ever ready
to make capital of such convictions. Here is an ex-
tract from a report by way of illustration:
‘Here, too, as in the funeral ceremonies, long gen-
erations of the priesthood have not neglected their
opportunities for gain. In their watchful(?) devotions
before their deities, they have no difficulty in discov-
ering that some one of their parishioners, who a short
time ago was arrested and taken to the spirit world,
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 89
and whose family is well-to-do in this life, is in
wretched condition in the world of darkness. They
manage to convey this information very delicately to
the family so recently in distress. ‘The family are
greatly alarmed. They thought they had done all in
their power to settle the spirit of their departed rela-
tive. They send for the priest, who goes into an in-
vestigation and discovers that the unfortunate man is
confined in a deep pit, guarded by sword and spear.
With some emotion he informs the family that nothing
short of a three-days’ mass will rescue the unhappy
victim. The family anxiously inquire what amount of
money will be required. The answer will naturally be
guided by the known ability of the family to pay. In
this instance we will suppose it is for one thousand
dollars. The astonished family plead their inability to
pay so much. The priest is not disposed to undertake
it for less, and reminds them of the possible conse-
quences should the unfortunate be left in his present
condition. They hold a hasty consultation as to what
they shall do, and offer five hundred dollars. The
priest refuses. After much dickering he agrees to un-
dertake it for seven hundred dollars, informing them
at the same time that it will be very difficult to under-
take it for that sum.
“A day is appointed. The family hall is stripped
of all its ordinary furniture, and decorated by the
priests, in a gorgeous manner, with temple regalia,
emblems of authority in the spirit world. The an-
cestral tablet of the deceased is placed on a table
in the centre of the hall, and surrounded by small
90 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
idols and insignia of authority. Around this table
the priests, five, seven or nine, attired in richly-
embroidered imperial robes, and chanting their incan-
tations, march in measured pace. The ceremony is
continued day and night, enlivened at intervals by
music and gong.
“Meantime the priests and all the relatives and
friends who have been invited to help, live upon the
family. On the afternoon of the second day, the abbot
or master of ceremonies, with some confusion and great
emotion, informs the family that the position of the
unfortunate is unchanged, and that the authorities of
the spirit world will not think of releasing him for
seven hundred dollars. The family and relatives be-
stir themselves to borrow, if they cannot otherwise
raise the additional sum. ‘The priests return to their
task with renewed zeal. The chanting is more ener-
getic, the step is much quicker and the ringing of the
abbot’s bell is more frequent, while the family weep
over their misfortune. In due time the abbot an-
nounces that there is a commotion in the prison of the
spirit world, and that the unfortunate spirit is about to
be released. The news is proof that the additional
three hundred dollars had the desired effect and is
some consolation to the family for their unexpected
outlay. On the third day the abbot makes another
examination as to the actual conditions of the man.
With great agitation he informs the family that the
unfortunate victim is nearly out. He is, in fact, simply
clinging to the mouth of the cave and is looking with
anxious solicitude for further aid. But those in charge
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 91
will not allow him to go unless they are further paid.
What is to be done?
“The family, frantic with anxiety, tear the bangles
from their arms and the rings from their fingers, pro-
duce other jewels and articles of value upon which
money can be had at the pawnbroker’s, and thus pay
another two hundred dollars. The priests, judging
from appearances that they can get no more, return to
their arduous undertaking with redoubled zeal, and
ere the sun sets, the fearful din of gongs and fire-
crackers announces to the anxious family that the
incarcerated spirit has been set at liberty. Congratu-
lations are exchanged, and the priests, having re-
lieved the family of much anxiety and a large sum
of money, depart. It is to be noted, however, that
the relief is only temporary. The priests do not pro-
fess to be able to rescue a person and place him in a
condition of permanent peace. Who knows when
another misfortune will befall him? Time and the
priests will tell.”
Other Requirements.
Not every family, of course, is called upon to make
so great sacrifice. But the number is legion of those
who are called upon to move a grave, change the
opening to a room, sell or buy a new site at a
sacrifice, make a pilgrimage to some distant temple
or mountain, or pay endless public and private sums
for this fear of some presumably suffering ancestor.
Not the least of these exactions are the processions
to the gods and annual feasts to the hordes of
hungry ghosts.
92 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
These feasts are usually three in number, the first
at the spring season of visiting the graves; the second,
during the first fifteen days of the seventh moon, and
the third on the first of the tenth moon. Of these the
second is highly emphasized in most places. At this
season according to popular belief all the hosts of
hades, including those forlorn souls without descend-
ants, are let loose for a season. It is, in fact, according
to the calendar of the land of shadows, their holiday
season, and woe to the mortal who does not entertain
them well.
Idol Processtons.
Naturally the gods of the lower regions must be hon-
oured at such times. As the city-god is especially able
to guard the living and control the dead, he comes in
for the lion’s share. In each temple dedicated to his
residence will be found not only the great idol, eight
or ten feet high, which sits on in dignified state, but
also, just in front of him, a smaller duplicate of him-
self. This latter is now carried forth and, with all the
ceremony and dignity formerly accorded a living
magistrate of equal rank, escorted through the streets.
The sedan chairs are borne by at least eight coolies,
preceded by the usual corps of criers, lictors, gongs,
bearers of insignia of authority, mounted couriers, etc.,
and followed by advisers, writers, fan-carriers and
mounted guard as required under the old régime for
county magistrates. Coolies follow, bearing long
bamboos on which are suspended contributions of
cash-paper or silvered and gilded nuggets.
The procession is followed by many penitents.
.
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 93
Among them are females, with hair dishevelled and
chains about their necks, men also manacled and in
chains—even small children are carried along, simi-
larly in bonds. Some of these penitents follow the
procession the entire day, carrying heavy weights sus-
pended by hooks made fast in their flesh, or lighted
candles and incense similarly inserted. Others go with
cangues about their necks telling of their crimes. All
these believe that they are suffering from offences
against some ancestor of their own or of others, and
are in this way doing penance with hope of relief.
Such ceremonies are now frequently discouraged by
the more enlightened republican leaders, but the
thought system still abides and comes forth as of old
whenever opportunity occurs.
At such times, every family in the city is expected
to contribute to meet the expenses of these festivals.
During the succeeding nights, deputations from the
temples of the city-gods or of the eastern peak, with
gongs and a grand procession of lanterns and torch-
lights traverse the streets, roads and alleys within the
city and its environs, burning quantities of cash-paper
at the street corners, by the river banks and in all
places where these hungry ghosts might be imagined to
collect. Others, wishing to get the direct benefit of
their donations and fearing the dishonesty of the col-
lectors, may prefer to conduct their own campaign and
burn great quantities before their own doors.
The Dread of Death.
The foregoing should indicate, in some measure, the
burden both to the affections and to finances which
94 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
dead forefathers are to the living. A little reflection
will enable one also to realize what a serious thing
death is, as old age draws on and men and women
begin to contemplate eternity before them. Even in
our homeland is it not the anxious thought of each and
all to lay by a few extra dollars as provision for old
age? Who does not think of the possibility of being
turned over to the charity of the poorhouse or the
public with deepest revulsion of feeling? Add to this,
then, if you will, the thought that you may be, as it
were, a charity case, rambling with a rabble of hungry
ghosts throughout all eternity, and a small idea of the
power of this thought upon the aged and the reflective
of China may be conceived.
It is small wonder, then, that men and women make
provision for their supposed wants in the land of
shades long before the Sheriff comes with his grim
runners. Expensive garments are secured, even actu-
ally fitted on and worn, that comfort and fine appear-
ance may be insured. Coffins for the father and
mother not infrequently decorate either side of the
guest-room. As these boxes of wood are to form their
future and eternal homes, they are necessarily of the
best material the family can afford. In our great
Western province of Szechwan, in the Chienchang
valley, in the extreme southwest, are found certain
trees of massive size, buried, presumably, years ago,
by landslides or otherwise. As the timber is large,
well-preserved and of an artistic grain, the material is
most highly prized for coffins. Many slabs are trans-
ported far away to Pekin and other parts of the land.
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 95
In Chengtu, some of the most expensive coffins cost
two to three thousand dollars gold. Others sell at two
or three hundred dollars, and the poorest pay ten or
twelve. Even this latter is a large sum when you con-
sider that in the interior the Chinese labourer receives
approximately ten cents per day as wages and twenty-
five to thirty dollars as his total earnings for a year.
These coffins, in keeping with the thought of being
future homes, are made of the thickest of slabs and
heavily covered with black shellac, the lid and all parts
being, as far as possible, airtight and waterproof.
The grave, too, if possible, is located and prepared
before death. Some of these tombs are most elaborate.
Out upon the hills from the great cities are many, built
of stone with several rooms, small hallways, and
carved images guarding the entrance. The wealthy
go still further, providing massive mounds with long
lines of mythical animals placed in rows to guard the
approach.
Funds Sent Forward.
Many also make provision for funds and even other
houses and necessities in the usual way of transmission
by fire before their death. This is true especially of
those who are childless or who fear that their children
may prove unfilial and not provide adequately when
they are gone. Here, again, the priests are ready, for
a small fee, to provide a means. Sometimes it takes
the form of a full-fledged Chinese compound with the
rooms, chairs, couches, boxes full of clothing, servants,
horses and all necessary comforts and luxuries.
At other times the priests announce that they are
96 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
about to dispatch a boat to the spirit world. Then all
who so desire come forward with bundles of cash-paper
or imitation silver sycee and for a small fee have their »
deposits placed aboard. The boat is often twenty-five
or thirty feet long and wide in proportion. When it is
full and piled up some ten or more feet, and no other
depositors present themselves, the priests walk around
the outside a few times chanting their incantations,
then set fire to it at either end. In a few seconds the
boat with its precious freight has disappeared. The
parties who have transmitted goods are given certifi-
cates of deposit and are warned to take proper care
of the same. They will, at death, hand these over to
some trusted friend with instructions to burn them,
and will thus be able to collect the funds or the deed
for the property in the shadow-land.
The Imperative of Property.
But to do all this requires money. If, then, this
struggle for wealth is spoken of as the source of all
evil in the West, much more is it so in the East, backed
up, as it is, not alone with a need for its possession
during the few, fleeting years of time, but for its per-
petual use throughout eternity. For is it not a self-
evident conclusion that should a family, either now or
in the years to come, ever become impoverished, then
its ancestors, who have gone on before must suffer?
In ordinary practise it is said that only five gener-
ations of the departed are so concerned. The earlier
are presumed to have returned through metempsy-
chosis, or to be in some mystic way beyond earth’s
needs. But that this theoretical curtailing of responsi-
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 97
bilities does not satisfy the inner consciousness, is seen
in the storing up of tablets in ancestral halls, in the care
of graves many centuries old, and in such prayers as
the following by an Emperor of the Ming dynasty:
“‘T thank you, my sovereign ancestors, whose glori-
ous souls are in heaven. I, as a distant descendant,
having received ‘the appointment from Heaven, look
back and offer these bright sacrifices to you, the hon-
oured ones from age to age, for hundreds of thousands
and myriads of years. Now ye front us, O spirits, and
now ye pass by us, ascending and descending, unre-
stricted by conditions of space. Your souls are in
heaven, your tablets are in that department. For
myriads of years will your descendants think of you
with filial thoughts unwearied.”
Here, then, are long lines of ancestors to be provided
for in the spirit world. Shall they be sustained or shall
they starve? That will depend largely upon the
amount of property that the family can gather to-
gether from generation to generation. To understand
this is to secure the key to many of China’s family and
social struggles. Had they but knowledge of them,
many millions would repeat Tennyson’s lines with es-
pecial emphasis to their sons:
“ Proputty, proputty’s wrything ’ere, an’, Sammy,
I’m blest
If it isn’t the sadme oop yonder, fur them as ’as
it’s the best.”
The Imperative of Posterity.
Yet there is another factor that is even more im-
98 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
perative than property. That is posterity. By pos-
terity is meant sons, and sons of sons, for daughters
do not equally reckon. To be efficient, the offerings to
the dead should come through the eldest son, or at
least a male member of the family. Daughters, on
the contrary, marry, and thus become a part and the
property of another family. ‘Their sons, in turn, and
not their daughters, will supply them with the necessi-
ties of the land of shades. Let us follow the effect of
this new imperative, the need of posterity upon the
nation, tracing in turn, in broad outline, its influence
on sons, daughters, the family, society and other
relations.
Effect Upon the Man of the Nation.
Needless to say there is great rejoicing when a son
is born. In him are centred, not only the hopes of
happiness here, but through him for the hereafter.
He is accordingly fed, clad, cared for and petted to
the best of the family ability. Everyone, especially the
female portion of the household and his sisters, are his
servants—almost his slaves. The result is/ that too
often he grows up pampered, domineering, and one is
led to agree in some measure, though not fully, with a
report by Dr. Yates (from whom we have previously
quoted other opinions), that, “The term filial [in
China] is misleading, and we should guard against
being deceived by it. The filial duties of a Chinese
son are chiefly performed after the death of his par-
ents. A son is said to be filial, if he is faithful in doing
all that custom requires for his deceased ancestors.”
There is one matter, however, upon which, until
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 99
recently, a son’s opinions have had but little weight.
It is the matter of his marriage. Mencius, one of the
greatest sages of China, declared that there were three
ways of being unfilial. The most unfilial of ‘all was to
have no posterity. Consequently, the son frequently
learns when he comes to years of discretion that he is
already engaged. Indeed, the little girl he is to marry
may have been already secured and living in his home.
Accordingly, when he is still young, usually in his
teens, he is married, and the responsibilities of a wife
and family are thrust upon him. ‘These responsibili-
ties are fortunately not so heavy as would be the case
in a Western land, as his mother and father or grand-
parents assume chief authority, and both he and his
family are largely under their direction. Such things,
however, necessarily interfere to a large extent with his
studies, his apprenticeship, or whatever preparation for
life he may be making. Possibly more unfortunate is
the fact that these intimate relations are established
at a time when both parties are immature. The normal
allowance for difference of opinion is often not made,
and frequent brawls are the result, unfortunate, alike,
for the young parents and the children. As to who
his wife shall be, the son has had nothing to say.
There has been no courtship—no romance. The se-
lection of one alike suitable in station, sympathy and
ideals is all but unknown in China. The parents, with
thoughts of property and posterity as the great im-
peratives before them, have arranged all that. Some
girl suitable to them in ability, appearance or price has
been secured and the boy, willy-nilly, must abide by
100 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the result. Fortunately, some such matches turn out
happily; but, in many cases, they are most inappropri-
ate. In still others it is a matter of complete indiffer-
ence, the son simply viewing his wife as a necessary
part of his property. If one wife dies, he soon secures
another as he would any other necessary chattel.
There are few phases of China’s old social structure
against which her young men and women are more
unitedly protesting today than this system of pre-
arranged and early marriage. eh
Being married, the youth is fortunate if his wife
bear him a son—or several sons. But if he have none
his is an unhappy lot. In this event, the husband is
expected, if he can afford it, to take a second wife or
concubine as soon as possible. A third or fourth may
be similarly added if funds permit. All the children
will be reckoned as legitimate heirs.
If no male children are born, then the husband is
driven to the adoption of sons. The child of a brother
naturally comes first. If that cannot be secured, then
the son of some other relative is chosen. Failing this,
effort is made to secure a son—anywhere. Occasion-
ally, a daughter may be married to a stranger, the
husband assume the wife’s name and so become a
son, but that is more rare. During these years of
uncertainty, the husband is frequently rebuked by his
parents, and is the butt for ridicule of the neighbour-
hood. If driven finally to adopt some outsider, he is
almost certain to secure a poor representative, for who
has sons to dispose of in China? The adopted son will
probably be some child of poverty or disgrace, a fact
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 101
to be rehearsed again and again as the years pass by.
A paragraph in a native newspaper just recently tells
of one such son finally showing forth his low origin by
rising in times of temptation to murder the parents
who had adopted him.
Effect Upon the Woman.
The effect upon the woman is even more sinister
than the effect upon the man. To begin with, she is
not wanted by the family, with the same earnest en-
thusiasm as a son. She cannot keep the family line
of descent alive. Some day she will go to aid another
family, but can be of no service to her own ancestors.
Meantime it will cost much to raise her. So, especially
if the parents are poor, the little life is in many cases
silently stifled at birth. This is not that the Chinese
people are devoid of natural affection. There are few
lands where children are more fondled. It is rather
that the family cannot afford to raise both sons and
daughters, and when the choice is to be made, the
demands of ancestors dominate all others.
If a kindlier fortune allow her to live, then she has
one goal ahead. It is to marry some day, profitably,
into another family. She is taught to tend her young
brothers, to sew, to embroider, to make shoes, to wash
bowls and cook rice. It is necessary to make her earn
her keep at as early a date as possible. In the past,
her feet were bound. That was also an essential, for,
until recently, only slaves and bad women had large
feet. What home would take such a bride? The
inauguration of Western education has given a great
stimulus to the education of girls, but even now, out-
102 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
side mission schools and large centres, girls’ schools
are too little known.
Some day—it may be, in her childhood, or in her
teens—the parents of a girl have a visit from a middle-
man or woman. A suitable match is arranged accord-
ing to price or presents, the eight characters of the
two concerned are exchanged and an engagement of
the most binding character has been formed. As in
the case of the boy, the girl has never seen her future
husband, possibly knows nothing about the family to
which he belongs, and has no say in her future. Her
chief virtue at this age is to unfalteringly obey her
parents’ behest. Her future husband may be young
or old, rich or poor, healthy or diseased, a man or a
moral leper. But if her parents or guardians are satis-
fied, the girl is expected to submit. Is it any wonder
that, at times, we read of young wives who commit
suicide rather than endure the marriage bond?
For the many, however, the marriage day arrives.
The bride is bedecked with a profusion of powder and
paint, and put through several traditional observances
to bring good luck to herself and her parents’ house-
hold, then placed in a great, red chair, the doors and
windows all securely closed, and to the strains of
music (seemingly alike to Western ears for funerals
and weddings), she is borne away. Arrived at the
strange home, her husband opens the door and she may
see, through her veil, if she dare lift her eyes, for the
first time, the one with whom she is expected to con-
sort through time and eternity. Together they wor-
ship heaven, and then—the very heart of the ceremony
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 103
—bow together to the tablet of the husband’s an-
cestors. Henceforth, save in exceptional relations, her
family is hers no more. She has acknowledged herself
a part of the great line of living and dead who go to
make her husband’s household.
In this new relationship, however, the newly-made
wife is practically as much the servant of her mother-
in-law as the wife of her husband. “A wife is taken
to wait upon her mother-in-law,” cries a supposedly
filial son in a certain story. Should the girl prove
unwilling to do this the husband proceeds to beat her
and finally sends her home to her own parents, which
marks the extremity of disgrace. Duty to parents and
to ancestors comes legitimately before that to husband
or wife. ‘There is no “ Therefore shall a man leave
father and mother and cleave unto his wife” in the
sacred law of ancestor-worship in China.
According to the law of the land there are seven
just causes for putting away a wife. These are:
(1) bad behaviour toward the husband’s father and
mother, (2) adultery, (3) jealousy, (4) garrulity,
(5) theft, (6) disease, (7) barrenness. As will be
seen, the obligations to the husband’s parents come
first, before all others.
The young wife is fortunate indeed, if she bear her
husband a son. Her status in the home and in society
is at once secured. But if the years bring no such
blessing, hers is a sad fate. She must submit to the
jeers and taunts of all. She is the victim of the whims
and suggestions of every old sorceress and fortune-
teller in the neighbourhood, In time, she must submit
104 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
to—in fact, is expected to assist her husband in secur-
ing—another wife to take her place in this imperative
of raising up sons to the forefathers. As life goes on,
if she be a woman of strong will, she not infre-
quently takes refuge in a temper which no one dare
to molest. If of a weaker nature, then she is fre-
quently the subject of endless taunts and sneers, a
common drudge to the mother-in-law and servant
to all, until natural death or suicide grant her grim
release.
Effect Upon the Family.
In the West the word family means a man, his wife
and their children. In China, the connotation is dif-
ferent. It stands, rather, for several men, each with
one or many wives, and their children, also their own
fathers and mothers, and probably their grandparents.
Indeed, the ideal family is that of five generations
under one roof. Above all these, the dead generations
represented by the tablets in the guest-room reign
supreme.
This thought even dominates the architecture of the
home. It is a large rectangle with houses all around
the walls within and a few built transversely as rungs
in a ladder so as to divide the whole into two or more
courts. Down by the gateway live the servants. In
each ascending courtyard live the households arranged
according to age or dignity. Highest up of all live
the most aged and honoured, with the ancestors in
their midst.
This also dominates the home policy. Scatter as
the sons may about the towns and villages of the coun-
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 105
tryside, wander to other provinces or even at times
abroad, still the home is largely the banking house for
their funds. The hope is to increase the family estate
and thus insure the perpetuity of the clan.
Some of this has doubtless its benefit. It at least
aids needy members in times of trouble, gives clan-
urge to diligence and makes each an agent for his rela-
tives when they are out of work. But it reaps also
its rewards in individual jealousies, family wrangles,
questionable hygienics and moralities arising from
crowded conditions and absent husbands, and espe-
cially in the domination of the aged and the ancestor
over the middle-aged and youth, in the clan offspring.
The ancestor is too often a semi-god, the aged grand-
parent the law-giver, and the clan-circle the limit of
the horizon, in human responsibilities.
Effect Upon Society.
The effect of this family fealty is also seen in so-
ciety. Each clan is bent especially upon its own
preservation and aggrandizement, and consequently
cares little for its neighbours. Indeed, there are fre-
quent deadly feuds between these. This spirit vents
itself in times of peace in endless recriminations and
lawsuits. In times of revolution and unrest, such as
we have seen in recent years, these furies burst forth
and the rival clan is sought out, persecuted, looted or
even destroyed root and branch. It also enters into
politics, where one clan by wealth or official position
seeks to crush a rival, and to this end collects endless
cliques and prostrates justice.
Before the advent of Christianity, China had a few
106 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
public charities, such as almshouses, homes for the
blind and orphanages; but these were the fruits of in-
dividuals anxious to lay up merit, or of Government
necessity, rather than of a general thought of brother-
hood. The sick fall by the wayside and usually, until
their relatives hear of it, there has been no one to aid.
One day a wounded man lay from dawn until mid-day
in the street. He was but wounded in the knee and
could have been saved, but when, at last, our Red
Cross found him it was too late. He had bled to death.
Some of this indifference is doubtless due to fear of
devils and other complications, but much is the
fruits of every clan for itself, its ancestors and pos-
terity. “‘ Am I my brother’s keeper?” Yes, if he be
really my blood brother, my kith and kin, but if he
belong to another clan then, largely, the word is an
euphemism.
Effect Upon the Nation.
In this respect, far-spreading effects are also seen.
Until recent years, there was little real patriotism.
The nearest approach to it was a feeling for the prop-
erty and tombs of ancestors. A poster, for example,
purposing to rouse the people to revolt, represents the
authorities selling graves to foreigners. Men of other
provinces are often looked upon as aliens. Even during
the present struggle, Northern troops have been hissed
out of the capital of the Western province and bitterly
hated, although to an outsider their conduct appeared
exemplary enough. Indeed, men of another country
and village are often similarly rejected.
This whole thought system abets speculation. A
ANCESTOR WORSHIP 107
man may hold quite an honourable attitude to his own
clan, but placed in public position ‘“ squeezes” un-
blushingly. What matter, so long as his own family
gain in property and prosperity? From another stand-
point, it perverts justice, judges being unwilling to
punish a man who is an only son, or, at times, even to
act as judge in cases of criminal dealings, lest they
incur the vengeance of some dead powers of darkness
by punishing their progeny.
International Effects.
Internationally, too, this thought has its fruits. The
imperative for sons has so overpopulated the country
that people must migrate. But, on the other hand, the
system demands that they remain citizens of their own
land, true to their own ancestors, sending all surplus
funds home, and returning to be buried there and so
supplied with the next world’s necessities by their own
clan. The result is, that no nation is anxious to receive
them. They not only decrease wages to native work-
men but unless Christianized, give little support to
schools, churches, libraries, or public charities, as
true citizens should. The result is that abroad, the
Chinese are, possibly, the least welcome of settlers,
although they are acknowledged to be capable, intel-
ligent, industrious and patient. Not all of this is due
to any one cause, but ancestor-worship is assuredly
one of the chief sources from which it may be said
to rise.
Indeed, should some reader feel called upon to dis-
count the findings of this whole discussion it will still
have to be conceded that the dead hand of the ancestor
108 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
has a big, and in the main, a baneful influence upon
his peace-loving posterity. ‘This is the more impor-
tant, for from many angles it is correct to say that
ancestor-worship is the real religion of the Chinese
people.
V
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS
N our earlier studies we have sought to follow the
Chinese mind in its simplest readings of the mean-
ing of life, and to see some of the consequences
as they appear today. They are the periods usually
called Naturalism, Animism, and Ancestor Worship,
common to many other nations, if indeed not in some
measure to the whole human race. The disaster is
that the masses in China have been so long in dis-
carding these phases of thought, and are therefore
still bound by their limitations. But China’s scholars
have had ample time for deeper reflection and have
evolved systems of philosophy and ethics quite as
surely as have other portions of the human race.
Let us follow some of these profounder quests for
reality.
The Primary Elements.
One of the earliest questions reflective men appar-
ently ask is as to the stuff or substance out of which
all things are made. Men see about them the animal,
vegetable and mineral worlds, and as all seem to be
inextricably bound together, they get inquisitive as to
their composition, the material from which all come.
Our own Western philosophy, which started with the
Greeks or others on the west coast of Asia, had these
109
110 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
same questions. One said all was derived from water,
another said all was from fire, and a third that all
came from air. It is quite probable that the early
Greeks received their impulse from farther east,
namely, from the older civilization of Babylon. If so,
it is not impossible that the Chinese may have had
some similar source for their inspiration. At any rate,
their answer was not widely different. They concluded
there were five elements from which all things were
derived. These five were water, fire, metal, wood and
earth. The effect of this theory upon the Chinese
thought and life will be better understood if left for a
later study, being much affected by the speculations
outlined below.
Primary Principles.
Speculation, it will be seen, did not end there.
From some other native or foreign source came the
observation that many of the phenomena of life are
apparently found in pairs. Thus we have day and
night, heat and cold, black and white, light and
heavy, old and young, big and little, and others ad
infinitum.
Secondly, these not only go in pairs, but seem to
follow and mutually aid one another, or thirdly to be
antagonistic, one the opposite of and destroying the
other.
The Yin and Vang.
This apparently led Chinese thinkers to explain the
generation of all things as the interaction of two prin-
ciples, a sort of active and passive or a positive and a
negative. For these they used two words which we
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 111
will need to learn at once. The active principle they
called “‘ Yang,” the passive, ‘‘ Yin.””’ Under the Yang,
or active, they naturally grouped all such phenomena
as light, heat, the sun, the heavens, the masculine, the
strong, the positive. Under the Yin they classed the
opposites, as darkness, the moon, cold, the earth,
the feminine, the weak, the negative.
Evolution and Revolution.
Watching again, especially perhaps, the processes of
growth and decay, the coming and going of day and
night, and the procession of the seasons, these early
thinkers also discovered that phenomena apparently
both evolve and revolve. Thus, in life, youth is fol-
lowed by fullness of manhood, then old age and death,
only to be followed by the birth and death of another
generation. The sun rises in the mornings, to grow
great at noon, then diminish, until midnight we have
the climax of darkness, later to be followed by an-
other march toward the dawn. Spring is followed by
the heat of midsummer, to pass on again to autumn
and midwinter with its cold, but this again is fol-
lowed by another spring. ‘Thus they concluded that
all things go in great cycles, processes that revolve
and evolve.
They explained this by saying that the Yang and
the Yin alternate. For example, midnight or midwin-
ter is the climax of the Yin, while midday or midsum-
mer marks the triumph of the Yang. Between these
extremes are, of course, all grades and degrees of
commingling.
So it was in the explanation of the growth and decay
112 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
of animals, men and indeed all things in the universe,
for do not all grow and decay? Even the five elements
of which we have spoken were derived, it was thought,
from these two active and passive principles, so that
there was an active and a passive fire, and similarly of
water, metal, wood and earth. All things were but the
evolving and revolving, combining and disintegrating
of the Yin and the Yang.
The Great Extreme, and the Unlimited.
As to the next natural question, namely, the source
of these two, they concluded that originally the two
were one. This one they spoke of as the “‘ Great Ex-
treme.” It was a sort of chaos in which the Yin and
the Yang were commingled in comparatively equal
parts. It was the primitive world stuff, the great egg
from which the universe has been hatched. There
most of their thinkers seemed to have stopped; but
others, pushing the question still further back, said the
Great Extreme came in turn from ‘ That-which-had-
no-extreme,’”’ an Unlimited. By this, they were prob-
ably again following out their idea of the world going
on as all things do in great cycles, that is first a chaos,
then a cosmos, then a chaos again, to evolve into a
cosmos, and so on evolving and revolving eternally, the
beginning and end, both limitless.
Monism Depicted.
In attempting to picture these principles to them-
selves the early philosophers looked upon the Yang as
being white and the Yin as black, and expressed this
by circles of these colours, thus Yin @, and Yang O.
Later they or their successors applied this to showing
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 113
how the two unlimited things commingled equally in
the one Great Limited or Great Extreme and pictured
it thus:
Tur Great EXTREME,
Thus the outer circle shows that the two are really
and originally one. The colouring suggests that the
two principles are equally balanced, while the small
alternating spots of black in the white and the white in
the black, suggest that they commingle and change.
Let us now turn, therefore, to this process of change,
to the evolution of the universe from the Yin and the
Yang. This has been to their thought, just a long,
complex, yet harmonious process, a sort of permuta-
tions and combinations, and so may be expressed
mathematically.
An Algebraical Progression.
The Yin and the Yang, we must remember, start
with even quantities. Next these are doubled or alge-
braically squared. Then they are raised to the third
power, then fourth, fifth, etc., of themselves, and so
on ad infinitum, or until the cosmos comes to a climax
and gradually becomes again chaos. Thus we can
express this algebraically as follows, putting “a” for
Yang and “b” for Yin: (a+b), (a+b), (a+b)?,
fat) 3Cac boo (a--b)° (a-72D) eGarab ya ete. etc,
114 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
The Chinese also used this method, only instead of
our convenient old friends, “‘a” and “b” or “x” and
“‘y,” they used another simple device. They repre-
sented the Yang or the active principle as a straight,
strong, unbroken line, and the Yin, the weaker passive
principle, as a line of equal length but divided, thus,
Yang , and Yin ——. Similarly, we would write
(a+b)? equals (a?++ab-++ba+-b?). The Chinese wrote
it quite ingeniously thus: ———
omitting any signs of plus and calling them, not Yang’,
YangYin, YinYang, Yin*, but The Great Yang, The
Lesser Yin, The Lesser Yang and The Great Yin,
according to the quantity and position of the two
principles.
The Source of All Phenomena.
All that seems simple enough. We must remember,
however, that to the Chinese mind this was not merely
a mathematical problem. The process was actually
producing a world and might be recognized amid vari-
ous and widely diversified phenomena. These active-
passive, or positive-negative principles could be traced
(how, they do not tell us, but evidently by their active
and passive, heat and cold, male and female and such
like appearance) into specific physical, astronomical,
psychological, physiological, ethical and even political
phenomena. Thus: (Compare Meyer’s Chinese Read-
ers’ Manual)
1. The Great Yang is seen as the sun, heat, the
mental disposition of people, the eyes, that
which is first or greatest, and that which is
Imperial,
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 115
2. = The Lesser Yin is seen as the planets, night,
the bodily frame, the mouth, successive gen-
erations, usurping or belligerent rulers.
. —— The Lesser Yang is seen as the stars, daylight,
the outward form, the nose, revolving motion,
a rightful Prince.
4,—— The Great Yin is seen as the moon, cold, the
passions, the ears, that which unites, the Di-
vine Sovereign.
Such interpretations seem somewhat vague and com-
plicated and they naturally become more involved as
the process advances. Let us try another, the next
stage. This we might express as (a+b)? is equal to
(writing the full sum) a?+-a*b++aba+-ab?+-ba?+-bab+
b?a+b*. This in Chinese Symbols reads: (where ——
is “a” and —— is “b”)
If we number these descending from the active to the
passive at zero we have: (where the Yang or long line
is 1, 2, or 4 according as it is upper, middle or bottom
line, and the Yin or broken lines are always 0)
7. 6. BY. 4, 3. Zhe Pom OS
Further Expansion.
This further gradual commingling of the two prin-
ciples as they evolve, must, according to the theory,
manifest itself in lavish phenomena. Thus: (Again
compare Meyers)
0. is called the earth, exemplifies compliance or docil-
ity, also seen in the ox.
116 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
1. is named mountain, denotes arrest, standstill, re-
vealed in the dog.
2. is water, the moon, clouds, rain, or streams, ex-
emplifies sinking down, danger, the pig.
3. is the wind, is penetrating, and among animals is
the bird.
4. is thunder has energy, mobility, and is seen in the
dragon.
5. is fire, the sun, or lightning, shows brightness, and
is seen as the pheasant.
6. is a lake, or water collected in a basin, is pleasant,
satisfactory, the goat.
7. is the heaven, the sky, shows strength and is seen as
the horse.
Ancient Charts.
These philosophers, moreover, wished to exemplify
that the world in its growth not only evolved but re-
volved, and that all was due, not alone to a procession
of the principles, but also to their interaction. With
these thoughts in mind the permutations were arranged
as follows:
walls alll Sa a ee sai 3
eX ty * NX % HY,
e f Notth bc Mie
ep
Tue TricRAMS.
According to Fuh Hsi (left) and King Wen (right).
(Cf. Carus’ Chinese Philosophy.)
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 117
The figure to the left is the older, and therefore con-
sidered the more orthodox. It will be noted (1) That
the top is south. This is contrary to our Western cus-
tom which always presumes in charts that we are
facing the north, and makes it the top. These an-
cients, however, made the Great Dipper, or, as they
called it, the “‘ Northern Bushel,” the throne of the
world, and so drew their charts on the presumption
that we face south. Note next (2) that the Yin and
the Yang symbols exactly balance. That denotes
the constant harmony that prevails in the evolving-
revolving world. Note also in passing (3) that if the
opposite roman numerals are added the sum is always
seven.
This latter requires a word of explanation. The
Yin symbol (—-—) is always zero in value. The
Yang symbol ( ) varies in value with its position.
Just as explained we face south in viewing a chart, so
in counting we should begin at the top. Thus the
Yang in the highest row is equal to “ one,” in the sec-
ond row “ two,” in the third row “ four,” etc. The in-
dividual diagrams, therefore, really equal the numbers
we have affixed. So also each plus its opposite equals
“seven,” possibly another reason some Eastern na-
tions consider that the perfect number. ‘The second
chart is simply another theory or arrangement, so
need not be explained.
The Two Principles Progress to Highest Degrees.
The next step in the permutations would be, as
stated, to raise the two principles to the fourth power,
which would give us sixteen symbols, each made of
118 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
combinations of four strokes of the Yang and Yin,
beginning this: ===, etc. This would be followed
by another series raising them to the fifth power, then
to the sixth, and so on, as we say, to the nth or
infinity. Indeed, some have, it is said, labouriously
carried it out to the twenty-fourth power, when there
would be 16,777,216 diagrams with combinations and
complications which would entitle it to be, what it
really is, the prince of Chinese puzzles.
The orthodox have, however, been satisfied with
raising these two mysterious principles of Yin and
Yang to the sixth power. This gives sixty-four dia-
grams. They may be written as a square block,
representing, it is said, earth, or as a circle repre-
senting heaven. ‘The following diagram combines
the two:
s3Bstseon
AB EEFFASSSS
XS ” = WD
Gor" “SS
a “ ~
Yt Is,
VA "by . Ys
L)
iy ees «= oe wy ®
ii PRHEBBRER “Wy
5232 2252 FEZ
Sigg 22 FSS Stes Se = Wht,
elf SS SS BE Sz FEZE TSH ws
Git S$HiSi res ES ‘eld
mall $2 32 Se S352 SS wat
$3 33 S$ = 32> =
tye BRR EAR AS itt
sitttt eee Se sleet
ss & = Ssrzesze = SS ¢
quail Se S252 52 S222 55 22 pee!
anil iH HS 2S pu
“ik Ss S25 Se SR sets 2s za Halle
ws #3 22 SS FIRSTS SSE My
EN SBS eee eS iM
$s Pere BBS SS fille
WA. 233225222 ~/
PN Sb
SS IG
Lye,
i SS — s Be ae
“SSF SS S222 Pa ea
ad
weelteotses-s
THE Srxty-Four DIAGRAMS.
(See Carus’ Chinese Philosophy.)
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 119
Here again the opposite diagrams, called ‘‘ Kwa,”
balance perfectly, a Yin on the one side being always
met by a Yang on the other. This shows, as said, the
harmony prevailing at all stages in the development of
the world. The two opposites in this case, if added,
always equal sixty-three, that is, the six Yin, being all
zeros, equal nothing, while the six Yang equal 1, 2, 4,
8, 16, 32. This perfect balance no doubt served these
philosophers as a proof that they had the diagrams
properly arranged, and an undoubted key to the con-
struction of the universe.
All this is comparatively simple. It is when they
attempt to interpret these diagrams, that all becomes
a sort of confusion worse confounded. Yet this is just
what is attempted. Moreover, they have not been
content to give interpretations to each of the sixty-four
figures alone, but have affixed interpretations to each
line of each figure, which in turn must be interpreted
in the light of the whole and of many other circum-
stances. To understand this it will be necessary to
turn for a time to trace the reputed history of the
mystic Kwa or figures.
Origin in the Dragon Horse.
In no nation more than China has antiquity given
authority, and this has been ascribed to the utmost in
the case of the theories we have been discussing. They
take us for their origin far back into mythical ages.
Thus, in the dim dawn of Chinese tradition, about
2852 B. C., lived the first Emperor, Fuh Hsi. He was,
it is said, successor to the divine beings who reigned
during countless ages before human society was es-
120 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
tablished. He was the offspring of a miraculous con-
ception by the inspiration of heaven. Born at Si Ngan,
the capital of modern Shensi, he made his capital at
Kaifung-fu in Honan. There he taught the people
written language, hunting, fishing, cattle-raising, ar-
ranged the calendar, ordained marriages, organized
clans, introduced family names, and invented stringed
instruments. To assist him in all this, especially in
his system of government, a ‘“‘ Dragon-Horse” rose
from the waters of the Yellow River right at Fuh Hsi’s
feet, bearing upon its back a certain mystic chart.
This is called the (Yellow) “‘ River Plan” and is said
to have been the original of the diagrams we have been
describing.
The Turtle Writings.
Almost six centuries later (B. c. 2205), lived an-
other celebrated Emperor named Yt. His father
had been employed by the great Emperor Shun to
drain the land of vast stretches of water. The
father failed, but Yiu gave his whole heart to the
work. So intent was he that he thrice passed his
own door without turning in, though his wife and
son called from within. He it was, tradition says,
who drained the great province of Szechwan by cut-
ting a passage through the now famous Wu Shan
gorges. During these labours there appeared one
day from the river Loh a tortoise bearing upon its
body mysterious diagrams, an addition to those of
the Dragon Horse. The interpretation enabled him
then and during his later years as Emperor, to plan
all things political and moral in keeping with the mind
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 121
of Heaven and so bring peace and prosperity to the
people. This second system has been called the ‘“‘ Loh
(River) Writings.”
Later Diagrams of These.
What these two famous figures were, the history of
the times did not reveal. It was not, some say, until
the days of the Sung dynasty, a thousand years after
the Christian era, that the philosophers of the day at-
tempted to draw the diagrams. They represented
them as follows:
(Right) The Loh Writing and (Left) the River Plan.
(See Carus’ Chinese Philosophy.)
The story of the Dragon Horse and the Spirit
Turtle may have marked the appearance of some
unusual animals or are possibly additions of a later
day, to give a divine sanction and settle all debate
as to their truth. Chinese literature seems to show
such fancies were of a later age. As to the dia-
grams themselves, they apparently go back to a
very early time, and were probably at first simply
a form of writing the figures and counting. Though
there can be no proof that they were in the form
122 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
pictured above, they seem to have existed in some
form as early as the days of the Emperor Yii of
whom we have spoken, and his predecessors, the
famous Emperors Yao and Shun (Bp. c. 2356-
2205). Beyond that most Chinese history is
mythical.
Attempted Solutions.
Be the origin of these figures when and what it may,
they are certainly full of interest. They are appar-
ently, in later history, an attempt to harmonize three
things: (1) The two principles of Yin and Yang, the
passive and active, rest and motion, as seen every-
where in nature; (2) The supposed five elements—
water, fire, metal, wood, earth; (3) The endless
evolving-revolving process of nature as seen in the
systems of seeming permutations and combinations
explained above, with number and harmony at the
heart of things.
Thus the black circles are Yin and the white circles
Yang. The five in the centre are the five elements,
or, more strictly speaking, the five movements or
“forms.” So, though they in theory contain both
motion and rest, inasmuch as they are chiefly active
as seen in nature, they are represented as Yang. From
these all things flow. All is in perfect harmony, as
seen by the adding of opposites in the case of the Loh
Writing, or subtracting the Yin and the Yang in the
case of the River Map.
Interesting as they may be to us, or not, these dia-
grams have certainly fascinated, and that with fatal-
istic firmness, Chinese speculation, and become the
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS = 123
basis in the main of their material, moral and political
thought.
Expansions by Emperor Wen.
Nearly eleven hundred years after the time of the
Emperor Yi, these strange diagrams are again brought
prominently into history. About 1200 B. c., a noble
named Wen was thrown into prison by the tyrant
Chow. The former, doubtless with ample time for
reflection and every reason to be interested in his
future, began the study of the two plans and the eight
diagrams, cf. (a+b)*, said to have come from Fuh Hsi
and the great Yii. From these he not only read his
own good fortune (for his son was later to overthrow
the tyrant) but also expanded the eight to the sixty-
four diagrams, cf. (a+b)°, which we have studied
above. Most important of all, he gave to each of the
sixty-four an explanation, the basis of later education,
speculation and divination.
Duke Chow’s Supplements.
Naturally, the descendants of this King Wen laid
great emphasis upon these forms, so one of his sons,
Duke Chow, supplemented his father’s interpretations
by writing explanations to each line of the sixty-four
diagrams, that is 6 times 64, or 384 expansions.
Things were naturally becoming more complicated,
but had highest authority and were later to form the
basis of the far famous Book of Changes.
The Book of Changes.
Several hundred years later came Confucius (551
B. C.). Finding the times out of joint, he took to
study and decided firmly in his own mind that the
124 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
salvation of the country lay in restoring the rites of
the past. Here, then, were figures of highest au-
thority and hoary antiquity. The two forms and
the sixty-four diagrams with their permutations,
combinations and comments in this way became a
canonized book, one might almost say a Bible. Con-
fucius gave it great reverence. He believed that
“the (Yellow) river gave the plan and the Loh
(river) the writing,” though he says nothing about
a Dragon Horse or a Spirit Turtle. He further la-
ments to his disciples that in his day, “ the phoenix
does not come, the river sends forth no map.” In-
deed, he declared in his old age, after a lifelong study
of the mysterious forms and their meanings, “‘ If some
years were added to my life, I would give fifty to the
study of the Book of Changes, and then I might come
to be without faults.”
Confucian Comments.
To this book as it then existed, Conrdetis added his
own elaborate comments. The title Yi, which as above
is usually translated ‘“ Change,” might also be trans-
lated “‘ Permutations,” for, as we have seen, it is the
permutations and combinations of the Yin and the
Yang through the five elements that is the heart of
the system. As the centuries passed and the teach-
ings of Confucius became for China almost what
those of Christ are to Christendom, the place and
power the Book of Changes naturally assumed were
of supreme importance. You buy it today on the
street in ten Chinese volumes of about two hundred
pages each,
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 125
Occidental Interpretations.
The character of this abortive Book has been
somewhat summarized by a writer quoted by Carus
thus:
“* What, then, is this famous Book of Changes? It
is briefly this. From the continuous or bisected char-
acter of the diagrams (that is the Yin-Yang figures)
their position at the bottom, in the middle or topmost,
their mutual relation as opposed and separated, or
coming together, or, from the body or form of the
trigrams themselves, and further from the symbol or
image of the trigrams, from the quality or virtue of
the trigrams, sometimes from the difference of one
hexagram as compared to another, a certain picture is
developed, and a certain idea is deduced containing
something like an oracle, that can be consulted by
drawing lots, in order to obtain some warning fit for
guidance in life or to solve some doubt. Such is the
book according to the explanation of Confucius as
handed down in the schools. . . . Since this book,
as a reader of the original text will understand, has
been employed for fortune-telling, one expects to gain
by it the highest happiness of life, mysterious com-
munication with spirits and occult knowledge of future
events.”
Devices for Divination.
The place these strange volumes have occupied as
an oracle for affairs great and small has much signifi-
cance. As accessories to the Book of Changes for
divining purposes, the ancients used a tortoise shell
and stalks of milfoil. Fifty stalks were first chosen.
126 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
From these one was taken and placed in a holder in
the centre of the table to be a symbol of the Great
Extreme. In the spirit of supplication and with the
whole attention fixed upon the thing to be divined, the
remaining forty-nine were raised with both hands over
the forehead. Here they were divided wholly by
chance by the right hand, and that portion laid aside,
save one selected and held between the little and ring
finger of the left hand. The stalks of the left hand
were now to be counted by eights. If, including the
stalk held by the little finger, only one remained over,
then the trigram indicated was (——), if two (——),
if three (——), if four (= =), if five (——), 1 six
(=—), if seven (==), and if eight (= —). The
process was then again repeated and gave another
trigram which, being placed above the first, gave the
hexagram, that is, some one of the sixty-four. It still
remained to discover which particular line contained
your destiny. This was done by again repeating the
process as before, save that this time you divide by
six. If the remainder was one, then your request was
answered by the first line, counting from below, if two,
then the second line, etc., for each of the six lines.
(Cf. Carus.) :
The hexagram and the particular line must now be
sought out in the Book of Changes. Your question
carefully considered in the light (or darkness) of the
explanations and commentaries on the single line, of
the hexagram as a whole, and of the half score more
contingencies as explained in the extract quoted
above, will edify (or mystify) you as to your inquiry
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 127
and leave you wise (or otherwise) as to your life’s
destiny.
Modern Methods.
The ancients also thought it necessary that you
“wash your hands and mouth, clean your body, sit
perfectly aright in a quiet room, and take hold of the
sticks very reverently.” Nowadays much of this
seems unnecessary. You simply take three common
cash in your hands, close them one over the other, in
lieu of a tortoise shell, shake the cash and throw them
out upon the table or ground. You note the way they
fall, and then write lines one above the other; heads
are Yang, tails Yin. This repeated will give the upper
trigram for the hexagram. As to the particular line,
you simply select any one you please. Then the Book
is called in to act as oracle as of yore. The explana-
tion will differ, of course, according to the ingenuity
and imagination of your instructor.
The literati have been especially wedded to this
form of divination. They have naturally readily ac-
cepted Confucius’ estimate of its value. One of our
teachers, who is now a Christian, claims he came to us
through its results. His home is four days to the east
of Chengtu. Being out of employment, a friend per-
suaded him to have his destiny revealed by the Book
of Changes. The friend interpreted the line and the
hexagram to mean that he was to “ go west and south,
not east or north.” Despite this, he, having an offer
of employment from the east, set out in that direction.
On the road he met an old classmate who was bound
for Chengtu, the capital, The latter immediately set
128 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
to work to persuade him to obey the oracle and come
west. This he did and a few days later was recom-
mended to us as a teacher. Naturally such experi-
ences create great credence. If the result is good, it
is a steadfast proof of the prescience and oracular
power of the classic. If it fails why, of course, it was
simply a wrong interpretation, or instructions were not
implicitly obeyed.
Other Systems.
This is, moreover, the source of many other simpler
systems. One of the most common is that seen daily
in the temples. There the suppliant kneels to the idol,
and has a bamboo tube containing many sticks or
“lots,” each of which is numbered, before him. He
shakes the tube until one drops out. Then the priest
throws a couple of short cone-shaped blocks, oval on
one side and flat on the other, upon the temple floor.
If both fall with the flat sides up that is a Yang sign.
If both oval sides are up that is a Yin sign. As
neither of these are lucky, the suppliant must each
time shake again for a new number. Sooner or later
the priest throws the blocks (called Kwa or diagrams,
as in the Book of Changes) with one flat side facing
up and the other down. ‘That is the lucky sign, for
the Yin and the Yang are properly harmonized. He
now takes his lot, bows again to the idol, and goes off
to another part of the temple where there are numbers
of small drawers full of written fortunes. A printed
fortune corresponding to his lot is given him, and after
the payment of a few more cash he goes his way to
unravel the riddle of his existence as best he may.
PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS 129
Thus has the philosophy of the ancients fallen into
decrepitude, divination and delusion. The Yin and
the Yang, as we shall see later, have become the
warp and woof of much of China’s civilization, and
stagnation.
Tied by Tradition.
This is not saying that China has had no great
thinkers—far from it. She has had splendid sons,
who have sought again and again to solve the prob-
lems of life. Alas, they could apparently never quite
free themselves from the fetters thus imposed by their
forefathers. The seeming certainty that all originated
in one, that the two principles and five elements suf-
ficiently comprehended all, especially that subtle se-
duction of mathematics including odds and evens and
other manipulations of semi-algebraic symbols seem
to have woven a web from which there was little
escape. Add to this, that soon after the days of
Confucius, all was looked upon as holy, to doubt a
single line heresy, and we will well understand how
thorough were the bonds which have bound the thought
of the nation.
Chu-fu-tze (1130-1200 a. p.) made a noble attempt
and in much of his writings, according to Professor
Bruce’s interpretation, seems to have worked out a
really idealistic basis of being and becoming. Un-
fortunately, however, for him and others of like sym-
pathies, he has been slain in the house of his friends,
namely, his professed followers who could only inter-
pret him in terms of the traditions. The Yin and the
Yang as active and passive with their monism in the
130 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Great Extreme were concepts worthy of real conquests
in civilization. ‘They have been vanquished by the
subtleties of mathematics and materialism ending in
much divination and delusion.
VI
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY, AND FUNG-SHUI
F the principles of Yin and Yang may be spoken
of as Chinese metaphysics, then the theory of the
five elements may be considered their physics and
chemistry. These have, however, as we shall see
more fully, ramifications into physiologoy, phrenology,
psycho-physics, astronomy, astrology, ethics, politics,
etc., which have evidently rendered it bewitching to
the mystic and equally bewildering to true progress.
To trace more fully the story of the five elements is the
purpose of this study.
The Five Elements or “ Forms.”
All things we have already seen, are, according to
Chinese thought, composed of the five elements, water,
fire, metal, wood and earth. The origin of this theory
we have also seen dates far back to the dawn of
Chinese history and may have been original. It may,
on the contrary, have come to them through the
Hindoos, who have a largely similar theory, or it
may have come through other channels, from the
ancient civilizations about the valley of the Eu-
phrates, from whence similar theories probably found
their way to the Asiatic Greeks and so to Europe.
Such a hoary age has at any rate given the thought
all the awe and authority of antiquity, and also ample
131
182 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
opportunity to weave itself into the web of Chinese
civilization.
Active and Passive Principles.
These five elements are apparently the visible,
tangible forms of those invisible, intangible forces, the
Yang and the Yin, those active and passive, or positive
and negative principles and powers which we have
been discussing. ‘Thus the five elements each contain
both the Yin and the Yang. So we have a Yin-water
and a Yang-water, a Yin-fire and a Yang-fire, a Yin-
metal and a Yang-metal, a Yin-wood and a Yang-
wood, a Yin-earth and a Yang-earth, that is, an
active and a passive of each. As, however, these
five elements are mostly manifest as activities, they
are, aS we have seen, spoken of as the five “ forms,”
or “movements.” The Chinese character which we
translate as “ element ” being formed from the tracks
of the right and left foot in walking. They are
perhaps the active and passive “ goings-on” in the
phenomenal world.
Mutually Creative and Destructive.
There exists among these forms a very important
relationship which we have now to note. It is that the
five elements are mutually constructive and destruc-
tive. As the Chinese characters say, they mutually
“‘ give birth to ” or “ create ” and mutually “ destroy ”
one another. Thus water destroys fire, fire destroys
metals, metals destroy (divide or cut) wood, and wood
destroys earth. This is readily shown in a chart by
placing the mutually destructive elements opposite
each other, where they naturally counteract each the
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 133
influence of the other and so produce balance of power.
The same chart properly interpreted also shows their
mutual ability to construct or nourish. Thus, metal
when heated produces (liquid like) water, water nour-
ishes wood, wood nourishes fire, and fire produces
ashes or earth.
Relative Positions Depicted.
Now, the heat or fire of the world comes evidently
from the south, which is the place where the fire is
hottest. Therefore it would seem right to locate that
element in the south, and naturally its opposite, water,
in the north. In a similar way the springtime brings
verdure as the sun rises more and more to the east, so
the element wood is located there and its opposite,
namely, metal, in the west. Earth is, of course, in the
centre. These three considerations, therefore, namely,
mutual construction and destruction and their location
according to the points of the compass give the fol-
lowing diagram:
South
Hire (X)
Centre
a tr (A) “Barth ( £) eter (#)
th
ser ter (KK)
Resulting Groups of Fives in Phenomena.
Accordingly the five elements, though everywhere
commingled, have their proper place, relations, and
powers. From them come forth the phenomena we
184 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
see, and the Chinese, reasoning with a mathematical
logic, have arranged many in endless groups of fives.
Thus we have the five chief minerals: gold, silver, cop-
per, lead and iron; the five grains: pulse, millet, hemp,
corn and rice; the five kinds of fruits: peach, plum,
apricot, chestnut and jujube; the five sacrificial beasts:
the ox, goat, pig, the dog and the fowl; the five
guardian mountains; the five lakes; the five super-
natural creatures; tlie five virtues: benevolence, up-
rightness, propriety, knowledge and faith; the five
blessings: longevity, riches, peacefulness, love of
virtue, an end crowning life; the five degrees of
mourning for parents, for grandparents, for brothers,
for uncles, for distant relatives; the five forms of pun-
ishment (under Chow and Han dynasties): branding
on the forehead, cutting off the nose, cutting off ears,
hands or feet, castration and death. These and many
others have more or less fanciful derivation from the
five elements. This will be more readily understood
as we seek the application in others more obvious.
This leads us to inquire more minutely as to the na-
tures, colours, etc., of these five elements.
The Nature of Each Element.
The nature of each is definitely stated. It is told
us in one of the oldest of China’s classics, the Book of
History. In a section of the book called the Great
Plan, are nine divisions for the guidance of the govern-
ment of the nation. (The ancient plan of divination
recorded in a previous study forms the seventh di-
vision.) The first division treats of the five elements,
as follows:
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 135
“ The nature of water is to soak and descend; of
fire, to blaze and ascend; of wood, to be crooked or
straight; of metal, to yield and change; of earth, to
receive seeds and yield harvests.”
From this description of their respective natures, it
proceeds to define the taste of each: “ That which
soaks and descends becomes salty; that which blazes
and ascends, becomes bitter; that which is now crooked
and now straight, becomes sour; that which yields and
changes, becomes acrid; and from seed-sgwing and
harvesting comes sweetness.”
The Formation of the Five Colours.
The derivation of the five sounds is still less ob-
vious. The formation of the five colours is, however,
quite simple. The fire is, of course, red, and its oppo-
site, water, is dark green. Wood is green-black and its
opposite, metal, is white. Earth is yellow. (These
five colours, it may be noted in passing, form the na-
tional republican flag of China today.) Seen in the
clouds they have quite another significance. Black,
the water colour, naturally betokens floods, red fore-
tells warfare, and white, mourning, for the Chinese
wear white, not black, at funerals. Green is ominous
of plagues of creeping things, and yellow is the herald
of violent winds.
A pplication to Physiology.
The relation of much of the above to life may seem
rather remote. It becomes more intimate when the
same theory is used to account for physiology, and
prescribe medicine for various diseases. Thus the five
chief organs of the body are the kidneys, the heart,
186 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the lungs, the liver, and the spleen. Next by some
strange factoring of colours, positions, tastes and pow-
ers, the kidneys are said to belong to the water ele-
ment, the heart to fire, the lungs to metal, the liver to
wood, and the spleen to earth. When the elements in
these are all in perfect harmony there is health.
When, however, any one or more becomes greatly in-
creased or diminished in proportion to the rest, it is
of course obvious that there must be a lack of bal-
ance, a state of civil war and disease or death to the
patient.
Deductions as to Disease.
The first duty of the physician is, naturally, to
locate the seat of the disaster, to see which one of the
warring elements is too strong or too weak. This is
readily done by feeling the pulse. That is not, how-
ever, the same process as with the Western doctor.
The latter, watch in hand, counts the beats to discover
the action of the heart. The Chinese physician feels
the pulse of both the right and left wrists, and on each
wrist distinguishes six main and several subordinate
signs. Omitting the latter, the pulse is divided into,
“inch,” ‘‘ barrier ”’ and “ foot,’ according as the pulse
just below the bone of the thumb, the pulse crossing
the wrist-bone, or the pulse below the wrist-bone is
felt. Such a procedure gives to each wrist, three kinds.
These next become twelve by distinguishing different
varieties according as the pressure of the physician’s
finger is light or firm in each case.
Diagnosis.
As to the information obtained by this process, the
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 137
following table from Williams’ Middle Kingdom gives
the clue:
Left Wrist
Inch, lightly pressed, indicates the state of the small
intestines.
Inch, heavily pressed, indicates the state of the heart.
Barrier, lightly pressed, indicates the state of the gall-
bladder.
Barrier, heavily pressed, indicates the state of the liver.
Foot, lightly pressed, indicates the state of the bladder.
Foot, heavily pressed, indicates the state of the kidneys.
Right Wrist
Inch, lightly pressed, indicates the state of the large in-
testines.
Inch, heavily pressed, indicates the state of the lungs.
Barrier, lightly pressed, indicates the state of the
stomach.
Barrier, heavily pressed, indicates the state of the spleen.
Foot, lightly pressed, indicates three supposed passages
of the diaphragm.
Foot, heavily pressed, indicates gate of life (purely
imaginary).
Prescriptions.
The organs and their surroundings properly diag-
nosed, the next thing is to prescribe for the patient.
This will vary according as it is some weak organ to
be strengthened, or some strong one to be repressed.
Thus, if the heart is affected, there is either too much
or too little heat. If too much, then some medicine
containing the water element is necessary, for water,
we saw, limits fire. If there is too little, then the
188 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
proper medicine must be one containing the wood ele-
ment, as wood nourishes fire. A similar line of simple
reasoning supplies other needs.
The Principle Applied to Pharmacy.
It must not be concluded that the medicine will be
limited simply to water, fire, metal, wood and earth, as
such. It is rather these elements as contained in
things. The Chinese medical pharmacopceia comprises,
according to one investigator, three hundred and four-
teen vegetable, fifty mineral, and seventy-eight animal
substances. The latter include snake skins, fossil-
bones, silkworm and human secretions, moths, tiger’s
teeth, deer’s horns, etc. An educated Chinese phy-
sician assures me he can distinguish the element in
these in four ways, namely, by their colour, taste,
shape, and smell. These bring us back again to
the five colours, tastes, etc. ‘Thus white, be it ani-
mal, vegetable, or mineral, denotes metal, red shows
fire, yellow is earth, and so on. Similarly the salty
taste, we saw, signified water; bitter, fire; and sour,
wood. Shapes and smells give similar keys to the
substance, which must be prescribed to save the
patient.
Relation to the Five Senses.
The same solvent enters into an explanation of the
senses with strange results. These are again con-
trolled, it is believed, by the five elements. They are
the five senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing and, not
as we would say the sense of feeling, but that of
thought. The corresponding organs are the nose,
mouth, eyes, ears and heart, which again accommodate
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 139
themselves to the five elements, water, wood, metal,
fire and earth.
Harmony must also obtain among these senses. For
the nose, the essential is a “reverent” attitude, for
the mouth propriety in speech, for the eyes clearness
of vision, for the ears distinction in hearing, and for
the heart or mind acumen in thinking. These atti-
tudes, if followed, give the five graces of gravity,
decorum, circumspection, discernment and wisdom.
Then by some strange leap from worthy ways to
weather which we of the Western world find it hard to
follow, we read in the Great Plan of the Book of His-
tory: “‘ Gravity in deportment causes rain, propriety
sunshine, prudence heat, circumspection cold, and
wisdom wind.” An explanation of this strange inter-
mingling of manners, morals and material forces may
be somewhat clearer after we make a study of the
famous doctrines of Fung-Shui. So we next turn to
these further factors.
Fung-Shut.
The words “ fung” and “shui” mean Wind and
Water, and are chiefly applicable to the supposed effect
of these elements on the grave and ghost of the dead.
But the roots of the system lie deeper, and are to be
found in theories of astronomy, astrology, animism
and geomancy.
The Prototype of Earth Phenomena in the Heavens.
Possibly as an introduction to their thought we
should again recall that all things come from Yin
and Yang. Now the Yang is the Heaven and Lord,
while the Earth is Yin and as it were receptive
140 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
lady. All things born of the Yin and Yang par-
take of the natures of both, but as the Yang is the
stronger, more active, most things upon the earth
are but a reflection or an offspring, so to speak, of
the heavens. Thus, if we wish to find the origin of
either animal, vegetable, mineral or man, we must
first look to the heavens where we will find its
prototype.
The Ten Heavenly Stems.
Now, there are in the heavens five prominent, ever-
changing stars, which we Westerners call the planets.
These were readily identified in China with the familiar
five elements. Mercury was the Water-star, Mars the
Fire-star, Venus the Metal-star, Jupiter the Wood-
star, and Saturn the Earth-star. These were further
looked upon as the pure essences of these elements
or forces. Upon the earth they were seen as ten,
for we must remember that each element has a Yin
and Yang. Thus the Yin-water was identified as a
brook and the Yang-water as great waves; Yin-fire
was a lamp flame and Yang-fire was burning wood;
Yin-metal was a kettle and Yang-metal military
weapons; Yin-wood was the bamboo and Yang-wood
the fir tree; Yin-earth was the plain and Yang-earth
the hills. These ten, that is, the five elements each
with its Yin and Yang divisions are known as the
“heavenly stems ” and form the first factor we must
note in Fung-Shui.
The Twelve Earthly Branches.
The next factor again comes from the skies. There
it was noted, as other nations have done, that the
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 141
stars may be grouped into clusters, and that these
clusters resemble our animals. These, then, are
again the prototypes and are represented upon the
earth by the following: the rat, ox, tiger, hare,
dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, dog, cock, pig.
These twelve clusters, which are really the zodiacal
signs, are spoken of as the “earth branches,” and
form the twelve periods into which each day is di-
vided. These make a second factor in the theories of
Fung-Shui.
Good and Evil Star Influences.
Another factor that must be considered is a special
group of nine stars about the north pole. These in-
clude the seven we call the dipper and two others in
the vicinity. Each has again relation to the five ele-
ments and is seen upon earth as some special form of
mountain, hill or plain. The first is called the “ Cov-
etous Wolf,” has wood as its prevailing element, and
is represented by conical hills, with a mushroom-
shaped outline. The second is called the ‘“ Great
Door,” belongs also to wood as its chief element and
is represented by square-shaped hills. The third star
is “ Rank Preserved.” It belongs to the earth element
and manifests its influence in flat-topped, drum-shaped
foothills. The fourth star is “ Literary Windings,” and
belongs to water. It loves the shape of the snake seen
moving with three or four coils to its body. The fifth
star is ‘‘ Purity and Uprightness.” Its element is fire.
It likes a lofty position, rugged heights and umbrella
folds. The sixth is ‘ Military Windings,” and its ele-
ment is metal, Its hills are round at the top and broad
142 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
at the base, like a bell or inverted saucepan. The
seventh is ‘‘ Breaker of the Phalanx,” and belongs to
metal. The normal shape is that of three round-
headed cones but it has also four peculiar shapes.
The eighth star is ‘‘ Left Assistant,” and is under the
influence of metal. Its normal shape is that of a
head with a cloth wrapped around it, high in front,
low behind. The ninth is “ Right Assistant.” Its
element is water. It loves flatness, especially where
the hills break off and become plain. If asked why
this special group of nine stars is thus singled out,
the reply is that they form the residence of the
ruler of the stars. Hence in keeping with this view-
point, as formerly indicated, all maps face the south;
so do all temples and official yamens. These nine
stars, then, with their influences displayed among
the mountains and hills, form a third factor in
Fung-Shui.
Twenty-eight Constellations Control.
The twenty-eight constellations or apparent tem-
porary residences of the sun and moon as they cross
the heaven, come next. These are usually divided into
four sevens, according to the four points of the com-
pass. These four points are again related to the ele-
ments which, as we have seen, belong there with their
colours, that is, green wood to the east, white metal to
the west, black water to the north, and red fire to the
south. From these by a fanciful interpretation they
come to speak of the “‘ Green Dragon ” to the east, or
left side as you face south; the ‘‘ White Tiger ” to the
west or right side; the “Sombre Warrior” to the
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 143
north and the ‘“‘ Vermilion Bird ” to the south. These
four fanciful figures form a fourth factor affecting
man upon earth.
Other Factors Affecting Life and Destiny.
Other factors are literally the ‘‘ Wind and Water ”
and the Dragon. The first two, as explained, have
given the system its name. They are more readily
grasped by the popular fancy and as they come into
special prominence at the time of the selection of
graves, have forced themselves more upon the atten-
tion of the populace. Many other factors have been
insinuated into the system by ingenious charlatans in
search of gain, but these seven factors are their chief
stock in store. They are certainly sufficient. To these
the birth, marriage, business life and death of each of
China’s millions are vitally related and all must be
interpreted in relation to these forces. Let us follow
somewhat the applications.
Every man is then presumably subject to all these
factors and their influences. They are looked upon
as his Constructor and so his Controller. Some-
times they are simply spoken of as though they
were forces. More frequently they are looked upon,
as we saw in the discussion of Animism, as living,
intelligent beings, capable of working weal or woe
to the inhabitants of earth. Thus the five planets,
as five old men, ’tis said, appeared at court in the
days of Shun (8. c. 2211), and assisted him by their
advice until he abdicated to the Great Yi. As to
the stars, the common belief is still that they are
the souls of men and sages of the past or the resi-
144 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
dences of such. These starry influences are, there-
fore, almost flesh of man’s flesh and bone of his bone.
They make him what he is. They are the heavenly
ancestors to all his physical, mental and spiritual
attributes.
The Horoscope.
Now, all these planets and stars have their regu-
lar times when they are in control of the skies.
They are the spirits in charge, as it were, for the
time. Some control the year, some the month, some
the day and others the hours. They do this, more-
over, by turns in regular order. The important
thing, therefore, is to find out who were in charge
at the time of a man’s birth, and then the factors
that compose him can be carefully calculated. This
is not difficult. Each year, each month, each day,
each hour, has one of the Heavenly ‘Stems and
Earth Branches in control. These go in pairs, so
that there is a cycle of the twelve and ten every
sixty years. The months, days and hours, as the case
may be, are similarly distinguished.
The geomancer, therefore, when called in to decide
some vital question, inquires as to the exact year,
month, day and hour upon which his client was born.
These are called a man’s “ Eight Characters,” this is
a heavenly stem and an earth branch for each period
of time. Each of these eight has in turn its fixed ele-
ment, one or more. It is then but a matter of manip-
ulation having all the elements given, to reckon,
making due allowance for cancellation or addition of
powers by mutual destruction or construction, which
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 145
element is lacking and which is dominant in the in-
dividual’s life.
Thus a friend’s characters, for example, are:
Hour Day Month Year
ae sa Es cal
a SIA Gp
The top line represents the Heavenly Stems, the lower
line the Earth Branches. The elements contained in
these respective stems and branches are:
1. Water 1. Water 1. Metal 1. Earth (Stems)
1. Water 1. Earth 1. Fire 1. Wood (Branches)
1. Fire 1. Earth
1. Wood
Adding the elements together and placing them in
the order of mutual destruction, we have, therefore:
3 Water, 2 Fire, 1 Metal, 2 Wood and 3 Earth. As
the day is most important being Yang, and the heaven
more important than the earth, we must begin with
the water element, and by cancellation see which ele-
ment predominates. Thus 3 of Water will cancel the 2
of Fire and leave 1 of Water, and no Fire. The 1 of
metal will cancel 2 of Wood and leave 1 of Wood.
The 1 of Wood will cancel the 3 Earth and leave 2 of
Earth. Finally the 2 of Earth will cancel the 1 which
remained of Water and leave 1 of Earth as a final
remainder. [Earth is, therefore, the predominating
element in his composition. Unfortunately, his birth-
146 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
day element is Water, and as Earth constantly destroys
Water, he has a lifelong lack of harmony and struggle
before him.
How the Horoscope Hampers Marriage.
This will greatly affect his marriage. Thus he must
not marry a maiden whose predominant element is
Earth like his own, for that would increase the Earth
element, and his birthday element of Water would be
still more weakened. ‘The penalty would be loss of
vigour, decay and death. Nor must he marry one
with a predominance of Fire, for Fire gives birth to
Earth and would have equally disastrous results. He
may marry one with a Metal element, for Earth pro-
duces Metal and so would weaken the Earth, or he
might marry one with the Water element, for Earth
destroys Water and so again would be lessened by
expending the power.
His fiancée is, however, a Wood girl. Then the
Wood can counteract the earth and harmony and pos-
terity prevail in the home. It is sometimes said that
maidens have an ingenious way of finding out pros-
pective young men’s eight characters and predomi-
nating elements, in China, and arranging their own
nativity to exactly suit his. Still that is a dangerous
proceeding. The penalty would be neither harmony
nor offspring in such a home. You cannot perma-
nently fool these fates. So, many an otherwise
suitable union is declared impossible because of in-
compatible elements.
The same beliefs will affect his business or other
career. He wishes to depart on important business.
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 147
First, the geomancer is consulted, and finding that his
element is Earth and that the elements ruling the next
days or month are the Earth or Fire element, he is
warned not to attempt it until the next week or month,
or it may be a year. Indeed, he may even be required
to change his business. The Earth being too strong,
he should possibly give up farming or, to avoid the
Fire element, give up the making of fire-crackers or
being a cook. It will be better to go into selling fruit
where Water abounds, or start a wood-yard. Thus
experience, aptitude and opportunity are sacrificed to
a supposed element.
The Positions of Graves.
Most imperative of all, perhaps, these beliefs enter
into the burial of the dead. The relation of the dead
to the living we have discussed in a former chapter,
but must now note the paramount importance of the
body being placed in a grave where the surrounding
elements will mutually nourish, not destroy or even
disturb the dead body. If the body suffers, woe be to
the descendants. Their doom is sure. To avert such
a calamity all the factors of Fung-Shui are employed to
the utmost. The heavenly stems and earthly branches
are brought in to determine the deceased’s eight char-
acters, and from this, his dominating element. Next
the geomancer must scan the horizon and range the
country far and wide (if sufficient funds are forth-
coming) to ascertain by a study of the mountains and
plains in the district just which of the nine stars and
five planets control the various formations. This will
give him the elements in control of different sections
148 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
on the landscape. Should, for example, the dead man’s
predominating element be Earth, as supposed above,
then the grave must not be near or face a spot where
the Fire or Earth elements, as seen in a study of the
mountains, predominate. These factors satisfactorily
disposed of, it must be also arranged that the Green
Dragon always to his left, is higher than the White
Tiger to his right, or the latter would work disaster.
The Wind must also be watched, especially that from
the north, which would give birth to white ants, destroy
the coffin and disturb the dead. Wind from a hollow
near by will also enter the grave and cause consterna-
tion. To keep out these fatal winds, therefore, a
mound is frequently erected of a horseshoe shape sur-
rounding the grave on all sides save a small opening
at the foot or south. South winds bring prosperity, so
are welcomed.
The Dragon in the Watercourses.
Very carefully also to be noted is the dragon as seen
in the watercourses. In general, water seen running
toward a grave brings with it good fortune. Its de-
parture, however, must be hidden, otherwise the good
fortune would depart as rapidly as it came. So the
geomancer, or as he is called, ‘“ Yin-Yang ” teacher,
works out the possibilities in great detail. He places
his compass in the centre of the grave with its needle
(as is done in a Chinese compass) pointing south.
On the outside of the compass are marked the twelve
earthly branches. These occupy the directions,
north, south, east, west and two intervening points
between each.
PHYSICS, PHYSIOLOGY AND FUNG-SHUI 149
“Tf there is a bend in the course of the water, or a
junction of two streams on the north,” to quote Dr.
Edkins, “then the posterity of the occupant of the
grave will be thieves if poor, and robbed if rich. If
on the northeast, they will die young, be left as
widows, or men without children. At the next divi-
sion they will be greatly subject to disease. If directly
east, then posterity will be vagabonds. Rebellious and
disobedient offspring would be the result of a stream
at the next point and snakes growing in the tomb the
point nearest south. A stream directly south would
surely cause descendants to lead licentious lives.”
The good luck points of the compass need only be
mentioned. They are different forms of long life, pos-
terity, riches and honour.
The Fatal Fruitage of the Five Element Theory.
Such, in outline, is the story of the Chinese theory
of the five elements and their fatal fruitage. Though
some of the details given may seem tedious, they are
trifling compared with the combinations and complica-
tions cunningly spun out by the craftiness of char-
latans. Thus they delight in details of effects upon
the elder brother or on the younger brother and other
relatives of the deceased; to speak of the hosts and
guests among the hills and mountains; and to raise
many complex cross-currents as to health, wealth and
posterity not considered in this sketch. Lawsuits,
heartburnings, perpetual uncertainties are the results.
Foremost, however, of the fruitage is the feeling of
Fate. The world and human life are in the clutches
and control of the elements, Man is born with fixed
150 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
proportions of these in his constitution. They are the
factors in his destiny, his luck, his ‘‘ moving elements ”
for good or bad, and what more can be said or done?
He can but hope to avoid meeting certain adverse ele-
ments lest a worse fate come upon him. It is thus an
easy matter to become indifferent and callous to the
worst conditions of life. It is simply a matter of des-
tiny,—why struggle? Each man’s life has been fixed
by superior powers. When fate wills it, you will rise;
when the times are out of joint, just drift with the tide.
At best, it conduces to content and cheerfulness under
adverse conditions, catching again at some wisp of
hope held out by another ingenious geomancer. At its
worst, it means sluggishness, sullenness, stagnation,
remorse and even suicide. Such is the story of another
of the currents of China’s culture,
VIL
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY
E have seen that the Chinese theory of
things is a system that revolves and evolves.
There is a constant process going on and this
process assumes many more or less permanent forms
as it proceeds. It is possible, therefore, to lay stress
upon the process or upon the apparently perfect forms,
upon the music itself or upon the notes which roughly
represent its harmonies. In broad outline this has
happened in Chinese thought. The result has been
Taoism and Confucianism. It is possible, of course,
to draw this line of cleavage too fine. Naturally there
are many cross-currents of thought. But in the main
it may be said that Confucius stressed the forms of
development and hoped by them to fashion the stream.
Lao-tze, the reputed founder of Taoism, emphasized
the process itself, and sought to hear and heed the
great harmonies and discords of his world. The sys-
tem of Confucius we will consider in a later chapter.
It is with Lao-tze we wish to think now. Let us first
meet the man and his times.
Lao-ize, Founder of Taoism.
To do this we must go back to a time almost six
hundred years before the Christian era. These were
feudal days in China. Some five hundred years earlier
151
152 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
still the Chow dynasty had ushered in what are ever
regarded as the golden days of Chinese history, when
the great King Wu and his brother Duke Chow ruled
the land. These had ruled by divine right of real lead-
ership. But alas, for the license and lethargy bred of
luxury, their descendants too often proved weaklings,
dependent upon the worth of a past prestige. The
power gradually passed into the hands of their great
vassals, who held independent sway in some thirteen
small states. Jealousies, strife, greed, weakness, war
were everywhere rampant. It was a decadent age.
All things were out of joint. Might was right. The
feudal princes fought and revelled. The people
wrought and suffered.
During these unhappy times there is said to have
lived at the capital city of the Empire an aged philos-
opher named Li (604—? B. c.). Tradition says he
was the Keeper of the Records of the Imperial Court.
As to his earlier life, little is known though much is
narrated as legend. It is said that he was born of a
star, that he came forth from his mother’s left side,
and that at birth his head was white and his counte-
nance that of an aged man. From this latter circum-
stance, he derived his name of Lao Tze (2. e., Old
Child).
The Philosophy of Inaction.
Be his childhood as it may, his later years led him
to ponder deeply as to the mysteries of life. He drank
long draughts from the wells of wisdom of the past.
Indeed, he seems to have pierced below the superficial
and fatal simplicity of the plausible mathematics
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 153
which was ready, as we have seen, to solve all by
simple divisions of forces by twos, eights, sixty-fours,
etc. He went back rather to the great original unity
of things and dreamed of an all-unfolding, a coming to
perfection and then a retreating again according to a
Supreme Order. This ordered process he came to
speak of as the “ Tao,” that is, the Road or Way of
the World. As this Way progressed or declined, so
man and all things waxed or waned with it. To strug-
gle against it was useless! It was manifestly the high-
est wisdom and duty of man to seek this Way and live
in accordance with it. This was man’s ‘“ Teh,” that is,
his Virtue or Wisdom. ‘These two words, then, ‘‘ Tao ”
and “ Teh,” the Way of the World, and the Wisdom
or Virtue of Man, were the two shibboleths of his
system.
It was a natural corollary that he should teach that
at times at least men should not struggle. Even to
seek to reform a decadent age was useless. What fool-
ishness to writhe and work, recklessly striving to
thwart the Way of the World! It is well enough to
dream of better days and have every faith that they
will return. But man must be patient and bide the
proper time. lLao-tze has, therefore, another great
word. It is INAcTIvITy. He was no permanent pes-
simist. Nor was he fully a fatalist. He was rather
in a sense an opportunist who believed that man
should live near to nature’s heart, and that so doing
was the surest way to live in tune with things. Know
the Way of the World! Live in keeping with it! Be
patient! Donomore! Wait! Time will tell! When
154 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
that time comes all will be well for the heart of things
is steadfast!
Tao, the Supreme Law.
The following quotations from his utterances will
further bring out the old philosopher’s attitude towards
his times and life in general:
“There is something chaotic yet complete, which
existed before Heaven and Earth. Oh, how still it is,
and formless, standing alone without changing, reach-
ing everywhere without suffering harm. It must be re-
garded as the Mother of the Universe. Its name I
know not. To designate it, I call it Tao. Endeavour-
ing to describe it, I call it great. It passes on; passing
on, it becomes remote; having become remote, it re-
turns. . . . In the universe there are four powers,
of which the sovereign is one. Man takes his law from
the earth. The earth takes its law from the Heaven.
Heaven takes its law from Tao, but the law of Tao is
its own spontaneity.” ‘“‘ What is true of the world
process as a whole is true of each factor that goes to
its composition. Man’s chief end, therefore, is to know
the laws of the world and live in accord therewith. All
things alike do their work and then we see them sub-
side. When they have reached their bloom each re-
turns to its origin. Returning to their origin means
rest of fulfilment or destiny. This reversion is an
eternal law. To know that law is to be enlightened.
Not to know it is misery and calamity. He who knows
the eternal law is liberal-minded, he is just. Being
just, he is kingly. Being kingly, he is akin to Heaven.
Being akin to Heaven, he possesses Tao. Possessed of
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 155
Tao, he endures forever. Though his body perish, yet
he suffers no harm.”
Man Should Submit.
The absence of all bluster, the deep, smooth strength
of this soul of things appealed to Lao-tze profoundly
in his day of strife, and he urges: “‘ The Great Way is
very smooth, but the people love the by-paths. If we
had sufficient knowledge to walk in the great way,
what we would most fear would be boastful display.”
Therefore, “‘ Temper your sharpness, disentangle your
ideas, moderate your brilliancy, live in harmony with
your age. This is being in conformity with the prin-
ciples of Tao. Such a man is impervious alike to
favour and disgrace, to benefits and injuries, to honour
and contempt. And therefore he is esteemed above
all mankind.”
In his eagerness to combat the endless selfish squab-
bling of his age, he possibly over-emphasized his thesis,
when he declared for complete passivity, utter in-
action: ‘‘ Who is there that can make muddy water
clear? But if allowed to remain still, it will gradually
become clear of itself. . . . A violent wind does not
outlast the morning. A squall of rain does not outlast
the day. Such is the course of Nature. And if Nature
herself cannot sustain her efforts long, how much less
can man! ”
“The Empire has ever been won by letting things
take their course. He who must always be doing is
unfit to obtain the Empire.” Therefore:
“Keep the mouth shut, close the gateways of
sense, and as long as you live you will have no
156 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
trouble. . . . Practise inaction, occupy yourself
with doing nothing.”
Our Western War-lords, however, worshippers of
Woden and Nietzsche, today, might well learn from
this old sage of Sinim:
“He who serves a ruler of men in harmony with Tao
will not subdue the Empire by force of arms. Such a
course is wont to bring retribution in its train. :
The good man wins a victory and then stops. He will
not go on to acts of violence. Winning, he boasteth
not. He will not triumph. He shows no arrogance.
He wins because he cannot choose. After his victory
he will not be overbearing.”
Lao-tze Rebukes Confucius.
Confucius, in the flush of his youthful schemes
for reform, one day visited the aged sage in the capi-
tal. Lao-tze’s reputed conversation at that time will
further illustrate his teachings and the difference in
standpoint of the two men. The young man, following,
as he deemed, the examples of the ancients, urged that |
injury should be met by justice.
“Not so,” said the elder, ‘‘ but recompense injury
with kindness.”
“With what, then, will you recompense kindness?
(Should we not) recompense injury with justice (i. e.,
punishment), and kindness with kindness? ” argued
Confucius.
“The good I would meet with goodness,” replied
the older philosopher. ‘‘ The not-good I would also
meet with goodness, for thus would I actualize good-
ness. The faithful I would meet with faith. The not-
~~ —
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 157
faithful would I also meet with faith, for thus would
I actualize faith.”
To Confucius, still urging the ways of the ancients,
Lao-tze further replied: “‘ Lord, those of whom you
speak, the men and their homes, I suppose have alto-
gether rotted away. Their words only are still extant.
Moreover, if a sage finds his time, he rises. If he does
not find his time, he wanders about like a pung plane
(which grows on the sand and is carried about by the
wind). I have heard that a wise merchant hides (his
treasure) deeply, as if (his house) were empty. A
sage of perfect virtue gives himself the appearance of
being simple-minded.
“‘ Give up your proud spirit, your many wishes, your
external appearance, with your exaggerated plans.
These are of no advantage to the sage’s person. This
is what I have to communicate to you, sir. That is all.”
The Tao-ieh Chin.
Lest Lao-tze’s quietist naturalism and ultimate op-
timism should be interpreted too far as selfish and
pessimistic fatalism we quote further:
“‘ The highest virtue is not (intentionally) virtuous,
and on this account it is (deserving of the name)
virtue. The lower sort of virtue is (anxious) not (to
be) wanting in virtue, and therefore is not (true)
virtue. The highest virtue does nothing, and therefore
does not trust to (or rest on) any action. Virtue of
the inferior kind (anxiously) acts and trusts to action.”
Lao-tze living out his theory, ’tis said, finally gave
up his position at court and decided to leave China for
the west. Crossing a pass in the mountains, he was
158 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
persuaded by the keeper, himself a philosopher, to
commit his teachings to writing. This, tradition says,
he did, calling his treatise, as might be conjectured,
the Book of Tao and Teh; or, as it is usually trans-
lated, the Book of Reason and Virtue. Then he left
for the west and was heard of no more.
Chwang-tze.
One of his greatest and truest disciples was the bril-
liant Chwang-tze, who lived a couple of hundred years
later. He taught:
“The way of heaven is not to act, and therein
and thereby to be the most honoured of all things.
The way of men is to act and so to be involved in
trouble.”
It is narrated of Chwang-tze that, true to his teach-
ings, he forbade his friends to give his corpse inter-
ment, saying:
“JT will have heaven and earth for my sarcoph-
agus. ‘The sun and moon shall be the insignia when
I lie in state, and all creation shall be mourners at
my funeral.”
When his relatives further remonstrated, saying
that the birds of the air would tear his corpse, he
replied:
‘What matters that? Above there are the birds of
the air, and below there are the worms and the ants.
If you rob the one to feed the other, what injustice is
there done? ”
Later Misinterpreters.
But it has been the fate of Lao-tze, as of many an-
other philosopher, to be misunderstood and misinter-
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 159
preted. He has been distorted, despoiled, slain in the
house of his friends. His protest by withdrawal from
public affairs led others to urge the hermit life. His
quietism was interpreted too much as a doctrine of
laissez-faire. His wish to live wholly in keeping with
the Way of the World led to a superficial investigation
of nature. A rude alchemy, search for the transmuta-
tion of metals, the elixir of life, and divination and
incorporeity then followed in later centuries. Today,
Taoism has degenerated into little more than a system
of magic words and mummeries, charms and chants
to fight demons, and its priests into credulous char-
latans who foretell and forestall future calamities.
We can trace these but briefly.
Alchemy and Transformations.
It seemed to some but a natural sequence to
Lao-tze’s emphasis upon the Way of the World that
they should seek more the secrets of nature. Be it
logical or accidental, the records show that especially
during the days of the Great Han dynasty, B. c. 206-
A. D. 220, hundreds of those professing to be the dis-
ciples of the old philosopher found their way out into
the hills and caves of the earth, and sought by investi-
gation, meditation, alchemy, purification, physical exer-
cises and various potents to transmute nature at will
and free themselves from the trammels of the flesh.
A record of a few of these would-be disciples will show
us more clearly their aims and pretensions than many
abstract statements. (Cf. Mayer’s Chinese Readers’
Manual.)
Hsu-sun’s mother dreamed that a phoenix dropped
160 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
a pearl into her palm. It was the sign of an excep-
tional birth, but in early days the youth showed no
unusual traits. One day he shot a fawn and was so
moved by the distress of the creature’s mother, as she
licked its lifeless body, that he broke his bow and
began to study. Later he showered blessings upon the
people by healing diseases with occult preparations,
subduing noxious reptiles and assisting the needy by
the gold which he possessed the power of transmuting
from inferior metals. At one place he caused water to
gush from a rock, at another he conferred perpetual
security on a devout believer by painting a pine on the
walls of his dwelling. At length, when one hundred
and thirty-six years of age, he was caught up to heaven
with all his family, even the dogs and poultry of the
house sharing in the ascension.
Hu-kung, the Old Man of the Pot, also gave large
sums to the poor from the money received for miracu-
lous cures. He was accustomed at night to disappear
from mortal view. His retreat was a mystery to all,
until a man spying from an upper window found that
it was the magician’s practice to withdraw at sunset to
the interior of a hollow gourd which hung suspended
from a door-post.
Tieh-kwai Hsien-sen, the Man with the Iron Staff
(his real name was Li), is said to have been instructed
by Lao-tze himself, who at times descended to earth
and at other times called his pupil up to heaven. On
one occasion, when about to mount on high at his
patron’s bidding, the pupil, before departing in spirit
to voyage through the air, left a disciple of his own
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 161
to watch over his body, with the command that if,
after seven days had expired he had not returned, his
body might be dismissed into space. Unfortunately,
during the sixth day the watcher was called away to
attend the death-bed of his mother. Li, returning at
the end of the seventh, found his body had disap-
peared. At that very moment, however, a beggar was
just dying, so the returning spirit entered the body
of the lame and crooked beggar. In this shape the
philosopher continued his existence, supporting his
halting footsteps with an iron staff.
Hwang Chu-pin, at the age of fifteen, led his flocks
into the mountain. Entering a cave, he remained there
for more than forty years. His brother one day met
a wandering priest who said to him, ‘“‘ There is a shep-
herd lad among the mountains.”’ Concluding that this
was his long-lost relative, he made search and discov-
ered his brother seated in a cave surrounded by blocks
of white stone. On being questioned as to the where-
abouts of his sheep the recluse uttered a sound, and
the blocks of stone became at once transformed into
vast flocks of living sheep.
Chang-kwoh led an erratic life, performing wonder-
ful feats of necromancy. His constant companion was
a white mule, which carried him thousands of miles
in a day, and which, when he halted, he folded up
and hid in his wallet. When he again required its
services he squirted water upon it with his mouth
and the beast suddenly resumed its former size.
The emperor summoned him to court, but the mes-
sage had scarce reached him when, so the Taoists
162 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
assert, he entered on immortality without suffering
bodily dissolution.
Hien Yuan-tsi appeared in the time of the Tang
dynasty (A. D. 847). He was then reputed to be many
centuries old, though he still retained the blooming
appearance of youth. When he wandered in mountain
solitudes in search of drugs, the fiercest beasts of the
forest attended his footsteps to guard him from harm.
With the herbs he gathered he wrought many marvel-
lous cures. His cruse of medicine was inexhaustible
and he had the gift of appearing in many places at
once. Summoned before the emperor, he was mocked
by one of the court ladies. Suddenly he caused her to
be transformed from a lovely damsel of sixteen into a
bent and wrinkled old hag. On her entreating pardon
he caused her to return to her former shape.
Methods of Acquiring Magic Powers.
These illustrations will suffice to show the power
over nature which these devotees of Taoism claimed,
and are to this day reputed to have possessed. How,
according to their assertion, are such powers attained?
It embraced moral, physical, medical, and magic ele-
ments. Let us illustrate again:
Kwang Cheng-tze appears to have emphasized the
moral side. He urged the ancient emperor Hwang Ti
to cultivate complete serenity of mind and tranquillity
of body, to disregard external sensations, to contemn
worldly knowledge and pursuits and to withdraw him-
self from worldly joys and sorrows. By this means the
mortal frame would be sublimated into a perpetual
longevity.
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 163
Hsu-yiu illustrates the same tendency. He was once
offered an imperial position. Lest this should influence
his worldly ambition, he is said to have washed out his
ears. He was accustomed to drink, from the hollow
of nis hand, the water of a brook that ran by his
hermitage. A friend gave him a gourd which at times
produced a sound pleasing to his senses, so he threw
it away to prevent all contamination.
Others again secured the secret directly from nature.
Thus Han Wu had a famous vase in his palace to catch
the dew. He hoped by drinking this to attain immor-
tality, but the experiment seemed to have failed.
Some were more successful and succeeded in secur-
ing magic powers by eating the powder of mother of
pearl. A very common lotion was made from the jade
stone and is called in alchemy the Jade Beverage.
According to the prescription, from the mountains pro-
ducing jade stone a liquid flows, which ten thousand
years after issuing from the rocks, becomes congealed
into a substance as clear as crystal. If to this be added
an appropriate herb it again becomes liquid and a
draught of it confers the gift of living for a thousand
years. Another concoction of this will give the power
of incorporeality and of soaring through the air.
The Philosopher’s Stone.
The most prized and noted of these magic powers
was the Elixir of Gold. This was the famous Philoso-
pher’s Stone which was able to produce gold from baser
metals and to confer the gift of immortality. This was
a common belief in China a few hundred years after
‘Lao-tze’s time, that is, about 300-100 B, c, Indeed, it
164 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
is possible that the Arabs received the idea from China
and through them it spread to Europe, where it pro-
duced such men as Bombastus Theophrastus Paracel-
sus many centuries later. The basis of the elixir was
usually cinnabar, that is, red sulphuret of mercury.
The primitive alchemists found it easy, evidently, by a
little heat to drive off the sulphur and collect the mys-
terious globules of mercury, which readily gave the
idea of the transmutability of all metals.
This was further used as the outer elixir to accom-
pany an inner preparation of mental and moral process
whereby the body became freed from all impurity of
earth and worthy of admission among the ranks of the
genil. It would seem a simple process thus to secure
such mystic powers, but before anyone is tempted to
make the trial it should be added that other prescrip-
tions declare that eight metals are required, and
further that there must be some mysterious “ nine
revolutions ” and “seven returnings.” In encourage-
ment, however, it may be said that the results are very
definite. Thus the divine elixir of nine revolutions
causes those who swallow it to be transformed into
white cranes. The drug, moreover, produced by the
seven returnings and nine revolutions, if one half a
potion be swallowed, confers perpetual longevity on
earth, whilst the entire quantity gives at once the power
of ascending on high among the genii.
After all this it will be easily understood that Li
Shao-chuin, one of the earliest adepts in alchemy,
was readily believed when he declared at the court of
Emperor Han Wu: “I know how to harden snow and
TAOIST TRADITIONS AND THAUMATURGY 165
change it into white silver. I know how cannabar
transforms its nature and passes into yellow gold. I
can rein the flying dragon and visit the extremities of
earth. I can bestride the hoary crane and soar above
the nine degrees of heaven,”
VIIl
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS
ROM the foregoing it will be readily seen where
Taoism secures its gods. It naturally worships
these ancient mystics, who, it is claimed, became
Immortals and are still able to ramble at will through
the universe, aiding whom they will. This is especially
true of the “ Eight Immortals,” deified, it is said, in
the Mongol dynasty, and who are supposed to be un-
usually powerful and compliant, appearing frequently
on earth.
Some of these worthies we have already mentioned.
The feats of others are in a similar vein. Thus Lu
Tung-ping, while holding office as a magistrate, re-
ceived instruction in the secrets of alchemy at the hand
of an immortal who lived over a thousand years before.
Lu, influenced by Buddhism, expressed an ardent de-
sire to convert his fellowmen to the true belief. He
was exposed accordingly to ten temptations, all of
which he overcame. Thereupon he was invested with
the formulas of magic and a sword of supernatural
power, with which he traversed the empire slaying
dragons and ridding the earth of divers kinds of evil.
He is especially worshipped today by the barbers.
Lao-tze Worshipped.
Lao-tze, of course, is also worshipped. He is given,
166
ee ee
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 167
naturally, the highest seat in the pantheon, on an equal-
ity with two other “‘ Pure Ones.” Indeed, he is now
said to have had many incarnations before he appeared
on earth during the Chow dynasty. Some works even
aver that he is the incarnation of the Great Original
Principle of the World. This is sometimes shown in
temples by placing a figure of his former self to his
right, represented as a very aged and high-browed
man, and behind and about him the mystic symbols
of the eight diagrams and even the spots said to have
been seen by Fuh Hsi on the Dragon-Horse.
Innumerable Minor Gods.
This tendency to deify the forces of nature is seen
by the creation of Five Old Men, that is the five plan-
ets. These, as previously explained, are said to have
appeared at court in the tenth year of the famous Em-
peror Shun, B. c. 2255, and to have assisted him
by counsels until his abdication many years later.
The sun, moon and stars are also similarly deified.
Some of these latter form the gods of rain, fire, thun-
der, etc., so often seen.
To these must be added the deification of heroes and
other characters in history, some real, some fictitious.
In the great province of Szechwan one of the most
famous of these is Li-pin, who is said to have con-
structed, about the third century B. c., the great irri-
gation system which makes the province so remarkably
productive. As Chwan Chu, the Lord of the Streams,
he is worshipped all over the province of Szechwan and
elsewhere in China. His temple at Kwanhsien, now
alas! largely destroyed by fire, where the river first
168 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
divides, is said to have been the finest in China, and
especially in August was thronged with worshippers
bringing their thanks and petitions for a bountiful
harvest. Prolonged theatricals were also given be-
fore him at that time and other honours showered
upon him.
But the list of Taoist gods seems practically inex-
haustible. Each trade, such as carpenters, masons,
barbers, tailors, etc., has its special presiding spirit.
There are gods of wealth, of medicine, of the kitchen;
gods of horses, cows, sheep, snakes, grasshoppers;
groups of gods, such as the Forty Masters; the
Twenty-five Gods who prevent murder, robbery, forni-
cation, falsehood, drunkenness—five to each; then
there are the six gods of lice, the goddess of fornica-
tion, the god of manure, star gods, good and evil; and
many animals such as the tiger and crane who carry
immortals, the goat which heals diseases of all sorts
by rubbing its image, the dog that ate a part of the
immortal elixir, and the hare which mixes the potion
under a willow-tree in the moon. Only Kiang Tai-
kung, who, it is said, was caught up and secured at
the Kuen Len mountains a list of the gods and their
various duties, could enumerate them all. (Cf. Du-
Bose, Dragon, Image and Demon.)
The Pearly Emperor.
We must, however, before leaving this division, men-
tion the chief god of all. One would naturally suppose
that this would be Lao-tze, but this is not the case. It
is the great Pearly Emperor. Lao-tze, himself, with
the other two Pure Ones, whom he is said to have
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 169
created, sits back in perpetual peace and entrusts all
government to the Pearly Emperor, who is thus the
active ruler of all things in heaven and earth. Ac-
cording to tradition, the Spiritually Precious, the sec-
ond of the Three Pure Ones, blew his breath upon his
jade sceptre, which changed into a human being and
entered the body of a queen. When the young prince
born later came to rule, he took all the gold of the
treasury and gave alms. He soon resigned his royal
estate and became a hermit for one hundred years.
The next two hundred, he spent in philanthropic arts.
Then he became a pupil of the Spiritually Precious and
later a humble immortal, till, upon his thousandth
birthday, he was made god of heaven, earth and men.
History, however, says he was a man named Chang, a
magician, to whom an emperor in the T’ang dynasty
gave the title of Pearly Emperor. As his popularity
has grown the people have gradually given him his
present exalted name and place.
The Pearly Emperor has naturally his courtiers.
He has thirty-six ministers and two chief assistants,
one of whom has three heads and six arms, the other,
four heads and eight arms. The chief minister is
Tsung-chih, whose chief assistants are the snake and
the turtle, always seen by his side or at his feet. He
was a most precocious youth. At ten he understood
the classics in one glance. At fifteen he left home,
going to the Snowy Mountains to become a hermit, but
could not endure the cold. On his return home he met
an old woman grinding a crowbar. He asked what
she was doing?
170 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY.
“Oh, I’m grinding this crowbar into a needle,” she
replied.
‘‘But how can you accomoplish such an arduous
undertaking? ”
“Oh, one can do anything with patience,” she an-
swered as she continued her work.
He continued his struggles, and after forty-nine
years longer in the hills became an immortal, and
secured his present position.
Attaining Immortality.
We have seen, so far, something of how the Taoist
system arose in a doctrine of opportunism living in
keeping with the Way of the World. This we saw
developed into a crude study of nature and ramified
into alchemy and a quest for a form of immortality,
which, in turn, has largely given to Taoism its pan-
theon. It was this quest for immortality or incorpo-
reality, then, that for centuries in the palmiest days
of Taoism became its ruling passion. It is, after all,
a great human quest with a special development. We
have described only one of its roads. In its later
development it had, at least, five. These vary, na-
turally, according to the degree of “immortality,” |
attained through magic lotions, physical exercises and
self-culture.
With the magic lotions we have already dealt suf-
ficiently. The physical exercise consisted usually in
the simple process of inhaling more breath than one
exhaled. Self-culture in turn meant the freeing of the
mind from all forms of evil desires. One prescription
reads: ‘‘ When the passions are perfect one will desire
ne ee ee, ee
a Se
ee ee ee ee eS
se,
oo
0 eee rs Be ee ne a es, a I ee ee. ee
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 171
no evil, when the breath is perfected one will desire
no food, when the spirit is perfected one will desire no
sleep, when all three are perfected one attains to in-
corporeal immortality.”
Another system which also speaks of three precious
things in the process denotes them as the fecundating
fluid, the breath and the saliva. The first is to be
drawn upward, the second is to be inhaled more than
exhaled, the third is to be swallowed. The first unites
gradually with the breath, these with the saliva and all
three form an invisible spiritual child within the body
of the man. This immaterial child grows larger and
larger, slowly finding its way along the individual’s
spine to the head. Then it may gradually gain power
to go out of the body and return again at will to its
home. It must, however, in these earlier stages, be
very carefully protected when out on these initial
flights, as it is liable to be devoured by devils. When
still later this spiritual child becomes as large as the
original body of the person who has given it birth, it
can leave its home at pleasure, travelling where it will.
Eventually the human body is wholly discarded and,
according to its degree of attainment, it joins one of
the various orders of celestials.
The Five Degrees of Immortals.
As already noted, there are five kinds or grades of
these immortals. Let us study them more fully. First,
there are the demon immortals. These are the disem-
bodied spirits of those who have died in the ordinary
way, having lived evil lives and made no pretense or
effort at attaining immortality, They find no resting-
172 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
place in the abodes either of man or of immortals.
They are denied alike metempsychosis and eternal
bliss. Thus they wander about the world, sometimes
singly, sometimes in plundering bands, a constant
menace to mankind. Here, doubtless, Taoism has been
largely following Buddhism, and has provided a hell
for such, but only the worst are imprisoned there. The
legions of others ramble about the world doing all
manner of depredation:
Demon Immortals.
They are, however, by hypothesis, subject to the
gods, and the priests, who have authority from the
gods. But, like the robbers and wicked in the land
of the living, they have many ways of evading the
hand of other-world justice. Indeed, the gods fre-
quently employ them as agents to punish individuals
who despise, deny or defy the power of their celestial
sovereignty. ‘This, as we shall see later, places great
power in the hands of the priests, who are, as it were,
the lawyers who alone can make matters right with
the courts above. The first emperor of the Min dy-
nasty, himself an ex-priest, fearing that the tens of
thousands slain in the bloody revolution which he
headed might return a hungry horde to haunt his
newly-founded dynasty, ordered three feasts a year
for them, in April, August and November. Later,
these feasts were made to include all “ orphan spirits,”
that is, those having no posterity in the land of the
living. At such times the priests, to feed these, take
a bowl of rice and throw it out grain by grain. This
may seem meagre food for such needy myriads, but it
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 178
is readily explained that each grain becomes multiplied
indefinitely in the other world. The throats of the
spirits, too, it must be understood, are small like a
hair. Indeed, only the chanting of prayers by the
priests enlarges them sufficiently to allow the spirits to
swallow, readily, the tiny grains flicked forth with
finger and thumb for their sustenance.
Demon New Year.
From the first to the fifteenth of the seventh moon
is one of the great feast-times for these devils or dis-
embodied spirits. Just as the first to the fifteenth of
the first moon, that is New Year holidays, is the great
time of rejoicing in the land of the living, so the cor-
responding time just half a year later, the beginning
of midsummer, is a time of feasting in the land of
darkness. Then all the demons in hell, however
hideous, are apparently let loose for a season. At this
time the people in the land of light make special
preparations, and before every door piles of cash-paper
and gold and silver sycee are burned, thus sending over
presumably potential millions in money. The temples
are also crowded and thousands of dollars’ worth of
paper is consumed, all, of course, to be turned into
real gold, silver and copper cash in the world of
darkness, and appease the greedy, hungry demons.
Who would dare to defy their power, or risk their
wrath by withholding his contribution? And who
knows but he, himself, will be such a shade some
day?
Human Immortals.
The second kind of genii includes those of the human
174 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
kind. They are the souls of men who have succeeded
in freeing themselves from infirmities of the flesh and
perturbation of spirit. After death they go to live in
the land of shades. This, we have seen, is just a dupli-
cate of the land of the living. It has presumably all
the eighteen provinces, their former-type rulers, such
as viceroys, prefects and county magistrates. It has
also a swarm of yamen runners, just as on earth, who
are ever seeking to grind the faces of the poor and
unwary. For their support these dwellers in the shade
land are ever dependent upon the living. This, we
have also seen, has a profound effect upon ancestor
worship which as we have already stated Is, in many
ways, truly the real religion of China.
The Third Degree.
The third stage consists of those who have attained
to immortality while in this present world, but not to
the higher degrees. They are free, as described above,
to leave the body of flesh and wander at will upon the
earth. They usually live among the mountains in
solitude and splendour. There are, for example, what
are known as the Ten Cave Heavens, supposed to be
great caves in some of the sacred mountains of China.
There, these genii congregate and pass their days freed
from the flesh, its limitations and its lusts. The fifth
of these Cave Heavens, we are assured, is at Kwan-
hsien, at the head of the ancient irrigation system of’
the province of Szechwan.
Deified Genit.
Those of the fourth degree are deified genii. These
have bidden farewell to earth, and have departed to
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 175
roam among the islands of the blessed. There are,
at least, three of these famous islands. They are said
to be located somewhere in the Pacific, away to the
east of China’s coast-line. One island, Ying Chow,
we are informed, is over one thousand miles square.
The sesame, upon which the genii feed, grows there.
From a great jade rock flows a spring resembling wine.
One draught of this gives eternal life. Another island
has shores strewn with gems whos lustre nourishes the
genii there. In the reign of the celebrated First Em-
peror, 250 B. C., an expedition was sent in search of
these islands. It was composed of a large troop of
young men and maidens and is said to have reached
the shores of the islands, but a strong wind drove
it back.
Celestial Gods.
Those of the fifth degree are celestial gods. They
have attained to consummate purity and perpetual life
in their heaven. There they inhabit the nine degrees
of heaven. These are sometimes represented as rising
in circles high above the earth. At other times, they
are identified with the palaces of the famous Western
Royal Mother. She lives in the Kuen Len Mountains
to the west of China and is at the head of troops of
genii. Here is located a lake of gems, and a peach-tree
the fruit of which confers the gift of immortality.
There the ‘“ four great rivers ” take their rise. Around
the base of the mountain-chain flow the blue river, the
white river, the red river and the black river. Report
says their abode has walls piled in nine-fold gradu-
ations to a height of ‘‘ eleven thousand miles, one hun-
176 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
dred and fourteen paces, two feet and six inches.”
Within the vast enclosure grow trees and grain. These
include various jade trees, trees of pearls and the tree
of immortality. The grains are sesame and coriander,
which genii use instead of the ordinary foods of mor-
tals. There are also twelve wondrous towers built of
the five coloured jade stones.
The Western Royal Mother.
In this fairy region the Western Royal Mother has
at times entertained even Emperors and other regal
personages, summoning them to her presence by means
of her two azure-winged bird-messengers. Here, too,
comes, at stated periods, her husband, Duke Wood,
who rules as Lord King of the East, as she does Queen
of the West.
This search for transmutation and attainment to
the ranks of the genii is rarely found today. ‘The
phrases, ’tis true, are still with us, and one hears much
of “long life that ne’er grows old” and the magic
medicine which gives incorporeity. Indeed, some may
still be met searching such medicine in the mountains,
but it is a rare thing to find a really philosophical fol-
lower who by purity, breathing, physical exercises and
magic lotions hopes to attain to the ranks of the
immortals.
The Taoism of today may be largely summed up
in four factors, namely, gods, demons, people and
priests. Of the gods we have already spoken suffi-
ciently. They comprise, as seen, beings innumer-
able, in origin, animal, vegetable, mineral, historical
and imaginary men, heroes and personified princi-
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 177
ples, all, presumably, organized and subordinated in
endless ranks and functions to the great Ruler, the
Pearly Emperor.
Demons.
The demons, too, are endless in number. They may
appear suddenly in any place, singly, or in pairs,
dozens, droves or myriads, and are constantly preying
upon humanity. At times they come employed by the
gods to punish mankind. More frequently they are
working their own nefarious wills. Thus there is ever
an intermittent war between the world of men in the
land of light and this world of demons from the land
of shades. They, in the darkness, can readily see us
and all our movements. We cannot recognize even
their presence till the attack is launched. For this
they use with impunity diseases, plagues, pains, boils,
blindness, winds, fires, floods, thunderbolts, drought,
in short any and all of the ills and trials to which
humanity may be subjected. Is it strange that the
masses of mankind in China live in constant fear of
offending these hordes of heartless enemies? Wretched
humanity that they are, who shall free them from the
thraldom of such tormentors? Is there, then, no hope?
The answer is, the priesthood.
As the heavens are above the earth, as the Yang is
above the Yin, so the gods are above the demons and
can, if they will, control them. Could every afflicted
one go personally to a god and seek aid, that would
indeed be a simple matter. But there seems to be no
such short method of approach to officials in the land
of either light or darkness in the Orient. You must
178 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
know definitely who the responsible official is, where
to approach him, what clothing to wear, what language
to use, what fees are to be paid, when your case will
probably be heard, what underlings must be bought
over and endless other subsidiary matters. This is
just the peculiar province of the priest. He is an
active agent of the gods, is perfectly familiar with
all the forms of pleading and court ceremonies so
that he can not only reach the presence of the
power desired, but almost command that power at
will. For the priest gets his power from the Taoist
Pope, and the latter is the Emperor of all the Earth
in ruling the affairs of demons, quite as the Emperor
of China is (or was) for men. Each in his own
sphere is equally the representative of heaven upon
earth.
The Taoist Popes.
Tradition would have us trace this peculiar power
of these Taoist popes far back into early history. The
son of the builder of the great wall, the unfortunate
Second Emperor (221-209 B. c.), was a weakling. He
was easily overthrown by the House of Han. One of
the chief counsellors of the latter, in their triumph,
was Chang-liang. He, however, refused to accept
either office or honours on the ascension of the new
dynasty, saying simply that since with “ three inches
of tongue” he had attained the dignity of counsellor
to his sovereign, he desired no further glory. The
secret of his wisdom lay in a mysterious book received,
one day, from an old man whose sandal he had re-
turned. Chang, therefore, retired to pursue further
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 179
the doctrines there learned, and to seek the path of
the genii.
The attainment of poutifical glory was, however,
denied him, being reserved for his reputed descendant
of the eighth generation, one Chang Tao-ling, also
known as Chang Tien-si, that is Chang, the Preceptor
of Heaven, later to be styled the first of the Taoist
popes. This descendant is said to have mastered the
doctrines of Lao-tze at the age of seven and to have
soon become familiar with the philosophy of divination.
Refusing all offers of official position, he early retired
to the mountains of the far Western province of
Szechwan. Here he lived at the famous Chin-chen
mountain and cave, not far from Kwanhsien, the source
of the great irrigation system of the province. Here,
also, he devoted himself anew to the study of alchemy
and to cultivating the virtues of purity and mental
abstraction. Thanks to instruction conveyed in a
mystic treatise supernaturally received from the hands
of Lao-tze himself, he secured the elixir of life. He
did not swallow it at once, however, but journeying
far eastward to the Dragon-tiger mountains in the
province of Kiang-si, lived to the ripe old age of one
hundred and twenty-three. Finally, he swallowed the
magic lotion and ascended to the heavens to enjoy the
bliss of immortality.
Later generations have crowned him as the head of
Taoism on earth. His soul is said to descend, gener-
ation by generation, to one of his descendants, who is
thus his successor. Large tracts of land have been
granted the family, and there among the hills they have
180 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
lived in semi-royal state. The present pope cannot,
as did the first pope, leave his body and fly at will all
over the earth and even up to heaven into the presence
of the Pearly Emperor. But he still retains his re-
nowned ancestors’ seals of office, his magic sword and
his right to write charms which subdue demons,
monsters and evil-star influences in heaven, earth
or hell. ‘These powers this pope-potentate can, of
course, in turn bequeath in measure to all Taoist
priests and others who come to him and properly
and persuasively seek his aid. The advent of the
Republic has considerably curtailed this power, yet
thousands of the priesthood from all parts of the
land still seek out this mystic spot in the mountains
or wherever the pope is found and, returning to their
temples, live armed for life with seals, swords and
charms which cast out all manner of creatures of
darkness and incidentally bring in the necessary cash
to their possessors.
Charms.
The charms themselves naturally ape decrees of
emperors. ‘They are made up of ordinary characters,
usually greatly distorted or symbolized, with, at times,
the image of a god depicted above and his signature
below. They are thus mandates from the Pearly Em-
peror or other high authority to demons, to flee at pain
of punishment or death from the spot or person they
are troubling. Written upon royal (yellow) paper
with, if possible, an official pen or pencil, they are to
be properly hung over beds, doorways, bridges, worn
about the person, burned, or stewed and eaten, accord-
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 181
ing to the instructions of the initiated priest or pos-
sessor. If such do not bring positive and timely
results, then there is always the rather more expensive
but naturally more efficacious way of calling in a corps
of priests who will with their swords and charms and
incantations work on diligently for days, until the
demons or their presumed victim or his funds have
departed.
The Buddhists, too, have their charms. Indeed, it
is often impossible to say which charms are Buddhist
and which Taoist. But the Buddhist priest usually
keeps more strictly to his temple and waits for invi-
tation. Not so, many of the Taoists; being less in
respect than their Buddhist confréres, they do not
hesitate to canvass for custom.
The Priests a Menace.
Readily recognized by their wide-brimmed crown-
less hats, through which the hair, done up as a top-
knot, protrudes, these wanderers may be met in city,
town, or far-scattered country by-paths, visiting from
house to house, selling charms and seeking openings.
Even were this all, the danger would be serious enough,
as they are a constant source of superstition. But
they do much more. They are the source also of wide-
spread stories, all looking to the stirring-up of unrest
and uncertainty and thus the increase of their wretched
trade. To this end not only are rumours started, to be
rehearsed and enlarged by ever-increasing hearsay, but
placards are actually printed and posted or scattered
broadcast upon susceptible human soil. Following is
a sample of such literature. It is a strange mixture of
182 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Buddhism and Taoism, and illustrates how these two
religions are often almost inextricably commingled
today. It is introduced by three mystic characters,
to show its high authority, and is entitled: ‘“‘ Words
That Save! ”’
A Priestly Proclamation.
“The holy god Kwan-ti (god of war) has himself
written that during the present year one-seventh of
the people will die. This report of the plagues that
are about to sweep over the earth has moved to deep
concern the Goddess of Mercy, and a way is hereby
given whereby people may avert calamity. Those who
distribute one of these notices will avoid the calamity
due to fall upon one person. Those who distribute ten
of these notices will avert the calamities due to fall
upon ten persons. Those who distribute one hundred
of these notices will avert the calamities due to fall
upon one hundred persons. People who see these
mystic characters and fail to distribute them will
afterwards die through vomiting blood. These
charmed characters have been written in Peking by
the Hon. Tung of Nanking, and sent to every province
and city.
“Those who disbelieve these words will wait and
see. Those who believe will find that during the eighth
and ninth months people will die without number.
Later, in the tenth month, the hens will desist from
cackling and the dogs from barking (that is, these ani-
mals, which usually are so brave as to try to frighten
off demons at night, will be overawed), and at mid-
night there will be heard the ceaseless call of goblins
TAOIST DEITIES AND DEMONS 183
issuing from all quarters. By all means, answer them
not, lest calamity overtake you.
‘“‘ Later, at noon on the ninth day of the moon, the
god of plague will descend on the earth, and search out
good and evil men. The good will receive blessing,
while the evil will be overtaken by calamity. Those
who on the first and fifteenth of the moon practise
vegetarianism, chant the Buddhist classics and per-
form good works may obviate all punishment for
wickedness and be at peace. The holy gods have also
prescribed a medicine, viz., Chai-hu 4 oz., and raw
ginger, three pieces to be boiled together and drunk as
tea. In addition, take cinnabar and with it write these
three magic characters and post them on the outside
of the door. All who see these should cherish them in
their hearts and by no means regard them as heedless
words.
Ten Woes.
Then follow the Ten Woes:
“Woe I. The gods are restless. Woe II. Shantung
province is ill at ease. Woe III. Disastrous floods will
visit the western provinces. Woe IV. Wolves will ap-
pear in all parts. Woe V. Disorder reigns in the prov-
ince of Kiangsi. Woe VI. Half the population are
about to die. Woes VII and VIII. Unfit for trans-
lation. Woe IX. The roads are devoid of pedestrians.
Woe X. Trouble is in store for the year. Paste these
characters outside the door.”
With this Proclamation we may close our study of
Taoism. Started by a traditional lover of harmony,
who thought to live near to Nature’s heart, later gener-
184 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
ations of its adherents have drifted into pantheism and
polytheism and in these later days into pandemonism.
The present contribution of Taoism is well told as
above—‘‘ Midnight—there will be heard the ceaseless
call of goblins, issuing from all quarters.”
IX
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE
ETWEEN three and five thousand years ago,
men were already thinking high and holy
thoughts in Eastern Asia. The era began a
thousand years before Abram came forth from Ur of
the Chaldees. It had closed almost a thousand years
before our ancestors in Western Europe entered the
records of written history. It contains a unique cre-
ative period and one which the Chinese people once
believed marked the climax of their greatness. It has
been to them for centuries the golden age, the time of
times when Heaven sent down special revelations to
men, sages ruled with infallible wisdom, and righteous-
ness, utmost peace and prosperity prevailed among the
people of the Celestial Land.
Three Traditional Emperors.
The era commences with Fuh-hsi (s. c. 2852), who
is credited with teaching the people hunting, fishing,
and the rearing of animals. He also ordained mar-
riage, organized clans, introduced family names and
invented stringed musical instruments. The secret of
his greatness is declared to be found in the revelation
given through the eight diagrams (concerning which we
have written in an earlier portion of this work),
brought to him on the back of a dragon horse rising
185
186 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
from the Yellow River. This sage ruler reigned one
hundred and fourteen years.
His successor was Shen-lung, the patron of agri-
culture. He planted the five kinds of grain, and in-
vented the plough. He also tested all kinds of plants
for medical use, and opened markets for the inter-
change of goods.
Then, after an interval, comes Hwang-ti (a len
2697), the Yellow Ruler. His works are many. He
taught the people writing, dyeing, the making of boats,
and the use of the compass, using the latter to guide
his soldiers to battle in a dense fog. He cast metal as
money, yoked cattle and harnessed horses, and had his
wife teach the people the rearing of silkworms and the
weaving of garments. He is also said to have mapped
the country, divided it into provinces and even subdi-
vided all into sections of nine plots, eight for the
people and a central one for the government. Works
on ancient medicine date from his reign, and here we
have the first record of a temple built for the worship
of God. Today, however, he is possibly best remem-
bered as the originator of the sixty-year cycle, accord-
ing to which the Chinese have reckoned time. Indeed,
there was an attempt made, at the time of the revolu-
tion, to have all Chinese reckoning date from his age.
Seven of China’s Statesmen Sages.
These three great emperors and their times are,
however, usually looked upon, even by scholarly
Chinese, as largely traditional—as an attempt to trace
the origin of things. It is when we come to the times
of the great rulers, Yao (8, c, 2356-2255), Shun (Bs. c.
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 187
2255-2205) and Yui (B. c. 2205-2198), that fact super-
sedes fiction, and Chinese history truly begins. These,
with such successors as King Tang, first of the Shang
dynasty, (B. c. 1766-1122) and King Wen, King Wu
and Duke Chow, founders of the Chow dynasty (B. c.
1122-255), are the high names in Chinese history and
the heroes of its golden age. Their words and deeds fill
the ancient book known as the Shu Chin, or Book of
History. We cannot interpret better their age than
by allowing that record to speak for them:
The Emperor Yao.
“In reference to the Emperor Yao, it is said, that
he was exceedingly worthy, pious and intelligent. His
actions and thoughts were well composed, sincere,
courteous and yielding. [Thus his family] reflected
their virtues in equal degree upon all the people of the
empire, and this extended from his own people to the
various neighbouring states. [His own son proving
unworthy] he resigned his throne to Shun, [a poor
but filial farmer boy] to whom he gave his two
daughters in marriage.”
The Emperor Shun.
“Regarding Shun, it is said, that he was in all re-
spects an embodiment of the glory of Yao: profoundly
wise, accomplished, brilliant, adaptable, reverential,
sincere and righteous, by which modesty and virtue he
came into recognition, and was appointed to office.
‘Tn five years he made one inspection of the terri-
tories, and the host of chiefs had audience on four
occasions to make report and declaration verbally.
Shun intelligently examined their merits, and gave
188 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
carriages and robes to those of distinction. He gave
orders respecting criminal punishments and _ banish-
ments, modifying these, and directed that the whip
should be used for punishing officers, the birch rod for
students, and regulated fines. Inadvertence and mis-
fortune he ordered to be forgiven, but that the incor-
rigible offender should be punished to the extreme.
“** Be kind to the far-off and utilize those that are
near,’ he said. ‘Be kind to the virtuous, faithful to
the just, and eradicate the perverted man. Then even
the barbarians will lead one another into submission
to you.’ ”
History further records of this ancient worthy that
he had a board hung up before his palace gate upon
which anyone might inform or memorialize him, and a
drum which they might beat in appeal for justice. He
is also said to have instituted triennial examinations —
for promotion or dismissal. Shun, as did Yao before
him, considering his son unfit for rule, set him aside
and chose in his stead as his successor one Yu, having
the latter well trained and tested before his death.
The Emperor Vi.
Yu therefore succeeded Shun, but first waited three
years to see if the people preferred the latter’s son.
The following conversation between Shun and Yu
reveals well the thought of these worthies:
‘When a prince feels the responsibility of his posi-
tion,” said the great Yu, “and when a minister is
affected with the obligation of his office, the govern-
ment will be just, and the people will be virtuously
disposed,”
ee ——— re
eee ee ee Oe ae
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 189
“Undoubtedly,” replied the Emperor Shun. “In
fact, if you could carry out this excellent doctrine,
there would be no merit hidden away in the wilderness
with neglected worthies, and all districts would be at
peace. But it is necessary to have regard to all, giving
up your own objects for the purpose of attending to
the needs of others, and refraining from the oppression
of the poor and wretched. Only the Emperor Yao
could do this.”
“ Oh, your majesty,” Yii continued, “ take into con-
sideration that good government consists in nourishing
the people, and that all virtue is in good government.
Advance virtue, increase commodities, promote gener-
ation, and create union.”
“True,” replied the Emperor. ‘“ The ground being
tilled, Heaven will complete the work.
“By punishment you aim at the cessation of pun-
ishment. The people are brought into accord by
moderation.
“The Kingdom being in want and misery, the reve-
nues come to an end forever. Thereby from the
mouth may proceed goodwill or the taking up of arms.
“Only virtue can compel Heaven, and there is no
distance to which it cannot reach. Fulness is predis-
posed to reduction, and humility to increase. This is
the way of Heaven.”
Of the great Yii it is further related that he hung up
five different instruments before his palace gate, that
all might command his attention in case of injustice,
that during one meal he was ten times interrupted,
and that while washing he had three times to bundle
199 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
up his hair in order to relieve the people. One, I-ti, the
inventor of sweet spirits, was banished because Yiti
considered drink a danger to coming generations. He
wept over criminals, and had money cast to redeem
children sold by their parents for want of food.
To these praiseworthy and practical sentiments
might be added those of Yii’s noted minister Yih:
“‘ Make use of the talented and do not hearken to the
voice of the traducer: Root out the wicked without
hesitation. Do not contravene the right in order to’
gain the plaudits of the people, and yet do not oppose
the people in order to indulge your own desires. Be
neither indifferent nor incapable, and the barbarians
on all sides will acknowledge your sovereignty.”
The Tyrant Chie.
The great Yii, following the example of his prede-
cessors, is said to have also wished to set aside his son,
and to appoint this minister Yih as his successor. For
some reason not fully explained, however, the people
chose the son, and thus the principle of hereditary gov-
ernment ensued. For a time all went well, the rulers
keeping faith with their fathers and their people. But
in a little more than four hundred years, the court was
the scene of utter sin and crime. The then reigning
Emperor Chie was a slave to wine and women. For
one of his wives he built a chamber of precious stones,
ivory porticoes, marble terraces, and a jade bed. He
revelled in luxurious music, mountains of meat, and a
lake of wine whereon boats moved and three thousand
persons drank like cattle at the beating of a drum.
Later he even built a night palace where male and
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 191
female lived promiscuously. Thus engrossed in vice
he rarely attended to state affairs, and rebellions arose
throughout the land. It was inevitable that this (the
Shia) dynasty should end.
Emperor Tang of the Shang Dynasty.
A new dynasty, the Shang (B. c. 1766-1122) was
ushered in by the Emperor Tang. On his accession
his minister Chung presented the following apologetic
for the action of his master in dethroning the tyrant:
“The ruler of Shia confounded virtue, and the
people were affected with misery and wretchedness.
Heaven, therefore, conferred on our King (Tang) the
courage and wisdom necessary to establish a correct
standard for the several states, and to continue Yuw’s
anciently practised regulations, and that because he
has followed the old established maxims and reverently
obeyed the decrees of Heaven.
“Let the King not be too familiar with music and
women, nor store up wealth and taxes. Let him but
deal with the people as with himself, and in correcting
wrongs let him not be sparing.
“‘T have heard that it is said: ‘He who can find for
himself an instructor will prevail, but he who accounts
others as his inferiors will be wiped out. A good bor-
rower will have much wealth, while the self-user will
be reduced.”
King Tang himself, in his announcement, spoke
thus:
“‘ Tmperial Supreme Heaven has conferred on these,
the lower people, the path of moderation, so that they
have preserved the invariable dictates of Nature. But
192 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
a ruler is necessary to enable them peacefully to con-
tinue in the path of righteousness. Do you, my people,
all be righteous, and I shall not dare to disclaim you.
Should error rest upon my own person, I shall not pre-
sume to exonerate myself, but will submit to the judg-
ment of the Supreme Will.”
For six hundred and forty-four years this dynasty
ran its course, with monarchs wicked, worthless or
worthy according as*they forsook or followed these
high ideals. One of the worthy we find addressing his
people as follows:
‘““Of old my predecessor, King Tang, having toiled
for your fathers and ancestors, rendered you collec-
tively my cherished people. But if you have evil
thoughts in your minds, my predecessors, who com-
forted your ancestors and your forefathers, and fathers
themselves, will cut off and reject you, and will not
redeem you from destruction.”
Of one of the worthless, we read that an old minister
of state banished him for three years to mourn and
meditate at the tomb of his great ancestor Tang, until
he might learn righteousness.
Of one of the wicked, it is reported, that he had an
image made, calling it the Spirit of Heaven. A man
had at times to personify it playing chess. When los-
ing, the unfortunate was executed, a bag filled with his
blood and hung up. Then the Emperor shot arrows at
it, Saying that he was shooting Heaven.
The Tyrant Cheo-sin.
There were days when the kings tvalked not in the
ways of their fathers, and again the destruction of the
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 193
dynasty drew near. It came in the days of one Cheo-
sin. He added to the extravagances and immoralities
of the last of the Shia dynasty, the utmost cruelties.
Men were forced to carry red-hot irons, and climb a
smooth, greased brass column so as to fall into a coal-
fire underneath. Ministers who remonstrated were
pickled or ground into mincemeat. Pi-kan, who per-
sisted in exhortations to good, had his heart cut out
and examined to see if it had the proverbial Seven
Openings of the sage.
The Famous Chow Dynasty.
The famous Chow Dynasty (1122-255 B. c.) fol-
lowed. We can give space but to a few sayings of the
great King Wen, King Wu and Duke Chow, father, son
and statesman who introduced the new régime.
“‘My people induced young men to delight in the
produce of the earth, for their hearts were good,” King
Wen said. “ They attentively listened to their fathers’
abiding instructions, so small and great virtues were
with these young people one and the same thing.
“The ancients have a proverb which says: ‘ Men
should not use water as a mirror, but should take man-
kind as such.’ ”
“‘Heaven’s views may be known from our people’s
views, and Heaven’s decisions from the decision of our
people.” (Vox populi, vox Det.)
Chronicles of Duke Chow.
Duke Chow thus points out a secret of discord:
“Let our ruler observe that among the lower people,
the parents strenuously bestir themselves in hus-
bandry. But their children, not knowing the diffi-
194 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
culties of such work, indulge in leisure, and after
acquiring loose language, become dissolute, or despis-
ers of their parents, saying, ‘ These old folks know not
what knowledge is.’
“The decrees of Heaven are no easy matter, and
the will of Heaven is difficult to determine.”
Such are some of the doings and doctrines of those
early days of China’s history. We have quoted them
at some length, for they were later to become chief
among the Sacred Scriptures of her scholars and rulers.
Did space permit, we should also quote from the Book
of Poetry, the Book of Rites, and the Book of Change,
as these also formed the sources from which Con-
fucius drew his information and ideals. But these
Books of History quoted probably influenced him
most profoundly. His influence, in turn, has made
them mirror a Golden Age. No books of Kings and
Chronicles have therefore ever borne more weight
with a nation’s destiny. This was mainly due to the
work of the great Sage. We turn to trace his history.
Confucius, the Statesman Sage.
Kung-fu-tze, that is, the statesman-philosopher
Kung,: latinized by the early Jesuit missionaries as
“‘ Confucius,” was born in 551 B. c., in the district of
Chang-ping (prosperous plain) in the small state of
Lu, part of what is now modern Shangtung, a province
of northeastern China. His father, we are told, was
a military officer, a man of unusual strength and stat-
ure. Nine daughters are said to have been born to
him by a first wife and a crippled son by a concubine.
In advanced years, he still longed for a strong son and
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 195
heir. Accordingly, when over seventy, he married the
youngest of three sisters of the Yen family. The new
alliance was gladdened by the arrival of a boy-baby,
whom they named Kiu, in consequence of the “ hill-
like ” protuberance on his forehead. Such, briefly, is
the birth-story of the future sage.
A loving tradition has woven many strange tales
about his mother and his own early days, as has
been the case with others. We may, with profit, pass
by these myths for the more wonderful record of his
real life. Of his youth little is known. His father
died when he was but three; but his mother seems to
have given him the best education possible in his day,
namely, the study of his nation’s history, poetry,
philosophy and music. Thus “ he grew in stature and
in wisdom ” under her loving guidance.
At nineteen he married and the following year a
little son was born whom they called “ Kung-li,”’ that
is, ‘‘ Kung the carp,” in honour of a present of such
fish from the ruler of his native state.
The Commencement of His Official Career.
About this period, he engaged in official duties as
controller of public granaries, probably his first public
position. It is at this time, also, that we find him sur-
rounded by a school of young men, who enrolled them-
selves as his pupils, and fellow students of the words
and ways of the ancients. This union of study, teach-
ing, and public service was to be his life work. His
rise, however, in official rank was not rapid. At fifty,
he was still but the magistrate of a town. However,
the foundations of his future successes were well laid.
196 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
By applying his principles he is said to have wrought
a marvellous reformation in the manners of the people. »
The ruler of his native state, Duke Din, raised him to
the position of Minister of Works, and later to the
high office of Minister of Justice.
Reforms His Native State of Lu.
In this latter position, Confucius’ plan was to
strengthen his prince, as the centre of power and
weaken the great families of his domain. Before being
seven days in office, some traditions say, he had exe-
cuted one Shao. Thus with a policy learned from the
ancients of encouraging the good and punishing se-
verely and speedily the evil, the state of Lu was soon
reformed. One person, we are told, used to give his
sheep much water to drink before bringing them to
market. Another winked at the misconduct of his
wife. A third was extravagant beyond measure.
Those who sold cattle and horses held them for high
prices. All these things were done away with in the
course of three months, and so great a change in public
morals was effected that articles dropped on the road
would not be appropriated. Male and female walked
separately on the roads—the former aiming at hon-
esty, the latter at modesty.
A Wicked Generation.
But the princes and the people of Confucius’ day
were indeed “a wicked and adulterous generation.”
The great Chow Dynasty, which, as we have seen, had
started forth with such noble names and aims, had
already run six centuries of its course, and its time of
decay was at hand. The age was one of feudalism.
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 197
The central power had gradually drifted away from
the Emperor, and was vested in the princes of some
thirteen small states. These latter, in turn, were being
weakened by the ambitions of great families. It was
thus an age without authority, an age of endless petty
wars and struggles, an age when the rights of the
people were neglected, and humanity became ignorant,
cruel, brutish and vile. The people were oppressed
and slaughtered in constant struggles. Sons murdered
their fathers. Whole families of princes were wiped
out in revenge. Salome’s sisters appear to have sere-
naded in all the courts.
It was but natural, therefore, that the prosperity of
the state of Lu, where Confucius so successfully ap-
plied his doctrines, should become an object of fear
and suspicion. Neighbouring states became jealous,
and one solved the difficulty in a manner typical of
the time. The Duke of the state of Tsi, we read, in
order to divert the mind of the Duke of Lu from seri-
ous thoughts, sent to the latter a present of eighty of
the most beauteous damsels of his state, trained to the
performance of music and dancing, together with one
hundred and twenty of his finest horses.
Seduction of His Prince.
The gift soon bore the desired fruit. The prince
neglected his public duties, and the advice of his min-
ister. There seemed no other course than to resign,
so Confucius, baffled in his efforts for the betterment
of his native state, left it for more hopeful fields. By
now he was already somewhat advanced in years,
being fifty-five, so it was no easy matter to adapt him-
198 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
self to the times. Indeed, his whole aim was rather to
adapt the times to his ideals, and that rendered his
path more thorny still. For the next ten years or more
he wandered from state to state, almost always hope-
ful, yet constantly crossed in his purposes. From one
state, Wei, he was driven by the lewdness of the court.
In another, Sung, a deliberate attempt was made upon
his life by felling a tree to destroy him. While on his
way to a third, Chu, troops of rival and contending
states captured him, and would possibly have slain
him, had he not been rescued by other friendly forces.
Weary, at length, with fruitless wandering, he returned
in his old age to his native state, to give his remaining
years to his disciples and literary labours.
Some Details of His Daily Life.
_ There are but few of the world’s great reformers of
whom we have such detail regarding everyday life, as
we have in the case of Confucius. These have been
preserved for us by his band of faithful disciples,
many of whom seem to have remained with him, not
only during his days of prosperity, but during all the
years of fruitless wandering. In a book usually called
The Analects (really a record largely of Confucius’
conversations), we have many a sidelight on the life
of their master furnished by these disciples themselves.
Its opening sentences run as follows:
“The Master said, ‘ Study and its constant applica-
tion, is not such worthy of conversation? To have
friends coming from afar, is not that joyous? To
reckon not though men know him not, is not he the
princely man? ’”’
, CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 199
Even these few lines reveal to us a lover of learning,
and of his fellowmen, a man of humility and of
high ideals.
He was not a rich man, nor was he poor to the verge
of poverty. We read that he wore a silk cap, furs of
lamb, fawn and fox skins, also court robes. Then, too,
he had meat, minced quite small, rice finely cleaned,
an abundance of wine, and was never without ginger
when he ate. Yet we learn that he did not eat much,
and never allowed himself to be confused with wine.
He was, moreover, generous with what he possessed,
bearing the expenses of funerals and other cases of
distress, and knew well how to suffer want. Thus we
find him declaring: ‘‘ With coarse rice to eat, with
water to drink and my bended arm for a pillow, I have
still joy in the midst of these things. Riches and hon-
ours acquired by unrighteousness are to me as a float-
ing cloud.”
He did not teach for monetary gain. ‘“ From the
man bringing his bundle of dried fish for my teaching,
upwards,” he declared, “‘ I have never refused instruc-
tion to anyone.” Yet he would not waste time on a
dullard. ‘I do not open up the truth to one who is
not eager to get knowledge,” he declared, “nor help
out anyone who is not anxious to explain himself.
When I have presented one corner of a subject to any-
one, and he cannot from it learn the other three, I do
not repeat my lesson.”
His Love of Learning and Loyalty to Conviction.
He delighted in study, describing himself as “‘ simply
a man, who in his eager pursuit of knowledge forgets
200 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
his food, who in the joy of its attainment forgets his
sorrows, and who does not perceive that old age is
coming on.” He laid no claim to originality, calling
himself ‘‘ a transmitter, not a maker, believing in, and
loving the ancients.”’ He was deeply conscious of his
own limitations: “In letters I am perhaps equal to
other men,” was his word, “ but the character of the
princely man, carrying out in his conduct what he
professes, is what I have not yet attained to.”
Yet he was neither weakling nor coward. He felt
that he had a message for his age. Indeed, he believed
he was sent by Heaven and was immortal till his time
was come. In a district called Kwang, we read that
fear came upon him; but rallying, he cried: “ After
the death of King Wen, was not the cause of truth
lodged in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause
of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not
have got such a relation to that cause. While Heaven
does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the
people of Kwang do to me?”’ And again, under some-
what similar circumstances, ‘“‘ Heaven produced the
virtue that is in me. What can Hwan do to me? ”
His Task as Transmitter.
The content of his message he found in the ancient
records, some of which we have quoted. “The Mas-
ter’s frequent themes of discourse were the Odes, the
History, and the maintenance of the rules of pro-
priety.” ‘If some years were added to my life I
would give fifty to the study of the Book of Changes,
and then I might come to be without great faults.”
“There were four things which the Master taught,—
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 201
letters, ethics, devotion of soul, and truthfulness.”
Four of which he would not talk were “ extraordinary
things, feats of strength, disorderly things, and spiri-
tual beings.”
In the retirement of his last years, therefore, Con-
fucius made selections from the records of the sages
whom he so loved and honoured, giving us the present
Book of History. From three thousand ballads and
other poetry, he chose about three hundred, the present
Book of Odes, and wrote a commentary on that strange
combination of mathematics, magic and ethical max-
ims, The Book of Changes, seeking, as he did in all his
original writings, to make it also breathe a moral mes-
sage to his people. Of original writings, he attempted
but one. It was the record of his native state of Lu,
which he called Springs and Autumns. The laconic
style of the title is characteristic of the whole book,
which simply records without comment the dire doings
of his country’s recent years. But what “ springs and
autumns ” they were! They are somewhat dry reading
for a Westerner today; but, then as now, truth evi-
dently told its own tale, so that we read this comment
of his later countrymen, “‘ Confucius completed Springs
and Autumns and rebellious ministers and bad sons
were struck with terror.”
Death of the Sage, B. C. 478.
While engaged in the composition of this work, news
came to him of the capture of a strange beast, which
Confucius at once recognized as a supernatural “ lin.”
He was profoundly affected, and closed his record with
the occurrence. He evidently believed completely in
202 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the strange stories of divine revelations to men of old
by the River Map and Writing of which we have writ-
ten formerly, and lamented their non-appearance in
his day. He therefore took it that the appearance of
this rare animal was a sign that his own teachings were
exhausted and his end drawing near. Two years later
(B. Cc. 478), at the ripe old age of seventy-three, he
quietly passed to be with his fathers and was interred
in close proximity to his family residence.
His Growing Glory Down the Centuries.
Faithful disciples erected a tomb over their master,
about which they mourned him for three years—the
devoted Tse-kung, ’tis said, mourning him for three
years more. ‘That tomb, it is believed, has existed
through the centuries and is with us today. What
honours, surpassing all expectation, history has heaped
upon the sage son of Han, serenely slumbering there!
Like another separated from him by but five hundred
years, ‘“‘ He came unto his own, but his own received
him not.”’ Since then, his doctrines have held the suc-
cessive generations of his countrymen willing disciples,
his teachings have spread beyond the domains of his
native land and become largely the basis of civilization
in Korea and Japan, while his name and fame have
spread far beyond the “ four seas’ and he finds hon-
our in every land.
In his own land, influenced by the cult of Ancestor-
Worship, admirers have not been content with follow-
ing him as teacher and guide. They have thought to
give him greater glory by post mortem promotions.
Thus the first Emperor of the Han Dynasty, Kao Tsu
CONFUCIAN SOURCES AND SAGE 203
(B. Cc. 206), visited his tomb and offered a sacrifice
before it. Another of the same dynasty, in A. pv. 1,
raised Confucius to equal rank with the famous Duke
Chow, whom he so delighted to quote as a model of the
princely man, and moreover caused a temple to be
erected in which both were to receive sacrifices. In
A. D. 739, he was advanced to a position of higher
sanctity than his model, and in a. p. 1012, another
Emperor bequeathed upon him the name of ‘“ Most
Holy.” At length, in our own day, the late Manchu
régime, hoping to save a tottering dynasty by highly
honouring national heroes, and so dam the rising tide
of democracy, changed the tiles upon the sage’s tem-
ples from red to Imperial yellow, thus raising him to
an equality with the Son of Heaven. Indeed, under
' the new republic, a stiff struggle, though unsuccessful,
to make Confucianism the state religion, shows the
strength of his cult upon the convictions of China.
x
CONFUCIAN DOCTRINE AND DEVELOPMENT
O attempt to summarize the teachings of Con-
fucius would be love’s labour lost. Living to
a ripe old age, he spoke about many things.
One passage already quoted suggests that there were
only four things on which he would “not talk,—
extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, and
spiritual beings.” As an official himself and one of
the scholar class his paramount aim was to restore
peace and prosperity to his people. His reformation
of society and the state, he realized could only be
effected by the perfecting of the individual, especially
the rulers, so he preached the ideal of the Princely
Man. But this, in turn, rested on the moral regener-
ation of the mind and heart, so he insisted on the great
virtues of love, righteousness, sincerity, knowledge and
the power of example.
Some of the Sage’s Great Words and Texts.
With one of his most faithful disciples, who wished
his master’s doctrines in tabloid form, we find the
. following conversation:
“Ts there one word which may serve as a rule for
all one’s life? ” Tse-kung asked. ‘Is not reciprocity
such a word? ” the Master said. ‘‘ What you do not
want done to yourself, do not do to others! ”
204
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 205
This great word, translated “ reciprocity,” comes
very near to another great word of the sage, that is
Propriety. ‘Thus we read in the Doctrine of the Mean,
one of the Canonical Four Books, these reputed words
of the Master: ‘The princely man does what is
proper to the station in which he is; he does not desire
to go beyond this. . . . He does not murmur against
Heaven, nor grumble against men.”
If pressed as to where men should look for models
and instruction as to the proper thing in its proper
place, Confucius would point to the great men of old.
So in another of the Four Books, called The Great
Learning, we find disciples thus quoting their program
toward his great ideal of “ the whole empire tranquil
and happy:”—
“The ancients who wished to manifest resplendent
virtue throughout the empire, first ordered well their
states. Wishing to order well their states, they first
regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their
families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing
to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their
hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first
sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be
sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the
utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge
lay in the investigation of things.”
The Perfect Age. |
That seems an eminently practical program, and we
may readily concede its many points of excellence.
Unfortunately its last phrase, “the investigation of
things,” which we so heartily endorse today in the
206 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
study of all branches of science, mental and material,
meant little more with Confucius, or at any rate his
later followers, than the investigation of the ancients
and their presumably infallible customs and concep-
tions. When, therefore, we find one of his disciples
asking him regarding this very matter of “ ordering
well the states” (that is, government), we find the
following record:
‘“ Yen-yuen asked how the government of a country
should be administered? ‘ Follow the divisions of
time of the Shia Dynasty,’ the Master said. ‘ Ride in
the state carriages of the Shang Dynasty. Wear the
ceremonial caps of the Chow Dynasty. Let the music
be the Shao and its pantomimes. [This music was
that used by the great Emperor Shun and was so
entrancing that after hearing it, Confucius, ’tis said,
did not know the taste of meat for three months. ]
Banish the songs of Ching, they are licentious.’ ”
Confucius as Practical Politician.
Space will not permit us to follow further the teach-
ings and trend of thought of Confucius. To under-
stand him and his message, we must recall that he
lived in an age of wretchedness, wickedness and war;
that temperamentally he was a lover of music, har-
mony and peace; that until over fifty years of age he
was an official busied with practical problems of the
state; that he believed he had discovered the solution
to all his nation’s sorrows in the ways and wisdom,
prose and poetry, of past worthies; and that his teach-
ings were directed toward, received and transmitted to
us through disciples who were themselves chiefly con-
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 207
cerned to know how to secure and succeed in govern-
ment employment. The thought of the sage was,
therefore, not primarily concerned with such great
themes as man’s origin, duty and destiny. He touched
upon these things only as he considered they bore re-
lation to the rulers and policy of a state. His chief’
aim was, as stated, ‘‘ the whole Empire prosperous and «
the people at peace.”
Supported Yet Circumscribed by the Past.
Believing, as he did, so passionately in the virtual
infallibility of the past heroes of his history, he ac-
cepted the teachings of their age as the perfect panacea.
There is no, ‘“‘ Ye have heard it said by them of olden
time, but I say unto you—,” in his utterances. He
believed, therefore, probably as they, in a personal
God, wise, powerful, just; a Supreme Ruler who had
regard to the welfare of men, decreed who should be
their rulers, and dismissed such when they transgressed
too far his will. He followed also these great fore-
fathers in some measure in a belief in prayer and wor-
ship and in the exercise of such virtues as benevolence,
righteousness, wisdom, propriety, sincerity and faith.
He also followed them in their mathematical philos-
ophy of the Yin and Yang, their worship of ancestors,
their belief in innumerable spirits good and evil, their
practise of polygamy, divorce and emphasis on por-
tents and signs. In brief, he followed the past too
implicitly, so that, in later years, his doctrines, and
those contained in the books he edited, were accepted
by his countrymen as a Bible, a Sacred Canon, every
jot and tittle fixed and final. What our Scriptures were
208 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
to us in the Middle Ages, these became through long
centuries to the Middle Kingdom. A beneficial stand-
ard was thus secured through many a period of storm
and stress, but the springs of progress became in large
measure stagnant.
Early Chinese Critics of Confucianism.
It is an interesting journey to follow the record down
the centuries. Needless to say, this system, tending
ever more to formalism, has not gone unchallenged.
China has had her heretics who have dared to think
for themselves, whose souls could not be cribbed,
cabined and confined within such set moulds. ‘Too
often, as in other lands, they have pushed their pro-
tests to extremes, but they none the less did much
to save the national soul from sterility, and keep the
flame of freedom burning. We can mention but a few
examples.
Lao-tze and Chwang-tze.
We have already seen, in a former chapter, how
Lao-tze, the traditional founder of Taoism, in a re-
puted interview with Confucius, ridiculed the latter’s
endless rushing about looking for ceremonies of men,
now corpses for long centuries, and preached his own
great doctrine of Life without Struggle, following the
Way of the World.
Chwang-tze, too, a disciple of Lao-tze, used all his
wealth of sarcasm against such straight-jacket sys-
tems, urging that Nature be allowed to have her way.
“ Horses have hoofs,” he wrote, “ to carry them over
frost and snow; hair to protect them from wind and
cold. They eat grass and drink water, and fling up
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 209
their heels over the fields. Such is the real nature of
horses. Palatial dwellings are of no use to them.
‘“‘ One day Po-lo appeared, saying, ‘ I understand the
management of horses.’ So he branded them, and
clipped them, and pared their hoofs and put halters
on them, tying them up by the head and shackling
them by the feet, and disposing them in stables, with
the result that two or three in every ten died. Then
he kept them hungry and thirsty, trotting them and
galloping them, and grooming and trimming them, with
the misery of tasseled bridle before and the fear of
the knotted whip behind, until more than half of the
remainder succumbed. . . . Nevertheless every age
extols Po-lo for his skill in managing horses.”
Mencius, His Great Disciple and Defender.
Confucianism at its best was, however, finally and
successfully defended by the great Mencius (Chinese
Mung-tze, B. C. 372-288). What Paul did in scatter-
ing afar and saving the teachings of his Master,
Mencius did for his. He successfully attacks not only
the theories of the Taoist but of other philosophies,
and shows the superiority of the Confucian system.
Here is some of his ridicule upon the theory of Selfish-
ness as voiced by one Yang and the theory of Universal
Love as voiced by another, Moh.
“The principle of the philosopher Yang was, each
for himself,’ Mencius said. “‘ Though he might have
benefitted the empire by plucking out a single hair he
would not have done it.”
“The philosopher Moh loves all equally. If by rub-
' bing free of hair his whole body, from the crown to
210 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the heel, he could have benefitted the empire, he would
have done it.”” Moh-tze’s teachings, nevertheless, had
permanent value, being in many ways akin to the
teachings of Jesus, and after two thousand years are
coming to their own today, through the investigations
of Professor Hu Shih and other modern leaders.
So strenuously, however, in his day did Mencius
fight the battles of orthodoxy, that his book, a volume
of over one hundred and fifty pages, though written so
long after the time of the sage, is included among the
Four Books, which with the Five Classics go to make
up the Canon of Confucianism. A sentence from the
first chapter of his work will show his adherence to the
high ethical principles of his master:
The king of Wei said to Mencius, when the latter
went to visit him, ‘“‘ Venerable sir, since you have not
counted it far to come here, a distance of a thousand
li, may I presume that you are provided with counsels
to profit my kingdom? ”
‘“Mencius replied, ‘Why must your Majesty use
that word “ profit”? What I am provided with are
counsels to benevolence and righteousness, and these
are my only topics.’ ”
Mencius also stood firmly for the other three of the
“five constant virtues,” “ benevolence, righteousness,
propriety, knowledge and faith”; and for the “ five
relations,’ namely, those of prince and minister, father
and son, husband and wife, elder and younger brother,
and friend with friend. Of all these he considered
that of filial piety the greatest, and the first duty of
a filial son to have offspring, thus adding his weight
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 211
of authority to polygamy and ancestor worship as
implications.
Persecution Under the First Emperor.
About forty years, however, after the times of Men-
cius, there arose one of the most critical times Con-
fucianism has ever known. These were the days when
the great First Emperor (B. c. 249-206) destroyed the
long struggling feudal states and formed a united
China. To his shrewd insight and to that of his chief
advisers, it was not sufficient to overthrow other
princes. It was also necessary to uproot the hidden
power of the old order by destroying the teachings.
Accordingly he commanded that all ancient books, save
those on medicine, divination and agriculture should
be burned. Those who wished to study law must en-
gage his officials as teachers. Those who conversed
about the Books of Poetry or History were publicly
executed, while those who even preferred antiquity to
their own times were exterminated with their families.
On one occasion, ’tis said, four hundred and sixty
scholars were thus burned alive. It appeared as
though the golden age had passed and had forever
perished.
Honour Restored by the House of Han.
The rule of the First Emperor was, however, short-~
lived. His son proved too weak to hold what his father
had won, and the sceptre passed to the great House of
Han (B. c. 206-A. p. 220). The new régime was in
complete sympathy with Confucian thought. The new
ruler paid a visit to the grave of the great sage, old
books hidden away despite the persecution were
212 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
brought forth, missing passages were readily restored
from the memories of living men, and the traditions
and teachings of antiquity again triumphed.
But Taoism was by no means dead. During this
dynasty it also secured some of its greatest triumphs,
more than one Emperor adopting and propagating its
precepts. It was during this régime, moreover, that
Buddhism came to claim a share of sovereignty over
the spiritual longings of the land. As far back as the
third century B. c. there are records of Buddhist mis-
sionaries in China, but now they came on royal invita-
tion (A. D. 67).
The Three Religions.
The teachings of these three great rival schools of
thought were to run like crimson threads through the
long record of China’s history. At times, Taoism
triumphs and Emperors are surrounded with magi-
cians, send expeditions to find the isles of the genii in
the east, and drink, and are poisoned by, the potions
said to be the elixir of life and immortality. At other
times Buddhism has its day. Emperors array their
eunuchs as Buddhas, present cartloads of books to
monasteries and aid in their explanation, send expedi-
tions to India to search for more sutras and scholars,
and with great ceremony and reverence receive and
retain for three days in the royal palace, a Buddha
bone.
A Fearless Defender of the Faith.
But Confucius and his Classics have ever fallen but
to rise again. The sober thought and patriotic senti-
ment of the nation seem almost unfailingly to have
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 213
followed their guide. Brave men constantly came
forth, daring death in protest against the superstitions
of the other sects. Thus the famous Han Wen-kung
declaimed against the bone of Buddha above men-
tioned (Giles translation, A History of Chinese
Literature).
“The bone of a man long since dead and decom-
posed, is admitted, forsooth within the precincts of
the Imperial palace. Did not Confucius say, ‘ Revere
spiritual beings, while maintaining always a due re-
serve’? . . . Of the officials, not one has raised his
voice against it. Of the censors, not one has pointed
out the enormity of such an act. Therefore your
servant overwhelmed with shame at such slackness,
now implores your Majesty that the bone may be
handed over for destruction by fire or water. Should
the Lord Buddha have power to avenge this insult by
the infliction of some misfortune, then let the vials of
his wrath be poured out upon the person of your
servant, who now calls God to witness that he will not
repent his oath.” Only the intercession of friends had
Han’s sentence commuted from death to banishment
(A. D. 819).
Chu-fu-ize and Materialism.
The most dangerous foes of Confucianism were not,
however, to arise from the Buddhist and Taoist
churches and rival philosophical schools. They arose
rather in the interpretations of its friends, and espe-
cially in the comments of the renowned Chu-fu-tze
(a. D. 1130-1200) and his professed disciples. The
trend of thought in the Sung dynasty in which he lived
214 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
was toward philosophy. They consequently went back
to the ancient doctrines of the Active and Passive
(that is, the Yang and Yin) forces in nature and the
five elements or forms. To these Chu-fu-tze added a
certain ‘‘ chi” or vital principle, and a “li,” or for-
mative principle as explanation of all things. With
these he constructed a thought system capable, accord-
ing to Professor Bruce, of an idealistic interpretation
and which might have proved real soul emancipation.
Alas, if so, in the hands of his later followers and po-
litical flatterers it became a purely materialistic sys-
tem, identified the personal God of his fathers with
the “li” as a mere rational principle, and ended all
life here and hereafter with the dissolution of the
“ chi” or breath.
Chu-fu-tze’s style was attractive. The meaning of
his terms was not always clear, so was easily misinter-
preted. The extravagance of the contending creeds
assisted, and the age was one of rationalism. More-
over, aS Chu’s comments apparently preached loyalty
to Imperialism, it was readily emphasized as the true
and only interpretation, and the standard of ortho-
doxy. Add to this that the Confucian Classics with
Chu’s Commentaries have been the text-books for
centuries in China’s old-style schools, and their con-
tents the sive qua non of success in public examina-
tions and promotion to official position, and one can
easily understand how widely and well they have been
interwoven in the thought of her classes and masses.
It is indeed not so much the text, but Chu’s supposed
interpretation of the text that has held. What Thomas
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 215
Aquinas has been to Catholicism, Chu-fu-tze has been
to Confucianism, namely, an infallible interpreter.
The Masses Unsatisfied.
Still the human heart in China, as in other lands,
has refused to be satisfied simply by materialism and
rationalism. ‘The masses have accordingly been con-
strained to find refuge in times of trouble in the gods
of Buddhism and Taoism, and especially in the wor-
ship of their ancestors. This latter and the Worship
of Heaven everywhere exists. Men stand in the open
and worship with incense and prostrations, quote God’s
justice in proverbs and cry out to Him in prayer when
in dire need. Belief in immortality is consequently
almost everywhere a profound reality, and he is poor,
indeed, who does not when friends depart, call in a
Buddhist or Taoist priest to pilot them in the land
of shadows.
On the great, three-terraced marble altar at Peking,
at midnight of the shortest day in the year—that is,
just when the Yin has reached its climax and the Yang
begins again its sway—the Emperor, as Son and Ap-
pointee reverently worshipped Heaven, a custom not
even overthrown by republicanism today, the Presi-
dent at times performing almost similar functions. In-
deed, on its religious side Confucianism has much in
common with the older Taoism it has so often perse-
cuted. Both go back to a primitive naturalism, and
drift readily into polytheism. So in Confucianism also
there are gods who are great forms and forces in
nature, dead ancestors and heroes. Accordingly, on
the great Altar of Heaven but a little lower in honour
216 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
than Heaven itself, are the ancestors of the ruler.
Just a terrace down and the sun and moon with the
heavenly constellations and stars are worshipped, and
in other places the hills and rivers, the earth and
ocean. Thus, though theoretically atheistic, according
to its orthodox commentators, the Confucian church
nevertheless, today worships many gods with Heaven
as their Head, and the Emperor or President as his
Son or Representative upon the earth.
Confucianism Deficient in Morals as Well as Religion.
Thus, though there is much to be preserved, there
are also factors to be discarded in Confucian religious
conceptions of world order. Nor are the weaknesses
of the system to be found upon the religious side alone.
Ethically also it sanctions or condones many grave
sources of sorrow to the individual, society and the
nation.
Recent Criticisms.
From the standpoint of Comparative Religions,
Prof. R. F. Hume, in The World’s Living Re-
ligions, offers the following elements of weakness in
Confucianism:
1. Its lack of a supreme personal deity accessible to
all people, instead of to the Emperor alone.
2. Its actual polytheism, despite its one Supreme
Ruler.
3. Its self-saving scheme of salvation.
4. Its lack of an enthusiastic dynamic, only
commands.
5. The inadequate religious basis even for its ethics.
6. Its negative form of the Golden Rule.
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 217
7. Its inadequate treatment of the moral evils in
‘human nature.
8. Its lack of a programme for real social amelior-
ation, especially for the uplift of the lower units of
society.
9. Its generally inferior position assigned to women.
10. Its retrospective unprogressive ideal; perfect
society in the past; no forward-looking creative goal
ahead.
11. Its inadequate interpretation and use of phys-
ical facts.
Z. K. Zia, M.A., in The Confucian Civilization,
offers the following shortcomings of his country’s sage:
That there are shortcomings in Confucianism, we
all admit. What are they?
a. Since Confucianism lacks the spiritual element,
it naturally follows that there is a tendency toward the
material side.
b. Though Confucius himself taught his disciples
not ‘to fight against other sects,’ this injunction has
not been wholly carried out. This has found expres-
sion in nationalist and class distinctions.
c. The critics will all agree in condemning Con-
fucianism for its conservatism. ‘This is the shortcom-
ing of Confucianism.
d. Confucius never denied the existence of God.
He rather took it for granted. But we must not take
him for a theologian or a religious giant. . . . If
only Confucius had known God a little better, the his-
tory of China would have been wholly different.
The late Dr. Faber has stated several specific short-
218 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
comings with a genuine frankness and general fairness.
In substance they are as follows:
1. Concubines. “ These have ever been a curse to
Chinese history. Many intrigues, crimes and wars
have been caused thereby. The Classics sanction it,
so Confucianism is responsible for this great social and
political evil.”
2. Despotism and Rebellions. 'The Confucian sys-
tem is a despotism. The Emperor being the appointee
of Heaven, the only remedy of the people when driven
to desperation is rebellion. ‘‘ Confucius himself seems
to have looked with favour on rebellious movements
with the hope of bringing a sage to the throne. Men-
cius is certainly very outspoken in this respect.” Pro-
fessor Legge says, ‘‘ Probably there is no country in
the world which has drunk so much blood from its
battles, sieges and massacres as China.”
3. Ancestor Worship. To speak only of its eco-
nomic side, ‘‘ The waste of money, land, energy and
time connected with ancestral worship involves mil-
lions of Chinese in lifelong debts; in one generation
at least ten thousand million dollars.” We have above
pointed out other products of this misinterpretation of
our obligations to our dead.
4, Divination. ‘This has its origin in the Book of
Changes. The use of stalks and the tortoise shell and
the choosing of lucky days thus sanctioned, have paved
the way for various superstitions, magic and astrology,
with disastrous results to time and truth.
5. Blood Revenge. This is taught as a duty in the
Classics, disregarding impartial legal authority. ‘“ The
ae Te
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 219
bad effects are evident even to the present day. Where
the ruling authority is feeble, as it is at present, indi-
viduals and clans take the law into their own hands
and whole districts are kept in a state of constant feud
and warfare ” (Legge).
6. Filial Piety and Nepotism. ‘The virtue of filial
piety, though often greatly to be praised, has been car-
ried to an extreme. This may be seen by reading the
Classic on that subject. A son at sixty is commended
for frolicking about like a child of six in order to make
his parents forget they are growing old. Another son
sleeps under the bed half-naked, that mosquitoes may
dine on him rather than the heads of the household.
“The teaching of absolute subordination of sons to
their fathers and of younger to their elder brothers
during the whole of life has proved to be a serious ob-
stacle to progress in China. Nepotism is also a fruit
of it. Mencius, in trying to defend Emperor Shuen for
making his wicked half-brother Siang a prince, said:
“The benevolent man wishes his brother to become
rich!’
7. Presents to Superior Officials. This, “as sanc-
tioned in the Classics, has led to general official cor-
ruption.”” Men pay large sums to secure office and
then expect to repay themselves by selling to under-
lings or squeezing from the people. Thus even justice
is bought and sold.
8. The Want of Truthfulness in Confucius. This
has had disastrous results on national veracity. ‘“‘ Al-
though recognizing the importance of truthfulness in
his theoretical teachings, Confucius in his own practise
220 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
fell short of the ideal. Professor Legge says that in
his commentary on the Springs and Autumns, Con-
fucius ‘ignored, concealed and misrepresented’ the
truth. On one occasion he broke his oath. He had
promised on oath not to go to the state of Wei, and
was released. As soon as free, he went straight to
Wei. A disciple asked, ‘ May one break an oath?’
Confucius answered, ‘It was a forced oath. The
spirits do not hear such.’ On another occasion he sent
word to a caller that he was ill. Then he played the
lute and sang, to show that he did not wish to see this
would-be visitor.”
9. Reformation by Mere Example. ‘The mistaken
notion of Confucianism, that the perfecting of knowl-
edge and influence of some good examples is sufficient
to produce a good character, has deceived the Chinese
about the weakness of human nature.” “The absence
of a true recognition of man’s responsibility before
God, and of a deep desire for real communion with
God, in Confucian teachings, has moulded the national
character seeking the honour of men more than the
honour of God.”
10. The Low Position of Women. ‘The position of
the mother of sons is indeed a high and honourable
one in China, but the state of the wife is too much
that of a chattel, she is quite too subordinate to her
husband and mother-in-law, and her condition if son-
less is pitiable. ‘The low position which Confucian-
ism assigns to the women is alone sufficient to prove
the inferiority of its teaching in comparison with
Christianity.”
DOCTRINES AND DEVELOPMENT 221
The Classics and the New Republic.
The new Republic is making out an excellent pro-
gramme looking to the education of women, and aims
generally at the betterment of her social status. It
has also, as a blow against absolutism and other
abuses, ousted The Classics, as such, from the schools.
But the shortcomings above outlined are too deeply
imbedded in national custom and consciousness to be
easily eradicated.
Conclusions.
One concludes a study of Confucianism with
strangely mingled feelings of admiration and disap-
pointment. One cannot but admire their golden age,
however idealized it has become, its great patriarchs
and princes, their trenchant yet simple sayings, their
real concern for the welfare of their people, and their
unwavering confidence in the wisdom and justice of
high Heaven. One cannot but admire the perhaps
“‘ over-proper ” yet relatively pure and noble figure of
the truly great sage, Kung, the stateman-moralist pre-
eminent of Eastern Asia, his passion for study, his high
ideals of ‘‘ prosperity in the nation and peace among
the people,” and of the “ Princely-Man,” his optimism
in an age of sordid pleasure and pessimism, his indom-
itable faith in Heaven, in himself, and in human
altruistic effort, while others were saving themselves
by fighting, by seclusion or by flight. One cannot but
admire also the thousands of heroic souls, his disciples,
who all down the long centuries of China’s history, in-
spired by the best in those Sacred Records, have come
forth braving persecution, torture and death, to call
222 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
back their rulers and countrymen from callousness
and folly to the high and holy thoughts and ways of
their forefathers.
On the other hand, one comes away deeply disap-
pointed that an interpretation of life so promising
should purify and perfect itself so little in the process
of the years. Indeed, it has largely forgotten rather
than fortified its primitive faith in a personal God,
increased rather than diminished its exaltation of
natural phenomena, national heroes and dead ancestors
and semi-deified in the process of the years even its
patriarchs and founder. Finally, in recent centuries,
it has accepted materialism, atheism and the extinction
of the soul as its best interpretation of the mysteries
of existence, checked only by the heart longings of the
masses which cannot be satisfied by such constructions.
Realizing all this, one understands more readily why
its old power passed in recent dynasties and the say-
ings of its sage became a “ Shakespeare ” to be quoted
at examinations rather than a “ Scripture ” to energize
the ethics and politics of a great people.
Yet Confucianism has within it vast promises of
better things, and we may well pray that Christianity’s
coming may be “ not to destroy but to fulfil,” together
redeeming the great race her ancient sage so loved.
XI
BUDDHISM IN INDIA
HE teachings we have been tracing in our
previous studies have been mainly of native
Chinese origin. It is well to say, ‘‘ mainly,”
for thoughts, like things, have often wings, and know
no bounds of country or even continent. As the
plants are carried far and wide by birds and winds
and tides, so the seed thoughts of the thinkers of the
race seem to wander at will over mountain passes,
along great trade routes, or across deserts and oceans
to fall here and there upon good soil, and adapting
themselves to new conditions, bring forth fruitage
thirty, sixty, an hundred-fold for weal or woe. In-
deed, it would seem at times as though it were the
most abstruse guesses at the riddle of existence that
grew best and lasted longest, for these evidently allure
by their very abstraction and lead on and on by their
mysteries, leading the groper after truth to believe that
the longed-for goal is surely but slightly on before.
So it has probably been with some of the thoughts we
have been following in philosophy, astrology, physi-
ology, etc., in previous studies. Portions of these
possibly originated in now unknown regions, from
there spread far afield, adapting themselves as we say
to their environment, and doubtless even more to the
223
224 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
ability of the thinkers in new lands to understand such
systems.
Introduced Into China—When and How?
With the thoughts we are now about to trace,
those known as Buddhism, there is no doubt as to
the origin, at least so far as China is concerned.
They came from her great and populous neighbour
to the southwest, India. Nor, if the traditions be
true, are we left to speculation as to how they came.
In the year A. Db. 61, what time Paul was pour-
ing forth his heart in his missionary message to
Western Asia and Europe, imprisoned, persecuted,
and, in the end, dying a martyr’s death, a Chinese
emperor in the far east of Asia had a dream in
which he saw the image of a foreign god. Eighteen
messengers were sent many thousand miles over
desert and desolate mountain ranges, including the
high Himalayas, in search of books and instructors.
Reaching India, they persuaded two teachers, at least,
to return with them. These, riding on white horses
and carrying pictures, images and books, arrived at
the Chinese capital six years later, A. p. 67, were quar-
tered with all honour in the White Horse Temple and
on the last day of the twelfth month were ushered into
the presence of the Emperor Ming-ti of the great Han
dynasty. One of these pioneer apostles, a native of
Central India, with the strange name Kashiapmadanga,
proved to be a scholar of ability, translated important
parts of the Buddhist classics into Chinese, and after
a life of honour, died at Lo-yang, the then capital of
his adopted country.
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 225
The Founder of the Faith—Siddharta.
To understand these teachings, thus introduced
among the millions of China, we must first become
acquainted with the teacher and his times. There are
few stories of would-be world reformers more replete
with interest than that of this founder of the Buddhist
faith. His father was king of the Sakyas, that is the
Lion tribe, with his capital ninety-three miles northeast
of the well-known city of Benares. There, in a great
park at the foot of the far-flung Himalayas, the little
prince was born, B. c. 560. They called him Gautama,
also Siddharta, that is “‘ All-Prospering,” and the Brah-
mans who lived at the court predicted that should he re-
main in the life of the world, he would become a mighty
monarch, but that should he renounce that world he
would become a wholly enlightened-one, that is a
“Buddha.” At this time a gentle ascetic dressed in
antelope skin, and who dwelt in a bamboo hut in the
forest, came forth and, throwing himself at the boy’s
feet, declared, “‘ Truly this child will become a Buddha,
and will show mankind the way of salvation.”
These sayings greatly alarmed the king, who wished
his son to become his successor and a great world-
ruler. So he had three palaces built for the prince—
one for each of the three seasons, the hot, the cold, and
the rainy. These were surrounded by beautiful parks,
groves, gardens, caves, grottoes and lovely lakes, and
here amidst the noble of the land and far from the toil
and turmoil of the world, the young prince grew to
manhood. At nineteen, he was married to his beautiful
cousin, and when after some years a little son was born,
226 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
there seemed nothing more earth could give to make the
young prince happy and content.
The Youth Makes the Great Renunciation.
But it is one of the signs of the soul’s immortality
that it is infinite in its longings. The youth longed to
see beyond the palace walls. At the age of twenty he
crept forth by stealth and, passing among his people,
saw sights which filled him with awe and wonder. The
first, was an old man decrepit with age, the second, a
sick man covered with sores, the third, a putrefying
corpse, the fourth, a venerable, begging ascetic. ‘The
contrast to the gay existence he had led could not but
compel thought. Grave questionings arose within him.
Was it, then, the lot of all thus to grow old and feeble?
Why these sores, sicknesses and suffering? Why this
revolting end of life in stench and corruption? And
why, in the midst of all, could this venerable ascetic
pass to and fro so apparently calm of soul? For nine
years he pondered upon this strange riddle of birth and
life and death. Then, one night, unknown to parents,
wife, child and friends, he left the palace to seek for
light among the hermits. Coming to a small stream
near the hills he cut off his long, beautiful hair, gave
his arms, his horse, his all, to his servant, and charging
him to tell the king and princess, made the “ Great
Renunciation.”
The Thought World of Siddharta’s Day.
The young Siddharta was not the first of our race
to ponder these mysteries. Are they not the perpetual
puzzle of all humanity? Why should we be at all?
Whence have we come? What are we doing here?
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 227
Whither are we bound? Nor was he the first of his
own people who had pondered such profoundly. From
time immemorial the subtle thinkers of India had asked
and answered these in various ways. There were cer-
tain great beliefs upon which the majority seem agreed.
They may seem strange to us, but they were wide-
spread in those days.
First, they believed that the world was formed by
four great continents, north, south, east and west, with
India as the southern or Jambu continent.
Secondly, they believed that somewhere about the
centre of these four was a great mountain called
Sumeru, around and about which were situated the
heavens and their inhabitants. Thus Indra abode in
the thirty-third heaven upon the very top. In some
of the eight heavens on each of the four sides, or
thirty-two in all, lived the godlike Devas, with their
four famous kings or generals and below these in the
depths of the great forests lived Asuras, mighty giants
continually at war with the Devas,—these all of higher
grade than man. Below man were the animals, then
pretas, that is hungry ghosts of the dead, and lastly
narakas, which as demons dwelt in the earth prisons
below the ground.
Thirdly, they believed in transmigration, that is that
these various orders of beings were, after death, reborn
into the world, in a state either higher or lower than
their previous existence.
Fourthly, they believed in Karma, 7. ¢., in a law of
ethical cause and effect. Every act performed would
have its effect somewhere, sometime, somehow, upon
228 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
destiny, and men after death would reap their reward
for woe or weal in rebirth into some of the higher or
lower forms of being, that is as devas and asuras, or
as animals, pretas or narakas, strictly according to
moral merit.
Fifthly, they believed that by continuous and special
merit beings might reach the great goal of union with
Brahma, the Supreme Spirit, from whom all souls and
all things proceed.
Sixthly, they believed that this special merit could
be best attained as men, by offerings, penances and
religious ceremonies which could be performed only
by the active help of priests.
Thus all this led to dependence upon a priesthood,
the result of which was almost inevitably an unspiri-
tual, labyrinthian ritualism, and great power to this
priestly cult.
Siddharta’s Search for Peace and Light.
With this in broad outline as the thought world of
his generation, the young prince, seeking for a solution
of life’s mysteries, first turned to two famous pandits.
They taught him to perform many prayers, sacrifices
and religious rites, but through these, ’tis said, he failed
to find peace and light. He then turned to those who
taught self-mortification, and joined their ranks.
“ Some walked on sandals spiked, some urth sharp —
staves
Gashed breast and brow and thigh, seared them
with fire.”
According to the later tradition, Siddharta became
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 229
among the severest of the sect. He lived daily upon
one grain of rice and one of hemp, sat on in the same
position with nothing to protect him from wind and
rain, his eyes not looking aside, deep in meditation.
His fame soon spread and five disciples came to him.
For nearly six years the little company lived on in the
forest, until one night the leader fainted and fell, and
his companions thought him dead.
Siddharta, “ Wholly Enlightened,” Became “ Buddha.”
Recovering at length he decided that asceticism was
also a failure. It could not solve his question as to
sorrow, suffering and death. He decided to eat again.
Two passing milkmaids gave him food and he was
strengthened. His five followers seeing this, left him,
much offended, but he continued his search. One
morning he bathed in the river, took some rice from
a young girl, and, again refreshed, spent the whole day
in meditation by the river’s bank. ‘Towards evening,
he found his way to a great tree known henceforth as
the Bodhi, or tree of Enlightenment, for there, after
continuous meditation for seven days, he became
““ wholly enlightened,” that is, he became “ Buddha.”
The New Light That Came.
What, then, was this new light that came to Sid-
dharta as to the meaning of life? Briefly this—that
life as we have it here is not worth living. It is full
of suffering and sorrow. Birth is sorrow. Old age is
sorrow. Sickness, death, decay, all are sorrow. And
what is the secret of all this sorrow? Simply that the
world we know is all deception. Our eyes, our ears,
our touch, our taste, our senses all deceive us. There
230 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
is, in reality, no such world. Even our bodies are a
delusion. And what is the subtle cause of all this
deception? In a word, it is desire. Things all are,
simply because we desire them to be. ‘To get rid of
this desire, then, and the deception of sense is the
road to freedom. To follow desire is to be born again
and again in this world as some form of man, deva,
animal or demon, through endless ages. ‘To destroy
desire is to be rid forever of the deception of the
senses, to be wholly free from the dismal round of
transmigration, 7. €., attain to that state of complete
freedom from Karma and rebirth into this world of
phenomena, which state is called “ Nirvana.”
The Tathagata or “ Self-Saviour.”
How to be rid of desire, then, that was the question.
The Buddha’s contemporaries had put their faith in
the ceremonies of the priesthood. This he wholly op-
posed. He required the aid neither of gods nor man.
Believing fully in the theory of the connection of eth-
ical cause and effect or ‘‘ Law of Karma,” he concluded
that every man was the maker of his own destiny.
Hence he frequently spoke of himself as the Tathagata,
that is, the “ self-saviour,” or “ one walking as he will.”
His own solution of the problem of the destruction of
desire, he speaks of as the Noble Eightfold Path.
Teachings as Contained in First Sermon.
Much of this teaching as to the essential sorrow of
life with its roots in craving or desire, as taught in his
“Four Noble Truths,” together with his way out
through the Eightfold Path of self-salvation, are found
in essence in his first sermon. ‘This was delivered to
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 231
his former five disciples, whom he sought out once
more, So we may well let the Enlightened One speak
for himself:
“The truth about sorrow is this,” he says. “ Birth
is attended with pain, and so are decay, disease and
death. Union with the unpleasant is painful, and
separation from the pleasant. Any craving that is
unsatisfied is a condition of sorrow. Now all this
amounts, in short, to this, that wherever there are the
conditions of individuality, there are the conditions of
sorrow.
“The cause of sorrow is the thirst or craving which
causes the renewal of individual existence and is ac-
companied by evil, and is ever seeking satisfaction,
now here, now there; that is to say, the craving either
for sensual gratification or for continual existence, or
for the cessation of existence. This is the Noble Truth
concerning the origin of sorrow.
“‘ Deliverance from sorrow is the complete destruc-
tion, the laying aside, the getting rid of, the being free
from, the harbouring no longer of this passionate crav-
ing. This is the Noble Truth concerning the destruc-
tion of sorrow.
The Eight-Fold Path.
“But the Tathagata has discovered a path which
opens the eyes and bestows understanding, which leads
to peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlight-
enment, in a word to Nirvana. The path which leads
to the destruction of sorrow is the Noble Eightfold
Path alone, namely, right views, high aims, kindly
speech, upright conduct, a harmless livelihood, perse-
232 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
verance in well-doing, intellectual activity and pro-
found meditation. This is the Noble Truth of the
Path which leads to the destruction of sorrow.”
The Eightfold Path is not unworthy of the name
“ Noble,” were it not for the “ right views ” and “ high
aims ” which the Tathagata held. The former, it is
clear, considered life as lived here a deception and
sorrow, and so is utterly pessimistic as to reforming
this world and making here a Kingdom of God. The
latter aims at abstraction from the world of sense,
annihilation of such desire and even individuality, and
absorption into that strange state of presumed peace,
more logically utter emptiness, named Nirvana. To
travel this path each needs quite evidently the aid
neither of priests nor gods, only the guide-books of the
Buddha, and his own effort.
Early Missionary Efforts of Buddhism.
But there were many world-weary ones in those
days, as in all ages, worn out by the lusts and strife of
life, or by the mummery of religious ritualism, and
asceticism. Naturally they turned in large numbers
to this new and seemingly simple way of escape from
the tortuous labyrinths of transmigration. First, his
five disciples are said to have accepted the new teach-
ings, and then it had a rapid growth all along the valley
of the great Ganges. As soon as the number of con-
verts reached sixty, they were sent forth to proclaim
the Way or, as it is frequently called, the Law. Speak-
ing to the crowds in the simple speech of the common
people they seem to have been enthusiastically wel-
comed even by kings, who set apart groves for their
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 233
use. Hither they assembled in the rainy season for
further instruction, and thus was founded the monas-
ticism which has since become so marked a feature of
the system. In the dry season they went forth, as
they termed it, to “ turn the Wheel of the Law,” a fig-
ure taken from the mill wheel as men grind their grain.
That is, they first stated the law or their text, then
explained its meaning, and finally applied it to the
experience of their audience for assimilation. Their
clothing was of the simplest. For food they went about
with alms-bowls begging from the people.
Buddha’s Death about B. C. 480.
Many remaining years of life were still given the
Tathagata to develop his teachings. Then, at the ripe
old age of eighty, about B. c. 480, he died, or, as he
would have it, reached Pari-Nirvana. Many thousands
of lay followers, men and women, as well as his Beg-
ging Brotherhood, mourned his departure. His re-
mains were encoffined and after many reputed miracles,
finally cremated. Thus passed from earth another
apparently absolutely sincere yet sadly misguided
seeker after truth. That his system of self-salvation
saved many from the hopelessness of the Hinduism of
his day, and has done much to spread sentiments of
equality and mercy and at times a certain emphasis
upon personal purity and spirituality may well be con-
ceded. But, alas, at its very base was a false inter-
pretation of the world we live in, and so of the life to
be lived. Its efforts after abstraction and absorption
could not be a basis of self-salvation, but of self-
deception and could not but end in decay.
234 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Royal Missionaries Sent to Ceylon.
For a time after his death the teachings of the
Buddha seem to have remained comparatively pure.
As in other systems, great councils tried to control its
organization and orthodoxy. But circumstances and
men’s capacities change, so that after a couple of cen-
turies there was considerable divergence of views and
practice. Then there arose a king who was to Bud-
dhism somewhat what Constantine was to Christianity,
a convert and an enthusiast with power. His name
was Asoka, the grandson of a celebrated adventurer in
the camp of Alexander the Great, and who later drove
the Greeks from India. This Asoka, often termed the
Wheel-King in that he caused “ the Wheel of the Law ”
everywhere to revolve, called a great council about
250 B. c., which was attended by five hundred vener-
able Buddhist saints or “ Arhans.” Among these
Ananda, that is “ Joy,” a cousin of the Buddha and
who is said to have become a disciple at the age of
eight, is reputed to have been present and to have by
his marvellous memory aided much in fixing the canon.
Be that as it may, it certainly seems to have been a
great missionary gathering. The King sent his own
son and daughter as missionaries to Ceylon, where a
sacred Bo-tree planted by the latter is reported to be
still standing. Others went forth in force to spread
the teachings far to the north and west.
Differences Between Northern and Southern Schools.
In its travels southward, Buddhism seems to have
met with little but primitive paganism, and so has re-
tained much of its original teachings. Not so in its
BUDDHISM IN INDIA 235
sweep to the north and west. There it met with the
philosophies and religions of ancient Asia as found in
Persia, the Euphrates valley and even Greek culture.
Indeed, as one follows some of the literature and its
development during the years of the first century A. D.,
developing as they do theism out of atheism, world
saviours out of a system of self-salvation, prayer in
place of the power of abstraction and worship instead
of absorption, one cannot but feel that Christianity
or some similar source has exerted its influence.
The Northern or Great Vehicle. )
Thus two distinctive systems have arisen. The
southern is usually spoken of as the Little Vehicle or
Hinayana, and the Northern as the Great Vehicle or
Mahayana. The figure of speech implied is that of
voyagers over the great sea of transmigration. The
little vehicle is strict and narrow; the great vehicle is
presumably comprehensive and perfect. Alas, in seek-
ing to become broad, it has, as we shall see, spread itself
out so thin in airy flights of imagination into time and
space, etc., that it has become, today, in many phases
of its thought-life little more than shallow, superficial
fancy. Let us note more fully some of this develop-
ment in the Northern School, for it has been this sys-
tem which has chiefly influenced the millions of China.
XIT
BUDDHISM IN CHINA
E have next to examine the type of Buddhism
that came to China and trace its effects upon
this ancient civilization. We have seen that
the Tathagata himself thought that he had only to
deny the things of sense and desire in order to destroy
them. ‘The other side of such a theory would, natu-
rally, seem to be that you have only to think things
true to bring them really into being. Imagination, like
any other cause, could and should become a real cre-
ator. Whether or not the originators of the Greater
Vehicle system reasoned thus it is now impossible to
say. It is more probable that, subtle psychologists as
some of them were, they disbelieved in everything that
had form or space, but believed that to popularize their
theories, the best way possible was to appeal to soul
abstractions under the guise of far-flung and high-
sounding systems of fanciful worlds and saviours.
A Universe of Unlimited Time.
They taught, therefore, a universe of unbounded
time. It was apparently without beginning, for their
system knew no Creator. This unlimited time was
divided into great kalpas, and each great kalpa into
eighty small kalpas. The length of a small kalpa is
left to the imagination, but may be judged by the fact
236
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 237
that during a small kalpa the age of man diminishes
from immeasurable length to ten years and then in-
creases again to eighty thousand years. ‘The great
kalpas mark the rise and fall of a world era. Thus,
during twenty small kalpas, the world is completed.
During the second twenty it remains in this state.
During the third twenty it is destroyed, while during
the fourth twenty there remains nothing but void.
Then the process begins again and another great kalpa
is ushered in. We live in the ninth of the second series
of twenty small kalpas. It is flattering to know that it
is the “age of wise men.” In the time of Buddha the
age of man had already increased to one hundred years
and since then the allotment has been gradually les-
sening a year at a time.
The World of Unbounded Space.
The world of space is, if possible, even more wildly
wonderful than that of time. In the centre of our
particular world, called Saha, is the famous Sumeru
mountain. A wide sea separates this from eight other
mountains at the eight points of the compass from us.
Outside these eight mountains is another wide sea and
beyond it a great circular mountain mass of iron. A
thousand such, with their circular mountain chains of
iron constitute a small world and three thousand a
great world. The Saha world is such a great world.
Outside ours are ten other great worlds at the eight
points of the compass and above and below. So the
universe is multiplied. Details of our own world tell
that from the southern Jambu continent in which we
live, across the great ocean to the encircling iron moun-
238 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
tain wall the distance is three hundred and sixty thou-
sand, six hundred and sixty-three yojanas, each yojana
being from four to eight goshalas, and a goshala being
the distance at which the bellowing of a bull can
be heard.
Heavens and Hells of Wonderful Complexity.
Such an indefinite extension of space has also natu-
rally greatly extended the ancient hells and heavens
of the Hindus. The latter are still situated, as of old,
about and above the famous Sumeru mountain, and
the former below, but are greatly multiplied and
allegorized. ‘The mountain stands in the centre of the
four continents, is far to the north of ours, and is one
million one hundred and twenty thousand miles high,
its depth in the sea being equally great. Up its sides
are the thirty-two heavens, now divided as follows:
The first ten from the base are called worlds of Desire.
Here dwell the sun and moon, the powerful kings of
Devas with their followers and their super-sovereign
Indra. Here is also the Tushita paradise, and that of
Yama, ruler of Hades, as well as many others. About
the very base are various forms of dragons and lower
grades of spirits.
The next tier up of these heavenly regions consists
of eighteen. They are called the Heavens of Form.
This denotes that the senses are still active here,
though there is freedom from desire which was still
dominant in the ten regions below. These eighteen
are again subdivided into groups of three accord-
ing to contemplation and are called by such titles
as purity, light, virtue, abstraction and _ tranquil-
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 239
lity. The Brahmas live in some of the lower
stages, a left-handed compliment to the popular re-
ligion of the day in India, which Buddhism sought
to supersede.
The uppermost tier of four, completing the thirty-
two, is called the Formless Heaven. They are desig-
nated by such titles as vacancy, knowledge, destitution
of properties and negation of thought. Here dwell the
highest transformations of Buddhism.
The Thirty-two Heavens.
Many further details of the inhabitants of these
thirty-two heavens are given. Men after death, ac-
cording to their advancement, live in all, but five are
inhabited by sages alone, twenty-five by sages and
common men together and two by common men. No
wise man, we are told, will inhabit the heaven of
Brahma, because he, in his ignorance of causes, asserts
that he can create heaven, earth and all things. Mara,
king of the demons, called in Chinese Mo-Kwei, and
used in Christian Scripture translations for ‘“ the
devil,” resides in the space below the Brahma’s heaven.
The Arhans or Buddhist saints naturally reside in the
higher heavens, while those shortly to become Buddha,
that is Bodhisatva, Chinese “ pu-sa,” reside first in
the Tushita heaven. Finally, high above all, live the
Buddha and his special associates.
Location of Hells.
As to the hells or prisons of the lost, they are
usually situated far below the mountain, upon the
continents inhabited by man or among the great
oceans, Thus 280,000 miles below our Jambu conti-
240 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
nent is the hell of unintermitted torments. Others are
at different points of the compass and usually located
at the bottom of some great ocean. Details of these
as they are believed in today have been given in a
former study, so we need give no further description
here. It is well to recall, however, that the seed
thought for such a system came to China through this
northern development of Buddhism.
Buddha Exalted from a Teacher to a God.
Contemporaneous with this extension of the uni-
verse in time and space through contact with other
thought-systems, came a great exaltation of the Bud-
dha. He was, from a simple teacher and attainer to
the Way, exalted to be a god absolute, saviour and
ruler of the great Saha world we have described with
all its innumerable inhabitants of devas, asuras, men,
animals, shades and demons. Other Buddhas were
naturally added to rule other great worlds, but the
Buddha was supreme in this. The extension of time
in turn led to fables of other Buddhas who had pre-
ceded him in former kalpas. During the eighth small
kalpa immediately preceding ours, we are assured, no
less than one hundred Buddhas successively appeared.
He himself is the fourth Buddha of this small kalpa.
Just before him is one called, in Chinese, Jan-ten Foh,
that is, the “ Light-Lamp ” Buddha.
Mi-let Foh, the Merciful, “ The Laughing Buddha.”
Of more interest and importance than these, on
account of their influence upon popular imagination
and human longings are two other fictitious Buddhas.
The first is the Buddha-that-is-to-be, named by Occi-
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 241
dentals, on account of his big, benign appearance,
“The Laughing Buddha.” He is Maitreya, “the
Merciful,” called in Chinese Mi-lei Foh. At present
he is reported to be in the Tushita paradise. ‘The
Buddha visited him there and told him his destiny.
On this occasion Maitreya also reminded Buddha of
the latter’s wonderful life of service in the following
rather striking fashion: “‘ The wonderful result is to
men incredible. It is as if a man of beautiful counte-
nance and black hair, about twenty-five years of age,
should say, pointing to an old man of a hundred, ‘ This
is my son’; and the old man should point to the young
man and say, ‘ This is my father.’” This Laughing
Buddha will appear five thousand years after the his-
toric Buddha’s time and will usher in a new era. Tra-
dition says he will be sixty feet high. Fortunately,
however, for the image-makers, others have given in
later days another conception. They also have visited
Mi-lei in his present home, and so he is now usually
represented in the temples as a rather short, very
stout, jolly-looking Chinese, sitting wreathed in smiles
and with but little else over his broad breast and
abdomen.
The O-mi-to Foh, the Buddha of Boundless Age.
The other imaginary Buddha is the ruler of the
Western Heaven, described in a former study. He is
Amitabha Buddha, the Buddha of ‘‘ Boundless Age.”
In Chinese his name and fame as O-mi-to Foh, is
known to all. At times he is also pictured as ‘“‘ Chie-
yin” when, with hand outstretched, he “ welcomes ”
mortals to his allegorical paradise. Ten million King-
242 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
doms of Buddha, ’tis said, separate his world from
ours. As he with his Western Heaven is the most
tangible hope of the craving for immortality of mil-
lions, there are few who receive more homage.
Yoh-shi Foh, the Buddha Who Heals.
Do not conclude, however, that these comprise all
the Buddhas. Another whose heaven is equally distant
from the East must also be mentioned. He is in
Chinese Yoh-shi Foh, that is, the Buddha who in-
structs in Healing. He, therefore, removes bodily and
mental calamities, and lengthens the earthly lives of
his supplicants. He is, however, and significantly,
much less popular than his great contemporary of the
Western Heaven.
The Creation of Fictitious Bodhisatvas.
Possibly even more important in its influence than
these developments we have been following, namely,
these extensions in space and time, the development of
theism out of atheism, and of immortality out of ab-
sorption or annihilation, was the voicing of another
cry of the human soul for infallible guides or Saviours.
This was in turn supplied by the creation of fictitious
Bodhisatvas, or, as they are callyed in Chinese,
Pu-sas. They are, as has been aptly said, “ heirs-
apparent ” to Buddahood or Enlightenment. They
have not yet but are about to enter upon Nirvana.
Moved to compassion, ’tis said, by the misery of the
world, these have refused to enter Nirvana until they
have saved countless myriads of beings from distress.
This new thought may, perhaps, be best explained by
telling simply the story of three or four of the most
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 243
widely-known and worshipped of these Pu-sas, sav-
iours or deliverers.
Widely-known Pu-sas, Wen-shu.
The Bodhisatva Manjusiri, or, as he is called in
Chinese, Wen-shu Pu-sa, is the embodiment of Wis-
dom. ‘This is symbolized by a sword carried in his
right hand, showing perchance the keenness of his in-
tellect in dividing the true from the false. He also
rides upon a lion to show his triumph. He is repre-
sented as receiving instructions from the Buddha, and
then setting out toward central and south India, where
thousands flocked to him for instruction. He is thus
a great saviour of the ignorant and deluded.
Pu-hsten,
The Bodhisatva, called in Sanscrit by the long
name Samantabhadra, is better known in China as
Pu-hsien. He is the embodiment of Happiness. He,
too, has vowed to save millions of men before entering
into Nirvana. He recommends all to withdraw their
thoughts from the world of sensation. Like other
Pu-sas, he wears a gilded crown of Lotus leaf. He
rides upon an elephant, indicative of caution, dignity
and strength. He also has many admirers.
T1-T sang.
A third noted Bodhisatva is she (or he) known
in China as Ti-tsang. A whole book is devoted to her
marvels. The story, briefly told, is of a maiden whose
mother slandered the three treasures, that is, Buddha,
the Law and the Priesthood. After death she was sent
to the limitless hell. Her daughter, grieving over her
mother’s wicked life and inevitable fate, sought the aid
244 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
of an ancient Buddha image. She was told to sit at
home and meditate on his name. Doing so, she fell
one day into a state of deep reverie and soon found
herself on the banks of a great ocean. Here she saw
many beasts of prey with iron bodies, flying and walk-
ing on the sea. Multitudes of unhappy men and
women were swimming there and were bitten con-
stantly by these ferocious animals.
A demon king addressed her kindly, informing her
that she had come to the great, iron-mountain girdle
that surrounds the world. The people, she saw, were
the inhabitants of our continent the Jambu, who had
recently died. If, after forty-five days, no one per-
formed any meritorious act for their benefit, they must
be transported to this sea. On further inquiry as to
the fate of her mother, she was rejoiced to hear that,
owing to her, the daughter’s piety toward the ancient
Buddha, the mother had been saved and was already
in Paradise. Indeed, such merit was sufficient, in addi-
tion, to raise innumerable other persons to heaven.
Returning to consciousness, the maid made a vow that,
through innumerable coming kalpas, she would per-
form acts of merit for the deliverance from suffering
of multitudes of living beings. She (or he, for this
Pu-sa is also at times represented as a son of a king
of Siam) is thus a deliverer from the terrors of Hades,
and is often represented sitting with benign counte-
nance, while around are clustered the ten kings of
hell listening to her instruction. She saves men from
these bitter seas and earth prisons with their many
punishments,
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 245
Kwan-yin, “ Goddess of Mercy.”
Most noted of all these deliverers is Kwan-yin,
familiarly spoken of among Westerners as the ‘‘ God-
dess of Mercy.” Her power is almost unlimited, for
she can transform herself into all conceivable forms,
and so can save not only men, but devas, animals and
other races of beings. She is, therefore, frequently
depicted with a thousand arms stretched forth to save.
She especially rescues men from the “ eight miseries ”
and may be seen saving sailors at sea, travellers from
wild animals, robbers, etc. Perhaps her most popular
form is with a child in her arms, as she comes forth to
aid unhappy mothers. This latter has led some to
identify her with the Virgin Mary, but the idea is
radically different. Here again, though this saviour is
frequently called “ she,” the older form was doubtless
male. As there seems no limit to her transformations
and powers, she is naturally among the most widely
supplicated and worshipped.
The Mahayana School in China.
It has taken considerable space to state this devel-
opment of the Northern Buddhist school, even in out-
line. But it is of paramount importance, for it was
this system of thought which the two teachers from
India, who arrived in China in the middle of the first
century A. D., came to teach. It was the books of this
system which they and most of those who came after
them translated into Chinese, and so its temples and
forms of worship which were set up. Despite an
Emperor’s welcome, there was opposition, and it took
centuries to cover the new land with temples. But
246 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
eventually thousands of priests, from among the men
and also women took the vows, and Buddhist ideas
have flooded the thought-life of the people.
Idolatry Related to Allegory.
As stated previously, very probably these subtle
Hindu teachers of the first and second centuries
B. C., who inaugurated this Mahayana or “ Great
Vehicle” system, disbelieved in much of this imagi-
nary extension of time, space, exaltation of Buddha
and fanciful deliverers. As we at times set up statues
of liberty or justice to impress imperishable ideals, so
they probably thought by means of images to lead men
to seek after destruction of desire, denial of sensation,
and their peculiar ideas of wisdom, mercy, emptiness,
happiness and Nirvana. But the ignorance, or per-
haps one should more truly say the infinite longings
within the souls of men, could not be satisfied with
these allegorical interpretations. Denied powers be-
yond their own, they proceeded to deify all these
images, till today the atheism of the Tathagata has
become a form of polytheism, with gods innumerable
and still growing, for anyone by merit may become
successively a listener, an understander of causes, a
saviour and then a Buddha.
Each Pu-sa Has His Own Chief Seat.
The whole system, with many modifications, has
been adopted in China. The four great deliverers
have, in addition to having their images everywhere,
each been given as the years have passed special sta-
tions in this land. Thus Wen-Shu, the wise, has his
chief seat at Wu Tai mountain in the province of
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 247
Shan-si. Ti-tsang has made a temple in An-hwei,
some miles west of Nanking, his home. Kwan-yin
lives at Pu-to Island, near Canton, and Pu-hsien has
headquarters here in our own province of Szechwan
on the famous Mount Omei. Visiting there one sum-
mer we were told that Pu-hsien had appeared that
same season. On inquiry as to the evidence, we were
told that he had ascended the mountain among the
train of pilgrims, visited the many temples, and then
reaching the Golden Summit had thrown himself over
the great sheer precipice. On looking for the body
the searchers below could find no trace,—was not that
proof sufficient?
Each Idol His Own Place in the Temple.
The masses of the people, therefore, look upon these
abstractions, some of which are associated with semi-
historical persons, as absolute powers, and visit the
temples for heavenly help, much as they go to their
magistrates for earthly aid. By the door-way, as they
enter, stand two great generals of the devas, ‘‘ Hen ”
and “ Ha,” with arms uplifted and fearsome mien to
terrify unworthy intruders. Next follow many de-
fenders of the Buddha and his teachings, notably the
four kings of the devas, Kwan-ti, the Chinese god of
war, the Dragon King and others. In the next court
are probably three or four deliverers, Wen-shu, Pu-
hsien and Kwan-yin, with their promises of wisdom,
happiness and mercy. Another court farther up brings
the supplicant to the hall of the Great Hero, that is
Buddha himself. He is usually called in China Shih-
Kia-Mo-Ni, that is Sakyamuni, the Sage of the Sakya
248 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
race. There he sits in the serenity of self-salvation,
teaching all beings the Law. Men are represented by
his youthful cousin Ananda (in Chinese O-lan) and
the aged Kashiapa (Chinese Kia-shie), his successors
in the patriarchate, who stand to hear his instruction.
Eighteen saints, Lo-hans, with special miraculous
powers over nature, and above them rows of devas
(Chu-Tien in Chinese), sit listening attentively. In
a still higher court sits usually the smaller image of
Mi-lei Foh, that is “The Laughing Buddha,” the
Buddha-that-is-to-be, and higher still O-mi-to Foh, the
Buddha of Boundless Age, welcoming the wanderers
to his wondrous Western Heaven. Worshippers, save
on the special feast and birthdays of the images, are
comparatively few, but the big temples contain often
one or two or even three hundred priests, who spend
the long day in lighting candles, ringing bells, beating
the wooden fish, reciting their translations or trans-
literations of the sutras, marching in ceremonial pro-
cession, or loafing about lazily, awaiting a call forth
to some funeral, too often conjuring up plans to im-
pose lucrative alarms upon the credulous.
Extravagant Promises to Worshippers.
Most extravagant promises are made to those who
call upon the names of these Buddhas and Deliverers.
Thus we read in the Lotus Scripture that: “If many
merchants sailing the ocean meet with a typhoon, and
even a single one on the ship call upon the name of
Kwan-yin, the “ Goddess of Mercy,” all on board will
be delivered from danger. If a man should be about
to suffer hurt and call upon Kwan-yin, the sword or
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 249
spear of his enemy will at once break in pieces. If a
man hallows Kwan-yin’s name but once and worships
Kwan-yin, the blessings of the two are equal, and
cannot end for millions of years.”
So to those who worship Ti-tsang, Buddha himself
is said to promise that, “ If any good man or woman
will worship Ti-tsang, repeat his name, make an offer-
ing to him, or draw his picture, such a person will
certainly be born in the thirty-third heaven.” Again,
it is promised that, “ If a woman with an ugly counte-
nance and sickly constitution prays to Ti-tsang, she
will, for a million kalpas, be born with a beautiful
countenance.” Is it to be wondered at, in view of
these extravagant hopes, that deluded priests pass
around and around the altars simply repeating over
and over again the name of O-mi-to Foh, or some other
idol, that pilgrims repeat it from step to step as they
climb the long mountain paths or that the Tibetans
have systematized it all thoroughly and flutter their
prayers from flags mechanically in the breeze, or bet-
ter still, fill great churn-like cylinders with their pray-
ers and set them turning by water power along the
little mountain streams? Perhaps it is even less to
be wondered at that these very extravagances have
estranged the thoughtful people of the land. Some
scholars here and there are enamoured by the subtle-
ties of the old Hindoo philosophers, their psychological
speculations and the beauty of the style of the trans-
lations, but outside the priesthood in China today the
majority of the followers are old women and the
simple-minded of the masses.
250 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Charms, Formule, Relics.
In addition to idol worship and these mere mechan-
ical, vain repetitions in prayer, many other corruptions
crept into the system as it developed both in India and
here in China. Among these may be mentioned magic
formule and charms made from old Sanscrit char-
acters, meaningless in their original but mystic enough
to deceive the multitude. By means of these many
claimed the réle of healers of disease, rain-makers and
foretellers of events. The chief mover in this develop-
ment seems to have been a monk Amogha from Ceylon,
and thus related to the Hinayana or Little Vehicle that
branch of Buddhism that developed in the south of
India. He is called in Chinese Pu-kung, that is “ not
empty,” and occupied a chief place at court during his
day. It was he who, about the year 768, introduced
the custom now so common of feeding the hungry
ghosts each fifteenth of the seventh moon and at
funerals. In this a magical arrangement of the fingers
as well as delineations of Sanscrit characters and read-
ing of special books play a prominent part.
Relics in various forms also become religiously
powerful. The teeth, the dust, parts of the clothing,
or bones, or former rice bowls of Buddha and other
Bodhisatvas were especially potent. a-hsien, an
ardent Chinese Buddhist, made a visit of almost fifteen
years to India about the year 400 a. p., and found this
worship of relics in full swing there. In one place a
bone from Buddha’s skull was covered with five
precious substances and zealously guarded by eight
officers of the king. In other places topes were erected
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 251
on the sites of Buddha’s footprints, the place where he
dried his clothes and even where he cut his hair and
nails. This later spread to China, and we find even
Emperors going forth to meet parts of bones carried
in great state to their capitals. It was also the begin-
ning of the pagodas which still so picturesquely dot
the land. Built first to house or honour these sacred
relics, they later came to be looked upon, coupled with
the subversive genius of geomancy, as means of regu-
lating the literary and other luck of the land, and were
built in great numbers, beginning chiefly with the Tang
dynasty (approximately 600-900 a. p.). Relics are
less prominent now, but still an occasional one is dis-
played, as at Omei, where a great tooth, purporting to
be one of Buddha’s presumably innumerable molars, is
displayed. From its size it may be the tooth of an
elephant or some other large animal.
Hinayana Influence.
Other interpretations of Sakyamuni’s teachings than
those of the regular northern school have also come
to China. These are even more intimately related
to the Hinayana. Prominent among these new teach-
ers was no less a personage than the twenty-eighth
patriarch or pope of Buddhism, who _ personally
came to China about a. p. 520. He is called Bodhi-
dharma, or in Chinese Ta-mo, and came by way of
Canton and the south. He disbelieved in all outward
forms and images, even in the use of sacred books, and
taught the abstraction of the mind from all objects of
sense and its own thoughts. In this the smaller ve-
hicle of the south held closer to Buddha’s Law. This
252 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
is clearly shown in a conversation between Ta-mo and
the Liang Emperor (compare Dr. Edkin’s Chinese
Buddhism). The latter spoke of having built temples,
transcribed books and admitted new monks to take
vows incessantly and asked: “‘ How much merit may I
be supposed to have accumulated? ”
The reply was, “ None.”
“Then what is true merit? ” asked the Emperor.
“‘ It consists in purity and enlightenment, depth and
completeness, and in being wrapped in thought while
being surrounded by vacancy and stillness,” was the
reply. ‘“‘ Merit such as this cannot be sought by
worldly means.”
Ta-mo then left for the north, for the capital of
the then Wei kingdom at Lo-yang. Here for nine
years, ’tis said, he sat with his face to the wall, and
after five attempts to poison himself, finally died.
Compromises Between Northern and Southern Schools.
Ta-mo gave orders that other patriarchs should
succeed him for two hundred years, then “ the law of
Buddha having spread throughout the whole nation,
the succession of patriarchs will cease.” Five Chinese
patriarchs, accordingly, bore the honour. Since then
the patriarchate has ceased to exist. Other schools,
namely, those known as the Tien-tai, the Chin-tu, the
Lin-chi, etc., have sought to combine these two ex-
tremes of formalism and mysticism as exemplified by
the schools of Northern Buddhism and that of Ta-mo,
until we have in China almost as many varying de-
nominations of Buddhism as there are of Christianity.
They may, today, however, be divided roughly into
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 253
Mystics (Ch’an-si), Ritualists (Fa-si) and Discipli-
narians or Ascetics (Lu-si). The latter, few in num-
ber, now wander about barefooted, begging their way,
and make a precarious living by fortune-telling, etc.
The day for more severe asceticism, such as the
hanging of weapons in the flesh, the severing of
limbs or self-cremation known to past dynasties, is
past. The second includes the great majority of
priests of the present. ‘They simply take literally
and formally the books, ceremonies and postures pre-
scribed by the past and go through the daily routine
of special occasion requirements as might so many
automatic figures.
The Mystics are more consistent descendants of
Ta-mo and the Buddha. As one ascends Omei, the
sacred mountain of Szechwan province, here and there
in the temples may be found the bones and skull of
past priests who, through long processes of meditation,
are said to have attained Nirvana. Their bodies have
been, accordingly, not cremated as the custom is, but
carefully covered over with plaster and other sub-
stances and now set up among the Buddhas and
Bodhisatvas are worshipped by the pilgrim throng.
There are few, if any, willing to endure such extreme
abnegation today. Yet here and there, as in the great
Wen-Shu monastery, in Chengtu, Szechwan’s provin-
cial capital, one may enter the Ta-mo hall and see on
either side a score or more of the Lin-chi sect, seeking
to lose all knowledge of sense, time and space. The
abbot informs you that the custom is to sit with the
eyes fixed on the end of the nose, the nose pointed to
254 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY.
the centre of the breast and the thoughts completely
at rest. After a time all sense surroundings will dis-
appear. One has but to look at the faces of these
misguided seekers of the Way, to believe that the pro-
cess in many cases is too sadly true and that they
become half comatose creatures devoid of the glow and
splendour of the Divine image within. Others, doubt-
less, find, as has been demonstrated in many another
monkish system, that this way of meditation, far from
bringing the destruction of desires, brings through in-
activity but greater incitement, and makes baser
thoughts more dominant.
Buddhism Founded in Fallacy.
It would be quite wrong, however, to attempt to
banish present-day Buddhism as an utterly benighted
system which has been and is bereft of all benefit to
China’s masses. ‘They have doubtless their black
sheep among priests and people, but such are the ex-
ception, not the rule. Ethically their ten command-
ments, stated in China as: Thou shalt not (1) kill,
(2) steal, (3) commit adultery, (4) lie, (5) sell wine,
(6) defame others, (7) praise yourself, (8) be parsi-
monious and scoffing, (9) grow angry and refuse re-
proof, (10) revile the three Precious Ones (Buddha,
the Law and the Priesthood), though distorted in in-
terpretation are respected by many. The laity are
expected to emphasize the first five, and these doubt-
less bear fruit.
Despite some recent attempts at reform and the
search for Bodhi in special circles, however, the stress
is little heard today upon such morals. Instead of
BUDDHISM IN CHINA 255
teaching and exhortation, services consist largely in
reading sutras, transliterations of ancient texts under-
stood neither by the masses nor the majority of the
monks themselves. Thus, the rank and file know
chiefly to abstain from meats, to release life on
Buddha’s birthday, to call in the priests for funerals,
and to repeat constantly the name of O-mi-to Foh,
praying his aid and ultimate entrance into his Para-
dise. Unfortunately, the motive now is rarely love
and service to all sentient beings and man, but rather
the selfish hope of eventually escaping the six paths of
another existence, namely, of animals, hungry ghosts,
spirits in hell, men, asuras and devas; and reaching the
joys of the Western Heaven or the non-existence of
Nirvana. Furthermore, the Confucianists, the long
and at times bitter opponents of Buddhism, can claim
an at least equally pure and well-sustained moral code,
so the ethical contribution of the Buddhist system to
China is greatly curtailed.
Religiously, nevertheless, Buddhism has supplied a
need of the human soul which later Confucianism
with its over-emphasis on reason and consequent
tendency to agnosticism has refused to give. Badly
beclouded as they are, even Buddhist conceptions
and convictions of a Higher Power and human sav-
iours have brought some measure of comfort in a cruel
world, and are apparent steps in the search after the
All-Father.
/ésthetically, Buddhism has also inspired much effort
in China and many superb things in pottery and bronze,
painting, carving and architecture are still scattered
256 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
far and wide to attest its gentle love of life and of
the beautiful.
Whatsoever things of these are true, beautiful, of
good report, Christianity in turn comes not to destroy
but to fulfil.
XIII
ISLAM IN CHINA
T is a matter of considerable surprise to some to
find Mohammedans in China, a surprise which
deepens greatly when it is discovered that they
are there so widespread and in such numbers.
Mr.
Marshall Broomhall, in his excellent book Islam in
China, and to which we are much indebted, has made
perhaps the most satisfactory study of this subject
and gives us the following maximum estimate of Mo-
hammedan population:
Province Population
Kansu ......... 3,500,000
Shensi 500,000
Shansi 25,000
RL Tee ta ee 2 1,000,000
Shantung ...... 200,000
Honan 250,000
Kiangsu ....... 250,000
Szechwan ...... 250,000
Kweichow ...... 20,000
Yunnan ........ 1,000,000
Brapelinc. oc. « 10,000
Province Population
Kianget iiss ve: 2,900
Anhwei........ 40,000
Chekiang ...... 7,000
Filia nee orn a 20,000
Kwangtung .... 25,000
Kywangsitcn sine. 20,000
Hukien (if Sen 1,000
Manchuria...... 200,000
Sinkiang ....... 2,400,000
Mongolia ...... 100,000
TOTAL!) strc. eeu, Sek UU
Other writers are quoted who have placed the Mo-
hammedan population at fifteen millions, twenty mil-
257
258 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
lions, thirty-four millions, fifty millions, and a Chinese
Moslem official of Yunnan province even estimated
them at seventy millions! Placing this population,
therefore, at ten millions would seem sufficiently con-
servative, which would mean that at least one individ-
ual in every forty of China’s citizens is a Moham-
medan. ‘That they are so widespread, being found,
though in vastly varying proportions, in all provinces
of the land is also a matter worthy of note.
Certain questions immediately arise which directly
or indirectly concern us in our study: By what route
did Mohammedanism come? What were the causes
which brought it? When did it arrive? What has
been its history in the land? What is its present
cultural influence in China? These and other queries
we must attempt to answer. But we will do this poorly
until we remind ourselves of some of the historic
factors connected with the life of its founder and the
spread of his convictions. We study first, therefore,
Islam in Arabia.
The Birthplace of Mohammed.
The ancient city of Mecca, so Mohammedan tradi-
tion assures us, marks the spot where Hagar long ago
laid her perishing son Ishmael down to die. Here the
well is still shown from whence she drew the life-giving
water, and here is situated the Kaaba, or “ Cube,” a
small building approximately thirty feet each way
which housed, in the early centuries of our era, the
gods of the Koreish and other tribes. At a height of
about four feet from the ground, the outer wall con-
tains a small reddish-black stone (about six by eight
ISLAM IN CHINA 259
inches in size), dotted with coloured crystals and en-
circled with a band of silver. This is the famous
Black Stone, brought to earth, so Arabian tradition
avers, by the angel Gabriel.
Here Mohammed was born in the year 570 A. D.
His father had died before his birth and his mother
died when he was but a boy of seven, so for two brief
years he was guided by his grandfather, the head of
the Koreish clan. Then the good grandfather also
died and he came into the home of his uncle, Abu
Talib.
Mohammed never went to school. It is doubtful if
he ever learned to write. His school was the great
school of the world. He learned to watch his uncle’s
camels and sheep on the mountain side, to ride Arabia’s
far-famed steeds, even to fight at times, or to listen at
night to the traditions of his tribe and search the
strange panorama of the star-studded heavens.
His Youth.
At twelve years of age, like another historic Child,
he travelled away, possibly to Jerusalem—at any rate
through Palestine and north to Syria. He was with
his uncle’s caravan as it went to trade Mecca’s prod-
ucts for those of other lands. This was evidently but
the first of many such journeyings. ‘These brought
him varied experiences but little wealth, and at twenty-
five, Mohammed still lacked both wife and fortune.
Both, however, were to come soon—and together. A
lady of renown, Khadijah, needed a skilled leader to
manage her caravan, and when Mohammed had proved
his ability to manage that successfully, she chose him
260 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
for the longer journey of life. Though she was fifteen
years his senior, the new home seems to have been a
happy one and while she lived Khadijah did much to
give a sane solution to the crises in Mohammed’s
new career.
Mohammed had always been a man of good family.
Now, by his marriage, he was raised to a position of
comparative affluence.. Freed thus from the struggle
for existence, he began to take a more prominent place
in the affairs of his tribe. His grandfather had been
head of the Koreish, as said, and that gave him as
grandson place and prestige. An incident which trans-
pired when he was thirty-five shows this. It is related
that the tribes were repairing the Kaaba which had
been almost destroyed by a diastrous flood. All went
well until the difficult question arose as to who was
worthy of raising to its pristine place, the sacred Black
Stoner This was left to Mohammed, who solved it by
assigning each of the four leading chiefs a corner of
a sheet on which the stone was accordingly harmoni-
ously raised to its proper position.
But his interests were not wholly social. He had
come to the period of reflection, and religious rites and
beliefs were often before him. Indeed, his time was
one of religious contacts and conflicts. Not only were
there the traditional animism and polytheism of his
own Arabian peoples, but mingled with them were
other cults and settlements of Jews and Christians.
These latter he had met on many occasions during his
caravan journeys to the north, when he had even re-
ceived hospitality at Christian hands.
ISLAM IN CHINA 261
Religious Revelations.
Thus, in the year 610 a. D., when forty years of age,
we find him retiring with his wife to a cave on Mount
Hira, near to Mecca, for meditation. It was while
here that he experienced strange psychic manifesta-
tions. One of these was a supposed visit from the
angel Gabriel, who approached within two bow-shots’
length and, presenting a silken cloth covered with
writing, bade him read. This was the beginning of
revelations direct from Heaven. Then, and later, these
were uttered by Mohammed as messages to men, and,
later still, after his death, collected by his followers to
form their sacred book, The Koran, that is, the
“ Recitations.”
The Flight.
Khadijah, his wife, was his first convert, then his
two adopted children, Ali and Zeid, and later Abu
Bekr, a merchant, and the fiery Omar, all five of
whom were to be intimately associated with the new
prophet and his propaganda. Like many another
would-be reformer, Mohammed, in the main, met only
ridicule in his native city of Mecca. A half-hundred,
however, believed, and were subject to such persecu-
tions that many fled to the Christian king of Abyssinia.
Pilgrims from other centres were apparently more open
to conviction. This was especially true of certain
Jews and others of Medina, a city a short distance to
the north. Thither Mohammed accordingly fled, in
the year 622 a. p., a date to be ever after kept sacred
in the annals of Islam as 1 Anno Hegira, that is, the
First Year of the Flight.
262 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Unfortunately for the new faith, Khadijah, with her
fine feminine instincts, had passed away in the year
620 a. p. Left bereft of her presence and guidance,
Mohammed had given reign to the fiery steeds of
animal desire even before the Flight. The very year
of Khadijah’s death he contracted two new marriages,
one with a widow, the other with a child of ten, the
daughter of Abu Bekr. Indeed, the records show that
from the age of fifty when his first wife died to the
age of sixty-two, at which time he, himself, passed
away, the new prophet had accumulated ten wives and
two concubines. One of the former was the wife of
his adopted son, Zaid, whom he persuaded to divorce
her. The others were mainly widows, two of men
whom he had murdered.
In Medina.
During his first year in Medina, Mohammed set
himself to the establishment of his new creed. On the
spot where the famous camel Al Caswa, which carried
him in his flight, had stopped in the city, he erected
the first mosque and, near by, a minaret. From the
. latter a negro slave summoned the people five times
daily to prayer—at dawn, at noon, at sunset, and two
hours before and after the latter. In the mosque,
Mohammed, himself, preached to the people each Fri-
day, prescribing the four genuflections, the washings
and other rules and revelations. The latter were
often in poetic form and judging from their flow and
rhythm must have been preceded by many hours of
meditation.
But more sinister concepts were being created in
ISLAM IN CHINA 263
the prophet’s brain. He began to dream of position,
of power, of wealth, of dominion. At first, he was
somewhat friendly to the Jews and Christians. He
even had his followers face Jerusalem when at prayer.
But his claims to be not only a prophet, but te prophet
of Allah, led to inevitable conflict. He began to silence
his enemies by secret assassinations. He needed funds
and sent his followers out to attack the caravans from
his native Mecca, and even bowed so low as to break
the sacred truce of the month of Rejeb when, according
to the unwritten traditions of the desert, even the wild
Bedouin refrains from plundering. Medina became
actually a nest of freebooters, forgiven and frenzied
by the pliable faith of their prophet.
War of Mecca.
By the year 630 A. p., Mohammed could assemble
ten thousand fiery followers. With these he marched
upon Mecca. The defense was feeble and the city
fell. Contrary to the custom of his followers in later
years, Mohammed’s first act was one of clemency and
he spared the people of the city. His next was to hurl
the ancient tribal gods from their holy place, the
Kaaba. By a later act, however, he made it, and not
Jerusalem, the centre of power and prayer, which it
has remained throughout the succeeding centuries.
Two years later (632 a. p.) he died, and was buried in
Medina.
The above is a very inadequate outline of Moham-
med’s life and immediate influence as seen by Western
writers. The picture presented by his followers should
also be recorded. Samuel M. Zwemer, in his /slam
264 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
and other writings, to which we are indebted for much
of the substance of our summary, gives us the follow-
ing from Kamal ul Din (a. p. 1349-1405):
In Praise of Their Prophet.
‘““ Mohammed is the most favoured of mankind, the
most honoured of all apostles, the prophet of mercy,
the head or Imam of the faithful. He is the best of
prophets, and his nation the best of all nations, his
creed the noblest of all creeds. He was perfect in
intellect, and was of noble origin. He had an abso-
lutely graceful form, complete generosity, perfect
bravery, excessive humility, useful knowledge, power
of performing high actions, perfect fear of God
and sublime piety. He was the most eloquent and
the most perfect of mankind in every variety of per-
fection and the most distant of men from meanness
and vices.
“¢ Aisha stated that the prophet, when at home, used
to serve his household; he used to pick out the vermin
from his cloak and patch it; mend his own shoes, and
serve himself. He used to give fodder to his camel,
sweep the house, tie the camel by the foreleg, eat with
the female slave, knead dough for her, and carry his
own things from the market. He used to be con-
stantly in a state of grief and anxiety, and never had
any peace of mind.
“‘ Ali stated that he asked the prophet regarding his
mode of life, and that he replied, ‘ Knowledge is my
capital; love, my foundation; desire, my vehicle; the
remembrance of God, my boon companion; grief, my
friend; knowledge, my arms; patience, my cloak; the
i Sie
ISLAM IN CHINA 265
pleasure of God, my share of plunder; poverty, my
distinction; renunciation of the world, my profession;
faith, my strength; truth, my interceder; obedience to
God, my sufficiency; religious war, my nature; and
the refresher of my eye is prayer.’ ”
As one reads such descriptions one cannot but feel
that such Mohammedanism is a faith bordering at
times upon fanaticism, based little upon its founder
but largely upon later fiction and fancy born of poetic
ideals. But Mohammedanism has as its standards
not alone the example of the prophet. It has also the
Koran and certain reputed sayings and doings not
therein recorded but sanctioned by tradition. It has
further the interpretations of these as stressed by the
Sunnis, Shias and many other than the seventy-three
sects into which the prophet foretold that his fol-
lowers would divide.
With these as a basis, Mohammedan faith and
practice (still following Zwemer) may be divided as
follows:
Six Articles of Faith.
Mohammedan Faith has sx special articles. They
are: (1) A Conception of God. ‘ There is no God
but Allah,” that is the first step both in order and in
importance of the creed. It is monotheistic, and God
is represented as personal, all wise, all powerful and
omnipresent. But His will is utterly arbitrary. He
is in no way limited by a moral standard which He has
established. He is not unchangeable, the same yester-
day, today and forever, but free to the verge of fickle-
ness, and man can but fear and tremble.
266 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
(2) A Belief in Angels. These include the four
archangels, Gabriel who reveals truth, Michael the
patron of the Jews, Israfil who will sound the last
trumpet. Israil the angel of death and numerous ordi-
nary angels and jinn or genii. The former are formed
from light and include two recording angels for each
individual. The latter are formed from fire, and haunt
baths, wells and ruined houses. Lastly and most to
be dreaded there is the devil, Azazil and his numerous
and terrible imps.
(3) Sacred Books. ‘‘ Moslems believe that God
sent down one hundred and four sacred books. Only
four books now remain, namely, the Torah or law
which came to Moses; the Zabur or Psalms which
David received; the Injil or Gospel of Jesus, and the
Koran. The latter is uncreated and eternal, to deny
this is rank heresy. While the other three books are
highly spoken of in the Koran, they now exist, Mos-
lems claim, only in a corrupted form, and their pre-
cepts have been abrogated by the final book to the
last prophet Mohammed.”
(4) Major and Minor Prophets. There are six
major prophets of Islam; Thus ‘“ Adam is the chosen
of God; Noah, the preacher of God; Abraham, the
friend of God; Moses, the spokesman of God; Jesus,
the spirit of God; and Mohammed, the apostle of
God. Mohammed has also two hundred and one other
titles of honour by which he is known among the
faithful.”
In addition there are twenty-two minor prophets
mentioned in the Koran. They are: Enoch, Heber,
ISLAM IN CHINA 267
Methusaleh, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Lot, Aaron,
Jethro, Zacharias, John the Baptist, David, Solomon,
Elias, Elijah, Job, Jonah, Ezra, Likman (sop), Isaiah
and Alexander the Great.
“According to the Moslem teaching,” (to again
quote Dr. Zwemer) “ Jesus was miraculously born of
the Virgin Mary. He spoke while still a babe in the
cradle, performed many puerile miracles in His youth,
healed the sick and raised the dead when He reached
manhood. He was specially commissioned to confirm
the Law and reveal the Gospel. He was strengthened
by the Holy Spirit (Gamaliel). He foretold another
prophet, whose name should be Ahmed (Mohammed).
Jesus was by deception and substitution saved from
crucifixion and taken to heaven. He is now in one of
the inferior stages of celestial bliss. He will come
again at the last day, slay anti-Christ, kill all the
swine, break the cross, and remove the poll-tax from
infidels. He will reign as a just King for forty-five
years, marry and leave children, then die and be buried
near Mohammed at Medina. The place of His future
grave is already marked out between the graves of
Omar and Fatimah.” Mohammed now dwells in the
highest heaven several degrees above Jesus.
(5) The Day of Judgment. There will be forty
days’ rain, the os sacrum of each human will be re-
vitalized and the body literally rise again. For the
good after Judgment there will be an everlasting life
of physical joys, gardens, couches, wine, houris.
Mohammed is reported to have said, “‘ The believer in
Paradise will marry five hundred houris, four thou-
268 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
sand virgins and eight thousand divorced women.”
Hell is sevenfold and full of inarticulate terrors,
serpents, scorpions, fire, burning pitch, pus.
“‘ Connected with the Day of Judgment are the signs
of its approach, viz., the coming of the anti-Christ
(Daj-jal), the return of Jesus as a Moslem prince, the
rising of the sun in the west, the war of Gog and
Magog, etc.” :
(6) Predestination. Orthodox Mohemmedanism is
ultra-Calvinistic. All man’s life here and hereafter is
fixed. Each has his irrevocable fate. Omar Khayyam
voices the sentiment of millions when he writes:
“Tis all a Chequer-board of nights and days
Where Destiny with man for pieces plays,
Hither and thither moves and mates and slays,
And one by one back in the Closet lays.”
The Practice of Islam.
While Islam means resignation to the will of God
it is especially submission to His will in the observance
of five duties.” Mohammed said, “ A Moslem is one
who is resigned and obedient to God’s will and (1)
bears witness that there is no god but God, and that
Mohammed is His Apostle; (2) is steadfast in prayer;
(3) gives “ zakat,” that is legal alms; (4) fasts in the
month of Ramazan; and (5) makes a pilgrimage to
Mecca, if he have the means.”
In addition to these five, three other practises are
emphasized (cf. Zwemer), viz., (1) circumcision, (2)
feasts and festivals, (3) the Jihad, or religious war.
The Koran demands that the true believer “ kill those
ISLAM IN CHINA 269
who join other gods with God, wherever ye shall find
them.”
Seven Sins.
Some say there are seven great sins—idolatry, mur-
der, false charge of adultery, wasting the substance of
orphans, taking interest on money, desertion from
Jihad, and disobedience to parents. Others say there
are seventeen and include wine-drinking, witchcraft,
and perjury. . . . Nothing is right or wrong by
nature, but by the fiat of the Almighty. It is signifi-
cant that Mohammedan sense of sin does not forbid
polygamy, divorce and slavery.
Spread of Islam.
We have dealt at some length with the prophet and
his revelations, especially as the latter have been ex-
plained and enforced by his followers. We next pro-
ceed to inquire as to how and whither the propaganda
spread, and, in particular, the causes and courses by
which the new creed came to China.
Before Mohammed’s death, in 632 a. p., Arabia had
largely surrendered to the new faith, and just before
his fatal illness he gave orders to attack Syria. ‘“ Slay
the polytheists wherever ye find them,” were his
orders, and Abu Bekr, his successor as Caliph, has-
tened to obey the command. In turn the fiery Omar
became Caliph (634 A. p.) and by 637 A. p., Damascus,
Jerusalem and all Syria had fallen before his arms.
Another three years and the ancient empire of Egypt
had collapsed, to be followed in another two years by
the overthrow of proud Persia. The onward march of
Islam at this time is thus depicted by Zwemer:
270 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
“Tt swept across Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Algiers,
Morocco, like a desert simoom,—swift, fierce, impet-
uous, irresistible, destructive,—only to be curbed and
cooled by waves of the Atlantic. History tells of
Akba, one of their leaders, that he rode his horse far
out into the surf, crying: ‘Great God! If I were not
stopped by this raging sea, I would go to the nations
of the West, preaching the unity of Thy name and
putting to the sword those who would not submit.’
“Tarik, finding no lands to the West, crossed over
the straits into Spain, and named its promontory,
Gibraltar, Jebel Tarik (the mountain of Tarik),—an
everlasting monument to his missionary zeal.”
It was not until the battle of Tours, 732 A. p., just
one hundred years after Mohammed’s death, that
France and Western Europe were saved from the Mos-
lem power. As it was, the Moors ruled Spain until
1492. For one hundred years, 651-750, the Caliphs of
Damascus spread their fiery faith throughout the cen-
tral portions of ancient Asia, to be followed by the
long, and largely enlightened, régime of the Caliphs of
Bagdad, 750-1258.
Contemporary History of China.
From this cyclonic commotion which was shaking
and shaping the western side of the Asian continent,
we turn to its eastern slopes in China. The year
618 a. D., while Mohammed was still in Mecca, and
slowly gathering a small group of believers, saw the
downfall of the Sui and the rise of the famous Tang
dynasty. The Sui was the last of a long series of
attempts to control China’s vast peoples which had
ISLAM IN CHINA 271
gone on unsuccessfully for a period of over four hun-
dred years, from the time of the great Han régime
(B. C. 206-A. D. 221). Under the Tang a new era
arrived. The whole land was unified and vastly ex-
tended, Korea and Tibet were conquered, and even
parts of Japan and India repulsed. ‘“‘ The empire
under the first of the Tang dynasty extended from
the Yellow Sea to the Aral Sea, and from Siberia to
the southernmost point in Farther India” (Li Ung-
bin, Outlines of Chinese History). It was an age of
peace, of prosperity, of poetry, of economic freedom
when intercourse with foreign nations was encouraged,
and of religious freedom when many religions from
other parts of Asia found their way into the land.
The Tang fell in 907 a. pD., to be followed after the
usual period of unrest which has always followed the
downfall of all great dynasties in China, by the almost
equally renowned dynasty of the Sungs (960-1280).
This was, pre-eminently, the period of Chinese philos-
ophy and pictorial art, and an attempt was even made
at public ownership of lands. The Sung fell before
the onrush of the Mongols, who, though they ruled
China for less than a hundred years (1280-1368), held
mastery over practically all Asia so complete that
there was again a continuance of great freedom as
regards foreign relations, and many nations and their
religions were welcomed to the land. The native Min
dynasty (1368-1644) and the Manchu dynasty (1644-
1911) bring Chinese history down to the days of the
present Republic. These latter two dynasties were at
times not so liberal to the foreigner, an attitude easily
272 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
explained when one recalls their early experiences with
the Portuguese and other pioneer traders from the
West, and unsatisfactory diplomatic relations in more
recent years.
Two Contacts.
What were the contacts of Mohammedanism with
the people of China during this long period? In brief,
there were two chief points of contact, one by way of
the ancient sea-route round the south of the con-
tinent reaching China on its south-eastern coast, the
other, the great overland route through central Asia
and Turkestan reaching China by way of the prov-
ince of Kansu in the far north-west. As it had
priority in chronological contact, let us trace the
former first.
The Sea Route to Canton.
It is a matter of historic record that in the sixth
year of the Hegira (628 a. p.), Mohammed sent com-
munications to foreign potentates inviting them to em-
brace Islam. Taking advantage of the fact of Arab
traders making the long sea voyage to China in search
of silk and spices, Mohammed possibly sent a similar
message to the far-away court of Cathay. Tradition
says that he did, and that the messenger was no less
a personage than a maternal uncle of the prophet.
There seems some reason for agreeing that such a dele-
gate really did go to China at that time, that he went
to the capital then at Sianfu, had an interview with
the great Tang Emperor and was authorized to build
a mosque at Canton, that he made another voyage to
his native land and that he finally died and was buried
ISLAM IN CHINA 273
in the famous Echo Tomb, outside the city of Canton.
There is, none the less, great need of clearer evidence
as to who this messenger was. The name given in
Chinese writings is Saad Wakkas, or Saad, son of Abu
Wakkas, but critics agree that these lived, died and
were buried in Arabia, nor were they ‘“‘ maternal uncle
to Mohammed.” M. de Thiersant has conjectured that
the person was probably a maternal uncle, one Wahab
bin Kabsha, but Broomhall seems to show that there
is little support for such a statement. Indeed, some
are inclined to consider the whole story a glorification
of a later generation.
Chinese Records Regarding This.
More important for our present study, however, is
the current belief of the followers of Islam themselves
in China (cf. Broomhall). This is contained in a
Chinese work, “ Hwei-Hwei Yuan lai,” or Origin of
Islam in China. ‘This states that in the third year of
Tai-tsung, the first Emperor of the Tang dynasty, he
one night had a dream. In it appeared monsters with
black heads, no hair, enormous mouths and projecting
teeth, most terrific and evil to behold, which rushed
into the royal palace. Then pursuing them, came a
man whose clothes were white and powdered, had a
jewelled girdle of jade encircling his loins, on his head
a plain hat, and around it a cloth turban like a coiled
dragon. When he entered the palace he knelt toward
the West. The monsters, when they saw him, were at
once changed into their proper forms, and in a distress-
ful voice, pleaded for forgiveness.
This was readily interpreted by the astrologers and
274 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
court to point to the prophet of Islam. So at their
suggestion ambassadors were sent to Arabia and
brought back with them three men to interpret the
new revelation. These apparently came by way of the
southern sea-route, one of their number being, they
say, Saad Wakkas. In his interview with the Em-
peror, he is represented among other things as explain-
ing the meaning of the terms “ Hwei-Hwei,” the name
by which Mohammedanism is known in China. The
words mean literally, ‘‘ Return—return.”
“It refers,” he said, ‘to the temporary stay of
man upon earth which he leaves to return at death.
It refers to the soul’s return to the Beyond, to the
return of the erring conscience to the right way, to
the veturn from the elusive and false, to the real
and true.”
After this interview, tradition sends him to Canton,
where he erected the Holy Remembrance Mosque, then
to Arabia, where he secured the Koran, arriving again
in Canton, only to die and be buried a half-mile north
of the city in the Echo Tomb. Thus Islam came to
China by the southern sea-route, according to present-
day belief and Chinese Mohammedan writers.
The Land Route to the North-west.
The first followers of Mohammed to reach China by
way of the north-west land-route came, probably, about
the year 720 a. pv. At that time the Omeyides were
sweeping eastward. Persia had long since fallen.
India and Tibet had come pleading aid against the
common foe, and China had sent two hundred thousand
men to their assistance only to be routed, in turn.
ISLAM IN CHINA 275
Had not these Caliphs of Damascus and their gen-
erals begun to weaken, it is possible China would also
have fallen. It was at some time during these eastern
wars that certain of the Zaid sect of Islam, persecuted
by the faithful of the reigning Caliphs, are reported as
finding an asylum in China. How many came is
equally indefinite.
The Abbasides or “ Black Flags,” Caliphs of Bag-
dad, who succeeded the Damascus régime, 750 A. D.,
seem to have been on better terms with China. Thus,
when the reigning Tang Emperor, about 755 A. D.,
found himself confronted by a widespread rebellion in
the north-west under An Lu-shan, he appealed to Bag-
dad for aid. In response, four thousand warriors are
said to have arrived in China. These, after the rebel-
lion had been suppressed, settled down in the land,
married Chinese wives and became Chinese Moham-
medan subjects. How many came since, either as
warriors or as refugees, during the centuries which
followed, it is impossible to discover. The statistics,
as recorded at the beginning of this chapter, show how
they have multiplied unto this day.
Mohammedan Rebellions.
On the whole, the Mohammedans have shown them-
selves good citizens, and, on many occasions, aided
the Empire in her wars, not a few civil and many
military officials rising to places of honour. Conse-
quently, during the long years of the Tang, Sung, Yuen
and Min dynasties there appears to have been little
cause for conflict. On the contrary, the late Manchu
régime brought many conflicts, largely, it would seem,
276 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
from the rapacity of official subordinates. Repeated
rebellions broke out, attended by awful slaughter on
each side. Chief of these were the Yunnan rebellion,
1855-1873, when Tu Wen-hsiu set himself up as Sultan
in Talifu, and that under Yakoob Beg in the great
north-west which lasted from 1862 to 1877. In both
rebellions millions perished, and great areas of terri-
tory were left ruined.and destitute of population. It
will be noted that both these have been along the west,
where the Mohammedan population is greatest, and
contact with the source of Islam easiest of access.
Marks of the Mohammedan.
What characteristics, if any, distinguish the Moham-
medan from his fellow-Chinese citizen? ‘To a new-
comer to the great land of Sinim there seem to be
but few. Intercourse, intermarriage, race instincts and
customs appear to have almost completely absorbed
any immigration from Western Asia. But a longer
sojourn in the community or a more careful observa-
tion will reveal many distinguishing marks.
In physical appearance the Mohammedan is fre-
quently taller, longer of face, has a decidedly more
prominent nose and flashing eye. Frequently, too, he
is more active, even aggressive and domineering. In
clothing, save in large communities, he differs less, and
a white turban which might mark him, may just as
reasonably be anyone in mourning. Yet in the more
dense settlements, octagon or cone-shaped caps, the
latter of which the Chinese dub “ pig heads,” may also
be a sign. So may a moustache clipped short to the
lip and left long at the ends,
ISLAM IN CHINA 277
Occupations also are a guide. In scattered numbers
the Mohammedan, as a rule, is not a farmer. He isa
merchant and at times among the wealthiest. He is
perhaps especially a barterer in horses, cows, sheep
and their resultants as milk, flesh, wool, hides. Na-
turally he rigidly eschews the pig and its products.
Thus, through Buddhist antipathies against killing
cows, the beef-butcher business is almost exclusively
Mohammedan; but pork is utterly taboo. Animals and
fowl for food must be killed (ceremonially, at least),
by the “ Ahung ” or Islam priest, while as a sign that
their eating-houses are free from all contaminating
things—especially lard—their co-religionists hang out
a sign, not only with the words ‘“ chiao-men” or
‘“ member ” upon it, but with also a water-urn to show
that all is pure.
Special Social Customs.
In the great home ceremonies connected with birth,
marriage and death, though many things are according
to common Chinese custom, still there are also dis-
tinguishing marks. ‘Thus a child, when seven days
old, is given a name by a word from the Koran. At
seven years he is, at times, circumcised and instructed
in worship. During his ’teens he is married and
must not leave home for the first year. At the wed-
ding the prospective mother-in-law may go to the
bride-to-be’s home to receive her, and the latter’s own
mother may accompany her to her new home for the
ceremony, both of which actions are contrary to usual
procedure in China. Nor do the new pair bow to
Heaven and the Ancestral tablet. Rather the priest
278 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
recites appropriate passages from the Koran as
solemnization.
At death, the body is usually thoroughly wound in
perfumed cloth, each limb separately. There is no
thick-slabbed and costly coffin. The corpse is carried
forth upon a single plank, a suitable loaf-shaped screen
used as a public hearse, providing the covering,
as the procession proceeds to the grave. Within the
latter the body has no clothing save the cloth wrap-
pings. The sides of the grave, however, are occasion-
ally faced with boards or other material, and a small
extension in the form of a cave may be made. The
body must always face the West—toward Mecca—and
may be placed kneeling or reclining. When completed,
the mound is generally square in shape, and may have
a headstone.
Mosques.
Mohammedan temples frequently show no distin-
guishing marks from the street save the caption
‘“‘Pure-True Temple.” But the enclosure once en-
tered, the visitor is struck by their cleanliness and
quiet. If the hour is one for prayer, believers are seen
hurrying in and immediately proceeding to the side
structures where small buckets of water are suspended
for purification. Their ablutions suitably performed,
they proceed to the main mosque. Sandals and shoes
are left at the door; then each worshipper takes his
place in his appropriate line upon the rows of matting
that cover the wooden floor. All face Westward, the
priest, readers and elders being in the front ranks.
During the ceremonies, there are continual genuflec-
ISLAM IN CHINA 279
tions, bowing and prostration which only the initiated
fully understand, and which few of those questioned
will even attempt to explain. It is the custom, and
that suffices. On the wall they face, indicating the
West, are Arabic characters signifying Allah and in
the right-hand corner a stairway leading up to an imi-
tation door, the “ Gate to Paradise.” (Broomhall
quotes some as saying that Jesus escaped through this
to heaven, on which Judas was then taken and cruci-
fied.) There are no idols in the place, the only adorn-
ment being some lamps. In Szechwan, where the
writer has chiefly come in contact with Islam, there
seems to be no attempt to “call” the faithful to
prayer.
Propaganda.
Is any attempt made to propagate the religion of
the Prophet, and if so, how?
There is practically no open attempt made at prose-
lyting. The sect has apparently chiefly increased in
proportion with the increase of population. No Mo-
hammedan woman marries outside her sect, however,
while marriage of the men to Chinese women is com-
mon, and the woman, together with any children they
may bear, thereby become members of Islam. Adop-
tion is also quite common, especially after times of
famine, when many children are taken into the Mo-
hammedan fold.
Mohammedan literature is quite widely spread
throughout the country. Broomhall, in his J/slam,
gives a list of a score of books, while another score are
suggested. In Chengtu, there is quite a large shop
280 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
given over to the sale of such literature, and maps of
Mecca and its vicinity are for sale. Liu Chih is the
chief author.
Schools are more or less common in connection with
the larger mosques. In these, there are usually but
ten or a dozen youths of varying ages. The course
continues as long as ten years and consists of the
Koran and various commentaries. Not a few obtain
a small smattering of Arabic sufficient to attempt pro-
nunciation, but with little knowledge of its meaning.
In large centres, such as Yunnan, even colleges are ex-
istent, and Nanking has also had one of some repute.
Mecca Pilgrimages.
Pilgrimages to Mecca are fairly common in large
communities, but in smaller centres they are very rare.
The veneration with which they are regarded by the
Moslem does not appear to extend in any way to the
general community of non-believers. Indeed, there
seems little in the general conduct of the “ haji” or
his co-religionists to commend their religion or manner
of life to the Chinese citizen. It is generally known
that the Mohammedan does not eat pork, but even
this rule is often broken by naming the meat “ mut-
ton.” As to abstinence from wine or usury little is
heard or seen.
Required Practice.
The five main requirements of practice, namely,
(1) acknowledgment of but one God and Mohammed
as His prophet; (2) the five daily prayers; (3) fasting
during the month of Ramadan; (4) alms to the poor,
and (5) facing Mecca at required times, all seem to
ISLAM IN CHINA 281
be fairly widely known but usually very loosely ob-
served unless it be by the Ahungs and other leaders,
the first and third being doubtless best honoured. The
fourth, when levied, is at the rate of thirty-five cents
on each fourteen taels, and is given chiefly to their
own poor, so that a Mohammedan beggar is the rare
exception.
What is the attitude of the Chinese Mohammedan
to the Westerner in China and to his fellow-Chinese
citizen?
Relation to Christianity.
To the Westerner it is usually an attitude of friend-
ship. Missionaries from almost all sections report that
they are invited into their homes for feasts and even to
their mosques for worship. Moreover, some Moslems
return visits to the Christian churches. The fact that
there is so much from a Scriptural standpoint common
to both religions, is frequently emphasized. One is
reminded that the Mohammedan prays to Adam before
dawn, to Abraham about noon, to Jonah about tea-
time, to Jesus at sunset and to Moses or Mohammed at
bedtime. An aged reader in a small city once brought
out his beautifully-embossed Arabic Koran in order to
reveal to the writer the amount we had in common.
A goodly share of this friendliness is doubtless due to
native Chinese instinct, to the fact that the followers
of the prophet are, in a sense, somewhat strangers
themselves in the land and to the general ignorance as
to the claims that separate Islam and Christianity.
Recent years have tended to a closer intercourse be-
tween China and the West of Asia, thus bringing not
282 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
a few zealous Moslem teachers as visitors to those of
the dispersion. A prominent example is that of a
graduate of the great Egyptian University, El Azhar,
at Cairo, who took up a strategic position in Peking.
Modern Moslem literature is also coming into China,
so that it is quite possible that the oncoming years
may mean cleavage rather than closer relations be-
tween those who follow Mohammed and those who
follow Christ.
Contact with Other Chinese.
As to the relation of the Mohammedans to their
fellow-Chinese it can be stated that though, in the
main, there seems to be little discord; yet where the
former are in large numbers, both race and religious
temperaments are revealed. The Chinese is inclined
to view the follower of Islam as alien—aggressive, and
unreliable. This is seen in the tone in which the latter
is referred to as a “ Hwei-tze,” ‘‘son of a Moslem,”
and current sayings such as “ Ten Peking slippery
ones cannot talk down one Tientsin brawler, and ten
Tientsin brawlers cannot talk down one Moham-
medan,” also ‘‘ Ten Mohammedans, nine thieves.”
Islam’s Contribution.
This leads us, in closing our study of Mohammedan-
ism in China, to ask, What contribution, if any, has
Islam made to Chinese culture? That is not easy to
assay. Possibly the race has been somewhat enriched
by a more aggressive strain, but that has its dishar-
mony. ‘Their practices of eating beef and eschewing
wine and usury have had a very limited effect. Prob-
ably their greatest contribution has been their protest
ISLAM IN CHINA 283
against idolatry. Ethically however, they have not
reached the elevation of China’s own great sage!
* 2 2 2 *
ABORIGINAL TRIBES
Far back in the pages of The Book of Odes, many
of which antedate B. c. 1000, one comes upon lines
significant of the struggles that the Chinese once
waged with the Miao tribes and their chieftains. In
those days the Chinese occupied little more than the
valley of the Yellow River, and even parts of that
were under dispute. Slowly but surely her economic
and military forces have driven these aboriginal
peoples south and west until today they are found
only along the southern provinces of Kwangtung,
Kwangsi, Kweichow, Hunan, Yunnan and the great
western province of Szechwan.
Aboriginal Population.
As to their numbers few dare venture an estimate.
Dr. Li Ung-bing, in his Outlines of Chinese History,
tells us that ‘The Imperial Institutes of China give
the total number of Tu-sus (native rulers) as five hun-
dred and fifty-seven. Szechwan heads the list with
two hundred and sixty-nine. It is estimated that in
the provinces of Hunan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Yun-
nan, and Szechwan, the Miao and other tribes occupy
an area of country equal to that of France, and have
a population extending into the millions.” How many
millions he does not venture to conjecture.
Their Terrain.
Their territory, too, it should be remembered, is not
284 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
a solid block as the comparison to France might sug-
gest, but scatters over these half-dozen provinces. As
the surface of this southern and western stretch is
largely mountainous the Chinese have found it all but
impossible to dislodge them, but they are naturally
broken up into a great number of small tribes and
subtribes each in turn under the government of the
aforementioned Tu-sus or Tu-mu, the Controllers and
Guards of the terrain. These are rarely natives, but
rather the descendants of Chinese officers, and are re-
sponsible to the Chinese government. Other tribes, as
the Lo-lo or No-su, seem more akin to the Tibetans
and some of these have still succeeded in maintaining
their independence of the sons of Han.
Their Culture.
As to their culture, the matter with which we are
here chiefly concerned, they have kept themselves in
the main quite apart from the Chinese. Throughout
the mountainous districts, the conquerors being largely
interested in agriculture and trade have occupied the
valleys with their fields and their villages. The tribes
people consequently are found chiefly along the slopes
and tops of the mountains and are hunters, fishermen,
herdsmen, and growers of maize and coarse vegetables.
Some settlements are but scattered huts. In others for
defense purposes the architecture takes the form of a
rude fort surrounded by a stone wall. Within these
enclosures, the houses rise three, four and more stories
high. The first floor is for the goats and cattle, the
second for the family and the higher parts for storage
of grain and vegetables.
ISLAM IN CHINA 285
A small percentage adopt Chinese dress and speak
the Chinese language. The great majority adhere to
their own old costume and are known by some pe-
culiarity of dress as the Flowery Miao, the Great
Flowery Miao, the Little Flowery Miao and similar
distinctions. The language of some tribes bears suf-
ficient resemblance to make intercourse possible, others
are quite distinct.
Their Religions.
Buddhism and Confucianism have had little or no
effect upon them save as they are in contact with and
somewhat akin (in the west and south-west) to the
Tibetans. Ancestor worship has had some influence
or has been some of their own indigenous development.
Animism, in various forms, seems supreme. Idols are
almost unknown, and there is little that savours of
religious ceremony in connection with their births,
marriages and deaths. The sorcerer, however, is much
in demand to exorcise evil spirits in cases of sickness,
when certain primitive writings are produced. These
are passed on from master to apprentice, generation
after generation as matters of profound secrecy. The
culture of these millions of tribes people is in the main
to be found within their customs and as these vary
from place to place they can best be studied locally.
Thus a tribe to the north-west of Szechwan, called
the Chiang, seem to make a white stone their religious
centre. The Lo-los, or No-su, as they prefer to be
called, have sacred objects hung in small baskets to
their ridge-poles, while the Wa-si tribes are steeped in
black lamaism., These await investigation.
XIV
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS
T has taken considerable time to trace the various
native and foreign factors that have gone to the
construction of great China’s culture. Among
these we have noted the indigenous elements of Ani-
mism, and Ancestor Worship, Psychology, Physics
and Philosophy, Taoism and Confucianism, and also
the imported strains which have come with Buddhism
and Mohammedanism. Naturally among these, the
last named being the most recent has been least
assimilated and has the least influence. Ancestor
Worship, on the contrary, it may be safely asserted,
affects all. Animism is the background in the beliefs
of the masses and is closely allied with present-day
Taoism. Buddhism widely affects the beliefs of the
oppressed, the aged, the more tender-hearted of the
people. Confucianism, in the main, sets the ethical
standards for the nation, but is the special culture of
the scholar class.
Confucian Control.
This latter fact has had an important influence upon
China’s internal and international relations, for her
officials have almost invariably been chosen from her
scholars. During the great Tang dynasty a system
of literary examinations was established which, subject
286
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 287
to certain changes, were preserved down to modern
times. Though intended in part as a system of general
culture, they tended more and more to be a civil service
system of tests. Degrees, corresponding roughly to
our B.A., M.A., Ph.D., etc., signified, not alone liter-
ary standing, but eligibility for ever higher grades of
office. Thus Confucianism had become, through the
centuries, not alone the culture of the learned and a
sacred sect, but a closed corporation with potential and
vested interests. It satisfied not alone the élite of the
nation intellectually but was the basis of their pre-
ferred position and power. Its preservation was
imperative.
Effects on Commerce.
This showed its significance in China’s contacts
with Western nations during the last century. It
affected their attitude toward the foreign merchant,
the foreign missionary and the foreign minister. The
Portuguese reached China about 1517, not long after
the discovery of America, but trade with China was
but little developed, though they seized Macao as a
base. Through the following three hundred years
Spanish, Dutch, British, French and American mer-
chants found their way to the East, but even as late
as 1840 about the only place where trade was per-
mitted was Canton, and that under strictly limited
time and other conditions. The ruling class was ready
to admit certain foreign goods, clocks, matches, mir-
rors, etc., and even to admire their mechanical skill,
but the “ foreign devil” himself was not to be allowed
in the land,
288 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Effects on Missions.
If there was no particular welcome for the foreign
merchant, much less was there one for the foreign
missionary. ‘This, of course, was not the first contact
of Christianity with China. It is possible certain
Syrian monks who carried silk-worms from China to
the West had sought to establish their faith in the land
during the Han dynasty. Certainly the Nestorians
were welcomed and their doctrines fairly widespread
during the early days of the great Tang dynasty when
Olopun (634 A. D.) was welcomed to the capital.
These had still a standing in China as late as the times
of Marco Polo in the thirteenth century, but later
utterly disappeared. About this time the Franciscans
under Montcorvin (1292) reached China and were
welcomed by the court under Kublai Khan, but later
all Western foreigners were excluded.
The Confucian cult under following régimes became
much more conservative and exclusive and so held a
fine contempt for other schools of thought. What
more ridiculous than that any good thing could come,
especially in the way of culture, out of the barbarous
West. The attempts therefore of St. Francis Xavier
(1550) to renew Christian contact brought only rebuff,
and Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary,
met a similar situation in 1807. It was enough to
admit the barbarians’ trinkets. To suggest that his
thought-life had a value was unbearable.
Effect on Foreign Relations.
Possibly even more repulsive than the merchant and
the missionary was the foreign minister. He had be-
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 289
hind him the military machines of the foreign nations
and so menaced Manchu power and back of it the
exclusive political position which Confucian culture
had gained. He, moreover, came claiming to be an
equal, not a subordinate bearing gifts and suppliant
for Imperial favour. Accordingly he must be kept at
a distance. Thus, though the foreign nations sent to
the East not a few men of distinction throughout the
three centuries and more of contact, it was not until
1860 that satisfactory status for foreign ministers was
secured. Previously negotiations were through official
underlings.
Treaty Concessions.
To many of the foreign diplomats of the day the
only method of dealing with such an impasse seemed
to be force. By the treaty of Nanking, 1842, which
closed the First China War, Hongkong was ceded to
Britain, and in addition to Canton four ports were
opened for foreign trade, namely, Amoy, Foochow,
Ningpo, and Shanghai. Two years later America
secured similar rights and expanded these by adding
a clause granting “ extraterritorial powers ” and an-
other containing ‘“ favoured nation” privileges. In
these times also began “ foreign concessions,” it being
agreed that neither merchant nor missionary dwell
elsewhere than strictly within the bounds granted in
these treaty ports.
_ Missionary Privileges.
Expanded privileges for the missionary were granted
chiefly at the revision of these treaties in 1858 and
1860. Previous to this the Russians had gained some
290 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
limited rights of propagation and against persecution
of native converts, and France had these and prop-
erty rights extended to the Roman Catholic Church.
Further Protestant privileges were principally the
work of the American Treaty of 1858, Wells Williams
and Dr. Martin being chiefly instrumental in having
inserted the following clause:
“The principles .of the Christian religion as pro-
fessed by the Protestant and Roman Catholic Churches
are recognized as teaching men to do good, and to do
to others as they would have others do to them. Here-
after, those who quietly profess and teach these doc-
trines shall not be harassed or persecuted on account
of their faith. Any person, whether citizen of the
United States or Chinese convert, who, according to
these tenets, peaceably teaches and practices the prin-
ciples of Christianity, shall in no case be interfered
with or molested.”
The principle of a fixed customs tariff of five per
cent was also established at this time, and growing
out of the seizure of Shanghai by a rebel force dur-
ing the Tai Ping rebellion, came the setting up of
the Customs Service in which foreign nationals were
given chief control. A Second China War was waged
before the right of foreign ambassadors to reside in
and negotiate directly with the government in Peking
was secured, but by 1860 nearly all the privileges
complained of today, namely customs control, extra-
territoriality, favoured-nation clauses, foreign settle-
ments and toleration toward missionary propaganda
had been acceded.
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 291
Conquered But Culturally Unconverted.
China had thus capitulated to force, but the heart
of her rulers had not changed. They still clung firmly
to their ancient culture and resultant exclusiveness.
The consequences were a long series of further ag-
grandizement by the foreign nations during the latter
half of the century. The period 1860-1900 found the
ancient land drained of much wealth, half-hearted com-
merce always leaving a balance of imports over ex-
ports. It saw large concessions in natural resources
such as mines and railways passing over to other na-
tionals. It then or soon after saw territory on all
sides, Burma, Indo*China, Kowloon, Formosa, Chin-
tao, Wei-hai-wei, Port Arthur, Korea, the provinces
of the Amoor, passing over to European powers. It
saw her ancient cultures criticized and challenged in
all her provinces by a foreign faith which when mob
passions were aroused and riots ensued, meant more
concessions and indemnities. Naturally there was
growing indignation against foreign aggression and
against the Manchu régime. The result was the Boxer
rebellion of 1900 and further foreign aggrandizement.
China again yielded, but again the heart of her rulers
had not changed. Their faith still centred in their
own culture.
Cautious Concessions.
The change came about 1904. The little neigh-
bouring people of Japan had grappled with the
great European giant Russia and had signally de-
feated her. That seemed a stupendous thing. Was
not Japan but a small island scarce larger than
292 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
one province of China, and had she not received
all her culture from her great neighbour? No, the
latter was not fully true. She had of late turned to
Western culture. Indeed, that was the secret of her
success. That, too, must be China’s salvation in the
international struggle. At last her ancient culture
seemed to be weighed in the balance and found want-
ing. The heart of. her resistance was weakened.
China’s Confucian statesmen turned cautiously but
with conviction to study Western ways of thought
and action.
Even before this great conversion, the nation had
had sad and sufficient proof of the superiority of West-
ern military methods, and had sought their initiation.
Now such attempts went on with greater assurance.
Smokeless powder factories were added to enlarged
arsenals in the provinces. Schools of various grades
for the training of new style officers were established,
and out on the great parade grounds recruits by thou-
sands marched to and fro practicing the latest ‘‘ Ger-
man goose-step”’ and other drills. Experts from
Japan, Germany and other foreign countries were in-
vited as chief instructors.
Modern Schools Opened.
If the military officers were thus to be trained, it
seemed right that the civil officials both actual and
prospective should also receive instruction. Accord-
ingly, special lecture courses, schools, colleges of law
and jurisprudence at once sprang up in the great cen-
tres. The constitutions, laws, courts of many lands
were to be studied. As the ambition of almost every
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 293
student was to some day become an official, these ave-
nues were crammed with candidates.
General education along Western lines was also
adopted. ‘The provinces were surveyed into rough
school areas, buildings in many cases erected, grades
through lower primary, higher primary, middle schools
up to colleges settled, courses planned and text-books
published. Unfortunately an adequate army of new
style teachers for such multitudes could not be so read-
ily developed, and much confused pedagogy and in-
struction was the result. Many young men during
these years found their way to Japan to gain at first
hand the hoped-for secret of success.
Change Toward Christianity.
Christianity during this decade also gained a better
hearing. As its schools were known to teach foreign
subjects they were usually thronged, the students being
especially anxious to study mathematics and English
with a view to official preparation. Not a few Chris-
tian colleges were at this time started while others
found their classes greatly augmented. The Christian
movement at that time was, however, receiving a cer-
tain class which has harmed rather than helped it.
Great numbers of great China’s underworld, gamblers,
smugglers, law-breakers, seeing that their own govern-
ment officials had apparently become subject to the
West, crowded into the churches, repeating Scrip-
tures, uttering long prayers, singing hymns like saints,
making of the church a means of offsetting official
powers. Not a few church congregations at the time
were little more than a lodge of some secret society and
294 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
made the name of Christianity a stench among the
better classes of the community.
The Revolution.
The climax to these years of tentative introduction
of the Western culture was the Revolution of 1911.
Education through the schools, books, magazines and
papers had led to a nation-wide appeal for a more
popular form of government in which the Chinese
people and not the alien Manchu sovereign should rule.
This the statecraft of the shrewd Empress Dowager
was able to control during her lifetime, but the weak
régime that followed her could not. Young military
and other leaders, not a few of them returned students
from abroad, co-operating with Sun Yat-sen’s party,
and backed by nation-wide sentiment, easily overthrew
the Manchus and their magistrates and set up the
Republic.
Military Menace.
The decade to follow this, including the years 1911-
1921, were disastrous years from a military stand-
point. The country broke up into great areas under
military marshals. Under these again with very pre-
carious allegiance were generals who in turn farmed
out their districts to captains and corporals. ‘Thus
there are in reality, today, thousands of governments
in general throughout the land, each little petty officer
in certain areas being an arbitrary ruler over the peo-
ple. Among these forces great and small, there has,
moreover, been almost incessant struggles. The vic-
tors in many cases come upon the cities, towns, villages
and country dwellers for loans, levies, advanced taxes,
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 295
and more recently have in certain districts been forc-
ing the planting of opium as a means of greater reve-
nue. The defeated have for longer or shorter periods
as a rule turned robbers and raided whom they would,
until killed off or bought off by other soldiery. These
excesses have done much to arouse a real public opin-
ion through ever wider localities, and it is to the hon-
our of the old Confucian culture that its tenets are
almost invariably the standards.
New Labour Conditions.
Such a reign of lawlessness has meant disaster to
commerce in great inland districts. Where a measure
of protection has been secured, especially in or con-
tiguous to foreign concessions, new manufactories have
sprung up in surprising numbers. These include match
factories, silk-filiatures, ship-building, soap and glass
firms, but especially cotton mills. This in turn has
meant a departure from the old apprenticeship form
of industry and has brought the excesses known so
well in the West of congestion, bad housing, woman
and child labour, dangerous machinery, unsanitary
occupations and conditions, and the usual strife be-
tween employer and employee. Labour agitations,
lock-outs and strikes have therefore been growingly
common, and are likely to still more greatly increase
in number and in violence.
Confucian Classics Cast Out.
Educationally this period saw a complete discarding
of the old Confucian Classics. The former decade had
attempted to still retain them as a basis for literature
and morals, This was considered now, however, but
296 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
an effort to continue the precepts of Absolutism, and
Confucius was hurried aside as the arch abettor of
such a system. The wider study of sociology took the
place of the study of Jaw in popular favour, and history
was read with avidity. The centre of interest was
shared by science, which the high school and college
student studied with splendid zest. English and
mathematics were also popular. In the former period
it was necessary to invite many teachers from abroad.
Now native sons were returning from foreign coun-
tries, and were quite ready to take many of the higher
positions themselves.
Christian Conquests.
Christianity was never more popular or progressive
than during these years. Crowds of the best of the
youth of the land flowed into her schools and colleges.
This meant not alone the ousting of some of the un-
worthy of the former decade but an incoming of scores
of young men and women of fine intelligence who
accepted Christianity as not only pre-eminently rea-
sonable but as the real basis for China’s future prog-
ress. A new stream of native sons and daughters
began to flow forth into schools, hospitals, the min-
istry and other Christian service, and this still con-
tinues. Not a few have also gone into public life to
the distinct betterment of national and international
relations.
The Renaissance, 1921-26.
The “New Thought Movement,” the “ New Tide,”
the ‘“ Renaissance” are the terms generally used to
characterize the new-culture movement of the last few
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 297
years in China. Due to the forces outlined above, and
especially to numbers of students and others who had
studied and travelled abroad and were now returning
in numbers to their native land, a new enlightenment
was growing in various centres of the nation. These
kindred spirits were naturally forming groups in such
places and attaining unity of consciousness and con-
viction. ‘This led, as early as 1920, to the formation
of the Young China Association in Peking and else-
where, one of the forerunners of many youth associ-
ations through the land. True to the spirit of youth
in many lands and times, it has shown itself intensely
patriotic, critical, desirous of reform. It has been also,
as most movements are in the beginning, strongly
“anti ” rather than “ pro,” yet has had a goodly meas-
ure of progressive content. This may be seen in the
following agitations which have marked its growth:
1. The Anti-Classic Movement. This was largely a
revolt against the old literary form of expression.
Tradition required that all essays and books be ex-
pressed in the ancient language of the Confucian Clas-
sics. This still obtained when the modern newspaper
and magazine began to make their way throughout the
country. A little group of these young intellectuals
determined to drive out the custom and introduce the
everyday language of the land. There was bitter feel-
ing for a time on the part of the older literati, but the
new with some modifications has won the day, and
newspapers, magazines, books, poems, treatises are
pouring from the Chinese presses in a purified language
of the people.
298 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
2. The Anti-Military Movement. ‘The break-up of
the country into great military centres was early
recognized by these student movements as inimical to
the unity and progress of the nation. Such control led
to constant struggles for supremacy with consequent
distress, and was rapidly draining all the resources of
the land away from economic and educational advance
to accumulate great armies. Strong protest was made
against all this at first in demonstrations, speeches and
publications and one heard much against the turning
of the peaceful soul of China aside to serve the mili-
tary machine. Of late, however, the movement ap-
pears to have concluded to fight militarism with
military force and has allied itself in large measure
with the Republican forces first under the late Sun
Yat-sen, and more recently under Marshal Feng
Yii-hsiang and other leaders. There is thus grave
danger that the student party may itself become but
another of the many military factions and its protest
be lost in the scramble for power.
3. Anti-Capitalistic Movement. ‘The distress to
workmen, especially in the great port centres, where
modern manufacturing plants have been established,
has also received the attention of the student move-
ment. Many of their leaders have learned at first hand
some of the abuses of the industrial system in the West
and are doubtless sincerely desirous of mitigating its
impact upon the East, and these have been attempting
the problem constructively. On the contrary, there
are doubtless many others of the Middle School stage
who are led into noisy demonstrations with little defi-
3
:
;
:
.
|
:
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 299
nite idea as to the history of industrialism or its
remedies. Though sincere in their protests in the
main, they are in danger of being the tools of more
sinister parties.
4. The Anti-Religious Movement. The Young
China Association, spoken of above, early made it one
of its conditions that its membership should be lim-
ited to those who had no religious faith. This had
certain natural causes. It was to be expected that
many accepting the new culture of the West should
be soon dissatisfied with much in the older faiths
of the East, to rush to the conclusion that they were
totally false and that indeed all religion was so.
Youths returning from abroad, especially those return-
ing from certain countries of Europe where they had
met with Christianity at its worst, and with anti-
religious movements in those countries, easily assented
and assisted. Deeper still was the materialistic in-
terpretation of a certain school of modern science.
This interpretation, as shown in a previous study, was
the conclusion of the Sung and other philosophers of
China’s own culture, so it was readily accepted, and
materialism is alike incompatible with beliefs in God,
freedom and immortality, all basic factors to religious
faith. This materialism is doubtless the deepest ele- |
ment in the anti-religious movement. |
5. The Anti-Christian Movement. ‘The anti-
religion movement soon centred in an attack upon
Christianity, chiefly because it was the really aggres-
sive religious force in the land. At first this was an
attack upon the irregularities of the Church rather
300 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
than upon Christianity, and some of the leaders urged
_ that men take into their lives the personality and pas-
sion of Jesus, an attitude still fostered by the more
intelligent. Others are pushing a campaign to oust
Christianity root and branch. They minimize its
manifest benefits by declaring that Christianity is not
the only cult that teaches compassion, service and
sacrifice. It is claimed that Christianity is conserva-
tive, makes for divisions and wars, is opposed to
science, reduces self-reliance, is the servant of capital-
ism and imperialism. Jesus, even if a legitimate his-
torical figure, was unimportant and of little influence.
His teachings regarding a God, a soul and an eternal
life are opposed to psychology, biology and evolution.
To say that sins can be redeemed is untrue, and only
encourages sin. Worst of all, Christianity is a subtle
means of stealing away China’s ancient culture.
6. Anti-Christian Education. ‘Though the attack
has been against the Christian movement in general it
has been especially strong against Christian education.
Hospitals could be but little accused, as they mani-
festly do deeds of mercy. The churches have been
interrupted in their services by hecklers and by special
intruders during evangelistic services and Christmas
week, but the schools have in almost all places received
the brunt of the attack. Agents of the movement have
isolated the Christian schools of the cities, displayed
placards in processions accusing them of being slaves
and traitors, and entering the institutions personally or
by seduced elements, have stirred up strikes, leading
at times to the closing of classes and even the destruc-
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 301
tion of property. The teaching of religion in these
institutions is usually made the ground of complaint,
but the right of the missionary body to conduct educa-
tional institutions is being ever more seriously chal-
lenged. Indeed, certain responsible native educational
associations have advised that all Christian educa-
tional institutions be required to register with the gov-
ernment and that absence of religious instruction be
made one of the conditions of such registration. Even
this the government, however, seemingly refuses to do,
and appears to appreciate the value of some measure
of educational liberty in their land. This is shown
in certain recent regulations.
Recent Regulations Regarding Foreign Education.
Regulations promulgated by the Ministry of Edu-
cation, Peking, November 16th, 1925, are as follows:
(1) Any institution of whatever grade established
by funds contributed by foreigners, if it carries on its
work according to the regulations governing various
grades of institutions as promulgated by the Ministry
of Education, will be allowed to make application for
recognition at the office of the proper educational
authorities of the Government according to the regu-
lations as promulgated by the Ministry of Education
concerning the application for recognition on the part
of all educational institutions.
(2) Such an institution should prefix to its official
name the term “ privately established.”
(3) The president or principal of such an institution
should be a Chinese. If such president or principal
has hitherto been a foreigner then there must be a
302 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
Chinese vice-president, who shall represent the insti-
tution in applying for recognition.
(4) If the institution has a board of managers, more
than half of the board must be Chinese. |
(5) The institution shall not have as its purpose the
propagation of religion.
(6) The curriculum of such an institution shall con-
form to the standards set by the Ministry of Educa-
tion. It shall not include religious courses among the
required subjects.
Of these six regulations, hesitation with regard to
registration will probably arise chiefly over the last
two. In considering these it will be well to remember
that the regulations are for all such institutions “ es-
tablished by funds contributed by foreigners,” so apply
to Japanese and Russian as well as American and
British. Regarding 5 it simply requires that the pur-
pose of an educational institution be educational as
they are in our homelands. Regarding 6, it requires
that religion be not compulsory, which would imply
that it may be voluntary, as again is the rule in most
schools and colleges in Western lands. It should
further be noted that despite the great anti-Christian
clamour from certain circles, the new regulations are
a considerable concession from those formerly prevail-
ing, which read: ‘‘ The contents and method of teach-
ing of all subjects should not contain anything of a
religious nature.”
7. Anti-Foreign Movement. As these Christian in-
stitutions are still largely under foreign control, it was
easy for the movement to take on an anti-foreign atti-
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 303
tude. But there were many wider and more serious
reasons for such a turn. One was the long history of
foreign aggression and the territory on almost all bor-
ders which these young intelligentia now see under
foreign control. Another was the foreign concessions
where though the Chinese population much outnum-
bered the foreign and though the former paid by far
the larger share of the taxes, still they had little or no
say in administration. Most serious of all in the out-
cry that followed against “ unequal treaties ” were the
two questions of customs control and extraterritorial-
ity. These, due to their agitation, are now being
considered by international conferences and a more
satisfactory modus vivendi will, it is hoped, be reached.
New principles in the West, such as that of self-
determination and the new spirit of nationalism in
the East, make it doubtful, however, whether race
aspirations will long be satisfied with certain other
conditions.
8. Anti-Japanese and Anti-British Movement. The
former of these has been of long standing and need
not here be traced. It has been more acute of recent
years owing to the conflict between Japanese mill own-
ers and their Chinese employees. The anti-British
agitation has been quite recent. A Japanese killed a
Chinese workman in one of the cotton mill strikes at
Shanghai. Numbers of students entered the interna-
tional settlement and began making speeches regarding
this. As this was contrary to the settlement code, they
were arrested. Later, as the arrests continued, a large
number of many classes gathered before one of the
304 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
police stations and began to drive back the police. The
officer in charge finally fired into the crowd and some
» nine students were killed, May 30th, 1925. As these
international police were largely of British nationality,
an immediate outcry was made against that nation and
attacks soon followed, especially upon the British con-
cessions at Hankow and Canton, and British subjects
as far west as Chungking were forced for a time to
leave their districts. The matter at Shanghai has been
investigated by special judges and a general settlement
made, but the agitation still continues, especially in the
South-east.
9. Anti-Imperialism, Bolshevism, Communism.
There is little doubt but that the advent of Bolshevism
has added a peculiar bitterness and brutality to many
of the foregoing movements. It would be wrong to
represent all as a result of Communist agitation, but
that cult has decidedly added its monetary and other
aid to the extremist elements. As to how extensive
these latter elements are, one native writer of repute
has divided the student body into three parts, fifteen
per cent pro-Christian, fifteen per cent pro-Communist
and the remaining seventy per cent indifferent in that
regard. Communism has arrived in China at a most
strategic time for its agitation, and has spared no skill
or strength to seize the opportunity. Through the
representative of the new Soviet Republic at Peking,
they have scrapped the old so-called ‘‘ Czarist ” trea-
ties and made new agreements. They have revised
their customs regulations. They have given up their
foreign concessions. ‘They have abolished all claims
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 305
to extraterritoriality and have raised their minister at
the capital to the status of ambassador. Naturally
this has led not a few among China’s youths and others
to inquire whether or not, after all, Russia is not their
real friend among the nations, and to lend a more
sympathetic ear to the doctrines of Communism. Add
to this political and monetary motives from Third In-
ternational agents and the influence of the cult can be
readily understood. That Bolshevism will eventually
win out in China, few are ready to believe. But
already it has made big inroads in the city and dis-
trict about Canton, and the Christian campaign in
China will doubtless have it as one of its most in-
sistent adversaries in the land for at least a decade
to come.
Yet “ Pro” Not “ Antti.”
The new culture has been characterized above as
though it were largely “‘ anti”? and negative. Doubt-
less, like all reform movements in their earlier
stages, it is so. But at the same time it will be
seen that at heart it is distinctly “pro” and posi-
tive. It has Patriotism and NATIONALISM written
upon its crest in great capitals. This, in large meas-
ure, is a new and hopeful thing in the land, and for
other lands. The older cultures gave little cause
for such attitudes. Ancestor Worship led a man to
place first his family. Taoism has been, in later
generations, chiefly concerned with demons. Bud-
dhism has been mystic or distinctly other-worldly.
Mohammedanism has occasionally been considered
disloyal. Confucianism is best, but gives the affairs
2
fs of
806 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
of the nation over into the hands of one, the Son
of Heaven.
Power of the Student Class.
Who has aroused the “sleeping giant” at last to
self-consciousness? It is the new Student Class. The
other three traditional classes could not do so. The
farmers could not; they are too concerned with daily
toil. The working classes could not; they are chiefly
concerned with wages. ‘The merchants are better.
They have their city, and other, Chambers of Com-
merce, but no great national organizations that really
function. Some of the militarists are doubtless fired
with patriotism, but it is usually one which puts their
particular party to the top of the pyramid. The young
student is probably at times over-emotional, feeling,
shouting, rather than listening to wise counsel. He is
often narrowly national, “‘ my country right or wrong,
always my country.” He is over-active, precipitately
ready to smash what he cannot immediately solve.
Yet, viewed in the wider aspect, this same student
movement is the most hopeful thing in the great chaos
which is present-day China. It is the most intelligent
and best informed of the many warring factions. It is
the most self-conscious, the most widely spread, the
best organized, the most active, the most influential,
and on the whole the most unselfish and patriotic. It
pities and would aid the farmer, toiler, merchant, the
oppressed—all.
Struggling for the Student Soul Today.
What culture is going to determine the policy of this
new great dynamic? It is quite possible that in the
RECENT CULTURE CONTACTS 307
development of the drama, other actors may monopo-
lize the stage for fitful moments. But in the end these
students will hold the star positions. Three or four
great dominating ideas are struggling for their very
souls today. One is Militarism with its appeal to a
quick, mad rush to power. Another much akin is
Communism with its clamour against Imperialism,
Capitalism, Christianity, the bourgeoisie, as the bar-
riers to a better world. A third and even more subtle,
for seeming to explain fully the new world of science
and society, is Materialism, with its easy theory of a
congeries of atoms from nowhere chortled together into
a cosmos. The fourth is Christianity with its ideal-
istic interpretations of science, its call to highest per-
sonality and international brotherhood, its vision of a
new world-order under the dynamic of the Christ, and
God the Father.
A New International.
Appalled by this challenge to the Church of Christ,
today, one feels constrained to send forth the appeal
of a New International;—-Christian Workers of the
World, arise. Shake off your denominationalism, your
nationalism, your narrowness. You have nothing to
lose but your worldliness, your wranglings, your weak-
ness. A time of times in the making or marring of this
world’s history and destiny, confronts us. A great
nation is coming actively into the affairs of men. We
are now suddenly a vast neighbourhood, are we to be
true neighbours? What spirit is to rule our relations,
that of friends or of foes? Is China, this great fourth
of our race, to be maddened by Militarism, plunging
308 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
the peoples again some day into another awful sham-
bles? Is she to be captured by Communism, and join
the campaign for class hatred, class warfare, direct
action, international ill-will? Is she to be dominated
in thought and life by Materialism with its atheism, its
fatalism, its endless series of nothings going nowhere?
Or is she, constrained by the spirit of the Christ, to be
part of one vast family under a common Father and
go forth to study, to serve, to sacrifice, ‘‘ each esteem-
ing the other better than himself ”’?
“‘ Once to every tribe and nation, comes the moment
to decide.” Such a time is with our Christian nations
again today. Let us arise to the stature and the spirit
of our Master. Let us study China. Let us serve her.
Let us sacrifice for her sons. Let us share with her
our choicest Christian culture. And then, some day,
for all,
“Far away beyond the endless coming ages, earth
shall be
Something other than the wildest, modern guess of
you and me.”
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following brief list of books is appended as aid
to further investigation along lines of study suggested
by this volume.
GENERAL READING
Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Miiller.
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by J.
Hastings.
Comparative Religions (Home University Series).
The World’s Living Religions, R. KE. Hume.
The Middle Kingdom, S. Wells Williams.
Outlines of Chinese History, Li Ung-bing.
Civilization in China, H. A. Giles.
China in Law and Commerce, T. R. Jernigan.
A History of Chinese Interature, H. A. Giles.
A Cycle of Cathay, W. A. P. Martin.
The Lore of Cathay, W. A. P. Martin.
China, An Interpretation, J. W. Bashford.
Chinese Characteristics, A. H. Smith.
Cuapters I-IV
Researches Into Chinese Superstitions, I-VII, Henry
Doré. |
The Religion of the Chinese, J. J. M. DeGroot.
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, H. A. Giles.
The Divine Panorama, (Supplement to “Strange Sto-
ries”), H. A. Giles.
Shanghai Missionary Conference Reports, (1877—).
North China Branch, Royal Asiatic Society Reports.
North China Herald.
309
810 CHINESE CULTURE AND CHRISTIANITY
China Journal of Science and Arts.
The Chinese Recorder.
The West China Missionary News.
Cruapters V-VI
Chinese Philosophy, Paul Carus.
A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy, D. T. Suzuki.
Chinese Logical Method, Prof. Hu Shih.
History of Ancient Chinese Philosophy (In Chinese),
Prof. Hu Shih.
Chu Hsi and His Masters, J. P. Bruce. |
Philosophy of Human Nature, Chu Hsi, J. P. Bruce.
Chinese Readers’ Manual, W. F. Mayers.
Cuapters VII-VIII
The Tao Teh Ching, Paul Carus.
Sayings of Lao-tzu, Lionel Giles.
Musings of a Chinese Mystic, Lionel Giles.
Chuang-tzu, H. A. Giles.
Confucianism and Taoism, R. K. Douglass.
China and Religion, E. H. Parker.
Dragon, Image and Demon, H. P. Dubose.
Crapters IX-X
The Chinese Classics, I-VIII, translated by James Legge.
Confucianism and Its Rivals, H. A. Giles.
The Three Religions of China, W. E. Soothill.
Outlines of Chinese History (Introduction), Dr. Faber.
The Confucian Civilization, Z. K. Zia.
CuHapters XI-XII
Buddhism (Revised), W. Rhys-Davids.
Buddhism (Home University Series) Mrs. Rhys-Davids.
Chinese Buddhism, Dr. Edkins.
Chinese Buddhism, Dr, Hitel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 311
Buddhism in China, 8. Beal.
A Catena of Chinese Buddhism, 8. Beal.
Buddhism and Buddhists in China, Louis Hodus.
The New Testament of Higher Buddhism, T. Richard.
The Laughing Buddha, J. L. Stewart.
Honen (Notes), Coates and Ishizuka.
CHAPTER XIII
The Koran, translated by George Sale.
Islam, 8. M. Zwemer.
The Story of Islam, T. R. W. Luntz.
Mohammedanism (Home University Series).
The Arabian Prophet, Isaac Mason.
Islam in China, Marshall Broomhall.
CHAPTER XIV
The Political Awakening of the East, G. W. Dutcher.
Occidental Interpretations of the Far Eastern Problem,
Woodhead, Norton, Arnold.
Oriental Interpretations of the Far Eastern Problem,
Count Soyeshima, P. W. Kuo. ~
China in the Family of Nations, H. T. Hodgkin.
China Mission Year Book, 1925.
China Today Through Chinese Eyes, T. T. Lew, et al.
Christian Education in Chana.
The Anti-Christian Movement, Shanghai Y. W. C. A.
Index
Abbasides, 275
Aboriginal tribes, 283-285
Abu Bekr, 261, 262
Abu Talib, 259
Ahung, 277, 281
Alchemy, 159, 170
Amitabha, O-mi-to Foh, 64, 65,
241, 248, 249
Ananda, 234, 239
Ancestor worship, 84-108, 109,
218, 285, 286
Ancestors, 16, 29, 48, 44, 56, 58
Angels, 266
Animism, 15-36, 109, 1389, 148,
286
Anno Hegira, The Flight, 261,
272
“ Anti” Movements, 297-305
Arhans, Lo-hans, 234, 248
Asoka, Wheel King, 234
Asuras, 227, 255
Black stone, 259, 260
Boxer rebellion, 291
Boxerism, 46
Bodhisatvas, 242, 253
Bo-tree, 234
Hoon on Marshall, 257, 273,
279
Bruce, Dr., 214
Buddha, 32, 64, 65, 70, 213
Buddhist, 30, 64, 65, 66, 72, 76,
80
Buddhism, 27, 32, 64, 166, 215,
223-256, 285
Caliphs, 270, 275
Catalepsy, 37, 41, 43
Carus, Paul, 116, 118, 121, 125
Capitalism, 298
Chang Tao-ling, Tien-si, 179
Chang-liang, 178
Changes, Book of, 123-127, 194,
200, 201
Charms, 50, 180, 250
eaten 18, 22, 51, 95, 127, 253,
279
Cheo-sin, 123, 192
Chi, 24, 214
Chie, tyrant, 190
Chow, Duke, 123, 152, 187, 193,
203
Chow dynasty, 134, 151, 167,
187, 198, 206
Chu-fu-tze, 129, 213, 214
Christianity, 298, 299, 300, 301
Chwangtze, 158, 208
City-god, 63, 71, 74
Classics, Confucian, 295, 297
Classification, 17, 23
Comets, 15, 46
Coffin, 49, 50, 52, 54, 68, 84, 85,
94, 95
Confucius, 123-127, 151, 156,
194-222
Confucianism, 151, 185-222, 255,
285, 286
Commerce, 287
Communism, 304
a
Deities, 88, 166 [177
Demons, 44, 59, 63, 74, 80, 166,
Desires, 230, 238
Devas, 227, 238, 247, 248, 255
Devils, 48, 53, 106
Din, Duke, 196, 197
Disease, 136
Divination, 125, 130, 184, 218
Divorce, 103
Doctrine of Mean, 205
Dragon, 148, 165, 179
Dragon Horse, 119, 120, 121,
124, 167, 185
312
INDEX
Dreams, 37
DuBose, H. P., 168
Earth Branches, 140, 141, 144
Eastern Hell God, 66
Echo Tomb, 273
Eclipses, 15
Edkins, Dr., 64, 148, 255
Hducational regulations, 301
Eight Immortals, 166
Elixir, 164
Exorcism, 53
Extraterritoriality, 290
Faber, Dr., 218
Fa-hsien, 250
Fairies, 24, 27
Fate, 149
Feng Yii-hsiang, 299
Fengtu, 66
Fetishes, 27, 32, 33
Fiends, 27
Filial, 98, 219
First Emperor, 211
Five duties, 268, 280
Five elements, 51, 110, 129, 131,
132, 134, 138, 148
Four Books, 205, 210
Four Noble Truths, 230, 231
Fuh Hsi, 116, 119, 120, 123, 167,
185
Funerals, 52, 53, 88
Fung-shui, 139-150
Gabriel, 259
Gautama, 225
Genii, 65, 160, 161, 162, 163, 174
Geomancer, 51, 54, 144, 150
Ghosts, 62, 70, 81, 82, 91, 93, 94,
227
Giles, H. A., 67, 213
Gods, 45, 46, 47, 70, 92
Gospel, 266, 267
Grave, 51, 54, 55, 58, 88, 91, 92,
147
Great Dipper, Northern Bushel,
62, 117
Green Dragon, 51, 142, 148
Great Extreme, 112, 113, 180,
167
Great Learning, 205
313
Great Plan, 134, 139
Great Renunciation, 226
Hades, 79, 87, 92
“ Haji,” 280
Han dynasty, 84, 134, 159, 202,
211, 271
Han Wen-kung, 213
Han Wu, 163, 164
Heaven, 61, 62, 70, 97, 102, 120,
154, 189-194, 200, 203, 215,
221, 239, 277
Heavenly Herdsman, 18
Heavenly Horizon Stone, 19
Heavenly River, Milky Way,
15, 18
Heavenly Stems, 140, 144
Heavens, 60, 79, 238
Hells, 60, 63, 66, 69, 238, 239
Hinayana, Little Vehicle, 235,
250
Hinduism, 227, 233
History, Book of, Shu Ching,
139, 187, 194, 200, 201
Horoscope, 144, 145
Hume, R. E., 216
Hwei-hwei, 273, 274
Hwang Ti, 185
Hwen, 47
Hypnoties, 43, 45
Idols, 43, 92, 128, 246
Immortality, 47, 170
Immortals, 171, 172, 173, 174,
175
Inaction, 152, 153
Interpretation, 16, 17, 36, 37
Iron City, 80
Islam, 257-282
Islands of the Blessed, 82
{[-ti, 190
Jade, 50, 163
Jambu, 227, 237, 239, 244
Jerusalem, 259, 263
Jesus, 266, 267, 268, 279, 281
Jihad, 269
Jinn, 24, 25, 266
Judgment, 268
Kaaba, Cube, 258, 260, 263
314
Kalpas, 2386, 237
Karma, 230
Kashiapmadanga, 224
Khadijah, 259, 261, 262
Kiang Tai-kung, 168
Koran, 261, 265, 277, 281
Koreish tribes, 258, 259, 260
Kwang Hsi, 41
Kwan-ti, God of War, 182, 247
Kwan-yin, Goddess of Mercy,
182, 245, 247, 248
Kwen Len, 65, 175
Labor conditions, 295
Laotze, Li Lao-chuin, 151, 152,
156, 157, 158, 163, 208
Law, 65, 103, 230, 232, 243, 251,
254, 266
Legge, Dr., 218, 220
Li, 214
Liang dynasty, 252
Liao Kiai, 21, 37, 41
Lin, 201
Li-pin, Chwan-chu, 167
Liu-chih, 280
Loh (river) Writing, 121, 122,
124, 202
Lo-yang, 224, 252
Lu, State, 194, 196, 197, 201
Magician, 42, 169
Mahayana, Great Vehicle, 235,
245, 246
Maitreya, Mi-lei Foh, Laughing
Buddha, 240, 248
Manchu, 67, 271
Marco Polo, 288
Marriage, 101, 102, 145
Martin, Dr., 290
Materialism, 130
Mecca, 258, 261, 263, 280
Medina, 262
Mencius, Mungtze, 99, 209, 210
Metempsychosis, 80, 96
Meyers, W. F., 114, 115, 159
Miao tribes, 283, 285
Militarism, 298
Ming dynasty, 97, 271, 275
Ming-ti, 224
Missions, missionaries, 288
INDEX
Mohammed, Mohammedanism,
257-282
Mo-kwei, 239
Morrison, Robert, 288
Mosque, 262
Mu-lien, 81
Narakas, 228
Nestorians, 288
Nirvana, 70, 230, 231, 233, 243,
246, 253, 255
Noble Eightfold Path, 230, 231,
232
No-su, Lo-lo, 248
Olopun, 288
Omar, 261, 269
Omei, Mt., 247, 251, 253
Omeyides, 274
Paracelsus, 164
Pearly Emperor, 62, 67, 81, 169,
177, 180 ©
Pei, 47
Pharmacy, 138
Phenomena, 15, 27, 110, 114,
133, 139
Philosopher’s stone, 163
Philosophy, 109-130
Physics, 131-165
Physiology, 135-139
Pilgrimages, 280
Planets, 15, 23, 140, 147, 167
Poetry, Book of, Odes, 194, 200,
201
Population, 257, 283
Posterity, 98, 99, 108
Prescriptions, 137
Pretas, 228
Priesthood, 65, 177, 248, 254
Priests, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 81,
88, 89, 90, 91, 95, 178, 181
Princely Man, 204, 205, 221
Prophets, 266
Prop-loom stone, 19
Propriety, 205
Psychology, 37-59
Pu-hsien, 243, 247
Pu-kung, 250
Pulse, 136, 137
Pure Ones, Three, 167, 160
INDEX 815
Pu-sas, (Bodhisatvas) 239, 243,
244
Ramadan, 280
Reciprocity, 204
Reincarnation, 34, 36
Rejeb, 263
Release of Life, 31
Relies, 250
Religion, 299
Revenge, 218
Rites, Book of, 194
River Plan, 120, 121, 122, 124,
202
Saad Wakkas, 273
Saha World, 237, 240
Sakyamuni, 247
Schools of Buddhism, 252, 253
Sermon, Buddha’s First, 230
Seven sins, 269
Shades, 88
Shang dynasty, 187, 191, 206
Shen Lung, 186
Sheriff, Uncertain, 94
Shia dynasty, 191, 205, 206
Shun, 75, 120, 122, 143, 167, 186,
187, 188, 206
Siddharta, 225, 226, 228
Six Paths, 69
Sorcerer, Twan-kung, 32, 40
Soul, 37, 39, 40, 44, 46, 47, 49,
BUDS, 00, 00,107,410) 72,73,
74, 75, 78, 82, 85, (star) 46,
(second) 55, (third) 60, 70
Spirit turtle, 121, 124
Spirits, 24, 25, 30, 61, 62, 72,
74, 78, 86, 89, 90, 97
Spiritually Precious, 169
Spring and Autumn Annals, 201
Stars, 15, 18, 46, 62, 141, 142
Student Class, 306, 307
Sumeru mountain, 227, 237, 238
Sun Yat-sen, 298
Suicide, 103
Sung dynasty, 79, 271, 275
Szechwan, 27, 66, 94, 120, 167,
179, 279, 283
Tablet, 47, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 77,
' 78, 85, 86, 104, 277
Tai-ping rebellion, 290
Ta-mo, Bodhidharma, 251, 252,
Boa
Tang dynasty, 251, 270, 273, 275,
286
Tang, King of Shang, 187, 191,
192
Taoism, 64, 151-184, 215, 286
Taoist, 32, 52, 76
Taoist popes, 178, 179
Tao-Teh, 153, 154, 157, 158
Tathagata, 230, 231, 233, 236
Temples, 62, 63, 128, 247, 278
Ten commandments, Buddhist,
254
Terrace of Oblivion, 69
Ti-tsang, 248, 247, 249
Transformation, 21, 22, 23, 36,
159
Transfusion, 57
Transmigration, 27-36, 39, 69
Treaties, 289, 290
Tsung-chih, 169
Tushita heaven, 238, 239
Tu Wen-hsiu, 276
Twang-kung, Sorcerer, 32, 40
Uncertain, Sheriff, 63, 70
Unlimited, The, 112
Virtues, Five, 204, 210
Wa-si tribe, 285
Weaver Maiden, 18
Wen, King, 116, 123, 187, 200
Wen-shu, God of Literature,
248, 246, 253
West China Union University,
20
Western Heaven, 64, 82, 242,
248, 250
Western Royal Mother, 175, 176
Whirl winds, 23
White Tiger, 51, 142, 148
Williams, Wells, 137, 290
Women, 101, 220
Worship, 87
Wu, King, 152, 187, 193
Xavier, St. Francis, 288
316
Yakoob Beg, 276
Yama, 67
Yang-Yin, 47, 49, 51, 109-130,
131, 140, 148, 214, 215
Yao, 24, 26
Yao, Emperor, 75, 122, 186, 187,
189
Yates, Dr., 98
Yellow river, 18
Yellow sea, 66
Ying Chow islands, 175
INDEX
Yin-Yang, supra, ef. Yang-Yin
Yii, The Great, 120, 123, 148,
187, 188, 189
Yoh-shi Foh, 242
Yuen dynasty,
271; 245
Zaid, 262
Zia, Z. K., 217
Zwemer, S. M., 263, 265, 267,
Mongol, 166,
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