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 A study of the Christian 
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 A Study of 
 the Christian Sects 
 
 Wiru An Intropucrory CHAPTER ON THE JEWS 
 
 %, whe 
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 BY 
 WILLIAM H. LYON 
 
 One God and Father of all, who is above 
 all, and through all, and in you all. 
 
 —EPpuHEsIANns 4: 6, 
 
 
 
 Thirteenth Edition 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 By Joun Matick 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 THE BEACON PRESS, INC. 
 1926 
 
Copyright, 1926, by 
 THE BEACON PRESS, Inc. 
 
 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 PRINTED IN U. &. A. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This Manual was originally prepared for the use of the 
 older scholars of church schools. It is equally well 
 adapted for adult reading or for study in clubs, classes 
 and young people’s meetings. It aims to present a just 
 and sympathetic account of the history and doctrines of 
 the various religious bodies and to make plain the agree- 
 ments and the differences among them. 
 
 The book was originally printed in 1891 and has been 
 revised and re-issued from time to time in twelve succeed- 
 ing editions. It has now been brought up to date under 
 the editorial supervision of the Rev. John Malick. 
 
 In his first Preface Dr. Lyon said: “The study of 
 this subject and the consultations I have had with various 
 representative men have surprised me by revealing the 
 state of confusion and change in which all beliefs, except 
 those of the Roman Catholics, now exist. Few of those 
 who claim to hold the faith of their fathers are aware 
 how far they have drifted from that faith.” This confu- 
 sion still exists and there is obvious need and demand for 
 an impartial and accurate review of the present conditions 
 and tendencies in the various Christian fellowships. 
 
 The word “sect” is used in this Manual in no invidious 
 sense but as a convenient term for the parts into which 
 Christendom is actually divided. The words “evangeli- 
 cal” and “orthodox” are employed in their popular sense 
 and not as admitting any exclusive right to such terms. 
 
 111 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 In like manner the word “liberal” must not be construed 
 as implying that the only liberality is to be found in the 
 bodies called liberal. 
 
 Realizing the danger of misrepresenting the beliefs of 
 others, the original author and the successive editors have 
 submitted the various chapters to revision by officials or 
 prominent members of the sects under consideration, and 
 have in every case accepted the corrections made. ‘The 
 acknowledgments to individuals who aided in securing 
 facts for earlier editions are set forth in the Preface to 
 the twelfth edition. The publishers now make further 
 acknowledgment to Judge Clifford P. Smith, of Boston, 
 for the article on “Christian Science”; to Mr. Edward H. 
 Anderson and President Heber J. Grant for revision of 
 the lesson on “The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day 
 Saints”; to Mr. George B. Hodge, of New York, Director 
 of the Statistical Bureau, for the article on the “Young 
 Men’s Christian Association”; to Miss Mollie Sullivan and 
 Miss Katherine Gay, of the Publicity Department, for the 
 article on the “Young Women’s Christian Association” ; 
 to Mr. Robert P. Anderson, Editorial Secretary, for the 
 article on the “Society of Christian Endeavor”; and to 
 Mrs. May C. Stoiber for the article on “New Thought.” 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. THE JEWS 
 
 Section I. Name, Race, anp Doctrine . 
 
 Section II. Five Periops or JEwisH History . 
 
 ai. 
 2. The Prophetic Period 
 3. The Temple Period . 
 4. 
 
 5. The Modern Period . 
 
 CHAPTER 
 SECTION 
 
 SEcTION 
 
 COT mm OOP & tO et 
 
 The Mosaic Period . 
 
 The Talmudic Period . 
 
 (a) Reform Judaism 
 (b) Zionism 
 
 PART II. THE CHRISTIANS 
 i 
 
 I. Name, History, AND GOVERNMENT . 
 
 II. Docrrines HeLtp BY CHRISTIANS . 
 
 . Creeds . : 
 . Sources of cre 
 
 God . 
 
 . Jesus 
 
 Human Narre 
 
 . Salvation 
 
 The Future Life . 
 
 . The Church and the Saree ents ; 
 
 Cuapter II. Tur Roman CatTHOLics 
 
 v 
 
 PAGE 
 
vi CONTENTS 
 ; PAGE 
 Cuapter II]. Tue Opp CATHOLICS . -. - «© « « 63 
 
 Cuaprer IV. Tue EasterN oR OrTHODOX CHURCH . 65 
 
 GHAPTER Ve LHE GC LROTESTANTS tise ollivehtecae teens 73 
 
 Section I. Name, History, anp Doctrine. . . 73 
 Section II. EvancenicaL Proresrant Bopies (AR- 
 RANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY) . . . + 9 
 4.) The Lutherans (4517). 0.0) ee 
 9 The Mennonites (1525). 2°77.) 5.05 tenes 
 3 'The Baptists (1593) =)... ose sieinie elena 
 4. The Presbyterians (1557) . . . . « » 92 
 5. The Reformed Church (1563) . . . . ~ 101 
 6. The Congregationalists (1580) . . . . 106 
 %. The Episcopalians (Protestant BpiscopaD 
 (1605)"—. : edie 
 
 8. The Friends (Orthodox) (1647) . SE rc | 
 9° ‘The! Dunkards’ (1719). 40°) 9) wae ee eee 
 
 40. The Methodists (1729) 2) 455.07.) oe eet 
 11. The “Moravians-(1735)), .5- 31063 het) eee 
 149. The United Brethren (1753) . . . . . 145 
 13. The Evangelical Church (1800) . . . . 147 
 14, The Disciples of Christ (1804) . . . . 149 
 15. The Christians (1806) .>—.) sos. 5 Bee eee 
 16 "The Adventists) A83l)) 273. ss- 7 LOO 
 17. The Reformed Episcopalians (1875) . ch ALG 
 18. The Salvation Army’ (1876) .0 3 3298" ve toe 
 
 Section III. Orner CuristiAN Bopies CLAIMING SuP- 
 PLEMENTARY REVELATIONS . . . 163 
 
 1. The Church of the New Jerusalem (aneaee 
 borgian) (1745) . . . 163 
 
 2. The Church of Jesus Ghiriat ae Tnther tae 
 Saints (Mormons) (1830) . . . . . 168 
 8. Christian Science (1879) . . . - + +» 1% 
 
CONTENTS vii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section IV. Tue Liperat Prorestant Bopirs . . 177 
 1. The Unitarians (1570) First Church, United 
 
 Tater CUEOU)brclate: tutes oleh imictantotd ecteeae hace 
 
 ORELHOMUIMLVETSAlIStS 6 Cl (.10 ) nec eth eet tes) al LOU 
 
 8. The Friends (Hicksite) (1827) . . . . 194 
 
 AMIN OW LOGUETLURE Loki are ee eet end ea LO 
 
 Section V. INTERDENOMINATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS . 202 
 1. For Fellowship and Service . . . . . 202 
 The Federal Council of the Churches of 
 
 Ghrigtsa ini A MCTiCa a eee email) 6 cod 20 
 9. For Religious Education 
 Religious Education Association . . . 204 
 
 8. For Doctrinal Ends (Evangelical) World 
 Congress on Christian Fundamentals (The 
 Fundamentalists) Wa pher Fy goa hyo 
 
 4. For Work Among Young People. . . . 209 
 (a) Young Men’s Christian Association . 209 
 (b) Young Women’s Christian Association 215 
 (c) United Society of Christian Endeavor 218 
 
 5. For Spread of Liberal Thought. . . . 221 
 (a) International Congress of Christians 
 and Other Religious Liberals . . 221 
 (b) National Federation of Religious 
 I PORAISh Atte Boiee of Ves ote © Rie ke Rad ee 
 PART III. BODIES NOT CALLING THEMSELVES 
 CHRISTIAN 
 Petite YIROSOPHISTS (3.03.00 Ssh ke Seu. es eis eee 
 PI DE@ASPIRITUALISTS «. v0 -/e > o.sieiyadec le le. ie 200 
 
 Ill. THe EruicaL CuLturists peers ae Maret he Poy Pe eh 
 CPL STEDSUHSLSUTRSY  e G Geey t  a p naiee  ee RRO earNrO D5 18 
 INDEX PR RUE acetic tert Ve by A PN ee OD 
 

 
Part I. 
 
 THE JEWS 
 

 
A STUDY OF 
 THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 THE JEWS 
 
 Section 1 Name, Race, and Doctrine 
 
 Name—Hebrew, Israelite and Jew are the names by 
 which this people has been known through its racial, na- 
 tional and religious history. 
 
 Hebrew. This term comes from Hebrew words signi- 
 fying, “the other side,” “across,” or, the inhabitant of a 
 country or tribe who has come from “the other side” of 
 the River (Euphrates). (Genesis 11:31 and 12:5.) 
 Others interpret it as of Babylonian origin, meaning 
 “traders” originally, those who went to and fro across the 
 Euphrates. It is the name given to a people in the 
 sixteenth century B.C. who were trying to settle in 
 Palestine. The name Hebrew is used in the Tell-el- 
 Amarna letters which were sent by the Egyptian governors 
 in Palestinian cities to the Egyptian Pharaoh at Tell- 
 el-Amarna. They were called Hebrews by those about 
 them to distinguish them, at first from the Egyptians 
 and the Philistines, and, later, from the Greeks. The 
 period of distinctly Hebrew history ends with the Baby- 
 lonian Exile (B.C. 586). 
 
 Israelite. This term has almost exclusively a religious 
 significance, with special reference to the privileges 
 
 thought to have been conferred upon this people. “Thy 
 3 
 
4. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel” (Genesis 
 32:28). They called themselves children of Israel 
 and traced their descent to the twelve sons of Israel 
 (Jacob). 
 
 Jew. This term has covered the two-fold aspect of the 
 Hebrews, as a people and as a religious body. It comes 
 from the name Judah and was first applied to those who 
 inhabited Southern Palestine (Jeremiah 43:9). Its 
 use was then extended to cover those Israelites in North 
 Palestine (II Kings 16:3). It is the term used in the 
 book of Esther for those who worshipped Yahweh in 
 Jerusalem after the Exile. The period of distinctly Jew- 
 ish history begins with the Exile. The term Jew has met 
 with most disfavor among the people themselves who have 
 tried, without success, to have Hebrew and Israelite used 
 instead. At present there is increasing use of the term 
 Jew as the name of all of the Hebrew race. 
 
 Race—The Hebrews belong to the Semitic branch of 
 the human race. In this same branch are Arabians 
 (North and South) Abyssinians, Babylonians, Assyrians, 
 Arameans, Pheenicians, and Canaanites.. They are of dif- 
 ferent racial descent from the Indo-Germanic (Aryan) 
 people among whom they long have lived. From the 
 Semitic race have come three of the great religions— 
 Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism. 
 
 Doctrine—As the Jews have no central authority over 
 the individual congregation, they have no formal creed. 
 Their seat of authority is in a body of writings and tradi- 
 tions which always have been differently interpreted. 
 The prophets and the scribes have represented the two _ 
 opposing schools of interpretation. On the one hand 
 there were believers in a religion of social righteous- 
 ness, on the other hand believers in a religion of cere- 
 
THE JEWS 5 
 
 monial exactness. A spirit of faith is set over against a 
 letter of doctrine and custom. In our time the words re- 
 form and orthodox are used to define these parts in Ju- 
 daism. 
 
 Orthodox Judaism holds to the belief in one God, to 
 whom the Jews are “the chosen people” with special guid- 
 ance and a distinctive destiny. Their books are held to 
 be of Divine origin. A Messiah is looked for who will re- 
 store them to their place. The Sabbath begins at sunset 
 on Friday evening and ends at sunset on Saturday eve- 
 ning. While Jerusalem was their center of worship 
 the sacrificial system had a large place. Dietary laws, 
 especially those dealing with “clean” and “unclean” 
 meats, are strictly observed. In the synagogue the wor- 
 shipping body is called the congregation, which is made 
 up of heads of families. At least ten must be pres- 
 ent. The synagogue service consists of reading the law 
 with comment, though without the formal sermon. The 
 music is conducted by the cantor, the congregation taking 
 no part. The women sit apart by themselves. The men 
 wear their hats through the services. Numerous sacred 
 days are observed. 
 
 The Hebrew people have thought of themselves as a 
 race into which one must be born, and not as a religion 
 into which any one may come, so they did not at first 
 feel the necessity of a definite creed. With the spread 
 of Mohammedan faith, Judaism felt called upon to define 
 its distinctive doctrines. The “Thirteen Articles of the 
 Creed,” written by Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), and 
 since 1200 a.p. attached to the Talmud, may be regarded 
 as the best creedal statement. Here the subjects, God, 
 Revelation and Retribution are defined. God exists with- 
 out beginning in absolute unity; is the cause of all things; 
 
6 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 is incorporeal, all anthropomorphic passages being un- 
 derstood as metaphorical. He alone is to be worshipped. 
 Revelation is a distinction granted to those of superior 
 degree whose souls enter into intimate connection with 
 the Creative intellect. Chief of these of superior degree 
 is Moses whose distinctions are that he alone held direct 
 intercourse with God; that he himself in the experience 
 felt no weakening of vital’ power nor fear; that he was 
 not obliged to receive revelations in dreams nor wait for 
 them to come to him, but could solicit them at will. 
 This Revelation, in the hands of the Jewish people to- 
 day in the Torah, is from Moses. It is all Divine and 
 will not be abrogated. No other law of Divine origin 
 will come and nothing will be taken from or added to 
 this. God knows the actions of all mankind; rewards 
 those who obey the laws and punishes all transgressors. 
 The Messiah will come without fail, no matter how long 
 he may tarry. There will be a resurrection of the dead 
 at the coming of the Messiah. 
 
 Section 2 Five Periods of Jewish History 
 
 No other religion of which we know has passed through 
 as many stages as Judaism. Developing with the politi- 
 cal, social, intellectual and moral advancement of the 
 people, it has assumed different phases at different periods 
 in history. These phases may be characterized roughly as 
 the Mosaic period; the Prophetic period; the Restoration 
 or Temple period; the Talmudic and the Modern periods. 
 
 1. The Mosaic Period—This may be considered as 
 extending from the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites 
 under Joshua to the rise of the prophets. The family 
 or tribe of Abram came down from Ur of the Chaldees 
 (Babylonians) to Canaan and settled upon the border of 
 
THE JEWS 7 
 
 Egypt. Moses gave them the Law—of which the Ten 
 Commandments are the kernel—a set of legal regulations 
 ' governing both conduct and worship, and made Jehovah 
 their distinctive God, teaching that while the other na- 
 tions might have their gods, Jehovah alone was to be wor- 
 shipped by the Jews. Living as they did among other 
 _ people, their religion became corrupted and confused with 
 the worship of other gods whose existence they acknowl- 
 edged, though they claimed Jehovah as the most powerful. 
 The early worship consisted almost entirely of sacrifices, 
 offered in the Tabernacle during their wandering in the 
 wilderness, and in the Temple after David had made 
 Jerusalem the fixed capital. 
 
 2. The Prophetic Period—During this period the 
 Jews were falling away continually from the worship of 
 the One God (Jehovah) which Moses in the Law had or- 
 dained, and were resorting to idolatrous practices and the 
 worship of the many nature gods of their Canaanitish 
 neighbors. This brought forth protests and men arose who 
 strove to hold the people to the worship of Jehovah only. 
 These reformers, of whom Elijah was the first, were called 
 the “prophets” or “spokesmen.” As a result of the labors 
 of such men as Amos, Isaiah and Jeremiah, the God of 
 the Mosaic Law was elevated to a moral and a spiritual 
 personality. He was no longer a God who delighted in 
 sacrifices, feasts, new moons and salbaths, but a God who 
 required of men “to do justly, to love mercy and to walk 
 humbly.” The conflict, however, between the reformers 
 and their opponents was still going on when the Exile 
 ended the national existence. 
 
 3. The Temple Period—When the Jews, compara- 
 tively few in number, returned from exile and captivity in 
 Babylonia, they were much changed. In Babylonia they 
 
8 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 had resorted for worship to houses of prayer, Synagogues, 
 where the Law was read and commented upon. While the 
 Temple was rebuilt and the sacrifices restored on a magni- 
 ficent scale, local synagogues, too, or meeting houses, rose 
 all over the land, in which reading and exposition of 
 the Law and Prophets became the centre of interest. 
 By the side of the priests and Levites, who conducted the 
 sacrificial worship, rose the scribes, lawyers and rabbis, 
 who were students of the sacred books, and the Pharisees, 
 Sadducees and Zealots who were divided on their applica- 
 tion. Idolatry had disappeared forever, and Jehovah he- 
 came to all not only the most powerful national god 
 but also the only God of the world. As His chosen and 
 peculiar people, the Jews proudly withdrew from all un- 
 necessary intercourse with the “Gentiles” ; forbade inter- 
 marriage with them, while, as a consolation for political 
 subjection to them, they clung tenaciously to their belief 
 in a Messiah, or “anointed one” of God, who would sub- 
 due the nations, and make His people the masters and 
 teachers of the world. Also there had crept in, or had 
 been developed, belief in immortality, in angels and in 
 devils, and in the divergent destinies of the good and 
 the wicked, which to most meant respectively, Jews and 
 Gentiles. 
 
 It was during this period that divisions arose, resulting 
 in the formation of Sects. First among these divisions 
 was the Samaritans. When the Jews upon their return 
 from captivity were rebuilding the temple, the Samaritans, 
 inhabitants of what was once the Northern Kingdom 
 (Israel), offered to help. These Samaritans were a Mix- 
 ture of the remnant of the Israelites left in the land and 
 of the colonists from Assyria who had adopted Judaism. 
 Inasmuch as they were not pure Jews, the rebuilders of 
 
THE JEWS 9 
 
 the temple at Jerusalem would not accept their assistance. 
 They built a rival temple on Mt. Gerizim, which remained 
 until destroyed four hundred years later. The Samari- 
 tans constitute the oldest sect of the Jews. After num- 
 bering millions in their early history, they have dwindled 
 to a small community inhabitating one-quarter in the 
 town of Nablus (Ancient Shekem) at the foot of Mt. 
 Gerizim. 
 
 At the time of the Babylonian captivity many Jews fled 
 to Egypt, among them the High Priest. These Egyptian 
 Jews built a temple of their own at Leontopolis, Egypt, 
 where they offered sacrifices. When Alexandria became 
 the centre of Greek culture, the large Jewish population 
 there began to feel the effects of it. These Egyptian Jews 
 had forgotten the Hebrew language, so that the Scriptures 
 had to be translated into Greek. This translation is 
 known as the Septuagint. In order to make Judaism 
 acceptable to the Greek mind, the Egyptian Jews applied 
 the allegorical method to the interpretation of Scripture 
 and expounded Judaism as a system of Philosophy, as 
 well as a Religion. This was the method adopted by 
 Philo, the foremost Alexandrian Jew, in his commen- 
 taries on the Old Testament. Although very different 
 from Palestinian Judaism, Hellenistic Judaism acknowl- 
 edged its origins. The Jews of Egypt always held Juda 
 and the Temple at Jerusalem in great veneration and 
 made the Law of Moses the rule of life. To them, early 
 Christian theology owes much. 
 
 4, Talmudic Period—With the sesnraceone of the 
 Temple and Jerusalem in 70 A.D. begins the fourth or 
 Talmudic period. This catastrophe dispersed the surviv- 
 ing Jews over the world and put an end to the sacrificial 
 side of their religion. Judaism lived henceforth only as 
 
10 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 a religion and only in the synagogue, school and the home. 
 Long before the destruction of the Temple, however, Juda- 
 ism had begun to follow a new line of development. In 
 addition to the Mosaic Law (Written Law) there grew up 
 a body of Unwritten (Oral Law) which consisted of am- 
 plifications and deductions from the Written Law. In the 
 course of time, different rabbis and different schools had 
 their own Mishna, as the Oral Law was called. An au- 
 thoritative Mishna was collected and edited about 200 a. D. 
 Once Oral Law was written, its decisions called for inter- 
 pretation. These commentaries made in the Rabbinical 
 academies of Palestine and Babylonia were called Gemara 
 (that which completes). Taken together, the Gemara and 
 Mishna were called the Talmud. Next to the Bible the 
 Talmud, of which the authoritative version is the Baby- 
 lonian (500 a.D.), is the most sacred book of the Jews. 
 To keep the text of the Law pure through all copying, 
 there grew up the Masora, or study of form, under the 
 care of learned men, called Massorites. This was the pe- 
 riod during which Jewish learning flourished, at first in 
 the East and later in Spain and in Germany. The perse- 
 cution of the Jews during the Middle Ages, their fidelity 
 to each other and to their religion, and the development of 
 their national characteristics, deserve careful study. 
 
 5. The Modern Period (a)—Reform Judaism—Ju- 
 daism to-day is divided into Orthodox, Conservative and 
 Reform according to the degree of adherence to or depar- 
 ture from the requirements of the Mosaic Law and the 
 Talmud on matters of doctrine, ceremony and ritual. Re- 
 form is the name taken now by those who have been in- 
 fluenced most by modern science, by the changed interpre- 
 tation of history and revelation, and, by the more favor- 
 able status of the Jews in Europe and America. This 
 
THE JEWS 11 
 
 modern phase of Jewish thought arose in Europe about 
 1800 as a part of the movement to secure political emanci- 
 pation. The term “reform” was borrowed from the lan- 
 guage of the Reformation, not signifying however a return 
 to primitive Mosaism. Arising first in Germany it came 
 to America with the Jewish emigrants and was formally 
 expressed by the Philadelphia Conference in 1869 and the 
 Pittsburg Conference in 1885. 
 
 The Reform movement at first concerned itself with rit- 
 ual only, having for its purpose to make the service sim- 
 pler and more beautiful. It gradually extended to mat- 
 ters of thought and to practices which are not applicable to 
 modern conditions. These differences from orthodox Ju- 
 daism became so considerable that not only a restatement 
 of thought was required, but also a corresponding revision 
 of the forms and language of public worship. 
 
 Reform Judaism looks upon the Jewish people as now 
 fulfilling their destiny by spreading their monotheistic 
 faith among the nations. Their mission is interpreted as 
 being now in the process of realization in their contribu- 
 tion to human society. The emphasis is placed upon Israel 
 as a priest-people to lead the world to the recognition of 
 the truth of which she is witness. For the idea of a 
 chosen people, with special privileges and a particularly 
 favored destiny, is substituted emphasis upon the greater 
 obligation because of her gifts and upon her common des- 
 tiny with the whole race. 
 
 The Reform service has eliminated all references to the 
 Jews as a strange people in a strange land, to the sacrifi- 
 cial system, the priesthood, the coming of the Messiah, the 
 return to Palestine, and the restoration of the sacerdotal 
 order. The service is in the vernacular with a sermon. 
 Mixed choirs have taken the place of the cantor. Wear- 
 
12 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ing hats through the service and separation of the women 
 from the men have been discontinued. The Saturday 
 Sabbath has yielded to economic and social conditions 
 which have made it difficult to keep. Services are held on 
 Friday evening, Saturday or Sunday. The keeping of the | 
 dietary laws, so strictly regarded by the Orthodox, is left 
 to the individual. | 
 
 The idea of revelation to a chosen few, at intervals, has 
 been superseded by the theory of continuous revelation. 
 The doctrine of man’s innate sinfulness and his futile at- 
 tempt to conquer sin by the Law, is rejected. The Law 
 is held to be of both Jewish and non-Jewish origin and to 
 be a product of time and change. Women are admitted 
 to equal privilege with men. Systematic instruction is 
 provided for the young. 
 
 (b) Zionism—Since 1886 Zionism has been used to 
 name the movement in Judaism which has for its purpose 
 to establish in Palestine a national home for the Jewish 
 people. Since the dispersion of the Jews by Titus 
 (70 a.p.) many orthodox Jews have held the belief that 
 this return is the next event in the fulfillment of their des- 
 tiny. The chief advocate against this expectation was 
 Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) who believed that the 
 Jews should absorb Western culture and be absorbed into 
 the nations in which they live. The writings of Mendels- 
 sohn, however, stimulated interest in Jewish history and 
 pride in their sacred places in Palestine. George Eliot, in 
 “Daniel Deronda” and in “Theophrastus Such,” increased 
 the general interest in what came later to be the Zionistic 
 program. The first efforts were economic and political, 
 and found expression in the planting of agricultural colo- 
 nies in Palestine. The movement was stimulated by dis- 
 appointment over the results of the emancipation of the 
 
THE JEWS 13 
 
 Jews in Europe, for it was discovered that political equal- 
 ity did not bring social equality. The revival of Anti- 
 Semitism in Austria convinced many Jewish leaders that 
 this prejudice against them is ineradicable in Christian 
 lands and that they cannot be assimilated with the na- 
 tions of which they are citizens without intermarriage, by 
 which they would lose their distinct character as a people. 
 In 1896 Theodore Herzl wrote “The Jewish State,” which 
 became at once the textbook of the Zionist movement. 
 Under his leadership it grew in his lifetime from a vague 
 hope to a world movement. Between 1897-1910 nine In- 
 ternational Congresses were held. An offer by the British 
 Government of land in Africa was definitely rejected, in- 
 dicating that the sentiment is not for separation alone, 
 but for return to Palestine. The business organization 
 of Zionism is the Jewish Colonial Trust Company, Ltd., 
 capitalized at £2,000,000. 
 
 After the Great War the headquarters of Zionism was 
 transferred from Berlin to London, and the Jews in Great 
 Britain and the United States became more active. 
 The following Zionist proposal was adopted by the Allied 
 Powers and incorporated in the British Mandate for Pal- 
 estine under the League of Nations: “The sovereign 
 possession of Palestine shall be vested in the League of 
 Nations, and the government entrusted to Great Britain 
 as the mandatory of the League, it being a special condi- 
 tion of the mandate that Palestine shall be placed under 
 such political, administrative and economic conditions as 
 will secure the establishment there of the Jewish National 
 Home and ultimately render possible the creation of an 
 autonomous Commonwealth.” 
 
 Statistics—The Jewish population of the world is esti- 
 mated at 14,972,000, divided as follows: Europe 10,- 
 
14. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 892,000; Asia 357,000; Africa 360,000; North America 
 and Central America 3,530,000; South America 114,000; 
 and Australasia 19,000. 
 
 The record of the Jewish Community in the United 
 States begins in 1655 when a company of Jews was ad- 
 mitted to the Dutch Settlement at New Amsterdam. Re- 
 ligious freedom was granted them when the Colony passed 
 in 1656 into the control of the English, and the Jews were 
 given permission to hold services of public worship and to 
 own a burial ground. During the first three-quarters of 
 the nineteenth century there was marked increase in the 
 Jewish population, due to immigration from Germany, 
 Austria, and Poland. Since 1880 the Jewish immigrants 
 have come mainly from Russia, Austria, and Rumania. 
 In 1920 the total Jewish population of the United States 
 was estimated at 3,300,000. Of these more than ninety 
 per cent are connected with some congregation. In the 
 United States they report 3,000 congregations; 810 
 rabbis; 400,000 members; and 74,022 in church schools. 
 They maintain 4 colleges and theological seminaries, 
 
Part II. 
 THE CHRISTIANS 
 

 
THE CHRISTIANS 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Section 1 Name, History, and Government 
 
 Name—tThe name “Christian” was not used till several 
 years after the death of Jesus, and then at Antioch (Acts 
 11:26), a heathen city, and probably as a nickname. Be- 
 fore that his followers. were called “disciples,” “brethren,” 
 “believers,” “saints” by themselves, and “Nazarenes” or 
 “Galileans” by others. The word “Christian” is derived 
 from the title “Christ,’? which is a Greek translation or 
 equivalent of the Hebrew word Messiah, or “anointed 
 one,” given to Jesus as the realization of the Jewish na- 
 tional expectation of a divinely sent deliverer and teacher. 
 
 History—The history of Christianity properly begins 
 with the first preaching of its founder, Jesus, who having 
 been born probably about 4 B. c., became known to the pub- 
 lic about 26 or 27 A.D. Rejected by the religious authori- 
 ties of his nation, he soon began to preach in the open air; 
 but after a career, the length of which is variously esti- 
 mated from one to three years, he was crucified by the 
 Roman authorities at the demand of the Jews, probably in 
 30 A.D. 
 
 Hardly a score of years had passed when a division took 
 place among his followers which it is very important to 
 notice. It was the division between ritual and spiritual 
 
 religion, We have found it between the Hebrew priests 
 17 
 
18 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 and prophets, and it runs through all Christian history. 
 The first Christians were little more than a small Jewish 
 sect, clinging to the laws of Moses and worshipping in the 
 Temple. They differed from the other Jews mainly in the 
 belief that Jesus was the promised Messiah. ‘The persecu- 
 tion which arose after the preaching and death of Stephen 
 drove them from Jerusalem, scattered them among the 
 Gentiles, and brought them into contact with wider and 
 higher thought. A more spiritual Christianity was the 
 fruit of this union; and it embodied itself first in Saul, or 
 Paul, who denied the necessity of the observance of the 
 Mosaic Law—an external matter, “dead works”—and 
 based Christianity upon faith, an act of the soul. Bitter 
 dissension arose, ending at last in a compromise (see 
 Paul’s story in Galatians). But the two kinds of religion 
 remained, and can be traced down to our own day. 
 Mosaic Christianity, or the Christianity of Peter, died 
 away; but its spirit passed into the more splendid ritual 
 and priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church, whose head 
 is claimed to be Saint Petér. Spiritual Christianity, or 
 the Christianity of Paul, though it gained the victory at 
 first, disappeared under Catholicism during the Middle 
 Ages, to emerge in the Protestant Reformation, whose 
 motto, “The just shall live by faith,’ and whose general 
 spirit came from the Epistles of Paul. The same funda- 
 mental difference may be traced between Protestant sects, 
 and between parties in those sects, from the Anglican 
 ritualist to the silent Quaker. 
 
 The first great division in the body of Christianity was 
 the secession, or excommunication, of the Eastern Church, 
 in 1051, which was due more to national than to doctrinal 
 causes. Then Western Christianity divided, in the six- 
 teenth century, into Catholic and Protestant. 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 19 
 
 Government—In government, Christians may be 
 divided into episcopal, or those under the authority of bish- 
 ops; synodical, or those controlled by representative 
 bodies; and congregational, or those who own no authority 
 above the individual church, or congregation. The first 
 class is by far the most numerous, including Roman and 
 Greek Catholics, most Methodists, the Episcopalians, and 
 the Moravians. The second class includes Lutherans, 
 Presbyterians, Reformed, many Methodists, and smaller 
 sects. ‘The third class includes Baptists, Congregational- 
 ists, Christians, Friends, Adventists, Unitarians and 
 Universalists. 
 
 Section 2 Doctrines Held by Christians 
 1. CREEDS 
 
 Our little systems have their day; 
 They have their day and cease to be; 
 They are but broken lights of thee, 
 And thou, O Lord, art more than they.—Tennyson. 
 
 The word “creed” is derived from the Latin credo, “I 
 believe,’ and is used to designate a formal statement, 
 usually authoritative, of belief on religious subjects. All 
 Christian bodies have creeds except the Friends, the Uni- 
 tarians, the Disciples of Christ, the “Christians,” the 
 Christian Union, and some smaller sects. The Methodists 
 have no formal creed, but a virtual one in certain 
 standards which are regarded as authoritative. The 
 Congregationalists and Baptists, with other congregational 
 bodies, hold to the right of each church to formulate its 
 own statement of faith. Some of the liberal churches 
 have “covenants,” or other statements of belief and pur- 
 
29 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 pose; but they are never intended to express exhaustively 
 or to limit in any way the belief of the signers. 
 
 THe THREE GENERAL CREEDS 
 
 These are either formally or tacitly acknowledged in the 
 Greek, Latin, and Evangelical Protestant Churches: 
 
 (a) The Apostles’ Creed—This name came from the 
 legend that the creed was composed by the twelve Apostles, 
 each contributing a clause, or article, beginning with 
 Peter. This was believed till two hundred years ago. It 
 is now certain that the creed first took shape at the end 
 of the fourth century in the Western Church, attained its 
 present form at the end of the fifth century, if not later, 
 and was formally adopted in the eighth. (For an inter- 
 esting table showing its growth, and also for many state- 
 ments of belief between it and those in the New Testa- 
 ment, see Schaff, vol. ii, pp. 11-40.) It reads:— 
 
 “T believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven 
 and earth. 
 
 “And in Jesus Christ, His only begotten Son, our Lord, 
 who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin 
 Mary, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and 
 buried; he descended into hell; the third day he rose again 
 from the dead; he ascended into heaven, and sitteth at the 
 right hand of God the Father Almighty; from thence he 
 shall come to judge the quick and the dead. 
 
 “I believe in the Holy Ghost, the holy Catholic Church, 
 the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resur- 
 rection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen.” 
 
 (b) The Nicene Creed—This is so called from the 
 Council of Nicea, in Asia Minor, by which its first form 
 was adopted as a decision against the Arians, 325. The 
 
THE CHRISTIAN 21 
 
 clauses after “I believe in the Holy Ghost” were added 
 later, and formally adopted by the Council of Chalcedon in 
 381. The words, “and the Son,” were added by a Western 
 Council in 589, and became a cause of division between 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. The circumstances 
 amid which the creed arose naturally led to stress on the 
 diety of Jesus and of the Holy Ghost. It was a Greek, 
 or Eastern, as the Apostles’ was a Latin, or Western, 
 creed. 
 
 “T believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of 
 heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. 
 
 “And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of 
 God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, God of God, 
 Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, 
 being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things 
 were made; who for us men and for our salvation came 
 down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of 
 the Virgin Mary, and was made man, and was crucified 
 also for us under Pontius Pilate; he suffered and was buried; 
 and the third day he rose again, according to the Scriptures, 
 and ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of 
 the Father; and he shall come again with glory to judge both 
 the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. 
 
 “And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver 
 of Life, who proceedeth from the Father and the Son; who 
 with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and 
 glorified; who spake by the Prophets. And I believe in one 
 Catholic and Apostolic Church; I acknowledge one Baptism 
 for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of 
 the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.” 
 
 (c) The Athanasian Creed—This name arose from 
 the belief that the creed was composed by Athanasius, the 
 defender of the divinity of-Christ at the Council of Nicexa, 
 
22 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 325. But it is now certain that the creed did not appear 
 till the close of the eighth century. It was of Latin 
 origin, and is much used in the Roman Church. The 
 Church of England ordains its use on thirteen festival 
 days in place of the Apostles’ Creed; but it is much dis- 
 liked. The American Episcopalians omitted it from 
 their Prayer Book. It is too long to give in full, but a 
 few clauses will show its tenor :— 
 
 “1. Whosoever will be saved: before all things it is neces- 
 sary that he hold the Catholic Faith: 
 
 “9. Which faith except every one do keep whole and un- 
 defiled: without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. 
 
 “3. And the Catholic Faith is this: That we worship 
 one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; 
 
 “4. Neither confounding the Persons: nor dividing the 
 Substance. 
 
 “15, So the Father is God: the Son is God: and the Holy 
 Ghost is God. 
 “16. And yet they are not three Gods: but one God. 
 
 “O9,. Furthermore it is necessary to everlasting salvation: 
 that he also believe rightly the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 “30. For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess: 
 that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and 
 Man: 
 
 “31. God, of the Substance of the Father; begotten be- 
 fore the worlds: and Man, of the Substance of his Mother, 
 born in the world. 
 
 “32. Perfect God: and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul 
 and human flesh subsisting. 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 23 
 
 “33. Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead: and 
 inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood. 
 
 2 oy e ® e 
 
 - iw 
 
 “37. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so 
 God and Man is one Christ.” 
 
 2. SOURCES OF AUTHORITY 
 
 Out from the heart of Nature rolled 
 The burdens of the Bible old; 
 
 The word unto the prophet spoken 
 
 Was writ on tables yet unbroken; 
 
 The word by seers or sibyls told 
 
 In groves of oak or fanes of gold 
 
 Still floats upon the morning wind, 
 
 Still whispers to the willing mind.—Zmerson. 
 
 All Christians rely upon human reason to some extent. 
 But the reason finds limits beyond which it cannot go— 
 subjects upon which it is not competent to decide. It 
 must then ask whether there is any authority higher than 
 itself which can decide for it, and to the decision of which 
 it will bow even when it cannot understand that decision, 
 or when it shrinks from it. The Roman Catholic and the 
 Evangelical Protestant answer this question in the af- 
 firmative. The Roman Catholic maintains that God has 
 established upon the earth an institution called the 
 Church, whose function is to instruct men upon those 
 religious subjects which lie beyond their own ken and yet 
 are of vital importance. This Church was founded by 
 Jesus Christ, who was God the Son, who proved his divine 
 nature and office by his miracles, and who constantly guides 
 
24 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 and instructs his Church. Moreover, by this Church 
 the revelations made to various men before and at the time 
 of Christ have been gathered, protected, guaranteed, and 
 are interpreted. “We indeed devoutly receive the whole 
 Bible as the word of God,” said Cardinal Newman; “but 
 we receive it on the authority of the Church; and the 
 Church has defined very little as to the aspects under 
 which it comes from God and the limits of its inspira- 
 tion. . . . Not the Bible, but the Church, is to him (the 
 Catholic) the oracle of revelation. Though the whole 
 Scripture were miraculously removed from the world as 
 if it had never been, grievous as the calamity would be, 
 he would still have enough motives and objects for his 
 faith. Whereas to the Protestant the question of Scrip- 
 ture is one of life and death.” 
 
 The Reformers swept the authority of the Church en- 
 tirely out of their religious system, and, though after some 
 wavering and confusion, established the Bible in its place 
 as the sole “oracle of revelation.” They were driven, by 
 the necessity of opposing to the supernatural Church an 
 authority of equal divineness and infallibility, to make 
 the most extreme claims for the inspiration of the Bible. 
 Luther held views which even now would be called lax. 
 Calvin, however, drew the lines closer; and the West- 
 minster Confession asserted that “the whole counsel of 
 God . . . is either expressly set down in Scripture, or by 
 good and necessary consequence may be deduced from 
 Scripture: unto which nothing at any time is to be added, 
 whether by new revelations of the Spirit or traditions of 
 men.” ‘The Bible became to the Calvinist his guide, not 
 only in religion, but in affairs of State and in the most 
 private matters. Reason might decide upon the cre- 
 dentials of the Scriptures, but the appreciation of their 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 20 
 
 inner and saving meaning could come only by “the inward 
 illumination of the Spirit of God.” In the view of Cal- 
 vinists this illumination could come only to the elect, and 
 indeed was one proof of their election. 
 
 All Protestants decisively reject the authority of the 
 Church, but as to the Bible there is great variety in their 
 estimate of its authority. The early Protestant view 
 was determined largely by the accompanying view of 
 the corruption and helplessness of human nature. As this 
 view has retired, the reason has claimed greater rights. 
 Conservative Protestants, especially those calling them- 
 selves Fundamentalists, still assert and emphasize the 
 plenary inspiration of the Bible and its absolute infallibil- 
 ity, but most Protestants, while they recognize the inspira- 
 tion of the Bible, look upon revelation as progressive, 
 according to the increasing capacity of men to receive the 
 truth. Many passages in the Bible seem to them of 
 supreme and unsurpassed value to the soul. Yet they 
 look upon inspiration as not confined to any period, but 
 as acting still, revealing both new depths in the old truths 
 and new views of the divine nature and action. The sole 
 criterion of truth, when it cannot be fully demonstrated 
 by the reason, is satisfaction of the intellectual, moral, 
 and spiritual needs of human life. 
 
 Moreover, the old Protestant view of the infallibility of 
 Scripture does not seem to be warranted by Scripture 
 itself. It rose out of the exigencies of controversy. A 
 few simple facts, admitted by all, are decisive: (1) The 
 Bible never speaks of itself as a whole. This is to be ex- 
 pected from the fact that it was a gradual growth, an ag- 
 egregation of books, generally having no relation one with 
 another nor even so much as referring to one another. 
 The word “Scripture,” as used in the New Testament, 
 
26 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 refers to the Old Testament, the New not yet having been 
 collected. The infallibility of the Bible, therefore, 1s not 
 and cannot be a@ doctrine asserted in the Bible. (2) Nor 
 do the separate books claim divine warrant, with the ex- 
 ception of a few of the prophetical writings and some 
 sayings of Paul. The inspiration of Genesis, for instance, 
 has been thrust upon it; it claims no divine authority for 
 itself. (3) Most of the books, of the Bible are anony- 
 mous. The authorship named in their titles is the guess 
 of the translators, not the assertion of the writers. (4) 
 We have no guarantee that the books of the Bible have 
 come down to us unharmed. The original manuscripts 
 have all disappeared; and the oldest copy of any part of 
 the New Testament does not date back of 300. Had God 
 meant us to rely upon words, He would have made those 
 words certain beyond doubt. (5) Jesus never wrote a 
 word of his Gospel, and made no provision whatever for 
 having it written. That he should have left it to the oral 
 teaching of his disciples for a generation, then to be com- 
 mitted to four varying accounts, all of uncertain author- 
 ship, is inconceivable upon the old theory of the value of 
 texts. 
 
 No one who comprehends the real weight of these simple 
 facts can hold to the old theory of the Bible; yet whoever 
 reads the Bible, not in a state of suspended intellectual 
 animation, but with soul awake to the light of God on its 
 mountain summits, will see that it is indeed “The Book.” 
 
 3. GOD 
 
 O Source divine, and Life of all, 
 The Fount of being’s wondrous sea! 
 Thy depth would every heart appall 
 That saw not Love supreme in thee.—Sterling. 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 27 
 
 All Christians believe that there is but one God, and 
 that He is infinitely powerful, wise, and loving. Most 
 Christians, except Unitarians, Universalists, and the 
 “Hicksite” Friends, believe also in a Trinity within this 
 unity. The common doctrine of the Trinity is thus de- 
 fined in the Athanasian Creed: ‘We worship one God in 
 Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the 
 Persons nor dividing the Substance. For there is one Per- 
 son of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the 
 Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, 
 and of the Holy Ghost is all one: the Glory equal, the 
 Majesty co-eternal.” 
 
 This doctrine is nowhere distinctly stated in the Bible. 
 The word “Trinity” does not occur at all, nor any word 
 corresponding to it. The texts which have been quoted 
 in favor of the dogma from the Old Testament bear no 
 relation to it. In the New Testament one text has stated 
 it (I John 5:7, 8); but this has long been known to be 
 spurious, and is omitted from the Revised Version. The 
 strongest text remaining is Matthew 28:19, 20; but 
 as many Trinitarians admit (Meyer, McClintock), no 
 equality or divinity or unity of substance is here expressed 
 any more than in the common phrase, “Peter and James 
 and John.” No distinct and decisive proclamation of the 
 doctrine is anywhere made in the New Testament. The 
 Catholic theologians frankly say that the Trinity is one 
 of the doctrines which only the Holy Spirit, acting 
 through the Church, not the individual’s judgment, can 
 find in the Scriptures. 
 
 It was only gradually that the doctrine took shape, and 
 probably by contact with Greek, and especially Alexan- 
 drian, philosophy. It is not in the Apostles’ Creed. The 
 Greek word trias, or “triad,” which does not necessarily 
 
28 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 involve unity of substance, does not occur till after 170; 
 and the Latin word trinitas is not found till Tertullian 
 wrote, after 200. A strong party asserting the integrity 
 of the Father’s essence or substance existed in the Church 
 till after the Council of Nicewa, in 325, pronounced for 
 the deity of Christ. The deity of the Holy Spirit seems 
 never to have been very much discussed or very strongly 
 asserted until the Athanasian Creed appeared. The 
 Nicene Creed was changed without authority in 589, so 
 that the Spirit was said to proceed “from the Father and 
 the Son,’—an addition which was one of the causes of the 
 secession, or excommunication, of the Greek Church. 
 The Trinity remained the universal doctrine until the 
 Reformation, when it was questioned, among others, by 
 Michael Servetus and by Lelius and Faustus Socinus. 
 The tendency among modern Trinitarians is to assert the 
 doctrine as a revealed fact, without attempt to explain it. 
 
 4, JESUS 
 
 O Love! O Life! our faith and sight 
 Thy presence maketh one; 
 
 As through transfigured clouds of white 
 We trace the noonday sun,— 
 
 So, to our mortal eyes subdued, 
 Flesh-veiled, but not concealed, 
 
 We know in thee the fatherhood 
 And heart of God revealed.— Whittier. 
 
 The rank and office of Jesus form the core of Christian 
 doctrine. The point of separation between the first Chris- 
 tians and Judaism was as to whether he was the Messiah 
 or not; in the belief in his deity centres the whole system 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 29 
 
 of Roman, Greek, and Evangelical Protestant doctrine. 
 
 It is impossible to go into the full discussion of Scrip- 
 tural texts; but a few main points must be briefly stated: 
 (1) The Jews, who studied their Bible (Old Testament) 
 with most devoted and minute care, never dreamed that 
 the Messiah there predicted was to be Jehovah himself. 
 He was either a personification of the righteous part of 
 Israel or, later, a prophet or king divinely sent, endowed, 
 and guided, but like all other prophets and kings—like 
 Moses, Elijah, and David—a man. (2) Those who heard 
 Jesus never understood him to claim to be God except 
 once (John 10:33), when Jesus promptly disclaimed the 
 title in any other sense than as it had been given to 
 the ancient Hebrew judges, that is, as representative of 
 God. No one who understands how holy, inaccessible, 
 and separate from humanity the Jews held God to be 
 can fail to see that the claim of Jesus to be identical 
 with Him would have roused too great a tumult to have 
 escaped record, and would have been made the centre of 
 the accusations against him. The one case cited, to any 
 one who understands the nature of the Fourth Gospel, is 
 under suspicion. (3) The first three, or Synoptic, Gos- 
 pels contain not a single clear enunciation of this tremen- 
 dous assumption; but they do contain sayings of Jesus 
 which imply his subordination to God, as Matthew 19:17; 
 26: 39-42; 27:46. There is no reason why he should 
 disclaim deity, for without some clear assertion of it by 
 himself no Jew would have suspected it. His appearance 
 and life were human; and nothing short of irresistible 
 proof, which is made impossible by these naive utterances, 
 can lead us to think he was anything else. (4) The 
 Fourth Gospel is evidently not so much a narrative as a 
 philosophy of Jesus. The Jesus who speaks there is not 
 
30 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the Jesus of the Synoptics, but a dramatic personification 
 of the writer’s ideal—often beautiful and rich in spiritual 
 suggestion, but not drawn from life. But even there, 
 while many passages, especially those which come from 
 the author himself, as the first verses of the first chapter, 
 point to an exaltation of Jesus’ nature above the human, 
 there is no such equality with the Father as the creeds 
 assert, while on every page there are words ascribed to 
 Jesus himself which most clearly imply his subordina- 
 tion (5:19, 30; 7:16; 8:28; ete. As for 10:30, see 
 17:21). (5) The first preaching after Jesus’ death set 
 him forth as a prophet (Acts 2:22; 3:22; 17:31). 
 (6) Paul spiritualized his idea of Jesus, as he did every 
 other point in Christian belief—as baptism and the resur- 
 rection—and undoubtedly assigned to Jesus a_ super- 
 natural mission and endowment, but never deity. 
 
 In short, the nearer we get to the words of Jesus him- 
 self, the less we hear of any exaltation of him above the 
 rank of a prophet of God. 
 
 It is when Christianity moves away from Judaism, with 
 its utter separation of God from man, into the atmosphere 
 of the classic world, where the line between gods and men 
 was always vague, and where it had seemed easy to deify 
 even the Roman emperors—it is then that Jesus mounts 
 rapidly to Deity. The remnants of primitive Chris- 
 tianity, as the Ebionites, retained the original belief in 
 Jesus’ humanity; but Greek and Latin Christianity drew 
 from Greek and Latin philosophy and theology abundant 
 sustenance for the deification of their Master. First, 
 however, must come a long struggle, which reached 
 its climax in the debate between Arius, a presbyter of 
 Alexandria, and Athanasius, a deacon in the same city. 
 Arius maintained that Christ is a being above human- 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 31 
 
 ity, but created by God out of different substance from 
 His own. Athanasius asserted him to be of the same 
 substance and equal in rank. The Emperor Constantine 
 assembled at Nicwa, in Asia Minor, the first “cecumenical” 
 (or world) council in 325, at which the Athanasian view 
 prevailed; and Arianism, though widely spread, died 
 away. Then followed a long controversy over the exact 
 nature of the union between the human and the divine. 
 Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea, denied the humanity of 
 Christ, as Arius had denied his divinity, making the 
 divine Reason, or “Logos,” take the place of the human 
 spirit. The Council of Alexandria (362) decided that 
 the two natures, divine and human, co-existed in Christ. 
 So interpreted, the doctrine remained throughout the 
 Middle Ages. The great Reformers made no change in 
 it, and it passed over into “Evangelical” Protestantism. 
 The doctrine of the deity of Jesus has been of great serv- 
 ice to many by bringing to their minds and hearts a 
 God whom they easily could conceive and so love. That 
 the infinite and unapproachable Jehovah should have 
 come to this suffering and sinful earth, should have taken 
 upon Himself the human form, and submitted Himself 
 to human temptation and suffering, touches the heart by 
 its apparent love and self-abnegation. The broader truth 
 which underlies this we are to see later; but the love of 
 God is taught to many minds more clearly by this one 
 apparently exceptional case than by the more diffuse, 
 though truer, conception which is now growing upon the 
 human mind. On the other hand, however, it is as cer- 
 tain that the deification of Jesus too often has thrust the 
 one true God into the background, robbed Him of His 
 love and compassion, which are transferred to the Christ, 
 and too often made Him an implacable and exacting 
 
32 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 judge. Later even Christ was thrust in his turn into the 
 background; his love and compassion were transferred to 
 the Virgin Mary, or to the saints, who seemed nearer and 
 more easily approachable than the superhuman Christ. 
 The alternative is one which often meets the student of 
 theology—between warmth and truth; between adapta- 
 bility to immediate need, and exact and conscientious 
 conception. , 
 
 5. HUMAN NATURE 
 
 It is not ours to separate 
 The tangled skein of will and fate, 
 
 And between choice and Providence 
 Divide the circle of events. 
 But He who knows our frame is just, 
 Merciful, and compassionate; 
 And full of sweet assurances, 
 And hope for all, the language is, 
 That He remembereth we are dust!—Whitter. 
 
 Orthodox Christians believe that God created Adam 
 and Eve in a state of innocence, but needing probation. 
 The serpent (by most supposed to be an embodiment of 
 Satan), was therefore allowed to tempt them to disobedi- 
 ence. They yielded to the temptation, and, in conse- 
 quence of this “fall,” sin obtained an irresistible power 
 over them. Shame, labor, pain, the pangs of childbirth, 
 and death entered into their lives, and they were thrust out 
 of the Garden of Eden in disgrace. These consequences of 
 their sin have fallen upon their descendants, so that all are 
 helpless in the bonds of inherited corruption. All that 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 33 
 
 they do or can do is worthless and even abhorrent in the 
 divine eyes, and unless some aid can be secured from a 
 source external to themselves, they are doamed to eternal 
 punishment. This innate tendency to evil is called “orig- 
 inal sin”; the helpless state into which man is brought 
 by it, “total depravity”; and the process by which guilt 
 is attributed to him, “imputation.” 
 
 This view of man rests almost entirely upon the second 
 and third chapters of Genesis, and upon the interpreta- 
 tion which Paul gave to them in his Epistle to the Ro- 
 mans, especially 5:12-19. Belief in it, therefore, must 
 depend largely upon the opinion held of the authority 
 of the Scriptures. But the following points must be 
 considered: (1) This view of human nature finds no 
 support from the words of Jesus. He never mentions 
 Adam, Eve, or Eden, or refers to the story of the Fall in 
 any way. Nor does he imply that the souls he addresses 
 are not able to respond. The doctrine of total depravity 
 is never referred to in any manner. (2) Genesis claims 
 no divine warrant for its statements. They are frankly 
 and naively written as any other history. That these 
 chapters have been made the basis of a tremendous sys- 
 tem of theology is not the fault of their authors. (3) 
 No part of the Bible has been so squarely contradicted by 
 modern discoveries as its opening chapters. If they are 
 simply, as they seem, the statement of the belief of their 
 day, or of their writers, this is not strange. If any one 
 persists in taking them for a divinely inspired statement 
 of infallible truth, he must choose between them and the 
 almost universally accepted views of modern men of 
 science. That pain and death were in the world before 
 man came, being the common heritage of all sentient life; 
 that man was not made directly of the dust of the earth, 
 
384 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 but, at least physically, developed from the lower orders 
 of animals; that the human race did not spring from a 
 single pair; that there is no trace of a primeval innocence 
 and a subsequent fall, but that all signs point to a gradual 
 ascent from a savage condition; besides the minor points 
 that woman was not made from the rib of man, and that 
 the serpent never went upright or on legs—all these views 
 steadily gain ground, and relegate the story of Genesis 
 to the realm of poetry, from which indeed it first may 
 have come. Add to these the discrepancies between the 
 two stories of the Creation (Genesis 1: 1-2; 3; 2: 4-25), 
 and the remarkably few references to either of them 
 in the rest of the Bible, and we have abundant reason 
 for doubt as to the literal accuracy of this account of 
 the origin of man. As to the inferences of Paul from 
 the original story, we must remember that the Epistles 
 were letters, and their style is not formal or exact, or 
 even always correct. They were evidently not meant as 
 doctrinal treatises (see Matthew Arnold’s “St. Paul and 
 Protestantism”). Yet it is on Paul’s letters, not on the 
 Gospels, that the popular view of human nature is based. 
 
 The doctrine of man’s nature was worked out by the 
 practical Western or Latin part of the early Church, as 
 the doctrine of Christ’s nature was by the speculative 
 Eastern or Greek part. The general belief at first was 
 in the inherited or Adamic corruption (not guilt) of 
 man, and his ability to co-operate with the Holy Spirit in 
 regeneration. Pelagius, a British monk, precipitated dis- 
 cussion by asserting, about 405, that man inherited noth- 
 ing from Adam, neither original guilt, which was im- 
 possible, nor innate corruption, nor physical consequences, 
 as pain and death, which were in the world before Adam. 
 Every man was born free and unbiassed. Augustine in 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 35 
 
 412 maintained that man inherited not only inborn cor- 
 ruption, but guilt; that he was helpless, and could be 
 saved only by the absolute power of God. This view at 
 first gained complete ascendency, and Pelagianism never 
 had any considerable footing. But Augustinianism grad- 
 ually softened into Semi-Pelagianism, which was very 
 much the original doctrine of inherited corruption and 
 the power of co-operation. This has remained the doc- 
 trine of the Roman Church, as fixed by the Council of 
 Trent after the Reformation. This Church, though it 
 has not pronounced authoritatively upon this point, holds 
 that righteousness was not a natural quality of man at 
 Creation, but was a supernatural addition, lost again at 
 the Fall. Man’s corruption is therefore a negative thing, 
 not a positive wilful rebellion. 
 
 “Augustinianism asserts that man is morally dead; 
 Semi-Pelagianism, that he is morally sick; Pelagianism, 
 that he is morally well.” 
 
 The three views were revived at or after the Reforma- 
 tion. Calvin (1536) revived Augustinianism, Socinus 
 (about 1590), Pelagianism, and Arminius (1589), Semi- 
 Pelagianism. 
 
 6. SALVATION 
 Feeble, helpless, how shall I 
 
 Learn to live and learn to die? 
 Who, O God, my guide shall be? 
 Who shall lead thy child to thee? 
 
 Blessed Father, gracious One, 
 
 Thou hast sent thy holy Son. 
 
 He will give the light I need; 
 
 He my trembling steps will lead.—Furness. 
 
36 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 All Christians agree that the life and death of Jesus 
 mark the chief epoch in the moral history of humanity, 
 and that he has done more than any one else to bring 
 about an atonement between God and man. Here, how- 
 ever, begin great differences of view, in harmony with the 
 various views of human nature. Liberals, believing hu- 
 man nature to be essentially sound, though weak and 
 stumbling, define atonement’ according to the original 
 meaning of the word, as meaning at-one-ment, or leading 
 the divine and the human will to be at one. They make 
 this consist in the action of Jesus upon man, not upon 
 God. They believe that God is always seeking to enter 
 the world of humanity—pressing upward through hu- 
 manity to ever higher forms of spiritual life, as through 
 the world of Nature into ever higher forms of physical 
 life. It is the blindness, weakness, and selfishness of men 
 that need to be overcome; and this Jesus has helped men 
 to do by the power of his truth and his personality 
 through the natural laws which are always at work in the 
 moral and spiritual world. 
 
 Orthodox Christians, including both Catholics and Prot- 
 estants, consider the atonement as working upon the wrath 
 or offended justice of God. It is He who has been recon- 
 ciled to man, not man to Him. This has been effected 
 by a compact between God the Father and God the Son, 
 the latter agreeing to leave his heavenly home and bliss, 
 to take upon himself human form and human nature, to 
 be tempted, persecuted, and put to death upon the dis- 
 graceful cross, so that God may be moved to forgive the 
 sins of men; since they, being corrupt, can do nothing 
 to earn that forgiveness for themselves. The atonement 
 is thus a supernatural matter, out of the range of ordi- 
 nary moral and spiritual laws, as it is beyond the com- 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 37 
 
 prehension of human reason. To explain how it satisfies 
 the justice of God there have been many theories. The 
 two most generally held in modern times are that of the 
 vicarious atonement, or substitution of Jesus’ sufferings 
 for those due from mankind, their sin being amputed to 
 him and his righteousness to them; and the governmental 
 theory—that a great example was needed to show man- 
 kind the enormity of its sin, and to vindicate the divine 
 justice by a punishment proportionate to the offense. 
 The former view was adopted by the Calvinists, the latter 
 by the Arminians. It is needless to say that to the Lib- 
 eral both seem to be inconsistent with any true concep- 
 tion of justice. If man has sinned, it is man who must 
 be punished; and no substitution of the innocent for the 
 guilty, and no exhibition of an innocent “example,” is jus- 
 tifiable. As to the support from Scripture, it may be said 
 in general: (1) That the prophecies in the Old Testament 
 are too vague or too contradictory to be made the basis 
 of any such doctrines. (2) That they find no favor in 
 the words of Jesus. Had we the Gospels only, no one 
 ever would have dreamed of such theories. (3) That the 
 Epistles were written by men who were fresh from Ju- 
 daism, and unable to break away yet from the Jewish 
 idea of sacrifice. The Epistle to the Hebrews shows the 
 process of transition. Jesus is compared to the sacrificial 
 victims on the Temple altar. (4) When reconciliation 
 between God and man is spoken of, it is almost invariably 
 man who is said to have been reconciled to God (Romans 
 11:15; If Corinthians 5: 18-20; Colossians 1: 21). 
 Predestination—But for whom was the atonement 
 intended? The Arminians (including Romanists, An- 
 glicans, Methodists) say for all men. It was a “universal 
 atonement.” The Calvinists say that it was for the elect 
 
38 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 only. All men are alike guilty and helpless; but God 
 chooses to save some and let the rest go on to their merited 
 doom. The former act is called “predestination,” or fix- 
 ing destiny beforehand; the latter, “preterition,” or pass- 
 ing by. To the elect God gives faith and keeps them in. 
 holiness, so that they never can fall away (“perseverance 
 of the saints”). The non-elect, including all the heathen 
 and perhaps many children, strive they ever so much, 
 cannot attain to salvation. This doctrine is the heart of 
 Calvinism and is still nominally held by Orthodox Protes- 
 tants but is rapidly fading away. The Liberal positively 
 rejects it. That there is predestination in this life can- 
 not be denied. What we call the “force of circum- 
 stances,” including the era and place of our birth, our 
 surroundings, physical and moral, and the myriad in- 
 fluences which play upon us continually and mould us 
 more than our own will, is largely but another name for 
 what theology calls the sovereignty of God. How deeply 
 this affects our inner life is hard to say; but that it 
 affects us in most important ways we cannot help seeing. 
 The scientific doctrines of heredity and the power of en- 
 vironment are but other ways of stating this. The pre- 
 destination of this life troubles the thoughtful mind with 
 an unavoidable sense of injustice. 
 
 All attempts to reconcile the doctrine with anything 
 which we can call goodness, and can worship as worthy 
 of our adoration, must fail. 
 
 The Arminian believes that the atonement was for all 
 mankind. The human will is free to accept or to reject 
 the offer of pardon and restoration. This was the message 
 of “free grace” which Methodism brought to a Calvinistic 
 Protestantism, and is virtually the belief of Catholics and 
 Episcopalians. 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 39 
 
 Conversion—The atonement is appropriated by the 
 individual through faith, by which great souls have meant 
 a personal union with Christ, but which commonly de- 
 generates into assent to creeds or ceremonies. To faith 
 the Catholic adds reception of the sacraments of the 
 Church, by which grace is conveyed to the partaker. By 
 most Protestants this faith is expected to come during 
 some sudden and peculiar crisis of religious experience, 
 in which the sinner comes “under conviction of sitive 
 realizes that he is “lost,” seeks for help, and finds it with 
 joy in a burst of “faith in the atoning merits of Jesus.” 
 To bring on this crisis, “revivals,” or times of intense 
 emotional excitement, are stimulated, during which, under 
 the appeals of fervent preachers and the contagion of 
 crowded congregations, people are supposed to be es- 
 pecially visited by the Holy Spirit. These “awakenings” 
 are not as frequent as they once were. They fall in with 
 the Evangelical view in general—that the spiritual life 
 proceeds by miracles, special interventions of divine power, 
 since human nature is of itself helpless in its corruption. 
 The Liberal, however, denying this corruption and help- 
 lessness, looks rather for gradual development than for 
 crises, and relies more upon steady culture under constant 
 influences than upon revolutions under sudden attacks 
 from without. In this he is joined by Catholics and 
 Episcopalians, and by an increasing number of other 
 Protestants. 
 
 Justification—The first effect of faith is “justifica- 
 tion,” by which the Catholic means making just, and the 
 Orthodox Protestant reckoning as just. The conditions 
 of justification, according to the Catholic view, are bap- 
 tism and, at the age of reason, faith in God and love of 
 God. By baptism the supernatural gift of righteousness, 
 
40 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 which was lost at the Fall of Adam, is restored to the 
 recipient, fed by the other sacraments of the Church— 
 especially the Eucharist—and by constant exercise of 
 faith and love. The Protestant, however, denies that 
 any rite can be the supernatural channel of divine grace, 
 and makes faith alone the condition of acceptance with 
 God, and justification a judicial declaration of mercy, by 
 which the sinner’s past is forgiven and washed away, and 
 he is accepted for Christ’s sake as already righteous. 
 
 Sanctification—This seems to be with the Catholic 
 identical with or a continuation of justification. The 
 Protestant, however, makes it the process by which the 
 remains of original sin, the habits and tendencies in- 
 herited from a sinful past, having now become involuntary 
 and as it were external to the soul, are gradually eradi- 
 cated. The Calvinist, as we have seen, holds that the 
 “elect” are kept from backsliding by divine power. The 
 Methodist believes that it is possible for the soul to attain 
 such purity of motive that however the old Adam may 
 yet hover about the outside of one’s life, one may be “per- 
 fect” in spirit. There has been in both these cases a 
 danger of underrating the value of moral laws to those 
 who are saved by faith. 
 
 Among Liberal Christians the terms “justification” and 
 “sanctification,” with many others, have passed out of use 
 with the theology from which they sprang. All the truth 
 which they covered is now included in the thought of that 
 divine education which is constantly going on in the earnest 
 soul through the various experiences of life. The care of 
 God for the soul is seen by the Liberal, not merely in those 
 influences which are called religious, or in those times 
 and places which are considered sacred, but in every Joy 
 or sorrow, success or defeat, by which the mind is en- 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 41 
 
 lightened, the sympathies broadened, the faith of the soul 
 awakened and trained, and the beauty of holiness made 
 manifest. This may come sometimes in shocks which 
 open the eyes suddenly, but generally through the experi- 
 ences of every day. 
 
 %. THE FUTURE LIFE 
 
 I know not where His islands lift 
 Their fronded palms in air, 
 
 I only know I cannot drift 
 Beyond His love and care.—Whittier, 
 
 All Christians, except the few who hold to the annihila- 
 tion of the wicked, believe in the eternal continuance of 
 every human life. One of the most striking consequences 
 of Christianity at first was the calmness, and even joy, 
 with which its disciples looked upon death. The inscrip- 
 tions in the catacombs bear witness to this. But when 
 the Catholic Church began to invoke the terrors of the 
 Judgment, to force submission to its demands, and when < 
 Jater the Protestants rivalled it in working upon the im- 
 agination, a morbid fear of death, such as the heathen 
 world never knew, fell upon Christendom. The Catholic 
 Church is able to still this fear in those who die under 
 its protection. Orthodox Protestantism cannot always 
 lull the dread which it has roused, and is responsible for 
 much needless mental suffering. 
 
 The reason for this difference is that the Catholic 
 Church is able to impress the imagination of its members 
 with the belief that it is mightier even than mighty death, 
 and holds the keys of heaven and hell. As between the 
 Evangelical and the Liberal Protestant, the latter main- 
 tains that death is a purely physical event, common to all 
 
42 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 living things, and not a moral crisis. It was not a 
 penalty in the beginning, and has no relation to the moral 
 condition now. The soul goes on hereafter from the 
 point where it was at death. But the common belief 
 among the Orthodox is that death was originally the 
 punishment of Adam’s sin, and that it marks for every 
 man the end of his probation. After it there is no hope 
 of essential change. In this they are joined by the Ro- 
 man Catholic and Greek Churches. The Catholic, how- 
 ever, holds the doctrine of purgatory—a region where 
 sins not mortal are expiated, or purged away, and pen- 
 ances not finished before death are worked out. But those 
 convicted of mortal sins, including wilful unbelief, have 
 no chance after death. The Reformers rejected the doc- 
 trine of purgatory; but there have always been a few 
 among Evangelical Protestants who have held to “proba- 
 tion after death” for those who have had no opportunity 
 of hearing the Gospel preached in this world. 
 
 The great drama of the future life, in the belief of the 
 early Christians, consisted of four acts—the “second ad- 
 vent” of Christ, the millennium, the last judgment, and 
 the eternal continuance of the fate then assigned. 
 
 The first Christians believed that Jesus would come 
 again before his generation had passed away. (See re- 
 marks under “Second Adventists”.) Less is said of the 
 fate of unbelievers than of the joyful union of believers 
 with their returned Master. This belief died away with 
 remarkable quietness; but the expectation of Christ’s sud- 
 den return in judgment has at times flamed up with great 
 fervor—as in the year 1000, at the time of the Reforma- 
 tion, in the nineteenth century among the “Miller- 
 ites,” and in the twentieth century among the “Funda- 
 mentalists.” 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 43 
 
 The last judgment has been in Christian theology a 
 most dreadful event, described with details sometimes 
 grand and picturesque, often grotesque. As a means of 
 impressing the imagination of the ignorant and supersti- 
 tious, both Catholic and Protestant, and compelling them 
 into the churches, it has stood supreme. The heavens 
 rolled aside as curtains; Christ upon a high throne, no 
 longer meek and persuading, but awful and relentless, 
 surrounded by the angels and clothed with omnipotence ; 
 the graves opening; the sea giving up its dead; the terrible 
 dividing of saint and sinner; the bliss of the one fate, 
 the horror of the other—these were the elements of the 
 “Great Assize.’ Whatever may have been the thought 
 of the more intelligent and spiritual, to the common 
 mind and in the common preaching this judgment turned 
 practically upon submission to the Church, or belief in 
 the power of Christ to save those who trusted in him. 
 Calvinism draws the line between the elect and the non- 
 elect, Arminianism between those who accept and those 
 who reject Christ according to the trinitarian conception 
 of him; by all, “good works” not springing from faith in 
 Christ are counted as of no value. It is but just to add 
 that this whole doctrine, though unchanged in the ereeds, 
 has undergone an immense softening and disintegrating 
 in the preaching of the day. Fear is less often appealed 
 to as a motive to faith; and the love of God and of Christ 
 and the beauty of holiness are the common grounds for 
 
 urging conversion. 
 
 The condition of the two classes of saints and sinners 
 after the judgment has commonly been described in the 
 terms of the Book of Revelation. Heaven is a place of 
 rest and worship, resulting in happiness unspeakable, but 
 apparently monotonous and tedious; hell is a place of tor- 
 
44. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ment, commonly described as inflicted by fire. Though 
 the Catholic Church denies that the flame is material, 
 it has always presented the torment under that figure, 
 and made the most of it. The same is true of the Kvan- 
 gelical Protestant. As to the eternity of both conditions, 
 all but Liberals are agreed. 
 
 But against nothing in the popular theology have Lib- 
 erals protested more indignantly than against infinite 
 punishment for anything that can be done by finite man 
 in so short a life as that which he spends on the earth. 
 The Universalists led in this protest, and Unitarians have 
 followed. An increasing number of Evangelicals more or 
 less boldly renounce the belief. In the Church of Eng- 
 land men like Stanley, Robertson, Maurice, Farrar, and 
 Kingsley, have done so, claiming that the omission of the 
 Article on eternal punishment from the original Forty- 
 Two in compiling the present Thirty-Nine justifies them. 
 In great numbers of pulpits the doctrine is scarcely heard, 
 though it remains in the creeds and covenants. The Cath- 
 olics soften it by assigning to infants not baptized only 
 loss of spiritual happiness, leaving them natural enjoy- 
 ment in their own place. The Liberals also deny the 
 resurrection of the body, which is the belief of the rest 
 of Christendom. The Apostles’ Creed, most widely held 
 of all formularies, asserts “the resurrection of the body” 
 —a phrase which, however it may be explained away, has 
 a very clear meaning. The Liberal shrinks from attempt- 
 ing to define the future life with much detail. A purely 
 spiritual life is too foreign to our imagination which is 
 used only to material surroundings, to admit of much 
 dogmatism. It should be enough to know that wherever 
 or amid whatever circumstances the soul may be placed, 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 45 
 
 it is still under the care of a just, loving, and almighty 
 God. 
 
 8. THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS 
 
 One holy Church of God appears 
 Through every age and race, 
 Unwasted by the lapse of years, 
 Unchanged by changing place. 
 
 Her priests are all God’s faithful sons, 
 To serve the world raised up; 
 
 The pure in heart, her baptized ones; 
 Love, her communion-cup. 
 
 The truth is her prophetic gift, 
 The soul, her sacred page; 
 And feet on mercy’s errands swift 
 Do make her pilgrimage.—Samuel Longfellow. 
 
 The Church—There is no satisfactory evidence that 
 Jesus founded or prepared for an organization to perpetu- 
 ate his work. The few passages of the Gospels in which 
 the word “church” occurs are explainable on other 
 grounds, and some are under suspicion of being later in- 
 terpolations. After the death of Jesus there is no refer- 
 ence to any such instructions, and the whole matter is 
 left in too great doubt to admit of positive assertions on 
 so important a matter, though they are still made by 
 many. The first Christian bodies grew up naturally 
 around the Apostles or other preachers, and apparently 
 were congregational in government; but the need and the 
 habit of drawing more closely together led to organiza- 
 tion on the Roman political pattern, and soon the present 
 
46 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Roman Catholic system can be seen in process of forma- 
 tion. The Roman Catholic idea of the Church is that of 
 a visible institution, founded by Jesus, placed in care of 
 his Apostles after his death, and by them handed down 
 to successors authorized by them to rule. It is the rep- 
 resentative of God upon earth, the repository of His 
 power to save, which He gives through the sacraments 
 when duly administered. It alone has the right to inter- 
 pret the revelations made in the Bible, and it alone re- 
 ceives, through its infallible head, such new truth as be- 
 comes necessary for human guidance. 
 
 The Reformers set aside the idea of a visible Church, 
 the High Church Anglicans and Episcopalians alone re- 
 taining a more or less clear shadow of it. Evangelical 
 Protestants believe that the true Church is invisible, 
 being composed of the elect alone, the signs of election 
 being clear and satisfying faith and the good life which 
 flows from faith. “The Church is the society of believers 
 in which the word is preached and the sacraments duly 
 administered.” The visible Church may contain some 
 who are not true believers; but inasmuch as all who are 
 true believers are sure to enter the Church which Christ 
 has established, the Evangelical Protestant commonly 
 holds, with the Westminster Confession, that “outside of 
 the visible Church there is no ordinary possibility of 
 salvation.” 
 
 The Liberal Protestant maintains that the visible Church 
 is a voluntary association of those who seek religious and 
 moral quickening, and who unite upon certain views by 
 which this quickening seems best secured. Membership 
 in it does not imply any superiority to those out of it, 
 in any sense whatever. It is simply the school or college 
 of the moral and spiritual life. In the words of Dr. 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 4” 
 
 Channing, “There is one grand, all-comprehending 
 Church. . . . All Christians and myself form one body, 
 one Church, just as far as a common love and piety possess 
 our hearts. . . . No man can be excommunicated from it 
 but by himself—by the death of goodness in his own 
 breast.” 
 
 The form of the Church differs among Protestants. 
 Some join their congregations into larger bodies, which 
 they call “The Church,” the general body having control 
 over the single church. This control is somtimes exercised 
 by individuals called bishops, as in the Episcopal (hence 
 this name) and Methodist Episcopal churches, or by rep- 
 resentative bodies, as among the Presbyterians. Others 
 maintain the independence of the single congregations, 
 all associations of these being purely voluntary and ad- 
 visory, as the Congregationalists (Trinitarian and Uni- 
 tarian) and Baptists. 
 
 There is also a difference as to the terms of admission 
 into the Protestant churches. Often Liberals require only 
 signature to a covenant or statement of faith and pur- 
 pose, though baptism is frequent. Most other Protestants 
 require baptism, the condition on which this is granted 
 being generally the relation of a definite religious change 
 or experience involving the profession of a satisfactory 
 faith (Congregationalists, Baptists, many Presbyterians, 
 and others) or upon assent to a creed or catechism 
 (Episcopalians and Presbyterians). 
 
 The Clergy—The idea of the clergy in Protestant 
 churches is widely different from that in the Roman and 
 Greek churches. In the latter the priests are chosen by 
 their superiors—the bishops, etc.—and are by them en- 
 abled to dispense supernatural grace through the sacra- 
 ments. In a certain measure this view as to power 
 
48 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 through the sacraments is held by the High Church Hpis- 
 copalians and by the Lutherans. But all Calvinistic 
 Protestants and their descendants hold that all believers 
 are alike priests, and receive grace directly from God, not 
 through sacerdotal agency. Their ministers are chosen 
 by the congregations, though under certain restrictions 
 where a power is recognized above the congregation, as by 
 the Presbyterians, and differ from their brethren only 
 officially and by natural gifts or special education. This 
 distinction is vital, and must be clearly understood. 
 
 The Sacraments—The Roman Catholic Church has 
 seven sacraments, or channels of divine grace—baptism, 
 Eucharist, confirmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, 
 and extreme unction. Protestants have kept only the first 
 two. The other five are considered in the chapter on “The 
 Catholics.” There is this further and vital distinction 
 between the two parties—that the Catholic considers his 
 sacraments to be in themselves the vehicles of grace, what- 
 ever the character of the priest may be, so long as he is 
 in regular standing in the Church, and whatever may be 
 the belief of the recipient; the Protestant considers hap- 
 tism or the communion as simply occasions when Christ 
 comes with special power, the effect upon the recipient de- 
 pending entirely upon his own faith, or spiritual condi- 
 tion. The High Church Episcopalians and the Lutherans 
 approach the Catholics in giving a mystical or magical 
 efficacy to these rites. 
 
 Baptism—This rite originated in the warm Oriental 
 countries, where cleanliness was especially necessary, and 
 where a new ablution was made the symbol of the purity 
 of heart required of those who were admitted to religious 
 sects. Whether it was a Jewish rite before the time of 
 Christ or not, is uncertain. Its first appearance in the 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 49 
 
 Bible is in the account of John the Baptist. Although 
 there are texts which seem to represent Jesus as enjoin- 
 ing baptism, it is remarkable how little he says about it; 
 and though he himself submitted to baptism by John, he 
 never baptized any of his disciples. It is difficult for any 
 one who understands the true distinction between Chris- 
 tianity and Judaism to believe that Jesus meant to make 
 any ceremony indispensable to salvation. 
 
 Yet baptism became universal among his successors 
 under the form of immersion, was believed to have a super- 
 natural efficacy, and by A.D. 200 had come to be con- 
 sidered essential to salvation. At the Reformation, the 
 form having changed during the Middle Ages to sprin- 
 kling or pouring, the Lutherans continued this belief, hold- 
 ing out some hope for the children of parents in the 
 Church, but showing little mercy to others, though 
 allowing that God’s purposes here are inscrutable. The 
 Church of England held substantially this position. The 
 Calvinists, however, denied all supernatural efficacy to 
 baptism, and held that only the election of God saves. 
 The rite became thus the seal or sign of a salvation al- 
 ready effected, being given only to those who could show 
 the faith which election involves. The children of the 
 elect who died in infancy, whether baptized or not, were 
 considered saved, for “the promise is to you and to your 
 children.” The Baptists, however, denied that infant bap- 
 tism had any meaning whatever, since an infant could 
 not be said to have the faith implied in it; while for 
 adults they restored the primitive form of immersion. 
 The Friends abolished the rite entirely, as they did all 
 other religious ceremonies. The sects which require in- 
 fant baptism expect that when the children come to the 
 age of reason they will become members of the Church 
 
50 - A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 by profession of their own faith or conversion—an 0c- 
 casion called among Catholics and Episcopalians “con- 
 firmation.” Liberals look upon baptism as an act of 
 public consecration of one’s life to God, and upon infant 
 baptism as an act of dedication of the children by their 
 parents to the service of God, and of consecration of the 
 parents themselves to the religious training of their 
 children. Some make it also the occasion of “christen- 
 ing,” or giving the “Christian” name. No efficacy, of 
 course, is attributed to the ceremony except its power over 
 the hearts of those concerned in it. 
 
 Communion—This ceremony is called by the Catholics 
 the “Mass” (from the words missa est, with which the 
 congregation was once dismissed) or the “Eucharist” 
 (from a Greek word, which means “giving thanks”) be- 
 cause of the prayer of thanksgiving in it; and by 
 Protestants the “Communion” (with each other and with 
 Jesus), the “Lord’s Supper,” and the “Last Supper.” 
 
 The accounts of the last supper which Jesus ate with 
 his Apostles do not seem to imply that he meant to in- 
 stitute a religious ceremony, still less a mystical or super- 
 natural rite. It was the Passover meal. He knew it was 
 his last; and with a yearning for remembrance among 
 those whom he left behind he asked them to recall him 
 whenever they came to the point in that yearly meal where 
 the loaf is formally broken and the cup passed. This 
 wish was gratified by his disciples after the daily meal 
 which they were accustomed to take together—the agape, 
 or “love feast”—during the first days of the new religion 
 in Jerusalem. The agape was given up early in the second 
 century (for the excesses sometimes connected with it, 
 see I Corinthians 11: 20-22, 27-34); and the commemo- 
 rative part, which had already begun to take on a mystical | 
 
THE CHRISTIANS 51 
 
 meaning, changed in this direction still more rapidly. At 
 the end of the second century non-communicants were sent 
 out of the church before the ceremony. Soon it was com- 
 monly believed that the glorified Christ dwelt in the 
 elements as the Logos had once dwelt in the human body. 
 In 831 Paschasius Radbert, a French abbot, maintained 
 that the bread and wine were actually changed into the 
 body and blood of Christ. This change was called 
 transubstantiation, or exchange of substance. The view 
 gained ground, and was formally adopted in 1215. 
 Protestantism has almost exactly retraced the path of 
 this development. The Lutherans went back as far as 
 “consubstantiation,” or the union of Christ’s body and 
 blood with the bread and wine, the former being received 
 by all who take the latter. Calvin maintained only a 
 spiritual presence of Christ, who is received by the be- 
 liever alone. Liberals adopt the purely commemorative 
 use, as Zwingli taught, restoring the primitive custom. 
 The Catholic gives only the bread to the laity, reserving 
 the cup for the priest alone. The Baptists of America 
 often refuse to admit to communion those who have not 
 received baptism by immersion. This is called “close 
 communion.” The Orthodox Protestants commonly in- 
 vite only those who are in good and regular standing in 
 Evangelical churches. The Unitarians invite all to par- 
 take who are so minded. The Catholic holds Mass several 
 times on Sunday, besides frequent celebrations during 
 the week, and masses for the dead by special arrangement. 
 Many Episcopal churches have communion every Sunday, 
 sometimes twice, and some of them every morning in the 
 week. Most other Protestant churches have it on the first 
 Sunday of every month, after the morning service. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Tuer RoMAN CATHOLICS 
 
 Name—The official name of the organization is “The 
 Roman Catholic Church”’—Roman, because its centre is 
 at Rome, Italy; Catholic (or universal) because it claims 
 jurisdiction over all mankind. 
 
 History—The Roman Catholic Church is in form the 
 Roman Empire extended over the world with ecclesiastical 
 instead of secular functions. The graded system of of- 
 ficers, the skilfully codified law, and the assumption of 
 supreme authority are closely imitated from the ancient 
 Roman dominion. The process was natural. Whether 
 Peter was ever in Rome, as Catholics claim, or not, and 
 whether his primacy among the Apostles was granted or 
 not, whoever was the head of the churches in Rome would 
 become the head of all the churches of the Empire. The 
 first bishops about whom we are certain were men of great 
 force of character and executive ability; and as the em- 
 perors grew feebler and less respected, the ecclesiastical 
 authorities came to the front. The earnestness of Chris- 
 tian zeal and confidence stepped into the place of the 
 decaying public spirit and private manhood. The trans- 
 fer of the seat of government to Constantinople, in 330, 
 left the Bishop of Rome in still greater prominence. At 
 last, in Leo the Great (440-416), the Church came to 
 full consciousness of its opportunity, and shaped its course 
 
 accordingly. Under Gregory the Great (590-604) the 
 52 
 
THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 53 
 
 Church was roused to a missionary spirit; and by 750 all 
 Europe, even to Norway and Iceland, was under its teach- 
 ing. Meantime, by the Seven Great Councils (325-787), 
 the doctrines of the Church had been defined. The gift 
 of a large territory to the Pope by Pepin, king of the 
 Franks (755), laid the foundation of the “temporal 
 power.” The “Isidorean Decretals,” a collection of docu- 
 ments purporting to be very ancient, but largely forged— 
 especially the “Donation of Constantine,” by which sover- 
 eignty over the West was given to the Pope—strength- 
 ened the papal authority over the provincial bishops. 
 Corruptions crept in which were stoutly opposed by 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who closely organized the 
 Church throughout. Under Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) 
 the papal power was at its height; but from this time the 
 resistance of kings, the rising national consciousness, the 
 quickening of intellectual life, the revolt of the popular 
 moral sense against the corruptions of priest and pope, and 
 the rivalries of competing popes—all combined to check 
 and to retard the progress of the Church. Councils for 
 internal reform having failed, the Reformation began out- 
 side. Its progress was stopped and much ground won 
 back by the counter-reformation within the Church, led 
 by the Jesuits, and formulated by the Council of Trent 
 (1545-1563). 
 
 The chief events in the history of the Church since the 
 Council of Trent have been the proclamation of the doc- 
 trine of the “Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary” 
 (1854) ; of the “Syllabus of Errors” (1864), in which the 
 Church set itself squarely against modern intellectual 
 tendencies; and of the “Infallibility of the Pope” (1870) ; 
 the abolition of the “Temporal Power” in the same year ; 
 and the “Old Catholic” movement under Hyacinthe, Dol- 
 
54 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 linger, and Reinkens—an attempt to bring back the 
 Church to the position of the earlier centuries, when 
 councils, not Popes, were the source of authority. The 
 attitude of the Church is now very different from that 
 which it took in the Middle Ages, even in lands where it 
 contains the majority of Christians. Its reliance is, to 
 a larger extent, upon moral and spiritual means of in- 
 fluence, its internal condition is purer, and its spirit more 
 earnest. Its claim to universal authority and its ambition 
 to realize this remain unchanged. 
 
 In the United States settlements were made by Catholics 
 in Maryland under Lord Baltimore (1634), and in other 
 parts—as Florida, Louisiana, New Mexico, and California 
 —which were settled by Catholic nations. The first bishop 
 was appointed in 1789 at Baltimore. The growth of the 
 Church has been mainly from immigration—as from 
 Ireland, Southern Germany, Italy, and the French part 
 of Canada. Its later career in the United States has been 
 marked by the establishment of parochial schools of its 
 own. 
 
 Doctrine—The distinctive doctrine of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and one which must be thoroughly 
 understood before its history and claims can be compre- 
 hended, is that it is the divinely established and sustained 
 Church of God upon the earth, and His only Church. It 
 was instituted by Jesus Christ in the solemn words which 
 made the Apostle Peter its foundation rock. Its legiti- 
 macy is secured by an unbroken succession of Popes. By 
 their infallibility under the guidance of the Holy Spirit 
 it is kept from error in the interpretation or unfolding 
 of doctrine. It is thus a supernatural institution, and 
 therefore cannot submit its teachings to natural reason, or 
 
THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 55 
 
 allow its spiritual authority to be controlled by any earthly 
 power. It must obey God rather than man. 
 
 The Catholic doctrine of the infallibility of the Pope 
 needs to be distinctly understood. He is not personally, 
 but officially infallible; that is, he is not beyond error in 
 his opinion upon ordinary matters, but only when pro- 
 nouncing judgment upon matters of doctrine or morals 
 formally laid before him by the Church. The judgment 
 which he then pronounces is final, irrevocable, and in- 
 fallible. This has nothing to do with the Pope’s personal 
 character, any more than with his personal knowledge or 
 mental power. The Church claims that no such decision 
 of Pope or General Council has ever been revoked. 
 
 As a source of truth, the decisions of the Church must 
 take precedence of any private interpretation of Scripture. 
 As the Supreme Court is to the Constitution of the United 
 States, so is the Church to the Bible. The consequence, 
 the reductio ad absurdum, of the Protestant principle of 
 private judgment is the number of contradictory sects 
 and the variety of individual opinions -in the different 
 commentaries. An infallible Book is of no value without 
 an infallible Church to guarantee the correctness of its 
 text, the faithfulness of translation, and the truthfulness 
 of interpretation. The Church does not encourage the in- 
 discriminate reading of the Bible by the uneducated; but 
 it regards the Bible as the inspired Word of God, of which 
 it, not the uneducated reader, is the divinely appointed 
 interpreter. 
 
 The central part of its worship is the Mass. High Mass 
 is sung; low Mass is read. There are two essential parts 
 of this service—the change (transubstantiation) of the 
 bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, and 
 
56. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the offering or sacrifice of them for the sins of the people. 
 The Catholic puts the most literal construction upon the 
 words of Jesus,.“This is my body; this is my blood” (Mat- 
 thew 26:26, 28). He believes that though to the senses 
 the elements remain the same, in substance they are 
 changed into the veritable body and blood of the Lord. 
 These are then sacrificed at the altar in perpetual 
 memorial of the original sacrifice upon the cross. The 
 bread, which is baked in the form of little round cakes, or 
 wafers, is after consecration distributed to the communi- 
 cants. The wine, however, is drunk only by the priest. 
 The reasons for this are, first, that the Church teaches 
 that “Christ is contained whole and entire under each 
 species” (see I Corinthians 11:27—the word “or” in 
 Revised Version); secondly, practical considerations—as 
 the quantity of wine that would be needed, the undesirabil- 
 ity of many drinking from one cup, and the danger of 
 dropping or spilling. 
 
 Admission into the Catholic Church is by baptism in the 
 name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. In- 
 asmuch as all men inherit the taint of sin from Adam, 
 and are born enemies of God, a new birth, or regenera- 
 tion, is necessary. Even infants who are unbaptized, 
 though they do not go to torments, fall short of the per- 
 fect happiness of the saved. If any man be “heartily 
 sorry for his sins, and loves God with his whole heart, and 
 desires to comply with all the divine ordinances,” the 
 pouring of water upon him becomes the vehicle of super- 
 natural grace, washing away original sin, and begetting 
 a new and spiritual life. This life is constantly fed by 
 reception of the Lord’s body in the Holy Communion, and 
 thus is prepared for the heavenly mansions. 
 
 The Holy Communion and Baptism are called “sacra- 
 
THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 57 
 
 ments.” A sacrament is the visible sign of invisible grace. 
 There are seven in all in this church, the remaining five 
 being Confirmation, by which baptized persons of ripe 
 years are confirmed, or strengthened in soul by the recep- 
 tion of fresh supplies of divine grace; Penance, or 
 absolution by the priest for sins; Extreme Unction, the 
 anointing of the sick with holy oil, usually when they are 
 expected to die; Orders, for priests and other ecclesiastics ; 
 and Matrimony, by which special grace is given that the 
 wedded couple may live together in love and harmony. 
 
 Some other peculiarities of worship should be noticed. 
 The Latin language only is used by the priests in the Mass 
 and in the administration of the sacraments, because this 
 was the common language when the Church was estab- 
 lished; because a common language is still needed by a 
 church which extends over the world; because she wishes 
 her liturgy to be always and everywhere the same, safe 
 from the changes which come to all living languages; and 
 because the worship, being addressed to God, not to men, 
 may as well be in Latin as in any other language. The 
 congregation follows the worship by means of a transla- 
 tion. The lighted candles upon the altar commemorate 
 the time when the Christians worshipped in the dark 
 catacombs, and are symbols of him who is the light of 
 the world, of our light which should shine before men, and 
 of spiritual joy. Incense is an emblem of prayer, ascend- 
 ing like smoke from hearts burning with love. The 
 flowers are meant to adorn the place where God comes to 
 dwell. The vestments of the priest are signs of his sacred 
 and peculiar office, and are intended to be beyond the 
 influence of changing fashion. 
 
 Besides conducting public worship, the priest deals with 
 his people individually by the confessional. The Catholic 
 
58 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Church claims that power was given to it to forgive sins 
 (Matthew 16:18, 19; John 20: 21-23). To receive this 
 forgiveness, the sinner must not only repent, but if pos- 
 sible confess his sins to the priest, promise amendment and 
 restitution, and submit to whatever penance may be im- 
 posed upon him. It is claimed that in this way control 
 or influence over people is secured better than in any other 
 way, and for better results. It is in the power of the 
 Church also to give indulgence. This word is used by 
 the Church in its original sense of gentleness or mercy, 
 not in its present sense of condoning weakness. It is not 
 permission, but remission. The consequences of any sin- 
 ful act are three—the stain of guilt upon the soul, eternal 
 punishment (if the sin be mortal), and the temporal con- 
 sequences which may follow either in this life or in purga- 
 tory. The first two are washed away by baptism or absolu- 
 tion. It is the temporal punishment only that is remitted 
 in an “indulgence.” The merits of the innocent Christ, 
 and those of the saints and martyrs whose sufferings were 
 greater than their sins required, constitute a “treasury” 
 upon which the Church can draw in behalf of sinners who 
 are truly repentant. On condition of good deeds to be 
 done by them—as almsgiving, pilgrimages, ete.—a Te- 
 mission of temporal suffering is assured. If time is 
 named, as a “forty days’ indulgence,” it means so much 
 remission as would have been secured by forty days of 
 penance under the old laws of the Church. The system 
 is evidently easy to abuse, as to misunderstand; but the 
 doctrine of the Church that an indulgence is useless with- 
 out sincere repentance and amendment must be carefully 
 separated from the misinterpretations and misuse of its 
 offices. 
 
 Besides the worship of God, the Catholic Church teaches 
 
 
 
THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 59 
 
 the invocation of saints, including the Virgin Mary, as 
 intercessors with God. As the Protestant asks his friends 
 or his minister to pray for him, so the Catholic asks his 
 more powerful friends in heaven to pray for him. The 
 Church encourages also the use of images, especially of the 
 crucifix, as aids to the imagination in devotion, since 
 they make the object of worship more real, as a photo- 
 graph does our distant friends. But it does not allow 
 worship of the image itself. | 
 
 It holds also to an intermediate state between hell and 
 heaven, called purgatory, or the place where lesser sins 
 can be expiated, or sins not fully punished here may re- 
 ceive the remainder of the penalty due them (I Corin- 
 thians 3:13-15). Those who die in grave, unpardoned 
 sins go into eternal and irremediable torment; but those 
 who are in purgatory may be prayed for, and so helped. 
 For the Church holds that prayers for friends in purga- 
 tory are as efficacious as prayers for friends in distant 
 lands, or in peril or in sin on the earth. 
 
 The Catholic Church admits no divorce from marriage 
 (Matthew 19:3-9). It allows separation, but no re- 
 marriage. It praises celibacy as superior to the wedded 
 life (Matthew 19:12; I Corinthians 7:32, 33), and as 
 following the example of Jesus and all the Apostles except 
 Peter, who, it claims, gave up his wife when he was called 
 (Matthew 19:27). It demands celibacy of its clergy, be- 
 cause of the sacredness of their office and their greater 
 ability to concentrate themselves upon their work. It 
 regards the married state as a holy sacrament instituted 
 by Christ for those who have not been called to a higher 
 state. 
 
 On many points the Catholic Church holds the same 
 belief as the “Evangelical” Protestant churches; namely, 
 
60 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the inspiration of the Bible, the Trinity, the deity of 
 Christ, the sin of all men in Adam and their merited 
 eternal punishment, their redemption by the suffering and 
 death of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and the ever- 
 lasting happiness of the saved. An important difference, 
 however, arises between the two bodies as to justification 
 —the Protestant making faith alone the ground of ac- 
 ceptance with God, the Catholic requiring both faith and 
 the reception of the sacraments. Infants are justified by 
 baptism, which conveys to them sanctifying grace, and 
 restores to them the righteousness lost at the Fall. On 
 coming to the use of reason, those who have been baptized 
 in infancy must have faith in God and love to God. 
 “Modernism” is the name the Jesuit Fathers of Rome 
 gave to the liberalizing movement in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The modern movements in science, philosophy 
 and history which began in the nineteenth century did 
 not fail to influence Roman Catholic theologians and 
 scholars. Men like Lammenais, Montalembert and Dol- 
 linger, advocated a Catholicism that would keep in touch 
 with modern life and which would take account of modern 
 currents of thought. Modernism is then a protest against 
 the Medieval organization, practices, and intellectual 
 methods of the Roman Catholic Church. Modernism in- 
 vaded Roman Catholic seminaries, monasteries, and par- 
 ishes. Books, pamphlets, reviews, and newspapers, setting 
 forth the new ideas, found eager readers. Catholic 
 theologians and educated laymen embraced the new spirit. 
 The movement spread all over the Roman Catholic world 
 —Italy, France, Germany, England, Austria, Spain, and 
 America. To stem the tide of this movement, so danger- 
 ous to Roman Catholic traditions, an anti-modernist party 
 arose. Modernists were inhibited or excommunicated and 
 
THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 61 
 
 Modernist books were put on the “Index,” the list of 
 books which Roman Catholics are forbidden to read. This 
 anti-modernist movement found its best champion in Pope 
 Pius X, (became Pope in 1903), who was very conserva- 
 tive. His Encyclicals (circular letters sent by the Pope 
 to the bishops) succeeded in driving the Modernists from 
 the Roman Church. The most famous of these was the 
 Encyclical “Pascendi” of 1907. In this letter, the Pope 
 prescribed certain measures for the suppression of Mod- 
 ernism. One of them was the study of medieval scholas- 
 tic theology, especially that of St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 Another was the administration of an anti-modernist oath 
 to all professors and priests. It is said that Roman priests 
 throughout the world took this oath before December 31, 
 1910. This oath has a number of articles but the sub- 
 stance of it is that priests accept and firmly embrace 
 everything that has been defined by the Papacy. 
 Government—The head of the Church is the Pope, 
 “Bishop of Rome and Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor to 
 St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles (the present Pope being 
 the 260th), Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, 
 Patriarch of the West, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and 
 Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the 
 Temporal Dominions of the Holy Roman Church.” He 
 is elected by the Sacred College of Cardinals which never 
 exceeds 70 in number. At present there are 68: 5 of 
 whom are cardinal bishops, 55 cardinal priests, and 8 
 cardinal deacons. These were originally occupants of 
 parishes in Rome and act as the Pope’s advisers. They 
 now have larger powers and often have distant residences. 
 The government of the church is carried on by a number 
 of councils, or “congregations,” which have the care of 
 some department as a Standing Committee or a Commis- 
 
62 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 sion in the other churches. Each is presided over by a 
 Cardinal. The Church is divided into dioceses, each 
 presided over by an archbishop or bishop who receives his 
 authority from the Pope. Besides the dioceses there are 
 10 Patriarchates, each presided over by a Patriarch. Four 
 of the American Archbishops (Boston, New, York, Phila- 
 delphia and Chicago) are Cardinals. In 1893 there was 
 established an Apostolic Delegate to the United States. 
 
 Statistics—There are in the world 288,000,000 Roman 
 Catholics: in Europe 195,000,000; Asia 10,000,000; 
 Africa 3,000,000; North and Central America 37,000,- 
 000; South America 35,000,000, and Australasia 8,000,- 
 000. In the United States there are 18 Archbishops; 
 85 bishops; 22,545 clergy (16,459 secular and 6,086 
 religious) ; 11,228 churches with resident priests; 5,834 
 missions with churches; 168 seminaries; 236 colleges for 
 boys; 723 academies for girls; 6,406 parishes with schools, 
 with 1,922,420 children attending; 312 orphan asylums; 
 and 118 homes for the aged. The Catholic population is 
 18,260,793. They maintain 26 periodicals. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE OLD CATHOLICS 
 
 The Vatican Council of 1869-70 was a triumph of the 
 “Ultramontane,” or extreme papal, party in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. By the decree of papal infallibility it 
 placed the Pope beyond the power of councils, and thus 
 of bishops or national churches. Most of the powerful 
 minority of eighty-eight dissentients and ninety-one non- 
 voters, out of the whole number of seven hundred and 
 forty-four, after a long and often bitter struggle, accepted 
 the decree. But Dr. Déllinger of Bonn, Germany, the 
 foremost of German Catholic scholars, refused, and with 
 his colleague, Professor Friedrich, was excommunicated in 
 1871. In September of that year a conference of five 
 hundred delegates was held in Munich, and an attempt 
 was made at union with the Greek and Russian churches 
 and an “understanding” with the Protestant and Episco- 
 pal communions. The consecration of Dr. Reinkens as 
 bishop by a Dutch bishop gave the advantage of “apos- 
 tolic succession”; the Prussian government legalized the 
 body, and for a while it gained rapidly among the culti- 
 vated people of Germany and Switzerland. In Paris, 
 Pére Hyacinthe (Loyson), the famous preacher at Notre 
 Dame, a devout believer in the rights of the Gallican 
 Church as against absolute papal power, became an ally. 
 The design of the Old Catholics was to return to the an- 
 cient faith and practice of the Church as laid down by 
 
 63 
 
64 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the Seven Great Councils, before 787, untainted by papal 
 usurpations and later doctrines. This would include the 
 supremacy of councils, the equality of laity with the clergy 
 in them, the marriage of priests, the use of the vernacu- 
 lar in public worship, and the abolition of compulsory 
 fasting and confession. More emphasis was also laid 
 upon the authority of the Scriptures. 
 
 But the movement made no impression upon the 
 masses ; was, like Protestantism, essentially Teutonic in its 
 range; and was bitterly fought by the Catholic Church, 
 whose influence at length brought political pressure also 
 to bear upon it. 
 
 The American Catholic Church agrees with the Old 
 Catholic, Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. It 
 was organized in 1885 and incorporated in 1915 in Hh- 
 nois to bring those together in America who hold to the 
 Old Catholic position. They accept the Seven Gicumeni- 
 cal Councils of the whole church before the division be- 
 tween the East and the West at the 8th Cicumenical 
 Council (Fourth Constantinople) in 869. They reject 
 the “‘filioque” clause (I believe in the Holy Ghost who 
 proceeded from the Father and the Son) in the Nicene 
 Creed which they believe was added without justification 
 at the Council of Chalcedon in 381. They deny papal 
 supremacy and infallibility, the Immaculate Conception 
 and are opposed to the Union of Church and State. It 
 receives the Episcopate from the Syrian Church at An- 
 tioch and has transmitted it to the Swedish Orthodox 
 Church and the African Orthodox Church. 
 
 Statistics—The Old Catholic churches in America 
 report 18 churches; 12 ministers; 13,725 members and 
 2,032 in Sunday school. They maintain 1 seminary and 
 2 periodicals. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE EASTERN oR ORTHODOX CHURCH 
 
 Name—This name is used properly to designate 16 
 bodies of the Christian Church which are separate and 
 independent in internal administration, but which have 
 the same doctrines and services, and take part in the 
 same councils. While only 5 of the 16 are Greek, the 
 name “Greek Orthodox Church” is used often instead 
 of the “Eastern or Orthodox Church.” The 16 bodies are 
 divided into 4 groups: (1) Greek, which includes The 
 Patriarchate of Constantinople, The Church of Hellas, 
 The Cyprian Church, the Patriarchate of Alexandria, and 
 the Archepiscopal Diocese of Mt. Sinai, St. Catherine’s 
 Convent and the Monastery of Tor on the Red Sea; (2) 
 the Slavonic, which includes the Russian, Bulgarian, 
 Serbian, Bosnian and MHerzegovinian, Dalmatian and 
 Montenegrin churches; (3) the Rumanian, made up of 
 the Rumanian and some Transylvanian churches; (4) 
 the Arabic, including the Church of Antioch and the 
 Church of Jerusalem. 
 
 History—The Eastern Church holds the birthplace of 
 Christianity, Jerusalem, and the place where it was 
 christened, Antioch. Its language is largely that which 
 Jesus and the Apostles spoke, and the great Councils 
 which first defined the faith of Christendom were sum- 
 moned and controlled by Greek emperors and bishops. 
 
 The Council of Nicea (325) recognized three Patri- 
 
 65 
 
66 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 archs, or heads of main divisions of the Christian 
 Church—those of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Two 
 more, at Jerusalem and Constantinople, were afterward 
 added. Differences of language and customs, added to 
 distance, naturally separated the eastern part of the Ro- 
 man Empire from the western. Rome addressed itself 
 more and more to conquer spiritually the barbarian hordes 
 who had conquered her materially, and perpetuated in 
 the Papacy the practical and legal ability which had 
 created and regulated the Empire. In the East, not Ro- 
 man law but Greek philosophy was the heritage of the 
 Church, and even the common people speculated on those 
 questions of the divine nature which were settled in 
 the first great Cicumenical Councils. While the Latin 
 Church became more united, the Greek became more di- 
 vided. At the Third Council (Ephesus, 431) Nestorius, 
 bishop of Constantinople, was condemned for having as- 
 signed two natures to Christ in such separation that Mary 
 could not be called the “Mother of God.” The large se- 
 cession of the Nestorians ensued. At the Fourth Council 
 (Chalcedon, 451) the doctrine of two natures in Christ, 
 united without change or confusion, gave rise to the 
 Monophysite or one-nature schism, which includes to-day 
 the Jacobites of Syria, the Copts of Egypt, and the 
 Abyssinians. At the Sixth Council (Constantinople, 
 680-681) the doctrine of two wills, divine and hu- 
 man, in Christ, was proclaimed, and the Maronites 
 seceded, but in 1182 returned to Roman rule, retaining 
 some peculiarities in their ritual. 
 
 More important was the separation from the Latin 
 Church. In 589, at a Council in Toledo, Spain, not 
 cecumenical and therefore not authoritative, there was 
 
EASTERN OR ORTHODOX CHURCH 67 
 
 added to the clause in the Nicene Creed, “I believe in 
 the Holy Ghost, who proceedeth from the Father,’ the 
 words “and the Son.” Against this the Eastern Churches 
 protested as a heresy, contrary to the true doctrine of the 
 Trinity. To theological dissension abundant political 
 jealousy was added, and at last, in 1054, Leo IX. excom- 
 municated the Eastern Church. The treatment of Hast- 
 ern Christians by the crusaders from the West, culmina- 
 ting in the sack of Constantinople by them in 1204, in- 
 tensified the quarrel, which, in spite of many attempts, 
 has never been closed. 
 
 Meantime the Mohammedans swept over the Hast, but 
 were not converted to Christianity, as the northern bar- 
 barians were, by the Roman Church. In the period in- 
 cluding the capture of Jerusalem in 637 and that of Con- 
 stantinople in 1453 all the old domain of the Eastern 
 Church fell into their hands. Its organization was kept 
 up, but its life largely departed. 
 
 With the development of different nationalities and 
 metropolitan sees there had come the establishment of 
 independent organizations bearing national names. 
 Though independent of each other ecclesiastically, these dif- 
 ferent organizations agree in doctrine, and, essentially, in 
 form of worship and together constitute what are called 
 the “Eastern Orthodox Churches.” The emphasis is upon 
 the word “Orthodox,” as in the name of the Roman Catho- 
 lic Church the emphasis is upon “Catholic.” 
 
 Among these national organizations that in Russia has 
 been, up to the breakup of that nation, the most prominent. 
 The Russian monarch, having been converted and bap- 
 tized, established Christianity as the state religion in 997. 
 The jurisdiction of the Russian Church expanded as did 
 
68 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the Empire. As fast as new territories were added to the 
 state the church sent missionaries, building schools and 
 temples. The orthodox Christians in the eastern part of 
 Europe, in Siberia, in Caucasus and in Middle Asia, all 
 belong to the Russian Church. Before the overthrow of 
 the Empire it contained by far the greater part of the 
 Eastern Christians. Just what the position of the church 
 is, and what its policy and doctrines will be under the 
 Soviet, is a matter yet to be determined. The Russian 
 Church undertook foreign missionary enterprises, espe- 
 cially successful in Japan and North America. In the 
 latter the first work was in Alaska. As immigration from 
 Russia and Poland increased, the church took up its 
 present work in the United States. 
 
 Of the Eastern Churches seven are represented in the 
 United States by regular church organizations. These are 
 the Russian Orthodox, the Greek Orthodox, the Serbian 
 Orthodox, the Syrian Orthodox, the Albanian Orthodox, 
 the Bulgarian Orthodox and the Rumanian Orthodox. 
 The Serbian, Syrian, Albanian and Rumanian are under 
 the general supervision of the Russian Church. The 
 American Church is under the control of two resident 
 bishops and has its headquarters in New York. 
 
 Doctrine—The Eastern Church, not being a formal 
 unit, has no authoritative creed. It holds, however, to 
 the creeds laid down by the first seven Gicumenical Coun- 
 cils, especially the one commonly known to us as the 
 Nicene. In 1643 and 1672 creeds were made by the 
 Synod of Jerusalem which are now virtually agreed upon. 
 Their substance is given by the Encyclopedia Britannica, 
 article “Greek Church,” as follows, the small capitals 
 marking the differences from the Roman Catholics, the 
 italics those from the Protestants :— 
 
HASTERN OR ORTHODOX CHURCH 69 
 
 “Christianity is a divine revelation communicated to man- 
 kind through Christ; its saving truths are to be learned 
 from the Bible and tradition, the former having been writ- 
 ten, and the latter maintained uncorrupted, through the in- 
 fluence of the Holy Spirit; the interpretation of the Bible 
 belongs to the Church, which is taught by the Holy Spirit, 
 but every believer may read the Scriptures. 
 
 “According to the Christian revelation, God is a Trinity; 
 that is, the Divine essence exists in Three Persons, per- 
 fectly equal in nature and dignity, the Father, the Son, 
 and the Holy Ghost; tue Hoty GHostT PROCEEDS FROM THE 
 FatHER ONLY. Besides the Triune God there is no other 
 object of divine worship, buf homage may be paid to the 
 Virgin Mary, and reverence to the saints and to their pic- 
 tures and relics. 
 
 “Man is born with a corrupt bias, which was not his at 
 creation; the first man, when created, possessed IMMORTALITY, 
 PERFECT WISDOM, AND A WILL REGULATED BY REASON. Through 
 the first sin Adam and his posterity lost IMMORTALITY, AND 
 HIS WILL RECEIVED A BIAS TOWARD EVIL. In this natural 
 state, man, who even before he actually sins is a sinner be- 
 fore God by original or inherited sin, commits manifold 
 actual transgressions; but he is not absolutely without 
 power of will toward good, and is not always doing evil. 
 
 “Christ... by his vicarious death has made satisfac- 
 tion to God for the world’s sins, and this satisfaction was 
 PERFECTLY COMMENSURATE WITH THE SINS OF THE WORLD... . 
 This divine help is offered to all men without distinction, 
 and may be rejected. In order to attain to salvation, man 
 is Justified, and when so justified CAN DO NO MORE THAN THE 
 COMMANDS OF Gop. He may fall from a state of grace 
 through mortal sin. 
 
 “Regeneration is offered by the word of God and in the 
 sacraments, which under visible signs communicate God's 
 invisible grace to Christians when administered cum inten- 
 tione. There are seven mysteries, or sacraments. Baptism 
 
"0 ‘A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SHLCTS 
 
 entirely destroys original sin. In the Eucharist the true 
 body and blood of Christ are substantially present; and the 
 elements are changed into the substance of Christ, whose 
 body and blood are corporeally partaken of by communt- 
 cants. Attu Christians should receive the bread and THE 
 winE. The Eucharist is also an expiatory sacrifice. The 
 new birth when lost may be restored through repentance, 
 which is not merely (1) sincere sorrow, but (2) confession 
 of each individual sin to the priest, and (3) the discharge of 
 penances imposed by the priest for the removal of the tem- 
 poral punishment which may have been imposed by God and 
 the Church. Penance accompanied by the judicial absolu- 
 tion of the priest makes a true sacrament. 
 
 “The Church of Christ is the fellowship of ALL THOSE WHO 
 ACCEPT AND PROFESS ALL THE ARTICLES OF FAITH TRANSMITTED 
 BY THE APOSTLES AND APPROVED BY GENERAL SyNops. Wz2th- 
 out this visible Church there is no salvation. It is under the 
 abiding influence of the Holy Ghost, and therefore cannot 
 err in matters of faith. Specially appointed persons are 
 necessary in the service of the Church, and they form a 
 threefold order, distinct jure divino from other Christians, 
 of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. Tur Four PatriarcHs, 
 OF EQUAL DIGNITY, HAVE THE HIGHEST RANK AMONG THE 
 BISHOPS; AND THE BISHOPS, united in a General Council, repre- 
 sent the Church, and infallibly decide, under the guidance of 
 the Holy Ghost, all matters of faith and ecclesiastical life. 
 ... Bishops must be unmarried, and PRIESTS AND DEACONS 
 MUST NOT CONTRACT A SECOND MARRIAGE.” 
 
 They must, however, be married at ordination. 
 
 A priest of the Eastern Church is called a “pope,” 
 which corresponds to the Catholic “father.” This church 
 has prayers for the dead and a somewhat indefinite be- 
 lef in a purgatory, but rejects the use of unleavened 
 bread in the Eucharist; gives the Eucharist to babes as 
 well as adults; makes the priest and people stand during 
 
HASTERN OR ORTHODOX CHURCH Nee el 
 
 prayer; baptizes by immersion; anoints the sick with 
 oil, but has no “extreme unction”—that is, at death; ab- 
 hors the use of images in churches, but permits fervent 
 homage to pictures; allows divorce, and follows the Mosaic 
 Law in abstaining from things strangled and “unclean” 
 meats, 
 
 The liturgies of the Eastern Church are naturally very 
 ancient, the most common being that of Saint James. 
 Unlike the Catholic ritual, the Eastern is commonly in 
 the vernacular, with the advantage that where Greek is 
 spoken the New Testament is read and understood in 
 the language in which it was written. The services of the 
 Russian Church, especially, are very elaborate, and the 
 vestments of its priests, gorgeous. 
 
 Polity—There are three orders of the ministry—dea- 
 cons, priests and bishops. The deacons assist in the work 
 of the parish and in the service of the sacraments. 
 Priests and deacons are of two orders—secular and mo- 
 nastic. The episcopate is as a rule confined to members of 
 the monastic order. Monks are gathered in monasteries, 
 in some of which they live in communities, in others they 
 lead a secluded life, each in his own cell. There is but 
 one order and the vows for all are the same—obedience, 
 chastity, prayer, fasting and poverty. The parishes are, as 
 a rule, in the care of the secular priests. 
 
 The organization for the general government of the 
 different Eastern Churches varies in different countries 
 and since the Great War, conditions, especially in the 
 Russian Church, are in a state of chaos. In general there 
 has been a council at the head of which, as president, is 
 a bishop elected usually by the people. Historically, and 
 at present in some cases, this presiding bishop is called 
 Patriarch and has special officers for the governing of his 
 
v2 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 flock. The largest or most important of the bishoprics 
 are called “metropolitan sees,’ though the title carries 
 with it no special ecclesiastical authority. 
 
 In the early times both the clergy and laity had a voice 
 in the election of bishops, priests and deacons, but, of 
 late the right has been much restricted and, at present, 
 priests and deacons are appointed by the bishops, and 
 the bishops are subject to the approval of the civil au- 
 thorities. 
 
 Statistics—The total membership of the 16 separate 
 bodies is estimated at 121,000,000, distributed as follows: 
 Greek Churches 7,200,000; Slavic 107,420,000; Rumanian 
 6,000,000; and Arabic 380,000. Church statistics in the 
 United States report 7 different bodies: Albanian, Bul- 
 garian, Greek, Rumanian, Russian, Servian, and Syrian. 
 They have in all 415 churches; 455 ministers; 456,054 
 members; and 17,787 in Sunday school. They maintain 
 2 theological seminaries and 1 periodical. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PROTESTANTS 
 
 Section 1 Name, History and Doctrine 
 
 Origin of the Name—At the second Diet, or congress, 
 of the German princes, called by the Emperor Charles V. 
 at Speier (Spires), in 1529, a former edict of toleration 
 to the Lutherans was rescinded; and the edict of Worms, 
 by which Luther was declared an outlaw and his writings 
 were condemned, was pronounced still in force. Against 
 this act the Lutheran princes at the Diet made a formal 
 protest: “In matters which relate to the glory of God 
 and to the salvation of our souls, we must all stand be- 
 fore God and give account of ourselves to him.” Hence 
 the name “Protestant,” or “protester.” It was afterward 
 widened, and is so used to-day, to cover all Christians who 
 protest against the doctrines and practices of the Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 History—The Reformation long had been growing, 
 and sprang from several roots. First, there was a politi- 
 cal restlessness under the yoke of what was felt more and 
 more keenly, as the nations began to form and to become 
 self-conscious, to be a foreign tyranny. The Church held 
 one-third of the land of Europe, immense endowments of 
 cathedrals, monasteries, ete.; and received enormous in- 
 comes from various tithes, fees, etc. These were burdens 
 
 and drains upon the national strength; and the kings, 
 73 
 
v4 A STUDY OF THE OHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 nobles, and people became on this account hostile to Rome. 
 This explains the protection of the Reformers by many 
 princes. Secondly, there was a growing intellectual 
 pressure against the narrowness of the Church. ‘The 
 Crusades, which were foreign tours of vast multitudes 
 whose minds were broadened and aroused, the revival of 
 learning and study of the ancient classics, the invention 
 of printing, the discovery of America and of the way 
 around the Cape of Good Hope, and the general awaken- 
 ing of the human mind—a stretching, as it were, in the 
 broader spaces and opportunities of study and commerce 
 —_made old ideas and ways no longer possible. Thirdly, 
 the moral sense revolted against the corruption of the 
 priesthood, which is now acknowledged by both sides to 
 have been very great, and which extended often to the 
 Popes themselves. Fourthly, the religious instinct re- 
 belled against obstructing the way between the soul and 
 God by the “dead works,” the ritual, and discipline of the 
 Church. <A long series of protests which had not availed, 
 because “the fullness of time” had not come, gave their 
 momentum to the movement under Luther. 
 
 Few, however, wished or expected to break away from 
 the Church. Its right to rule was universally conceded. 
 Reform, not revolution, was the aim; and had the Church 
 been as shrewd before the Reformation as it became 
 after, it might for a long time have kept its integrity. 
 But reform within having been defeated, the Church 
 swept on to rupture and loss. When the movement was 
 over, it was found that the division was essentially one 
 of race—between Teutonic and Latin, between Northern 
 and Southern Europe; and so it still remains. 
 
 The detailed history of this crisis must be studied else- 
 where. But we must follow Protestantism into its own 
 
THE PROTESTANTS vd 
 
 inevitable divisions. The first was between Luther and 
 Zwingli on the subject of the Eucharist, which broadened 
 into the more disastrous one between Lutheran and Cal- 
 vinist, or, as it was called, between “Evangelical” and 
 “Reformed.” The Lutheran party became stationary and 
 practically national, and so remains. It was Calvinism 
 which led Protestantism to its widest and bravest con- 
 quests in Switzerland, France, Holland, England, and 
 New England. The Huguenots, the Puritans, the Cov- 
 enanters, the defenders of Holland against Philip, were 
 all Calvinists. So were their descendants, the Presby- 
 terians, Congregationalists, Baptists, and some minor 
 sects. The Church of England, though influenced by 
 Calvinism, claims now not to be Protestant, or to have 
 been “reformed” in the same sense as “the sects,” but 
 to be the branch in England of the one Catholic, or uni- 
 versal, Church, cleansed of the errors which the other 
 branches, the Roman and Greek Churches, still hold. 
 The sway of Calvinism was first broken by the Friends, 
 with their doctrine of “the inner light,” but later and 
 more seriously by the Methodists, with their denial of 
 predestination. The swiftly moving liberal tendency has 
 taken shape in the Unitarians, and the Universalists. 
 As against these “Liberal Protestants,” or “Liberal Chris- 
 tians,” the other sects have taken the name “Evangelical,” 
 from the Greek word for Gospel (Latin evangelium), 
 “Gospel truth.” 
 
 Doctrine—Protestantism, as has been said, is a revival 
 of the Christianity of Paul as against the Christianity 
 of Peter—of spiritual religion as against ritualism. As 
 Paul swept aside the Jewish rites as unnecessary, and 
 made Christianity begin with a spiritual act, faith, so 
 Protestantism at length swept aside all the complicated 
 
"6 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ritual of the Roman Church, and taught the same im- 
 mediate relationship between the soul and its God. 
 
 More particularly, the position of Protestantism is as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Man is justified—that is, accepted as righteous by God 
 —on condition of faith alone in Christ, which faith is a 
 personal trust in him and living union with him. Without 
 this faith no deeds are acceptable. Good works are the re- 
 sult of, not the preparation for, faith. The Romanist main- 
 tains that man is justified by faith and works, faith being 
 assent and submission to God as revealed through the 
 Church, and good works—that is, the deeds commanded by 
 the Church—being conditions of justification, not merely 
 its results. 
 
 2. The Spirit of God is given directly in response to 
 faith. The Romanist maintains that it comes through the 
 sacraments—as baptism and the Eucharist—administered by 
 duly authorized officials of the Church. 
 
 3. Hence the Protestant holds to both an invisible Church, 
 made up of all believers, Christ being the head, and a visible 
 Church, made up of the various denominations who hold the 
 true faith—the former being the essential thing. The Catho- 
 lic admits no such distinction, holding that the Church of 
 Rome is the one and only Church of Christ, outside of 
 which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation. 
 
 4. Hence the great difference between the two as to the 
 source of authority. The Protestant maintains that the 
 Bible alone, as read by the believer in the light of the Holy 
 Spirit given to him in consequence of his faith, is the source 
 of belief. The Romanist claims that while the Bible is in- 
 spired and infallible, the Church, which superintended its 
 formation and preservation, is alone qualified to interpret 
 it, and that the decisions of the Councils and Popes are of 
 equal authority with it. Hence the Roman Church dis- 
 courages the irresponsible reading of it by the laity. This 
 
THE PROTESTANTS v7 
 
 Church has also accepted the Apocrypha as part of the Bible, 
 and the Latin Vulgate, an ancient translation, as of equal 
 authority with the original. English-speaking Catholics use 
 the Douay Version instead of the so-called Version of King 
 James. 
 
 5. From the distinction between the invisible and the vis- 
 ible Church comes an important distinction between the two 
 conceptions of the ministry. The Protestant considers all 
 believers to be priests in the sense of being able to approach 
 God directly and to give significance and value to their own 
 spiritual acts. For example, the efficacy of the sacraments 
 depends, not upon who administers them, but upon the spirit 
 in which they are received. The minister, though “called” 
 to his office by the Holy Spirit, is yet essentially one of the 
 members of the church, differing from the others only in 
 personal fitness and education. The Roman _ ecclesiastic, 
 priest or bishop, however, is invested with supernatural 
 powers, as in a special sense the representative of God. 
 Through him alone do the sacraments have efficacy. This 
 power comes by the “apostolical succession’”—that is, by the 
 transmission of authority from Christ through the Apostles 
 and their successors, the Roman bishops, in an unbroken line. 
 This necessity the Protestant, except the Anglican, denies, 
 holding that the clergy are immediately commissioned by 
 the Holy Spirit. 
 
 6. The Protestant reduces the seven sacraments to two— 
 baptism and the Lord’s Supper; and with the exception of 
 the Lutheran and the Angliean, denies to these any necessary 
 conveyance of divine grace to the partaker. The Romanist 
 maintains that the sacraments are supernatural channels for 
 the communication of spiritual life to the recipient, inde- 
 pendently of his or the priest’s character—baptism removing 
 the stain of original sin, and the Eucharist repeating the 
 sacrifice of Christ on the cross for the partaker’s sake. The 
 Protestant assigns all the benefit of these rites to the faith 
 of the partaker in them. He denies transubstantiation, or the 
 
"8 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 change of the elements into Christ’s body and blood; refuses, 
 therefore, to adore them; and grants the cup as well as the 
 bread to the laity. Many Protestants reject infant baptism 
 also. As to the other sacraments, confirmation is often re- 
 placed by admission to the church on confession of faith; 
 penance is entirely swept away, together with auricular con- 
 fession and priestly absolution; the doctrine of indulgences, 
 which started the Reformation, is wholly set aside; ordina- 
 tion often is made an act of the congregation in the exercise 
 of their own priestly functions, and the celibacy of the clergy 
 is not required; matrimony is divested of many restrictions 
 laid upon it by Romanists—as refusal to unite with those 
 outside the Church unless by dispensation, and then only 
 with those properly baptized—divorce being more liberally 
 allowed; and extreme unction is abandoned. 
 
 7. Some minor differences may be considered together. The 
 Protestants do not believe in purgatory, holding to heaven 
 and hell only. They refuse any such veneration of the 
 Virgin Mary, saints, images and relics as the Romanist gives. 
 
 The Romanist and the Evangelical Protestant agree, how- 
 ever, on many points—the inspiration and authority of the 
 Bible; the Trinity; the deity of Christ; the fall of man and 
 his consequent helplessness and need of redemption from with- 
 out, the redemption coming through the sacrifice of Christ; 
 heaven and hell. 
 
 Statistics—There are in the world 167,000,000 Protes- 
 tants: Europe 96,000,000; Asia, 10,000,000; Africa, 12,- 
 000,000; North America and Central America, 43,000,- 
 000; South America, 1,000,000 and Australasia, 5,000,000. 
 Of the 194 religious bodies reporting in the United States, 
 1%4 are Protestant, with 77,958,470 members and ad- 
 herents. ‘Twenty-two bodies report which have over 200,- 
 000 each. The seven largest are: Methodist 8,262,289; 
 Baptist, 8,167,535; Lutheran 2,515,662; Presbyterian 
 
THE PROTESTANTS ie, 
 
 2,402,392; Disciples 1,218,849 ; Episcopal 1,118,396; and 
 Congregational 838,271. 
 
 Section 2 Hvangelical Protestant Bodies 
 
 1. THE LUTHERANS 
 
 Name—The name Lutheran was, like the name Chris- 
 tian, first given in contempt by enemies. In time its 
 application was widened by Catholics to all opponents of 
 Rome. Among Protestants the name is applied to those 
 whose creed is the Augsburg Confession. In Poland and 
 Austria their official name is ““The Church of the Augsburg 
 Confession,” but they are generally known as “The Evan- 
 gelical Lutheran Church.” 
 
 History—tThe history of the Lutherans after the death 
 of their leader is very painful. Instead of standing 
 united and firm against their still powerful enemy, the 
 Roman Church, they broke into the most bitter contro- 
 versies among themselves and with the Calvinists, under 
 cover of which the Romanists regained much of the ground 
 they had lost, and the banner of aggressive Protestantism 
 was taken up by the Calvinists. Melanchthon, the friend 
 of Luther, found himself diverging from him on the doc- 
 trines of the sacrament and of predestination. The lam- 
 entable disputes between the two parties were termi- 
 nated in 1577 by the “Form of Concord,’ which most 
 signed, but which many rejected and still reject. The 
 excessive emphasis on dogma led to two reactions—one 
 of the heart, called “‘Pietism,” under Spener (1635-1705), 
 much like Methodism; and one of the head, called “Ra- 
 tionalism,” which resulted in the critical study of the 
 Bible that has marked much of later German scholarship, 
 
80 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 reaching its climax in Strauss, Baur, and the Dutch 
 Kuenen and Wellhausen. In Prussia, in 1817, and in a 
 few smaller States, a forced union was made by the secu- 
 lar authorities between the Calvinists and the Lutherans 
 under the name of “The United Evangelical Church.” 
 The stricter Lutherans resisted this, and made the scct of 
 “Old Lutherans,” who were finally given legal footing; 
 but many emigrated to America. To-day Lutheranism 
 is the established religion in Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
 way, and the prevailing religion in Saxony, Hanover, and 
 northern Germany generally, in Baden and Wiirtemberg 
 in the south and in some districts of Russia. The Ger- 
 man element in Hungary and Transylvania is Lutheran, 
 the Magyars being Calvinist. 
 
 In the United States the first Lutherans came from 
 Holland in 1623, and settled in New Amsterdam or New 
 York; but the first organized church and settled minister 
 were Swedish, at Christiana (now Wilmington) in Dela- 
 ware, in 1638. The First German Lutheran church was 
 organized in New York in 1648, but the hostility of the 
 Dutch governor, Peter Stuyvesant, prevented any develop- 
 ment. After the capture of New York by the British 
 in 1664, the Lutherans enjoyed religious liberty, but there 
 was not much growth until the first half of the next cen- 
 tury, when large numbers of German immigrants came 
 over. Aid was asked of the home churches; and in 1742 
 came Dr. Henry Melshior Muhlenburg, who was the real 
 builder of the Lutheran denomination in this country. 
 The first synod was organized in Philadelphia in 1748. 
 The Lutherans were intensely patriotic during the Revolu- 
 tion and induced many Hessians to desert, thousands of 
 whom, after the war, settled with them permanently. 
 
 But dissensions rent the churches here as at home. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 81 
 
 The German language exclusively was used in the churches 
 until 1819. Lutheran immigrants coming to America in 
 large numbers during the nineteenth century established 
 German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Finnish, 
 and other language settlements, largely in the central, 
 northwestern and western parts of America. At the 
 same time they established. their churches and schools 
 for religious instruction, out of which a number of inde- 
 pendent synods were established, each adapted to the 
 peculiar condition of language, previous ecclesiastical re- 
 lation, and geographical location. The various synods 
 represented sharp dissensions on points of discipline and 
 doctrine and often showed themselves most uncompromis- 
 ing when it came to the matter of affiliation. As these 
 differences have disappeared the synods have drawn into 
 closer fellowship. At present there are four general 
 synods: the Synodical Conference, the Norwegian Lu- 
 theran Church in America, the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Synod of Wisconsin and other States, and the United 
 ‘Lutheran Church in America. In 1918 was formed the 
 National Lutheran Council, which is not a Synod or a 
 church body, but an association of church bodies through 
 their duly appointed representatives. 
 
 Only 5 synods out of a total number of 61 are not rep- 
 resented in this body. In addition to these synods there 
 exist 54 independent congregations not affiliated with any 
 synod. 
 
 Doctrine—The Lutherans of the United States and 
 Canada accept the Canonical Scriptures of the Old and 
 New Testaments as the inspired Word of God sent as 
 the only infallible rule and standard of faith and prac- 
 tice. The synods associated together in the National Lu- 
 theran Council accept and confess the three great creeds, 
 
82 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 namely :—the Apostles’, the Nicwean and the Athanasian. 
 The stricter churches, which group themselves in the 
 Synodical Conference of North America, add to these: the 
 “Apology of the Confession” (prepared by Melanchthon as 
 an answer to the “Confutation” of the Catholics, promul- 
 gated by the Diet of Augsburg in 1630 as a reply to the 
 “Confession” ; the “Articles of Smalcald” (a creed pre- 
 pared by Luther to express his belief at a council called 
 by the Pope at Mantua, in 1537, and signed by a con- 
 vention of Protestant theologians at Smalcald, in 
 Thuringia) ; the two Catechisms, Large and Small, writ- 
 ten by Luther to replace the Catholic catechisms for the 
 young; and the “Form of Concord,” prepared by SIX 
 divines in 157%. Together these nine creeds form the 
 “Book of Concord.” 
 
 The characteristic doctrines of Lutheran as distin- 
 guished from Calvinist churches are these :— 
 
 1. They teach consubstantiation, or the real presence of 
 Christ’s body and blood in, with, and under the elements, 
 literally eaten by unworthy as well as by worthy communi- 
 eants. This doctrine must be distinguished from the 
 Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which 
 teaches that bread and wine are changed into, do not merely 
 coexist with, the body and blood of Christ. Calvin taught 
 a spiritual presence of Christ at the Eucharist, enjoyed by 
 believers only. 
 
 9. Behind this doctrine lies that of the ubiquity of Christ’s 
 glorified body. “The human nature, while retaining its 
 inherent properties, may and does receive the attributes of 
 divine glory—majesty, power, omniscience, and omni- 
 presence.” Hence it is present, as God is, in all places 
 and things, the Eucharistic elements included, at the same 
 time. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 83 
 
 8. With the supernatural Eucharist goes a supernatural 
 baptism, by which the child is regenerated, and without 
 which there is ordinarily no salvation. In and with the 
 water, as in and with the Eucharistic elements, goes a 
 divine saving power. 
 
 4. The Lutherans hold that atonement was made for and 
 salvation freely offered to all men, and that no one is lost 
 save by his own refusal to repent and believe. They 
 therefore deny the Calvinist doctrine of election and an 
 atonement limited to the elect. As one is free to take divine 
 erace, so one may afterward fall from it. The doctrine of 
 the perseverance, or necessary continuance in grace, of the 
 believer is therefore also rejected. 
 
 Lutherans are also more conservative in the retention of 
 many church festivals and usages of the Catholic Church, 
 though their tendency is now toward agreement with other 
 Protestants in such non-essential matters. 
 
 Tn other doctrines the Lutherans are mainly at one with 
 the rest of Evangelical Christendom. 
 
 In form of worship the Lutheran Church in the United 
 States and Canada is liturgical. Religious education is 
 emphasized. Thorough catechetical instruction is given 
 preparatory to confirmation. 
 
 The organization of the Lutheran churches varies in 
 different nations. In Germany, which was divided at the 
 Reformation into small States, each being obliged to fol- 
 low the religion of its prince, the ruler naturally took the 
 place of the bishop, and became the head of his churches. 
 Under him, and largely appointed by him, was the con- 
 sistory, or council—the executive body. The congrega- 
 tions have little power. The rules of the churches differ 
 greatly. In 1846 more than one hundred and eighty dif- 
 ferent constitutions could be counted. 
 
84. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 In Norway and Denmark the Roman Catholic bishops 
 were replaced by Lutheran bishops, who are, however, ap- 
 pointed by the king, as head of the Church. In Sweden 
 the Roman bishops were converted; so that the apostolic 
 succession is preserved, though no doctrinal use is made 
 of the fact. There is also an archbishop (of Upsala). 
 
 In the United States, however, the congregation is the 
 unit of organization. The domestic affairs of the congre- 
 gation are administered by the church council and the 
 pastor. The council is elected by, and accountable to, the 
 congregation. The pastor is called by the congregation, 
 but is responsible to the Synod in doctrine and discipline. 
 Congregations, representatively through the pastor and 
 elected lay delegates, constitute the synods, districts or 
 conferences.. These synods, districts or conferences in 
 turn send representatives to the general synodical body, 
 which represents not only these synods but also the congre- 
 gations. The authority of the congregation is thus pre- 
 eminent, and the judgments of the general synodical 
 bodies become the judgments of the church. 
 
 The Lutherans have laid much emphasis upon educa- 
 tion, as the large number of colleges, theological semi- 
 naries, academies and normal schools established and 
 maintained by them testifies. They have given large at- 
 tention also to charitable and missionary movements. 
 
 Statistics—There are 63,500,000 Lutherans: United 
 States and Canada 2,500,000; Germany 42,000,000; Sean- 
 dinavia 11,000,000; in other countries 8,000,000. In 
 the United States there are 22 different Lutheran bodies 
 reporting, of which 16 are connected with the National 
 Lutheran Council, and 5 with the Synodical Conference. 
 There are 15,857 churches; 10,168 ministers; 2,515,662 
 members; and 1,069,514 in Sunday school. They main- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 85 
 
 tain 55 colleges; 20 academies; 4 normal schools; 37 
 theological seminaries; and 73 periodicals. 
 
 2. THE MENNONITES 
 
 History—This body traces its origin back to 1524 when 
 two members of Zwingli’s congregation at Zurich con- 
 demned infant baptism and founded a separate congrega- 
 tion. It is one of the sixteenth century protests against 
 ecclesiastical rule and ritual, taking for its model the early 
 church. The name comes from Menno Simons (1496- 
 1561) who left the Catholic priesthood and joined the new 
 movement. Against one of the chief tenets of their faith, 
 which forbade them to take the sword, and against a 
 majority of the church, Jan Benkels (John of Leyden) 
 led in the rebellion of Munster. Those who supported the 
 militant attitude were known as “Obbenites,’ and the 
 Moderates as “Mennonites.” In Holland they supported 
 William of Orange against Spain. Here they acquired 
 considerable numbers and influence. 
 
 As early as 1640 individual families of Mennonites had 
 come to America and settled in New Jersey and New 
 York to escape persecution. In 1683, thirteen families 
 came from Germany and purchased 8000 acres in Pennsyl- 
 vania from William Penn. Their first settlement was at 
 Germantown. At the time of the American Revolution 
 many went to Canada, but immigration to America -con- 
 tinued through the nineteenth century. Often whole 
 congregations came together. In 1867 Germany com- 
 pelled the Mennonites to give up their article of discipline 
 which forbade them to bear arms. In 1874 Russia did 
 the same, but permitted them to do their military service 
 in State forestry. In this country they made friendly 
 
86 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 connections with the Quakers but kept their identity. As 
 early as 1688 they went on record against slavery. For 
 most part they have been farmers. They keep their social 
 habits quite untouched by the changes in the world. 
 
 Doctrine—The confession of Faith held by most Men- 
 nonites is the eighteen articles of Common Christian faith 
 formulated at Dort, Holland, in 1632. Predestinationism 
 and other Calvinistic doctrines, with infant baptism, were 
 rejected. Their form of baptism is pouring. They ob- 
 serve the ordinance of the Lord’s Supper, following 
 Zwingli’s interpretation. Foot-washing is held to be a 
 permanent ordinance and is observed in connection with 
 the Lord’s Supper. Their rules enjoin simplicity of dress 
 and unworldliness. Use of the sword and taking the oath 
 are forbidden. Their method of discipline is by expul- 
 sion which they believe to be the apostolic way. 
 
 Polity—Their form of government is congregational. 
 Where there are conferences, matters of dispute are re- 
 ferred to them, but the congregation is autonomous and 
 supreme. Their ministers are elected by a majority. 
 They are not ordained and do not constitute a class apart 
 from the laity. They have bishops, ministers and deacons. 
 Most of the ministers support themselves and live as 
 farmers among those to whom they minister. 
 
 Statistics—They number in the world about 400,000. 
 They are most numerous in the United States, 120,000; 
 Canada, 90,000; Russia, 70,000; Netherlands, 65,000 and 
 Germany, 18,000. Sixteen separate bodies in the United 
 States report 972 churches; 1,548 ministers; 91,603 mem- 
 bers; and 100,000 in Sunday school. They maintain 9 
 colleges and theological seminaries, 1 academy, and 15 
 periodicals. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 8% 
 
 3. THE BAPTISTS 
 
 Name—The word “Baptist” is derived from the Greek 
 baptizo meaning “to dip,” “to immerge.” The name first 
 given, though never accepted, was “Anabaptists” (or 
 Againbaptists), because they denied the validity of infant 
 baptism, and obliged people baptized in infancy to receive 
 the rite again. 
 
 History—The denial of the validity of infant baptism 
 and the insistence upon immersion as a form has probably 
 been held by individuals, though not by churches, from 
 the beginning of Christian history, but it came into promi- 
 nence very soon after Luther had stirred up the latent 
 heresies and dissatisfactions of Europe, in the sect called 
 the Anabaptists. Unfortunately, the main doctrine be- 
 came mixed with various fanatical and even immoral doc- 
 trines, which had no real bearing upon it, and for which it 
 was in no way responsible. The doctrine found more 
 worthy support in Zurich and among the Mennonites of 
 Holland, who were devout, peaceable, and pure people, 
 abstaining from participation in civil government, and 
 maintaining the right of religious liberty. In fact, the 
 first one who ever proclaimed this right was Balthazar 
 Hubmaier, one of the original Anabaptists of Germany, 
 who was burned at the stake in 1528. 
 
 It was in Holland that the English Independents, or 
 Brownists, first came into contact with Anabaptists doc- 
 trines; and one of their ministers in Amsterdam, the Rev. 
 John Smyth, became a convert to them, and formed a new 
 church, part of which came to London in 1612. The 
 early history of the sect there is uncertain; but it is known 
 that a church existed in 1633, and from that time ad- 
 
88 ‘A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 herents multiplied fast. They were opposed by all the 
 sects then in existence, and were persecuted through all 
 the changes of religious control. The Revolution of 1688 
 gave toleration to them, as to all dissenters; but they soon 
 divided into “General Baptists,’ who believed that the 
 atonement was for all men to accept or to reject, and 
 “Particular Baptists,’ who believed that it was for the 
 elect alone. The latter is the Baptist sect of to-day. The 
 former divided again into “Old Connection,” who became 
 generally Unitarian, and “New Connection,” who cor- 
 respond to what we call Free (Will) Baptists. 
 
 The founder of the denomination in this country was 
 Roger Williams, a clergyman of education and prominence 
 in the Church of England, who became an Independent, 
 fled to this country in 1631, and was pastor of the church 
 in Salem. Denying the validity of the royal charter to 
 the colony, and the right of the magistrates in matters of 
 religion, he was banished by them, went southward 
 through the woods, and founded a settlement, which in 
 gratitude he named “Providence.” ‘There, having be- 
 come a convert to the Baptist doctrines, he had himself 
 immersed by a layman, whom he in turn baptized in the 
 same way, with ten others, and then founded in Provi- 
 dence the first Baptist church in America, 1638. The sect 
 spread rapidly. In Massachusetts it was bitterly perse- 
 cuted—partly on mere theological grounds, partly because 
 of the persistence of the Baptists in annoying ways, partly 
 from fear of the effect on the attitude of the crown toward 
 the colony. In Virginia also they were persecuted by the 
 Episcopalians, any man who refused to bring his child to 
 “a lawful minister” to be baptized being fined two 
 thousand pounds of tobacco. 
 
 
 
THH PROTESTANTS 89 
 
 With the general emancipation from ecclesiastical rule 
 that gradually followed the Revolutionary War, all disabili- 
 ties were gradually removed and the Baptists in various 
 states were granted religious equality. 
 
 A large factor in bringing the Baptist churches to- 
 gether and in overcoming the disintegrating tendencies of 
 extreme independence has been the foreign missionary 
 work. In 1792 the Baptists of England organized a mis- 
 sionary society and sent William Cary to India. Many 
 of the Baptist churches in the United States became in- 
 terested and made contributions. In 1810 the American 
 Board, then a joint organization of various churches, sent 
 Adoniram Judson to India. Here Judson came into 
 contact with many Baptists and became convinced that 
 baptism by immersion is the true method. His influence 
 in America did much to arouse interest in missions. 
 The General Missionary Society and the Home Missionary 
 Society were organized. The evangelization of the Middle 
 West and of the Negroes engaged the activities of the 
 denomination. A Colored Baptist Church was organized 
 as early as 1778 by eight slaves on a plantation in Georgia. 
 Other negro churches were gathered South and North. 
 There are 21,000 such colored Baptist churches to-day, 
 
 all of which are independent of white control. In 1895 //% ) 
 
 the various organizations of colored Baptists united to 
 form the present National Baptist Convention. As the 
 slavery question became more acute, the Southern (white) 
 churches withdrew to form the Southern Baptist Conven- 
 tion, which continues to this day. This was not a new 
 denomination, but a new organization, which arose for 
 ‘geographical reasons and from differences about slavery. 
 To-day the northern and southern churches interchange 
 
90 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 membership and ministry on terms of equality and their 
 separation is administrative in character, not doctrinal 
 or ecclesiastical. 
 
 Government—The Baptists are congregational in their 
 polity; that is, every church governs itself, and formulates 
 its own creed and covenant, owning no control to any 
 human authority, Christ being the head of the Church, 
 and the Bible the only source of doctrine. There are as- 
 sociations of churches. 
 
 Though congregational independence is guarded jeal- 
 ously, the various churches have drawn closely together 
 through their local organizations, state and more general 
 conventions, and lately, in case of the Northern Baptists, 
 into a national organization for the purpose of engaging 
 in missionary and educational work. 
 
 Doctrines—Being congregational in polity, the Bap- 
 tists can have no creed binding upon all churches. Each 
 congregation is supposed to draw up its own statement of 
 belief from its own study of the Scriptures. Yet few 
 denominations have greater unity in doctrine. The 
 Northern Baptists accept what is called the “New Hamp- 
 shire Confession” (1833); while those of the South 
 and of England are more attached to the “Philadelphia 
 Confession,” which appeared first in London in 1677, and 
 was adopted early in the last century by the “Philadelphia 
 Association.” They are, however, not authoritative state- 
 ments, and they differ little from each other. 
 
 The Baptist doctrine is Calvinistic, and is therefore 
 essentially the same as that of the Congregationalists, 
 baptism and its implications excepted. The Baptists 
 have, however, kept Calvinism far more intact than the 
 Congregationalists. Their peculiar doctrines are: (1) 
 Denial of the validity of infant baptism. The ordinance, 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 91 
 
 they affirm, is to be given only on profession of faith in 
 Christ, and is therefore meaningless when applied to in- 
 fants. They can find no case of infant baptism in the 
 New Testament. (2) Insistence upon immersion as the 
 only valid form of baptism. They claim that this was 
 the original form as it was adopted and urged by Jesus, 
 and is implied in the language used by Scripture—as in 
 descriptions of baptism (Matthew 3:16; John 3: 23; Acts 
 8:38, 39), and in Paul’s frequent figure of baptism being 
 a burial and resurrection. They baptize either in natural 
 bodies of water or in tanks prepared beneath the pulpits 
 of their churches. (3) “Close Communion”—that is, 
 exclusion from the celebration of the Lord’s Supper of 
 all such as have not been immersed. This doctrine, how- 
 ever, has during the past century been given up by 
 many Baptists. (4) Freedom of worship to all. This 
 has, of course, ceased to be a distinctive mark of the 
 Baptists, but was so once, and deserves to be still men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Statistics—There are 9,008,000 Baptists: United 
 States and Canada 7,600,000; British Isles 408,000; in 
 other parts of the world 1,000,000. In the United States 
 there are 17 different bodies reporting separately: North- 
 ern Baptist Convention; Southern Baptist Convention; 
 National Baptist Convention (Colored); General; Six 
 Principle; Seventh Day; Free; Free Will (White) ; Free 
 Will (Colored) ; Free Will (Bullockites) ; Separate; Reg- 
 ular; United; Duck River; Primitive (White) ; Primitive 
 (Colored) ; and Two-seed-in-the-Spirit Baptists. It is 
 the second denomination in size in the United States. 
 There are in all bodies 65,455 churches; 48,597 ministers ; 
 8,167,535 members; and 4,535,164 in Sunday school. 
 They maintain 87 colleges; 8 junior colleges; 10 training 
 
92 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 schools; 18 academies; 11 theological schools; and 55 
 periodicals. 
 
 4. THE PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 Name—The name Presbyterian is derived from the 
 Greek word Presbuleros, which means elder; and is ap- 
 plied in the New Testament (as in Acts 14:23) to those 
 who presided over the churches. The word episcopos, or 
 overseer, also is used (as in Acts 20:28). The Episco- 
 palian maintains that the latter designates a higher of- 
 ficer, whom he calls a bishop. The Presbyterian main- 
 tains that it is but another name for the same officer 
 (Titus 1:5, 7), and therefore declines to recognize a third 
 order of clergy above elders and deacons. A Presbyterian 
 therefore is one who believes, first, that the highest officer 
 in the church is the presbyter or elder; and secondly, that 
 the government of the church should rest, not in the 
 bishop, as in Episcopacy, nor in the separate congregation, 
 as in Congregational churches, but in representative bodies 
 of presbyters. 
 
 History—Presbyterianism as a form of church govern- 
 ment existed somewhat indefinitely in the earlier years of 
 the Continental Reformation, but it took clear shape in 
 the Institutes of John Calvin. His purpose was to oppose, 
 to the closely organized Roman Catholic Church, which 
 rested on tradition, an equally strong organization based 
 on Scripture. It proved of immense service. It became 
 the polity of the Huguenots, and largely of the Dutch, 
 Poles, and the provinces of the Rhine, rivalling and often 
 combating Lutheranism. It was the form of government 
 under which the best stand was made by Protestantism 
 against Romanism—as in Switzerland, Holland, and 
 Scotland. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 93 
 
 As a sect, its most remarkable history and influence 
 were in Scotland, where its champion was John Knox. It 
 became to that country what Episcopalianism was in Eng- 
 land—the rallying point of the nation against the ec- 
 clesiastical and political tyranny of Rome. In 1560 it 
 became the Church of the kingdom; equally hostile to 
 Catholicism, which it made punishable by death, and to 
 Protestant dissenters. In 1578, in its Second Book of 
 Discipline, it established the graded series of church courts 
 now generally held. The organization of these proved of 
 great service in concentrating and in training the middle 
 class in their contest with the nobility. A long struggle 
 with the crown led to the overthrow of Presbyterianism 
 and the virtual establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland 
 by Charles I. The resistance rose to a climax in 1638, 
 when the “Covenant,” or solemn agreement of the Scotch 
 people to oppose Prelacy to the death, was signed amid 
 great and universal excitement, first in the churchyard of 
 the Grey Friars at Edinburgh, then everywhere else in the 
 kingdom. Presbyterianism was restored, and Scotland 
 faced Charles with a powerful army. In 1643, the aid of 
 the Scotch Presbyterians having been sought by the Eng- 
 lish Parliamentary party in revolt against Charles, the 
 “Solemn League and Covenant” was signed between the 
 two, who bound themselves to strive to “bring the churches 
 of God in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction 
 and uniformity of religion.” The execution of this design 
 was entrusted in England to the “Assembly of Divines at 
 Westminster,” which met in the Abbey, July 1, 1643. 
 This body the Presbyterians controlled; and the creed 
 drawn up by it, the famous “Westminster Confession,” 
 became the standard of Presbyterianism in general, and 
 so remains to-day. In June, 1647, Presbyterianism was 
 
94 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 made the national religion of England, as it was of Scot- 
 land, though the sudden rise of the Independents, or 
 Congregationalists, to power under Cromwell overthrew 
 its supremacy. At: the Restoration, under Charles II., 
 Presbyterianism was suppressed both in Scotland and in 
 England, Episcopacy becoming the national church. The 
 struggle of the “Covenanters” against the persecution that 
 followed is one of the noblest chapters in history. In 
 England the Presbyterians form to-day one of the smaller 
 “dissenting” bodies. After the Revolution of 1688 Pres- 
 byterianism was quietly restored in Scotland, where it 
 remains to-day as the Established Church. But the old 
 spirit of jealousy of the civil power survived and led to 
 many divisions. In 1733 Ebenezer Erskine led a seces- 
 sion on behalf of the right of the congregations to reject 
 an unacceptable minister sent by the Presbytery, and 
 formed the “Associate Synod.” This divided again and 
 subdivided, but in 1847 some of these minor bodies came 
 together in the “United Presbyterian Church.” In 1843 
 a most enthusiastic rebellion against the main church was 
 led by Drs. Chalmers, Guthrie, and Candlish, by which 
 nearly one-third of the ministers gave up their manses and 
 livings, and formed the “Free Church of Scotland” on 
 the right of the congregation to choose its own minister 
 without control of the State or patron. It speedily pro- 
 vided for its own support by raising large sustentation 
 and building funds, and is a prosperous body. But in 
 1874 the Established Church gave up patronage and con- 
 trol of pastorates, and has grown rapidly. A Book of 
 Common Order, or liturgy, has been compiled, and organs 
 and hymns admitted. There is much liberality of 
 doctrine. 
 
 In the United States—The first Presbyterian churches 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 95 
 
 were founded by the Huguenots, but of these only one, 
 in Charleston, 8S. C., remains. Large immigrations from 
 England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, and Germany fol- 
 lowed. Presbyterian churches of British origin were 
 established in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland and the Carolinas. 
 
 The first Presbytery, however, was not organized till 
 1706, in Philadelphia, and the first Synod not till 1729. 
 A division rose early between the “Old Side” and the 
 “New Side,” nominally on the question of revivals, but 
 really upon larger questions of progressive doctrine; and 
 this division, like that upon State interference in Scot- 
 land, has run through Presbyterian history in this coun- 
 try. It was by reason of this division that what is now 
 known as Princeton University was established by the “New 
 Side,” in 1746 for the purpose of securing an educated 
 ministry. It should not be forgotten that the churches 
 were one of the most powerful forces operating to secure 
 the separation of the colonies from Great Britain and 
 during the Revolution the Presbyterians were staunch in 
 their support of the Continental Congress. 
 
 In the early part of the nineteenth century they grew 
 rapidly, but the old controversies assumed a more definite 
 shape in the dispute as to whether the atonement was for 
 all men or only for the elect; and in 1837 the denomina- 
 tion split into Old and New School, and was not united 
 again till 1869. A still older secession was that of the 
 Cumberland Presbyterians, who, having been cut off by the 
 Synod of Kentucky for introducing into their churches 
 during a revival a number of ministers not well educated 
 nor willing to subscribe to the extreme doctrines of the 
 Confession, formed a body which separated, and has be- 
 come very large. They revised the Westminster Confes- 
 
96 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 sion, holding milder views on predestination, and denying 
 unconditional election and infant damnation, but have now 
 returned to the main body. In 1858 the Southern 
 churches of the New School seceded on the question of 
 slavery, forming the “United Synod.” When war be- 
 tween the States was declared in 1861, the Southern 
 churches of the Old School refused to “make slavehold- 
 ing a sin or non-slaveholding a condition of communion,” 
 and formed the General Assembly of the Confederate 
 States. In 1864 this Assembly and the “United Synod” 
 came together, and, the following year, adopted the name 
 of the “Presbyterian Church in the United States.” As 
 the discussions connected with the war died out, friendly 
 relations were established with the Northern churches 
 and in 1888 the two General Assemblies held a joint meet- 
 ing in Philadelphia. The various efforts to bring these 
 two great sections of the Presbyterian Church together 
 have not yet been successful. This is due partly to dif- 
 ferences in doctrinal emphasis and church conduct, but 
 more to diversity in community and church life. 
 
 Doctrines—The Presbyterians hold, on the whole, the 
 doctrines and the church government which were formu- 
 lated by John Calvin, and by him made the standing- 
 ground against Romanism. 
 
 These doctrines were restated in the Westminster Con- 
 fession, which is the standard of all the main bodies of 
 Presbyterians, and in the “Larger” and “Shorter West- 
 minster Catechisms.” The American churches, however, 
 omit those passages which relate to the union of Church 
 and State, limiting the duty of the latter to protection of 
 all denominations alike. 
 
 The first point to be noticed in Presbyterianism is its 
 frank and full declaration of the supremacy of Scripture 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 97 
 
 as authority for all belief: “All things in Scripture are 
 not alike plain in themselves, nor alike clear unto all; yet 
 those things which are necessary to be known, believed, 
 and observed for salvation, are so clearly propounded and 
 opened in some place of Scripture or other that not only 
 the learned, but the unlearned, in a due use of the 
 ordinary means, may attain unto a sufficient understand- 
 ing of them” (Westm. Conf., chap. 1, sect. 8). Herein 
 the Presbyterians lift the standard of Protestantism as 
 against the Catholic doctrine of tradition and the right 
 of the Church to be the sole interpreter, more firmly 
 than the Lutherans and the Episcopalians. Yet the 
 emphasis laid upon the value of the Westminster Confes- 
 sion, and the obligation upon all the clergy to sign it, 
 seem practically to bring back the old principle, and to 
 betray an unwillingness to leave the Bible to “the use of 
 the ordinary means.” Yet the Bible remains as court 
 of final appeal. 
 
 Presbyterians hold to the Protestant distinction between 
 the visible and the invisible Church, all parts of the 
 former being “subject to mixture and error.’ Yet out 
 of the visible Church “there is no ordinary possibility of 
 salvation.” Calvin strove to make the Presbyterian 
 Church the established Church at Geneva, and this was 
 the ideal of the Church in Scotland. The different posi- 
 tion of the Presbyterians in America seems to mark a 
 great change in this doctrine. 
 
 As in Presbyterianism we leave behind entirely the idea 
 of supreme Church authority, so we leave the idea of the 
 sacraments as material channels of supernatural grace. 
 Both consubstantiation and transubstantiation in the 
 Eucharist are denied. Christ is present only spiritually, 
 “the body and blood of Christ being not corporally or 
 
98 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 carnally in, with, or under the bread and wine, yet as 
 really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in 
 that ordinance as the elements themselves are to the out- 
 ward senses.” Unworthy persons do not receive, there- 
 fore, the essential element in the ordinance (Westm. 
 Conf., chap. 29, sect. 7). Baptism is “a sign and seal 
 of the covenant of grace,” but in itself conveys no grace. 
 
 The essential doctrine of Presbyterianism is the ab- 
 solute and unquestionable sovereignty of God, which, 
 though just and loving, is above the comprehension of 
 the human intellect, as it is beyond the influence of 
 human character. The Confession must be read to show 
 how thoroughly this doctrine is worked out. It is best 
 known under the form of “the five points of Calvinism.” 
 
 1. Total Depravity. “From this original corruption 
 (that of our first parents after the Fall), whereby we are 
 utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all good, 
 and wholly inclined to all evil, do proceed all actual 
 transgressions” (Westm. Conf., chap. 6). 
 
 2. Unconditional Election. Out of the universal wreck, 
 though all souls deserve to perish, God determines to 
 save some, but irrespective of their own acts or merits. 
 “By the decree of God, for the manifestation of His glory, 
 some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting 
 life and others foreordained unto everlasting death. 
 These angels and men, thus predestinated and foreor- 
 dained, are particularly and unchangeably designed; and 
 their number is so certain and definite that it cannot 
 be increased or diminished. Those of mankind that are 
 predestinated unto life, God, before the foundation of 
 the world was laid, according to His eternal and im- 
 mutable purpose, and the secret counsel and good pleasure 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 99 
 
 of His will, hath chosen in Christ, unto everlasting glory, 
 out of His mere free grace and love, without any fore- 
 sight of faith or good works, or perseverance in either of 
 them, or any other thing in the creature, as conditions, 
 or causes moving him thereunto; and all to the praise 
 of His glorious grace. The rest of mankind God was 
 pleased, according to the unsearchable counsel of His own 
 will, whereby He extendeth or withholdeth mercy as He 
 pleaseth, to pass by, and to ordain them to dishonor and 
 wrath for their sin, to the praise of His glorious justice.” 
 (Westm. Conf., chap. 3, sect. 3, 5 and ¥.) The latter 
 part of this passage Presbyterians call the doctrine of 
 “preterition,” or passing by; and distinguish between it 
 and “reprobation,” or fixing the non-elect in their sin. 
 The Confession also asserts the freedom of the human will, 
 leaving the apparent contradiction between it and divine 
 sovereignty unsolved, as beyond the reach of the human 
 intellect. 
 
 3. Particular Atonement. The sacrifice of Christ is not 
 for all men, but only for those who are chosen, and who 
 therefore have received as a gift the very faith by which 
 the merits of Christ can be appropriated. 
 
 4, Hffectual Grace. Those who are chosen are saved, 
 not by anything they may do for themselves, but by the 
 power of God working in them “to will and to do of His 
 own good pleasure.” “Yet so as they come most freely, 
 being made willing by His grace” (Westm. Conf., chap. 
 10). 
 
 5. The Perseverance of the Saints—that is, the preserva- 
 tion of the elect to the end. “They whom God hath ac- 
 cepted in His Beloved, effectually called and sanctified by 
 His Spirit, can neither totally nor finally fall away from 
 
100 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the state of grace; but shall certainly persevere therein to 
 the end, and be eternally saved” (Westm. Conf., chap. 
 Wiae 
 
 Whether the Confession teaches the damnation of non- 
 elect infants and heathen is debated by many Presby- 
 terians, but the prevalent belief in earlier days would 
 seem to confirm the charge that it does so teach. “Elect 
 infants, dying in infancy, are regenerated and saved by ~ 
 Christ through the Spirit. . . . So are all other elect per- 
 sons, who are incapable of being called outwardly by the 
 ministry of the Word. Others, not elected, . . . cannot 
 be saved; ... and to assert that they may is very per- 
 nicious and to be detested” (Westm. Conf., chap. 10). 
 
 In other points, as the Trinity, the deity of Christ, 
 eternal punishment and reward, etc., the Presbyterians 
 hold substantially the faith common to Evangelical 
 Christians. 
 
 Government—A complete church has three classes of 
 officers—the teaching elder, or pastor; the ruling elders, 
 who with the pastor constitute the “church session,” to 
 govern the congregation; and the deacons, who manage 
 the financial affairs. The affairs of the Presbyterian 
 Church are administered through a series of four courts, 
 the lowest of which, the “church session,” has just been 
 referred to. The churches in a certain district unite in 
 forming a “presbytery,” which is a higher court made 
 up of the pastor and one ruling elder from each church 
 session. A number of adjacent presbyteries unite to form 
 a still higher court, “the synod,” to which are sent all the 
 ministers and one ruling elder from each session within 
 the region covered by the presbyteries. “The highest court 
 is the “General Assembly,” to which the presbyteries elect 
 an equal number of ministers and ruling elders as dele- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 101 
 
 gates. The General Assembly decides all controversies 
 respecting doctrine and discipline, erects new synods, ap- 
 points the various boards and executive and judicial com- 
 missions. Its decision is final, excepting in matters 
 affecting the constitution of the church. These bodies 
 form a series of courts for the adjustment of all difficul- 
 ties and the enactment of all needed regulations, appeal 
 being made from lower to higher as in the secular courts. 
 The result is a very compact and effective organization. 
 
 Statistics—There are 8,633,000 Presbyterians: United 
 States and Canada 3,700,000; British Isles 1,933,000; in 
 other parts of the world 3,000,000. There are 9 bodies 
 reporting separately in the United States: Presbyterian 
 Church, U. S. A.; Presbyterian Church, U. S8.; Cum- 
 berland; United Presbyterian Church of North Amer- 
 ica; Colored Cumberland; Associate Reformed; Synod of 
 Reformed of N. A.; Reformed Presbyterian Church in 
 N. A., and Associate Synod of N. A. They have 15,800 
 churches; 14,421 ministers; 2,402,392 members; and 
 2,214,619 in Sunday school. They maintain 76 colleges 
 and are closely associated with 14 other colleges not bear- 
 ing the Presbyterian name; 25 theological schools; 3 
 academies; and 20 periodicals. 
 
 5. THE REFORMED CHURCH 
 
 Name—The title “Reformed” was used to distinguish 
 those Swiss, Dutch, and some German churches which have 
 their origin in Switzerland and which are Calvinistic, not 
 Lutheran, in doctrine. There are three denominations 
 which class themselves as “Reformed”: the Reformed 
 Church in America, which is Dutch in origin; the Re- 
 formed Church in the United States, which traces its 
 
102 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 beginning to the early German, Swiss and French settlers ; 
 and the Christian Reformed Church in North America, 
 composed of the descendants of those Hollanders, who, 
 seceding from the Reformed Church of the Netherlands, 
 fled because of persecution and settled in Iowa and 
 Michigan. : 
 
 In its early history each body clung to its ancestral 
 language, a practice which, while it tended to check nat- 
 ural growth, had the advantage of giving the newcomers 
 a congenial church life, to which is largely due the fact 
 that these communities have grown up loyal to the best 
 interests both of their mother church and of their new 
 - country. As conditions changed, English supplanted the 
 mother tongue. 
 
 History—lIn the early colonization of America, Dutch 
 and Germans, as well as Scotch and English, were promi- 
 nent. The Dutch were the first to come. The principle 
 of justification by faith, on which the Reformation of 
 Luther was based, was preached in Holland half a cen- 
 tury before his day, but made little impression. When 
 the Reformation was under way it was from Calvin, not 
 Luther, that Dutch Protestantism took shape. Its 
 struggles against the Spanish power of Charles V. and 
 Phillip II. are famous in history. The church took form 
 in a synod at Antwerp in 1563, when the Belgic Con- 
 fession was adopted. Its influence in Europe was very 
 great; and through the English Protestants who took 
 refuge in Holland, among them our “Pilgrims,” it affected 
 England also. It was in this church that the Arminian 
 controversy took place which ended at the Synod of Dort, 
 in 1619, in the triumph of Calvinism and the banishment 
 of the Arminians. 
 
 The first minister was settled in New Amsterdam (New 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 103 
 
 York) in 1628, and five years later the first church build- 
 ing was erected. As Dutch immigrants settled along the 
 Hudson, in Long Island, and in New Jersey, other con- 
 gregations were gathered. When the English took pos- 
 session of the province there were five churches. The 
 life of the denomination, however, was marked by con- 
 troversy and by bitter strife, for the mother church in 
 Holland persisted in controlling affairs in the colony. 
 The attempt of the New World churches to become in- 
 dependent, which began in 1755, was not successful until 
 after the close of the Revolutionary War, when with 
 political came ecclesiastical self-government also. 
 
 Its growth was hindered by the use of the Dutch 
 language solely in service and sermon till 1764, and by its 
 dependence and its divisions. Though one of the oldest 
 bodies in the country, it is not large, though it is wealthy 
 and influential. It emphasizes an educated ministry, and 
 was the first body to institute systematic theological in- 
 struction in this country. 
 
 Doctrine—The Reformed Church in America is es- 
 sentially Calvinistic in doctrine. It accepts as its doc- 
 trinal symbols the Apostles’, the Nicene, and the Athanas- 
 ian creeds, the “Belgic Confession,” the “Heidelberg 
 Catechism,” and the Canons of the Synod of Dort. It 
 uses a liturgy, now optional, which was adopted in 1568 
 at Wesel. It is based on Calvin’s and was translated into 
 English in 1667, when singing in English was introduced. 
 
 Polity—The Reformed Church is essentially Presby- 
 terian in government, though the bodies have different 
 names. The “Consistory” corresponds to the “Session” ; 
 the “Classes” to the “Presbytery,” the “Particular Synod” 
 and the “General Synod.” 
 
 The government of the local church is under the control 
 
104 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 of the “Consistory,” which is composed of the minister, 
 elders and deacons, elected by the members of the church. 
 The “Classes” which has immediate supervision of the 
 churches and ministers, consists of all ministers within a 
 certain district and an elder from each consistory within 
 it. The “classes” of a certain district are combined into 
 a “Particular Synod,” composed of four ministers and 
 four elders from every “Classes” within the district, which 
 has special supervision of church activities within its bor- 
 ders. The highest court of the church is the “General 
 Synod,” composed of delegates from each “Classes.” 
 
 REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 History—The Reformed Church in the United States, 
 for many years known as the “German Reformed Church,” 
 traces its origin chiefly to the German, Swiss and French 
 people who settled in America early in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. These pioneers, largely from the Palatinate, made 
 settlements in the South, in New York, and in Pennsyl- 
 vania, and being thoroughly religious in character, made 
 provision for churches and parish schools. Their ecclesi- 
 astical allegiance was to the Reformed Church in Holland, 
 but differences as to polity arose, with such resulting 
 friction that an independent body was formed. 
 
 The first synod of the German Reformed Church met 
 at Lancaster, Pa., in 1793, and reported 178 congregations 
 and 15,000 communicants. With the development of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church some congregations joined 
 that body, with which there was much similarity in doc- 
 trine, and others joined in the organization of the United 
 Brethren. During the great revival period in the early 
 nineteenth century, friction between the conservatives and 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 105 
 
 liberals split the church, and many congregations with- 
 drew. Meanwhile, the church had been developing west- 
 ward, but difficulties of communication making mutual 
 relations uncertain, a Western Synod was formed, which, 
 while holding fraternal relations with the Eastern Synod, 
 was not identified with it. In 1863 the two synods united 
 to form a General Synod. With the organization of the 
 General Synod began the rapid extension of the work of 
 home missions, especially among the German immigrants 
 who were filling up the west. During these years of 
 growth the church has entered into cordial relations with 
 the Reformed Church in America, and with the Presby- 
 terian Church in the United States. 
 
 Doctrine and Polity—Both im doctrine and polity the 
 Reformed Church in the United States is in accord with 
 the other Reformed and Presbyterian Churches. In organ- 
 ization it corresponds to the Reformed Church in America, 
 except that it does not speak of the “Particular Synod” 
 but of the Synod. 
 
 CHRISTIAN REFORMED CHURCH IN NortH AMERICA 
 
 The main part of the denomination is composed of 
 people whose ancestors in 1834 and the following years 
 left the Reformed Church of the Netherlands to become 
 known as the Christian Reformed Church. Persecuted in 
 Holland, they came to the United States, the earliest of 
 them coming in 1846 and 1847, and scttling in central 
 Towa and western Michigan. At first they allied them- 
 selves with the Reformed Church in America, but feeling 
 the restraint arising from such a union, they withdrew in 
 a few years to form a separate body known as the Chris- 
 tian Reformed Church in America. The new denomina- 
 
106 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 tion at first had a hard struggle for existence, but it was 
 strengthened by immigration of Reformed Hollanders 
 from the Netherlands in the decade of 1880-90, and by 
 the addition of churches which had withdrawn from the 
 Reformed Church in America. 
 
 Coming to America in the middle of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, the immigrants declared that one of their main 
 objects was to provide their children with a Christian edu- 
 cation. In accordance with this purpose they everywhere 
 opened free Christian primary schools, at first parish 
 institutions, but later on supported by separate organiza- 
 tions of church people. In a half dozen places they are 
 maintaining Christian high schools or academies. 
 
 Doctrine and Polity—The Christian Reformed Church 
 in North America adopts the doctrinal standard of the 
 “Reformed Bodies” but is far more conservative. In 
 organization it is Presbyterian. 
 
 Statistics—The three bodies report 2,741 churches; 
 2,303 ministers; 525,161 members, and 526,055 in Sunday 
 school. They maintain 14 colleges; 6 theological semi- 
 naries; and 17 periodicals. 
 
 6. THE CONGREGATIONALISTS 
 
 Name—A Congregationalist is one who believes that 
 every congregation should govern itself, instead of being 
 governed by bishops, as the Episcopalians are, or by a 
 series of courts, as the Presbyterians are. In this wider 
 sense the name belongs equally to other Sects; but it is 
 usually assigned to and claimed by the denomination 
 which makes the congregational principle of Church gov- 
 ernment its chief characteristic. The Congregationalists 
 of England, where the denomination began, called them- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 107 
 
 selves “Independents” until this century, but now belong 
 to the “Congregational Union of England and Wales.” 
 
 History—The Independent principle marked the third 
 step in the revolt from Roman Catholicism in the English 
 Reformation, the Anglican being the first, and the Presby- 
 terian the second. Of the Puritan party, who wished to 
 preserve the national Church, but to purify it still further 
 from the errors of Rome, rejecting all rites, vestures, 
 festivals, ete., not expressly authorized by Scripture, some 
 gave up their demands in face of the Church’s stern resist- 
 ance, but others began to ask themselves what authority 
 the Church, or anybody but Christ, had to control the 
 worship of any one. This led to withdrawal, not only 
 from the Church of England, but from its first offshoot, 
 the Presbyterian Church, which also claimed authority 
 over the single congregation. The first Independent 
 church was founded at Norwich, in 1580, by Robert 
 Browne. It was at once assailed by State persecution 
 and popular ridicule, and called “Separatist,” or “Brown- 
 ist.’ It soon found itself obliged to leave the country, 
 and went to Middleburg, in Zealand, but there was broken 
 by poverty and internal dissensions; and most of the 
 people returned to England, Browne joining the Church 
 of England again. 
 
 More successful was the work of Henry Barrowe and 
 John Greenwood, who founded a church in London, in 
 1592. They were both put to death the following year, 
 but the church removed to Amsterdam. This church dif- 
 fered from Browne’s in not being governed directly by 
 congregational vote, but by the board, or “Session,” of 
 elders, including pastor and teacher. So far it followed 
 the Presbyterians, but there stopped, acknowledging no 
 higher authority. This form of government, sometimes 
 
108 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 called “Barrowism,” became the model of the Congrega- 
 tional churches for a long time, both in England and in 
 New England. 
 
 More celebrated and permanent was the church gathered 
 at Scrooby, England, which emigrated first to Amsterdam, 
 then to Leyden. From the Leyden church, under John 
 Robinson, came the permanent Congregationalism both of 
 England and of New England. In 1616 Henry Jacob 
 returned to London and founded there the first Independ- 
 ent church that remained alive in England. Adherents 
 multiplied fast, and under Cromwell the Independents be- 
 came masters of England. In 1658 the Savoy Council 
 was held in London, which virtually adopted the West- 
 minster Confession, except as to church government. At 
 the Restoration the Independents were roughly handled 
 by Charles II., and by the “Act of Uniformity” in 1662. 
 Two thousand ministers were deprived of their livings, 
 and further oppressed. Upon the site of the old Fleet 
 Prison, where some were confined, their descendants have 
 built a Memorial Hall and Library. After the Revolution 
 of 1688 the denomination obtained toleration, and is now 
 one of the most influential in the kingdom. 
 
 From Leyden went also those “Pilgrim Fathers,” under 
 Elder Brewster and Deacon Carver, who founded the 
 church in Plymouth in the New World. 
 
 From 1620 to 1640 it is estimated that twenty-two thou- 
 sand Puritans came to New England on account of perse- 
 cution. ‘They did not mean to leave the “Mother Church,” 
 but only to change some of her usages. 
 
 As long as they were in England the differences between 
 the Puritans and Independents (Separatists) were accen- 
 tuated, but after their arrival in America the many points 
 on which they agreed became more apparent and the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 109 
 
 essential elements of both Puritanism and Independency 
 were combined into Congregationalism. Under the Plym- 
 outh influence the Puritan churches speedily became 
 self-governing and, ‘in time, most sturdy opponents of 
 the Church of England. 
 
 Congregationalism was virtually the “established church” 
 of New England. In the beginning church and town 
 were but the same community in different capacities. 
 All voters were church members, and all adult male church 
 members were voters. Money was raised by taxation for 
 church expenses, as for other town needs. As the popula- 
 tion grew diverse in religious belief, it was at first arranged 
 that all should be taxed to support the Congregational 
 Church who could not prove that they supported any 
 other ; and finally, but not till 1833 in Massachusetts, all 
 church taxes were remitted, and the Congregationalists 
 became before the law but one sect among many. The 
 suffrage question was more troublesome. For many rea- 
 sons the proportion of church members to the male popu- 
 lation decreased, till it was only one-fifth. To meet this 
 difficulty, the “Half-way Covenant” was arranged in 1662, 
 by which persons of discreet lives were admitted to all 
 the privileges of the church except that of coming to the 
 Lord’s Supper on simply giving public assent to the cove- 
 nant of the church, instead of, as before, being required to 
 give proofs of “regeneration.” In time unconverted per- 
 sons were received at communion also. Against the latter, 
 and indeed against what he deemed the general decline of 
 religious interest, Jonathan Edwards protested; and about 
 1740, under his lead and that of Whitefield, the Eng- 
 lish preacher, a revival called “The Great Awakening” 
 swept over New England, followed by reaction, and by 
 theological divisions which have never been healed. 
 
110 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Arminianism, or the assertion of the freedom of the will 
 as against predestination, largely replaced Calvinism; and 
 a liberal tendency began, culminating in the early part 
 of the past century in the Unitarian movement, which 
 enlisted the allegiance of most of the older churches in 
 Massachusetts, including the one in Plymouth and the 
 “First? churches in Boston, Salem, Dorchester, Roxbury, 
 and other large places, and obtained control of Harvard 
 College. ; 
 
 The growth of Congregationalism in this country was 
 hindered by the “Plan of Union” with the Presbyterians 
 in evangelizing the newly opened West. The adherents of 
 the two bodies in any town were to unite in one church, 
 choosing which body they were to affiliate with, and when 
 becoming Congregationalist, were allowed a certain rela- 
 tion with the Presbyterian Synods. But this was found 
 more useful to the latter than to the former; and in 1852 
 the “plan” was abandoned, the Congregationalists having, 
 it was estimated, lost some two thousand churches. Since 
 then the denomination has been increasingly active in 
 home missionary work, and has grown in numbers, though 
 not in proportion to the population. The American 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was estab- 
 lished in 1810. 
 
 Government—The Congregationalists are not a church, 
 as the Episcopalians and Presbyterians are, but are 
 gathered into churches, each sufficient unto itself, and 
 denying the right of any other earthly authority to control 
 it. They believe that this was the polity of the churches 
 mentioned in the New Testament, and that only two 
 classes of church officers are there mentioned—the pas- 
 tors, or elders, and the deacons. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 111 
 
 The “church” is the assembly of believers around a 
 “covenant,” or “declaration of faith,” to which they 
 agree. There is usually, but not always, associated with 
 the church another body, called the “society,” commonly 
 made up from the attendants upon public worship, whether 
 they are members of the church or not. The society or- 
 dinarily owns the ecclesiastical property, and pays the ex- 
 penses of public worship. It represents to-day the citizens 
 of the old town system, who were not church members, 
 but were taxed to support the church, and thus had a 
 right to its public services. The pastor of the church is 
 the minister of the society, and the two bodies unite in 
 settling him. The deacons are officers of the church, 
 assist at the communion service, and take charge of the 
 poor-funds. 
 
 Though the churches are thus independent of one an- 
 other’s control, they have a fellowship of sympathy, which 
 they often use to ask advice—as in settling or dismissing 
 a pastor. Then a “council” is called of ministers and 
 delegates, either chosen at will or from a definite circle 
 of churches, by whose decision the church commonly 
 abides. It may, however, act in every case alone; and 
 other churches, if disapproving, can only withdraw their 
 fellowship and countenance. It is customary, when mem- 
 bers remove, to give them letters to any other church in 
 the fellowship. 
 
 The churches of a district are usually united into a 
 Conference, and the Conferences of each State into State 
 Conferences. The National Council, meeting biennially, 
 is representative of all the churches in the country, each 
 Conference sending a delegate for every ten churches, and 
 each State Conference one for each ten thousand com- 
 
112 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 municants, the delegates being half lay, half clerical. 
 These bodies, however, are all merely deliberative and 
 advisory, having no ecclesiastical authority. This is 
 vested solely in the council called by the local church for 
 a specific case and terminates with the accomplishment of 
 its immediate purpose. There is therefore no appeal from 
 one court to another, although the aggrieved party may 
 call for a new council. 
 
 Doctrine—By the fundamental principle of Congrega- 
 tionalism there can be no creed binding upon all churches. 
 There is no body with power to make one. Each church 
 makes its own. There is therefore more or less diversity 
 of belief within certain limits, which makes a general 
 statement somewhat difficult. While this principle of 
 independency has resulted in diversity of belief, the 
 equally important principle of the fellowship of the 
 churches assures the possibility of securing as much uni- 
 formity as is essential for mutual co-operation. 
 
 At first, Congregationalists were as strictly Calvinistic 
 as the Presbyterians. The Cambridge Synod, in 1648, 
 and the Savoy Conference, in 1658, substantially adopted 
 the Westminster Confession. The “Shorter Catechism” 
 and Wigglesworth’s “Day of Doom” were textbooks in 
 New England schools. But on both sides of the Atlantic 
 the original doctrines have been considerably modified. 
 
 The latest statement of doctrine was adopted by the 
 National Council at Kansas City in 1913. 
 
 Statistics—There are 2,090,000 Congregationalists: 
 United States and Canada 900,000; British Isles 490,000 ; 
 other parts of the world 700,000. In the United States 
 there are 5,873 churches; 5,781 ministers; 838,271 mem- 
 bers; and 781,195 in Sunday school. They maintain 43 
 colleges, 10 theological seminaries, and 4 periodicals. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 113 
 
 %. THE EPISCOPALIANS 
 
 (Protestant Episcopal) 
 
 Name—The legal name in England is “The Church of 
 England.” By this is implied, not only that it is the 
 national church—that is, the nation organized for reli- 
 gious purposes—but also that it is the branch in Eng- 
 land of the Catholic or Universal Church of which the 
 Roman and Greek Churches are also branches. 
 
 The name in this country is “The Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the United States of America.” The word 
 “episcopal” comes from the Greek episcopos, or overseer, 
 of which Greek word our word “bishop” is a contraction. 
 
 History—The first historic evidence of Christianity in 
 Britain dates back to about 300, and the Church soon had 
 bishops of its own. Saint Patricius, or Patrick, was sent 
 as missionary to Ireland, where the Church became strong, 
 and noted for its learning. From Ireland went mission- 
 aries to the north of Scotland. 
 
 The invasions of the Danes during the fifth and sixth 
 centuries practically exterminated the British Church, the 
 remains being driven into Scotland and Wales; but in 
 597 Christianity was reéstablished by Augustine, the mis- 
 sionary of Pope Gregory the Great. About the same time 
 representatives of the old British Church came down 
 from Scotland; and disputes arose on points of ritual 
 between them and the Roman priests, which were settled 
 in favor of the latter at the Council of Whitby, in 664. 
 The Church of Rome therefore claims not only to have 
 founded the Church of England as a branch of itself, but 
 to have received formal recognition at Whitby—both of 
 which points the Church of England denies, claiming dis- 
 
114 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 tinct origin from and equality with the Church of Rome. 
 It is certain that no part of Europe was more independent 
 of Rome than England, or more sturdy in its resistance 
 to her exactions. The reforming spirit was active; and 
 while Luther was beginning the German Reformation, a 
 gentler band of scholars, led by Sir Thomas More, John 
 Colet, and the Dutch Scholar Erasmus, were pleading and 
 working for purer morals, a broader spirit, and a more 
 learned clergy in the Church. With Luther, however, 
 they had no sympathy or co-operation; and Henry VIII. 
 wrote an abusive book against him. The refusal of the 
 Pope to annul the marriage of Henry to his first wife 
 precipitated a crisis; and Henry forced the Houses of 
 Convocation to make the King, instead of the Pope, the 
 head of the Church. Under Edward VI. (1547-53) the 
 first Prayer Book and Forty-Two Articles were published. 
 Under Elizabeth the Prayer Book was revised into virtu- 
 ally its present shape, and the Forty-Two Articles abridged 
 to the present Thirty-Nine. 
 
 The act of Uniformity attempted to stop further re- 
 form, and establish one Church again throughout the 
 kingdom. But then arose the “Puritans,” or those who 
 wished worship to be still further purified from things 
 suggestive of Papistry, and to retain nothing that was 
 not expressly commanded or sanctioned by Scripture, di- 
 viding into Presbyterians, and later Independents, or 
 Congregationalists. Baptists and Quakers also became 
 numerous. 
 
 The cessation of the long religious disputes in 1688 
 was followed by great laxity during the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and the condition of the Church and clergy was 
 disgraceful. The first reaction came in Methodism, 
 which was continued in the Church by the Evangelical 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 115 
 
 or “Low Church” movement. But the sternness of its 
 dogmatic emphasis led to the liberal, or “Broad Church,” 
 movement, under Thomas Arnold, Maurice, Whately, 
 Kingsley, Stanley, Jowett, Temple, and others. This, in 
 turn, roused the “Tractarian” or “High Church” move- 
 ment, under Newman, Keble, Pusey, and their friends, 
 who invoked against the disrupting influences which 
 threatened to undermine faith in the Church standards 
 and doctrines, the aid of ritual to preserve due reverence 
 for the unrevealed mysteries of God. 
 
 The influence of the Tractarian movement has been 
 very deep and lasting, and by its emphasis upon the divine 
 origin and office of the Church has stimulated very 
 powerfully the zeal of its members to make it effective. 
 Great attention has been paid to the enrichment of the 
 services, to work among the poor and sick, and to the 
 wider problems of modern civilization. What the Council 
 of Trent was to the Roman Church—emphasizing its 
 peculiar doctrines, but setting it upon a more earnest and 
 effective basis—that the High Church movement has been 
 to the Enghsh Church. 
 
 In the United States—The first settlers of Virginia, 
 in 1607, were members of the Church of England, and 
 churches were founded also in New York and other cities. 
 In New England the Church obtained foothold with great 
 difficulty, the people being Puritan, and remembering their 
 contests with the Church in old England. The royal 
 governors, however, maintained it; and the Church, in 
 return, when hostility to and finally war with the mother 
 country arose, was loyal to the crown, its ministers and 
 people being for a long time extremely unpopular for 
 having taken the “Tory” side. When the United States 
 became independent of England, the Church deemed it 
 
116 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 necessary to make a separate organization. Never having 
 had bishops of its own, it sought the ordination of some 
 by the English Church. The clergy of Connecticut, hay- 
 ing elected Dr. Samuel Seabury, sent him to the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury for consecration. He, however, 
 found himself unable to ordain him without requiring the 
 oath of allegiance which all candidates had to take. Dr. 
 Seabury therefore was consecrated by three Scotch bishops 
 at Aberdeen, in 1784. In 178% Dr. White, of Pennsyl- 
 vyania, and Dr. Provoost, of New York, were consecrated 
 at Lambeth, England, by the Archbishops of Canterbury 
 and York, the disability having been removed. Having 
 now three prelates of its own, the Church here was hence- 
 forth competent to its own management. A provisional 
 liturgy, called the “Proposed Book,” was issued in 1786, 
 which differed in many respects from the English Prayer 
 Book; but a more conservative spirit prevailed, and in 1789 
 the present book was adopted. Subscription to the Thirty- 
 Nine Articles is not required of the clergy here as it is in 
 England. The legal name was fixed as “The Protestant 
 Episcopal Church in the United States of America.” 
 This name is, however, distasteful to the High Church 
 party, who dislike to be classed among Protestants. 
 
 The first twenty years of the nineteenth century was a 
 period of painfully slow growth. The church was still 
 regarded as British and the formality of its worship did 
 not attract. In 1821, however, a new era set in, for the 
 church, recognizing her opportunity for missionary work 
 among the fast coming immigrants, pushed out into the 
 Northwest. 
 
 Work in foreign lands early attracted and missions were 
 established in Greece and Siberia, in China and Japan. 
 Later came missions to Brazil, and Cuba, to the Philippine 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 11” 
 
 Islands, Porto Rico and Mexico. Alaska, Honolulu, and 
 the Virgin Islands also are missionary districts. 
 
 At the outbreak of tke war between the States, the 
 denomination, as did others, split into “North” and 
 “South,” but in 1865 was reunited. The Tractarian or 
 “High Church” movement profoundly influenced the 
 church in America and for several years the controversy 
 was acute. Hfforts to make peace with the extreme 
 “evangelicals” failed and, in 1873, these withdrew and 
 organized the Reformed Episcopal Church. 
 
 Doctrine—The doctrines of the Church of England 
 are to be found in its “Book of Common Prayer,” “Thirty- 
 Nine Articles,” and “Homilies.” These were adopted by 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, 
 with a few changes, the chief of which was the omission 
 of the Athanasian Creed. 
 
 These formularies are the result of two streams of in- 
 fluence—one from the long-established use of the Catholic 
 Church, the other from the German Reformers. The 
 former predominates in the Prayer Book, the latter in the 
 Articles and Catechism. The Morning and Evening 
 Prayer and the Litany are substantially translations from 
 the Catholic Breviary. The Communion Service is also 
 a translation from the Latin service of the Mass, but with 
 a larger admixture of the Reformers. 
 
 All the forms of worship of this Church are prescribed 
 and regulated by the Prayer Book. No extempore prayer 
 is allowed, and the lessons from Scripture are assigned 
 by unvarying rule. The hymns also must first be ap- 
 proved by the proper authorities. 
 
 It is very difficult to expound the doctrines of the 
 Church of England. In its three parties it contains the 
 three forms under which Christianity exists in the world, 
 
118 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 elsewhere in separate sects. The High Church, which is 
 now predominant, represents the Church idea, and is es- 
 sentially to be ranked with the Roman and Greek 
 Churches. The Low Church represents the Scriptural 
 idea, and is essentially Protestant. The Broad Church 
 is really rational and spiritual and ranks with the Liberal 
 sects. The difference between these parties within the 
 Church is really greater than between them and the sects 
 which stand for their fundamental tendencies; but they all 
 find support in the formularies of the Church. 
 
 The Episcopal Church agrees with the Roman Catholic 
 Church in believing in “One Catholic and Apostolic 
 Church”—that is, in an external and visible institution, 
 having authority over all the world given it by Jesus 
 Christ and transmitted through the Apostles and the 
 bishops ordained by them in direct and demonstrable suc- 
 cession to the present day. Of this Church it claims to 
 be a legitimate branch. It differs from the Roman 
 Church in denying supremacy to the Bishop of Rome, 
 and in rejecting such doctrines as it claims were not of 
 apostolic origin, but have been added in later days—as 
 the papal infallibility, transubstantiation, communion in 
 one kind, purgatory, ete. It concedes to the Roman and 
 Greek Churches, however, apostolic authority in all other 
 things in their own territory. Though not pronouncing 
 officially upon the validity of ministers not episcopally 
 ordained, this Church virtually denies it, not allowing 
 them to minister in its pulpits or at its altars, and 
 generally forbidding its own clergy to officiate in churches 
 of other faiths. 
 
 The apostolic descent of the Church of England gives, 
 it is claimed, validity to its sacraments, of which it main- 
 tains two, baptism and the Supper of the Lord, instead 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 149 
 
 of the Roman seven. The sacraments are “outward and 
 visible signs of an inward and spiritual grace,” given in 
 or with them to the partakers. By baptism divine 
 strength descends into the soul, contending with original 
 sin, disposing to righteousness, and remitting previous 
 actual sin. As stated in the order for infant baptism, the 
 child is “regenerate.” In the communion the body and 
 blood of Christ are present in the bread and wine, convey- 
 ing new strength to the soul of the partakers. 
 
 But it is upon these doctrines of the Church and the 
 sacraments that the divergence of opinion already men- 
 tioned chiefly occurs. The above is the High Church 
 view. The Low Church—which on this point may be 
 said to include both the Evangelical and the Broad Church 
 parties—while admitting the apostolic authority of its 
 clergy, ascribes to it little practical value. The Evangeli- 
 cal churchman, like the Protestant, lays emphasis upon 
 justification by faith—that is, direct faith in Christ—to 
 which an apostolic clergy and sacraments may be helps, 
 but are not indispensable. His tendency is to disregard 
 the Church as an external institution, going immediately 
 to the Bible, and trusting in the immediate action of the 
 Holy Spirit upon the reader’s heart. Baptism and the 
 Eucharist are to him rather symbols than divine instru- 
 mentalities. The Evangelical churchman is virtually a 
 Protestant, separated from other Protestants mainly by 
 his use of the Prayer Book. The Broad Churchman, like 
 all so-called liberals, lays stress upon character, values the 
 Church and its sacraments as means of influencing the 
 soul, and has less to say of faith in its theological sense. 
 On the other hand, many High Churchmen are hardly to 
 be distinguished from Romanists in their views of the 
 necessity of baptism and of the Real Presence in the 
 
120 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Eucharist, some even maintaining transubstantiation. 
 They also grant higher power to their clergy—in receiv- 
 ing confession, imposing penance, and granting absolution. 
 
 Besides these most characteristic doctrines, the Church 
 of England holds to the Trinity, as defined especially in 
 the Nicene Creed, including the deity of Christ and of 
 the Holy Spirit; the inspiration of the Bible, though the 
 Broad Churchmen are very lax herein; the taint of 
 original sin, predisposing to evil; predestination and elec- 
 tion, in which the Evangelicals are decidedly Calvinistic, 
 though High Churchmen and Broad Churchmen are as 
 clearly Arminian; the resurrection of the body, though 
 with much divergence as to what this means; and eternal 
 punishment of the wicked, though Broad Churchmen like 
 Maurice, Kingsley, and Archdeacon Farrar have openly 
 denied this, it having been omitted from the Articles, 
 though it is plainly implied in the Litany. 
 
 Organization—The highest officers in the Church of 
 England are the archbishops, or metropolitans (Canter- 
 bury and York). The legislative power lies in the two 
 Convocations, presided over by the two archbishops, and 
 consisting each of two houses, the upper containing the 
 bishops, deans, archdeacons, and abbots of the archdiocese, 
 the lower the representatives of the clergy. Their de- 
 cisions, however, must be ratified by Parliament before be- 
 coming law, and they cannot even be assembled without 
 writ of the crown. 
 
 The bishops have jurisdiction over the churches in their 
 respective territorial dioceses. They alone can administer 
 confirmation, ordain priests and deacons, or dedicate new 
 churches. They are nominated by the crown, and elected 
 by the chapter of their cathedral. The cathedral is the 
 chief church of the diocese, and is so called from the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 121 
 
 bishop’s seat (cathedral), which it contains. Hence, also, 
 the cathedral church or city is called his “see” (sedes, 
 stége). This church is administered by the chapter, which 
 consists of the dean, or presiding officer, and (usually) 
 four canons, who take turns in conducting the services. 
 Each diocese has also from two to four archdeacons, who 
 are in many ways the executive officers and aids of the 
 bishop. Next come the priests, and finally the deacons, 
 in which office every priest must serve at least a year before 
 ordination to the priesthood. A curate is an assistant to 
 the incumbent of a parish, and may be either a priest 
 or a deacon. 
 
 The Church of England is the Established Church of 
 HKngland. In Scotland the Established Church is Presby- 
 terian, while in Ireland there has been none since the 
 disestablishment of the Anglican Episcopal Church in 
 1869. By the “Established Church” is meant the official 
 or national Church. The sovereign must be a member of 
 it. Its prelates are peers of the realm. Its liturgy is 
 used upon all official occasions and in all govenment in- 
 stitutions where any devotional exercises are held; and it 
 retains the churches, churchyards, and other ecclesiastica! 
 property held by the Church before the changes made by 
 Henry VIII. and his successors. This property con- 
 stitutes its endowment. Formerly it levied compulsory 
 rates upon all taxable property; but these are now 
 abolished with most other peculiar privileges—as the 
 power to perform the marriage ceremony or the sole right 
 of its members to be elected to Parliament. 
 
 In the United States the Episcopal Church has the 
 same legal status as other religious bodies. It recognizes 
 three orders in the ministry; bishops, priests and deacons. 
 It has no archbishop. Deacons must have reached the age 
 
122 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 of twenty-one. They cannot administer the Sacraments. 
 Their special duty is to care for the sick and poor of the 
 parish, but only when licensed by the bishop. No one 
 can be ordained a priest until he has been one year a 
 deacon and is twenty-four years old. Diocesan bishops 
 are elected by conventions of the diocese, in which both 
 lay and clerical delegates vote. This election must be 
 ratified by the General Convention or its representatives 
 and they are consecrated by other bishops, at least three 
 being necessary. Provision is made for the election of a 
 coadjutor bishop for a diocese, who, on the death of the 
 bishop, has the right of succession and also for the elec- 
 tion of a suffragan bishop without the right of succession. 
 Missionary bishops are elected by the General Conven- 
 tion and after four years are eligible for election as 
 diocesan, coadjutor or suffragan bishops. 
 
 The duty of a bishop is to ordain priests and deacons, 
 to assist at the consecration of bishops, to preside over 
 the diocesan convention, to accept candidates for holy 
 orders, to institute rectors of parishes, to administer the 
 Rite of Confirmation, and to visit every parish in the 
 diocese at least once in three years. 
 
 The government of a parish rests with the rector, 
 wardens, and members of the vestry. The wardens 
 and members of the vestry are elected hy the voting 
 members of the congregation. The duties of the vestry 
 are similar to those of the Parish or Standing Com- 
 mittee of Congregational churches, which include that of 
 trusteeship for the property of the parish. Upon the 
 wardens rests the care of the church building and they, 
 with the members of the vestry, are responsible for the 
 finances of the parish. 
 
 Ministers of parishes, or rectors, as they are called, are 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 123 
 
 usually elected by the vestry, though, in some cases, the 
 election must be ratified by the congregation and, in all 
 cases, the assent of the bishop to the election must be 
 obtained. The rector has sole charge of the spiritual 
 concerns of his parish and is entitled to the use and 
 control of the parish buildings. He cannot resign with- 
 out the consent of the vestry, nor can he be removed 
 against his will, save for misconduct, and then only after 
 trial and conviction. Next to the parish comes the 
 diocese, which is made up of the bishop or bishops, the 
 clergy within the diocese and laymen elected by the par- 
 ishes and missions of the diocese. The diocese has author- 
 ity to make assessments for whatever work it may approve, 
 education, missions, social service. The highest legisla- 
 tive body is the General Convention which meets once in 
 three years. It consists of two bodies—the House of 
 Bishops, composed of all the bishops having jurisdiction, 
 and the House of Deputies, to which each diocese sends 
 four clergymen and four laymen. Each house sits 
 separately. Either may originate legislation, but there 
 must be on all matters concurrent action. 
 Statistics—The Anglican Episcopate is divided ‘into 
 the “Church of England”; “Church of Wales”; “Church 
 of England in the British Colonies and in Teathen 
 Lands”; “Church of Ireland”; “Episcopal Church of 
 Scotland,” and “The Protestant Episcopal Church in the 
 United States of America.” “The Church of England” 
 is divided into the Province of Canterbury, which is pre- 
 sided over by an archbishop and 24 bishops, 6 assistant 
 bishops and 22 suffragan bishops, and the Province of 
 York, with an archbishop, 11 bishops and 8 suffragan 
 bishops. There are in the Church of England 6,032,000 
 communicants; England and Wales 2,400,000; Ireland 
 
124. A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 976,000; Scotland 56,000 and in other parts of the world 
 3,000,000. The Protestant Episcopal Church in the 
 United States is divided into 8 provinces, covering the 
 States, Porto Rico, Alaska, Hawaii and the Philippines. 
 There is an Extra-Provincial See for the Panama Canal 
 Zone and 11 American Foreign Missions. There are 142 
 bishops, 13 of whom have seats but no votes in the House 
 of Bishops. These are suffragan bishops or those who 
 have resigned. In the United States including Foreign 
 Missions, there are 1,143,801 communicants; 6,024 clergy- 
 men; 3,506 lay readers; 8,242 churches; and 504,640 in 
 Sunday school. They maintain 2 schools of arts and 
 sciences; 2 non-sectarian colleges; 14 theological semina- 
 ries; two schools of arts and ‘theology; "9 periodicals; 62 
 diocesan periodicals; and 8 devoted to special interests. 
 
 8. THE FRIENDS 
 (Orthodox) 
 
 Name—The full name of this sect is “The Religious 
 Society of Friends.” The name by which they are com- 
 monly known, “Quakers,” is never used by themselves. 
 It was given to them in mockery by one Justice Bennett, 
 of Derby, England, because George Fox “bid them (the 
 judges) tremble at the word of the Lord.” 
 
 History—The founder and organizer of the Friends 
 was George Fox (1624-1690), the son of a weaver in 
 Drayton, Leicestershire, England. He was poorly edu- 
 cated, and early apprenticed to a shoemaker, but was al- 
 ways “religious, inward, still, solid, and observing beyond 
 his years.” Brooding much in that time of religious 
 excitement and discussion over the matters in dispute, he 
 felt within him the stirrings and revelations of the Spirit 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 125 
 
 of God, and began in 1647 to go about England as a 
 wayside preacher of the gospel of the “inner light” as 
 superior, though not necessarily opposed, to the authority 
 of Church and Bible. Insisting on speaking in the 
 churches during the services, he was repeatedly thrown 
 into prison. But he and his fellow-preachers had wonder- 
 ful success, drawing immense crowds after them, and 
 making many converts. THearers fell into convulsions and 
 sometimes into insanity. The preachers themselves were 
 often eccentric, sometimes beyond the bounds of decency. 
 Naturally, they roused the bitter hostility of all the sects 
 of the day, and were frequently mobbed and in danger 
 of their lives. The language on both sides was warm, and 
 even coarse. The Quaker was a very different being from 
 what he has since become. He was filled with a fierce 
 desire to convert others. He went to the United States, 
 West Indies, Jerusalem, Malta; and Mary Fisher—for 
 women also became preachers—visited Smyrna and Greece, 
 and even sought audience of the Sultan. Fox did not 
 favor the formation of a separate sect, being sure that his 
 doctrine would conquer the Church itself; but the believers 
 naturally drew together into organizations of their own, 
 which in 1666 were made formal, and a discipline was es- 
 tablished for the regulation of the lives of members. They 
 increased in number until by the close of the seventeenth 
 century they were one of the most important bodies of 
 dissenters in England. Toleration by the English gov- 
 ernment was proclaimed in 1689; but Fox dying in 1690, 
 the Friends changed their character very essentially, and 
 their missionary zeal relaxed. 
 
 They had suffered during the age of persecution more 
 than any other body, fourteen thousand having been im- 
 prisoned, one hundred and fifty transported, and over three 
 
126 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 hundred having died from ill-treatment or direct martyr- 
 dom. Now the Society became known more for its 
 peculiarities of dress and manners than for its doctrines, 
 ceased to convert or controvert, became a consciously 
 “peculiar people,’ drew away from the rest of the Chris- 
 tian world, sought by strict regulations to keep its mem- 
 bers jealously together, and grew wealthy and respectable 
 while its numbers declined. 
 
 To the United States the Friends came early, two 
 women landing in Boston in 1656. Their coming was 
 much dreaded; and after imprisonment for five weeks 
 they were sent away to Barbados. The most stringent 
 laws were passed against Quakers coming to the colony, 
 and against any one harboring or aiding them; but only 
 the more were they moved to come and “bear testimony.” 
 They interrupted the Puritan services, doing strange and 
 disturbing things “for a sign,” and returned when ban- 
 ished. The excitement against them was great; and at 
 last the authorities, driven beyond patience, hung four 
 of them, Mary Dyer being one, on Boston Common. 
 Public opinion and the order of the king condemned this, 
 however, though the struggle against them only gradually 
 ceased. Jn 1678 they settled New Jersey under Fenwick, 
 and in 1682 Pennsylvania under William Penn; and for 
 many years the immigration was very large. The de- 
 crease in England was nearly balanced by the increase in 
 this country. 
 
 In the middle of the last century a stern attempt was 
 made to restore strictness of discipline in the Society; and 
 it is estimated that nearly one-third of its number was 
 lost, as a result chiefly of the excommunication for mar- 
 riage with the “world’s people.” Doctrinal discussions 
 also rent the body. Elias Hicks, a preacher of Long 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 127 
 
 Island, was accused of Unitarianism and of too free treat- 
 ment of the Bible; and a division took place. He was 
 followed, in 1827, by about one-third of the American 
 Friends, chiefly in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and 
 Maryland. Largely by the influence of the Gurney fam- 
 ily, which included Elizabeth Fry, the majority of the 
 Society in both England and America reacted into Evan- 
 gelical doctrines, and were assimilated to the popular 
 Christianity. But John Wilbur, a Rhode Island Friend, 
 opposed this movement, and led a return to faith in the 
 “inner light,’ as well as to other doctrines of Fox and 
 his contemporaries. The majority, however, remained 
 “orthodox” or “Gurneyite,” the Wilburites now hardly 
 existing as an organized body. 
 
 Doctrine—The characteristic doctrine of the Friends 
 is the reliance upon the “Spirit” as a present voice and 
 light in every man’s own soul. Reverencing the Bible as 
 true and inspired, they maintain that the same Holy 
 Spirit which spoke to the men of old speaks to-day, and 
 that every man should listen for it and be guided by it. 
 In this belief they once stood opposed both to those who 
 hold to the Church and to those who hold to the Bible as 
 authority. In all matters of life, as well as in doctrine, 
 they waited for this “inner light”; and when it came, or 
 seemed to them to come, they were fearless to the extreme. 
 
 From this main doctrine it follows— 
 
 1. That a specially educated ministry is not deemed 
 essential, Men and women should speak from divine im- 
 pulse, and not from any human ordination, and should 
 say what God gave them to say, not what human education 
 taught them. If any one feels constrained to devote him- 
 self to preaching, and his brethren think that he is 
 justified in it, he may do so; but there must be no prepara- 
 
128 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 tion, either in general or for special occasions. The only 
 ordination is a minute of approval by the Meeting to 
 which he belongs, which constitutes him a minister. 
 Speech is always extemporaneous. The preachers are not 
 “settled,” but often travel from place to place. 
 
 2. Though the Friends assemble at stated times for 
 worship, no “order of service”, is allowed. The Bible is 
 not read, nor is any prayer or address necessarily made; 
 and there is never, except as a modern innovation, singing 
 or music of any kind. No one speaks unless “moved by 
 the Spirit”; and when so moved, any one may speak. 
 
 3. There are no religious ceremonies. There is no bap- 
 tism or communion, the Friend holding that the rites of 
 old were but shadows of spiritual acts; and he denies that 
 Jesus meant to institute or to perpetuate them. The mar- 
 riage of Friends is a simple agreement before the Meeting 
 that the two will live as husband and wife, and the 
 signature of a certificate by them and by the clerk of 
 the Meeting. At a funeral the friends assemble, and 
 after a period of silence at the house, unless some one is 
 moved to speak, bear the body to the grave, where also 
 sometimes “testimonies are borne” by ministers to the 
 character of the dead. In neither marriage nor funeral 
 has the minister necessarily any part. 
 
 In other respects the doctrines of most Friends at 
 present are those of moderate Evangelical Christians. 
 
 Organization—The organization of the Society was 
 originally very close. The local society is organized as 
 a “Preparative Meeting.” It has “overseers of the Meet- 
 ing,” of both sexes, who watch over the lives of members; 
 “overseers of the poor”; and “elders,” who care for wor- 
 ship and ministry. Several Preparative Meetings unite 
 into a “Monthly Meeting,” which is the executive body, 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 129 
 
 several of these into a “Quarterly Meeting,” and several of 
 these again into a “Yearly Meeting,” which legislates for a 
 certain district. Thirteen of the Yearly Meetings have 
 united in forming the Five Years Meetings. The Yearly 
 Meetings have a uniform book of discipline. As a result of 
 the Five Years Meetings there has been in the last ten 
 years greater unity of effort. The relation to other Chris- 
 tian bodies has become closer and more co-operative. The 
 Society of Friends (Orthodox) is one of the thirty con- 
 stituent bodies of the Federal Council of the Churches of 
 Christ in America. The children of members are them- 
 selves members by birthright. Any one who wishes to 
 become a member makes request to the Meeting. A com- 
 mittee 1s appointed to investigate the applicant and re- 
 port. 
 
 The “discipline” of the Society was originally very 
 severe. The private life of every member was subject to 
 extraordinary scrutiny. All luxury or extravagance in 
 living, amusements, even music, undue attention to dress 
 —especially in colors and unnecessary parts, Jewelry, but- 
 tons, ete.—and too great absorption in business, were 
 strictly repressed. Members were forbidden to go to law, 
 but must bring their grievances before the Meeting. They 
 were forbidden to marry outside of the Society on pain 
 of being disowned. When two members intended to 
 marry, they appeared before the Monthly Meeting, with 
 the consent of their parents; a committee of men and 
 one of women investigated the matter on either side to 
 see that they were clear of all other engagements, and that 
 the rights of children, if it were a second marriage, were 
 duly cared for; and if allowed, the marriage took place 
 as already described. All military service was forbidden. 
 No oaths could be taken. No titles were assumed or 
 
130 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 given, not even “Mr.” and “Mrs.” ; no unmeaning saluta- 
 tions, as “good morning,” exchanged. The hat was not 
 removed in deference to any one, even in Meeting, except 
 in prayer, when all rose and uncovered their heads; nor 
 was there any bowing. The primitive form of address, as 
 “thee” and “thou,” was retained; and the months and 
 days of the week were designated by numbers, as in Scrip- 
 ture, not by the common names, which are of pagan origin. 
 Tombstones above a certain small size were prohibited. 
 
 The Friends have always been noted for their philan- 
 thropy. They were the first to advocate the abolition of 
 slavery. In 1761 all members were cut off who were 
 engaged in the slave trade, and by 1784 not a Friend in 
 America owned a slave. The modern treatment of the 
 insane was first adopted in England by them. They have 
 always protested against war. Their treaties with the 
 Indians were never violated, and they have cared greatly 
 for the remainder of the race. Elizabeth Fry was one of 
 the first workers in prison reform. The first women 
 preachers, and indeed the first recognition of the equality 
 of women in religious services, were among the Friends, 
 They have also some foreign missions. They have always 
 taken generous care of their own poor, educated their 
 children, and assisted each other in business. 
 
 In the World War their conviction against engaging in 
 war was reaffirmed. This was recognized in the Selective- 
 draft Act which provided for their assignment to non- 
 combat branches of the service. The increase in the num- 
 ber seeking membership led to the adoption of a rule 
 against receiving new members during the period of the 
 War. All branches united in the American Friends 
 Service Committee for reconstruction work in France. 
 From 1919 to 1921 the Committee centered on feeding 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 131 
 
 children in Germany, and later on relief in the famine 
 districts of Russia. 
 
 Statistics—The 4 bodies in the United States, Society 
 of Friends (Orthodox), Religious Society of Friends 
 (Hicksite), Orthodox Conservative Friends (Wilburite), 
 ‘and Friends (Primitive), report 920 churches; 1,252 min- 
 isters; 106,548 members; and 67,309 in Sunday school. 
 They maintain 10 colleges and schools and 4 periodicals. 
 
 9. THE DUNKARDS 
 
 Name—The official name of this body is “The Church 
 of the Brethren,” under which title it may be found, or, 
 under the name “German Baptist Dunkers.” ‘The names 
 Dunkers and Tunkers also are used. At present they are 
 divided into the Church of the Brethren (Conservative), 
 Old Order of German Baptist Brethren, The Brethren 
 Church (Progressive), German Seven Day Baptists, and 
 Church of God (New Dunkards). 
 
 History—The Dunker organization is an outgrowth 
 of the Pietistic movement in Germany in the seventeenth 
 century. It was a protest not so much against Catholi- 
 cism as against the barrenness of Protestantism itself. It 
 began in Westphalia, when five men and three women met 
 at the mill of Alexander Mack and decided that they must 
 found a new church by baptism. They were a company 
 of German Baptists who found it necessary to leave Ger- 
 many, which then required conformity. In 1719 a com- 
 pany of twenty families fled from Schwarzenau to America 
 and settled at Germantown, Pennsylvania. Alexander 
 Mack came over later and organized the German Baptist 
 Brotherhood. While they have followed along the general 
 lines of the Quakers and the Mennonites, and are often 
 
132 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 confused with them, they have had no association with 
 them. For the most part they have been farmers of 
 German or Dutch descent. While the first settlement was 
 in Pennsylvania they were among the earliest settlers in 
 the Ohio and the Mississippi Valleys. They were among 
 the first to demand total abstinence as a condition of mem- 
 bership. Sunday-school books were published by them 
 before the days of Robert Raikes, the reputed founder of 
 the first Sunday schools. 
 
 Doctrine—In belief they are orthodox Trinitarians and 
 in practice have for their standards the practices of 
 primitive Christianity. They practice immersion, the 
 person being confirmed while kneeling in the water. Foot- 
 washing, the love-feast and the kiss of charity are prac- 
 ticed. The women are veiled while at prayer and for the 
 communion service. Differences among them are settled 
 in obedience to New Testament injunctions without re- 
 sort to the civil courts. The early Christian practice of 
 anointing with oil is continued. Strict and austere ad- 
 herence to their moral code is required of all as a condition 
 of fellowship. Plain dress, without ornaments, character- 
 ize them as separate from the world. Their faith forbids 
 them to take the oath, and requires them to be non- 
 resistant and non-combative. They are opposed to higher 
 education and hold aloof from politics. 
 
 Polity—In their form of Church government they cor- 
 respond most nearly to the Presbyterian Church. The 
 local congregation is presided over by a bishop and is goy- 
 erned by the council of all the members. Discipline rests 
 with the local congregations to apply to the individual 
 member, and is highly regarded as a necessary church func- 
 tion. The rules against fraternizing with expelled mem- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 133 
 
 bers, except to minister to their necessities, are strictly 
 observed. 
 
 Statistics—The five groups report 1,256 churches; 
 3,805 ministers ; 136,432 members; and 178,090 in Sunday 
 schools. They maintain 12 schools and colleges and 8 
 periodicals. 
 
 10. THE METHODISTS 
 
 Name—“Methodists” is a nickname given to John 
 Wesley and his Oxford associates by another student, on 
 account of their regular religious habits. It was orig- 
 inally applied to an ancient school of physicians. In 
 England the followers of Wesley are called “Wesleyan 
 Methodists”; in this country, “The Methodist Episcopal 
 Church.” 
 
 History—The Methodist Churches generally trace a 
 common origin to a movement started in Oxford Uni- 
 versity in 1729, when John and Charles Wesley and 
 George Whitefield began to mect for religious exercises. 
 The movement soon became widely known as the “Meth- 
 odist” movement, and took definite shape in 1739, “when,” 
 as Mr. Wesley describes it, “eight or ten persons came to 
 him in London and desired that he should spend time 
 with them in prayer and advise them how to flee from 
 the wrath to come.” As Whitefield became a Calvinist, 
 his influence practically ceased at his death; and the 
 Methodism of to-day is mainly the work of John Wesley. 
 He was a graduate of Christ Church, Oxford, and a fellow 
 of Lincoln College, becoming a clergyman in 1728. His 
 tendencies were then “High Church.” 
 
 The beginnings of Methodism in America were in the 
 
134 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Colony of Georgia, in 1735, where, upon the initiation of 
 General Oglethorpe, John and Charles Wesley came as 
 spiritual advisers to his colony. Here John Wesley re- 
 mained two years. Upon his return from Georgia he 
 became interested in the Moravians in whose company he 
 had the remarkable experience known as “conversion.” 
 From that time he adopted ‘the Moravian doctrines of 
 “conversion,” “assurance,” and “perfection.” It was then 
 that modern Methodism was born in 1738. 
 
 The early Methodists may be described as the revival 
 party in the Church of England. Nothing was further 
 from their purpose than to leave that church; though its 
 piety was at very low ebb. 
 
 The fervent preaching of Wesley and Whitefield was 
 met with scorn and hostility. Almost every pulpit was 
 closed to them, they were ridiculed and slandered, and 
 were often mobbed and maltreated. Whitefield then be- 
 gan preaching in the fields and was soon followed by 
 Wesley, though with great reluctance. Beginning with 
 the colliers of Kingswood, near Bristol, Whitefield gathered 
 thousands about him; and the new views, and still more 
 the new earnestness, spread over the whole kingdom. In- 
 tense, emotional, calling for immediate conscious conver- 
 sion, it pressed the message on the attention of men for 
 whom the ordinary preaching of the time had little at- 
 traction. As converts were received they were organized 
 into societies for worship, and, as the work expanded, 
 class meetings were formed for the religious care and 
 training of members. The circuit system was established, 
 by which several congregations were grouped under the 
 care of one lay preacher. Chapels were erected, lay 
 preachers ordained; and Wesley’s marvellous powers of 
 organization consolidated the growing body, which at his 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 135 
 
 death numbered nearly eighty thousand members. Charles 
 Wesley, his brother, the hymn-writer of the movement, 
 and also a strong preacher, composed over six thousand 
 religious poems. 
 
 The influence of Methodism spread far beyond its own 
 adherents, The English Church was roused to a religious 
 life and a philanthropic zeal which have never since left 
 her. The Evangelical movement was the Methodist wave 
 inside the Church; and the Ritualist revival, which suc- 
 ceeded the Liberal reaction from this, received some of 
 its life from the same source. Attention to the poor, 
 both in religion and in their material condition, as in 
 factories and mines, received a new impetus; and it is 
 claimed that the quiet growth of England into political 
 freedom, as contrasted with the violent revolutions and 
 reactions upon the Continent, was partly due to the gentler 
 spirit which the Methodist movement instilled into the 
 lower classes. 
 
 The Methodists are by far the largest non-conformist 
 body in England, having their strength chiefly in the 
 middle and lower classes. Though Wesley himself never 
 wished them to leave the Church of England, and died 
 in its communion, his followers have been obliged to 
 organize a separate body, and as such now exist, though 
 with kindly feelings toward the church which they have 
 been the last large sect to leave. 
 
 The first Methodist society in America was formed in 
 1766 by a Wesleyan local preacher from Ireland, Philip 
 Embury. Two years later the society erected a chapel, 
 since known as the “John Street Church.” Appealed to 
 for aid, Wesley, in 1784, ordained two “presbyters” and 
 a “superintendent,” the Rev. Thomas Coke, and sent them 
 over. Precisely what rank Wesley meant Coke to rep- 
 
136 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 resent in the English Church is a matter of dispute; but 
 he was virtually a bishop. America was set apart in- 
 dependently, Wesley authorizing it, in 1784. The Con- 
 ference sitting at this time then proceeded to form a 
 Methodist Episcopal Church and elected both Coke and 
 Francis Asbury bishops. Asbury’s activity and success 
 in this country were second only to Wesley’s in England, 
 and he saw his sect increase from fifteen thousand to 
 two hundred and eleven thousand in 1816, 
 
 The career of Methodism in this country is almost as 
 romantic as it has been successful. As a pioneer religion, 
 pushing its way westward, and following closely the ad- 
 vancing settlers, it recalls the apostolic days. Already in 
 1799 the Methodists had adopted “camp-mectings” to 
 draw together the scattered and churchless population of 
 Tennessee under temporary religious influences. Their 
 preaching was of the most glowing description, working 
 powerfully upon crude natures, and though often produc- 
 ing strange nervous disturbances, making wonderful and 
 permanent changes of character. More than any other 
 religion Methodism adapted itself to the needs of the 
 new country, and deserved to be called the “American 
 religion.” It has also had great influence over the negroes 
 of the South. In 1816 the negroes were organized into 
 the African Methodist Episcopal Church, while in the 
 North the work among the negroes resulted in a separate 
 and independent organization in 1820, known as the 
 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. 
 
 In 1870, by order of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 South, the “Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in 
 America” was created. Slavery has divided the main 
 church also. In 1843 the “Wesleyan Methodist Church,” 
 an anti-slavery organization, broke away on this question ; 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 137 
 
 and in 1846 the “Methodist Episcopal Church South” 
 was formed. 
 
 It is interesting to note that in 1922 representatives of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church North, and of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church South, presented a plan of 
 union, whereby the two churches shall come together to 
 form a single conference. It is probable that this peace 
 union will soon be consummated. 
 
 Other sccessions have been the “Methodist Protestant 
 Church” (1830), which, like the English sect, has no 
 bishops, but is governed by conferences; the “Congrega- 
 tional Methodist Church,” in 1852, which is distinguished 
 from the other Methodists in being congregational in gov- 
 ernment; the “Primitive Methodists,” which is an out- 
 growth in England of a protest against camp-meetings. 
 In America its members are in large part emigrants from 
 the old country. 
 
 Government—The Methodists, like the Catholics, 
 Episcopalians, and Presbyterians, are a visible Church, 
 not merely a collection of churches, like the Baptists and 
 Congregationalists. The separate church or congregation 
 does not govern itself, but is governed by a central power, 
 the General Conference. 
 
 In England the Conference is the legal successor to the 
 almost absolute power of John Wesley, which was trans- 
 ferred by him in a legal instrument, the “Deed of Declara- 
 tion,” in 1784. The chapels had been placed in his pos- 
 session, and were now given to one hundred ministers 
 selected by him as the Conference—a close corporation, 
 filling its own vacancies. In their hands the power re- 
 mains. There are no bishops. 
 
 As originally organized in America, Methodism was 
 Episcopal in its form of government. It was divided 
 
138 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 first into an annual conference, and later a system of 
 church, quarterly, district, mission and annual conferences, 
 was developed. In the United States power is centered in 
 the General Conference, which meets once in four years. 
 It is made up of delegates from the annual conferences, 
 formerly all ministers, but since 1872 including two lay- 
 men from each conference. It elects the bishops, and is 
 the supreme legislative body, under certain limitations 
 as to the fundamental points of the system. The annual 
 conferences are made of the itinerant preachers of a cer- 
 tain district, and have to do mainly with their affairs. 
 The region of the annual conference is divided into dis- 
 tricts, each with its presiding elder and its district con- 
 ference, which meets once or twice a year as directed, 
 and is made up of the preachers, itinerant and local, 
 in the district, and a Sunday-school superintendent and 
 class leader from each society, with other officers. This 
 conference licenses the local preachers, and cares for the 
 general temporal and spiritual affairs of the district. 
 The quarterly conference is made up of the officers of the 
 church, or of the several churches constituting a circuit. 
 Besides having charge of the affairs of the church, or 
 churches, it pronounces upon the fitness of any member 
 who desires to preach. In each society there are also 
 classes, each under its leader, who originally had strict 
 oversight of the members, visiting them once a week, 
 advising them, and collecting their contributions, but - 
 whose duties are now much less rigorous. 
 
 The bishops are elected by the General Conference, 
 and hold office for life. Their duty is strictly adminis- 
 trative. They preside at the annual conferences, without 
 vote, and ordain the preachers and assign them to their 
 stations. They have no dioceses, as the Episcopal and 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 139 
 
 Catholic bishops, but change jurisdiction frequently ac- 
 cording to the disposition of a committee of themselves— 
 each having residence, however, at some one point. 
 
 The presiding elders constitute the council of the bishop 
 who happens to have jurisdiction over their region, advis- 
 ing him as to the character and ability of the preachers 
 to be assigned. They visit and preside over the quarterly 
 conferences. 
 
 The ministry of the Methodist Church includes two 
 orders—deacons and elders. Candidates for the ministry 
 apply to the quarterly conference for recommendation 
 to the annual conference, and if recommended, are allowed 
 to preach on trial for two years, pursuing certain required 
 studies. They are then ordained deacons and have au- 
 thority to solemnize matrimony, administer baptism, and 
 assist in the administration of the Lord’s Supper. ders 
 have, in addition to these powers, the power to consecrate 
 the elements of the Lord’s Supper, and are eligible to 
 appointment as district superintendents, or election to 
 any of the offices of the church including the Episcopacy. 
 The preachers are of two kinds, local and travelling. 
 The local preachers are not assigned nor supported, hav- 
 ing other avocations during the week, but officiate as 
 needed. The travelling preachers devote all their time 
 to the work of the ministry, and are supported by the 
 societies. Originally they moved every six months, then 
 every year. In 1804 the maximum length of pastorate 
 was fixed at two years; in 1864, at three; in 1888, at 
 four; and in 1900 the time limit was removed entirely. 
 There are also exhorters, who may lead prayer-mectings ; 
 stewards, who care for the pecuniary affairs of the socicty ; 
 and an order of deaconesses, women who are set apart for 
 works of mercy and charity in the cities. 
 
140 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Doctrine—The official standard is the abridgment of 
 the Articles of the Church of England, which Wesley 
 reduced from thirty-nine to twenty-five. Virtual stand- 
 ards are also Wesley’s sermons and “Notes on the New 
 Testament” and Watson’s “Institutes of Theology.” 
 
 The characteristic of Methodist theology is that it is 
 Arminian instead of Calvinistic. The Methodists were 
 the first great sect to break formally from the doctrines 
 of Calvin. As against his doctrine of election, it pro- 
 claims free grace—that is the offer of salvation to all men, 
 who are therefore lost only through their own delib- 
 erate refusal of it. This implies that the atonement of 
 Christ was universal; that is, not intended for the elect 
 alone, but for all men. Although Methodism admits that 
 when properly educated a soul may pass gradually into a 
 state of salvation, yet it looks commonly to a sudden ex- 
 perience—conviction of sin, ‘faith in Christ, and con- 
 sciousness of regeneration. When this process is com- 
 plete, there is an “assurance,” or certainty in the mind 
 of the convert, upon which Methodism lays great stress. 
 It further maintains that it is possible in this life to at- 
 tain to such a completeness of union with Christ that 
 one is sinless in spirit, though errors of judgment and 
 involuntary transgressions are still possible. This is the 
 doctrine of “perfection.” The three characteristic doc- 
 trines of Methodism are therefore “free grace,’ “as- 
 surance,” and “perfection.” 
 
 In other points it is one with Evangelical Christen- 
 dom. It holds to the universal corruption of mankind by 
 the fall of Adam, total depravity, the Trinity, vicarious 
 atonement, eternal bliss and torment, and the inspiration 
 and authority of the Bible. 
 
 The worship of Methodism was at first according to the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 141 
 
 English Liturgy; but it has retained this only in the 
 sacraments of baptism and communion, and in the ordina- 
 tion service, and then only in an abridged form. Baptism 
 is by sprinkling, though choice of other forms is allowed. 
 Prayer is extempore, and it is but rarely that manuscripts 
 are used in preaching. 
 
 Converts are not admitted into this church until they 
 have spent six months of “probation” (in England three) 
 in the class-meeting. “Love feasts’ were once held in 
 connection with the quarterly visit of the presiding elder, 
 at which “experiences” were related, and bread and water 
 taken in token of fellowship. Watch-meetings are often 
 held on the last night of the year. 
 
 Statistics—There are 11,900,000 Methodists: United 
 States and Canada 7,600,000; British Isles 1,300,000; 
 and in other parts of the world 3,000,000. In the United 
 States there are 8 bodies of Methodists (white) : Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church; Methodist Episcopal Church 
 South; Methodist Protestant; Free Methodists of North 
 America; Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America; 
 Primitive Methodist Church, U. S. A.; Congregational 
 Methodist Church; and New Congregational Methodist 
 Church. There are 9 bodies of Methodists (colored) : 
 African Methodist Episcopal; African Methodist Episco- 
 pal Zion; Colored Methodist Episcopal in America; 
 Colored Methodist Protestant; Union America Methodist 
 Episcopal; African Union Methodist Protestant; Re- 
 formed Zion Union Apostolic; African American Metho- 
 dist Episcopal ; and Reformed Methodist Union Episcopal. 
 The 8 white bodies report 51,509 churches ; 62 bishops ; 
 37,710 ministers; 6,889,414 members; and 6,720,184 in 
 Sunday school. They maintain 84 colleges; 28 junior 
 colleges; 24 professional schools; 26 academies; 1 sec- 
 
142 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ondary schools; 11 theological schools; 1 mission train- 
 ing school; 8 mission schools; and 43 periodicals. The 
 _ white Methodist Churches support 8 colleges, 2 profes- 
 sional schools and 2 secondary schools for negroes. The 
 9 colored Methodist bodies have 13,905 churches; 31 
 bishops; 14,215 ministers; 1,372,875 members; and 683,- 
 611 in Sunday school. They maintain 12 colleges; 24 
 schools; 5 theological seminaries; and 28 periodicals. 
 
 11. THE MORAVIANS 
 
 Name—The name “Moravian” is a popular one, derived 
 from the country in central Europe where the society origi- 
 nated. On the continent it is known as the Unitas Fra- 
 trum or Church of the Brethren, and in England and 
 America as the Moravian Church. 
 
 History—The people of Moravia and Bohemia, from 
 the time the gospel was first preached among them, have 
 been distinguished for their love of freedom in religious 
 and national life. Under the leadership of John Huss 
 (martyred 1415) they offered a firm resistance to the rule 
 of both the Austrian Empire and the Roman Catholic 
 Church. In spite of persecution the Hussite churches 
 grew steadily and at the time of the Reformation had 
 200,000 members. Cordial relations were maintained 
 with the Reformers, Luther and Calvin, and a large 
 work was done through the school and printing presses 
 which they set up in nearly every large town. Mean- 
 while the opposition of the Roman Church had steadily 
 increased, and culminated in the Thirty Years War. The 
 war, which found Moravia and Bohemia overwhelmingly 
 evangelistic, left these countries devastated and the evan- 
 gelical churches practically destroyed. The surviving 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 143 
 
 members fled into Hungary, Saxony, Holland and Poland 
 where they continued in scattered companies. In 1735, 
 a small company from Moravia, joined by others who had 
 settled on the estates of Count Zinzendorf in Saxony—at 
 a place they called Herrnhut, or “The Soul’s Protection” 
 —established the present organization known as the Unitas 
 Fratrum. Thence they spread through Germany, where 
 they are a society within the Lutheran Church, and into 
 England, where an act of Parliament recognized them 
 as “an ancient Protestant Episcopal Church” which gave 
 them standing and privilege in the British dominions. 
 
 The chief purpose of the church was not to do denomi- 
 national work, but to carry on evangelistic work in Chris- 
 tian and heathen lands. In accordance with the policy a 
 missionary was sent to Pennsylvania in 1734 and the same 
 year an attempt was made at colonization and missionary 
 work ine Georgia. Because of political troubles the work 
 was given up in Georgia and the colony moved to Pennsyl- 
 vania. Bethlehem and, later, Nazareth and Lititz in Penn- 
 sylvania, together with Bethabara and Salem in North 
 Carolina, were organized as exclusive Moravian villages, 
 after the model of the Moravian communities in Europe. 
 The members of these communities, while not surrender- 
 ing private property or personal liberty, labored for a 
 common cause and received support from a common stock. 
 Missionary work was undertaken among the Indians as 
 well as among the white settlers. This exclusive com- 
 munal system remained until the years 1844-1856, when 
 it was abolished and the church was remodeled to suit mod- 
 ern conditions. Of late years missionary work has re- 
 vived and membership in the United States has been 
 quadrupled. 
 
 In addition to the Moravian Church there are two other 
 
144 dA STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 groups of Moravians, made up largely of emigrants from 
 Bohemia in the middle of the last century, one of which 
 settled in Texas, the other in Iowa. 
 
 Doctrine—The Moravians have no formal creed; but 
 the doctrines implied in their catechism and liturgy are 
 Evangelical, in general agreement with the Lutherans. 
 Their peculiarity lies rather in their very warm and sin- 
 cere religious feeling, which so impressed John Wesley 
 that he was converted and started in his great career by 
 contact with it, and their extraordinary zeal for mis- 
 sionary work. Their central and vitalizing point is their 
 personal devotion to a personal Christ. Their influence 
 has everywhere tended to cool controversy and to quicken 
 genuine religious life. 
 
 Polity—They have bishops, presbyters, and deacons. 
 Their bishops have no dioceses, but collectively watch over 
 the welfare of the church, ordaining the other two orders. 
 The legislation is in the hands of synods, the executive 
 power in a board of bishops and elders. The church is 
 divided into three provinces—Continental, English, and 
 American—each caring for its own local affairs, but 
 united in doctrine and missions. They have a worship 
 partly liturgical, partly extemporaneous, with much music. 
 Their hymns breathe a tender and sweet piety. 
 
 They have warm religious feeling and are averse to 
 mere dogmatic controversy. They are the spiritual an- 
 cestors of the Methodists, who broke the sway of Calvin- 
 ism over Protestants. They have dropped many singular 
 practices—as foot-washing, and the use of the lot in 
 choosing their ministers, and in marriage. They were the 
 first hearty pioneers in the missionary movement, and 
 have done more in proportion to their numbers than any 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 145 
 
 other body, especially in Greenland, Labrador, among the 
 Esquimaux, and the American Indians. 
 
 Statistics—There are 3 bodies in the United States, 
 Moravian Church (Unitas Fratrum), Evangelical Union 
 of Bohemian and Moravian Brethren in North America, 
 and Independent Bohemian and Moravian Brethren 
 Churches. They have 149 churches; 5 bishops; 187 min- 
 isters; 25,692 members; and 21,773 in Sunday school. 
 The Moravian Church (Unitas Fratrum) maintains 5 
 colleges and seminaries and 3 periodicals. 
 
 12. THE UNITED BRETHREN 
 
 History—This movement had its origin in the revival 
 movement in America in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. Because of the dearth of religious instruction 
 among them, the German people of Pennsylvania made 
 application for a minister to the Reformed Synod of [ol- 
 land. In 1752 Philip William Otterbein was sent. He 
 became minister of the Reformed Church in Lancaster, 
 Pa., where his experiences led him to greater insistence 
 upon evangelistic preaching. His association with Bishop 
 Asbury of the Methodist Church, and Jacob Boehme of the 
 Mennonite Church, led him into itinerant revival work 
 which was carried on through Pennsylvania. In 177-4 he 
 became minister of a church in Baltimore, on an independ- 
 ent basis, which had been the largest German Evangelistic 
 Reformed Church in America. Numerous societies were 
 formed as a result of his preaching, which he found neces- 
 sary to supply with some form of organization and with 
 ministers. These churches gradually separated as more 
 distinctly Evangelistic churches of the Methodist kind 
 among the German-speaking people. In 1789 the first 
 
146 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 meeting of these revivalist preachers was held in Balti- 
 more. In 1800 the name United Brethren in Christ was 
 adopted. In 1821 an article was adopted which forbade 
 members to own slaves, and in 1841 an article against 
 members using or dealing in spirituous or intoxicating 
 liquors. Since 1817 the Articles of Faith and the Book of 
 Discipline have been printed in both German and English. 
 The center of the movement has gradually shifted from 
 Pennsylvania to the Miami Valley with headquarters at 
 Dayton, Ohio. From 1869 to 1885 every Conference 
 dealt with fraternal orders, “secret combinations,” mem- 
 bership in which was forbidden. In 1891 a division took 
 place. The minority party took the name United Breth- 
 ren of Christ (Old Constitution) signifying that they are 
 the original body. 
 
 Doctrine—In theology the United Brethren are evan- 
 gelical of the Arminian kind. Two sacraments are used. 
 The mode of each is left to the individual. liberty is 
 allowed to each in the matter of infant baptism and foot- 
 washing. 
 
 Polity—Their form of government is a modified epis- 
 copacy. In most respects their usages are those of the 
 Methodist Church with which body they always have been 
 closely associated. They are still represented by delegates 
 in the Gscumenical Conference of the Methodist Church. 
 The bishop is elected for four years and may be reélected. 
 There are classes, class leaders, stewards and exhorters, 
 local and itinerant preachers, presiding elders of circuits, 
 Quarterly, Annual and General Conferences. In 1889 
 women were admitted to the ministry. Ministers were 
 placed by the Conference at first for two years, later for 
 three. Since 1893 the pastoral term has been unlimited. 
 
 Statistics—They maintain 7% colleges; 1 theological 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 147 
 
 school; and 4 periodicals. In both branches of the church 
 together there are 3,694 churches; 2,311 ministers; 389,- 
 972 members; and 467,831 in Sunday school. 
 
 13. THE EVANGELICAL CHURCH 
 
 (Formerly the Evangelical Association) 
 
 History—The origin of this body belongs to the story of 
 the Post-Reformation movement in Germany and the emi- 
 gration of the first German settlers to Pennsylvania. By 
 the Treaty of Westphalia Germany recognized only the 
 Catholic, Lutheran and Reformed Churches. The Piet- 
 ists and the Mennonites were non-conformists and sought 
 the new world for the same reason. as the Puritans and 
 the Quakers. They were the “Pilgrims” of the German 
 people. Their Mayflower was the ship Concord which 
 arrived with the first party of German immigrants on 
 October 6, 1683. They chose the territory which is now 
 Pennsylvania because of the greater toleration there. 
 
 The history of the Evangelical Association begins with 
 Jacob Albright, who was born at Pottstown, Pa., in 1759. 
 He was of German parentage and was reared in the Luth- 
 eran faith. After his marriage he moved to Lancaster 
 County, Pa., where he established a business and was 
 known as “The Honest Brickmaker.” In 1790 he lost 
 several of his children and found comfort among some of 
 the Methodist connection. He received an exhorter’s li- 
 cense from the Methodists and began preaching in 1796. 
 The Evangelical Association was a Methodist movement 
 among the German-speaking people and such Albright 
 wished it to remain. The Methodist Church at this time 
 was not disposed to take up missionary work in the Ger- 
 man language, believing that English would soon supplant 
 
148 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the German. In 1802 Albright held the first “Big Meet- 
 ing” and three churches were organized in 1803. A 
 Council was held in the same year and in 1807 the 
 first Conference was held at which Albright was ordained 
 pastor and bishop by two of his associates. They were 
 known as the “Albright People,’ and as the “German 
 Methodist Church.” Albright died in 1808, and the 
 name “Evangelical Association of North America” was 
 adopted. In 1817 the first church was built in New 
 Berlin, Pa. After thirty years without a bishop, John 
 Seybert was elected in 1839. It was largely through his 
 prodigious labors that the church was established. For 
 forty years he traveled among the people, giving an ac- 
 count in his diary of every day for the forty years. In 
 that time he traveled 175,000 miles; preached 9,800 ser- 
 mons and made 46,000 pastoral visits. 
 
 This Church boasts that it never had a slaveholder 
 in its membership. In 1839 an article was added to 
 the discipline which forbade owning slaves. In the same 
 year it was voted that no member should use or sell any 
 kind of spirituous or intoxicating liquor. In 1839 they 
 published the first German religious paper in America. 
 In 1892 a part of the Church seceded, but a reunion was 
 brought about at the Conference at Chicago in 1922. At 
 this time the name “General Conference of the Evangeli- 
 eal Church” was adopted. 
 
 Doctrine—In theology they are Arminian, holding to 
 Wesley’s interpretation. Their twenty-one Articles of 
 Faith are taken from the twenty-five Articles of Faith 
 of the Methodist Church. The Bible is taken as their 
 rule of faith and practice. Their Church began as an 
 emphasis on sound and true conversion. They made 
 much of sanctification as held by Wesley. They looked 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 149 
 
 upon the ministry as “divinely called,” and considered 
 college and theological training as of little importance. 
 Their church discipline is strict. Their three points of 
 insistence, which they wish to differentiate them, are: 
 sound conversion, spiritual worship and holy living. 
 They are against formalism and ritual. 
 
 Polity—Their form of government is that of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, which was adopted in 1807. 
 Episcopacy is thought of as an office rather than as an 
 order. Apostolic succession is denied. Their line of suc- 
 cession begins with the ordination of Albright in 1803. 
 The bishop is elected for four years and may be reélected. 
 There are three Conferences, Quarterly, Annual and Gen- 
 eral. Authority on all matters legislative and judicial 
 is in the General Conference. 
 
 Statistics—They maintain 4 colleges and 6 theolog- 
 ical schools. They have 2,916 churches; 1,856 ministers ; 
 259,417 members; and there are 419,463 children in Sun- 
 day school. 
 
 14. THE DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 
 
 History—The sect traces its origin to the revival move- 
 ment in the early part of the nineteenth century, when a 
 number of leaders arose who pleaded for Christian Union 
 and the Bible alone, without creeds and formulas. In 
 1807 Rev. Thomas Campbell, a member of the secession 
 branch of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, came to 
 America and found employment in western Pennsylvania. 
 So widely different were his views from those of the 
 presbytery that he was censured and formally withdrew. 
 In 1809 he was joined by his son, and together they 
 formed an organization called the “Christian Associa- 
 
150 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 tion of Washington, Pennsylvania.” ‘They issued at this 
 time an address which has become historical, in which the 
 unity of the Church of Christ is emphasized. Attempts 
 at co-operation with Presbyterian Synods and with Bap- 
 tist Associations did not meet with success, and a dis- 
 tinct denomination, finally calling itself the “Disciples of 
 Christ,” was formed. The growth of the new organiza- 
 tion was rapid, especially in the Middle West, though 
 there was always a strong objection to anything resembling 
 ecclesiastical organization. 
 
 Doctrine—The denomination, having been formed to 
 draw all Christians together irrespective of party names, 
 holds that the Church of Christ is a divine institution 
 and that sects are unscriptural and unapostolic. The 
 Disciples seek to remodel the church upon lines of primi- 
 tive Christianity, aiming “to restore in faith and spirit 
 and practice the Christianity of Christ and his Apostles 
 as found in the pages of the New Testament.” They 
 have no ereed and are evangelical in belief. They stead- 
 fastly decline to explain such points as the “Trinity,” or 
 the “Atonement,” holding them to be facts above the 
 reach of the human intellect. Following the apostolic 
 model, the Disciples celebrate the Lord’s Supper on each 
 Lord’s Day, “not as a sacrament but as a memorial feast,” 
 from which no sincere follower of Christ is excluded. 
 Baptism, “as one of the items of the original divine sys- 
 tem,” is by immersion and is necessary for the remission 
 of sins. 
 
 Polity—The Disciples are congregational in govern- 
 ment, the independence of each local church being jeal- 
 ously guarded. There are the usual State Conventions, 
 and an “International” Convention meeting annually, the 
 latter possessing no authority over the local churches. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 151 
 
 In accordance with the principles emphasized in their 
 history, the Disciples constantly have sought to overcome 
 denominational distinctions and to secure the unity of 
 the church. 
 
 Statistics—In 1922, there were 8,714 churches; 5,926 
 ministers; 1,218,849 members; and 1,024,773 members of 
 Sunday schools. The denomination maintains 25 col- 
 leges, universities and schools, and publishes 50 pe- 
 riodicals. 
 
 15. THE CHRISTIANS 
 
 (Christian Church—General Convention) 
 
 Name—The popular name is “The Christian Connec- 
 tion.” The name “Christian” is meant to imply that the 
 body returns to the primitive condition of Christianity 
 before it was corrupted by creeds or by any false doctrine. 
 
 History—The sect exists only in the United States 
 and Canada and arises from the union of three distinct 
 movements. Jollowing the War of the Revolution, the 
 Rev. James O’Kelley, a Methodist minister in Virginia, 
 opposed very earnestly the development of the authority 
 of the bishops and especially their power of assigning 
 pastors. When his plea for independence was denied, he, 
 with a number of others, withdrew from the Conference 
 in 1792, and organized under the name of “Republican 
 Methodists.” In 1794 they resolved to be known as 
 “Christians” only, taking the Bible as their guide and 
 discipline, accepting no test of church fellowship other 
 than Christian character, and making the government of 
 the church congregational. Evangelistic campaigns were 
 carried over much of Virginia and North Carolina. 
 
 A similar movement arose among the Baptists of New 
 
152 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 England, led by Dr. Abner Jones, who organized a Chris- | 
 tian church at Lyndon, Vt. Several Free-Will Baptist 
 Churches joined the movement, which spread over New 
 England, New York and other parts of the east. 
 
 A third and like movement sprang up among the Pres- 
 byterians in Kentucky, following a great revival in 1804. 
 A number of ministers, falling away from Calvinism and 
 embracing the doctrine of “free grace,” formed a group 
 to be known simply as “Christians,” with the Bible as 
 their only creed, and Christian character alone as a basis 
 of fellowship. The movement spread throughout the mid- 
 dle west. 
 
 These three movements, in the South, in New England 
 and in Kentucky, were, in the beginning, independent 
 and unrelated; in fact, each was ignorant of the existence 
 of the others. Later, as they learned of the other move- 
 ments, identical in kind and purpose, they drew together 
 and eventually became one body, calling themselves “The 
 Christian Church.” 
 
 Doctrine—The various elements which this organiza- 
 tion has united believe the Bible to be divinely inspired 
 and the supreme authority in matters of religion. very 
 man must read it for himself; and no creed or council can 
 condemn him for doctrines which he honestly draws from 
 it, nor should any church withdraw its fellowship from 
 him for doctrinal reasons. Some hold an Arian view of 
 Christ—that is, that he is a divine being, preéxisted, and 
 is a mediator between God and man; but that he is not 
 God. His atoning sufferings suffice for all men, who 
 if they repent and have faith may be saved. A liberty 
 like this pertaining to matters theological, is extended to 
 the ordinances of the church. Baptism is now not made 
 a requisite to membership. While immersion is generally 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 153 
 
 practised, no one mode is required. The churches prac- 
 tice “open communion” and labor to promote the spirit 
 of unity among all Christians. 
 
 Polity—The government is congregational. ach local 
 church is independent in its organization, but at an early 
 period conferences were organized which admitted minis- 
 ters to membership, and in which the churches were repre- 
 sented by lay delegates. These conferences were at first 
 advisory only, but have developed into administrative 
 bodies. The American Christian Convention, a delegate 
 body from the State Conferences, meets every four years, 
 and acts as the agent of the churches for the conduct of 
 their general work. 
 
 Statistics—In the United States there are 1,208 
 churches; 899 ministers; 100,430 members; and 94,099 
 in Sunday school. They maintain 8 colleges and 6 pe- 
 riodicals. . 
 
 16. THE ADVENTISTS 
 
 Name—Adyventists are those Christians who believe 
 that the visible, personal second coming or advent of 
 Christ is near at hand, and that at this coming the mil- 
 lennium, or thousand years’ reign, will begin. They 
 exist in several organizations, and were often called 
 “Millerites,” from their founder, William Miller. 
 
 History—That Christ would soon come back was the 
 belief of the first Christians, as shown by many passages 
 in the Epistles. Though opposed by Jerome and Au- 
 gustine, the belief reappeared at fimes throughout Chris- 
 tian history, being especially strong at the Reformation. 
 The present organizations owe their beginning to William 
 Miller, a native of Massachusetts and a Baptist, who 
 
154 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 began to preach his new views in the State of New York, 
 in 1831. Miller became convinced that the coming of 
 Christ in person, power, and glory was at hand, and he 
 confidently expected it to occur sometime between March 
 1843 and March 1844. Followers multiplied, camp- 
 meetings and tent-meetings were held where churches or 
 halls could not be had, and great excitement arose, which 
 reached a climax when Miller set the date of the advent. 
 The failure of all prophecies was a blow to the cause, 
 which had never been organized; and at Miller’s death, in 
 1849, the number of believers decreased. 
 
 At first the Adventist movement was wholly within the 
 existing churches, but in 1845 an organization of the 
 adherents of these doctrines was formed in Albany. The 
 organization thus formed continued for ten years, and 
 at first included all the Adventists. Differences, however, 
 arose and they divided into several bodies:—The Advent 
 Christians; Seventh-Day Adventists; and several smaller 
 sects. 
 
 All Adventists are Evangelical in main points of doc- 
 trine, and congregational in church government. They 
 all believe in the visible and speedy personal coming of 
 Christ, though at an uncertain time; in the resurrection 
 of the righteous dead then; in their reign with Christ 
 during the millennium, while the earth is being set in 
 order and the wicked subdued; and in the Judgment to 
 follow. All baptize by immersion. 
 
 The “Advent Christians” broke from the main body, 
 in 1854, on the question of date. They deny that the 
 immortality of the soul is natural, and affirm that it is 
 the gift of Christ, and only to believers; that, therefore, 
 the wicked will be destroyed, and will not suffer eternally. 
 
 The Seventh-Day Adventists have their headquarters at 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 155 
 
 Battle Creek, Michigan. They originated in the “visions” 
 of “Sister White,’ of Palmyra, Maine, which are re- 
 garded as spiritual manifestations. They believe that 
 Christ is at work cleansing the heavenly sanctuary “from 
 the presence of our sins, imparted to it through the blood 
 of Christ there ministered in our behalf.’ When this is 
 finished he will come back, but the time is uncertain. 
 The law of Moses is still valid, including the Sabbath on 
 the seventh day. They practise the washing of feet and 
 the kiss of peace at the Lord’s Supper. They are zealous 
 opponents of intoxicating liquor and tobacco. 
 
 There are also smaller sects, as “Life and Advent 
 Union,” which rejects the eternal torture of the wicked; 
 the “Church of God,” in Missouri, founded on a very 
 insignificant divergence from the doctrine of the Seventh- 
 Day Adventists. 
 
 These bodies are careless of educational matters, having 
 scarcely any institutions of learning. There is little 
 church property, but much publishing of books, tracts, 
 and periodicals. The ministers usually labor during the 
 week, and so support themselves. 
 
 There is also an association called “The Baptist Con- 
 ference for Bible Study,” organized in Chicago in the 
 spring of 1890, which consists of Baptists who look for 
 a second coming of Christ. They set no date, and do 
 not regard it as necessarily near, but make it a sort of 
 third dispensation. What the Old Testament dispensa- 
 tion was to the New Testament, the present stage of reve- 
 lation is to that of the Advent. Without this the sin and 
 infidelity of the world can never be overcome. At his 
 coming Christ will “set up his kingdom in person, and 
 sway his sceptre over the empires of the world for one 
 thousand years, subduing evil, and crushing out wicked- 
 
156 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ness.” Then will come the Judgment. There are also 
 
 many Presbyterians who hold the same views. In neither 
 case is there any intention or desire to form a separate 
 body, and they must be carefully distinguished from the 
 sectarian Adventists. The “Irvingites”’ or “Catholic 
 Apostolic Church” in England also look for the coming 
 of Christ to precede the millennium. 
 
 Statistics—There are 5 bodies in the United States: 
 Advent Christian Church, Seventh-Day Adventist, Church 
 of God (Adventist), Life and Advent Union, and 
 Churches of God in Jesus Christ. They have 2,752 
 churches; 1,892 ministers; 133,660 members; and 123,339 
 in Sunday school. They maintain 6 colleges; 3 theologi- 
 cal seminaries; 3 schools; and 13 periodicals. 
 
 17. THE REFORMED EPISCOPALIANS 
 
 History—The Reformed Episcopal Church, as its name 
 indicates, is a secession from the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church of the United States of America. In October, 
 1873, the General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance, 
 a federated body of the Protestant churches now merged 
 into the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ, met in 
 New York. In the general communion service which was 
 held in the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, Bishop 
 Cummins of Kentucky, and the Dean of Canterbury, 
 England, participated. This was at the time of intense 
 discussion in the Protestant Episcopal Church concerning 
 ritual, and the Dean of Canterbury and Bishop Cummins 
 were subjected to some very severe and unfriendly criti- 
 cism for participating in the union communion service. 
 Bishop Cummins had for some time felt disturbed at the 
 ritualistic tendencies of his church, and so keenly did he 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 157 
 
 feel these criticisms, as new evidence of these tendencies, 
 that in November of that year, he withdrew. A number 
 of others shared his opinion and on a call issued by him, 
 seven clergymen and twenty laymen met in New York 
 City on December 2, 1873, and organized the Reformed 
 Episcopal Church, with Bishop Cummins as presiding 
 officer. 
 
 The name Reformed Episcopal Church was chosen be- 
 cause of the belief of the founders of the new movement 
 that the same principles were adopted which were the 
 basis of the Church of England at the time of the Ref- 
 ormation and also of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 when fully organized after the American Revolution. 
 
 Doctrine—The standard of belief is the “Thirty- 
 Five Articles,” a revision of the English Thirty-Nine, 
 in which the Apostles’ (except “He descended into 
 hell”) and Nicene Creeds are accepted. The Liturgy 
 was also revised, in general agreement with the first re- 
 vision of the American Church in 1786, omitting from 
 the baptismal service the thanksgiving for the “regenera- 
 tion” of the child, and changing throughout the words 
 “priest” and “altar” to “minister” and “Lord’s table.” 
 The general position of the new body may best be seen 
 in the 
 
 Declaration of Principles 
 
 “TI. The Reformed Episcopal Church, holding ‘the faith 
 once delivered to the saints,’ declares its belief in the Holy 
 Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the Word 
 of God and the sole Rule of Faith and Practice; in the 
 Creed ‘commonly called the Apostles’ Creed;’ in the divine 
 institution of the Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s 
 Supper; and in the doctrines of grace substantially as 
 
158 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 they are set forth in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. 
 
 ‘TT. This Church recognizes and adheres to Episcopacy, 
 not as of divine right, but as a very ancient and desirable 
 form of church polity. 
 
 “TTI. This Church, retaining a Liturgy which shall not 
 be imperative or repressive of freedom, ete. 
 
 ‘TV. This Church condemns and rejects the following 
 erroneous and strange doctrines as contrary to God’s Word :— 
 
 “First, That the Church of Christ exists only in one 
 order or form of ecclesiastical polity. 
 
 “Second, That Christian ministers are ‘priests’ in an- 
 other sense than that in which all believers are ‘a royal 
 priesthood.’ 
 
 “Third, That the Lord’s Table is an altar, on which the 
 oblation of the Body and Blood of Christ is offered anew 
 to the Father. 
 
 “Fourth, That the Presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper 
 is a presence in the Elements of Bread and Wine. 
 
 “Fifth, That Regeneration is inseparably connected with 
 Baptism.” 
 
 The Reformed Episcopalians are those of the Protestant 
 or Pauline wing who no longer subscribe to the Churchly 
 or Petrine tendencies of the Episcopal Church. In their 
 emphasis upon the Bible as the rule of faith and upon 
 justification by faith as their leading doctrine, in their 
 assertion that the Liturgy is not obligatory, but expedient 
 and voluntary, and that the Episcopal form of govern- 
 ment is not essential, that the minister and people are 
 equal, and in their protest against belief in the super- 
 natural effect of the communion and of baptism, they are 
 thorough-going Evangelical Protestants. 
 
 Organization—The Reformed Episcopal Church re- 
 tains the threefold order of bishops, priests, and deacons, 
 though holding them as not essential, and recognizing the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 159 
 
 validity of the ministry of other churches. It claims for 
 its bishops an apostolic succession through Bishop Cum- 
 mins, maintaining that these alone have the right to 
 confirm and ordain. Unlike the General Convention of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church, the bishops do not con- 
 stitute a separate house in the General Council. They 
 preside over jurisdictions corresponding to dioceses of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 
 Statistics—There were in 1922, 79 churches and 
 missions, with 2 bishops, 75 ministers, 13,022 communi- 
 eants, and 9,005 members of the Sunday schools. They 
 maintain 1 theological seminary and 1 periodical. 
 
 18. THE SALVATION ARMY 
 
 History—William Booth, a young minister of the Eng- 
 lish body known as the “New Connexion Methodists,” 
 became deeply impressed with the fact that an important 
 proportion of the crowds which filled the towns and cities 
 of England are outside the influence of the churches. In 
 an effort to reach these people, he inaugurated a series of 
 open-air meetings in London, holding the first on July 5, 
 1865. As the attendance increased the meetings were held 
 in a tent, and afterwards in a theatre. The movement 
 became known as the East End Mission, and later as the 
 Christian Mission. For thirteen years little attention was 
 drawn to it, but a far-reaching revival took place, the inter- 
 est extended, and evangelists were sent out in different di- 
 rections. One of these evangelists, working in a seaport, 
 was spoken of as “Captain,” in order to attract the sailors 
 who had come into port. On the coming of Mr. Booth, 
 his visit was announced as from the “General.” The 
 secretary in preparing the annual report wrote, “The 
 
160 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Christian Mission Is a Volunteer Army.” Mr. Booth 
 glanced over the secretary’s shoulder, took up the pen, 
 erased the word “volunteer” and wrote in “salvation.” 
 The title “Salvation Army” was at once accepted as the 
 most appropriate that could be devised for the special un- 
 dertaking, which, as they phrased it, was an effort “to de- 
 stroy the fortresses of sin in the various communities.” 
 In the early years of the work General Booth, with whom 
 his wife, Catherine Booth, was always most intimately as- 
 sociated, looked upon the army as primarily a supplement 
 and aid to the churches, but, as it enlarged it developed 
 into a distinctive movement with a constituency and or- 
 ganization of its own. 
 
 From the beginning efforts were made to care for the 
 physical needs of the destitute, soup kitchens being the 
 first institutions established for relief. Experiments of 
 various kinds were made, and out of these grew the scheme 
 developed in “Darkest England and the Way Out,” which 
 outlined a plan of social redemption for what came to be 
 known as the “Submerged Tenth,” under three divisions: 
 city colonies, land colonies, and oversea colonies. In the 
 carrying out of its scheme, however, the army has always 
 been elastic, expansive, and progressive, adapting itself 
 easily to new conditions, and entering new fields as need 
 was manifest. 
 
 Although the movement originated in England it ex- 
 tended rapidly into other countries, not so much through 
 the plans of its founders as through circumstances. Eng- 
 lish converts, finding homes in the United States, Canada, 
 Australia, and other distant lands, began work according 
 to the methods of the army and followed their efforts 
 by urging the General to send them trained leaders from. 
 the international headquarters in London. The first 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 161 
 
 country thus entered was France, followed by the United 
 States, in 1881. Notwithstanding considerable opposi- 
 tion, the movement spread rapidly all over the country, 
 until it has become one of the most prominent forces in 
 organized Christian work. 
 
 The Army not only holds revival and evangelistic serv- 
 ices but maintains hotels for men and women, industrial 
 homes, rescue homes and nurseries. It provides food and 
 lodging for the hungry and homeless and offers temporary 
 relief of all sorts. 
 
 Doctrine—The Salvation Army has a creed, but gives 
 little attention to the discussion of doctrinal differences. 
 The special features emphasized are: belief in the ruinous 
 effects of sin, and the ample provision made for entire 
 deliverance from its power by the salvation of God. In 
 its attitude toward the sacraments of baptism and the 
 Lord’s Supper the army is neutral. Admission to its 
 membership is not founded upon any acceptance of creed 
 alone, but is based upon the most solemn pledges to Chris- 
 tian and humane conduct, including total abstinence from 
 intoxicating liquors and all harmful drugs. The pledges 
 are known as the “Articles of War,” and must be signed by 
 every soldier. 
 
 Polity—The government of the Salvation Army is mili- 
 tary in character, but sufficiently democratic to include 
 within its ranks persons of every social grade. Its lower 
 officers may be promoted to high commands, and thus 
 it is believed the usual dangers which threaten a hierarchy 
 are avoided. The ideal of its founder was the parental 
 and patriarchal model, namely: that the officer of higher 
 rank should regard those beneath him as a father regards 
 his children, and thus protect and guide their lives. The 
 commanding officer is assisted by local officers who act in 
 
162 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the capacity of an advisory board; in addition to these 
 he is aided, when necessary, by officers of various grades 
 and ranks. These officers are commissioned after suc- 
 cessfully passing through the training given in schools or 
 giving evidence of ability sufficient to qualify them for 
 work. Mental qualifications are not ignored, although an 
 educational test is not emphasized, and the applicant is 
 urged to improve himself mentally and socially, as well 
 as religiously. Soldiers are chiefly persons pursuing their 
 usual avocations during the day and giving their services 
 during the evening, and are not paid. Officers receive 
 their support, but no more, and each corps is expected 
 to meet its own expenses. 
 
 The form of worship is elastic, the desire being that, as 
 far as possible, the services be spontaneous, and great 
 liberty is encouraged, although extravagances are frowned 
 upon, and, if regarded as dangerous, are suppressed. 
 These services include open-air meetings, salvation meet- 
 ings for the conversion of the impenitent, holiness 
 meetings for the deepening of the spiritual life among the 
 soldiers and adherents, junior meetings, and Sunday 
 schools for the conversion and training of children. 
 
 The international headquarters of the army are in 
 London, but each country has its own organization under 
 the direction of a Commissioner, who is assisted by re- 
 sponsible officers for provinces and divisions. The local 
 corps is usually commanded by a captain and a lieutenant, 
 assisted by local officers, as a sergeant-major, treasurer, 
 and secretary. 
 
 Statistics—In the world there are 11,173 corps and 
 outposts of the Army, occupying 70 countries and colonies, 
 where the gospel is preached in 42 languages. The Army 
 the world over issues 82 periodicals. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 163 
 
 In the United States there are 1,036 corps; 3,649 of- 
 ficers and cadets; 52,291 members; and 16,275 junior 
 members. The Army maintains 3 training colleges; 9 
 periodicals; 52 hotels for men; 7% boarding houses for 
 women; 82 industrial homes; 3 children’s homes; 19 
 slum posts and nurseries; and 26 rescue and maternity 
 homes. 
 
 Section 3 Other Christian Bodies Claiming 
 Supplementary Revelations 
 
 1. THE CHURCH OF THE NEW JERUSALEM 
 
 (Swedenborgians) 
 
 Name—The members of this body are commonly called 
 Swedenborgians; but they do not use the name themselves. 
 Their official title is “The Church of the New Jerusalem.” 
 
 History—Emanuel Swedenborg, whose theological writ- 
 ings are regarded by this religious body as containing a 
 true and divinely revealed exposition of Christian doctrine, 
 was born at Stockholm, Sweden, in 1688. His father, 
 Jesper Swedberg, was a professor of theology and a bishop 
 in the Lutheran Church, a man of great piety and learn- 
 ing, and a zealous reformer. His son Emanuel was 
 finely educated, and became famous for mechanical and 
 mathematical inventions. He was led by his researches 
 into higher regions of thought, and especially to inquire 
 into the relations of matter and spirit. About the year 
 1745 he claimed that his spiritual sight was opened. Of 
 this call Swedenborg himself wrote: “I have been called 
 to.a holy office by the Lord Himself, who most graciously 
 manifested Himself in person to me His servant in the 
 year 1745, when He opened my sight to the view of the 
 
164 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 spiritual world, and granted me the privilege of convers- 
 ing with spirits and angels, which I enjoy to this day 
 (1769). From that time I began to print and publish 
 various arcana that have been seen by me or revealed to 
 me—as respecting heaven and hell, the state of man after 
 death, the true worship of God, the spiritual sense of the 
 Word, with many most important matters conducive to 
 salvation and true wisdom.” 
 
 He gave himself up entirely to these matters, abandon- 
 ing his former studies. To his seventy-seven treatises on 
 scientific subjects were now added more than that number 
 upon Biblical and theological subjects, the chief of them 
 being his “Arcana Cceelestia,’ in eight large volumes. 
 Throughout his long period of spiritual activity, he re- 
 tained and honorably filled a seat in the Swedish senate, 
 and presented several memorials of importance to his 
 country. He died in 1772. He was a man of iron consti- 
 tution, of prodigious intellectual activity and power, of 
 simple life, universally respected and loved even by those 
 who ridiculed his claims and his doctrines. 
 
 His views were taken up after his death by scholars in 
 Sweden, England, Germany, and the United States. ‘The 
 first public meeting was held in London in 1783; and the 
 first society was organized there in 1787. The first gen- 
 eral conference was held there in 1789, and the first con- 
 vention in this country, at Philadelphia, in 1817. 
 
 Doctrine—The doctrines of the New Church claim to 
 be a revelation of spiritual truth, intended to enable us 
 rightly to understand the sacred Scripture, to unfold its 
 higher wisdom, whereby a purer and more exalted state of 
 life may be attained. For this purpose a human instru- 
 ment was needed, and such an instrument was provided in 
 the person of Emanuel Swedenborg. By those who are 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 165 
 
 convinced of the truths of his religious system, his mind 
 is believed to have been illumined to an extraordinary 
 degree. His spiritual senses were opened, enabling him to 
 see and to converse with beings in the other world and to 
 describe the nature of its life, and also to discern the 
 internal, or, as it is called, spiritual meaning of the 
 Scripture. 
 
 The New Church believes and teaches that God is love 
 itself and wisdom itself; that he is one both in essence 
 and in person; and that the Lord Jesus Christ in his 
 now glorified and Divine Humanity is the perfect em- 
 bodiment of that God. The Trinity is not a trinity of 
 persons, but of divine essentwals, consisting of love, wis- 
 dom, and their proceeding operation, and called in the 
 Gospels Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. It is like the soul, 
 body, and their resultant energy. The Father is in the 
 Son, as man’s soul is within his body; the Holy Spirit 
 proceeds from the Father by the Son, as man’s power 
 proceeds into act from his soul by means of his body. 
 
 While the Lord was on earth, he had both a human 
 and a divine nature,. just as every man has an external 
 and an internal, or what is somtimes called a lower and a 
 higher nature. As to the external nature, he was frail, 
 finite, liable to temptation, as any other man; but as to 
 his internal or essential being he was infinite, perfect, 
 divine. By his own divine power, he gradually overcame 
 the evil appertaining to the Humanity or nature assumed 
 by birth, conquered all the powers of hell, put off all that 
 was frail and finite, and brought down into every region of 
 that nature the very divine love and wisdom, and so made 
 it one with the essential and indwelling divinity. This is 
 what is understood by the Lord’s “glorification” mentioned 
 in the Gospels. 
 
166 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 According to the New Church, the Sacred Scripture is 
 inspired. When understood in its true sense, it is seen 
 to treat of things spiritual and eternal. It appears to 
 treat of things natural and temporal. But these are be- 
 lieved to be capable of spiritual interpretation. They 
 all have a deeper, or, more properly, a spiritual mean- 
 ing. 7 
 But Swedenborg, in revealing the law of a divine com- 
 position, has disclosed at the same time a means by which 
 the spiritual sense may be unfolded; namely, the law of 
 analogy, or, more properly, of correspondences. Accord- 
 ing to this law, which was known to the ancients, all 
 natural things are seen to bear a relation to spiritual 
 things. A knowledge of this law opens the book of Na- 
 ture, making every living object a voice to tell us of the 
 spiritual forces from which it springs. It is also found 
 to be the key to the Bible, enabling us to see, within a 
 temporary and local clothing, principles of universal and 
 eternal application. 
 
 The New Church believes that man is born with 
 hereditary tendencies to evil. But he is not a sinner be- 
 cause he inherits these proclivities, but only when he 
 yields to them in actual evil. 
 
 The New Church teaches that man does not die. The 
 material body alone dies. The spirit, which is the real 
 man, continues to live, but in the spiritual world where 
 all things are homogeneous to itself. The spirit is in 
 the human form, having senses far more acute than 
 those of the body; and these senses are opened as soon 
 as the body dies, so that the spirit sees and hears other 
 spirits as men see and hear one another. During our life 
 on earth the spiritual body is within the natural. But 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 167 
 
 after the death of the latter, the spiritual body still lives 
 on in its own world, and never resumes its material 
 vestment. 
 
 The “Judgment” consists in the revelation of man’s 
 real inward character or purpose. By the law of affinity 
 which governs all associations in the other world, spirits 
 go with those whose characters are most congenial to their 
 own. ‘Thus each one goes “to his own place” in perfect 
 freedom. 
 
 The happiness of heaven does not consist in idleness or 
 cessation from active employment, nor in continual psalm- 
 singing and oral prayer, nor in feasting sumptuously with 
 the patriarchs, but in the diligent and wise performance 
 of good uses from love to the Lord and the neighbor; in 
 the freest expansion and highest exercise of all one’s best 
 faculties, not for the sake of self, but primarily for the 
 good of others. 
 
 The New Church believes that the Lord’s second com- 
 ing has actually commenced; that it is a coming, not in 
 person, but in a new power of the Spirit of Truth, which 
 will lead all who from the heart believe in God and his 
 Word into the way of truth, and into a new power of 
 Christian goodness and love. 
 
 Government—The polity of this religious body is both 
 simple and liberal. Strict uniformity as to liturgical 
 usages or rules of church government is not insisted upon. 
 Each society is free to arrange for its own services and to 
 act under its own rules, which, however, are quite similar. 
 Societies, geographically near to each other, group them- 
 selves into an “Association,” which then appoints one of 
 its ministers as a “General Pastor,’ whose duty is to 
 exercise general oversight of the spiritual interests of 
 
168 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 his Association. These Associations are joined together 
 in a general body, known as the “General Convention of 
 the New Jerusalem in the United States of America.” 
 This general body meets annually. To this body the 
 several Associations make a report of their work. 
 
 Ministers are introduced into their office by the usual 
 rite of ordination, performed by one of the “General 
 Pastors” above mentioned. The church recognizes and 
 carefully observes two sacraments, Baptism and the Holy 
 Supper. 
 
 Statistics—The 2 bodies in the United States, Gen- 
 eral Convention of the New Jerusalem, U. 8. A., and 
 General Church of the New Jerusalem, have 107 churches ; 
 111 ministers; 7,066 members; and 2,036 in Sunday 
 school. They maintain 3 academies, 1 theological school, 
 and 6 periodicals. In England there are 71 societies ; 
 43 ministers; and 6,394 members. 
 
 2. THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF 
 LATTER-DAY SAINTS 
 
 (Mormons) 
 History—The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day 
 
 Saints, or the “Mormon” Church, so called, was organized 
 April 6, 1830, by Joseph Smith, a native of Sharon, 
 Vermont. At the age of about fourteen years, in the 
 spring of 1820, the young boy Joseph was exercised 
 over religion. Wishing to know which of the religious 
 sects is right, he read, “If any of you lack wisdom, let 
 him ask of God.” (James 1:5.) In answer to his prayer 
 the Father and the Son appeared before him and told 
 him that no one of the religions then extant was correct 
 and for him to join none of them. His insistence that 
 he had received this visit drew persecution upon him for 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 169 
 
 the next three years. At the close of this period, on the 
 night of September 21, 1823, Moroni, a resurrected being, 
 the son of Mormon and the last representative of the 
 ancient Nephite race on the American continent, who had 
 been given charge of the records of his father concerning 
 his people, appeared before Joseph. Moroni stated that 
 he was sent of God, that there was a book deposited, writ- 
 ten upon gold plates, giving an account of the former 
 inhabitants of the American continent and the source 
 whence they sprang. 
 
 During the interview with Moroni, Joseph was shown 
 in vision, where these plates, from which the Book of Mor- 
 mon was later translated, were hidden. He says: “I 
 could see the place where the plates were deposited so 
 clearly and distinctly that I knew the place again when 
 I visited it.’ Moroni appeared to the Prophet that night 
 three times, repeating the instructions which he gave. 
 
 On the following day Joseph went to the place and 
 found the box in which the plates and other things lay. 
 He made an attempt to take them out, but was forbidden 
 by the messenger to do so until four years from that time. 
 The plates were delivered into the care of the youth, Sep- 
 tember 22, 1827. The translation then began. The plates 
 were inscribed with characters, which were said to be re- 
 formed Egyptian, which Joseph was unable to read. In 
 the box with the plates, so he declared, was an instrument 
 called the Urim and Thummim, through which, and by the 
 power and influence of God, he was enabled to read the 
 letters and to translate them into English. The Book of 
 Mormon was finally published in March, 1830. Since 
 then it has been translated into fifteen languages, and over 
 a million copies circulated. It was charged, at first, that 
 the Book of Mormon was a plagiarism on a novel written 
 
170 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 by a clergyman named Solomon Spaulding several years 
 before, but the Spaulding manuscript has been discovered 
 and is now in Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. It has been 
 compared with that of the Book of Mormon and found to 
 be different. : 
 
 Joseph Smith immediately began to obtain converts. 
 On the sixth day of April, 1830, following the publication 
 of the Book of Mormon, he organized, with six members, 
 the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, at 
 Fayette, Seneca county, New York. In 1831 several hun- 
 dred members were baptized, and the Church moved to 
 Kirtland, Ohio. Here it increased in both wealth and 
 numbers through the efforts of missionaries who had been 
 sent out by the Prophet. In 1831 they began to locate 
 in Jackson county, Missouri, then upon the borders of 
 civilization in the United States; but, meeting with op- 
 position in 1833, they were driven out. Taking refuge in 
 Clay county, and the surrounding regions, they again be- 
 came prosperous, numbering upwards of 12,000. In the 
 winter of 1838-9, fearing their political influence, and 
 their faith, they were driven out of the state by an order 
 issued against them by Governor Boggs, of Missouri. 
 They fled to Illinois and settled in Commerce, Hancock 
 county. Here they built a settlement which they called 
 Nauvoo and flourished for a number of years. 
 
 During the spring and summer of 1844 there were 
 threatenings from the mob without and from apostates 
 within, who were forming all kinds of plots for the de- 
 struction of the Prophet and the people of the city. 
 Finally Joseph the Prophet and his brother Hyrum were 
 arrested and taken to Carthage jail, and on June 27, 
 1844, a mob attacked the jail, overpowered the guard, 
 killed Joseph and Hyrum and wounded John Taylor of 
 
THE PROTESTANTS Ler 
 
 the Prophet’s party. The people were compelled once 
 more to leave their homes. Hundreds of farms, 200 
 houses and much personal property were sold for little 
 or nothing or given away or abandoned. 
 
 Brigham Young, who was later chosen to succeed 
 Joseph Smith, started westward early in November, 1846, 
 and during the following winter many of the Latter-Day 
 Saints inhabited temporary settlements stretching across 
 the plains of Iowa. In the spring of 1847, a company of 
 one hundred and forty-three pioneers started for the Rocky 
 Mountains to seek a place for new homes. The deserts, 
 plains and mountains were crossed for one thousand miles, 
 a journey occupying three months and seventeen days’ 
 time. After many thrilling experiences, the pioneers ar- 
 rived in the Salt Lake valley, July 24, 1847. President 
 Young returned to Council Bluffs, where temporary head- 
 quarters had been set up, to aid in bringing the main body 
 of the Saints to the West. After irrigation was introduced 
 the soil in the valley proved to be productive and Salt Lake 
 City and the districts round about were built up by the 
 people who came from Nauvoo and the east. Seventeen 
 hundred souls dwelt in the city through the winter of 18+7 
 and °48, and by September, 1848, the population had 
 swelled to 5,000 souls. The Saints soon built other towns, 
 subdued the desert, made a garden of the wilderness and 
 have now expanded and planted their settlements in many 
 surrounding states. 
 
 President Brigham Young died in 1877, and John 
 Taylor was chosen president of the Church in 1889. John 
 Taylor had been with Joseph Smith in Nauvoo and was 
 wounded when the Prophet was killed. He died in 1887, 
 and later was succeeded by Wilford Woodruff, then over 
 eighty years of age. In 1890 President Woodruff issued a 
 
172 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 manifesto forbidding polygamy, which had heretofore been 
 permitted and practiced. In 1896 Utah became a state. 
 In 1898 President Woodruff died and was succeeded in 
 the Presidency of the Church successively by Lorenzo 
 Snow and Joseph Fielding Smith, a nephew of Joseph 
 the founder. He died November 19, 1918, after over 
 seventeen years of faithful service to his people and the 
 Church. President Heber J. Grant, the present incum- 
 bent of the office, is the first native son of Utah to occupy 
 the position.* He was chosen to the Presidency on the 
 23d of November, 1918. During the years both before 
 and since the death of Brigham Young the Church has 
 continued to grow in every way, both spiritually and tem- 
 porally. ‘Tabernacles and Church buildings have been 
 erected in many of the stakes throughout the Church, 
 and there have been built four temples in Utah, one in 
 Hawaii and one in Alberta, Canada. 
 
 Doctrine—The Latter-day Saints believe in God the 
 eternal Father and in His Son Jesus Christ and in the 
 Holy Ghost; and that through the atonement of Christ, 
 mankind may be saved by faith, through repentance, 
 baptism, and the laying on of hands, for the gift of the 
 Holy Ghost, by properly constituted authority. They be- 
 lieve in an organization comprising apostles, prophets, 
 pastors, teachers and evangelists; in the gifts of tongues, 
 prophecy, visions, the power of healing by faith, and 
 in the Bible as the word of God and in the Book of 
 Mormon and its Doctrine and Covenants as the further 
 word of God. They believe in the literal gathering of 
 Israel, in the restoration of the Ten Tribes of Israel, 
 that Zion will be built on the American continent, and 
 that finally, Christ will come to reign upon the earth. 
 
 * At the time of this writing Dec. 1925. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 173 
 
 They believe that Jesus is the Only Begotten Son of God 
 in the flesh. They believe in pre-existence of the spirit 
 and in eternal life hereafter. They believe in marriage 
 for eternity, and to this end, and for other sacred pur- 
 poses, temples are built for the ceremony that will unite 
 the husband and wife for eternity. They believe in 
 direct and continued revelation from God, through the 
 chosen prophet, and are directed by it and by the living 
 oracles, as well as by the divine Scriptures. They believe 
 in a literal resurrection and that the essential parts of the 
 body and the spirit are reunited in the resurrection. 
 They believe in baptism for the dead in the temples, so 
 that those who have died without knowledge of the gospel 
 may hear the gospel in the spirit world and be vicariously 
 provided for in this world. In this way all the children 
 of God may he saved through obedience to the ordinances 
 and the laws of the gospel, either in this world, or in the 
 world to come. 
 
 The fundamental difference between the Latter-Day 
 Saints and other churches is their belief that the Church of 
 Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is authorized of God to 
 carry on his work on the earth by direct communication 
 from heaven to the Prophet Joseph Smith, and from him 
 to his successors. While they believe in continuous divine 
 revelation, they hold that only authoritative communi- 
 cations from the Lord for the Church come through the 
 prophet president, but the inspiration of the Lord bears 
 witness and testimony to the faithful members of the 
 truth and the teachings of the prophet. Authority in doc- 
 trinal matters is vested in the president who is designated 
 and sustained by the people as prophet, seer and revela- 
 tor. He has two counselors chosen by the body of the 
 Church with a quorum of Twelve Apostles, patriarchs, 
 
174 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 seventies, high priests, elders, bishops, priests, teachers 
 and deacons, the whole forming the governing Priesthood 
 of the Church. 
 
 Organization—The Church has ninety stakes, or divi- 
 sions, and these may be increased to as many as it is 
 convenient to organize. These stakes are presided over 
 by three chosen high priests and a high council of twelve. 
 Under them there are wards differing in number in each 
 stake. Each ward has a bishop, and two counselors and 
 an organization of the priesthood to carry on the work in 
 the ward. The whole is under the jurisdiction of the 
 First Presidency of three, and the Council of Twelve. 
 At present there are nine hundred and forty wards in the 
 Church with a membership of probably 500,000, including 
 the missions, of which there are twenty-three. Besides the 
 priesthood organizations, there are six auxiliary organiza- 
 tions, including the Relief Society of about 45,000 mem- 
 bership, which is a charitable organization of the women 
 organized in all the stakes and wards; the Sabbath schools, 
 numbering 250,000; the Young Men’s and Young Wo- 
 men’s Mutual Improvement Associations, numbering 100,- 
 000, whose business is the education of the young people 
 and the supervising of their recreational affairs; the Pri- 
 mary Association, numbering 70,000, all organized after 
 the pattern of the Priesthood; the Religion Class, 50,000, 
 under the direction of the General Church Board of Edu- 
 cation. These auxiliary organizations are supervised by 
 General Boards, which, under the direction of the general 
 authorities of the Church, have jurisdiction over all local 
 organizations. Each of the ninety stakes, or ecclesiastical 
 divisions, has a general or central organization, and each 
 known as the Stake Board; and each ward is officered by 
 
THE PROTESTANTS MEUEL LD 
 
 a president and counselors and other officers necessary to 
 carry on the work. 
 
 3. CHURCH OF CHRIST, SCIENTIST 
 (Christian Science) 
 
 History—In 1866, Mary Baker Eddy, a native of New 
 Hampshire residing in Massachusetts, then a woman of 
 forty-five who had been profoundly religious since child- 
 hood, felt that she had discovered the spiritual law by 
 which the followers of Christ Jesus could do what he said 
 they should. From that time, she consecrated her life, 
 with increased devotion, to learning, practicing, and teach- 
 ing what she named Christian Science. This she re- 
 garded as including the absolute truth of spiritual being 
 and the method or practice by which it may be realized 
 in human experience. At first she did not expect to 
 found a distinct church or denomination; she hoped that 
 her discovery would be quickly accepted by all Chris- 
 tians. Within a decade, however, it became evident that 
 a distinct body was needed to protect Christian Science 
 and to make it correctly known to all people. Accord- 
 ingly, at Boston, in 1879, Mrs. Eddy founded the Chris- 
 tian Science denomination as the Church of Christ, 
 Scientist. 
 
 Doctrine—The following is Mrs. Eddy’s statement of 
 “the important points, or religious tenets, of Christian 
 Science” : 
 
 “1, As adherents of Truth, we take the inspired Word 
 of the Bible as our sufficient guide to eternal Life. 
 
 “9. We acknowledge and adore one supreme and in- 
 finite God. We acknowledge His Son, one Christ; the Holy 
 
176 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Ghost or divine Comforter; and man in God’s image and 
 likeness. 
 
 “3. We acknowledge God’s forgiveness of sin in the de- 
 struction of sin and the spiritual understanding that casts 
 out evil as unreal. But the belief in sin is punished so 
 long as the belief lasts. 
 
 “4. We acknowledge Jesus’ atonement as the evidence 
 of divine, efficacious Love, unfolding man’s unity with God 
 through Christ Jesus the Way-shower; and we acknowledge 
 that man is saved through Christ, through Truth, Life, and 
 Love as demonstrated by the Galilean Prophet in healing 
 the sick and overcoming sin and death. 
 
 “5. We acknowledge that the crucifixion of Jesus and 
 his resurrection served to uplift faith to understand eternal 
 Life, even the allness of Soul, Spirit, and the nothingness of 
 matter. 
 
 “6. And we solemnly promise to watch, and pray for that 
 Mind to be in us which was also in Christ Jesus; to do 
 unto others as we would have them do unto us; and to be 
 merciful, just, and pure.” 
 
 Polity and Government—The affairs of The Mother 
 Church are administered by its Christian Science Board 
 of Directors in accordance with By-Laws in the Church 
 Manual written by Mrs. Eddy. Besides containing the 
 organization and outlining the activities of The Mother 
 Church, this Manual to a limited extent provides rules 
 for the government of branch churches and for the guid- 
 ance of individual Christian Scientists. Instead of serv- 
 ices including sermons by preachers, the services in Chris- 
 tian Science Churches are conducted by Readers who read 
 “lesson-sermons” consisting of selections from the Bible 
 and from Mrs. Eddy’s principal work, “Science and 
 Health with Key to the Scriptures.” Prominent among 
 the activities of the Christian Science denomination are 
 
THE PROTESTANTS ie 
 
 its Board of Lectureship, for the delivery of public lec- 
 tures on Christian Science, its Board of Education, for 
 certifying authorized teachers of Christian Science, and 
 its Christian Science Publishing Society, which issues the 
 denominational organs together with an international 
 daily newspaper, The Christian Science Monitor, Mrs. 
 Eddy’s works on Christian Science are issued by the Trus- 
 tees under her will, the proceeds being used for the ad- 
 vancement of Christian Science. 
 
 Statistics—As now established, this denomination 
 consists of The Mother Church of Christian Science, The 
 First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, Massachu- 
 setts, and branch churches wherever there are local con- 
 gregations of Christian Scientists. In 1923 there were 
 2,100 branch or local Churches of Christ, Scientist, of 
 which over 1,800 are in the United States. 
 
 Section 4 The Liberal Protestant Bodies 
 
 1. THE UNITARIANS 
 
 Name—The word Unitarian is now commonly used to 
 designate those who believe in the unity of the personality 
 of God, as distinct from the Trinitarians, who believe in 
 three divine Persons. The origin of the name is dis- 
 puted, but it seems to have appeared first in Hungary, in 
 the (new) Latin form of Unitarius, about 1570. 
 
 History—Unitarianism, considered as the doctrine of 
 the unity of the Godhead, is older than Christianity. 
 The Jews were in this sense Unitarians, when they had 
 emerged from polytheism. Jesus and his Apostles were 
 therefore brought up in this faith, and there is nothing 
 to prove that they ever departed from it. The develop- 
 
178. AVSTUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ment of the doctrine of the Trinity had to fight its way to 
 success; and when the Arians were officially denounced 
 at the Council of Nicewa in 325, they were almost, if not 
 quite, as numerous as their victorious opponents. 
 
 Unitarianism, however, reappeared with the Reforma- 
 tion. Its martyrs began with Adam Duff, who was execu- 
 ted in Dublin in 1326, and the last man burned for heresy 
 in England was Edward Wightman, a Unitarian, in 1612. 
 The most celebrated of the Unitarian martyrs was Michael 
 Servetus (Miguel Serveto), a Spaniard, who was burned 
 at Geneva in 1553 at the instigation of John Calvin. 
 Of greater influence upon Unitarian doctrine and history 
 were Lelio and Fausto Sozzino, better known under their 
 Latin names, Lelius and Faustus Socinus, uncle and 
 nephew. ‘The former had the finer mind; the latter was 
 the more active teacher, and from him came the name 
 Socumianism, under which the Unitarianism of the Refor- 
 mation days was generally known. Socinianism became 
 the belief of a wealthy, cultivated, and powerful body in 
 Poland, of which the king was a member. But under the 
 Catholic reaction all kinds of Protestantism were swept 
 out of Poland, and Socinianism never has regained a foot- 
 ing there. It had been brought to Transylvania also by 
 Lelius Socinus; and there, though much reduced at one 
 time by Catholic oppression; it still survives. 
 
 The most prosperous bodies of Unitarians to-day are in 
 England and the United States. Socinianism was intro- 
 duced into England by Bernardino Occhino, Faustus 
 Socinus, and others of their generation. The first 
 church was established about 1645 by John Bidle, who 
 is called the “Father of English Unitarianism.” He died 
 in prison, whither he had been sent on account of his 
 belief; but other churches sprang up, and their doctrine 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 179 
 
 spread quietly but widely in the Church of England. 
 Milton, Newton, Locke, and other famous men were Uni- 
 tarians of various shades. More Unitarians came from 
 the Presbyterians than from any other body, nearly half 
 of the churches of this faith now existing in England hav- 
 ing been once Presbyterian, many of them still retaining 
 that name. 
 
 The founder of the present organized body of English 
 Unitarians was the Rev. Theophilus Lindsey, who left 
 the Church of England and gathered a Unitarian congre- 
 gation in Essex Street, London, in 1774, which included 
 many noted people. He was followed the next year by 
 Dr. Joseph Priestley, famous as, a man of science, and 
 especially as the discoverer of oxygen. The law at that 
 time held the denial of the Trinity to be blasphemy, and 
 it was not until 1813 that Unitarians were placed on a 
 level with other Dissenters. The denomination has con- 
 tinued to flourish, and now holds a respected place among 
 Protestant bodies. There are also some strong churches 
 in the north of Ireland and in Wales, and a few in Scot- 
 land. 
 
 In the United States Unitarianism began in New Eng- 
 land and is still strongest there. Its formation was quiet, 
 gradual, and long. It extends from early New England 
 history down to the year 1820, when the Unitarian 
 churches first assumed a separate existence. The first 
 minister known to have been Unitarian was Ebenezer Gay 
 of Hingham (1695-1787). The first minister whose 
 doubt of the Trinity was published was Jonathan Mayhew 
 of Boston, who, in 1755, added a note to that effect to one 
 of his printed sermons. The first church to become openly 
 Unitarian was King’s Chapel (Episcopal). The congre- 
 gation, finding in 1787 that their new minister, James 
 
180 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Freeman, was Unitarian, ordered all phrases inconsistent 
 with that belief to be expunged from the Prayer Book. 
 
 The new doctrines spread fast, but were not openly 
 preached. The reasons for this silence were that the lib- 
 erals were not yet clear in their own minds, disapproved 
 of controversy, shrank from precipitating a break in the 
 old Congregational body, and were not willing to have the 
 name “Unitarian,” which was borne in England by men 
 with whose doctrines they did not always agree, thrust 
 unjustly upon them. They therefore emphasized the value 
 of the Christian character, and simply omitted the disputed 
 doctrines from their preaching. The appointment of 
 Henry Ware to be Hollis Professor of Divinity in Har- 
 vard College roused great excitement, as it showed that 
 the College itself had now come under the control of the 
 liberals. At length it became evident to the leaders of 
 the Unitarian party that the evils of controversy would 
 be less than those of silence; and in 1819, at the ordina- 
 tion of Jared Sparks in Baltimore, William Ellery Chan- 
 ning, minister of the Federal Street Church in Boston, 
 preached a sermon defining and defending the Unitarian 
 faith. 
 
 This began the period of separation. Its leader was 
 Dr. Channing, though he was disinclined to close denom- 
 inational organization. The Baltimore sermon was fol- 
 lowed by declarations of belief all over New England; 
 and soon it was found that about one hundred and twenty- 
 five churches, most of them among the oldest and strongest 
 of the Congregational body, were Unitarian. So began the 
 Unitarian body. In social, political, educational, and lit- 
 erary circles it had an influence out of proportion to its 
 numbers; and to a remarkable extent the poets, historians, 
 statesmen, and jurists of that day in this country were 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 181 
 
 Unitarians. The clergy were scholarly; the laity culti- 
 vated, honorable, and philanthropic. Partly by tempera- 
 ment, partly by reaction, they shunned controversy, looked 
 askance at anything like sectarianism, and disliked pros- 
 elyting. The American Unitarian Association was 
 formed in 1825. 
 
 Transcendentalism, or the idea that the soul has private 
 and direct insight into truth, and may set aside all author- 
 ity, obliged the Unitarians to realize their vocation, or 
 reason for separate existence. Hitherto Unitarianism had 
 been based upon Bible texts. Henceforth it was to be 
 the champion of the human reason and conscience, which 
 the best in the Bible nourishes but must not contradict. 
 The leaders of this period were Ralph Waldo Emerson, 
 in his famous “Divinity School Address,” in 1838; and 
 Theodore Parker, of West Roxbury, with his sermon on 
 “The Transient and Permanent in Christianity,” in 1841. 
 
 The successful undertakings of individual Unitarians 
 and churches in behalf of the Northern Cause, during the 
 War between the States, led many to believe in the value 
 of organized effort in behalf of liberal religion. In 1865 
 the National Conference of Unitarian and other Christian 
 Churches was formed, under the leadership of Dr. Henry 
 W. Bellows. Denominational consciousness was further 
 stimulated by the formation of local conferences. At the 
 National Conference of 1894 the following preamble of 
 the constitution was adopted: “These churches accept 
 the religion of Jesus, holding, in accordance with his teach- 
 ing, that practical religion is summed up in love to God 
 and love to man. The Conference recognizes the fact that 
 its constituency is Congregational in tradition and polity. 
 Therefore, it declares that nothing in this constitution is 
 to be construed as an authoritative test; and we cordially 
 
182 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 invite to our working fellowship any who, while differing 
 from us in belief, are in general sympathy with our spirit 
 and our practical aims.” 
 
 With the subsidence of theological discussion the de- 
 nomination entered in 1900 upon a period of marked 
 growth. Contributions rapidly flowed in, making it pos- 
 sible for the denomination to organize and to equip itself 
 for aggressive and constructive missionary work. New 
 churches were planted in strategic parts of the country, 
 and enthusiasm and effort found outlet through working 
 committees and departments. As originally organized in 
 1825, the American Unitarian Association was an associa- 
 tion of individuals. The desire that the Association 
 should represent the churches was realized in 1884, when 
 it was enacted that any church making a contribution 
 for two successive years became a member with right to 
 be represented at the Annual Meeting by minister and 
 two lay delegates. In 1890 the Women’s Alliance of 
 Unitarian and Other Liberal Christian Women was 
 formed, gathering into a new, single organization the 
 hitherto existing women’s societies. At present the 
 Alliance numbers 385 branches with 24,572 members. 
 In 1896 the young people of the denomination were 
 gathered together into a national organization known as 
 the Young People’s Religious Union. This movement 
 has resulted in arousing the loyalty and enthusiasm of 
 the young people and has quickened their religious interest. 
 At the present time 175 vigorous societies are joined 
 together into local federations and a national organiza- 
 tion. In 1919 the Unitarian Laymen’s League was organ- 
 ized, its purpose being to recruit the loyalty and interest 
 of the men of the denomination in support of the churches. 
 At present the League has 12,278 members and 289 Chap- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 183 
 
 ters in 36 of the United States and in Canada. The work 
 of the Sunday School was organized as early as 1827, and 
 for many years the Unitarian Sunday School Society 
 (founded 1854) existed as a separate organization. In 
 1912 the work of the Society was taken over by the Depart- 
 ment of Religious Education of the American Unitarian 
 Association. In addition to these societies the denomina- 
 tion supports The Unitarian Temperance Society; The 
 Unitarian Fellowship for Social Justice; The Unitarian 
 Historical Society; to which list must be added a number 
 of organizations engaged in social and philanthropic work. 
 The Unitarian Pension Society aims to provide service pen- 
 sions for all ministers in their old age. Upon the sugges- 
 tion and because of the support of the American Unitarian 
 Association, the International Congress of Free Christians 
 and Other Religious Liberals was organized in Boston in 
 1900. In 1924 the General Conference was merged with 
 and into the American Unitarian Association. 
 
 In Great Britain the Unitarian congregations united 
 to form a society known as the British and Foreign Uni- 
 tarian Association in 1825. The Association aims at 
 establishing and maintaining churches, supporting minis- 
 ters, and publishing tracts and books. In connection with 
 this is a National Conference of Unitarian, Free Chris- 
 tian, Presbyterian and other liberal congregations which 
 meets every three years; a Sunday School Association ; 
 the British League of Unitarian and other Liberal Chris- 
 tian Women; a Postal Mission and a Temperance Society. 
 
 Doctrine—Unitarians, being congregational in church 
 government, have no common authoritative creed. The 
 American Unitarian Association declares that its object 
 “shall be to diffuse the knowledge and promote the inter- 
 ests of pure Christianity.” Many churches have “cove- 
 
184 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 nants,” or statements of faith and purpose, generally 
 very simple, which are used not as tests of doctrinal ac- 
 curacy but as statements of purpose. 
 
 Unitarianism is a habit of mind and a way of life 
 rather than a fixed and definite set of opinions. It may 
 be defined as the tendency to see God in the natural order 
 of the world, material and spiritual, as distinguished 
 from the tendency to see Him only in isolated and ex- 
 ceptional phenomena, persons, and experiences. Unita- 
 rianism is founded upon law, Orthodoxy upon miracles. 
 Unitarianism believes in the rule, Orthodoxy in the ex- 
 ceptions. Unitarianism sees the beauty and power of 
 what Orthodoxy calls exceptions, but considers them as 
 still under law, parts of the natural and divine order of the 
 world, and as illustrations of what is true or may become 
 true of all. This distinction will become clearer as it is 
 applied to the separate doctrines. 
 
 Fundamental to Unitarianism, and following from this 
 tendency, is its trust in the dignity of human nature. It 
 believes that it is neither hopelessly blinded nor helplessly 
 corrupt, but that in spite of much weakness and selfish- 
 ness it loves at heart both truth and goodness. 
 
 Out of this come the two most distinctive principles of 
 Unitarianism—reliance upon human faculties for the dis- 
 covery of truth, and appreciation of the common virtues 
 and graces of human life—or as they are usually called, 
 reason in religion and character before creed. 
 
 By reason in religion is meant that the truth necessary 
 for the right conduct of human life is revealed to and 
 received by the faculties which are common to all men, 
 though they may exist in very different strength, and be 
 capable of very different degrees of apprehension in dif- 
 ferent minds. Orthodoxy denies this broad idea, and 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 185 
 
 confines inspiration to certain individuals and to excep- 
 tional faculties in them, isolating these faculties from 
 those common to human nature by a difference not in de- 
 gree but in kind. To these psalmists, prophets, evan- 
 gelists, apostles, or other sacred persons is given the power 
 to perform miracles; that is, to do in the physical world 
 what no man could do without divine aid. Revelation is 
 thus made a rare act of God, and involves a change both in 
 Nature and human nature. Orthodox Protestantism thus 
 confines revelation to Bible times and personages, though 
 it asserts the continued action of the Holy Spirit in open- 
 ing the deeper meaning of the Bible to the eyes of faith. 
 The Roman Catholic, while believing the Bible to be a 
 special divine revelation, maintains that revelation con- 
 tinues, but only through the equally divine Church. The 
 Unitarian tends to unite these two views, rejecting their 
 negations. The revelations made through the Bible and 
 through the Church both contain divine truth, but God 
 is not shut within either Bible or Church. He strives 
 everywhere and always to make Himself and His truth 
 known to men; and the science, philosophy, history, 
 poetry, and all other forms of the mental activity of to- 
 day may be the instruments of His revelation. Infallibil- 
 ity is impossible in human life, but revelation, the un- 
 veiling of truth, is a constant process. Unitarianism, 
 therefore, looks to the natural operation of the human 
 mind for truth, and holds itself in sympathy with all 
 sincere thought, and in readiness for new revelations. 
 Nor does it believe that God must break the laws of 
 Nature to make Himself known. On the contrary, it is 
 in those laws that He is best seen. The real miracle is 
 the order and harmony of the whole, not the disturbance 
 of any part; and the way to a deeper knowledge of God 
 
186 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 lies not in being startled now and then by some exceptional 
 thing, but by studying reverently and patiently the world 
 as it is. 
 
 The other distinctive principle of Unitarianism, and 
 one more generally understood than the first, is the value 
 set upon the virtues and graces which sweeten and 
 strengthen common life. The position of the older 
 Orthodoxy is that these are not only worthless, but ac- 
 tually abhorrent to God, unless they are the results of 
 certain beliefs and certain experiences. Unitarianism 
 maintains that the fruits are not known by the tree, but 
 the tree by the fruits; and the love, justice, purity, pa- 
 tience, and the other virtues of a manly or womanly char- 
 acter have their value and their evidence in themselves. 
 It declines to consider only certain experiences as the 
 effect of the Holy Spirit—as the crises of “conversion,” 
 “revival” and the like—but believes that It is seen in 
 the common joys and sorrows, peace and struggle of 
 humanity, ever urging men upward. And while Ortho- 
 doxy tends to emphasize certain “sacred” times, places, 
 and ceremonies as if they were valuable in themselves or 
 the unique channels of divine grace, the Unitarian values 
 these only so far as they are of use to practical life. The 
 sacredness often attributed to them alone he spreads over 
 all earnest human life. Divine service is whatever serves 
 God. Holy ground is wherever holy emotions come. 
 Sacred times are all times when the soul burns with new 
 faith or insight. 
 
 These two principles, flowing from the main one, con- 
 tain the essence of Unitarianism, and explain its minor 
 doctrines. 
 
 The Bible it considers as containing the recorded wis- 
 dom of religiously minded men among the ancient 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 18” 
 
 Hebrews and Early Christians. In that sense, and to 
 that extent, it may be considered as the Word of God. 
 But it is by no means a complete or final revelation 
 of divine things, and, as any other book, the authority 
 it possesses inheres in the truth it presents. The truth it 
 contains came through human channels and as such is 
 liable to the error of human judgment and to the coloring 
 of the age in which it was written. Truth is progressive 
 and the discernment of it is made by the reason and con- 
 science of to-day. 
 
 The Church is the association of men for religious pur- 
 poses, and has no authority but that of the truth it teaches, 
 and no use except to purify and to strengthen daily life. 
 
 About Jesus Unitarians widely differ. There are still 
 some Arians, who hold him to have been a being superior 
 to man, though subordinate to God. There are others who 
 look upon him as a man endowed with superhuman powers, 
 entrusted with a special mission and exercising an author- 
 ity to which reason and conscience must bow. But the 
 strong tendency of Unitarians generally is to consider him 
 as in all respects a man, though with a spiritual insight 
 and moral power which, while really differing only in 
 degree from those given to all men, set him by himself 
 in human history. This inclusion in humanity, however, 
 must not be taken as degrading Jesus, since Unitarians 
 hold a higher conception of human nature than the 
 Orthodox, but as marking the possible elevation of human- 
 ity. Unitarians believe that God was in Jesus, but that 
 He is in all men. Jesus at once reveals God to man and 
 man to himself. He glorifies our common human nature. 
 He teaches that love, fidelity, patience, cheerfulness, are 
 divine qualities, and that the line between divine and 
 human, which the ancient councils found it so hard to 
 
188 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 draw in the nature of Jesus, is as uncertain in every 
 earnest human soul. Jesus is not an exception, save in 
 degree, but a bright illustration of the possibilities of 
 human nature. Unitarians therefore reject the Trinity, 
 and all the doctrines which cluster about the dogma of the 
 Deity of Christ. 
 
 The atonement is considered by Unitarians as a natural 
 process. By his imperfections and sins man removes him- 
 self from God; and all good influences, including those 
 which flow from the life and character of Jesus, bring 
 him back into the divine likeness, and into harmony with 
 the divine will. The office of Jesus lies in no arbitrary 
 arrangement with God by which the innocent is sub- 
 stituted for the guilty. All the conceptions of the atone- 
 ment held by the Orthodox seem to the Unitarian to sub- 
 vert the fundamental principles of justice, to confuse the 
 conscience, and to dishonor God. Salvation is not rescue 
 from any external peril, but from sin and weakness within. 
 Holiness is wholeness and healthiness, and is accomplished 
 not by means outside of practical life, but by doing justly, 
 loving mercy, and walking humbly with God every day. 
 Conversion may be hastened by special influences or ex- 
 periences, but is more likely to come gradually. Not 
 believing in the essential depravity of human nature, 
 Unitarians do not look for that complete revolution which 
 the Orthodox logically must aim at, but for a quiet and 
 steady evolution of the germs of truth and goodness into 
 such development as is possible in this life. They there- 
 fore distrust “revivals.” 
 
 The future life Unitarians consider a natural con- 
 tinuance of the earthly life. Death is not a moral crisis, 
 but an event common to all living things, a purely physi- 
 cal change. Unitarians are very reluctant to indulge the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 189 
 
 imagination depicting the details of the future life, hold- 
 ing that life freed from the body and from the circum- 
 stances of the earth is beyond our power to conceive with 
 certainty. But they maintain with great firmness that 
 the character begins there as it ends here, and that the 
 laws of the moral nature, not being conditioned by space 
 or time, continue in force after death. The Orthodox 
 division of all men into saints and sinners, “fixed in an 
 eternal state,” they reject as most unjust as well as un- 
 warranted in reason. The moral life will be as varied, as 
 capable of progression and change, as here. Whether all 
 men will reach perfect happiness and holiness, is a ques- 
 tion upon which the Unitarian does not pass judgment, 
 but inclines to the more generous side. 
 
 In worship, Unitarians commonly preserve the simplic- 
 ity and directness of the Congregationalists, from whom 
 they have in this country descended. As all life is seen 
 to have possibilities of sacredness, and all duty to be 
 divine service, “sacred” times and places seem less im- 
 portant than to those who tend to concentrate sacredness 
 upon them. And as all truth takes on a divine aspect, 
 opinions about historical and speculative matters, most 
 of which seem to be of little real use even to those who 
 have most definite views about them, must retire more 
 into the background. While, therefore, the Unitarian can- 
 not afford to neglect any means of spiritual culture, or 
 any truth that concerns the spiritual welfare of mankind, 
 he must rejoice in that sympathy with all truth, with all 
 goodness, and with all earnest life which his faith makes 
 possible to him. The Orthodox, so the Unitarian thinks, 
 buys his devotion to sect and church and definite creed 
 at the cost of breadth in love and hospitality to truth. 
 
 Polity—The American Unitarians are all congrega- 
 
190 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 tional in polity; that is, they maintain the right of each 
 church to regulate its own affairs. While preserving their 
 independency, the churches have a real sense of fellowship. 
 The American Unitarian Association, which is the mis- 
 sionary and executive arm of the denomination, is a purely 
 voluntary organization. 
 
 Statistics—There are in the United States and Canada 
 440 churches; 476 ministers; an estimated constituency of 
 113,308; and an enrollment of 22,060 pupils and teachers 
 in 325 church schools. There are two nominally Uni- 
 tarian Theological Schools, one at Meadville, Pa., and 
 one at Berkeley, Calif., besides the Theological School in 
 Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., an unsectarian 
 institution formed by the affiliation of the Harvard Divin- 
 ity School and Andover Theological Seminary, devoted 
 largely to the study of theology as a science. 
 
 In the British and Foreign Association there are as- 
 sociated 365 societies; 340 ministers; and 10 lay workers. 
 There are 3 theological schools. The denomination pub- 
 lishes 7 periodicals. 
 
 In Transylvania there are 163 churches; 108 ministers; 
 a membership of 75,374; 42 elementary schools; 3 
 grammar schools; 1 theological college and 4 periodicals. 
 
 2. THE UNIVERSALISTS 
 
 Name—A Universalist is one who believes in universal 
 salvation; that is, the ultimate perfection and blessedness 
 of all human beings. The name “Restorationist” is older, 
 but has in later times been restricted to those who hold to 
 a probability of future punishment ‘before ultimate salva- 
 tion, as opposed to those who believe that all men reach 
 heaven at once after death. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 191 
 
 History—Many of the most prominent of the earlier 
 Christians, especially Origen, in Alexandria (185-254), 
 believed that all men would finally be saved. But the 
 great influence of Saint Augustine (354-430) prevailed, 
 and the doctrine sank almost out of sight till after the 
 Reformation, not coming again into prominence until the 
 eighteenth century. The Universalist denomination is of 
 modern origin and is confined mostly to the American 
 continent. | 
 
 James Relly, a preacher of Calvinistic Methodism under 
 Whitefield, carried his view of predestination so far as 
 to believe that God would see that all men were saved. 
 By his writings John Murray was converted, and became 
 the father of American Universalism as a body; though 
 there was a good deal of latent belief in the doctrine, and 
 Mayhew and Chauncy, of Boston, had openly preached it 
 in the middle of the century. Landing in America in 
 1770, Murray founded the first Universalist Church in 
 Gloucester, Mass., in 1779, becoming minister of the 
 church in Boston in 1793, and dying as such in 1810. 
 Following Relly, he taught election in this life—that the 
 elect go directly to heaven at death. The non-elect are 
 purified by fire till the Judgment Day, when they find 
 that they too are saved by the atonement of Christ. 
 Murray was a Trinitarian of the modal or Sabellian type, 
 maintaining one God in three manifestations, but not 
 divided into three persons. He was thus a Calvinist, ex- 
 cept that he widened predestination to include all man- 
 kind. 
 
 The preaching of Hosea Ballou, which began in 1790, 
 marked a new era. He became the recognized leader of 
 the movement and for half a century was its most honored 
 and influential exponent. During his ministry, extend- 
 
192 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ing from 1796 to 1852, the 20 or 30 Universalist churches 
 increased to 500, distributed over New England and the 
 Middle West. This was the period of the spreading of 
 the doctrine and of the controversies to which it gave 
 rise. It was not until 1870 that an attempt was made to 
 draw the hitherto independent congregations into closer 
 fellowship. At the centennial convention of that year, a 
 plan of organization was adopted which the denomination 
 has since followed. Hosea Ballou taught that all men 
 are saved at death. There would be no future punish- 
 ment, except for future sins. This doctrine proved more 
 popular than Murray’s, and the sect grew more rapidly. 
 
 Doctrine—Universalism, as we have seen, has passed 
 through an almost complete transformation. Beginning 
 as Calvinism, it has become Unitarian and liberal. Like 
 many other sects, it has a conservative and a liberal party, 
 in which the transformation is seen in different stages, 
 but the liberal tendency seems to be rapidly gaining 
 ground. The historic doctrinal symbol of the Universalist 
 denomination is the Winchester Profession of Faith 
 adopted at the Annual Meeting of the convention held in 
 Winchester, N. H., in 1803. Murray was then living and 
 the creed bears the marks of a compromise between the 
 old and the new phases of belief. This had long ceased 
 to represent the position of the majority of the denomina- 
 tion and at the session of the General Convention in 
 Boston, 1899, a brief statement of the essential principles 
 was adopted and made the condition of fellowship, in the 
 following terms—“The Universal Fatherhood of God; the 
 spiritual authority and leadership of His Son, Jesus 
 Christ; the trustworthiness of the Bible as containing a 
 revelation from God; the certainty of just retribution for 
 sin; the final harmony of all souls with God.” 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 193 
 
 As to the Bible there is great latitude of opinion, from 
 those who hold the older view of its textual infallibility 
 to those who see in it the record of a progressive revela- 
 tion to a people peculiarly fitted to receive it, but a revela- 
 tion neither perfect nor final. 
 
 Universalists believe that Jesus had the same essential 
 spiritual and human nature as other men, but he was 
 chosen of God to sustain a certain unique relation on the 
 one hand toward God, and on the other toward men, by 
 virtue of which he was a revelation of the divine will and 
 character and a sample of the perfected man. Perhaps 
 more emphasis is laid by the average Universalist upon 
 the official station of Jesus, as in a special sense a son of 
 God and redeemer of men, than by other Liberals. As to 
 the future life, there is general agreement as to the proba- 
 bility of some kind of future discipline for those who are 
 not sufficiently purified by the penalties and sufferings of 
 this life; but the belief in the final restoration of all to 
 “holiness and true happiness” is emphatic and universal. 
 This is their distinctive doctrine. 
 
 Polity—The Universalists were early organized into 
 “societies” rather than “churches.” They are strictly con- 
 gregationalists as regards their organization, each local 
 society being independent in the management of its own 
 affairs. The parishes within a state are organized into 
 a state convention, consisting of delegates elected by the 
 parishes. Representatives, duly elected by the several 
 state conventions, constitute the General Convention. In 
 order to remain in the fellowship of the denomination the 
 local church must be organized on the common profession 
 of faith, employ a minister in the fellowship of the con- 
 vention, and promise obedience to the laws of the conven- 
 tion. The state conventions have complete control of 
 
194 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 matters of common interest to the societies in their ter- 
 ritory. In 1898 a system of supervision, including a 
 general superintendent and local superintendents in most 
 of the states, was adopted. Recently the Sunday schools 
 were put under the care of the General Convention and a 
 salaried superintendent was appointed. Only ordained 
 ministers are permitted to administer the rites of Baptism 
 and the Lord’s Supper, and there are laws and standards 
 of conduct which ministers must observe in order to main- 
 tain themselves in the fellowship of the convention. 
 
 Statistics—The Universalists are practically an Ameri- 
 can body. There are 644 churches; 561 ministers; 46,- 
 775 members; and 58,442 in Sunday school. The de- 
 nomination maintains 3 colleges, 3 theological seminaries, 
 3 academies and publishes 3 periodicals. 
 
 3. THE FRIENDS 
 (Hicksites) 
 
 History—This branch of the Friends had its origin in 
 the Separation of 1827-1828. It takes its name from 
 Elias [Hicks (1748-1830), an eloquent and popular 
 preacher of Long Island, N. Y. He is described as a man 
 of powerful build, commanding person and indomitable 
 will. As early as 1805 objection had been made to some 
 of the doctrines held by Hicks on the ground that they 
 were opposed to the commonly accepted teaching among 
 the Friends. The first open conflict was between Hicks 
 and the elders of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting in 
 1822. On examination Hicks failed to convince them of 
 the soundness of his views. As a result of this difference, 
 which stirred several Yearly Meetings, Hicks finally with- 
 drew to New York, and his party, known as the Hicksites, 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 195 
 
 were disowned by those who from this time have been 
 
 ~ “known as the Orthodox. 
 
 While the feeling was strongest in Philadelphia, separa- 
 tion followed in the New York Yearly Meeting and in 
 Ohio and Indiana where the Hicksites had a majority, al- 
 though among the whole number of Friends in the 
 country they were the minority party. In New England, 
 Virginia, and North Carolina there was no separa- 
 tion. | 
 
 The usual difficulties arose over title to the property. 
 Which party was the true legal successor to the funds, 
 buildings and institutions? Which held to the faith of 
 the fathers? Contrary to the principles of the Friends, 
 appeal was made to the courts. The New Jersey Courts 
 decided for the Orthodox Party on doctrinal and legal 
 points. The Hicksites refused to testify on matters of 
 doctrine before a civil tribunal. The New Jersey Legisla- 
 ture later by statute divided the property on the basis 
 of the number of each party in the state. The New 
 York Court decided for the Hicksites and the Ohio Court 
 against them. In Pennsylvania the Orthodox Party re- 
 tained the country meeting houses while the Hicksites 
 held most of the city property. 
 
 The first effect, and the usual effect, of the separation 
 was to intensify in each the position taken in the con- 
 troversy. The Orthodox branch increased its emphasis 
 on the deity of Jesus, the authority of Scripture, and 
 leaned more to the evangelical side than before the separa- 
 tion. In England an extreme Evangelical party arose 
 known as the “Beaconites,’ who were Literalists in the 
 use of Scripture. The Hicksites inclined more toward 
 good works than doctrinal emphasis. Some who were ex- 
 
196 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 treme rationalists retained fellowship with them. From 
 the first there were those who were not concerned about 
 doctrinal differences, but who believed that the Hicksite 
 party represented the true spirit of liberty of the early 
 Friends. The Hicksite party was more responsive to the 
 changing spirit of the times. 
 
 This branch of the Friends has expressed itself most 
 actively in reforms and philanthropies. Some of this 
 name were outstanding figures in the Anti-slavery cause 
 and the peace movement. In education their work has 
 been of a high order. 
 
 Doctrine—Hicks held that God is a spirit and that 
 this is manifest in every man. If followed, it is sufficient 
 for salvation. All else is external, carnal and of the 
 creature. Among externals he placed not only the vani- 
 ties of dress but also the work of Christ, the Scripture 
 and all outward teaching. The “Light Within” was all 
 to him. The Bible, he taught, was given by inspiration 
 and could be understood only through the inspiration of 
 each. God placed Jesus on an equality with man. He 
 died at the hands of wicked men as other martyrs have 
 done. His meaning to us is the great example. It was 
 this position which gave most offense to the orthodox 
 Friends who feared any tendency that would lessen the 
 work of Christ. Their general position on this point was 
 evangelical, and the sacrifice of Christ was held necessary 
 for salvation. In 1893 at the Religious Congress of 
 Friends, in the World’s Parliament of Religions, Chicago, 
 the later statement of faith of the Hicksites was given. 
 God directly reveals himself to the perceptions of man. 
 This light, if admitted, is God’s gift for salvation. The 
 Scriptures are the record of such revelations to men in 
 past ages and confirm his revelations to men to-day. The 
 
THE PROTESTANTS LOG 
 
 truth of the Bible is to be found to-day through the same 
 spirit by which it was given forth to those in Bible 
 times. The divine nature dwelt in Christ and he is the 
 highest possible manifestation of God. 
 
 Statistics—In the United States they have 7 yearly 
 meetings; 153 churches; 17,513 members; and 6,033 in 
 Sunday school. They maintain 1 college, at Swarthmore, 
 Pa., and 1 periodical, Friends’ Intelligencer. 
 
 4, NEW THOUGHT 
 
 Name—New Thought itself is not new. Its truths 
 have been handed down through the ages by the seers, 
 prophets, and teachers of humanity. Jesus taught, 
 demonstrated, and lived these truths, saying, “He that 
 believeth in me, the works that I do shall he do also, and 
 greater works than these shall he do because I go unto 
 my Father.” “These signs shall follow them that believe ; 
 in my name shall they cast out devils; they shall speak 
 with new tongues; they shall take up serpents; and if 
 they drink any deadly thing it shall not hurt them; they 
 shall lay hands on the sick and they shall recover.” New 
 Thought appears in all ages and in all religions. The 
 name “New Thought” was given to the adherents of a cer- 
 tain philosophy or interpretation of life and they have 
 retained it although some call it Divine Science, some 
 Unity, some Truth, some Practical Christianity, ete. 
 
 History—In February, 1802, Phineas Parkhurst 
 Quimby was born in Lebanon, New Hampshire. He came 
 through the long school of mesmerism and hypnotism 
 which he finally discarded, until he reached healing 
 through the conscious mind and Jesus the Christ. New 
 Thought never uses either mesmerism or hypnotism, its 
 
198 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 work being done through awakening the consciousness and 
 - not by putting it to sleep. In this way each patient really 
 is his own healer through the Spirit within. Dr. Quimby 
 had much to do with this awakening, however, and called 
 his work “The Science of Christ.” His work had much to 
 do with awakening Mrs. Eddy, at that time Mrs. Pat- 
 terson, who was healed by him and later founded Chris- 
 tian Science. Among his other patients were Julius 
 Dresser, whose writings are indispensable to a complete 
 understanding of phases of New Thought, and Dr. W. F. 
 Evans, a Swedenborgian, and a philosopher. Dr. Evans’ 
 works on “Esoteric Christianity” and “Primitive Mind 
 Cure” are widely used in New Thought. Later writers 
 are Ralph Waldo Trine, Herman Randall, Julia Seton, 
 Annie Rix Millitz, John Murray, and Nona Brooks. 
 Doctrine—New Thought believes in God, the Father- 
 Mother of the Universe; in one spirit, omniscient, omni- 
 present, omnipotent, in the Divinity of all men and women 
 as children of God, and in the Holy Ghost, or Divine 
 Love. New Thought teaches that humanity is the expres- 
 sion of God, the emanation of the One Life, invested with 
 all the qualities of Deity. No one limits humanity but 
 itself; it can do all things through the Father within, 
 either individually or collectively. New Thought believes 
 in marriage, in the home, in monogamy, and teaches that 
 “As a man thinketh in his heart (his innermost self) so 
 is he’ New Thought does not believe in sin, disease, and 
 death but knows that these will continue until the laws of 
 God are learned, applied and fulfilled. New Thought 
 believes in prayer, worship, atonement (pronounced at- 
 one-ment). The spirit is involved in all life and it evolves 
 in form according to the particular development of the 
 habitant or soul. The inner life is creator of all mani- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 199 
 
 fested life in service, health, wealth, love and in the politi- 
 cal and industrial world. 
 
 New Thought does not deny matter, but knows that it 
 is pliant and changing by the action of mind, consciously 
 or unconsciously. The work of Jesus was healing through 
 renewing the mind. This healing touches every phase 
 of life and reaches every corner of the globe. New 
 Thought recognizes the dominion of mind over matter. 
 Thought is the cause, and conditions, affairs, politics, 
 religions and wars, are effects. Its work is educational 
 and includes psychology, philosophy, science, and the art 
 of living, in its largest inclusiveness. 
 
 New Thought seeks to render disease and poverty ob- 
 solete through education, and to bring about the kingdom 
 of heaven on earth; to awaken the world to its possibili- 
 ties; to teach the true nature of man, the universe and 
 God; to explain the problems of human existence and 
 to find some means to solve them. 
 
 New Thought has discovered nothing, but has uncovered 
 many of the myths that mystified the truth seeker. These 
 it gives freely to all and claims no ownership. Truth is 
 universal property. Credit is due to every individual and 
 to every religion that have uncovered some truth. Ig- 
 norance is the only sin, and the only devil. 
 
 The following is the declaration of principles adopted 
 by the International New Thought Alliance: 
 
 We affirm the freedom of each soul as to choice and as to 
 belief, and would not, by the adoption of any declaration 
 ‘of principles, limit such freedom. The essence of the New 
 Thought is Truth, and each individual must be loyal to 
 the Truth he sees. The windows of his soul must be kept 
 open at each moment for the higher light, and his mind 
 must be always hospitable to each new inspiration. 
 
200 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Ve afirm the Good. This is supreme, universal, and ever- 
 lasting. Man is made in the image of the Good, and evil and 
 pain are but the tests and correctives that appear when 
 his thought does not reflect the full glory of this image. 
 
 We affirm health, which is man’s divine inheritance. 
 Man’s body is his holy temple. Every function of it, every 
 cell of it, is intelligent, and:is shaped, ruled, repaired, and 
 controlled by mind. He whose body is full of light is full 
 of health. Spiritual healing has existed among all races in 
 all times. It has now become a part of the higher science 
 and art of living the life more abundant. 
 
 We affirm the divine supply. He who serves God and 
 man in the full understanding of the law of compensation 
 shall not lack. Within us are unused resources of energy 
 and power. He who lives with his whole being, and thus 
 expresses fullness, shall reap fullness in return. He who 
 gives himself, he who knows and acts in his highest knowl- 
 edge, he who trusts in the divine return, has learned the 
 law of success. 
 
 We affirm the teaching of Christ that the Kingdom of 
 Heaven is within us, that we are one with the Father, that 
 we should not judge, that we should love one another, that 
 we should heal the sick, that we should return good for evil, 
 that we should minister to others, and that we should be 
 perfect even as our Father in Heaven is perfect. These 
 are not only ideals, but practical, everyday working prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 We affirm the new thought of God as Universal Love, 
 Life, Truth, and Joy, in whom we live, move, and have our 
 being, and by whom we are held together; that His mind 
 is our mind now, that realizing our oneness with Him means 
 love, truth, peace, health, and plenty, not only in our own 
 lives but in the giving out of these fruits of the Spirit to 
 others. 
 
 We affirm these things, not as a profession, but practice, 
 not on one day of the week, but in every hour and minute 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 201 
 
 of every day, sleeping and waking, not in the ministry of 
 a few, but in a service that includes the democracy of all, 
 not in words alone, but in the innermost thoughts of the 
 heart expressed in living the life. “By their fruits ye shall 
 know them.” 
 
 We affirm Heaven here and now, the life everlasting that 
 becomes conscious immortality, the communion of mind 
 with mind throughout the universe of thoughts, the nothing- 
 ness of all error and negation, including death, the variety 
 in unity that produces the individual expressions of the 
 One-Life, and the quickened realization of the indwelling 
 God in each soul that is making a new heaven and a new 
 earth. 
 
 We affirm that the universe is spiritual and we are 
 spiritual beings. This is the Christ message to the 
 twentieth century, and it is a message not so much of words 
 as of works. To attain this, however, we must be clean, 
 honest and trustworthy and uphold the Jesus Christ stand- 
 ards as taught in the Four Gospels. We now have the 
 golden opportunity to form a real Christ movement. Let 
 us build our house upon this rock, and nothing can prevail 
 against it. This is the vision and mission of the Alliance. 
 
 Polity and Statistics—New Thought is congregational 
 in its form of government, each center having complete 
 authority over its own affairs. The leader is chosen by 
 each local group. There are about 400 centers in this 
 country, Europe and Australia. Some organizations have 
 a definite membership while others have no such require- 
 ment. No record is returned of the membership as a 
 whole. Many members keep their connection with other 
 churches. The different local centers are federated in the 
 International New Thought Alliance. The largest organ- 
 ized group is the New Thought Temple in Cincinnati, 
 Ohio. 
 
202 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Section 5 Interdenominational Organizations 
 1. FOR FELLOWSHIP AND SERVICE 
 
 FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE CHURCHES OF 
 CHRIST IN AMERICA 
 
 This is a permanent federation of most of the Evangeli- 
 cal Protestant denominations in the United States. Its 
 forerunners were the Evangelical Alliance and the National 
 Federation of Churches and Christian Workers which were 
 voluntary interdenominational fellowships. The Federal 
 Council is an officially and ecclesiastically constituted 
 body, incorporated in the District of Columbia. The 
 present organization was effected at the Inter-Church 
 Conference in New York City which framed the following 
 declaration of purpose which was adopted in 1908: 
 
 Preamble—Whereas, In the Providence of God, the 
 time has come when it seems fitting more fully to mani- 
 fest the essential oneness of the Christian Churches of 
 America in Jesus Christ as their divine Lord and Saviour, 
 and to promote the spirit of fellowship, service, and co- 
 operation among them, the delegates to the Interchurch 
 Conference on Federation assembled in New York City, 
 do hereby recommend the following Plan of Federation 
 to the Christian bodies represented in this Conference for 
 their approval. 
 
 Object—The object of this Federal Council shall be: 
 
 1. To express the fellowship and catholic unity of the 
 Christian Church. 
 
 2. To bring the Christian bodies of America into united 
 service for Christ and the world. 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 203 
 
 3. To encourage devotional fellowship and mutual counsel 
 concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the 
 churches. 
 
 4, To secure a larger combined influence for the churches 
 of Christ in all matters affecting the moral and social condition 
 of the people, so as to promote the application of the law 
 of Christ in every relation of human life. 
 
 5. To assist in the organization of local branches of the 
 Federal Council to promote its aims in their communities. 
 
 The Council meets every four years. Its membership 
 is made up of representatives from 30 Protestant denomi- 
 nations; 5 affiliated Bodies (Home Missions Council, 
 Council of Women for Home Missions, Federation of 
 Women’s Boards of Foreign Missions, International Sun- 
 day School Council of Religious Education, and Council 
 of Church Boards of Education) ; 3 Co-operating Bodies 
 (American Bible Society, National Board of Y. M. C. A., 
 and International Committee of Y. M. C. A.); and 3 
 Consultative Bodies (Committee of Reference and Coun- 
 sel of the Foreign Mission Conference of North America, 
 Committee on Co-operation in Latin America, and Student 
 Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions). Each body 
 adhering is entitled to four members and one additional 
 for every 50,000 communicants. There are 400 members 
 of the Council, representing 149,436 churches with 20,- 
 727,319 members. The work of the Council is carried on 
 through 10 Permanent Commissions (On Council of 
 Churches, Evangelism and Life Service, Christian Educa- 
 tion, Church and Social Service, Temperance, Church and 
 Race Relations, International Justice and Good Will, 
 Relations with the Orient, Relations with France and 
 Belgium, and Relations with Religious Bodies in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
904 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 2. FOR RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 This organization was effected in Chicago in 1903 as 
 a result of a call to a convention sent out by the Council 
 of Seventy of the American Institute of Sacred Literature 
 and others. The invitation, given to ministers, educators 
 and editors of the larger denominations in North Amer- 
 ica, said in part: “Believing that the religious and 
 moral instruction of the young is at present inadequate, 
 and imperfectly correlated with other instruction in his- 
 tory, literature and science; that the Sunday school, as 
 the primary instruction for the religious and moral educa- 
 tion of the young, should be conformed to a higher ideal, 
 and that this improvement can be promoted best by a 
 national organization devoted exclusively to this purpose, 
 we unite in calling a Convention.” At the third Conven- 
 tion the following was adopted as expressing the aims of 
 the Association: “The threefold purpose of the Reli- 
 gious Education Association is: to inspire the educational 
 forces of our country with the religious ideal; to inspire 
 the religious forces of our country with the educational 
 ideal; and to keep before the public mind the ideal of 
 religious education and the sense of its need and value.” 
 Permanent offices are maintained in Chicago, with a Gen- 
 eral Secretary who is the executive officer of the Asso- 
 ciation; a bureau of information with both a permanent 
 and a traveling exhibit and library. The work is divided 
 among these departments: (1) Council; (2) Universities 
 and Colleges; (3) Theological Seminaries; (4) Churches 
 and Pastors; (5) Sunday Schools; (6) Secondary Public 
 Schools; (7) Elementary Public Schools; (8) Private 
 Schools; (9) Teacher Training; (10) Christian Associa- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 205 
 
 tions; (11) Young People’s Societies; (12) The Home; 
 (13) Libraries; (14) The Press; (15) Correspondence 
 Instructions; (16) Summer Assemblies; (17) Religious 
 Art and Music. Besides being a clearing-house and 
 bureau of information, the Association has stimulated a 
 new kind of Church-school literature; improved the courses 
 of study; brought the needs of the School to the Church, 
 resulting in the establishment, for the first time, of paid 
 directors of religious education and special courses in the 
 Divinity schools. 
 Religious Education, a bimonthly magazine, is issued. 
 
 3. FOR DOCTRINAL ENDS 
 (Evangelical) 
 
 WORLD CONGRESS ON CHRISTIAN I°UNDAMEN- 
 TALS (THE FUNDAMENTALISTS) 
 
 An active movement in American Protestantism has 
 come to be known as Fundamentalism. It takes its name 
 from the World Congress on Christian Fundamentals 
 held in Philadelphia, in May, 1919, which was attended by 
 6000 people from forty-two states. At this Congress the 
 following nine propositions were adopted as the funda- 
 mentals of faith by which to test all persons and institu- 
 tions laying claim to the Christian name: 
 
 I. We believe in the Scripture of the Old and New 
 Testaments as verbally inspired of God, and inerrant in 
 the original writings, and that they are of supreme and 
 final authority in faith and life. 
 
 II. We believe in one God, eternally existing in ee 
 persons, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. 
 
 III. We believe that Jesus Christ was begotten by the 
 Holy Spirit, and born of the Virgin Mary, and is true God 
 and true man, 
 
206 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 IV. We believe that man was created in the image of 
 God, that he sinned and thereby incurred not only physical 
 death but also that spiritual death which is separation from 
 God; and that all human beings are born with a sinful 
 nature, and, in the case of those who reach moral responsi- 
 bility, become sinners in thought, word, and deed. 
 
 V. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ died for our 
 sins according to the Scriptures as a representative and 
 substitutionary sacrifice; and that all that believe in Him 
 are justified on the ground of His shed blood. 
 
 VI. We believe in the resurrection of the crucified body 
 of our Lord, in His ascension into heaven, and in His 
 present life there for us, as High Priest and Advocate. 
 
 VII. We believe in “that blessed hope,” the personal, 
 premillennial and imminent return of our Lord and Savior 
 Jesus Christ. 
 
 VIII. We believe that all who receive by faith the Lord 
 Jesus Christ are born again of the Holy Spirit and thereby 
 become children of God. 
 
 IX. We believe in the bodily resurrection of the just and 
 the unjust, the everlasting blessedness of the saved, and 
 the everlasting, conscious punishment of the lost. 
 
 Committees were appointed to correlate colleges, Bible 
 schools, theological seminaries, academies, periodicals, and 
 missionary bodies with a view of controlling them in the 
 propagation of these “Fundamentals” against the invas- 
 sion of “modernism.” The estimated extent of this move- 
 ment among Protestant churches is that one-fourth of 
 the churches in the East, one-half of the Middle West 
 and South, and three-fourths in the far West are favorable 
 to it. 
 
 Most prominent of these “Fundamentals” in popular 
 interest is Article VII: ‘We believe in ‘that blessed hope,’ 
 the personal, premillennial and imminent return of our 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 207 
 
 Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.” This millennial hope, 
 nominally held by the whole orthodox Christian Church, 
 without naming a specific time, is revived as of immediate 
 urgency, because impending. As a-doctrine it is lifted by 
 the Fundamentalists to an importance hitherto stressed 
 by Adventist bodies only. At the close of the World War 
 a “Bible Conference on the Return of our Lord” was 
 held in Philadelphia, in 1918, which expressed itself in 
 Article VII of the Fundamentals agreed upon in the Con- 
 ference the next year (1919). 
 
 The Millennial doctrine takes its name from the Latin 
 “Mille,” meaning 1000 years. In the early church, when 
 the Greek word for 1000 years was used, they were known 
 as Chiliasts. It appeals for proof to numerous passages 
 in symbolic and apocalyptic Scripture, and to the general 
 world order thought to be found in the Bible as a whole. 
 The inauguration of this millennial state, believed to be 
 near, will witness truth diffused over the entire world; 
 harmony and peace among all nations; the conversion of 
 all nations to Christianity and great material prosperity. 
 
 Two schools of interpretation, of the millennial plan to 
 be gathered from the Bible, have arisen: the Premillen- 
 arians and the Postmillenarians. The Premillenarian 
 position is that approved by the Fundamentalists and 
 named as one of the nine requisites of Christian faith. 
 Their insistence is on the “pre” (before), meaning that 
 Christ’s return must precede the millennium and is the 
 necessary condition for that changed state of the world. 
 The doctrines generally accepted among the Premillen- 
 arians are: the Kingdom of God is not yet in the world 
 and cannot be until Christ comes; the present dispensation 
 is not intended to convert the world but to gather the elect ; 
 the world will continue to grow worse and worse until 
 
208 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 this second advent of Christ which is now imminent; this 
 return will be visible and personal, at which time the 
 righteous dead will be raised to dwell with Christ in the 
 air for a period known as “The rapture”; on the earth at 
 the time of the rapture will be the period of “Tribula- 
 tion,” at the close of which Christ and his saints will 
 return to the earth; Satan will be bound and cast out 
 while Christ and the Saints rule for 1000 years (Revela- 
 tion 20) from Jerusalem; the Jews will gather to Pales- 
 tine and the old sacrificial system will be restored; then 
 will follow a short outbreak of the wicked at the end of 
 the 1000 years, then, the resurrection of the wicked (the 
 second resurrection), the judgment and the destruction of 
 the world. 
 
 The Postmillenarians lay emphasis on the “post”— 
 (after), meaning that the second advent of Christ will 
 come afler the millennium. ‘The doctrines generally held 
 among them are: the Kingdom of God is already in exist- 
 ence; the process of Christ saving the world is going on 
 now through preaching, ordinances, good works and will 
 continue until the world is Christianized ; this time, when 
 it comes, will be the promised millennium; evil will not 
 be wholly eradicated, but Satan will be restrained; then, 
 the final coming of Christ, the general resurrection, the 
 judgment and the eternal state. In this interpretation, 
 the world must be converted before Christ comes, while 
 the Premillenarians hold that nothing can be done toward 
 the conversion of the world until the second coming. 
 
 One interpretation of the millennial hope is that held 
 by the “Russellites,” followers of Charles Taze Russell 
 (1852-1916) known as “Pastor Russell,” who began 
 preaching in Pittsburgh, organized the Watch Tower 
 Society in 1881; built the People’s Church in Brooklyn, 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 209 
 
 N. Y., in 1909 and a tabernacle in London in 1911. Rus- 
 sell taught that the Scriptural order of the world is seven 
 periods of 1000 years each, the seventh of which began in 
 1873; that Christ returned to earth, though not visibly, 
 in 1874 at which time the apostles and saints were raised, 
 who, with the returned Christ, are now reigning over the 
 _ Millennial Kingdom. The date set for the reéstablish- 
 ment of the Jews at Jerusalem was 1914. Since the Rus- 
 sellites teach that Christ’s return is before the millen- 
 nium, they are to be classed with the Premillenarians al- 
 though differing widely from the Fundamentalist’s plat- 
 form. 
 
 4, FOR WORK AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE 
 (a) THm YOUNG MEN’s CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 History—The Young Men’s Christian Association 
 Movement as we understand it to-day, was founded by 
 George Williams, (afterward knighted as Sir George Wil- 
 liams because of this service) in 1844 in London, England. 
 While similar efforts appeared in former years in two or 
 more countries and with somewhat similar objectives, the 
 name Young Men’s Christian Association was given first 
 to the group of twelve young men, members of four prin- 
 cipal Protestant evangelical denominations of Great Brit- 
 ain, under the leadership of George Williams in London. 
 In the early years its membership was confined to those 
 who were members of evangelical churches. In later 
 years two classes of membership were formed: active 
 members, including those who were members of evangeli- 
 cal churches, and associate members, meaning those who 
 sought to unite with the active members in a joint serv- 
 ice of Christian welfare effort among men and boys, with 
 
210 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 the chief object of developing Christian character, of re- 
 lating each person to Jesus Christ as God and Savior, 
 and to His Church as a member. 
 
 This effort, begun in prayer and among active Chris- 
 tian men, spread to the various cities of England, and in 
 1851 began its work in Montreal and Boston in North 
 America. While prayer, Bible study and religious mect- 
 ings were the chief activities of the early days, this Move- 
 ment gradually came to include also normal facilities un- 
 der Christian auspices for developing the physical and 
 recreational life of boys and men, their educational equip- 
 ment and training, their social and economic improvement, 
 as well as their continued development in Bible train- 
 ing and Christian living. While at times, in various 
 places, the secular features grew faster than they could 
 be permeated and dominated by the definitely Christian- 
 character-building influences, yet the Movement as a whole 
 has survived and developed largely because of the Chris- 
 tian objective. 
 
 During its first twenty years in North America (1851- 
 1871), the Movement was almost wholly under the leader- 
 ship of volunteer lay workers. This resulted in the 
 American Y Movement becoming far stronger in mem- 
 bers, resources and achievement than in any other coun- 
 try. This strong leadership has been maintained during 
 the past half century. While North America has only 
 about one-quarter of the number of Associations in the 
 world, it has nearly sixty per cent of the total member- 
 ship, seventy per cent of the employed officers, about 
 seventy-two per cent of the reported activities, and about 
 seventy-six per cent of the Association property of the 
 world. 
 
 The first World’s Conference in 1855 at Paris adopted 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 211 
 the following declaration known throughout the Brother- 
 hood as the “Paris Basis”: 
 
 “The Young Men’s Christian Associations seek to 
 unite those young men, who, regarding Jesus Christ 
 as their God and Savior, according to the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, desire to be His disciples in their doctrine and 
 in their life, and to associate their efforts for the 
 extension of His kingdom among young men.” 
 
 The Jubilee World’s Conference of 1905, held in Paris, 
 unanimously reaffirmed this “Paris Basis” without altera- 
 tion. From 1851 the American Movement has grown 
 steadily in the development of its many-sided activities 
 with the more or less steady permeation of the Chris- 
 tian objective. It has extended its efforts from those of 
 boys and men living in cities, to include those in college and 
 university life, to railroad men and to those in all classes 
 of industry, promoting co-operation of employee with em- 
 ployer, to American soldiers and sailors, to men and boys 
 in town and country neighborhoods, to colored men and 
 boys, and to the North American Indians. Similarly this 
 Movement has expanded so that it now includes similar 
 efforts among men and boys of Japan, India, China, 
 Korea, South America, and the Near East. During the 
 World War, the Y ministered to five million American 
 soldiers and sailors in the home land and overseas, and 
 to the armies of seven European countries. 
 
 Doctrine—Each local Association is an independent 
 unit in the Brotherhood, if composed of a group of active 
 members (members of Protestant evangelical churches) 
 whose officers are members in good standing of and elected 
 by, members of evangelical churches. 
 
 The basis of active membership and control required of 
 such local Y’s, for representation in the International 
 
212 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Convention of Young Men’s Christian Associations of 
 North America, may be briefly shown in the following 
 actions of International Conventions :— 
 
 1. The North American basis, as adopted by the Con- 
 vention of 1868 and generally known as the “Evangelical 
 Church Membership Basis,” is: 
 
 “That, as these organizations bear the name of 
 Christian, and profess to be engaged directly in 
 the Savior’s service, so, it is clearly their duty 
 to maintain the control and management of all 
 their affairs in the hands of those who profess to 
 love and publicly avow their faith in Jesus, the 
 Redeemer, as Divine, and who testify their faith 
 by becoming and remaining members of churches 
 held to be evangelical, and that such persons, and 
 none others, should be allowed to vote or hold 
 office.” 
 
 2. An alternate definition of the term “evangelical” 
 was adopted by the Convention of 1922, as follows :— 
 
 “Resolved: That in determining which churches 
 are evangelical for purposes affecting the basis of 
 active membership, local Associations may regard 
 as evangelical churches any of the following :— 
 a. Those conforming to the definition adopted by 
 
 the International Convention held in Portland, 
 
 Maine, in 1869. 
 
 b. Those designated as eligible for membership in 
 the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in 
 
 America, or the corresponding body of the 
 
 Dominion of Canada.” 
 
 Slight modifications of the above platform, to meet the 
 desires of the student Y’s and also of other Associations 
 in different sections of the country, have been made and 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 213 
 
 may be found in the detailed reports of recent Interna- 
 tional Conventions. 
 
 Polity, Organization and Activities—The North 
 American Movement, beginning in 1851 in Montreal and 
 Boston, has steadily developed, expanded and adapted its 
 service to men and boys until the present time we find the 
 following activities: 
 
 1. Organization, Personnel, and Membership. 
 
 a. 
 
 b. 
 
 The number of different local Y’s on the Official 
 Roster June 1, 1923, is 1,646, of which 737 are 
 city Y’s, 373 are student Y’s, 218 railroad Y’s, 
 141 town and country Y’s, 36 army and navy 
 Y’s, and 141 Y’s among colored men. 
 
 The number of directors and appointees on an- 
 nual standing committees, 81,430. 
 
 c. Employed officers (paid secretaries), 5,045. 
 
 d. 
 
 Total membership, 902,673, of which 225,938 
 are boys under eighteen years of age. 
 
 . In the total membership above, 454,741 are 
 
 active members (members of evangelical 
 churches), and 80,176 of these are boys under 
 eighteen years of age. 
 
 . Included in the total membership above, are 
 
 167,731 members that are engaged in industrial 
 occupations other than those in railroad service. 
 
 2. Activities. 
 
 a. 
 
 Social and economic. 
 
 These include 64,866 entertainments and social 
 features, 28,244 motion-picture exhibitions, 
 98,930 positions found for men and boys, 56,- 
 905 different beds in dormitories used over 
 fifteen million times during the year, 210 
 restaurants serving over 26 million meals, 
 
214 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 and %7,711 men and boys in summer 
 camps. 
 
 b. Industrial. 
 The 2,081 different manufacturing plants have 
 been served locally through 1,343 Y committees 
 and over a half million working men and boys 
 have thus been enabled to use the privileges 
 of the various Y buildings. Nearly 10,000 
 foreign-speaking men and boys have been taught 
 to read and write practical English; 10,356 
 foreign-born men have been taught the elements 
 of American citizenship, and 6,983 have been 
 aided not only to secure their first citizenship 
 papers in former years, but also have been aided 
 in securing their second citizenship papers the 
 past year. 
 
 c. Physical. 
 There are 10,684 men and boys in over 500 
 different leaders’ clubs, 124,288 given rigid 
 physical examinations and training in 818 Y 
 gymnasiums, 241 athletic fields and over 200 
 Y swimming pools. There were 338,551 dif- 
 ferent men and boys in regular gymnasium 
 classes, 8,036 in first-aid classes and 120,868 
 taught swimming and life saving. 
 
 d. Educational. 
 The 2,758 paid teachers and leaders in addition 
 to an even larger number of volunteer teachers 
 and leaders have given systematic and regular 
 instruction through the year for two or more 
 periods each week to 98,529 different men and 
 boy students in regular attendance. Of these 
 students, 10,350 were in the regular Y day 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 215 
 
 schools and the remainder in evening schools 
 and summer schools. 
 e. Religious. 
 
 There have been 5,637 regular teachers of 8,709 
 Bible classes for boys and men in which 208,792 
 different men and boys have been regular stu- 
 dents. These classes meet once each week. 
 76,624 different religious meetings, in the Y 
 buildings or in the manufacturing plants or in 
 public halls, have been held with an attendance 
 of 5,662,700. 36,819 different men and boys 
 have been led to decisions for the Christian life, 
 aside from more than 40,000 others taking for- 
 ward steps. 10,853 have been led to unite with 
 the church of their choice. 
 
 (b) YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 History—The Young Women’s Christian Association 
 of the United States traces its origin to a meeting held at 
 New York University, in November, 1858, where thirty- 
 five women under the direction of Mrs. Marshall C. Roberts 
 formed what was known as the Ladies’ Christian Associa- 
 tion. The organization, a reflection of a similar move- 
 ment in England, had for its purpose to unite young 
 women for higher, all-round development end service 
 through religious and secular means. Noon-hour prayer 
 services were held among the young working women of 
 New York. In 1866, a separate organization sprang into 
 being in Boston, under the name of the Boston Young 
 Women’s Christian Association. This Association, with 
 reading and recreation rooms, board and lodging, was a 
 
916 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 direct ancestor of the city Y. W. C. A.’s of to-day. Other 
 cities followed the example of New York and Boston, 
 until, in 1871, at the invitation of the Hartford Associa- 
 tion, the first national conference was held in that city. 
 In 187%, the first international conference was called at 
 Montreal, and the year 1891 saw the formal organization 
 of the International Board of Women’s Christian Asso- 
 ciations. 
 
 Meanwhile a parallel and independent growth was tak- 
 ing place among the student bodies of this country, begin- 
 ning with the Young Ladies’ Christian Association of 
 Normal, Illinois, organized in 1873. The student organi- 
 zations were nationally organized on a strictly evangelical 
 basis under the direction of a body known as the Amer- 
 ican Committee. In the year 1906, a union was effected 
 between the International Board with its 147 city asso- 
 ciations and the American Committee with 469 student 
 associations, under the chairmanship of Miss Grace Dodge 
 who organized the following year the National Board of 
 the Y. W. C. A. This year saw the first publication of 
 the Association Monthly and in 1908 the Board opened 
 the National Training School in New York. The present 
 National Headquarters at 600 Lexington Avenue, New 
 York, was erected in 1912. 
 
 Purpose and Doctrine—The purpose of the Young 
 Women’s Christian Association is as follows: To asso- 
 ciate young women in personal loyalty to Jesus Christ as 
 Savior and Lord; to promote growth in Christian charac- 
 ter and service through physical, social, mental and 
 spiritual training; and to become a social force for the 
 extension of the Kingdom of God. 
 
 Its voting membership is limited to women who are 
 members of Protestant Evangelical churches except in the 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 217 
 
 case of student associations which have an alternate per- 
 sonal basis of membership. 
 
 Polity—The organization of the National Board con- 
 sists of 49 members resident in New York and 12 non- 
 resident members, all volunteers. The work is distrib- 
 uted among 9 divisions, each with a volunteer chairman 
 and a salaried executive, as follows: General Adminis- 
 tration; Business Division; Editorial and Publicity Divi- 
 ston which handles the monthly magazine, The Woman’s 
 Press, and all newspaper, magazine and campaign pub- 
 licity; Foreign Division, in charge of all American work 
 in other countries; Finance Division, responsible for rais- 
 ing the yearly budget; Education and Research Division 
 which handles international, religious, legislative and 
 social (including physical) education; Personnel Division, 
 which recruits, trains and places secretaries in every field 
 of work; Division of Conventions and Conferences; and 
 the Field Division which includes the City, Town, Rural 
 Communities and Student departments, the Girl Reserve 
 and Industrial departments, the Indian department, the 
 department for Work with Business and Professional 
 Women and the department for Work with Foreign-Born 
 Women, including migration and port work as well as 
 the work in the International Institutes. 
 
 The one legislative body of the Young Women’s Chris- 
 tian Association is the national biennial convention, a 
 representative body directly proportioned to the mem- 
 bership. To this body the National Board is respon- 
 sible. 
 
 Statistics—The membership of the association is over 
 600,000 and is distributed as follows: 
 
 City associations, branches and centers 550 
 Town associations 130 
 
218 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 County associations and centers 68 
 Student associations 667 
 
 including 45 International Institutes for foreign-born 
 women in 18 different states. 
 
 The Association’s foreign work comprises 49 centers 
 and employs 158 secretaries. | 
 
 (c) THE UNITED SOCIETY OF CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR 
 
 (Christian Endeavor) 
 
 History—The first Christian Hndeavor society was 
 organized by Rev. Francis E. Clark, D.D., on February 
 2, 1881, in the manse of the Williston Congregational 
 Church, Portland, Me. Earlier in the winter a number 
 of young people had united with the church, and the 
 pastor wished to give them something to do. With this 
 aim in view he formed the society, some fifty young people 
 signing the constitution, which contained a pledge of 
 loyalty to Christ and the church. 
 
 So successful was the society that Dr. Clark wrote, six 
 months later, an article for The Congregationalist telling 
 what one pastor was doing for his young people. Other 
 pastors saw this article and tried the experiment. In 
 this way the society spread. The second society was 
 formed by Rev. C. P. Mills in his church in Newbury- 
 port, Mass., in October, 1881. By the end of the year 
 four other societies had been formed—in Rhode Island, 
 Maine, Vermont, and Ohio. 
 
 On June 2, 1882, the first conference of Christian 
 Endeavor societies was held in Portland, Me., with six 
 societies represented. In 1883 a society was started in 
 Honolulu, the first society outside America. The Chris- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 219 
 
 tian Endeavor idea was carried by church papers and by 
 missionaries to foreign lands, and in 1885 a society was 
 organized in Foochow, China. Other countries followed 
 rapidly, until to-day societies are found in all civilized 
 lands and in most mission lands. 
 
 In America the society’s growth was phenomenal. By 
 June, 1883, 53 societies were known to be in existence, 
 and their membership totalled 2,630. The following year 
 156 societies were reported with a membership of 6,414. 
 In 1885, 253 societies reported. To-day the estimated 
 number of societies in all lands is approximately 80,000, 
 with four million members. 
 
 Organization—A. The United Society of Christian 
 Endeavor—This is an interdenominational organization. 
 It has a board of trustees with representatives from all 
 denominations that have Christian Endeavor societies. 
 About eighty such denominations co-operate. The head- 
 quarters of the organization are in the World’s Christian 
 Endeavor Building, 41 Mount Vernon St., Boston, Mass. 
 
 The United Society is not a legislative body. It ex- 
 ercises no control over unions or local societies. Its work 
 is simply to be a clearing-house of Christian Endeavor 
 ideas and methods, to organize campaigns in which all 
 societies may co-operate, and to inspire the young people 
 to loyalty to Christ and the church. The motto of the 
 society is: “For Christ and the Church.” 
 
 B. State and Other Unions—State Christian Endeavor 
 Unions are organized with president and other officers, 
 together with superintendents of the various departments 
 of Christian Endeavor work. Practically all the States 
 are organized. The United Society works through the 
 State organizations. The States are again divided into 
 
220 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 smaller unions—county unions, district unions, or city 
 unions, all with a full set of officers and superintendents, 
 and all stimulated by the State organizations. 
 
 The departments include prayer-meeting, lookout, mis- 
 sionary, social, Quiet Hour, tithing, citizenship, army and 
 navy. 3 3 
 C. The Local Society——The local society is in and of 
 and for the church. It is under the direct control of the 
 ruling board of the local church without outside inter- 
 ference. It has a set of officers like the larger organiza- 
 tions. It is organized on the basis of a pledge, which 
 active members sign. Provision is made also for asso- 
 ciate and honorary members. The society has many com- 
 mittees, each headed by a chairman and following the 
 lines of departments mentioned above, to provide tasks 
 for the young people. The society has become the expres- 
 sional organization of the church. 
 
 Principles—Briefly, the principles of the society are 
 these : 
 
 1. Personal devotion to Christ and confession of Him. 
 2. Covenant relation to Christ, expressed in a pledge. 
 3. Training in service through the work of the commit- 
 tees. This includes definite standards of service and com- 
 mitment to them. 4. Loyalty to the local church and 
 denomination. 5. Interdenominational fellowship, which 
 manifests itself in interdenominational conferences, con- 
 ventions, and united work in Christian Endeavor unions. 
 6. Cultivation of the devotional life through Bible- 
 reading, prayer, and meditation. 7%. Generous giving to 
 Christian work at home and abroad. 8. Christian citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 The society is very flexible. Its organization can be 
 modified in any way that a pastor chooses. No special 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 221 
 
 wording of a pledge is demanded, but a pledge itself 
 committing young people to Christian service and loyalty, 
 is a distinguishing feature of the society. 
 
 5. FOR SPREAD OF LIBERAL THOUGHT 
 
 (a) INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF FREE CHRISTIANS 
 AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS 
 
 This congress was organized by the delegates in attend- 
 ance at the seventy-fifth Anniversaries of the American 
 Unitarian Association and British and Foreign Unitarian 
 Association in Boston, in May, 1900. Representatives 
 were present from Great Britain, Hungary, India, Bel- 
 gium, Japan and the United States. The name proposed 
 was, “International Council of Unitarian and other Liberal 
 Religious Thinkers and Workers,” and the purpose, “To 
 open communication with those in all lands who are striv- 
 ing to unite pure religion and perfect liberty, and to in- 
 crease fellowship and co-operation among them.” At the 
 Congress in Berlin in 1910 the present name, “Interna- 
 tional Congress of Free Christians and Other Religious 
 Liberals” was adopted. The following affirmation has re- 
 mained the statement of purpose: “The International 
 Congress seeks to bring into closer union for exchange of 
 ideas, mutual service, and the promotion of their common 
 aims, the historic liberal churches, the liberal elements in 
 all churches, scattered liberal congregations and isolated 
 workers for religious freedom and progress in many 
 lands.” 
 
 Hight International Congresses have been held: 
 Leiden (1901), Amsterdam (1903), Geneva (1905), Bos- 
 ton (1907), Berlin (1910), Paris (1913), Boston (1920), 
 and Leiden (1922). At the Paris Congress in 1913 rep- 
 
222 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 resentatives were present from thirty-one nations and one 
 hundred different religious fellowships. 
 
 In 1910 the International Union of Liberal Christian 
 Women was organized at the Congress in Berlin to pro- 
 mote fellowship among women in different countries. It 
 meets every third year in connection with the International 
 Congress. Women’s societies in eight countries are af- 
 filiated. 
 
 (b) THE NATIONAL FEDERATION OF RELIGIOUS 
 LIBERALS 
 
 This is an interdenominational organization for inter- 
 change and propagation of thought, and co-operation in 
 activities, common to liberal Protestant and other re- 
 ligious bodies in the United States and Canada. It 
 began as a federation of those not eligible on doctrinal 
 grounds to membership in the Federal Council of Churches 
 of Christ in America. Its first members were those who 
 withdrew from the assembly of delegates out of which 
 came the Federation of Churches of Christ. At a meeting 
 held in Philadelphia on December 3, 1908, the purpose 
 of the Federation was declared to be: “To promote the 
 religious life by united testimony for sincerity, freedom, 
 progress in religion, by social service, and a fellowship 
 of the spirit beyond the lines of sect and creed.” The 
 first congress was held in Philadelphia in 1909 with 
 1,000 delegates in attendance. Eleven such gatherings 
 have been held. 
 
 Membership is open to both organizations and in- 
 dividuals. The affiliated bodies are—The American Uni- 
 tarian Association, Central Conference of American 
 Rabbis, Universalist General Convention, General Confer- 
 
THE PROTESTANTS 223 
 
 ence of the Society of Friends, and various independent 
 societies. The individual membership includes representa- 
 tives of Protestant Evangelical, Congregational, Episcopal, 
 Baptist Churches, Spiritualists and Ethical Culturists. 
 Though widely diffused, Philadelphia and vicinity has had 
 the largest representation because of the interest of the 
 liberal Friends. The present membership is distributed 
 over thirty-three states, the District of Columbia and three 
 provinces of Canada. 
 
 The chief activity of the Federation has been through 
 its addresses and published reports. At the last two con- 
 ferences plans have been formulated to make it a perma- 
 nently functioning body through the intervals between 
 meetings of the Federation. It has become a working 
 body with an executive secretary and a fixed center. The 
 basis of fellowship is:—“Perfect liberty in quest of pure 
 religion.” The general purpose is: 
 
 (1) To provide a fellowship beyond the lines of sect and 
 creed. 
 
 (2) To serve as a clearing-house of information and in- 
 spiration. 
 
 (3) To function in forms of co-operative effort. 
 
 (4) To make religion effective in the life of the world. 
 
 Among the immediate objects to make the Federation 
 effective are: 
 
 (1) Corps of liberal speakers to be sent into communities 
 where the reactionary forces are most active. 
 
 (2) Minimum subsistence for liberal ministers, who, hav- 
 ing been ousted from their churches by fundamentalist and 
 other reactionary forces, desire to establish thorough-going 
 liberal churches in their respective communities. 
 
 (3) Distribution of non-sectarian liberal religious liter- 
 
224 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 ature among isolated liberals in the smaller cities, hamlets, 
 and rural districts of America. 
 
 (4) District and National liberal religious conferences at 
 frequent intervals. © 
 
 (5) A Liberal Year Book, containing information of 
 liberal movements, gains registered and projects contem- 
 plated. : 
 
Part III 
 
 BLOM ers aN? On De CAST TN. Gael Hi Mi- 
 SELVES CHRISTIAN 
 

 
BODIES NOT CALLING THEMSELVES 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 1. THE THEOSOPHISTS 
 
 History—Those who take the name “Theosophist” be- 
 lieve that their organized movement, which is compara- 
 tively new, strikes its roots in things very old. Theos- 
 ophy means those who are wise about God, (theos [god], 
 and sophos [wise]). This wisdom may be human know- 
 ledge by the senses, or from the mystic’s way of knowing, 
 or from revelation. The first theosophical thought is 
 found in the ancient Upanishads, the oldest speculative 
 books of the Hindus. They belong to the Vedic literature 
 of India. They were translated from Sanskrit into Per- 
 sian, when it was the most widely known language of the 
 East, and reached Europe in the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century. The Upanishads are now accessible in 
 Max Miiller’s “Sacred Books of the East.” They deal 
 with the origin of the universe, the nature of God, the 
 nature of the soul, the connection of spirit and matter, and 
 purport to come from certain “Masters” who had reached 
 a higher stage of existence. 
 
 The beginning of theosophical thought in America is 
 associated with the name of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, a 
 Russian noblewoman who became a disciple of an Hastern 
 scholar whom she followed to Thibet. In 1875 she came 
 to New York City. After an unsuccessful effort to work 
 with the American Spiritualists, she and those whom she 
 
 had interested formed the “Theosophical Society.” Col. 
 227 
 
228 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Henry S. Olcott was the first president; William Q. 
 Judge, counsel; and Mme. Blavatsky, corresponding secre- 
 tary. In 1878 Mme. Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went to 
 Adyar, Madras, India, where an estate of two hundred and 
 sixty-six acres was purchased, which became the interna- 
 tional center. The library claims the best existing collec- 
 tion of the Upanishads and some unique Sanskrit manu- 
 scripts. William Q. Judge remained in America as the 
 President of the Aryan Theosophical Society of New York. 
 On the death of Mme. Blavatsky in 1891, Judge and Annie 
 Besant became her successors. A division took place in 
 1896 and the Theosophical Society of America was formed 
 in Boston. On the death of Judge in 1896, Katherine 
 Tingley became the leader. In 1898 she formed “The 
 Universal Brotherhood” of which she was the director 
 and the possessor of the property. The headquarters were 
 abandoned in New York and a colony formed at Point 
 Loma near San Diego, California. Three societies have 
 grown out of the original organization. There is an in- 
 dependent organization in New York City. 
 Doctrine—The expressed purpose of the Theosophical 
 Society is: (1) To form a nucleus of universal brother- 
 hood; (2) To know ancient religion and science, and, 
 (3) To investigate laws of nature and latent divine 
 powers in man. The universe is in condition of perpetual 
 change. God is infinite and absolute. There is a gradual 
 evolution, spirit changing into matter, and matter into 
 spirit, but evolution is only half of the process, the other 
 being involution. The world passes through seven great 
 cycles. Spiritual at first, there is a downward way to the 
 dense and the dark, which is the fourth cycle, the material 
 world in which we now are. From this stage the move- 
 ment is upward to spirituality. All souls are the same 
 
BODIES NOT CHRISTIAN 229 
 
 in essence and identical with the soul of all, the Over- 
 Soul. Each is related to all, and to the whole, and dif- 
 fers only in stages of development. The more advanced 
 are responsible for the less developed. Man is composed 
 of seven principles, four lower and three higher. The 
 lower, or personality, is made up of the visible physical 
 body ; the life principle and the principle of desire. This 
 fourfold nature is common to all life; is mortal and dis- 
 solves at death. The higher nature of man is mind, soul 
 and spirit. The mind distinguishes man from all other 
 life. The soul thinks of itself as separate, while spirit 
 is one, indivisible and unites all. At death the physical 
 body returns to the elements. The astral body disinte- 
 grates, but more slowly. Mind, soul, and spirit lose their 
 mortal garment, but, after stages, reach a heaven of bliss, 
 which is conditioned on the thoughts of earth. After 
 this period there is a return to earth, that is, rebirth into 
 the school of life of this world. This process has to be 
 repeated until each has learned all the lessons. The law 
 of “Karma” returns to man measure for measure his good 
 and evil thoughts and deeds. The ego must win all that 
 it gets, and each must go through all that there is to 
 go through. It is believed that life may be lived at such a 
 low plane that the soul abandons the body after death. 
 While some are thus going down, and, perhaps, out of the 
 struggle, others in each period are arriving at perfection, 
 one with the divine. These are the masters who could 
 enter into their reward if they would, but, of their own 
 will, remain the guides and guardians of humanity. Be- 
 hevers in theosophy, with its doctrines of reincarnation 
 and Karma, find an interpretation which saves human re- 
 sponsibility without impugning the justice of God. What 
 is sown is reaped, yet the way for recovery is left open. 
 
230 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 The wide differences among people here in the world are 
 explained as but different stages in the way that all will go. 
 
 Statistics—Theosophists have for their unit a lodge 
 which must have at least seven members. Seven lodges, 
 or sections, make a society, which is self-governing. Four 
 organizations report in the United States: the ““Theosophi- 
 cal Society,” “Theosophical Society, New York, (Inc.),” 
 “Theosophical Society (American Section),” and “Uni- 
 versal Brotherhood and Theosophical Society.” There 
 are 222 societies, 4 leaders, 64,126 members, and 4,008 in 
 their schools which are comparable to the Sunday school. 
 They maintain 3 schools and 4 periodicals. 
 
 2. THE SPIRITUALISTS 
 
 History—Spiritualism is the belief in the possibility of 
 communicating with the spirits of the dead so as to receive 
 intelligent messages and proofs of their identity and sur- 
 vival. In some form, this belief, that the souls of the 
 dead have some relation to the living, is widespread, if 
 not universal. Many of the oldest religious rites and cus- 
 toms grew out of the conviction that the spirits of the 
 dead continue and affect the living. Some interpreters 
 have found in these rites what they believe to be the first 
 expression of religion. Many events in the Bible, such as 
 the appearance of angels, evil spirits and the appearance 
 of Moses and Elias, presume a spirit world and the pos- 
 sibility of communicating with it. 
 
 Modern Spiritualism as a distinct and organized move- 
 ment is of recent growth. It had its beginnings in the 
 United States about the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 While the Christian Church was familiar with spirit com- 
 munication in the Bible and the literature of the church, 
 
BODIES NOT CHRISTIAN 2x31 
 
 no denomination up to 1850 had believed in the possibility 
 of communicating with the dead. The popular interest 
 began with the discovery of mediumship and the use of a 
 code of signals for spelling out the communications. 
 General interest was aroused by the Fox sisters of Hyde- 
 ville, N. Y., who in 1848 interpreted certain “Rappings” 
 as the effort of spirits trying to communicate. They 
 traveled over the country giving demonstrations and at- 
 tracted much attention. In 1850 Daniel Douglas Home 
 appeared with similar mysterious powers. In 1875 
 Messrs. Crookes and Varley, well-known English scientists, 
 and later Alfred Russel Wallace, proclaimed their belief 
 in spiritualistic manifestations. In 1893 the National 
 Spiritualistic Association was formed. For a_ time 
 Spiritualism as a distinct church movement had great 
 vogue. Between 1850 and 1872, two thousand churches 
 were organized in the United States; but with the increase 
 in the number of mediums came so many evidences of 
 fraud that the organized movement fell into disrepute. 
 Churches declined and their periodicals were discontinued. 
 
 Doctrine—The central doctrine of the Spiritualists is 
 the belief that the existence and personal identity of the 
 individual continue after death and can be communicated 
 with. With this they hold as a church to progression after 
 death, the way to reformation never being closed against 
 any individual. Punishment from wrong-doing continues 
 beyond the grave, for there is no forgiveness. All will 
 come ultimately to the state of happiness. In their 
 thought of God, most are theists. Their organization 1s 
 congregational. Two bodies in the United States, the 
 National Spiritual Association and the Progressive Spirit- 
 ual Church, report 624 churches; 24 State associations ; 
 322 ministers; 106,322 members; and 4,008 in Sunday 
 
232 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 school. They maintain 1 school and 4 _ periodicals. 
 
 While the organized movement has declined, the inter- 
 est has increased in another large circle of those who have 
 a speculative and a scientific interest in human survival 
 and the possibility of communicating with the dead. 
 To them it is less a doctrine to be propagated than a 
 matter to be investigated. They may have any or no 
 church affiliation. In 1882 the British Psychical Research 
 Society was organized in London and a few years later 
 an American branch. These societies set themselves to 
 a strict and impartial examination of the evidence for 
 spirit communication. Through their investigations and 
 published reports the alleged phenomena have become 
 familiar to a larger circle and to a different circle from 
 that attracted by Spiritualistic churches. The Seybert 
 Commission, under the auspices of the University of 
 Pennsylvania, with money given for the purpose, carried 
 on an extensive investigation of mediums. The term 
 “Spiritism” has been adopted to name the study of all such 
 phenomena without signifying that one is committed to 
 the belief that communication with the dead is established 
 as a fact. Among those whose names have been connected 
 with the investigation are Gladstone, Balfour, Crookes, 
 Wallace, Lodge, Bergson, James, Hyslop, and Doyle. 
 The general interest which had declined was revived by 
 the World War. Many bereaved families were then es- 
 pecially receptive to any evidence of communication 
 with their dead. 
 
 3. THE ETHICAL CULTURISTS 
 
 History—What is known as the “Kthical Movement” 
 began in 1876 in New York City with the formation of 
 
BODIES NOT CHRISTIAN 233 
 
 “The Society for Ethical Culture.” Its growth was rapid, 
 numbering in a short time 1000 members. Felix Adler, 
 the son of a Jewish Rabbi in New York, lecturer for a time 
 on Oriental languages and literature at Cornell Univer- 
 sity and later Professor of Applied Ethics at Columbia 
 University, was the founder of the Society and has been 
 President since its organization. Societies were founded 
 in Chicago (1883), in Philadelphia (1885), and in St. 
 Louis (1886). In 1887 the “South Place Religious So- 
 ciety” of London became the “South Place Ethical Union,” 
 and through its influence 30 other societies were formed 
 in England. In 1896 at Zurich the International Ethical 
 Union was organized. 
 
 The purpose as expressed in the Constitution of the In- 
 ternational Union is: “To assert the supreme impor- 
 tance of the Ethical factor in all the relations of life— 
 personal, social, national and international—apart from 
 any theological or metaphysical consideration.” Organ- 
 ized “To elevate the moral life of its members and that 
 of the community,” it welcomes to fellowship “All persons, 
 who sympathize with this aim whatever may be their 
 theological or philosophical opinions.” Supreme place is 
 given to right conduct. Morality is viewed as an inde- 
 pendent development with a different origin and history 
 from that of theological beliefs and therefore not depend- 
 ing upon them for its sanctions. “Deed and not creed,” 
 is emphasized. The thought of God and other religious 
 interpretations are left to the individual. In practice it 
 fills the place of the church for its members and tends to- 
 ward a religious movement. Each society has a lecturer, 
 who conducts a service on Sunday morning or Sunday 
 evening, or both. The chief feature of the public service 
 is the lecture which deals with the ethical significance of 
 
234 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 some current matter or of the inner life. In the English 
 societies more attention is given to the service than in 
 America. Through published addresses and books the 
 Ethical Culture movement has reached a wide circle be- 
 yond the membership. 
 
 The movement has been distinguished from the outset 
 by its good works. A working man’s school, district nurs- 
 ing, improved tenement houses, neighborhood guilds, a 
 bureau of justice, and self-culture clubs are outgrowths 
 of, and illustrations of, its spirit. The New York Society 
 was the first to introduce manual training into Elementary 
 Schools. 
 
 Statistics—In the United States there are 7 societies; 
 11 lecturers; 3,210 members; and 438 in Sunday school. 
 2 schools are maintained, in New York City and in Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., and 1 periodical, The Standard. 
 
REFERENCES 
 
 In compiling the list of references, the revisers have had in 
 mind the material available in the average library. The follow- 
 ing encyclopedias will be found useful: The Encyclopedia Brit- 
 annica, Eleventh Edition 1910-1911, and the new volumes of the 
 Twelfth Edition, Volumes 30, 31, 32, 1923; The New Interna- 
 tional Encyclopedia, 1924; Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 
 James Hastings, 1908-1922; The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclo- 
 pedia of Religious Knowledge, 1908-1912; The Catholic Encyclo- 
 pedia, 1912-1917; and The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-1905. 
 
 In addition, the following contain material on most of the 
 sects: 
 
 Yearbook of the Churches, E. O. Watson, 1923. Issued by the 
 Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America; 105 
 East 22d Street, New York City. 
 
 Handbook of All Denominations: M. Phelan, 1915. Publishing 
 House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Nashville, 
 Tenn. 
 
 Religious Bodies, 1916. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 
 Census. Part II contains historical material, and Part I 
 statistics. Government Publication. 
 
 American Church History Series. History of the Larger De- 
 nominations. 
 
 Story of the Churches. Later Series, but incomplete. 
 
 For later and current material, Reader’s Guide (Successor to 
 
 Poole’s Index) should be consulted. 
 
 The address of the denominational headquarters of each body 
 may be found in the Yearbook of the Churches issued by the 
 
 Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, 
 
 THE JEWS 
 
 “Jews,” Enc. Britannica 15: 371. 
 “Israel,” 6: 439 and “Judaism,” 6: 581, “Enc. of Religion and 
 Ethics,” Hastings. 
 235 
 
236 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 “Tsrael, People of,’ The Jewish Enc. 6: 61. 
 
 “Israel, History of,’ The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 6: 49. 
 
 “Jews,” The New International Enc. 12: 677. 
 
 “Israelites,” 8: 193, “Jews and Judaism,” 8: 386, The Catholic 
 Enc. 
 
 A History of the Hebrew People, 2 volumes. Charles Foster 
 Kent, 1912. 
 
 A History of the Religion of Israel. Crawford H. Toy, 1883. 
 
 Judaism and Christianity. Crawford H. Toy, 1892. 
 
 Lectures on the Jewish Church. 3 volumes. Arthur Penrhyn 
 Stanley, 1863. 
 
 History of the Jews. 3 volumes. Henry Hart Milman, 1864. 
 See Index. 
 
 REFORM JUDAISM 
 
 “Period of Emancipation,” Enc. Britannica 15: 406. 
 
 “Liberal Judaism,” Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 7: 900. 
 
 “Reform Judaism,” The Jewish Enc. 10: 347. 
 
 “Judaism at the Present Time,’ The New International Ene 
 12: 691. 
 
 ZIONISM 
 
 Jewish Enc. 12: 666. 
 
 Ene. Britannica 28: 986 and 32: 1129 (New volume). 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 855. 
 
 The New International Enc. 23: 861. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 12:517. 
 
 Zionism and the Future in Palestine. Morris Jastrow, 1919. 
 Zionism and World Politics. Horace Meyer Kallen, 1921. 
 
 THE CHRISTIANS 
 
 Enc. Britannica, 6: 280. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 3: 573 and 3:579 
 The New International Enc. 5: 282. 
 
 The Jewish Enc. 4: 48 and 4: 49. 
 
 A History of the Christian Church. Williston Walker, 1918. 
 History of the Christian Church. George Park Fisher, 1914. 
 
REFERENCES 237 
 
 What is Christianity? Adolph Harnack, 1901. 
 
 The Evolution of Early Christianity. Shirley Jackson Case, 
 1914. 
 
 The Development of Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 1910. 
 
 Outline of Christian History. J. H. Allen, 1889. 
 
 History of the Christian Church. 7 volumes. Philip Schaff, 
 1882. 
 
 CREEDS 
 
 “Creeds,” Enc. Britannica 7: 392. 
 
 “Creed,” Catholic Enc. 4: 478. 
 
 “Symbolics,” The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 11: 199. 
 
 “Articles of Faith,” Jewish Ene. 2: 148. 
 
 “Creeds and Confessions,” The New International Ene. 6: 239. 
 
 “Creeds and Articles,’ Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 
 A251. 
 
 Creeds of Christendom. Philip Schaff. See Volume I, Chapter 1. 
 Also page 817, Creeds of Modern Evangelical Denominations. 
 
 Theological Symbolics. Charles Augustine Briggs, 1914. 
 
 Introduction to the Creeds. A. E. Burn, 1899. 
 
 A History of Creeds. William A. Curtis, 1911. 
 
 SOURCES OF AUTHORITY 
 
 “Authority, Ecclesiastical,’ “Church,” “Pope” and “Hierarchy” 
 in Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 “Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction,’ Ene. Britannica 8: 853. 
 
 “Authority, Ecclesiastical,’ New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 1: 383. 
 
 “Authority, Rabbinical,’ Jewish Ene. 2: 337, 
 
 “Authority,” Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 2: 249. 
 
 Religions of Authority. Auguste Sabatier, 1904. 
 
 Authority and Freedom. A. E. Rawlinson, 1924. 
 
 Apologia Pro Vita Sua. John Henry Newman, 1865. 
 
 Seat of Authority in Religion. James Martineau, 1890. 
 
 GOD 
 
 Enc. Britannica 12: 169. 
 New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 5: 2. 
 Jewish Enc. 6: 1. 
 
938 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 The New International Enc. 10: 73. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 6: 243. 
 
 The Idea of God. Clarence Augustine Beckwith, 1897. 
 
 The God of the Early Christians. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, 
 1924. 
 
 The Christian Conception of God. W. F. Adeney, 1912. 
 
 The Christian Doctrine of God. William Newton Clarke, 1909. 
 
 Fundamental Ideas of Christianity. John Caird, 1899. 
 
 Belief in God. Charles Gore, 1921. 
 
 JESUS 
 
 “Jesus Christ”’ Enc. Britannica 15: 348. The New Schaff- 
 Herzog Enc. 6: 150. Catholic Enc. 8: 374. The New In- 
 ternational Enc. 12: 658. Enc. of Religion and Ethics, 
 Hastings, 7: 505. 
 
 “Jesus of Nazareth,’ Jewish Enc. 7: 160. 
 
 Sources of our Knowledge of the Life of Christ. Paul Wernle, 
 1907. 
 
 What We Know about Jesus. Charles F. Dole, 1908. 
 
 Early Christian Conceptions of Christ. Otto Pfleiderer, 1905. 
 
 Quest of the Historical Jesus. Albert Schweitzer, 1910. 
 
 The Founder of the Christian Religion. Goldwin Smith, 1903. 
 
 Oriental Christ. P. C. Mozoomdar, 1883. 
 
 Place of Christ in Modern Theology. A. M. Fairbairn, 1893. 
 
 Ethical Teachings of Jesus. Charles Augustus Briggs, 1904. 
 
 Constructive Studies of the Life of Jesus. E. D. Burton and 
 Shailer Matthews, 1904. 
 
 Prophet of Nazareth. Nathaniel Schmidt, 1905. 
 
 Supremacy of Jesus. J. H. Crooker, 1911. 
 
 The Christ Story for Boys and Girls. Abraham Mitrie Rihbany, 
 1923. 
 
 The Man Himself. Rollin Lynde Hartt, 1923. 
 
 HUMAN NATURE 
 
 “Responsibility,” Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 10: 739. 
 “Original Sin” or “Sin.” 
 
 The New International Enc. 17: 575 and 21: 127. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 11: 312, 
 
REFERENCES 239 
 
 Enc. Britannica 25: 137. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 10: 432. 
 The Jewish Ene. 11: 376. 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics; Hastings, 11: 528. 
 The Doctrine of Sin. Reginald Stewart Moxon, 1922. 
 The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original Sin. F. R. 
 Tennant, 1903. 
 Nature and the Supernatural. Horace Bushnell, 1859. 
 A Study of Religion, Book III, Chapter 2, James Martineau, 1888. 
 See “Augustinianism,” “Semi-Pelagianism,” “Pelagianism,” “Cal- 
 vinism,” “Socinianism,’ and “Arminianism,”’ in Encyclo- 
 pedias and Index of the following: 
 A History of Doctrine. George Park Fisher, 1896. 
 Works of Theodore Parker. Centenary Edition (Index Volume) 
 1908. 
 SALVATION 
 
 “Salvation,” Jewish Enc. 10: 663. 
 Catholic Enc. 13: 407. 
 New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 10: 179. 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 11: 109. 
 The Christian Doctrine of Salvation. George Barker Stevens, 
 1905. 
 Judaism and Christianity. OC. H. Toy, Chapter 4. 
 Seat of Authority in Religion, pp. 450-490. James Martineau, 
 1890. 
 Ten Discourses on Orthodoxy. J. H. Allen, Chapter 5. 
 See “Predestination,” “Conversion” and “Justification” in En- 
 cyclopedias and in Index of Books on the history of doctrine. 
 
 FUTURE LIFE 
 
 “Eschatology.” 
 Enc. Britannica 9: 760. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 4: 173. 
 Jewish Enc. 5: 209. 
 Catholic Ene. 5: 528. 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 5: 373. 
 The New International Enc. 8: 80. 
 The Teaching of Jesus about the Future. Henry Burton Shar- 
 man, 1909. 
 
240 <A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Eschatology—A Critical History of the Doctrine of Future Life. 
 R. H. Charles, 1913. 
 
 Seat of Authority. James Martineau, pp. 546-573. 
 
 See Articles in Encyclopedias on “Second Advent,” “Parousia,” 
 “Millennium,” “Judgment,” “Retribution,” “Probation,” 
 “Elect,” ‘Eternal Punishment,” “Purgatory,” “Heaven,” 
 Eel les 
 
 THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS 
 
 “Sacraments.” 
 Enc. Britannica, 23: 976. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 10: 141. 
 Catholic Enc. 13: 295. 
 The New International Enc. 20: 289. 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 10: 897. 
 
 The Sacramental Principle. Paul M. Bull, 1915. 
 
 Sacraments in the New Testament. John C. Lambert, 1903. 
 
 The Church and the Sacramental System. Francis J. Hall, 1920. 
 
 The Nature and Function of Sacraments. Arthur J. Tait, 1917. 
 
 Lecture on the Church and the Sacraments. P. T. Forsyth, 
 1917. 
 
 The Sacraments. Francis J. Hall. 1921. 
 
 Catholic and Protestant. Frederick Joseph Kinsman, 1913. 
 
 Seat of Authority in Religion, pp. 127-169; 513-546. James 
 Martineau, 1890. 
 
 Primitive Christianity (Theological Translation Library), Vol. 
 4, chapter 14. Otto Pfleiderer, 1911. 
 
 The Spirit. Edited by B. H. Streeter. Sacraments. p. 223. Lily 
 Dougal, 1919. 
 
 See Articles: Baptism, Confirmation (Chrism), the Holy Eu- 
 charist (Lord’s Supper, Communion, Agape), Priesthood 
 (Holy Orders), Penitence, Marriage, and Unction (Extreme 
 Unction). 
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLICS 
 
 See Catholic Enc.: “Catholic,” 3: 449; “The Church,” 3: 744; 
 “Roman Catholic,” 13: 121; “Roman College,” 13: 131; 
 “Roman Congregation,” 13: 136; “Roman Curia,” 13: 147. 
 
REFERENCES 241 
 
 “Roman Catholic Church,’ Ene. Britannica 23: 486. The New 
 Schaff-Herzog Ene. 10: 70. 
 
 “The Western Church,” Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 
 Al eat 
 
 The New International Ene. 20: 96. 
 
 “Catholics,” American Church History Series. Thomas O’Gor- 
 man, 1895. 
 
 The Faith of Our Fathers. Cardinal James Gibbons, 1891. 
 
 THE OLD CATHOLICS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 20: 67. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 8: 230. 
 
 The Catholic Ene. 11: 235. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 9: 483. 
 
 The New International Ene. 17: 419. 
 
 History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth sitgiaet 
 James MacCaffrey, 1910. 
 
 THE EASTERN OR ORTHODOX CHURCH 
 
 “Orthodox Eastern Church,’ Ene. Britannica 20: 333. 
 “Eastern Church,” The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 4: 48. 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings. 
 
 “Eastern Church,” 5: 134. 
 
 “Greek Orthodox Church,” 6: 425. 
 
 “Russian Church,” 10: 867. 
 New International Enc. 10: 309. 
 The Greek and Eastern Churches. Walter F. Adeney, 1908. 
 Students’ History of the Greek Church. A. H. Hore, 1902. 
 Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church. Arthur Penrhyn 
 
 Stanley, 1900. 
 
 PROTESTANTS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 22: 472. 
 
 “Reformation,” Enc. Britannica 23: 4. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics. 10:410. “Reformation” 10: 609. 
 Hastings. 
 
.2429 A STUDY -OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 The New International Enc. 19: 285; 19: 632. 
 
 Catholic Enc. 12: 495; 12: 700. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 9: 290; 9: 417. 
 
 Christian Thought to the Reformation. Herbert B. Workman, 
 1911, 
 
 Protestant Thought before Kant. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, 
 1911. 
 
 A History of Christian Thought since Kant. Edward Cald- 
 well Moore, 1912. 
 
 THE LUTHERANS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 17: 140. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 7: 79. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 9: 458. 
 
 The New International Enc. 14: 488. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 8: 202. 
 
 Lutherans—American Church History Series. Henry Eyster 
 Jacobs, 1893. 
 
 The Reformation. Williston Walker, 1917. 
 
 The Age of Reformation. Preserved Smith, 1920. 
 
 THE MENNONITES 
 
 Ene. Britannica 18: 132, 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 7: 299. 
 
 Catholic Enc. 10: 190. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 8: 551. 
 
 The New International Ene. 15: 404. 
 
 See Article “Menno Simons.” 
 
 Mennonites-Baptists. American Church History Series. A. H. 
 Newman, 1894. 
 
 Baptist Confessions of Faith, W. J. McGlothlin, 1910. pp. 24-49. 
 
 THE BAPTISTS 
 
 Ene. Britannica 3: 370. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 1: 456. 
 
 Catholic Enc. 2: 278. 
 
 New International Ene. 2: 646. 
 
 Baptists. American Church History Series. A. H. Newman, 
 1894. 
 
 A Short History of the Baptists. Henry C. Vedder, 1907, 
 
REFERENCES 243 
 
 Baptists. Story of the Churches Series. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 The Baptists. George Edwin Horr. 1917. 
 
 The Baptist Heritage. George Edwin Horr. 1917. 
 
 THE PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 The Ene. Britannica 22: 283. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 9: 205. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 12: 392. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 10: 244. 
 
 The New International Ene. 19: 176. 
 
 Presbyterians. American Church History Series. Volume II. 
 Robert Ellis Thompson. 
 
 American Presbyterianism. Charles Augustus Briggs, 1885. 
 
 The Presbyterians. Story of the Churches. Charles Lemuel 
 Thompson, 1903. 
 
 THE REFORMED CHURCH 
 
 See also “Reformed (Dutch) Church,” “Christian Reformed 
 Church,” and “Reformed Church in the United States.” 
 
 Ene. Britannica 23: 22. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 9: 426, 
 
 Catholic Ene. 12: 710. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 10: 622. 
 
 The New International Ene. 19: 641. 
 
 The Reformed Church. American Church History Series, E. T. 
 Corwin and J. H. Dubbs, 1895. 
 
 THE CONGREGATIONALISTS 
 
 Ene. Britannica 6: 928. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 4: 239. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 3: 231. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 4: 19. 
 
 The New International Enc. 5: 737. 
 
 Congregationalists. American Church History Series. Volume 
 III. Williston Walker, 1894. 
 
 The Congregationalists. Story of the Churches Series. Leonard 
 W. Bacon, 1904. 
 
 The Congregationalists. Leonard Woolsey Bacon, 1904. 
 
244 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Congregationalism as Seen in Its Literature. Henry Martyn 
 Dexter, 1880. 
 
 History of English Congregationalism. R. W. Dale, 1907. 
 
 The Evolution of English Congregationalism. Alexander Mac- 
 Kennal, 1901. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 Congregationalists. John Winthrop Platner, 1917. 
 
 THE EPISCOPALIANS 
 
 “Protestant Episcopal Church.” 
 Enc. Britannica 22: 473. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 9: 283. 
 The Catholic Ene. 12: 493. 
 The New International Enc. 8: 28. 
 Three Hundred Years of the Episcopal Church in America. 
 George Hodges, 1906. 
 Protestant Episcopal. American Church History Series. 
 Charles C. Tiffany, 1895. 
 History of the American Episcopal Church. S. D, McConnell, 
 1891. 
 “The Episcopalians.” The Story of the Churches Series. Dan- 
 iel Dulany Addison, 1904. 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 The Episcopalians. George Hodges, 1917. 
 
 THE FRIENDS (ORTHODOX) 
 
 “Friends.” 
 Ene. Britannica 11: 223. 
 Catholie Ene. 6: 304. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 4: 393. 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 6: 142. 
 The New International Ene. 9: 285, 
 Iriends. American Church History Series. Volume XIII. 
 Allen C. Thomas and Richard H. Thomas, 1894. 
 Spiritual Reformers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 
 Rufus M. Jones, 1908. 
 The Beginnings of Quakerism. William C. Braithwate, 1912. 
 The Quakers in the American Colonies. Rufus M. Jones, 1911. 
 The Second Period of Quakerism. William C. Braithwaite, 1919. 
 
REFERENCES 245 
 
 The Later Periods of Quakerism. Rufus M. Jones. 2 volumes, 
 19213 
 
 The Faith of a Quaker. John W. Graham, 1920. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures, 
 The Quakers. Rufus M. Jones, 1917. 
 
 THE DUNKARDS 
 
 See also “Dunkers,” ‘“Tunkers,” “Church of the Brethren.” 
 
 “German Baptist Brethren,’ Ene. Britannica 11: 769. 
 
 “Dunkers,” The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 4: 24, 
 
 “Church of the Brethren,” The New International Ene. 5: 315. 
 
 “Sects” (Christian). Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 
 11: 324. 
 
 Pennsylvania German Society. Proceedings and Addresses. Vol- 
 ume X. Part 8, 1900. 
 
 The Dunkers—A Sociological Interpretation. John Lewis Gil- 
 lin, 1906. 
 
 THE METHODISTS 
 
 Ene. Britannica 18: 293. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 7: 332. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 10: 237. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 8: 603. 
 
 The New International Ene, 15: 505. 
 
 Methodists. American Church History Series. J. M. Buckley, 
 1896. 
 
 Methodists, South. American Church History Series. Gross 
 Alexander. 1894, 
 
 The Methodists. Story of the Churches Series. John Alfred 
 Faulkner. 1903. 
 
 History of Methodism. Abel Stevens. 3 volumes. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 The Methodists. William Edwards Huntington, 1917. 
 
 THE MORAVIANS 
 
 See “Unitas Fratrum,” “Bohemian Brethren,” and “Hussites.” 
 
 “Moravian Brethren,” Ene. Britannica, 18: 18. 
 
 “Bohemian Brethren,’ Catholic Ene. 2: 616. 
 
 “Moravians,” Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 8: 837, and 
 “Hussites,” 6: 886. 
 
246 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 “Moravians,” The New International Enc. 16: 239. 
 The Moravians. American Church History Series. Volume 8. 
 J. Taylor Hamilton, 1895. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN 
 
 “United Brethren in Christ,” Enc. Britannica 25: 597. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 12: 84. 
 
 The New International Enc. 22: 660. 
 
 “Moravians,” Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 8:837. 
 
 United Brethren. American Church History Series. D. Berger, 
 1894. 
 
 THE EVANGELICAL CHURCH 
 
 “Evangelical Association.” 
 Enc. Britannica 9: 960. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 4: 222. 
 The New International Enc. 8: 202. 
 “Sects” (Christian). “Evangelical Association of North Amer- 
 ica,” Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 11: 325. 
 Evangelical Association—American Church History Series. Vol- 
 ume 12. Samuel P. Spreng, 1894. 
 
 THE DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 
 
 Ene. Britannica 8: 311. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 3: 443. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 5: 29. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 4: 713. 
 
 The New International Enc. 7: 60. 
 
 Disciples of Christ. American Church History Series. Volume 
 12,0. be Bz ee ler, 
 
 Disciples of Christ. Story of the Churches. Erret Gates, 1905. 
 
 Religious Progress in America. Samuel Harden Church, 1909. 
 
 THE CHRISTIANS 
 
 “Christian Connection.” Ene. Britannica 6: 279. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 3: 45. 
 
 The New International Ene. 5: 285. 
 
 Origins and Principles of the Christians. J. F. Burnet, 1903. 
 The Christians and the Disciples. J. J. Summerbell, 1906. 
 
REFERENCES 247 
 
 THE ADVENTISTS 
 
 “Second Adventists.” 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 11: 282. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 1: 166. | 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 1: 56; 
 
 The New International Enc, 1: 158. EY ord 
 Advent Christian History. Albert C. Johnson, 1918, 
 Days of Delusion. Clara Endicott Sears, 1924. 
 
 REFORMED EPISCOPAL 
 
 Ene. Britannica 23: 25. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 9: 434. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 10: 629. 
 
 The New International Enc. 19: 643. 
 
 History of the Formation and Growth of the Reformed Episcopal 
 Church. A. D. Price, 1902. 
 
 THE SALVATION ARMY 
 
 Ene. Britannica 24: 100. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 10: 180. 
 
 Ene. of Religion. and Ethics, Hastings, 11: 151. 
 
 The New International Enc, 20: 392. 
 
 Life of General William Booth. Harold Begbie. 2 volumes, 
 1920. 
 
 CHURCH OF THE NEW JERUSALEM 
 
 “New Jerusalem Church.” 
 Ene. Britannica 19: 514. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 8: 140. 
 “Swedenborgians” in Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 
 bast 29. 
 Catholic Ene. 14: 355. 
 The New International Enc. 21: 727. 
 See “Emanuel Swedenborg” in the Encyclopedias. 
 Sketches of the Churches in America. Ednah C. Silver, 1920. 
 
248 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 The Swedenborgians. William L. Worcester, 1917. 
 
 THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST OF LATTER-DAY 
 SAINTS (MORMONS) 
 
 “Mormons.” 
 Ene. Britannica 18: 842. 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 8: 9. 
 Catholic Ene. 10: 570. 
 “Saints, Latter-day.” Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 
 11: 82. 
 Essentials of Church History. Joseph Fielding Smith, 1922. 
 A Brief History of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day 
 Saints. Edward H. Anderson, 1902. 
 The Articles of Faith. James KE. Talmage, 1919. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SCIENCE 
 
 Enc. Britannica, 6: 29). 
 
 The New International Ene. 5: 285. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 3: 576. 
 
 Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. Mary Baker 
 Eddy. 
 
 Church Manual. Mary Baker Eddy. 
 
 “Unity of Good and Other Writings.” See chapter “Retrospec- 
 tion and Introspection.” Mary Baker Eddy. 
 
 “The Mother Church.” Joseph Armstrong. 
 
 “The Life of Mary Baker Eddy.” Sibyl Wilbur. 
 
 THE UNITARIANS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 27: 594. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 12: 81. 
 
 The Catholic Ene. 15: 154. 
 
 The Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 519. 
 
 The New International Enc. 22: 657. 
 
 Unitarianism in America. George Willis Cooke, 1910. 
 
 Historical Sketch of the Unitarian Movement since the Reforma- 
 tion. American Church History Series. Joseph Henry 
 Allen, 1894. 
 
 Free Tract No. 301. American Unitarian Association. Charles 
 Graves. Reprinted from Americana. 
 
REFERENCES 249 
 
 Our Unitarian Heritage. Earl Morse Wilbur, 1925. 
 
 History of the American Unitarian Association. Charles Graves, 
 1925. 
 
 Unitarian Thought. Ephraim Emerton, 1911. 
 
 Ezra Stiles Gannett. William C. Gannett, 1875. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 
 “The Revolt against the Standing Order.” William W. Fenn, 
 1917. 
 
 THE UNIVERSALISTS 
 
 Ene. Britannica 27: 745. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 12: 95. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 529. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 15: 58). 
 
 The New International Enc. 22: 779. 
 
 Universalists. American Church History Series. Volume X. 
 Richard Eddy, 1894. 
 
 Religious History of New England. King’s Chapel Lectures. 
 
 “Universalists.” John Coleman Adams, 1917. 
 
 THE FRIENDS (HICKSITES) 
 
 Ene. Britannica 11: 227. 
 
 The New International Ene. 9: 286. 
 
 “Elias Hicks.” The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 4: 394. 
 
 Catholic Ene. 6; 306. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 6: 145. 
 
 Friends. American Church History Series. Volume XII. Allen 
 C. Thomas and Richard H. Thomas. pp. 24, 274, 279. 1894. 
 
 See References under Friends (Orthodox). 
 
 NEW THOUGHT 
 
 The New International Enc. 17: 62. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 9: 359. 
 “Psychotherapy,” Ene. Britannica, 32: 204. 
 
 A History of New Thought. Horatio W. Dresser. 
 
 The Spirit of New Thought. Horatio W. Dresser. 
 
 The Message of New Thought. Abel Leighton Allen, 1914. 
 
250 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 FEDERAL COUNCIL OF THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST 
 IN AMERICA 
 
 The New International Ene. 8: 419. 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 9: 479. 
 
 The New Ene. of Sunday Schools and Religious Education 3: 900. 
 
 A History of Religious Education. Arlo Ayres Brown, 1923. 
 
 See bound volumes of Annual Conventions, containing proceed- 
 ings and adresses and files of the bimonthly magazine 
 Religious Education. 
 
 THE FUNDAMENTALISTS 
 
 “God Hath Spoken.” A Report of the World Conference of 
 Christian Fundamentalists. 1919. 
 
 “In His Image.” W. J. Bryan. 
 
 “Fundamentals.” W. J. Bryan. Forum. 70: 1665, July 1923. 
 
 War in the Churches. World’s Work, 46: 469. September, 1923. 
 
 The Lord’s Return. Jesse Forest Silver, 1914. 
 
 The Millennial Hope. Shirley Jackson Case, 1918. 
 
 Studies in Recent Adventism. Henry C. Sheldon, 1915. 
 
 Modern Premillennialism and the Christian Hope. Harris 
 Franklin Rall, 1920. 
 
 Premillennialism. George Preston Mains, 1920. 
 
 See Readers’ Guide, ‘‘Fundamentalists,’ ‘“Premillenarian.” 
 
 “Postmillenarian,” Russellites, and index of each religious 
 
 magazine. 
 
 YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 Enc. Britannica 32: 1094. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 835. 
 
 The New International Ene. 23: 817. 
 
 “Young People’s Societies,” The New Schaff-Herzog Ene. 12: 475. 
 
 The Development of the Young People’s Movement. Frank 
 Otis Erb. 1917. 
 
 YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION 
 
 The New International Ene. 23: 821. 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 838, 
 
REFERENCES 251 
 
 “Young People’s Societies,’ The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 12: 475. 
 The Development of the Young People’s Movement. Frank Otis 
 Erb. 1917. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR 
 
 The New International Enc. 5: 281. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 3: 571. 
 
 “Young People’s Societies,’ The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 12: 475. 
 
 Christian Endeavor History. Robert P. Anderson. 
 
 The Development of the Young People’s Movement. Frank Otis 
 Erb. 1917. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF FREE CHRISTIANS 
 AND OTHER RELIGIOUS LIBERALS 
 
 The published reports of the proceedings and addresses at the 
 different congresses should be consulted. 25 Beacon Street, 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 NATIONAL FEDERATION OF RELIGIOUS LIBERALS 
 
 The Headquarters, Lincoln Center, 700 Oakwood Boulevard, Chi- 
 cago, Ill., will supply such material as is available. 
 
 BODIES NOT CALLING THEMSELVES CHRISTIANS 
 
 THE THEOSOPHISTS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 26: 788. 
 
 The New International Enc, 22: 188. 
 
 Enc. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 12: 300, and 12: 304. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 11: 407. 
 
 The Catholic Enc. 14: 626. 
 
 Key to Theosophy. H. P. Blavatsky, 1909. 
 
 The Ancient Wisdom. Annie Besant. 
 
 The Ocean of Theosophy. William Q. Judge, 1892. 
 
 Theosophy, or Psychological Religion. Max Miiller, 1893. 
 
 “Immortality,” edited by B. H. Streeter. Chapter 8. Reincarna- 
 tion, Karma and Theosophy. Lily Dougal, 1917, p. 293. 
 
 Modern Religious Cults and Movements. Gaius Glenn Atkins, 
 1923. 
 
xo2 A STUDY OF THE CHRISTIAN SECTS 
 
 THE SPIRITUALISTS 
 
 Enc. Britannica 25: 705 and 32: 198. 
 
 New International Enc. 21: 406 and 19: 322. 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 11: 805 and 10: 420. 
 Catholic Enc. 14: 221 and 14: 229. 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 11:51 and 9: 350. 
 
 Human Personality. F. W. H. Meyer, 2 Vols., 1901. 
 Contact with the Other World. James H. Hyslop, 1919. 
 Spiritism and Religion. Johan Liljencrants, 1918. 
 Proceedings of British Psychical Research Society. 
 Proceedings of American Psychical Research Society. 
 
 THE ETHICAL CULTURISTS 
 
 Ene. of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, 5: 412, 
 
 The New International Ene. 21: 247. 
 
 The Jewish Ene. 5: 244, 
 
 The New Schaff-Herzog Enc. 4: 183. 
 
 See “Felix Adler” in Encyclopedias. 
 
 An Ethical Philosophy of Life. Book IV. Ch. 9. Felix Adler, 
 1918. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Adler, Felix, 233 
 
 Advent Christians, 154 
 
 Adventists, 153-156, 246 
 
 Agape, 50, see Communion 
 
 Albright, Jacob, 147-148 
 
 American Catholic Church, see 
 Old Catholics 
 
 Anabaptists, 87 
 
 Apostles’ Creed, 20 
 
 Apostolic Succession, 77 
 
 Arians, 20 
 
 Arius, 30-31 
 
 Arminians, 35, 37-38, 43, 140 
 
 Assurance, Doctrine of, 134, 
 140 
 
 Athanasian Creed, 21 
 
 Athanasius, 21, 30-31 
 
 Atonement, 36-37, 83, 188 
 
 Atonement, Particular, 99 
 
 Augustinianism, 34-35 
 
 Authority, Catholic, 21 
 
 Authority, Protestant, 25 
 
 Authority, Sources of, 23, 76- 
 77, 127, 172-173, 181, 184- 
 185, 196-197, 237 
 
 Ballou, Hosea, 191 
 
 Baptism, 48-49, 56, 90-91 
 
 Baptists, 87-92, 242 
 
 Baptist Convention for Bible 
 Study, 155 
 
 Bible, Authority of, 24-26, 76- 
 77, 96-97, 185, 187 
 
 Bible, Infallibility of, 25-26 
 
 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna, 
 227-228 
 
 Book of Common Prayer, 114, 
 117 
 
 Book of Concord, 82 
 
 Book of Mormon, 169 
 
 Booth, William, 159-160 
 
 Browne, Robert, 107 
 
 Calvin, John, 35, 92 
 Calvinism, Five Points of, 43, 
 98 
 Campbell, Thomas, 149 
 Cambridge Synod, 112 
 Catholic, American Church, 64 
 Catholic Church, Government 
 of, 61-62 
 Catholic Church, Origin of, 
 52 
 Catholics in United States, 54 
 Catholics, Old, 53, 63-64, 240 
 Catholics, Roman, 52-62, 240 
 Channing, William Ellery, 180 
 Christian Connection, see Chris- 
 tians (Denomination ) 
 Christian Church—General Con- 
 vention, see Christians (De- 
 
 nomination ) 
 Christian Endeavor, 218-221, 
 250 
 
 Christian Reformed Church in 
 North America, 105-106 
 
 Christian Science, see Church 
 of Christ, Scientist 
 
 Christians, 17-51, 236 
 
 Christians (Denomination ) 
 151-153, 246 
 
 Christianity, Beginning of, 17 
 
 253 
 
R54 
 
 Christianity, Beginning of in 
 Great Britain, 113-115 
 
 Church, American Catholic, 64 
 
 Church, Catholic, Authority of, 
 54 
 
 Church, Catholic and Protest- 
 ant Theories of, 45-47 
 
 Church Government, Forms of, | 
 
 18-19, 47, 92, 121-123, 137- 
 139, 161-162 
 
 Church of the Brethren, see 
 Dunkards and Moravians 
 
 Church of Christ, Scientist, 
 175-177, 247 
 
 Church of England, 114, 115, 
 120-121, 123 
 
 Church of England in United 
 States, 115-116, 123 
 
 Church of God, see Dunkards 
 
 Church of Jesus Christ of 
 Latter-day Saints, 168-175, 
 247 
 
 Church of the New Jerusalem, 
 163-168, 247 
 
 Church, Reformed, in North 
 America, 105 
 
 Church, Theories of, 23, 45-47, 
 76, 110-111, 118, 187 
 
 Church, Visible and Invisible, 
 46-47, 76-77, 97 
 
 Clark, Francis E., 218 
 
 Clergy, Authority of, 47, 77 
 
 Communion, 50-51 
 
 Confessional, 57-58 
 
 Congregationalism, 107-112 
 
 Congregationalists, 106-112, 243 
 
 Consubstantiation, Doctrine of, 
 51, 82, 97 
 
 Conversion, 39, 134 
 
 Creation, Theories of, 33-34 
 
 Creed, Apostles’, 20 
 
 Creed, Athanasian, 21 
 
 Creed, Nicene, 20 
 
 Creeds, 19-23, 236 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Disciples of Christ, 149-151, 
 246 
 
 Divine Science, see New 
 Thought 
 
 Dresser, Julius, 198 
 Dunkards, 131-133, 244 
 Dunkers, see Dunkards 
 
 Eastern Church, see Eastern or 
 Orthodox Church 
 
 Eastern or Orthodox Church, 
 65-72, 241 
 
 Ebionites, 30 
 
 Eddy, Mary ‘Baker, 175-177 
 
 Effectual Grace, Doctrine of, 
 99 
 
 Election, Doctrine of, 98, 100 
 
 Episcopalians, 113-124, 243 
 
 Episcopalians, Reformed, 156- 
 159 
 
 Established Church, see Church 
 
 of England 
 Ethical Culturists, 232-234, 
 251 
 
 Ethical Movement, see Ethical 
 Culturists 
 
 Eucharist, see Communion 
 
 Evangelical Association, see 
 Evangelical Church 
 
 Evangelical Church, 
 245 
 
 Evangelical Test, Y. M. C. A., 
 2123 Y.° We Gaeta 
 
 147-149, 
 
 Faith and Works, 18, 76 
 
 Federal Council of Churches of 
 Christ in America, 202-203, 
 249 
 
 Federation of Religious Liber- 
 als, 222 
 
 Form of Concord, 79 
 
 Free Grace, Doctrine of, 140 
 
 Friends (Hicksite), 194-197, 
 248 
 
INDEX 255 
 
 Friends, The Society of, see 
 Friends 
 
 Friends (Orthodox), 124-131, 
 244 
 Fundamentalists, see World’s 
 
 Congress of Christian Funda- 
 mentals 
 
 Fundamentalists, World’s Con- 
 gress of Christian, 205-209, 
 249-250 
 
 Future Life, Doctrine of, 41- 
 45, 188-189, 192-193, 205- 
 209, 229-230, 231-232, 239 
 
 Gemara, 10 
 
 German Baptists, see Dunkards 
 
 German Seven-Day Baptists, 
 see Dunkards 
 
 God, Doctrines about, 26-28, 
 Dani 
 Government, Theories of 
 
 Church, see Church Govern- 
 ment 
 
 Grace Effectual, Doctrine of, 
 99 
 
 Great Assize, 43 
 
 Great Awakening, 109 
 
 Greek Church, Doctrines of, 68- 
 71 
 
 Half-Way Covenant, 109 
 
 Hebrews, 3 
 
 Herzl, Theodore, 13 
 
 Hicks, Elias, 126, 194-196 
 
 Hicksites, see Friends 
 
 Human Nature, Theories of, 32- 
 35, 184, 238 
 
 Huss, John, 142 
 
 Indulgence, Doctrine of, 58 
 
 Infallibility, Doctrine of, 53, 
 55 
 
 Inner Light, Doctrine of, 127, 
 196 
 
 International Congress of Free 
 Christians and Other Re- 
 ligious Liberals, 221-222, 250 
 
 International New Thought Al- 
 liance, see New Thought 
 
 Israelites, 3 
 
 Jesus, 28-32, 187-188, 237-238 
 
 Jews, 4, 235 
 
 Jewish History, Periods of: 
 Mosaic, 6; Prophetic, 7; 
 Temple, 7; Talmudic, 9; 
 Modern, 10 (Reform and 
 Zionism ) 
 
 Judaism Orthodox, 5 
 
 Judaism Reform, 10-13, 235-236 
 
 Judaism, Reform, in United 
 States, 14 
 
 Judgment, Last, 43 
 
 Justification, Doctrine of, 39- 
 40 
 
 Justification by Faith, Doctrine 
 of, 39, 76 
 
 Karma, Law of, 229 
 King’s Chapel, 179 
 
 Last Supper, see Communion 
 Liberals, 221, 222 
 
 Lord’s Supper, see Communion 
 Luther, Martin, 73 
 Lutherans, 79-85, 241 
 
 Maimonides, Moses, 5 
 Man, Origin of, 33-34 
 Maronites, 66 
 Masora, 10 
 Mass, Doctrine of, 50, 55-56 
 Mendelssohn, Moses, 12 
 Mennonites, 85-86, 242 
 Messiah, 5, 11, 17, 28 
 Methodist Episcopal 
 see Methodists 
 Methodism in England, 133-136 
 
 Church, 
 
256 INDEX 
 
 Methodists, 133-142, 244 
 
 Millennial Doctrine, 207-209 
 
 Miller, William, 153 
 
 Millerites, 42, 153 
 
 Mishna, 10 
 
 Modernism, Catholic, 53, 60 
 
 Monophysites, 66 
 
 Moravians, 142-145, 245 
 
 Mormons, see Church of Jesus 
 Christ of Latter-Day Saints 
 
 Moroni, 169 
 
 Murray, John, 191 
 
 National Federation of Re- 
 ligious Liberals, 222-224, 250 
 
 Nestorians, 66 
 
 New Church, see The Church of 
 The New Jerusalem 
 
 New Thought, 197-201, 249 
 
 Nicene Creed, 20 
 
 Obbenites, 85 
 
 O’Kelley, James, 151 
 
 Old Catholics, 63-64 
 
 Original Sin, Doctrine of, 33- 
 35 
 
 Orthodox Church (Eastern), 65 
 
 Otterbein, Philip William, 145 
 
 Palestine, British Mandate for, 
 13 
 
 Particular Atonement, Doctrine 
 of, 99 
 
 Paul, 18 
 
 Pelagianism, 34-35 
 
 Perfection, Doctrine of, 134, 
 140 
 
 Perseverance of the Saints, Doc- 
 trine of, 38, 99 
 
 Postmillinerians, 207-209 
 
 Predestination, Doctrine of, 37- 
 38 
 
 Premillinerians, 207-209 
 
 Presbyterianism in Scotland 
 
 and England, 93-94; In 
 United States, 94-97 
 Presbyterians, 92-101, 242 
 Presbytery, 100 
 Preterition, Doctrine of, 38 
 Prophets, 7. 
 Protestants, 73-79, 241 
 Protestants, Doctrines of, 76-78 
 Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 see Episcopalians 
 Punishment, Infinite, 43-44 
 Purgatory, Doctrine of, 42, 59 
 
 Quakers, see Friends 
 Quimby, Phineas Parkhurst, 
 197 
 
 Reformation, 73-74 : 
 
 Reformed Church, 101-106, 242 
 
 Reformed Church in North 
 America, Christian, 105-106 
 
 Reformed Church in United 
 States, 101, 104-105 
 
 Reformed Episcopalians, 156- 
 159, 246 
 
 Reform Judaism, 10-12, 235 
 
 Religious Education Associa- 
 tion, 204-205, 249 
 
 Revelation, Theories of, 185, 
 see Bible 
 
 Roman Catholics, 52-62, 240 
 
 Roman Catholics in United 
 States, 54 
 
 Russellites, 208 
 
 Russian Church, 65, 67, 68 
 
 Sacraments, 48-51, 57, 76-78, 
 118-120, 239 
 
 Saints, Perseverance of, 99 
 
 Salvation Army, 159-163, 246 
 
 Salvation, Theories of, 35-41, 
 238 
 
 Samaritans, 8 
 
 Sanctification, Doctrine of, 40 
 
INDEX 
 
 Scotch Presbyterians, 93 
 
 Second Advent, 42-43 
 
 Semi-Pelagianism, 34-35 
 
 Septuagint, 9 
 
 Seventh-Day Adventists, 
 155 
 
 Seybert, John, 148 
 
 Simons, Menno, 85 
 
 Smith, Joseph, 168-172 
 
 Society for Ethical Culture, 
 232 
 
 Socinianism, 178 
 
 Socinus, Faustus, 35, 178 
 
 Sovereignty of God, Doctrine 
 of, 98 
 
 Spiritism, 232 
 
 Spiritualists, 230-232, 251 
 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 163-164 
 
 Swedenborgians, see Church 
 of the New Jerusalem 
 
 154- 
 
 Talmud, 9, 10 
 
 Temple, Jewish, 7 
 
 Theosophical Society, see Theos- 
 ophists 
 
 Theosophists, 227-230, 251 
 
 Thirteen Articles of the Creed, 
 5 
 
 Thirty-Five Articles, 157-158 
 
 Thirty-Nine Articles, 114, 117, 
 140 
 
 Twenty-Five Articles, 140, 148 
 
 Twenty-One Articles, 148 
 
 Total Depravity, Doctrine of, 
 98 
 
 Tractarian Movement, 115 
 
 207 
 
 Transubstantiation, Doctrine of, 
 51, 82, 97 
 
 Trinity, Doctrine of, 27-28, 165, 
 177-179 
 
 Tunkers, see Dunkards 
 
 Unconditional Election, Doc- 
 trine of, 98-99 
 
 Unitarians, 177-190, 248 
 
 Unitas Fratrum, see Moravians 
 
 United Brethren, 145-147, 245 
 
 United Brethren in Christ, sce 
 United Brethren 
 
 United Society of Christian 
 Endeavor, 218-221, 250 
 
 Universalists, 190-194, 248 
 
 Virgin Mary, 32, 53 
 
 Wesley, Charles, 133 
 
 Wesley, John, 133-135, 137 
 
 Westminster Confession, 24, 
 93, 95-100, 112 
 
 Williams, Roger, 88 
 
 Williams, Sir George, 209 
 
 Works, Doctrine of, 18 
 
 World Congress on Christian 
 Fundamentals, 205-209 
 
 Young, Brigham, 171-172 
 
 Young Men’s Christian As- 
 sociation, 209-215, 250 
 
 Young Women’s Christian <As- 
 sociation, 215-218, 250 
 
 Zionism, 12-13, 236 
 

 
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