wo abies ni Hage ahah §h pi Wie Basa st) Heamtalt ws Nerd ie if rit at hee Ns) ips > Oe pari deepal ; at) eran ate hy ae: ‘ sth a 4 oi ; Na 4 sO tt i He . ao Bea ra Crbenry ane Severe te he a ree thy: Ate WANE Pe hd Nate vied pas ta ant: 218 ALT ‘ eekly aiigy aed vagy eae i ati tant ta) aap ea te TT it He ae a vats i ‘; 4 f Varitek) wig ide a My a Mg mith rte a teria / bE} N 4 AY AN ue: “4 " raw ir we Ae yebar ¥ > meni Sp Whe vere Bet) M4 Pus i isi! hi i i Poaen Ae Lee bt Aa aan : \ pte nye i pod aaa H Re Feet it se iq ir hee deirareed arb bWiakt « Siiosigs as. ae iit arid a ty: + th i! piitatrenns = SES = : He cage an i unanihs Da P| 2s jl a He , Hi ey > } hy f bar i) Hy ‘ i oat : mies hi s ri ee ul AH ee ae y stesere “Shs are meet Se. | if ; dee eure f an Oh il i y 0 Ns ie ‘hai Pa ah Hy i et ? neti: Ca Bae teh ene tO But fara RRR any MAE Hate ee RPE Peanut atte iti Inherit + APL iy y3 Hi Hiss ee DBs * NE tat ' Ft Pall abe f Coc ea Rea a met Ft » iit ie} f ‘ Hirt fay 1g et as awl: botahs A altiel mye Ps pote buys ips Mutant eri dicotee ony re Ly ii! av i es " ant preys! faa + ul 4 Agta’: mat Hint ot chaRl, cbt RATA uate tun Hat arte Ke on is ee oh 2 L Vaheas a ine Tih, Mee ty s ¢ € Aye an ee te, Aled ON Sal vet TS 4 aly au its “4 « AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF Kev ossont sense SOME BEHAVIOR TRAITS OF THE POTENTIALLY DELINQUENT BOY APLHESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE COM- MITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDY IN THE LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE- MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Pd B Y ALBERT SYDNEY 7 Ag IRN May, 1923 ie ok Ren: Py ae Eres eH ACKNOWLEDGMENT With the completion of this study I wish to express my indebt- edness to Dr. Leta S. Hollingworth and Dr. E. L. Thorndike of Teachers College, Columbia University, for introducing me to psychological methods of studying educational problems. They also made it possible for me to accept the Buckel Fellowship at Stanford University, so as to enable me to work under the direction of Dr. L. M. Terman at that institution. I am especially obligated to Dr. T. L. Kelley and Dr. L. M. Terman of Stanford University for providing the facilities for the development of my study and for their direction, criticism, and guidance. As a foreign student in America I cannot but express my sincere appreciation for the generous consideration that was given me at all times by the university authorities both at Teach- ers College, Columbia University, and at Stanford University. This study has, in part, been made possible because of help received from the Stanford Commonwealth Fund. gf ae i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with fundingfrom Princeton Theological Seminary Library * https://archive.org/details/experimentalstud00raub yy VII. TABLE OF “CONTENTS Li Sim erapaleg @ Les Clan) Ger ce Ae ae a Ur nye g A een pls 1 DEVELOPMENT OF TEST MATERIALS AND METHODS. 8 Tests, INSTRUCTIONS, AND METHODS OF SCORING POU VELOCE Drie ee ee ce ck oe ce. ie 22 DESCRIPTION OFLICREERIMENTI od had an tiee nee as nee PREC ORTMOBELES TO OCORES tenn 6 oy aro ed Wen ip cede 59 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF RESULTS? .245.<. 055% 80 AOU TO UATE A VALIDATION) nutetd th teas ot cae or ates hae 101 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. JR ese cs eee ess 104 SUE TOMA PLY oir Oe eae SIR cae a enh Wks. or eb katoi wt seks 106 RAT aT i) Coe “a fi nm b. MU A? dies) tee Be set aT i 2 va . ? ; bees Ley b. oo DEES Te ' aN ~ WZ: C : A ; tia ‘ ol a Aaigartdee - ’ A es t i 1" ; ‘ ¥, ig 7 s i ¢ it 4 1s °7 ¢ ay ; s . ; ; ‘ é t-» ‘ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Statement of the Problem: The purpose of this study was to attempt to devise a method of analysis whereby some of the delinquent tendencies in boys could be determined prior to the overt expression of such tendencies, or rather, before the crystallization of such tendencies and desires into permanent habits of thought and action. Because of the baffling complexity of the many factors that influence the development of human behavior, and because of the almost total absence of reliable experimental methods for the study of personality (when intelligence testing is excluded), it must be stated at once that the development of a method that would yield a reliable and valid diagnosis and prognosis for the individual was beyond the aim and possibility of the present study. The immediate aim was rather the development of experimental methods of differentiation between groups that are known to be stable, healthy-minded, reliable, and truthful (according to the present standards of the school and of society in general), groups that are less stable, healthy-minded, reliable, and truthful, and those that have already become special charges to society, because of their social maladjustment. It is only after such a method of differentiation on a broad, though defined, basis has been estab- lished, that a more detailed experimental analysis of the factors that are prophetic of delinquency within the individual can be undertaken. Of course, it might not be overdaring to hope that even this method of differentiation on broad lines might reveal some of the detrimental factors at work with particular individuals. That, however, is of secondary concern in this study. 2. Review of Experimental Studies of Delinquent Development: The problem of delinquency is but a part of the larger problem of human behavior and adjustment. The study of the nature and 2 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER causes of delinquent development has, therefore, gone hand in hand with the analysis of character and character development in general. For a résumé of the literature of character study in broad out- line it might be well to refer to a recent publication of Cady.’ He lists some of the more important discussions and studies of personality under three rubrics: ‘“T. General studies in character and personality, normal and abnormal. “TI. Lists of traits and their classification; trait rating; systematic observation of personality; statistical methods relative to rating. “JII. Tests and test batteries for the estimation of char- acter traits or personality as a whole.” His résumé is not a complete one; and such studies as those of Galton,? Heymans and Wiersma,®? Westermark,* Dewey,°® Ach,® and Stern‘ should be included. When the literature concerned with studies of delinquency is more specifically taken in review, one fact becomes very pro- nounced, viz., that almost no experimental methods have been developed for the early detection of delinquent behavior. Practi- cally all of the studies have been of a historical or biographical nature, “‘ post-mortem ” analyses of the conditions that were or may have been instrumental in bringing about the development. These studies have undoubtedly been extremely desirable and *Capy, V. M. The Psychology and Pathology of Personality. Jour. of Delinquency, Vol. VII, No. 5, 1922. *GaLTon, Francis. Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development, 1883. *HeyMANS, G., and WuersMA, E., 1906-9. “Beitrage zur speziellen Psychologie auf Grund einer Massenuntersuchung.” Zeitschrift fur Psy- chologie, XLII-LI. * WESTERMARK, E. The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, Vol. I and II, London, 1906. : * Dewey, JoHn. Human Nature and Conduct. Henry Holt & Co., New York. °*Acu, N. Ueber den Willensakt und das Temperament, 1910. “Stern, W. Die differentiele Psychologie in ihren methodischen Grund- lagen, 1911, Leipzig. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 3 necessary before any analysis of potentially delinquent behavior could be undertaken. The following are some of the contributing causes that have been studied : a. Physical and Physiological Factors: While Healy ® recog- nizes the influence that an enfeebled physical constitution may have in the general development of action and thought, he holds that physical measurements are inadequate and unsound as a means of diagnosing delinquency. Kelley ® took very careful measurements of the inmates of the Texas State Juvenile Train- ing School and came to the conclusion “that the delinquent boy . . . lies near the 55 percentile in his physical being exclusive of his physiological development, the 40 percentile in his. sensory and psychomotor” powers. He recognizes with Goring *° the diagnostic value of psychomotor and sensory tests because of the handicap placed upon the defective individual in making the necessary complex adjustments. Goring claims that the criminal is in the main a defective individual. Burt ** claims that ‘‘ measured by the coefficient of association the connection between delinquency and physical defect in general seems relatively small.’” b. Mental Factors: The mental aspects of delinquency have been studied more thoroughly and scientifically than any other contributing factor. This has been made possible through the derivation of reliable test methods. Since the development of the Binet tests of mental ability by Goddard, Terman, Kuhlmann, Bobertag, Burt, and others, into a reliable instrument of mental measurement, numerous studies have been made of the mental make-up of delinquents. While the important relationships between mental endowment and social adjustment is thoroughly recognized by students of the subject, there is by no means ®*Heary, WiiaM. The Individual Delinquent. Little, Brown & Co.. 1915. ®Ketitey, T. L. Mental Aspects of Delinquency. University of Texas Bulletin, No. 1713, 1917. * GorInc, CuHarLes. English Convict, London, 1913. “ Burt, Cyrit. The Causal Factors of Juvenile Crime. British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. III, Pt. I, 1923. 4 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER unanimous agreement between them as to the approximate measure of association. Healy * states, “if, as usually reckoned, all having an I.Q. below 70 are pretty surely feebleminded, then 7 per cent of the total number belong in that category.’’ Goddard’s ** findings, varied all the way from 72 per cent for delinquent girls to 25 per cent for children who are court charges. Such extreme differ- ences might perhaps be explained on the basis of difference of selection. Then, too, Goddard’s examinations were made with the earliest revisions of the Binet Scale. Since 1912 the scale has been considerably improved. Kelley (study quoted previ- ously) estimates that ‘‘ 20 per cent of the boys at Gatesville would better be in schools for the feebleminded,”’ and he adds that ‘ 50 per cent of delinquents are totally incapable of being taught to look after themselves in an environment as unfavorable as the one from which they came.” Fernald reports that 25 per cent of 100 prisoners at the Massachusetts State Reformatory were feebleminded, and that the proportion amongst the juvenile court charges must be still higher. Williams '° concludes after a study of 470 cases that “ approximately 30 per cent of the delinquent and dependent boys included in this investigation are definitely feebleminded.” Burt, in the study referred to previously, main-_ tains that of the delinquent boys he was studying “ nearly 10 per cent owed their delinquency primarily either to general mental deficiency or natural dullness not amounting to definite defi- ciency’; and in a further 25 per cent “dullness or deficiency appears as a subordinate factor.” He goes on to state that “delinquency depends much more closely upon emotional con- “HEALY, Witttam. The Practical Value of Scientific Study of Juvenile Delinquents. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bull. No. 96, 1922. *% GopparD, H. H., and Hirt, Heren F. Delinquent Girls Tested by the Binet Scale. Training Sch. Bul., V, VII, 1911, 1912. Gopparp, H. Responsi- bility of Children in the Juvenile Court. J. of Am. Inst. of Crim. Law and Criminology, Vol. III, No. 3, 1912. “FERNALD, G. G. The Defective Delinquent Class Differentiating Tests. ane Jour. of Insanity, 1912. *Wruiams, J. Harotp. The Intelligence of the edechae ste Boy. Whittier State School, Jour. of Delinquency Monograph No. 1. Vous il. ao EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 5 ditions than upon intellectual conditions, although it is the intel- lectual status of the delinquent that has hitherto monopolized the main interest of criminal psychology.” Numerous other studies can be added to those mentioned above. These, however, are sufficiently representative for an appreciation of the methods and findings of mental tests in their relation to the study of delinquency. c. Social and Environmental Factors: The idea that delin- quency, as such, is hereditary, is no longer generally maintained. Factors that are instrumental in delinquent development, like feeblemindedness, and a poor physical and mental make-up, might, possibly, be hereditary, but delinquency in itself is a social, or antisocial, growth. The studies of Burt and Williams reveal positive association between poor home conditions and delinquency, although it is not known to what extent. Similar home conditions may be in exist- ence in the case of a group of unselected boys who are properly adjusted socially; Fernald '® found that 87 per cent of delinquent girls came from broken homes. The methods of studying home conditions have been very unsatisfactory, and results are hardly comparable. Williams has recently devised a scale for the grad- ing of homes and of neighborhoods '* which makes it possible to get comparable data on the home and neighborhood conditions of widely different groups. 3. Some Specific Test Methods: Apart from these general survey methods of investigation into the contributing causes of delinquency, mention must be made of other attempts at analysis of more specific phases of character. Thus Webb,'® in his study of character and intelligence, attempted an analysis of character by means of tests and trait ratings. 1® FERNALD, GRACE M. Delinquent Girls. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 9, 1915. WitiiAMs, J. Harotp. A Guide to the Grading of Homes; A Guide to the Grading of Neighborhoods. Whittier State School Bul., Nos. 7 and 8. * Wess, Epwarp. Character and Intelligence. Brit. Jour. Psy. Monograph Supplement No. 1, 1915. 6 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER Webb demonstrates that a “second factor,’ apart from intelli- gence, exerts a widely ramifying influence on the side of char- acter. This factor, he states, is akin to “ persistence of motives.” The questionnaire method, used so extensively by Heymans and Wiersma, has been developed by Hollingworth * into a method ° of discovering pathological states of experience with adults, and Johnson *° has in turn developed it for use with children. Downey *' has developed a series of will-temperament tests with the primary object of measuring the relation between tempera- ment and capacities like speed of movement, freedom from inertia, flexibility, speed of decision, motor impulsion, assurance, resistance, motor inhibition, care of detail, coordination of impulses, perseverance, revision. Several investigators have tried out her methods with varying degrees of success. Attempts have been made by Pressey ** to investigate the emo- tions by means of test problems. Kohs ®* has made use of dif- | ferent test devices—association, practical judgment, etc.—in developing an “ Ethical Discrimination Test.” Another promising departure in the field of character study through a test method is that of Voelker.2* He developed tests with a view to getting a measure of the extent to which the social attitudes of boys were being influenced by a course of training in citizenship. His tests are particularly connected with situations of truthworthiness and honesty. In conclusion, the scale of Upton and Chassel ** for measuring qualities of citizenship and general social adjustment may be mentioned. ® Ho_tincwortH, H. L. Vocational Psychology. Appleton, 1917. » JoHNSON, Burorp. Emotional Instability in Children. Ungraded, 4, 1920. = DownEY, JUNE E. The Will-Profile. Dept. Psy. Bul., Univ. Wyo., 1919. Pressey, S. L. A Group Scale for Investigating the Emotions. Jour. Abnormal Psy., 16, 1921. *® Konus, S. C. An Ethical Discrimination Test. Jr. Delin., 7, 1922. * VoELKER, Paut I. The Function of Ideals and Attitudes in Social Edu- cation. Columbia Univ. Contributions to Ed., 1921. * Upton, S., and CHAssEL, CLara. A Scale for Measuring the Habits of Good Citizenship. Teachers College Record, 20, 1919. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 7 4. Considerations for Present Investigation: As was stated in a previous section, the investigations of delin- quent development have in the main been of an historical nature. The general findings of these studies throw a great deal of light on the process of development of delinquent practices. It was the purpose of the present experiment to utilize some of the known facts of delinquent growth in the service of a test method. The following are some of these characteristics that have been noted: a. Delinquents are not a distinct group. b. Delinquency is a term relative to the social and moral standards of a particular age. c. It is an outgrowth of numerous contributing factors. These different factors can be recognized and examined. e. Some of the main factors are: 1. Physiological. 2. Social and economic. 3. Psychological. In the experimental method that was developed in this study, an attempt was made to get some idea of the extent to which the individual acts with foresight and deliberation, whether or not he has some appreciation of social and moral standards, and how he appreciates his own abilities, interests, and capabilities. The method was thus the reverse of the proceedings reported earlier in this chapter. The problem thus resolved itself into the ques- tion of an analysis of the subject as he is now, and in the environ- ment in which he finds himself now. The question was: Does the boy show signs of delinquent interest and practice? If so, can the contributory factors not be discovered in a test situation? COLT Eel Scene DEVELOPMENT OF, TEST MATERIALS AND METHODS SeEcTIon | Factors Involved in Selection and Development of Test Materials A great many of the practices that have been developed and standardized in the field of intelligence testing and educational measurement are of service in connection with the development of character-behavior tests. In the first place, the problem situation has been the main concern in the method of approach in each of these fields of investigation. The ways in which laboratory test situations have been defined and developed may be readily adapted to the needs of an analysis of behavior tendencies. Again, many of the test forms—performance, completion, underscoring, ete.— and administration devices may be utilized. And lastly, many of the scoring and statistical methods may lend themselves to ready use in this other field. There are, however, certain very fundamental differences to be noted between tests of achievement and ability, on the one hand, and tests of behavior and moral development, on the other, regarding: (1) The factors constituting the problem situation; (2) the attitude of the subject toward the test problem; (3) the examiner and the constitution of the test group. These are critical factors in the development of methods for behavior tests. 1. The Factors Constituting the Problem Situation: In the case of achievement tests the problem is framed so as to afford opportunity for the expression of ability and proficiency. The subject is faced with the problem of demonstrating his ability to memorize material; to perform certain operations in arith- metic, writing, etc.; to comprehend relationships of objects and EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 9 statements; to discriminate between colors, forms, weights, words, etc.; to reconstruct a situation when only certain particu- lars are known; to know how situations ought to be met; and so on. The emphasis is in the main on the ability of the subject to perform certain tasks of reasoning, on whether he knows how he ought to act under certain given conditions. The situation in human behavior, on the other hand, is one involving a type or degree of activity or attitude, as contrasted with a type or degree of knowledge; doing a thing, cherishing, avoiding, desiring something, as contrasted with knowing how to perform a task, knowing what is desirable, or why a particular practice should not be cherished. It is the difference between a boy’s knowing all about the consequences of cheating, stealing, or destroying property; or his ability to know how to make correct change, how to play cards, how to drive an automobile, to comprehend a commission, to know the enactments of the law, in one case; and his breaking the law, failing to carry out orders, ignoring speed limits, withholding change, destroying property, stealing and cheating, in the other, in spite of what he knows about the implications of such practices. The problem situation in the character-behavior tests—more particularly in those that concern delinquent behavior—should, therefore, approximate this second state of affairs. It should be a situation in response to which the subject would unfold his desires, preferences, interest in forms of activity, social likes and dislikes, respect or disrespect for the claims of the law and of society in general. To set up a test situation to meet such demands seems to be almost an impossible task. However, it must be stated at once that this distinction between ability and practice, between knowing and doing, cannot be forced to the point of mutual exclusion. Such is seldom, if ever, the case in the experiences of the individual—t.e., when the feebleminded and the insane are excluded from consideration. An understand- ing of the situation undoubtedly influences the resultant response, even if that response were contrary to, or other than, the best judgment of the individual. A knowledge of the claims of the 10 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER law; an understanding of the rules of the game; a grasp of the principles involved in calculation; the ability to reason about the merits of a case, have undoubtedly a far-reaching influence on the determination of the actions of the individual as to the type of citizen that he is; whether it might be expected of him to play fair, or even to play at all; whether he can be trusted to conduct a correct and honest business deal; and whether it could be required of him to give an unbiased and just decision. There is always this bi-polar consideration in every human act, and it is impossible to separate these to the extent of mutual exclusion without destruction of the whole. . Since, therefore, this complementary relationship between ability and behavior in the practical situations and decisions of experience (in spite of the willful subjugation of the one to the other at times) the difficulty of setting up test situations in which more particularly the behavior tendencies of the individual can be discovered becomes all the more baffling, and challenges experimentation. 2. The Attitude of the Subject Toward the Test Problem: How then might the behavior tendencies more particularly be approached in a test situation? The question thus stated causes a second difference to be noted between mental tests and tests of behavior, viz., the required difference of attitude on the part of the subject. This general difference of attitude that is sought will be determined by: (a) The nature of the preliminary instruc- tions; (b) the nature of the test form and the materials involved; (c) the possible interpretation that the subject himself may be inclined to place on the implications of his responses. The nature of the initial “report-attitude’’ of the subject will be greatly influenced by the frank assurance that the situation does not call upon him to “ make good,” to sustain a reputation, to make an effort to excel, to prove his mettle. This is what is emphasized at the outset in the case of tests of achievement, and such com- missions as ‘ We want you to do the very best you can” in no small measure influence the initial “ report-attitude ”’ of the sub- ject. It is just this type of influence that is to be avoided in EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 11 connection with the creation of the test atmosphere of tests of behavior; and on the contrary, an unrestrained, frank, and almost naive attitude and expression should be sought. In fact, no refer- ence to an idea of “making good” should even be hinted at; there should be no factors of circumstance in existence that might create a feeling of suspicion or uneasiness in the mind of the subject. Any attempt to make an analysis of the behavior of a juvenile delinquent by means of a test situation during the period of the court trial bears its certain failure in its method. The same is true to a certain extent of any specially selected group, where the basis of selection is known to the individuals of the group. The materials and the form of the test, too, are of great importance in the creation of a desirable test atmosphere. The materials, in so far as is possible, should be related to the many phases of the subject’s activities and interests; and the stimulus should be one that would set off a natural line of association and response. Considerations of knowledge or ability are to be avoided, excepting in so far as information is sought concerning the attitude of the subject towards his own achievement and abilities, or statement thereof. As for the interpretation on the part of the subject of the implications involved in his own responses, this might possibly be greatly minimized by the avoidance of any reference to what is acceptable or nonacceptable, good or bad, wrong or right; and by the avoidance of such questions as, ‘ What’s the thing for you to do?” or “ What best explains? ’’ when certain statements of ethical evaluation follow. On the contrary, a frank statement about the school, teachers, books, forms of amusement, and the like, would more likely approximate the preferences, desires, tendencies, and actions of the subject. But how is such a frank statement to be secured? 3. The Examiner and the Constitution of the Test Group: The answer to the above-mentioned question involves a third difference between the test conditions for achievement and those 12 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER for behavior traits, viz., the nature of the examiner and the constitution of the group. In the case of mental and educational tests any thoroughly trained examiner will suffice, whether he is known to the subjects or not, whether he is connected with the subjects as teacher or in some other responsible manner or not (there are occasions when a stranger might be more acceptable). In the test situation for behavior tendencies the examiner should preferably be an indi- vidual with whom the subjects are not acquainted, and who is not connected with the school or community-life of the group. Such an absence of a tie of any kind is apt to “ let the lid off,” especially in the case of young children. A knowledge of the fact that the examiner is in no way connected with the school, the teachers, the police organization, and the like, will in no small measure enhance a frank statement on the part of the subjects. Another factor that would contribute to frankness of response is whether or no the subject is tested alone or with the group. Here, again, where mental testing practice would favor an indi- vidual test, a priori judgment concerning a character-behavior test would favor the group method. Pedagogical experimentation has shown that the influence of the group tends to lend a boldness and security in expression, which is exactly what is desired in the test situation under discussion. It is the same influence at work when a lad is bold enough to pin a tail to the policeman’s coat as the gang goes down town. An individual test situation is too personal, and an honest and frank statement upon the part of the subject too embarrassing. The test in a group form removes this barrier of the personal equation. When the constitution of the group is considered, it will be readily agreed that, because of the different social factors that enter into the childhood experience of boys and girls, their conse- quent behavior—especially delinquent behavior—will be partly different, and that therefore the groups are to be tested apart. The materials, too, ought to be different in part. Whether or no the subject will “ come through ”’ when all these cautions are observed may still be an open question, just as it is EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 13 impossible to say that the subject has completely revealed any quality of his in a test situation, whether that other situation is a test of his ability to reason, or to discriminate between objects, to spell a word, or what not. There always remains the possibility for the subject to hold back deliberately, through fear of making a mistake, and the like. This possibility is in no way removed if the afore-mentioned cautions are observed, but there are grounds —actual trying out of different methods—for believing that a feigned response will seldom, if ever, be sustained throughout, especially when the test covers a wide range and great number of items. Children are, on the whole, as frank and open in their expression as the occasion demands. The test development and the experiment reported hereafter constituted an effort to set up a test situation where the controls and considerations discussed above were observed as carefully as possible. SecTIon II Procedure Adopted for Obtaining Materials and Developing Test Forms A survey of the tests that have been developed for the purpose of character analysis, with a view more especially to the discovery of the onset and development of delinquent practices, and tests that would meet the considerations discussed in the previous section and in Chapter I, proved that few, if any, such existed. It was therefore thought best to make a bold attempt to develop some exercises that might more closely approximate an instru- ment for detecting differences of character tendencies, and more particularly for the development of practices that are questionable for, and injurious to, the best interests of the individual concerned. Two factors were of chief concern in this undertaking: (a) The materials that would be of significance in bringing out the delin- quent interests; and (b) the form in which these materials had to be clad to constitute a natural and legitimate test situation. (a) In order to get a clue to some of the many factors and situations that are instrumental in bringing about a critical depar- 14 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER ture toward delinquent development, a study was made of the literature on the subject, and the most significant and recurrent critical incidents, situations, and circumstances noted, that had acted as stimuli for setting off a line of action and interest, which ultimately led to delinquent practices. The literature covered . included the studies of investigators like Healy, Fernald, Goddard, Kelley, Williams, Bronner, Porteus, Tredgold, Burt, and others; reported case histories; reports of the National Committee for Mental Hygiene; the case history files at Whittier State School; clinical discussions; and the reports of probation officers and juvenile court judges. The following are among the most prominent factors reported (leaving out of consideration the matter of mental deficiency). They are given here at random; no special significance should be attached to the order in which they are listed; also no one factor is exclusive of the influence of any of the others. 1. Associates—gang type, older, wealthier, hoboes, hard- boiled, indifferent, coarse. 2. Movies—and in no small measure the advertisement posters. 3. Books and papers, pictures—especially related to sex matters. 4. Home conditions and relationships—relation of parents to one another and to their children; type of super- vision; doing chores; enforced religious observances ; lack of congenial social life. 5. Economic factors—desire for having own money to spend; working without tangible remuneration; ease of borrowing; ease of getting a job; easy use of checks; scant provision in the home; too much pocket money. 6. Wanderlust—ease of getting lifts on passing automo- biles and on freight trains; lure of getting to the crowds of the city and to the country. 7. School conditions—class work poorly adjusted to abil- ity; unsympathetic teachers; exacting discipline. — EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 15 8. Amusement places—shooting gallery, circus, poolroom, bowling alley, peep shows. 9, Early responsibilities and duties—selling papers, mes- senger boys, office boys. 10. Contact with the demands of law and discipline— rowdyism, vagrancy, smoking, prohibition, school attendance, respect for property. 11. Sex appeal—perversions; illicit practices. 12. Athletics—lack of healthy recreation; no playgrounds; poor type of physical directors; wrong information con- cerning Boy Scouts and boys’ clubs. 13. Physical conditions—undirected regarding habits of cleanliness; undernourishment; no medical care. 14. Emotional instability—explosive temper. In considering the above factors it must be noted that no single factor ever seemed to operate singly as an only cause for delin- quent development; many factors combined in various degrees, the one lending impetus to the other, acted as contributory influ- ences. Broken homes, in the widest sense, was perhaps the most outstanding feature noted, and poor adjustment in the school next, with a yearning for economic independence following closely. Another fact, important for the detection and prevention of delinquent development, became evident from the analysis of the case histories recorded, viz., that while a boy was apprehended before a court or social agency on a certain date for some or other misdemeanor, the beginning of the final undoing could be definitely traced back to a crucial experience with some of the above-men- tioned factors a year or two previously. The final move was but the breaking point of a wave, swept up from many angles further back. It is also important to note that while the age distribution of apprehended juvenile delinquents ranges all the way from five years upwards, the mode seems to fall around thirteen and fourteen. (b) Selection of test forms: In order to approximate the test 16 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER situation described in the first section of this chapter, it was decided to select such problems as would throw light upon the following questions: (1) To what extent does the boy readily seize upon a chance to appear as having exceptional book knowl- edge, but falsely so? (2) To what extent will the boy seize upon . an opportunity to appear as being well informed concerning a wide range of facts, and as having thoroughly mastered a variety of activities, when that is not the case? (3) What is the persistent trend in the choice of his associates? To what extent is his choice characterized by an interest in questionable and harmful determinants? (4) What is the trend of his interests in various forms of activity? To what extent are they antisocial or ques- tionable socially? (5) What is the habitual reaction to different social and educational institutions, like the school, the home, Boy Scouts, etc.? To what extent do they reveal questionable judg- ment? Questionable adjustment? (6) To what extent does the boy recognize the harmful results of antisocial practices? In how far does his judgment harmonize with accepted social stand- ards? The emphasis in all these questions is on the nature and extent of an interest in and preference for matters questionable for the healthy development of the boy, and on his habitual reaction to his own abilities and range of information. Test I—Books Read: (¥or this and succeeding tests and instruc- tions, see Chapter III, pp. 22-47. In Test I an answer was sought to question 1 raised above, viz., To what extent does the subject give a false impression of his literary interests? The idea was taken from Franzen’s experi- ment * for intellectual honesty, and was developed in conjunction with Dr. G. M. Ruch, Iowa State University, into a form suitable for boys. The subject had to mark from a list of fifty books, divided into two forms of twenty-five each, those books which he is supposed to have read, no matter how long ago. Twenty fictitious titles were included in the list, titles which are more or * FRANZEN, RAayMOND. Measurement of Non-intellectual Aspects of Behavior. Proceedings of First Am. Conference of Ed. Research and Guid- ance, San José State Teachers College Bul., 1922. ‘ EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 17 less of the same descriptive character as the rest. The particular object in doing this was to find out how many of these fictitious books would be marked by the subject, it being thought that such a misstatement on the part of the subject might be an index to his mental honesty. Franzen found that “ one-third of the teach- ers of a typical school somewhere in the Middle West showed unmistakable signs of such mental or intellectual dishonesty.” Test II—Character Preference: The second test was an attempt at an answer in part to ques- tions 3, 4, and 5 (pp. 30, 31), with an emphasis on choice of associates. The idea and the method are practically the same as those of the first test. In this case sixteen character descriptions were developed into two forms of eight each. Different types of boys were selected, and they were described in a very concise and simple manner in terms of their activities and interests; these activities and interests cover a wide range of actual conditions and experiences of boyhood, and they were combined in a varied manner so as to form a graduated series of questionable or desir- able influences. Any reference as to whether a character was good or bad was carefully avoided in the descriptions; a bare statement of supposed facts was all that was given. It might be stated that some of the characters thus described were approx- imations of types and stages reported in case histories of delin- quent development. The full-fledged culprit, as he appears in court, was obviously excluded from the list, especially the sex offender. The task for the subject here was to rank the characters in the order in which he would like to associate with them as chums or pals. It was not a hard task, nor was it foreign to the experience of the boy. He goes about the playground, the street, and the home every day lining himself up with other boys just because of the specific activities in which they are engaged, and the plans that they are developing. Whether or not the boy would be honest about his stated choice is a moot question. All that can be said at this point is that the results showed remarkable differentiation between the rankings of different subjects. 18 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER Test III—Reading Preference: Test III was developed for the purpose of answering questions 3, 4, and 5 in part (page 32), concerning the attitude of the individual toward associates, activities, and institutions. The instrument for the presentation of the test problem again | was book titles. Twenty book titles, all specially created, each title suggesting some phase of boyhood activity, questionable and otherwise, as forming the theme of the book, were presented to the subject in two comparable forms of ten each. The subject was asked to indicate the order in which he would care to read the books. The question of whether the boy reads or not was of no con- cern. It was rather to the nature of the activity, clad in the form of a title, and suggestive of the development of the supposed story (such as is the case with very many actual boys’ books, and especially true of movies) that the subject was sought to respond. It is a matter of common experience to find books selected on that basis. The task here was one akin to the everyday experiences of the subject, and it is doubtful whether its implications would be guessed at all by very many ina group. When judged from the results, the number that definitely detected the implications was very small indeed. Test IV—Activity Preference: This test was developed also to throw light on questions 3, 4, and 5 (page 33)—wmore particularly question 4, the matter of the boy’s activity preferences. From the literature of delinquent development, more particularly from the Whittier social case histories, incidents were chosen which had actually been points of departure in the delinquent development of many boys, and were grouped in sets of three ; two of the three activities were ques- tionable for the social development of a boy, if participated in; one was acceptable. The sets or groups were built up around such activities as forms of amusement, methods of securing money, spending leisure time, getting about, sport, and self- improvement. Any type of activity that is related to adult life and in which almost every child has a passing interest, like being EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 19 a fireman, an engineer, etc., was avoided. Particular care was taken not to have the acceptable activity of a prudish type, but rather genuinely wholesome and virile. The task for the subject was to check, in each group of three, the one thing he preferred to do. Whether or not the subject was spontaneously frank can only be judged from the character of the results. Test V—Controlled Association: The purpose of this test was to get additional information through a method of controlled response concerning questions 3, 4, and 5, more particularly to question 5 (pp. 34-36), viz., the habitual reactions of the individual to social and educa- tional institutions. The expression “controlled association” is here used in the sense that the response is so restricted that only one term may be deemed socially acceptable. The method was that of taking various institutions that enter into the life of the subject, like the teacher, the scout movement, policemen, smoking, etc.; then four statements, such as are frequently made about these matters, were developed in connection with each—three being questionable and one acceptable—and the subject was asked to mark the one that came nearest telling how he felt about the institution in point. It might be explained that the institutions chosen were taken from the case histories recorded, where the experience of boys with, and their attitude towards, these institutions proved to be critical factors in their delinquent development. The language in which the affective statements were couched was made to approx- imate the common phraseology of the boy among his associates, the endeavor here being more particularly to tap the affective rather than the rational processes of the subject. Here, again, any doubt as to the honesty and frankness of the response can be cleared only by reference to the results. Test VI—O ffense Rating: By means of this test an answer was sought to question 6 (pp. 37, 38), viz., the extent to which the harmful results of anti- social practices are recognized. The test was suggested by and 20 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER developed in conjunction with Dr. G. M. Ruch. The idea was one tried out by Fernald? and by Jacobsohn-Lask*; both of them had individuals rank offenses in the order of their seriousness. Fernald had a series of acts ranging from what were acceptable and praiseworthy to what were harmful and criminal. The sub- ject had to rank these in the order of their praise- and blame- worthiness. Lask had a series of delinquent acts which the subject had to rank in the order of their seriousness. Both investi- gators compared the ranking so derived with a standard ranking which was the combined rankings of competent judges. It was decided to follow the procedure of Lask, and, in order to bring the offense within the limits of the boys’ experience and knowledge of such matters, the offenses were selected from the items of Clark’s Rating Scale of Offenses, where the offenses are those of actual boys now committed to a reform school. Clark had some competent judges rate these offenses according to their seriousness, and then constructed a scale that recorded the offenses in the order of their seriousness, the differentiating steps of seri- ousness being approximately equal according to the amount of agreement between the judges. Two forms of ten items each, the items in the two forms being comparable as regards seriousness, were then selected, and the subject was asked to rank these in the order of their seriousness according to his judgment. Test VIJ—Overstatement: The purpose of this test was to seek an answer to question 2 (pp. 39-47), viz., To what extent does the boy misinterpret his own range of knowledge and capabilities? Voelker * successfully developed the idea of checking such overstatement or misinterpre- tation in a test situation. He had the subject rate himself on ten questions regarding his own ability and knowledge, and then had * FERNALD, Guy G. The Defective Delinquent Class Differentiation Test. Amer. Jour. of Ins., 68, 1912. *JacopsoHN-Lask, L. Uber die Fernaldsche Methode zur Priifung des sittlichen Fuhlens und tiber thre weitere Ausgehaltung. Leipzig, 1920. *VoELKER, P. F. The Function of Ideals and Attitudes in Social Educa- tion. Columbia Univ. Contributions to Ed., 1921. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 21 him vindicate his knowledge in a subsequent information test. Cady tried out Voelker’s method and found it very significant in diagnosing cases of incorrigibility. It was thought that ten items were too few, and that a wider range of experience and knowledge ought to be covered; consequently the present forms, A and B, were developed (in conjunction with Dr. G. M. Ruch) so as to have forty items ineach form. The items were arranged in the order in which boys would be commonly familiar with the facts of knowledge and experience required or involved. The selection and the order of the items were determined in the following manner: About 120 items of various forms of information and degrees of difficulty were submitted to about 300 unselected grammar grade pupils (grades 4-8) in San José. The percentage of cases that overstated or understated themselves on each item was calculated. All items on which from 0 to 15 per cent of the cases overstated or understated themselves were discarded. The remaining eighty items were then divided into two comparable forms in which the items were arranged in the order of percentage of cases originally over- or under-stating themselves on each item, 7.e., from 15 per cent upwards. The form of the test, then, was in the nature of a questionnaire and a subsequent check. A practice exercise was added with the pur- pose of familiarizing the subjects with the task of evaluating their own confidence in their own knowledge and ability. The items here were extremely simple in order to secure willing and ready cooperation from the subjects in the subsequent test forms. CHAPTER Ill TESTS, INSTRUCTIONS, AND METHODS OF SCORING DEVEEOPED While the term “ test’’ has been used very frequently in the discussion of the previous chapters, the expression was never actually used in the experiment that formed the basis of this study. The reason why this was done was because it was felt that the term “test”? had acquired a connotation through usage with tests of ability that is almost synonymous with “ making a supreme effort to excel”’ or “to do the very best you can.” As stated in the previous chapter, such an attitude would have defeated the aims for which the blanks were developed. As a matter of fact, in the sense of current usage, the term “ test” should not be applied at all to the blanks developed for this study. The term was introduced in the previous chapters, and will be used throughout the discussion, instead of “ exercise’ or “ blank ” simply so as not to add another to the terms already used in tests, scales, measures, etc. It must therefore be remembered that the term “test’’ is here used in the sense of an exercise in which the subject merely maps out his interests and preferences. When the subject was informed through the instructions that he was not going to take a “test,” it was meant that he was not going to face a situation in which he would have to prove his ability, as he has had to do occasionally in the past when taking tests. There is no doubt but that the assurance was interpreted in just that manner. The purpose of this chapter is to report the instructions for giving the tests, the test blanks and the method of scoring devel- oped. The reports of the instructions are in verbatim form, and are grouped together with the tests which follow. ed a 2 am EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 23 SECTION I Test Instructions Order of Giving Tests: 1. Test I—Books Read, Form A. . Test I—Books Read, Form B. Test IJ]—Character Preference, Form A. Test Il]—Reading Preference, Form A. Test II—Character Preference, Form B. Test I[I—Reading Preference, Form B. Test IV—Activity Preference . Test V—Controlled Association. 9. Test VI—Offense Rating, Form A. ~ 10. Test V1I—Offense Rating, Form B. 11. Test VII—Overstatement, Part I, Forms A and B. 12. Test VII—Overstatement, Part II, Forms A and B. ONAURWN The tests were arranged thus so as to avoid as much as possible any effect carrying over from the one test to the other, and to postpone to the last any intimation regarding the check that comes in Part II of the Overstatement Test. The second forms of Tests I, II, III, and VI should preferably have been given on different days, but for the fact that the subjects would undoubtedly discuss with one another the contents, and perhaps even the implications, of the tests, a matter which would very seriously affect the consequent results. Because of the very nature of Test VII the second form must be given at one and the same sitting with the first. General Instructions: “T am going to give each of you blanks like these, on which I am going to ask you to mark some of your preferences and desires, what you know and think about some matters. These blanks are not tests; you are free to state your preferences; and you have as much time as you may reasonably require. Do not 24 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER touch these blanks until I tell you what to do.” (Care must be taken that the blanks are never referred to as tests. ) Test I—Forms A and B (Exercises 1 and 2 on the blanks). After name, etc., are filled in. ‘‘ Read the directions here (pointing): ‘We want to see pnetoe directions aloud, and encourages the group to go about their task as brightly as possible. This is done merely to avoid unnecessary delay. After all are through those who got 20 or more hold up hands; then 15 or more, 10 or more. No comments are to be made. Procedure for Form B is exactly the same.) Test II—Form A (Exercise 3 on the blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. This must be followed out very strictly so as to insure the reading of the material on the blank they are about to work on. “Look at Exercise 3. On this page you will find eight para- graphs. Each paragraph tells us something about a certain boy, what he is like, what he wants to do. Read through all of the paragraphs, and find the boy that you would like to have for a chum, for a pal, the boy that you would like to go about with. Remember, one boy only.” (Do not let the pupils handle their | pencils; be sure that they are reading, and let them wait until they have apparently all got their choice fixed. ) “Now put a figure 1 on the dotted line on the right of the boy you have chosen.” (Let them put their pencils down again.) “Next find the boy you like second best, and mark that 2.” (Pause a while for them to complete the commission.) ‘“ Then the one you like only third best, mark that 3; and so on up to 8, which will be the one that you do not like at all. Be sure that you do not leave a paragraph out, and do not put two 4’s or two 7’s, etc.” (E. goes about to see that pupils do not miss a para- graph or that they do not mark a tie. If he finds a case he will simply say: ‘‘ Look, you have left out that one,” or “ You have two 4’s,” etc., as the case may be. An effort should be made to get the task properly done; a paper with one or two characters left out will be useless. ) (E. reads entire EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 25 Test [II]—Form A (Exercise 4 on the blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. ‘‘ Look at Exer- cise 4. Here is a list of books. I want you to go through the list carefully and find the one book that you would most like to read or have.” When all have made their choice: ‘‘ Now put a figure 1 on the dotted line before the book you have chosen. Be sure it is only one book.” (Pencils down again. ) “Now find the book you only like second best and mark it 2.” (Pencils down again.) ‘“ Then find the one you like only third best and mark it 3; then 4, 5, and so on until you come to 10, which you do not care to read or to have at all. Do not miss a book, and be sure not to have two 4’s, two 7’s, etc.” (Directions may be repeated if necessary. E. should walk around quietly and watch for omissions and tie ratings. ) Test II—Form B (Exercise 5 on blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. ‘‘ Look at Exer- cise 5. Here again we find eight paragraphs. Each paragraph ,’ etc. (Sameas for Test II, Form A, Ex. 3.) Test II]—Form B (Exercise 6 on blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. ‘“‘ Look at Exer- cise 6. Here we have another list of books. I want you to go through this list just as you did the previous list and find,” etc. (same as for Test III, Form A, Ex. 4). Test IV—Activity Preference (Exercise 7 on the blanks). Do not turn to this exercise until preliminary explanation has been made. “Tf you could choose to do one of the following, which would you choose? Remember you have only one choice: Ride a horse? Saila boat? Driveacar? Hands up—those who say “ Sail a boat.” (Do the same for the other two.) ‘“ Do you notice that you do not all like to do the same thing? Now look at Exercise 7. On this page you will find three things that 26 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER you can do under A, three things under B, and soon. I want you to put a cross in front of the one thing in each group that you would like to do, if you had only those choices. Don’t forget you have only one choice from each group, and do not leave out a group.” (E. should walk around quietly and watch for omissions. ) , Test V—Controlled Association (Exercise § on the blanks). “Turn to Exercise 8. Look at the word Chums at the top of the page. After the word chums there are four statements that tell how one might feel about chums. Find the one statement that comes nearest telling how you feel about chums, and put a cross on the dotted line after it.” “Next read the four statements about playgrounds, and put a cross after the one statement that comes nearest telling how you feel about playgrounds.” “Do the same for each of the others, Boy Scouts, playing hookey, etc. There are two pages of these; go right on to the second page when you are through with the first.” (E. should walk around quietly and watch for omissions. ) Test VI—O ffense Rating, Form A (Exercise 9 on the blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. “Turn to Exercise 9. Read the directions at the top of the page.’ (E. reads the entire directions aloud, and then gives the following directions) : “Will you read through the ten paragraphs given below, and find out the offense, the wrong act, that is not quite as bad as what the others are.” “‘ Be sure and get one only.” (After they have all fixed their choice) : ‘“‘ Now mark the one that you have found with a figure 1 on the dotted line after it.” (Pencils down again. ) “Next find the one that is just a little bit worse than this one, and mark it 2.” (Pencils down again. ) “Now find the one that is just worse than that, and mark if 3; and so on 4, 5, etc., until you come to 10, which will be the worst one. Be careful not to have two 5’s, two 8’s, etc., and do not omit any.” (E. should walk around REE a watch for omissions or that they do not mark a tie.) OE — eS ee eee, rere EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 27 Test VI—Offense Rating, Form B (Exercise 10 on the blanks). Have pupils place their pencils on the desk. “Look at Exercise 10. Here again we find 10 short accounts of ——,” etc. (Same as for Test VI, Form A, Ex. 9.) Test VII—Overstatement, Part I, Forms A and B (Exercise 11 on blanks). “Turn to Exercise 11, Practice Exercise. Read the direc- tions.” (E. then reads through each sample question, and asks the pupils to mark themselves 2, 1, or O, as explained in the directions. When they have added up their scores he makes them hold up their. hands as they have more than 15 points, 10 points, and 5 points. ) “Now turn to Exercise 11. Here you have some more ques- tions just like you had before. [I want you to mark yourself again just as before: 2 means you know it very well, 1 means that you know something about it, and 0 that you know nothing about it. We want to see what your score will be like.” (E. reads each question and has pupils put down 2, 1, or 0. When Form A is completed, form B is done the same way. ) Test VII—Overstatement, Part II, Forms A and B (Exercise 12 on blanks). “Turn to Exercise 12. Read the directions. Look at the samples: ‘The number of days in a week is 5, 6, 7, 8.’ The right answer is 7, so 7 has a line under it. Look at the second sample: ‘New York is in England France Spain United States.’ The right answer is United States, so United States has a line under it. Below are a number of sentences of the same kind. You are to read each sentence and draw a line under the one word that makes the sentence true. Go right on to Form B when you are through with Form A.” (See that pupils do not stop at end of first page. Allow enough time for all, or practically all, to finish. Exceptionally slow pupils may be urged to go faster. ) 28 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER Section IT Tests Developed In this section examples are given of the tests developed. In the experiment reported in the next chapter, the word test did not appear on the blanks nor in any statement or the instructions. The tests were given in the order stated in Section I. They are reported here in a different order merely to have the separate forms of the test together. EXERCISE 1 Number F Form A Directions: We want to see who has read the most books. You are to mark a cross on the dotted line in front of every book you have ever read, no matter how long ago you read it. After you have finished marking the crosses, count up the num- ber of crosses you have marked. This number will be your score. We want to see who will have the best score. Afterwards we will have you stand up and tell your score. A PERFECT SCORE IS 25. Look at the sample. Sample: 1..X..Anderson’s Fairy Tales US a ees Robinson Crusoe US dss 32 The Prize Fighter’s Story Oe ace Little Men ASR Mee The Half Back Seben ee Uncle Remus Stories DU ys whalers The Captain’s Daughter’s ANG s The Underground Patrol Secret Bleed babe White Fang Zl se ewes Sea-side Adventures Ona ies Tale of Two Cities 22b ayes Hans Brinker Tienes Alaskan Gold Stories 2S ee. cat Scouting in Strange Lands a ne iP Kidnapped 24 ee Five Little Peppers MR Sen The Boy Thief 25F ou By England’s Aid TORS The Pirate’s Revenge Lesa Lady of the Lake NOW COUNT, UP YOUR 12e soe Penrod SCORE AND PUT THE NUM- LG oa ete Kit Carson’s Last Ride BER YOU HAVE READ IN 1a eae Boys of ’76 THE SPACE HERE. Remember, ja eb The Guns of Bull Run a PERFECT SCORE is 25. Lose acer By Pike and Dyke Votan $5 Tom Wilson and His School MY SCORE IS.......... (Go to top of next column.) EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 29 EXERCISE 2 Number F Form B INighealks Mages a8 MARR E Om Ceru Clo RODE ee Ag@c. Shien Grad ezine adc +s Directions: We want to see who has read the most books. You are to mark a cross on the dotted line in front of every book you have ever read, no matter how long ago you read it. After you have finished marking the crosses, count up the num- ber of crosses you have marked. This number will be your score. We want to see who will have the best score. Afterwards we will have you stand up and tell your score. A PERFECT. SEORE)IS125. Look at the sample. Sample: 1.:X..Anderson’s Fairy Tales Begin here: Mosca? Treasure Island 16.32, 2 Scouts of the Valley PARAMS ap Black Beauty [itarcks Lone Star mise pang 3 The Flagman at Signal 18...... Huckleberry Finn Rock 19 ete William Chesterfield As Nes Rip Van Winkle 20 Rte True to His School Seek The Revolt at Bunker Hill 21...... Call of the Wild Geae as Blind Tom’s Adventures Cerca Campaigning in Argentina hatha Gulliver’s’ Travels ZIT Me he Tom Sawyer ols ate Bob, Son of Battle Zane ae Sunk Without a Trace 9......The Crimson Sweater ZOORR Su The Friday Murders LO arate The Death of Marco Polo Pia es With Lee in Virginia NOW COUNT UP YOUR i AA Hitting the Line SCORE AND PUT THE NUM- U3 Facts Don Strong of the Wolf BER YOU HAVE READ IN Patrol THE SPACE HERE. Remember, 145. The Mysterious Minstrels a PERFECT SCORE is 25. A Boh arehche Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves By SOORE. Lome citar: « (Go to top of next column.) 30 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 3 Number C James likes to have an easy time. His parents are not poor, he therefore thinks that it is not right that he should help around the house. He does not care much about sport, but likes to drive about in his father’s car. Brick is fifteen years old and is a real dare-devil. He does not care much for school-work, and wants to get out. He often goes off with the circus, and gets round by picking up rides. He thinks he will get right away now, if he can only find a chum to go with him. Dick joined the Boy Scouts as soon as he was old enough. He did not like it at first; the drill and the rules were hard. Now he is a troop leader and is planning a camp in the mountains next summer. Ray Stevens is at school now, but he is anxious to get out. He wants to become a taxi-driver. Ray says that taxi-drivers have an easy time; they need not work so hard, and they go about a great deal. Ted is a poor boy; and, although he is at school, he must help provide for the family. Ted studies hard and also plays on the team; he wants to become a doctor. Bill Evans is fourteen, and is the leader of his gang. He always manages to get his men home safely after they had a good time around the pool-room. Just last week they saw Tom Mix at the movies without paying. John was a member of the Fourth Street gang up until last week. He was with Red and Tim when they got away safely with some fruit, smokes, and bi- cycles. They were planning a big haul, when John said he was not going to do that sort of thing any longer. He has joined the Boy Scouts now. Joe Wilson is a friend of Tom Brown and Al Davis. They do not care much to be with the crowd. They like to get away alone where they can tell each other all kinds of stories, and where they can read cheap magazines. They do not care much about sports. se eee eeees oe eeeeever eee eeseeee eee eres eoe eee eevee eee errr eee EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 31 EXERCISE 5 Number C Douglas has studied a great deal about birds and ani- mals. Just now he is making a collection of the pic- tures of the birds and wild animals of America and of other countries. He is also collecting stamps of different countries. Ken Rogers—The boys round town think that Ken is a prize-fighter. He made short work of Billy Wilson and Harry Martin the other day when they were only joking with him. The little boys are all afraid of him. Tom is very fond of girls. He is often with Jane and Lizzie, because they like boys. He says he does not like Mabel and Clara, because they always talk to him about their studies. David Allen has just been made captain of his team. It was hard work for him to gain the honor. David also studies hard, and he is fond of reading. He sometimes writes stories for magazines. Nobby Clark has fun at the expense of other people. He does not mind getting into trouble. He vexes the girls and now and then even fools his teacher. He thinks it adds to his smartness. Henry loves building such things as airplanes and motor cars. He has to study hard to get to know all the parts. He is working on a wireless set now. Andy is a very happy-go-lucky sort. He loves taking great chances. He would go off with somebody else’s bicycle, even with the machine of a stranger. He often gets by with a clever excuse; sometimes he is not even found out. Victor can play the piano well, and spends hours alone at the piano. He does not go much with boys who play basketball and football. He likes music and reading, and when he goes out it is always with one or two special boys. eee wee eee eee ee eens re eee eee eens ra CM a ee te eee er ease 32 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 4 Number T Sea-side Adventures The Cowpuncher’s Revenge The Scout That Saved His Camp Breaking Through Prison Walls Working and Fighting His Way to the Top Pool-Room Stories Bob Jones, His Gang and the Cops The Boy Discoverer The Hookie-Players, The Adventures of Gus and Ned On the Trail of the Traitor Number T EXERCISE 6 A Daring Rescue Roy Black The Master Thief Captains of Great Teams Hobo Stories Running Away With the Circus The Adventures of Boys Who Became Great Men Summer Camp Adventures With the Gang in the Back Streets The Boy Inventor The Escape Through the Woods © 00. © # ¢ Ss 8s 816 018 eee eee eee ee eee 1 C10: @) Ole 6; Oi 6a 56 8. Com eee eee reer eee ©. 6 6 ee 0 eo 6 e716) Beye eee eee wee e rene eee eee were eee O16 060 010 6 6616 ¢ a6 eee eee eer eeene O10) © 6 0 O50'0 (6 16 (¢ 16 '¢.6 eevee ee +e ew ees eee ee ee ee ewer eee e ere esr eeeoen eM Me ee ha Can © 26 5 tee 40 oe) e166 Cr | UC 0 6 6. @ 6.6/6 £0 Sele ee eoeereeereveee EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 33 Number E ee @.4 :0) 6 © © ¢ 010) see eee we ee S61 © 6 6 0p 6 6 ee eee ewe we [Slee ©. 0 \ef0. 6 6/8. € 416, ©. 0 60 eee eee ew ee Gols a 0) 66 10 © pe oe Se 6 8 66 ots Ste oe 8 © be 16 Gie 6.0 0 0 6) « a ¢ ee es ey ee ee ee oS BL bles 0 4 0 6 eee ee ee eee EXERCISE 7 Go camping with Boy Scouts. Go around seeing the country getting lifts as you go. Quit school and go along with the circus. Match pennies and win. Have a paper route. Win money at a shooting gallery. See moving pictures of burglars and how they escape. See moving pictures of Jackie Coogan. See moving pictures of lively parties and dancing. Go around with older boys. Go around alone. Go around with the family. See Charlie Chaplin on the movies. Light fire-crackers in the class-room. Fool round town in the evening. Go to work now as a messenger-boy. Be a pin-setter in a bowling alley. Go on with your lessons at school. Go for a joy-ride. See a good show. Shoot craps and win. Learn some trade. Work in a shoe-shine parlor. Show seats in the movies. Borrow a bicycle from some one you don’t know when you want one. Buy one and have it charged. First get the money and then buy one. Read about burglars and hold-ups in the paper. Read the baseball and football news. Read about the boot-leggers and the police. Be a good pool player. Be the leader of your gang. Play on a team. Go round to the penny peep shows with your gang. Look through the museum with some boys. Get together in a pool room. 34 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 8 Number D Chums: Tt isithardstoy gouwithout them eee Yourcannot-alwayst trust. tenn. yar They sometimes squeal on you........... pi A al It is best to have them in your gang......——__~ Play-grounds: There are always fellows watching you... They make you play games you don’t like. . There is no chance to do what you want TOR ss halle c scacct ovahere sMalevars, shale oxelal secs so te akene ae Se Std? You can ae a good time there........ oe Boy Scouts: They have too many rules. ..5..5 sea. sak They have to drill too hard; it is not much PUM che sieeve co otic ces Btu See They are regular fellows and have lots of fs eee ea eae eee ae lel ee They are like: sissies avs. aa sewkoe ane te see Playing hookey: It is a slick way of getting away from SChOOls asides date hho ke Sa ee Nobody knows where you are............ It. gets yomuntoatrouble: a. 195: eile eee Ttiasuno harm cya sini sae Se eee erie: Boys’ clubs: You don’t have much fun there.......... You meet fine fellows there.............. I would rather be with the gang......... They have’ too many rules... s,m aie eee Teachers: “They workpihandtraae e272 Sa ee tae eee They know they can punish you.......... They/are’ not. iainto you..s.g eecee eee They are kincd*or.cranicy... erent Bumming rides: You can get round to see the country..... e738, fully tO. doit). 3. «cc ts wraevia ck ee Itimakessyouzghusk vio e seit aeeemete tere It is a poor way to, get rounds...¢....... Passing checks: To use them you must have money in the bank. ..... 2° YS00 Ne DUS ere aes You can give them when you have no money. .s 3.3 5c SRR OO eo ee It is an easy way of getting money on somebody else’s name............... Anybody will take them for money....... EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 35 Doing chores round You never get any money for it.......... the house: Tei helps the) tary. oh me nF a vars Fa a vio Other boys don’t have to. do iteusscnce 0 Now go through the list and give yourself a grade of 2 points on each one that you can do very well; give your- self 1 point on each one that you can do fairly well; and give yourself 0 on each one that you know nothing about at all. DOLE RFECT SCORE "19°20" POINTS. “WE WANT - TO SEE HOW MANY OF YOU CAN GET A PER- FECT SCORE. After you finish we will have you stand up and tell your score. Begin here: Score PTO SWI Tue ee A ot a ke Se a ba 9) a's points BeaLaney OU SKATC ON TD Er Skates fae Bk beet ke) eh adie aise s points Met at WOULOCIVG GICAn haa AIT ites Cee Pe be eee aA yo alee points Bea eUO T106 Ot DOCSEDACKI Top ol wks Wh i ue het Mama pie’ points De EvONE Pam ata t tae oe de ee wie oe eo points OmPeATEVOImONeratcva ty De WLItel cu) alll bh tk oy eee te points NE SCE LTA Tt he ee a ak Mee 8 ena hes points See COT ASICS AUOLSO ie ee ee points Pere VO take Cate Of an incubator’, fe en ee points foe CaInyouisaw aepoard sdtiarely across’ ae points Now add up your score. i DAs SO) ea points A PERE ECT SCORE IS 20. POINTS, 40 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 11 Number O Form A: Part I, Page 1 Names. fissuiiihs ae ook Sa ee ss ee we ees AGES. bese Gradé.. 2c dsiseuuiel Directions: Here are some more questions like the ones you just had. Mark yourself this way: [ know. itivers Welhiies on cach be aeses oe 2 points: Eeinow something aboutit Ae eee 1 point: I know nothing at all about it............ 0 A PERFECT SCORE IS 80 POINTS. WE WANT TO SEE HOW MANY OF YOU CAN GET A PER- FECT SCORE. After you finish we will let you stand up and tell your score. Begin here: Points 1. Do you know who discovered America? 2. Do you know who saved the life of Captain John Smith? 3. Do you know much about the Boy Scouts? 4. Do you know where the pyramids are? 5. Do you know how to play checkers? 6. Do you know when to use “ shall”? and when to use “ will”? 7 8 see eee cee eee 926 = ome «(S'a\'e ae see eee O €,0 16 ee . Do you know how many pints there are in a gallon? . Do you know the different ways of catching fish? 9. Do you know how to play “ Five Hundred ”? 10. Do you know who wrote “ Huckleberry Finn’? 11. Do you know how to play baseball? 12. Do you know who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 13. Do you know what the flywheel of an engine is for? 14. Do you know who was the President during the Civil War? 15. Do you know the difference between nouns, adjectives, pro- nouns, and verbs? 16. Do you know which month has the longest night? 17. Do you know which oceans touch Africa, America, and Aus- tralia? 18. Do you know how to play chess? 19. Do you know how to find the North Star at night? 20. Do you know who was the prophet who spent the night in the lion’s den? TURN OVER TO THE NEXT PAGE. * @ phe ee see eee 26 e's s cecee @ ee © ¢ o 6 ee EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS EXERCISE 11 (Continued) 41 Number O Form A: Part I, Page 2 Dore Rael tees ak ioe Con See alm sin 3's AGES Stree Grade... 21. Do you know where the gasoline and air are mixed in an auto? . Do you know the difference between a whale and a fish? . Do you know the wireless call that ships at sea use when they are in danger in a storm? . Do you know where the Victoria Falls are? . Do you know which heavenly body is nearest the earth? . Do you know what is the record for the running broad jump? . Do you know the difference between “priceless” and “ worthless ”’? . Do yott know when the “ Dark Ages” were? . Do you know the Roman numbers up to 100 (like IV, VII, etc.)? . Do you know how to find the square root of decimals? . Do you know what period of history was called the “ Middle Ages”? . Do you know what causes the tides? . Do you know how to multiply decimals? . Do you know who wrote “ Peter Pan”? . Do you know in which religion the caste system is found? . Do you know in what century English Literature reached its height? . Do you know the difference between the Parthenon and the Pantheon? . Do you know what a sarcophagus is? . Do you know a material used for wireless detectors? . Do you know how many degrees there are on a Centigrade thermometer? NOW ADD UP YOUR SCORE. A PERFECT SCORE IS 80 POINTS. My Score is: Seip «6.18 mS mw ele see eee ee see eee see eee eee eee esha oie, © o 2 id ay 8 6 see eee ee is «0 42 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 11 (Continued) Number O Form B: Part I, Page I Name y ccc chcsie tien ie pen ctopiatoleratareroroleherepalebtaent APC uoteenes 4 Gradéaes..eure Begin here: Points | 1. Do-you know where silk comes iromi?)° ':), 4) 4 2 ee 2. Do you know in which month Thanksgiving comes? ——...... 3. Do you know who discovered the North Pole? APE eos 4. Do you know how long it takes the earth to turn once on its axis? a) Meee eee . Do you.know where air-brakes are used? .. 3 aie . Do you know what instrument the sailors use to tell their difections at seahorse ee) 7.,Do you know how often leap. year comes? . ~ +). Sean 8. Do you know how to read+music from notes?) 2— |) 1) a ee ee 9. Do you know who was the first white man to see the Pacific Ocean ee Ae A Oe eg oy a 10." Do you know where Calcutta is? fs 50 ee ee IL. Do you know who wrote” Hamlet Oro 7 At J ae ee 12. Do you know how the parts of a bicycle work? = —.,..... 13. Do you know how the different keys are indicated in music? ...... 14). Do’ you know who'wrotes. Oliver Twist 0.0 ts Cee ee 15. Do you know in which month the longest day comes? ...... . 16. Do you know who invented the telephone? § .§. 4..... 17. Do you know the difference between “noted” and “ notori- OUS Pr rei ON ce ee aa? Onan °c a 18. Do you know much about birds and their nests? = 8° © ...... 19. Do you know what the use of a cylinder in a motorcycle is? ...... 20. Do you know what causes an eclipse of the sun? = ,..... TURN OVER TO THE NEXT PAGE. NA un EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 43 EXERCISE 11 (Continued) Number O Form B: Part I, Page 2 BNPATTIC CLP MRR bt See svete s Weis S SMudieweieieie ARCnet econ Grader naciettees Points 21. Do you know who wrote “Robinson Crusoe”? j= — ...... Eoawo you know how. to playseroqnetss | “i Free A eho BAUR yas 23. Do you know the signals a motorist uses when he wants to LUGE eee Gee Oe Pe RR PL Re ee 24. Do you know who first made a success of the flying machine? ...... 25. Do you know how to read the International Morse Code? _........ . mMoOlLvon Know NoOwstosalliavsalling, DOatr) = 81 | 9.) Ewume ronan . Do you know in what time the fastest runner has run 100 Valdsiye © (nem wynitn SUM erehe Uerwse Keele Doe inl Diag ace MOOLVOULKnOw hows tOl playeDilltardsramamee |) EY NaPheel Skltaece deri: Sporyeui now nowetorpidyitenniets (6) be 8 woo “Reed Do you know what the receiving wires of a wireless are called? ...... . Do you know how they set up the type for printing the daily DaApers: + eek Ona me wpa SON) Weber ir ae) hl BS . Do you know the stages through which a butterfly passes in its development? . Do you know the names of the first five books of the Old Testament? DO Onvou Know. whatemOsdics arere he “mM lapemyapealiia! Yao linh) thats . Do you know where Buddhism had its origin? = ~~ ...... . Do you know for what Michelangelo is noted? = # X...... mDorvou know whatsthesLouvresis ey) Si») Se (meme ea... . Do you know what the largest of the pyramids is called? —_......... . Do you know what is mixed with water to make acetylene gas? ...... . Do you know how water enters the roots of plants? = ...... NOW ADD UP YOUR SCORE. A PERFECT SCORE IS 80 POINTS. My Seore is tis... 44 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 12 Number O Form A: Part II, Page 1 Namie sisic\rc fied rise soem ited ard cere eltera eteteonete te ASOD ein Glee Grade. .c.cisieem Directions: Draw a line under the right answer to each of the ques- tions below as shown in the samples. Sample 1. The number of daysina weekis 5 6 7 8 Sample 2. New York is in England France Spain United States Begin here: 1. America was discovered by Drake Columbus Balboa Cook 1 2. The Indian girl who saved Captain John Smith was Pocahontas Uncas Hiawatha Minnehaha 2 3. A Boy Scout must not eat candy’ ride horseback chew gum smoke cigarettes 3 4. The pyramids are in Arabia Palestine India Egypt 4 5. The king-row is used in checkers cards crokinole dominoes croquet 5 6. When a person is very certain he must say “I shall” “I will” “You will” “He will” 6 7. The number of pints ina gallonis 2 4 6 8 Z, 8. A fish that is caught witha fly is the cod trout carp sole 8 9. In “ Five Hundred” the score for a bid of six hearts is’) 50 100 200 500 10. The usual number of innings ina baseball gameis 7 9 11 12 1 11. “Huckleberry Finn” was written by Alger Dickens Henty Mark Twain 11 12. The Declaration of Independence was written by Washington Jefferson Franklin Patrick Henry 12 13. A steam engine is kept running smoothly by means of a_ piston fly-wheel governor cylinder 13 14. The President during the Civil War was Washington Wilson Roosevelt Lincoln 14 15. An example of a pronoun is good work you eat 15 16. The longest night comes in April June December February 16 17. The Ocean between Africa and Australia is the’ Pacific Arctic Indian Atlantic 17 18. The most important piece in chess is the Knight Queen King Bishop 18 19. The North Star can be found by means of the Little dipper Mars Big dipper Cassiopeia 19 20. The Prophet who spent the night in the Lions’ Den was Daniel Jonah David Joel 20 TURN OVER TO THE NEXT PAGE. Sie pn EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS EXERCISE 12 (Continued) 45 Number O Form A: Part II, Page 2 INEST ears, ooo. AIRS SIG 0.5 COM eee Ages. acta Grades. cMeisic 21. In an auto the gas and air are mixed in the carburetor cylinder differential radiator . A whale is not a fish because it has milk glands teeth fins a tail mel he anger call-ot:a ship 1s:-. G-O)D>--R:8.V;P.—-S.0S8.- ~KeRzP: . Victoria Falls are in Australia Canada Africa United States . The heavenly body nearest the earth:is Mars Sun Neptune Moon . The record for the running broad jump in feet is about 20 22 Ate PF 6 . “Priceless”’ means about the sameas_ valueless cheap valuable worthless . The “ Dark Ages” began about 300 B.C. 200 A.D. 500 A.D. 1500 A.D. . The Roman number for 49 is CLV TEx x MCLIX XLIX . The square root of .0081is 9 .09 .009 9 . An event which took place during the Middle Ages was the Great War Reformation Fall of Rome Wars of Napoleon . Tides are caused by winds rotation of the earth attraction of the moon ocean currents . The answer for .2 times .2is 4 .4 .04 .004 . “Peter Pan” was written by Shaw Barrie Dickens Wells . A religion in which the Caste system was observed is Buddhism Confucianism Brahminism Mohammedanism . English Literature was at its height in the 16th Century 17th Century 18th Century 19th Century . The Parthenon isin Paris Rome Constantinople Athens . A material often used for wireless detectors is glass _ silicon mica platinum . A sarcophagus isa kind of arch church tomb _ tower . The number of degrees on a Centigrade thermometer is 32 100 180 212 46 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER EXERCISE 12 (Continued) Number O Form B: Part II, Page 1 Namews ss ¢ Cag ae eoin eee aia tir Lae ne Da ee Oe a Grad@v.as Sample of Scoring Method for Tests II and III. Supposing a subject ranked the characters of Test II, Form A, in the following manner: 3 2 1 8 4 5 7 6; then, to get the deviation for each item the value for 3 is found, viz., 5; but — the item that is ranked 3 ought to have been ranked 4, whose value is 8. The score on the first item, therefore, is the square of 8 — 5, which is 9. The same procedure is followed for each of the other items, and the final score will be the sum of 9, 49, 4, 16, 64, 4, 1.e., 226. Test IV—Activity Preference (Exercise 7 on the blanks). The score on this test is the number of questionable activities marked. Since there was only one form for this test, the scores _ on the odd and the even groups were recorded separately. Test V—Controlled Association (Exercise 8 on the blanks). The score here is the number of questionable reactions given. The scores on the odd and the even items were recorded separately. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 51 Test VI—Offense Rating, Forms A and B (Exercises 9 and 10 on the blanks). The score in this test is the sum of the square of the deviation in ranking for each item from the standard ranking developed by Clark in his Offense Rating Scale. The standard ranking of the items as arranged in both forms of the tests is as follows: Form A Form B ED WR SS as eh a 3 COL BAe 6 go) hse ad EEA 5 8 (doy) a ee a Ae Ba 2 HOS Saree rete poate 10 fob eet ne eet 9 (Cbidsclasts taioe fe BP ei ER ag age? 4 CON ES ere 6 CO Se aegsee te eae if CDs ce als 1 UE Pitse rcrtae see arnt 1 CPL fore e Aa 9 (oye mare: 10 Be ae ee ce etl 4 (CIDR | More Pana Same 3 i Sikes Rie tat. i (i) Ee tie es aR 5 Cj) mee ee, 5 (ney cei Aen ae 8 Test VII—Overstatement, Forms A and B (Exercises 11 and 12 on the blanks). The score on this test is expressed as percentages of overstate- ment or understatement. This is calculated in the following manner: Score on Part I—the points which the subject gave himself ; Score on Part I[—(the rights minus 1/3 the wrongs) times 2; Final Score—the per cent that the score of Part II is less or more than the score of Part I. Thus: A subject gave himself 50 points on Part I. He had 20 items correct; 6 were wrong. His score on Part II was 20 minus 1/3 of 6, which is 18; multiplied by 2, viz., 36. His final score, therefore, was overstatement to the extent of 28 per cent. CHAPTER ALY, DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT 1. A Preliminary Experiment. Because of the untried tests and test methods sneered in the previous chapters, it was thought advisable to make a preliminary inquiry, in order to see whether the methods and materials were such as to warrant development and use, and more especially was it necessary to find out whether the tests were not merely tests of mental ability. In order to try out the tests that had been developed, two of the tests of the present series, viz., Test II, Character Preference, and Test III, Reading Preference, were given, in the winter quarter of 1922, to 259 boys, ages from ten to fourteen, from three schools in different environments in San José and Menlo Park. Later on during the Spring Quarter, Test VII, Overstate- ment, was given to the two schools in San José. The following was the outcome of this preliminary inquiry : One form of the National Intelligence Test was given to all the subjects, and in addition the teachers were asked to rate the boys they knew on a five point scale on each of the following: attitude toward associates; towards authority and institutions; towards duties; towards property; and attitude regarding their own persons. 1. The method of giving the tests proved to be perfectly satis- factory. The subjects were at their ease; there was no evidence of suspicion concerning the implications of their responses; and the materials proved to be of interest to the boys without arousing disgust of any kind—as materials of this kind could readily do. Remarkable differentiation was evident on the test scores between the group and between individuals. 2. The tests proved themselves to be markedly reliable, the reliability for Test II for different groups ranging from .64 to .80. ——— EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 53 The reliability for the boys from the Training School, which is a representatively average school, was .66. In the case of Test III the reliability ranged from .55 to .73. The reliability for the training school group was .67. It must be explained that the items of both these tests were printed on cards. The subject then had to arrange these cards so that the order gave the order of his preferences. This was a very satisfactory procedure; the task remained a novel one to the subjects throughout. It was to be regretted that the procedure could not be continued in the present experiment, because of the amount of time entailed in scoring the responses. It would appear that the original method of using cards is the more satisfactory one. The method used in the final experiment has the disadvantage that, when the second form of the test is given, the task is no longer a new one, and the subject is inclined to make his choice rather hurriedly, and with not the same deliberation with which he made his choices on the first form. The reliability for the Overstatement Test, 1.e., Test VII, came to be .56. This, however, was the first draft of the test. It was later reorganized on the basis mentioned in the previous chapter. The reliability subsequently turned out to be much higher. 3. The correlation between Tests II and III and the National Intelligence Tests for different groups ranged from .088 to .48. 4. The intercorrelation between Tests II and III for the Training School group was .511. 5. The correlation between teachers’ ratings on limited groups and test scores ranged from .21 to .32. The higher agreement between teachers’ ratings and test scores came from situations where a teacher in the school in the poorer environment knew the boys she was rating, these boys having been either juvenile court cases or problem cases in the school. These results were undoubtedly encouraging. Since the same subjects could not be used for development of the tests, after the overstatement had once been given to them, a new group of sub- jects had to be selected. This led to the planning of the subsequent experiment. 54 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER 2. The Final Experiment. In planning the main experiment some of the findings and experiences of the preliminary experiment were utilized. First of all, because of the fact that teachers do not know all of the children in their classes well enough to be able to give a reliable rating on the moral development of each child, or even of a fair majority of them; and because the teacher is more likely to be acquainted with the extremes in her grade—whether it is concern- ing a question of intelligence, character, or what not—it was decided to ask the teachers to select the extremes of her group for the actual experiment (see below, actual group selected). Again, because of the marked differences found in the previous experiment in the average scores for the groups from the different communities, and because of the positive relationship that exists between poor environment and delinquent behavior, it was thought desirable to select subjects from differing social and educational environments, in order to make a comparative study of the differentiation that might be made by the tests. Another matter of consideration was the factor of age. The original experiment seemed to indicate a slight decrease in scores (i.e., moral improvement) from age ten to fourteen. The literary character of the test materials might, or might not, account for such a difference. Whether or not moral habits have become thoroughly established at the age of ten, or to what extent the directive forces of educational influences—the home, the school, associates, etc—have been successful in bringing about the con- trol and inhibition of questionable tendencies at the age of four- teen is not known. In fact, very little is known about the nature of the moral development of boys during these years under dis- cussion. As stated in Chapter I], the mode of the age distribution of boys who appear before the court for the first time on some or other charge of delinquency is thirteen, with fourteen, perhaps, as the mode of the ages of boys actually in reform schools. It was therefore deemed advisable to select thirteen-year-old boys as one of the groups to be studied. In order to make a compari- son with an earlier age, eleven-year-old boys were selected as the second age group. This was also done because of the fact pre- EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 55 viously noted, viz., that the definite delinquent departure of many juvenile court charges can be traced back a year or two prior to their apprehension. The object, then, of selecting eleven-year- olds was, in part, to investigate whether, by means of a test method, it would be possible to find individuals of the group that showed signs of persistently marked interest, at that early age, in undesirable and questionable activities (a knowledge of such interest could be turned by the thoroughgoing educator to excel- lent purpose in the prevention of further delinquent development through the direction of the boy’s interests and energies to more worthwhile pursuits). The most desirable procedure would, of course, have been to take boys of every age, say from nine up to sixteen. Such a program of selection was outside the possibility of the present experiment, because of the tremendous amount of time and money it would have required. The following were the groups and subjects selected: 1. The 25 per cent most reliable, stable, healthy-minded, and the 25 per cent least reliable, stable, and healthy-minded eleven- year-old and thirteen-year-old boys, from grades 4 to 8, in a socially and educationally privileged community in Los Angeles. These boys were selected from four different schools and com- munities which were judged by the city school authorities to be of approximately equal standing with regard to the educational and social opportunities. These four sub-groups will hereafter be referred to as: 13 years Ai (1.e., the most reliable group); 13 years Ae (1.e., the least reliable group); 11 years Ai (1.e., the most reliable group); and 11 years Ae (1.e., the least reliable group). The selection of the subjects in each school was made by the class teacher. She selected the 25 per cent most reliable and the 25 per cent least reliable eleven-year-old and thirteen-year- old boys in her grade. This was an easy task, because a teacher often had only four boys of the required age in her grade, which meant that she had to send in two boys. 2. The 25 per cent most reliable, stable, healthy-minded, and the 25 per cent least reliable, stable, and healthy-minded eleven-year- old and thirteen-year-old boys, from grades 4 to 8, in a socially and educationally less privileged community in Los Angeles, 56 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER formed the second group. These subjects were selected from five schools and communities which, too, were considered by the city school authorities to be homogeneous as regards social and educational opportunity. These four sub-groups will be referred to hereafter as: 13 years Bi (1.e., the most reliable group). 13 years Bo (1.e., the least reliable group). 11 years Bi (1.e., the most reliable group). 11 years Be (1.e., the least reliable group). The actual selection of the subjects was made here in the same manner as described in the previous paragraph for the A group. 3. A group of 50 boys, of ages twelve, thirteen, and fourteen, from two Parental Schools in Los Angeles, constituted the third group. There was not a large enough number of thirteen-year- olds, and only very few eleven-year-olds; it was therefore thought best to take the group mentioned. This selection, too, it was thought, would more likely approach the mental age level of the boys selected in the communities mentioned above. It might be explained that the boys in the parental schools were those boys that had been before the juvenile court on some or other minor charge not serious enough for commitment to a reform school. . They are a very heterogeneous group, many of them exceedingly incorrigible, and “hard boiled.”’ They are full-fledged delin- quents, with none of the acquired attitudes of control that are to be noticed with the boys of the Whittier State School. 4. The fourth group was a group of 36 boys, ages thirteen and fourteen, from the Whittier State School. The majority of these boys had been in Whittier a year or more; they were placed there by the order of the court—in the majority of cases for some serious or repeated offense. These ages were selected for the same reason as mentioned in connection with the Parental School group. In almost every school the boys asked why they only were selected for the task. It was always told them, that to take all the boys would be an impossible task; the examiner was inter- ested in boys generally, and that for the particular task a sample EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 57 would suffice. The teachers readily promised not to tell the boys what the criterion of her selection was. Tests Given. In addition to the series of tests reported in Chapter III, Form B, Scale 2, of the “ National Intelligence Tests’ was given. It was regretted that because of a lack of time a second Form, or a Form of the “Terman Tests of Mental Ability” could not be given. The school program could hardly be disturbed on a second day, when a period of two and one-half hours had been granted the previous day. The tests were all given by the examiner to the groups that were finally selected from the schools. The time taken for the whole series was from about an hour and forty-five minutes to two hours; there was no time limit set. This was followed by the Intelligence Test. The sitting would appear to be long; however, with short breaks of a few minutes, and the constant change of materials, the boys seemed to enjoy the task very thor- oughly. After the task was over they talked quite freely about the exercises, but not a single guess as to the implications of their responses was correct. mA fo >) _ 4 \ neat m a sinsty oat ‘ie rt in ‘nese f is EES. GARE, AR is a eet * i sean gz ae CHa ui he \, iC) Baers Lr CORES The present chapter is a record of the scores of all the groups on all the tests. It must be noted that a low score indicates a stable and healthy-minded type of boy; a high score a type that has many questionable interests and relations. Legend. . Ai Most stable, healthy-minded, reliable, from a privileged community. Az Least stable, etc., from a privileged community. Bi Most stable, etc., from a less privileged community. Bz Least stable, etc., from a less privileged community. Special. Boys from the Parental Schools. Whittier. 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Test Score. 67.56 67.93 72.60 87.04 71.66 87.3 76.29 87.75 72.84 No. of Cases... 50 37 43 40 42 36 41 36 42 96 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER The correlation between their test responses and mental ages is only .211. If the lack of intelligence were in the main responsible for delinquent development the correlation between the lower mental ages and the higher scores (that is, badness) of the special group ought to have been much higher. For the same reason the correlation between the mental age and the score on the behavior tests for the Ai and Bi groups ought then to have been higher than those for the Az and Be groups. (It must be borne in mind that high scores on the behavior tests indicate extremely undesirable interests. ) When the findings of this section are viewed in the light of those of sections 2 and 3, there seem to be sufficient grounds to conclude that the differences that are brought out between the groups by means of these tests are differences of appreciation of moral and social values rather than differences of ability to reason and to judge in the abstract. TABLE XXI Distribution of Total Scores of All Ages and Groups on the Test Series as a Whole, Together with the Median Scores for Each Group 13 Years 11 Years Score B Special Whittier 20— 40 40-— 60 60- 80 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-220 220-240 240-260 260-280 280-300 300-320 1 320-340 1 340-360 1 1 2 360-380 1 2 380-400 1 400-420 1 tw iS) a FNP NNUNAGU- N NWOAnoww me ND me DD I Oo CO STE re > PDR NWWwWaApROAL > NWR MAWNAWAN Ne, o& NDAPRRNND DE NN RWONNOND & — bre Ore DO UID U1 Ge Go Go et mG DIWWNHRWAWWNHAr NWUWWAUWUUwRPe NN Number ofiCases7 50 e61371 nao _ Al VA2Z 9 (368 41 36 50 36 Median Score 83's, 92590. 138) 1137 1308 12778180 200 120 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 97 5. Distribution of Test Scores of Groups. Table XXI and Charts I—-VIII explain the nature of the distribu- tion of the test scores of the different groups. The median scores DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SCORES OF THIRTEEN-YEAR- OLD BOYS, SPECIAL, AND WHITTIER ON TEST SERIES AS A WHOLE CHART-L Group Al, Special, and Whittier. Number of Cases 12 CHART- II Group A2, Special, and Whittier Number of Cases 12 THIRTEEN -YEAR-OLO BOYS SPECIAL _——"— WHITTIER of the Az and Be groups are consistently higher (worse) than those of the Ai and Bi groups. The special group has a median score markedly higher than all the other groups. The evidence of the influence of environmental conditions and of maturity in the 98 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER case of the other groups would point to the conclusion that the relatively lower median score of the Whittier group is, no doubt, due to the more helpful circumstances in which they have been placed at the Whittier State School. The effect of maturity can be seen very clearly when, say, the . unstable groups of the eleven-year-olds, Az and Bz, are compared with the unstable thirteen-year-olds. Their scores change from DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SCORES OF THIRTEEN-YEAR-OLD BOYS, SPECIAL,AND WHITTIER ON TEST SERIES AS A VVHOLE CHART IIL Group Bl, Special, and Whittier Number of Cases \2 res CHART IZ Group B2, Special, and Whitter of Cases VJ CET y \ (NAL Ne A SEMAEADY 260 Soo : 190 i40 dn. Mdn. pEOEnOE Peciace LO - Bos TT ee ANT TIER o* EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 99 130 and 180 to 92 and 138, respectively. It would seem that a process of constant differentiation operates from year to year. The greatest number of boys seem to move up in the scale of moral and social adjustment, the nature of their progress depend- ing very much on the educational and social conditions by which they are surrounded. A very much smaller number of boys in the course of their development, no doubt, will approach the DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SCORES OF ELEVEN - YEAR-OLD BOYS, SPECIAL, AND WHITTIER ON TEST SERIES AS A WHOLE CHART WY Group Al, Special, and Whittier Number of Cases | ‘\ Ne ( See \ . ” \ AS Mo 20 Boo 340 CHART VI Group A2, Special and Whittier of Cases 1% \ AL \\ LEGENO ELEVEN “YEAR OLD + BoYS SPECIAL WHITTIER 100 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER Special School Group. If the charts are compared in their reverse order, beginning with number VIII, a very clear picture can be had of the development of the boys at different ages and under different environmental conditions, from the eleven-year- old Bz group, that approach the distribution of the Special School. Group very closely, to the widely differentiated thirteen-year-old Ai group. } DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SCORES OF ELEVEN-YEAR-OLD BOYS, SPECIAL, AND WHITTIER ON TEST SERIES AS A WHOLE CHART WIL Group Bl, Special, and Whittier. Number of Cases \% CHART VIII Group B2, Special, and Whittier. Number of Cases fete eR AVE FVEALAANEANDANVAND srl bag YEAR-OLO Boys SPECI oo WHITTIER CHAPTER MV it INDIVIDUAL VALIDATION As was stated in Chapter I, the primary aim of this study was not so much to develop a method for detailed diagnosis of the individual, as first to make sure that certain groups that are vary- ingly adjusted socially and morally can be differentiated by means of an objective test method. The extent to which the test method that has been developed can make such a valid differentiation was demonstrated in the last chapter. It was thought that it might be worth while at this point to inquire into the nature of the individual’s responses to the test series. How does the rating of the individual on the behavior tests compare with the rating given him by those who know him? In considering such a comparison, it must be remembered, that there are two grave difficulties in the process: the first is the ever- recurring stumbling block, viz., the question of getting reliable ratings’ for the subject. The second is one unique to this prob- lem, viz., the ratings are to be made on an increasing scale of questionable characteristics and interests. Honesty ranges from absolute honesty to extreme dishonesty. There can be no average dishonest person—he is dishonest for all that. The same is true for all other moral qualities. In order to meet the first handicap, it was decided to give the whole series of tests to a group of forty boys, ages about twelve with a range of eighteen months, in a private military school in Menlo Park. The boys board at the school; there was every reason to believe that the teachers, who live there too, would know these boys more intimately than teachers in the public schools could know the pupils in their grades. 1Rucc, H. O. Is the Rating of Human Character Practicable? Jour. Ed. Psy., 12, 1921, pp. 425-438, 485-501; 13, 1922, 30-42, 81-93. 102 ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER Three of the teachers were asked to rank the boys on a scale of eleven points for each of the following traits: I. Overstatement of facts—exaggeration of own qualities, knowledge, experience, reliability of report or statement. The extremes here were: 1. Extremely exact and dependable regarding state- ments; knows measure of abilities, etc. 11. Extremely prone to exaggeration; boastful; totally wrong conception of own abilities and knowledge. II. Attitude towards different “institutions with which the boy comes in contact,’ e.g., school, teachers, studies, home, scouts, duties, discipline, and the like. Is there evidence of indifference, braggadocio, snobbishness? The extremes here were: 1. Very, very healthy and wholesome attitude; realizes relative values of factors in his development. 11. Extremely indifferent; defiant; constantly in trouble. III. Recognition of social, moral and cultural standards of values in the choice of associates, reading, books and pictures, means of spending leisure time, forms of amusement, hobbies. The extremes here were: 1. Extremely worth while and wholesome selections. 11. Inclined to make selections of an extremely ques- tionable character. The teachers were asked to place a boy in one of the eleven categories for each of these traits. The points between the extremes were not described or defined. The teachers were told to think of the eleven steps in terms of particular boys of their own selection, and then to rank all forty in terms of their own criteria. Each teacher worked independently of the other two. The separate rankings of the teachers on each trait were ulti- mately combined into one ranking for each trait. The combined ranking for trait I was then correlated with the combined scores of the boys on Test I, Books Read, and Test VII, aa teal EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 103 Overstatement. These two tests were considered to be testing more or less the same trait, viz., exaggeration. The resultant correlation was .50. The scores on Test II, Character Preference, and Test III, Reading Preference, were then separately correlated with the combined rankings on Trait III, which gave the correlations of .18 and .11 respectively. The scores on Test V, Controlled Association, and Test IV, Activity Preference, were combined and correlated with the com- bined rankings on Trait II. The resultant correlation was .39. In the case of four of the tests, then, there is positive evidence of a decided agreement between the tests scores and the ratings of the teachers. It is interesting to note that there was greatest agreement between test scores and rankings at the lower end (the undesirable end) of the distribution than at the upper (best end— those ranked as less unreliable, etc.). The four cases sought out as the worst by the teachers are also those discovered as such by different tests. Teachers seem to be well informed of the poor qualities of the problem cases; the questionable interests of the apparently well adjusted boy do not come to his notice. This, perhaps, in part, makes it almost impossible to hope for much higher agreement between teachers’ ratings and scores on tests that ordinarily reveal the undesirable qualities of a boy’s nature. CHAPTER, VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. The study of Juvenile Delinquency has been almost entirely of an historical or biographical nature. The present study was an experimental attempt to find out whether delinquent interests and practices might not be determined in their earlier development. 2. The method followed was that of securing comparable test data through test situations on groups of boys, eleven- and thirteen-year-olds, who were known to differ in the matter of social and moral adjustment. 3. Seven different tests were developed for the purpose of the experiment. The emphasis of the tests was on questions related — to the interests, preferences and activities of the boys. The reliability coefficients for the different tests ranged from .74 to .86. 4. Three of the tests were given to about two hundred and fifty boys in a preliminary experiment to find out whether any differ- entiation was possible on the basis of the test responses. For the main inquiry the 25 per cent most stable, reliable, healthy-minded, and the 25 per cent least stable, reliable, healthy- minded eleven- and thirteen-year-old boys were selected from two different communities—the one with abundant social and educa- tional opportunities, the other less privileged socially and educa- tionally. Two control groups were selected from the boys in Parental Schools and a State Reformatory for delinquents. 5. In addition to the above-mentioned tests, the groups were all given a group test of mental ability. 6. The tests were also given to a group of forty boys from a private military school; ratings from three teachers on each of the boys were compared with their test scores, in order to find out the validity of the test scores as approximate measures of the delinquent interests and tendencies of the individual boy. 7. Different statistical methods were used for the purpose of analyzing and evaluating the test material. The following are the conclusions that may be drawn from the study: EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 105 1. The nature of the test responses demonstrates that the form and character of the tests served the purpose for which they were developed, viz., that of getting an expression of the questionable interests and tendencies of boys. 2. The test responses furthermore show significant differentia- tion between the various public school groups with regard to their adjustment morally and socially, and the differentiation thus made is the more significant in its agreement with that made by the teachers, excepting in the case of the thirteen-year-old Ai and Aa groups (the groups from the privileged community). The lack of differentiation with these groups is due, perhaps, to the fact that problem cases from this section of the community very seldom go to the public schools; they are placed in private schools. 3. The differences between the scores of the Parental School Group and those of the various public school groups are very marked, but are relative in degree to the maturity and environ- mental influences of the groups. 4. It has been demonstrated that the differentiation made by some of the tests between individuals of the same group concern- ing their particular moral and social habits is valid and significant. 5. The groups that are most stable and reliable and healthy- minded have a consistently higher correlation between their mental ages and their test scores than have the correspondingly less stable, reliable, and healthy-minded groups. That seems to show that, while intelligence is a very important factor in bringing about and maintaining desirable adjustments morally and socially, the boy who gets steeped in delinquent interests and practices goes that way in spite of his intelligence. Factors, other than intelligence, seem to function very positively as determinants in the development of delinquency. 6. Judging from the character of the interests and the prefer- ences of the less stable and reliable groups in the public schools, and the manner in which their interests approach those of the Parental School Group, it would seem that one of the main characteristics of the potentially delinquent is his lack of appre- ciation of moral and social values. 106 24. 25. ALBERT SYDNEY RAUBENHEIMER BIBLIOGRAPHY . Aco, W. Ueber den Willensakt und das Temperament, 1910, . Burt, Cyrit. The Causal Factors of Juvenile Crime. British Journal of Medical Psychology, Vol. II, Part I, 1923. . Cavy, V. M. The Psychology and Pathology of Personality. .Journal. of Delinquency, Vol. VII, No. 5, 1922. . Dewey, JoHn. Human Nature and Conduct. Henry Holt Co., New York. . Downey, JuNE E. The Will Profile. Department of Psychology Bulletin No. 3, University of Wyoming, 1919, . FERNALD, Grace M. Delinquent Girls. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 9, 1915. . FERNALD, Guy G. The Defective Delinquent Class Differentiating Tests. American Journal of Insanity, 68, 1912. . FRANZEN, RaAymonp. Measurement of Non-Intellectual Aspects of Behavior. Proceedings of First Annual Conference of Educational Research and Guidance, San José Teachers College Bulletin, 1922. . Gatton, Francis. Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development, 1883. . Gopparp, H. H. Responsibility of Children in the Juvenile Court. Journal of American Inst. of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. III, No. 3, 1912. . Gopparn, H. H., and Hitt, HELtEN F. Delinquent Girls Tested by the Binet Scale. Vineland Training School Bulletin, Vol. VIII, 1911-12. . GorInG, CHarLes. English Convict, London, 1913. . Hearty, WittiamM. The Individual Delinquent. Little, Brown & Co., 1915. . Heary, Witttam. The Practical Value of Scientific Study of Juvenile Delinquents. U.S. Department of Labor, No. 96, 1922. . HeymMans, G., and Wiersma, E. Beitrage zur speziellen Psychologie auf Grund einer Massenuntersuchung. Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie, Vol. XLII-LI, 1906-09. . HottincwortH, H. L. Vocational Psychology. Appleton, 1917. . JoHNSON, Burorp. Emotional Instability in Children. Ungraded, 4, 1920. . Kettey, T. L. Mental Aspects of Delinquency. University of Texas, Bul. No. 1713, 1917. . Keniry, T. L. Statistical Method. Macmillan, 1923. . Kons, S. C. An Ethical Discrimination Test. Journal of Delinquency, Vol. VII, 1922. . LAsk, JAcopsoHn-, L. Uber die Fernaldsche Methode zur Priifung des Sittlichen Fuhlens und tiber thre weitere Ausgestaltung. Leipzig, 1920.. . Pressey, S. L. A Group Scale for Investigating the Emotions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 16, 1921. . Rucc, H. O. Is the Rating of Human Character Practicable? Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XII, 1921, pp. 425-438, 485-501; Vol. XIII, 1922, pp. 30-42, 81-93. STERN, W. Die differentiele Psychologie in thren methodischen Grund- lagen. Leipzig, 1911. TERMAN, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Co. 26. 27, 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. -EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BEHAVIOR TRAITS 107 TuHorNDIKE, FE. L. Mental and Social Measurements. Teachers College, Columbia University. Upton, S., and CHASsELL, CLara. A Scale for Measuring the Habits of Good Citizenship. Teachers College Record, No. 20, 1919. VoELKER, Paut F. The Function of Ideals and Attitudes in Social Edu- cation. Columbia University Contributions to Education, 1921. Wess, Epwarp. Character and Intelligence. British Journal of Psy- chology, Monograph Supplement No. 1, 1915. WESTERMARCK, E. The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, Vols. I and II, London, 1906. WiuiAMs, J. H. A Guide to the Rating of Homes—A Guide to the Grading of Neighborhoods. Whittier State School Bulletins, Nos. 7 and 8. WuutaMms, J. H. The Intelligence of the Delinquent Boy. Whittier State School Journal of Delinquency, Monograph No. 1. ioe 4% w apa eh rls ae vy a7 ead wi 97) uit, Oe Seep eae Ch. pat pe 1% " a Le eee % } BF21 .P96 v.34 The influence of tuition in the Princeton Theological Seminary—Speer Library UIA 1 1012 00008 5474 i be ehy fe Rie wh tbe ‘ [ ee base ates Hp fe Aca betsy ‘ { i vr " Hit pega ga J ; V4 runes ‘ tg { Fi ol bait Fe ‘ : a ! fi . 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