a + 4 a 443 5t iti aia PH x 4 Fs + pis Bu tas aie , 7 z af: tes Maite CSRS Sa Fy 4 a . ty iat ah i a Hii iaite i teat bart Pele af Hetty : ep ea trepeser : oe + eet Hf St yih totes pr es Ce itetn 4 ay : : a 7 > eeasrey ae ae Se a? { iy it * i rd a ‘ a 7 e tt Se3 sept eee : xt ae oeie | ee at ‘fe wt ss eee ieee b eats (i Lia bes Asia ~ Peery ax Cee Pa A bee hen “apn ris a + 3 cae i peererennani coe ite ene pete ete *~ pao - an acts bse: oy eae aed ane hy Se rer etry ee Mae by Bin bor os chase ees bey lp a v3 +i Hennes; aks sf af: $e BESS Re arate aust = = ray sa etree Lote ee pete ie Shae sear> z ran Aaa tag ee SNK. 4 itaran Eigmeater ements See be we at <~S les ey wee bd « oe Jy enee hatte, iy Fees a ie are eats PO Sead clint 7 “Vv MAY 24 1929 ne Ae 4 \S COL gical SEW Division Eo S"] 5 a oe Section ~ weal Cais { OF PRG WwW tA os ~~ Og 7 “Nv “Uf MAY 24 19 Hye SSL OGIGAL sein FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION BY we THOMAS JESSE JONES EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, PHELPS-STOKES FUND PREFACE BY FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION OLUMBIA UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION BY SIR MICHAEL E . SADLER MASTER OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS CHICAGO ATLANTA BOSTON SAN FRANCISCO CopyricnutT, 1926, By CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS Printed in the United States of America TO GEORGE FOSTER PEABODY WHOSE DEVOTION TO HUMAN WELFARE HAS BEEN AN INSPIRATION TO SERVICE AND TO THE PREPARATION OF THIS BOOK Mf hang f b rapt Mahl na f y ; ‘ Hy VY } ae yy A) i bai ay vi x) fae Se oe aut ene ; Me Dat af PREFACE In the last fifty years the problems of edu- cation have received more attention than was given to them in any one thousand years of preceding historical time. The questions: What is education? What is education for ? and How should education be conducted ? have been fiercely fought over, and agree- ment has not yet been reached. We need a commanding voice, speaking words of fact and wisdom. | It may be doubted if in any generation a man has lived whose opportunities for seeing educational problems concretely and in the large have equalled those that the author of this book, Doctor Thomas Jesse Jones, has enjoyed. Doctor Jones was born in Wales and in childhood came with his parents to America. The ambition to get an education awoke in him early. Circumstances were not alto- Le) PREFACE gether propitious, but determination carried him through. After being graduated from Marietta College he entered upon professional and graduate study at the Union Theological Seminary and at Columbia University. From the Theological Seminary he obtained the de- gree of Bachelor of Divinity. At Columbia University he won a Fellowship in Sociology and obtained the degree of Doctor of Philos- ophy. Then as head worker of the University Settlement he observed the lives of immigrant peoples waging the struggle for existence in congested areas of New York City. From this opportunity he went to Hampton Institute as Director of Research and Professor of Sociology and History. There he became deeply interested in the educational aspects of race relations and acquired such under- standing of them that the Federal Census ap- propriated him to take charge of the division responsible for racial statistics. When the task there assigned was completed Doctor Jones took charge of like work in the National Bureau of Education. Equipped with experi- [ vi ] PREFACE ence and with technical knowledge, he con- ducted a survey of education in our Southern States and prepared a report in two large volumes which was immediately recognized as an invaluable and authoritative statement of fact-findings. The Phelps-Stokes Fund, having now ob- tained his services and secured the co-opera- tion of the British Government, put Doctor Jones in charge of expeditions to Africa to survey educational and colonial policies. The first expedition visited the colonies of the West Coast, of the Congo Basin, and of South Africa. A second expedition visited the colo- nies of the East Coast. Doctor Jones’s re- ports of the findings of these surveys are unique documents, comprehensive, detailed, and cogent. Analysis of the observations made in such varied and remarkable opportunities sug- _ gested and shaped reflections on the essen- tials of education for the masses of mankind, which are presented in this book. Doctor Jones saw these essentials very concretely and [ vii ] PREFACE as comprising much more than the three R’s. Four basic ones are: (1) Knowledge and mas- tery of hygiene and health; (2) Knowledge and mastery of the resources and opportu- nities, in particular the agricultural and cli- matic ones, of the local physical environment from which a community must obtain its livelihood; (3) Knowledge and mastery of a decent and comfortable domestic life, without degradation or exploitation of women or chil- dren, on which race vitality and advance- ment depend; and (4) Knowledge and mas- tery of the art of recreation in a broad mean- ing of the word, the art of creating a sane and elastic personality, self-controlled and poised, serene of mind, and capable of happiness. Those who are interested to discover the implications and significance of these essen- tials of education, which Doctor Jones some- times calls ““The Four Simples,”’ must read these pages. I do not presume to commend them, they sufficiently commend themselves. And that their author has long since won his public was attested a year ago when “His b [ vili ] PREFACE Britannic Majesty’s Government”’ invited the most distinguished intellectuals and men of affairs of Great Britain to meet Doctor Jones at dinner and hear his preliminary re- port on the second African survey. So I write this introductory word, not because it is needed but to express my pride and pleasure in the career and achievements of a cherished friend and pupil. FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS. [ix] Ee AA Ratt s ‘ ‘ha ah ANS NUN Ie i Vey ad AMAT th LAU aA ie neat Oi TV is Sb Wah whe Bue Wali) AP woe at ah nn EN pag We Ai Ai rag: My A y se APY a TTA i 9 Soa Bae Pan aay ' ib Py INTRODUCTION Tue reader of this book will find himself led by an experienced guide to the heart of the problem which now engages the thoughts of many of those responsible for the direction of educational policy. Doctor Jesse Jones writes out of the fulness of an unusual and vitalizing experience. He has made a pene- trating study of social-conditions in typical regions in two continents. He has found that everywhere, under the conditions of the mod- ern world, education is a function of policy. He has observed the miscarriage of much educational effort and expenditure. He has seen the mischief of misdirected education, the pathetic failure of many hopes. But what he has seen in the course of ex- tensive and privileged inquiries has deepened in his mind the conviction that education is the chief hope of the human race. It is a true instinct, he feels, that turns the thoughts of multitudes toward education for the cure of wrong and for the attainment of happi- [ xi ] INTRODUCTION ness. In education rightly understood and wisely given is the key to welfare. What then, he has asked himself, are the essentials of an education upon which the hopes of humanity may rest)? After obsery- ing the work of schools and teachers in many lands, he has found his way to a standpoint from which his eyes sweep over a very wide field of educational experience. Few men of our day have a larger view. In this book he interprets the significance of a great move- ment, in the issues of which each of us is inevitably concerned. He seeks by analysis to simplify the problem of educational policy and to set us thinking about fundamentals. Education should prepare for life. And the essentials of a choice-worthy life are health of body and mind: honest and honorable labor for livelihood: communion with God, with our family, friends, fellow countrymen and fellow men: refreshment and recreation as part of the rhythm of living. Of all these things, therefore, educational policy must take account. Our educational outlook should be comprehensive, not narrowly spe- cialized. [ xii ] INTRODUCTION To say this is not to disparage the im- portance, or to deny the necessity, of study concentrated upon methods of teaching, the ingredients of courses of education, and the specific problems which arise in the govern- ance of schools and in the recruitment of the teaching profession. All these things—and their range is wide—call for specialized in- vestigation and debate. Education is an art with scientific implications. Like other arts of similar character it calls for expert study and expert criticism. Doctor Jesse Jones’s argument is far from implying any reason for discouragement on the part of those of us who, on both sides of the Atlantic, be- lieve the study of education to be of funda- mental importance to the welfare of the whole community. But the conclusion to which Doctor Jesse Jones leads us is that education in its broader aspects is a necessary part of modern ad- ministration, and that therefore every polit- ical or administrative officer should acquaint himself with the work which is being done or attempted in the schools within his sphere of responsibility, and with the main lines of [ xiii ] INTRODUCTION current thought and practice in schools of all types. The administrative officer cannot under modern conditions afford to leave schools unvisited or books on education un- read. If he does so, he impairs his efficiency. Education as a function of policy enters into almost every aspect of the administrator’s work. It may promote, or it may retard, according to its wisdom or unwisdom, the achievement of the purpose which the ad- ministrator has at heart. The administra- tive officer is therefore constrained to make himself acquainted with educational aims and methods, and to keep abreast with their developments. Schools are not the job alone of the Educational Services but of the Ad- ministrative or Political Services also. To ride or drive past schools on his tours of duty without ever looking in and finding out what the teachers are aiming at and with what success, is to miss things which an alert administrator finds it to his advantage and profit to know. Education is a complex. It is not a walled- off section of departmental responsibility. The doctor, the public-works officer, the [ xiv ] INTRODUCTION agricultural expert, the engineer are all con- cerned in education because education should aim at the betterment of the community in regard to hygiene, and the competent order- ing of the community’s many-sided life. This “‘sense of the community” is what we all need to develop. Pupils and teachers, citizens and officials, alike are the happier and the more active-minded by having a strong “‘sense of the community.” Doctor Jesse Jones emphasizes this and helps us to understand what is involved in it. By his work in tropical Africa Doctor Jesse Jones has earned the gratitude of all who realize, however dimly, the pregnant significance of Africa to the modern world. The reports of the Phelps-Stokes Commis- sions, of which he was the chairman and leader, have left a deep mark on the minds of governments, missionary societies, plant- ers, natives, and all who are concerned for the welfare of Africa. More than any other man, he has given a new turn to British administrative policy in regard to African native education. He writes and speaks with weight and wisdom. [ xv | INTRODUCTION But not to Africa alone do the conclusions set forth in this book apply. In all countries education will gain by a quickened sense of the community. Education aims at height- ening the welfare of the community by strengthening the will and enlightening the ideals of the individual; and, concurrently, at giving the individual a better chance by improving the community of which he is a part. M. E. SADLER. [ xvi ] CONTENTS PREFACE, BY FRANKLIN H. Gippines...... #V INTRODUCTION, BY Str MicwareL E.SapueR... Xi CHAPTER I. Epucation anp CoMMUNITY....... 1 **What Is the School For?” Race with Universal Knowledge Failure of Accretion Method School Aims Defined Press Symposium “Comparison of Aims from Elementary School to University” ‘ Aims Unsatisfactory Search for Unifying Principle Consciousness of Community An Educational Attitude Not Social Reform Necessity Produces Adaptation Rural Adaptations Elements of the Community Essentials of Primitive Society Essentials of Civilized Society Four Essentials of Education Social Organizations and Education Social Ideals and Education II. Heartru anp SANITATION ........ Community and Health Curing of Disease Prevention of Disease Health Basis of Mental and Character Develop- ment [ xvii ] CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Survey of Community Health Vital Statistics Health Regulations and Sanitary Requirements Health and Character Development Education and Community Health Four Elements of School Organization Elementary Schools Secondary Schools Colleges III. ApprecraTION AND UsE oF ENVIRONMENT . 66 Community and Environment How to Make a Living *“Who Is My Neighbor ?”’ Definition of Community Survey of Resources and Popuiation Rural Resources Urban Resources Urban and Rural Population Education and Environment Four Elements of School Organization Elementary Classes Secondary Classes College Education IV. Home anp HousrHotp ......... 94 Community and Home Functions of the Home Nurture and Care of Childhood; Develop- ment of Individuality; Beginnings of Social Exchange Conditions Disrupting the Home Influences for Home Development Home Training and Labor-Saving Machinery Government Aid and Regulation Home and Other Institutions New Status of Women Survey of Community Homes and Households Education and the Household [ xviii ] CONTENTS CHAPTER V. Recreation, Puysicay, INTELLECTUAL, AND SSPTR PTE AL Abe RLU a otaku a pei Community and Recreations Definitions Agencies of Recreation Home, School, Church, Public Centres, Phil- anthropic Organizations, Commercial Amusements Types of Recreation - Physical Culture, Mental Development, Character Development, Appreciation of Nature, Appreciation of Modern Inven- tions, Appreciation of Art, Inspirations of Ideals and Religious Faith Fundamentals in Community Recreations Survey of Community Recreation Education and Recreation, Physical, Mental, and Spiritual INDEX. sax PAGH wih ee 187 Lyset yaw Ne Ah ee ory fact 5 iN egies FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION CHAPTER I EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY THE almost amazing multiplication of schools throughout the world is strangely accompanied by an increasing perplexity as to the methods and objectives of education. Even the daily press has taken notice of the doubts and anxieties and is accordingly send- ing out inquiries as to ‘What the school is for.” Educators and schoolmasters are busily organizing administrative machinery and fe- verishly adding new subjects and extra de- partments. to deal with every variation of knowledge and experience of modern times. The devotees of classical learning and of the good old school-days are protesting vigor- ously and almost in despair over the piling up of new items of knowledge often unrelated ie FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION to each other or to the learner. Governments and philanthropy are appropriating educa- tional funds with generosity and enthusiasm. The people everywhere are clamoring for ed- ucation, and sending the youth to schools and colleges in number that overcrowd the buildings and overtax the staff. There seems to be a fatalistic faith in education often fol- lowed by disappointment and futility. Race with Universal Knowledge.—Educators seem to have been enticed into a race with modern machinery, and with the results of scientific researches. They have uncon- sciously accepted the impossible task of teaching the youth all the activities and ex- periences and knowledges amassed with such amazing rapidity in recent years. There are the machinery of travel and transportation extending acquaintance and control into every part of the world; the machinery of production multiplying articles of dress, food, and habitation; the machinery of amusements and recreation for the eyes, for the ears, and for the muscles of the multitudes; researches [2] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY of earth, air, and water revealing the hidden things of the universe, eliminating disease, and widening the bounds of human life. Human activities are accordingly more varied, more numerous, and more confusing as re- search, discovery, and invention succeed. Knowledge, experience, and achievements seem to be increasing by arithmetical pro- gression and sometimes even by geometrical progression. Failure of Accretion Method.—In such a race the educators can expect only failure. Their present method of adding new sub- jects and departments is at best only accre- tion. They can never hope to attain the speed of arithmetical progression, much less of the geometrical rate. Even the method of accretion is rushing them into hopeless confusion. “What is the school for?’’ is being asked with increasing insistence and frequency. What, then, is the way out of the present dilemma? The press with homely wisdom and great pertinence has asked the previous [3] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION question, which sends us back to the first principles. Until the question can be an- swered simply and yet profoundly, feverish racing should stop; complicated systems of school administration should be reconsid- ered; large building programmes should be re-examined. Present financial provision for education should in no way be discouraged, but educational endowments and appropria- tions should be based upon thoroughgoing replies to the question: What is the school for? SCHOOL AIMS DEFINED BY EDUCATORS The answers of distinguished educators in a recent symposium in the New York Times* are interesting, enlightening, and significant. Their various points of view are herewith presented: University President—The greatest edu- cational need is to enlist the interest of every pupil in every school in his daily tasks in order to get from him hard, persistent, and enjoyed work. Cultivate every hour in every * March 11, 1923. [ 4 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY child the power to see and describe accu- rately; teach every child to draw, model, sing, or play a musical instrument and read music. Make every pupil active, not passive; alert, not dawdling; led or piloted, not driven; always learning the value of co-operative discipline. Teach groups of subjects together in their natural relations. Require universal physi- cal training for boys and girls from six to eighteen years of age. Make sure that every pupil has a fair chance to learn the elements of agriculture, dietetics, cooking, and hygiene, and that every boy has an opportunity to learn the elements of some manual trade, and every girl the domestic arts. Instruction in hygiene should include the defenses of so- ciety against the diseases and degradations consequent upon ignorance, moral depravity, poverty, and vice. Keep the atmosphere of every school charged with the master senti- ments of love, hope, and duty. Keep out fear and selfishness. Professor of School Administration.—It is the business of the school to prepare chil- dren for participation in all those activities which make for the common good, to develop a sympathetic interest in the work of all men, to give them command of the tools of [5 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION investigation and inquiry. This means the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic, as well as fundamental courses in science. — They should also have the appreciation that comes only through participation in the fundamental arts upon which civilization is built. More fundamental than reading and arithmetic are the courses in the shop or laboratory in which children become ac- quainted with industrial processes or gain skill in homemaking. Music and fine art antedate the three R’s. He is a poorly edu- cated man who lacks in appreciation of the beautiful. Principal of a Private Secondary School.— What our country needs to-day more than anything else is not better artisans, me- chanics, bookkeepers, and business men, but better and more intelligent citizens. The great problems of to-day, common not only to this country but to the world, are chiefly human, not economic. ‘These problems are to be solved by those who have been trained to think straight, and those whose thinking will be guided and clarified by a knowledge of the successes and failures of the human mind as it has faced and wrestled through all the ages with various forms of the same human problems that challenge and baffle us to-day. [ 6 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY Superintendent of City Schools.—Schools are for the public benefit and not for the sel- fish advantage of children or their families. They are to promote union, justice, domestic tranquillity, common defense, and general welfare.. American public education has had a struggle for five generations to shake off its European, individualistic, selfish objec- tives and to realize the patriotic purposes of the fathers. The frills it is cutting out are attenuated grammar, oral readings, memo- rized geography, mechanized foreign and na- tive languages, classics, and such subjects. Our greatest need is still to get more of the civic and less of the personal motive into the hearts of the generation; less appeal to sel- fish success and more to service and to sacri- fice. Historian.—Schools are to teach children to think and use their minds in ways bear- ing on the real puzzle of their subsequent life. We must give them a frame of mind es- sentially different from those who now con- trol and subsidize education. We must tell them the things they should know in order that they may use their minds. A preliminary to any fundamental educa- tional reform must be the humanizing of | knowledge so as to make it really a vital Ta FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION thing in life. At present we have depart- ments, subjects, and sciences in which hu- man knowledge is torn into grotesque frag- ments. Gradually we must learn that our present classification of knowledge into his- tory, political economy, government, ethics, psychology, chemistry, physics, and biology, is wholly inappropriate for educational pur- poses. This resynthesizing of knowledge is a very difficult task and will necessarily take a good deal of time and much ingenuity. These answers present ideals that are su- perior to most current educational practice. All agree in their recommendation of civic service as probably the most important aim. All but one direct their instruction and train- ing to the needs of the individual. Three stress the necessity of teaching to think, and to think in relation to historical and present experience. One is especially emphatic in his insistence on the training of the senses. Two urge the value of manual practice and the doing of tasks under real conditions. The typical and significant character of the answers in this symposium has recently [8] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY been strikingly confirmed in an able article entitled “A Comparison of Aims from Ele- mentary School to University,’ based upon a careful analysis of 112 books and articles by leading American educators.* The article discusses only the twenty-four aims that have been recommended five times or more for at least one of the four educational units, namely, the elementary school, the secondary school, the college of liberal arts, or the uni- versity. The author summarizes the twenty- four aims in the following statement: The first two aims, (a) general or liberal training, and (b) preparation for the needs of life, may be regarded as comprehensive aims, whose real meaning is made clear in the eight aims following. These eight can be simmered down to four large aims, viz.: (1) training for social-civic responsibilities; (2) health; (3) recreational and esthetic par- ticipation; and (4) practical and occupational efficiency. Aims number 11 and 12 are “in- tellectual training’’ and “mental discipline.” Most of the remaining twelve aims are to be looked upon as functions, goals, or conditions *Leonard V. Koos, in the Educational Review, April, 1925. [ 9 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION to be attained in order to facilitate the achievement of the aims. Aims Unsatisfactory—Both The Times symposium and Professor Koos’s comparison of aims undoubtedly stimulate thought in helpful directions. They disturb the com- placency of conventional schoolmen as well as the “educational efficiency”’ of the fever- ish seeker for new things. The earnest, dis- cerning inquirer, however, is still puzzled by the unrelatedness of the aims. He resents the dogmatism of the advice. He wants to know the reason for the faith which is to guide him. He feels that these aims are pointing toward the light, but they are not the light. » Perplexity of Parents and Educators—The anxious parent and the perplexed educator now have some idea of the numerous discon- — nected elements essential to sound education, but they are seriously at a loss to make the selections and combinations best suited to the child. They are like the novice in chem- istry who sees the atomic ingredients nicely [ 10 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY arranged on the shelf but is reasonably cer- tain that if he attempts to combine them he may as likely concoct an explosive mixture as compound a healthful medicine. We now know ‘what the school is for,’ but the ob- jectives are so numerous and diverse as to - dazzle and confuse the teacher and the school administrator who must practise what has been so learnedly preached. Search for Unifying Principle—Our in- quiry therefore points to the need for an ap- proach to education that is sufficiently funda- mental to be accurate and sufficiently simple to be practical. What shall be the basis for the synthesis of the “grotesque fragments of - knowledge’? What shall be the guide and determinant for humanizing knowledge and for the selection and the development of the mental and character traits required in the individual) Psychological researches have made notable contributions to the apprecia- tion of mental capacities and _ processes. School administration has formulated elab- orate organizations and machinery for school (Ee) FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION management. Remarkable progress has been made in school methods during the past few years. Full credit must be given to those who have ably labored, both in research and practice, to improve school activities. It is probable, however, that the present difficul- ties are partly, if not largely, due to the fact that the educators are depending too exclu- sively upon psychology and administration for guidance in their problems. It is probable, too, that the specialists in psychology and administration, encouraged by successes in their respective fields, believe that they have. the solution for all educational problems. With genuine appreciation for their achieve- ments, it is obvious that their knowledge and skill apply only to special phases of educa- tion. As the scientific hygienists are increas- ingly realizing that the conquest of disease cannot be accomplished by diagnosis limited to the individual and by hospitals concerned only with cases, so educators must un- derstand that psychology and administra- tion have distinct limitations of service in [ 12 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY the determination of school methods and aims. CONSCIOUSNESS OF COMMUNITY The key to the synthesis of knowledge for educational purposes as well as to the hu- manizing of information and training is to be found in a vital consciousness of commu- nity conditions. The educator must know the community with the same thoroughness with which he has striven to know the individual. In fact, consciousness of the community on the part of the educator must be made the basis of the approach both to the interpretation of the individual and to the arrangement of knowledge and training necessary. Thus con- sciousness of community becomes the means of correlating the diverse needs of innumer- able persons and of integrating the ever- increasing number of facts discovered by sci- entific research and travel. The hopeless method of adding new school subjects and departments will thus be eliminated. The needs of individuals will be understood [ 13 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION through those of the community. Multipli- cation of school aims, often unrelated and even conflicting, will be replaced by educa- tional objectives harmonized and humanized by a consciousness of the community as a whole. An Educational Attitude——The purpose of this book is to present consciousness of com- munity on the part of the teacher as a con- trolling educational attitude which should color school policies and methods, and de- termine school aims. The references in this chapter merely introduce the conception. A working appreciation of the potentialities of the consciousness of community in education requires a careful study of all the chapters that follow, together with the application of the idea in actual service. It should be emphatically distinguished from community improvement and social reform. Educational method and school activities must spring from this social consciousness, otherwise ap- preciation of neighborhood is a useless ab- straction. Deeds and doing must be based [ 14 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY upon a knowledge of community, otherwise they may soon become merely the discursive and divisive multiplication of independent efforts. Not Social Reform.—Consciousness of the community, as a determinant of education, is not a subject or an aim to be added to the educational process. It is not a course in soci- ology or civics, or a neighborhood activity, important as these may be in the school pro- gramme. It is a comprehensive understand- ing of community conditions on the basis of which the educator plans the whole educa- tional process. It proceeds by the method of gradually changing present school work rather than by destructive and radical revo- lution. It is constructive rather than de- structive. It builds on the good of conven- tions and customs of the past. Consciousness of the community does not overlook the in- dividual, but amplifies, enriches, and general- izes individual qualities and needs through the composite appreciation of groups of in- dividuals, as that appreciation is reflected [ 15 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION in the general conditions of neighbor- hood. Necessity Produces Adaptation.—This idea, though tremendously needed in the educa- tional world to-day, is not new. Such aims as ‘‘training for the common good,” “‘social- civic responsibility,’ and “preparation for life,’ clearly recognize the social responsibil- ity of the school. It is surprising, however, how superficially and artificially these aims have influenced school subjects and activities, especially in urban schools. There are a few striking examples of socialized education in rural America, chiefly in the Middle West, where pioneer conditions have only recently ended, and among Negroes in the South, where the acute needs of the freedmen re- quired an education based both on individual and community conditions. These successes seem to have been rather more the result of the necessities of the situation than a con- scious recognition of community needs as de- terminants of educational policy. With the passing of pioneer conditions, conventional [ 16 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY school methods have, in some _ instances, replaced the community demands. Even in- stitutions like Hampton and Tuskegee, with their remarkable heritage of community con- sciousness, are in danger of succumbing to the pressure of conventional education. Rural Adaptations.——The pressing needs of rural sections have resulted in several non- school educational movements of a decidedly social character. The “farm demonstration plan,” made possible by the General Educa- tion Board of New York City, to combat the ravages of the boll-weevil in cotton areas, is directly based on community agricultural needs. Through the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture this movement is now nation-wide in influence. The plan has been adopted for the improvement of the home and other community elements. Unfortunately the schools have been rather slow to see the significance of the plan in the formulation of their policies. Here and there are schools that are making a genuine effort to adapt their work to community needs. The school-com- Pag FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION munity visitation of the Jeanes Fund, An- tioch College, Berry School in Georgia, and some departments of State Agricultural Col- leges, are of this type. ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNITY The effective application of consciousness of community in education depends largely on a practical plan of studying a community. It is by no means easy for teachers to become aware of their environment. The baffling in- tricacies and artificialities of modern society, and especially of urban communities, have discouraged those who have attempted to discover the essential elements of a neigh- borhood. Careful observation of people still in the tribal stage has shown the great value of tribal villages as a laboratory for the de- termination of the elemental forces and con- ditions of human society. In a sense primi- tive society reveals the fundamental social forces with somewhat of the purity and sim- plicity so eagerly sought by the chemist or the physicist in his laboratory experiments [ 18 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY with electrons, atoms, and molecules. As the physical elements of the mammals have a distinct similarity from the lower stages to the highest, including man, so the elements of primitive society parallel those of the high- est communities of Europe and America. It appears expedient, therefore, to formulate the approach to the study of a community on the basis of the elements of a primitive society. Essentials of Primitive Society —Of the numerous elements susceptible of study even in a tribal village, there are four of such vital and obvious importance as to merit the rank of fundamentals. These four are: (1) health and sanitation; (2) appreciation and use of the environment; (3) the household and the home; and (4) recreation. To avoid the sug- gestion of pedantry or mysterious abstrac- tion, it seems wise to call these four elements the “‘simples” of the community. They are the basic essentials of group life, however simple or primitive. Reference to succeeding chapters shows that they are equally essen- tial, in varied forms, to the complex societies [ 19 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION of civilization, however advanced. They are the foundations and the universals of human society. The multiform activities of human- ity have always been concerned directly or indirectly with these simples or universals. Their sequence and interrelations in primi- tive society are comparatively obvious, and may be outlined as follows: 1. The community must be hygienically habitable. The ravages of diseases must be stopped. The normal increase of the popula- tion requires sanitary conditions reasonably free from the dangers to health. The Panama Canal could not be constructed until the malarial mosquitoes were eliminated or con- trolled. African resources will lie hidden in the soil and the mountains so long as sleep- ing-sickness and malaria are rampant. 2. Effective use of the environment in the tribal village means the cultivation of the soil for food; manual dexterity in the use of such materials as wood, clay, and leather for habitation and clothing; the conquest of neighbors or a friendly alliance with them. [ 20 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY 3. The decencies and safeties of the home are required to insure the rearing and train- ing of children and to establish sound rela- tions of the sexes. 4. Healthful recreations are essential to the welfare of the tribal community both to dis- courage the tendency to various excesses, and to direct the amusements and _ tribal ceremonies and religions to the strengthen- ing of the physique and the character. Essentials of Civilized Society —That the higher levels of these four essentials or uni- versals are equally vital to civilized society is shown by the money, energy, and devotion expended on each of them throughout the civilized world. A brief survey of their appli- cation in European and American communi- ties is impressive: 1. The health interests, above those of the primitive fight for existence, are concerned with the conservation of physical life, to the end that the body may have larger capacities, that the surplus energy may enable the mind to function more accurately in research and [ 21 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION in the comprehension of the beautiful and the good, and that life extension may continue knowledge and experience into old age. 2. The appreciation of environment in ad- vanced society passes beyond the struggle for food, clothing, habitation, and the con- quest of neighbors to the scientific under- standing of natural forces, to the artistic ap- preciation of nature, and to co-operative relations with humanity of whatever color or country. 3. The household and the home in civili- zation are not concerned only with infant mortality and with sex relations. They are the centres for the development of mental traits and character based upon family quali- ties and interests. They are the conservers of individuality necessary to the varied use of natural resources and to the diverse skills required in society. 4. The recreations and culture of civilized communities include the full sweep of hu- man interests from the physical to the intel- lectual and the spiritual. [ 22 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY THE FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Synthesis of School Objectives through Com- munity Essentials or Simples.—These, then, are the four essential elements of community, the four “simples”? or “universals,’’ which are to guide the educator in the study of so- ciety and to enable him to become conscious of community conditions and needs. Con- sciousness of community thus becomes a vital appreciation of health needs and possibilities, of environment with its material and human wealth, of the joys and responsibilities of the home and the household, and of the recrea- tions needed to correct individual and social warps, and to give life and life more abun- dantly. With such a consciousness the edu- cator will be able to classify and simplify the confusing multiplicity of school subjects and activities by a new synthesis of knowledge and of trainings, and so to adjust his teach- ing, his discipline, and his administrative re- sponsibilities as to realize the objectives of education. [ 23 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION The purpose of succeeding chapters is therefore, first, to define each of the four simples or essentials of the community; sec- ond, to suggest forms of inquiry to ascertain the varied expressions of each essential as well as the organizations concerned in each; third, to show the relation of each essential to the educational processes of elementary, secondary, collegiate, and university educa- tion. The interrelations of these community elements are real and numerous. Each con- tributes, directly or indirectly, to physical culture, to mental and moral development, to artistic and spiritual appreciations, to a spirit of service. Social Organizations and Education.—So- cial organizations, whether governmental, economic, or cultural, are dependent for their ultimate success on the extent of their con- tributions to the essentials of community. Governments, originally concerned only in the maintenance of order, the collection of taxes, and the prosecution of war, are now increasing their interests to include health, conservation of country and people, home [ 24 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY life, and recreation in the comprehensive sense. Organizations of labor and of capital, primarily concerned in financial gain, shorter hours, and material advantages, will be per- manently successful only as they base their policies on the general welfare of the com- munity. Cultural or re-creational institutions, including churches, schools, theatres, and art- galleries, will be effectively educational and inspirational only as their appeals and influ- ences idealize and spiritualize the simple es- sentials of community life. Social organiza- tions, thus conceived, assist in the synthesis of human activities. The intimate relations of their functions to the simples or essentials of community make it possible to integrate them with educational processes. Conscious- ness of community may thus include an un- derstanding of government, economic under- takings, and cultural movements as a means of simplifying education rather than of add- ing to its perplexity. Social Ideals and Education.—The relating of social ideals and standards of character to the actual experiences of life insures the real- [ 25 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ity of such abstractions. The ideals of democ- racy, social service, or religious faith in their abstract forms may be merely elusive and futile emotion. Founded upon a conscious- ness of community, they become directive and controlling convictions that impel action and guarantee the common good. The sur- vey of the community must, therefore, seek to understand the relation of these control- ling concepts to each of the four elements of neighborhood. To what extent do the ideals of democracy, social service, and religion function for health, for an appreciation of the material and human environment, for whole- some home life, and for the re-creations of human society? Do these ideals vitalize gov- ernments, schools, churches, homes, labor, capital, art, and play? The answers to such inquiries, properly interpreted, should syn-— thesize and humanize the diverse and almost innumerable activities of individuals and so- ciety into a living consciousness of com- munity. With such a consciousness, the merely fac- [ 26 ] EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY tual contribution of education will be subor- dinated to such creative powers as are re- quired by the community. Character devel- opment will be the coloring of every educa- tional activity. Hygiene and health will be emphasized, whether in the three R’s or in the care of the dormitory. Agricultural and industrial skill will be extolled in the class- room as well as practised in the field and in the shop. The essentials of the home will be explained both in reading-lessons and in the relations of family life; and the spiritual values of recreation will appear in discussion and in play. Similarly the higher levels of collegiate and university education will be rooted in a real regard for character, health, agriculture, industry, the home, and play, as well as in the historical and scientific appre- ciation of government, economic undertak- ings, and cultural movements. Education will thus be identical with life. It will have the same elemental simplicity and reality, and also the inextricable interdependence of the elements that constitute life. [ 27 ] CHAPTER II HEALTH AND SANITATION HEALTH is too generally regarded merely as one of the important incidental responsi- bilities of the school, a means to an end, a necessary provision in the process of acquir- ing knowledge. Sometimes it is entirely neglected in the educational programme; sometimes it is an important incident; some- times it is considered one of the vital ele- ments of general education, the omission of which would render education inadequate. Knowledge of the community reveals health as a primary essential both of the individual and of society. The curing of disease is necessary; the prevention of ill- ness is good sense; the cultivation of health is statesmanship. Social stratification is probably more completely dependent on health than on any other factor. Individuals, communities, races, and nations will, on the [ 28 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION long view, be classified according to their healthfulness. The population death-rate of nations is an impressive “‘social register” of general attainments. There is real signifi- cance in the comparative death-rates for 1922: New Zealand, 8.8; United States, 11.8; England and Wales, 12.8; Sweden, 12.8; France, 17.5; Spain, 20.4; Japan, 22.3; Ceylon, 27.8; Chile, 28.4. Many elements contribute to these striking variations, such as climate, economic conditions, government, and intelligence, but there are no elements that cannot be influenced, directly or indi- rectly, by an education planned with a basic regard for physical welfare. Health is intimately related to economic prosperity, effective mentality, and cultural appreciations. Material resources are of little value without a population able to work energetically. Ordinary processes of thought as well as intellectual researches in general are directly dependent upon sound bodily functions. Artistic achievements in music, sculpture, painting, poetry, and other spiri- [ 29 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION tual expressions are, as a rule, possible only under conditions of health. It is most un- fortunate that the consideration of health should so frequently be limited to the study of disease and ill health. Saint Paul’s exhor- tation to bodily care should increasingly be- come the basis of our thoughts—‘ Know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit ?”’ Such a conception of the physique is worthy of a real place at every stage of education from the pre-school period to the university. It should be the coloring of the curriculum, of the administrative activities, and of every feature susceptible of health implications. Courses in physiology, hygiene, and sanita- tion should be regarded only as items in the health programme. Athletic organizations and physical training are important aids to health, but they should not eliminate health considerations in the formulation of the gen- eral plan of education. Medical schools and the preparation of a professional class should stimulate the community interest in health; [ 30 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION rather than destroy the community sense of responsibility for hygiene and sanitation. There are numerous dramatic illustrations of health campaigns that show both the num- ber and magnitude of health activities, as well as the remarkable successes possible in the prevention of disease. Recent demon- strations of great interest are those of the Milbank Memorial Fund, directed specifically against tuberculosis but really including all diseases in a typical American community. The following summary presents significant phases of the demonstration at Syracuse, New York, a city of 180,000 population: The local activities have been under the supervision of the City Department of Health, composed of thirteen bureaus concerned re- spectively with administration, health edu- cation, laboratories, venereal diseases, school inspection, psychiatry, milk and meat in- spection, plumbing, communicable diseases, health supervision, child hygiene, and indus- trial hygiene. Co-operating organizations in- clude the Milbank Fund with its Advisory Council of distinguished specialists in hygi- [ 31 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ene and health, the State Charities Aid, the County Tuberculosis and Public Health As- sociation, and the Health Service of the © Department of Public Instruction. When the occasion requires, the co-operation is widened to enlist the help of the Young Women’s Christian Association, the American Red Cross, the Americanization League, the Boy Scouts, the Camp Fire Girls, the Catholic Youths’ Camp, the Child Health Committee, the Girl Scouts, the Jewish Communal Home, the Junior League, the Home Bureau, the Young Men’s Christian Association, Young Men’s Hebrew Association, the County Or- phans’ Home, the Visiting Nurse Association, and the House of Providence. The Metro- politan Life Insurance Company distributed special literature, notably a leaflet entitled ““An Ounce of Prevention.” The American Society for the Control of Cancer assisted through its district chairman, and the County Association’s committee on Education and Publicity elected a physician as its chairman in order to relate the work of the committee to health. The enlistment of the co-operation of this imposing array of organizations for health is itself an achievement of considerable value. The definite tasks performed are increasingly effective. In 1923 the tuberculosis clinics ex- [ 32 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION amined 683 new patients as compared with 435 in 1922. Since the summer of 1923 more than 11,000 Syracuse children have been given the Schick test, or have been immunized against diphtheria without preliminary test- ing. During the year the health staffs have been augmented by the appointment of six additional nurses, three dental hygienists, and one medical inspector. In April and May 1,848 visits were made to the homes of pa- tients. Of the 25,875 public-school children examined during the year, 16 per cent were found to have goitre. Among the 1,978 high- school girls, there were 646 cases, or 32.6 per cent. A total of 2,409 pupils is receiving treat- ment consisting of organic iodide in small doses at regular intervals. Important phases of school health work are the health clubs, nutrition and open-air classes conducted as a part of the demonstra- tion programme. In 7 schools there is a total of 40 health clubs. The attendance of nutri- tion classes, started during the winter, has been 150 children; and the open-air classes have had enrolment of 123. In all public schools undernourished children are encour- aged to drink one glass of milk daily during the morning session. Free milk is furnished by philanthropic citizens to those who are not able to buy it. [ 33 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION The popular health campaign enlists the interest of men, women, and children in the conservation of their own personal health. An. official demonstration seal has been adopted, bearing the slogan: “Syracuse Wishes You Well.” A children’s health pa- rade was recently staged. Behind the “ Health Queen” and her six attendants, “Fresh Air,” “Sunshine,” “ Exercise,’’ “‘ Wholesome Food,” “* Cleanliness,” and ‘Happiness,’ 2,000 children marched, led by a health clown and his health battalion, a group of boys and girls in togas of Turkish towelling, carry- ing the “symbols of their order,” basins and soap. The “Syracuse demonstration”’ thus com- bines the financial resources of State, city, and philanthropy; the discoveries and skills of medical science and sanitation; the good-will and influence of all types of social organiza- tions; and the popular appeals of parades and clowns. The health potentialities of such a cam- paign are illustrated in the results achieved by the recently appointed assistant commis- sioner during his ten years’ service in Mil- [ 34 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION waukee. In that time appropriations for health increased from $126,000 to $461,000, or from 31 cents per capita to 94 cents. For this expenditure the average length of life was extended 3.3 years; infant mortality was reduced from 145 to 75; infant welfare sta- tions increased from 1 to 19; 93 per cent of all milk pasteurized; all dairy cattle tuber- culin-tested; tuberculosis clinics multiplied by 3; an adequate number of sanatoriums; beds available for tuberculosis cases, and the death- rate from that disease reduced from 89 to 50 per 100,000; the typhoid death-rate from 8.0 to 0.8 per 100,000. While the Syracuse demonstration and the Milwaukee results are rather more striking than those in most American cities, a sum- mary of health activities, maintained by the federal government from Washington, by the forty-eight State governments, by the hun- dreds of counties, by the numerous cities, towns, and villages, and by an unknown num- ber of philanthropic and private organiza- tions, would be an almost overwhelming evi- [ 35 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION dence of the importance of health in public opinion.* Such a presentation emphasizes the convic- tion that education should regard health as an integral part of its programme. Why should hygiene and health be so exclusively the re- sponsibility of an increasing number of organ- izations primarily concerned with the curing and preventing of diseases? Why should not education, broadly conceived, recognize the fundamental character of health and formu- late its activities with real regard for the physical well-being of society? The pro- gramme should be positive and constructive. Curing of diseases and prevention of illness should be important incidents of the pro- gramme, but the aim should be health as the guarantee of a sound physique, health as an essential of a clear mind, and health as a basis of character. The community and the individual must *See, for example, the report on health conditions in eighty-six cities, issued by the American Child Health Association, New York, 1925. [ 36 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION be attuned to the principles essential to health. The elimination of insanitary con- ditions would be but a beginning of a work that will “carry on” until the neighborhood has every possible stimulus to physical life. The ideal requires individuals with strength not only to enjoy the performance of their daily tasks but with sufficient reserve to ex- plore new possibilities. Minds should be so alert to the community forces and conditions as to see their relations and to use them for the common good. The abundance of strength should be sufficient to enable the mind to explore, to invent, to deliberate, and to appreciate the beautiful and the good. Why should poetry and art and music and history, and even science have devoted so much energy to the presentation of war and conflict, of the unusual and the strange, of the cruel and the few, of the negative and the ab- normal? Is it not possible for education and religion and all altruistic movements to stim- ulate the appreciation of health in all its varied and basic significance to humanity ? [ 37 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION The remedy for the past indifference of edu- cation to physical welfare is in the teacher’s consciousness of community potentialities in health. Learned and technical lectures on physiology and hygiene are instructive; dra- matic presentations of child welfare and of the conquest of diseases are stimulating; clinics in the school and neighborhood are helpful and impressive; but the appreciation of health in its general influence on individual and so- ciety depends on a comprehensive under- standing of the community. It is therefore necessary to formulate a method of studying community health, so that educators may ac- quire the knowledge needed for the reorgani- zation of educational activities. SURVEY OF COMMUNITY HEALTH The primary consideration in a survey is the selection of a few searching questions re- lating to the vital elements. The elimination of unimportant inquiries is especially difficult in a health survey owing to the number and variety of factors involved. The sources of [ 38 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION information are, first, the usual vital statis- tics; second, inquiries as to sanitary arrange- ments; and third, observation and testimony as to habits, customs, and ideas that relate to physical culture and the value of health in human development. — It is neither necessary nor possible to pre- sent in this chapter technical directions for the prosecution of a health survey. Reference to text-books on physiology, hygiene, and san- itation will provide the points of inquiry as to prevalence of diseases and sanitary regula- tions. Even the brief account of the Syracuse demonstration mentions most of the condi- tions to be considered under these two heads. Unfortunately there is very little recognition of positive health measures to invigorate those who are well, and to stimulate them on to still higher levels of physical vigor. For the benefit of those who are indifferent to the ravages of disease even in civilized so- ciety it is necessary to present a few of the more significant facts concerning preventable illness. Inquiry from the health officers of [ 39 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION city, county, State, or national government will reveal the great social losses from defec- tive physique and avoidable illness. The following statements selected from reliable sources* are startling: Every year more than 500,000 citizens of the United States are slain by germs, and millions of others are laid on beds of sickness and pain by germ diseases that are prevent- able. About 75 per cent, or 16,000,000, of the 22,- 000,000 school-children in the United States have physical defects which are potentially or actually detrimental to health. The more apparent defects and diseases are: mentally defective, 200,000 children; organic heart-disease, 250,000; tuberculosis, 1,000,000; defective eyes, 5,000,000; defective hearing, 1,000,000; malnutrition, 3,000,000 to 5,000,000; adenoids, diseased tonsils, or glandular defects, 3,000,000 to 5,000,000; weak foot arches, weak spines, or other joint defects, 2,000,000 to 4,000,000; defective teeth, 11,000,000 to 16,000,000. The military-draft statistics showed 56 de- *See especially reports of the Health Division, U. 8S. Census; Reports of the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army; and the American Child Health Association, New York City. [ 40 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION fects to every 100 men; 21 per cent of those economically available for military service were found to be physically unfit. In other words 1 out of every 5 young men called was found to be unfit to perform any type of military service either at home or abroad. These amazing facts seem to be unknown to the majority of American people. Com- parison of the losses and suffering presented in these statistics with those of railroad or marine accidents, which stir society to its depths, shows that the results of the accidents are comparatively unimportant. The trag- edies from cyclones and wars are only pass- ing events as compared with the cruel per- sistence and regularity of preventable dis- eases and physical defects. The real correc- tive for this unpardonable indifference is the incorporation of health and hygiene in the very warp and woof of education from top to bottom. The teacher must be conscious of disease ravages and still more conscious of health forces in the country as a whole, and especially in the school community. What, [ 41 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION then, are the approaches to this conscious- ness? The answer is suggested in the fol- lowing sections on vital statistics, health regulations and sanitary requirements, and health as the basis of character development. Vital Statistics—Strange as it may appear, the most definite basis of the consciousness of health and life is in the evidences of sick- ness and death. Vital statistics are chiefly concerned with death-rates. However un- fortunate this may be, it is a fact, and one which should not be permitted to hide the great value of vital statistics, not only as a measure of ill health and of the need for health, but also as a “‘thermometer’’ of so- cial welfare. Years of experience and study of social conditions have led to the conclu- sion that the best available measure of the general status of communities is to be found in vital statistics. Such records must, of course, be interpreted with as much knowl- edge as possible of general conditions. There are undoubtedly other more complete tests of social progress, but as yet they are avail- [ 42 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION able only in a very few communities. Even vital statistics are limited to the more ad- vanced nations of civilization. Health statistics usually present the general death-rate, the rate of infant mortality, the rates for special diseases, and sometimes the average length of life. These rates are of such importance as to require definition and illus- tration: (a) General death-rate is the number of deaths in one year per 1,000 of the inhabi- tants. (b) Infant-mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under one year per 1,000 of such children born in that year. (c) Rates for special diseases are usually cal- culated on the basis of 100,000 inhabitants. (d) Average length of life is the average age of persons who die within a year. The general death-rate for the registration areas of the United States, where death rec- ords are kept, was 11.8 in 1922; for white 11.4 and for colored 15.7. The differences in the rates for white and for colored people re- [ 43 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION flect the widely varying conditions in occu- pations, housing, education, character, and manner of life. Careful study of the basis of computation would doubtless modify the significance of these figures. Intimate knowl- edge of the communities would indicate types of differences which are not reflected in the statistics. With full allowance for all possible modifications, such figures deserve serious consideration as suggestions of differ- ences that should be studied. The contrast of New Zealand and its rate of 8.8 with the United States or Great Britain and their rates of 11.8 and 12.8 indicates social differences that should be understood. Similarly there is real meaning in the contrast of 12.8 for Sweden and 17.5 for France with 20.4 for Spain and 28.4 for Chile. The infant-mortality rate for the United States in 1923 was 77: for white infants, 73; for colored, 117. The infant-mortality rate obviously reflects unfavorable conditions of living much more quickly than the general rate, since infants are the first to suffer from [ 44 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION poor food, and especially from impure milk. Poverty, ignorance, carelessness, and insani- tary condition of the home or the neighbor- hood take their first toll from the very young. The limitations of primitive society are most clearly revealed in the astoundingly high in- fant mortality, ranging from 300 to 600 and sometimes still higher. The total number of deaths in the regis- tration areas of the United States for 1922 re- veals the dangers and losses from certain causes: diseases of the heart, 154,495; pneu- monia, 95,164; tuberculosis, 90,452; cancer, 80,934; apoplexy, 79,362; Bright’s disease, 76,804; and diarrhoea, 36,873. Such dreaded diseases as influenza with 29,277 deaths, diphtheria with 13,657, typhoid fever with 6,981, and scarlet fever with 3,256, seem com- paratively much less destructive of life. The deaths through various kinds of accidents, amounted to 65,263; illness in early in- fancy, 59,406; malformation, 13,534; suicide, 11,053; homicides, 7,788; and alcoholism, 2,467. [ 45 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION These deaths, totaling almost 160,000, con- stitute a very heavy loss from causes largely avoidable. The average length of life in the United States for 1920 was 56.32 years; Sweden, 55.75 for 1901 to 1910; England and Wales, 53.42 for 1910-1912; France, 47.43 for 1898-— 1903; India, 22.95 for 1901-1911. It is esti- mated that the length of life in Europe 300 years ago was only 20 years. Reports indicate that New York City has added 12 years to the average longevity of its citizens since 1866. These four measures of social vitality illus- trate four approaches to the study of com- munity health. They furnish bases of in- quiries in the neighborhood to be considered. The statistical results reveal not only the type of question to be asked but also the usual enemies of health and life in a civilized so- ciety. The order, items, and forms of the survey may be outlined as follows: 1. Official Statistics of Health—The first inquiry should be directed to the officers of [ 46 | HEALTH AND SANITATION health. If they are effectively equipped and organized, the necessary statistics may easily be obtained. 2. Personal or School Inquiry.—In the absence. of official records, serious effort should be made to ascertain similar facts by personal or school inquiry. Patience, per- sistence, and tact in the questioning of phy- sicians, ministers, and undertakers should result in a fairly accurate estimate of the number of deaths, infant mortality, longevity, and the chief causes of death. Comparison of these figures with those of population as reported by the Government Census Bureau will give at least approximate rates. 3. Study and Comparison of Rates.—The significance of the rates for the school com- munities depends upon a comparison with those of other communities or of the nation. At present there are but few among even the highly educated people who have any ac- curate idea of the meaning of a death-rate. Study of the rates should, of course, include an examination of the community conditions [ 47 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION © that cause illness and deaths and shorten the span of life. Health Regulations and Sanitary Require- ments.—It is not possible in this book to name all the numerous public and private health organizations of the United States or of any other civilized nation. Appreciation of health activities, however, requires a knowl- edge of at least the different types of organi- zations, and possibly their number, their ex- tensive personnel, and their large budgets. Some idea should also be obtained of the ser- vices of the medical profession. At the pres- ent time there seems to be a tendency to be critical of physicians on the ground that they have a rather exclusive interest in the curing of disease to the neglect of the prevention of illness. While there is doubtless basis for this criticism, it is important to recognize the re- markable human services rendered by the family doctor. In many respects it is the most sensible, the most effective, and the most humanized of all professional services rendered to mankind. The health survey of [ 48 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION any community should include an accurate account of the work and influence of the physicians. It is not the intention to present a scientific summary of health and sanitary regulations. Some of the more vital rules and inquiries are mentioned herewith: 1. Provision for pure water, good milk, and clean, suitable food. These three elements are obviously basic to health. Progressive communities have enacted protective mea- sures relating to them which should be thor- oughly understood by all citizens. Infant mortality is largely traceable to impure milk. Many deaths and much illness are due to pol- luted water and improper food. 2. Conditions of housing as regards sewer- age and garbage disposal, room space and fresh air for the occupants, water-supply and bathing facilities, protection from flies and mosquitoes. 3. Suitability of clothing and shoes to weather conditions and to comfort in work. There are great losses in physical energy and [ 49 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION in life through a disregard of these simple necessities. 4. Reporting of all contagious diseases to the health department and the maintenance of proper quarantine restrictions. Hospitals, clinics, and laboratories for the varied health precautions such as vaccinations, typhoid inoculations, tuberculosis diagnosis, illness of indigents, instruction in the care of infants. The remarkable results of modern methods of sanitation are among the most striking achievements of medical science and social organizations. Death-rates in some communi- ties have been reduced to a half or a third of those prevailing twenty or thirty years ago; longevity has been doubled; some diseases have been almost eliminated. The New Zealand general death-rate of less than nine, and the infant mortality of only about fifty are worthy to be ranked among modern miracles. Even this progress is, however, only a promise of still greater conquests of disease for which civilized society must strive. Nor can the campaigns be limited to the [ 50 | HEALTH AND SANITATION higher levels of civilization. The influences must be extended to the lower levels, where the losses are still appalling. Indifference to primitive people cannot be justified either on the principle of the “survival of the fittest”’ or the “devil take the hindmost.” In the first place, the method of neglect has not usually worked according to the expectation of the favored class. Plagues have a way of spreading into the higher group. The lower group, left alone, has often not only multi- plied, even though at slower rate, but its increase has produced disease centres dan- gerous to the health, morals, and morale of those far away as well as those near by. There is a compulsion to altruistic endeavors for health that does not depend upon human love. Those who regard themselves as “‘fit”’ cannot retain their handicap by letting the unfit “stew in their own juice.” The only safe method of eliminating the unfit seems to be education adapted to their needs, whether hygienic, economic, mental, or moral. Health Basis of Mental and Character De- [ 51 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION velopment.—Complete appreciation of the social significance of health requires a recog- nition of health as the basis of mental and character development. Gratitude for the cure and prevention of disease and hope for still greater victories of prevention often fall short of the conviction that a sound body is as a rule essential to a sound mind. Here is a field for research that should command the best minds in numerous sciences. Several good beginnings have been made by psy- chologists and sociologists. Students of ethics and religion are increasingly realizing the in- timate dependency of character on physical welfare. Economists are more and more dis- covering that health is an essential of effec- tive labor, wise administration, and resource- ful invention. Consciousness of community health must, therefore, seek to ascertain health possibilities in these various directions. The search is far less definite and more difficult in some re- spects than that for the prevalence of dis- eases and for methods of prevention. The [ 52 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION survey is here concerned with attitudes and convictions, with personal and family habits and customs, and with social provisions for the physical development of physically nor- mal people. It is a field in which students are still only pioneering. The inquiries here- with proposed are merely suggestions of the methods of approach: 1. What are the provisions for physical exercise and the development of health habits? Are they suitable to the needs of the different classes, men and women, adult and youth)» Are they adequate in number and do they reach all the community ? 2. What type of occupations require the corrective influences of physical exercise? What is being done to supply the need? 3. What is the health value of prevailing recreations? Do those in sedentary occupa- tions frequent amusements of a corrective nature ? _ 4. What are the evidences of community sentiment as regards proper food, adequate sleep, and sufficient rest? This information [ 53 J FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION may be obtained in part through examination of the community reading, such as newspa- pers, magazines, and books; in part through a knowledge of public addresses; partly through physicians, ministers, tradesmen, and public officials. 5. What proportion of the community has arranged for a regular health examination } 6. Compile all available evidence to show how far the schools, the churches, the gov- ernment, and private organizations regard health as a basis of mental and character de- velopment. It is probable that much of the evidence on this inquiry will be negative, showing a lamentable disregard of this rela- tionship. Certainly school instruction, ser- mons, and government publications and enactments show insufficient appreciation of health in these higher realms. The “‘tension of modern life’ has recently received much public consideration. Thus Lord Dawson, physician to the King of Eng- land, maintains that the rush and strain of civilized communities are working serious [ 54 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION injury to the physique and mentality of the individual, and the statistical expert of a large life-insurance company confirms Lord Dawson’s warning in the following signif- icant statement: Lord Dawson is unquestionably correct in his apprehensions regarding the mental and emotional effects of the present-day strain. Much of the so-called civilized existence is a rather hectic experience, with often disastrous results upon the highly organized and always complex mental and bodily condition. The fact must not be overlooked that the average person to-day is largely helpless in a struggle with an enormous amount of impressional ex- perience, the immediate and sometimes last- ing effect of which is profound mental con- fusion. The medical officer of another large insurance company modifies the warning by a summa- ry of the well-known medical and sanitary achievements, but agrees that the rank and file of the medical profession are not trained to give advice and direction as to the larger implications of health. [ 55 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY HEALTH An appreciation of the responsibility of education for community health is the natu- ral result of a survey that includes an under- standing of vital statistics, the requirements of sanitation, and the relation of health to the mental and character development of indi- vidual and community. The educator is urged not to be discouraged by the numerous and diverse inquiries suggested. What mat- ters most is an attitude of genuine research and interest in health. Once a real beginning has been made, the interrelations of health and education will develop naturally and proceed to results of great value. For the guidance of persons responsible for the direction of these interrelations, it will probably be helpful to suggest some of the more important methods of realizing health possibilities through education. The four ele- ments of school organization to be considered are as follows: 1. The teaching staff of the school should [ 56 | HEALTH AND SANITATION be sincerely conscious of the health needs and possibilities of the community. Either through participation in the survey or through a careful study of its results, every officer and teacher should know the vital importance of health in community welfare. Such a consciousness is a guarantee that health will be adequately imparted to the pupils. 2. School plant, equipment, and adminis- trative provisions should be planned to im- part the necessary health influences within the school and in the neighborhood. Require- ments in all classrooms include adequate air and light, and every condition conducive to the development of the physique. Other de- sirable arrangements are outdoor classrooms, clinics, laboratories, athletic equipment, and dormitories built according to the require- ments of hygiene and sanitation. The administrative regulations, such as schedule, length of recitations, balance of sedentary and active employments, all have an important bearing on health. The devel- [ 57 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION opment of health habits through school proc- esses, including those of classrooms, dormi- tory, shops, and playground is among the greatest responsibilities and opportunities of education. | The adoption of the “‘project method” of teaching increases the possibilities of relating all activities and subjects to health as well as to the other three essentials. Consciousness of the fundamental elements of community life, as represented by the four essentials, en- ables the teacher to direct the expansion and radiations of a “project” into the various phases of society with the assurance that the pupils will acquire a comprehensive under- standing of the subject. Community essen- tials thus strengthen the project method by eliminating the haphazard approach to which the method is prone, while at the same time providing for freedom of search and em- phasis. 3. Special courses and departments in health, hygiene, and sanitation should be as- signed a time and place distribution in the [ 58 | HEALTH AND SANITATION curriculum, so that every pupil may be guaranteed an opportunity to acquire a real consciousness of community health. 4, Most important of all, health as a com- munity essential should, whenever possible, be the coloring of every subject, of every project, and of every administrative provision from the lowest school grade through the activities of even the colleges and universities. Health as one of the four simples is to share in the resynthesis of education, so eloquently advo- cated by a well-known historian,* for the cor- relation of the grotesque fragments of knowl- edge and training now confusing both teacher and taught. The implications of this recommendation are so comprehensive and searching as to re- quire further explanation and _ illustration. The following comments are merely sugges- tive of procedure and processes for relating health to various gradations and activities of the school system. There is a call for real ingenuity, for patient and wise experimenta- *See Chapter I, page 7. [ 59 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION tion, and for unswerving determination to enable education to carry its full weight to- ward the realization of health potentialities. Elementary Schools.—The elementary grades with their masses of children constitute the most general opportunity for the inculcation of health knowledge and hygienic habits. Even without radical changes in the curricu- lum, the three R’s, occupying the major pro- portion of time and energy, are susceptible of health content of very great value. Consid- erable progress has already been made in this respect by a number of progressive school systems, chiefly in America. The arithmetical processes may be used to convey some of the vital facts of hygiene and sanitation. Even the younger children may count the number of people in a village or town area, such as a portion of a street; the proportion of children; the number of men and women; the number of sick people; the num- ber living in a house; the window space in relation to light and air required by the oc- cupants. Teacher and pupils may obtain [ 60 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION figures relating to food values; the amount of money spent on useless or harmful sweets or drinks; the sleep requirements. Vital sta- tistics with their vital meanings, now practi- cally unknown even by college and university graduates, could be discussed arithmetically in the upper elementary grades. The com- munity gains with sanitation and the losses without sanitation would furnish numerous problems of thrilling interest. Reading and writing are easily adapted to the teaching of health and sanitation. Nor is it necessary to stress the depressing phases of health needs. The cheer and buoyancy of sound physique may enliven the instruction. Biographical sketches of great scientists like Pasteur may be introduced. Lessons in elementary science and their health implications may be given separately or as parts of arithmetic and reading. The simple civic activities of the neighbor- hood may be discovered by teacher and pupils in connection with the three R’s or as special lessons in community civics. [ 61 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Secondary Schools.—Practically every sub- ject and activity in secondary schools may be adapted in such a way as to impart an appreciation of health. The history of Eu- rope and America has numerous illustrations of the tragic need of hygiene and sanitation, even though the records of these conditions are only now being recognized as of histori- cal value. Literature too pays tribute to health, though all too meagre. The ancient classics are possibly richer in health refer- ences than those of the early modern period. At any rate here is a field worthy of search by specialists in literature of various periods, so that the material may be available for secondary education. Social studies, including civics, history, and the records of both public and private organ- izations for social welfare, are fruitful sources of information concerning health. Para- graphs and even chapters of reports issued by the departments of health of cities, coun- ~ ties, and states, both in America and in Europe, may profitably be studied in such [ 62 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION secondary courses as English, foreign lan- guages, or science. The mathematics and physical sciences of the secondary schools are so directly related to medical and sanitary science as to be easily adapted to the teaching of health. Illustrations are scarcely necessary, especially for science teachers. The relation of mathe- matics to a scientific appreciation of hygiene has not, however, been adequately recog- nized. Computation of vital statistics is among the most profitable uses of mathe- matics in secondary education. Colleges.—The present perplexity as to the content and purpose of a liberal-arts college reflects the need for the directive influences of a genuine appreciation of the elements of society, including, of course, health. Pro- fessor Richardson, of Dartmouth College, in his notable “Study of a Liberal College”’ has described the confusion of college practices and policies and shown the value, first, of “capitalizing the interest of the individual; second, of providing a major requiring a con- [ 63 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION siderable portion of the later years of the course; third, of abandoning the principle that acquaintance with certain subjects is an absolute necessity for an educated man; and fourth, the emphasizing of relationships in the field of knowledge, and the essential unity of knowledge as a whole.” These excellent recommendations seem to point directly to the value of the conscious- ness of community as the unifying attitude. The four essentials of community are entitled to serious consideration in the selection of the major research to which the interest of the student is to be guided. As in the develop- ment of the “project’’ now increasingly used in the elementary and secondary schools, so in the expansions of the “major study,” the four elemental simples should be of constant use in determining lines of inquiry and em- phasis. In accordance with this conviction, health as the first of the community elements must be accorded an important place in the formu- lation of college instruction and training. [ 64 ] HEALTH AND SANITATION The present status of health in the college curriculum is not satisfactory. Arrange- ments for athletics and games so abundantly made in some colleges are not sufficient. Elaborate courses for those who are special- izing in hygiene and sanitation as a vocation do not answer the purpose. Community health as one of the determinants of educa- tion should influence the training of all stu- dents. Every subject and every department should be required to make every possible contribution to health that is natural to its content and organization. There is, of course, no thought of encouraging artificial interpre- tations of knowledge toward health interest, but it is urged that college history, literature, science, and college life shall realize their im- plications for health. [ 65 ] CHAPTER III APPRECIATION AND USE OF ENVIRONMENT EFFECTIVE use of the environment in primi- tive society requires the cultivation of the soil for food; manual dexterity in the use of such materials as wood, clay, and leather for habitation and clothing; the conquest of neighbors or a friendly alliance with them. Appreciation and use of environment in civi- lized society include not only the struggle for the necessities of life and the establishment of peace with adjacent peoples, but also adaptation to an intricate economic organi- zation, scientific understanding of natural forces, artistic appreciation of nature, and co-operative relations with humanity of what- ever color or country. In its simplest terms this appreciation involves only the successful answers to the two old elemental and all- important questions of “How to make a [ 66 ] ENVIRONMENT living>”? and “Who is my neighbor)” In its comprehensive implications, appreciation of environment includes the researches and achievements of modern physical science; the principles and processes described in eco- nomics; and the human elements and organ- izations presented in sociology. Whether simple or comprehensive, appre- ciation of environment is essential to effective education. Hitherto school programmes have been formulated without adequate regard for the environment. Recent movements of edu- cation to provide preparation for sound rela- tions to resources and people are significant beginnings in the right direction. Among subjects and courses which have a direct bearing upon the environment are community civics, vocational guidance, social studies, geography, social and industrial history, manual training, domestic science, agricul- tural instruction and practice, applied science, _and nature-study. The increasing prominence of such subjects and activities in the school curriculum is adding much to the effective- [ 67 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ness of education, but not to the extent that appreciation of environment should influence the redirection of school work. Appreciation of the environment as a part of the consciousness of community depends on an attitude of inquiry toward the neigh- borhood; it requires the educator to be alert to the potentialities of resources and people; he must be so aware of the environment as to use every possible school act to fit the pupil to appreciate, to use, and to serve that environment, whether material or human. Such courses as vocational guidance and community civics fulfil only a part of the school responsibility. Many of their lessons can be emphasized in other courses. Some can be better presented in other school ac- tivities. In any case, relations to the environ- ment are of such importance as to require their full influence in the school to prepare the pupil to render the greatest possible service. Important as this appreciation is to educa- tion, its practical value to the teacher depends [ 68 ] ENVIRONMENT very largely on the simplicity with which it can be acquired. As one of the four “essen- tials,’ knowledge of environment must be sufficiently fundamental to be true, and suffi- ciently simple to be practical. The educa- tional approach must begin with the simpler and more obvious elements of neighborhood. In rural areas, it is comparatively easy to ascertain the resources and the population. Agricultural use of the soil is obviously the primary consideration in the open country and the comparatively sparse population may be quickly observed. In urban districts the analysis of the environment is a more difficult task. Even the puzzling variety of city ac- tivities and peoples will, however, respond to the patient and persistent inquiries of the teacher who really desires to relate teaching to the environment. Such terms as environment, neighborhood, and community are the cause of much con- fusion and uncertainty in social surveys and educational recommendations. This is es- pecially true in the analysis of urban condi- [ 69 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION tions. Who is my neighbor? Is it the family in the adjacent apartment whom I have never seen) Or is it the milkman and vegetable farmer who live twenty miles in the country ? Is it my fellow passenger on the street-car, or is it the coal-miner two hundred miles away? The apartment dwellers and fellow passengers are neighbors of contiguity; the milkman and the miner are neighbors through mutual interest. City dwellers are subjected, consciously or unconsciously, to a consider- able variety of neighborly contacts from merely living next door to a family, unknown and almost unseen, to intimate associations with families living in different parts of the city, or even in distant suburbs, but united in some such common interest as occupation, or religion, or recreation, or education. These relationships are in some respects fairly sim- ple and may be discerned by any teacher who resolves to know the social conditions to which education must be related. In other respects they are as complicated and far- reaching as the influences of economic and [ 70 ] ENVIRONMENT social forces, which have long been the con- cern of scientists in all civilized countries. It is important to note that the environ- ment or neighborhood, determined by con- tiguity or mutual interest, as defined above, may include not only those in adjacent areas but also those in distant regions. The inter- dependence of urban and rural peoples should be clearly recognized. City dwellers are too generally ignorant of their dependence upon those who cultivate the soil and care for the animals necessary to the food and milk sup- ply. There is also the dependence of both urban and rural peoples upon commerce, manufactures, and mines. Community of interests has thus become intensive and ex- tensive. The amazing and even startling con- gestion of peoples in ever enlarging cities and the remarkable development of travel, trans- portation, and communication, have brought institutions and peoples together who are strangers to each other and ignorant of their interdependence. What, then, are the inquiries that will re- Laon iy FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION veal this interdependence and community of interests so vital to social progress and har- mony? First are those relating to the ma- terial resources and the human elements of the community; second, those concerned with the attitudes of individuals and community toward these resources and peoples. These inquiries, outlined at length in the section on survey, are summarized in the following ques- tions: 1. What are the physical resources neces- sary and available to the community ? 2. What are the population elements—the number of people, their national and racial origin, their classification by sex, age, and occupation ? The three attitudes toward the environ- ment are reflected in the following inquiries: 1. Does the community appreciate the ele- ments of environment? Do the people un- derstand their dependence upon the physical resources? Do they respond to the artistic qualities of their surroundings? Do they know their neighbors of other races? Have they the opportunity or the interest to search [ 72 | ENVIRONMENT out the worth-while qualities of foreign peo- ples? 2. What are the qualifications of the peo- ple to make effective use of the resources and economic opportunities available in the neigh- borhood? Do they have the mind to co- operate with their neighbors, and especially with those of different race and nationality > 3. What is the ability and custom of the people as regards service to the community ? Is conservation of resources and improvement of the property and people a part of their programme ? Such questions at least illustrate the ap- proach of the educator-who would acquire a consciousness of environment as a basis for his school policies. It is evident that they include the school efforts known as “voca- tional guidance” as well as the age-long search as to “Who is our neighbor?” It is believed that they broaden and deepen the search for vocation to meet the conditions and problems of modern society. An honest application of such inquiries to present con- ditions in America and Europe will reveal the dangers of the urbanization of modern [ 73 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION society, the consequent discouragement of rural life, the futility of centring favors and inventions on manufacturing, the unfortunate neglect of agriculture, and the menace of racial and national prejudice in the hopeless and foolish aim of making all people iden- tical. The most baffling and fundamental responsibilities of America and Europe at the present time are, first, the restoration of agriculture and rural life to their proper place in social organization, and, second, the elimi- nation of racial prejudice and national rival- ries by the substitution of an appreciation of racial diversity and international co-opera- tion. Such a programme must be rooted in school activities that include every phase of education from the elementary school to the university. SURVEY OF RESOURCES AND POPULATION References have been made both to the simplicity and to the complexity of a survey of modern society as regards resources, vo- cational opportunities, and co-operative re- [ 74 ] ENVIRONMENT lations of the population elements. In prim- itive society the survey is comparatively simple, comprising information about the agricultural conditions, the materials required for clothing and housing, and the varieties of tribes in adjacent territory. In colonial coun- tries the survey must also include the eco- nomic, governmental, and social organizations introduced by the foreign authority. In order to achieve the simplicity and real- ity essential to the beginnings of a survey of modern society, it is urged that the inquiries shall parallel those applicable to primitive society. Such a study has some of the advan- tages of laboratory conditions in which com- plicating and artificial elements are removed so that the forces that matter may be more clearly observed. The definitions already given of the terms “neighborhood,” “environment,” and “‘com- munity,” have shown that the extent of the community is determined both by contiguity of residence and by mutual dependence for the necessities of life or other interests. Com- [ 75 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION munity thus defined follows the interest in the necessities of life, whether in primitive society, where the sources of food and clothing are largely at hand; or in the modern rural com- munity, where a majority of the necessities are usually at hand, but where an important minority must be obtained from mines and manufactures at a distance; or in urban com- munities, where the dependence for most of the supplies extends long distances to mines and farms widely scattered. This wide distribution of the resources necessary to the urban community is of prime importance in formulating the survey and, therefore, in determining the responsibility of education. Since the basic elements of food, clothing, and habitation are almost en- tirely derived from the open country, it fol- lows that even the urban survey must include a study of rural production. The artificial and perplexing arrangements of streets, apart- ments and tenement houses, stores and ware- houses, must not be permitted to hide the vital importance of agriculture and mines from urban youth. [ 76 ] ENVIRONMENT Rural Resources.—As the resources of rural communities are thus evidently essential to all types of neighborhoods, it seems best to outline typical inquiries to search out the community resources, productions, activities, and occupations. Reference to the surveys made by government departments of agri- culture and government census bureaus will supply both significant facts and methods of survey. Some of the more important ques- tions are herewith presented as illustrations: 1. Acreage of arable land) What propor- tion is cultivated» Value per acre? Tenure? How much is owned? How much is rented ? 2. What crops are cultivated? Production per acre? Compare with average acreage pro- duction for the country. 3. Compare the proportion of crops used for family food with that used for marketing purposes. 4, What kinds of live stock are kept? Total value? The value of animals and prod- ucts sold? Are methods of care in accordance with improved standards ? 5. What are the marketing facilities ? 6. Is there any form of co-operation in pro- duction, milling, or sale? [77 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION 7. Is the community adequately supplied with such public utilities as roads, railroads, telephones, and telegraphs ? 8. Is the labor-supply adequate and effi- cient? Are conditions of labor satisfactory ? 9. Are such social institutions as the home, the school, the church, medical attendance, and recreation centres sufficiently satisfactory to attract population ? 10. How effective are the governmental activities for the improvement of the com- munity ? 11. What are the esthetic elements of the community? Are they appreciated ? 12. Is the region historically interesting ? Enumerate the historical events of signifi- cance. 13. In what ways and to what extent is the rural neighborhood dependent upon towns and cities? upon mining and oil concerns? upon manufacturing establishments > 14, What is the public opinion as regards conservation of natural resources, such as soil, forests, water-supply, and scenic beauty of the community ? Urban Resources and Activities —Survey of an urban environment, however simple, should recognize relationships determined by [ 78 ] ENVIRONMENT contiguity of residence and also relationships resulting from dependence upon other com- munities, rural or otherwise. The typical ele- ments of contiguous or residential environ- ment may best be observed in the study of prevailing occupations, housing, and such public utilities as street-cars, railways, bus lines, and other means of communication, electric. light and gas, water-supply, and other necessities. The elements of dependence upon other communities are associated with food- supplies, clothing, building-material, coal and wood. A study of the origin of these supplies will largely determine what may be called the environment of dependence. This study of the non-residential environment will have many elements in common with that of the rural districts and mine regions from which the city obtains its supplies. Many illustrations of city surveys may be found to suggest types of questions to be asked. The following suggestions and com- ments present forms of inquiry relating to the activities and resources of an urban unit: [ 79 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION 1. What are the principal occupations of the people? The Government Census Bureau probably reports the number in manufac- tures, trade, transportation, clerical and per- sonal services, professions and agriculture. Observation of these occupations locally should be of great value in the appreciation of the environment. 2. What proportion of the workers are men? What proportion women? children under fifteen years of age? 3. What are the conditions of labor? hours per day? holidays? safety regulations ? 4. What occupations are organized into labor-unions? What are the regulations of the unions as regards conditions of labor, various forms of insurance, training of ap- prentices, and other matters of impor- tance ? 5. What are the facilities and organizations for the vocational development of the youth, both boys and girls) in manufacturing or commercial companies } in mechanical trades ? in home economics? in agriculture? in pro- fessions > in art? 6. To what extent is urban organization dependent upon public utilities? The sur- vey should reveal vital contributions of mu- nicipal systems for transporting passengers and goods; lighting and heating; telephone [ 80 ] ENVIRONMENT and telegraph; water-supply and sewage-dis- posal; police and fire regulations. 7. In what ways and to what extent is the urban community dependent on rural com- munities for food and clothing? on mines and quarries and forests for buildings? on manufacturing centres and commercial com- panies? Study of rural neighborhood and mining conditions is absolutely essential to urban appreciation of environment. Urban and Rural Population.—The popu- lations in urban and rural districts differ chiefly in the density of habitation. The con- gestion of people in the city produces radi- cally different conditions from those of the comparatively sparse population in the open country. There is not, however, the same de- gree of interdependence between types of urban and rural peoples as in the case of food- supplies. The two populations may, there- fore, be studied separately according to ques- tions which are practically the same. 1. What is the population of the com- -munity? Indicate rate of increase and com- pare it with the rate for the nation. [ 81 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION 2. Classify the population according to available census data to show number by sex, age, race, foreign or native born. 3. Distinguish the racial groups so far as possible by their occupations, their literacy, age and sex classification; marital status, State or country of birth; health record. As- certain the contributions of each group to national welfare. Search for their achieve- ments as a race or nation in their native country. 4, Search for any evidence of co-operation or friction between the population groups. 5. Study the residential areas of dif- ferent population groups in relation to each other. EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENT Through the survey, the environment, de- fined in terms of resources and of population, should become a vital reality in the mind of the educator. The natural result should be that school aim, policies, and methods are colored, reorganized, and adapted to meet the needs of the environment. Every school ac- tivity will be expected to contribute directly to the development of sound and helpful atti- [ 82 ] ENVIRONMENT tudes toward the environment. These atti- tudes, formulated in questions in preceding paragraphs, are as follows: 1. Appreciation of the resources and popu- lation. 2. Ability to make use of the environment for self-support and for the normal activity of the neighborhood. 3. Ability to serve the community by con- servation of resources and by co-operation with adjacent peoples. Among the results of such a consciousness of environment will be the recognition of the educational importance of agriculture both to city and to rural youth. Urban schools will help to counteract the indifference to rural life. Rural youth will learn to appreciate the essential value of their agricultural surround- ings to all society. They will thus carry on the realities of education as they were organ- ized by the pioneers of rural America in their struggle with nature. The limited and rather literary sphere of education, as originally con- - ceived and still prevailing, especially in most [ 83 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION of Europe, will be broadened to influence all types of environment. Another result of community consciousness will be a better understanding of the educa- tional values of industrial training and the processes of physical science. Education has been so long associated with books and the art of expression as to seem strange when pre- sented in the form of “learning by doing,”’ or of the creative arts. The increase of indus- trial and technical schools is not due merely to a narrow and selfish economic interest in machinery and construction. It is inspired by a broad conception of the intimate and real relation of industrial activities to the mental, moral, and social progress of hu- manity. Appreciation of neighboring peoples is of especial importance in urban communities where the variety of races and nationalities is threatening the peace of the community. The heterogeneity of population in America and the clustering of small nations in Europe insistently call for an intelligent understand- [ 84 ] ENVIRONMENT ing of people who differ. Education should assist the community to recognize the value of identity as well as the value of differences in races and nationalities. Successful co- operation must be based not only on the recognition of identities, but also on the en- couragement of differentiations natural to races and peoples. The policy of forcing all people into one mould is as impossible and dangerous as the effort to establish social castes with their insurmountable bar- riers. In order to achieve these vital aims, the educational system must be adapted in ac- cordance with the consciousness of environ- ment. The adaptations and reorganizations required are as follows: 1. The teaching staff should be aware of the findings of the survey as well as of the attitudes and results presented above. Spe- cialization of staff preparation should not be so extreme as to exclude a general aDPr eos tion of environment. 2. School plant, equipment, organization, [ 85 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION and administration should, as far as possible, be planned so that the educational activities may be related to both material resources and population. Appreciation of rural life neces- sitates either visits to country districts or practice in field and barn. Home economics and manual training can best be taught in rooms arranged for the purpose. Physical science demands laboratory facilities. While much may be done without machinery and special rooms, it is desirable that the school administration make every effort to provide suitable organization and equipment. For the study of neighborhood populations the school programme should be sufficiently flexible to provide time for actual visitation and co- operation. 3. Special courses such as community civics, vocational guidance, industrial and agricultural training, home economics, arts and sciences are already provided in many schools. Such courses, synthesized under the general subject of environment, can contrib- ute vitally to community education. Exten- [ 86 ] ENVIRONMENT sion movements, including farm and home demonstration, boys’ and girls’ clubs, and or- ganizations of adults have important possi- bilities. ' 4, Consciousness of community resources, vocations, and populations should color all instruction and training that can naturally be related to the environment. Illustrations of successful adaptation may be found in effec- tive schools of almost every grade. The following suggestions are offered for the consideration of those who would realize the implications of a living consciousness of community. Elementary Classes——The survey of rural or urban environment should offer abundant material for the use of elementary classes from the lowest to the highest grade. The three R’s can be almost constantly used in the interpretation of the resources, activities, and peoples of the community. Each ques- tion in the survey can be made the basis of a lesson in arithmetic, reading, or writing. In the lowest classes foods, stores, and peoples [ 87 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION may be counted; pictures may be made and games invented to continue the interest in these simple elements of environment. Each advancing grade or standard can easily pass from the simpler relationships of the elements to the more complicated forms of environ- ment as they appear in the survey or as the teacher or pupil imagines them. Among the typical arithmetical processes are computations of food-supplies, such as milk, vegetables, cereals, fruit, meats, canned goods. The daily consumption may be cal- culated; costs of different supplies may be compared; food values may be reduced to calories; heat and light may be computed in terms of coal and transportation; and such items as clothing and rents may be studied in relation to other living costs. Interesting problems may be formed in relation to the number and value of domestic animals, such as chickens, pigs, cows; also such products as eggs, butter, and milk. Statistical compari- son of the egg production of the country with the value of wheat will add greatly to the [ 88 ] ENVIRONMENT appreciation of fowls. The higher classes may deal with calculations pertaining to the composition of plants and to the larger com- mercial transactions in buying and selling. From food, clothing, and habitation they may pass to the enumeration of peoples and the calculation of literacy, wages, mortality figures of different groups, proportion of chil- dren, occupations, and savings. Likewise reading and writing have almost innumerable possibilities. There are books and magazines describing the remarkable activities of rural Denmark and other parts of the world where agriculture has received proper recognition. Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture, and nu- merous reports from State colleges and uni- versities may be consulted. Literature, an- cient and modern, refers eloquently to rural life. The adventures and achievements of commerce and industry are described in poetry, prose, and historical writings. Un- fortunately such writings are not as numerous as the importance of the subject deserves, [ 89 | FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION but this type of material is worthy of diligent search by teacher and pupil. Secondary Classes—The use of materials and interests related to the environment is as valuable for secondary education as for the elementary grades. Science, mathematics, literature, and history are all needed to cul- tivate an appreciation of the wealth, activi- ties, and peoples of either the rural or urban districts. There is a natural sequence of presentation for such material from the ele- mentary to the secondary grades. Physical science will deal with plant life; the composi- tion of soil, fuels, foods, and clothing; heat and electricity. Mathematics will be neces- sary to explain commercial transactions, costs of production and transportation, movements and proportions of populations. History and literature may describe the value and beauty of the surroundings; the characteristics of the people; the strifes and adjustments of popu- lation; and especially the historic processes through which peoples have worked out present relationships. Effective use of the [ 90 ] ENVIRONMENT facts assembled by the survey will gradually reveal to the pupil the special contributions to be made by him in the use of resources as well as the advantages of genuine co-opera- tion with neighbors of all races. College Education.—The interactions of peoples and resources; the interdependence of urban and rural communities; the efforts to know the real elements of environment; the selection of vocation; the determination to conserve resources and to serve humanity: these are among the contributions of environ- ment to the programme of college study and training. The definite facts assembled by the survey, wisely used by college authori- ties, will eliminate the danger of mere senti- ment. Under the guidance of facts relating to environment every college subject and every college activity may be made purpose- ful. The contribution of physical science and mathematics seems too obvious for further presentation. Recent interpretations of an- cient and modern literature are increasingly directed to reveal the conditions and activi- [ 91 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ties of neighborhood. Historical researches are discovering more and more material con- cerning the simple resources and the daily activities essential to sound progress. Eileen Power, of the University of London, admi- rably illustrates this approach to environment in the preface to “ Medizeval People”’: In point of fact, there is often as much ma- terial for reconstructing the life of some quite ordinary person as there is for writing a his- tory of Robert of Normandy or of Philippa of Hainault; and the lives of ordinary people so reconstructed are, if less spectacular, cer- tainly not less interesting. For history, after all, is valuable only in so far as it lives, and Maeterlinck’s cry, “There are no dead,” should always be the historian’s motto. It is the idea that history is about dead people, or, worse still, about movements and condi- tions which seem but vaguely related to the labors and passions of flesh and blood, which has driven history from book-shelves where the historical novel still finds a welcome place. Thus Bodo (a character described in the book) illustrates peasant life and an early phase of a typical medieval estate; Marco Polo, Venetian trade with the East; Madame [ 92 ] ENVIRONMENT Eglantyne, monastic life; the Menagier’s wife; domestic life in the middle-class home and medieval ideas about women; Thomas Bet- son, the wool trade and the activities of the great English trading company of Merchants of the Staple; and Thomas Paycocke, the cloth industry in East Anglia. They are all quite ordinary people and unknown to fame, with the exception of Marco Polo. The types of historical evidence illustrated are the es- tate book of a manorial lord, the chronicle treatise on household management, the col- lection of family letters and houses, brasses and wills. [ 93 ] CHAPTER IV HOME AND HOUSEHOLD Organized society without home life is as unthinkable to-day as the annihilation of comradeship. The American home is, or should be, the unit of which the state is constructed. As the home is, so will the state become in this and future generations. Concepts of the family may change. Marriage laws may con- tinue to differ as between various common- wealths. But we have no reason to expect that we can maintain a sound community life with- out a wholesome and happy family life. The home is a part and a feature of a scheme of things, and is no more likely to drop out of the human cosmos than is religion or speech. THESE emphatic and virile appreciations of the home by scientific students of human society are much needed to replace the futile appeals of soft sentimentality, and pious plati- tudes, in behalf of that important social unit. [ 94 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD They are needed, too, to counteract the mod- ern conditions and forces that are wrecking thousands upon thousands of households and impairing the effectiveness of many thousands more of society’s most vital institutions. Numerically the homes of the world are far and away more important than any other human organization. The United States of America, with a population of 110,000,000 in 1920, had about 25,000,000 homes. In com- parison with this impressive figure, the num- ber of schools or churches or governments or labor-unions or industrial establishments seems relatively unimportant. It is most un- fortunate that the complexity of modern so- ciety has almost compelled the average per- son to base his judgment of values upon a comparison of single institutions to the neg- lect of the total numbers involved. Thus the school with its large plant, the church with its spires and choirs, the government with its congresses and parliaments and armies, in- dustry and commerce with their staffs and ‘machinery, all seem far more impressive than [ 95 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION the single home. The modern conception of publicity and news, based, as it seems to be, on the exaggeration of individual cases and organizations, has greatly emphasized this unfortunate tendency. Only the dramatiza- tion of a Maeterlinck and the statistical sum- maries of scientists seem to be able to give an adequate presentation of the homes as the very basis of human society. Functions of the Home.—The home is the basic element of the social trinity—home, work, and recreation. The functions of the household include the preparation for work, play, and the general responsibilities of life. Normally, a large proportion of life is spent within the family circle. During infancy the full round of the day is within the home; childhood shares the hours among home, school, and play; adulthood usually reserves a generous third of the twenty-four hours for home, sleep, and rest. Nurture and Care of Childhood.—The pri- mary function of the home is the nurture and training of infancy and childhood. This re- [ 96 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD sponsibility is alone sufficient to warrant the best thought and highest skill of society. The striking variations of infant mortality, as given in the health chapter, show the possibilities of the household at the begin- nings of human life. New Zealand with an infant mortality of about fifty per thousand has evidently attained standards of living that are higher than the United States, which has a mortality rate of seventy-five. The mortality losses of Asiatic peoples are amaz- ingly high, while those of Africa are highest of all. Though the application of health regu- lations is remarkably effective in the reduc- tion of these rates, the influence of the home is probably most vital of all. Nor is this in- fluence limited to the prevention of illness and death. The period of infancy and child- hood largely determines the degree of physi- cal vigor throughout life. The home is there- fore the chief agency for the “preservation of the species.” Development of Individuality—The blood ‘kinship of the household is the natural soil [ 97 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION for the cultivation of the individuality so essential to human society. Family traits are impressed through example and _ precept. Unique qualities of body, mind, and charac- ter are not only given time to grow strong in a favorable environment, but they are stim- ulated and unfortunately sometimes forced to the fashion of the family. Whatever the losses of this moulding to family type, there is the vital gain of differentiations which so- ciety requires for its interest and its progress. The influences of later life will soon enough eliminate family eccentricities and force con- formity to the community type. Beginnings of Social Exchange.—The re- lations and interchanges of the home circle are the practice-ground for the opportunities and responsibilities of adult society. Under the guidance and encouragement of father- hood and motherhood, brotherhood and sis- terhood are established, which later are merged into the relationships of general so- ciety. Within the household, youth has an opportunity to experience the “give and [ 98 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD take” of life, to defend individual rights against the selfishness of other members, to resign supposed rights discovered to be sel- fishness, to be grateful for privileges, to re- spect authority and to be obedient to it, to be co-operative in spirit and action, and to serve and conserve for the common good. Would that the family could more generally realize its potentialities as the practice- ground of social exchanges! Would that the qualities of home exchanges could be trans- ferred to the processes of general society! The humiliations of inequalities and the snob- bishness of equalities would become the wel- comed differentiations of older and younger and the identities of brotherhood and of a united household. Conditions Disrupting the Home.—Probably the most obvious cause of the disregard of the home at the present time is the over- shadowing influence of larger institutions whose individual importance, through size, position, or authority, is artificially and un- - consciously so exaggerated as to eclipse all [ 99 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION smaller institutions, however numerous and vital their contribution. The individual home cannot compete with the authority of government, the moral influence of the church, the educational power of the school, the economic position of business, and the pleasure appeal of the theatre. The ever- increasing multiplicity of institutions, or- ganizations, associations, companies, clubs, and conferences monopolizes the thought and time of the individual to the neglect of the home, reducing it to a place for sleeping and eating. Thus the spell of large institutions and the hectic appeals of diverse organiza- tions have turned attention and interest away from the household. However valua- ble and essential their contribution, they should not be permitted to disrupt the influ- ence of the home. Another evident cause of disruption of the household is the economic pressure caused by the high cost of living and the ever-en- larging wants of the individual, some of which are due to higher standards of living [ 100 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD and others to an insatiable craving to keep up appearances and follow the fashion. Mod- ern waste, especially American waste and extravagance, surpass the power of descrip- tion and even imagination. Most unfortu- nate of all, thoughtless and useless expendi- tures not only mean waste of money and resources needed to maintain the home, but they entice members of the household away to pleasure resorts of a commercial rather than a social character. The economic independence and changing status of women have seriously disturbed the organization of the household. There has been a revolt against the centuries of female subserviency, economic and marital. Man- made laws for the control of woman are being revoked. Social customs, traditions, and even religious sanctions are being critically re- examined and often undermined by doubt and distrust. The inevitable result of the up- heaval is reflected in disruptions of the home. Divorces have been increasing at an amazing rate, especially in the United States, where [ 101 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION the number of divorces has increased from one in twenty-five marriages, for 1900, to one in five marriages, for 1925. Whatever the cause of this dangerous instability, the situa- tion calls for serious consideration by all who have any conception of the vital position of the home in human affairs. Influences for Home Improvement.—Fortu- nately there are evidences that the acute seriousness of the present indifference to the home is being recognized. The school, church, welfare associations, and government are be- ginning to rediscover the essential contribu- tion of the home to society. The movement is still only in the initial stage, when the efforts are confined to tinkering with divorce laws or the correctional efforts of juvenile courts, together with some supplementary trainmg in home-making and parenthood. These movements deserve the appreciation and support of society for their valuable Services. But the situation calls for a much more fundamental interest on the part of all so- [ 102 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD cially minded people. The school programme must provide more effective training of youth in home responsibilities. The church must arouse its membership to a living conscious- ness of the place of the home in the “‘scheme of things.” Government must realize that its safety and progress depend much more on normally functioning households than on armies or industries, or even on the school and the church. Public opinion must be aroused to the conviction that the millions of homes are more vital to humanity than the tens or hundreds or thousands of individually larger institutions and organizations. Here is a call for scientific interpretation of social forces, the marshalling of statistics for gen- eral use, and the dissemination of the sci- entific truths to those who are responsible for the peace and progress of the home. History, literature, science, and art can all use their respective skills in research and interpretation to arouse society to an ade- quate appreciation of the household and the ‘home. [ 103 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Improvement through Training and Labor- Saving Machinery.—The earlier recognition of home activities took the form of school courses in cooking, sewing, and other house- hold arts. These courses have been intro- duced with increasing frequency until now they are fairly general in the best elementary and secondary schools of the United States and Canada. Such courses are still rather infrequent in most European countries. One of the most promising movements in behalf of home training is that of the home demon- stration organized and maintained jointly by the United States Department of Agricul- ture and State governments. The agents of the demonstration plan to visit rural homes to encourage and suggest methods and means that make for comfort and effectiveness of households. Conferences of neighborhood householders are organized for the purpose of exchanging ideas and experiences, but most of all for the cultivation of an interest in home work and home life. American homes have also materially benefited, with [ 104 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD other social institutions, by the inventive skill and enterprise which have produced labor-saving machinery. It is now possible to lighten the load of housework and decrease the daily drudgery. Government Aid and Regulation.—Acutely bad conditions of housing, the increase of juvenile offenders and dependency, and the frequent disruptions of homes through di- vorce have aroused governments to action. Among the more successful provisions of government are those of the juvenile courts, probation officers, and the regulation of hous- ing and town-planning. Divorce legislation seems still to be in a state of confusion. Eccle- siastical authorities emphatically maintain that the legalizing of divorce is a major cause of family disruption. Whether divorce laws are cause or effect, disease or symptom, there is no doubt that the government must assist vigorously in all possible ways to encourage sound home life and an effective household. Interrelations of Home and Other Institu- tions.—The increasing intimacy of homes [ 105 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION with other types of social organizations is a hopeful sign. Public and private health agencies are centring their activities more and more around the home. Recreation as- sociations are studying the household to ascertain the possibilities of co-operation. In- dustrial companies are recognizing the influ- ence of the well-conducted home in the main- tenance of an efficient labor-supply. Country life is directly and intimately dependent upon the farm home. Art appreciation and inter- est can be originated, stimulated and directed with notable results through the household. The basic qualities of character root more vitally in home life than in any other social institution. These interrelations are the es- sentials of the lengthened period of infancy, childhood, and youth which social science asserts to be the basis of the highest culture and civilization. New Status of Women.—Comparison of the status of women in primitive society with that of women in the highest stages of civili- zation reveals radical differences. Woman as [ 106 | HOME AND HOUSEHOLD a chattel, an economic asset, a producer of children, an essential of sensual pleasure, the subservient member of the household, to cul- tivate the ground, to prepare the food, to serve her master—this is the gloomy status too general in the primitive community. There are striking exceptions to the rule, but they are exceptions and not very frequent. Through the processes of centuries changes have occurred, and women in the world now occupy all stages from the lowest to the highest. The new freedoms of women are remarkable in variety and extent. At her best woman is probably the most nearly perfect personifi- cation of the spiritual in human culture. The change in woman’s status, however, has nec- essarily disturbed many old relations. The period of transition is filled with doubts and anxieties. Mistakes are bound to be made. False and harmful ambitions have developed. Imitation of the ruling male has too fre- quently been the aim and guide of the “fe- But the process of [ 107 ] b] male of the species.’ FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION adjustment is progressing. Woman will grad- ually but certainly find the sphere of service suited to her sex and responsibility. That sphere will, in all respects, be equal to that of man, but it will not be identical. The realization of her special capacities—physical, mental, and spiritual—will add vitally to the development of civilization, but nowhere more than in the fulfilment of the functions of the household and the home. SURVEY OF HOMES AND HOUSEHOLDS The survey of the neighborhood homes has all the advantages and disadvantages of dealing with the more intimate affairs of community life. The well-known right of family freedom from outside intrusion should be respected. All possible care should be observed to avoid the appearance of idle curiosity through individual inquiry. The more complete recognition of the home in the community will doubtless result in a better knowledge of its conditions and proc- esses, thus largely eliminating the need of in- [ 108 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD quiry by individual teachers. However, no amount of formally assembled facts should free the teachers from an attitude of genuine inquiry as to the household and its needs. The interest should always be sufficient to stimulate personal observation of the home so far as it is possible. Teachers-and pupils must supplement, by their own efforts and contacts, the facts supplied to them by others. The topics of inquiry and questions here- with presented are based on the discussion of the household in preceding paragraphs. They must be modified to suit the community in which the survey is made. It is obvious that the simpler communities will not require the numerous items suggested; other neigh- borhoods may be so elaborate as to demand a more detailed analysis. The vital fact as regards the survey is not a system of ques- tions nor an array of facts, but an attitude of genuine research toward the home and its welfare. The topics and questions suggested are as follows: [ 109 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Homes or Households.—How many >? Num- ber of persons in them? Average member- ship of each household > How many fathers in all households? mothers? children of school age? children below school age? above school age? How many widowed parents? divorced? How many relatives other than parents and children? How many males in all households ? How many females ? Economic Condition of the Households.— How many wage-earners? Estimate of amount earned? Home owned or rented? What insurance or savings for illness or old age? What proportion of income spent on food? clothing? rent? education? recrea- tion ? Housing.—Obtain facts to show suitability of house or apartment as regards size, air, light, health, privacy, recreation, and ap- pearance. Home Provisions.—What are the provi- sions for cooking, sewing, sleeping, washing, and bathing? for kitchen-garden, flower- garden, and poultry-raising? for reading, music, art, and recreation Household Functions——(1) Nurture and care of early childhood: How successful has the household been in rearing children > What proportion of the children born are alive? What is the status of their health and vigor > [ 110 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD (2) What are the habits and regulations as regards hours of sleep, time of meals, recrea- tion, religious exercises, and co-operation in household activities? (3) What proportion of the daily twenty-four hours is spent in the home? What part of the home time is spent in sleeping, eating, and home recrea- tion? (4) Describe home relations of par- ents and children that assist in development of individuality. (5) Describe the household activities that give experience in social ex- changes of work, play, discussion, responsi- bility, co-operation, and service. Conditions Disrupting the Household.—(1) Eclipse of home by other institutions: What other institutions and- organizations in the community are individually larger than the individual home? How many of them? Compare the space and attention given to them in newspapers and public discussion as compared with references to the home. Com- pare the number and membership of all the households with the number and membership or attendance of schools; of churches; of amusement places; of government. offices; of industrial plants. (2) What evidence is there of financial limitations and distress in the maintenance of homes? How much of this distress is due to high prices? to higher standards? to extravagance in clothing, AS Gh a FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION housing, automobile, or expensive and un- wise amusements? (3) How many women are financially self-supporting? How many of them are married women? What evidence is there of home neglect owing to the outside employment of the mother? (4) How many marriages during the current year? How many divorces? What causes are reported for divorces ? Influences for Home Improvement.—Is there any evidence of reviving interest in homes? What instruction and training in household arts are offered by the schools or govern- ment departments? How generally is labor- saving machinery introduced into the home ? What action is taken by government for the correction of household disruption» Are there juvenile courts? probation officers? Is there adequate housing provision? town-plan- ning? Do adequate commuting facilities exist from city work to homes in suburban district? What co-operation exists between the homes and organizations such as health associations, industrial establishments, rec- reation committees, churches, and schools? What influence has the women’s vote on pub- lic provision for the home? What is the in- fluence of divorce laws? [ 112 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD EDUCATION AND THE HOUSEHOLD Consciousness of the home and the house- hold is the fundamental factor in any plans for overcoming the forces that tend to dis- rupt the home and also for strengthening the movements for the improvement of the house- hold. All the influence of education from the elementary school to the highest levels of the educational system should be enlisted in this important undertaking. The four elements of the school organization that should be adapted to this end are as follows: 1. The school staff should be informed as to the economic and sociological importance of the household in human affairs. The re- sults of the survey should be familiar to those who determine educational policies as well as to those who teach. Those in charge of education should be so conscious of the community homes and their potentialities as to use every possible educational opportunity to assist the households to the highest stand- ards of effectiveness. [ 113 J FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION 2. The architectural plans of school build- ings and the organization and administra- tion of educational activities should provide adequately for imparting knowledge and training related to home life. Dormitories and hostels and the arrangements for sleep- ing, eating, and social exchanges furnish many opportunities for cultivation of habits and ideals essential to the home. 3. The school curriculum should provide the usual instruction and training in home economics and household arts for the girls, and related instruction suited to the interests and responsibilities of the boys. The latter will probably be primarily concerned in the construction of the house, the layout of gar- dens and lawns, the provisions for games and other recreations. Both boys and girls will be interested in the discussion of home func- tions relating to the health, the development of individuality, and the beginnings of co- operation and social exchanges. The more abstract considerations are sufficiently diffi- cult of comprehension to warrant special [114 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD courses for the most advanced college stu- dents. Extension education through home demonstrations in the neighborhood, similar to those maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture, are worthy of consideration as parts of the educational programme. The increasing expenditures of governments and schools in various forms of home demonstration are creating a demand for students with special training for such work. 4. In a sense the whole school should be regarded as an expression of home life. The household and the school family have many activities that are parallel in aim. Among these are the opportunities for all forms of co-operation; the necessity for authority, dis- cipline, and obedience; the adjustment of youth with its spirit of adventure and age with the caution of experience and wider knowledge; acquaintance with the utilities and beauty of the environment, both material and human; and the cultivation of a spirit of service to all. [ 115 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Such activities and relationships in the school should be encouraged not only for their immediate gains to the school family, but also for their influence, both present and future, on the homes and households of the nation. It is essential, therefore, that these activities should be definitely related in the mind of the student to the functions and re- sponsibilities of the home. The present ten- dency to overlook the vital values of the household is partly traceable to the belief that they are to be replaced by institutional provisions of a more effective character. The truth, which should be emphatically im- pressed by school processes, is that the ac- tivities of homes and other organizations should be supplementary and mutually help- ful for common ends. Most important of all is it that education for home and household should not be as- signed exclusively to special courses or de- partments. Every educational stage has some contribution to the knowledge and training required for home life. The follow- [ 116 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD ing suggestions are offered for the considera- tion of those who are directing the various divisions of the school system. Elementary School.—The lowest elementary grades or standards should very naturally merge with the home life from which the children have come to share their time among home and school and play. Numbering, read- ing, writing, and handicraft work will carry on the household interests and gradually add the exterior contacts of school and neigh- borhood. If these processes are conducted not merely as a means of learning the three R’s, but also for the genuine interest of the home, the elementary classes will establish a principle of education that is worthy of imitation through secondary and college period. The exchanges and interactions of home and elementary school can be most intimate and real with very great advantages to both. The more formal relation of teacher and school to the pupil can dignify and systema- tize the more commonplace and intimate in- [117 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION fluence of the home over the youth. Parental advice buttressed by the official approval of the teacher is usually adopted with an en- thusiasm sometimes impossible to the work of the parent alone. It is, therefore, urged that the school shall make every possible provision for co-operation with the home as regards the simple but vital functions of eating, sleeping, recreation, health, gardening, and other household activities. Progressive schools have already established such a policy and devised methods that should be known by all schools. The ingenious teacher can make the modifica- tions required to suit the problems and activi- ties to the advancing age and capacities of the pupils. Secondary School.—Consciousness of com- munity homes and their needs requires much more of the secondary schools than the in- struction and training offered by such courses as household arts, home economics, and do- mestic science. The survey outlined in pre- ceding paragraphs presents fields of knowl- edge relating to the household that include [ 118 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD physical science, social science, history, lit- erature, and statistics. Each of these subjects will from time to time have opportunities to explain the social functions of the home; the problems of adjusting the household to chang- ing conditions; its historical development; the forces now strengthening its position in so- ciety; comparison of the urban and rural homes; the interrelations of home with health movements, recreational clubs, industrial companies, labor-unions, and churches. The study of such topics in secondary classes must, of course, be limited to the most ele- mentary phases. \ College Education—The social problems and conditions, mentioned as the responsi- bility of secondary schools for household and home, are sufficiently important and difficult to occupy the best research talents in college faculties. There are questions of housing and sanitation which combine problems of home and health; standards of living involving eco- nomics and sociology; home development of - individuality and the beginnings of socializa- [ 119 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION tion requiring the help of psychology and so- ciology; marriage and divorce which awaken the eloquence of reformers and the emphatic denunciation of ecclesiastical authority, and stimulate the honest student to earnest re- search. Literature and art are full of the trag- edies and inspirations of love—maternal, fraternal, and sometimes even paternal. At any rate there is ample material for research so that the merely sentimental may be over- looked in the search for the real contributions of the family, household, and home to human development. University Education—Even the special- ists of the universities may well consider the relations of their intensive studies to the home and the family. Most of the profes- sions have occasion to relate their skills to the home. The medical profession is certainly concerned in more than the individual. The elimination of disease involves human beings in relation to each other. Law has always been compelled to consider blood kinship and the contractual relationships of the family and [ 120 ] HOME AND HOUSEHOLD homestead. Similarly specialists in govern- ment, architecture, economics, sociology, agri- culture, and religion will find problems of the family crossing their fields of research and revealing forces that help or hinder the main- tenance and development of the home. [Shy] CHAPTER V RECREATION — PHYSICAL, INTEL- LECTUAL, AND SPIRITUAL RECREATION and culture include a wide variety of human interests from physical games to the highest ranges of the intellec- tual and the spiritual in art, music, litera- ture, and religion. Health, described as the first element of community, includes the struggle for physical existence in primitive society and the realization of the higher po- tentialities of the physique in civilized so- ciety. Use and appreciation of the environ- ment, the second community element, is the search for food, clothing, and security from hostile neighbors in the tribal stage; the or- ganized use of resources and co-operative re- lations with social groups in modern society. Household and home, the third element in community, are the nursing and feeding cen- [ 122 ] RECREATION tres of barbarism and the agencies for culti- vating family traits and conserving individ- uality essential to civilization. Recreation and culture, the fourth com- munity element, completes the round of hu- man interests, whether in the ceremonial _ games and spontaneous play of primitive peo- ple, the universal play instinct of children and adults, the extensive and highly organized amusements and diversions of modern so- ciety, the museums of art and the academies of music, or the authority and inspirations of religious faith and sanctions. Recreation, thus defined, is the instinct of the barbarian to break away from the mere search for food and the satisfaction of existence wants in order to feel the freedom of play and the com- fort and joy of imagined or real contacts with power, grandeur, or beauty. It is the same instinct in civilized man that impels him to expend immense amounts of money, energy, and thought on various forms of recreation, whether physical, mental, or spiritual. In . this comprehensive sense recreation includes [hes FI FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION the mental, moral, and spiritual development of the individual and the community and thus realizes the ideal of re-creation. The very unfortunate conception of recrea- tion as merely amusement and useless play is largely responsible for the failure to recog- nize its vital potentialities to humanity. Even more unfortunate is the customary division of recreational functions into hard- and-fast compartmental divisions such as physical culture, mental development, moral training, and religious life. In accordance with this artificial classification, amusements have been largely left to mercenary interests; the games and play of childhood and youth to the opportunities which accident or chance may happen to provide; physical culture to private or commercial initiative, and some- times to philanthropy or the public school; mental development to the school system; moral and religious training to the churches. Fortunately a truer conception of the indi- vidual and the community is increasingly re- vealing the essential unity of all life. The [ 124 ] RECREATION play instinct, formerly thought by some to be the foolishness of youth, or a persistent form of “original sin,” is now regarded as in a large measure natural, desirable, and essen- tial. Students of criminology are learning that much of the correctional work of prisons could be avoided by proper provision for play. Hygienists are recommending play and amusements for the building up of the body. Psychologists suggest various forms of play for the quickening of mental processes. Di- rectors of community welfare depend largely upon the playground, musical organizations, and games, both indoor and outdoor, for the cultivation of morale. This is strikingly true in times of stress and excitement, when the community life must be lifted to high levels of thought and action. Even these varied activities do not, how- ever, include the full round of recreational influences for the mental, moral, and spiri- tual development of humanity. Joseph Lee, widely honored for his successful advocacy of community service, points eloquently to [ 125 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION these larger influences in the following mes- sage to the American people: The causes of unrest are not economic, but spiritual; not physical, but moral. What we are witnessing is the revolt of men who see life passing away without their ever having lived, who face the prospect of carrying their ideals and their aspirations unfulfilled and unspoken to the grave. Man under our industrial system—an artist given no opportunity for expression, an in- ventor employed as an automaton, a thinker tied to a fool-proof machine—is the victim of disappointed instinct, subject, accordingly, to all kinds of nervous and emotional dis- turbance. It is not personal indulgence, but spiritual ideals he is called upon to sacrifice; not his physical comfort, but his life. The radical remedy for this condition, if it is ever found, will be in making industry once more expressive of man’s constituting instincts, of the lines of life to which he is by nature irretrievably committed. Blessed be those prophets of the future who shall some day awaken us to the truth that itis chiefly in our work that we must live, and shall arouse us to acting upon that truth. Such a vital objective requires not only the effective use of leisure time for the men- ( 126 ] RECREATION tal and spiritual development of society; it requires also the humanizing of all activities for the same lofty purpose. Work, play, art, education, and religion should all share the opportunity and the responsibility of quick- ening the mind and enriching the spiritual appreciations of individual and community. The compartmental conception of recrea- tion, which conceives it merely as a separate act, is thus seen to be a serious limitation of its potentialities. The artificial separation of the processes of character development from the other activities of education and life is equally ineffective. Training for social ser- vice, cultivation of mental and character traits, and recreation should not be limited to special hours, special departments, special experts, or special organizations, whether public or private. All such special provisions may be desirable and even necessary from an administrative point of view, but they should not be permitted to limit these most im- portant of all educational objectives to the exclusive care of any one department, per- son, or association. This conviction was [ 127 ] ! FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION confirmed, though possibly with too much finality, by the late President Wilson in the statement that “conscious cultivation of character produces nothing but that which makes a man intolerable to his fellows, for . character is usually a by-product.” The case for the general and personal influences is well stated by Professor Richardson, of Dart- mouth College:* Fortunately the influence of high character is contagious. There are men who from the force and sweetness of their personality and the loftiness of their outlook are radiating centres of goodness to all about. Most men in their younger years have come into con- tact with such _personalities—personalities whose moral influence has been a lasting one on those with whom they have come in con- tact. The appeal of these men, exercised as it often is year after year upon the hundreds of men who pass through the college, is a power which only those who have experienced it can appreciate. Unfortunately, men who have the power to influence masses are not common, but all institutions have connected with them as teachers, administrators, or un- * “* Study of the Liberal College,” p. 220. [ 128 ] RECREATION dergraduates, men who in their own way and in their own degree possess some measure of it. They are the invaluable members of the college community; to be kept in the circle at all cost, for through them alone can the influence of high ideals and high character be transmitted. The processes of mental and character de- velopment are in so many respects identical with those of recreation as to warrant the acceptance of Professor Richardson’s state- ment as applicable in this discussion. There is evidently a wide diversity of opinion as to the methods of character development as well as those of recreation. It is reassuring to know that there is distinguished authority for methods requiring special provisions as well as for those which depend upon personal influence or the humanizing of work and of other activities. Sound procedure probably requires the adoption of those elements of recreation that can be adapted to the com- munity. Recreation, in the comprehensive sense, should be removed from the realm of ~ accidental arrangement, and based definitely [ 129 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION on the concrete conditions and daily experi- ences of life. In this task it is suggested that conscious- ness of community needs may be a determin- ing factor. Such a consciousness should re- veal the physical defects and weaknesses to be corrected by the recreations of athletics and games, both indoors and outdoors; the mental faculties, dulled by the narrow rou- tine of machine labor, to be stimulated and guided to broader knowledge and keener in- sight; character traits rendered abnormal and possibly dangerous by the irritations and strains of daily contacts to be made normal and socially sound; esthetic appreciations, undeveloped or retarded by vulgarity and ugliness, to be encouraged by the beautiful in music, form, and color; and, most impor- tant of all, spiritual vision, both social and religious, to feel the touch of all humanity and faith in the divinity that rules and guides us all. This conception of recreation and culture places the fourth element of community life [ 130 ] RECREATION far beyond that of mere amusement to be arranged by the mercenary interest of eco- nomic agencies, or a compartmental activity to be provided by the chance interest of a philanthropic or religious association, or even the beneficent influences of rare personalities whose presence In any community is too largely a matter of chance. In view of the importance of recreation, as thus defined, it is surprising that principles and methods of recreation are still unformed. Some, con- scious only of the amusement values, have overlooked the necessity for scientific and carefully considered approach; others, real- izing the complicated, indefinite, and univer- sal implications involved, have feared to un- dertake the responsibility. The essential quality of the approach to recreation is the same as in that to the other elements of community, namely, that it shall be sufficiently simple to be practicable and sufficiently fundamental to be correct. Such an approach includes, first, the main facts concerning recreation in general; second, a [ 131 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION survey of recreation needs and _ activities in local communities; third, the application of educational influences based upon the survey. Agencies of Recreation.—The chief agencies of recreation in the United States are: first, the homes, numbering about 25,000,000, and including practically all the people of the nation; second, the schools, about 270,000 in number, with an enrolment of more than 26,000,000 pupils, maintained at an annual cost of two billions of dollars; third, the churches, numbering about 238,000, with a membership of almost 50,000,000 persons and an annual contribution of $548,000,000; fourth, public recreation centres such as playgrounds, swimming-pools, parks, libra- ries, lectures, museums of art and of nat- ural history; fifth, philanthropic organizations such as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Young Men’s Christian Associa- tion, Young Women’s Christian Association, Knights of Columbus, Young Men’s Hebrew Association; sixth, fraternal societies and [ 182 ] RECREATION private clubs; seventh, commercial amuse- ments, next in cost and magnitude to the total cost of schools and churches. The Home and the Household——The home is accorded first place as an agency of recrea- tion chiefly because it is the most universal of all social institutions and includes prac- tically all the people of the country. While the activities of the households have always included recreations of various types, from the spontaneous play of the children to the daily religious devotions, it seems probable that recreation has not been sufficiently recog- nized as a responsibility of the home. AI- most every home function has an intimate relationship to the pleasure-needs and full development of the household. Food, sleep, rest, and play, which are the major interests of the household are all directly recreative. In pioneer periods and in rural districts the homes were relatively much more the centres of social life than they are now under urban conditions, when family life is so overshad- owed by public play and commercialized [ 133 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION amusements. However valuable and impor- tant the contributions of public amusements and recreation, the disregard of the recreative possibilities of 25,000,000 homes, with their definite relationship to practically all the people, would be a monumental blunder. The School Sysltem.—Next to the homes, the most universal institutions are the schools, of which there are over a quarter of a million in the United States. Their annual cost sur- passes that of the other types of institutions concerned in recreation except the homes, whose total expenses cannot be estimated. The school’s right to second place in its con- tributions to recreation is based not only on its wide distribution and large expenditures but also on the directness with which it in- fluences mental development and character. Important as the school’s contribution in this respect has been in the past, its possibilities for the future are far greater. As education is determined by a consciousness of commu- nity needs, including the needed re-creations required in body, mind, and spirit, the schools [ 134 ] RECREATION will become the most effective public agen- cies of recreation, not only through their own direct contribution but also through their in- direct influence on other institutions, even stimulating the homes to a better under- standing of their responsibility for play and other recreative needs of the household. These extensions of school influence are de- scribed in the last section of this chapter. Churches and Related Institutions.—The in- spirational influence of religion is one of the most potent recreative forces in society. While the avowed aim of churches is the propagation of religion—too often a rather dogmatic interpretation of ecclesiastical be- lief—the actual influence of the churches ex- tends far beyond religious propaganda. The possibility of further application of religious faith to community life is far greater than is now realized. Even on the present rather nar- row basis, the contribution of almost a quar- ter of a million churches, with a membership of almost 50,000,000 people, but little less than half the national population, deserves [ 135 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION to be ranked very high among the agencies of re-creation. Broadened and stimulated by a living consciousness of community -needs, the churches should extend their exhorta- tions and inspirations to the common needs of the masses as well as to the classes of society. Public Recreation Centres ——The interest of municipal and other governmental organiza- tions in recreation has increased with remark- able rapidity within the last few years. The following facts are presented in the 1924 re- port of the “Playground and Recreation Association of America,” whose work is both a remarkable contribution to the cause and a striking evidence of the deepening interest in the subject: The first quarter of this century will go down in history not only for its spectacular discoveries, but for the speed with which theory has been turned into practice in our civic life. Municipal provision for the peo- ple’s play—an idea new to America—has in these few years found acceptance and ex- pansion. Directed public recreation is adapt- [ 136 ] RECREATION ing the old, fundamental instinct of play to the changing current of modern life. In 1900 fourteen pioneer cities were beat- ing paths in a wilderness of municipal sen- timent and procedure. Only fifteen years before, America’s first public play-place—a Boston “sand garden”? had appeared. By 1906, the year the “Playground and Recrea- tion Association of America’’ was organized, forty-one cities had directed playgrounds. Now nearly seven hundred cities report that they maintain public playgrounds and recrea- tion centres under leadership. The covered-wagon days have passed and the foundations have been laid. The struc- ture of America’s public recreation is build- ing solidly ahead, as a city might, from the Main Street of children’s playgrounds and organized athletics to the outlying districts of community music, drama, and art. The year 1925 finds a city’s provision for public recreation a foremost measuring-rod of its progress. It finds recreation facilities also largely determining what the president of the McCall Publishing Company, recently locating a new plant in Dayton, Ohio, called the “‘livableness”’ of the city. The last year in community recreation has been something in the nature of a turning- point. The movement reached a place where Polar FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION it could look backward, take stock of itself, and consider the expansion that lies ahead. During 1924 the national government has for the first time taken an active stand in promoting recreation. The number of State governments adopting and modernizing rec- reation laws has appreciably swelled. To this summary of recent progress should be added other public recreational organiza- tions that have long been in vogue. They are libraries, parks, zoological and_ botanical gardens, art-galleries, museums of natural history. These too have shared in the larger appropriations made by governments and philanthropy. A statement of the capital in- vested and of the annual expenditures would be exceedingly impressive. Philanthropic Recreation Organizations.— The increasing number of recreation move- ments, organized and maintained by phil- anthropic, religious, and private organiza- tions, is substantial proof of the determination of civilized communities to correct the un- fortunate effects of machine labor and the artificialities of modern society, especially [ 138 ] RECREATION those of urban neighborhoods. The follow- ing quotations from an excellent book, “‘The Theory of Organized Play,” classify these organizations and summarize their activities: Semi-Public Promotion.—This type of pro- ‘ motion includes all clubs and organizations having an interest in play from the stand- point of the participation and benefit of its members. Such clubs usually have a mem- bership fee, which must be paid before the privileges are extended. On certain occasions admission is charged, but the purpose of the commercial profit is a worth-while one. The money taken in does not go to individual gain; instead, these fees are used for the up- keep of fields or halls, rental or equipment, and the payment of the janitor or caretaker; or, in case of dramatics and music, they may be used to pay lecturers, dramatic artists, or musicians. Open Groups.—Under the caption of open groups we must include the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Campfire Girls, summer camps, Young Men’s Christian Association, Young Women’s Christian Association, churches, settlements, industrial organizations, certain athletic and social clubs, and miscellaneous organizations where play is incidental. The [ 139 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Boy Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Girl Scouts, and summer camps are recent outgrowths of the play movement whose programmes stress the objectives of character-building and citi- zenship, and thereby give a valuable supple- ment to our school training. Exclusive Clubs —The membership of the organizations referred to as exclusive is lim- ited to a considerable degree, eligibility for the most part being determined by wealth or social influence, and often being dependent on the sanction of the active members. This group at large includes our select civic or- ganizations such as the Rotary Club, Ex- change, and Kiwanis; the fraternal societies, such as Masons, Elks, Knights of Pythias, Knights of Columbus, Odd Fellows, and school fraternities, for the men, and corre- sponding secret organizations such as Eastern Star, Maccabees, etc., for the women; pri- vate schools that limit their enrolment and have a long waiting list; and, lastly, the many exclusive city and country clubs. Informal Games and Play.—The type of promotion referred to here is that of self- promotion. Its scope includes all the forms of play that are planned by single individuals or small groups without a definite organiza- tion. There are always enthusiasts, singly or in company, for such outdoor recreations as hiking, swimming, fishing, hunting, canoe- [ 140 ] RECREATION ing, skating, touring, camping, picnics, and informal or “scrub’’ games; and, similarly, for such indoor play as reading, cards, check- ers, chess, and music. Then there are con- genial groups which will come together of their own accord for dances, lawn socials, card-parties, or parlor games. In a sense, children’s play at home and in the streets is of this type; it is characterized by lack of permanency and direction. Commercial Amusements.—The lavish ex- penditures of all nations on commercial amusements should command the serious consideration of those who are interested in human welfare. The extravagance is un- doubtedly more excessive in America than elsewhere. Even prohibition of alcoholic beverages has not greatly reduced our large bills for luxuries. The book mentioned above cites the following expenditures based on revenue and sales tax for 1921: TYPE OF PLEASURE AMOUNT SPENT Movies, theatres, music.......... $1,121,000,000 AULOMODLIES OU et ki. wenn merrily 2,435,700,000 Chewing Pum et ae ee ke ahs tte 51,000,000 ’’ Candy and soft drinks........... 901,000,000 POUAPCOR IE CoC Ae nek id ed Sa 1,696,600,000 Recreation (public expense)...... 8,858,716 [ 141 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION The comments of these authoritative stu- dents of recreations further reveal the vast proportions of commercial amusements. Ac- cording to their reliable estimates, ‘“‘the mo- tion-picture enterprise is the fifth largest industry in the United States from the stand- point of financial investment. With costs of theatres, pool-rooms, dance-halls, race-tracks, cabarets, baseball parks, pleasure parks, the total expenditures are greater than those of any industry in America—greater than those for wheat, ore, or fuel.” These authorities add: Commercial enterprises, always seeking big dividends, really anticipated and gave oppor- tunity for play before the public was stirred into making appropriations for this purpose. In this respect commercialized play has had a great opportunity; but it has largely failed. It has considered profit first of all, and in catering to the spirit of the modern genera- tion it has fostered amusements that are use- less and vicious. It has specialized in organ- ized thrills that unduly excite the nervous temperament. Too frequently, as in the cases [ 142 ] RECREATION of our movies and professional athletics, the people pay to see the others perform, and themselves assume the passive role of on- lookers. Almost in every instance the public has been exploited in the sense that exorbi- tant prices have been charged in order that the promoters might amass huge fortunes. Commercialized forms of play are both good and bad; and, moreover, many of them that are now distinctly evil influences can be converted into useful artistic forms of play. There is no question but that the theatre, music-halls, and the movies can all be moulded from the standpoints of art, education, and recreation; and many amusements, like pool and billiards, now frowned upon, can be made very desirable simply by improving their environment. Gambling-dens, opium- joints, low resorts, and like places of vicious surroundings, however, have no worth-while function in our civilization, and should be wiped out entirely. These latter influences have helped to mar and prostitute many legit- imate forms of amusement. A _ significant point of commercialized play is that people will pay fancy prices to be amused or for a chance to play. Also, its very extensiveness shows that the playgrounds and other mu- nicipal provisions are still inadequate; and that until the demands are met, there will [ 143 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION always be undesirable forms of commercial amusement. Types and Objectives of Recreation.—The vital and varied values of recreation have been mentioned. The following summary classifies the amusements, games, diversions, avocations, mental and inspirational activ- ities in relation to the recreational ends achieved. The classification is intentionally limited to the more important forms of recreation, and is intended only to illustrate the diversity both of means and objectives. The chief influences of recreation may be classified as relating to physique and health, mental poise and alertness, moral attitudes and sound character, appreciation of the beautiful and the good in nature and hu- manity, and a spirit of service. It is impor- tant to note that the influence of any recrea- tional means, such as athletic games, is not limited to any one objective. Outdoor and indoor games, for example, may re-create not only the physique but also the mind and the [ 144 ] RECREATION character. They may also strengthen social ties, awaken a love of nature, and deepen spiritual interests. Physical Culture-——While physical culture is the special field of all kinds of athletic games, numerous avocations, and even vo- cations, may be so used as to contribute sub- stantially to the all-round development of the body. Possibly the most essential condi- tion of success in physical recreation is the determination to participate actively in some form of physical exercises. The present ten- dency to be passive cnlookers at games and sports is a real menace to civilization. The case for the “daily dozen” aptly states the argument for any system of genuine exer- cise: “If you set out to do the daily dozen, be sure it is the daily dozen you do!” Mental Development.—All education is, of course, concerned with mental re-creations. But the means of intellectual direction and stimulation may include all the diverse means of recreation. Libraries and museums of art, natural history, and science; books, [ 145 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION magazines, and newspapers; lectures and study clubs; motion pictures and radio; travel and conversation—the list is too long to complete. Moral Attitudes and Character—The re- creation of moral attitudes may be as ex- tensive as the daily life and community in- terests. Church and school, field and shop, home and household, gymnasium and camp, theatre and museum—what a wealth of op- portunity and responsibility for moral recrea- tion ! Appreciation of Nature and Natural Re- sources.—Acquaintance with nature and natu- ral resources is probably the most certain corrective for the artificialities which modern machinery and organization are multiplying to hide the realities of the universe. Culti- vation of flower-gardens is no mere amuse- ment; the value of the vegetable-garden and domestic animals is by no means limited to that of an economic convenience; the obser- vation of soils, rocks, trees, butterflies, and birds is no passing fancy. Through such [ 146 ] RECREATION recreations are the wonders of the world revealed to those who would otherwise be stifled by the confusing rush and noise of modern towns and cities. Appreciation of Modern Inventions.—The miracles of modern invention in mechanics and discoveries in physical science have recreational values that should be widely used. The indifference and selfishness with which the new powers and increased com- forts are accepted by society should be cor- rected by study and understanding. Avoca- tional interest in experimentation and manual arts is one form of recreational activity that would contribute to such a _ knowledge. Manual avocations of value include those re- lated to construction with wood or any con- venient material, electrical machinery, paint- ing and decorating. Of equal or greater value to the women are recreations in household and family arts such as cooking, sewing, knitting and care of children. These occupa- tions would be more novel to many women in modern society than grand opera or inter- [147 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION national travel. Their recreational contri- butions to womanhood would doubtless be surprisingly great. Appreciation of Art.—The inspirations of art are needed by all the people. The inter- pretations of life and nature by the masters in painting, music, sculpture, architecture, and literature are among the master forces for re-creating minds dulled or closed by daily drudgery. The people should have an opportunity to be thrilled by symphonies, oratorios, and operas; to be awed into grate- ful appreciation by the great Madonnas and motherhoods of the ages; to be inspired by the sculptured presentations of human- ity. Inspirations of Ideals and Religious Faith. —However widely the wise, the mediocre, and the foolish may differ as to the inspira- tions of ennobling ideals and religious faith, all must agree that inspirations and visions and faiths have always, and will always, con- tinue to be essential to humanity. The in- spirations of poetic visions, as in the follow- [ 148 ] RECREATION ing stanzas, are often almost identical with those of religious faith: O lifted eye o’erlooking earth, O lifted heart that grasps the sky, Thine is the gift of highest birth, Thine the fast hold of things on high. To Thee the things of Time unseen, The eternal vision shines serene. Or the lines of the English poet, Francis Thompson: O world invisible, we view thee; O world intangible, we touch thee; O world unknowable, we know thee; Inapprehensible, we clutch thee! Yea, in the night, my soul, my daughter, Cry—clinging heaven by the hems; And lo, Christ walking on the water, Not of Gennesaret, but the Thames. The place of religion in the re-creation of individual and community is real. A living regard for the unseen and spiritual forces seems essential to the fulness of life. This conviction is strikingly supported by Mr. ‘Bernard Shaw in the statement that “If [ 149 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION religion did not actually exist, it would have to be invented. ... There are probably more people who feel that in Christ is the hope of the world than there ever were be- fore in the lifetime of men now living.” Lincoln’s explanation of his conviction on church-membership probably expresses the attitude of most thoughtful people in the world to-day: “When any church will in- scribe over its altars, as its sole qualification for membership, the Saviour’s condensed statement of the substance of both law and gospel, ‘Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and thy neighbor as thyself,’ that church will I join with all my heart and all my soul.” It is not difficult to understand Lincoln’s “mental reservations as to the long, com- plicated statements of Christian doctrine which characterize their articles of belief and confessions of faith.” .The most tragic of social tragedies is the estrangement of many great and good men from the organized ex- [ 150 ] RECREATION pressions of religion by the rivalries, the an- tagonisms, the hatreds, the bigotry, and the selfishness of those who would despotically impose their own dogmatic interpretations of religion upon others. Thus have schools and governments and art and literature too often concluded to avoid the use of religion and religious agencies in their programme of human service. A way for the educational use of religion must be found. Among the successful illus- trations of such a way is that of Hampton and Tuskegee Institutes, the famous Ameri- can schools for Negroes, where study, work, and religion are integrated into an “educa- tion for life.” Nowhere have the inspira- tional and social possibilities of education been more vividly described than in the words of General Armstrong, the founder of 99 Hampton Institute: In all men, education is conditioned not alone on an enlightened head and a changed _heart, but very largely on a routine of in- dustrious habits, which is to character what | titan FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION the foundation is to the pyramid. The sum- mit should glow with a divine light, inter- fusing and qualifying the whole mass, but it should never be forgotten that it is only upon a foundation of regular daily activities that there can be any fine and permanent upbuilding. Morality and industry usually go together. Subtract hard work from life, and in a few months all will have gone to pieces. Labor, next to the grace of God in the heart, is the greatest promoter of morality, the greatest power for civilization. Didactic and dogmatic work has little to do with the formation of character, which is our point. This is done by making the school a little world in itself; mingling hard days’ work in field or shop with social pleasures, making success depend on behavior rather than on study work. School life should be like real life. Principal Frissell, Armstrong’s successor, deepened and extended the correlation of body, mind, and spirit in education by his emphasis on the mental and spiritual value of work and study, and by his constant ref- erence in prayer and sermon to the realities [ 152 ] RECREATION of the unseen world. Teachers and students of Hampton will ever remember the frequent quotation of that significant verse: “‘Whom having not seen, ye love; in whom, though now ye see him not, yet believing, ye rejoice with joy unspeakable and full of glory.” Principal Booker T. Washington, the fa- mous Negro founder of Tuskegee Institute, and the pupil of both Armstrong and Frissell, became one of the world’s greatest advocates of religion in education. “He realized that the spirit of Jesus is the salvation of the indi- vidual and of society,” said Doctor Wallace Buttrick, the well-known chairman of the General Education Board, in his memorial address on Booker Washington: He thought in a high and large way of the common things of life. He exalted the homely virtues. He saw and taught that the re- ligious life found its true expression not in the ecstasies of emotion, but in the doing of common things right. To him the Kingdom of Heaven was not some far-off thing, but his -own home, his own office, his own school, his circle of friendship. To him the Kingdom of [ 153 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION Heaven was love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, meekness, goodness, faith. His life was conditioned and controlled by the spirit of him who said: “If ye love me, keep my commandments; he that will be chief among you, let him become the servant of all.’’ Citizenship and Social Service.—Recreation for service and citizenship includes all other forms of re-creative activities. In addition, there is recreation through service and citi- zenship. Consciousness of membership in the community and the nation develops a sense of responsibility and purpose in the in- dividual and of unity and strength in society. Community recreations to develop such a consciousness include pageantry and dra- matics, musical festivals and neighborhood singing, common playgrounds and pleasure centres, national and local celebrations of no- table occasions and of the services of dis- tinguished citizens. Study of the historical development of the nation and the discus- sion of social and political issues add to the appreciation of the privileges as well as the [ 154 ] RECREATION responsibilities of citizenship. Thus gratitude for the heroic services of the past begets a desire to carry on the advantages and op- portunities to future generations. Fundamentals in Community Recreation.— Under the title, “Fundamentals in Com- munity Recreation,” the “Playground and Recreation Association of America” has pub- lished a series of twenty-one recommenda- tions, based on nineteen years of experience during which the number of cities with or- ganized recreations have increased from 41 to 711. These “Fundamentals” have been signed by 4,500 leaders in American life. The list of signers includes 142 college presi- dents, 95 public-school superintendents, 42 labor-leaders, and numerous manufacturers, governors, senators, mayors, authors, women leaders, and others. Persons of all occupa- tions, divers political affiliations, and of all the principal religious faiths gave their ap- proval to the statement. 1. That in nearly every community with a population of 8,000 or more there is need ies] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION of a man or a woman who shall give full time to thinking, planning, and working for the best possible use of the leisure hours of men, women, and children. 2. That community leisure time pro- grammes should continue throughout the entire twelve months of the year. 3. That it is the responsibility of the en- tire community to maintain recreation op- portunity for all the citizens and that there ought, therefore, to be, as early as possible, support of the recreation programme through public taxation under some department of the local government. 4. That there should be in every State a home-rule bill which will permit the people of any city or town to make provision under local government for the administration of their community recreation. 5. That there is need in every community, even though the municipal recreation ad- ministrative body be most effective, for private organization of citizens in their neighborhoods to make the fullest use of the facilities provided, to make sure that what is being done is meeting the deeper needs of the people of the neighborhood. 6. That the emphasis ought to be not only on maintaining certain activities on play- grounds and in recreation centres but also [ 156 ] RECREATION and definitely on the training of the entire people in leisure-time activities, so that within the home, in the church, and throughout all natural, human relationships there shall be the best opportunity for wholesome good times. 7. That the purpose in training children and young people in the right use of leisure ought not to be merely to fill up the idle hours but also to create an aeline, energetic, happy citizenship. 8. That even though the beginning of a city or town recreation programme be chil- dren’s playgrounds, other features ought to be added progressively from year to year until music, dramatic activities and discus- sion of public questions, training for more in- tellectual uses of spare time, and other valua- ble activities have been included, so that all ages and all kinds of people may find vital interest. 9. That every boy and girl in America ought to be trained to know well a certain limited number of games for use outdoors and indoors, so that there will never be occasion for any boy or girl to say that he cannot think of anything to do. 10. That most boys and girls should be taught a few simple songs, so that, if they wish, they may sing as they work or play. [ 157 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION 11. That all employed boys and girls should have opportunity in their free hours to enjoy companionship and wholesome social life. 12. That through the community recrea- tion programme every boy and girl should come to appreciate the beautiful in life. 13. That adults, through music, drama, games, athletics, social activities, community and special day celebrations, should find in their common interests the opportunity for a common community service. 14. That every new school built ought to have a certain minimum amount of space around it provided for the play of the chil- dren. 15. That nearly every new school-building ought to have an audilorium preferably on the ground floor, and should be so constructed that it is suited for community uses. 16. That if a suitable meeting-place for community groups is not available in the schools or elsewhere, a community building should be provided through community ef- fort. 17. That each child, under ten years of age, living in a city or town should be given an opportunity to play upon a public play- ground without going more than one quar- ter-mile from home. [ 158 ] RECREATION 18. That every community should provide space in sufficient area for the boys of the community to play baseball and football. 19. That every community should pro- vide opportunity for the boys and girls to swim in summer and, as far as possible, to skate and coast in winter. 20. That every boy and every girl ought to have opportunity, either on his own home grounds or on land provided by the munici- pality, to have a small garden where he may watch the growth of plants springing up from seeds which he has planted. 21. That in new real-estate developments, not less than one-tenth of the space should be set aside to be used for play, just as part of the land is set aside for streets. It is the privilege of community-minded men and women everywhere to work to re- store and preserve for all the people of Amer- ica, and especially for children, their right to play and happiness. SURVEY OF RECREATION However thorough may be the knowledge of recreation activities throughout the nation, appreciation for educational purposes re- quires a survey of facilities and types in the [ 159 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION school community. The inquiry should seek to discover, first, the agencies of recreation and, second, the types of recreation offered by each agency. The following questions suggest the form and arrangement that will probably be practicable in most neighbor- hoods. Homes and Recreation.—Does the construc- tion of the houses encourage or discourage the necessary family recreations? Do the houses contain adequate room for sleeping, eating, bathing, and family association? Are there provisions and space for outdoor play, flower and vegetable gardens, and manual interests? What are the household facilities for indoor games, reading, study, music, and art? What are the family customs as re- gards amusements, reading, study, and re- ligious services ? Schools and Recreation.—Inquiries as_ to the schools may be based upon the methods described in the last section of this chapter. Reference to that section shows that there are four requisites to an adequate plan of recrea- [ 160 ] RECREATION tion, namely: (1) a staff of teachers thor- oughly aware of the comprehensive meaning of recreation; (2) physical equipment and a suitable programme of work, study, and play; (3) special courses of instruction on the sub- ject; and (4) the direction of school subjects and activities so that they may make all possible contributions to recreation. Typical forms of questions to ascertain some of the above facts are: Do the teachers realize that the school programme should be re-creative as regards the physique, the mind, the character, the powers of appreciating the beautiful and the good in nature and neighbors, and the spirit of service? Are play and amusements regarded as merely incidental to education or as a regular part of the school programme? Is the school plant constructed with adequate regard for recreative needs? Churches and Recreation.—What recreative influences do the churches exert for the physi- cal well-being of the individual and the com- munity? The mental development? The - cultivation of character) The spiritual appre- [ 161 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ciation of industry, art, and nature? In what way are religious sanctions and faith recrea- tive? Do the churches maintain institutions for recreation Do the sermons reflect an in- terest in recreations for the daily needs of the people? What proportion of the population are members of the churches? How many are children ? Public Recreations.—What recreation facili- ties in addition to the schools does the govern- ment supply» Compare the expenditures of the local government, municipal or county, on police or jails or asylums with the amounts expended on playgrounds, recreation centres, libraries, art museums, and parks. How many of the twenty-one “Fundamentals of Recreation”’ are realized in the neighborhood ? Semi-Public or Philanthropic Organizations. —How many non-governmental organizations are maintaining recreation activities) Esti- mate the number of men, women, and chil- dren that profit by each of these institutions. Differentiate the recreations of each, show- ing the extent to which they are for the [ 162 ] RECREATION physique, the mind, the character, apprecia- tions, or for civic and social service. Estimate the financial costs for each. Commercial Amusements.—Name the vari- ous commercial organizations for the amuse- ment of the people. Estimate the attendance, distinguishing the number of men, women, and children. Ascertain the approximate amount expended for each form. Show the help or the harm of each activity to the physi- cal, mental, or moral welfare of the com- munity. Adaptations of Recreations.—Throughout the inquiry, it is important to note how well the recreations are adapted to the conditions of the community. Urban peoples are in spe- cial need of rural or open-country influences. Those in sedentary occupations require physi- cal exercise and vigorous contacts with air, water, and earth. Monotony of work must be corrected by opportunities for variations. Observe the forms of monotony or specializa- tions of the prevailing occupations and pro- fessions, and then ascertain what opportuni- [ 163 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ties there are for the workers to counteract slavish habits, narrowing interests, and lim- ited view of life. It is evident that these tests should always consider the needs of both individual and community as regards the physique, the mind, the character, and the appreciations of the good, the beautiful, and the spiritual inspirations of great ideals and religious faith. EDUCATION AND RECREATION The analysis and survey of recreation in the foregoing paragraphs point emphatically to the conclusion that recreation should be the concern of every phase of education. Indeed, every social institution appears to share the responsibility for the all-round development of the individual and the community. To regard recreation as an incident of education, religion, or industry, is to fail to recognize its fundamental value to life. It is believed that the comprehensive con- ception of recreation, herein presented, will largely solve the perplexing problems of [ 164 ] RECREATION character-training in all kinds of schools. According to this conception, the cultivation of character and training for social service become the joint interest of all teachers, of all departments, and of all activities. Ath- letics, amusements, study, research, and the social life of the institution can all contribute to the development of personality and the spirit of service. The process must, of course, avoid artificial extensions of influence by any department or society. The contribution of each activity, of each subject, and of each teacher must be natural and real. Nor are the recreational influences to be left to the chance interest of any person who happens to think of the larger meanings of his department. To avoid such uncertainty it will probably be necessary to make some provision for wise direction and stimulation of recreations in this comprehensive sense. Reference has already been made to the four requisites of an effective plan for the ap- plication of the consciousness of community recreation in education. The administrative [ 165 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION officers of the school system, thoroughly aware of the broad significance of the ‘fourth sim- ple or essential,’’ and genuinely informed as to the results of the community survey, are prepared to organize the educational ac- tivities necessary to supply the community needs. 1. The school staff should be conscious of their share in the responsibility for the full de- velopment of the personality of their pupils. They should understand the relation of their work to the general field, not only within the school but also in the community, and, in- deed, in society at large. Their devotion to their special subject should not exclude their interest in the physical, mental, and moral growth of the students. Through their study of the wide scope of recreation, and through their acquaintance with the facts compiled by the survey, they should be prepared to realize in the school the vital implications of education for life. 2. The school plant and the school organ- ization should be planned with due regard for [ 166 ] RECREATION the recreational needs. Playground, gym- nasium, dormitory, dining-room, social room, club, classroom, laboratory, library, field, and shop should all be constructed and man- aged in accordance with the recreative re- quirements of health, comfort, and beauty of surroundings, the mental and moral de- mands of the students. The administrative arrangements and the time programme should also be based on these requirements. 3. The special courses of instruction, the social and religious organizations, and the activities designed for recreation should be encouraged so long as they do not eliminate or overshadow the recreative influence and responsibility of other elements of educa- tion. 4. The directing and coloring of the whole school programme for recreational purpose should be the aim of all educators. With full appreciation of the special institutions and courses provided to maintain and stimulate recreations, sound policy requires every grade of education, from the elementary period to [ 167 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION the specialized researches of the university, to be so conducted as to contribute to the development of personality. The truth and fundamental importance of this conviction are evidenced by the number and variety of the facts that have compelled its repeated statement in preceding paragraphs. The fol- lowing comments and suggestions are merely illustrative of some of the adaptations that may be made. The resourceful teacher will find numerous adaptations on the basis of survey facts and general knowledge. Elementary Schools—The three R’s, the central subjects of most schools, have numer- ous possibilities for recreation. The learning process can often be made a diverting and joyous action. Traits of mind and character can be re-created from undesirable and harm- ful habits to sound and helpful. modes of thinking and acting. Reckless impulsiveness may be changed into thoughtful and delib- erate attitudes. Regularity, promptness, punctuality, thrift, perseverance, obedience, respect, generosity, truthfulness, loyalty, a spirit of service, and many other qualities may [ 168 ] RECREATION be made to replace the opposite traits injuri- ous to individual and community. Arithmetic may assist in the measuring of playgrounds; computing the proportions of time and money used in various pleasures that are harmful or helpful; and in the evalu- ation of recreative processes of sleep, food, and work. Reading opens wide many avenues to pleasure, rest, and inspirations for young and old. Nature-study introduces the youth to the beauty and benefits of the physical resources. Hand-and-eye training, whether in play, in gardens, in workshop, or in sewing and cooking refresh and renew the body and mind. The other senses—hearing, feeling, and smelling—could almost equally well be in- cluded in this training. The beginnings of the appreciation of the fine arts may be at the threshold of the ele- mentary school, continuing on through the whole of the educational system and through life. From simple drawings, colorings, con- structions of paper or wood or other conve- nient materials, the classes may proceed to the designing, copying, or building of toy and [ 169 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION miniature models of furniture, houses, boats, streets, or any other product of mechanics and art. The rural districts would furnish objects worthy of imitation, such as the mak- ing of a highway and the laying out of a farm, with its machinery and barns and animals. Modern efforts to beautify and humanize both city and country have much of recrea- tive interest to elementary pupils. The potentialities of music in the lower grades, as indeed in the higher ranges of edu- cation, are only beginning to be realized. There are the making of simple musical in- struments, modelling those of primitive peo- ple as well as those of more recent times; the learning of folk-songs and folk-dances that often accompany them; the observation and study of the influence of music in marching, dancing, and in the awakening of patriotism, religious feeling, and group loyalties. Such observations can, of course, only be initiated in the elementary grades; they require the maturity of secondary, college, and even of university study and research. [ 170 ] RECREATION Elementary history, geography, and selec- tions from literature have great possibilities for the proper direction of mind and char- acter. Through these three recognized com- pilations of social data, human experience may be revealed to the youth for guidance and inspiration. Unfortunately the task has in the past been made difficult by the in- ability of text-book writers to find records of facts relating to simple elements that con- stitute the major and fundamental interests of the masses. History, literature, and ge- ography have too largely been filled by the deeds of the “mighty and the aristocratic,” to the neglect of the community “simples”’ that have made and marred both the lowly and the mighty. Even though the mental capacity of the youth of elementary-school age is quite limited, it is important to adapt the lessons of history, geography, and litera- ture so that the masses of the school-children may profit so far as possible by the experi- ences and inspirations of the past. In this connection reference must be made [171 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION to the use of the Bible in the elementary grades. On the basis of its remarkable influ- ence throughout the world, educators are bound to give serious consideration to the methods of using this book, not only for its well-known literary merits but much more for its presentation of great vital truths which underlie character development, social morals, and morale. With the abundance of intel- lectual ability available in modern society, it seems most lamentable that either the bigotry and narrowness of ignorance, or the conceit and indifference of “much learning” should be permitted to discourage or hinder the use of the Bible or the essentials of re- ligion as advocated by Lincoln in a statement already quoted. Such a procedure can be likened only to the futility and foolhardiness of a capable plainsman who insists on climb- ing the Alpine heights without the Swiss guides and the generations of experience which they personify. Quite apart from the validity and value of religious dogma, the churches incorporate centuries of experience [ 172 ] RECREATION in the development of a technic of appeal and influence which educators cannot afford to overlook without careful and extended re- search. Last, but by no means least, of the ele- mentary-school recreational activities are those usually associated with play and vaca- tion, with a minimum of direction and a maximum of pupil initiative. Here is an abundance of opportunities for educational authorities to provide ways and means for the youth to express their interests and their longings; to discover the world as it is; and to realize their individual and social poten- tialities. In gymnasium, playground, park, and camp, they may play the old and the new games and invent still others. In the pupil organizations they may experience the priv- ileges and responsibilities of association on a common level, and may learn the joys and disappointments, the authorities and obedi- ences, the generosities and selfishnesses, the superiorities and inferiorities—all inevitable -and seemingly natural in such self-determin- [173 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION ing associations. For the vacation the school may wisely “‘insinuate’’ a variety of pupil recreations of surprising value. In the coun- try there are the intimate contacts with na- ture: the growing of vegetables, the care of chickens and rabbits, the harvesting of crops, and the participation in the numerous forms of farm life. There are the chores and respon- sibilities of the summer home and camp, the preparation of food, the sleeping quarters, the sanitary arrangements, the beautification of interior and exterior, and the care for the younger children. There are the discoveries and collections of soils, stones, shells; seeds, grasses, plants; beetles, butterflies, moths; fish, birds, and the wild animals. There are the games of the open country, the swimming- hole or the dashing surf, and the hikes through the woods and the climbs of hills and mountains. And there are the intimate life of the family, the free association with friends, and the letters to friends near and far. What a wealth of recreational experience for the coming years of school and community life! [ 174 ] RECREATION Secondary Schools.—Many, if not all, of the recreations begun in the elementary grades will carry over naturally and logically into those of the secondary schools. The maturer ages of the pupils will, of course, require adaptations and extensions, and will make possible the enrichment and deepening of discussions, observations, and experiences. The results of the community survey may be more in evidence to the pupils. The upper grades will be prepared to test some survey facts by their own observations, and to con- sider them in the light of their science and history and literature. Mathematics may deal with the more com- plicated computations and comparisons of expenditures for recreations such as_ the- atres, automobiles, travel, libraries, schools, churches, and public play centres. The cal- culations may include percentages and pro- portions relating to luxuries and necessities of housing, clothing, and food; playgrounds and prisons; education and military. Literature and foreign languages will in- 196} FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION troduce pupils to an extensive field of recrea- tional experiences, including the informa- tional and inspirational presentations of the great classics in all the languages learned. History and social studies will enlarge the in- terests awakened in the elementary grades, both as regards types of recreations and the diversity of nations and peoples studied. The sciences of the secondary school may work wonders and, at any rate, many surprises that will be full of pleasure and rich in many cor- rectional values to body, mind, and character. Household arts, industrial arts, and the fine arts, as they may be taught to the pupils of the junior and senior high schools, are the opportunities to develop many of the appre- ciations of mechanical inventions, industrial achievements, and the inspirations of the masters in music, painting, architecture, and sculpture. Therein are probably the best realizations of “vocational or life guidance.”’ The influence of religion, the potentiali- ties of the vacation, the responsibilities and self-determination of student activities, as [ 176 ] RECREATION they have been presented for the elementary schools, are obviously more applicable with the older boys and girls of the secondary schools. To make sure that secondary educa- tion makes its full contribution to recreation, it is suggested that the policy-makers and teachers test the total influences of the school by the objectives described in earlier paragraphs.* College Education—Culture, in the best sense of that much misused word, is avow- edly the primary and basic purpose of the “liberal college” in America. In the com- prehensive meaning of re-creation, as used in this chapter, culture and recreation are prac- tically the same. The recognition of this relationship assigns to the college a funda- mental responsibility for the all-round devel- opment of personality, and for the direction of social forces toward the utopia of com- munity health, appreciation of physical and human environment, wholesome and happy home life, and recreations that unite daily * See page 144. hit aie gad FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION drudgery and the inspirations of the beau- tiful and the good. The great objective of college education thus described is admit- tedly at present too largely only a utopia of hope and desire, but the means of work- ing toward that end need not be utopian. The objectives of recreation, already pre- sented, are definite and attainable through the processes of education and, especially, through those of the liberal college. Nor will radical changes be required in the content of the college programme. The vital changes will be chiefly those of attitude and purpose in teaching and learning. As, in the elemen- tary and secondary grades, the whole school must be colored with the re-creational pur- pose, so with even more serious intent must the college curriculum and the college life be squared and rounded to the needs of the “eternal individual”’ and the eternal society and their inextricable relationships. If mathematics, physical and social sci- ences, history, literature, art, and the social life of the lower schools can have recreative [178 ] RECREATION meanings and influences, much more can they contribute to the re-creation of the more ma- ture students of the liberal college. The re- searches of mathematics and physical sci- ences can measure the extent of fatigue, whether of muscle or brain. They can help to determine the balance of food, play, free- dom, rest, and diversity required. They may reveal the universe of matter and extend the human control of time and space for the com- fort, joy, and peace of society. Literature and art dramatize both the common and the un- common, and give new meanings to life. History and the social sciences, directly concerned with human affairs, should be adapted to the full for the balanced life of the individual and the community. College researches of early historical records can help to discover the common deeds of the com- mon day, not only for the guidance of col- lege students but also for the use of teachers and pupils in the lower schools. The insis- tent need for such historical material has already been noted. Under the influence of [ 179 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION a living consciousness of community needs the selection and interpretation of historical records may be much more vital to humanity. At present history lamentably neglects the contributions of those who have established sanitation, who have increased the produc- tivity of the land, who have taught industry, who have established the sacredness of the home, who have encouraged wholesome recreations, and even of those who have de- veloped co-operation and made the sterling qualities of character the essentials of peace end social progress. Great nations have been described too largely as the products of strife, wars, rebellions, and revolutions. While these cruel and wasteful processes have un- doubtedly had a tragically deep influence, they should not be permitted to overshadow the patience, persistence, the toil, the in- genuity, the initiative, the skill, the relia- bility, the mentality, the moral character, the organization, and the willingness and the ability to undertake and successfully to carry responsibility—all of which have entered [ 180 ] RECREATION vitally into the making of great and powerful peoples and nations. Such an appreciation of the past is the surest guarantee of wise action and sound attitudes in the future. The social sciences, including sociology, economics, and political science, are extending their researches into the social relationships of mankind in a manner that promises in time to reveal the essential principles of so- cialization with somewhat of the accuracy that characterizes the remarkable findings of psychology. Some day they may even equal the physical sciences and their almost mirac- ulous revelations. The important condition to success in social research is the spirit of inquiry, the open mind, and the inductive approach to the facts of neighborhood and society. As Professor Giddings has warned: “Social studies must be based upon data ac- curately observed, carefully selected, and scientifically interpreted so that attitudes, convictions, and policies may be formulated with full regard for actual conditions. This is the work of a sociologist trained to weigh [ 181 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION statistical evidence rather than the imagina- tions of a sociologizer with altruistic dreams and wishful thinking, or the mystical ab- stractions of a sociologian applying the pre- conceptions of his philosophic deductions.”’ Consciousness of community based upon the inductive surveys of those who will fol- low the sociological method, however ele- mentary, will bring order out of the present uncertainty and chaos as to the purpose of education, and especially as to the objectives of recreation. Thus will the students learn the recreational value of work well done, whether literary, laboratory, household, handicraft, or agriculture. Thus will they realize the futility of the hectic haste of civi- lized society, and even of college provisions for specialized forms of amusement and rec- reation that are often disappointingly artifi- cial. Thus will they find that the real re-crea- tive influences may be in the regular processes of education. With such a consciousness of values, the confusing array of college sub- jects, activities, departments, and organiza- [ 182 ] RECREATION tions will take their proper place in the cul- tivation of character, the development of personality, and the encouragement of a spirit of social service. Athletics will be accorded every oppor- tunity, but will cease to be a dominant and controlling interest overshadowing all others. Scholarly attainments will be recognized as a main function. Experimentation in labora- tory, field, shop, and household problems will all be estimated as vitally educational. Music and art will not be merely decorative and in- cidental. Student societies and student par- ticipation will neither be merely the toler- ated privileges patronizingly granted by age, experience, and authority to youth, nor will they be regarded as the one sure source of wisdom, with the full right to disregard, to deny, and to dominate age, experience, and the authority essential to the whole process of education. The age-long and universal influence of re- ligion will not be entirely relegated to the care of philanthropic organizations invited [ 183 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION or tolerated from the outside; nor exclusively to denominational chapels distributed on or about the college grounds like competitive restaurants enticing the students to partake without money and without price, emblems of the very rivalries that have hindered re- ligion in every age; not even in the college hostels and dormitories under the separate supervision of religious monitors or visiting chaplains will diverse religions be segregated to emphasize the cleavages already too deep and divisive. Religion will be primarily taught and experienced as the natural color- ing of all school work. Special provisions for religious instruction are, of course, necessary, but they should not be permitted to exclude or overshadow the potentialities of all edu- cation for religious development. University and Recreation.—The speciali- zation of university education for the several professions creates an emphatic need for the broadening influence of recreation. One of the great dangers of modern society is the extreme differentiation of occupations and [ 184 ] RECREATION interests. The university is the beginning of this limitation to professional concentration. It is, therefore, extremely important that avocational interests shall be encouraged for the university students. There is assurance, however, in the conviction that even the specialized subjects and trainings for each profession may have recreational values in the same degree as the more general instruc- tion of the college. The important considera- tion is that this shall be remembered and realized as against the inevitable tendency to forget all else and centre on the life-work. It is also true that the life-work, however separate and different in the type of training, has inextricable relations to the life-work of others and to society as a whole. The physi- cian, the lawyer, and the engineer are, first of all, personalities with real and general re- sponsibilities to the community, and they are, secondly, the practitioners of their re- spective professions. These general relation- ships should not be left exclusively to early training, nor even to the preparations of [ 185 ] FOUR ESSENTIALS OF EDUCATION secondary and college education. It has been said that only they are masters of their oc- cupations and professions to whom their work has the interest and joy of play. This is an attitude toward personal responsibili- ties that is worthy of diligent cultivation, but it involves a corresponding diligence to achieve the full round of recreational objec- tives essential to manhood, womanhood, and community life. [ 186 ] INDEX Accretion Method, 3 Adaptation: Necessity produces, 16; rural, 17 Adaptation and Coloring of Education: Health, 59-60; en- vironment, 87; home life, 115-116; re-creation, 167-168 Aims: Defined by educators, 4-10; comparison of, 9-10 American Child Health Association, 6 Antioch College, 18 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, Founder of Hampton Institute, 151-152 Berry School: In Georgia, 18 Bible, 172 Buttrick, Dr. Wallace, 153-154 Churches, 135-136, 161-162 Civilized Society, Essentials of, 21-22 Colleges: Health, 63-65; rural and urban environment, 91-93; home life, 119-120; re-creation, 177-184 Community: Defined, 69-74 Consciousness of Community, 13-18 Dartmouth College. See Richardson Dawson, Lord, Physician to the King of England, 54-55 Education: and community, 1-26; and community health, 56-65; and environment, 82-95; and the household, 113- 121; and re-creation, 164-186 Elementary Schools: Health, 60-61; rural and urban environ- ment, 87-89; home life, 117-118; re-creation, 168-174 Environment: Defined, 69-74 Essentials of Education. See Simples Four Essentials of Education: Synthesis of, 23-24; social or- ganizations, 24-25; social ideals, 25-27 Frissell, Hollis B., Principal of Hampton Institute, 152-153 General Education Board, 17, 153 Giddings, Professor Franklin H., Preface Health and Sanitation, 28-38, 48-51 Jeanes Fund, 18 Koos, Leonard V., 9 Lee, Joseph, 125-126 Lincoln, Abraham, 150 [ 187 ] INDEX Mental and Character Development: Health basis, 29, 30, 51-55; development of individuality and social exchange, 97-99; Chapter V, Re-creation, especially 145-154 and 164— 186 Milbank Memorial Fund, 31 Neighborhood: Defined, 69-74 New York Times, 4 Playground and Re-creation Association of America, 136-138, 155 Power, Eileen, Professor, University of London, 92 Primitive Society, Essentials of, 19-21 Religion, 148-154, 183-184 Richardson, Professor Leon B., Dartmouth College, 63-64, 128-129 Rural Population. See Urban and Rural Population. Rural Resources, 77—78 Sadler, Sir Michael, Introduction School Plant: Health, 57-58; environment, 85-86; home life, 114; re-creation, 166-167 Secondary Schools: Health, 62-63; rural and urban environ- ment, 90-91; home life, 118-119; re-creation, 175-177 Shaw, Bernard, 149-150 Simples of Education, 19, 20-21, 21-22 Social Ideals, 25-27 Social Organizations, 24-25 Special Courses: Health, 58-59; environment, 86-87; home life, 114-115; re-creation, 167 Survey: Of community health, 38-54; of resources and pop- ulation, 74-82; of homes and households, 108-112; of re- creation, 159-164 Syracuse Demonstration, 31-34 Teaching Staff: Health, 56-57; environment, 85; home life, 113; re-creation, 166 Thompson, Francis, 149 Unifying Principle, 11 Universities: Home life, 120-121; re-creation, 184-186; see health and colleges, 63-65; see rural and urban environment in relation to colleges, 117-120 Urban and Rural Population, 81-82 Urban Resources and Activities, 78-81 Vital Statistics, 42-48 Washington, Principal Booker T., 153-154 [ 188 ] a Zo 9° Due ree Date Due es! tet PENA eed on + fora o