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 xa Cs 
 PN 
 ¥ -* —— 
 DEORE ali weary 
 i ee bathe 
 os : Di eked os 
 ibe 
 s 
 oe S , : : me 
 See f va 
 <> x te peetate Rae 
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 reek, 
 
 3 
 *; 
 rele, 
 
 : 
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 : 
 
 ow 
 
 sfee 
 cS 
 eS 
 o 
 rest 
 tke 
 
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 ce 
 
 s 
 =! 
 
 % 
 PP 
 
 one: 
 var 
 ee 
 oes 
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 et 
 
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 3 
 es 
 
 as 
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 oe 
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 _ 
 
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 KEKE 
 us 
 
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 50 
 
 Son 
 
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 ne 
 
 ate . 
 roe ° 
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 che 
 wre 
 Coin 
 ecg 
 
 Pe & 
 
 “ Pay rey 
 
 S 
 
 eese 
 ete 
 
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 eee 
 rye 
 . OK oy 
 ee , 
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 on 
 
 5 ~ at 
 ee ey 
 ay? oy 2 ¥ 
 
 ork Rat bg 
 . ‘ ~ ho 
 : : SS oo 
 : : | : , x“ Ms Peery: 
 _ , Pei ; Bo: 
 he! ‘ 
 
 etotehs 
 rr, 
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 ee 
 CA Aa eee 
 
 OG 
 
 BP tte 
 stars 
 PS te 
 
 : LL AK IL AEE L IE 7 CO PETRET: 
 ne Le Mass kilat e S Wa  TNe Da ea RO YL) Whee e SA CG 
 ; : r kh pace . a he paar 
 
 atitat 
 
 le a b Pio k ae 
 ey RTI 
 
 
 
 vo, 
 
 ahs, (eee 
 
 Stes Sak: 
 
hl 
 
 ee wee eee mew et eels 
 
 
 
 
 

 

 

 
 
 
 ee a — a eeeeeetant aaa — = 
 —— = 
 
 a — i <TR SE SETT — = 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE 
 
 HEBREW GRAMMAR 
 
 CE 
 7 
 
 ‘GESENIUS: 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ELEVENTH GERMAN EDITION, 
 
 BY 
 
 Py Jn COIN SITS 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HEBREW IN THE LITERARY AND THEOLOGICAL 
 INSTITUTION AT HAMILTON, NEW YORK. 
 
 WITH 
 
 A COURSE OF EXERGISES, 
 
 AND 
 
 A HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY 
 
 BY THE TRANSLATOR, 
 
 Reprinted from the American WBrition of 1839, 
 
 LONDON: 
 . THOMAS WARD AND CO. 
 
 oe 
 PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
RE SNR a ee ee 
 
 
 
 TRANSLATORS 
 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 
 
 Tue translation of Gesenius’ Hebrew Gram- 
 mar was undertaken in compliance with the 
 desire which has been expressed, both pri- 
 vately and from the press, that his labours 
 in this branch of Hebrew philology might 
 be made more generally accessible to Ame- 
 rican students. For many years this dis- 
 tinguished scholar has been prosecuting his re- 
 
 searches in the grammar and lexicography of: 
 
 the Hebrew language simultaneously, referring 
 to each what properly belongs to it, in sucha 
 manner that his labours in neither can be fully 
 understood and appreciated without a knowledge 
 of what he has done in the other. In his Ma- 
 nual Hebrew Lexicon, now in general use in this 
 country, there are references throughout, for 
 grammatical forms and constructions, to the 
 sections of this Grammar; and on the other 
 hand, the Grammar constantly refers to the 
 Manual for whatever belongs to lexicography. 
 To the student, therefore, who uses the author’s 
 Lexicon, a previous acquaintance with his 
 Grammar is essential for the formation of a 
 complete and symmetrical view of the philology 
 of the Hebrew language. 
 
 The work of Gesenius, considered as a philo- 
 sophical arrangement and explanation of the 
 grammatical phenomena of the language, has no 
 equal, The chaste simplicity and clearness of 
 his method contrast strongly with the refine- 
 ments, the subtilties, the arbitrary and often 
 obscure hypotheses, which fondness for specula- 
 tion and theory has introduced into some recent 
 works on this subject from able German scholars. 
 The qualities which make this Grammar, uni- 
 versally, the companion of Hebrew students in 
 Germany, adapt it equally to the wants of the 
 
 Nn we 
 
 
 
 The author’s mode of con- 
 ception and reasoning we can sympathize with, 
 and understand, and feel its force. It should be 
 further observed, that the Grammar lays the 
 foundation for that development of the Hebrew 
 language from its biliteral roots, so successfully 
 prosecuted in the Manual Lexicon,* and prepares 
 
 American student. 
 
 the pupil to appreciate the author’s researches in | 
 
 comparative philology, the results of which are 
 embodied in that work, and form one of its dis- 
 tinguishing features. 
 
 In order to adapt the translation to the mode 
 of instruction in this country, and for the con- 
 venience of those who may use it without a 
 teacher, the pronunciation of Hebrew words is 
 given in Part First, and elsewhere when it is 
 required, This is seldom done in the original, 
 and generally without the division of syl- 
 lables. On the other hand, the signification of 
 Hebrew words is omitted, except where (as 
 in the Syntax, and occasionally in the earlier 
 parts of the Grammar) it is essential to the illus- 
 tration. 
 
 A few words have occasionally been inserted, 
 in brackets, by the translator. 
 stances a slight modification or addition (parti- 
 cularly in the sections on the particles) has been 
 suggested by the Hebrew-Latin and Hebrew- 
 German Manuals of Gesenius, and additional 
 references are made to the former. Some slight 
 improvements have also been suggested by com- 
 parison with the Lehrgebiiude. 
 often refers to the page of the Manual Lexicon: 
 
 In some in- 
 
 The original 
 
 in order to adapt the Grammar to the translation | 
 
 * See e.g. § 30. 
 + Compare Professor Robinson’s preface to his transla- 
 tion of the Manual Lexicon, p. iv. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 —— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of that work as well as to the original, all refer- 
 ences to it are made to the article and its sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 The attention of the learner should be di- 
 rected to the subject of the first section of the 
 Introduction, and to such further illustration of 
 it as the instructor may think proper to commu- 
 nicate, before the study of Part First is com- 
 menced. Some familiarity with the relation of 
 the Hebrew to its kindred dialects, and to the 
 Indo-Germanic tongues, will give great interest 
 and value to the numerous illustrations drawn 
 from these sources. 
 
 The translation is followed by a course of 
 Exercises in Hebrew Grammar and a Hebrew 
 Chrestomathy, prepared with reference to this 
 work by the translator. The difficulties of the 
 Hebrew vowel-system are a general subject of 
 complaint with those who are entering upon the 
 study of the language. In the Exercises in 
 Reading and Orthography an attempt is made 
 (with what success the trial must determine) to 
 remove these difficulties, by simplifying the 
 manner of presenting the principles of the 
 vowel-system, and by accustoming the pupil to 
 the ready application of them. The whole was 
 completed before the Reading Book of Gesenius 
 came into my hands: the difference of design, 
 however, would have rendered it useless to me, 
 except in the notes on the Reading Lessons, 
 where a few of his remarks have been inserted 
 with the signature G. The extension of the 
 original design, which embraced merely a trans- 
 lation of the Grammar, and a few pages of 
 grammatical notes on select portions of the 
 Hebrew Bible, has been the principal cause of 
 delay in the publication of the work. 
 
 The Exercises in Analysis and Construction 
 would have been extended still further, had not 
 the writer intended to publish, on a somewhat 
 similar plan, a Hebrew Phrase Book and Exer- 
 cises in writing Hebrew, for which he has been 
 some time collecting materials as they have 
 occurred in his reading of the Hebrew Bible. 
 This will embrace—(1) short and familiar 
 phrases, selected from the Hebrew Bible, which 
 can easily be imprinted on the memory, and 
 
 Hamilton Lit. and Theol, Institution, 
 March, i839. 
 
 TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. 
 
 ae 
 
 will thus not only supply a fund of words, but 
 will form the mind, so to speak, to the Hebrew 
 mode of conception, and store it with the various 
 constructions of syntax, so as to serve as models 
 in the writing of exercises: (2) English phrases 
 to be expressed in Hebrew according to these 
 models, or with such necessary variations as a 
 knowledge of forms and of the principles of 
 syntax will suggest, the references to the Gram- 
 mar being given and the words furnished where 
 it is required: (3) longer exercises for illustrat- 
 ing the general style of Hebrew composition. 
 The only way to impress upon the mind of a 
 pupil the genius of a foreign tongue is, to im- 
 
 
 
 press upon it the phraseology of native speakers or 
 writers. ‘The habit of conception in conformity 
 with the models thus furnished will follow of 
 itself. The practice of expressing English con- 
 ceptions in the words of a foreign language for 
 the purpose of learning it is not only useless but 
 
 
 
 positively injurious. 
 
 In the references to the Hebrew Bible and quo- 
 tations from it, which are very numerous, and of 
 great value to the thorough student, the original 
 has many errors. After much pains had been 
 taken to correct them in the copy, the proof- 
 sheets were subjected, under my inspection, to 
 three careful revisions for this purpose solely. 
 Some errors may still have escaped detection, 
 but it is believed they are very few. 
 
 The writer takes this opportunity to express 
 his obligations to his friend Professor Ripley, of 
 the Newton Theological Institution, for the 
 generous interest which he has taken in the 
 work, commenced at his suggestion, and for his 
 aid in the first and final corrections of the proof- 
 sheets (as far as the end of the Grammar), the 
 first correction having been committed entirely 
 to his care on account of the translator’s distance 
 from the press. 
 
 The work is much indebted, for the beauty 
 and accuracy of its execution, to the intelligence 
 and good taste of the gentleman who has the 
 superintendence of the Cambridge University 
 Press. For his many obliging attentions he 
 will please to accept the writer’s acknowledg- 
 ments. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 INTRODUCTION, SECT. PAGE 
 SECT, pace | 27. Changes of Vowels, especially in Reference to 
 1, The Semitish Languages in general . .. . 1 hein Quan tCy A cel ie ee i ails | ote wel ate a OO 
 2. History of the Hebrew as a living Language 3 | 28. Rise of new Vowels and Syllables. . . . 82 
 3. Works on the Grammar of the Hebrew Language 6| 29. The Tone; Shifting of the Tone; and of the 
 4, Division and Arrangement of Grammar . 8 Ua A ee a te Pe er a SP 
 PART I.— THE ELEMENTS. PART IL. 
 ehh te ; FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, OR THE 
 READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 oases ERecnaRe Bits sbi ADR lysine *- e 30; Boots.and Stem-Words 4. .-. 0» « 0. 184 
 6. Pronunciation and Division of Consonants . . 11 a) Eanatiees Skeceuue 2 oa.e es, wae ae 
 7. The Vowels in general, Vowel-Letters, and 
 Matera OTIS Mm cclGilel well) eues Mets se Ad 
 8. The Vowel-Signs. .. . fie! CHAP. I. 
 9. Distinction of Qamets and Qamets-Hhataph ap ely THE ARTICLE AND PRONOUN. { 
 10. Sheva Simple and Composite .. . 18 ga, Phecksciaentae erat aren ee ie sa : 
 11. Signs which affect the Pronunciation of ie 33. The Personal Pronoun in general; Tables of 
 COMEMMAIIEON MAME it! (045 ss. 4c Ne eure > 19 thaledindiy sre fas sown, a eee 
 12. Daghesh in general.—Daghesh forte . . . . 19 Sh. Vechal Saifixea nas 0h Wits a AAs) eae 
 18. Dagheshiene . 1. eee ee ee 19 35. Nominal Suffixes, or Possessive Pronouns. , 42 
 aig eee eet ee es 29) 96 sumixes to Particles!) wa Ce es 
 4 os ih cpl glia laa B7s Other EronGunss chistes © Gees! Heres vy GAS 
 16. Maqqeph and Methegh. . . ...... 21 : . 
 Seat ELMO N, os). 5) sf Hak aw fete & | BI CHAP. IL 
 CHA Pasi THE Vir RB: 
 PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS; 9G | GEnePAb A Teua Tein iks sce alh ock Arico nce ate ee ee {| 
 ; OF SYLLABLES, AND THE TONE. 39. Ground-forms of the Verb; Conjugations . . 45 | 
 19. Changesof Consonants ....... . 22] 42. TheRegular Verb .. . 1. 1. 1. 2 2 os 47 
 20. Doubling of Consonants . .. . 23 
 21. Aspiration, and the Removal of it by ‘Daghesh A. The Ground-form or Kal. 
 MGs ws) a 6 sk sm oe), 24.4 043. Form and Siguificationiof Kal, bes xe 6 0s 47 
 22. Peculiarities of the Gutturals .... . . 25| 44. Preter of Kalandits Inflexion ...... 47 |! 
 eaten Merbieeetteries hs ieee dei se ae S961 45. The Infinitive ca. pie ee es ce 6 we 88H 
 a4. Changes of thieeeble Letters . .. . . . 27| 46. The Imperative .« . 1. 6 6 5» #6 2 6 © © 49 
 25. Unchangeable Vowels . . . .... 28 | 47. The Future andits Inflexion . . ..... 49 
 26. Syllables, and their Influence on the Quantity 48. Peculiar Changes of the Futureand Imperative . 50 
 ESV OEISe pnt cate ee wk chess ite <. \. 29 | 49.'The Particinien. <2 ist «5 se bilan om ot +) 402 
 a SSS a — 
 
 
 
 
 
 ee 1 — —_ 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vi CONTENTS. 
 SECT. PAGE 
 5 : “ 94. List of Irregular Nouns oe fal eh bee 90 
 eon B. Derived Conjugations. Seep ee Pd Numerals: I. Cardinal Numbers... + gl 
 Bb. Wiphal 160: cise ie eee BE eee ee 96. Do. II. Ordinal Numbers ..... 93 
 G15 ICL ENG PUL Fe imalits mee mes le Miele gem toire das AeOS 
 S2.seiphiland EOpba) a. ise sis oleate ts 55 CHAP. IV. 
 58, Hithpael . . 56 
 54, Unusual Conjugations . 57 TEE (PARTICL Eo. 
 55. Quadriliterals . . . 58 Ova General View 3 ~ 4 « + GY 2s eens NenemUS 
 56. Verbs with Gutturals Seek SO GSal OS eA GCCIDS ce atc ¢ Wa veeatate es mreenRs 94 
 Bae erbs ee Gutcural or. vel clue uieluke outer te 59 | 99. Prepositions c 95 
 Bo smVCLDS AYIN GULGUTAL. as eile Mislaiet ye, lie Niauiye 59 | 100. Prefix Prepositions . . . es 95 
 5G. Verbs Lamedh Guttural . .. . . . » 60 | 101. Prepositions with the Plural Form . 96 
 60, Changes of the Verbal-Forms orocee by the 102°Conjunctions! 402. Ua).s «lls. « | ool lyin emo 
 Suffixes . es 61 | 103. Interjections 97 
 61. Preeter with Suffixes ... arse 61 
 62. Infinitive and Imperative with Suffixes... 61 _—$———= 
 63. Future with Suffixes . 62 
 PART III.—SYNTAX. 
 The Irregular Verb. 
 64. General View. . .... 62 CHAP. I. 
 65. Verbs Do. we bs SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 || 66. Verbs Sy 63 ee 
 67. Verbs fp o i04. Relation of the Substantive to the Adjective ;— 
 i x of the Abstract to the Concrete 98 
 68. Verbs ‘PD; First Class, or Verbs originally 1D . 66 | 195. Useofthe Genders . .. . Pie ce 
 69. Verbs Sp ; Second Class, or Verbs properly i) . 67 | 106. The Plural, and Collective Nouns . os, OD | 
 70. Verbs  , Third Class, or Imperfect Verbs *5, 67 | 107. Use ofthe Article . ..... - 102 
 71, Verbs EoD Sout eee AE Noi ood f . 67 | 108. Omission of the Article .. . o 6 0 eegmade: | 
 72, Verbs %y } ; ' 69 109. Article with the Compound Subject eB ye it 103 
 ir 109. Do. with the Adjective or Pronoun belong- 
 73. Verbs x) San ee ing to a Noun made Definite by a Genitive 
 PAV CIOS Ih) Uenes GRMN es ees cs Gees ee eETO SURMIES 5G ee Re i ane 
 75. Verbs Doubly Anomalous . + + + + + 73 | 110, Connexion of the sibeaaeve with ne Ad- 
 76. Relation of the Irregular Verbs to one another. jective ead We eae 104 
 Biliteral Verbs i “4. §+ 2” §* + 374.| 703, Apposition se) usmle ol eine ton teens te mem mn DEE 
 77. Defective Verbs . . - » + +s 74 | 112. The Genitive; Expression of it by Cireumlocu- 
 TION cert. ae aoe 2 pees 105 
 CHAP. III 113. Repetition of the Relation of Genitive in suc- 
 cessive Nouns. . . ote) tet OS 
 THE NOUN. 113. The Genitive as gn ae the Object 105 
 : 113. The Genitive assupplying the Place of Apposition 105 
 Zon usnetal etd ee ee ON ae 2 114, The Construct State before a Preposition, the 
 79. Forms which mark the Gender of Nouns .. 75 A 
 2.) abe Relative, or } eee tr et ce 
 gh Devaeen ORD oe! AG 115. Mode of designating the other Cases. . . . 106 
 pee Neuss OS Sat ee er 116. Use of the Accusative. . ss sander esl tn amend OG 
 ga. Neral MeaoS Mee ee ‘ah Li 117. Modes of expressing the Comparative and Su- 
 83. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb . 97 perlative .cnll once an eee a 
 84, Nouns bppaic ics from the Irregular Verb. . . 79 118, Syntax of the Nomerala oe c,h e 
 85. Denominative Nouns <« « . . . « «s « « 980 
 86. ThesDual and Plural]. «isi dele Be ees | OL 
 e7esThe Constructstate sae 1s smeT amine mies) NESS CHAPSI 
 $8. The Noun with Suffixes . . . . . « « 83 
 ‘ SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 
 $0. Declension of Nouns: ~.)/4 9s 9. We ee 84 
 90. Declension of Masculine Nouns ... . . 84 | 119. Useofthe Personal Pronoun ..... . 108 
 91. Vowel-Changes in the Formation of Feminine 120. The Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns 109 
 TOL AWE ace oe Pepe eee 88 | 121. Useof the Relative Pronoun. . . . 109 
 | 92. Declension of Feminine Nouns. . . . . . 89 | 122. Mode of expressing those Pronouns for veahene 
 | §3. Paragogic Letters; He, Yodh,and Vav. .. 90 the Hebrew has no proper Forms. . 
 | 2 ae 
 
 \ 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 SECT, 
 CHAP. III. E525). Ue CONjUNCHONS aN a) sam Gl eile ala ct t's) elas 
 1595 LNG INtETieChOMA tac) site) te a kn eae ol eos 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 SECT. PAGE 
 123. Use of the Tenses ; General View . 111) PARADIGMS OF VERBS ......'.. 
 124, Use of the Preeter lll 
 125. Useofthe Future . sly Doe ghee: 
 126. Use of the Varied and Converse Future . . . 113 ee ie 
 127. The Imperative 114 
 128. Use of the Infinitive Absolute 115 EXERCISES IN HEBREW 
 129. Infinitive Construct. . . . cop THE GRAMMAR. 
 130. Construction of the Inf. Constr. with the Geni- Fe eter Easton IN Oa la ee dE gt 
 Mve and the Accusative . . 2. 2. » U7 I. Exercises on the Pronunciation of the Conso- 
 191, Use ofthe Participle . . . . . . .. + M7 nants and Vowels, and on the Manner of 
 132. Construction of the Participle See 28S writing them in Connexion 
 183, The Optative . - 2 es 6 ee ew ee 18 II. Exercises in Syllabication. . .... . 
 TASER CTSONS OL ADO VED 4s on. ov, a 44 5) oc) «) 119 Use of Sheva, ($10) 6) 
 135. Construction of the Verb with the Accusative . 120 Qamets-Hhatuph, (§ 9) ee 
 136. Verbs which govern two Accusatives. . . . 121 | yyy Doubling of Consonants.—Aspiration be ae 
 137. Construction of Verbs with Prepositions . 121 MutesMine tke ee a rte Wye 
 138. Constructio Pregnans . Sc tc 121 Distinction of Daghesh forte ae Daghesh lene 
 139. Construction of Verbs with one another 122 Use of Daghesh lene, (§21), . . ss es 
 140. Construction of Passive Verbs . . . 123 | TV. Quiescence of the Feeble Letters i 
 V. Changes of Vowels; Rise of New Vowels and 
 CHAP. IV. Ryllablesia ray co wepecuremr ela ei) el cn 6 
 I, Changes of Vowels. (§§ 25, 27) 
 CONNEXION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE II. Rise of New Vowels and Syllables. (§ 28) 
 ARSE VI. Promiscuous Exercises for Review of the pre- 
 141. Manner of expressing the Copula . . .. . 124 Ceding SECHONG su ten elienhe, en) este 
 142, Arrangement of the Parts of Speech in a Sen- Wits saiexion.of the: Verbya s) jab sl ico ons 
 tence; Case Absolute . . . .. . . « 124]! VIII. DeclensionofNouns........-. 
 143, Relation of the Subject and Predicate in respect Declension of Feminine Nouns. (§§ 91, 92) . 
 to Genderand Number . =. . . « « » 125 TX. Exercises: IntAnaipsis. si. 6) 6 st fs 
 145. Construction of the Compound Subject . . 127 
 T 
 See CV: CHRESTOMATHY., 
 USE OF THE PARTICLES. 
 First LESSONS IN TRANSLATING 4... -~ 
 ere RIGOR VCEDA MS ies sos a ee) 0 a ool) LOZ Genesis, Chapter Sita.) veloc etic snr se) « 
 148. Construction of Adverbs . . . «© « «© «©. 129 ———wi CHAPCER LLL eh sett ey ea et wae) 8 
 149, Words which express Negation. . . . . . 129 | Nores on THE First LESSONS INTRANSLATING . 
 150. Interrogative Words and Sentences . . . . 130 Genesis, Chapter XI]. . . . 2 « » «© oe 
 151. The Prepositions. . . » « «© © «© + «© + 132} =—= 9" Chapter XITIs <0) @ se. si '¢ etre 
 
 
 
 139 
 
 150 
 
 151 
 152 
 153 
 154 
 
 154 
 154 
 154 
 155 
 
 156 
 156 
 157 
 
 158 
 158 
 160 
 161 
 163 
 
 164 
 166 
 166 
 168 
 173 
 174 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
=” >= 
 
 HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 $1. 
 
 THE SEMITISH LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 
 
 1, THe Hebrew Language is only one of the 
 branches of a great parent stock in western Asia, 
 which, besides Palestine, originally embraced 
 Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Arabia, and 
 7Ethiopia. For this stock of languages, and the 
 race by which it was spoken, no name has been 
 sanctioned by usage. The appellation Semitish 
 languages, however, is now in common use, and 
 is at least universally understood. It has been 
 adopted because most of the people who spoke 
 these languages were descended from Sem,* and 
 may be retained for want of one more appro- 
 priate. The name Oriental languages, which has 
 also been used, is far too comprehensive. 
 
 2. The languages of this stock bear much the 
 same relation to each other as those of the Ger- 
 manic, (High German, Low German, Dutch, 
 Swedish,) and of the Slavic, (Vendish, Polish, 
 Russian.) Its three principal branches were— 
 (a) The Aramean, divided into (West-Ara- 
 mean). Syriac, and (East-Aramean) Chaldee. 
 (6) The Hebrew, with which agree the few re- 
 mains of the Phenician. (c) The Arabic and 
 Zi thiopic. 'The Samaritan is the Aramean mixed 
 with Hebrew forms. Most of these languages are 
 
 * See Gen. 10: 21], &c. From Sem was derived the 
 Aramzean race, as well as the Arabian and the Hebrew, 
 but not the 4ithiopians and Phcenicians, who were de- 
 scendants of Ham (vs. 6, 15, &c.); on the contrary, 
 among the posterity of Sem are reckoned (v. 22) the Ela- 
 mites and Assyrians, whose language was not of the 
 parent stock called Semitish. In opposition to Eichhorn, 
 who was very partial to this appellation, see Stange, 
 Theologische Symmikta, t. i. no. 1. 
 
 
 
 extinct, or are used only in districts of small ex- 
 tent. The Arabic, on the contrary, is still one of 
 the most extensively spoken of all known lan- 
 guages. 
 
 On the east and north, the branches of the 
 Semitish stock were bordered by those of an- 
 other still more widely extended, which spread 
 itself, under a great diversity of forms, from 
 India even into western Europe. This, as it 
 embraces the Indian (Sanscrit), ancient and 
 modern Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and 
 German languages, is very appropriately called 
 the Indo-Germanic. 'The intimate connexion 
 between the members of this great family of 
 languages (in a wider sense embracing also 
 the Slavic tongues) has been well exhibited 
 by Schmitthenner,* Bopp,t and others. The 
 Chinese and Japanese are entirely different in 
 their character. 
 
 3. The most striking peculiarities in the gram- 
 matical structure of the Semitish languages are 
 the following:—(a) Among the consonants, 
 which form the body and substance of these lan- 
 guages, are several grades of guttural sounds. 
 The vowels have their origin in three primary 
 sounds—a, 7, u. (6) Most of the radical words, 
 or stems, consist of three letters forming two syl- 
 lables. (c) The verb has only two tenses; but 
 a striking analogy prevails in the formation of 
 verbals. (d) The noun has but two genders, no 
 terminations of case, and no form of comparison ; 
 
 * Ursprachlehre, Frankfort (on the Maine), 1826. 
 t+ Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanscrit, Zend, Grie- 
 chischen, Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Gothischen und 
 Deutschen. Berlin, 1833. 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it has, however, a peculiar form for expressing 
 the relation of the genitive. (e) The oblique cases 
 _ of the pronouns are indicated by forms appended 
 (suffixa) to other parts of speech. (f) Scarcely 
 any compounds exist either in nouns or verbs. 
 (g) In the Syntax there is great simplicity, as 
 well as in the structure of sentences, which ex- 
 hibits no artificial combination of members. 
 
 The Arabic, the most perfect of these lan- 
 guages in its structure, has a form to express 
 comparison, and, in poetry, the terminations of 
 case. It has also a peculiar manner of express- 
 ing the plural, not by appropriate terminations, 
 but by changes in the vowels of the singular; 
 as in German, bruder, brother, briider, brothers; 
 in English, tooth, teeth ; woman, women. 
 
 The grammatical structure of the Hebrew is 
 clearly the most ancient. Hence, of many forms 
 the origin is still visible in Hebrew, whilst all 
 traces of it are effaced in the sister dialects. See 
 e.g. the flexion of verbs, (§ 44.) 
 
 4, In the province of the lexicon also, the 
 Semitish languages differ essentially from the 
 Indo-Germanic. This difference, however, is 
 less than that which appears in the department 
 of grammar; for a great number of Semitish 
 roots and ground-forms* are found also in the 
 languages of the Indo-Germanic stock ; and not 
 only those in which there is still apparent an 
 imitation in sound of the thing represented, but 
 those in which it has ceased, or can no longer be 
 traced in consequence of frequent transmission, 
 or in which, from the nature of the case, it could 
 never have existed. 
 
 Of roots of the first class, the following are 
 examples, found also in Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, 
 German, &c.; viz. Pe yr Asixw, Lat. lingo, 
 Sanser. lih, Germ. lechen, Engl. to lich ; 493 (kin- 
 dred forms 53x, 52y,) rid, Ker, KvALw, Lat, 
 volvo, Germ, quellen, wallen, Engl. to well, (old 
 German galle for quelle, a fountain ;) 2, oon, 
 nw, xaparrw, Persian khariden, Ital. grattare, 
 French gratter, Engl. to grate, to scratch, Germ. 
 kratzen ; 7, (Bonyh Aol. fracture,) Lat. fran- 
 go, Germ. brechen, Engl. to break, &e. The 
 middle member is often wanting, or at least no 
 longer discernible ; e.g. Fp, 123, Germ. tappen, 
 (in the other languages the letters of the root 
 
 * Literally ‘stems and roots ;” for the import of these 
 terms see the explanation given in note on § 30.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 are transposed and give the form pat; as, 
 Sanser. pad, foot, patha, way, wdroc, Taréw, 
 movg for wodc, Lat. pes, petere, whence the 
 Germ. pfad, Engl. path, Germ. fuss, Engl. 
 Soot.) 7, Germ. hallen, Sox, (tinnio,) Germ. 
 schallen, to ring. 
 
 As an example of a root in which no such 
 imitation of sound is attempted, we give am, 
 ham, (sam,) gam, kam, in the sense of together, 
 [gathered.] Hence in Hebrew nox, (kindred 
 form ix, a people, properly an assembling,) 
 DD, (whence Dy, a people, properly an assem- 
 bling,) oy, together-with, n23, (whence n3, also, 
 m2, a crowd;) Persian hem, hemeh, at once; 
 dia, (app), Gude, dpov, (Sputroe, buadoe,) the 
 harder form kouvdc, Lat. cum, cumulus, cunc- 
 tus; with the sibilant, Sanscr. sam, civ, Ziv, 
 Evvdc=xorvéc, Goth. sama, Germ. sammt, sam- 
 meln, not to mention the Slavic languages, 
 which this root pervades in like manner, 
 
 For further illustration, in the case of the 
 personal pronouns and the numerals, see $§ 33 
 and 95, - 
 
 This affinity between Semitish and Indo-Ger- 
 manic roots, recognised in particular cases by 
 many modern philologists, has been fully ex- 
 hibited in the Latin edition of the author's 
 Hebrew Lexicon ;* and this is one of the prin- 
 cipal points of view in that revision of the 
 work, 
 
 Wholly different from this is the occasional 
 adoption by one language of the words of an- 
 other ; as— 
 
 a) when the names by which Indian, Egyp- 
 tian, or Persian objects are designated in their 
 native lands are admitted into the Hebrew 
 language; e.g. 1k’, (Egypt. jero,) river, the 
 Nile; 303, (Egypt. achi,) grass of the Nile ; one, 
 Persian pleasure-ground, park; Posy, daricus, 
 a Persian gold coin; on, (Malab. togéi,) 
 pavones ; ory, (Sanscr. aghil,) lignum aquile. 
 Several such words have also passed over into 
 the Greek language ; e.g. mip, (Sanser. hapi,) 
 ape, Kijroc, Kiboc; Daya, (Sanser. harpasa,) 
 cotton, capmacoc, carbasus. 
 
 6) when Semitish names for the products of 
 Asia have been adopted by the Greeks; e.g. 
 
 * Lexicon manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum in V,. T. 
 Libros. Post editionem Germanicam tertiam Latine ela- 
 boravit, multisque modis retractavit et auxit G. Gesenius. 
 Lipsize, 1833. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a ee. 
 
 ~~ -_” 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 y2, Bbovoe, byssus, Egyptian cotton ; ma), di- 
 bavwrdc, frankincense. 
 
 5. The Semitish mode of writing has this 
 striking imperfection, that only the consonants 
 (with which the signification of the root always 
 connects itself) are written in the line as real 
 letters. The vowels, with two exceptions, are in- 
 dicated by small points or strokes attached to the 
 letters, above or beneath the line; for the prac- 
 tised reader they may be wholly omitted. These 
 languages, except the /Ethiopic, are written from 
 right to left. They all derive their written cha- 
 racters, notwithstanding the great dissimilarity 
 which they exhibit in this respect, from the 
 Pheenician as a common source; from this also 
 sprung the old Greek alphabet. 
 
 The Pheenician alphabet may be found, from a 
 sketch furnished by me, in De Wette’s Lehrbuch der 
 hebriisch-jiidischen Archiiologie, p. 287, 2nd ed. 
 
 6. The Hebrew language, in its relation to its 
 sister dialects, stands midway between the Ara- 
 mean and the Arabic. The Aramean delights 
 in short and contracted forms with few vowels, 
 in a flat pronunciation, avoiding the sibilant 
 sounds; and neither in its vocabulary, nor in 
 grammatical structure, can be regarded as a rich 
 language. The Arabic makes more frequent 
 use of vowels, and is rich in radical words and 
 grammatical forms. It is therefore more impor- 
 tant to the philologist ; but in many points the 
 resemblance to the Hebrew is strongest in the 
 Aramean. 
 
 For a full account of what has been done in the 
 grammar and lexicography of these languages, and of 
 their character and literature, see the preface to my 
 Hebr. Handwérterbuch, ed. 2nd and foll. [Trans- 
 lated for the Biblical Repository, vol. iii, no. ix.] 
 
 § 2. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE HEBREW AS A LIVING 
 LANGUAGE.* 
 
 1. This language was the mother tongue of 
 
 the Hebrew or Israelitish people, during the 
 period of their independence. The name Hebrew 
 language (m2 jt, yAdooa rH ‘Efpaiwy, ébpa- 
 
 tort) does not occur in the Old Testament, and 
 appears rather to have been the name in use 
 It is 
 
 among those who were not Israelites. 
 
 * See the author’s Geschichte der hebriiischen Sprache 
 und Schrift. Eine philologisch-kritische Einleitung in die 
 
 Sprachlehren und Worterbicher der hebriischen Sprache. 
 Leipzig, 1815. §§ 5—18. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 
 
 
 
 called, Isa. 19 : 18, (poet.) language of Canaan. 
 In 2 Kings 18 : 26, (comp. Isa. 36: 11, 13,) and 
 Neh, 13:24, persons are said to speak nm 
 Judaicé, in the Jews’ language, in accordance 
 with the later usage which arose after the re- 
 moval of the ten tribes, when the name Jew was 
 extended to the whole nation. (Jer., Neh, 
 Esth.) 
 
 Of the names Hebrews (oy, “E€paiou, He- 
 brei) and Israelites (oxyw 123), the latter is a 
 patronymic, and was applied by the people to 
 themselves; the former was the name by 
 which they were known among foreigners, on 
 which account it is scarcely used in the Old 
 Testament, except when they are distinguished 
 from another people, (Gen. 40:15. 43:32,) or 
 when persons who are not Israelites are intro- 
 duced as speaking, (Gen. 39:14, 17. 41:12. 
 comp. the author’s Lex. under »2y.) The 
 Greeks and Romans—as Pausanias, Josephus, 
 Tacitus—use only the name Hebrews. It is 
 properly an appellative, and means that which 
 ts beyond, or on the other side—people from the 
 country on the other side. It is formed by the 
 addition of the derivative syllable »— (§ 85, 
 no. 6) from yy, a land on the other side, applied 
 especially to a country beyond the Euphrates. 
 This appellation was probably given by the 
 Canaanites to the tribes who, under Abraham, 
 migrated from regions east of the Euphrates 
 into the land of Canaan. See Gen. 14:13. 
 The Hebrew genealogists explain it, as a 
 patronymic, by sons of Eber. Gen. 10:21. 
 Num. 24: 24, 
 
 In the writings of the New Testament, the 
 term Hebrew (é€paiori, John 5:2. 19:13. 
 17. 20—i€pate diadexroc, Acts 21:40. 22:2. 
 26:14) was also applied to what was then 
 the vernacular language of Palestine, (see no. 
 5 of this section,) in distinction from the 
 Greek. Josephus, however, understands by 
 yAéooa rev ‘Efpaiwr, (Antiq. 1, 2, and often 
 elsewhere,) the ancient Hebrew. 
 
 The name lingua sancta was first given to 
 the ancient Hebrew in the Chaldee para- 
 phrases of the Old Testament, because it was 
 the language of the sacred books, in distinc- 
 tion from the Chaldee, the popular language, 
 
 which was called lingua profana. So, in India, 
 
 the Sanscrit is called the sacred language, 
 because in this the sacred books are written, 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 ——$$ = 
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in distinction from the common spoken lan- 
 guage. 
 
 2. In the oldest written monuments of this 
 language, contained in the Pentateuch, we find 
 it as perfect as it ever became in its structure, 
 and we have no historical documents of an 
 earlier date, by which we can inyestigate its 
 origin and formation. So far as we can trace 
 its history, Canaan was its home; it was essen- 
 tially the language of the Canaanitish or Phe- 
 nician race, by whom Palestine was inhabited 
 before the immigration of Abraham’s posterity, 
 became the adopted language of his descendants, 
 was with them transferred to Egypt and brought 
 back to Canaan. 
 
 _ The proofs of the identity of the Hebrew 
 and Phenician languages consist, partly in 
 the agreement between the former and such 
 few traces of the Canaanitish or Pheenician as 
 have been preserved in various ways, (e. g. in 
 inscriptions, on coins, and in occasional pas- 
 sages in old writers,—see Gesch. der Hebr. 
 Sprache, S. 223 ff.;) partly in Canaanitish 
 names of persons and places, which are mani- 
 festly Hebrew, e. g. 9722, father of the king; 
 PTE 290, hing of righteousness ; WBOTNp, city of 
 books. The Punic language moreover, which 
 proceeded from the Pheenician, was closely 
 related to the Hebrew. See Gesch. der Hebr. 
 Sprache, as above, and the list of Phoenician 
 and Punic proper names in Hamackeri Mis- 
 cellanea Phenicia, p. 188, 
 
 3. The remains of this language, which are 
 extant in the Old Testament, enable us to dis- 
 tinguish but two periods in its history. The 
 first, which may be called its golden age, extends 
 to the close of the Babylonish exile, at which 
 epoch the second, or silver age, commences, 
 
 The former embraces the larger portion of the 
 books of the Old Testament : viz., of prose writ- 
 ings (historical), the Pentateuch, Judges, 1 and 
 2 Kings; of poetical writings, the Psalms (with 
 the exception of a few later ones), the Proverbs 
 of Solomon, Job; of the earlier prophets, in the 
 following chronological order, Amos, Joel, 
 Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Ha- 
 bakkuk, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. The writ- 
 ings of the last two, who lived and taught just 
 before the commencement and during the first 
 years of the captivity, as well as the latter part 
 of the book of Isaiah (chapters 40—66, together 
 
 
 
 
 
 —4-—~~— 
 
 with some of the earlier chapters*) and probably 
 the book of Job, stand on the borders of both 
 the golden and the silver age. 
 
 The point of time at which we should date 
 the commencement of this period, and of He- 
 brew literature in general, lies in some ob- 
 scurity, as it is still a subject of critical con- 
 troversy whether the Pentateuch proceeded, 
 either wholly or in part, from Moses, and if 
 not, to what age the several books are to be 
 assigned.* For the history of the language, 
 and for our present object, it is sufficient to 
 remark, that the Pentateuch certainly contains 
 some peculiarities of language which have the 
 appearance of archaisms. When these books 
 were composed, the words xi, he, (§ 33, 
 Rem. 7,) and 13, young man, were still of com- 
 mon gender, and used also for she, and young 
 woman. Some harsh forms of words, e. g. 
 pry, poy, which are common in these books, 
 are exchanged in others for the softer ones, 
 PY}, PID. 
 
 On the other hand, in Job, Jeremiah, and 
 Ezekiel, are found several traces of the Chal- 
 dee colouring which distinguishes the lan- 
 guage of the second or silver age. See no. 5. 
 
 4, Although the different writers and books 
 have certainly their peculiarities, yet we dis- 
 cover in them no such diversities of style as will 
 materially aid us in tracing the history of the 
 language during this period. In respect to several 
 of them moreover, especially the anonymous his- 
 torical books, the date of composition cannot be 
 definitely determined. But the language of poetry 
 is everywhere distinguished from prose, not only 
 by a rhythm consisting in measured parallel 
 members, but also by peculiar words, forms, and 
 significations of words, and constructions in syn- 
 tax; although this distinction is less strongly 
 marked than it is, for example, in the Greek 
 language. Of these poetical idioms, however, 
 the greater part occur in the kindred languages, 
 especially the Syriac, as the common forms of 
 expression, and are perhaps to be historically 
 
 * For an able defence of the genuineness of the latter 
 part of Isaiah, see Hengstenberg’s Christology of the Old 
 Test., vol. i» p. 398 foll., of Prof. Keith’s translation. 
 That of the Pentateuch has also been successfully vindi- 
 cated by many distinguished scholars. Fora view, by 
 the same writer, of the Causes of the Denial of the Mosaic 
 Origin of the Pentateuch, see nos, xxx. and xxxii. of the 
 Biblical Repository.—Tr. 
 
 TI a a a a Fo A TO a TT ETO Sos 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 regarded as archaisms, which the Hebrew re- 
 tained only in poetry. The prophets, moreover, 
 in respect to language and rhythm, are to be re- 
 garded generally as poets, except that in their 
 oral poetic discourses the sentences run on to 
 greater length, and the parallelism is less regular, 
 than in the writings of those who are properly 
 styled poets. The writings of the later prophets 
 exhibit less and less of this poetic character, 
 until their style scarcely differs from prose. 
 
 On the rhythm of Hebrew poetry, see espe- 
 cially De Wette Commentar iiber die Psalmen, 
 Einleitung § 7,* (8d edition, Heidelberg, 1829.) 
 The subject is briefly treated in my Hebr. 
 Lesebuch, S. 73, ff. 
 
 Of poetical words, for which others are used 
 in prose, the following are examples, viz. win 
 =oyx, man; Mk= TT, path; mpx=wNa, to 
 come ; 779=23, word. 
 
 Under poetical significations of words may be 
 ranked the use of certain poetical epithets for 
 substantives; e.g. vis, strong one, for God; 
 yay, do. for bullock, horse; 7333, alba, for luna ; 
 mm, unicus, that which is dearest, for life. 
 
 Examples of poetical forms are, (a) the plural 
 forms of prepositions of place, (§ 101,) e.g. 
 y—'y, ‘yy, My; (0) the paragogic 
 letters a »—, | appended to the noun, (§ 93 ;) 
 (c) the suffixes jn, iT, 104, im, for D, D—, 
 nim, DI, (§ 33;) (d) the plural ending p—, 
 for o—, (§ 86, 1.) Among the peculiarities 
 of syntax are, the far less frequent use of the 
 article, of the relative, and of the sign of the 
 accusative; the use of the construct state even 
 before prepositions, and of the apocopated 
 future in the signification of the common 
 future, (§ 48, 4.) 
 
 5. The second or silver age of the Hebrew 
 language and literature extended from the re- 
 turn of the Jews from exile to the time of the 
 Maccabees, about 160 years before Christ. It 
 was chiefly distinguished by an approximation 
 to the East-Arameean or Chaldee dialect. To 
 the use of this dialect, so nearly related to the 
 Hebrew, the Jews easily accustomed themselves 
 while in Babylonia, and continued to employ it 
 as the popular language after their return. Hence 
 it exerted a constantly increasing influence upon 
 the ancient Hebrew, which continued to be the 
 
 * Translated for the Biblical Repository, no. ix.—Tr. 
 
 language of books, and towards the time of 
 Christ wholly supplanted it. The relation of the 
 two languages, as they existed together during 
 this period, may be well illustrated by that of the 
 High and Low German in Lower Saxony, or 
 still better by that of the High German and the 
 popular dialects in Southern Germany and Swit- 
 zerland; for in these cases the popular dialect 
 exerts more or less influence on the High Ger- 
 man, both oral and written, of cultivated society. 
 It is a false impression, derived from a misinter- 
 pretation of Neh. 8:8, that the Jews, during 
 their exile, had wholly forgotten their ancient 
 
 language, and were obliged to learn its meaning 
 
 from the priests and scribes. 
 
 The writings of the Old Testament, which be- 
 long to this second period, and in all of which 
 this Chaldee colouring appears, though in dif- 
 ferent degrees, are the following; viz. 1 and 2 
 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther; the pro- 
 phetical books of Jonah, Haggai, Zechariah, 
 Malachi, Daniel; of the poetical writings, Eccle- 
 siastes, Canticles, and some of the Psalms. These 
 books are also, as literary works, decidedly in- 
 ferior to those of an earlier date; though this 
 period is not wanting in compositions which, in 
 purity of language and poetic merit, scarcely 
 yield to the productions of the golden age; e.g. 
 several of the later Psalms, (120 ff, 139.) The 
 books of Daniel and Ezra contain portions which 
 are wholly written in the Chaldee language. 
 (Daniel 2:4 to 7:28. Ezra 4:8 to 6:18. also 
 7; 12—27.) 
 
 To this later form of the language, as af- 
 fected by the influence of the Chaldee, be- 
 long— 
 
 1. Words, for which others are used by the 
 earlier writers; e.g. y23, time==ny ; 3p, to take 
 =n; FID, end=yp; wr, to rule= 20 3 also 
 several names of months, as jO)—=1ix. 
 
 2. Significations of words ; e.g. wx (to say) 
 to command ; my (to answer) to commence speak- 
 ing; crip (holy ones) for angels. 
 
 3. Peculiarities of grammar; e.g. the fre- 
 quent scriptio plena of \ and >, as ™3, (else- 
 where 13,) and even wyip for wp, 3h for 34; 
 the interchange of 7— and x— final; the very 
 frequent use of substantives in ji, y—, m, &e. 
 
 We may, notwithstanding, admit the occur- 
 rence of Arameisms in some books, the Can- 
 ticles for example, at an earlier period and for 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 other causes, perhaps from the works having 
 been composed in the northern part of Pales- 
 tine, and in the neighbourhood of Syria. 
 
 The few solitary Chaldaisms which occur 
 in the writings of the golden age may be ac- 
 counted for by the fact, that these books passed 
 through the hands of copyists whose language 
 was the Chaldee. 
 
 We are not to regard as Chaldaisms all the 
 peculiarities of these later writers. Some of 
 them are not found in Chaldee, and seem to 
 have belonged to the Hebrew popular dialect ; 
 e.g. +} for Wx, (§ 387, 2.) 
 
 Remark 1. Of peculiarities of dialect, only a few 
 slight traces are found. Thus from Judges 
 12: 6, it appears that the Ephraimites always 
 pronounced as ; and in Nehem. 13: 23, 24, 
 the dialect of Ashdod (of the Philistines) is 
 mentioned. 
 
 . It is not to be supposed that the monuments 
 which we possess of Hebrew literature contain 
 all the treasures of the ancient Hebrew lan- 
 guage. What has perished of these treasures 
 could not, however, have materially affected 
 our estimation of the ancient Hebrew, which 
 must be regarded rather as a poor than a rich 
 language. In the expression of religious ideas 
 its copiousness and versatility are most fully 
 developed. 
 
 § 3. 
 
 WORKS ON THE GRAMMAR OF THE HEBREW 
 LANGUAGE, 
 
 (Gesch. der Hebr. Sprache, §§ 19—39.) 
 
 
 
 1. After the extinction of the Hebrew as a 
 spoken language, and the nearly contemporaneous 
 collection of the books of the Old Testament, the 
 Jews applied themselves to the preparation of 
 translations of this their sacred codex, and to 
 the criticism and interpretation of its text. The 
 oldest version is that of the so-called Seventy 
 interpreters, (the Septuagint.) It was executed 
 by several translators, and at different periods of 
 time. The work was begun with the translation 
 of the Pentateuch, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 at Alexandria. It was designed to meet the 
 wants of Jews residing in Alexandria and other 
 Grecian cities, and was made, in part, from 
 knowledge of the Hebrew whilst it was yet a 
 living language. At a later period, the Chaldee 
 translations or Targums (pmmnn, i.e. transla- 
 tions) were made in Palestine and Babylonia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The interpretations, drawn in part from alleged 
 traditions, relate almost exclusively to civil and 
 ritual laws, and to doctrinal theology. These, 
 as well as the equally unscientific observations 
 on various readings, are preserved in the Talmud, 
 of which the first part (Mischna) was composed 
 in the third century of the Christian era, the 
 second part (Gemara) not till the sixth. The 
 language of both is a mixture of Hebrew and 
 Chaldee. 
 
 2. To the period of time between the conclu- 
 sion of the Talmud and the age of the first writers 
 on the grammar of the language belongs, chiefly, 
 the application of vowel signs to the text.* Of 
 the same period is the collection of critical ob- 
 servations called the Masora, (mn, draditio,) by 
 which the still-received text of the Old Testa- 
 ment was settled, and from which it bears the 
 name of the Aasoretic tect. 
 
 The various readings of the Qeri are the 
 
 most important portion of the Masora. § 17. 
 
 3. The first attempts to illustrate the grammar 
 of the language were made, after the example 
 of Arabian scholars, in the tenth century. What 
 was done by Saadia in this department is wholly 
 lost. But there are still extant, in manuscript, 
 the works of &. Juda Chiug and R. Jona ben 
 Gannach, composed in the Arabic language. 
 Aided by these labours of his predecessors, R. 
 David Kimchi acquired among Jewish scholars 
 his reputation as the classical grammarian of the 
 language. From these earliest writers on the 
 subject are derived many of the methods of 
 classification and of the technical terms which 
 are still employed ; e. g. the use of the forms and 
 letters of the verb ‘yp (formerly employed as a 
 paradigm) in designating the conjugations, and 
 the different classes of irregular verbs; the voces 
 memoriales, as npz723, &e. 
 
 » ZR. Saadia Gaon, Rector of the Academy at 
 Sora, near Babylon, (ob. 942,) wrote Liber 
 Lingue Sancte, known only from the quota- 
 tions of the Rabbins. 
 
 R. Juda Chiug, (Arab. Abu Zacharia,) styled 
 caput sive princeps grammaticorum, was a phy- 
 sician at Fez, about the year 1040. He com- 
 posed some treatises on difficult points in gram- 
 mar; e.g. De Verbis Quiescentibus, Geminatis, 
 in the Arabic language. I have a copy of an 
 
 * See § 7, 2, 3. 
 
 
 

 
 Oxford manuscript of these works, which I 
 
 intend to publish. 
 
 R. Jona ben Gannach, (Arab. Abulwalid 
 Merwan »b. G.,) physician at Cordova about 
 1120, wrote the first complete grammar, with 
 the title Liber Splendoris, eal ob, which 
 is also found in manuscript (though very in- 
 distinct) at Oxford. Even in this early work 
 the arrangement is made with reference to the 
 three parts of speech. It was afterwards trans- 
 lated by other Rabbins into Hebrew. Liber 
 Supplementi is the title of another grammati- 
 cal work of this writer, intended as a supple- 
 ment to R. Chiug de Verbis Quiescentibus. See 
 the author’s Commentary on Isa. 33: 1. 
 
 R. Aben Ezra of Toledo, (ob. 1174,) the 
 most thinking, sagacious, and unprejudiced of 
 the Rabbins, wrote on grammar D’nND “1D, 
 published by Heidenheim, 1808, and nny “pb, 
 (Book of Purity = Correctness ;) among other 
 editions is that of Berlin, 1769. 
 
 R. David Kimchi flourished about 1190—1200 
 in (the then Spanish) Narbonne. He wrote 
 +529 (Perfectio), containing a lexicon and gram- 
 mar. ‘The grammar forms the first part, and 
 has been very often printed. I have before 
 me an edition bearing the date (5) 553, (a.D. 
 1793,) Fiirth. 
 
 Elias Levita, aGerman, who taught at Padua, 
 Rome, Venice, (ob. 1549,) first admitted the 
 modern origin of the vowel points, and was, 
 in consequence, accused of heresy. He wrote 
 Liber Electi, Capita Eliz, and many other 
 grammatical works. 
 
 4. The father of Hebrew philology, among 
 Christians, was the celebrated Reuchlin, (ob. 
 1522,) to whom Greek literature also is so much 
 indebted. He, however, as well as Sebast. Miin- 
 ster (ob. 1552) and Joh. Buxtorf (ob. 1629), ad- 
 hered closely to Jewish tradition. Lud. Cap- 
 pellus (ob. 1638) led the way to the opposite 
 extreme, a rash distrust of this source of know- 
 ledge, and especially of the authority of the 
 vowel points. J. A, Danz (Jena, ob. 1654) 
 introduced a formal and pedantic method of 
 treating the subject. After the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, the field of view gradually 
 widened ; the study of the kindred languages, in 
 England, France, and Holland, through the la- 
 bours of such men as Ed. Pococke (ob. 1691), 
 Lud. de Dieu (ob. 1642), J. H. Hottinger (ob. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 
 
 1667), and, most of all, of Alb. Schultens (ob. 
 1750), led to important results in the science of | 
 Hebrew grammar. 
 
 The most important grammatical works, 
 forming epochs in the history of the science, 
 were the following ; viz. 
 
 Joh. Reuchlini Phorcensis ad Dionysium, 
 Fratrem suum germanum, de Rudimentis 
 Hebr. lib. iii, 1506. fol. (It contains a gram- 
 mar and lexicon.) 
 
 Seb. Miinster (Heidelberg), Opus gramma- 
 ticum, consummatum. Basil. 1544. 4to. 
 
 Sal. Glass (Jena and Gotha, ob. 1656), Phi- 
 lologia Sacra, Lips. 1623. 4to ed. Dathe, 1776. 
 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 (Lud. Cappelli) Arcanum Punctationis reve- 
 latum. Lugd. Bat. 1624. 4to. He maintained, 
 with Elias Levita, the modern origin of the 
 vowel points, and in some instances called in 
 question their correctness. Some of his par- 
 tisans and followers wholly discarded them. 
 
 J. A. Danz, Literator Ebreo-Chaldeus. 
 (it treats of the elements and of grammatical 
 forms and inflexions.) 1696. 8vo. Interpres 
 Ebreo-Chaldeus, (containing the Syntax.) 
 1696. 8vo. 
 
 Lud. de Dieu (Leyden), Grammatica Lin- 
 guarum Orientalium Hebr. Chald. et Syrorum 
 inter se collatarum. Lugd. Bat. 1628. 4to. The 
 comparison, however, consists chiefly in juxta- 
 position, not in the treatment of the subject. 
 
 J. H. Hottinger, Gram. quatuor Linguarum, 
 Hebr. Chald. Syr. Arab., harmonica, Tiguri. 
 1649. 4to. 
 
 Alb. Schultens, Institutt. ad Fundamenta 
 Ling. Hebr. Lugd. Bat. 1737. 4to. 
 
 N. W. Schroder (Groningen, ob. 1798), In- 
 stitutt. ad Fundamenta Ling. Hebr. Gro- 
 ningen. 1766. (Often republished.) 
 
 To estimate correctly those works which have 
 since appeared, and which are of permanent 
 scientific value, it is necessary to understand 
 what is required of one who attempts to exhibit 
 the grammar of an ancient language. This is, 
 in general, (1) a correct observation and a sys- 
 tematic arrangement of all the phenomena of 
 the language; (2) the explanation of these phe- 
 nomena, partly by comparing them with one an- 
 other, and with analogous appearances in the 
 kindred languages, partly from the general ana- 
 logy and philosophy of language. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 
 
 Among recent grammatical works, the most 
 valuable are— 
 
 The author’s Gramm. krit. Lehrgebaude der 
 Hebr. Sprache. Leipz. 1817. 
 
 G. H. A. Ewald, krit. Grammatik der Hebr. 
 Sprache. Hannover. 1827. [Gramm. d. Hebr. 
 Spr. 2te Aufl. Leipz. 1835. ] 
 
 Dr. Samuel Lee’s Lectures on Hebrew Gram- 
 mar. London, 1827. 
 
 [A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- 
 guage, by Dr. I. Nordheimer. Vol. i. New 
 
 York, 1838.] 
 § 4. 
 
 DIVISION AND ARRANGEMENT OF GRAMMAR, 
 
 The division and arrangement of Hebrew 
 grammar are suggested by the three elementary 
 parts of every language; viz., sounds expressed 
 by letters, words, and sentences. 
 
 The first part, which treats of the elements, 
 contains therefore instruction respecting the 
 sounds and the representation of them by letters, 
 (orthography.) It teaches the art of reading, 
 iL.e., of expressing the written signs by the sounds 
 which they represent, (orthoépy,) and of writing 
 words agreeably to established usage, (ortho- 
 graphy.) It treats moreover of sounds as con- 
 nected in syllables and words, and exhibits the 
 peculiarities which accrue to them from this 
 connexion. 
 
 
 
 
 
 PA lea 
 OF THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 § 5. 
 THE CONSONANTS, THEIR FORM AND NAMES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 2.) 
 
 1. The Hebrew letters now in use, called the 
 Assyrian, or Chaldee square character, are not 
 of the oldest and original form. On the coins 
 of the Maccabzean princes is found another cha- 
 racter, which, at an earlier period, was probably 
 in general use, and which bears a strong re- 
 semblance to the Pheenician letter, (§ 1, 5.) 
 
 
 
 In the second part, which treats of gramma- 
 tical forms and inflexions, words are regarded as 
 formed into parts of speech. It treats, (1) of 
 the formation of words, or the rise of the several 
 parts of speech from the roots, or from one an- 
 other; (2) of inflexions, i.e. of the various 
 forms which words assume, according to their 
 relation to other words, and to the sentence. 
 
 The third part (syntax) shews (1) how the 
 various inflexions of the language serve to 
 modify the original meaning of words, and how 
 other modifications, for which the language fur- 
 nishes no forms, are expressed by periphrasis ; 
 (2) assigns the laws by which the parts of speech 
 are united in sentences, (syntax in the stricter 
 sense. ) 
 
 In the Hebrew language, the syntax em- 
 braces much which in Latin and Greek is 
 regarded as belonging to the second part; 
 e. g., the comparison of adjectives. The se- 
 cond part treats of gender only with respect 
 to form, while the principles which regulate 
 the use of it belong to syntax. 
 
 In elementary books, it is sometimes neces- 
 sary, for the convenience of the learner, to 
 avoid nice distinctions; e.g., in the conjuga- 
 tions of verbs, the separation of the form from 
 its signification, although the latter, strictly 
 speaking, belongs to syntax. 
 
 The Chaldee square letter is also derived from 
 
 the Phenician, but seems to have properly be- . 
 
 longed to the Aramzan branch of the Semitish 
 race. It was introduced among the Hebrews 
 at the same time with the Aramzan language 
 (§ 2, 5), and gradually displaced the ancient 
 Hebrew character. 
 
 The square letter is used in most manu- 
 scripts of the Old Testament, only a few 
 being written with the Rabbinic or Samaritan 
 character. The Palmyrene, and the Aramzan 
 on the monument of Carpentras, most nearly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 se ee ee eee 
 a a a a a a a SS 
 
 
 
 ———————— ———— ——————————————————————————————————————————————————— 
 
2, 3. 
 2. The alphabet consists of twenty-two con- 
 
 sonants, three of which have also the power of 
 vowels, (§ 7, 2.) 
 
 In regard to the details respecting the 
 origin of this character, and the time of its 
 introduction among the Hebrews, there is still 
 some obscurity. See Gesch. der Hebr. Spr. 
 
 HEBREW ALPHABET. 
 
 
 
 Hebrew 
 name. 
 
 Signification of the 
 names. 
 
 Form. Sounded as* Numerical value. 
 
 aS ee 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 sa 
 
 Vass Cl eee ee ES eee AS Ly a De ee 
 
 3 &4dv 
 
 " 
 
 _ sh, s 
 th, t 
 
 8 
 
 {th in 
 
 2 this, d 
 
 h 
 Vv 
 
 Z 
 
 ro) 
 
 sh, s 
 
 th, t 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 La’-médh 
 Mem 
 Nun 
 Sa’-mékh 
 A'-yin 
 Pé 
 Tsa-dhe’ 
 Qoph 
 Résh 
 Shin 
 Tiv 
 
 Door 
 (doubtful) 
 Hook, pin 
 Armour 
 Enclosure 
 Snake 
 Hand 
 
 The hand bent 
 Ox-goad 
 Water 
 
 Fish 
 
 Prop 
 
 Eye 
 
 Mouth 
 Fish-hook 
 Ear [Ansa] 
 Head 
 Tooth 
 
 Cross 
 
 * For the sounds of the vowels in this column, see note on § 8. 
 ; Cc 
 
 8 
 9 
 10, & 11, &e. 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 9 
 resemble it. See Kopp, Bilder und Schriften und Schr., 8. 140 ff; and Hupfeld in Ullmann 
 der Vorzeit, ii. S. 157 fh. ~ und Umbreit’s Theol. Studien, 1830, numbers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 HEBREW ALPHABET, 
 
 WITH DIACRITIC SIGNS. 
 
 ARABIC ALPHABET. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forms. 
 
 G 
 
 —~ 
 
 (af Nast AS § Ee ah Ns eS ea ee 
 
 Ww 
 
 & $2 
 
 sy 49 € 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CONNECTED 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pay |b ome leanne "Pee eee en eater 
 XN ? | ( 
 bh v aad — 4 ’ 
 b b 
 gh g = é = > 
 8 g 
 { th in . . 
 da BNE le 2 
 d d d ds 
 h h % a € d 
 Vv Vv , 5 
 He | ha Ss MAE 
 > > 
 hh hh { Cc E bi re 
 S 
 : 1 { b lb La Lb 
 e) 1 b b 
 uy af a us a z 
 kh kh — re), is E> 6 
 k k 
 l l J J: \ J 
 elas Paes Salt = 
 n n (oO) Ww A 5) 
 S s 
 Gi a x £ 
 y { & & & é 
 ph ph,f |} os 2 a 5 
 P Pp 
 uv | uw | 2 “ 
 ts ts { Us Us e = 
 q q he nae ; 
 Yr ig J) LZ vA 
 sh sh U ue ae as 
 E : Ge. as - “ 
 th fth im |} a, wait i 3 
 Y thin 
 t t ee) oo 4 3 
 xy, J x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYRIAC 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 directed downwards, whilst the common form 
 has a horizontal connecting line, directed to- 
 wards the following letter. 
 
 4. Hebrew is read from right to left. The 
 division of a word at the end of a line is not 
 allowed. To complete a line, dilated letters 
 (dilatabiles) are sometimes used. These are, 
 
 Dn, 5,7, 8, (ont) 
 
 1. The figures of the letters in the oldest 
 Semitish alphabets, as the Pheenician, are 
 rude representations of visible objects, of 
 whose names they were the initials; e. g., }, 
 the rude figure of a camel’s neck, for 1 (593), 
 the initial letter of 52, a camel; 0, properly 
 an eye, for », (j)¥, eye.) The oldest form of 
 these letters does not appear even in the 
 Phenician alphabet, much less in the square 
 character now in use. Of course, in many 
 cases, the letters exhibit no resemblance to 
 the objects represented by their names. 
 
 The most probable explanation of the 
 names of the letters is given in the alphabet. 
 For further particulars see Gesch. der Hebr. 
 Spr., S. 168, and the initial articles under the 
 several letters in the author’s Hebrew Lexicon. 
 
 2. The numerical power of the consonants 
 is given in connexion with the alphabet. 
 From 500 to 900, hundreds are sometimes 
 expressed by the five final letters; thus, 
 7 500, b 600, 7 700, y 800, ¥ 900. Others 
 express them by n= 400, with the addition of 
 the remaining hundreds; as pp=500. Fifteen 
 is expressed by m= 9 -+ 6, not by mm, because 
 these are the first two letters in the name of 
 God. The units, marked with two dots, stand 
 for thousands; e. g., 8 = 1000. 
 
 8. Abbreviations of words do not occur in 
 the text of the O. T. They are found on 
 coins, and in the writings of the later Jews. 
 The sign of abbreviation is an oblique stroke, 
 as ‘w for am. Two abbreviations should be 
 noted, as they are frequent in grammatical 
 writings—viz., ‘B for ‘55, aliquis, and ‘3x for 
 yin, et completio—et cetera. The abbre- 
 viation for .m)7 is + or ». 
 
 3. The final letters y, Apo 1* with the ex- 
 ception of b, terminate in a perpendicular stroke 
 i 
 
 * These letters are supplied with vowels and pro- 
 nounced together thus Y5}22. Such voces memoriales 
 were invented by the early Hebrew grammarians to 
 assist in remembering certain classes of letters. 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS, 
 
 § 6. 
 PRONUNCIATION & DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 3.) 
 
 1. Very many of the principles which regu- 
 late the changes both of consonants and vowels 
 are founded on the original pronunciation of the 
 former. It is important, therefore, to ascertain 
 this pronunciation as far as possible. Our 
 knowledge of this is derived, partly from the 
 pronunciation of the kindred dialects, particu- 
 larly of the Arabic, still a living language; 
 partly from observing the similitude and inter- 
 change of letters in the Hebrew itself, (§ 19 ;) 
 partly from the tradition of the Jews.* 
 
 The pronunciation of the Jews of the pre- 
 sent day is not uniform. The Polish and 
 German Jews adopt the Syriac, while the 
 Spanish and Portuguese Jews, whom most 
 Christian scholars (after the example of 
 Reuchlin) follow, more properly prefer the 
 Arabic pronunciation. 
 
 The manner in which the Seventy have 
 written Hebrew proper names in Greek let- 
 ters furnishes an older tradition of greater 
 weight. Several, however, of the Hebrew 
 sounds they were unable to represent for want 
 of corresponding characters in the Greek lan- 
 guage; e. g., ¥, W. 
 
 2. The following list embraces those conso- 
 nants whose pronunciation requires special at- 
 tention, exhibiting in connexion those which 
 bear any resemblance to each other. 
 
 1. Among the gutturals » is the lightest, a 
 scarcely audible breathing from the lungs, the 
 spiritus lenis of the Greeks; similar to 7, but 
 softer. Even before a vowel it is almost lost 
 upon the ear, (Wx, dpap,) like the A in the 
 French habit, homme. After a vowel it is 
 often not heard at all, except in connexion 
 with the preceding vowel sound, with which 
 it combines its own, (xz, mdtsd.) § 23, 2. 
 
 7 before a vowel is exactly our hk, (spiritus 
 asper ;) after a vowel at the end of words, it 
 may, like x, unite its sound with that of the 
 preceding vowel, (72, gald,) or it may retain 
 
 * Important aid may also be derived from an accurate 
 physiological observation of the whole system of sounds, 
 and of their formation by the organs of speech. See an 
 excellent treatise on this subject by Hupfeld in Jahn’s 
 Jahrbichern f. Philologie, 1829, H. 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 its character as a guttural, (723, gd-bhdh.) 
 § 14. 
 
 » Is very nearly related to x, a sound pecu- 
 liar to the organs of the Semitish race. Its 
 hardest sound is that of a g slightly rattled in 
 the throat; as myhy, LXX. Topoppa; my, Taza; 
 it is elsewhere, like x, a gentle breathing, as 
 in ‘y, ‘HAi; prov, ’“Apadrée. In the mouth 
 of the Arabian, the first often strikes the ear 
 like a soft guttural r, the second as a sort of 
 vowel sound like a. Wholly false is the 
 Jewish pronunciation by a nasal gn or ng. 
 
 rT is the hardest of the guttural sounds. It 
 was a guttural ch, as uttered by the Swiss and 
 Poles, resembling the Spanish zx. While the 
 Hebrew was a living language this letter had 
 two grades. of sound, being uttered feebly in 
 some words and more strongly in others.* 
 
 4 also the Hebrews frequently pronounced 
 with a hoarse guttural sound, not as a lingual 
 made by the vibration of the tongue. Hence 
 it is not merely to be reckoned among the 
 liquids, (J, m, x, 7,) but, in several of its pro- 
 perties, it belongs also to the elass of gutturals. 
 (§ 22, 4.) 
 
 2. In sibilant sounds the Hebrew language 
 is rich, more so than the kindred dialects, 
 especially the Arameean, which adopts instead 
 of them the flat, lingual sounds. 
 
 * In the Arabic language, the peculiarities of which 
 have been carefully noted by the grammarians, the hard 
 and soft sounds of y and nm, as well as the different 
 pronunciations of 7, 1), %, (see Second Alphabet,) are in- 
 dicated by diacritic points. Two letters are thus made 
 from each; from y the softer é Ain, and the harder 
 & Shain; from 7 the softer a Hha, & the harder a Kha. 
 
 Moreover the several modifications in the meaning of 
 stem-words are distinguished by employing for one the 
 hard, and for the other the soft pronunciation and or- 
 thography. In like manner, in German, das [that, pro- 
 noun] and dass [that, conjunction], wider [against] and 
 wieder [again], fiir [for] and vor [before], were origin- 
 ally the same word, distinguished from each other 
 neither in speech nor in writing. [Compare in English, 
 bliss, to bless; thorough, through.) E.¢., 2m, (1) to 
 w 
 
 pierce, to be pierced—Arab., 55n, b> — (2) to open, to 
 w 
 
 lnose—Arah. 55m, > 3 — Pa} to smooth, hence (1) to 
 
 shave smooth, as the head, Arab. with ce — (2) to work 
 
 upon, to form, to make, Arab. with “gt See the Lexicon 
 
 under the words, 27, WW, YY. The Arabic language 
 
 w and w were originally one letter, w, (pro- 
 nounced without doubt like sf,) and in un- 
 pointed Hebrew this is still the case. But as 
 this sound was in many words very soft, 
 approaching to that of s, the grammarians 
 distinguished this double pronunciation by 
 the diacritic point. w, sh, oecurs most fre- 
 quently. 
 
 ww resembled pb in pronunciation: it differed 
 from this letter however, and was probably 
 uttered more strongly, being nearly related to 
 %. Hence 120, to close up, and nv, to re- 
 ward, are different and independent stems, as 
 also 520, to be foolish, and rv, to be wise, At 
 a later period this distinction was lost, and 
 hence the Syrians employed only pb for both, 
 and the Arabians only . They also began 
 to be interchanged even in the later Hebrew; 
 as 12D We, to hire, Esr. 4:53 mipy for mip, 
 Jolly, Eccles. 1:17. 
 
 twas properly ds, (hence in the Septuagint 
 g,) as s was ts. In both, however, the hissing 
 sound predominated, and the Seventy repre- 
 sent x by = merely. In Arabic, the pre- 
 dominance of the flat sound is indicated by a 
 point. 
 
 3. The six consonants, n, b, 9,7, 3, 3, (NB2723,) 
 have a twofold pronunciation:—(a) a soft 
 sound, uttered with a gentle aspiration, (aspi- 
 rata;) (6) a hard, slender sound (tenuis) 
 without the aspiration, which is indicated by 
 a point; thus, m. § 13.* The modern Greeks 
 aspirate (3, y, 6, the Danes d at the end of | 
 words. The Greeks have two signs for the 
 twofold pronunciation of the remaining letters 
 of this class: 5, x, 3, «3 B, ¢, B, 73 n, 9, nm, 7. 
 
 p and w differ essentially from 5 and np. 
 The former are uttered with stronger articu- 
 lation, and with a compression of the organs 
 of speech in the back part of the mouth. The 
 ZEthiopians have also the corresponding hard 
 sound of p. 
 
 In the Hebrew, as well as in all the Se- 
 mitish dialects, the strength and harshness of 
 
 * General usage in this country sounds Mm as ¢h in 
 
 thin, mas t; 1 as th in that, y as d; bas ph or f, 
 Bas p; 1 as v, 3 as 6; 3 and 3 both as g hard; 
 2 as h or k, > as k. To sound 3 and 9, pronounce 
 g and k, rolling the palate with the same breath. As 
 
 owes much of its copiousness to the application of this } our organs are not accustomed to this, it is attended 
 
 method of distinguishing words originally the same. 
 
 
 
 { at first with a little difficulty.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 pronunciation which characterized the earlier 
 periods of the language gradually gave way 
 to more soft and feeble sounds. In this way 
 many nice distinctions of the earlier pro- 
 nunciation were neglected and lost. 
 
 This appears, (1) in the preference of the 
 softer letters—e. g., Pry, prt, (see § 2, 3, Rem.) 
 Syr. pr}; (2) in the pronunciation of the same 
 letter; thus in Syriac y has always a feeble 
 sound: the Galileans uttered this letter as 
 well as m like x In Athiopic B has the 
 sound of s, m that of h. 
 
 3. After what has been said, the usual division 
 of the consonants, according to the organs of 
 speech employed in uttering them, will be more 
 intelligible and useful. The common division 
 is as follows :— 
 
 a) Gutturals, », 1, 4, 8, (omy) 
 b) Labials, A, 0, 2, », (F293) 
 c) Palatals, p, >, 3, @22) 
 
 d) Linguals, 4, n, 0, with 3, >, (n2227) 
 e) Dentals, w, x, D, 3, (dx01) 
 ) partakes of the character of both the first 
 and fifth classes. 
 The liquids also, 3, 9, 5, which have in many 
 respects a common character, are to be regarded 
 as a separate class. 
 
 So. 
 
 THE VOWELS IN GENERAL, 
 VOWEL-LETTERS, AND VOWEL-SIGNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 6, 8.) 
 
 1. The origin of the scale of five vowels, a, e, 
 i, 0, u, in the three primary vowel sounds, A, J, 
 U, is even more distinctly seen in the Hebrew, 
 and its cognate dialects, than in other languages. 
 E and O arose from the union of J and U with 
 a preceding short A, and are properly diph- 
 thongs contracted, é arising from ai, o from au, 
 according to the following scheme : 
 
 a 
 ai, a,* e 
 
 au, o 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 * This character has in Gerrman nearly the sound of 
 ay in day, pray, approaching that of e in err, The 
 student will bear in mind that the author sounds a as it 
 
 The Arabians have not the vowels é and 6, 
 and always use for them the diphthongs az 
 . a 
 and au; @ g., }3 Arabie we baina; dy, 
 a 
 Arab. a3) yaum. It is only in the popular 
 language that these diphthongs are occasion- 
 ally contracted into one sound. The close 
 relation of those sounds appears from a com- 
 parison of the Greek and Latin, (e. g., Cesar, 
 Kaicap; Satpa, Ion. Sépua,) from the French 
 pronunciation of ai and au, and from the 
 German popular dialects, (auch, éch.) But it 
 is most clearly exhibited in the Sanscrit, 
 which has no other é and 6 than those which 
 arise from d and du. 
 
 ~ 
 
 2. With this is connected the manner of in- 
 dicating the vowel sounds in writing. As only 
 three principal vowel sounds were distingu'shed, 
 no others were designated in writing ; and even 
 these were represented, not by appropriate signs, 
 but by certain consonants, employed for this 
 purpose, whose feeble consonant power easily 
 flowed into a vowel sound. Thus} (the Lat. V 
 and the old German W) represented U and 
 also O; > (the Lat. 7) represented J and also E. 
 The designation of A, the purest of all the 
 vowels, and of most frequent occurrence, was 
 regularly omitted,* except that in some cases 8 
 was used for long a. 
 
 Even these two vowel letters (; and ») were 
 used but sparingly, being employed only when 
 the sounds which they represent were long. 
 In this case also they were sometimes omitted, 
 § 8,4. Everything else relating to the quality 
 and quantity of the vowel sounds with which 
 each word should be uttered, as well as the cases 
 in which a consonant should be pronounced with 
 or without a vowel, was left to be determined by 
 the reader’s knowledge of the language; and 
 even in respect to 1 and», he was to decide for 
 himself, in every instance, whether they were to 
 be regarded as vowels ur conscnants. 
 
 bop, e.g., might be read gatal, gatel, gatol, 
 qtol, qotel, qittel, qattel, quttal; ~321, dabhar, 
 
 (a word,) debher (a pestilence,) dibber, (he 
 
 hath spoken,) dabber, (to speak,) dobher, 
 
 (speaking,) dubbur, (it has been spoken;) 
 
 * So in Sanscrit and thiopic, of all the vowels short 
 
 is heard in father, i, as in machine, e like a in fate, au | a alone is not indicated by any sign, and the consonant 
 
 like ow in found, and u like oo in moon.—Tr. 
 
 by itseif is pronounced with this vowel. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 mn might be maveth (death) or muth, moth, 
 
 (to die ;) pa might be read bin, bén, bayin. 
 
 How imperfect and indefinite such a mode 
 of writing was, is easily seen; yet during the 
 whole period in which the Hebrew was a spoken 
 language, no other signs for vowels were em- 
 ployed. The later writers, it is true,- inserted 
 the vowel letters very often where they were 
 omitted by the earlier; e. g., pn for nt (David,) 
 wp for wip, (qodesh, holiness.) All else must 
 be supplied by the reader’s familiarity with his 
 mother tongue. With what facility this might 
 be done is manifest from the fact, that even 
 since the invention of a more accurate mode of 
 designating the vowels, the Arabians and mo- 
 dern Jews very seldom avail themselves of it, 
 the Persians scarcely ever. 
 
 The written form of the Semitish languages 
 exhibits a striking neglect of vowels in com- 
 parison with consonants. This, however, has 
 
 its foundation in the language itself. The 
 consonants are the body of the language ; with 
 these is connected the signification, which the 
 vowels only serve to modify. Even at the 
 present day, carelessness in the expression of 
 vowel sounds is characteristic of oriental pro- 
 nunciation.* 
 
 8. The Hebrew having ceased to be a spoken 
 language, the danger of losing the correct pro- 
 nunciation continually increased, as well as the 
 perplexity arising from this indefinite mode of 
 writing. To remedy these evils the vawel-signs 
 were invented. Of the date of this invention we 
 have no account; but a comparison of historical 
 facts warrants the conclusion, that the vowel 
 system was not completed till after the seventh 
 century of the Christian era. It was the work 
 of Jewish scholars, well skilled in the language, 
 who, it is highly probable, copied the example 
 of the Syrian and Arabian grammarians. 
 
 See Gesch. d. Hebr. Spr.,S. 182 ff. and Hupfeld in 
 der Theolog. Studien und Kritiken, 1830, no. 3, where 
 it is shewn that the Talmud and Jerome make no 
 mention of vowel points. 
 
 This vowel system has probably for its basis 
 the pronunciation of the Jews of Palestine, and 
 its consistency, as well as the analogy of the 
 kindred languages, furnishes strong proof of its 
 
 * Perhaps there is also an historical reason in the com- 
 paratively late introduction of the inflexion by vowels. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 correctness, at least as a whole. Its authors have 
 laboured to exhibit by signs the minute grada- 
 tions of the vowel sounds, carefully marking 
 even half vowels, and helping sounds, spontane- 
 ously adopted in all languages, but seldom ex- 
 pressed in writing. To the same labours for 
 facilitating the reading of the text we owe the 
 accents, ($§ 15, 16,) and the different marks by 
 which the sound of the consonants themselves 
 is modified. ($$ 11—14.) 
 
 In Arabic and Syriac the vowel system 
 is much more simple. In the former are 
 three signs for vowels, according to the three 
 primary vowel sounds ; in the latter there are 
 five, ViZ. a, @, t, 0, u. 
 
 § 8. 
 THE VOWEL SIGNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 9—12.) 
 
 1. The vowels generally adopted, after the in- 
 troduction of this system of punctuation, were 
 seven in number. By the Jewish grammarians 
 of the middle ages—as Kimchi, for example— 
 these were divided into ten, five long and five 
 short, as appears from the following table, which 
 is presented here in order to exhibit the vowel 
 signs and their connexion with the consonants. 
 
 Long Vowels.* 
 — Qamiéts, d; 0», yam. 
 — TséTi, é; ov, shém. 
 — Hhi'réq magnun, 2; pr, bin. 
 § or — Hho'lém, 6; ip, gal; 35, sdbh. 
 9 Shu'réq, w; nm, mith. 
 
 Short Vowels, (and doubtful, ancipites.) 
 — Pattahh’, @; 03, din. 
 — Séghdl’, ¢ and é; 12 mélech. 
 — Hhireq parvum, 7; JD, min; YN, NTmmi. 
 = Qamits-Hhatiph’, 3; -pn, hhog. 
 — Qibbits’, 7; Tae, shil-hhan ; m0, m-th. 
 
 * The marks by which the Hebrew vowels are repre- 
 sented in this translation are sounded as in the 
 following table :— 
 
 4 like a in hall; (in the original work, like a in father.) 
 a — a — father ; a same sound, but shorter, asin after. 
 é — a— tame. 
 
 é — e — err; é - - - - asin them. 
 4 — it — machine;t - ° = - - pin. 
 
 6 — 0—n0; 6 - . - . - doting. 
 a —0o— moon; w&@ -~ = - - - soon. 
 
 
 
 IL See Hupfeld in Hermes, xxxi, 8. 21 ff, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 Rem, 1. The twofold pronunciation of the 
 vowel letter) is indicated by the different posi- 
 tions of the point, as placed above or in the 
 bosom of the letter. The pronunciation of» as 
 i is indicated by the single point preceding it ; 
 the same letter has the sound of é—. See 
 no. 3. 
 
 2. The diacritic point over the letters 
 and sometimes serves also for the vowel 
 Hholem; e. g., nov, sd-né; min, md-shé. 
 (with two points), when no vowel stands 
 under it, is read shd, as ni, shd-mér ; when 
 no vowel stands under the preceding letter, 
 it is read ds; Wey, yir-pds. 
 
 The form { with a vowel under it is read 
 ov, being in this case a consonant; as m), 
 lo-vé ; mm, ycho-vah, This form is also read 
 vd, when the preceding letter has a vowel ; as, 
 ye, yd-von. 
 
 3. All the vowels, except Hholem and 
 Shureq, are written under the consonants, and 
 each is pronounced after the letter under 
 which it stands. Pattahh furtive is the only 
 exception. (See § 22, 2, b.) 
 
 4. The names of the vowels, according to 
 the practice of the Semitish grammarians, are 
 almost all expressive of the position and 
 action of the organs of speech in uttering the 
 vowel sounds. Thus mms signifies opening; 
 2 (also r30,) fractio oris; Pym, frendor, gnash- 
 ing; ddim, integritas, from its full tone, (also 
 Dw Nd, full mouth ;) Py, properly cupiopdc ; 
 yap, closing of the mouth. yp, also means 
 closing or contraction; and the reason why 
 long a and short 0 (FxaT PR, gamets correptum) 
 have the same name and sign is, that the 
 Rabbins gave to Qamets the impure sound of 
 o. How they are distinguished is shewn in 
 $9. Only 52D (a cluster of grapes) appears to 
 have derived its name from its form. 
 
 Most of the names were so formed that the 
 sound of each vowel was heard in the first 
 syllable of its name. In conformity with this, 
 some write Séighol, (nearly Séghol,) Qomets- 
 hhatuph, Qiibbuts. (See Rem. 5, at the end.) 
 2. This division however fails of exhibiting 
 
 the relation of the vowels to. each other, and 
 also their true quantity, some of those repre- 
 sented as short being often long. A more use- 
 ful division is into three classes, according to 
 the three primary vowel sounds, as follows :— 
 
 15 
 1. A sound. 
 > Qaméts, long purea, *4; 0», ydm. 
 — Piattihh’, short purea, d; 05, dim. 
 — S&ghdl’ (a) vocalis anceps, &; 77 mé'-lekh. 
 
 ' 2. Tand & sound. 
 and — long Dhi'réq, i; 
 short Hhireq - - - 1f; 
 and — Tséri - - @; 
 = (also —) Seghol, obtuse %, 2; 
 
 2, OF 73, ni7, 
 YD, min. 
 
 Dw, shém. 
 “DR, Neth, 
 
 8. O and J sound. 
 
 9 Shuréq - - - - «a; my», mith, 
 a v m0, mi-thi. 
 = Qibbits’ be - - - us ent < ‘ 
 map, qub-ba. 
 
 { and + Hholim- - 46; 1 tt 
 
 4, Aol. 
 
 = Qaméts-Hhatiph’- - 3; +2, hod. 
 
 3. The vowels of each class are termed 
 kindred yowels. In the first class they are de- 
 signated by signs merely, (§ 7,25) in the other 
 two, those which are always long are represented 
 by vowel letters whose sound is determined by 
 the accompanying vowel sign. Thus the sound 
 of » is determined by Hhireq (—), Tseri (—), 
 Seghol (—); that of ) by Hholem (4) and 
 Shureq (3). 
 
 The vowel sign which thus serves to deter- 
 mine the sound of the vowel letter is said to be 
 homogeneous with that letter, 
 
 The vowel letter is commonly said to quiesce 
 in the vowel. Hence» and} (together with x 
 and 7, see § 23) are called litere quiescibiles ; 
 where they serve as vowels they are called 
 quiescents, (quiescentes ;) where they are con- 
 sonants, moveable, (mobiles.) It is more proper 
 to say in the first case that they are pronounced 
 as this or that vowel. 
 
 In the Arabic language long a is also 
 expressed by a vowel letter, Aleph, x—; it 
 has therefore three vowel letters answering 
 to the three classes of vowels. In Hebrew 
 the case is somewhat different, and y is far 
 more frequently treated as a light breathing. 
 
 (§ 23, 2.) 
 
 * Those who choose to follow the pronunciation of the 
 original work will give to this character the sound of a 
 in father ; that of a in hall is the prevalent pronunciation 
 in this country.—Tr. 
 

 
 
 
 16 
 
 4. A long vowel of the second or third class 
 
 may be written either with or without the vowel 
 letter. 
 the latter scriptio defectiva. 
 written fully; hop, op defectively. ‘These letters 
 are called by the grammarians, matres lectionis, 
 since they serve as guides in the reading of the 
 
 The former case is called scriptio plena, 
 Thus ip, ow are 
 
 text. 
 
 The choice of the full or the defective mode 
 of writing appears to have been often arbi- 
 trary, the transcribers having written the 
 same word in several different ways; e.g., 
 *ninpn, Ezek. 16:60; nop, Gen. 26:3; 
 nd pA, Jer. 23:4; in other editions NDR 
 
 It may be remarked, however, (a) that the 
 defective form is most frequently used, for 
 the sake of abbreviation, when a word is in- 
 creased by additions at the end, as pry, DPA; 
 dip, nidp; ‘am, 33; (2) that the earlier writers 
 of the Old Testament more commonly use the 
 defective, and the later ones the full form.* 
 
 In the kindred dialects, when one of these 
 
 letters is preceded by a vowel sign which is not 
 related, or homogeneous, (§ 8, 3,) their sounds 
 are combined and form a diphthong; e.g., — au, 
 — eu,f —, —ai. But in Hebrew, the litera 
 quiescibilis retains, in this case, its consonant 
 power, and such forms are pronounced dv, év, 
 dy ;$ e.g., 0 vav, 13 gév, 2 goy, 1 hhiy. r— is 
 in pronunciation the same as —. The Hebrew 
 pronunciation of such diphthongs resembles that 
 of the modern Greeks, (étactsm,) who treat the 
 v in av and ed as a consonant. 
 
 We here present a few remarks on the cha- 
 
 racter and value of the several vowels, parti- 
 cularly with reference to their quantity. 
 
 1. In the first class, viz. of the A sounds, 
 Qamets is the regular vowel in an open, and 
 Pattahh in aclosed syllable, (§ 26,1;) eg. 
 bop. We must distinguish, however, the 
 ease of the usual pure Qamets, from that 
 in which it quiesces, or originally quiesced, 
 in the vowel letter x; e.g, 2n3, Arab. ann. 
 In such cases it is called Qamets impure, and 
 is immutable, (§ 25, 2.) 
 
 * The same historical relation is seen in Arabic, es- 
 
 pecially in the inscriptions on coins. 
 
 + Nearly like oi in voice.—Tr. 
 + Wherever y is employed to represent the consonant 
 
 power of *—, the student should sound it as y in you, 
 not like a vowel as in qy.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 2. Seghol is an obtuse # sound. It is ana- 
 logous to Sheva vocal (§ 10, 2) but stronger, 
 and hence takes its place when its sound is to 
 be prolonged ; as °7}, °7>), °712, 77). Hence 
 also it is usually the supplied vowel when one 
 is needed to facilitate the pronunciation ; bx 
 yt-ghel, for 43° yighl. It arises not only from 
 Pattabh and seri, but also perhaps from 
 an obtusion of the sounds of vowels of the 
 third class; e.g., Onx, originally oiAN; on, 
 from on. In quantity it is a doubtful vowel, 
 (vocalis anceps.) It is commonly short, but 
 is sometimes dwelt upon, or prolonged, as in 
 the first syllable of 47, and is strictly long 
 in m3, where it serves to determine the 
 sound of the vowel letter >. 
 
 3. In the second class, — is a long immu- 
 table vowel, and remains such when the » falls 
 away. (See no. 4 of this §.) Whether a» has 
 been thus omitted can be determined with 
 certainty only from etymology, though the 
 nature of the syllable (§ 26) and the use 
 of Methegh (16, 2) may often assist the 
 inquirer. In Arabic it is always written 
 with Yodh. 
 
 Short Hhireq is found very frequently in 
 syllables with sharpened tone ; as, Sup, git-tél, 
 “ox, tm-mt. It is also frequently supplied to 
 assist in the pronunciation of two vowel- 
 less consonants at the beginning of a word, 
 (§ 28, 1,) or as a furtive helping vowel at 
 the end; e.g. mi, bd-yith, for ma, bédyt, 
 (§ 28, 4.) In the first case the LXX. repre- 
 sent it by € as x way, “EupavovjA; in the 
 Syriac, also, short e is the corresponding 
 vowel. 
 
 4, \— is properly a contraction of the diph- 
 thong ——, (§ 7, 1,) which still remains in 
 other dialects; e. g., poy, Syr. ports 23, (sons 
 of,) Syr. 22. It is therefore a long immutable 
 vowel, even longer than ——, since it has 
 nearly the value of adiphthong. Such a — is 
 seldom written defectively, and then retains 
 the same value ; as xy for »ry, Isa. 3: 8. 
 
 Tseri without Yodh is, like Qamets, a pure 
 and mutable vowel. It stands either in an 
 open or a closed syHable. Sometimes it stands 
 for — shortened; as, Sp, Sup». 
 
 5. The third class exhibits a similar rela- 
 tion. In the U sound, with which we begin 
 as the pure vowel, we distinguish, (1) 4 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pati eee | 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shureq, a long immutable vowel, like —, as 
 in 2. (2) That Qibbuts, which stands for 
 Shureq, and therefore might analogically be 
 called Shureq parvum or defectivum ; e. g., from 
 ‘a2, “21; which is consequently a long im- 
 mutable vowel, like Shureq, and is merely 
 an orthographic abbreviation of it. (8) The 
 proper Qibbuts, a short u, found in a closed 
 syllable, and especially in syllables with the 
 sharpened tone; as Ie, shiil-hhdan ; 732, 
 qib-bd. The LXX. represent the latter by 0; 
 as Dy, ‘OdoAAdp ; from which it by no means 
 follows that this was the true pronunciation. 
 (See Stange, Beytriige zur Hebr. Gram. No. 1, 
 and above on Hhireq, no. 3.) Equally incor- 
 rect is the pronunciation which gives to both 
 kinds of Qibbuts the sound of i.* 
 
 6. Analogous to the above, though with 
 some modification, are the three modes of 
 designating the O sound; viz., (1) 1 Hholem 
 plenum, long and immutable, like 3 and 
 —, properly a contraction of the diphthong 
 ~ aut (2) — Hholem defectivum, in some 
 cases a mere orthographic abbreviation of 
 Hholem plenum, as ‘jp, plur. nip; in others 
 originally defective, and therefore mutable, 
 (§ 25,) e. g., dni, HP; 52, shortened, -by (AdI), 
 %p. (3) — Qamets-Hhatuph, which is always 
 short, and bears the same relation to Hholem 
 as Seghol to Tseri. 
 
 The analogies which have been pointed out 
 may be seen at one view in the following 
 table, which shews also the imperfection of 
 the nomenclature usually employed in the 
 classification of these sounds :— 
 
 1. Full and Long. 
 — Hhireq magnum in yin. 
 4 Hholem plenum in ‘ip. 
 3 Shureq plenum in nx. 
 
 2. Defective and Long. 
 — Hhireq parvum in op». 
 — Hholem defectivum in ni5p. 
 — Qibbuts longum; more correctly Shureq 
 defectivum, x. 
 
 * Nearly the French u.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 | + Pronounced like ou in found, as in § 7, 1.—Tr. 
 
 8. Defective and Short. 
 — Hhireq parvum in {pxy.* | 
 — Qamets-Hhatuph in ~5p. 
 — Qibbuts breve, or simply Qibbuts, in van. 
 
 § 9. 
 
 DISTINCTION OF QAMETS & QAMETS-HHATUPH.t 
 (Lehrgeb. § 10.) 
 
 
 
 1. In distinguishing Qamets (4) and Qamets- 
 Hhatuph (6), a knowledge of grammatical forms 
 is the only sure guide; but to the learner the 
 following general rule may be of service ; viz.— 
 
 The sign (+) is 6 in a closed, unaccented syl- 
 lable; for such a syllable cannot have a long 
 vowel, § 26,3. Under this rule are the follow- 
 ing cases: (a) when a simple Sheva follows, as 
 227, hhokh-ma ; (b) when a Daghesh forte fol- 
 lows, as oma, bvt-tim ; “ym, hhdn-né-ni; (c) a final 
 mixed syllable without the tone op%y, viy-yd'- 
 qom. 
 
 But Qamets followed by Methegh is long a 
 
 (a), as 723, za-kherd, in distinction from 
 
 Mm, z0hh-ra; y-mp, shdth-l. But Methegh 
 
 does not distinguish Qamets from Qamets- 
 
 Hhatuph in the antepenult syllable, because 
 
 there Methegh may stand with a short vowel, 
 
 as DPR, bdt-té-hhém. 
 In eases like TNT, ha-led, a5, lém'-mé, 
 where Qamets has the tone, it is long d, ac- 
 
 cording to § 26, 3. 
 
 2. (+) as short & in an open syllable is less 
 frequent, and belongs properly to the exceptions 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 mentioned § 26, 3. It occurs in the following 
 eases: (@) when Hhateph-Qamets follows, as 
 ibyp, pd-yld;t (6) when another Qamets- 
 Hhatuph follows, as sya, pd-vol-kha ;§ (c) in 
 two words in which it stands merely for rt: 
 (which occurs even in manuscripts), viz. OOP, 
 qo-dha-shim, and ow, sh0-rd-shim. 
 
 * For this quantity of Hhireq there should, according 
 to the analogy of Qibbuts and Qamets-Hhatuph, be an- 
 other name if not another sign. 
 
 + This section must be studied in connexion with 
 what is said on the nature of the syllable, § 26, and on 
 Methegh, § 16, 2. 
 
 t That 5 is to be regarded as an open syllable is 
 shewn § 26, 2, d. 
 
 § The principle of division in this case is the same as 
 in the former, since the Qamets-Hhatuph arises from 
 Hhateph-Qamets, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In these cases + is followed by Methegh, 
 although it is short 0, since Methegh always 
 stands on the second syllable before the tone. 
 Exceptions to these principles can be deter- 
 mined only by a knowledge of grammatical 
 forms. E. g.*3x3 ba-x°ni (in the ship, 1 Kings 
 9:27) with the article included, whereas 
 HR Wa (Ex. 11:8), without the article, is 
 read 60-hh°-ri-xaph. 
 
 § 10. 
 
 SHEVA SIMPLE AND COMPOSITE. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 13—36.) 
 
 1. The sign Sheva — (called simple, in dis- 
 tinction from the composite Shevas) is placed 
 under every consonant which is destitute of a 
 vowel.* At the end of words, however, it is 
 regularly omitted; e.g., ‘ap. Exceptions to 
 this last remark are final ) as 22 mé-lékh, and 
 the few cases in which two vowelless conso- 
 nants stand at the end of a word; e. g., Ax, NOD, 
 Shas 
 2. Simple Sheva is of two kinds:—(1) The 
 vowelless consonant may stand at the end of a 
 syllable: the Sheva then serves merely to mark 
 the division of syllables, and is not heard in 
 pronunciation; hence it is called silent Sheva, 
 (Sheva quiescens ;) e. g., x22, mdl-kd. (2) Sheva 
 may stand under the first letter of a syllable, as 
 in op, g*tol, [a monosyllable,] xo, m°mal-lé. 
 Here the organs of speech spontaneously supply 
 a kind of half vowel sound, which is indicated 
 by the Sheva; hence it is called vocal Sheva, 
 (Sheva mobile.) 
 
 Simple Sheva is vocal in the following cases :— 
 (a) At the beginning of a word, as Sepn, 
 meqdt-tel—(b) In the midst of a word, at the 
 beginning of a syllable; i.e, (1) after an un- 
 accented long vowel; (2) after another Sheva ; 
 (3) under a Daghesh: e. g., mu\p, go-tla ; OP, 
 yiq-tla; ‘nap, git-tla. Compare in German 
 a-d‘ler, hand*lung; [in English 7-deling, dis- 
 a-b‘ling.| —(c) When a letter is repeated, as 
 0, ha-leld, in distinction from 357, hal-li. ~The 
 sound of vocal Sheva is a half 2 as appears 
 from the fact that when lengthened it becomes 
 Seghol. 
 
 * The Hebrew NW (emptiness) is the same with NYD. 
 The points in this word are transposed, in order that 
 the sign of which it is the name may be presented /irst 
 ii the mode of writing it. Compare § 8, 1, Rem. 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 The LXX. also represent it by ¢ and even by 
 N, AS DIN, XepouBip 5 7129777, AAAnAOvia ; More 
 frequently by a, as yw, Zapovyr. Very 
 often, however, they make this feeble sub- 
 ordinate sound conform to the following 
 proper vowel of the syllable;* e.g., Dit, 
 Doddu; Mrs, Toroudy; minw, Tabaw. 
 
 The Arabic distinguishes perfectly the 
 cases of Sheva vocal and silent, using for the 
 latter a sign which indicates the division of 
 syllables, (Dschesm,) and for the former a 
 regular short vowel. 
 
 8. With Sheva vocal is connected the com- 
 posite Sheva, (Sheva compositum, or hhatéph, 
 i.e, rapidum,) i.e., simple Sheva attended by 
 one of the short vowels, to shew that it should 
 be pronounced as a half d, 2 or 0, but without 
 forming a syllable. Of this there are three 
 kinds, corresponding to the three principal 
 vowel sounds, (§ 7, 1;) viz.— 
 
 -: Hhateph-Pattahh, as in yinn, hhmor. 
 +: Hhateph-Seghol, Ty, Nemor. 
 t: Hhateph-Qamets, — ny, hheli. 
 
 These Hhatephs, at least the two former, are 
 used chiefly with the four gutturals, (§ 22, 3,) 
 the utterance of which is naturally attended with 
 
 a short vowel sound. 
 
 Rem. Only -: and +: are found under 
 letters which are not gutturals. 
 
 Hhateph-Pattahh stands occasionally, but 
 without any fixed law, for simple Sheva vocal. 
 This occurs most frequently —(a) under a 
 letter which is doubled, since the doubling of 
 the letter cannot be expressed without a very 
 clear enunciation of the vocal Sheva. Com- 
 pare in German mancher, mannichfaltig. It is 
 often found, where the sign of duplication has 
 fallen away, as a substitute for it; e.g., 22» for 
 ‘ny, Gen. 9:14. Ezek. 35:7, 9.—(6) After 
 a long vowel, as am, 2%hdbh ; am), u-zhdbh, 
 Gen. 2:12. vow, sh*mdy; yor, u-sh*may, 
 Deut. 5:24. compare Gen. 27 : 26. 
 
 Hhateph-Qamets is less used with the gut- 
 turals than the other composite Shevas. It 
 is employed where a full o sound gives place 
 to a vocal Sheva, and the character of the 
 original vowel is to be preserved; e. g., x9 for 
 
 * The same law of language the Hungarian exhibits 
 in some words of foreign origin, as Gards, (German 
 Groschen,) Gorég, (Tpacxds ;) comp. also the Latin aug- 
 ment in momordi, pupugi, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 1 (§ 90. vi); 7pIY, for the usual form 
 qe, Ezek. 35:6, from Hy; 117IP from 
 a7. It is also (like ~:) used when a Daghesh 
 forte bas fallen away; as, TAR? for TIP 
 Gen, 2 : 23. 
 
 § 11. 
 
 SIGNS WHICH AFFECT THE PRONUNCIATION 
 OF THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 These are intimately connected with the ap- 
 plication of vowel signs to the Hebrew text, and 
 were probably introduced at the same time. 
 They are three in number, (besides the diacritic 
 points over # and w;) viz., Daghesh, (forte and 
 lene,) Mappiq, Raphe. The latter is no longer 
 used in printed editions of the Bible. 
 
 § 12. 
 DAGHESH IN GENERAL.—DAGHESH FORTE, 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 17—19.) 
 
 1. Daghesh, a point written in the bosom* of 
 a consonant, is employed for two purposes: (1) 
 to indicate the doubling of the letter, (Daghesh 
 forte,) e.g., Sap, qit-tél; (2) the hardening of 
 the letter, i.e. the removal of its aspiration, 
 (Daghesh lene.) 
 
 The Stem wx, from which wt is derived, 
 in Syriac signifies to thrust through, to bore 
 through, (with a sharp instrument.) Hence 
 the word Daghesh is commonly supposed to 
 mean, with reference to its figure merely, a 
 prick, a point. But the names of all similar 
 signs are expressive of their grammatical 
 power; and in this case, the name of the sign 
 refers both to its figure and its use. In gram- 
 matical language wx means (1) acuere literam, 
 to sharpen the letter by doubling it; (2) to 
 harden the letter by taking away its aspira- 
 tion. Accordingly 33 means sharpening, 
 hardening, i. e., sign of sharpening or harden- 
 ing, (comp. Mappigq, pE», proferens, i. e., signum 
 prolationis,) and was expressed in writing 
 merely by a prick of the stylus, (punctum.) In 
 a manner somewhat analogous, letters and 
 words are represented, in the criticism of a 
 text, as expunged (expuncta) by a point or 
 pointed instrument (obeliscus) affixed to them. 
 The opposite of Daghesh lene is Raphe, soft, 
 softening, (§ 14,2.) That wx, in grammatical 
 
 * Daghesh in } is easily distinguished from Shureq, 
 which never admits a vowel or Sheva under the }, or 
 the letter next preceding it. See § 13, 2, note. 
 
 aa 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 language, is applied to a hard pronunciation of 
 some kind, appears also from § 22, 3. 
 
 2. Its use as Daghesh forte, i.e., for doubling 
 a letter, is most important, (compare the Sicilicus 
 of the ancient Latins, e. g., Luculus for Lucullus, 
 and in German the stroke over mandn.) The 
 actual doubling of a letter in pronunciation is 
 always indicated by this sign, never by the re- 
 petition of the letter. 
 pointed text. 
 
 For further particulars see § 20. 
 
 It is wanting in the un- 
 
 § 13. 
 DAGHESH LENE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 20.) 
 
 1. Daghesh lene belongs only to the aspirates 
 (litere aspirate) respa, (§ 6, 3.) It takes away 
 their aspiration, and makes them slender or pure 
 sounds, (litere tenues.) 
 
 2. Daghesh lene, as is shewn in § 21, stands 
 only at the beginning of words and syllables. 
 It is thus easily distinguished from Daghesh 
 forte, since in these cases the doubling of a 
 letter is impossible.* 
 
 3. Daghesh forte in an aspirate not only 
 doubles it, but takes away its aspiration; as 
 ‘ey, Gp-pi; min, rdh-hoth. 
 
 This is accounted for by the difficulty of 
 doubling an aspirated letter in pronunciation. 
 In confirmation of this rule we may refer to 
 certain Oriental words, which, in the earliest 
 times, passed over into the Greek language, 
 aS NED, Kara (not Kappa), VED, TaTpELpOC. 
 
 The doubling of a letter does not occur in 
 Syriac, at least in the western dialects, Where 
 it would be required, however, according to 
 etymology and analogy, the aspiration at least 
 is removed: thus, pbx in Syriac is read apeg, 
 for appeq. 
 
 § 14. 
 MAPPIQ AND RAPHE, 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 21, 22.) 
 
 1. Mappiq, like Daghesh, to which it is 
 analogous, is a point in the bosom of a letter. 
 It belongs only to the quiescents, and shews 
 that they are to be sounded with their full con- 
 sonant power, instead of serving merely to pro- 
 
 * The learner will perceive that Daghesh forte must 
 always be immediately preceded by a vowel, which is 
 never the case with Daghesh lene,—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 ie 
 | 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 long the sound of the preceding vowel. It is 
 
 at present used only in final 4; e.g., 133, 
 
 ga-bhih, (h having its full sound,) AEN, Ndr-tsch, 
 
 (her land,) in distinction from 728, dr’-tsd, (to the 
 
 earth.) : 
 
 Probably such a 7 was uttered with stronger 
 aspiration, like h in the German Schuh, which 
 in common life is pronounced Schuch. The 
 use of it in connexion with x, }, , 18 confined 
 to manuscripts. 
 
 The name pn signifies prolonging, and in- 
 dicates that the sound of the letter should be 
 fully expressed. The same sign was selected 
 for this and for Daghesh, because the design 
 was analogous, viz., to strengthen the sound of 
 the letter. Hence also Raphe is the opposite 
 of both. 
 
 2. Raphe, (753,) Le, soft, softening, in form 
 like Pattahh, written over the letter, is the 
 opposite of both Daghesh and Mappiq, espe- 
 cially of Daghesh lene. In manuscripts an 
 aspirate has generally either Daghesh lene or 
 Raphe; but in printed editions of the Bible it 
 is used only when the absence of Daghesh or 
 Mappiq is to be expressly noted; e.g., Judg. 
 16:16, 28. Job31:22. Zech. 5:11. 
 
 § 15. 
 
 THE ACCENTS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 23—27.) 
 
 1. The design of the accents in Hebrew is 
 twofold, viz., (a) to mark the tone-syllable ; 
 (6) to shew the relation of each word to the 
 whole sentence. 
 
 By the Jews, moreover, they are regarded 
 as signs of cantillation, and are used as such 
 in the recitation of the scriptures in the 
 synagogues. This use of them is connected 
 with the second one mentioned above. 
 
 2. As signs for marking the tone-syllable 
 they are all perfectly equivalent, for there is 
 but one kind of accent in Hebrew. In most 
 words the tone is on the last syllable, seldom 
 on the penult, and never on the antepenult. 
 In the first case the word is called mil-ray, 
 (2% Chald., from below ;) in the second, mil-yél, 
 (>y20 Chald., from above.) 
 
 8. The use of the accents as signs of inter- 
 punction is somewhat complicated, as they serve 
 not merely to separate the members of a sen- 
 
 tence, like our period, colon, and comma, but 
 also as marks of connexion. Hence they form 
 two classes, Distinctives (Domini) and Conjunc- 
 tives (Servi.) Some are, moreover, peculiar to 
 the metrical books—Job, Psalms, and Proverbs. 
 
 In the following list they are arranged ac- 
 cording to their value as signs of interpunc- 
 tion :— 
 
 A. Distinctives, (Domini.) 
 
 Cuass I. Greatest Distinctives, (Jmpera- 
 tores,) which, may be compared with our 
 period and colon. 
 
 1. (—) Sillaq, (end,). always united with 
 (:) Sdph-pdstgq, which stands at the close of 
 each verse ; e. g., :} 87. 
 
 2. (=) Athnahh, (respiration,) generally in 
 the midst of the verse. 
 
 3. (~) Merké mahpachatum*, 
 
 Crass II. Great Distinctives, (Reges.) 
 4, (—) Séghol'tdtt. 5. (—) Zagéph-qaton. 
 6. (—) Zagéph-gadhol. 7. (—) Tiphhhd. 
 
 Cuass III. Smaller Distinctives, (Duces.) 
 8. (—) Rebhi* [pronounced ré-vi’-ch.] 9. (—) 
 Zirqat}. 10. (—) Pashtatt. 11. (—) 
 Yethibht, 12.(—) Tebhir. 13. (—) Double- 
 Merké. 14. (~) ShalshéTleth*. 15. (—) 
 Tiphhha initialet. 
 
 Cuass1V. Smallest Distinctives, (Comites.) 
 16. (—) Pézér. 17. (2) Qarne- phéra. 
 18. (=) Great Telishat. 19. (-) Gé’résh. 
 20. (+) Double-Géresh. 21. (|) Pésigq, 
 (placed between the separated words.) 
 
 B. Conjunctives, (Servi.) 
 
 22. (—) Merké.. 23.(—) Miindhh. 24. (—) 
 Miahpihh. 25.(—) Qadhmé. 26. (—) Darga. 
 27. (—) Yérahh. 28. () Little- Telishé ty. 
 29. (—) Tiphhha*. 30. (<=) Mérha-zérqa- 
 81. (=) Mahpakh-zdrqatum*, 
 
 
 
 tum *. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ACCENTS. 
 
 I. As designed to mark the tone-syllable. 
 
 1. Words which are written with the same 
 consonants and vowel signs are often distin- 
 guished by the accent; e. g., 13, bd-nit’ (they 
 built), 2, ba'-ni (in us.) Compare in Greek 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 THE ELEMENTS. 2k 
 
 ejui and eit, and in English désert and 
 desért. 
 
 2. Most of the accents stand on the tone- 
 syllable, and properly on its initial consonant. 
 Some, however, stand only on the first letter 
 of a word, (prepositive,) others only on the 
 last letter, (postpositive.) The former are de- 
 signated in the table by f, the latter by ff. 
 Those marked with an asterisk are used only 
 in the poetical books, 
 
 3 The place of the accent, when it is not 
 on the final syllable, is indicated in this 
 grammar by the usual sign (+); e.g., modp, 
 ga-tal-ta. 
 
 II. As signs of interpunction. 
 
 4. In respect to this use of the accents, 
 every verse is regarded as a period which 
 closes with Silluq,* or, in the figurative lan- 
 guage of the grammarians, as a kingdom, 
 (ditio,) which is governed by the great Dis- 
 tinctive at the end, Silluq, (Jmperator.) Ac- 
 cording as the verse is long or short, i.e., as 
 the empire is large or small, varies the 
 
 number of Domini of different grades, which- 
 
 form the larger and smaller divisions. 
 
 5. Conjunctives (Servi) unite only such 
 words as are closely connected in sense, as a 
 noun with an adjective, or with another noun 
 in the genitive, &c. But two conjunctives 
 cannot be employed together. If’ the sense 
 requires that several words should be con- 
 nected, it is done by Maqgqeph, (§ 16, 1.) 
 
 6. In very short verses, few conjunctives 
 are used, and sometimes none; a small dis- 
 tinctive, in the vicinity of a greater, having a 
 connective power, (servit domino majori.) In 
 very long verses, on the contrary, conjunc- 
 tives are used for the smaller distinctives, 
 ( fiunt legati dominorum.) 
 
 7. The choice of this or that conjunctive or 
 distinctive depends on very subtile laws of 
 consecution, with which the learner need not 
 trouble himself at present. Itis sufficient for 
 him to know the greater distinctives, which 
 answer to our colon and comma, though they 
 often stand where a half comma is scarcely 
 admissible, They are most important in the 
 
 * This has the same form with Methegh, (§ 16, 2;) but 
 they are readily distinguished, as Silluq always stands on 
 the last tone-syllable of a verse, while Methegh never 
 stands on the tone-syllable. 
 
 
 
 
 
 poetical books for dividing a verse into its 
 
 members. 
 
 § 16. 
 MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 28, 29.) 
 
 These are both closely connected with the 
 accents. 
 
 1. Maqqeph (binding, connecting) is a small 
 horizontal stroke between two words, which 
 thus become so united that, in respect to tone 
 and interpunction, they are regarded as one 
 word, and have but one accent. Two, three, 
 and four words may be united in this way; 
 e.g. DIN, WwP-bo-ny, Gen. 1:29. so-7wy-ba-ny, 
 Gen. 25 : 5. 
 
 Small words like -x, -by, -> are almost 
 always thus connected. The use of it, more- 
 over, depends chiefly on the principle, that 
 two conjunctive accents cannot be written in 
 immediate succession. When the sense re- 
 quires such a connexion, it is expressed by 
 Maqgqeph. 
 
 2. Methegh, (a bridle,) a small perpendicular 
 line on the left of a vowel, forms a kind of check 
 upon the influence of the accents as marking the 
 tone-syllable, and shews that the vowel, though 
 not accented, should not be too lightly passed 
 It stands—(a) Always 
 after a long vowel next before a tone-syllable ; 
 as ‘yon, té-Iedhi. It enables us in such cases to 
 distinguish a long from a short vowel, (com- 
 pare § 9, 15) e.g, 733, 2d-kherd, mo, 20hkh-rd ; 
 IND, yi-rexi, (they feared,) wy, yir-xit, (they 
 saw.) — (6) Always on the second syllable 
 before the tone, even though the vowel is short; 
 DAA, bot-té-hhém. — (c) After every vowel 
 which is immediately followed by a composite 
 Sheva. In all these cases it marks the division 
 of syllables. 
 
 Compare §§ 9 and 26. The cases given 
 above exhibit the prevailing usage. There 
 are other cases still, in regard to which, how- 
 ever, there is much inconsistency and diver- 
 sity of usage in manuscripts and editions. 
 
 over in pronunciation. 
 
 § 17. 
 QERI AND KETHIBH. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 30.) 
 The margin of the Hebrew Bible exhibits a 
 number of various readings of an early date 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 (§ 3, 2) called “p (to be read), because m the 
 view of the Jewish critics they are to be pre- 
 ferred to the reading of the text called »n9 
 (written.) 'Those critics have therefore attached 
 the vowel signs, appropriate to the marginal 
 reading, to the corresponding word in the text; 
 e.g. in Jer, 42:6, the text exhibits }2x, the 
 margin “px. The vowels in the text belong 
 to the word in the margin, which is to be pro- 
 nounced x21724; but in reading the text wx, the 
 proper vowels must be supplied; as, ux. A 
 small circle or asterisk over the word in the 
 text directs the attention to the marginal read- 
 ing. 
 Respecting the critical value of the mar- 
 ginal readings, see Gesch. der Hebr. Sprache, 
 S. 50, 75. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS; 
 OF SYLLABLES, AND THE TONE. 
 
 § 18. 
 
 The general laws which regulate the changes 
 of words in their various inflexions are founded 
 partly on the peculiarities of certain letters and 
 classes of letters, considered individually or as 
 combined in syllables, partly on certain usages 
 of the language in reference to syllables and 
 the tone. 
 
 § 19. 
 CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 The changes occasioned among consonants 
 by the formation of words, flexion, euphony, or 
 certain influences connected with the progress 
 of the language, are commutation, assimilation, 
 rejection, addition, and transposition. 
 
 1. Commutation takes place most naturally 
 among letters which are pronounced similarly, 
 and by the aid of the same organs; e. g., the 
 sibilants, the softer gutturals x, 7, », the liquids 
 5, 2,2, , palatics and labials, (particularly of 3 
 and » with n,) &. E. g., yoy, doy, ty; ND, Td, 
 Aram, 1; D— and p—, (as plural endings ;) 
 0% YT; WO, Wo; won, wba In process of 
 time, and as the language approximated to the 
 Aramean, hard and rough sounds were ex- 
 changed for softer ones; e. g., 7 and y for x, as 
 in Jepny, Aram. opm, xa for ya; poy for pry; 
 for the sibilants were substituted the corres- 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 ponding flat sounds, as 7 for 1, » for x, n for w. 
 This interchange of consonants affects the 
 original forms of words more than it does their 
 grammatical inflexions; the consideration of it, 
 therefore, belongs properly to the lexicon.* 
 Examples occur, however, in the grammatical 
 inflexion of words; viz., the interchange of 
 nand w in Hithpaél, (§ 53,) of ) and > in verbs 
 prime yodh, (§ 68,) the change of 7 ino n in 
 the construct state, as Mp1x, righteousness, NPT, 
 righteousness of —. 
 
 2. Assimilation takes place when one conso- 
 nant standing before another, without an inter- 
 vening vowel, would occasion a _ harshness 
 in pronunciation; as, 
 ovidapbavw for cvvrAapbarvw. 
 occurs— 
 
 illustris for inlustris 
 In Hebrew this 
 
 a) Most frequently with 3 before all conso- 
 nants; €. g., m7, mizzé, for myn; yr for yay; 
 man) for nmin. Before gutturals ) is com- 
 monly retained, as 57»; seldom before other 
 letters, as M220. 
 
 6) Less frequently, and only in certain cases, 
 with n, 5, 15 eg, pia for pian; J2o7 for 
 Jp, (article 57;) -w for 1x by assimilation 
 of 4 and apheresis of x, as ty) for i)-1s. 
 (§ 37, 2.) 
 
 In all these cases, the assimilation is expressed 
 by a Daghesh forte in the following letter. 
 In a final consonant, however, as it cannot be 
 doubled, (§ 20, 3, a,) Daghesh is not written ; 
 e. g., MA contr. nn; nya contr. ma; m7) contr. n}. 
 Compare rupac for ruparve. 
 
 In these last cases the assimilated letter 
 has not Sheva, but the helping vowel Seghol, 
 (§ 28, 4,) which, however, does not remove 
 the harshness so as to render the assimilation 
 unnecessary. Sometimes also the syllable en 
 is softened into 7, on into 6, uw, (as in Greek 
 éve becomes eic; ddd6v¢ dd0%b¢;) e. g., wer from 
 Wiz; OD from D9; Did from Dy. 
 
 8. The rejection or falling away of a conso- 
 nant easily happens in the case of the feebly 
 uttered vowel-letters x, 74, 1, », as well as of the 
 liquids. E. g.— 
 
 a) At the beginning of a word, (apheresis,) 
 when a feeble consonant has no vowel, and 
 
 * See the first article on each letter in the author’s 
 Hebrew Lexicon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
| : 
 its sound is easily lost upon the ear; as wm 
 and ary (we ;) 72 for Ip; ym for ym. 
 
 6) In the midst of a word, (contraction,) when a 
 feeble consonant is preceded by a half vowel; 
 e. g-, 9792, the prevailing form for Jy20; 
 PERT POR: 
 
 ce) At the end of words, (apocope ;) e. g., 72, 
 52; 023, before the genitive, »3. 
 
 ee 
 
 SN 
 
 Bolder changes were made in the infancy 
 of the language, particularly the casting away 
 of consonants at the end of a word; thus 
 from }28 was formed ys from m3, 3; from 
 5, 7. See § 97. 
 
 4, In other cases a harshness in pronuncia- 
 tion is prevented by the addition of helping con- 
 sonants, particularly of x at the beginning of a 
 word, before two yowelless consonants, (pros- 
 thesis ;) @. g.. DIN, 2°70, YiTN, NezZ-ro8y; 113, 
 ape. Comp. xc, éxGéc. 
 
 5. Transposition, in grammar, seldom occurs. 
 An example of it is ami for yinn (§ 53, 2.) 
 Cases are more frequent which fall within the 
 province of the lexicon, as 2) and ‘39, 52> and 
 5o3; they are chiefly confined, however, to the 
 sibilants and +. 
 
 Rem. In some cases where Dagh. f. is 
 required, examples occur of the following 
 euphonie variations from the usual ortho- 
 graphy :— 
 
 a) Instead of the sharpening of the syllable 
 by a Daghesh forte in its final consonant, 
 we find its vowel prolonged (especially in 
 the later books) by the insertion of one of 
 the vowel letters, (comp. mile instead of 
 mille.) E.g., pxp for xp; yom for yor, 
 Hab. 2:17. toon for onin, 1 Chron. 
 21 : 23. 
 
 6) The consonant, instead of being doubled, 
 takes a preceding  sound—as xb for 6b, 
 nz for zz—a harshness of pronunciation 
 common in the Chaldee, and the opposite of 
 assimilation. E. g., ‘327 for ‘yp, Job 18:2. 
 Comp. in Chaldee mixx for max, Dan. 4: 9. 
 LE: 18, 
 
 c) Examples occur in which it is highly 
 probable that n and y were, for the same 
 purpose, inserted after the consonant, which 
 would regularly be doubled. (Compare 
 
 opippa, spipva; didXov, folium; doc, 
 alius; in French, fille, pronounced filye, 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 from filia. E.g., 9 for x4, Prov. 26 : 7. 
 wina for wing, Ezr. 10 : 16. IV for 
 3Y0, Is. 23:11. See Lex. Man. 171. 
 
 § 20. 
 
 DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 19, 37.) 
 
 1. Daghesh forte is employed to double a 
 letter, and is essential —i.e., necessary to the 
 form of the word (Daghesh essential) — 
 
 a) When the same letter is to be written twice 
 in succession without an intermediate vowel ; 
 thus for 32n3, nd-thdn-ni, 2m; for AND, 
 shdth-ti, Mb, shdt-ti. 
 
 b) In cases of assimilation, (§ 19, 2,) as qm 
 for ny. In both these instances it is called 
 Daghesh compensative. 
 
 ce) When the doubling of the letter is cha- 
 racteristic of a grammatical form; e.g., op, 
 he killed; 2p, he caused to kill. (Daghesh 
 characteristic.) 
 
 The cases in which a letter is actually 
 written twice are comparatively few. This 
 occurs especially after a long immutable 
 vowel, as Dyin, hd-lelim; when a Daghesh 
 has been already omitted in the first of the 
 repeated letters, as wn, Ad-leli, for bn, 
 hal-leliz, Cases occur also of the full form 
 where the contracted one is more com- 
 mon, as Dy7W, Jer. 5:6, and om, Prov. 
 11:3. Qeri; 22, hhin-né-ni, Ps, 9:14; and 
 *23N, 4:2. 
 
 2. A consonant is sometimes doubled merely 
 for the sake of euphony. The use of Daghesh 
 in such cases (Daghesh euphonic) is only occa- 
 sional, and is not essential to the forms of 
 words. It is employed— 
 
 a) When two words, of which the first ends in 
 a vowel, are closely united in pronunciation, 
 by doubling the initial consonant of the se- 
 cond. (Daghesh forte conjunctive.) FE. ¢., 
 My", mdz-zé, for TM Md; w=, qi’-miits- 
 is*xd, Gen. 19:14, Dw mips, Deut. 27: 7.* 
 
 In some instances words thus united are 
 contracted into one, as D2 for D2}-iMd, D3) 7. 
 Isa. 3: 15. 
 
 * Here belong such cases as m3 Te3, Ex. 15:1, 21. 
 
 The assertion, therefore, is not correct, that the first of 
 
 the two words must be a monosyllable, or accented on 
 
 the penult. 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Analogous to the above usage is the Nea- 
 politan le Uagrime for le lagrime, and (includ- 
 ing the union of the two words in one) the 
 Latin reddo for re-do, and the Italian alla for 
 a la, della for de la. 
 
 6) When the final consonant of a closed syl- 
 lable, preceded by a short vowel, is doubled 
 in order to sharpen the syllable still more; 
 e. g., "2y for 227, Deut. 32:32. Compare 
 Gen. 49:10. Isa. 57:6. 58:3. Job 17:2. 
 1 Sam. 28:10. Ps. 141:3 Examples of this, 
 however, are comparatively rare, and it is 
 inserted or omitted without regard to any 
 uniform principles. 
 
 Compare the following forms as found 
 in very ancient Greek inscriptions, viz., 
 ’Acox\nrwe, (Bickh, 
 Corpus Inscr. Gr. I. p. 42,) and in German 
 (for andere, unsere,) as 
 written in the time of Luther. 
 
 apicoroc, TédEcoTaL, 
 
 anndere, unnsere, 
 
 c) When it is inserted in the final tone syllable 
 of a sentence (§ 29) in order that it may 
 furnish a more firm support for the tone; 
 e.g, 133 for 3993, Ez. 27:19. arp for azn, 
 Job 29: 21. Isa. 33: 12. 
 
 3. The Hebrew omitted, however, the doubling 
 of a letter by Daghesh forte, in many cases 
 where the principles of inflection &c. required 
 it; viz.— 
 
 a) Always at the end of a word, because there 
 he was accustomed to prolong the syllable, 
 instead of giving it a short acute sound. 
 Thus the syllable all he pronounced, not as 
 the Germans with a sharpened tone,* but like 
 the English all, call, small. Instead therefore 
 of doubling the consonant, he often lengthened 
 the preceding vowel, (§ 27,2;) e.g., 1 for 
 aw; ig for 1. The only exception is mx, 
 the personal pronoun 2 pers. fem. 
 
 b) Often at the end of a syllable, (where the 
 doubling of a letter is less audible ;—compare 
 in Greek dro, Homeric for dé\Aer0;) @. 2, 
 Dwpra7 for owpra7. In the greater number 
 of instances Daghesh is retained, though the 
 practice of the punctators in this respect is 
 not uniform. The most that can be asserted is, 
 
 a) That predominant usage excludes Dag- 
 
 * This distinction is illustrated by the English words 
 small, swarm, compared with swan, swallow, and boon 
 compared with book.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 hesh from *— when it takes Sheva—e. g., 
 m), vd-ychi, instead of 7, vdy-y°hi, (comp. 
 however Ps. 104:18. 137:8. Joel 4:6)— 
 and from a letter which is written twice in 
 succession, as 3557, Ad-leli, for x97, hal-lelit. 
 B) That it is retained, on the contrary, in 
 the aspirates, because in them its influence 
 on pronunciation is greater than in other 
 letters, inasmuch as it both doubles them 
 
 and removes their aspiration, (§ 13, 3;) 
 
 €. g., MED, *khiip-perd, not max, *khdph-ra, 
 
 Gen. 32:21. Comp. Isa. 47:11. Ps. 65:4. 
 
 We find even the form 3n72 (with ¢ uttered 
 
 thrice) Isa. 2 : 4. 
 
 c) When the letter to be doubled is a guttural, 
 (§ 99,1.) 
 
 Rem. (on letter 6.) There were cases, how- 
 ever, in which the language required the 
 doubling of a consonant at the end of a syl- 
 lable. In such cases a vowel was inserted to 
 render the doubling of the letter more audible ; 
 e. g., Day for DIY; miso for nap. (§ 66, 4.) 
 
 Compare with the subject of this section 
 the remarks, a, 6, and c, § 19. 
 
 § 21. 
 ASPIRATION, AND THE REMOVAL OF IT BY 
 DAGHESH LENE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 20.) 
 
 The pure hard sound of the six aspirates 
 (n » 3 71.3), with Daghesh lene inserted, is 
 to be regarded, agreeably to the analogy which 
 languages generally exhibit in this respect, as 
 their original pronunciation, from which gradu- 
 ally arose the softer and weaker aspirated 
 sound.* 
 
 The original hard pronunciation maintained 
 itself in greatest purity when it was the initial 
 sound, and after a consonant; but when it ter- 
 minated a vowel-sound, or stood between two 
 vowels, it was softened by partaking of the 
 aspiration with which a vowel is uttered. Hence 
 the aspirates take Daghesh lene— 
 
 1. At the beginning of words, when the final 
 consonant of the preceding word has no vowel, 
 as ya-by, val-kén, b yy, vets pri; or at the be- 
 ginning of a chapter or verse, or even of a 
 
 * Thus in Greek ¢ and x were not at first included in 
 
 the alphabet, and only the modern Greeks aspirate the 
 letters f, 7, 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
| THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 minor division of a verse, (consequently after | 
 a distinctive accent, § 15, 3;) e.g. msna, 
 Gen. 1:1. ‘Wp i, it happened, when, Judg. 
 11:5. On the contrary, }) ‘Mm, it was so, Gen. 
 Bits 
 
 2. In the middle and at the end of words after 
 silent Sheva—i. e., (as in the former case,) at the 
 beginning of a syllable, and in immediate con- 
 nexion with a preceding vowelless consonant ; 
 e. g., Dninap, gctdl-tém ; ray, ythh-badh ; mu, yésht. 
 On the contrary, after vocal Sheva they take the 
 feeble pronunciation ; e. g., 2}, 7722. 
 
 Exceptions to No. 2 are— 
 
 a) Forms which are made, by the addition or 
 omission of letters, immediately from other 
 forms in which the aspirates had their feeble 
 sound; e.g., 21), ridh-phi, from m5 970, 
 formed immediately from m3, (on the 
 contrary, 9, mdl-ki, because it is formed 
 from J, milk ;) anp2, bikh-thabh, from 33. 
 In these cases, that pronunciation of the 
 word to which the ear had become accus- 
 tomed was retained in its derivatives. The 
 same is true, 
 
 b) Of the form mri, where we might ex- 
 pect the feeble pronunciation of n on account 
 of the preceding vowel. But the original 
 form was nye, shd-mayt, and the relation of 
 n, notwithstanding the slight vowel-sound 
 thrown in before it, was regarded as un- 
 changed. Comp. § 28, 4. 
 
 c) In the suffixes 4 02, 72,9 has always its 
 feeble sound, § 33, Rem. 6. 
 
 That the hard or soft pronunciation of these 
 letters did not affect the signification of words 
 affords no reason to doubt that such a distinc- 
 tion was made. Compare in Greek Spié, 
 TPLXOc. 
 
 § 22. 
 
 PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 38.) 
 
 The four gutturals, x, 7, 1, », have certain 
 properties in common, which result from their 
 peculiar pronunciation. ws and y, however, hav- 
 ing a softer sound than 7 and n, differ from 
 them in several respects :— 
 
 1. They cannot be doubled in pronunciation, 
 
 and therefore exclude Daghesh forte. To our 
 
 organs there is the same difficulty in doubling 
 an aspiration. 
 
 But the syllable preceding the 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 letter which omits Daghesh appears longer* in 
 consequence of the omission; hence its vowel 
 is commonly lengthened, especially before the 
 feeble letters x and »; e.g., yw for pyT; Tox? 
 for vox, &c. (§ 26, 2.) The harder gutturals 
 77 and nr allowed a sharpening of the syllable, 
 though orthography excluded Dagh. f. (as in 
 German the ch in sicher, machen, has the sharp 
 pronunciation without being written double), 
 and hence these letters almost universally retain 
 before them the short vowel; e.g., wit, S77. 
 [Comp. vicious, precious, nearly vish-shus, presh- 
 shus. | 
 As these last forms are treated as though 
 the guttural were doubled, the grammarians 
 not inappropriately speak of them as having 
 a Daghesh forte implicitum, occultum, or de- 
 litescens; e. g., OTN for OFX; OB; OM. 
 See § 27, Rem. 2. 
 
 2. They are accustomed to take a short A 
 sound before them, the natural effect of the 
 position of the organs of speech in uttering 
 these letters. Hence, 
 
 a) Before a guttural, Pattahh is used instead 
 of any other short and feeble vowel, (viz., 
 Hhireq parvum, Seghol, and even for Tseri 
 and Hholem;) e. g., ry for vu, yaw for 
 row. This preference was yet more decisive 
 when the form with Pattahh was the original 
 one, or was used in common with another. 
 Thus in the Jmp. and Fut. of verbs, pow, 
 you (net pba); mv (not nx), wi, where 
 Pattahh in the first syllable is the original 
 vowel; Torr for Tam. 
 
 6) But a strong and unchangeable vowel, as 
 4, 3, —, (§ 25, 1,) and in many cases Tseri, 
 was retained. Between it and the guttural, 
 however, there was uttered a half Pattahh, 
 (Pattahh furtive,) which was written under 
 the guttural. This is found only in final 
 syllables, and never under yn; e. g., 1™, rihh; 
 mm, ruhh; mind, sha-lohh; vy, rév; wir, 
 g4-bhorh; mrin, hish-lishh, &e.t 
 
 For the same reason the Swiss pronounces 
 ich, itch, and the Arabian rrwn mesi*h, though 
 neither writes the supplied vowel. In Hebrew 
 it falls away when the word receives an acves- 
 
 * Comp. ferra and the French ferve; the Germ. Rolle 
 and the French ré/e. 
 + The accent is on the proper final vowel, and Pattahh 
 furtive is sounded like a in real, denial.—Tr. 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 sion at the end; e.g. mm, 1m. Here the 
 m is made the beginning of the accessory 
 syllable. 
 
 Rem. 1. The guttural sometimes exerts an 
 influence on the following vowel; but the 
 examples of this usage are few, and are rather 
 to be regarded as exceptions than as establish- 
 ing a general rule; e.g. ry} for wi; byb for 
 5yp. The A sound is preferred wherever it 
 would be admissible without the influence of 
 the guttural, as in the Imp. and Fut. of verbs ; 
 e.g., py, pop. If, however, another vowel 
 serves at all to characterize the form, it is 
 retained, as or; so also 5m} not bm}. 
 
 2. Seghol is used instead of Pattahh both 
 before and under the guttural, but only in an 
 initial syllable, as warm, yehh-bdsh; an, 
 hhebh-lé. Without the guttural these forms 
 would have Hhireq in place of Seghol. 
 (§ 28, 1.) In like manner the gutturals, in 
 A&thiopic, prolong the short e, (the so-called 
 sixth vowel,) and the LX X. instead of Pattahh 
 furtive have a furtive e; e. g., mm, Nos. 
 
 When the syllable is sharpened by Dag- 
 hesh, the more slender and sharper Hhireq is 
 retained even under gutturals, as ‘on, m7, 
 
 ‘am; but when the character of the syllable 
 is Jasmin by the falling away of Daghesh, 
 the Seghol, which is required by the guttural, 
 
 returns; e. g. 27, const. state W275 ya, 
 
 yy. 
 
 3. Instead of simple Sheva vocal, the gutturals 
 
 take a composite Sheva, (§ 10, 3;) e.g. dppx, 
 
 THY, PET, PLY. 
 the composite Shevas. 
 
 This is the most common use of 
 But where other letters 
 
 would take a silent Sheva, i. e. one which merely 
 marks the division of syllables, the gutturals in 
 most cases take Sheva simple, as ‘MTD; in 
 others, however, both forms exist together, as 
 
 bial 
 
 Tm and 3am. 
 
 Rem. 1. Simple Sheva, under the gutturals, 
 the grammarians call hard, (w3,) and the 
 composite Shevas in the same situation soft, 
 (nm..) See observations on verbs with gut- 
 turals. 
 
 2. Respecting the choice between the three 
 composite Shevas it may be remarked— 
 
 a@) 7,7, ¥, at the beginning of words prefer 
 “ & *t—e,g. 149, Non, Tox. But when a 
 word receives an accession at the end, » also 
 
 
 
 
 
 takes 3, as 753 
 Comp. es Rem. 4. 
 6) In the middle of a word, the choice of a 
 composite Sheva is regulated by the vowel 
 (and its class) which another word of the 
 same form, but without a guttural, would 
 take before the Sheva, as Paya (according 
 to the form PopT), Pert (conformed to 
 opm), Tay (conformed to TOP.) 
 
 |b lon ‘st* th .dad jedi vikreieaePere ithe | MME EIS ‘gael <isnsie tay glean to you, Di, NE. 
 
 For some further vowel changes in con- 
 nexion with gutturals, see § 27 at the end. 
 
 4, 5, which the Oriental uttered also as a gut- 
 
 tural, (§ 6, 2, 1,) shares with the other gutturals 
 only the characteristics mentioned above in 
 No. 1, and a part of those given in No. 2; viz.— 
 
 
 
 
 
 a) The exclusion of Daghesh forte; where, 
 
 according to the analogy of other consonants, 
 it would be doubled, the vowel before it is 
 always lengthened, as for J23, Jia; for 73, 
 7 
 6b) The use of Pattahh before it in prefer- 
 ence to the other short vowels, though this 
 is not so general as in the case of the other 
 gutiaral sounds ; e. g. xq>) from my; 1D) for 
 1D dy he turned back, and for 10°}, he coed to 
 turn back. 
 
 Unfrequent exceptions to the principle 
 given under (a) are ty, mdr-rd, Prov. 14:10. 
 JW, shor-réekh, Ezek. 16 : 4. 
 
 § 23. 
 THE FEEBLE LETTERS (17h). 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 11, 40.) 
 1. Of the letters ) and » it has been already 
 
 remarked, (§§ 7, 2; 8, 3, 4,) that their sound, as 
 consonants, being feeble, easily flows into a 
 vowel-sound. The cases in which this occurs 
 are given § 24, 1. 
 these, it is necessary to explain the properties 
 of x and 7, which in several respects are ana- 
 logous to those of ) and». 
 
 But, before we proceed to 
 
 These four letters 
 
 (ym) are called quiescents (quiescibiles) or feeble 
 letters. 
 
 2. x, (a light, scarcely audible breathing,) 
 
 like 1 and », loses entirely its feeble consonant 
 power, or quiesces, whenever it stands without 
 
 a vowel at the end of a syllable. 
 
 It then serves 
 
 merely to prolong the sound of the pent” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 nd 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 27 
 
 
 
 vowel, like the German h;* e. g., nxn, md-tsd ; 
 no, ma-lé; wy, hi; xk, m*tsd; xm, lit; nen, 
 md-tsd-tha ; meson, tim-tsé-nad. This occurs 
 after all vowels; but short vowels in this situa- 
 tion, with few exceptions, become long; e. g. 
 ND, R&D, for XD, NY. On the contrary, it 
 generally retains its power as a consonant and a 
 guttural at the beginning of a word or syllable, 
 AS YOR; IDND, md-NsU ; 25332, lé-sehhol. 
 
 Rem. 1. In the other dialects the sound of 
 x melts into that of a vowel far more readily, 
 and it may there be placed at once by the side 
 of the letters ) and ». In Arabic, besides its 
 power as a consonant, it stands for the pro- 
 longed a; but in Hebrew the examples are few 
 in which it is strictly a vowel-letter for the 
 long A sound, as in oNp, Hos. 10: 14, for the 
 usual form o2. Hebrew orthography usually 
 omits, in this case, the prolonging letter. 
 (§ 7, 2 3.) 
 
 2. In Syriac, even at the beginning of a 
 word, it is sounded as a vowel (viz. #,) if, 
 according to the analogy of other consonants, 
 it would have no vowel of its own; e. g.5Dx, 
 Syr. ékhal. In like manner in Hebrew, also, 
 instead of a composite Sheva it takes, in 
 several words, the corresponding vowel, as 
 Thy for thy; Odo for ony; nvIN for nian. 
 
 3. It may be called an Arabism, at least it 
 is a mode of writing common in Arabic, 
 when at the end of words the vowels —, }, 3, 
 are prolonged by the addition of an x; e.g. 
 wp) for 2; Nipx for ‘px; N77 for 377, 
 Josh. 10: 24. 
 
 In the broad popular dialects of the Arabic 
 such an y is actually heard; e. g. Aud, (he.) 
 
 8. Closely related to 8 in several properties 
 is the somewhat stronger aspiration mn. In the 
 middle of words it scarcely evert loses its 
 aspiration or quiesces; at the end, though it 
 most commonly quiesces, it may retain its 
 aspiration, and is then marked by Mappiq. 
 (§ 14,1.) Its chief vowel is of the A sound, 
 viz. Qamets, as 2, 732, mx. Yet it quiesces 
 also after HE and O, both of which contain the 
 
 * And the English / in ah, oh.—Tr. 
 
 + A very few examples may be found in proper names, 
 as ONMWY, ASTM, which some MSS. divide into two 
 words. One other case, T25°MB. Jer. 46:20, is divided 
 in the received text, in order that 77 quiescent may stand 
 at the end of a word. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A sound in combination with another, (§ 7, 1,) 
 but never after the pure vowels J and U; 
 e. g. 23, 73, T3. 
 
 § 24, 
 
 CHANGES OF THE FEEBLE LETTERS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 40—42.) 
 
 The changes to which the feeble letters them- 
 selves, as well as the vowels that determine their 
 sound, are subject, constitute a very important 
 part of the general principles which regulate 
 the forms and flexions of words, especially in 
 their application to the greater number of irre- 
 gular verbs, (verba quiescentia, § 67, &e.) We 
 are here chiefly concerned with ) and », with 
 x and 7 only in those cases where they quiesce. 
 (§ 28, 2, 3.) 
 
 1. The cases in which the delicate consonant- 
 power of the feeble letters melts into a vowel- 
 sound are principally the following— 
 
 a) When they stand at the end of a syllable. 
 The letter is too feeble to maintain its con- 
 sonant-sound in this position; e.g. ma 
 bi-hi-dha, for mp. biy-hi-dhd ; roy hé-tibh, 
 for won hiy-tibh, ri hi-shabh, for aw 
 hitw-shabh; ix) lé-mor, for rox) lé-emor. 
 Here } and » always quiesce after homo- 
 geneous vowels,* (§ 8, 3,) but x generally 
 sustains its character as a consonant, (§ 67.) 
 At the end of words these four letters all 
 quiesce when a homogeneous vowel precedes, 
 as “wim, yis-ra-xé-li (properly liy, hence fem. 
 liy-ya), TI, %3 for. v3, xp for xzp. When 
 a heterogeneous vowel precedes, the case falls 
 under the rule given § 8, 5, as ‘} shd-lév, od 
 shé-lév, ¥ zt, 1 hhdy, 2 goy, 3 ga-liy. 
 
 b) Somewhat less frequently when a Sheva 
 precedes, and such syllables are formed as 
 rehash, q°vom, beyon; hence ovdx) for Dx, 
 ia for xia [4°vd], op for 0)7. But» and 4 
 always quiesce when they stand at the end of 
 a word and are preceded by a Sheva, as 7, 
 ychi, for x7, ythy ; B, p°ri, for mB, piry. 
 
 c) Very seldom when the feeble letter has a 
 vowel both before and after it, as yp for he 
 
 Dip for oN, Op for onp. Comp. mihi contr. 
 mi. + 
 
 
 
 * But after heterogeneous vowels they sometimes 
 resist contraction; e.g. D”"D"D, 1 Chron. 12:2, OVO, 
 Hos. 7:12. MN, Job 3: 26. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 In Syriac, where these letters flow still 
 more readily into vowel sounds, » is sounded, 
 even at the beginning of words, merely as 
 7, not as » or ? (comp. x=@, § 32, Rem. 2.) 
 So in the LXX, mm is written “Iovdd, pr, 
 ‘Ioadax. Hence may be explained the Syriac 
 usage, examples of which occur also in He- 
 brew, which transfers the vowel belonging 
 to the feeble letter to the preceding vowelless 
 consonant; e.g. yimp for ym, Eccles. 2:13. 
 wp) for sm, Job 29:21. So oii for oxi, 
 Neh. 6:8. The application of this principle 
 sometimes destroys the syllable which pre- 
 cedes the quiescent, as nox for mx; 
 nxip? for ny). 
 
 2. When such a contraction has taken place, 
 the vowel-letter quiesces regularly in a long 
 vowel.* Respecting the choice of this vowel, 
 the following rules may be laid down— 
 
 a) When the vowel, which an analogous form 
 without the feeble letter would take, is homo- 
 geneous with the vowel-letter, it is retained 
 and lengthened; as, 10% yi-tdbh, for 20» 
 yty-tabh, (analogous form op 3) wn for 27 
 (analogous to SopT;) Ogxr for zx, TON? for 
 TDN? 
 
 6) An A sound before » becomes /, before 4, 
 O, (aceording to § 7, 1;) thus 2m becomes 
 POT; POW, Poin; Ty, nv. T 
 
 c) But when the vowel sign is heterogeneous, 
 and at the same time is an essential cha- 
 racteristic of the form, it controls the feeble 
 letter, and changes it into one which is homo- 
 geneous with itself. Thus » and 4 after A 
 become x, and at the end of a word 4; eg. 
 DIZ becomes oNZ, More commonly O72; n}29, 
 ney, m2; 2 and yyw become m3 and Tins. f 
 x and 1 after J become », as piv, Job 8:8, 
 elsewhere rx); Sy from wy, (§ 68, 1;) 8 
 after O becomes 3, as i from wx, Wa from 
 aN3, 
 
 * Pattahh furnishes the only exception; as, DNI??, 
 278), and my lord, Gen. 18:12. %21N), to my lord, 24:36. 
 The Seghol in N2NdH, TINon, AYYIN, is to be 
 regarded as long. 
 
 + The same law governs contractions; as, N} 
 contr. i195 ry contr. [PY 5 WTOP contr. Yop. 
 
 + The Arabian writes in this case, etymologically, 
 ‘3, but pronounces, gala. Compare in English Shaw. 
 So the LXX write ‘2D, Swa. But for ba) is written in 
 Arabic NYU. 
 
 40V 
 
 An original \— at the end of words be- 
 comes— 
 
 a) m— (for \— is never written at the end 
 of a word), when the impure sound d 
 (§ 7, 1) must be retained; e. g. my for x, 
 (§ 74, 13) mo for xy; "TH (poet.) com- 
 mon and derived form m7w.* 
 
 b) m—, when the A sound predominates, 
 and is characteristic of the form, as 13, 
 ma, m3, for “a, 3, 2 
 
 3. x and 7 may quiesce (§ 23, 2, 3) in vowels 
 not included within their proper range, (the 
 A sound;) hence, in several forms, different 
 modes of orthography were admissible. In 
 some instances these different modes of writing 
 were in use at the same time; in others they 
 belonged to different ages of the language. 
 Thus are interchanged,— 
 
 x— and n— at the end of words; (the first, 
 however, belongs to the later orthography, in 
 which Chaldee forms began to mingle. See 
 § 79, 1, Rem. 2.) 
 
 N—, N—, 8 with —, —, 4, the second being 
 the more common forms in the later ortho- 
 graphy. 
 
 Sometimes such interchanges arise merely 
 from the negligence of the transcriber, as 
 when nN}, not, stands for 4, to him, Levit. 11:21 
 Kethibh ; and 4} for xb, 1 Sam, 2:16 Kethibh. 
 
 4, As the quiescent letter is not heard, but 
 serves merely to protract the sound of the long 
 vowel, it is sometimes omitted in writing. This 
 is in some cases the usual form. E.g. ax» for 
 ay, from av (No. 2, 5), wok) for xk, 
 Dp for oNp. 
 
 § 25. 
 UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 44.) 
 
 The changes of vowels, exhibited in the 
 foregoing sections, all depend on their con- 
 nexion with the quiescent letters. There are 
 other changes still, which depend on the form 
 of the syllable, the lengthening and shortening 
 of the word, the shifting of the place of the 
 tone, the position of the word at the end of the 
 period (pause), of which an account will be 
 
 * When any addition is made, at the end, to these 
 
 forms in t—, the original — is frequently resumed. 
 See § 90, 9, Rem. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $e 
 

 
 
 
 
 given in §§ 27 and 28. There are vowels, 
 however, which are not subject to any of these 
 changes, but in all situations remain the same. 
 They are— 
 
 1. Those in which their homogeneous vowel- 
 letter quiesces, as N—; —, E. g. wx), 
 
 alee 4, 3. 
 2 Top, Ap, AI. 
 
 These are sometimes 
 written defectively (§ 8, 4), especially when the 
 word is increased in length, but this does not 
 change at all the character of the vowel. In 
 respect to x, examples of the full form of writing 
 are very rare. See § 23, 2, Rem. 1. 
 
 The numerous cases in which the con- 
 nexion of x with a preceding vowel is merely 
 casual do not belong here; e.g. NED, TNYD; 
 NED, NED. 
 
 2. Those which must originally have been 
 written fully (§ 8, 4), but from which the vowel- 
 letter has fallen away (§§ 8, 4. 24, 4); hence 
 called impure, (vocales impure.) FE. g. wy for 
 tN, Moo for mip, nip for mip, on for mx. 
 
 Whether a vowel is thus made impure can 
 be known only from etymology, flexion, and 
 comparison of the kindred dialects. The 
 cases are noted in the grammar and lexicon. 
 With the A sound this defective form is the 
 prevailing one, as even the long unchangeable 
 A is so seldom written fully. Comp. e. g. 
 § 83, Nos. 2, 6, 13, 28. 
 
 8. A short vowel in a sharpened syllable 
 followed by Daghesh forte, as 222; also in every 
 closed syllable when another such syllable im- 
 mediately follows; e. g. m27D, 2x, 27D. 
 
 4. Vowels after which a Daghesh forte has 
 been omitted on account of a guttural, (forma 
 daghessanda;) see § 22,1. E. g. Sy for 
 WI, TA for 2. 
 
 § 26. 
 SYLLABLES, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE 
 QUANTITY OF VOWELS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 48.) 
 
 A survey of the laws which regulate the 
 choice of a long or a short vowel, and the ex- 
 change of one for the other, requires a previous 
 acquaintance with the theory of the syllable, on 
 which those laws are founded. 
 
 1, Syllables are of two kinds—(1) the simple 
 or open syllable which terminates in a vowel; 
 (2) the mixed or closed syllable which terminates 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 with one or more consonants. In op and ndxp, 
 the first syllable is simple, the second mized. 
 
 Every syllable begins with a consonant. 
 
 The only exception is 4 (and) at the begin- 
 ning of a word, (according to the grammarians, 
 to be pronounced as 3 ;) e. g. Py, w-mé-lehh. 
 In wax the x has its proper force as a light 
 breathing. 
 
 2. A simple or open syllable, from its nature, 
 has properly a long vowel. It may take the 
 tone, as in 73, "ED, WIP; or not, as in TOP, 132, 
 WL, yi-rexd. It seldom, comparatively, takes a 
 short vowel, and only in certain cases. (See 
 Rem.) 
 
 Two consonants may begin a syllable, as in 
 mm? lehhi, on hhli, But here the first letter, (with 
 Sheva vocal) forms by itself a syllable, so slight 
 indeed as to be but just perceptible to the ear. 
 Three consonants cannot be pronounced before 
 a vowel.* 
 
 Short vowels occur in open syllables only 
 in the following cases; viz.— 
 
 a) In words of two syllables formed by 
 a helping-vowel (§ 28, 4) from words 
 originally monosyllabic (Segholates), as 772, 
 D3, Mi bd-yith, ry) yi-rebh, from 2 milk, 
 w2 ndyr, mi biyt, 2 yirb. The reason is, 
 that the final helping vow" is very short, 
 and the word is pronounced almost as one 
 syllable. however, the first 
 vowel is lengthened, as 2%, elsewhere 3), 
 (§ 74, Rem. 3, 6.) 
 
 6) As union-vowels for the suffixes, as »33 9), 
 7275 (these result from the lengthening of 
 Sheva vocal.) 
 
 c) Before 7 local, which has not the tone, 
 (§ 93, 15) e. g. 191093, towards Carmel ; 379, 
 towards the wilderness. 
 
 In all these cases the short vowel is sus- 
 tained by the tone; elsewhere it has at 
 least the support of Methegh ; viz.— 
 
 d) When it stands in connexion with the 
 corresponding composite Sheva, thus —— 
 
 Sometimes, 
 
 oe pe? 
 Tw i © DPD, ION, Voyp, (ps-v°ld,) 
 his act; and 
 
 e) In some other forms of the Segholates, 
 
 * In German and Greek, however, such syllables are 
 found, as strasse, sprache, om\ayxva, and in English 
 string, split, spread. But here the letters st, sp, are 
 united in one sound. Lfri, jktol, we also should be 
 unable to pronounce without uniting the first two con- 
 sonants in a separate syllable. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 as FYE (po-volkhd), thy act; Dry (sho- 
 
 rd-shim), ordIp_ (qo-dha-shim.) See § 9, 2. 
 
 Such cases as DIT, WIT do not belong 
 here, because there is actually a sharpening of 
 the first syllable made by the partial doubling 
 of 7 and 7m in pronunciation, as explained 
 § 29, 1, 
 
 3. A mixed unaccented syllable, which ends 
 with one consonant, must have a short vowel, 
 whether at the beginning or end of a word, as 
 mado, pawn, mDoT, Ie, OPI, Opry vdy-yd-qom. 
 Before doubled consonants the short vowel is 7 
 or i, as "DN, JVP3, %)2- 
 
 When the mixed syllable has the tone, its 
 vowel may be either long or short; e.g. Dan, 
 and npn. Of the short vowels, however, only 
 Pattahh and Seghol have strength enough to 
 stand in a tone syllable.* Examples of a long 
 vowel in a final syllable, 127, ‘2p, O72; in the 
 penult, myo Ad-led, map, mbdp; in a penult 
 sharpened syllable, 77, °30, 72. Examples of 
 short vowels, ‘7, Omy, 02%; in the penult, 
 RYE, 2, BPDP- 
 
 4, Mixed syllables which close with two con- 
 sonants occur only at the end of words, and 
 take most naturally short vowels, as nyo7, 30, 
 Numb. 21:1. Yet they take Tseri also, as 
 2, 722. This harshness is generally avoided, 
 however, by the use of a helping vowel. (§ 28, 4.) 
 
 A syllable ending with a doubled consonant 
 was not admitted at the end of a word. See 
 § 20, 3, a. 
 
 Rem. In this whole theory of the syllable, 
 we have regarded the simple Sheva vocal and 
 composite Sheva as not forming a syllable by 
 themselves, but as attached to the following 
 one, as ‘nx, (a monosyllable,) yup, yp] D. 
 Not so the Accentuators, who regarded them 
 as forming real syllables. The accent, which 
 always belongs to the initial consonant of the 
 syllable, they place not on the consonant 
 which has Sheva, but on the following one, 
 as >), Gen.1:2. %3), 12:2. TON, Job 16:21. 
 Moreover, they connect Methegh with vocal 
 Sheva, which they could not have done if 
 they had not regarded it as forming a syllable; 
 e.g. wwv, Ps. 81:3. This difference, how- 
 
 * An apparent exception is short Hhireg in the par- 
 ticles DX and DY, which, however, are generally regarded 
 as toneless on account of the following Maqqeph. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ever, has no further influence on the vowel 
 system, 
 
 § 27. 
 CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN 
 REFERENCE TO THEIR QUANTITY. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 45.) 
 
 Fundamental principle. —The changes of 
 vowels, occasioned by inflexion, are always 
 made within the limits of their respective 
 classes. (§ 8, 2.) Thus @, when it is shortened, 
 becomes @ and @ (&) [§ 8, 2,1]; @ becomes ¢ 
 and €; 6 becomes 6 and #& The same limita- 
 tion is observed when short vowels become long. 
 But vowels of different classes are never ex- 
 changed for each other, as 7 for wu. 
 
 All alleged deviations from this principle 
 are only apparent, and are occasioned merely 
 by the restoration of the original vowel; e. g. 
 noep, not from 7, but from up. 
 
 No more can be conceded than that there 
 is an approximation of the first two classes to 
 each other by their common vowel Seghol, 
 and that an attenuated Pattahh or Seghol 
 may be represented by the more slender 
 Hhireq. See Remarks at the end of this 
 section. 
 
 The only vowels to which this principle is 
 applicable are 4d (Qamets pure), € (Tseri pure), 
 6 (Hholem pure.) They exhibit, in accordance 
 with the principles laid down in § 26, the fol- 
 lowing changes :— 
 
 1. A long vowel is exchanged for a kindred 
 
 -short one,— 
 
 a) when a mixed syllable, in which it stands, 
 loses the tone, (§ 26,3;) eg. 1, mim-?; 7 
 DIN}; 48, ovate. So when the tone is re- 
 tracted, Dp, ORs Fr» 798) 
 
 6) When a simple syllable, with a long vowel, — 
 
 by flexion becomes.a mixed one, as 75D, 2D; 
 wip, 12. In these cases Tseri passes into 
 Seghol, Hholem into Qamets-Hhatuph. But 
 when a sharpening of the syllable takes place 
 by the doubling of its final consonant, the 
 more slender vowels Hhireq and Qibbuts 
 take the place of Tseri and Hholem; e. g. ox, 
 ON 5 pT, TPIT 
 
 The vowels 7 and & are more simple and 
 pure (§ 7, 1), and therefore shorter than % 
 and 0. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 2. A short vowel is exchanged for a kindred 
 long one,— 
 
 a) When a mixed syllable, in which it stands, 
 becomes a simple one,—i.e. when the word 
 receives an accession, beginning with a vowel, 
 to which the final consonant of the mixed 
 syllable is attached,—as ‘nap, 19) 07 g¢ta-l6 ; 37, 
 17 hd-bhu. 
 
 6) When a syllable, which should be sharpened 
 by Daghesh forte, has a guttural for its final 
 consonant, (see § 22, 1,) or stands at the end 
 of a word, (see § 20, 3, a.) 
 
 c) When it meets with one of the feeble letters, 
 (§ 23, 2, 3. 24, 2,) as xxv for NxD. 
 
 d) When the syllable is in pause, i. e. is the tone 
 syllable of the last word in a period, (§ 29, 4.) 
 
 3. A vowel falls away when the word receives 
 an accession at the end, and the tone is thrown 
 forward. In this manner are dropped,— 
 
 a) Qamets and Tseri in simple penult syllables, 
 as "7B OTs FB TTS 3 Ps IP, 
 nya. The penult vowel is retained if the 
 tone is not thrown forward, as a3v>, aw. = 
 
 b) The pure vowels d, é, 6 in a final syllable, 
 especially in the flexion of verbs; e.g. Sup, 
 MBER, § NID MD; VOM, WD. 
 
 c) If the tone is moved two syllables, both the 
 ultimate and penult vowels may fall away; 
 e. g. 127, DPT (for D7, see § 28, 1.) 
 
 The above principles relate only to inter- 
 changes among vowels strictly long or short. 
 But in each of these two classes there are 
 shades of difference as to length, a knowledge 
 of which is necessary to a complete acquaint- 
 ance with grammatical inflexions. 
 
 1. { (from au) is longer than 4 because it 
 is a half-diphthong ; consequently, when the 
 tone is thrown forward, { is shortened into 3. 
 E. g. Dip}, MNI3p3, (see Paradigm of verbs 
 ‘» Niphal,) M22, fem. mm, with suff. m2; 
 pind, fem. ARAN». 3 sometimes stands even 
 in a sharpened syllable, as mx, Psalm 102: 5. 
 
 * The reason why Qamets, standing in an open syl- 
 lable before the tone, falls away and gives place to 
 Sheva, when the tone is thrown forward, instead of 
 being merely shortened to Pattahh, is found in § 26, 2. 
 This a, however, seems not to have been pronounced 
 long, as is clear from the fact that, in the Aramzean, its 
 place was always supplied by Sheva. 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 pam, Ezek. 20:18. 
 between — and —. 
 
 2. Instead of Pattahh, in a mixed syllable 
 (—), Seghol is adopted as a somewhat shorter 
 sound (—). 
 
 a) Sometimes when the tone hastens forward 
 to the succeeding syllables, as 037) for 
 DI}; 1x (proper name) for 1D93N; 
 especially when the syllable was sharpened 
 by Daghesh forte which has fallen away, 
 (in order still to mark the sharpening of 
 the syllable,) as 7228 akhél-kha, for 728 
 Ex. 33:3. xpim, Ezekiel, for xpi, 
 whom God strengthens. 
 
 The same relation exists 
 
 b) Necessarily and always when Daghesh 
 forte is excluded from a guttural followed 
 by Qamets, and the syllable still remains 
 sharpened, (Dag. forte implicitum, occultum, 
 § 22,1.) Thus n— always stands for 7— 
 (W—); e. g. YMK, his brothers, for v8 = YIN; 
 jim for yim (with the article), the vision ; 
 wna for wa; and so always with 7. With 
 7 and » Seghol comes in place of Pattahh 
 only when the tone is thrown forward, 
 making a shorter vowel necessary ; com- 
 pare ov, the mountains, for oI, with 
 am, the mountain; and ivy, the sin, with 
 ova, the people. Before x and 4 (where 
 Daghesh forte implicitum has no place) 
 Qamets generally is retained, as niax7y, the 
 fathers; yy, the firmament. | Compare 
 however ‘23y7 (4 sign of interrogation), 
 num ego ? 
 c) In syllables which end with two con- 
 sonants. Thus for 33—in Arabic also 
 pronounced Aéilb [nearly Aélb]—was sub- 
 stituted 252, and with the helping vowel 
 Seghol (§ 28, 4) 253; for 37 (ut. Apoc. 
 Hiph. from 72), $33 and 533. 
 
 3. It is a still greater sharpening of the 
 syllable (—), when it is reduced to (—-),* 
 since ¢ appears to be the shortest of all the 
 vowel-sounds, (§ 28, 1;) e.g. 0207 for D227 
 from 03; $79 for t72 from 19; Td, yatt 
 
 * That (=~) is actually somewhat shorter than (,;) is 
 evident from a comparison of 0 with the tone on the 
 ultimate, and mo with the tone on the penult. 
 
 + Exactly analogous to this attenuation of d into 7 is 
 the change in the Latin words tango, attingo, laxus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. On the contrary (~ ) is shorter than (+ ) 
 and (=-) shorter than G+); e.g. DIx, ‘21x; 
 MON IY; DPR OPN MLD Lz 
 
 The reason is, that a pure vowel like @ can 
 be more easily shortened into the slight half- 
 vowel than a mixed one like 4. 
 
 § 28. 
 
 RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 46.) 
 
 1. When in the inflexion of words three con- 
 sonants come before a vowel (an impossible 
 syllable in Hebrew, § 26, 2), the first and second 
 are combined in a new syllable by the insertion 
 of a short vowel under the first. The vowel in 
 this case is Hhireq; under gutturals Pattahh or 
 Seghol; e.g. 52 for H); mp2 (hence 773, 
 § 24, 1) for mma; Sop for Mop; wax for ix; 
 ay for ‘ay. | 
 
 The older grammarians expressed this 
 principle thus, Duorum Schwatim concur- 
 rentium prius mutatur in Hhireq. 
 
 In Aramean and Arabic & 
 case the usual vowel, even when neither of 
 the consonants is a guttural; e.g. tj, Arab, 
 Yop, Syr. op; Mop, Arab. oopy, Aram. 
 2opx. The Hebrew chose the more slender 
 %, and, by the regular interchange of this 
 sound with «, introduced much variety into 
 the vowel-system of his own language, which 
 is wanting in that of the sister dialects. 
 
 @) is in this 
 
 2. If the second of those consonants is a 
 guttural, with a composite Sheva, the first takes 
 the corresponding short vowel; e.g. Tay}, 5x, 
 ‘ong, for saz), Soy), Ym. | 
 
 3. If the first consonant has a composite Sheva 
 it is exchanged for the corresponding short 
 vowel, as np for Stops; stay for spy. 
 
 4. The final syllable of a word may end with 
 two consonants, (§ 26, 4;) e.g. myop.* In most 
 words however this occasions a harshness, on 
 account of which a helping vowel is inserted 
 between the last two consonants in place of the 
 
 prolicus ; with that of a into ¢ (No. 2), compare the still 
 more frequent change of which carpo, decerpo, spargo, 
 conspergo, fallo, refello, are examples. 
 
 * The rule is false, that in this case the final consonant 
 must be one of the aspirates with its hard sound. See, 
 on the contrary, OW), Prov. 7:25. 
 
 
 
 THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 
 
 first Sheva. This is commonly Seghol, but 
 under gutturals* it is Pattahh, under » Hhireq; 
 e. g. 523) for bs; wip for wip [qodhsh]; ry} for 
 sy; mmo for mod;t mi for m2. Compare 
 in German Magd with the old form Maged. 
 These helping vowels have not the tone, and 
 fall away whenever the word receives an acces- 
 sion at the end. 
 These vowels have inappropriately been 
 called furtive, a term which should be re- 
 stricted to the Pattahh inserted before a gut- 
 
 tural. § 22, 2. 
 
 5. New syllables are occasioned also by the 
 
 Pause. See § 29, 4. 
 § 29, 
 THE TONE; SHIFTING OF THE TONE; AND OF 
 THE PAUSE. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 49—52.) 
 
 1. The principal tone, designated by the 
 accent, (§ 15, 2,) is on the final syllable of 
 most words; less frequently on the penult, as 
 in 799, nyy ldy-Id, npyaR. (See § 15, Rem. 3.) 
 Connected with the principal tone is Methegh, 
 a kind of secondary accent, (comp. § 16, 2.) 
 Small words which are united by Maqqeph with 
 the following one are destitute of the tone. 
 (§ 16, 1.) 
 
 In Syriac and Arabic the tone is gene- 
 rally on the penult. The Hebrew is pro- 
 nounced thus, contrary to the accents, by the 
 German and Polish Jews; e.g. 2 Manu, 
 bréshis boro. 
 
 2. The original tone of a word frequently 
 shifts its place on account of changes in the 
 word itself, or in its relation to other words. 
 
 * With the exception however of x, as N05, NOT. 
 The helping vowel may also be omitted with final x on 
 account of its feeble sound; e.g. NIDTT, N°, 
 
 + In this and the analogous examples (§ 59, 2), the 
 Daghesh lene, retained in the final Tav as if a vowelless 
 consonant preceded it (§ 21, 2), serves to shew that the 
 helping vowel Pattahh has a very short sound (with 
 reference at the same time to the original form nin), 
 and to distinguish PN, thou hast taken, from nip, 
 to take, ad sumendum, nny is not to be read shd- 
 ld'-ahht. This pronunciation, decidedly erroneous, 
 (though it still seems to find its defenders,) originated 
 in the false appellation furtive vowel, and the opinion 
 that it is essential to such a vowel that it be pronounced 
 before the consonant under which it is written. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 THE ELEMENTS, 33 
 
 If the word is increased at the end, the tone is | 
 thrown forward (descendit) one or two syllables | 
 according to the length of the addition, as 123, | 
 ORD CPB Op ORS TER wiphep. For 
 the consequent shortening of the vowels, see 
 § 27, 3. 
 
 In one case the tone is thrown forward in 
 consequence of accession at the beginning of 
 the word. See § 44, Rem. 3, 6. 
 
 
 
 8. On the contrary, the original tone is trans- 
 ferred from the final to the penult syllable 
 (ascendit)— 
 
 a) In certain cases where a syllable is prefixed, 
 aS YIN, TONS) vdy-yd-mer, 19, 793) valy-ye-lehh ; 
 even when the syllable is not closely attached 
 to the word, as qe, RDA” ds, Deut. 3 : 26. 
 
 6) When a monosyllabic word, or one with the 
 tone on the penult, follows, (in order to avoid 
 the meeting of two tone-syllables;)* e. g., 
 ia 13x, Job 3:3, for ta 1438; oye ddI, Isa. 
 41:7, for oye odin; Gen. 1:5. 3:19. 4:17. 
 
 c) Inpause. See no. 4, 
 
 The meeting of two tone-syllables (letter b) 
 is avoided in another way, viz. by writing 
 the words with Maqqeph between them, in 
 which case the first wholly loses the tone; 
 e.g.ow-2n 2%. This method is adopted when- 
 ever the penult is a simple syllable with a 
 long vowel. Compare § 47, Rem. 1. § 50, 
 Rem. 3. § 51, Rem. 2. 
 
 4, Very essential changes of the tone, and 
 consequently of the vowels, are effected by the 
 Pause. By this term is meant the strong accen- 
 tuation of the tone-syllable of the word which 
 closes a period, and on which the tone of the 
 whole period rests. This syllable is marked 
 
 * Even the prose of the Hebrews proceeds, according 
 to the accentuation, in a kind of Iambic rhythm. That 
 the authors of the system intended to secure this object 
 is evident particularly from the application of Methegh. 
 
 
 
 with one of the great distinctive accents, as }7N7; 
 Dag. The changes are as follows :— 
 
 a) When the syllable ix pause has a short 
 vowel, it becomes long, as Sap, ORs D%, DD; 
 "re (for 370) 2p 
 
 6) When a final tone-syllable begins with two 
 consonants (as 7170/7), the vocal Sheva under 
 the first gives place to a new vowel; a more 
 fitting position is thus secured.for the tone, 
 which is transferred from the ultimate to the 
 new penult syllable; e.g.mbop, T2DR3 MN, 
 mo; xy, wWiog The vowel selected is 
 always that which had been dropped from 
 the same syllable, in consequence of the 
 lengthening of the word. Moreover, 
 
 a) Vocal Sheva in pause becomes Seghol, 
 as I, 1123 
 B) Hhateph gives place to the analogous 
 long vowel, as °)8, 928 5 "2, ‘717. 
 
 c) This tendency to place the tone on the 
 penult syllable in pause shews itself, more- 
 over, in several words which then regularly 
 retract the tone, as "238, ‘238; THY, TAX; THY, 
 my. 
 
 The rule given under a) respects principally 
 Pattahh, and Seghol arising from Pattahh. 
 (See § 27, Rem. 2, c.) Seghol is, however, 
 strong enough to be retained im pause, as 
 zDR. 
 
 Pattahh is sometimes adopted in place of 
 Seghol, as 3331, im pause 7521; jA-os, in 
 pause yon->x, Judg. 19:20. Pattahh even 
 takes the place of Tseri in pause. This case, 
 otherwise wholly anomalous, can be explained 
 only by assuming an intermediate form with 
 Seghol; e.g. 1 for ain, Isa. 42:22, (im- 
 mediately from 207.) Der, Ps. 118: 10, 
 for oD (OPDN). 
 
 ey 
 
 
 
 ee Se a el 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 § 30. 
 
 ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS.* 
 (Lehrgeb. § 53.) 
 
 1, The stem-words of the Hebrew language 
 are for the most part verbs, as 7p, he hilled ; 
 a few only are nouns, as ys: earth. In com- 
 mon with those of all the Semitish dialects, 
 they consist (with few exceptions, see no. 3) 
 of three consonants. The pronouns, (§ 33 foll.,) 
 and some interjections which are imitations of 
 natural sounds, do not follow this analogy. The 
 particles are not primitive, but are all derived, 
 sometimes by violent abbreviation, from forms 
 of nouns and verbs, (§ 97, 1.) 
 
 The three consonants which form a stem- 
 word are called the three stem-letters; those 
 which are added in the formation of words, 
 or for the purposes of inflexion, are called 
 servile letters. 
 
 * There is a want of uniformity among grammarians 
 in the use of the words roo¢ (radix) and stem, stem-word. 
 From the Rabbins is derived the practice of calling the 
 triliteral verb, in its simplest form, (as OP, Dip, ) the 
 root (WW). In the same signification Stamm and 
 Stammwort [stem aud stem-word] are used in German, 
 But since we have begun to go back to the more simple 
 original elements of the stem, we apply to these elements 
 both these designations, and hence speak of Jiliteral 
 roots, (de radicibus bilitteris,) monosyllabie stems. <A 
 more correct usage is suggested by the figure on which 
 those expressions are founded. (Comp. Schmitthenner 
 Ursprachlehre, § 43.) The root, hidden from the eye, 
 sends forth the visible stem, and this the boughs and 
 smaller branches. Accordingly, by the term root of a 
 word, we might designate its original elements, respect- 
 ing which there is often much uncertainty, and which 
 frequently is no longer in actual use, but must be ascer- 
 tained by philological induction. In Hebrew this is 
 generally of one syllable, (see no, 2 of this section.) By 
 stem, stem-word, we might understand the triliteral word, 
 whether a verb or a noun, which springs from the root. 
 
 Thus the words in actual use Joy, N77, TI, WA, are 
 stem-words ; the original syllable Th the source of them 
 | all, is their root. 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 ee ented baa Hb 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 These triliteral stems are generally of two 
 syllables; but among them are reckoned also 
 such as have for their middle letter a 4 or », 
 which is uttered as a vowel, (§ 24, c,) and 
 thus reduces the form to one syllable; e. g. 
 3, [2 
 
 2. This is true of the Hebrew language in its 
 present state; yet doubtless there was a period, 
 before it assumed the structure which it now 
 exhibits, when it contained shorter and more 
 simple roots, which consisted of two letters 
 forming one syllable. For (1) those nouns which 
 express the oldest and at the same time the sim- 
 plest and most common objects and relations, 
 are still of one syllable; e.g. ax, father; dx, 
 mother ; rx, brother; 7, mountain. — (2) Many 
 triliteral stems have been formed from original 
 roots of two letters, by doubling one of them, or 
 adding a feeble letter or half vowel. To this 
 biliteral root the signification attaches itself; 
 e.g. 723, PI NI, 7, all which have the signi- 
 fication to beat, to bruise, and all have the mono- 
 syllabic root 1. § 76. — (3) Even this third 
 stem-letter, which is added at the beginning 
 or end, may be one of the strong consonants. 
 Thus from monosyllabic roots have arisen large 
 classes of words of two syllables, which, with 
 only two radicals in common, have the same 
 fundamental signification. 
 
 Only a few examples can be presented 
 here :— 
 
 From the root yp, by which the sound of 
 hewing is imitated, are derived immediately 
 V2. MEP, to cut off; then 2x7, Psp, WP, with 
 the kindred significations to shear, to mow, and 
 metaph. to decide, to judge, (hence pyp, Kadi, 
 a judge.) Related to this is the syllable wp, 
 from which is derived wp, to ewt [and gather] 
 
 in; 3%, to sharpen, point ; xp, Rage pare, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 ) 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 or peel. With the flattening of the sibilant 
 op, Ip; hence app, to cut down, to destroy ; Tap, 
 to cut down, to kill; y2p, to cut off, to shorten ; 
 
 FDR, to tear off, to pluck off, (Arab. hs, zai); 
 Tz, to cut asunder, divide. A softer form of 
 this radical syllable is 02; hence no3, to cut 
 off, to shear off; v2, Syr. to sacrifice, to slay 
 a victim for sacrifice. Still softer is 1, (with 
 the flat pronunciation 12;) hence 133, to mow, 
 to shear ; 7133, to hew stones; 033, 933, 932, 133, 
 to cut off; to cut from, to take away; to eat off, 
 to crop or browze; and so 173, to cut and to 
 decide ; v2, to cut off ; compare also 73, Fy. 
 With the change of the palatal for the gut- 
 tural sound, yz, to divide, 1, to sharpen, 
 and many others. In languages not of the 
 Semitish stock, cedo, with a sibilant prefixed, 
 scindo, oxedaw, Sanscr. tschid, Pers. tschiden. 
 
 The case is precisely similar with the radical 
 syllable yp, 2, 32, 13, Sanser. bhidh, Lat. findere, 
 (fidit ;) on which see Lex. Man. Lat. s13. 
 
 The syllable on expresses the humming 
 sound made with the mouth closed (dw) ; 
 hence 77, 072 (Ox), oman, Arab. , to 
 hum, to buzz. To these add nm, to be dumb, 
 [os claudere;| om, to become mute, to be as- 
 tonished. 
 
 The radical syllable », of which both letters 
 have a vibratory sound, means to shake, to 
 tremble, in the stem-words 1}, 99}, DY, WyT: 
 it is expressive of any agency that causes 
 tremulous motion or agitation, as thunder 
 (or), the act of shattering, of breaking in 
 pieces, (2Y2, ¥Y2-) 
 
 Compare with these the radical syllable 12 
 with the idea of elevation, curving upward, 
 (gibbous,) p, to break asunder, », m5, to lick, 
 to sup, under the articles 223, 8, 1) in the 
 Lex. Man. Lat. 
 
 From these examples alone we may draw 
 the following observations, the truth of which 
 would be still more evident from a full survey 
 of the subject :-— 
 
 a) Most of these monosyllabic roots are 
 imitations of natural sounds, and to a great 
 extent coincide with the roots of the Indo- 
 Germanic stock; e.g. Abn, rizTw (ri7w), 
 NOL, pdrtw (pdgw), HID, SpirTw, MD}, 
 pirrw, (m and p, labials, interchanged,) 1}, 
 dOw, AavOdvw, 123, KAérTw, (with an in- 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 35 
 
 
 
 terchange of / and n, liquids ;) compare FD? 
 Kodkarrw, Am, kadinrw. The tendency to 
 increase in length is also obvious in all the 
 stems. 
 
 b) The stems with hard, strong consonants 
 are to be regarded, according to the general 
 progress of language, (§ 6, 2, 4,) as the 
 oldest, while the feebler and softer conso- 
 nants distinguish forms of a later period. 
 Hence the derivative and metaphorical sig- 
 nifications are found more frequently in 
 connexion with these than with the former ; 
 e.g. Mz and m3, to be smooth, to be shorn, 
 to be bald, (with the latter form are con- 
 nected glacies, gelu; Slavic goly, holy; 
 calvus;) and even 73, to be bare. Some- 
 times, however, the hard or soft sound is 
 essential to the imitative character of the 
 word, as %3, to roll, (spoken of a ball, of 
 the rolling of waves ;) ‘na for a more rough 
 sound, as made in the act of scraping, sweep- 
 ing=caiow, sbow, verro. FER, to cut wood, 
 requires a stronger sound than 333, to cut 
 grass, to mow. 
 
 c) It appears also that those consonants 
 which resemble each other in strength or 
 feebleness are commonly associated in the 
 formation of a radical syllable, as Vr, D2, 
 1, 2, (never 3, ¥% D2, 1); YD, 12 (mot Ww); 
 mp, 12 (not m2.) Scarcely ever are the first 
 two radicals the same (M73) or very similar 
 (oo). On the contrary, the last two are 
 very often the same. (§ 66.)* 
 
 d) The tendency to substitute smooth for 
 harsh sounds (see letter 6) is sometimes 
 so great that J, n, r, especially when used as 
 middle stem-letters, are even softened to 
 vowels, as wy Cory), wx, to tread 
 down, to thresh; y>x, yxx (comp. 03x), to 
 press; 27 Chald. pT, to go, and many 
 others. Comp. dulcis, doux; falsus, fauz ; 
 and the pronunciation of the English words 
 talk, walk. 
 
 e) Often, however, the three stem-letters 
 must all be regarded as original, since all 
 
 * Letters which are not found associated as radicals 
 are called incompatible: they are chiefly such as too 
 strongly resemble each other, as dp» Pi, Fa, 1D. Some 
 letters, however, have been falsely considered incom- 
 
 atible, as 59, which are often found associated ; e. g. in 
 
 33 and 717, from the harsher forms 113, TW. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 ee 
 
 36 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 are necessary to make the sound of the 
 word expressive of the sense; e.g. 7m, 
 pam, py, to be narrow, to afflict, dyxw, ango ; 
 J, to tread; D723, Bosuw, fremo, to make a 
 humming sound, (to buzz, hence to spin,) &e. 
 
 A full development of this action of the 
 living elements of the language may be found 
 in the Manual Hebrew Lexicon referred to 
 in this work. It is important that even the 
 learner should be taught to regard the roots 
 and their significations, not as the arbitrary 
 creation of a single people, secluded from all 
 the rest of the ancient world, but as actual 
 ‘imitations of nature, and as intimately con- 
 nected with the well-known treasures of other 
 languages, spoken by nations more nearly 
 related to ourselves. 
 
 3. It was not until the later epochs of the 
 language that stem-words were lengthened to 
 four and even five consonants. This practice 
 was comparatively far less frequent in Hebrew 
 than in its sister dialects, which are mostly 
 younger than itselfi* This lengthening of the 
 ‘form is effected in two ways—(a) by adding a 
 fourth stem-letter; (4) by combining into one 
 two triliteral stems, by which even quinque- 
 literals are formed. Such lengthened forms as 
 arise from the mere repetition of some of the 
 three stem-letters (as Sop, ‘mDp; 22D, IDI) 
 are not regarded as quadriliterals, but as vari- 
 ations in conjugation, (§ 54.) 
 
 
 
 Rem. on (a). When a fourth stem-letter is 
 prefixed, it is generally a guttural or a sibilant, 
 and such quadriliterals connect themselves 
 with the Hiphil conjugation ; e. g. youn, fat, = 
 yous bom, an ant, =n, d1ej; from mw, to 
 shine, 1}3D, to blind, hence D130, blindness ; 
 niMyPB, hollows, from wp, to be deep ; nn’, 
 Jfiame, from 37), This mode of forming words 
 belongs also to the Greek and Latin languages, 
 as yhigu, sculpo, Tpizw, strideo, yoapw, scribo, 
 tego, orétyw, fallo, opaddw, Kedalo, oxedaZo; 
 and to the German, as to melt, schmelzen; 
 to wing, schwingen; nurus, schnur. Other 
 lengthened forms are made by the insertion 
 principally of J and r between the first and 
 second radicals, as DD2, DOW, AM, AY, (the 
 
 
 
 * See Lehrgeb. p. 861, and respecting the A®thiopic; 
 where these forms are very frequent, Hupfeld, Ex- 
 ercitatt, Athiop. pp. 24, foll. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 first form frequent in Syr.) This mode of 
 formation is analogous with Piél, and in 
 Aramean the two forms exist together, as 53, 
 22. In Latin is a corresponding lengthening 
 of the stem, as findo, scindo, tundo, from fid, 
 scid (oxedaw), tud. Additions are also made 
 at the end, principally of / and n, as y373, an 
 axe, from 13, to cut; >y2, an orchard, from 
 Dy; 1a, flower-cup, from yw, cup; from 
 an, to tremble, to skip, 217, to hop, (the ter- 
 mination el having perhaps a diminutive force 
 in the Semitish stock, as it has in many 
 others.) 
 
 Rem. on (6). In the combination of 
 triliterals, it generally happens that letters 
 common to them both are written but once 
 in the compound form, as yx, a frog, from 
 
 nby, to hop, and yy, gle 9), a pool. yx, tran- 
 quil, from mya, to be quiet, and yw, to be at 
 rest, [but see Lexicon;] or a feeble letter is 
 cast away, as FpOY, a bat, from hoy, ee, dark, 
 
 and FAY, flying. Still bolder changes are some- 
 times made in the amalgamation of words, 
 as wi2y, a spider, properly an active spinner, 
 from wry, Arab. to weave, and ry, to be active. 
 
 It should be remarked that quadriliterals 
 may be shortened again into ¢riliterals; e. g. 
 from 5377, (see above,) >a with the same sig- 
 nification; hence 21m, a partridge, (from its 
 halting gait;) mie, a chain, for mpd, from 
 178, WP. 
 
 § 31. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE. 
 (Lehrgeb, § 54, 3.) 
 
 1. The formation of the parts of speech from 
 the roots, and their inflexion, are effected in two 
 ways :—(1) by changes in the stem or ground- 
 form itself, particularly in its vowels; (2) by 
 the addition of formative syllables. A third 
 method, viz. the use of several separate words 
 in place of inflexion, (as in Arab. han yagqtol, 
 “he killed,”) belongs rather to the Syntax than 
 to that part of Grammar which treats of forms. 
 
 Which of these methods is, on the whole, 
 of the highest antiquity, has been a subject of 
 much dispute. Humboldt and Bopp have 
 claimed this distinction for the second. With- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 out intending to enter into this discussion 
 here, we remark only, that languages in their 
 earlier epochs, and, as it were, in their youth- 
 ful vigour, generally exhibit a strong tendency 
 to the development of forms; but in their 
 later periods, this tendency continually di- 
 minishes in force, and it becomes necessary 
 to resort to the constructions of Syntax. 
 Examples of one extreme we have in the 
 Sanscrit, Greek, and Gothic, and of the other 
 in the English. The same thing may be 
 observed in the history of individual lan- 
 guages, as of the Arabic, and of the Greek, 
 including its modern form. 
 
 In the Chinese we have a language wholly 
 inflexible, without any grammatical structure, 
 the place of which is throughout supplied by 
 the relations of syntax. 
 
 2. Both methods of formation and inflexion 
 are found in Hebrew. That which is effected 
 by vowel-changes exhibits considerable variety, 
 more at least than in the kindred languages, 
 Cop, 7p, Top, ep, meR-)* We have an ex- 
 ample of the other method in Sgpnn, and of 
 both in the same word in ‘ypn. Inflexion 
 by the addition of formative syllables occurs, 
 as in almost all languages, in the formation of 
 the persons of the verb, where also the import 
 of these annexed syllables is still, for the most 
 part, perfectly clear. (See §§ 44, 47.) 
 
 CHAPTER I.. 
 
 THE ARTICLE AND PRONOUN. 
 
 § 32. 
 
 THE ARTICLE, 
 (Lehrgeb. § 55.) 
 
 The Hebrew article, properly a demonstrative 
 pronoun, is fully sounded 57. But it very sel- 
 dom appears in its full form, (see Rem, 1;) for, 
 
 a) The 4 is commonly assimilated to the fol- 
 lowing letter, (§ 19, 2;) hence wntin, the 
 sun, for wv. 
 
 * In the kindred languages the a (especially in place 
 of e, i, 0) is far more prevalent; e.g. yigtol, Arab. 
 yaqtol; gittel, Arab. gattol; hithqattel, Arab. tagattal. 
 
 words is the striking coincidence, in fundamental sounds, 
 
 
 
 6) Before gutturals the Daghesh compensative 
 (§ 20, 1, 6) falls away, (§ 22, 1,) and then 
 commonly takes Qamets; e. g. DIT for 
 DIN, the man; 1, the mountain; oyq, the 
 people ; 5359, the foot. Before x and 1 Qamets 
 is always adopted; but before 7 and nm the 
 sharpening of the syllable frequently remains, 
 (§ 22, 1,) as wi, the month ; barn, the vapour. 
 When the guttural has Qamets, the vowel 
 under 7 becomes Seghol, especially before n, 
 as wim, the new, (an adjective,) yiny, the 
 vision. Qamets is used before m7 and y only 
 when the noun is of one syllable, as 177, DDT; 
 when it is of two or three syllables, so that 
 the tone is further removed from the article, 
 Seghol is preferred, as O79, the mountains ; 
 poy, the cloud. Gender and number have no 
 influence on the form of the article. 
 
 Rem. 1. The original form of the article 
 Sa (Arab. 5x, which occurs also a few times 
 in Hebrew, as wrx for wy, Ezek. 13:11, 13. 
 38 :22,—comp. Gen. 10:26. Proy. 30:31) is 
 closely related to Sx, 9x, these, (§ 37, 1,) 
 more remotely to ille, Ital. i, It is found in 
 its full form only in mn for mn, (§ 20 at 
 the end,) where also appears, as in mx, the 
 doubling of the /. 
 
 2. When one of the prepositions 3, ? 2, 
 comes before the article, the 7 falls away and 
 leaves its pointing to the preposition; e. g. 
 pyawa for mpvina, in. the heavens; oy) for 
 nym, to the people; oq, for OTT, upon the 
 mountains, But with 3 (which is less com- 
 mon than the others, and connects itself less 
 closely with the following noun) the 7 often 
 remains, as Di, Gen. 39:11, though D2 
 also occurs 25:31, 33. But only in the later 
 books are found such forms as Dy7), 2 Chron. 
 10:7. With 3, which, from its meaning, is 
 still less closely connected with the noun, this 
 contraction never takes place, as DYm. 
 
 § 33. 
 THE PERSONAL PRONOUN IN GENERAL. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 56.) 
 
 1. The personal pronoun, as well as the pro- 
 nouns generally, is among the oldest* and 
 
 * Among other proofs of the high antiquity of these 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 simplest elements of the language. As it lies 
 at the foundation of the flexion of the verb, 
 (§§ 44, 47,) it properly claims our first attention. 
 
 2. The inflexion of the personal pronoun, for 
 expressing the relations of case, is entirely un- 
 like that which prevails in the Western lan- 
 guages. Only the nominative is expressed by 
 a separate word, (pronomen separatum;) e. g. 
 ox, I; s7, he. The genitive and other oblique 
 cases are expressed by fragments of these sepa- 
 rate pronouns, attached to the end of verbs, 
 nouns, and particles, so as to form with them 
 one word. ‘They are called pronomina suffixa, 
 affixa, or merely suffixa, affira; e.g. —, my, 
 », me, both from x; 4, his, in, him, from wn; 
 13, a word, yy d*bha-ré, his word; mop, I 
 have hilled, sma, I have killed him. 
 
 In a single case the separate pronoun also 
 stands for the object of the verb, preposition, 
 
 &e. See Syntax, § 119, 4. 
 
 8. The suffixes arose, doubtless, from the 
 hasty utterance of the pronouns in connexion 
 
 between these forms in the Semitish stock and the cor- 
 responding ones in many others. 
 
 With 1GN compare the Coptic anok, anog, Sanscr. 
 ground-form, aham, aha, Greek éywyv, éyé, ego; [Teut.] 
 ik, ich, and in the popular dialects merely i, which is 
 also all that remains of it as a suffix in Hebrew. 
 
 With AX (anta) compare Sanscr. tua, Egypt. entok, 
 fem. ento, Anc, and Mod. Persian tu, Greek tv (ct), 
 Germ, tu, du. 
 
 With N17, N¥T, comp. Greek {, 7, (¢s, %s,) see Buttm. 
 Ausf. Gramm. 1,290, Lat. i-dem, is, is-te, and in the Ger- 
 manic languages hu, hua, hue, ho, he, hei, and Pers. 
 
 GS9 wi. 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 with a preceding verb, noun, or particle, the 
 first letters of the pronoun being lost to the ear 
 in the rapidity of pronunciation. Compare in 
 German du hast’s for du hast es, (thou hast it ;) 
 in Greek zarno pov for rarijo éuotd; in Latin 
 eccum for ecce eum. Some of them, however, 
 originated in ancient forms which no longer 
 exist in Hebrew. 
 
 4, Respecting the cases which these suffixes 
 express, we remark— 
 
 a) When attached to verbs, they stand for the 
 accusative of the pronoun, as 2) D7Op, thou 
 hast killed me, (very seldom for the dative, 
 § 119, 1.) 
 
 b) Attached to nouns, they denote the genitive 
 of the pronoun, and are then possessive pro- 
 nouns; e.g. ip, voice; tip, his voice, vor ejus. 
 
 c) Attached to particles, they denote either the 
 genitive or the accusative, according as the 
 particle, in its meaning, resembles a verb or a 
 noun, (§ 36.) With some particles they even 
 
 (§ 36, 2.) 
 
 The following table exhibits these different 
 kinds of suffixes, which the succeeding sections 
 will more fully explain. 
 
 The forms marked with an asterisk are 
 found only in poetry. Unfrequent forms are 
 inclosed in parentheses, of which such only 
 are inserted in the table as are necessary to 
 exhibit the analogy; the rest will be found 
 in the remarks on the next succeeding sec- 
 tions. 
 
 appear as nominatives. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 | 
 | 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | & ee ee wl ee ee Ee he ee (spa) 1 sat At sik Sm Hes MS 
 *L19Y} “Lay “may + - (809) yA —“q “a hay) “e 
 - = yoo foto = sa Safin} - - - - + = git Fa Ha tia a - = - Gd to -w 
 -- -- 4d Se ee ne ee ae igo “yes Fi Se —<l ( - - Rite eal 
 -unoh "unoh *noh ‘ah S 
 - - + - oc oS -fat ss ty |S en= ia >. 3g Ze ke) —a [- - + = Rua mu 
 mo, <= ew, | apt oe iin = = ee ny aoe ‘mm - = (sou) te f= ft ram (Sek) “(Elict) RELIC woo *] 
 ; “"IVunTg 
 5 
 ( Te. asa a . * as z as a ~ = . ‘ 
 | a “ay 2 2 =e eb aye 2 ul fe fi at Ue. ele eae elt YET et dT os = es PLR of 
 ‘ ‘€ 
 1 a 
 fs “sy = gerd Ah ssty = (Lt) & Sate bk 4 mel oe wees... (hy Kk ruy tk $4 CL) ae fb SL ys = = > UN 
 { 
 | 4 a Naeger er te ei al ig ly St Me Pte OE oe 
 = | fy) “Any saayy ‘noyy- = = Rak % 
 las | =f} *L osned ur “hk ~f osned th sth osmed ut “h 4 d ur (Rt) Stu - 
 ee TES) a —k osned ut - - —l. osned uy =k osned ut asned ut “(At!) NUL “ww 
 a | 
 a : . Ay 2 + . - && osned ut *Rk 
 fib - = =e | ae ee ee = ee Sh Sh ‘ue = Sh ft 68 “ne ame et 
 = £8cé. osmed ur NG "09 *T 
 [o) < 
 ‘dd VV ‘a 1 
 ‘NOONOUd AHL JO TAILINGD ATUTAOUd *NQONOUd 
 *XIdd0S ‘TVYAUTA UO ‘WHO TALLVSQO0V 
 
 ‘NQONOUd AAISSHSSOd UO ‘XITIOS TVNIMON ALVUVdaS UO ‘WHOA AALLYNIWON 
 
 Se a a a RS eS a ay 
 
 ‘NONONOUd IVNOSUAd AHL AO ATAVL 
 
 en 
 
 ee 
 
 
 
 *Tean[ gq SUNON 0} "ng “Sug sunoy 0} “gng “orjoyyuedo ¢ UIT AA oIn UVTOONIG 
 
 
 
 
 
40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r= 
 
 REMARKS, 
 
 I. First Person. 
 
 1. ‘phy is the ancient and full form; hence by 
 abbreviation >}, which occurs more frequently. 
 The former exists in the Pheenician, but in no 
 other of the kindred dialects; from the latter 
 are formed the suffixes. 
 
 2. The formation of the plural in this and the 
 other persons, though analogous with that of 
 verbs and nouns, exhibits, as might be expected 
 in forms so ancient, much that is irregular and 
 arbitrary, and obviously belongs to an early 
 epoch of the language, when it was subject to 
 other laws than those which now govern it. 
 wm is manifestly the plural of 2x (with the 
 exchange of 5 for m), and 1 may be regarded as 
 the sign of the plural, like » and 4 in the verb. 
 (§ 44,1.) The plural 3x is from x. This last 
 form, from which the suffixes are derived, occurs 
 only in Jer. 42:6 Kethibh. The abbreviated 
 form x37) is found only six times—Gen. 42:11. 
 Numb, 32 : 32, &c. 
 
 8. In the first person, as in the Latin, Greek, 
 and German, there is no distinction of gender. 
 
 II. Second Person. 
 
 4, Instead of Daghesh forte, in the prin- 
 cipal forms of the 2nd person, the kindred dia- 
 lects have an n before the n— Chald. mx, Arab. 
 
 78 
 ««,3} — Which however is by no means the 
 original form. (See § 19, Rem. b.) The cha- 
 racteristic consonant is the n; see § 33, 1, note. 
 mx without 1 occurs only five times, e.g. Ps. 
 6:4, and is each time corrected in the Qeri. 
 
 The feminine form was originally pronounced 
 ‘mx (with the feminine designation —, probably 
 from wv, she, properly thou she, compare ‘npn, 
 § 47, 2), as in Syriac and the common Arabic. 
 This form is still found in a few instances — 
 Judg. 17:2. 1 Kings 14:2. Some forms in the 
 inflexion of the verb are derived from it. (§ 44, 
 Rem. 2. 61, 2.) The» however was but slightly 
 heard,—in Syriac it was at length only written, 
 not pronounced,—and therefore fell away; so 
 that the Jewish critics, even in the abovemen- 
 tioned passages, place in the Qeri nx, whose 
 Sheva stands in the punctuation of the text. 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 (§ 17.) The same » appears, moreover, in the 
 unfrequent forms of the suffix »—, »—., 
 
 5. The plurals Dmx, yx, are blunted forms of 
 pins (Arab. antum, Chal. pmx, a form which lies 
 at the foundation of some verbal inflexions, 
 § 61, ¢), and pmx, the full final vowel giving 
 place to the obtuse sound of e, somewhat in the 
 manner of the third person, jms is found only 
 once, (Eas 34:31, where another reading is 
 js) and mAx (for which MSS. have also Tm) 
 occurs only four times, viz. in Gen. 31:6. Ez. 
 13:11, 20. 34:17. For the ending 7— see no. 9. 
 
 6. Besides the forms with n, the 2nd person 
 probably had, at the same time, another with 
 2, formed after the analogy of 33, which gave 
 rise to the suffixes > Pp 02 72% Traces of this 
 form appear in the sufformatives in A®thiopic, 
 (gabarcha, thou hast done,) also in the Samaritan 
 and common Arabic, (see the author’s Anecdott. 
 Orient. p. 43.) This form was preferred here 
 for the sake of distinguishing the suffixes from 
 the sufformatives of the verb, as bup, he killed, 
 with suffix p> (in the accusative) pop, he killed 
 you; but pnvep, with sufformative on, in the 
 nominative, ye have hilled. 
 
 The suffixes ¥, D3, }2, are the only ones which 
 have no connective-vowel. Contrary to rule, 
 they reject Daghesh lene, (§ 21,) as op>up, not 
 osyap; from which we may infer that a half- 
 vowel (vocal Sheva) was heard before the >. 
 In pause (=) this Sheva is lengthened into 
 Seghol. 
 
 Ill. Third Person. 
 
 . The x was perhaps heard at the end of 
 nit a nq as a kind of half-vowel, hie, hie, as 
 in German die, (old Germ. thiu, théa,) sie, wie. 
 
 A trace of this appears in the Arabic, as 3 
 
 howa, in the common dialect Aide. 
 § 23, Rem. 3. 
 
 The masculine sin was still of common gender 
 as late as the composition of the Pentateuch, 
 in which it is used for she. (See § 2,3.) The 
 punctuators, however, could not appreciate such 
 an idiom, and regarded it as an error in transcrib- 
 ing. Accordingly, whenever it stands for w=, 
 they give it the appropriate pointing of this form 
 
 Comp. also 
 
 * It is certain that & and ¢ are often interchanged in 
 the bm of language. See Lex. p, initial article. 
 
 
 
 * eae 
 
 | OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 (x7), and require it to be soread. (Comp. § 17.) 
 It is, however, to be sounded according to the 
 old form win. 
 
 8. In forming the suffixes from wn, the x, 
 which is wholly wanting in Syr. and Arab., is 
 omitted; hence the form 37, and with the con- 
 nective vowels 71— and 7. 3 became a-w 
 (the feeble 7 being neglected in pronunciation) 
 and then 6, (§ 7, 1,) commonly written 4, more 
 seldom 7. Gen. 49:11. Numb. 23:8. Ps. 10:9. 
 Jer. 2:21. Ezek. 20:40. 31:18. 36:10. 
 
 The suffixes from wi would by analogy be 
 7, T—, 7; but 7, for the sake of euphony, 
 is changed to n—. The Aleph in wy was the 
 origin of the Qamets under 7; accordingly the 
 Chald. and Arab. have the full form xq, (found 
 even in Ezek. 41:15.) The Mappiq in n— 
 sometimes, though rarely, falls away and leaves 
 the » quiescent, (Numb, 15: 28,) which then 
 may be exchanged for x, as ba (omnis ea), Ezek. 
 36:5. 
 
 9. The plural forms o7 and yy are made from 
 sam and xm in the same manner as DAK from mx. 
 In Arabic, where they are pronounced hom, 
 honna, the full sound is retained. The m— in 
 both forms (He paragogic) has a demonstrative 
 force. (See § 93,1, ¢.) In Chald. Gna, ji), 
 Arab. and /&thiop. (Aumu, hemmu), there is a} 
 appended, which occurs in Hebrew in the 
 poetical forms n, n=, in—. 
 
 10. The pronouns of the 3rd person, $7, 7, 
 Dy, 7, are also demonstrative pronouns, this, 
 these, and when thus used they generally take 
 the article, as sim DP, on that day; wTT Yoss, 
 that land. 'They are both employed for the 
 neuter gender,—it, this, [hoc,]|—for which the 
 language has no appropriate form. 
 
 IV. Accentuation. 
 
 11. In the union of nouns and verbs with the 
 suffix pronouns, the tone inclines much more 
 strongly towards the latter than towards the 
 sufformatives employed in the inflexion of the 
 verbs ; so that it never remains on the stem, as 
 in mp sop, but almost always falls either upon the 
 suffix or its union-vowel, 707, amdwp, [some- 
 times on the syllable by which the stem had 
 been increased before its union with the suffix, 
 as JOPOR wAVOP, PIy]- 
 
 12. The suffixes to the 2nd and 8rd pers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 plur., which form a perfect mixed syllable, and 
 take the tone, D2, }2, 07, j7(oy—, o—), are 
 called on this account grave suffixes. They 
 shorten the forms to which they are appended 
 (§ 89, 2) more than the other suffixes, which are 
 called light. 
 
 § 34. 
 
 VERBAL SUFFIXES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 58.) 
 
 1. The connexion between the verb and the 
 suffix which expresses its object (@mdup, he hilled 
 him) is not so strict as that between the noun 
 and its suffix, (423, my word.) In the former 
 case it is regarded, more than in the latter, as a 
 separate idea, and may even be expressed by a 
 separate word, as jmp and ink Sop, he hilled him. 
 Hence verbal suffixes, a part of them at least, 
 are longer (comp. e.g. ») with —) than the 
 suffixes of nouns, (see no. 2.) They have, 
 moreover, a greater variety of forms. Regard 
 is paid to the tense and form of the verb to 
 which the suffix is attached. Thus for almost 
 every person are found three distinct forms; 
 viz. one beginning with the consonant, (>, 37, 
 2); a second, ‘with the connective vowel A, 
 C}—-, 1); and a third, with the connective 
 vowel £, (3—, 1—). See § 60, 2. 
 
 7 and 4 are contractions of w— (§ 33, 
 Rem. 8), and belong to the second class. 
 Only 02 and }3 have no full connective vowel, 
 but take a vocal Sheva before them, (§ 33, 
 Rem. 6.) 
 
 2. Still more stability is given to the suffix 
 when, instead of a connective vowel, is inserted 
 a connective syllable >—, >— (commonly called 
 Nun epenthetic.) 'This oceurs only in the future 
 and in pause; e.g. 72, he will bless; wm372), 
 he will bless him, Ps. 72:15; 72732), he will 
 honour me, Ps. 50:23. This 3 is for the most 
 part incorporated with the suffix; hence the 
 forms given in the table under B. Adverbs 
 also take these forms in the two cases men- 
 tioned § 36, 2. 
 
 Suffixes with epenthetic Nun. 
 1 pers. 3—, %2— for »—, —. 
 2 pers. J— for 7}—. 
 3 pers. w—, Mm for 1—, m2. 
 
 1 pers. plur. 2— for 1}—. 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 || 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 seal 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 9), wD, with grave suffixes 03] Di» 
 DIpoo; in some Seghol was adopted instead of 
 Tseri; hence ¥/D1D, 1|’D1. In three forms 
 the pointing has for its basis the original ter- 
 mination —; as yo from |’, Tow from 
 J]. (the helping vowel Hhireq assumed ac- 
 cording to § 28, 4), ‘D1D from —) DID su-sdy-i. 
 
 Rem. 1. The forms with Nun written fully 
 are rare, merely poetical, (Jer. 5: 22. 22: 24,) 
 and in the 3 fem. sing. and 1 plur. do not 
 occur at all. The contracted forms are pretty 
 frequent, especially in pause. 
 
 It may be doubted whether this Vun was 
 
 
 
 
 
 actually inserted, or was rather an appendage 
 of the future, like the Arabic future with 
 Nun annexed, § 48, 2. In favour of the 
 former it may be urged, that the use of such 
 helping consonants is not unfrequent in the 
 kindred languages. In Chaldee, besides un, 
 a moveable Yodh is thrown in; in Samaritan 3 
 is added to the preter, and in similar cases a 
 n also is inserted. 
 
 2. Unfrequent forms: 1 pers. »»— for —, 
 1 Kgs, 2:24 in the Kethibh.—2 pers. m. 73, 
 1 Kgs. 18:44, ma—, Prov. 2:11; fem. %, 
 »—., Ps. 137: 6, and often in the later Psalms. 
 (J contrary to rule is attached to the preet. 
 Judg. 4:20.) —1 plur. w—, Ps. 85:7. t= 
 occurs once in prose, Ex. 23:31, instead of 
 it w, Ex. 15:5, (as in Adthiopic.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. For the manner of attaching these suffixes 
 to the verb, and the consequent changes in the 
 latter, see §$ 60—63. 
 
 § 35. 
 
 NOMINAL SUFFIXES, OR POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 59, 60.) 
 
 1. Suffizes to Nouns in the Singular, (see 
 table, § 33, AA.) The nominal suffix is, as 
 has been remarked, the genitive of the pronoun. 
 The mode of expressing the possessive pronoun 
 is therefore perfectly analogous to the Lat. 
 verbum ejus, verbum eorum; but in Hebrew this 
 analogy is carried through afl the persons. 
 
 In the 1 pers. —— from »x, notwithstanding 
 the original form is so much abbreviated, its 
 most essential part remains. See § 33, 1, 
 note. 
 
 2. Suffixes for the Dual and Plural. 
 in the dual and plural, when they are to receive 
 suffixes, naturally take the form of the construct 
 state and end (§ 87, 2) in — (~). This 
 termination is blended with the suffix, and hence 
 arise the forms of suffixes to plural nouns, ex- 
 hibited in the table under BB. In most forms 
 the ending -— is retained without change, as 
 
 Nouns 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‘— was contracted from ‘— the longer 
 form; the latter was therefore retained in 
 connexion with the light suffixes, while, with 
 
 the grave, the former was preferred. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 I. On Suffixes to Nouns in the Singular. 
 
 1. Unfrequent forms. Sing. 2 pers. m. 
 m; e.g. 7289, thy hand, Ps. 139:5; fem. 
 Tw» Ez. 5:12; y=, Ps. 103:4. — 83 pers. 
 m—, Ex. 22:4, 26, where the Qeri has a 
 correction. The same form occurs without 
 correction Jer. 2:21. Ez. 20:40. 
 
 Plur. 1 pers. 1x (like the verbal suff. for 
 the preter), Job 22:20. Ruth 3:2. — 2 pers, 
 39, Ezek. 23:48, 49.— 3 pers. m. nn, 
 2 Sam. 23:6, for o— (hence by contraction 
 the common form o—); fem. n=, 1 Kgs. 
 72373 m—, Gen. 41:21; m—, Ruth 1:19, 
 generally in pause ; yr also occurs, (Isa. 3:17.) 
 
 2. — and m— are the suffixes usually 
 attached to nouns ending in n—; e.g. 1 
 (from AN), my (from my); with other 
 nouns they are seldom used, as 7"), Gen. 
 sb? 
 
 II. On Suffixes to Plural Nouns. 
 
 3. The » which distinguishes these suffixes, 
 is occasionally omitted in most of the persons ; 
 e.g. ay for sIy, Ex. 33:13, sh for wh, 
 Job 42:10, omy), Gen. 1:21. This is most 
 frequent in the suffixes of the 3 pers. m. sing., 
 which is often written 1—, but is almost al- 
 ways changed to y— in the Qeri; e.g. qn, 
 his arrows, Ps, 58 : 8, Qeri yun. 
 
 4. Unfrequent forms. Sing. 2 pers. fem. 
 po Eccles. 10:17; y—, Ps. 103: 3, 4, 5,— 
 3m. ™m (a strictly Chaldee form), Ps. 116: 12. 
 —3 fem. wp, Ez. 41:15.+-Plur. fem. m>—, 
 Ez. 13:20; moir—, 40:16; mp 1:11. 
 
 5. The poetic form im (Deut. 32:27), 
 according to many grammarians, sometimes 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 for me. 
 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 stands improperly for the sing. y—; but in 
 the alleged examples, Job 20:23, (comp. v. 5.) 
 22:2. 27:23 (comp. v. 13), it refers to col- 
 lective nouns. In Ps. 11:7, it is a pluralis 
 majestatis referring to Jehovah, (§ 106, 2.) 
 
 6. For the manner in which these suffixes are 
 appended to the noun see § 88; and for the 
 changes which the noun suffers in con- 
 sequence see §§ 89, 90, 92. 
 
 § 36. 
 
 SUFFIXES TO PARTICLES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 62.) 
 
 1. Prepositions, which, however much ab- 
 breviated, were all originally nouns, take uni- 
 versally the nominal suffixes, (pronomina pos- 
 sessiva.) Hence ‘mx, with me (properly vicinia 
 med), like med causd, for my sake, instead of 
 If they are properly plural nouns, as 
 are many prepositions of place, they take the 
 suffixes belonging to the plural, as “nx, behind 
 or after me, (properly in the spaces after me ;) 
 yarn, under him, (in the places which are under 
 him.) 
 
 For full paradigms of prepositions with 
 suffixes see § 100. 
 
 The suffixes of numerals (§ 95) are also 
 possessive pronouns, though we construct 
 them as nominatives, as n2mwi, your triad, 
 for ye three ; of the word % also, as 0%, their 
 whole, for they all. 
 
 2. As the suffix of the verb designates the 
 accusative, so does that of the interjection 727, 
 
 see! which has the force of a verb, as °37, 
 
 behold me! 3333, behold him! Of course it takes 
 the verbal suffixes, as do also the adverbs which 
 require the verb of existence to be supplied 
 
 between the adverb and the pronoun; e.g. x, 
 
 where (is) he? 7H: [wz prop. subst.—being, Td 
 sivat, see Lex.], thou art; IN, he (is) not; 
 
 mt, he (is) yet. The suffix is here the nomina- 
 
 tive and subject, and the language has, in ac- 
 cordance with a just perception of the relation 
 of these cases, expressed the nominative by the 
 same form as the accusative. To these adverbs 
 belongs also 3, as; hence 02, as I. 
 
 Verbal suffixes are attached, though but 
 seldom, to prepositions, as ‘nm, 2 Sam. 
 22:37. 40:48 (for which Ps, 18:37. 40: 48, 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‘nna), mapa, Gen, 2:21, and »27y3, Psalm 
 139: 11, (in this case, that it may correspond 
 in sound with vy). This is not without 
 reason; the suffix, in these cases, is actually 
 an accusative, and may be considered as an- 
 swering to the question where 2 We may there- 
 fore translate ‘29M, under me; manrn, in her 
 place, instead of her ; *x12.3, about me, (aceus. of 
 place, § 116, 1.) 
 
 MRT e 
 
 OTHER PRONOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 63.) 
 
 1. Demonstratives. Sing. mas. 71," fem. nxt 
 (43, 73), com. 3 (found only in poetry), this. 
 
 Plur. com. 5x, more frequently 73x, these. 
 
 Rem. 1. The feminine form is a contraction 
 of nxt from Nt = ris, it (See § 79, 1, 0.) Origin- 
 ally the two latter forms were also masculine, 
 (as 3 is still common;) for 13, see Hos. 7:16; 
 m, Eccles. 2:2. Judg. 18:4, (as a neuter.) 
 
 bs and my (related to the article 5n, which 
 in Phenician and Arabic is 5x) form, not 
 grammatically, but by usage, the plural of m3. 
 The first form, without m—, is not found out 
 of the Pentateuch, except in 1 Chron, 20:8. 
 
 2. This pronoun takes the article (737, 9x71) 
 like the adjective, and under the same rule, 
 § 109, 2. In connexion with the article are 
 found peculiar forms, as 337 (respecting 
 which see § 32, Rem. 1), Gen. 24:65. 37: 19, 
 
 (Arab. cowl, mx, used as a relative;) mn, 
 
 Jem. Ezek. 36:35, and abbreviated 17 com- 
 monly mase. Judg. 6: 20. 1 Sam. 14:1. 17:26; 
 fem. 2 Kings 4; 25. 
 
 3. ny; “ny was also originally a demonstrative 
 pronoun, but has lost its signification as such. 
 With suffixes it takes the forms ‘hk; nk; 
 ink, TInk; Nk; DIY; Onk, pk (seldom ony). 
 Tn its fundamental signification it answers, for 
 the most part, to the Greek adtréc, (comp. 
 Sanser. état, this.) It occurs, however, very 
 
 * In most languages demonstratives begin with d 
 (hence called the, demonstrative sound), which some- 
 times, however, passes over into a sibilant or an aspira- 
 tion. Hence in Aramean N, J], JI, ¢his, masc., this, 
 fem.; Arab. dsu, dsi, dsa; Sanscr. sas, sa, tad; Goth. 
 sa, so, that; Germ. da, der, die, das, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 [eee aan eee 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 seldom in this strong and independent signifi- 
 cation, (Ezek. 43:7. 47:17, 18, 19. comp. 
 v. 20, where ny stands for m, nxi). In com- 
 mon usage, its signification is so feeble that it 
 can stand only in connexion with a noun or 
 pronoun, and even here its emphatic use (ink, 
 is ipse, he himself; x1I-ny, tpse ursus) is not 
 frequent, though several passages* clearly ex- 
 hibit it. Hos. 10: 6, itself (ink, viz. the calf) 
 shall be carried to Assyria. Haggai 2:17, ye 
 yourselves (O2mN) return not to me. 1 Sam. 
 17 : 34, there came a lion, yAI-NN}, obY abT~ TH 
 GoxTw, cum tpso urso—and a bear too; comp. 
 airy ody dédppryyt, IL 9, 194, and Passow’s 
 Lex. airéc I. 6—[Hermann de pronom. airoc 
 III] Jos. 22:17. Dan. 9:13. Jer. 38:16. 
 2 Kings 6:5.  23I-nx, properly the self-same 
 thing, gradually became a somewhat longer 
 unemphatic expression for this thing. In this 
 sense, however, it is comparatively unfrequent, 
 and in the older writers occurs as a nomi- 
 native, as 2 Sam. 11:25, let not this thing, 
 my TI-ny, displease thee. Gen. 4:18. 17:5. 
 21:5. 46:20. Ex. 10:8, But predominant 
 usage places it before the definite accusative, 
 of which it may be regarded as the sign. 
 Its demonstrative power is here almost as 
 wholly lost as is that of airéc in the oblique 
 cases avrov, abr, adroy ; tpsi,ipsum; and the 
 Germ. desselben, demselben, denselben. Thus 
 the Hebrew ovowin-ny, properly adroy roy 
 ovoavéy (comp. ab’riy Xpvonida, Il. 1, 143), 
 him, the heavens, is no stronger than roy 
 See § 115, 1. 
 
 2. The relative pronoun for both genders and 
 numbers is Wx who, which. For this in the 
 later writers, and once in the book of Judges, 
 appears the form “s (with » cast away and 
 assimilated, § 19, 2, 3); less frequently -¥, 
 Cant. 1:7, and even ¥, Eccles. 2 : 22. 3: 18. 
 
 9 also was originally a relative pronoun, 
 though this use of it is extremely rare.. See 
 Gen. 3:19. 4:25. Isa. 54:6. 57:20. It is 
 commonly a conjunction, that, nearly related 
 
 ovpaver. 
 
 * These passages are for the most part found in the 
 later writers, who appear, however, to have affected the 
 ancient use of the word, just as the Rabbins employ x, 
 and the Syrians the corresponding 7m, yoth, for self. 
 
 + Respecting the relation of ON to the demonstrative 
 and relative pronouns of other languages, see Lex. Heb. 
 Lat. art. WX, note. 
 
 persons ;) 1, what? (of things.) 
 
 the most important part of speech, inasmuch as 
 it contains the root (radix) of most of the others 
 (§ 30), and its various modifications are, to a 
 great extent, the basis of the other forms in 
 the language. 
 
 
 
 Like nouns, they may be divided, in respect to 
 their origin, into three classes :— 
 
 to qui, (Pers. ki.) In general, the demon- 
 strative hi, t,—the relatives ™, °2, qui, Pers. 
 
 ues > 5% 59), —the interrogative and inde- 
 finite ”, Ti, were, without doubt, originally 
 correlatives. 
 
 3. The interrogative pronoun is , who? (of 
 
 | 
 Out of pause mp) seldom has Qamets, except 
 before x and 4, as Ons im, what are ye? m2 
 Doms, what see ye? seldom before 7, as in Josh. 
 4:6,21. On the contrary, — (a) Before Maq- 
 qeph followed by Daghesh forte conjunctive, 
 it is written -rm, as Pym, quid tibi? orn, 
 quid vobis? Isa. 3:15; ny, what is that? Ex. 
 4:2. (b) Before the hard gutturals 7, n, », 
 it also takes Pattahh, with a Daghesh forte 
 implied in the following guttural, (§ 22, 1;) 
 e.g. wom, Numb. 13:18. (c) Before a gut- 
 tural with Qamets, it takes Seghol (§ 27, 
 Rem. 2, 6), as mipy mp. Less frequently it 
 takes Seghol before letters which are not gut- 
 turals, but only when it is remote from the 
 tone of the sentence, as Bb) Sp m9, what noise, 
 &e. 1 Sam. 4:6. 2 Kings1:7. It takes this 
 vowel also in the forms m3, 195, m2. For 
 more particular statements see Lex. Heb. Lat., 
 
 
 
 
 
 art. m2, note. 
 
 CHAP. II.— THE VERB. 
 
 § 38. 
 GENERAL VIEW. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 65.) 
 
 1. The verb is, in the Hebrew, unquestionably 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. All verbs, however, are not stem-words. 
 
 a) Primitives; e. g. 722, to reign; 302, to sit. 
 b) Verbal Derivatives, derived from other verbs 
 —e. g. py, to justify, proxT, to justify one’s self, 
 from pr, to be just—commonly called con- 
 jugations, (§ 40.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 c) Denominatives, or those derived from nouns ; 
 e. g. bm, fo rove with tents, 7x, to pitch a tent, 
 from 578, a tent; ws, to root out, and wy, 
 to take root, from wy, a root. These appear 
 to be of later origin than the two preceding 
 classes, which they imitate in their forms. 
 
 The noun in this case may be either primi- 
 tive or derivative; e.g. 323, to be white, hence 
 ma), a brick (from the colour of the clay), 
 and hence again }23, to make bricks; from 
 m3, to increase greatly, 13, a fish, and hence 
 again, 397, to fish. 
 
 A peculiar kind of secondary verbs, and 
 at least of rather late formation in the lan- 
 guage (hence frequent in the later dialects), 
 are those denominatives, one of whose con- 
 sonants, originally a servile, has become a 
 radical; e.g. ma, to rest, to set one’s self down; 
 hence the noun nm}, @ setting down, demissio; 
 hence again nn3, to descend: nm¥, grave, de- 
 struction (from tm), hence nim, to destroy. 
 
 § 39. 
 
 GROUND-FORMS OF THE VERB; CONJUGATIONS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 53, 66, 67.) 
 
 1. The third person of the Preeter is generally 
 regarded as the stem-form of the verb, as 5x7, 
 to hill.* From this are derived the other persons 
 of the Preter and the Participle. Another, 
 more simple still, is the Infinitive, with which 
 the Imperative generally agrees in form, and 
 from which is derived the Future ; Sip, 733. 
 
 The first ground-form, of two syllables, 
 (Arab. gatal, qatel, qatol,) may be called the 
 concrete ; and the second, which is generally 
 monosyllabic, (Arab. gatl, getl, gotl,) the ab- 
 stract. The same analogy prevails in the 
 division of nouns into abstract and concrete. 
 
 In some classes of verbs the full stem ap- 
 pears only in the infinitive; e.g. a, of which 
 the 3rd pers, Preet. is 20. 
 
 2. From this stem are formed, according to 
 an unvarying analogy in all verbs, the verba 
 derivata (conjugations), each distinguished by 
 a specific change in the form of the stem, with 
 a corresponding definite change in its signifi- 
 cation, (intensive, frequentative, causative, pas- 
 sive, reflexive, reciprocal, &c.;) e.g. 15, to 
 
 of brevity. 
 
 | * Properly, he killed; the infinitive is used for the sake 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 learn, "19, to cause to learn, to teach; 223, to 
 lie, yin, to cause to lie, to lay; det, to ash, 
 Sada, to ask for one’s self, sibi petiit, yxd (inten- 
 sive), to beg. 
 
 In other languages forms thus related to each 
 other are regarded as independent words; e. g. 
 to fall, to fell; jactre, to throw, jacére, to lie; 
 yevvaw, to bear, yivopat, to be born. But in 
 Hebrew, where these formations are beyond 
 comparison more regular than in any other 
 language, they are called, since the time of 
 Reuchlin, conjugations (Hebr. 0»3}3, more cor- 
 rectly species, modifications) of the ground-form, 
 and, both in the grammar and the lexicon, are 
 always treated of in connexion, as parts of the 
 same verb. 
 
 3. The changes of the ground-form consist 
 partly in varying its vowels, or doubling one 
 or more of its letters, (mop ; rap, 7B; Dip, MID; 
 drop, ‘noon; comp. to lie, to lay; to fall, to fell ;) 
 partly in the addition of formative letters or 
 syllables, Grp, »o7; comp. to speak, to bespeak ; 
 to count, to recount; bid, forbid ;) sometimes in 
 both united, as Sepnq. 
 
 In the cognate dialects this is effected less 
 by the change of vowels than by the addition 
 of formative syllables. In Aramean, for in- 
 stance, all the passives are formed by the 
 prefix syllable ny, my; in Hebrew, as in 
 Arabic, by the more obscure vowels. 
 
 4, Grammarians differ in the number and 
 arrangement of these conjugations. The com- 
 mon practice, however, of giving to them still the 
 old technical designations prevents any error. 
 The ground-form is called Kal, (5p, i.e. light, 
 because it has no formative additions;) the 
 others derive their names from the paradigm 
 used by the oldest Jewish grammarians, yp, to 
 do.* Several of them have passives which dis- 
 tinguish themselves from their actives by the 
 
 * This verb, on account of the guttural which it con- 
 tains, is unsuitable for a paradigm, and was accordingly 
 exchanged for 7B, which has this advantage, that all its 
 conjugations are actually in use. There is, however, 
 some indistinctness in the [European] pronunciation of 
 some of its forms, as Dye, ONE. The paradigm TOR, 
 in common use since the time of Danz, obviates this 
 inconvenience, and is especially adapted to the harmonic 
 treatment of the Semitish languages, inasmuch as it is 
 found with a slight change (Arab. 5np) in all of them. 
 In Hebrew, however, it has only the forms of Kal, which 
 are not frequent, and occur only in poetry. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 obscure vowels. 
 gations (including Kal) are the five following ; 
 but few verbs however exhibit them all :— 
 
 Act. Pass. 
 1. Kal - oop, fohidl - 
 . Niphal - 0p, to be killed 
 3..Biél, = 
 
 The most common conju- 
 
 - (wanting.) 
 
 to 
 
 - (wanting.) 
 Swap, to kill many, to 
 massacre = 
 4, Hiphil - Son, to cause to hill. Hophal, opr. 
 Hothpaal, 
 OPN. 
 
 |Past, TER. 
 
 or 
 
 . Hithpaél, napm, to hill one’s self. | 
 
 There are several other less frequent conju- 
 gations, of which some, however, are more 
 common than these in the kindred languages, 
 and in the irregular verb in Hebrew take the 
 place of the usual conjugations, (§ 54.) 
 
 
 
 In Arabic there is a greater variety of 
 forms, and the series of derived conjugations, 
 with their mutual relation, though not perfect, 
 exhibits more regularity than in Hebrew. 
 Arranged after the Arabic manner, the He- 
 brew conjugations would stand thus :—1. Kal. 
 2. Piéland Pual. 3. Poél and Poal, (§ 54, 1.) 
 4. Hiphil and Hophal. 5. Hithpaél and 
 Hothpaal. 6. Hithpoél, (§ 54.) 7. Niphal. 
 8. Wanting in Hebrew. 9. Pilel. The most 
 appropriate division is into three classes :— 
 (1) The intensive Piél, with the analogous 
 forms derived from it. (2) The causative 
 Hiphil, and its analogous forms, Shaphel, 
 Tiphel. (8) The passive and reflexive 
 Niphal. 
 
 
 
 § 40. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 76, 77.) 
 
 1. The Hebrew verb is indebted for whatever 
 copiousness it exhibits to these conjugations or 
 derivative verbs. 
 very poor, having only the Prater and Future 
 tenses, an Imperative, an Infinitive (with two 
 forms), and a Participle. All other relations 
 of time, absolute and relative, must be expressed 
 by these, either alone (hence the diversity in 
 the uses of the same form, § 123, &c.) or in 
 connexion with other words, as taught in the 
 Syntax. The subjunctive and optative are some- 
 times indicated by peculiar forms of the future, 
 (§ 48.) 
 
 In the Germanic languages also there are 
 
 In moods and tenses it is 
 
 
 
 46 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, | 
 
 
 
 distinct forms for only two tenses, (the pre- 
 sent and imperfect.) In the formation of all 
 the others, auxiliary verbs are employed. 
 
 2. In respect to their relation to one another, 
 the forms of each conjugation may be embraced 
 in two classes, (§ 39,1.) The third person of 
 the Preeter is the ground-form of one of these 
 classes, which embraces, however, only the re- 
 maining forms of the Preeter, and in most con- 
 jugations the Participle; the Imperative is the 
 ground-form of the other, which embraces the 
 Infinitive (generally of the same form with the 
 Imperative), the Future, and often the Parti- 
 ciple; e. g.— 
 
 Kal, Pret. xy - Part. xy. 
 Niph.— ‘mop - Part. Sop. 
 Imp. § Inf. ‘on - Fut. Sop. 
 
 Piél, Imp. & Inf. sp - Fut. ap, Part. sepn. 
 
 8. In the inflexion of the Pret. and Fut. by 
 persons, the Hebrew differs from the Western 
 languages, having in most cases distinct forms 
 for both genders, as in the personal pronoun. 
 (Comp. §§ 44, 1. 47, 2.) 
 
 § 41. 
 
 In the formation of the regular and the zrre- 
 gular verbs there is the same general analogy. 
 The irregular verbs have their origin,—(a) in 
 the falling away of one of their stem-letters, by 
 contraction, or other changes (§ 19) to which 
 consonants are subject, (verbum imperfectum,*) 
 e.g. 33D, wW2; (b) in the quiescence, com- 
 mutation, or falling away, of a feeble letter, 
 when the verb has such a letter for one of its 
 radicals, (verba quiescentia, feeble verbs;) e. g. 
 2, op, &c. The peculiarities of verbs with 
 gutturals respect only their vowels. (§ 22.) 
 
 The letters of the old paradigm ‘yp are 
 used in naming the letters of the stem, » de- 
 signating the first, y the second, and 5 the 
 third. Hence the expressions, verb &> for a 
 verb whose first radical is 8 (prime radicalis 
 x); verb > for one whose third radical is 7 
 (tertie radicalis 7); verb Sv (» doubled) for 
 one whose second and third radicals are the 
 same, (medie@ radicalis geminate.) 
 
 * The term defective, by which some designate this 
 class, we apply to those whose forms are not all in use, 
 (§ 77.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ae 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 42. 
 THE REGULAR VERB. 
 
 As the rules for the formation of the regular 
 verb apply, with only occasional modifications, 
 to all the irregular verbs, it will be most con- 
 venient, and will also exhibit the subject in the 
 most striking light to the learner, to present, 
 while treating of the former, whatever belongs 
 to the general analogy of the verb. 
 
 Paradigm A exhibits a complete view of the 
 usual conjugations, with their inflexions, in their 
 most general form. Full explanations are given 
 in the following sections. 
 
 A. The Ground-form, or Kal. 
 
 § 43. 
 
 FORM AND SIGNIFICATION. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 66.) 
 
 1. The common form of the 3rd person Pret. 
 in the ground-form is 5np, especially in transi- 
 tive verbs. There is also a form with final EZ, 
 (Tseri pure,) and another with final O, (Hholem 
 pure;) the two latter are usually found in in- 
 transitive verbs; e. g. 132, to be heavy, yop, to be 
 small. For the sake of brevity, these are called, 
 after the example of the Arabic grammarians, 
 verbs middle A, &c., verba med. (medie radicalis) 
 A, med. E, med. O. Sometimes both forms 
 exist together, as 197, and 2p, to approach. 
 
 A verb middle E will be found in the pa- 
 radigm. The example selected shews at the 
 same time the effect of inflexion on Daghesh 
 lene in the middle stem-letter. 
 
 This intransitive 5yp is related to the pas- 
 sive mp, as Sop is to ‘mp, only it has a 
 weaker form. 
 
 ‘The vowel of the second syllable is the 
 principal vowel; the pure Qamets in the first 
 syllable has less strength, and in Aramean 
 wholly falls away, as op, ‘9p. 
 
 2. The signification of Kal, as is clear from 
 these examples, may be either transitive or in- 
 transitive. Sometimes both are united in the 
 same word, as in the English verbs, to melt, to 
 tire; e. g. 10, to return and to bring back. 
 
 Examples of denominatives in Kal: yan, to 
 cover with pitch, from or, pitch; m2, to salt, 
 from nn, salt, 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 § 44. 
 PRZTER OF KAL AND ITS INFLEXION, 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 78, 91.) 
 
 1, The inflexion of the Preter in respect to 
 number, person, and gender, is effected by the 
 addition of fragments of the personal pronouns 
 (sufformatives) to the end of the ground-form. 
 In explaining this connexion, we may treat the 
 ground-form as a participle, or a verbal adjec- 
 tive * thus, n-rop, Ailling-thou, or hiller-thou, (a 
 killer art thou ;) on-xy, fearing-ye; for mn dep, 
 one xy. In the second person this is readily 
 seen as well as in wp for wx nop. As the 
 origin of ‘Ayd) we must assume an old form of 
 the first person f'mx, ‘hx, analogous to Amy. 
 In the third person, n— is a designation of the 
 feminine, (as in the noun § 79, 1,) and 3 (p) of 
 the plural. 
 
 In Greek the inflexion by persons origin- 
 ated in the same manner, as is shewn by the 
 terminations w, pu, (from éyo, ei, T,) ¢ (from 
 ov), the Dorie ending pec, (from dppec, we ;) 
 but the traces of its origin are more obliter- 
 ated than in Hebrew. This is true also of 
 inflexion in the later Semitish languages; 
 e.g. 1 pers. Arab. gataltu, Syr. getleth, where 
 the characteristic 7 is wholly lost. 
 
 2. In respect to vowel changes, the analogy 
 of the 3 fem. sing. nop is followed by the 3 mas. 
 plur. ‘0p, and that of the 2 mas. sing. nop by 
 all the forms of the first and second persons. 
 Only onmzap, jA7D7, have the tone on the ultimate, 
 and in consequence, Sheva under the first 
 radical. 
 
 Rem. 1. Verbs middle £, in their inflexion, 
 generally lose the E sound, which passes over 
 into (-) as the paradigm shews. The original 
 E appears only — (qa) as a general rule, in 
 pause, i. e. when the stress of voice falls upon 
 
 * On the intimate connexion between the Przeter and 
 the verbal adjective, see what has been already said 
 §39,1. They often have the same form, as xD, full, 
 or he is full; OR» small, or he is small. Comp. also 
 § 47,1, note. Of the 3rd Pret. with a participial signi- 
 fication, used in connexion with the personal pronoun 
 for the finite verb, we have an example (at least as the 
 pointing now stands) in the difficult phrase oN DR, 
 Ps. 6:3, for AION, I consume away. 
 
 ft Others consider the Tav as transferred from the 
 second person in order to strengthen the »— of the first, 
 and to distinguish the sufformative from the suffix. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ee 
 
48 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 it, as par, Job 29:10. comp. 2 Sam. 1: 23. 
 Job 41:15. (6) In forms which have the 
 tone on the ultimate, i. e. when the word is 
 much shortened. In this case, instead of (—) 
 either (—) or (—) is adopted as being shorter, 
 (§ 27, Rem. 2, 3,) as ona, 1 Sam. 12:13, 
 oma, Deut. 4:1, 22. So before suffixes, as 
 YAN, 1 Sam. 1:20. 
 
 In verbs middle O, the Hholem is retained 
 in inflexion, as m 31; but when the tone is 
 thrown forward, Hholem becomes Qamets- 
 Hhatuph, as AyD? } (see Rem. 3), Ex. 18: 23. 
 
 2. Unfrequent forms.* Sing. 3 fem. in n— 
 (as in Arab. Chald. Syr.); e.g. nx, Deut. 
 82:86. Before suffixes this is the prevailing 
 form, § 61, 2.— 2 mas. nm (the full form) for 
 mh, as mp2, Mal. 2:14. comp. Gen. 3:12. It 
 often occurs. —2 fem. sometimes has still a 
 Yodh at the end, as *n29n, Jer. 31: 21, (accord- 
 
 ing to one form of the pronoun ‘my, § 33, 
 Rem. 4,) especially in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 
 With this is connected the form ‘mop before 
 suffixes, (§ 61, 2.)—1 com. sometimes with- 
 out Yodh, as mynp, Ps. 140: 13. Job 42:2. 
 1 Kings 8:48. This however is found only in 
 Kethibh; the Qeri substitutes the full form. 
 — Plur. 2 fem. mn, Amos 4:3. — 8 com. 
 seldom with 3, as pry, Deut. 8 : 3,16, or with 
 a superfluous 8 (as in Arab.), as sn, Jos, 
 10:24. In the Future the form with p is 
 more frequent, and in Syr. and Chald. is the 
 prevailing one, as also in Arab. (except in the 
 Future apoc. and antith.) where it ends in 
 wma. A comparison of the Arabic plural 
 ending for the noun (una), and of the Chaldee 
 pr», ye, from mx, thou, renders it probable that 
 this Nun belonged to the original Preeter and 
 Future 3 pers. plur. of which those in common 
 use are truncated forms. 
 
 3. In connexion with the sufformatives n, 
 ‘”, 2, the tone is on the penult, and the word 
 is Milél; with the other sufformatives it is 
 Milra, (§ 15,2.) The place of the tone is 
 
 stored, as mR, WMP, N20. (6) By Vav. 
 * Almost all these forms, which in Hebrew are un- 
 frequent, are the usual ones in the kindred dialects, and 
 
 may, with a proper understanding of the terms, be called 
 Chaldaisms, Syriasms, and Arabisms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 conversive of the Prater. This is properly a 
 mere Vav copulative; but when it connects a 
 Preeter with a Future or Imperative, it often 
 gives to the former the signification of the 
 Future, (Syntax, § 124, 6.) In this case, if 
 the tone rested on the penult, it was transferred 
 by the punctators to the ultimate; e. g. m3, 
 I have broken in pieces, ANI, and I will break 
 in pteces, Ezek, 30:22. comp. Gen. 34:30. 
 Exodus 26:33. This sometimes occasions a 
 change of vowels, (§ 57, Rem. 4.) Whether 
 this change of accentuation belonged to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 living language, or was introduced by the 
 punctators, can no longer be determined. 
 
 § 45. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 79, 91.) 
 
 1. The second ground-form of each conjuga- 
 tion is the Infinitive in its shorter form, (Injfini- 
 tive construct, in Kal Sop). This is the most’ 
 usual form of the Infinitive, and is employed not 
 merely when a genitive follows, but also, neces- 
 sarily, when a preposition is prefixed, (sinp, 
 Sopa). The longer form (Infinitive absolute, in 
 Kal *ip) is used when the action of the verb is 
 presented by itself, without direct connexion 
 with other words. It is most frequently em- 
 ployed when the Infinitive is added to the finite 
 verb for the sake of emphasis. (§ 128.) The 
 first is the original Infinitive, from which the 
 second was subsequently formed. The first has 
 more of the character of a verbal noun, the 
 second is treated rather as a verb; e.g. 22 50, 
 Is, 22:13, means to slay cattle; but p37 47 
 would mean the slaying of cattle. 
 
 2. Between mp and Sinp, in Kal, there is much 
 the same relation* as between the absolute and 
 the construct states of nouns of this form, (see 
 § 90, Paradigm III. ;) with this difference, how- 
 ever, that the Infinitive absolute has Hholem 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * This relation is certainly similar to that which exists — 
 between the absolute and construct states in the noun. 
 (§ 87.) There is a difference, however, both in form and 
 use. Of the two Infinitives, the absolute is indeed the 
 longer form; but their vowels are often wholly different, 
 as in Piel 2p, S17, and the absolute is made by 
 lengthening the construct, but the latter is not, as is 
 the case with nouns, a regularly shortened form of the 
 absolute. The use of the Infin. constr. is by no means 
 limited to the case when it is followed by a genitive. 
 See Text 1. 
 
 
 
 shifted — (a) in several persons by the Pause, 
 (§ 29, 4;) at the same time the vowel of the 
 second syllable, if it had fallen away, is re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PETC AS SESS RS PS Se : 
 — peer omen enrages 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 impure, the Infinitive construct Hholem pure 
 (hence with Su/f. *x22), while the noun has its 
 final vowel impure in both states. 
 
 Besides biap the Infin. constr. has the fol- 
 lowing unusual forms s—(a) ‘mp; ¢g. 200, 
 Gen. 34:7. (6) nmp and nymp, myEp (fe- 
 minine forms from Sop and 4p), as AN, 
 my, Ex. 36:2, nyon, Ezek. 16:5. As a 
 verbal noun the Infin. may take the feminine 
 ending. (c) 7272, as in Chaldee; e.g. xo, 
 Numb. 10: 2. 
 
 These unfrequent forms are in more com- 
 mon use as verbal nouns. § 83, nos. 10, 11, 14. 
 
 § 46. 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 80, 91.) 
 
 1. The Imperative forms the transition from 
 the Infinitive to the finite verb. It is of the same 
 form with the Jnfin. constr.,* but has, by in- 
 flexion, a Feminine and a Plural. For the 
 third person it has no form, and in the Passive 
 conjugations, from the nature of the case, it very 
 seldom occurs.t| The Future is often used to 
 express command, (§§ 125, 3, c. 126, 2, a, 6.) 
 
 2. Its inflexion is analogous to that of the 
 Future, and will be understood from the expla- 
 nations given in No. 2 of the following section. 
 Like the Future, the Imperative has a prolonged 
 and a shortened form, (§ 48, 6.) 
 
 Rem. 1. Besides the form ‘np, there is 
 another with Pattahh, (as in the IJnfin. and 
 Fut. ;) e.g. 190, 2 Sam. 13:5. 
 
 2. Less frequently Qamets-Hhatuph is found 
 in the first syllable, as wn, Ezek, 32:20. 
 2p, Judg. 9: 10. 
 
 3. In the form m7é7 the »— sometimes falls 
 away, and then a helping vowel is inserted, as 
 pos for myo, Gen. 4:23. Comp. pop for 
 my, Ex. 2:20. (Perhaps this is to be 
 classed with the abbreviated forms of the 
 Imperative, explained § 48, 6.) 
 
 * In Greek also a command is often expressed by the 
 Infinitive. Hesiod, Works and Days, 389, yuuvov oreipey, 
 qupvov 6¢ Bowrety ; comp. Virg. Georg. 1, 299, nudus ara, 
 sere nudus. Il. p’, 692. 
 
 + The only examples are in Hophal. Ezek. 32:19. 
 Jer. 49:8. On the use of the Imp. form for the third 
 person, see § 127, Rem. 2. 
 
 
 
 § 47. 
 THE FUTURE AND ITS INFLEXION. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 81, 91.) 
 
 1. Fragments of the Personal Pronoun are 
 employed in the inflexion of the Future as well 
 as of the Preter; but in the Future these frag- 
 ments are pre-fixed (preformativa) to the root,* 
 viz. the Infin. constr. (407). These formative 
 particles, inasmuch as they stand before the 
 verbal form, towards the end of which the tone 
 continually tends, are much more abbreviated 
 than in the Preter, so that in every case but 
 one consonant remains, and that without a vowel, 
 (9,8, 2). But as this is not always sufficient 
 to mark at the same time the distinction of 
 gender and of number, the defect is supplied by 
 additions at the end. The union of the prefor- 
 mative with the Infinitive form is effected in ac- 
 cordance with the general laws of the language ; 
 thus Sap becomes inp (§ 28, 1.) 
 
 2. The derivation and signification both of 
 the preformatives and sufformatives are still in 
 most cases perfectly clear. In the 1 pers. Soaps, 
 Plur. 5973, ¥ is an abbreviation of 3x, 2 of mx. 
 This person required no addition at the end. 
 In the 2 pers. sing. the n in inpn is from ny, 
 the — in “mpn is the sign of the feminine, as in 
 ‘my, thou, (feminine.) See § 33, Rem.4. In the 
 2 pers. plur. the 4 (jj) in x07 is the sign of the 
 Plural (§ 44, 1), and is here appropriated to the 
 masculine; 2 (j) in m7opm is the sign of the 
 Plural feminine (as in Chaldee }—), or borrowed 
 from rs, those (feminine), ee. The greatest 
 difficulty is found in the explanation of the third 
 person. The » in %op stands most probably 
 for ) (from sim), which has become », because 
 ) at the beginning of a word (Sip) was avoided 
 in Hebrew, (§ 68.) The nm in the feminines 
 Siopm, mbdpn, which are precisely the same as in 
 
 * The Hebrew therefore expressed the past act by the 
 form killer-I; the future by the form I-fo kill. These 
 expressions are remarkable, not only for the fact that 
 the action which is contemplated as past precedes the 
 pronoun, while that which is future follows it, but for 
 the use of the concrete or participial form for the Przeter. 
 He who has killed is already become one that kills, a 
 killer. The purpose to kill is better expressed by the 
 abstract form of the verb. 
 
 t+ This is also the proper gender of the Plural-syllable 
 fl, an. Itis true that in the Pret. the Hebrew employs 
 it for both genders, but in Syriac, it stands even in the 
 Preet. for the masculine alone, as mas. gétalin, fem. 
 qétalén ; so in Arabic, mas. gatalu, fem. qatalna. 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 | 50 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the second person, perhaps originated in 7 (from 
 wr), as it can be shewn that h (7 and x) at the 
 beginning of words has an affinity with s and ¢.* 
 
 3. In the course of inflexion the final vowel 
 is dropped in some forms, while in others it is 
 retained. In this respect the analogy of np is 
 followed by all the other forms which receive 
 no addition at the end, and that of *yapm by the 
 forms which have sufformatives beginning with 
 a vowel; with moe pm compare j mop i in the In- 
 perative. 
 
 Rem. 1. The final Hholem is pure, as in 
 the Infin. and Imper. Hence—(a) The ex- 
 amples in which it is written fully are very 
 rare, and are to be regarded as exceptions. 
 (5) Before Maqqgeph it becomes Qamets- 
 Hhatuph ; e. g. pw-anz, Josh. 8:32. (ce) It 
 falls away before the sufformatives »— and 3. 
 In the few instances in which it remains 
 before such sufformatives, the pointing be- 
 comes (after the Chaldee manner) 3, because 
 this is regarded as a shorter vowel, (§ 27, 
 Rem. 1;) e.g. maw, yish-piiti, Ex. 18 : 26. 
 
 2. This Hholem is confined, almost exclu- 
 sively, to verbs middle A, like bop. Intran- 
 sitive verbs (with middle E and O) take 
 Pattahh in the Future, as 72, to be great, Fut. 
 ban; yop, to be small, Fut. yoy. Sometimes 
 both forms exist together; the Fut. with O is 
 then transitive, and that with A intransitive ; 
 e.g. ep, he will cut off, will reap; wp, he 
 will be cut off, i.e. will be short. won, Fut. 
 O, to subdue; Fut. A, to be subdued, [express- 
 
 ing state or condition.] Ex. 17:13. Job 14:10. ° 
 
 More frequently both occur without any 
 difference in signification; e, g. Ju» and Jw, 
 he will bite. In the irregular verbs, Tseri is 
 also found in the final syllable, as qr for n>. 
 These three forms of the Future are called 
 Future O, Future A, Future E. 
 
 3. For the 3 plur. fem. mann is substituted 
 in three instances, to distinguish it from the 
 2 pers., the form mop (etymologically more 
 correct), as in Aramean and Arabic; e. g. 
 
 * Comp. POP with the variations of this form Tope, 
 Opn (§ 54, 5, 6), the forms of the demonstratives, the 
 verbs 378, IW, to braid, to weave, VN, IW, IM, to turn 
 back, My, Mn, to dwell, with many others, and nu- 
 merous examples in the western languages. At the 
 end of words this interchange is common; e. g. 1213, 
 NPI3 men. » before Suff. nyop. 
 
 my, they shall arise, Dan, 8:22; comp. 
 Gen. 30:38. 1 Sam. 6:12. In several in- 
 stances mbopn seems to have been used im- 
 properly for the singular; viz. for the 3 pers. 
 Ex. 1:10. Job 17:16. Is. 28:3. Judg. 5:26; 
 for the 2 pers. Obad. 13. (In the vulgar 
 Arabic, necul, properly we eat, is the common 
 form for IJ eat; so in the French patois, 
 j awons for jai.) In the Pentateuch |} occurs | 
 in place of 73, especially after Vav conversive, 
 (§ 48, 5;) eg. Ex. 1:18, 19. 15:20, as in 
 Arabic. A form still more abbreviated is 
 found in the Imp. (§ 46, Rem. 3.) Once 
 occurs (Ezek. 16:50) the anomalous form 
 mya with \— inserted, after the manner of 
 verbs $y and {y (S§ 66, 4. 71, 5.) 
 
 4. To forms ending in 3 or —— a } (Vun 
 paragogic) is often appended, most frequently 
 at the end of a period, where the vowel of the 
 second syllable is restored, as 37 Ex. 15:14, 
 prptn, Deut. 1:17. But it is not confined 
 to this position ; see e.g. Ps. 11:2, map pry; 
 comp. 4:3. Gen. 18:28, 29, 30, 31, 382. 
 Isa. 8:12. 1 Sam.9:13. But the preference 
 for this form at the close of a period is clearly 
 seen in Isa, 26:11. wir) wr pI? 3, they 
 saw not; (then) saw they and were ashamed. 
 This Nun is common in Aramzan and Arabic, 
 and perhaps was the original termination of 
 forms which have } final, (§ 44, Rem. 2;) 
 though certainly not of those which have final 
 .—, for this may very readily be derived from 
 nq, while there is no evidence in favour of 
 an old form pny for my, mx, thou (fem.), which 
 is contrary to analogy. On the signification 
 of the word it has no influence, and in this 
 respect it is to be carefully distinguished from 
 the changes mentioned in the following sec- 
 tion, Of the Fut. with x, wien, Jer. 10:5, is 
 the only example. 
 
 5. In Pause, the vowel of the second syl- 
 lable, if it had fallen away, is restored and takes 
 the tone, as *o7, 7. Comp. § 29, 4. 
 
 § 48. 
 PECULIAR CHANGES OF THE FUTURE AND 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 83—87.) 
 1. To the few appropriate forms for express- 
 ing the relations of Time and Mood in the 
 Hebrew and its kindred dialects, a small addi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion is made by changes in the form of the 
 Future, to which a certain signification is either 
 exclusively or principally appropriated. 
 
 2. These changes consist in lengthening and 
 shortening the common form of the Future. 
 Their principal effect (for it is in general the 
 same in both eases) is to give to the Future the 
 meaning of the Subjunctive. The lengthened 
 Future, however, occurs only in the first person, 
 (with some unimportant exceptions,) while its 
 shortened form is confined to the second and 
 third, with which distinction of persons is con- 
 nected some modification of meaning. These 
 forms, moreover, are found only in certain con- 
 jugations and certain classes of verbs. Con- 
 nected with these are similar changes of the 
 Imperative and also a peculiar manner of in- 
 dicating, by the Future, the tense of narration. 
 
 In Arabic the development is more perfect. 
 
 Besides the common Future yagqtolo, it has— 
 
 (a) a Future Antithetic, yaqtola, which stands 
 
 for our Subjunctive; (b) a Future Apocopate, 
 
 yaqtol, employed in conditional propositions, 
 and to express prohibition and negation; 
 
 (c) a Future Paragogic, yaqtolan, expressing 
 
 interrogation, command, or wish. 
 
 8. The characteristic of the lengthened Future 
 is 1—~ (He paragogic) attached to the first per- 
 son; @g. myotx for yodx. It is found in all 
 the conjugations and in all classes of regular 
 and irregular verbs, except in the Passives, and 
 has the tone wherever it is taken by the suffor- 
 matives ; and —, and hence affects in precisely 
 the same manner the final vowel of the ground- 
 forms e.g. Fut. Kal, my2tx, Fut. Piel, mn, 
 Ps. 2:3; but Fut. Hiphil, wy. 
 
 In a very few instances 7— takes the place 
 of n—; e.g. 1 Sam. 28:15. Ps. 20:4. As 
 rarely is it attached to the second and third 
 persons. Isa, 5:19. Ezek. 23:20. Ps. 20:4. 
 The second person, however, receives it in 
 the Imperative. (See no. 6.) 
 
 — properly denotes motion or tendency to- 
 wards a place, (§ 93, 1,) and hence is expressive 
 of purpose or endeavour. Accordingly the Fut. 
 parag. is used especially to express excitement 
 of one’s self, determination, wish, entreaty, &c. 
 (§ 126.) 
 
 4, The shortened Future occurs only in the 
 second and third persons. It has several modi- 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 51 
 
 fications of form, which will be described in 
 treating of the conjugations in which it is found. 
 In the regular verb it is confined to Hiphil, as 
 2o7? for Pop. It is found in Kal and Hiphil 
 of verbs {y, as nd and ny» for nin? and 
 mp2; and in all the conjugations of verbs 4», 
 where it consists in the removal (apocope) of 
 final 7; e.g. for mx, 3. The name Future 
 apocopate, derived from the mode of forming it 
 in verbs 4}, is applied generally, as in Arabic, 
 to this form of the Future. 
 
 In signification this form is similar to the 
 other, with some modification occasioned by 
 difference ef person. In general it has the 
 force of the Present Subjunctive, (§ 126.) 
 
 5. The Hebrew forms the tense of narration 
 by prefixing to the persons of the Future the 
 syllable } followed by Daghesh forte, as Sinps, 
 he killed. Before the first person this syllable 
 of course becomes 3, (§ 22, 1,) as Sop. The 
 shortened form of the Future is preferred, as 
 yi, 57, 29299; sometimes also the tone is 
 drawn back upon the penult, as rant, mo’, m3) 
 In the first person, however, especially in the 
 later books, the Future paragogic (no. 3) is 
 employed; e.g. mo}2N1, Ezr. 9:3. This -) is 
 called Vav conversive of the Future (Vav conver- 
 sivum Futuri in Preteritum), or simply Vav 
 conversive. 
 
 This Future, with Vav conversive, or 
 Futurum conversum, may be regarded as 
 originally a true compound tense with an 
 auxiliary verb. For the syllable -, accord- 
 ing to the most probable etymology, is an 
 abbreviation of 17, fuit, which was prefixed 
 to the Future in order to form, by periphrasis, 
 the tense of narration, The full phrase was 
 Mo m7 (connected dovrdérwe, § 139, 3, 5), 
 
 it happened (that) he hilled. Compare in 
 
 Arabic the use of BS Juit, with the Future, 
 
 as a periphrasis for the same tense, kan yagqtol, 
 [ fuit (ut) interficeret. | 
 
 The initial 4 (which in Syriac also is 
 not pronounced when this verb is used as an 
 auxiliary) was first omitted in writing, (hence 
 Sa” m)); the remaining syllable was then 
 united by a’Daghesh forte conjunctive (§ 20, 
 2, a) with the following verb, so as to form 
 one word. Comp. 739 for m3", from mt i, 
 (§ 37, 3, a.) This phrase, in which the verb 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 has the force of the subjunctive, furnishes an 
 explanation of the preference (no. 5) for the 
 subjunctive forms, the Future paragogic and 
 apocopate. 
 
 This Vav almost always includes the con- 
 junction 3, and, Oio72 for Sap, and he 
 killed ;) on which account some assume as its 
 origin the phrase Sap mm). But it does 
 not always and necessarily include the con- 
 junction and; for it is used at the beginning 
 of books, not only of such as are connected 
 with a preceding one, as Exodus, 1 Kings, 
 Ezra, but of those also which have no such 
 connexion, as the books of Ruth and Esther. 
 
 Others regard the Vav conversive merely 
 as an original Vav copulative (like Vay con- 
 versive of the Preter § 44, Rem. 3, 0), but 
 with some intensity of meaning (and then), 
 the firmer sound va being adopted, together 
 with the sharpening of the syllable; compare 
 the forms 93, 7723, 7799, for mma, 73, m0. 
 6. The persons of the Imperative are also 
 
 lengthened (by n—) and shortened, in a manner 
 So also the Arabic has an 
 Imperativus energicus. The lengthened and 
 shortened forms are seldom found in the same 
 conjugation. In some cases they have wholly 
 supplanted the regular form. The Jmp. parag. 
 occurs, e.g. in Kal of the regular verb, as 7h, 
 Mau, adv, M22; the shortened Jmp. in verbs 
 A, as 5: for mba; both together in Hiphil, as Sopa 
 and n>epr for Sup. The signification of these 
 forms is not always so strongly marked as in the 
 Future. The Jmp. parag. however is often em- 
 phatic, as Dip, stand up, Tp, up! jm, give, mn, 
 give up. 
 
 perfectly analogous. 
 
 § 49, 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 82, 91.) 
 
 1. Kal alone has two forms of the Participle, 
 viz. a participle active, called also Poél or Benoni 
 (middle word, participium), and a participle pas- 
 sive, or Pa-ul, (nyp). The latter is probably a 
 remnant of a lost passive form of op, which is 
 still preserved in the Aramean, and has the 
 form op. 
 
 In the Arameean both participles are found 
 also in the other conjugations, 
 
 2. The Participle of Kal is connected, in its 
 formation, with the third person of the Preeter, 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 from which it is distinguished only by the longer 
 vowel of the Nominal-forms; e.g. 507, Part. 
 on; pw, sleeping, from pw; wv, fearing, from 
 ri. But the Participle, which most commonly 
 occurs in verbs middle A, deviates from this 
 form and takes that of ‘op. op is in common 
 use only as a verbal noun. Compare the mode 
 of forming the Participle in Niphal, (§ 50, 1;) 
 that of Piél follows a different analogy. 
 
 3. Participles form their feminine and plural 
 8§ 90, 91. 
 
 Rem. 1. An unfrequent form is ADY, Isa. 
 29:14, 38:5, and Poin, Ps. 16:5, with the mater 
 lectionis in the final syllable. The Hholem in 
 Snip is impure, though it is generally written 
 defectively. The form odiA, Isa. 41:7, for odin 
 is explained by § 29, 3, 0. 
 
 2. The Participle in the passive form has 
 
 like other nouns. 
 
 not unfrequently an active signification, espe- 
 cially when it belongs to an intransitive verb, 
 which cannot take a passive meaning. Com- 
 pare in English risen, flown, Thus wow 
 means holding (not held), Cant. 3:8, m3, 
 confisus, for confidens, Ps.112:7. Comp. the 
 deponent verbs in Latin. 
 
 B. Derived Conjugations. 
 § 50. 
 
 NIPHAL. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 68, 92.) 
 
 1. The full characteristic of this conjugation 
 is the syllable 37 (in the corresponding seventh 
 conjugation in Arabic 3x) prefixed to the 
 ground-form. It appears in the Inf. constr. 
 JopM, contracted from 5yp27. With the Inf is 
 connected, in form, the Imp. Sopa and the Fut. 
 20p, contracted from 5opm. In the Pret. has 
 the (otherwise less essential) He been suffered 
 to fall away, and only Nun remains as the cha- 
 racteristic, (a7). The same remark applies to 
 the Participle, which is distinguished from the 
 Preter only by the long vowel, (772, fem. 
 mop) or nbap, § 79, 1, a,b.) The inflexion of 
 Niphal is perfectly analogous to that of Kal. 
 
 Niphal may be distinguished in the Pret. 
 and Part. by the un prefixed; in the Imp., 
 
 Inf, and Fut., by the Daghesh in the first 
 
 stem-letter. The same marks are found in 
 
 the irregular verbs, except that where the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ee 
 
——_———— 
 
 ’ lamentor, contristor. 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 first stem-letter is a guttural, Daghesh forte 
 
 must be omitted, (§ 57,4.) To compensate 
 
 for this omission the preceding vowel is made 
 
 long, (§ 22, 1.) 
 
 2. Significations of Niphal. (a) It is most 
 frequently passive of Kal; e.g. 1», to bear, 
 Niph. to be born. It is also passive of Piél and 
 Hiphil, when Kal is intransitive or is not in use ; 
 e.g. 722, to be in honour, Niph. to be honoured ; 
 m2, Piél, to conceal, Hiph. [to put out of sight, 
 agavifay] to destroy, Niph. passive of both. 
 In this case its signification may coincide with 
 that of Kal, (mim, Kal and Niph. to be sick,) and 
 it may even take an accusative, (§ 135, 2, Rem.) 
 (6) It is reflexive of Kal, like the Greek Middle 
 Voice; e. g. 203, to look to one’s self, to beware ; 
 often in verbs which express passion or feeling, 
 as 0M, to grieve, Mx, to bewail; comp. ddvpopat, 
 (c) Frequently it expresses 
 reciprocal action, as Ew, to contend with an- 
 other at law ; yy, to counsel, Niph. to consult to- 
 gether; comp. the middle and deponent verbs 
 BovrebeoOar, payecOat, altercari, luctari, preliari. 
 (d) It has also, like Hithpaél (§ 53, 3, d) and 
 the Greek Middle Voice, the signification of the 
 Active with the addition of self, for one’s self, 
 (as the remote object, expressed by the dative ;) 
 e. g. avez, sibi petiit, to ask for one’s self, (1 Sam. 
 20:6, 28,) precisely like airodpat ce rovro, 
 tvdvcac0a xiTHva, to put on (one’s self’) a coat. 
 
 Examples of denominatives are, 23%), cor- 
 datum fieri, from 233, heart; 2p, to be born a 
 male, from 133, a male, 
 
 The older Hebrew grammarians have re- 
 presented Niphal as the proper Passive of 
 Kal. Considered with reference to etymology 
 alone, this representation is incorrect; for 
 (1) Niphal has not the characteristics of the 
 other passives; (2) there are still found in 
 Kal traces of an early passive form, (§ 49, 1;) 
 (3) the Arabic has an independent conju- 
 gation, corresponding with Niphal, (engatal,) 
 which has its own Passive, nay, in Hebrew 
 itself there is probably a trace of the Passive 
 of Niphal in the form 5yiz, Isa. 59:3. Lam. 
 4:14. But according to the usage of the 
 language in its present form, the passive signi- 
 fication is certainly the predominant one; 
 and the early use of Niphal in this signi- 
 fication was doubtless the cause that the true 
 passive of Kal was not more fully formed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Rem. 1. The Inf. absol. 972 connects it- 
 self, in form, with the Preter, to which it 
 bears the same relation as np to Sop. It is 
 the only Infinitive of this kind. Examples: 
 of this form, xxx, rogando, 1 Sam. 20:6; 
 522, desiderando, Gen. 31:30; of the other, 
 shay, Jer. 32:45; once wry, exaudiendo, Ezek. 
 14:3. The { in the final syllable, (which is 
 impure;) this Infinitive form has also in Piél 
 and Pual, and resembles, in this respect, 
 several Arabic Infinitives. 
 
 2. In Pause, Pattahh often takes the place 
 of Tseri in the final syllable; e.g. 5:3), 
 Gen. 21: 8, as also in other cases,(Isa. 42 : 22.) 
 In the second and third persons plural, the 
 form with Pattahh is more common than that 
 given in the paradigm; e.g. miivin, Zech. 
 14:2. 
 
 8. When the Fut., or the Inf, or the Imp., 
 is immediately followed by a word of one syl- 
 lable, the tone is commonly drawn back upon 
 the penult, (§ 29, 3, 6,) and consequently the 
 final syllable, losing the tone, takes Seghol 
 instead of Tseri; e.g. ma 583, Ezek. 33:12; 
 ) anys, Gen. 25:21; comp. ox INP, 
 2 Sam. 21:14. 24:25. In a few words, this 
 form with the retracted tone has become the 
 usual one, as Wty, Ex. 23:21; ony3:, Numb. 
 21:1, 23. On the contrary, Maqqeph is 
 seldom employed here. 
 
 4, A frequent form of the 1 pers. is OPN; 
 wom, Ezek. 14:3, patty, Gen. 21:24. Comp. 
 § 68, 3. 
 
 
 
 § 51. 
 PIEL AND, PUAL 
 (Lehrgeb. §$§ 69, 93.) 
 
 1. The characteristic of this conjugation 
 
 (Arab. Conj. II. gattal, Aram. op) is the 
 doubling of the middle stem-letter. 
 tive, the Fut. ep» and the Part. ra70 (whose 
 preformatives retain their original Sheva) are 
 formed, according to the general analogy, from 
 the Inf. and Imp. Sup. 
 obscure vowels, 
 same form with the Preter. 
 the Active and Passive follow the same analogy. 
 In the inflexion of the Preter of Piél, Pattahh 
 takes the place of Tseri in the first and second 
 persons (527, map, ABP), which, properly, have 
 for their basis the form ap. 
 
 In the Ac- 
 
 The Passive has more 
 and its Infinitive is of the 
 In other respects 
 
 See Rem. 1. 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 The », which occurs also in the succeeding 
 conjugations as the characteristic of the Part. 
 may be derived from %, who (interrogative) 
 in the sense of one, quidam. 
 
 Piél and Pual are throughout distinguished 
 by the Daghesh in the middle stem-letter. 
 It is omitted only in the following cases :— 
 (a) Always when this letter is a guttural, 
 (§ 58, 3.) (6) Sometimes, though rarely, 
 when this letter has Sheva, (§ 20, 3, 0,) as 
 wT, Job 37:3, for we, he directs it; mw 
 for mt, Ezek. 17:7. 31:4. Compensation 
 is sometimes made by the lengthening of the 
 previous vowel, as w72Nn, Job 20:26. comp. 
 Ps. 62:4, Isa, 44:13, for wm}2"n; or the omis- 
 sion is indicated (§ 10, 3, Rem.) by a Hhateph 
 under the littera dagessanda; e.g. mp) for 
 nop, Gen. 2:23. comp. 9:2. Judg. 16:16. 
 In the Fut. and Part. the Sheva under the 
 preformative is always an infallible mark of 
 the conjugation. 
 
 2. Significations of Piél. (a) It denotes zn- 
 tensity and repetition, (comp. the Momina in- 
 tensiva and iterativa, which are also formed by 
 doubling the middle stem-letter. § 83, 6—9;)* 
 e.g. pry, to laugh, Piél, to sport, to joke, [iden- 
 tidem ridere ;] ‘sx, to ask, Piél, to beg ; hence it 
 denotes that the action is performed upon many, 
 as ap, to bury (one), Gen. 23:4, Piél, to bury 
 (many), 1 Kgs.11:15. So in Syriac frequently. 
 This signification of Piél is found with various 
 shades of difference, as rnp, to open, Piél, to 
 loose; "6D, to number (count), Piél, to recount. 
 With the eager pursuit of an object is connected 
 the influence which the subject of it exerts upon 
 others. Hence (6) it has a causative signifi- 
 cation, (like Hiphil;) e.g. 05, to learn, Piél, 
 to teach. It often takes the modifications ex- 
 pressed by to permit, to declare, or to regard, to 
 help ; e. g. 7121, to permit to live; py, to declare 
 
 * Examples perfectly analogous, in which the dou- 
 bling of a letter has an intensive force, are found in 
 the German words reichen, recken; streichen (stringo, 
 Anglo-Saxon strecan), strecken; comp. Strich, Strecke ; 
 Wacker, from wachen: others in which it has the causa- 
 tive signification are, stechen, stecken; wachen, wecken ; 
 in Greek, té\Aw, to bring to an end, from the stem réda, 
 to end, yevvaw, to beget, and to bear, from yéve, to come 
 into being. The above examples from the German shew 
 also that ch when doubled takes the form of kk, ck, in 
 accordance with the laws relating to the Daghesh in 
 Hebrew, (§ 13, 3.) Analogous to the conjugation Poél 
 (§ 54, 1) is cedo, to fell, from cado, te fall. 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 innocent ; 1», to assist in child-bearing. (e) De- 
 nominatives are frequently found in this conjuga- 
 tion, which in general mean to make a thing 
 (se. that which the noun expresses), or to be in 
 any way occupied with it, as, from yp, a nest, }3p, 
 to make a nest; from “py, dust, rpy, to throw dust, 
 to dust. It also expresses the taking away or 
 injuring the thing or part of which the noun is 
 the name, (as in English to head [old Eng. for 
 behead], to skin, to graze, from grass ;) e. g. wy 
 (from wry, @ root), to root out, eradicate; 3 
 (from 133, tail), properly to injure the tail, hence 
 to rout the rearguard of an army ; yw] (from yy, 
 ashes, viz. of victims burnt), to remove the ashes. 
 So also in verbs whose origin cannot be traced 
 to a noun; e.g. pp, to stone, and also to remove 
 the stones, sc. from a field.* 
 
 The significations of the Passive will present 
 themselves spontaneously; e.g. D1x, to be red, 
 Pual, to be dyed red. 
 
 In Piél the proper and literal signification 
 of a word is often retained, when Kal has 
 adopted a figurative one, the former being the 
 stronger and more prominent idea; e.g. N53, 
 Piél, to mend, to repair, in Kal, to heal; sa, 
 Piél, to cut, to cut away, Kal, to form, to make; 
 793, Piél, to uncover, Kal, to reveal. 
 
 In intransitive verbs, also, Piél occurs as an 
 intensive form, but only in poetry, as nnn, 
 Srangi, Jer. 51:56, mp, to be open, Cant. 7 : 13. 
 
 Rem. 1. The Pret. Piél has frequently 
 (_) in the final syllable instead of (..); e.g. 
 ta, Taw. This occurs especially before Maq- 
 qeph (Eccles. 9:15. 12:9) and in the middle 
 of a period when other words immediately 
 follow; but at the end of a period Tseri is 
 the more common vowel. Compare 57, Isa. 
 49:21, with by, Jos. 4:14. Esth.3:1. Some 
 verbs have Seghol, as 733, "b>, p29. A single 
 instance of (_) in the first syllable (after the 
 manner of the Chaldee) is found in Gen. 
 41:51, mx, caused to forget, occasioned by 
 the play upon the name mx. Compare the 
 quadriliteral tmp, which is analogous, in form, 
 with Piél, (§ 55.) 
 
 2. The Fut., Inf., and Imp., when followed 
 by Maqgqeph, generally take Seghol in the 
 final syllable; e. g. ‘b-wpay, Isa. 40 : 20; 
 
 * In Arabic Denominatives of Conj. II. often express 
 injury done to a member, the removal of vermin or of 
 any injurious thing. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Yt, Ex. 13:2. So in Hithpaél. Instead 
 of m2>apn are found such forms as 7258p; 
 e.g. Isa. 13:18. Ezek. 34:14. 
 
 8. The Inf. absol. has the designated form 
 Sap, as 1b», castigando, Ps. 118: 18, and in 
 Pual, a3, Gen. 40:15. But more frequently 
 the form Sep is retained; e.g. Jer. 12:17. 
 32:33. 
 
 4. In Pual, instead of Qibbuts is found less 
 frequently Qamets-Hhatuph ; e. g. oan, dyed 
 red, Nah. 2:4, comp. 3:7. Ps. 94:20. It is 
 merely an orthographic variation when Shureq 
 
 takes the place of Qibbuts, as thy, Judg. 18 : 29. 
 
 5. The Part. Pual sometimes occurs without 
 the prefix 5; it is then distinguished, like the 
 Part. Niph., only by the Qamets in the final 
 syllable; e. g. mpd, taken, 2 Kgs. 2:10. comp. 
 Eccles. 9:12. Hos. 1:6, 8. 
 
 § 52. 
 
 HIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 70, 94.) 
 
 1. The characteristic of the Active is 4 pre- 
 fixed to the ground-form, and »— inserted in the 
 final syllable. From the Inf. bpm are formed 
 the Fut. and the Part. 5p», SD, for ‘opr, 
 pop. In the Passive (as in Pual) the Inf, is 
 of the same form with the Preter; in its other 
 forms it follows the general analogy. The in- 
 flexion has nothing peculiar, except that in the 
 1 and 2 pers. Pret. the —— falls away and 
 Pattahh takes its place, as ‘pn, noo; which 
 is explained by the analogy of the Aramean 
 (oop), and of the Arabic (Sopx), where the — 
 is not found. It does not appear to be an essen- 
 tial characteristic of the form. See Rem. 1. 
 
 The infallible marks of this conjugation 
 are therefore in the Pret., Imp., and Inf., the 
 prefix 7; in the Fut. and Part., the vowel 
 under the preformatives, which in Hiphil 
 is Pattahh, in Hophal, Qibbuts or Qamets- 
 Hhatuph. 
 
 2. Significations of Hiphil. (a) It is properly 
 causative of Kal, and in this sense is more fre- 
 quently employed than Piél, (§ 51, 2, 5;) e.g. 
 xz), to go forth, Hiph. to bring out of, to lead 
 forth; 1p, to be holy, Hiph. to sanctify. When 
 Kal is transitive, Hiph. takes two accusatives, 
 (§ 136, 1.) Sometimes Piél and Hiphil are 
 both in use in the same signification, as tax, to 
 
 55 
 
 perish, Piél and Hiph. to destroy; but generally 
 only one of them is found, unless they have 
 some difference of signification, as in 133, to be 
 heavy, Piél, to honour, Hiph. to burden. Intran- 
 sitive verbs merely become transitive; e. g. 
 m2, to bend, to bow, (intrans.,) Hiph. to bow, 
 (trans. ) 
 The causative and transitive significations 
 of Hiphil are employed, in accordance with a 
 mode of conception familiar to the Hebrew, 
 for the expression of ideas, which take, in 
 other languages, an intransitive form. Espe- 
 cially was any change in one’s habit of body 
 conceived by the Hebrew as the result of 
 personal agency, and was represented, in the 
 form of expression, as produced by the indi- 
 vidual himself; * e. g. ow, Hiph. to become fat, 
 (properly to produce fat ;) pi and yox, Hiph. 
 to become strong, (properly to develope strength ;) 
 Foy, Hiph. to become feeble; yr, to become 
 pregnant, (properly to conceive seed,) Lev. 
 12:2. The same principle is illustrated by 
 wy, to become rich, (properly to make, to ac- 
 quire, riches.) It also applies especially to 
 words which express the taking of a new 
 colour, as Dri, to become red, pry, to become 
 white, &c. Moreover, what is merely state 
 or condition, becomes in his mode of concep- 
 tion, an act; e.g. wy, not to be silent, but 
 properly to keep silence, (silentium facere, 
 Plin.;) 27, quietem agere; PIN, to prolong 
 (one’s stay), to tarry. In such cases there is 
 often an ellipsis, as 27, fo deal well, m7, 
 to do wickedly, (sc. {21, Y201,) properly to 
 make his conduct good, or bad. 
 These remarks apply also to Denominatives, 
 i.e. the verb often expresses the idea of pro- 
 ducing or putting forth, that of which the 
 original noun is the name; e. g. wey, to put 
 Sorth roots, yy, to put forth horns. It also 
 expresses the actual use of a member, as 
 pu, do listen, (properly to make ears;) por, 
 (after the same analogy, properly to make 
 tongue, to use the tongue freely,) to chatter, to 
 calumniate. 
 
 * The verb TOY, to make, is employed in the expres- 
 sion of the same ideaS; e. g. to make fut (fatness), for, to 
 produce fat upon his body, Job 15 : 27; to make fruits, to 
 make branches, for, to produce, to put forth, Hos. 8: 7. 
 Job 14:9. Compare in Latin corpus facere, Justin. 11, 8; 
 robur facere, Hirtius, Bell. Afr. 85; sobolem, divitias, 
 facere, Plin., and in Italian far corpo, far forze. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 The signification of Hoph. (as of Niph. § 50, 
 2, a4) may sometimes coincide with that of Kal; 
 e. g. 53%, potuit, Fut. Hoph. potens fiet, i. e. 
 poterit. 
 
 Rem. 1. Only the Preeter of Hiphil retains 
 always the — impure of the final syllable; 
 on the contrary, the Inf, Imp., and Fut., 
 frequently take Tseri instead of it (in Chaldee 
 the usual form), although usage generally 
 makes a distinction between forms with 7 
 ande. ‘Teri is in this case commonly pure, 
 and hence in the Fut. and Part. falls away, 
 or, with gutturals, is changed into Pattahh. 
 
 2. The Inf. absol. has generally Tseri, with 
 or without Yodh, as wapn, Judg. 17:3; 7395, 
 Ex. 8:11; town, Amos 9:8. Strictly Chal- 
 dee is Dwx, mane surgendo, Jer. 25:3. Un- 
 frequent exceptions, in which the form with 
 Tseri stands for the Inf. constr. are found in 
 Deut. 26:12. 32:8. 
 
 3. The leading form of the Imp. occurs but 
 seldom, and in the irregular verb takes the 
 normal form np, (Ps. 94:1. Isa. 43:8 5) 
 instead of it are employed the shortened and 
 the lengthened forms Sopa and ney; as 
 720, TMP DPH. The first takes Seghol before 
 Maqgeph, as s972207, Job 22:21. 
 
 4, In the Fut. of Hiph. the form with Tseri, 
 for the shortened Fut., is the usual one, as 
 PrA-by, Obad. 12, mp, Ps. 12:4, especially 
 with 1 convers., as 932°), Gen. 1:4. Before 
 Maqqgeph this Tseri becomes Seghol, as 
 ja-pimyy, Judg. 19:4, In the plural, after 
 the manner of the Aramzan, it sometimes 
 wholly falls away, as 13773), Jer. 9:2, 3379), 
 1 Sam. 14:22. 31:2. The defective mode 
 of writing Hhireq (o>) is not an essential 
 variation. 
 
 5. The form of the Part. with (..) in the 
 sing. is doubtful, (Isa. 53:35) but perhaps the 
 plurals onttm, Jer. 29:8, ony, 2 Chron. 
 28 : 23, are derived from this form. The fem. 
 is nbopo; e.g. miwo, Levit. 14:21, 
 Gen. 35: 8. 
 
 6. In the Pret. are sometimes found the 
 forms wpa, 1 Sam. 25:7, and ‘nbtex (with 
 s as in Aramean), Isa. 63:3. 
 
 7. In the Fut. and Part. the characteristic 
 7 regularly gives place to the preformatives, 
 as 5p’, PUR; but not to prepositions in the 
 Inf. because their connexion with the gronnd- 
 
 Comp. 
 
 form is less intimate than that of the preefor- 
 matives. To both rules there are some few 
 exceptions, as ywin, Ps. 116: 6, for yay; 
 mim for my Cn verbs {p only); on the con- 
 trary 21x) for ay, 1 Sam. 2:33. Isa. 
 2a 678 se 
 
 8. The tone, in Hiphil, does not fall on the 
 sufformatives 1,7—, and —. They take it, 
 however, in the Pret. when Vav conversive is 
 prefixed, as mT, Ex. 26: 33. 
 
 9. In the Passive (Hophal) Pret., Fut., and 
 Part., (..) is found in the first syllable as fre- 
 quently as (,). Some verbs have both forms ; 
 e.g. imtn, Ezek. 32:32, and mypty, 32:19; 
 oun, Part. aon, 2 Sam. 20:21, and niin, 
 Isa. 14:19. 
 
 10. The Inf. absol. is distinguished by (..) 
 in the final syllable; e.g. Snr, fasciando, 
 Ezek. 16:4; 2m, nuntiando, Jos. 9:24. Of 
 the Inf. constr. as given in the paradigm, there 
 happens to be no example in the regular verb. 
 
 § 53. 
 
 HITHPAEL, 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 71, 95.) 
 
 1. This conjugation connects itself, in form, 
 with Piél, to the Inf. constr. of which it prefixes 
 the syllable na Gup, depn7). This syllable (or 
 rather the corresponding nx, nx) is, in the Ara- 
 mean, the characteristic of all the passive con- 
 jugations. In Hebrew, however, where the 
 Passives are characterized, as in Arabic, by 
 the more obscure vowels, Hithpaél takes the 
 reflexive signification as its most common one, 
 and constitutes an independent conjugation, 
 having its own passive. So in Arabic, where 
 this conjugation is the fifth, having for its 
 characteristic n alone. Its inflexion is ana- 
 logous to that of Piél. 
 
 It is probable that the prefix syllable nn, 
 Chald. ny, Syr. nx, was originally the same 
 with the pronoun nx, self, (§ 37, 3;) hence 
 bupna, he has killed himself. 
 
 2. The n of the syllable nm suffers the fol- 
 lowing changes :— 
 a) When the first radical of the verb is a 
 sibilant (0, y, v), it changes places with n, 
 § 19, 5, as wemin for wwxing, dno for Sanit; 
 x causes, moreover, a change of n into the 
 more nearly related », as proxy for amy. 
 
 
 
 [spss ne aE nnnnnnnnnenenenemenmeneneneed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EE —- 
 
 
 
 
OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 b) Before 3, , and n, it is assimilated, 
 (§ 19,2;) eg. ‘am from 13, Wen, DAAT; 
 
 sometimes also before ) and 3, as xazq, else- 
 
 where x32ni7; 72137 for 72307. 
 
 3. The significations of Hithpaél are founded 
 on the relation exhibited above, viz.—(a) It 
 is originally passive of Piél, though this use of 
 it is unfrequent; e.g. 1ppnn, to be numbered, 
 mustered, Judg. 20: 15,17. 21:9. (6b) Most 
 frequently it is reflexive of Piél, as w3pNT, to 
 sanctify one’s self; “Wyn, to enrich one’s self; 
 i.e. to make one’s self that which is expressed 
 by the first conjugation. Hence, to conduct 
 one’s self as such, to shew one’s self, to imagine 
 one’s self, to affect, to be such; properly to 
 make one’s self so and so, to act so and so; e.g. 
 yam, to make one’s self great, to act proudly ; 
 Danny, to shew one’s self cunning, crafty, also 
 Eccles. 7:16, to think one’s self wise; ~wiyn7, to 
 make, i.e. to feign one’s self rich. Its significa- 
 tion sometimes coincides with that of Kal, and 
 both forms are in use with the same meaning ; 
 e. g. Sax, Kal, to mourn, is found only in poetry ; 
 Hithp. in the same sense is more common in 
 prose, and even takes an accusative. (§ 135, 2, 
 Rem. 1.) But seldom (c) Jt expresses reciprocal 
 action (like Niph. § 50, 2, c), as mann, to look 
 upon one another, Gen. 42:1. More frequently 
 (d) It expresses what one does to or for himself. 
 It has then an active signification, and governs 
 an accusative, but with the accessory idea that 
 the action is performed upon the agent or for 
 him, (comp. Niph, § 50, 2,d;) e.g. wvipny, eauit 
 sibi (vestem), rmen, solvit sibi, (zonam.) So 
 without the implied accusative, yay, to walk 
 about for one’s self, (ambulare.) 
 
 Others regard the reflexive sense of Hith- 
 paél as its proper and leading signification ; 
 in its use as a Passive it might then be com- 
 pared with the French il se dit, il se vend, and 
 the German es spricht sich. 
 
 The passive Hothpaal is found only in the 
 few following examples: a77En7, they were 
 mustered, Numb. 1:47. 2:33; span, to render 
 one’s self unclean ; 0227, to be washed. In sig- 
 nification it does not differ from Hithpaél. 
 
 Denominatives with the reflexive significa- 
 tion are, 11»n7, to embrace Judaism (make 
 one’s self a Jew), from nm, mm, Jews; 
 DET, to supply one’s self with food for a 
 Journey, from mY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 = _ 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 Rem. 1. The Preter, as in Piél, has fre- 
 quently Pattabh in the final syllable, as piqm, 
 2 Chron. 13:7. 21:4. Final Pattahh occurs 
 also in the Inf. Fut. and Imp., as DSnm, 
 Eccles. 7:16, wapnn, Jos.3:5. In Pause 
 these forms take Qamets, as ‘axm, Ezek. 
 7:27. With the form in Piél m25upn (§ 51, 
 Rem. 2) comp. Hithp. mann, Zech. 6 : 7. 
 
 2. The Syriac form of the Pret. with ny is 
 found 2 Chron. 20; 35, 73annw. 
 
 
 
 § 54. | 
 UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 72, 73.) 
 
 Of the unusual conjugations some are con- 
 nected, in form, with Piél, and are made by the 
 doubling or the repetition of one or more stem- 
 letters, or by the insertion of a long vowel, 
 i.e. by changes within the stem itself; others 
 are analogous to Hiphil, and are formed by the 
 addition of prefix letters or syllables. To the 
 former class, besides a Passive distinguished by 
 the more obscure vowels in the final syllable, 
 belongs also a reflexive form with the prefix 
 na, after the analogy of Hithpaél. 
 
 " 'Those which are analogous to Piél, and which 
 follow it in their inflexion, are :— 
 
 1. Poél; as ‘wip, pass. ‘nip, reflex. ‘nipnn 
 (corresponding to Conj. III. and VI. in the 
 
 veer Faw LZ A Ie 
 Arabic (i gatala, a8 9? quiila, 38s 
 taqatala), Fut. ‘roi, Part. veipp, Fut. pass. 
 Sn», &c. In the regular verb it very seldom 
 occurs. Unquestionable examples are, Part. 
 wept, my judge, Job 9:15; vty, 1 Sam. 
 21: 3; win, fo take root, Denom. from wi, 
 root. In verbs $y (§ 66) it is far more fre- 
 quent; e.g. ‘Yin, azio, yin. 
 
 Its signification, like that of Piél, is often 
 causative of Kal. Sometimes both are in use 
 in the same signification, as pyin and yz), fo 
 oppress ; sometimes each has its peculiar modi- 
 fication of meaning, as 220, to turn about, to 
 change, 1310, to go about, to surround 3 bn, to 
 exult, Sn, to make foolish, (from on, to o¢ 
 brilliant, but’ also to be vain-glorious, foolish ,) 
 yt, to make pleasant, agreeable, ym, to com- 
 miserate; wx, to root out, Wynd, to take root. | 
 
 A variation of this form is which 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Suny 
 
 os hd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | es 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 occurs, however, only in the noun 539, @ 
 palace. With both is connected the forma- 
 tion of quadriliterals by the insertion of a 
 consonant at the end of the first syllable, as 
 map (§ 55.) 
 
 2. Pilel, Pulal, Hithpalel; as Syop and >yap, 
 pass. OP» reflex. Syopnq, like the Arabic 
 
 O7U w-G 
 
 Conj. IX. (\is] igtalla, and XL (JUS) 
 ES £ 
 
 igtalla, used especially of permanent states 
 or conditions, e.g. of colours, as y2Nu, to 
 be at rest, }299, to be green, Pass. "70x, to be 
 withered ; of these verbs there is no example 
 in Kal. It is more frequent in verbs ‘y 
 where it takes the place of Piél and Hithpaél, 
 ‘GEAREA) 
 
 3. Pealal; as Sornp, (the last two stem- 
 letters being repeated,) used especially of 
 slight motions repeated in quick succession ; 
 e. g. TMD, to go about with quick motion, hence 
 (of the heart), to beat quick, to palpitate, Ps. 
 38:11, from 11D, to go about; Pass. myn, 
 to ferment with violence, to make a rumbling 
 sound, Lam. 1:20. Nouns of this form are 
 diminutives, (§ 83, 23.) Nearly related to 
 this is— 
 
 4, Pilpel, formed from a biliteral root by 
 doubling both stem-letters, as 13p, 1p3D; 5», 
 533. This also is used of motion rapidly re- 
 peated, which all languages are prone* to ex- 
 press by repetition of the same sound; e.g. 
 FHEbY, to chirp, ‘yx, to tinkle, m2, to gargle, 
 Fey, to flutter, (from My, to fly.) 
 
 With Hiphil are connected— 
 
 5. Tiphel; as 'nopp, with n prefixed; e.g. 
 Sain, to teach one to walk, to lead, (se. a child,) 
 denom. from ‘2, @ foot; mIn, Fut. nym, to 
 emulate, Jer. 12:5. 22:15, (from mn, to be 
 ardent, eager.) The Aramean has a similar 
 form, 0299, to interpret. 
 
 * Compare tinnio, tintinnus, and in German Ticktack, 
 Wirrwarr, Klingklang. The repetition of the same letter 
 in verbs $Y produces also the same effect, as in pp, to 
 lap (as dogs in drinking), p74, to beat, FD, to trip along, 
 (as children in walking.) Other languages express the 
 same thing by diminutive forms; comp. in Latin the 
 termination -illo, as in cantillo, in Germ. -eln, ern, in 
 Slimmern, trillern, trépfeln. 
 relation, mentioned under no. 3, between these forms 
 and the diminutives. See also Hupfeld Exercitt. Zthiop 
 p. 28, 
 
 Hence we may explain the 
 
 
 
 pee 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 6. Shaphel; as ‘ro73, frequent in Syriac; 
 e.g. 1770, to burn, from am. In Heb. it is 
 found only in the noun nate, flame. 
 
 * * e # * 
 
 Forms of which single examples occur :— 
 7. w7OR, pass. wap; as vEoIMD, scaled off, 
 having the forms of scales, Ex. 16:14, FON, 
 Fier, to peel, to scale. 8. >7Op, as HIN, @ 
 violent rain, from FO. 9. Sopap (the first two 
 stem-letters repeated), in np?» (pronounce 
 yaphyaphitha, not yophyaphitha), thou art fair, 
 Ps. 45:3, 10. dapm (frequent in the Rab- 
 binic), a form compounded of Niphal and 
 Hithpaél, found in the example mo for 
 mini, they permit themselves to be admonished, 
 Ezek. 23:48. We may mention also, 11. The 
 form wizT, to sound the trumpet, commonly 
 derived from the stem wn. But it is pro- 
 
 bably a denom. from myyizn, a trumpet, an 
 
 onomatopoetic form like the old Latin tara- 
 tantara = tuba. Ennius apud Servium ad 
 
 fEn. 9, 526. 
 
 § 55. 
 QUADRILITERALS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 74, und Beylage 1, S. 861.) 
 
 Of the formation of quadriliterals we have 
 already spoken § 30, 3. The few verbs of this 
 kind (of nouns there are more) are formed after 
 the analogy of Piél. The following are all the 
 examples that oceur :— 
 
 Pret. ww, he spread out, Job 26:9, (with 
 Pattahh in the first syllable, as in Chaldee.) 
 Fut. mao, he will devour it, Ps. 80:14. 
 Pass. wDoI, to become green again, Job 33:25. 
 Part. 7372, girded, 1 Chr. 15:27, 
 
 § 56. 
 VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. 
 (Lehrgeb, § 96.) 
 
 Verbs which have a guttural for one of their 
 three stem-letters are governed, in their de- 
 viations, from the regular verb, by the general 
 principles laid down in § 22. Ofcourse » and 
 7 come under consideration here, only when 
 they retain their power as consonants; » also 
 partakes only in part of these anomalies, 
 (§ 22, 4.) For convenient representation, we 
 distinguish the cases in which the guttural is 
 the first, second, or third stem-letter. See 
 paradigms, B, C, and D, in which those con- 
 jugations, which are wholly regular, are omitted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 { 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 § 57. 
 VERBS PE GUTTURAL. 
 E.g. TOY, to stand. Paradigm B. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 97.) 
 
 The deviations from the regular verb are as 
 follows :— 
 
 1. When the first stem-letter, at the begin- 
 ning of the word, requires a Sheva (Stop, onyOp), 
 in these verbs it takes one of the composite 
 Shevas, ($$ 10, 3. 22, 3;) e.g. Inf. Toy, 5x, 
 Pret. ony. 
 
 2. When a letter is prefixed to such forms, 
 (a) it takes a vowel corresponding to the Hha- 
 teph, (§ 28, 2,) as Thy, HON; or (6) the com- 
 posite Sheva conforms to the vowel of the 
 preformative, when the latter is an essential 
 characteristic of the form; e.g. Pret. Niph. 
 tay) (for toy2), Hiph. wey (for royn), Inf: 
 and Fut. roy, ray, Hoph. Pret. wen, Fut. 
 voy’. (¢) In many verbs, however, the gut- 
 tural, especially n, when it stands after a pre- 
 formative at the end of a syllable, retains the 
 simple Sheva; but in this case the praeformative 
 always has the vowel corresponding to the com- 
 posite Sheva, which the guttural would take 
 according to the above rule; e.g. Fut. Kal 
 Tom, wir, Niph. yen}, Hiph. vor. 
 
 The grammarians call the latter (c) the 
 hard, the former (a & 6) the soft combination. 
 3. When in forms like 1)», Ty2, the vowel 
 
 of the final syllable falls away, on the addition 
 of a sufformative (1, —, —), the composite 
 Sheva of the guttural is exchanged for its short 
 vowel, and forms a new syllable, as Thy), plur. 
 WEN UZ» MM, ( 28, 3.) 
 
 4. In the Inf., Imp., and Fut. of Niph., where 
 the first stem-letter would regularly be doubled, 
 the vowel of the preformative is lengthened 
 into Tseri, as ty for mm (§ 22, 1.) 
 
 REMARKS. 
 I. On Kal. 
 
 1. In verbs fo the Inf: constr. and Imp. take | 
 
 (+) under the first letter, (according to § 22, 3, 
 Rem. 2,) as tx, Job 38:3, amy, Hos. 3:1, x; 
 
 with a preform. ty), 55x). Pattahh is found / 
 here only when the tone is forcibly thrown | 
 
 forward; e.g. wx 55y2, Num. 26:10. For the 
 same reason they wrote DA}2x not ONTO. 
 In the other forms also of the Jmp. the gut- 
 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 tural often exerts its influence upon the vowel, 
 which it changes to Seghol; e.g. pvr, Isa. 
 47:2, mow, Job 33:5, (with He parag.;) espe- 
 cially when the second radical is also a guttural, 
 as 1s, Ps. 31; 24, 
 
 2. The Fut. A, as the paradigm shews, has 
 regularly under the first two letters =>; with 
 the hard combination 77, as Sm), oa. This 
 is also true of those verbs which are at the 
 same time 4, (and likewise have properly 
 Fut. A,) as m3m, Tzr. Less frequently the 
 
 pointing = is found also in verbs Fut. O, as 
 
 FPN 3 
 
 ™. Quite unique is the form 2m, 
 Ezek. 23:5. In these forms the pointing z= 
 is frequently shortened to == (according to 
 
 FDI. 
 
 § 27, Rem. 4), as 10N?, plur. nOx?; 70M, NOM, | 
 
 3. The soft combination in the leading form 
 (no. 2) usually gives place to the hard, whenever 
 the middle radical takes Sheva, as 5am», plur. 
 pam, Job 24:3; pom, wor, Jos. 14:5. 
 
 Il. On Hiphil and Hophal. 
 
 and =~ applies again here after Vav conversive, 
 i.e. the throwing forward of the tone occasions 
 a change of é& into a; e.g. nioen, MYM, 
 Numb. 3:6. 8:13. 27:19; mAyy, MayM. 
 
 5. In the Pret. of Hiph. = is sometimes 
 changed into ==, and = into =~ in Hoph. 
 Prat. by prolonging the short vowel, which was 
 sustained by Metheg; e.g. maya, Jos. 7:7, 
 my, Hab. 1:15, TD, Nah. 2:8. 
 
 Ill. In General. 
 
 6. In the verbs mn, to live, and mn, to be, 
 the guttural is treated as such in very few 
 forms; Fut. mm, mm, Gerund. nit), ni). 
 The rule given under no. 1 is indeed true of 
 these verbs (hence ni); but so soon as a letter 
 is prefixed, the first radical drops the peculiar 
 pointing of the guttural, as opm, Ezek. 37 : 5, 6. 
 
 § 58. 
 VERBS AYIN GUTTURAL. 
 E.g. PPI, tocry. Paradigm C. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 98.) 
 The deviations from the regular verb are not 
 so great as in the former class, and are mainly 
 
 as follows :—* 
 
 * Hophal, which is not exhibited in the paradigm, is 
 varied like Kal, Hiphil is regular. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 > ome 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Where a Sheva, vocal or quiescent, is re- 
 quired (soap, uP), the guttural takes without 
 exception the composite Sheva (-:); e g. apy}, 
 wer, Imp. Niph. spy. In the Jmp. the helping 
 vowel, supplied under the first radical, conforms 
 to the Hhateph of the second, as pvt, py. 
 
 So in the Inft Kal fem., as 79x, 72N7. 
 
 2. The preference of the gutturals for the A 
 sound has generally less influence on the fol- 
 lowing than on the preceding vowel, (§ 22, 2, a, 
 and Rem. 1;) accordingly, not only is the 
 Hholem in Inf. Kal (piv, py) retained, but 
 also, for the most part, the Tseri in Fut. Niph. 
 and Piél (ony, ony), and even the more feeble 
 
 . Seghol, (on) with Vav conversive.) But in the 
 
 Fut. and Imp. of Kal, the last syllable generally 
 takes (_) through the influence of the guttural, 
 even in transitive verbs; e.g. PY}, PYP; Wa, WP 
 (seldom as Dhy); and in the Pret. Piél also, 
 Pattahh occurs still more frequently than in the 
 regular verb, as OM). 
 
 3. In Piél, Pual, and Hithp., the Daghesh 
 forte of the middle stem-letter falls away, but 
 in the greater number of examples, particularly 
 before 7, n, and y, the preceding vowel remains 
 short, and the guttural has Daghesh forte impli- 
 
 | citum, (§ 22,1;) e.g. Piél pny, Inf. pov; Pual 
 
 ym; Hithp. ser. Before » the vowel is com- 
 monly prolonged, and always before 4, as Piél 
 D2 2 ws Pual sa (seldom as Fy). 
 
 Rem. 1. In Piél and Hithp. the tone is 
 sometimes drawn back upon the penult, and 
 the Tseri of the final syllable shortened to 
 Seghol, viz.— (a) Before a word of one syl- 
 lable (according to § 29, 3, 6), as oe ny), 
 in order to serve there; comp. Gen. 39:14. 
 Job 8:18. (6) After Vav conversive, as TP), 
 Gen, 1:22, 3°), Exodus 10:11. comp. Gen. 
 39:4. 
 
 2. The following are unfrequent anomalies 
 in the Pret. Piél: my, Judg. 5: 28, for nx; 
 and the similar form, NOT?» Ps. 51:7, for 
 WN. OF HIN 
 
 § 59. 
 
 VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. 
 E. g. YD, to hear. Parad. D. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 99.) 
 1, According to § 22, 2, a and b, we here 
 distinguish two cases, viz. either the regular 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 vowel of the final syllable remains, and the 
 guttural takes Pattahh furtive, or the proper 
 vowel Pattahh takes the place of the regular 
 vowel. The more particular statement is as 
 
 follows :— 
 
 a) The strong unchangeable vowels »—, 4, 3 
 
 (§ 25, 1), are always retained; hence Inf. 
 absol. yinw, Part. pass. yd, Hiph. yw, 
 Fut. yow, Part. pow. O pure is also 
 retained in the Inf. constr. yow, in order to 
 distinguish it from the Jmp., (as in verbs » 
 guttural.) 
 
 b) O pure in the Fut. and Imp. of Kal becomes 
 Pattahh, as yous, vow. 
 
 c) Where Tseri is the regular vowel of the 
 last syllable, the forms with final Tseri and 
 final Pattahh are both employed. Usage, 
 however, makes a distinction in these forms. 
 Thus :— 
 
 In the Part. Kal, and Piél, yt, niin is the 
 exclusive form, and Pattahh first appears in | 
 the constr. state, yn, nw. 
 
 In the Fut. and Inf. Niph., and in the Pret. 
 Inf. and Fut. Piél, the form with (.) is em- 
 ployed at the beginning and in the middle of a 
 period, the one with (~~) at the end, and in 
 Pause. Comp. vx, Num. 27:4, and yx, 36:3; 
 vp», Hab. 3:9, and yRi, Ezek. 13:11; vba, 
 Hab. 1:18, Numb. 4:20. It may further be 
 observed that the Inf. absol. retains Tseri, 
 which is lost in the Inf. constr.; e.g. mini, 
 Deut. 22:7. 1 Kgs. 11:22; mj, Gen. 8: 10. 
 105. IW SiG 
 
 In Hiph. the shortened forms of the Imp. 
 and Fut. admit only (.); eg. msn, mom; 
 but the Inf. absol. takes (...) as mann. 
 
 2. The guttural here has simple Sheva, when- 
 ever the third radical regularly takes it, (be- 
 cause it is Sheva quiescent, which is generally 
 retained even under gutturals, § 22, 3,) as AYO, 
 ‘myo. But in the 2 fem. Pret. a helping- 
 Pattahh takes its place, as mya (§ 28, 4.) 
 
 The softer combination occurs only—(a) In 
 some examples of the 1 plur. Pret. when the 
 tone is thrown forward, as q12p7, we know 
 thee, Hos. 8:2. comp. Gen. 26:29. (6) Be- 
 fore the suffixes 7} 02, 2s as Foy, 1 Sam. 
 16:1, 7x, Genesis 31:27, Aypwy, Jer. 
 18:2. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 § 60. 
 CHANGES OF THE VERBAL-FORMS EFFECTED 
 BY THE SUFFIXES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 100.) 
 
 1. The union of the Suffix Pronouns (§ 33 
 and foll.) with the Verbal-forms is attended 
 with certain changes, partly affecting the form 
 itself, and partly its vowels, which are con- 
 tracted in consequence of the shifting of the 
 tone. The paradigm £ presents a perfect view 
 of these changes, so far as respects the regular 
 verb. The necessary explanations are given in 
 §§ 61—63. 
 
 2. We remark here in general :— 
 
 a) The verbal-forms which end with a vowel 
 (as *nbap) receive suffixes without a connec- 
 tive vowel; e.g. srAvop, I have hilled him. 
 
 6) But those which end with a consonant take 
 suffixes with a connective vowel, viz. those of 
 the Prat. with the connective vowel (_) (,), 
 as up, he has hilled me; those of the Fut. 
 and Imp. with (.) (,), as mop, he will hill 
 him, ax2p (qot-lé-ha), hill her. 
 
 Exceptions to the latter rule see in § 61, 2, ¢, 
 and Rem. 3. The suffixes p 02, which have 
 no connective vowel, also form exceptions. 
 
 § 6 ] . 
 PRETER WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 The changes of the verbal-forms, occasioned 
 by suffixes, are most numerous in the Preeter. 
 Some of them affect the vowels, in consequence 
 of the shifting of the tone; others the sufform- 
 atives, which are so modified as to render the 
 form better fitted to receive an accession at the 
 end; e. g.— 
 
 a) In the 3 fem. sing. 7— is changed to n—, 
 nm. 
 
 b) In the 2 fem. sing. A becomes xn, which is 
 explained by the old form of the Pronoun 
 ‘my, myo (§ 33, Rem. 4. § 44, Rem. 2.) 
 This form can be distinguished from that of 
 the 1 pers. only by the connexion. 
 
 c) In the 2 mas. plur. om becomes 17. This 
 may be explained from the Chaldee forms 
 PAX, prep, corresponding to the Heb. ony, 
 onan (§ 33,Rem.5.) The form smy actually 
 occurs in the Rabbinic. Of the feminine 
 
 j272R, with suffixes, there is no example. 
 
 
 
 §1 
 
 These changes in the sufformatives extend 
 through all the conjugations. 
 Rem. 1. In the 3 mas. sing. aap is con- 
 tracted to {xop, and in the 2 mas. sing. IAP 
 to jnyop, according to § 33, Rem. 8. ~ 
 
 2. The 3 fem. sing. has the twofold pecu- 
 liarity—(a) that it takes the suffixes which 
 make a syllable by themselves (>, 1 7, 7, 
 32, D2, 32), without a connective vowel, con- 
 trary to the general rule, § 60, 2,6; () that 
 with the other suffixes it takes indeed the 
 connective vowel, but the tone is drawn back 
 upon the penult, so that they appear in the 
 shortened form y=, 0=; e.g. yNaDN, she loves 
 thee, Ruth 4:15; Dnt, it burneth them, Isa. 
 47:14; Dna, she hath stolen them, Gen. 31 : 32. 
 For Fm WT &c., are found in Pause Wh 
 Ps. 69: 10, Who as qT Cant. 8:5, (qnar, 
 in the other member of the sentence, is so 
 pointed merely for the sake of correspondence 
 in sound.) The forms 377, nAyop, are con- 
 tracted from wnop, oP (or properly 
 manzop). Compare u— for wm}—, § 34, 2. 
 The 7 in mmyop has not Mappiq, because, 
 originally, it served merely to prolong the 
 preceding vowel, (comp. in Arab. xm for 7). 
 
 3. The 2 mas. sing. assumes in all cases 
 the form nop, and the suffix has no connec- 
 tive vowel, with the single exception »Fbop, 
 from yop and +; e.g. 3p, Ps. 139:1; 
 elsewhere, however, as Any, Ps. 22:2. In 
 the 2 fem. sing. "7 is also written defectively, 
 as nay, Jer. 15:10. Instead of it the mas- 
 culine termination is also adopted, as DAYIOT, 
 thou (fem.) dost adjure us, Cant. 5:9. Isa. 
 2:19. 
 
 4, In verbs middle E and O the vowel of 
 the second syllable is shortened into Hhireq 
 or Qamets-Hhatuph, as wang, 1 Sam.'1:20; 
 Ynys Ps, 18: 5. 
 
 5. In the Pret. Piél, Tseri of the final 
 syllable sometimes falls away, and sometimes 
 is changed to Seghol; see the paradigm. 
 The forms of Hiphil are never thus shortened. 
 
 § 62. 
 INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 1. The vowel-changes of the Infinitive may 
 be gathered from the inflexion of Segholate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ss 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 | 
 
 | 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a oe 
 62 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, | 
 
 nouns, to which the Nominal-form ‘7 belongs. 
 (§ 90. Parad. VI. and no. 6, Rem. 4.) 
 Rem. 1. The Inf. of the form 133 becomes, 
 with suffixes, 29%, like nouns of the form v7, 
 as miyw, Gen. 19:33. 
 
 2. Before D>, 32, are found forms which 
 depart from the analogy of Segholate nouns ; 
 e.g. DIN *hvl-kh&m, your eating, Gen. 3:5; 
 TY yemoddh-khd, thy standing, Obad. 11. 
 The analogy is adhered to, however, in n21¥p, 
 your harvesting, Levit. 19:9, and D2DND (mb- 
 ds-kh&ém), your contemning, Isa. 30:12. 
 
 3. On the difference between “mp and bo 
 see § 130, 1, Rem. 
 
 2. What has been said of the Inf. applies also 
 to the leading form ‘x7 of the Imp. The forms 
 ‘mp, Wp, which are not presented in the pa- 
 radigm, suffer no change. For the fem. mbiip 
 is substituted the masculine form yp, as in 
 the Future. 
 
 § 63. 
 FUTURE WITH SUFFIXES. 
 
 In the Future, the forms which end with the 
 last stem-letter lose the vowel of the final syl- 
 lable, except before 4, 03, 33, where it is 
 changed into Qamets-Hhatuph. Here also the 
 mas. i7apm* takes the place of the fem. mbpn 5 
 e.g. Jer.2:19. Job 19:15. The form with 
 epenthetic Nun stands most naturally at the end 
 of the sentence. 
 
 Rem. 1. The final vowel is not thus dropped 
 in verbs Fut. A (such are all verbs 5 guttural), 
 which retain in the Fut. and Jmp. their A 
 sound, lengthening Pattahh into Qamets ; 
 e.g. ‘ow, hear me, Gen. 23:11; “han, it 
 put me on (as a garment), Job 29:14; TROND, 
 let them reclaim it, Job 3: 5. 
 
 2. By a Syriasm the suffixes are sometimes 
 attached, without a connective vowel, to the 
 plural termination p; e.g. ‘yaNyD, they will 
 find me, Prov. 1:28. Job 19:2. Isa. 60:7, 10. 
 
 8. In Piél the Tseri of the final syllable 
 falls away as in Kal; but before y 02 72 it 
 is shortened into Seghol, as P2323 less fre- 
 quently into Hhireq, as o2zpxx, Job 16:5. 
 
 * This is also employed as feminine without a suffix. 
 Jer. 49:11. Ezek. 37:7. 
 
 
 
 | 
 comp. Exod. 31:13. Isa. 25:1. In Hiph. 
 Hhireq is retained, but Tseri (of the Fut. 
 apoc.) falls away, as mTPA, thou enrichest 
 it, Ps. 65:10. 1 Sam. 17:25. Comp. § 52, 
 Rem. 4. 
 
 THE IRREGULAR VERB. 
 § 64. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 101.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 We have already seen in general (§ 41) in 
 what the anomalies of the verb consist. We 
 shall now take a more particular view of those 
 which actually occur. 
 
 1. Of imperfect verbs there are :— 
 
 a) Verbs re) (verba prime rad. Nun), as 2) 
 (§ 65), together with some verbs ‘pb (§ 70.) 
 b) Verbs $y (verba media rad. geminate, or 
 
 verba geminantia Y), as 2320 (§ 66.) 
 
 Here also some include those verbs whose 
 third radical is n or 3, inasmuch as these 
 letters, whenever they take Sheva and are 
 followed by sufformatives beginning with n 
 or 3, unite with them and form a double con- 
 sonant. But this deviation from the regular 
 form is simply an application of Daghesh 
 compensative, (§ 20, 1, a;) eg. mm for 33302, 
 Lam. 5:6; m2 for nny3, Deut. 20:20. 
 
 2. Of verbs with quiescents (verba quiescentia, 
 called also feeble verbs) there are properly nine 
 classes, the three feeble letters »x, each forming 
 three classes, according as it is the first, second, 
 or third stem-letter; and this is the actual 
 number in the Arabic. But in Hebrew, verbs 
 with » (most of which are to be regarded as 
 verba gutturalia) belong here only in part, while 
 two of the classes coincide and form but one. 
 Thus only seven remain, viz.— 
 
 a) Verbs fb; e.g. dx (§ 67.) 
 
 
 
 b) — ‘bp for {p; e.g. wy for th (§ 68.) 
 
 c) — $d; eg. am (§ 69.) 
 
 d) — ‘y; eg. op (§ 71.) 
 
 e) — ‘%y; eg. wa (§ 72.) 
 
 Sf) — 3 eg. exo ( 73.) | 
 9) — 1M) for % and %; eg. mba (§ 74.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS 
 
 OF SPEECH. 63 
 
 
 
 § 65. 
 
 VERBS §B. E.g. 022, to approach. Parad. @. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 102.) 
 
 The irregularities of these verbs are as fol- 
 lows :— 
 
 1. The Jmp. and Inf. constr. often lose (by 
 Apheeresis, § 19, 3) their Nun, which would 
 here take Sheva, as 3 for 23. The Inf. has 
 regularly, to distinguish it from the Jmp., the 
 feminine ending n—, or, with a guttural, n— 
 (79, 1), as m3, yi (from wx, 2). The Imp. 
 has usually Pattahh; but also Tseri, as ha 
 give. Frequently it takes He parag., as nan, 
 give up. 
 
 2. Whenever Nun, after a preformative, 
 stands at the end of a syllable, it assimilates 
 itself to the following stem-letter, (§ 19, 2, a;) 
 viz.—(a) In the Fut. Kal; e.g. b= for ‘ey, 
 un for way, yr for yay. (6) In the Prat. 
 Niph.; e.g. 03) for v2. (c) In Hiphil and 
 Hophal, (which here has always Qibbuts ;) e. g. 
 way, wan, for was, B27. 
 
 
 
 The other forms are all regular. Those con- 
 jugations which are regular throughout are not 
 included in Paradigm G. 
 
 The Fut. O is the most frequent, as in the 
 regular verb; Fut. E occurs only in the verb 
 Rm 
 
 The characteristic of these verbs in all 
 forms which begin with a formative letter 
 is the Daghesh forte following it in the second 
 radical, Some forms, however, of one class 
 of verbs *p (§ 70), and even of verbs $y 
 
 (§$ 66, 5), exhibit the same appearance. 
 
 Verbs {p likewise exhibit such forms of the 
 
 Imp. as 3, 3. 
 
 
 
 Rem. 1. The instances are comparatively 
 few in which the forms mentioned in nos, 1 
 and 2 retain their Nun; e.g. Imp. 23, 5); 
 Inf. 23 (but also nyi); Fut. rox, Jer. 3:5, 
 (elsewhere 1). In WViph. this never occurs, 
 and in Hiph. and Hoph. very seldom, as 
 ya, Ez. 22:20; spn, Judg. 20:31. It 
 regularly occurs, however, in all verbs which 
 have a guttural for their second stem-letter, 
 
 * The verb 022, employed as a paradigm, has the 
 Fut. A, which is not presented however as the most 
 usual form of the Fué. in verbs of this class. 
 
 ——— 
 
 
 
 
 
 as $y. In these verbs the Nun rarely falls 
 away, as nm and nox; Wiph. om for om. 
 
 2. These anomalies are in part exhibited 
 by the verb mp), whose 5 is treated like the 
 Nun of these verbs, (§ 19,2.) Hence, Fut. 
 mp, Imp. mp (seldom np), Inf. constr. nop, 
 Hoph. Fut. ny. Niphal, however, is mp‘. 
 
 3. In the verb ym the final Nun is also 
 assimilated, as ‘pm, nna; Inf. constr. np for 
 mA (see § 19, 2), with suff. vpn. 
 
 § 66. 
 
 VERBS $y. E.g. 120. Parad. F. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 103.) 
 
 1. The principal irregularity of these verbs 
 (called in Arabic verba surda) consists in the 
 contraction of the second and third radicals into 
 one double letter, and not only in the common 
 case, when no vowel intervenes, as x30 for w23, 
 but also when a vowel would regularly stand 
 between them, as 15 for 33p, 15 for ano. Those 
 forms are not contracted which contain un- 
 changeable vowels or a Daghesh forte, as 3520, 
 anid, 33D. 
 
 2. The monosyllabic stem thus obtained takes 
 throughout the vowel which the full form would 
 have had in its second syllable, and which in the 
 regular verb characterizes the form, (§ 43, 1;) 
 e.g. 1D for 130; Inf. 2d for 130; Hiph. 300 for || 
 22077 (comp. no. 6.) ‘ 
 
 8. The Daghesh forte, which, after this con- 
 traction, properly belongs to the final stem- 
 letter, is excluded from it (§ 20, 3, a), except 
 when formative additions are made at the end, 
 as 330, 13D, Fut. sD». 
 
 4, When the sufformative begins with a con- 
 sonant (3, n), a vowel is inserted before it in 
 order to render audible the Daghesh of the 
 final-stem letter, (§ 20, 8, Rem.) This vowel 
 in the Preet. is 4, in the Imp. and Fut. —; e. g. 
 nip, mii, Fut. npn. 
 
 The Arabian writes indeed regularly nnn, 
 but pronounces in the popular language mn, 
 madita, maddita, also, according to Lumsden, 
 maddata, which last is exactly analogous to 
 the Hebrew inflexion. 
 
 5. The preformatives of Fut. Kal, Pret. 
 Niph., and of Hiph. and Hoph., which in conse- 
 quence of the contraction stand in a simple 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 syllable (a5p instead of 23p)), take, instead of 
 the short vowel of the regular form, the corre- 
 sponding long one, (§ 27,2.) Hence Fut. a> 
 for 230) = 23 ;* Fut. A, 1» for sy»; Hiph. 
 aon for aap7, Inf. 19m for asp; Hoph. ap 
 for 207. This long vowel (except the 3 in 
 Hophal) is mutable. 
 
 There is still another mode of constructing 
 these forms (the common one in Chaldee), 
 which supplies a Daghesh in the first radical in 
 place of doubling the third; e.g. 15 for 23D, 
 Fut. Hiph. on? for npn, Hoph. nz for nap. 
 These forms do not take Daghesh in the final 
 letter on receiving an accession, as 177) (from 
 137), because the doubling is already supplied 
 in the first letter. They therefore omit also 
 the vowels 4 and —; e.g. mbzn (from 3), 
 Jer..19:3. The parad. exhibits these forms. 
 
 6. Of many of these contractions, however, 
 the originals are not found in the regular verb, 
 though they may be traced in other analogous 
 forms. Thus 1 stands for 13>, the Arabic 
 form for 13m; Hiph. 107 for a307 (according to 
 the Chaldee apy); Pret. Miph. 302 for 1302; 
 Fut. Niph. 15 for 223, comp. ‘op, § 50, 
 Rem, 2. 
 
 7. Instead of Piél, Pual, Hithp. and in the 
 same signification, is found in most verbs of this 
 kind, the unfrequent conjugation Poél (§ 54, 1), 
 with its Passive and Reflexive; e.g. iy, to 
 treat one ill, Pass. ‘iv, Reflex. Yavny (from 
 Sy); in some is found Pilpel (§ 54, 4), as 
 7393, aoa} (from %). Pass. viva, to be 
 caressed, (from yyw). They are inflected regu- 
 larly like Piél. 
 
 8. The tone is not thrown forward upon the 
 formative syllables, beginning with a vowel 
 (I=, 3, —, comp. § 44, Rem. 3), but remains on 
 
 
 
 * It might seem far more easy, in explaining the origin 
 of the Fut. 15. (as well as of the Fut. in verbs Y, aw) 
 to regard it as formed from the Inf. 3D by prefixing 
 2 (for ats ; the Qamets taking the place of Sheva here, 
 BS the same principle as in n2¥, wy win, namely, 
 because the tone-syllable prefers this vowel under the 
 preceding letter, But we should thus explain only this 
 sicgle case, and not the long vowels of the other forms 
 (eH, 20°77), all of which, however, manifestly conform 
 te the regular vowel. The A which is found here, as in 
 Arabic, under the preeformatives, is to be regarded in 
 general as their original vowel, and is the basis of their 
 pointing in verbs SD and {p. 
 
 the stem-syllable, as 15.* Before other suffor- 
 matives, it rests upon the inserted syllables 4 
 and \— (with the exception of om and yn which 
 take the tone), and in consequence the vowels 
 of the word are shortened; e.g. 12Dn, APRON 5 
 maoy, mniapi. 
 The surest characteristic of these verbs is 
 the doubling of the final radical in forms 
 which retain only the first and third. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 I. On Kal. 
 
 1. In the Pret. are found some examples with 
 Hholem (comp. 95>, § 43, 1), as y04 for 30D}, 
 Job 24:24; 935 for adn, Gen. 49 : 23, 
 
 2. The Hholem of the Inf, Imp., and Fut. 
 (ad, 15"), as a pure vowel, is written defectively, 
 with a few exceptions, which are found espe- 
 cially in the later orthography; e.g. W125 for 
 123, Est.3:13. 8:11. It is consequently short- 
 ened into Qamets-Hhatuph or Qibbuts, when- 
 ever it loses the tone, as “7, Job 38:7, with 
 suff. Spa, when he founded, Prov. 8: 27, Imp. 
 23m, pity me, Fut. with Vav convers. 1p), Judg. 
 11:18, with suff. paw, Prov. 11:3, Qeri. 
 
 3. Of final Pattahh in the Inf, Fut. and 
 Imp. (sop, Sop), the following are examples, 
 Imp. ‘yd, Jer. 5:26, 23, Ps. 119:22, Fut. 1102, 
 Isa. 24:9, 5p, Gen. 16:4,5. The last two 
 have often been mistaken for anomalous forms 
 of Niphal, striking as the analogy is, (see no. 5.) 
 Examples of the Chaldaizing Fut. are, 1b» even 
 though 2 is also in use; os, 1 Kings 9:8; 
 vy, from wp. 
 
 4, In the Participle occurs the Aramzean form 
 Dsw for vow, Jer. 30:16, Kethibh. 
 
 IL. On Niphal. 
 
 5. Besides the most usual form with Pattahh 
 in the second syllable, as given in the paradigm, 
 there is still another with Tseri, and another 
 with Hholem (analogous with mp, xp, 
 § 48, 1), extending through the whole con- 
 jugation; e.g. Pret. 5p) we pi)» Isa. 49:6, 
 Inf. pen, Ps. 68:3, Pa pp, 1 Sam. 15:9. 
 With Hholem 3533, Isa. a Inf. absol. 237, 
 
 * The terminations for gender and number in the 
 Participles take the tone, as these are not a part of the 
 verbal inflexion, as mop 2, M200. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 65 
 
 Isa, 24:3, Imp. vag, Numbers 17 : 10, ee ela ince riy | wh aa Almoneh tee aciponmleeasdbicnch drew 
 win, Jer. 48:2. A Chaldaizing form of Niphal 
 is 5m, Ezek. 25:3, (from 597). 
 
 IIL. On Hiphil and Hophal. 
 
 6. Besides Tseri the final syllable has also 
 Pattabh, especially with gutturals, as yon; Inf. 
 ‘a7, Jer.4:11. But also without a guttural, as 
 pig, 2 Kings 23:15, Plur. »20y, 1 Sam. 5:10, 
 Part. 529, Ezek. 31: 3. 
 
 7. The Future with retracted tone takes the 
 form 723, Ps. 91: 4, 52%), Gen. 29 : 10. 
 
 8. Chaldaizing forms of Hiphil and Hophal : 
 1p, Ex. 13:18, 1nd), Deut. 1:44, n>, Isa. 
 24:12, also 1m (with Daghesh forte implicitum, 
 for 1m, from +7), Prov. 27:17. 
 
 IV. In General. 
 
 9. Verbs $y are very nearly related to verbs 
 » (§ 71), as appears even from the similarity in 
 their conjugations, which are parallel throughout. 
 In form the verb $y is generally shorter than 
 the other, (comp. 10) and oy», 27 and O77). 
 In some cases they have precisely the same 
 form, as in the Fut. convers. of Kal and Hiphil, 
 in Hophal, and in the unfrequent conjugations. 
 On account of this relation they have some- 
 times borrowed forms from each other; e.g. 
 pr for sy, Prov. 29:6. 
 
 10. Along with the contracted forms there 
 are found, especially in certain conjugations and 
 tenses, others which are wholly regular; e.g. 
 mz, Plur. 3a, 90373 (also 433533, Deut. 3:7); 
 Inf. rap and 2. Fut. yom, Amos 5:15, else- 
 where yir. Hiph. priq, Fut. 177 (which is 
 never written defectively), Part. own, Ezek. 
 3:15. Sometimes the full form appears to be 
 emphatic, Ps. 118: 11. 
 
 11. We have seen above (no. 5), that in the 
 Fut. of the Chaldee form the Daghesh of the 
 third radical, together with the preceding vowel, 
 is omitted before sufformatives. Of the same 
 omission in the Hebrew form of the Fut. there 
 are unquestionable examples, as 1913, Gen. 
 11:7, for 33, we will confound ; 103) for wT, 
 v. 6, they will ‘devise ; 7203 for 732, Ezek. ALS 35 
 comp. Isa. 19:3. Jer. 8: 14.* 
 
 * In the above examples both the Daghesh and the 
 preceding vowel are omitted. In other examples the 
 vowel is retained, and even lengthened by the Pause, as 
 ji 
 
 
 
 12, Although the sufformatives do not draw 
 down the tone, (see no, 8,) yet it is thrown 
 forward when suffixes are appended, as 20, 
 320, Psalm 118:11. The vowels suffer the 
 changes pointed out in § 27, 1, viz. Hholem 
 in the Ful. becomes Qibbuts, less frequently 
 Qamets-Hhatuph; seri in Hiph. becomes 
 Hhireq (comp. the analogous forms nyIoM, 
 mNV3DT) 5 the preeformatives take Sheva; e. g. 
 30", Ps. 49 : 6, wHaD?, Job 40: 22, "2am, Ps, 
 67: 2, Hiph. BD, Ezek. 47:2. 
 
 § 67. 
 
 E.g. 528, to eat. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 104.) 
 
 VERBS ftp. Parad. H. 
 
 So far as » is treated as a consonant and a 
 guttural, these verbs have all the properties of 
 verbs Pe guttural exhibited in § 57. They 
 belong to the verba quiescentia whenever their 
 becomes quiescent, which happens only in 
 certain verbs and forms, as follows :— 
 
 1. In the Fut. Kal of five verbs, viz. 728, 
 mx, 528, Wx, TEx, the x always quiesces in 
 Hholem; v3. In some others, the form in 
 which it retains its power as a consonant is also 
 in use, as ww and wy». The last syllable of 
 this Fut. has Tseri, especially with the disjunc- 
 tive accents at the end of the sentence; but with 
 the conjunctive accents, which mark the con- 
 tinuance of the discourse, it takes Pattahh; 
 e.g. DY Tax», perish the day! Job 3:3. On the 
 contrary, 73N? m3), for ever shall he perish, 
 Job 20:7, (comp. + 59, 1,c.) When the tone 
 is retracted the final syllable may also take 
 Seghol, as oN) (Milel), with conjunctive ac- 
 cents, but with the distinctives sonn (Milra.) 
 
 But whence the quiescence of x in O? 
 
 It is most natural to assume as its origin a 
 
 kindred form §p, viz. Tay, Ta (comp. § 8, 5. 
 
 7,1. and 24, 2,6.) It is true that the cog- 
 
 nate languages furnish no example of such 
 
 a form, except in the case of mpx (Arab. 
 
 yr for MN, Job 19:23; 7OT, 1 Sam. 2:9, for WT ; 
 mn, she lives, Ex. 1:16, for mr. 
 ever, occur also out of Pause, as mp7 for 7337, Prov. 
 7313, 7333, 1 Sam. 14: 36, DM, Isa. 67:5, for DAM ; 
 comp. also min, Ps. 71:23, for 123." (to avoid the 
 
 Such FOR how- 
 
 occurrence of four Nuns), and 239M, Ruth 1:13, for 
 TYR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | Se SIRES ROIS RSE 
 
 GE FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 re) wafa;) but there are other instances in 
 
 which it is manifest that the same appear- 
 ance is to be explained in this manner; e. g. 
 mst, this, properly from xx (but comp. the 
 kindred form », ‘1, see § 37, Rem. 13) D'IND, 
 a balance, from j3x, Arab. 31), to weigh. 
 Very seldom does x in the Fut. Kal quiesce 
 in Tseri, as xn, Mic. 4:8, contracted from 
 mnxn; always, however, in the form 7x}, 
 dicendo, (Inf. with 2») for Torx), § 24, 2, a. 
 
 vi ie 
 
 2. In the 1 Pers, Fut. the radical x (to avoid 
 the repetition of this letter) is regularly dropped 
 (§ 24, 4), as wok for Txx. 
 
 Except in this case, x seldom falls away, 
 as HOM for FNM, Ps. 104:29, AnD for >72N, 
 Ps. 139:20, im (from 53x), Jer. 2: 36. 
 
 The Parad. H shews in what forms » is 
 treated as a quiescent, and where it retains its 
 character as a guttural. 
 
 Rem. 1. Out of Kal » seldom quiesces, as 
 in Niph. wa, Jos. 22:9, Hiph. byxis, Numb. 
 11:25, mix, Jer. 46:8, pro, Prov. 17:4, 
 Imp. yn, Isa. 21:14. 
 
 2. In Piél x sometimes falls away by con- 
 traction (comp. opm, PNP); e.g A722 for 
 nit, Job 35:11. 
 
 § 68. 
 VERBS %p. 
 FIRST CLASS, OR VERBS ORIGINALLY {b. 
 E. g. 1, to dwell. Parad. I. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 105, A.) 
 
 Verbs ‘pb are divided into two principal 
 classes, which are wholly different from each 
 other in their origin and inflexion. The first 
 embraces those verbs which have properly a 
 \ for their first stem-letter. In Arabic they 
 
 277 
 
 are written with ) (e.g. 1h, Arab. Ns, walada), 
 
 but in Hebrew, by a difference of dialect, they 
 take » instead of it, wherever the first radical 
 is the initial letter. The second embraces those 
 which are properly ‘b, and which have Yodh 
 also in Arabic, (§ 69.) A few verbs % form 
 in some respects a third class, inflected like 
 verbs {p (§ 70.) 
 
 In -y° are contained two verbs, distin- 
 guished both by form and signification ; viz.— 
 (1) 1g? (for wn), Fut. 12, 13, to be in a 
 strait; (2) 13), Fut. 1, a3), to form. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The peculiarities in the inflexion of the first | 
 
 class, which is analogous with the Arabic ‘p, 
 are the following :— 
 
 1. In the Fut., Imp., and Inf. constr. of Kal 
 there is a two-fold form. About half the num- 
 ber of these verbs have the Fut. Z. Hence, Fut. 
 2}, contracted avi» (according to § 24, 2, d), 
 but written, without exception, defectively, as 
 rw; Imp. 3 for a> (by Apheresis); Inf. 
 nig for nw (with the fem. ending n=, which 
 the Inf. usually takes to distinguish it from the 
 Imp.) The other half have the Fut. A, and 
 retain the Yodh uttered with the JZ sound, as 
 wy, Imp. oy, Inf. 70. 
 
 That the latter mode of inflexion belongs 
 to verbs actually ‘> (which has been often 
 overlooked and falsely denied) is shewn, 
 partly by the numerous verbs which take 
 these forms in Kal, and at the same time 
 have } in Niphal, Hiphil, and Hophal, partly 
 by the analogy of the Arabic, where the 
 verbs ‘p have precisely the same double in- 
 flexion. Besides, the form wx» may be re- 
 garded as standing properly for wy, accord- 
 ing to § 24, 2, c. 
 
 Even in the same verb are found two 
 forms, one with Yodh, the other without it, 
 as py, 2 Kings 4: 41, and px, Ezek. 24:3, 
 wy, 1 Kings 21:15, wy, Deut. 2:24, and uw, 
 with He parag. my, Deut. 33:23, Fut. 12, 
 Deut. 32: 22, and 1p», Isa. 10: 16. 
 
 To the first mode of inflexion belong, e. g. 
 1), NZ, IW, TH, J (mot in use, Fut. 732), 
 yy, Fut. yy with final Pattahh on account of 
 the guttural; to the second belong Fy, yx, 
 wy, though the latter is in Arabic , 
 
 2. The original Vav appears always in 
 Niphal, Hiphil, and Hophal. It quiesces in 
 the Pret. and Part. of Niph. and throughout 
 Hiph. in Hholem, throughout Hophal in Shureq, 
 as wi (for avn), min (for avy), awh (for 
 awry). In the Inf, Imp., and Fut. Niph., ) re- 
 mains as a consonant, and the inflexion is re- 
 gular, as aviv, ay. It also retains its power 
 as a consonant in the Hithp. of some verbs; 
 e.g. yn from yp, and in some derivative 
 nouns, as 19, offspring, from 1b», to bear. 
 
 8. The other forms, with ‘few exceptions, 
 (see Rem. 3, 4,) are regular. 
 
 In those forms in which Yodh does not 
 appear, these verbs may be distinguished, in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 ee 
 
 
 
 the Fut. of Kal by the Tseri under the pre- 
 formatives, in Niph., Hiph., and Hoph., by 
 the Vav (, 3, 3) before the second radical. 
 Forms like 3, ni, they have in common 
 with verbs fp. Hophal has the form of the 
 same conjugation in verbs $y and ‘y. 
 
 Rem. 1. The Inf. of Kal, without the 
 radical Yodh (see no. 1) has very seldom the 
 masculine form like yy, to know, Job 32 : 6, 10, 
 or the feminine ending n— like 1}, to bear, 
 2 Kings 19:3. With a guttural the latter 
 takes the form n— instead of n=, e.g. 
 nv}. ny in 1 Sam. 4:19, is contracted to 
 nm) (§ 19, 2.) The Jmp. often has n— para- 
 gogic, as 1, NZ? sometimes written 7), Gen. 
 23:13. The full form has seldom the femi- 
 nine ending, as nd). 
 
 2. The Fut. of the form 2 takes Pattahh 
 in its final syllable only when it has a gut- 
 tural, as yp, or in Pause, as 72) When 
 the tone is drawn back upon the penult, the 
 final syllable takes Seghol, namely, before 
 a word of one syllable and after Vav conver- 
 sive; e.g. % Wp, Cant.4:6, 7333, 20%, but 
 in Pause 12. A very rare exception, in 
 which a Fut. of this kind is written fully, is 
 mrx, Mic. 1:8. 
 
 8. As an exception the Fut. Niph. some- 
 times retains Yodh; e.g. 51%, Gen. 8:12. 
 comp. Ex. 19:13. The first Person has 
 always the form iwhy, not awe; comp. § 50, 
 Rem. 4. 
 
 4. In Piél the radical Yodh sometimes falls 
 away after » preformative which takes its 
 punctuation, (comp. § 67, Rem. 2;) eg. 
 wen} for wz, Nah. 1:4. 
 
 5. Fut. Hiph., like Fut. Kal, takes Seghol 
 when the tone is drawn back, as ADT, Prov. 
 1:5, FD} 
 
 § 69. 
 VERBS ‘5. 
 
 SECOND CLASS, OR VERBS PROPERLY ‘5. 
 E.g. 1°, tobe good. Parad. K 
 (Lehrgeb. § 195, B.) 
 
 The most essential points of difference be- 
 tween verbs properly ‘p and verbs {p are the 
 following :— 
 
 1, Kal has only the first of the two forms 
 described in § 68, 1,—namely, that in which the 
 radical » remains, commonly with A final in the 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 Future, as 120”, Inf. ro. But the Futures E 
 also belong to verbs of this class, as 13%, Wy), 
 Gen. 2:7, pp, 9:24. 
 
 2. In Hiphil the » is retained and is pronounced 
 as Tseri; e.g. »org (for ron, § 24, 2, b), Fut. 
 yor. It seldom remains moveable as in +e, 
 Prov. 4:25. comp. Ps. 5:9, Qeri. 
 
 The following are the only verbs of this 
 kind: 20, px, Pp, W, 72, Wr. 
 
 Of the Fut. Hiph. there is a form with » 
 prefixed, which presents some difficulty; e. g. 
 20, Job 24:21, 4°)» from Yq, Isa. 15:2. 
 16:7. 65:14. It is probable that they were 
 originally of the form >r, and that the 4 
 between the two vowels has been softened 
 into » (comp. in Low German Oblijen for 
 bliihen.) In Syriac, x between two vowels 
 is always pronounced as y. The form v1», 
 Ps. 138: 6, may also belong to Hiphil. 
 
 § 70. 
 
 VERBS °b. 
 
 THIRD CLASS, OR IMPERFECT VERBS Sp, 
 (Lehrgeb, § 105, C.) 
 
 The » of these verbs does not quiesce, but is 
 assimilated like 3. Some verbs are exclusively 
 of this class; e. g. vx, Hiph. yxy, Hoph. v7; 
 nz, Hiph. nq. Others have two forms; in 
 one the » is assimilated, in the other it quiesces, 
 as py’, Fut. px and pyty, 1 Kgs. 22:35; 1°, 
 Fut. 1%) and 1, Isa. 44:12. 
 
 Verbs of this class (which seldom occur) 
 are inflected like verbs {p, for which they 
 may easily be mistaken by the learner. When 
 therefore a form has not a root {5 in the 
 Lexicon, he should look for one of this class. 
 
 § 71. 
 
 E.g. D7, to riseup. Parad. L. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 106.) 
 
 VERBS $y. 
 
 1. In these verbs (called in Arabic verba 
 cava) the middle stem-letter \ always quiesces ; 
 not merely in the more usual cases (§ 24, 1) 
 when a Sheva precedes or follows, as wia for 
 wiz, but also when it is both preceded and fol- 
 lowed by a vowel; e.g. nip, Part. Pass. for 
 DIZ; dip, Inf. absol. for nip. Hence the stem 
 is always a monosyllable. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 68 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 2. The vowel in which 4 quiesces is deter- 
 mined by the vowel of the second syllable, 
 which, in the verb, almost universally cha- 
 racterizes the form, (§ 66, 2.) But when this 
 vowel is A, E&, or J, and consequently not 
 homogeneous with , the 1 undergoes a change 
 in order to become homogeneous with the 
 vowel, (§ 24, 2, c,) but after this change com- 
 monly falls away. Hence Pret. onp, more 
 commonly op, for oy; m= for ny 5 
 op for op,* &c. In verbs middle O, as 
 ‘ix for ix, win for wis, the radical 1 is homo- 
 geneous with the characteristic vowel. 
 
 The vowel of the monosyllabic stem is in 
 itself long and unchangeable, (according to 
 § 25, 1;) in certain forms, however, it passes 
 over into a vowel which is changeable and 
 even short, as Pret. Kal op, ANP ; Fut. 
 apoc. Kal and Hiph. oj», op», from py and 
 Dy. 
 3. The preeformatives in the Fut. Kal and 
 
 Pret. Niph. and throughout Hiph. and Hoph. 
 which before the monosyllabic stem form a 
 simple syllable, take instead of the short vowel 
 of the regular form the corresponding long one; 
 eg. Dt for Dip, OPT for oy, OPIN for 
 DyPH. 
 
 This vowel is pure, and falls away when 
 the tone is thrown forward; e.g. with 3 
 parag. yinvo, and before Suff. un. 
 
 The 3 in Hoph. is the only exception. But 
 this conjugation is formed by transposing the 
 letters of the original stem. Thus 0377 be- 
 comes by transposition o7)7, hence opm. 
 
 4. In most cases, forms of the regular verb 
 not now in use lie at the foundation of those of 
 which we are treating; e.g. Imp. oy for DIP; 
 Fut. oi for 0)? (after the form TOP? 5 comp. 
 the Arab. Sn, and the Chald. bop); Part. 
 DR, for oy (after the form op; comp. § 83, 
 no. 1), &e. ‘Those which conform to the re- 
 gular Hebrew verb are generally the most un- 
 frequent, as win (after the form wiz). 
 
 5. In the Pret. Niph. and Hiph. the harsh- 
 ness of pronunciation in such forms as moip, 
 maz, is avoided by the insertion of j before 
 
 * For the sake of conciseness it is sometimes said that 
 the middle Vav with the preceding vowel or Sheva has 
 fallen away, though the expression, considered with 
 reference to the origin of these forms, is inaccurate. 
 
 + See note on § 66, 5. 
 
 
 
 —- 
 
 
 
 the sufformatives of the first and second person. 
 For the same purpose — is inserted in the Fut. 
 Kal before the termination m (comp. § 66, 4.) 
 These inserted syllables take the tone and 
 shorten the preceding vowels, as Dip, DID? 5 
 DPT, MOP; MDA. 
 
 In the last two cases the hard forms without 
 the inserted syllable are also in use. Comp. 
 the Fut. Hiph. 
 
 6. The tone, as in verbs $y is not thrown 
 forward upon the sufformatives n—, 1 —, 
 except with Nun parag.; e.g. TOR, WP, POP. 
 In those persons which take sufformatives with- 
 out epenthesis, {see Rem. 6,) the accentuation 
 is regular, as mop; so in Hophal papn. For 
 the tone on } and — see no. 5. 
 
 7. The conjugations Piél, Pual, and Hith- 
 paél, are very seldom found in verbs properly 
 Sy. The only instance in which } remains move- 
 able is "yy, the Piél of pv. In some others » 
 has taken the place of }, as in 07 from Dy, 
 asm from an, as in the Aramean. On the con- 
 trary, the unfrequent conjugation Pilel (§ 54, 2), 
 with its Passive and Reflexive, is the common 
 form employed in the signification of Piél and 
 as a substitute for it; e.g. Dpip, to raise up, 
 from nip; ont, to elevate, Pass. oon, from on; 
 stivni, to rouse one’s self, from ww. Less fre- 
 quent is the conjugation Pilpel, (§ 54,4;) eg. 
 o3b3, to sustain, to nourish, from ‘>. 
 
 Of these unusual conjugations the parad. 
 exhibits only Pilel and Pulal, from which the 
 Reflexive is readily formed. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 I. On Kal. 
 
 1. Of the Preter and Participle, which in 
 these verbs do not differ at all, the usual form 
 with (,) is very seldom written fully (x—) as 
 in DNR, Hos. 10:14, mond, Ezek. 28 : 24, 26. 
 comp. 16:57. Of verbs middle # and O, which 
 in the regular verb also have their Pret. and 
 Part. the same, (§ 49, 2,) the following are ex- 
 amples; viz. Pret. m> (for mp, np), 2 pers. 
 mm; wia (for wis), mea, wma; ix; Part. no; 
 owia, Ezek. 32 : 30. 
 
 2. In the Inf: and Imp. of some verbs, ) always 
 quiesces in Hholem, as wiz, 110, 1x. In most 
 verbs, however, it quiesces only in Shureq; 
 but even in these the Inf. absol. has { in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 final syllable (after the form a7), as ap? dip, 
 surgendo surgent, Jer. 44:29. 
 
 3. Those verbs which have { in the Inf. 
 retain it in the Fut., as xix. In one verb alone 
 the preformatives of the Fut. have Tseri; viz. 
 wis, Fut. win, (for win, yibh-vosh.) 
 
 4, The shortened Fut. (§ 48:4) has the form 
 pe (very seldom ni, 0p»); e.g. ath, let him 
 return, Deut. 20: 5—8; 30h x, let him not return, 
 Ps, 74:21; my, that he may die, 1 Kings 21: 10. 
 In poetic language are some exceptions, as DY, 
 nin, he, she, shall be high. After Vay conver- 
 sive, and before words of one syllable, the tone 
 is also drawn back upon the penult, and the 
 last syllable takes Qamets-Hhatuph, as D7), 
 7 Job 22:28. 
 tone remains on the ultimate, as nis}; compare 
 Gen. 11 : 28, 32, with 5:5, 8. With a guttural 
 or a Resh, the final syllable may take Pattahh ; 
 €.g. 108), Ruth 4:1. 
 
 > 
 Dp? 
 
 Dp, In Pause, however, the 
 a0 
 
 II. On Niphal. 
 
 5. Anomalous forms are, Prat. 12, Zech. 
 2:17 (after the form ‘n72), Inf. constr. wm, 
 Isa. 25: 10. 
 
 Ill. On Hiphil. 
 
 6. Examples of the Preter without the epen- 
 thetic {: mpyq, Ex. 20:25, nna, &e. 
 
 7. In the Imp. the shortened and lengthened 
 forms opm, m7, have wholly supplanted the 
 regular form Dy. 
 
 The shortened Fut. has the form np, as 
 10}, that he may take away, Ex. 10:17. After 
 Vav conversive the tone is drawn back upon the 
 penult, as Dy); yea) he scattered. The final 
 syllable when it has a guttural or Resh takes 
 Pattabh, as in Kal; e.g. 103), he removed, Gen. 
 8:13. 
 
 IV. In General. 
 
 8. On account of the intimate relation be- 
 tween verbs {y and $y, it is necessary, in ana- 
 lyzing forms, to note particularly the points in 
 which these classes differ. Several forms are 
 exactly the same in both; e.g, Fut. Kal with 
 Vav conversive; Pilel of ‘y and Poél of $v. 
 Hence it is that they often borrow forms from 
 one another, as in Kal ta (Pret. of pa, as if 
 from 3), Zech. 4:10, rma (for ma), Isa. 44:18. 
 
 9. In common with verbs $y (§ 66, 5), those 
 of this class have in Niphal and Hiphil the 
 
 EE 
 
 
 
 matives a short one followed by Daghesh forte. 
 This form and the common one are often both in 
 use; e.g. mon, Fut. mp (also mon, mm); 1, 
 2 Sam. 22:33, (and 1m, Prov. 12:26;) some- 
 times with a difference of signification, as m3n, 
 to cause to rest, to give rest, rs, Fut. ry, to set 
 down, to lay down; yz, to spend the night, to 
 abide, y, y'70, to be headstrong, rebellious. Other 
 examples: JViph. Sia) (from dy, not 522), Gen. 
 17:26, 27. 34:22. Hiph. yy, Lam. 1:8, »w%, 
 Prov. 4:21. 
 
 Here belong some forms of verbs Pe gut- 
 tural with Daghesh forte implicitum, which have 
 generally been derived from a false root [see 
 Lex. Man. art. my], and have even been uncri- 
 tically altered ; viz. wom) for wom, she hastens, 
 (from win), Job 31:5, wy, wyms, 1 Sam. 
 15:19. 25:14, from my, wy, to rush upon. 
 
 10. Verbs whose middle stem-letter is Vav 
 moveable are, in respect to this letter, perfectly 
 regular; e.g. WW, Fut. ww; mys, Piél naz. 
 
 § 72. 
 
 VERBS Sp, E.g. [; to discern. Parad. M. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 107.) 
 
 1. These verbs have the same structure as 
 verbs {y, and their» is treated in the same man- 
 ner as the } of that class; e. g. Pret. Kal j; for 
 y73, and with middle E, pa for pa; Inf. constr. 
 y2 for ya (analogous with yp for ym); Inf 
 absol. ia for fa; Fut. py. for par (Fut. E as in 
 7m, Wor). 
 
 2. Several forms are the same as in verbs 
 vy; e.g. the Pret. and Inf. absol. of Kal, and 
 the whole of Hiphil. In other cases this class 
 borrows its forms from that, as Wiph. jim, Pil. 
 yi2 (as if from 72). The two classes are clearly 
 distinguished only in the Inf. constr., Imp. and 
 Fut. Kal; in some forms also of the Preeter. 
 
 3. These two classes are in all respects closely 
 related to each other. Hence it is that several 
 verbs are at the same time ‘y and 4y, with the 
 same signification in both forms, as p> and p?, 
 to spend the night; o¥w and ov, to place. In 
 other verbs one of the two is the predominant 
 form, as ‘3, to erult; xa is found only in Prov. 
 23 : 24. 
 2, m0. 
 
 | 
 Chaldee and Rabbinic punctuation, which sub- 
 stitutes for the long vowel under the prefor- 
 But few are exclusively ‘y, as 2, : 
 

 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 The early grammarians did not recognise 
 this class of verbs, but referred all its forms 
 to verbs ‘y. TR & & they regarded as a form 
 of Hiphil, truncated at the beginning, for 
 yx, pra. The analogy of the Arabic is in 
 favour of the view here presented. 
 
 The Paradigm M is placed in connexion 
 with that of verbs {y, in order to exhibit the 
 parallelism of the two classes. The con- 
 jugations which it omits have the same form 
 as in Parad. L. 
 
 Rem. 1. In the Pret. Kal some verbs have 
 both the forms exhibited in the paradigm, as 
 mira, Dan. 9:2, 73, Ps. 189: 2. 
 
 2. Examples of the Inf. absol. : 34, litigando, 
 
 
 
 all the other conjugations, in Tseri, mx3n3; in 
 the Imp. and Fut. of all the conjugations, in 
 Seghol, msn, maxon. 
 
 The Tseri and Seghol arose doubtless from 
 the intermingling of the forms of verbs {% 
 and 45 (comp. § 74, 2), occasioned by the 
 strong resemblance which these two classes 
 bear to each other. 
 
 Before the suffixes 7 02 728 retains its 
 character as a guttural, and takes (-:), as | 
 FNeox, Cant. 8:1, spay, Ezek. 28:13, comp. 
 § 59,2, 6. The reason (as in verbs Lamedh 
 guttural) is, that those suffixes take before 
 them a half-vowel. 
 
 8. Before sufformatives beginning with a 
 
 
 
 o, :25, mw, ponendo, Isa. 22:7, also , : 
 | Judg. 11 » mW, P ? vowel & remains a consonant, and the form is 
 
 ope veer o see ; : regular, as wx). 
 8. The Fut. apoc. 1s 7335 with retracted Fir 
 
 i} tone it takes the form 1) 13, Judg. 6:31. 
 So with Vav conversive, Dp, he placed, 121 1. Verbs middle E, like xy, retain Tseri in 
 he perceived. the other persons. Instead of myzp is some- 
 * * * * times found the Aramean form nx? for MNP, 
 4. Verbs Sy scarcely ever suffer their x to | ($ 24, 1, c, and 27, 2,c), Isa. 7:14. comp. Gen. 
 quiesce, and hence are irregular only as re- | 33:11, (after the form nzOp , § 44, Rem. 2.) 
 presented in § 58. Of its quiescence in these 2. In the Inf. occurs the fem. form nxn, 
 verbs there are, however, some examples, as | Levit, 12:4, for mxdo. 
 
 Ny, Isa. 52:7, from my; yrx, Eccles. 12:5,| 3 phe Part, jem. is commonly, by contrac- 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S559 ph rt ‘ . . . . 
 for yxy (§ 24, 1, ¢), Put. Hiph. from yx. tion, nx, seldom (with the Syriac punctuation) 
 nyzb, Cant. 8:10, and defectively written nx}, 
 S 7S. Deut. 28:57. In the forms onxph, 1 Sam. 
 
 14:33, and ont, Neh. 6:8, the vowel is drawn 
 back in the manner of the Syriac, § 24, 1, ¢, 
 - | Rem. 
 
 The x is here, as in verbs fp, treated partly | 4, x sometimes falls away, as in np, Numb. 
 as a consonant with a soft guttural sound | 11-11, nD, Job 32:18. Wiph. poe}, Lev. 
 (scarcely audible at the end of a word), partly | 11:43. Hiph. worm, Jer. 82:35. 
 
 VERBS Rb. E.g. 82D, fo find. Parad. N. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 108.) 
 
 as a feeble and quiescent letter, according to the See the Remarks on verbs 4%, no. vi. 
 following rules :— 
 1. In those forms which end with the third § 74 
 
 radical, the final syllable has always the regular 
 vowel, e.g. NYD, NED, RIND, NET; but Pattahh 
 before the feeble letter » is lengthened into (Lehrgeb. § 109.) 
 
 Qamets (§ 23, 2), viz. in the Pret. Fut. Imp. These verbs, like those tp ($$ 68, 69), em- 
 Kal, in the Pret. Niph., Pual, and Hoph. The | brace two different classes of the irregular 
 (,) however remains mutable (§ 25,1, Rem.), | verbs; viz. % and {, which in Arabic are 
 
 VERBS f1. E.g. 153, fo reveal. Parad. 0. 
 
 hence in the Plural wy. perfectly distinguished from each other, being 
 The Fut. and Imp. Kal have A after the | actually written with » and », But in Hebrew 
 analogy of verbs Lamedh guttural. the original » and ) have passed over into a 
 
 2, x also quiesces before sufformatives be- | feeble 1 (§ 23, 3), in all those forms which 
 ginning with a consonant (n, 2); viz. in the | end with the third radical, and which hence 
 Pret. Kal, in Qamets, NZD 5 in the Pret. of | appear as verbs fb; eg. m2 for 43; md for 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 | OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 71 
 
 22. By far the greater number of these verbs 
 ‘a Ee “ 
 
 | are originally *5; only a few forms occur of 
 
 verbs 5. The two classes are therefore less 
 
 prominently distinguished than verbs {5 and ‘p. 
 
 
 
 A true verb 1) is mp3, whence mv, Part. 
 wa, and the derivatives 9d, mod; yet in the 
 Fut. it has yx (with Yodh.) In my (Arab. 
 2D), to answer, and my (Arab. 120), to suffer, 
 to be oppressed, are two verbs originally dis- 
 tinct, but with the same form in Hebrew, 
 (see the author’s Lex. art. my). In Syriac 
 the intermingling of these forms is carried 
 still further, verbs > being also confounded 
 with those 4), i.e. with the two classes {5 
 and ‘4 of the Arabic. 
 
 Wholly different are those verbs whose 
 third stem-letter is 1 moveable, (distinguished 
 by Mappiq;) e.g. 722. They are inflected 
 throughout like verbs Lamedh gattural. It 
 ‘is certain, however, that some verbs 4) origi- 
 nated in verbs with final 4 moveable, this 
 letter having lost its original strong and gut- 
 tural sound, and become softened to a feeble 
 
 a 
 11; e.g. Tm, Arab. ics mm; m2, Arab. &> 
 
 =ry3. Hence it is that verbs > are often 
 related to those f5, for which the verb 45 must 
 be assumed as an intermediate form; e.g. 
 map and mip, to be hard; mnp, properly =mn», 
 to be open. 
 
 The grammatical structure of these verbs is 
 as follows :— 
 
 1, The original Yodh, in all forms which end 
 with the third radical, gives place to n quiescent. 
 The 7 thus obtained has this peculiarity in 
 its punctuation, that it disregards the usual 
 punctuation of the final syllable, and in each 
 form takes the same vowel through all the 
 conjugations ; thus— 
 
 71 quiesces in all the Preeters in Qamets. 
 
 in all the Futures and Participles 
 Active in Seghol. 
 
 in all Imperatives in Tseri. 
 
 in the Inf. absol. (except in Hiph. and 
 Hoph.) in Hholem. 
 
 The Part. Pass. Kal forms the only excep- 
 tion, in which the original » is also retained 
 (m2), as well as in some derivatives. 
 
 The Inf. constr. has always the feminine form 
 in n;-hence nib; for nib: (geldveth.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 In explanation of these forms we observe : 
 
 That in the Pret. Kal, 7 stands for %3, 
 according to § 24, 2, c, in order to avoid the 
 diphthong; so in Niph. and Hoph. — Piél 
 and Hithp. are based on the forms ‘2p, Sepnn 
 (§ 51, Rem. 1), Hiph. on the form by7p7, after 
 
 Aes 
 
 the manner of the Arabic ext |, SupR. 
 
 In the Fut. Kal, myx is a Fut. A for 
 (according to § 24, 2, Rem. a), whence also 
 are such plural forms as yyy (see Rem. 4.) 
 The same is true of the other conjugations, 
 all of which, even in the regular verb, have, 
 in connexion with the usual form, another 
 with Pattahh in the final syllable. See § 50, 
 Rem. 2, § 53, Rem. 1. 
 
 That this vowel becomes Tseri in the Jmp. 
 may be explained on the ground, that as the 
 form is shorter than in the Fut., the tone falls 
 more strongly upon the final syllable, and 
 therefore requires the support of the stronger 
 vowel Tseri. Compare the construct state of 
 nouns in W—, § 87, 2, ¢. 
 
 The Hholem of the Inf. absol. is the regular 
 vowel. 
 
 2. Before sufformatives which begin with a 
 consonant (n, 2), the original » is retained and 
 quiesces— 
 
 In the Pret. Kal in Hhireq, as m3. 
 
 In the Preters of the other conjugations it 
 quiesces either in Tseri or Hhireq, as m3 
 or m3; in the Passives, however, only 
 Tseri is found, as 1%. 
 
 In the Futures and Imperatives in Seghol, 
 as T73, MPP. 
 
 The form m3 had its origin in mys, and 
 would properly be ma (the actual form in 
 the Chaldee, m3 and m3, jam3); —— is more 
 contracted than —— and retains no trace of 
 the original A sound. 
 ma 
 
 ma is likewise from 
 
 3. Before sufformatives beginning with a 
 vowel (3, —-, 7—) the Yodh, together with the 
 preceding vowel falls away, (except in Pause ;) 
 e.g. 3 for v2; “ym for yon; ma, 0%}, (but 
 in Pause y5x, see Rem. 4, 11;) and also before 
 suffixes, as #73 (Rem. 18.) But in the 3 Pret. 
 fem. it passes over into n, mb. 
 
 4, The formation of the shortened Future, 
 which occurs in all the conjugations, is strongly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 FORMS AND 
 marked, consisting in the casting away (apocope) 
 of the n—, by which still other changes are 
 occasioned in the form. ‘The shortened Im- 
 perative is also formed by apocope of the n—. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 I. On Kal. 
 
 1. For the 3 Pret. fem. m2 occurs also in 
 the Syriac form ni, from no3, mxja2 (comp. 
 the verb {, Rem. 1), as nivy, Lev. 25:21. So 
 in Hiph. and Hoph.; e.g. ngy, Lev. 26:34, 
 non, Jer. 13:19. 
 
 2. The Inf. absol. has also the form $n), 
 videndo, Gen. 26:28. As the Inf. constr. occurs 
 also, though seldom, ny, Gen. 50:20, Ak, 
 48:11, as well as the feminine form 11)x3, to 
 see, Ezek. 28:17, like miymp, § 45, 2, 6. 
 
 3. The apocope of the Fut. occasions in Kal 
 the following changes :— 
 
 a) The first stem-letter most commonly re- 
 ceives the helping-vowel Seghol, or, when 
 the middle radical is a guttural, Pattahh, 
 (§ 28, 4;) e.g. 5x) for bx, vue for yur. 
 
 b) The Hhireq of the preformative is also 
 sometimes lengthened into Tseri (because it 
 is brought into an open syllable), as xy from 
 my, mA) from m3. 
 
 c) The helping-vowel is sometimes omitted ; 
 e.g. au, Numb. 21:1, ya. The verb my) 
 has the two forms x} and xy, the latter 
 with Pattahh on account of the Resh. 
 
 d) Examples of verbs which are Pe guttural 
 (§ 57) as well as Lamedh He: ‘wys) from 
 my, ws from my. Sometimes the punctu- 
 ation of the first syllable is not affected by 
 the guttural, as in m3), yO. 
 
 e) The verbs myn, to be, and 1m, to live, which 
 would properly have in the Fut. apoc. %, 
 ™m, change these forms to yp and 17, because 
 the Yodh prefers a vowel before it in which 
 it may quiesce, (comp. the derivatives ‘93 for 
 ‘2, wy for rw, &c., § 84, no. v.) From 17, 
 to be, occurs once the form xim for m7, 
 Eccles. 11: 3. 
 
 +. The original » is sometimes retained before 
 the sufformatives beginning with a vowel (comp. 
 no. 3 above), especially in Pause, and before Vun 
 parag. of the Fut., or where for any reason an 
 emphasis rests upon the word, Pret. pn, 
 Deut. 32:37. mp. vy3, Isaiah 21:12. Fut. 
 
 
 
 INFLEXIONS, 
 
 war, Deut. 8:13, more frequently like py3m, 
 Isa. 21:12, (comp. Rem. 11.) 
 
 5. The Part. act. has also a fem. of the form 
 mip, Ps. 128:3, in the Plur. like nvnix, Isa, 
 41:23, (after the form prin, § 49, Rem. 1.) 
 The Part. pass, is sometimes without », as 3wy 
 for »wy (prop. nivy), Job 41:25, wy for vpx, 
 15: 22. 
 
 6. Seldom is the second syilable defectively 
 written, as mn, 2 Samuel 15:33, mibyp, Job 
 5312. 
 
 II. On Niphal. 
 
 7. The apocope of the Fut. occasions here 
 no further changes; e. g. xu, Ex. 6:3. 
 
 III. On Piél, Pual, and Hithpaél. 
 
 8. In the Pret. Piél, the second syllable has 
 Hhireq in the greater number of examples, as 
 Mp, ‘M1, which is therefore adopted in the 
 paradigm. Before suffixes, Hhireq is always 
 employed, (because in this vowel the contrac- 
 tion is greater than in Tseri;) e.g. 2m37, Ps. 
 44:20. Pual has always Tseri. 
 
 9. The Fut. loses, after the apocope, the 
 Daghesh forte of the second stem-letter, (comp. 
 § 20, 3, a;) hence Piél 1»; Hithp. 3am, Gen. 
 9:21. Less frequently is the Pattahh then 
 lengthened into Qamets, as inn, 1 Sam. 21:14, 
 wm, Ps. 45:12. 
 
 10. In Piél and Hithp. are found also apo- 
 copated forms of the Jmp., as om for non, whist! 
 Amos 6:10, ‘nnn, 2 Sam. 13: 5. 
 
 11. Examples of Yodh retained in cases 
 where more commonly it is omitted, (see no. 3, 
 and Rem. 4:) Fut. 23m, will ye liken me, Isa. 
 40:25, myrop, they cover them, Ex. 15:5. 
 
 IV. On Hiphil. 
 
 12, In the Pret. Hiph. the forms nq and 
 m7 are about equally common; before suffixes 
 the latter is used as somewhat shorter than the 
 other. j 
 
 13. The Tseri of the Inf. absol. Hiph. is the 
 regular vowel, (as in 7); to this the Inf. 
 absol. Hoph. conforms, as in mer, Lev. 19: 20. 
 The verb m2, to be much, has three forms of the” 
 Inf, viz. 73797, much (used adverbially), may 
 used when the Jnf. is pleonastic, nizyq the Inf- 
 constr. Compare Gen. 41:49. 22:17. Deut. 
 28 : 63. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 f OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 14, The Fut. apoc. has either the form 1, | me, pv» D2, Fut. WY, WD, Hiph. 2 Very 
 
 Isa. 41:2, mp, Gen. 9:27, or (with a helping- 
 vowel) 53), for which, however, is invariably 
 substituted the form 53° (§ 27, Rem. 2, ¢), as 
 ba, 2 Kgs. 18:11, 1531, Ps. 105:24. Ex- 
 amples with gutturals: 5p*), Numb. 23:2, yx, 
 &e. which can be distinguished from the Fut. 
 Kal only by the signification. i 
 
 15. The Jmp. apoc. has invariably the helping- 
 vowel Seghol or Pattahh, as 27 for 297, 7290, 
 Ps. 51:4, mya for my, Tew, Deut. 9:14, bya 
 for mp7, Ex. 33:12. 
 
 V. In General. 
 
 16. In the Aramean, where, as before re- 
 marked, the verbs %5 and 4) flow into one 
 another, both classes terminate, in the Fut. and 
 Part. of all the conjugations, without distinction, 
 in x—, Chald. —. As imitations of this mode 
 of formation we are to regard those forms of 
 the Inf., Imp., and Fut. in 7—, more seldom 
 n— and ——, which are found in Hebrew also, 
 especially in the later writers and the poets. 
 Inf. m7, to be, Ezek. 21:15. my, opprimendo, 
 Ex, 22:22, mpm, Lev. 19:20. Imp. sy, be 
 thou, Job 37:6. Fut. mans, Jer. 17:17,* 
 san for xaNn, Prov. 1:10, mpan-x), Lev. 18: 7.* 
 
 The Yodh is found even at the end of the 
 word (which is also a Syriasm) in rm, Isa. 
 53:10, um, Jer. 3:6, and hence in the Plur, 
 yon, Jos. 14:8. 
 
 17. In three verbs is found the unfrequent 
 conjugation Pilel, or its reflexive (§ 54, 2), 
 where the third radical, which the conjugation 
 requires to be doubled, appears under the form 
 m5; viz. M82, contracted 1x3, to be beautiful, 
 from m2; OTOP, Gen. 21:16, the archers; but 
 especially mm, fo bow, Pilel nyt, hence the 
 Reflexive nynmin, to bow one’s self, to prostrate 
 one’s self, 2 pers. y— and n—, Fut. mom, 
 apoc. A for wis) (analogous with yp for 
 ™)- 
 
 18. Before suffixes, the nm final, with the pre- 
 ceding vowel, falls away, as ‘3x, he answered 
 
 * With the Imperative signification in the two examples 
 marked (*), as well as in 2 Sam, 13:12 (MMYn-dy), 
 the Tseri has no connexion, for in the greater number of 
 examples this signification is not found, (MYM, Gen. 
 26:29. Jos.7:9, MOY), Jos.9: 24, TAA, Daniel 1: 13, 
 iT}38, Ezek. 5:12, in many MSS. ;) Tseri occurs, more- 
 over, in the Infinitive ; see the examples in the text. 
 
 
 
 seldom does \— take the place of n, as in in'Dy, 
 he will cover them, Ps. 140:10, »y37, smite me, 
 1 Kgs. 20:35. The 3 Pret. fem. always takes 
 before suff. the form nia (Rem. 1), as Dy, 
 Job 33: 4, 
 
 VI. Relation of Verbs 9 and &} to each other. 
 
 19. The verbs of each of these classes, in 
 consequence of their intimate relation (see se- 
 cond paragraph of this section, and Rem. 16), 
 often borrow the forms of the other, especially 
 in the usage of the poets and of the later 
 writers. 
 
 20. Thus there are forms of verbs ’)— 
 
 a) Which have adopted the punctuation of 
 
 verbs 5; e. g. Pret. ND, Ps, 119:101; 
 
 Part. won, Eccles. 9:18. 8:12. Piél Pret. 
 
 nyo, Jer. 51:34, mney, 2 Kgs. 2:21; Fut. 
 
 nor, Job 39:24. Hiph. my, and with 
 
 He parag. (§ 44, Rem. 3) mnxamy, Jos. 6:17. 
 
 b) Which retain their own punctuation, but 
 
 have adopted the 7; e.g. Jmp. mm, Ps. 60: 4. 
 
 Niph. ny, 1 Kgs. 22 : 25. Piél Fut. m1, 
 
 Job 8:21. 
 c) Which in all respects have the appearance 
 
 of verbs f); e.g. nox, Ruth 2:9. i, Ezek. 
 
 28:16. Inf. ion, Gen. 20:6. Fut. nye, 
 
 Job 5:18. Part. fem. xx, Eccles. 10: 5. 
 
 Part. pass. 0, Ps. 82:1. Miph. nE2, 
 
 Jer. 51:9. Hithp. ming, 1 Sam. 10:6. 
 
 Inf. rian, 1 Sam. 10: 13. 
 
 21. On the contrary there are forms of verbs 
 4) which in some respects follow the analogy 
 of verbs 5; e. g. in their consonants, now, Lam. 
 4:1, nya, 2 Kgs. 25:29, xbrqay, 2 Chron. 16:12; 
 in their vowels, non, 1 Kings 17: 14; in both, 
 Dinta, 2 Sam. 21: 12, 
 
 § 75. 
 
 VERBS DOUBLY ANOMALOUS, 
 (Lehrgeb. § 110.) 
 
 1. Such are verbs which have two stem- 
 letters affected by anomalies already described. 
 These verbs exhibit no new changes; and even 
 in cases where two anomalies might occur, 
 usage must teach whether the verb is actually 
 subject to both, or but one of them, or, as some- 
 times happens, to neither. 
 
 Thus from mm are formed Fut. 17, Nah. 
 
 3:7, and t™, Gen. 31:40 (after the analogy 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 of verbs $p), Hiph. 73 (as a verb $y), but in 
 
 Fut. Hoph. vy, (as fp). 
 
 2. The following are examples of doubly 
 anomalous verbs, and of difficult forms derived 
 from them :— 
 
 a) Verbs % and {> (comp. §§ 65 and 73); e.g. 
 xiv, Imp. xv, Inf. constr. nxv (for nxid), also 
 mey (comp. § 73, Rem. 3), Fut. min for 
 main, Ruth 1:14. 
 
 b) Verbs fp and 45 (comp. §§ 65 and 74), as 
 rma, m2. Hence Fut. Kal me, apoc. 03), 39), 
 and w (from 32); Pret. Hiph. 737, Fut. 
 MD, apoc. TP, 2}, So also 3995 Imp. 7137, apoe. 
 qT Inf. ri31; Part. 73. 
 
 c) Verbs {2 and #5 (comp. §§ 67 and 74); e.g. 
 mos, mes. Fut. mex» (plur. x), p21, Deut. 
 31:21, for mma; Fut. apoe. nx), Isa. 41: 25, 
 for my; Imp. yny for any, voy (§ 23, 2, 
 Rem. 2, § 74, Rem. 4); Hiph. Imp. vara for 
 yong, Isaiah 21:14; Fut. apoc. ox, 1 Sam. 
 14:24. 
 
 d) Verbs % and & (comp. §§ 68, 69, and 73), 
 as xx?, Imp. wx, Inf. nes, Hiph. win. , 
 e) Verbs ‘b and 4) (comp. §§ 68, 69, and 74); 
 e.g. TY properly ‘p, and my, 7 which are 
 really ‘>. Inf. viv, niv; Imp. 1; Fut. »», 
 with suff. op, we shot at them (from mm), 
 Numb. 21:30; Piél v4 for yr; Hiph. 
 
 mn, min, Jnfi main; Fut. my, apoc. 1). 
 
 Pret. 83, mx, once 13 for wa, 1 Sam. 25:8. 
 Hiph. wry, 0x37, Fut. pg for wy, Mic. 1:15. 
 Imp. *y3, Ruth 3:15. 
 Ps. 141: 5. rs 
 
 Deserving of notice (g) is the verb *1==7n, 
 to live, which is treated as a verb $y, and 
 hence has 7 in the 3 Pret. Kal, Gen. 8 : 22. 
 In Hebrew it occurs only in this form, but 
 is frequent in Arabic. 
 
 § 76. 
 
 RELATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS TO ONE 
 ANOTHER. BILITERAL VERBS. 
 (Lehrgeb, § 112, comp. § 53.) 
 
 1. Several classes of irregular verbs, e. g. 
 those {p and ‘b, &> and 5, ty and $y, stand in 
 a very intimate relationship, as appears from 
 the similarity in their inflexion, from the forms 
 which they have in common, and from their 
 mutual interchange of forms. This may be 
 
 said, in a somewhat wider sense, of all classes 
 
 | 
 J) Verbs ‘y and &, particularly the verb xia; | . 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 So 1», Hiph. froma, | 
 
 
 
 of irregular verbs; inasmuch as they have all 
 the same original stem, consisting properly of 
 but two essential letters preserved through all 
 its variations, the third being obtained in some 
 cases by doubling the second (as in verbs $y), in 
 others by the addition, at the beginning, middle, 
 or end, of one of the feeble letters, and also, 
 at the beginning of the liquid Nun, (§ 30, 2.) 
 Thus the verbs y52, y, ysD, have their 
 origin in the commom stem yp, and the verbs 
 m3, 72, 77, in the stem 7)- 
 
 2. Verbs which have thus a common mono- 
 syllabie stem, often agree also in their signifi- 
 cation, which cleaves to the two essential stem- 
 letters, and is not changed by the third in- 
 cidental one. Thus 22 PD NI all mean to 
 beat, to break in pieces ; 731, 172, 73, to flee. 
 
 In this manner are related in form and sig- 
 nification— 
 
 1. Verbs fy and $y (in which the essential 
 stem-letters are the first and last); e. g. po 
 and J2, to become poor; wy and wr, to 
 Jeel of, to touch; 1 and ‘mn, to flee. 
 
 2. Verbs ‘pb and fp (in which the two last 
 are the essential stem-letters) both to each 
 other and to the former class. They are re- 
 lated to each other in the verbs 12° and xy, 
 to place, wp2 and wp (yagosh), to fowl; to 
 the former class, especially to verbs {y, in 
 m3 and 1, fo fear; 179 and am, to be good ; 
 
 yp) and ye, to break in pieces. Verbs $ are 
 more seldom found connected with these 
 classes, as DYx and dys, to be destroyed ; wis 
 and wy, to thresh, &e. 
 
 3. Verbs &} and 4} (in which the first two 
 consonants properly form the stem), both to 
 each other and to the former classes; to each 
 other, in x23 and 13, to break in pieces, Sand 
 and 7p, to meet; to verbs of the former 
 classes, in my and xy, to suck, m7 and m1, 
 to thrust, &c. 
 
 § 77. 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 It often happens, when two related irregular 
 verbs are in use in the same signification, that 
 both are defective, i.e. have only a part of the 
 verbal forms. As these, however, are not gene- 
 rally the same in both, the two taken together 
 make out a perfect verb, as in Greek Zpyopat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 JO} and yo, to anoint; mp) and ms, to blow; | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 75 
 
 
 
 Aor. 7)\90v, Fut. Aebcowat, and in Latin, fero, 
 Jerre, tuli, latum; with this difference, that in 
 Hebrew these verbs are almost universally re- 
 lated in form as well as signification, like the 
 verb Baivw, Aor. 2. %yv, from the original 
 form Ba-w. 
 
 Of these verbs the following are the most 
 common :— 
 
 wia, to be ashamed, Hiph. wi, but also 
 wait (from wy), especially with the intran- 
 sitive signification to feel shame. 
 
 yn, to go, Fut. yy (from yr), Imp. 7), 
 732+ Inf. absol. 737, constr. ny. Wiph. a2: 
 Piél J. Hiph. Rn. 
 
 110, to be good. Pret. x0. 
 am). Inf. x10. Hiph. yon. 
 
 Ww, to fear. Fut. wx (from a). 
 
 az’ and a3, éo place, neither used in Kal. 
 Niph. 123, to stand. Hiph. and Hoph. yxa 
 and 3207. Hithp. 13007. 
 
 yey to break in pieces. Fut. yo (from yp). 
 Imp. ye. Niph. yie. Piél y2) (from ye). 
 Pil. y3ip (from yr). Reflex. yyieny. Hiph. 
 yor. Pilpel yoxe, Job 16: 12. 
 
 ‘Wz and +z», to be strait. Hence Pret.» x, 
 Tam ina strait, lit. it is strait to me, from 7. 
 Fut. wp, (from 1x) and 1%). Hiph. ww, 727, 
 to bring into a strait, to distress. The related 
 form nx is transitive, to press, hence to 
 
 Fut. x» (from 
 
 besiege. 
 
 Rem. 1. The case is similar when different 
 conjugations of the same verb, having the 
 same signification, borrowed tenses from each 
 other; e. g. 5», Kal Prat. he is able, by, Fut. 
 Hoph. he will be able, used for Fut. Kal which 
 is wanting; so FD, he has added, borrows its 
 Inf. and Fut. from Hiph. yo\n, HD. 
 
 Rem. 2. The early grammarians often 
 speak of mixed forms (formis miztis) in which, 
 as they maintain, are united the character 
 and significations of two tenses, genders, or 
 conjugations. On correct grammatical prin- 
 ciples most of the examples adduced are set 
 aside, (e.g. nyorr, § 47, Rem. 3;) in others, 
 the form seems to have originated in mis- 
 apprehension, e. g. yA (§ 88, Rem. 2), or 
 in the inaccuracy of colloquial usage; others 
 again are merely false readings. ‘The asser- 
 tion is incorrect that in Arabic also such 
 mixed forms are to be found. 
 
 $114.) 
 
 CHAP. III.— THE NOUN. 
 § 78. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 115.) 
 
 1. In treating of the formation of the noun, 
 it is necessary to keep in view its relation to 
 the verb, since most nouns are derived from 
 verbs, and even those which are not, whether 
 primitives or derived from other nouns, follow 
 the analogy of the verbals. Besides, on this 
 connexion is based the explanation of the forms 
 by which the gender of nouns is distinguished, 
 (§ 79.) 
 
 The Adjective agrees entirely with the 
 Substantive in form, though it is manifestly 
 only by a metaphor that forms with an ab- 
 stract signification can be treated as adjec- 
 tives, (§ 82, Rem. 1.) 
 
 2. The further inflexion of the noun is not 
 at all affected by cases, the consideration of 
 which, as they are merely indicated by prepo- 
 sitions without any change in the form of the 
 noun, belongs not to this division of grammar, 
 but to Syntax, (§ 115.) On the contrary, the 
 connexion of the noun with suffixes, with the 
 Feminine, Dual, and Plural terminations, and 
 with a noun following in the genitive, produces 
 numerous changes in its form, and thus gives 
 rise to another species of declension, which is 
 one of the most important parts of the system of 
 forms and inflexions. Even for the Compara- 
 tive and Superlative the Hebrew has no appro- 
 priate form, and these relations must be ex- 
 pressed by circumlocution, as taught in the 
 Syntax, (§ 117.) 
 
 The term declension (kictc) properly de- 
 notes the variation of the ground-form by 
 cases (casus, mTwo«c), as in Greek and Latin: 
 I may be permitted to retain it, however, 
 though it does not properly express the mode 
 of inflexion in Hebrew nouns, just as in the 
 verb the term conjugation is employed, though 
 not in its ordinary sense. 
 
 § 79. 
 FORMS WHICH MARK THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 1. The Hebrew, like all the Semitish lan- 
 
 (Lehrgeb. | guages, has but two genders, the masculine and 
 
 Inanimate objects, properly of the 
 
 Peers Ss) 
 
 Seminine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 etn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 neuter gender, and abstract ideas, for which 
 other languages have a neuter form, are regarded 
 in Hebrew as either masculine or feminine, most 
 commonly the latter, (Syntax, § 105, 2—4.) 
 The masculine, as being the most common 
 and important form of the noun, has no peculiar 
 mark of distinction, the ground-form of every 
 noun (with the exceptions given in no. 2) being, 
 as such, regarded as masculine. The feminine is 
 distinguished by the two following characteristic 
 terminations appended to the masculine, viz.— 
 
 a) An accented n—. 
 
 6) An unaccented n—, after’a guttural n—; 
 e.g. dima, mina; op, mbobs; option, nytin. 
 When the masculine ends with a vowel, it 
 forms its feminine by the addition of n alone, 
 as "ny, a Hebrew, my, a Hebrewess; wen, 
 a sinner, nen, sinfulness, sin. For the vowel- 
 changes occasioned by the addition of these 
 terminations, see § 91. 
 
 Rem. 1. The feminine ending ¢ (n—), 
 which is found not only in the other Semitish 
 dialects, but in the Greek, as well as the 
 Latin and several languages derived from it, 
 is also (§ 44, 1) employed as such in the verb, 
 (mz07,). From this probably proceeded the 
 second, the unaecented n—; so also in Arabic 
 
 a 
 
 the unaccented termination ak &— is pro- 
 
 nounced exactly like an obtuse é, éth, (com- 
 pare the transition from the clear a of the 
 Latin and Gothic terminations to the obtuse 
 
 é in German and French.) This change of. 
 
 final 4 to n occurs often, (see § 19, 1.) The 
 feminine form in n— is, in general, less fre- 
 nent than the other, and seldom occurs ex- 
 cept when the other is also in use. It is only 
 in the Participles and Infinitives that it is 
 fovnd more frequently than the other, (e.g. 
 nap oftener than niep, nyy than im); it is 
 moreover a favourite form for the construct 
 state, because the n facilitates the transition to 
 the following word. § 92, Parad. B. 
 
 For some variations of the termination n— 
 see § 91, Rem. 1. 
 
 2. Unusual feminine terminations :— 
 
 a) x—, Aramean orthography for 7—, found 
 chiefly in the later writers; e.g. sow, Ps. 
 127 :2, xmp, Ezek. 27 : 33. 
 
 b) n=, without the accent, as mim, Deut. 
 14:17, ma tan, Hos. 7:4. compare Ez. 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 40:19. 2 Kgs. 16:18. In all these examples 
 there should be the usual accented n—, 
 but the Punctators, not suspecting the fe- 
 minine here, marked the m (by depriving 
 it of the tone) as paragogic, which is 
 entirely out of place. 
 
 c) n—, almost exclusively poetical; e. g. 
 nyo, Ex. 15:2, mpy, Ps. 60:13; but in 
 prose also is found mom, Gen. 19: 34, Ex. 
 9:6. Jon. 4:7. 
 
 d) n— (accented) very rare; npa, Ezek. 
 28:13, ny (a grove) proper name of a 
 town on the Arabian Gulf. 
 
 2. Besides those feminines which are distin- 
 guished by an appropriate termination in the 
 singular, there are (a) a number of others which 
 receive it only in the plural, as ox, mother, plur. 
 niax; (6) others which fluctuate between the 
 mas. and fem. genders; (c) those which are 
 See Syntax, § 105. 
 
 
 
 properly common. 
 
 § 80. 
 
 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 117.) 
 
 Nouns are either primitive or derivative. The 
 latter are derived either from the verb ( Verbals), 
 or from another noun, (Denominatives.) The 
 Verbals are far the most numerous class, 
 
 Rem. 1. Many of the early grammarians, 
 who admitted none but verbs as Stem-words, 
 classed all nouns among the verbals, and 
 divided them into Forme nude, i.e., such 
 as have only the three (or two) Stem-letters, 
 and Forme aucte, such as have received for- 
 mative letters or syllables at the beginning or 
 end. These formative letters are— 
 
 4%» 7,3, 9, 8 7, (rAyONT)* 
 
 2. Of compound nouns, as appellatives, the 
 number in Hebrew is very small; e. g. bya, 
 properly worthlessness, baseness ; x x, lion of 
 God. As proper names they occur very 
 frequently; e.g. oxy23, man of God, opm, 
 whom God raises up, pm, strength of 
 Jehovah, D2», father of the king. Some- 
 times contraction also takes place, by which 
 stem-letters are cast away, and quinqueliterals 
 are formed. See § 30, 3. 
 
 * From this vox memorialis (§ 5, note) the nomina 
 aucta are also called, by the old grammarians, nominu 
 heemantica, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 § 81. 
 
 PRIMITIVE NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 118.) 
 
 1. It is often difficult, and sometimes impos- 
 sible, to determine whether a noun is primitive, 
 or is derived from a stem-verb; since even 
 those nouns which are most clearly primitive 
 (e. g. a8, ON) have the form of simple verbals, 
 following the same analogy, and the language 
 may once have had the verbal-stem, though it is 
 no longer found. But it may be assumed in 
 general that the number of Primitives is very 
 small, most of the names even of natural objects 
 being derived from stem-verbs; e. g. Vy, 
 he-goat, (prop. shaggy, from ww); mon, stork, 
 (prop. pia, se. avis ;) mw, barley, (prop. bearded, 
 also from -wiy); 2m, gold, (from Im = ay, to 
 be yellow.) Decidedly primitive are the car- 
 dinal numbers, and there are many names of 
 members of the body, in men and beasts, for 
 which no stem-verb can be found, as wsh, head, 
 mp horn, 1 (dual orn’), rirOn, female breast, 
 [see Lex. Man. s. v.,] yw, tooth, &c. 
 
 2. In the grammatical treatment of nouns, 
 it makes no difference whether they are Primi- 
 tives or Verbals, since both classes perfectly 
 agree in form. Some follow the analogy of the 
 regular, others that of the irregular verb; e. g. 
 Dix, man (as if from DIN), I, raven, (as if from 
 2); on the contrary, 1, mountain, 1», futher, 
 Dx, mother, as if from, 177, 72x, DDN. 
 
 § 82. 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 119.) 
 
 1. In Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, the 
 Verbal Nouns are connected immediately with 
 certain forms of the verb, particularly with the 
 Participles and Infinitives, which even without 
 any change are often employed as Nouns, e.g. 
 nyt (to know), knowledge, 18 (hating) enemy. 
 Still oftener, however, have certain forms of the 
 Infinitive and Participle, seldom or never found 
 in the regular verb, though employed in other 
 dialects and in the irregular verb, become the 
 usual forms of the Verbal Noun; e.g. the Parti- 
 ciples ‘xp, oR, the Infinitives Sop, nddp 
 (§ 45, 2), &e. Some, as the Arabic shews, are 
 properly intensive forms of the Participle. 
 
 77 
 
 2. As to signification, it follows from the 
 nature of the case, that Nouns, which were 
 originally Infinitives regularly denote the action, 
 property, &c, expressed by the verb (with other 
 nearly related ideas, such as the place of the 
 action), and are, therefore, mostly abstract; that 
 participial Nouns, on the contrary, denote, for 
 the most part, the subject of the action, or that 
 to which the property belongs, and hence are 
 concrete, It often happens, however, that a 
 certain signification is found in single examples, 
 which is not characteristic of the form. 
 
 Rem. It need not appear strange, moreover, 
 (and indeed all languages exhibit it,) that a 
 noun which in form and by usage is properly 
 abstract should be employed metaphorically 
 as a concrete, and vice versd. So in English 
 we say, his acquaintance, for those with whom 
 he is acquainted; the Godhead, for God him- 
 self; in Heb. ytin, acquaintance and an ac- 
 quaintance ; ‘nb, simplicity, for a simple one; 
 on the contrary, non, that which sinneth, for 
 sin, which is a frequent use of the fem. con- 
 crete. § 83, 5, 6, 11. 
 
 § 83. 
 
 NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 120.) 
 We distinguish here— 
 
 I. Forms originally Participles, and participial 
 Nouns, from Kal. 
 
 1. Sop, fem. mzop, the most simple participial 
 form of Verbs middle A (§ 49, 2), in use as a 
 participle only in verbs Sy ($ 71, 4.) It is most 
 frequently employed as an adjective expressing 
 quality, as DIM, wise, wi, new. It also oceurs, 
 however, as an Infinitive-form. (No. 12.) 
 
 2. ‘nop, fem. minop, Part. of verbs middle E is 
 likewise the form of adjectives of quality; e. g. 
 721, old, old man, wx, dry. Sometimes, though 
 seldom, the Tseri is impure, and this form is 
 then related to no. 5; e.g. bax, mourning (in 
 other dialects ix), fem. 1533, that which is 
 plundered. 
 
 8. Sip and Simp (with Hholem impure), fem. 
 mip, Part. of verbs middle O; e.g. i» fearing, 
 um, fowler; then frequently as an adjective, 
 even when no Pret. with Hholem is found, as 
 bi, great, pir, distant, piwy = pur, oppressor, 
 (comp. no. 21.) 
 
 
 
(eee 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 4, mip, ‘nop, fem. mop, nop, the usual par- 
 ticipial form of transitive verbs; e.g. 98, enemy, 
 pir, suckling ; hence of the instrument by which 
 the action is performed, as wn, a cutting in- 
 strument, a tool. A feminine with a collective 
 signification is found in Mk, caravan. 
 
 5. op and bop, passive Participles of Kal, 
 the latter (Chaldaizing) form employed rather 
 as a substantive, like the Greek verbals in 7éc; 
 e.g. WON, imprisoned, mx, anointed, VOX, pri- 
 soner, TD, anointed one. With an active sig- 
 nification also, in intransitive verbs, as yy, 
 small, oxy, strong. Some words of this form 
 express the time of the action, as Vy, time of 
 harvest, x37, time of ploughing, like the Greek 
 Verbals in réc, €. 2. apnrde, apordc, properly 
 the being harvested, or ploughed. 'The Feminines 
 and Plurals are prone to take the abstract sig- 
 nification, (Synt. § 105, 2;) e. g. myn, deliverance 
 (the being delivered), oD, iwi act of embalming. 
 
 6. ep (for ‘NBp), with Qamets impure. In 
 Arab. it is the usual intensive form of the Par- 
 ticiple, and hence in Heb. expresses what is 
 habitual; e.g. m2, apt to butt, sem, sinner, (prob. 
 from NDdH, sinning), 123, thief; so of occupations, 
 trades; e.g. 7320, cook, wo (for wei), faber. 
 Here again the feminine often takes the abstract 
 signification, as neem (for nye), sinfulness, sin. 
 Such intensive forms are also the three fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 7. oop and ‘ap, 
 adjectives in the Chaldee. 
 strong, Ju, compassionate, 
 verbs alone. 
 
 8. Sip, as rim, censurer, dv, one that is 
 drunken, “23, strong one, hero; seldom in a pas- 
 born, rs, proper name, 
 
 of which forms are most 
 Pay, righteous, Vix, 
 In Heb. from intrans. 
 
 sive sense, as i, 
 (persecuted.) 
 
 9. Sop indicates very great intensity, often 
 excessive, so as to become a fault or a defect ; 
 e.g. mp, bald-headed, dbx, dumb, ny, blind, noe, 
 ~~ OW, vie The abstr. sig. is found in the 
 
 Il. Forms which were originally Infinitives 
 of Kal.* 
 10. Sop, Sop, Sop (with pure vowels) the 
 simplest form of the Infinitive, of which the 
 
 * All these forms are found, mutatis mutandis, in the 
 Arabic as Infinitives, or the so called Nomina actionis ; 
 comp. Tychsen’s Arab. Grammat. S. 66. Rosenmiilleri 
 Instit. Ling. Arab. § 155 
 
 
 
 
 
 first and last are employed in the verb, (§ 45, 2.) 
 As Nominal forms they are all unfrequent, e. g. 
 123, man, wwe, ornament, pits, laughter. Instead 
 of these, the three Segholate forms— 
 
 iA nO, bop, ‘op, are far more frequent; 
 e.g. 72 hing, (for 122, 72, § 28, 4, and 27, 
 Rem. 2, ¢;) 785 (for 75D), 400k ; wp (for Dp)» 
 holiness; these have the characteristic vowel in 
 the first syllable, and the helping-vowel Seghol 
 in the second. Instead of the Seghol, a Pattahh 
 is used with gutturals, (§ 28, 4,) as »}, seed, 
 m3, eternity, sys, work. Examples of feminines: 
 m2, queen, my, fear, my, help, m7, wisdom, 
 
 
 
 In masculines as well as feminines, the ab- 
 stract is the prevailing signification, and is 
 the original one even in cases where the con- 
 crete occurs; e.g. Be) and 1399, (on the ten- 
 dency to employ abstract terms as names of 
 office see § 105, 2, b;) “wi, a youth, (prop. 
 the season of youth, comp. in Eng. youth and a 
 youth ;) v3, brutish, (prop. brutishness.) For 
 the abstract, in such cases, another form is 
 employed, as m3, royalty, 123, youth. 
 
 12. Sop, like no. 1, and ‘op, fem. nop, often 
 from verbs middle E, with the abstr. sig.; e. g. 
 avy, hunger, Dix, guilt, with concretes of the form 
 no. 2, (avr, hungry, &c.;) very frequent in the 
 Fem., as 7px, righteousness. 
 
 13. Sop (for dep), op (for Pop), Imp, Op, 
 mop, with an impure vowel between the second 
 and third radicals, and a Sheva under the first, 
 as and (for axn2), book; ax9 (for Yd), pain; 
 728, way, didn, dream, sy, dwelling ; sometimes 
 with Aleph prosthetic, as 113% (prop. deception), 
 deceitful stream, i.e. one which fails in summer ; 
 mx, brood. The corresponding Feminines will 
 suggest themselves; the forms nop, mpm, 
 coincide with those of feminines in no. 5. 
 
 14. Sopn, the Chaldee form of the Infinitive ; 
 e.g. UE, judgment. mented forms are, WMD, 
 song, rarna, desire, mp2, booty, mI, kingdom, 
 maw, wages. Under this form, besides the 
 action itself, is expressed very often the place 
 of the action, as mar, altar, "272, (from 133, ¢o 
 drive,) place of driving, i.e. to which cattle are 
 driven. 
 
 15. jap, yop, and other similar forms, with 
 the terminations }) and ;—, which are generally 
 appended to the Segioliean as jintr, reckoning 
 (from 321), yaw, offering, (immediately from 
 
 | 
 
 
 

 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 a3)); but there are also forms like yim, remem- 
 brance. 
 
 For j) there is a truncated form 4, written 
 also +, which occurs especially in proper 
 names, as ‘79 and jan, rid for jw 
 (comp. TAdrwy, Plato.) In Patronymic and 
 Gentile nouns (§ 85, 6), the Nun is restored ; 
 e.g. Sd from rim. 
 
 16. Segholate forms to which is appended 
 the fers. ending m; e.g. map, healing, In 
 the Syriac, this is the usual termination of the 
 Infinitive. The n is properly a sign of the 
 Feminine, and the masculine form would be 
 *ND] (comp. IY, May, § 79, 1.) 
 
 IIL. Participles of the derived Conjugations. 
 
 17. From Niph. s072, as nixon, Plur. wonders. 
 
 18, 19. From Piél and Hiph.; e.g. mpm, 
 snuffers, MyDD, pruning-knife. 
 
 20. From Poél, as onin, signet-ring, prop. that 
 which seals. 
 
 21. From Pil. Yop, fem. mop, and 22. Yop, 
 for the most part adjectives of colour, as Dix, 
 Jem T27N, red, PND green. 
 
 23. ‘mop, Snrmp, forms of Adjectives with 
 a diminutive signification (§ 54, 3), as D7DIx, 
 reddish, pry, yellowish; hence in a contemp- 
 tuous sense, like miser, misellus, Germ. Gesinde, 
 Gesindel, [man, minnikin,] as Fpaoy (with the 
 passive form for FOx), collected rabble, Numb. 
 11:4. 
 
 IV. Infinitives of the derived Conjugations. 
 
 24. From Niph. of the form oanp, struggles. 
 
 25. From Piél, like y2, dispersion, more fre- 
 quently in the fem., as mp2, request, with Qamets 
 impure. 
 
 26. ‘Amp, and 27. ‘opm, ‘opm, likewise In- 
 finitives of Piél, the latter very common in 
 Arabic; e.g. jaan, folding of the hands; Sm3n, 
 benefit ; JI, mantle. 
 
 28. From Hiph. of the form mmx, remem- 
 brance-offering, mynwy, annunciation, [ Ez. 24:26, 
 De myawn, ut audiant aures, Man. Lex.,] 
 Aramean Infinitives. The Qamets is impure. 
 
 29. From Hithpa. wna, register. 
 
 30. From Poél, like min, folly, and 31. like 
 imp, smoke, the latter form common in Arabic. 
 
 32. From Pil. mex, a putting on, and 33. 
 FPEND, adultery. 
 
 34. ‘mipmpe, opening, Inf. of no. 23, 
 
 
 
 35. bopa; e.g. nanos, flame, (comp. § 54, 6.) 
 36. Quadriliterals, like oy'p, locust. 
 
 § 84. 
 
 NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE IRREGULAR VERB. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 121.) 
 
 These are formed in the same manner as 
 
 those of which we have already treated, with 
 
 few variations, except such as are occasioned by 
 
 the peculiarities of irregular verbs. Accord- 
 
 ingly we shall refer these forms to the corre- 
 
 sponding ones already described, mentioning only 
 such as exhibit some important irregularity. 
 
 I. From Verbs fp. 
 
 Connected with the Inf. of Kal, 14. jm, gift, 
 mp2, overthrow ; of Hiph. 28. bx, deliverance. 
 The noun y7, knowledge, from yy; see § 70. 
 
 II. From Verbs $y. 
 
 From the Part. Kal. 1. on, upright (like 
 yop), commonly with Pattahh (to indicate the 
 sharpening of the syllable), 53, adject, 3»1, much, 
 Fem. 17, iran;* 2. 19, fat. From the Inf. 
 10, 11. 1a, booty, ym, favour, ph, law, Fem. m2, 
 word, mpm, law; 14. wp, fastness, rp, that 
 which surrounds anything, Fem. 7, roll. The 
 form 2D) sometimes, by retraction of the tone, 
 becomes a Segholate form, as 129, bitterness, 
 bale timidity, (from 29). 22. 5757, contemned, 
 swiw, naked, (a collateral form of Pilpel.) 27. 
 ab, praise, mbm, prayer, with the Segholate 
 form also, as DnA, a melting away (from DoD), 
 nA, mast, (from yy, to. make @ shrill, tremulous 
 sound.) From the unfrequent Conj. Pilpel 
 (§ 54, 4), ‘ab2, wheel, from %2, to roll. 
 
 Ill. From Verbs Sp and $b. 
 
 The Participial forms are regular. 
 originally Infinitives are — 10. v3, Lem. mY, 
 mv}, knowledge, my, counsel. 13, 710 for iD, 
 divan. 14, sin, fear, BPIN, snare, niin, birth, 
 15, punishment; from a verb prop. *p, 20%, 
 the best. 27. win, inhabitant, nq3in, generation, 
 yon, the south. 
 
 IV. From Verbs {y and Sy. 
 
 Participles: 1. , foreign; 2. “2, stranger, 
 mY, @ witness, testimony ; 3. 10, good, mpi, what 
 
 Forms 
 
 * On the formation of Feminines without the Daghesh, 
 sce § 91, Rem. 2. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 5 ee IN SS 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 is good. Infinitives: 11. the different Segholate 
 forms, as nyd, death, and m3, house ; ip, voice, 
 tm, spirit; Feminines, 7), m3 5 14, min, Fem. 
 m9, rest, dipn, place, also nin, oar, (from 
 rd); 27. man, intelligence, MwN, testimony ; 
 28. nM, rest. 
 
 Rem. A Vav or Yodh in one of these 
 nouns does not enable us to decide with 
 certainty whether it is derived from a verb 
 fy or ‘y, since the derivatives of each of 
 these classes sometimes borrow forms from 
 the other, (comp. § 71, Rem. 8, and § 72, 2 ;) 
 hence i719, strife, from pa, Niph. 173, to con- 
 tend ; m3, house, from ma, to spend the night. 
 
 V. From Verbs Sb. 
 
 Participles: 2. mm, fair, mp, hard, Fem. 
 mm, mp. Some lose the m—, as 1m, sign, for 
 mn. 4 mh, seer, Fem. niiy, burnt-offering. 
 5. "03, covering, %, pure, 2%, poor. Origi- 
 nally Infinitives: 11. The Segholates in dif- 
 ferent forms; not often with the mn retained, as 
 in 793, a weeping, my, friend, mh, AN), vision, 
 revelation, (Isa. 28:7, 15; see Commentir in 
 loc.;) commonly without it, as y (for my). 
 Sometimes the original» or ) reappears. » then 
 quiesces in Hhireq (comp. on “7, $74, Rem. 3), 
 as in “, fruit, ‘m, sickness. \ also quiesces, 
 as in 373, waste, and in Masculines seldom 
 remains moveable, as in wy}, end, though in Fe- 
 minines it is always so, as in my, humility, 
 m9, garland. 13. wb, winter, md, fem. maNw, 
 a drinking; Fem. nyo (for may, nip), part, 
 nism, the midst, mx, captivity. 14. mp, 
 possessions, Ty, appearance; Fem. myn, com- 
 mand. Apocopated form ya, height, for nbyn. 
 15. yp, wealth, yr, destruction. 27. T33n, 
 structure, maya, brood, also yah (for mn), straw. 
 28. Tox, testicle, for mux, from m2. 
 
 VI. From doubly Anomalous Verbs. 
 
 We present only some cases of especial dif- 
 ficulty :— 
 
 1. From a verb fp and 
 niv;, Job 41: 16. 
 
 2. From a verb ‘p and 
 pin, sign, prob. from mp. 
 
 8. From a verb gy and 45, nv, tumult, Numb. 
 24:17, from my, for ny. 
 
 4, From a verb {y and 4, »y, island, from 
 Tx, tO dwell, for MN; Mix, sign, for nis from 
 
 x, nv, for nxv, from 
 
 a, min, precept, law, 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 mx; 1p, cord, from mp; KA, chamber, for 7» 
 from mn, to dwell; %3, people, from m3, Arab. 
 to flow together. 
 
 To the learner the stem is often obscured also 
 by contraction, when it contains Nun, Daleth, 
 or He; e.g. m3, wine-press, for n23, m3 (from 
 723 AS, anger, for FIN; ny, coulter, for nik; 
 for ym (from mm) brightness. 
 
 § 85. 
 DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 122.) 
 
 1. Such are all nouns which are formed im- 
 mediately from another noun, whether it is 
 primitive, or derived from a verb; e.g. finTp, 
 eastern, immediately from n7p, the east, which 
 is itself derived from the verb Dp. 
 
 2. Most of the forms which nouns of this 
 class assume have already been given, the Deno- 
 minatives (which seem in general to be a later 
 phenomenon of language than verbals) being 
 formed in imitation of Nouns derived from 
 the verb. The Verbal with » prefixed, e. g., 
 was employed to express the place of an action, 
 (§ 83, no. 14;) accordingly this » was prefixed 
 to a noun in order to make it a designation of 
 place, (see no. 8.) In Greek and German, also, 
 the Verbals and Denominatives are exactly ana- 
 logous. 
 
 The principal forms are the following :— 
 
 1. In imitation of the Part. Kal (no. 4 of the 
 Verbals), -wii, porter, from wt, gate; 773, herds- 
 man, from 73, cattle; ob, vinedresser, from 
 D3, vineyard. 
 
 2, Like Verbals of no. 6, nwp, archer, from 
 nwp, bow; myo, seaman, from ma, salt, sea. 
 Both these forms (mos. 1, 2) indicate one’s em- 
 ployment, trade, &c., like Greek nouns in rye, 
 TEC, &. S. TWOAITHC, yoapparede. 
 
 8. Nouns with » prefixed, expressing the 
 place of a thing, (comp. no. 14 of the Verbals ;) 
 e.g. py, place of fountains, from Pd, fountain ; 
 nibrya, niigy, place about the feet,— about the 
 head, from bah Oxi; mip for mewopo, field 
 of cucumbers, from vp, cucumber, Comp. 
 apredoy, from dipedoc. 
 
 4, Abstract nouns formed from concretes by 
 the addition of m and m— (comp. the English 
 terminations dom, hood, ness, &e.); e. g. M22, 
 kingdom, immediately from 425 nubs, widow- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “4 
 
 | a 
 | a 
 | 
 
 
 

 
 r 
 
 a] 
 
 | 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 FF 
 
 
 
 | hood, from yobs, nabs, widower, widow; mos, 
 
 principium, from x = xh, princeps. (See the 
 
 Verbals, no. 16.) 
 
 5. Concretes formed by the addition of }, y—; 
 as fing, eastern, from oR 3 jis, Ainder, from 
 sam, hinder part; 3p», wound, hence animal 
 Jflexum, serpent, from 737, a winding. 
 
 ji and p form also diminutives, like the Syriac 
 ps as fury, litile man in the eye, apple of the 
 eye, from Wx; pr, term of endearment for 
 yim, probably from a contracted form of the 
 colloquial language. To the Denominative be- 
 longs— 
 
 6. The termination \—, which converts a 
 substantive into an adjective, and is added espe- 
 cially to numerals and names of persons and 
 countries, in order to form Ordinals, Gentiles, 
 and Patronymics; e.g. “2, strange, from 123, 
 anything foreign; rw, the sixth, from ws, six; 
 ‘Nin, Moabite, from ayia; “aye, Israelite. When 
 
 
 
 the substantive is a compound, it is commonly 
 resolved again into two words; e.g. 70°23, 
 Benjaminite: for the use of the article with such 
 forms, see § 109, Rem. 
 
 § 86. 
 
 THE DUAL AND PLURAL. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 124, 125.) 
 
 1, The Plural termination for the masculine 
 gender is D—, e.g. ON; seldom written defec- 
 tively (O—), as in Gen. 1:21, oyam. Nouns 
 ending in — or °, however, take o only, as 
 x, Plur. oy, unless etymology requires the 
 doubling of the Yodh, (see § 90, 8.) Nouns 
 in n— lose this termination when they take the 
 plural ending; e.g. nin, Plur. ov (comp. § 74, 
 Rem. 18.) 
 
 Unusual terminations of the Plur. mas. 
 found almost exclusively in the poets and later 
 writers :— 
 
 a) ~— as in the Chaldee and Syriac; e.g. 
 1272 Prov. 31:3, >, Dan. 12:13, defec- 
 tively written px, islands, Ezek. 26:18. 
 
 b) —— (not to be confounded with the suffix 
 my of the same form, § 33, table); e.g. 
 ‘yD for or, Jud. 5:15; rm’, the Almighty, 
 (Pluralis majestatis, see § 106, 2, b.) 
 
 c) - (© and j cast off), the most unfrequent, 
 ‘and by some disputed; exs. 2» for 02, 
 
 
 
 strings (of a musical instrument), Ps. 45:9. 
 ~whuin, warriors who fought from chariots, 
 2 Sam. 23:8, for which, in 1 Chron. 11:11, 
 the Qeri has orabyun. 
 
 2. The Plural termination for the Feminine 
 gender is nj. This takes the place of the femi- 
 nine termination 7—, or n—, when the noun in 
 the singular ends with one of these; otherwise 
 it is merely appended to the form of the sin- 
 gular, (see § 79, 2,a;) exs. noan, Plur. nian; 
 mix, Plur. nex; 33. Plur. nvw3. Feminines 
 in m— form their Plural in ny—, and those in 
 m, in nv—; e.g. may, Plur. nay; mayo, Plur. 
 nv272. These plural terminations have, how- 
 ever, for their basis the feminine endings m— 
 and m— in the singular. 
 
 It is only from a disregard of the origin of 
 the terminations n) and m— that some words 
 which end with them form their Plural by 
 the addition of o—; e.g. mn, Plur, om 
 and minw; ry, Plur. omy; Dm; and 
 many other instances. Strictly in the manner 
 of the Syriac is the formation of the Plural 
 ni vedh-voth, with Vav moveable, from the 
 singular nny. 
 
 For the changes of vowels occasioned by the 
 addition of the plural endings, see §§ 90, 92. 
 
 3. Words which are of two genders (§§ 79, 
 2, b. 105, 4) have often, in the Plural, both the 
 masculine and feminine terminations; e. g. w=3, 
 Plur. ose) and nib): both forms may be em- 
 ployed as masculine and feminine, but their 
 gender must be determined by observing the 
 usage of the language in respect to each word. 
 This is also true of several other words of both 
 genders and both (masc. and fem.) terminations ; 
 e.g. 75, masc., Plur. ona and niin; nx, fem, 
 Plur, wy, and rin. The gender of the sin- 
 gular is here retained in both the plural forms; 
 e. g. IN, masc. NVR, mase. Zeph. 3:3. nini, 
 masc. Job 42:16. 
 
 Sometimes usage makes a distinction be- 
 tween the two forms for the plural of the 
 same word. Thus om, days, and oy, years, 
 are the usual, nim, nim} the unfrequent and 
 poetical forms. This distinction appears 
 especially in the use of several words which 
 designate members of the human body. 
 The Dual of these words is employed as 
 
 the name of the living members themselves, 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 ae, 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 while the Plural in ni (which is here re- 
 
 garded as neuter) represents something 
 
 similar, but inanimate; e.g. m2, hands, 
 
 nis2, handles, manubria; my, horns, riI7; 
 
 cornua altaris; yy, eyes, Mmipy, foun- 
 tains. 
 
 4, A considerable number of Masculines form 
 their Plural in ni, while many Feminines have 
 a Pluralin p—. In both cases, however, the 
 gender of the Singular is retained in the Plural ; 
 e.g. ax, mas. Plur, nia; ow, mase., Plur. 
 now; on the contrary, myo, fem. Plur. Dy; 
 wip, fem. Plur. odie, &e. This peculiarity 
 seems to carry us back to a period of the 
 language when the mode of distinguishing the 
 two genders was not as definitely settled as in 
 its present state. 
 
 Rem. 1. In some few words, to the plural 
 form in nj is added the other termination of 
 the Plural p— (before the Genitive —, 
 comp. § 87, 2), or that of the Dual m—; e.g. 
 m3, Plur. nina, construct state i323 ‘nyeN7D 
 iw, from the head of Saul, 1 Sam, 26:12 ; 
 main, Plur. nvain (menia), moninin, double 
 wall. This double designation of the Plural 
 appears also in the mode of connecting suflixes 
 with the plural forms in ni (§ 88, 4.) 
 
 2. Some nouns are used only in the Plural ; 
 e.g. mn, men, (in the Adthiopic, Sing. nn, 
 mas. ;) DB, face; comp. § 106, 2. 
 
 5. Besides the Plural the Hebrew has also a 
 Dual number, which is confined, however, to 
 the Substantive. The Dual termination for both 
 genders is m—, before which the Feminine 
 ending T— becomes n—; exs. from DY, Dy, 
 
 two shoes; from 
 
 TD, DAW, two hundred. 'The Dual is most 
 frequently used of such objects as are by nature 
 or art connected in pairs; e.g. orp, the hands, 
 ody, a pair of shoes; and so of such objects 
 when they number more than two, as D'S) wey, 
 six wings, Is. 6: 2. 
 
 The words 0%, water, Daw, heaven, my» 
 or Douay, Jerusalem, are Dual only in ap- 
 pearance. The first two are Plurals from 
 %2, "ow, which are lost; the third is a resolu- 
 tion (§ 24, 2, and 2, b) of the earlier form 
 oyay; comp. the old form pbs, Gen. 14: 18. 
 Ps. 76:3, and the Chaldee pbyiny. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 § 87. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 126.) 
 
 1. The Hebrew has no terminations for indi- 
 cating the relations of case,* which it expresses 
 solely by prepositions, ($ 115.) The only ex- 
 ception is the relation of the Genitive, which it 
 indicates in a manner peculiar to the Semitish 
 languages, viz. by a change in the form of the 
 jirst of the two nouns which stand in this 
 relation to each other. The second, which 
 serves to limit the first, and which in Greek and 
 Latin is placed after it in the Genitive (verbum 
 Dei), remains unchanged, and is only uttered 
 in more close connexion with the preceding 
 Nomen regens. In consequence of this con- 
 nexion the tone hastens on to the second of the 
 two nouns,} and the first is therefore commonly 
 shortened, by changes either in its consonants, 
 or its vowels (when mutable), or in both; exs. 
 1, word, dvix 123, word of God, (word-God ;) 
 mim 7, hand of Jehovah ; 0433, words, nya 424, 
 words of the people. Thus in Hebrew, the noun 
 which stands before a genitive suffers the change 
 by which this relation is indicated, and in gram- 
 matical language is said to be in the construct 
 state, while a noun which is not thus followed 
 by a genitive is said to be in the absolute state. 
 
 Such words are often connected by Maq- 
 qeph, (§ 16, 1.) The insertion or omission of 
 it, however, does not affect their relation to 
 each other, and depends merely upon the ac- 
 centuation. 
 
 2. The vowel-changes which many nouns ex- 
 hibit in the construct state are taught in the 
 paradigms, §$ 90,92. This form of the Noun 
 has, moreover, terminations better fitted than 
 those of the absolute state for union with a fol- 
 lowing noun, thus— 
 
 a) In place of the Plural and Dual termina- 
 tions p— and o—, it has simply — (comp. 
 Rem.) ; e.g. DD, horses, nr, horses of —;3 
 DY, eyes, YY, eyes of —. 
 
 b) The Feminine 7— becomes n— (§ 19, 1); 
 as mim mxy, the fear of Jehovah. When the 
 
 * For a partial development of an accusative form, see 
 § 93,1, Rem. 1. ¢ 
 
 + In accordance with the universal tendency of the 
 tone, in the Hebrew language, to hasten towards the 
 end of words, (§ 29, 1.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 same word has also the termination n—, 
 form of it is adopted in the const. st. (§ 79, 1, 
 Rem. 1.) 
 
 this 
 
 the application of these forms, however, their 
 origin at length eame to be overlooked and the 
 Yodh was regarded as belonging to the suffix; 
 
 c) Nouns in n— from verbs S (§ 84, V.) | and hence the strange anomaly of suffixes with 
 
 form their const. st. in 4—;* but nouns in 
 — change this termination to ——; exs. mi, 
 constr. TN; TT, constr, TT. 
 
 For a poetical form of the constr. st. see 
 § 93, 2. 
 
 Rem. 1. Probably the 1 at the end of a 
 word was pronounced obscurely, like the 
 Latin m before a vowel, and hence might be 
 wholly lost in pronunciation, just as the m, in 
 the case alluded to, was slurred over in the 
 language of common life and in poetry. 
 Quinct. Inst. Orat. IX. 4, § 40. 
 
 Rem. 2. Instead of \— the Syriac has 
 .—, the original form, from which the other 
 is obtained by contraction, (§§ 7, 1, and 24, 
 2, b;) the form ay, ai, may also be clearly 
 traced in the Suffixes to the Plural Noun, 
 (§ 35, 2.) Of this the Old Testament perhaps 
 furnishes an example in the form mo ‘pn, 
 Is. 20:4. 
 
 § 88. 
 
 THE NOUN WITH SUFFIXES. 
 (Lehrgeb, §§ 60, 61.) 
 
 For the forms of the Suffix Pronouns, as 
 appended to nouns, see $§ 33, 35. They are 
 connected with nouns according to the following 
 rules :— 
 
 1, Those forms of nouns which end with a 
 vowel take the suffixes which have no con- 
 nective vowel; e.g. ix, her father; on the 
 contrary, such as end with a consonant take 
 suffixes with a connective vowel; e.g. HDD, 
 her horse. 
 
 2. The feminine ending n— becomes n— 
 before the light suffixes, (§ 33, Rem. 12) and 
 n— before the grave suffixes 02, 2; ©. g. TIDND, 
 ‘NDAD, DINOAW. 
 
 3. Nouns in n— from verbs 45 drop their 
 final syllable n— before suffixes, as mh, seer, 
 4, my seer. (Comp. § 74, Remarks, 18.) 
 
 4. It has already been shewn (§ 35, 2) that 
 the forms of suffixes for plural nouns arose from 
 the amalgamation of the plural ending o— 
 (constr. st. ——) with the suffix pronouns, In 
 
 * Compare § 74, 1, Remarks on Kal, 3. 
 
 
 
 Yodh appended to the plural ending m, e.g. 
 pian, thy maidens, which thus exhibits a two- 
 fold designation of the Plural. 
 
 The vowel-changes which the noun itself 
 undergoes are shewn in §§ 90, 92. In order to 
 exhibit, in the most general manner, the mode 
 of appending suffixes to nouns of both genders, 
 two paradigms are here subjomed, which from 
 the nature of the vowel admit no change, except 
 in the final syllable of the Feminine form. 
 
 Masculine Noun. Feminine Noun. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 Di a horse. min a law. 
 Suff. sing.l. ce. DD my horse. nin my law. 
 as i yp thy — ymin thy — 
 Ji yew thy — youn thy — 
 m. jo his — inn his — 
 : { J row her — = amin her — 
 plur.1.c. ‘03D our — xm our — 
 mM. DIDI your — DINNA your — 
 2{" Pow your — pmin your — 
 m. Dep their —  omin their — 
 | J qo their — yA their — 
 PLURAL. 
 mow horses. niin laws. 
 Suff.sing.1. c. 0x my horses. opin my laws, 
 . lf yoo thy — spiinin thy — 
 “(fA poo tly — xorin tly — 
 m. yoo his — rnin his — 
 i { Ji ro her — wonin her — 
 plur.1.¢c. 3% our — win our — 
 MOOD your — oNNin your — 
 a | J. OD your — ywhirin your — 
 morro their — oninin their — 
 _ { J: yep their — yppnin their — 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1. It has been shewn (§ 86, 4, Rem. 1) that 
 some other cases of the twofold designation of 
 the Plural, analogous to the forms ‘niin, Ke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 | 
 | 
 

 
 84 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 are found in Hebrew. It must be remarked, 
 however, that the singular suffix is found ap- 
 pended to the termination nj, as ‘ny, my statutes, 
 Ps, 182:123; 3ni30, thy strokes, Deut. 28:59, 
 When the 3 Pers. Plur. of the possessive pro- 
 noun is to be expressed, the form appropriated 
 to nouns in the singular is the one most com- 
 monly employed in connexion with the plural 
 ending ni; e.g. oOniax, their fathers, more fre- 
 quently than oyniay; and so, without exception, 
 oni, their names, ony, their generations. 
 
 2. On the contrary, we find in some few cases 
 the suffix with Yodh appended to a singular 
 noun; e.g. Hy, thy praise, Ps. 9:15; yo 
 for yniz, thy building, Ezek. 16:31. comp. 6: 8. 
 In the two passages last quoted this was occa- 
 sioned by a misapprehension which arose from 
 the practice of appending the Plural suffixes to 
 the termination ni. 
 
 § 89. 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 128.) 
 1. The vowel-changes of nouns, to which we 
 give the name declension (§ 78, 2), are caused— 
 
 a) by a noun following in the genitive, 
 b) by suffixes, 
 c) by the Plural and Dual terminations; to 
 
 which is added, again, the effect of a genitive 
 
 following, or suffix. 
 
 2. The tone, in all these cases, is moved 
 
 forward more or less, or even thrown upon the 
 
 following word. 
 cases, Viz.— 
 
 a) When the tone is moved forward only one 
 place. 'This effect is produced by the termi- 
 nations for the Plural and Dual, and by most 
 of the suffixes for singular nouns, (—; —, 
 Jos 4 WE A, TE; WS; DL, 5) 
 exs. 7, "D1, plur. ony; AD, dual ob»; 
 DR, DR, DDR (§ 27, 3, a, b.) 
 
 Such is also the effect of the Light suffixes for 
 plural nouns (§ 33, Rem. 11), viz. those 
 which are either monosyllabic or have the 
 tone on the penult, O—; 7, 7P—3 
 
 We here distinguish three 
 
 S 
 wr, TP; w=; w=); eg. wD. 
 
 b) When the tone is moved forward two places, 
 as in the plural constr, st. and when the grave 
 suffixes are appended to the Plural, (oy—, 
 or—). In this case both vowels, if mutable, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fall away ; e.g. Dd “1, words of the peopie; 
 D1, your words ; Dara, their words. 
 (§ 27, 3, ¢.) 
 
 c) When the suffix begins with a consonant 
 without a connective vowel, and forms a 
 syllable by itself, as 73 02 Ps OF TB 
 (more commonly p—, }—). Of these the 
 first is a light suffix, and regularly affects the 
 tone in just the same manner as —, 4; e.g. 
 722 NT. PL The others are grave suf- 
 fixes, and have more effect in shortening the 
 vowels (o7723,* &c.) as is shewn in the 
 paradigms. A similar effect is seep in the 
 constr, st. of the singular number, as 123 
 Dyin; mat oz (from 437). 
 
 3. There is more simplicity in the declension 
 
 of feminine nouns, the addition of the feminine 
 ending having already occasioned a shortening 
 of the vowels. 
 
 (§ 91.) 
 Most of the vowel-changes, which form this 
 
 internal inflexion of the Noun, are based on 
 the principles laid down in §§ 24—29. There 
 are others, however, which are occasioned by 
 the peculiar structure of certain forms of 
 nouns exhibited in §§ 83, 84, 85. They are 
 all confined to the last two syllables of the 
 word, the third syllable from the end never 
 having a mutable vowel. 
 
 Changes of consonants are very few, and 
 occur only in Parad. IX. 
 
 § 90. 
 DECLENSION OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 129—137.) 
 Masculine Nouns may be most conveniently 
 
 arranged, with reference to their vowel-changes, 
 in nine classes, as in the following table. 
 necessary explanations are subjoined. We here 
 only remark in general— 
 
 The 
 
 a) That all Feminines without a distinctive 
 termination (§ 79, 2) are declined like mas- 
 culine nouns, except that in most cases (comp. 
 § 86, 4) they take the Plural ending nj; e.g. 
 2m, ‘am, &e. Plur, absol. nizyy, constr. st. 
 may. 
 
 b) That in the Plural, light suffixes are at- 
 tached to the absolute, and grave suffixes to the 
 construct state. 
 
 oy sa, 3, a, and I, a. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 3 ai Re casi aa te = = SUOO — 
 | lt Raa Gita gua &fa Ga = yosgn yong | 
 (a) (sk) (enil) (Gls) (&) (644) ) 
 uiéa Liaéa reutida =e datida  xica idea atiéa daca tatkéa tida = - fas aanuh — | 
 Lik id Seuch xen mart Set ic, cays aah t&ik tat -  ffrsyby — | 
 uic Lik Rau xo acu ate (at wo) = tak ATE Gee. taik tate - = “sua — i 
 ui ida RLU Ga equ xt ata ia ote) aaa cL tha == =~ posqn ‘ung | 
 uica iuéa xdiéa aca aeca nitéa ica qua aquéa aacca txiiga tata == offns aanub — | 
 Lic Lith REL ck oe. Niet aL ith cau Gad til tla - ns yby — | 
 = wih id. 8a ca ga nic ae iu au aa, teu ta - = ‘ysuoo — 
 FS wis ud 8a <a ga NE ale iu Gils aa, teu ta. - = ‘posqn burg 
 Bu 9 9g 0 9 7) 7 “y ‘fh oA "9 ‘p 
 Was he Rn ey ER ee —— —— On 
 5 ‘XI ‘TILA ‘TIA ‘IA 
 BT 
 a ditt Lit, éitt tik eel c - = “4sW0o — 
 e cuca édga tea kati tia iitéio étdia atéa Gédiia = chia Wa = =~ Josqn yong 
 = Cail) = (x) (ie) (adc) Gtk) (iby) (até) = (kt) (4) (49) 
 se diguca aai.ca Géeéa oaica idéca iecéca itica aica agaca be&ca aaéa - iffns eanub6 — 
 eS “dla. ore rae iii idk, Litt itl atc abc teu ad - fnsnyjby — || 
 aa se i tai idk. ice ket adi, Gu bE Od = + suo Be 
 baa idia iicc&a itua adda PxtaeRe| ica Qa = = posqn any |) 
 iaidg ikea iééta «= sktiéa «if idk att - offs ons — || 
 RL idk icc. iti Ghis GY te Och = offns yb — || 
 Lie. idl eau iia ity eth aga za aa - = ‘ysuog — | 
 ne tal ets tiga tt ails aga ta aa = = yosqn ‘bug || 
 = -9 e 2 ¥ 9 a 1 
 a SY _———————— 
 “A ‘AI ‘TI ‘ a 
 | ‘SNOON ANITINOSVW JO NOISNA TOA 
 er: eT 
 
 
 
 
 
—IIGGG0u5QvVX—e_—o_—oQu0Qoaw—e—e—e SS SS 8.000008 —— eee 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 1. To Parad. I. belong all nouns whose 
 vowels are immutable. Of course there are no 
 vowel-changes in this paradigm, and it is in- 
 serted only for comparison with the others. 
 
 Exs. vy, ip, wna, vin (§ 25,1); op for 
 pep, a for vi (§ 25,2); i, PIS, pan, 
 mmo (§ 25, 8); whe for tw (§ 25, 4.) 
 Here belong the classes of verbal nouns given 
 in § 83, nos. 6, 7, 8, 13, &e. 
 
 2. To Parad. II. belong nouns which have a 
 pure Qamets in their final syllable, and are 
 either monosyllabic or have the preceding 
 vowels immutable; e.g. 7, 3313, “WM, DW) 
 (found only in the Plur.) 
 
 With the suffix 02, ~ becomes n2p (for 
 Dp), and ny becomes D727; see § 27, Rem. 
 2, 3. 
 
 There are some nouns which resemble in 
 form the above examples, but which have an 
 impure Qamets in their final syllable; e.g. 
 forms like ‘ap, DOP (§ 83, nos. 6, 13), DR as 
 Part. of verbs ‘y, &c. Derivatives from 
 verbs &> also commonly retain their Qamets ; 
 e.g. spo, plur. constr. 770. 
 
 3. Parad. III. embraces those nouns which 
 have an immutable vowel in the final syllable, 
 and a mutable Qamets or Tseri in the penult ; 
 exs. 5173, JiTN, DISD, PDR, plur. opox, fi, 
 jr. The last two take in the constr, st. the 
 forms j\1y) and ji731, the first two syllables of 
 jyi21 being contracted into one. 
 
 Here also are to be distinguished nouns 
 which resemble the above forms, but which 
 have an impure Qamets; exs. yu for yy, 
 yr for yr, (see verbal nouns, § 83, no. 7 ;) 
 also who, plur. mira, Ex. 14:7. 
 
 4, Parad. IV. embraces nouns of two syllables 
 with Qamets pure in both. For the changes in 
 these vowels see § 89, 2, a, b,c. Nouns of this 
 form are very numerous. The influence of a 
 guttural, especially on the form of the plur. 
 constr. st. is seen in the second of the two ex- 
 amples given in the paradigm. Other examples 
 are, 17, 13, Dox, av. 
 
 In like manner are declined nouns of the less 
 frequent form op; e.g. ax, wo; with a 
 guttural, sip, a2. 
 
 A few nouns, whose Tseri is impure, are 
 excepted ; e.g. D3, constr. st. 72). Qamets 
 
 
 
 ne 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 is impure in both syllables of way for www, 
 
 and wp for web, § 83, no. 6. 
 
 5. Parad. V. is properly a mere variation of 
 the preceding one. The final Tseri is treated 
 like final Qamets in Parad. IV., except that in 
 the constr. st. yp} stands for 3723 (compare the 
 frequent use of Seghol for Pattahh, § 27, Rem. 
 2, a, 6, c.) Some nouns, however, take the 
 Segholate form (no. 6.) in the constr. st.; e.g. 
 FIN2, constr. st. FIND for FIND; ‘VB constr. st. 
 13 for vy. 
 
 The original form appears in 33), Gen. 
 49:12. Examples of Pattahh in the constr. st. ; 
 1m, Wp; of the Segholate form, > PS 
 
 Some nouns of this form retain their Tseri 
 unchanged; e.g. yw, plur. constr. "x; so 
 also “ax, now (§ 83, no. 2.) 
 
 6. To Parad. VI. belongs the large class of 
 nouns denominated Segholate forms, (§ 83, no. 
 11.) The chief peculiarity in their inflexion is, 
 that before Suffixes and in the constr. st. of the 
 Plural and Dual, they resume their original 
 monosyllabic form. The Plur. absol. is derived 
 not immediately from the form 77, but from 
 the kindred form (comp. § 83, nos. 10, 11, and 
 below, nos. 4 and 6) 7, plur. oy; the 
 Pattahh being changed to Qamets, because the 
 syllable in which it stands becomes an open one, 
 (§ 27,2, a.) Compare 73, DT. 
 
 These forms may be arranged in three classes, 
 the first having A, the second L, the third O, in 
 the first syllable. The paradigm exhibits under 
 a, 6, c, derivatives of the regular verb; under 
 d, e, f, forms which have a guttural in the final 
 syllable; under g, h, derivatives from verbs 
 {y and %y; and under z a derivative from a 
 verb #5. Compare § 84, IV. 11, V. 11. 
 
 REMARKS, 
 
 1. The form 799 (for 3D, § 27, Rem. 2, c) 
 exhibits the original A not only before suf- 
 fixes, as in ‘90, but also in Pause (§ 29, 4), 
 e.g. Jp, D2, and before He paragogic 
 (§ 93, 1), as myn& ~—«sIn the Septuagint, how- 
 ever, the proper names 537, np}, for example, 
 are uniformly written ’AGfA, "Iagi0. The 
 word y 8, with the article, is constantly 
 written y87; derivatives from verbs {y also 
 take Qamets for their first vowel, as nyn. 
 The Arabian, on the contrary, writes 772, 
 but pronounces mélkh (mélkh) and even médlkh. 
 
 
 
 
 
The Hebrew language exhibits this original 
 form in the word x3, @ valley. Examples of 
 nouns with A in the first syllable are, TH 
 2 TR 
 
 There are, however, nouns of this form, 
 which are inflected like pp; e.g. 3 (for 
 733), "23. 
 
 Nouns of the form 172 when their third 
 stem-letter is a guttural, are pointed like 
 rt, vd; when the second stem-letter is a 
 guttural, like -w} (see Parad. d), seldom like 
 ony. It is to be observed, moreover, that in 
 the hard combination (viz. when the second 
 radical has quiescent Sheva, and when the 
 third radical in JS would take Daghesh 
 lene, as in ‘3>) simple Sheva may be retained 
 here also, as in verbs Pe guttural, (§ 57, 23) 
 
 
 
 -———~, 
 
 | OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 87 
 
 
 
 change their form (by the quiescence of Vay 
 and Yodh) in the constr. st. Before He parag. 
 this contraction does not take place; e.g. 
 mova, nov. On the contrary, Vav and Yodh, 
 when quiescent in the ground-form, may be- 
 come moveable in the course of inflexion; 
 e.g. hd (for 7), plur. o>; TA, DT. 
 
 6. Of Segholates from verbs > there are 
 also properly three classes, distinguished by 
 the A, E, and O sounds, (§ 84, V. 11;) e.g. 
 “S, 7? OTs in pause, “Rs 9, FT 5 with 
 suffices, “x, 12, “tT; in the Plur. and Dual, 
 my, orm, ov. In the last case some 
 nouns take x instead of » on account of the 
 preceding Qamets (§ 24, 2, ¢), as -2y, plur. 
 DIE; Np, plur. ONE. 
 
 7. To Parad. VII. belong nouns which have 
 
 on the contrary, the forms corresponding to 
 92 e.g. are always pointed as »yyU. 
 
 2. The form 55, my} (4, e), when its first 
 letter is a guttural, takes Seghol in the plur. 
 
 Tseri pure in their final syllable, and are either 
 monosyllabic or have their preceding vowels 
 immutable. It accordingly embraces all par- 
 ticiples in Kal (of the form 5y), not Sup), and 
 constr, st. and before suffixes in the singular; | ghose in Pil and Hithpail, the form bop (§ 83, 
 e.g. 528, 22, 2. The monosyllabic form | yo, 9), and several others, e.g. ‘p>, Win, 
 appears in xo. With He paragogic Tseri is yrs, &e. 
 retained, as mR. from OR Examples of |“ "The following deviations from the para- 
 this form are, 020, 72, JET digm are to be noted:—(a) Several nouns 
 
 3. The form wp (c) sometimes, though not| take Pattahh in the constr. st. (as in 
 often, takes Qibbuts in the cases mentioned Parad. V.;) eg. “BOD, constr. st. “BON; 
 in the preceding number; e.g. 573, m3, especially with eutturals, as M33, constr. st. 
 Ps. 150:2. Instead of n3u7 are sometimes man. (5) Before the suffixes which begin 
 found (even without the influence of a| with a consonant oceur such forms as 2; 
 guttural) such forms as n2m7 (Ad-tbh-hhem), and ¥No?. (c) In words of one syllable 
 Hos. 13:14. In the Plural absolute most| Tseri is retained in the Plur. absol., as the 
 nouns of this form (even when they have not | paradigm shews; it is also retained in several 
 a guttural) take Hhateph-Qamets under their | words which are not monosyllabic, as oats, 
 first radical, as in the paradigm; e.g. Ow, Doo. 
 nim x; others take simple Sheva, as oa 8. Parad. VIII. embraces nouns which double 
 from 773; two have Qamets-Hhatuph, as | their final stem-letter when they receive any 
 Dey, (Ad-dhd-shim), ord (shd-rd-shim), | accession at the end. The final vowel, in con- 
 from wy (see § 9, 2,c.) The word ‘yk sequence of the sharpening of the syllable, is 
 has, by a Syriasm, oR for DON (see | shortened, (§ 27,1.) If the word is of more 
 § 23, Rem. 2); but with a prefix it is pointed | than one syllable, its penult vowel conforms to 
 as DyIN3. With He parag. the Hholem is | the principles which regulate the vowel-changes; 
 retained, as mk. e.g. p23, plur. orp: 3; pix, plur. DN; 
 
 4. According to the same analogy are in- | 33, plur. o>. Nouns of almost every form 
 flected the kindred monosyllabic forms which | are found among those which are inflected 
 have their vowel between their last two stem- | according to this paradigm. Whether a noun 
 letters (§ 83, no. 10), as 223, with suff. | belongs here cannot, therefore, be known from 
 "22D; DPD, "HPD; wz, ita; Infin. pp, | its form, though its etymology will generally 
 ‘OD. decide. 
 
 5. Only derivatives from verbs ty and ‘y Etymology refers to this paradigm the fol- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lowing classes of nouns; viz.—(1) All deri- 
 
 vatives of verbs $y (§ 84, II. comp. § 66, 3), 
 
 as 4, Ph, pd, &ce., and Primitives which 
 
 follow the same analogy, as D0, 7, tx. 
 
 (2) Contracted forms, like Fy (for Fp, 
 
 § 19, 2), ma (for np), with suff. m3, ny 
 
 (for ny). (3) Denominatives, especially 
 
 Patronymic and Gentile forms in »—, as 05, 
 
 nxn, though the forms om, 09) are at 
 
 least equally common. (4) Derivatives of 
 the regular verb (§ 83) under the following 
 forms :—10. yor; 14. pom, Tama; «15. janx, 
 my, plur. oy a; 21. DIR; 36. WDD, with 
 suff. yo, DoW, plur. ope. But there are 
 also words of all these five forms which do 
 not take Daghesh in the Plural, and those 
 which are here adduced are to be regarded 
 rather as exceptions to the prevailing usage. 
 
 They are pointed out in the Lexicon. 
 
 Before suffixes beginning with a consonant 
 the Daghesh may be omitted; the same 
 vowel is generally retained, however, except 
 that in words of the form ph it is more com- 
 monly Qamets-Hhatuph. 
 
 Pattahh before the Dagheshed letter is 
 retained in some words, as 1, plur. ox); in 
 others it goes over into Hhireq, as np, ne. 
 
 9. Parad, 1X. embraces derivatives from verbs 
 > (§ 84, V.) which terminate in Tm, as Mb, 
 mi, mey. Only the changes which affect the 
 final syllable m— (which is treated as in verbs 
 &b, § 87, 2, ¢, and 74, Rem. 18) are peculiar to 
 this paradigm. 
 
 The original termination for which 
 i is substituted (§ 24, 2, a, at the end, and 
 74, 1, Rem.) is often restored and affects the 
 inflexion of the word. Thus with suff. oD 
 (Sing. thy covering, which might also be 
 expressed by ¥py)), Isa. 14: 11; PHD 
 Is. 30:23; ‘spxyo (almost universally, though 
 falsely, taken for the plural), Cant. 2:14; 
 repo, omy, Dan. 1:15. Ezek. 1:5. In i 
 Plural oymn (from mop for ton Pa 
 Pual), Is. 25:6. See the Lexicon under - 
 words nM, TMDyN. 
 
 § 91. 
 
 VOWEL-CHANGES IN THE FORMATION OF 
 FEMININE NOUNS. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 138.) 
 1. The termination n— (§ 79, 1, a) appended 
 to a masculine noun affects the tone of the word, 
 
 i 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 and consequently its vowels, in the same man- 
 
 ner as the light suffixes beginning with a vowel; 
 
 see § 89, 2, a, and § 27,3. The following are 
 examples of the formation of Feminines in the 
 several paradigms :— 
 
 Parad. I. pi, fem. mmo. IL. xyin, fem. 
 mesio. IIT. bia, fem. 7773. IV. op2, fem. 
 mapa. V. yp sem. mp3. «VIL 779, fem. mano 
 (§ 90, Explan. 6); 1px, fem. myo; pM, fem. 
 my (bid. 6, 2); bok, fem. mx (ibid. 6, 38); 
 wi, fem. MD) ; 13, fem. ms (ibid. 6, 5)5 +} 
 (not in use), mm) (comp. § 24, 1, 5.) VII. up, 
 Jem. vizop. VIIL 3, fem. 733 ph, fem. apn 
 (§ 27,1); 9, fem. m7 (§ 27, 1, and Rem. 3.) 
 IX. myp, fem. 7372 (comp. § 90, Explan. 9, 
 § 74, Rem. 18.) 
 
 2. The penult vowel is affected in the same 
 manner when the Feminine-ending n— is em- 
 ployed ;* e.g. nov, myBy; van, fem. may. The 
 final vowel is also affected in several ways, 
 Viz. :— 
 
 a) Qamets and Pattahh are both changed to 
 Seghol; e.g. onin, fem. monin (comp. 129 
 for 7), see § 27, Rem. 2, c.) 
 
 6) Tseri in some words is retained, in others 
 is changed to Seghol; e.g. won, fem. neon; 
 13, fem. nyB. 
 
 c) Vowels which are immutable @, 3, —) 
 are exchanged for the corresponding mutable 
 vowels; e.g. win, fem. nwa ; oy, fem. 
 nyswy. (and moy); wy, fem. mx. 
 
 Hence there are three Segholate-forms for 
 Feminine nouns, n— (for n—— or n—), n—, 
 and ny corresponding exactly to the forms 
 of Masculine nouns in Parad. VI. The same 
 correspondence appears also in their inflexion. 
 The termination, n—t (employed when a word 
 ends with a guttural, § 79, 1, 6) always changes 
 the preceding vowel to Pattahh; e. g. yin, 
 fem. nv; yi, fem. nyt; 7 (not in use), nm. 
 
 Rem. 1. A Syraizing form, n—— for 
 
 n—— has already been noticed, § 73, Rem. 3. 
 
 * This is contrary to the general rule (§ 27, 3), since 
 the tone is not thrown forward. But as n— is merely a 
 secondary form (§ 79, 1, Rem.), derived from the original 
 Feminine termination —, it is not strange that they 
 should similarly affect the pointing of words to which 
 they are appended. 
 
 t n— instead of n= on account of the guttural, 
 which affects both the preceding and following vowel; 
 see § 22, 2, a, and Rem. 1.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Another form, after the manner of the Arabic, 
 viz. mt for n7>%, occurs in Gen, 16:11. 
 Judg. 13:5. 
 
 2. When Masculines of Parad. VIII. re- 
 ceive the termination n—, they necessarily 
 omit the doubling of their final stem-letter ; 
 hence may and nvan; omy, plur. opTIIN, 
 Jem. mayo. So by and ndq from 43, mp4 
 from FP}. 
 
 § 92. 
 DECLENSION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 sioned a shortening of the vowels; e. g. from 
 Parad. I. no; VIL nop; VIL. mm, mm, 
 mr. All these Feminine forms belong to the 
 single Parad. A. In the Plural no distinction 
 is made between the light and the grave suffixes, 
 the former as well as the latter being appended 
 to the construct state. [For the form of the 
 grave suflixes for Plur. Fem. nouns, compare 
 § 88, 4, with § 86, Rem. 1, and § 35, 2.] 
 
 These nouns have only three modes of in- 
 flexion, Parad. A (which is inserted merely for 
 the sake of comparison) having no vowel- 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 139—142.) changes. A general view of these inflexions 
 
 The declension of these nouns is more simple | is presented in the subjoined table, which is 
 
 than that of Masculines (§ 89, 3), the addition | followed by the necessary explanations. [For 
 of the Feminine-ending having already occa- | principles of inflexion see § 89. ] 
 
 DECLENSION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 
 B. C. D. 
 
 (As 7 —_—_-eo 7 cM 
 
 a. b. Cs a. b. ce a. 6. 
 
 Sing. absol. - TDD Tm mo 9 ay m7) 0 ENT npa ba 
 
 — constr. - mow nx mo oompys ome tmp baa 
 
 — lightsufs§ ono ome ome MR mR TE TE omnia 
 
 — grave suffs DINO DIR OIA OWMPTE OWN OME OMA oP osha 
 
 Plur.absol. - = niow nind nid mips Ding oipx—sonnidata 
 
 — consir, - nminw ning moo mips DMT ania nit 
 
 — light suff. i010 nin mo onps co Mn Min np nia 
 
 — grave suff. ono oOPNind pind oPnipTs orrnioye ofPnieyy opm opnipy opnidsa 
 
 (pe) (ye) Gy) Gan (azsz) (ner) 
 
 Dual absol. - Dnp = DNB Day = Dn DAY DAT 
 
 — constr. - ‘new "DNB Te? 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 1. To Parad. B belong those Feminines which 
 have a pure Qamets or T'seri before the Fe- 
 minine-ending n—; e.g. nyp, TY, TPR, 
 mim. It accordingly embraces the Feminine 
 
 forms of nouns belonging to Parad. IL, IV., V., 
 and of several belonging to Parad. IX. 
 
 For the formation of a new syllable in words 
 having Sheva before their mutable Qamets or 
 Tseri (which falls away by inflexion as in the 
 Parad. mq), see § 28,1. Compare 723, nn, 
 ys Tay, NpP. 
 
 Many nouns of this form, however, take in 
 the construct state and before suffixes the 
 secondary form n— or n— ($91, 2); eg. 
 myn, constr. st. nyo0, with suff. mon; 
 MPA, NIVEDs TES, NED, ATELID. 
 
 Qamets is impure in all nouns like mp3, 
 maw (§ 83, nos. 25, 28), constr. st. npr, 
 npr. Tseri is also impure in most verbals 
 of the form 73x, 9312 (§ 83, nos. 13, 2); 
 but in others it is mutable, as in myo 
 (§ 83, 2.) The character of the vowel in 
 each case is given in the Lexicon. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 2. To Paradigm C belong Feminines derived 
 from Segholate-forms of Parad. VI. The two 
 paradigms are also analogous in their inflexion, 
 the Plural absolute in both taking Qamets under 
 the penult consonant of the original form; e. g. 
 Jr Is TMB, niyo; nib, nize. 
 
 Care must be taken not to confound with 
 nouns of this class those Feminines of the 
 same form which are not derived from 
 Segholates, particularly the derivatives ‘from 
 verbs {5 of the form myn, m1, whose 
 Masculine form is my, My. The vowel 
 in the first syllable of these nouns is im- 
 mutable. 
 
 8. To Paradigm D belong Segholate nouns 
 formed by the addition of the Feminine-ending 
 n— (91, 2.) These correspond, in the in- 
 flexion of the Singular, to Masculine Segholates 
 of Parad. VI. To the examples in the para- 
 digm may be added, minp, mix, ny3wn. 
 
 Of the form 755, which is not frequent in 
 this class of nouns, mux, with suff. mix, is 
 an example. The same inflexion, however, 
 is exhibited by some nouns ending in n—, 
 viz. those in which this termination takes 
 the place of n—; eg. nv (for ny), with 
 suff. M79; in like manner n3¥, ‘AI (from 
 the Mase. 3»). nyt takes with suffixes 
 the form -mytin. 
 
 Many nouns of this class borrow their Plural 
 from the coexisting form in 1, 7 (Para- 
 digm B); as, nyma, plur. ninpia; men, plur. 
 nw; non, plur. ninsin; mimdy, plur. 
 ninmwy. ; 
 
 
 
 § 93. 
 
 PARAGOGIC LETTERS; HE, YODH, AND VAY. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 127.) 
 1. An unaccented n— appended to a noun 
 
 (He paragogic) signifies— 
 
 a) Motion or direction towards the thing de- 
 signated by the noun ;* e. g. m2, towards the 
 sed, westward; mp"28, towards heaven; TES, 
 to the earth; mn pn, from year to year. 
 
 * For the analogous use of it in connexion with the 
 verb see § 48, 3, and § 126. In TINY, Ps. 9: 18, there 
 is a two-fold expression of this idea; compare in Ger- 
 man nach der Hélle zu, [and in old English ‘* fo us 
 ward.’’?} Inthe musical term TD, on which so much 
 has been said, — probably expresses command; ad 
 silentium! from 0, silentium. 
 
 esas 
 
 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 
 
 b) More seldom it merely points out the rela- 
 tion of place where; e.g. rzy3, (there) in the 
 house; Ps. 68:7, mo = nw, there. Hence 
 it is— 
 
 c) Demonstrative, like the article, but only in 
 the poets; exs. mr for 5m3, Ps. 124:4; 
 mos for px, Job 34:13. Is. 8:23, In 
 this sense it is connected especially with 
 Feminines in n—; eg. nay for TDs, 
 Ex. 15:16; mur for my, Ps. 3:3. 
 
 Rem. 1. Related to this is the Accusative- 
 
 a 
 ending x— (\ an) in Arabic, which in He- 
 brew is employed, as is shewn under a and 4, 
 to express relations of place, (accusative local, 
 see § 116,1.) But in Aramean usage this 
 form is employed as in no. ¢, the termination 
 x— having the effect of the article; e. g. 
 non, the king. 
 
 2. As this syllable does not take the tone, 
 it makes no change in the vowels of the word 
 to which it is appended. For the falling 
 away of the helping-vowel in Segholate forms, 
 see § 28, 4, and compare § 90, 6, Remarks. 
 The Dual form, when it takes this termina- 
 tion, follows the same analogy as 9, n> ; 
 e.g. DW, TMD Dw. 
 
 2. Forms produced by appending »— or (the 
 less frequent) 4 to the constr. st. are merely 
 poetical, these paragogic endings having no 
 apparent influence on the signification of the 
 word; exs. m0 ‘200, he that dwelt in the bush 
 (habitator rubi), Deut. 33:16; wet ny (for 
 n—), full of justice, Is. 1:21; oy nm for nn 
 ny, populous (frequens populo), Lam. 1: 1;* 
 7 inn, for pm, the beasts of the earth, 
 Gen. 1: 24; DO npn, a fountain of water, 
 Ps. 114:8. The first of these forms occurs 
 often in compounds, as xy}, Gabriel, (for 
 dy ]32, man of God.) 
 
 § 94. 
 
 LIST OF IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 143.) 
 1. There are several anomalous forms of in- 
 flexion, chiefly occurring in single examples 
 
 * The Pattahh of the syllable nN— is sometimes 
 dropped (§ 27, 3, 4), and sometimes is lengthened to 
 Qamets, (§ 27, 2, a.) See besides the examples in the 
 text, Gen. 31:39, and Ps. 110: 4. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 only, or at most in very few, which may be best 
 exhibited in an alphabetical list of the words in 
 which they are found. They require the more 
 attention, because, as in all languages, the words 
 which they affect are those in most common use. 
 2. Most of these irregularities of inflexion 
 consist in the derivation of the construct state, 
 or of the Plural, not from the absolute state of 
 the singular, but from another wholly different 
 form; precisely similar to what we have seen 
 in the inflexion of the irregular verb, (§ 77.) 
 Compare yvr), yuvaicdc; vowp, bdarog. 
 
 ax (for mx as if from mx*), father ; constr. 
 st. y, with suff. TR, oP, plur. nog 
 (§ 86, 4.) 
 
 ms, brother, constr. Tx, with suff. To, 
 opm, Plur. constr. ‘yx, omy. All these 
 forms follow the analogy of verbs 4, as if 
 mg stood for my from mms (comp. § 90, 
 Parad. 9, and § 74, Rem. 18.) But the Plur. 
 absol. is OS with Dag. f. implicitum (§ 22, 1), 
 as if from rms; hence ‘py, is, WTS, &e. For 
 the form rmx (which is always used instead 
 of ym) see § 27, Rem. 2, 6. 
 
 aay, one (for any, with Dagh. f. implicitum, 
 see § 22, 1, and comp. § 27, Rem. 2, b), constr. 
 st. Tm, femnmg for nyt, una (see § 19, 2), 
 in pause ny. In one instance, Ez. 33 : 30, 
 it takes the form 1m (by apheresis, § 19, 3), 
 as in Chaldee. 
 
 ning, sister (contr. for nif, § 24, c, from 
 the Mase. 11x = Ty), plur. nis, with suff. 
 ‘nis (from a Sing. rms, fem. from Ty), also 
 hing (as if from the Sing. mmx). 
 
 Wx, a man, a softened form of px (§ 19, 2); 
 in the Plur. it has very seldom ovprx, the 
 usual form being ovo (from wx), consir. 
 ‘ox. Comp. mx. 
 
 Tox, maid servant, plur. (with 7 inserted) 
 niax, nix. Compare in Chaldee I 
 Suthers. 
 
 mx, woman (for mx, fem. from wy), 
 constr. st. mda (fem. from wy, for mx); 
 with suff. mx, TAD, plur. 03, an abbre- 
 viated form from ot». 
 
 m3, house, (probably a softened form from 
 
 * As these nouns, though Primitives, follow the ana- 
 logy of Verbals (§ 81, 2), it is necessary, in order to 
 understand their inflexions, that we should know to 
 yhich of the classes of irregular verbs they respectively 
 conform. 
 
 
 
 ma [§ 19, 2, Rem.], like mw, thorn, from nw, 
 derivative of ma, to build; compare ddpog 
 from déw;) constr. st. a, plur. ona, bot-tim, 
 for oma from another Sing. na. 
 
 yz son, (for m3, from ma), constr. st. “Th 
 seldom ~y3, once "33, Gen. 49:11. With suff: 
 2, 9, plur. oy (as if from ja, for m3), 
 constr, st. »33. 
 
 ni, daughter (for n33, fem. from y3, comp. 
 § 19, 2), with suff. ma (for Ma), plur. nina 
 (from the Sing. m3, comp. O73, sons), constr. 
 st. m2. 
 
 Dy, step-father, with suff. yoy, and ninn, 
 step-mother, compare mx, brother, nim, sister. 
 
 ov, day, plur. or», 2, (as if from om for 
 m2). 
 
 2, vessel, plur. oy (as if from 49, m2). 
 
 on, plur. water (comp. § 86, 5, Rem.), 
 constr, st. %, and also "pn, with suff. Dy. 
 The last two are regular plural forms from 
 ny, regarded as a Singular, like r3. 
 
 vy, city, plur. ony, ny (from +, which is 
 still found in proper names.) 
 
 mp, mouth (for ms, like my, sheep, for WD), 
 constr. st. 9 (for %p), with suff. spp. 
 
 tn, head (for wy), plur. owe, (for ord, 
 § 24, 1, b.) 
 
 § 95. 
 
 NUMERALS. —I. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 144, 145.) 
 
 1. The Cardinal numbers from 2 to 10 are 
 primitive substantives,* though they are also 
 used adverbially, (§ 118.) Only "mx, one (unus), 
 Jem. nme (una, see § 94), is construed as an 
 adjective. Of the remaining numbers, each has 
 an appropriate form for the Masculine and 
 Feminine genders, as well as for the Absolute 
 and Construct states. 
 
 * That they are stem-words of very high antiquity is 
 attested by their coincidence in form with the corre- 
 sponding numerals in other ancient languages, not of 
 the same stock with the Hebrew; e.g. with WwW com- 
 pare Sanscr. schasch, ¢, sex, Slav. schest; with D1, 
 Sanscr. sapta, Anc. Pers. hapta, Mod. Pers. heft, éxrta, 
 septem, Germ. sieben, seven, (in all of which seba is the 
 stem, the ¢ not, being an essential element.) In other 
 numbers the resemblance is more distant but not less 
 certain; e.g. in the number three, Anc. Pers. teschro, 
 by transp. ¢rescho; whence on the one side, Sanscr. tri, 
 zpeis, tres, on the other the Semitish nn (in which the 
 l is a softened r), Ww. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 Numerals from 2 to 10 :— 
 
 Masc.absol. Constr. Fem.absol. Constr. 
 2 De wo DA omy 
 3 my nmi wou wind 
 4  omne ney PIN PEN 
 5 mio mT 
 6 mah mow wd we 
 7 7p nym DB v8 
 8 mow na mow maw 
 9 n7Ytn  nytn ron on 
 100 omy omyby RP 
 
 In this table the forms of the numerals are 
 arranged, in respect to their gender, as they 
 actually occur in connexion with substantives. 
 The student cannot fail to remark, however, 
 that from 3 to 10 the numerals which by 
 usage are Masculine have the Feminine form, 
 and vice versd. The other Semitish languages 
 exhibit the same peculiarity. 
 
 For the explanation of this phenomenon the 
 following observations may perhaps suffice. 
 These numerals, being originally abstract sub- 
 stantives, like decas, trias, had both the Mas- 
 culine and Feminine form. In order clearly 
 to distinguish this their original character, 
 the Semite, perhaps studiously, avoided using 
 a numeral and its noun in the same gender ; 
 at the same time giving the preference to the 
 Feminine form,} especially as the Masculine 
 gender occurred most frequently in nouns. 
 The usage thus originated became a settled 
 law of language in the whole Semitish stock, 
 even when the numeral was construed as an 
 adverb. ‘The exceptions are very rare; e. g. 
 on mow, Gen. 7:13, (where the use of the 
 Feminine termination is manifestly occasioned 
 by the Masculine form of the word ow). 
 
 * Instead of this, the form DANDY (with Aleph pros- 
 thetic, § 19, 4, asin Arabic) may have been employed, a 
 trace of which remains in the Daghesh lene which is still 
 written in the Tuv. 
 
 + In the vulgar dialects of the Arabic and in the 
 A®thiopic, the Feminine form is used almost exclusively. 
 This form appears also even in the abstract use of the 
 numerals, (Gen. 4:15.) It may be added that the Fe- 
 minine form is very frequently used for expressing the 
 idea of plurality, as in collectives; see § 105, 2, c, and 
 § 106, 1, 5. 
 
 (WSS ti al eae 
 
 
 
 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 2. The numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed 
 by adding to the units the numeral ten (in the 
 form “wy, masc., my, fem.), written as sepa- 
 rate words and without a conjunction, (asyndeta.) 
 In such as are of the Feminine gender (Mascu- 
 line in form), the units are in the construct 
 state, which in this case indicates merely a close 
 connexion, not the relation of the Genitive, 
 ($ 114.) These numerals have no construct 
 state, and are always construed adverbially. 
 
 In the first two of these numerals are some 
 deviations from analogy; the third shews the 
 manner in which the rest are formed. 
 
 Mase. Fem. 
 
 iy os my ono 
 ; les ney mey ney 
 
 wy OR mop Dw 
 wy oe  ombp  om 
 18 soy. np my 
 
 Unusual forms are iy neon, fifteen, mase. 
 Judges 8:10, 2 Samuel 19:18; Wwy nw, 
 eighteen, masc., Judg. 20: 25. 
 
 3. The tens from 30 to 90 are expressed by 
 the plural forms of the corresponding units, as 
 pwnd, 30; ovr, 40; pwn, 50; or, 60; 
 my, 70; od, 80; Dyn, 90. Twenty is 
 expressed by oy, Plur. of wy, ten.* They 
 are of common gender, and have no construct 
 state. 
 
 The remaining numerals are as follows :— 
 
 100 my fem. constr. nyo, plur. risa hundreds. 
 200 oxixa (Dual, for oxy, § 24, 1, 3.) 
 
 300 nind wr, 400 nino yao, &e. 
 
 1000 FX 
 2000 mb 
 3000 Deby 
 
 constr. ADS plur. ovebs thousands. 
 
 nay, 4000 ops ny, &. 
 
 mn mina 
 10,0004 429 (prop. multitude) plur. + ten thousands. 
 nin nia 
 
 20,000 moniz} 
 30,000 mia] WH, 400,000 nim yn, &e. 
 
 * The plural forms DYDY, O'pqy, OYON, from the 
 Segholates WY, YIW, DOR, take in the absolute state, 
 the shortened form, which, in other words of this class, 
 appears first in the construct state. 
 Dywy, &e. 
 
 Analogy requires 
 
 
 
OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 Rem. 1. The Dual form occurs in some of 
 the units, with the effect of the English fold, 
 as DAPI, fourfold, 2 Sam. 12:6; DIAYI, 
 sevenfold, Gen. 4:15, 24, The Plural ons 
 means some, some few, and also the same, 
 (tidem ;) nivey, decades (not decem), Ex. 
 18:21. 
 
 2. When units and tens are written together, 
 the early writers commonly place the units 
 first, (e. g. two and twenty, as in Arabic;) but 
 in the later writers the order is almost in- 
 variably reversed, (twenty and two, as in 
 Syriac;) exs. Numb. 3:39. 26:14. 1 Chr. 
 12:28. 18:5. 
 
 3. For the suffixes to numerals, see § 36, 1, 
 Rem. 
 
 § 96, 
 
 NUMERALS, —II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 146.) 
 
 The Ordinal numbers from 2 to 10 are ex- 
 pressed by the corresponding cardinals with the 
 termination — (§ 85, no. 6), which is also 
 sometimes inserted in the final syllable. They 
 are as follows: oy, pd, YT, ‘Som and 
 ~ Wo, Se, wd, ‘pow, yum, ryry. The 
 ordinal first is expressed by jitxy (for pis), 
 from x5, head, beginning, with the termina- 
 tion =) (§ 85, no. 5.) The Feminine forms 
 haye the termination m— and are employed 
 also for the expression of numerical parts, as 
 min, fifth part. 
 
 For the manner of expressing other rela- 
 tions of time, for which the Hebrew has no 
 
 appropriate forms, see Syntax, § 118. 
 
 CHAP. 1V.—THE PARTICLES. 
 
 § 97. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 147.) 
 
 1. That the particles must have been of later 
 origin than Nouns and Verbs is evident from 
 the purposes for which they were introduced 
 into language ; viz. to modify the thought ex- 
 pressed by another word or words, and to ex- 
 hibit more nearly the relations of words, or of 
 sentences, to each other. Hence, it is in the 
 particles that rude and uncultivated languages 
 ' are most deficient. 
 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 2. For the same reason, there are, with few 
 exceptions (§ 98, 1. § 103), no primitive particles. 
 Their origin is threefold—(1) they are borrowed 
 from other parts of speech ;* i.e. certain forms 
 of the Verb, Noun, or Pronoun, are employed 
 as particles, retaining more or less of their 
 original signification, like the Lat. verum, causa, 
 and the Eng. save, lieve, fain; (2) they are 
 derived from other parts of speech, sometimes 
 by the addition of formative syllables, like partim 
 from pars (§ 98, 3), but most commonly by 
 abbreviation occasioned by frequent use. This 
 abbreviation is effected in various ways; and 
 many of the forms resulting from it are so 
 obscure in respect to their origin that they have 
 generally been regarded as primitives; e.g. x, 
 certainly, profecto, certe, for j2x. 
 
 Compare in German, gen from gegen, seit 
 from Seite; in Eng. since (old Eng. sithence), 
 till, contr. from to while. 
 
 Such words suffer still greater changes in 
 the Greek and Latin languages, and in those 
 derived from the Latin; e.g. amd, ab, a; 2é, 
 ex, e; ad, Fr. d; versus, Fr. vers; trans, 
 Ital. tra. 
 
 In some instances the particle has been so 
 much abbreviated that it has lost its character 
 as an independent word, and has become amal- 
 gamated with the following one as its initial 
 letter, (preficum.) This is the case especially 
 with the prepositions. In 1279, from the word, 
 for 123 yo, the Nun is not wholly lost, being 
 represented by the Daghesh ; but in the prefixes 
 3 from m3, > from 5x, > from pp, 7 from 
 bo, } from y,f the original word is as much 
 abbreviated as are the personal pronouns em- 
 ployed in the formation of the Future of the 
 Verb. 
 
 That this reduction of a whole word to a 
 single letter has actually taken place, and is to 
 be regarded as a part of the process in the 
 formation of the language, is evident from the 
 fact, that in the subsequent stages of this 
 process, as exhibited in the later Hebrew, the 
 Chaldee, and the Arabic, such abbreviations 
 became more and more frequent. Thus for 
 wx, so early as the period of the later Biblical 
 
 * In the Chinese, most of the particles are verbs or 
 nouns; e. g. i, to give, employed as a sign of the dative ; 
 i, to make use of, hence for; néi, the interior, hence in. 
 
 + See the sections on Adverbs, Prepositions, &c, 
 
 
 
 
 
SS TS SS aa a SS SS SS SSS SaaS SAS SA SE aS SS SDS BESTS SETS | 
 
 94 FORMS AND 
 
 
 
 Iiebrew, * and even w had come into use; 
 the » of the Biblical Chaldee at a later 
 period became 3; and »x, adeo, also, in 
 Arabic became a prefix Pe. This view de- 
 rives confirmation from the analogy of the 
 western languages. 
 
 It is not strange that the derivation of these 
 particles, which often differ widely from the 
 original form, should sometimes be obscure. 
 This is the case, however, with but few of 
 them; and it is but just to infer, that even in 
 these some change has been effected analogous 
 to that which may be readily traced in others. 
 
 3. Particles are also formed, but less fre- 
 quently, by composition, as yim, wherefore? 
 | for yt im, what taught? i.e. qua ratione 
 | ductus? comp. ri padwyv, [see Buttm. Gram. 
 | § 150;] “wa, desides, from 53 and “yw; ToyD?D, 
 from above, from yo, 3, Tye. 
 
 More frequent is the combination of two or 
 | more words without contraction, as }2 “Tx, 
 DFS, DN DP YB 
 
 
 
 § 98. 
 ADVERBS. 
 | (Lehrgeb. §§ 148—150.) 
 
 1. Primitive adverbs: such are the adverbs of 
 negation, xo, not = od, odk, OX = ph, pr* 
 there [is] not, and some few others, as ow, there. 
 | 2. Examples of other parts of speech, which, 
 | without any change of form, are used ad- 
 
 verbially, are— 
 
 a) Substantives with prepositions; e.g. 7Nna 
 (with might), very, greatly; 12}, alone, (in sepa- 
 rateness,) with suff. 15, I alone, (prop. in my 
 separateness ;) ry39, within; 2 (as one), to- 
 gether. 
 
 5) Substantives in the accusative, (the casus 
 adverbialis of the Semites, § 116;) comp. rip 
 dpxhyv. Exs. “xo (might), very, greatly; ops 
 (cessation), no more; on (this day), to-day; 
 tP (union), together. Many of these substan- 
 tives very seldom exhibit their original signifi- 
 cation as nouns, e.g. 3D (circuit), around; 
 others have wholly lost it, as 29 (length), long 
 ago; Sinn, yesterday. 
 
 c) Adjectives, especially in the feminine 
 
 
 
 
 
 * In many languages negation is expressed by , with 
 a vowel before or after it. See Lex. Man. art. PR: 
 
 
 
 INFLEXIONS, 
 
 (neuter), and in the construct state which is 
 preferred as being the shortest form; exs. 7p, 
 recte, ita (prop. rectum), m7¥dx), at first, for- 
 merly, 73) and n3y, much, enough, nixde, won- 
 derfully (prop. mirabilibus, se. modis), my, the 
 second time, mpm, Judaice, i.e. in the Jewish 
 language. 
 
 d) Verbs in the Infinitive absolute, especially 
 in Hiphil, which are also to be regarded as 
 accusatives, (§ 128, 2;) e.g. Ty (prop. repeating, 
 iterando), more, yet, Tay (prop. multum faciendo), 
 much, 
 
 e) Pronouns, as m (prop. this [place] = at 
 this place), here. 
 
 3. A number of adverbs have been formed by 
 the addition of the formative syllable o— (more 
 seldom b—) to substantives; exs. onyx and 
 oyaN, truly, from TOR, truth; ox (gratiarum 
 causa), gratis, in vain; ony, by day, from ov; 
 Dxnp for Dyna, in a twinkling. 
 
 The termination o0—, D—, occurs also in 
 the formation of substantives like }, 
 (§ 83, no. 15); eg. nie and jin, ransom, 
 Aéitpoy, Dy, ladder, (from 59D). Such forms 
 might therefore be regarded as denominative 
 nouns used adyverbially. The difference is 
 not essential; but, on the other hand, this 
 termination is chiefly used to express an ad- 
 verbial signification, and the analogy is very 
 clear. 
 
 4, Adverbs formed by the abbreviation or 
 truncation of longer words: such, for example, 
 as JX, prop. an affirmative particle, certainly, 
 haud dubie, from ps, Chald. P27, 27, and 
 especially the interrogative m (e.g. Not, nonne?) 
 which originated in the more full form 57; see 
 Deut. 32: 6. 
 
 The demonstrative ‘a (from ‘7, § 32) and 
 the interrogative 4 are, in respect to their 
 origin, the same; for a word whose original 
 and proper use is aflirmative may, with only 
 a change of tone, be made to express inquiry, 
 (see § 150, 1.) The Arabic has also for 
 both, 5m, 5s, or merely x. Hence they have 
 several forms in common; thus He interroga- 
 tive has—(1) Pattahh followed by Daghesh 
 forte, as 2», would it be good? Lev. 10:19, 
 especially before a letter with Sheva, as }3'n, 
 Gen. 17:17. 18:21. 87:32. (2) Before gut- 
 turals, Pattahh with Daghesh forte implicitum 
 (§ 22, 1), as youn, shall I go? (3) Beforea 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 guttural with Qamets, Seghol, as ‘3x7, num 
 ego? Itis only in cases not mentioned here, 
 that the interrogative and demonstrative He 
 differ in form, which the liveliness of interro- 
 gation would naturally shorten. 
 
 On the connexion of suffixes with adverbs, 
 see § 36, 2. 
 
 A collection of the most common adverbs, 
 arranged according to their signification, is 
 given in § 147. 
 
 § 99. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 (Lehrg. §§ 151—154.) 
 
 Most of the words, which by usage were made 
 to serve as prepositions, were originally— 
 
 a) Substantives in the accusative case and in 
 the construct state; compare in Latin hujus 
 ret causa. In the following examples the 
 original signification of the noun is enclosed 
 in parentheses, and marked with an asterisk 
 if it is still in use; exs. 1mN (hinder part*), 
 behind, after ; 2 (intermediate space, midst*), 
 between ; 3, Wa (interval of space, distantia), 
 behind, about; rb (remoteness, absence), be- 
 sides ; y¥> (object), on account of; ‘a, before, 
 
 }2 (part), from, out of; 
 
 (that which is before), before, over against; 
 
 Y (progress, duration*), during, until; by 
 
 (upper part [space above]), upon, over; oy 
 
 over against ; 
 
 (connexion, also my, may), with; nom (under 
 part* [space beneath ]), under, in place of. 
 
 5) Substantives in the construct state with 
 prefixes, as 355 (in conspectu), before, ‘>, °B 
 (in accordance with the mouth, i.e. the com- 
 mand*), according to, 5933 (in the concernment), 
 on account of, wn? (for the end or object), on 
 account of. 
 
 Substantives used adverbially very readily 
 take, in this manner, the construction of pre- 
 positions; e.g. 923, px2, DpN2 (in the want of), 
 without, 72 (in the continuing of), during, wn, 
 depuis, since, "73, 2 (for the need, ad sufficien- 
 tiam), for, according to. 
 
 § 100 
 PREFIX PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Of the prepositions given in the preceding 
 
 section, 7) is frequently written as a prefix, yet 
 
 without wholly losing its Nun which is repre- 
 sented by a Daghesh forte in the following 
 letter (as in D7), or before gutturals by the 
 usual ae ae (as in wy», ym, nim, see 
 § 22, 1, and § 27, Rem. 2.) There are also 
 ey other prepositions, the most common in 
 the language, which have been reduced by ab- 
 breviation (§ 97, 2, 6) to a single prefix con- 
 sonant ; namely— 
 
 3, in, at, on, to, with (from m3, »3), 
 
 we 
 
 , towards, to, in (from x), 
 
 “es 
 
 , like, as, according to, (from }3, so.)* 
 
 The pointing of these prepositions is as 
 follows :—(a) They have properly simple Sheva, 
 but their pointing is subject to the principles laid 
 down in § 28, 1, 2, e.g. > for “b), 4x2 for 
 “sp. (6) Before the article they displace the 
 He and take its pointing (§ 32, Rem. 2), as 
 ota for Dow. (c) When they stand next 
 before the tone-syllable, they often take Qamets, 
 as m3, 03%, ny, but only at the end of the 
 sentence, as may be seen in Deut. 17: 8. 
 
 The word mim has not its own original 
 vowels but those ‘of ‘wy (see the Lex. art. 
 mim»), and its prefixes are pointed accord- 
 ingly; e.g. m}m2, nia, Timp. 
 
 2. There is a tendency to obviate the extreme 
 brevity and lightness of the forms resulting from 
 the union of these truncated prepositions with 
 the suffixes, especially with the shorter ones, by 
 
 lengthening again the preposition, This is at 
 
 * Of the derivation of ? from os, there is perhaps no 
 doubt. That of 2 from p is not less probable ; compare 
 }28, in Chald. p20, and thence °2iJ, Heb. FS, and also 
 the shortening of ]2 into 2 in many proper names, as 
 WE for WIAya Cflius transfossionis), see Man. Lex. 
 art. Wi, and comp. Schol. ad Harir. ed. de Sacy, p. 77, 
 and Tebrisi ad Ham. ed. Freytag, p. 3. The derivation 
 of 2 may seem forced, but it has the clearest analogy in 
 its févour. In Arabic and Syriac proper names, Beth is 
 most commonly shortened into B; e.g. B’shommar for 
 Bethshommar, (see Burckhardt’s Reisen in Syrien, 1. 
 S. 491 ;) in the Talmudic, °3, as the constr. st. of TY, 
 means in the house, and then simply in. Even the old 
 Hebrew furnishes a clear trace of the same abbreviation 
 in the word Minaya, Jos. 21:27, for Muncy 3, house 
 of Astarte. See Man. Lex. and hebr. Hawb. 4te Ausz. 
 under 3. Some have preferred to derive this preposition 
 from "2, between; but that such a transition has taken 
 
 pets 7 ae 
 
 
 
 place in this word cannot be shewn, and, moreover, 
 signification is too dissimilar, 
 
 Siecle | 
 . . 
 ‘ ‘ 
 P ‘ 
 . 
 " 
 . P . ‘ 
 = 
 a 
 Perr we an the 
 ) a > 
 - 
 ’ ; 
 > 
 ° 
 ’ =F ve 
 ’ 3 al 
 > 
 ‘ 5 
 Ea | 
 3 ; 723 
 , 0 
 F 
 3 , f- 
 6 
 . > 
 =e,” 7 noe 
 ° 
 P . . 
 * 
 as é 
 3 
 > Cs 
 > . 
 oe 
 ° 
 of > 
 3 . 
 ’ vy 
 . 
 ? t r= 
 ‘ 7 
 LE ’ 
 . 
 . 
 40 ° . 
 . 
 i 
 

 
 96 FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, 
 
 
 
 least perceptible in the forms 3 and 5 from 3 
 and 5; to > is appended the syllable. ip, and 
 y2 is lengthened into p22 (prop. a parte.) 
 
 (a) > with suffixes: 
 Plur. 
 
 a, to us, nobis. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 %, to me, mihi. 
 
 m. 2, 7122, | D>, 
 pause 72, + to thee. to you. 
 
 As 7} re 
 5, to him. pit, poet. 0),*) to 
 1 mm, to her. ys We them. 
 
 > takes suffixes in the same manner, except 
 that for the 3 pers. plur. Da is also employed, 
 but not $03. 
 
 (6) » with suffixes: 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 Te Wp, as I. 313, as we. 
 2. ie Th thou Bap elem PP aye 
 m. w7D3, as he. Dya, DNB, DM2,) as 
 { Ji m3, as she. - — ey 
 (c) 79 with suffixes: 
 Sing. Plur. 
 1. 3199, poet», ) from w90, from us. 
 ® } me. 
 - ve PD, in pau. fhm DB, . 
 319°. rom you. 
 f as thee. mn, y 
 m. 339, poet.) from DMD, poet. DAM, 
 3. m9, ot het alae 
 +A mn, / Srom her. 172, dein. 
 
 * It has frequently been maintained that the form 
 4) stands also for the sing. 45, for which various ex- 
 planations have been given. But itis so used only with 
 reference to collectives; see Gen. 9:26 (in reference to 
 Sem = the Semites), Ps. 28: 8. 73:10 (in reference to the 
 people), Is. 44:15 (in reference to 9DB, Oe, which the 
 Seventy have rendered eo), 53:8, (in reference to the 
 servant of God, used collectively for the servants of God, 
 i. e. the pious Israelites.) 
 
 The same is true of 29Y for DPD; see Job 20 : 23 (in 
 reference to the ungodly man who in the whole repre- 
 sentation, v. 5—20, is a collective,—nay it begins y. 5 
 with the plural D')W), and 27:23, comp. at the begin- 
 ning of the representation, v.13, D'Z’y. 
 
 {It is proper to remark that the use of sy) for the 
 sing. 1 is maintained by Ewald Krit. Gram. d. Hebr. 
 Sprache, S. 365, and in his later work, Gram. d. Hebr. 
 
 Rem.1. The syllable 40 in 33 (in Arabic 
 
 le, mm, what, prop. according to what I, for 
 
 as I) is in poetry appended to the pure pre- 
 fixes 3, 3, 9, even without suffixes, so that 
 405, 1703, ,%0) appear again as independent 
 words. In this case, poetry distinguishes 
 itself from prose by the longer forms; in the 
 case of 9 it has adopted the shorter ones, 
 resembling those of the Syriac. 
 
 2. The preposition nx, at (apud), with, 
 (from my) is distinguished from nx, the sign 
 of the definite accusative (§ 115, 1), when 
 they take suffixes, by the difference of point- 
 ing: the former has e.g. the forms ‘my, dmx, 
 &ec.; the latter takes before most of the 
 persons its original Hholem (§ 37, Rem. 8), 
 as ‘nk, me, FOX, FNX, thee, nx, ADR, him, 
 her, 258, us, DIN, JINN, you, on’ and pany, 
 them. nx, with, is incorrectly inflected as 
 ‘nk, Ok, only in the books of Kings, and in 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 
 
 8. The preposition py inserts Qamets be- 
 fore op and on, that the doubling of the 
 Mem may not be lost to the ear, as npY, 
 omay (comp. miso, § 66, 4.) In the first 
 person, besides ‘oy is found the longer form 
 ‘toy (see above, under no. 2.) 
 
 § 101, 
 PREPOSITIONS WITH THE PLURAL FORM. 
 
 Several of these prepositions, especially those 
 which express relations of space and time, are 
 properly plural nouns, like the Germ. wegen, 
 and the Eng. besides, (for the ground of this, see 
 § 106, 2,a.) They occur (some of them ex- 
 clusively, while others have also the singular) in 
 the plural construct state, or in connexion with 
 those forms of the suffixes which belong to 
 plural nouns, (§ 35, 2.) These are— 
 
 “ax, more frequently ‘ts (prop. hinder 
 part, hinder parts), behind, with suff. always 
 TN TTR ry &e. 
 
 “yx, poet. also x (regions of —, [.accus. 
 loci, § 116, 1, a, comp. Job 5:26], hence, in 
 
 Sprache, Auflag. 2te, §421. See also Hengstenberg’s 
 “ Christology of the Old Testament,’? a work more gene- 
 rally accessible to American students, vol. i. page 523, of 
 Prof, Keith’s translation.—Tr.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OO —— 
 
 “a 
 
— 
 
 Se en ee ee ee ee 
 
 
 
 the direction of —,) towards, to, with suff. 
 always x, Vx, DPN. 
 
 T2 (interval of space), between, with suff. 
 2, 422, but also 722 onira (from ops, 
 nina, intervals.) 
 
 ja, from, out of, seldom 39 (plur. constr. st.), 
 Isvs0s 11; 
 
 ww (progress, duration, from TY), usque, 
 unto, Plur, yy (only poet.), with suff. ~y, 
 oy}. 
 
 7, upon, over, constr. st. of by, that which is 
 above (from my, to go up), Plur. y (only 
 poet.), with suff. yy, oy, for which ‘my is 
 also used in poetry, (see the note on $02, § 100.) 
 
 moa, under (prop. that which is beneath), 
 
 with suff. nn, rann, but also in the singular 
 onnmn. 
 
 § 102. 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 (Lehrg. §§ 155, 156.) 
 1, Conjunctions serve to connect words and 
 sentences, and to express their relation to each 
 
 other. Most of them were originally other 
 parts of speech, viz.— 
 
 a) Pronouns, as wx and », that, because, 
 Sor, (both relatives, § 37, 2.) 
 
 b) Proper adverbs, as ‘x and a (not), that 
 not, OX (num?) if, J, Py (only), but, yet. Also 
 adverbs with propositions ; e. g. oyda (in the not 
 yet), before that ; or with a conjunction added, as 
 2 Fx, there is added that = much less or much 
 more, nedum. 
 
 ce) Prepositions which are fitted by the addi- 
 tion of the conjunctions wx and 2 to shew the 
 connexion between propositions; e. g. TER y, 
 because (jy, on account of, prop. on this account, 
 that), x ws, after that, wwn2, according as, 
 ” 2? (to the end that), because. The preposi- 
 tion may still be employed in this manner, even 
 when the conjunction is omitted; e.g. by (for 
 wx 5p), because, y-by (for atiy-y2-oy, on this 
 
 wrt 
 
 account, that), because. 
 
 In like manner, all prepositions before the 
 Infinitive are to be explained as conjunctions, 
 (§ 130, 2.) 
 
 2. Even those words which are no longer in 
 
 OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 been originally such, but to be properly nouns, 
 and they generally betray their affinity with 
 verbal roots; exs. ix (prop. 
 from mx, ¢o desire, comp. Prov. 31:4), or, like 
 vel, ve, kindred with velle; jp (a turning away), 
 that not; %5 (dependence, condition), if. Even 
 the only prefix conjunction }, and, must per- 
 haps acknowledge relationship with y), a binding 
 
 desire, choice, 
 
 or fastening, a nail. 
 On the punctuation of the conjunction ) we 
 remark— 
 
 a) Before words whose first consonant has 
 simple Sheva, the Vav takes the vowel- 
 sound 3 (§ 7, 2), as ‘sy w-lkhdl, (see 
 § 26, 1, Rem.) It is also sounded thus 
 before its cognate letters, the labials 3, n, 
 b; as yy) w-mé-l¢kh. Before », how- 
 ever, the Vav is pointed asin %) (for ™, 
 comp. § 28, 1, and § 24, 1, a); and before 
 7 and 7, it is sometimes pointed as in the 
 forms on}, Jos. 8:4,and onm, Ez. 37: 5. 
 
 b) Before one of the composite Shevas, it takes 
 the corresponding short vowel, (§ 28, 2.) 
 
 c) Immediately before the tone-syllable, it 
 often takes Qamets, like 3, 3, 5, and with 
 the same limitation (§ 100, 1), especially 
 when words are connected in pairs, as 
 win} wn, Gen. 1:2. comp. 8: 22. 
 
 § 108. 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 1. Among the interjections are several which 
 are primitive, being merely natural sounds ex- 
 pressed in writing; as TaN, Ms, ah! 7, x, 
 wo! mm, ho! ea! 
 
 2. Most of them, however, like the other 
 particles, were borrowed from other parts of 
 speech, which, by use in animated discourse, 
 gradually acquired the character of interjections ; 
 e.g. %, if, (a) conj. if it were; (4) interj. an 
 expression of desire, if it were ! = would it were. 
 
 Here belong: ya or mz, behold! (kindred 
 with the Chald. demonstr. pron. qq); 724, plur. 
 a7 (prop. give, Imp. from am), for age, agite; 
 735, 335 (prop. go), the same; npn, far be it! 
 prop. ad profana! »3 (for ‘2, entreaty), I be- 
 seech, hear me; s3, now, I pray, (in ZEthiop. an 
 
 use, except as conjunctions, seem not to have | Imp. well now! come.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
——— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 PART III.—SYNTAX. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 
 § 104. 
 
 RELATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE TO THE 
 ADJECTIVE;—OF THE ABSTRACT TO THE 
 CONCRETE. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 163—165.) 
 
 In the Hebrew language there is a want of 
 adjectives in proportion to the substantives, and 
 some classes of adjectives (e. g. those of material) 
 are almost wholly wanting.* This deficiency is 
 supplied by substantives, and especially in the 
 following ways :— 
 
 1. The substantive employed to express some 
 quality in another is placed after it in the geni- 
 tive. So constantly in designating the material 
 of which a thing is made; e.g. D2 “2p, vessels 
 of silver = silver vessels ; oxy nan, ark of wood = 
 wooden ark, like des vases d’or; in like manner 
 ndiy mits, an eternal possession, Gen. 17 : 8. 
 This construction, having once become familiar, 
 was retained even in cases where the language 
 supplies an adjective; e.g. wip pa, the holy 
 garments, Ex. 29 : 29, 
 
 Rem. 1. Less frequently the substantive 
 which expresses a quality in another is fol- 
 lowed by it in the genitive, as J poy WI, 
 the choice of thy valleys, i. e. thy choicest (most 
 beautiful) valleys, Is.22:7. comp. 17:4, 37:24. 
 With the substantive ‘s, the whole, totality, 
 for all, this is the usual construction, (see 
 § 109, 1, Rem.) 
 
 2. Where the adjective would stand alone 
 as predicate, the substantive sometimes takes 
 its place; e.g. Lev. 21:6, wip ym, they shall 
 be holiness; Ps. 35:6, let their way be dark- 
 
 Comp. un homme de bien. 
 
 * There are a few adjectives of this kind formed after 
 the manner of passive participles, as TON, of cedar, 
 wim, of brass. 
 
 10:5. 88:19. More seldom the sub- 
 stantive takes a preposition, as in Ps. 29:4, 
 the voice of Jehovah is m3, with power, for 
 powerful. 
 
 NESS : 
 
 2. In Hebrew many qualities are expressed 
 by cireumlocution; viz. by an abstract noun 
 or name of a thing, which designates the attri- 
 bute, preceded by some general name of a 
 person as the subject of the attribute. The 
 subject is expressed by several words; viz. :— 
 a) by Wx, man, e. g. OI wx, an eloquent man, 
 Ex. 4:10, nyt wr, a wise man, Prov. 24:5; 
 (5) by on, men, e.g. Is. 5:13, a) nN, 
 hungry men; (ec) by ‘v2, master, possessor, e. g. 
 wip bya, hairy, 2 Kings 1:8, nidona bya, the 
 dreamer, Gen. 37:19; (d) by j3, son, and na, 
 daughter, e.g. -y3, a valiant man, 1 Kings 
 1:52; DIQ7y3, an inhabitant of the east, Gen. 
 29:1; myw-y, one year old, Ex. 12:5; nyo-p, 
 doomed to death, 1 Sam. 20:31. 
 
 A bolder construction, and merely poetic, 
 is the use of the abstract in place of the con- 
 crete, as ya, worthlessness, for worthless, like 
 scelus for scelestissimus ; and at the same time 
 for the Plural, as nwp, bow for bowmen, Is. 
 21:17. 22:3; sp, harvest for harvesters, 
 17:5. On the use of the abstract for the con- 
 crete, so far as it is a common characteristic 
 of language, see § 82, Rem. 1. 
 
 Rem. That, on the contrary, forms of ad- 
 jectives and concretes often take the abstract 
 signification, especially in the Feminine, has 
 been shewn in § 83; comp. § 105, 2, b. 
 
 We may here remark also that the poets 
 employ certain epitheta ornantia (which are 
 at the same time perpetua) alone without the 
 substantive; e.g. vis, the Strong, i.e. God; 
 yar, the strong, i. e. the bullock, in Jeremiah 
 the horse; yi5, the majestic, august, for the 
 prince; 123), the pale, i. e. the moon. In 
 Arabic this is yet far more common. 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 § 105. 
 
 USE OF THE GENDERS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 116.) 
 
 Whether the Hebrew regarded a substantive 
 as feminine is known (§ 79, 1, 2) partly from 
 the feminine termination appended to it, partly 
 from its construction with a feminine predicate, 
 and in most cases, though there are many ex- 
 ceptions (§ 86, 4), from the use of the feminine 
 plural form. We are now to shew for what pur- 
 poses the designation of gender was employed. 
 
 1. The most natural use of it was with re- 
 ference to the physical distinction of sex in men 
 and beasts, but with several gradations, accord- 
 ing as it corresponds or not with this natural 
 distinction, and as it is more or less strongly 
 marked. ‘The principal cases are the following : 
 viz.i(a) when the male and the female are 
 designated by entirely different words, and the 
 latter, of course, requires no feminine ending, as 
 in father, mother, in Heb, 8, OX; Dx, ram, Pan 
 ewe; (6) when the female is indicated by the 
 addition of the feminine ending, as in 1, 
 juvencus, 772, juvenca, 52y, vitulus, now, vitula ; 
 (c) when the feminine gender is shewn only by 
 the construction, as in 6, 7 Botg; 6, 1) waic, 
 (communia;) e. g. D3, masc. camelus. Gen. 
 24: 63, but fem. camela, 32:16, 173, masc. male 
 cattle, Ex. 21:37, but fem. for female cattle, Job 
 1:14; (d) when, without regard to the natural 
 distinction of the sexes, only one form is em- 
 ployed in the same gender to designate both, as 
 in 6 AvcKog, 9 xXeALwWY, (epicena;) e. g. ADD 3A, 
 masc. a bear robbed of her young, Hos. 13:8; 
 Fp, mase, ox, Ps, 144: 14, where the female of 
 the ox-kind is intended. 
 
 Writers often neglect to avail themselves 
 of forms in the language whose gender is 
 determined by usage; e.g. the use of inn 
 and of px as fem. for jing and mpx, 2 Sam. 
 19:27, and Ps. 42:2; also of ry2, a boy, for 
 m2, in the Pent. and in Ruth 2:21. Job 
 1:19. Compare in German Gemahl for 
 Gemahlin; in Arabic, also, the more elegant 
 written language avoids the feminine forms 
 (e. g. Ke), mistress, Bang sos bride), which are 
 common in later usage. 
 
 That the designations of sex were used 
 sparingly appears also in other examples; 
 
 viz. jiox, mase, architect, Prov. 8 : 30, where 
 wisdom ( fem.) is meant, (comp. artifex omnium 
 natura, Plin. 2,1 ;) Gen. 23:4, 6, m9, a dead 
 body (masc.), spoken of the corpse of a 
 woman; 1 Kings 11:5, ov, for the Goddess 
 Ashtoreth, 
 
 Among epicene nouns are found names of 
 whole species of animals, which the mind con- 
 templated as masculine or feminine, according 
 as they appeared strong and powerful, or 
 weak and timid; e. g. masc. 393, dog, IN, 
 wolf; fem. mi, dove, mon, stork, 72¥)n3, 
 ostrich, n32x, hare. 
 
 2. Besides objects properly feminine, there 
 are others (nearly the same which in Greek 
 and Latin are neuter), for which the feminine 
 form is preferred,* viz. :— 
 
 a) Things without life, for which the Femi- 
 nine, as the weaker, seemed to be the most 
 suitable designation, as 7 side (of the 
 human body), nmzy, side or border, (of a 
 country;) Mp, brow, myp, greave, (from 
 the resemblance ;) ox, mother, Tx, mother- 
 city, metropolis, 
 
 b) Hence abstract ideas, which atleast de- 
 cidedly prefer the feminine form, even when 
 the masculine is also in use, as Dp3, 222, 
 vengeance, WY, MY, help, § 83, 5, 6,12. Ad- 
 jectives when used abstractly, or in a neuter 
 sense (like 7d wkaddv), commonly take the 
 fem. form, as 13123, the right, Ps. 5:10; so 
 also in the Plur. nit, great things, Ps. 12:4. 
 As such we are to regard the names of offices, 
 which, by a natural transfer to the persons 
 holding them, become official titles; comp. 
 the Italian podestd, the German Herrschaft, 
 Obrigheit, for Herr, Oberer, English lordship ; 
 e@.g. MMB, governor (prop. office of governor), 
 noqp, concionator. Such nouns are construed 
 agreeably to their signification with the Mas- 
 culine; Eccles. 1:2, 12. 
 
 c) Collectives, as mx, wanderer, traveller, 
 mM, caravan, prop. that which wandereth for 
 the wanderers; nydv, Mic. 1:11, 12, prop. 
 that which inhabiteth for the inhabitants; ny, 
 Mic. 7:8, 10, for the enemies. The boldest 
 application of this principle is the poetic na 
 “ez for 1 ‘2, sons = inhabitants of Tyre, Ps. 
 
 * On the subject of nos. 2 and 3, see the excellent re- 
 marks of Harris, Hermes, I. p. 37. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fT aoe 
 
 = 
 
 45:18, (see the author’s Comm. on Isa. 1:8.) 
 Examples of its application to things with- 
 out life, may, timber, maw, clouds. Comp. 7d 
 immucdy and 2 tm7oc, for the cavalry. 
 
 8. Many words (besides certain names of 
 objects properly feminine, no. 1, a) are dis- 
 tinguished by the feminine construction, without 
 the characteristic ending. They are chiefly 
 embraced in the following classes :— 
 
 a) Names of countries and towns, contem- 
 plated as mothers,*—as it were nurses,—of 
 the inhabitants; e.g. ‘wx, fem. Assyria, 
 ow, fem. Idumea, 2, Tyre; so vy, town, 
 bon, the earth, (orbis habitatus), are always 
 feminine. 
 
 As names of people commonly remain mas- 
 culine, it often happens, that the same word is 
 used as masc. for the name of a people, and as 
 Jem. for the name of a country; e.g. a7, 
 masc. Jews, Is. 3:8, fem. Judea, Lam. 1:3; 
 Diy, masc. Idumeans, Numb. 20 : 20, fem. 
 Idumea, Jer. 49 : 17. 
 
 But names of people are also construed as 
 Jem. either from a metaphorical use (like the 
 German Pohlen ist im Aufstande), or from 
 being regarded as collectives, (letter c;) see 
 Job1:15. 1S8am.17:21. Isaiah 7:2. 15:8. 
 21: 2.} 
 
 b) Members of the body (whether in man or 
 beast), especially those which are double,t 
 t, hand, 5x, foot, 32, horn, and also others, 
 as yo3, womb; probably with reference to 
 their dependence as mere instruments, and 
 hence also inanimate instruments § and utensils, 
 as In, sword, 1m, spade, pin, wry, bed, dia, 
 
 * Thus ON, 2 Sam. 20:19, and MAR, 2 Sam. 8:1, 
 stand for mother-city, untpomodis (comp. untyp, mater), 
 and by the same figure, the inhabitants were called sons 
 of the country, as sons of Zion, Ps. 149:2, sons of Baby- 
 fon, Ezek. 23:15, (comp. son of the house, son of the 
 womb.) 
 
 t+ Here belongs the poetical personification of a people 
 as a female, e.g. Is. 47. Lam.1; as a widow, Is. 50:1 
 seq. 54:4, 
 
 + Of the mase. gender in these nouns the only ex- 
 amples are, vit, Is.17:5; pi, Ex. 29;27, In the 
 other cases, which are adduced as exceptions, the words 
 are either in the Dual, where the form admits of both 
 genders, or are used figuratively, as in Ps. 73:7. 
 
 § Inanimate instruments and those endowed with 
 life (members of the body) have also some other con- 
 structions in common; see § 135, 1, Rem. 3. 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 cup, and many others. Most of these words 
 and ideas have the same gender in the kindred 
 dialects. 
 
 ce) Collectives, as ‘bv, fem. Ex. 16 : 13, 
 
 tively) frogs, Ex. 8:2. Ps. 78: 45. 
 
 4, In many words without the feminine end- 
 ing, the gender is still unsettled (as in 6, 9 
 doc), with only a greater or less predominance 
 of the Feminine. These are often called in 
 grammar common; but it is better, as this term 
 is employed in another sense (no. 1, c), to call 
 them words of both genders. 
 
 There are mainly the same classes as under 
 no. 3; viz. names of countries and’ places, as 
 ye. yn and mk, way, SM, court, ny, 
 camp, “xv, lower-world; of members of the 
 body, instruments and utensils, as yv2, tongue, 
 yo, tooth, ypx1, beard, chin, men and wm, 
 staff, jr, ark; of the powers of nature as 
 sources of blessings, as wow, sun, mm, wind, 
 also spirit, so wp, breath, soul; especially of 
 Sire, light,* as dy, fire (Ath. eat), ix (Job 
 36 :32), and so my and Wn, oven, 123, bright- 
 ness, &c.t 
 
 § 106. 
 THE PLURAL AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 
 
 1. Besides the proper plural endings (§ 86, 
 1, 2), the language employs some other means 
 for the expression of plurality, viz.—(a) certain 
 words, whose appropriate signification is col- 
 lective, designating an indefinite number of a 
 class of objects, and having their corresponding 
 nominad unitatis, or nouns which designate an 
 individual of the class; e. g. “1, an ox (an in- 
 dividual of the ox-kind), 7p3, oxen, as men 
 pi, five oxen, Ex. 21:37, yx, small catile, viz. 
 sheep or goats, 7, an individual of the same, a 
 sheep or a goat; (6) the Feminine ending and 
 construction, § 105, 2, c, 8,¢e; (e) nouns which 
 have the proper signification of the singular, but 
 which are also used as collectives; e.g. DIX, 
 Gen. 1:26, man, the human race, wy, Is. 21:9, 
 
 * See Lehrgeb. p. 546. 
 
 + The particulars are supplied by the Lexicon. Some 
 words, moreover, of the class last mentioned, take the 
 Feminine ending, as NWM, brass, MUP, bow, (from 
 the stem-word Wip), MY, time, for NY). These are 
 only now and then construed as masculine, from a mis- 
 apprehension of their origin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 collect. for men, 123, words, 2\x, the enemy, for 
 the enemies. These words take the article, 
 when all the individuals of the class are included, 
 (§ 107, 1.) 
 
 2. On the other hand, the terminations which 
 properly express plurality are employed in the 
 expression of other kindred ideas, viz.— 
 
 a) Extension* of space and time: hence the 
 frequent use of the Plural to express portions 
 of space, regions or places, as 022, heaven, 
 (§ 86, 5, Rem.,) nina, height, mor, the 
 place at the feet, nivsem, the place at the 
 head, (comp. § 101;) certain portions of the 
 body, which are parts of its extension,t as 0”, 
 Jace, Dw, neck; spaces of time, as Dn, 
 life, ory, youth, or, old age; and finally 
 states, qualities, which are permanent or of long 
 continuance, as DY, perverseness, DIT, com- 
 passion, o'ard, childlessness. 
 
 b) Greatness, especially in a metaphorical 
 sense, as associated with power and sovereignty. 
 Hence there are several nouns which are used 
 in the Plur. as well as the Sing. to denote 
 Lord or God, (Pluralis majestaticus or excel- 
 lentia ;) e.g. mx, God, scarcely found in the 
 Sing. except in poetry, in prose commonly 
 Dv; jis, lord, old form of the Plural ‘hy, 
 the Lord, war’ tZoxijv (God), *r5 (§ 86, 1, d), 
 the Almighty.t Often the idea of greatness is 
 no longer associated with this form, the mind 
 having aécustomed itself to contemplate the 
 powerful in general as a Plural; e.g. D2y 
 mip, @ cruel lord, Is. 19:4; Yow ‘yy, Gen. 
 42: 30, the lord of the land; so 4y3, lord, with 
 suff, often yoya, his lord, wy, her lord. 
 
 On the construction of the Plur. maj. with 
 adjectives, see § 110, 1, Rem. 4. 
 
 * By the transferring (in mathematical language) of 
 an expression for arithmetical quantity to geometrical. 
 The language has other examples of the designation of 
 great and many by the same word; see J}, DiZy, 
 Comp. Rem. 1. 
 
 + Comp. the same use of the Plur. in ta otépva, ta 
 vita, precordia, cervices, fauces. 
 
 + For this usage, which is certainly of great antiquity, 
 the language has retained ancient forms of the Plural, 
 which it seldom employs for any other purpose, An- 
 other example of the P/ur. maj. in the Old Testament is 
 the use of we by the Deity, in speaking of himself (Gen. 
 1:26. 11:7. Is. 6:8), and by kings, (Ez. 4:18, 7:24, 
 comp. 1 Mac. 10:19. 11:31.) The German languages 
 have it not only in this latter case, but in addressing a 
 second person by Jhkr and Sie. This Plural is also 
 found in the modern Arabic and Persian. 
 
 
 
 Or Eo RO a a 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 3. When a substantive is followed by a geni- 
 tive, and this compound idea is to be expressed 
 in the Plural, it is done (a) most naturally by 
 the Plural form in the governing noun, as “aa 
 mm, strong heroes; so in compounds, *yn "73, 
 Benjaminite, plur. yy 33, 1 Sam. 22:7; (5) in 
 both, as oy yy, 1 Chr. 7:5, Doo Ww, Ex. 
 1:11, taskmasters; and hence py 2, Ps. 29:1, 
 sons of Gods for sons of God, (angels ) (e) even 
 in the noun governed, as 8 2, family, mis ma, 
 Jamilies, Num. 1: 22 foll., oy9 ~p, Cant. 4:16. 
 7:14, precious fruits. On this observation, 
 which has hitherto been overlooked by gram- 
 marians, see also 2 Kings 17:29. Job 22:24. 
 Is. 2:20, (where the reading ni “én is to be 
 explained rats’ holes.) Dan. 11:15. Jer. 8:19. 
 Here the two words by which the compound 
 idea is expressed are treated as a nomen com- 
 positum ; and in Syriac the above three methods 
 of forming the Plural are all found in the actual 
 compounds. 
 
 4. To the modes of expressing plurality be- 
 longs also the repetition of a noun, with or with- 
 out the copula. By this is indicated the whole, 
 all, every, as oY oY, day by day, every day, 
 We We, every man, so Wx) wy, Ps. 87:5, 
 ni ov, Esth. 3:4, hence distributively, as ww 
 jn) Wy, Gen. 32:17, each flock by itself; also a 
 great multitude, even with the Plural form, Gen. 
 14:10, vor nina nina, asphalt-pits in abun- 
 dance, nothing but asphalt-pits, and Joel 4:14; 
 also (with the copula) diversity, more than one 
 hind of, as 55 signifies all and every hind of; e.g. 
 }2N) pe, Deut. 25: 13, two hinds of weights ; 33%, 
 Ps. 12:3, a double heart. 
 
 Rem. 1. Names of substances (e. g. the 
 metals, liquors, &c.) very seldom occur except 
 in the Singular, as 1m, gold, FID2, silver, “Ww3, 
 Jlesh, >, wine, x57, milk, (though water is 
 expressed by the plur. form Dp, but this is 
 also Singular in Arabic.) But when the word 
 is used not simply as the name of the sub- 
 stance, but to express a portion of it, it may 
 take the plur. form, as DED2, pieces of silver, 
 Gen. 42:25. comp. Is. 1:25. So of grain, as 
 mam, wheat (the plant growing in the field), 
 pun, wheat in’ the kernel. 
 
 2. Even in cases where the Plural is re- 
 garded as merely poetic, we are to connect 
 with it the idea of real plurality; e.g. Job 
 17:1, the graves are my portion, equivalent to 
 
 
 
 
 
is 
 102 
 
 
 
 ee nent tee dione re 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 burying-place, many graves being usually 
 found together. Gen. 49:4, thou didst ascend 
 the beds of thy father, the crime having been 
 committed more than once, and in different 
 places. 
 
 § 107. 
 
 USE OF THE ARTICLE, 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 166—168.) 
 
 The article is employed with a noun to limit 
 its application in nearly the same cases as in 
 Greek and German; viz. when a definite object, 
 one previously mentioned, or already known, or the 
 only one of its kind, is the subject of discourse ;* 
 e.g. Gen. 1:3, God said, let there be light, (ris) 
 verse 4, and Giod saw the light, (isa-nx). Comp. 
 also DIN, verse 26, with DINT, verse 27. Lev. 
 4:2, a soul (wm) if it sins. Hecles. 1:12, Iam 
 hing (y22) over Jerusalem; on the contrary 
 mow 7200; wun, the sun, yuna, the earth. See 
 an instructive example in Eccles. 9: 15. 
 
 In such cases the article can be omitted 
 only in poetry, where it is used, in general, 
 less frequently than in prose; e.g. 9 for 
 qro, Ps. 21: 2, Poy for YqNT, 2:2. 
 
 Special cases in which the article is commonly 
 employed are— 
 
 1. When an appellative is used collectively to 
 denote all the individuals of the class, as the 
 righteous, the unrighteous, Gen. 18:25; the woman 
 for the female sex, Eccles. 7:26; the Canaanite, 
 Gen. 13:7. 15:19, 20. Comp. the Russian, the 
 Turk; 6’ AOQnvaioc, 6 Suvpaxdotoc. 
 
 2. When an appellative is applied by way of 
 eminence to a particular person, and thus be- 
 comes a kind of proper name, as 6 zronrije, 
 (Homer;) e.g. yow, adversary, yown, the ad- 
 versary, Satan; Sy3, lord, 5yza (prop. name of 
 the idol), Baal; niwn, the first man, Adam; 5xn, 
 DT, O Jed, the only, true God = mm (though 
 this word, from its frequent occurrence in this 
 sense, is often so used without the article) ; 7737, 
 the river, i.e. the Euphrates; “29, the region 
 around, viz. around the Jordan. 
 
 8. Hence it is also used with actual proper 
 names of rivers, mountains, and of many towns, 
 
 * The fundamental signification of the article is de- 
 monstrative, as is still seen in such cases of it as oP, 
 this day, hodie, DYE, this time. With this signification 
 is connected a relative use of the article, (comp. that 
 for which ;) Jos. 10:2. Ezr. 8:25. Dan. 8:1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 with reference to their original appellative 
 signification, (comp. the Hague, le Havre, la 
 Plaia;) e.g. wa, the Nile, prop. the river, 
 juan, Lebanon, prop. the white mountain, vy 
 (the town), Az, prop. the stone-heap. But its 
 use in connexion with names of towns is unfre- 
 quent, and in poetry is generally omitted. 
 (Comp. § 108, 1.) 
 
 Before names of persons it is found only in 
 books of the latest period, as niipa, Eccles. 
 12:8; mon, Ezr. 2:55. 
 
 Rem. 1. The Hebrew article certainly 
 never stands for the zndefinite article; but the 
 Hebrew conceives and expresses many ideas 
 definitely which we are accustomed to con- 
 ceive and express indefinitely. This is most 
 
 
 
 commonly seen— 
 
 a) In comparisons, because whatever we 
 compare anything with is presupposed to be 
 known; e.g. white as the wool, as the 
 snow, red as the scarlet, Is.1:18; as the 
 sheep, Ps. 49:15; hurl thee like the ball, 
 Is, 22:18; the heavens are rolled up like the 
 scroll, 34:4. comp. 10:14. 24:20. 27:10. 
 53:6. Ps, 33:7. 
 
 b) In the designation of classes of objects 
 which are universally known; e.g. the gold, 
 the silver, the cattle, the water. Hence 
 Gen. 13:2, Abraham was very rich in the 
 (smaller) cattle, the silver, and the gold, where 
 most languages would omit the article. He 
 had much, is the Hebrew’s conception, of these 
 well-known treasures. Comp. Gen. 6:21. 
 41:42, Ex. 31:4, 35:32. Is. 1:21. 
 
 c) In the expression also of abstract ideas, 
 where the use of the article is frequent (comp. 
 TO immxdy, la modestie), hence of physical and 
 moral evils, as the falsehood, Is. 29:21, the 
 blindness, Gen. 19:11, the darkness, Is. 60:2. 
 [Comp. Lex. Man. art. ‘7, 2, b.] 
 
 On these principles, it is easy to explain the 
 use of the article in special cases, as 1 Sam. 
 17:34, “wa, the lion, as the well-known 
 enemy of the flocks (comp. voy AiKcoyv, John 
 10:12), 17:8. Gen. 8:6, 7,8. 14:13, DIM 
 should not be translated a day, but the day, 
 (at) the time, viz. as determined by what 
 precedes. [For a more full examination of 
 
 such cases, see Lex. Man. art. ‘4, closing 
 paragraph. | 
 2. The vocative also takes the article, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 103 
 
 for the most part in those cases where it is 
 usually required; e.g. ‘737 pT ywim, O 
 Joshua, high priest, Zech. 3:9. 1 Sam. 24:9. 
 
 § 108. 
 
 The article is regularly omitted— 
 
 1. Before the proper name of a person or a 
 country (Py1, OND), and also of a people, when 
 it coincides with the name of the founder of 
 the race or the name of their country, Gxt, 
 Dw). On the contrary Gentile nouns admit 
 it both in the Sing. and Plur., as onavy, the 
 Hebrews, 1 Sam. 13 : 3, yx, the Canaanite, 
 (collect. § 107, 1.) 
 
 2. Before a substantive, whose application 
 is limited by a following genitive or a suffix, 
 which renders the use of the article unneces- 
 sary; @.g. Ov 7, word of God, x, my 
 Sather. 
 
 When the article is used in these two 
 cases, some special reason can generally be 
 assigned for it ; e. g— 
 
 a) In some cases the full demonstrative 
 power of the article is required, as Jer. 32: 12, 
 I gave this bill of sale, Typo WoeN-ny, comp. 
 v.11; Jos. 8 : 33, Pyy, @ half of them, in 
 the next clause )yr7, the (other) half of them. 
 
 6) In others the connexion between the 
 noun and the following genitive is somewhat 
 loose, so that the first forms a perfect idea by 
 itself, as man yasn, the weight, the leaden one, 
 
 . Zech. 4:10. 1 Kings 6:31. So when— 
 
 ce) The word which takes the article is 
 itself a genitive dependent on a preceding 
 noun, as mz jw yt, Jos. 3:14; na 
 “TINT, 7:21. 
 
 8. Before the predicate, which from its 
 nature is indeterminate, as Gen, 29:7, opm ty 
 bia, yet is the day great, it is yet high day; 
 33:13. Is. 5:20, yy 212) oT, who call the 
 good evil, 66 : 3. 
 
 Yet there are cases where the nature of the 
 predicate requires the article. Num. 3: 24, 
 (let) the charge of the sons of Gershon in the 
 tabernacle of the congregation (be), 538m yBvD7, 
 the framework and the covering of the tent. 
 Ex. 9:27. Gen. 45:12, "3m '» 9, that my 
 mouth (is) the one that speaketh = it is my 
 mouth that speaketh. In other instances the 
 article is to be taken as a demonstrative pronoun 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 (like the Germ. der for dieser, er, and the 
 Greek article), in apposition with the subject 
 of the sentence, which it repeats with some 
 added circumstance. Neh. 10:38, they, the 
 Levites, omwyny [the (in turn) payers of tithes], 
 who (in turn) must pay tithes. Jer. 19:13, 
 the houses of Jerusalem, owren [the impure 
 (ones)], which (are) impure. Deut. 3 : 21. 
 4:3. Ps, 18:33, 48. Hence when new pre- 
 dicates are added to a subject, as Ps. 19 : 10, 
 the laws of Jehovah are truth .... v.11, 
 ora [the things to be desired], they (are) 
 precious, &e. Gen. 49:21. Is. 40:23; so 
 when the subject stands first in a represen- 
 tation, Is. 40: 22, awn, he (Jehovah) sits, 
 46:6. 
 
 § 109. 
 
 1. When a compound idea, represented by 
 one noun followed by another in the genitive, 
 is to be expressed definitely, it is done by pre- 
 fixing the article to the noun in the genitive, 
 as monyo wry, Jos. 17:1, a man of war, tx 
 monvan, Num. 31:49, the men of war; JN 
 Dy, an angel of God, ory YD, the angel 
 of God. 
 
 This explains the use of the article after % 
 prop. a subst. totality, the whole. The article 
 is inserted after % to express definitely all, 
 whole (like tous les hommes, toute la ville), and 
 is omitted when it is used indefinitely for 
 of all kinds, anything, or distributively for 
 every, (tout homme, a tout prix ;) & g. DIsT~)3, 
 all men, yrw-, the whole earth, prop. the 
 whole of men, the whole of earth; yxx~523, 1 Chr. 
 29 : 2, stones of all kinds, >31-'2, Judg. 19 : 19, 
 anything ; ov-523, Ps. 7 : 12, every day. 
 
 Even compound proper names may be re- 
 solyed again into two words, and the second 
 then takes the article; e. g. -yj3, Benja- 
 minite, (§ 85, 6,) ‘oxI7}3, Jud. 3 : 15. 
 
 2. When the substantive has the article, or 
 (what is equivalent) is made definite by a fol- 
 lowing genitive or a suffix, the adjective, as well 
 as the pronoun mm, iq, belonging to the substan- 
 tive, takes also the article. Gen. 10:12, yn 
 m2, the great city, 28:19, 3mm Dipan, that 
 place ; Deut. 3:24, ARID A, thy strong hand ; 
 Ww Mm Moy, che great work of Jehovah. 
 
 Not very unfrequent is the connexion of 
 the article with the adjective alone, as being 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 the more determinative; e.g. 48 bP, Gen. 
 1:31, day the sicth=the sixth day, (on the 
 contrary ‘3 DY, a second day, 1:8;) Ps. 
 104:18. Joel 2:25. Neh. 3:6. Zech. 14:10. 
 This is the usual construction when the ad- 
 jective is properly a participle, as mi 320, 
 the sword that doeth violence. On the contrary 
 it seldom stands only with the substantive, 
 as in 2 Sam. 6:3. Ps. 12:8. Jer. 2:21. Com- 
 pare Gen. 32: 23. 43:14. Ps. 18:18. Pur- 
 posely indefinite is my) ona, Gen. 37 : 2, evil 
 report respecting them; myyI DON would be 
 the evil report, &c. 
 
 
 
 § 110. 
 CONNEXION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE WITH 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 (Lehrg. § 183.) 
 
 1. The adjective, as an appendage of the sub- 
 stantive and subservient to it, stands after it, 
 and agrees with it in gender and number, as 
 A Wy, TEL Tite. 
 
 Rem. 1. Very seldom the adjective stands 
 before the substantive, as when some emphasis 
 Tests on it; Ps. 89:53. Is. 10:30. 53:11, 
 and eyen with a word intervening, Ps. 18: 4. 
 Merely poetic is the form of expression Dx 
 0332, Job 41: 7, strong among shields for strong 
 shields, (comp. v. 21. Is. 35:93) or with a 
 collective noun instead of the Plural, DIx ‘pix, 
 the poor among men for the poor, Is. 29:19. 
 Hos. 13:2. Comp. the Lat. canum degeneres. 
 
 2. When substantives of the feminine gen- 
 der, or those which incline to it (§ 105, 4) 
 take two adjectives, the feminine form some- 
 times appears only in the one which stands 
 nearest the substantive, as 1 Sam. 15 : 9, 
 D2) 7132) TIN, 1 Kings 19:11, pm 7am. 
 Comp. § 144, Rem. 1. 
 
 3. Two adjectives belonging to the same 
 substantive may stand in apposition (see next 
 section) in cases where the English language 
 supplies the place of the first by an adverb, 
 which qualifies the second. Lev. 13 : 39, 
 niazd ning nina, spots weak, white, i. e. pale 
 white spots; v.19, npT2IN Tm? MAR @ pale 
 red spot. 
 
 4, In regard to number, the constructio ad 
 sensum is frequent. Collectives are construed 
 with the Plural; 1 Sam. 13:15. Jer. 28:4; 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 the Singular, as paz ovx, Ps. 7: 10. Is. 
 
 19:4, (but with the Plur. 1 Sam. 17: 26.) 
 
 Conversely, the adjective takes the plur. form 
 
 when it is used with reference to God (pro 
 
 notione majestatis;) as “iy mx, God who 
 
 created me, Job 35: 9. 
 
 2. An adjective, when it is more strictly 
 defined by a substantive, is followed by it in 
 the genitive case; e.g. "an-mp, beautiful in 
 JSorm, Gen. 39:6, DED 7, pure in hands, Ps. 
 24:4, wp) ow, Is. 19:10, sorrowful in spirit.* 
 (Comp. the construction of the Participle, § 132.) 
 But verbal adjectives also govern the cases of 
 their verbs, as Deut. 34:9, to 1m Nm, full 
 of the spirit of wisdom. 
 
 3. Of the adjective as predicate of the sen- 
 tence, see § 141 foll. 
 
 Sal 1g 
 
 A PPOs T/T OM, 
 (Lehrgeb. § 172.) 
 
 1. By this is meant the placing together of 
 two substantives, when one of them (commonly 
 the secondf) is intended to serve as a limitation 
 or restriction of the other; e.g. myDN ntx, 
 1 Kings 7:14, a woman (who is) a widow ; TY 
 Manz, Deut. 22:28, a damsel (who ts) a virgin; 
 nox oro, words (which are) truth, Prov. 22: 21. 
 Two adjectives are sometimes in apposition ; 
 see § 110, 1, Rem. 3. 
 
 Here belong numerous instances in which 
 it has commonly been supposed that the first 
 of the two nouns is an example of the absolute 
 used for the construct state, as MoM 7227, 
 the wine (which is) wrath, E02 om, days 
 (which are) a number, i.e. which can be num- 
 bered, Num. 9 : 20. 
 
 In other instances the second of the two 
 nouns designates a wholly different object 
 from the first, and is actually in the genitive, 
 its governing noun being the first mentally 
 repeated in the construct state, as Minzy DTN, 
 God (the God of) hosts ; oy oy, the princes 
 of the people, Judg. 5:13. comp. Is. 22:17. 
 
 * In Greek and Latin the genitive is employed in the 
 same manner, as ¢tristes animi; see Ruhnken, ad Vell. 
 Paterculum, 2, 93, (letus animi.) 
 
 + The first only in certain formulas, as at 220; 
 Tony 20, like our the King David. In such formu- 
 las, the arrangement y20 TY, 2 Sam. 13:39, like 
 Cicero Consul, is of rare occurrence, 
 
 
 
 
 
 | the Pluralis majestatis on the contrary with 
 
 —— 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 Job 31:11. The full form is aiso in actual 
 
 use, aS MMP JBOD wT, Ex. 38:21. 
 
 2. The apposition is only apparent when the 
 first of the two substantives is a designation of 
 measure, weight, or time; as OD TDN, an 
 ephah of barley, Ruth 2:17; FD OMD2, two 
 talents of silver, 2 Kings 5:23; om onx, 
 Gen. 41:1, two years’ time; hence, Gen. 6:17, 
 op ‘sa, the flood of water. Here the second 
 noun is a true accusative (as is shewn by the 
 Arabic, where it has the accusative-ending), and 
 its construction is explained § 116, 1. 
 
 § 112. 
 
 THE GENITIVE. EXPRESSION OF IT BY CIRCUM- 
 LOCUTION. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 174—176.) 
 
 Besides the designation of the relation of the 
 genitive by the construct state (§ 87), there are 
 others less direct, each of which has its appro- 
 priate uses ; viz.— 
 
 a) 5 ‘iy used principally for the genitive 
 of possession; aS 2X) TW jXza, Gen. 29:9. 
 47:4, the flock of her father; and also where 
 there are several successive genitives (to 
 avoid the repetition of the constr. st., but see 
 § 113, 1), as Maw) we opi vax, 1 Sam. 
 21:8, the chief of the herdsmen of Saul, 
 ride) whe oye vo, Cant. 1:1, the song of 
 songs of Solomon. Hence the Rabbinic de- 
 signation of the genitive %; in Syriac and 
 Chaldee, the relative is the usual sign of the 
 genitive. . 
 
 b) 5, which also properly denotes possession, 
 and in general the idea of pertaining or belong- 
 ing to;* as "> ja, 1 Sam. 16:18, a son of 
 Jesse; red) pps, 1 Sam. 14:16, the watch- 
 men of Saul, Gen. 41:12. This also is used 
 when there are several genitives, each depend- 
 ing on the preceding one, as o°7 a 
 Sette 20s, 1 Kings 15:31, chronicles of the 
 Kings of Israel; or when the substantive has 
 an adjective (1 Sam. 22:20), or stands in 
 
 * Philosophically considered, the Gascon says no less 
 correctly la fille 4 Mr. N., than the written language la 
 Jille de —; the former expresses the idea belonging to, 
 the latter that of origin, descent. The Arabians distin- 
 guish a twofold genitive ; viz. one which has the value of 
 ci (5), and one which has that of wre (JD). We 
 
 have the latter conception of this relation in the de of 
 modern languages. 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 apposition, and hence after numerals; e. g. in 
 the six hundredth year, 1 2115, of the life of 
 Noah, Genesis 7:11. Here is commonly 
 reckoned also the so-called Lamedh auctoris, 
 in such phrases as 7? YoY, psalm of David, 
 wor NT), Ps. 24:1, or merely Ny, 11:1. 
 14:1. But this belongs to the use of 5 after 
 a passive verb, for denoting the efficient cause, 
 (§ 140, 2.) 
 
 c) 9, but very seldom, and only to denote 
 source or origin; Job 6: 25. 
 
 § 113. 
 
 1. When the relation of genitive is repeated 
 in several successive nouns, there is sometimes a 
 repetition of the construct state, though it is often 
 avoided (§ 112, a and d) for the sake of clear- 
 ness. Gen. 47:9, nox “T 2 2; Is. 10:12, 
 my TQ 322 jan, the fruit-of-loftiness-of-heart 
 of the King of Assyria. 
 
 The absolute state is retained, as may be 
 seen in the last example (229), in those geni- 
 tives which serve merely as a periphrasis of 
 the adjective, and are thus subordinate to the 
 main thought to which alone the following 
 constr. st. has reference. Comp. Is. 28:1. 
 32:13. Cant.8:2. 1 Chron. 9:13. So also 
 when a substantive has an adjective and is 
 followed by a genitive, as Do mv py, 
 1 Kings 6:7, unhewn stones of the quarry ; but 
 on the contrary 7D19 ny mp, Is. 28:16, 
 precious corner-stone of the foundation, and 
 (still differently) DD: nm mp, @ portion for 
 two persons. 
 
 2. A noun in the genitive may stand not only 
 for the subject, but also sometimes for the object. 
 Ezek. 12:19, my Don, the wrong which the 
 inhabitants have done; on the contrary Judge 
 9:24, Syzy "m Dion, the wrong done to the sons of 
 Jerubbaal ; 72 may, Prov. 20:2, the dread of a 
 hing ;* DID npy1, Gen. 18 : 20, the cry concerning 
 Sodom. Other applications of the genitive are, 
 y? yu Gen. 3:24, way to the tree, dD TER, 
 Is. 1:10, judges like those of Sodom, ov 1H, 
 Ps. 51:19, sacrifices acceptable to God, x 2, 
 Ps. 35: 16, sanniones placenta, parasites. 
 
 3. Not unfrequently the relation of the geni- 
 
 * In Latin there is precisely the same use of the geni- 
 tive after injuria (Ces. B. G. 1, 20 and 30) and metus, 
 (see Aul. Gell. L. IX. c. xii. 4.) 
 
 Ly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 tive supplies the place of apposition; mp 772, 
 fluvius Euphratis, 29 na nina, Jer. 14:17. 
 
 Rem. 1. It rarely happens that a word 
 intervenes between the constr. st. and the fol- 
 lowing genitive, as in Is, 19:8. Hos. 14:3, 
 (comp. Gen. 7 : 6.) 
 
 2. With proper names, which are generally 
 in themselves sufficiently definite, the genitive 
 is of course seldom used for limitation or 
 restriction. Instances of it occur, however, in 
 geographical names, as oj) “Wx, Genesis 
 11:28, Ur of the Chaldees (like Augusta Vin- 
 delicorum), OT) DI, Aram of the two rivers 
 = Mesopotamia; in like manner mix2z mir, 
 Jehovah of hosts for Jehovah Lord of hosts. 
 
 § 114, 
 
 The construct state, which only indicates in 
 general a close connexion between two nouns, is 
 used not only to express the relation of the 
 genitive, but also (1) before prepositions, espe- 
 cially in poetry; e.g. before a, yxpa nov, 
 Is. 9:2, the joy in harvest, 5, Job 18:2, 72 
 Is. 28: 9, Sy, Judges 5:10; (2) before the 
 relative, as Wx Dipp, Gen. 40: 3, the place 
 where ; (3) before Vav copulative, as myn noon, 
 Is. 33:6. comp. 28:4, 16. 
 
 The other instances where the construct 
 state seems to stand for the absolute are to be 
 explained by supplying a genitive from the 
 preceding part of the sentence, as in 2 Kings 
 heals debe Hegs 
 
 § 115. 
 
 MODE OF DESIGNATING THE OTHER CASES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 177.) 
 
 1. The syllable ny, -ny is prefixed as a sign 
 of the accusative, but only to substantives which 
 are made definite by the article or a genitive or 
 suffix, and to proper names. In all other cases, 
 the accusative remains destitute of any distinc- 
 tive sign, and poetry often omits it even in 
 these; e.g. JONI ny) Ovo nx, Gen. 1:1; on 
 the contrary Dyat) yw, 2:2. We have already 
 noticed another mode of forming the accusative, 
 which, however, is exclusively the accusative 
 local, (§ 93, 1, comp. § 116, 1, Rem.) 
 
 For the original signification of my see 
 
 § 37, Rem. 3, for its form before suffixes 
 
 § 100, Rem. 2. 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The examples are extremely rare in which 
 nx stands before an indeterminate noun, as in 
 Prov. 13:21, opts-ny, Ezek. 43:10 (in both 
 which passages the sense requires the definite 
 article), and Ex. 21:28, where the noun is 
 indefinite. 
 
 2. The dative and ablative are expressed by 
 circumlocution, the former by the preposition 5, 
 the latter by the prepositions yo (from, out of,) 
 and a (in, at, by.) It is to be observed, how- 
 ever, that the nouns to which they are prefixed 
 are. in the conception of the Semite, genitives, 
 these particles being originally nouns, (see 
 §§ 100, 101.) 
 
 The Arabic has also a distinct form for the 
 genitive. 
 
 § 116. 
 USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 178.) 
 
 The accusative is employed—(1) to express 
 the object of the transitive verb, § 185; (2) in 
 certain adverbial designations, where it is no 
 longer governed immediately by the verb. We 
 shall here treat only of the latter. 
 
 The second of the above usages is un- 
 doubtedly derived from the first, and to this 
 still belong several constructions in which the 
 accusative is commonly supposed to be used 
 adverbially.* But we are not therefore au- 
 thorized to reject altogether the second signi- 
 fication of the accusative, as is done by some. 
 A similar extension of its original use has 
 taken place in the Greek language; see 
 Bernhardy Gr. Synt. S. 105 ff. 
 
 Accordingly the accusative is employed— 
 1. In designations of place—(a) in answer to 
 
 the question whither 2 after verbs of motion, as 
 mw xen, 1 Sam. 20:11, let us go out into the 
 field; wan 333, 2 Chron. 20:36, to go to 
 Tarshish, Ps. 134: 2; (6) in answer to the 
 question where? after verbs implying rest in a 
 place, as ix m3, Gen. 38:11, in the house of 
 thy father, ‘ym TB, 18:1, in the door of the 
 tent. It is then employed also with reference to 
 space and measure, in answer to the question 
 how far? Gen. 7 : 20, the water rose fifteen cubits ; 
 and hence the use of it mentioned § 111, 2. 
 
 In both cases, especially the first, the 
 
 * See § 135, 1, Rem. 3, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 107 
 
 
 
 syllable n— is often appended, forming ac- | which comparison is made; e.g. 1 Sam. 9: 2, 
 
 tually an accusative local, (§ 93, 1.) The 
 first relation may also be expressed by 5x (as 
 it commonly is with reference to persons), 
 and the second by 3; but we are by no means 
 to suppose that where these particles are 
 omitted the construction is incomplete; see 
 no. 3, Rem. 
 
 2. In designations of time—(a) in answer to 
 the question when? as npn, the day, i.e. on the 
 day, then, or on this day, to-day; xy, at evening, 
 mip, by night; Gen. 14:4, sy AW Moy dh, 
 the thirteenth year (in the 18th 2 year) they Yy revolted ; 
 (4) in answer to the question how long? now 
 ory, six days (long), Ex. 20:9. 
 
 3. In other adverbial designations: Genesis 
 41:40, Sux Nor py, only in respect to the throne 
 will I be greater ; 2 Sam. 21:20, four and twenty, 
 "EDD, in number, (comp. rpeic apiOudy, three in 
 number ;) Zeph. 3:9, they served God, Wy 07%, 
 with one shoulder, (i. e. with one heart.) 
 
 These cases may be traced from those 
 which are explained § 136, Rem. By the 
 same process carried still further, many sub- 
 stantives have come to be distinctly recognised 
 as adverbs, (§ 98, 2, 0.) 
 
 Rem. Under nos. 1 and 2 belong nume- 
 rous examples in which it has been customary 
 to suppose an ellipsis of 3 after 2. The 
 accumulation of particles is here the less fre- 
 quent (a case occurs Is. 1:26, mytq22) be- 
 cause the second is wholly unnecessary ; e. g. 
 —(a) of place; oy, as in their pasture, Is. 
 5:17. comp. 28:21; (d) of time, especially in 
 the forms ni3, as the day = as in the day, 
 Is. 9:3. Hos. 2:5; "32, as in the days of —, 
 Hos.2:17. 9:9. 12:10. Amos9:11. Is.51:9; 
 TWD, as in the months of —, Job 29 :2. Under 
 the first usage (letter a) arise such cases as 
 
 ™ YEP, as in a wide breach, Job 30:14; in2 
 war}, 38: 14, as in gorgeous dress; 02y2, as in 
 
 fetters, Prov. 7:22; DIN, asin a dream, Is, 29:7. 
 
 In other instances, the noun after > is the 
 nominative, as in Isaiah 1:25, as the soap 
 (purifieth), comp. 17 : 6. 
 
 Sek) 73 
 
 MODES OF EXPRESSING THE COMPARATIVE 
 AND SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 1. When the comparative is to be expressed, 
 the particle 2 is prefixed to the word with 
 
 Dry bs mhz, taller than any of the people ; Judg. 
 14:18, wan pind, sweeter than honey. 
 
 In other cases also the particle yo is em- 
 ployed in expressing preeminence (e.g. 12) Py, 
 excellence above, Eccles. 2:13. comp. Deut. 
 14 : 2), which the Hebrew conceives as a 
 taking out, a de-signating, from the multitude. 
 Compare the etymology of the Latin words 
 eximius, egregius, and in Homer ix wayTwy 
 peadwora, IL. 4, 96, and merely ix wdavrwy, 18, 
 431. Hence the signification more than con- 
 nects itself with the fundamental signification 
 out of, originally expressing comparison of 
 one with the whole number of similar indi- 
 viduals. Compare the use of by in compa- 
 risons, Job 23:2. Ps. 137: 6. 
 
 2. The several modes of expressing the super- 
 lative are in principle the same: thus in all of 
 them the positive form, by means of the article, 
 or a suffix, or a following genitive, is made to 
 designate an individual as preeminently the pos- 
 sessor of the quality expressed, (comp. le plus 
 grand ;) e.g. 1 Sam. 17:14, and David was yom, 
 the small (ane i.e. the smallest, and the three 
 great (ones), i.e. greater, &c.; Jon. 3:5, 0939 
 Dap ww, from the greatest among them (lit. their 
 great ones) unto the least among them; 2 Chron. 
 21:17, via yop, the small one Céivetcb of his 
 sons, A strong expression of the superlative is 
 made by the construction ow, wip, the holiest 
 of all, prop. the holy (holiest) among holy things. 
 
 § 118. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 181, 182.) 
 
 1. The numerals from 2 to 10 (which are 
 properly substantives, but may also be used ad- 
 verbially § 95, 1) are connected with substan- 
 tives in three different ways. They stand either 
 (a) in the constr. st. before the substantive, 
 mr muni, three days, prop. triad of days ; or 
 (b) in the abdsol. st. before it, after the manner 
 of adverbs, my mn, three sons, (comp. also 
 § 111, 2;) or (c) in the absol. st. after it (in the 
 later books, where the adverbs also are so con- 
 strued), wire nin, three daughters, 1 Chr. 25:5. 
 
 In like manner the constructions m2 Ty, 
 
 Gen. 17:17, and mx} myp, 25:7,17, a hundred 
 
 years, are equally common. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 2. The numerals from 2 to 10 are joined, with 
 very few exceptions (e.g. 2 Kings 22:1), with 
 the plural form of the substantive. The tens 
 (from 20 to 90), when they precede the sub- 
 stantive are regularly joined with the singular, 
 and when they follow it with the plural, The 
 first is the more frequent construction; e.g. 
 Judg. 11: 33, yy onny, twenty cities; on the 
 contrary DY nix, ‘twenty cubits, 2 Chr. 3:3 
 seq. The plural may be used in the first case 
 (Ex. 86:24, 25), but the singular never occurs 
 in the second. 
 
 The numerals from 11 to 19 are joined to 
 the singular form only with certain substan- 
 tives, which there is frequent occasion to 
 
 number, as nv, day, m3, year, wx, man, &e., 
 
 (comp. “ four foot deep,” “a thousand pound ;”) 
 
 e.g. DY Wy maw, Ex. 12:6, prop. fourteen 
 
 day. With this exception, they are joined to 
 
 the Plural, and in the later books may then 
 
 stand after the substantive, (1 Chron. 4: 27. 
 
 25 : 6.) 
 
 3. Numerals compounded of tens and units 
 take the object numbered either after them in 
 the Sing. as m2 ond) Od, Gen. 5: 20, sirty- 
 two years, or before them in the Plur. as in the 
 later books, (Dan. 9:26;) or the object is re- 
 peated, with the smaller number in the Sing., 
 with the larger in the Plur., as Genesis 12:4, 
 TY DVI) OW wn, seventy-five years, Genesis 
 23:1, oy yd) ny ONY) Md TN, one hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven years. 
 
 4, Beyond 10 the ordinals have no peculiar 
 forms, but are expressed by those of the car- 
 dinals, either in apposition with the objects 
 numbered or in the genitive after them, as 
 Dy wy myqia, Gen. 7:11, on the seventeenth day, 
 220) pity nya, in the twenty-seventh year, 
 1 Kings 16:10. In the latter case the word 
 m3 is sometimes repeated, as in Gen. 7:11. 
 2 Kings 13:10. In numbering days of the 
 month and years, the forms of the cardinals are 
 used, even for the numbers from 1 to 10; e.g. 
 Dm nea, wires nia, in the second year, in the 
 third year, 1 Kings 15:25. 2 Kings 18:1, 
 wind npwms, on the ninth of the month, 73 
 wind, on the first of the month, Gen. 8:15. Lev. 
 23:32, 
 
 Rem. 1. The numerals take the article 
 when they stand without a substantive, and 
 
 refer to subjects mentioned before, as O07, 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 the two, Eccles. 4:9, 12. The case ny 
 
 nnn, the seven days, Judg. 14:17, is to be 
 
 explained on the principle stated § 109, 1. 
 
 2. Certain substantives employed in desig- 
 nations of weight, measure, or of time, are com- 
 monly omitted after numerals; e. g. Gen. 
 20:16, FIDD HD, a thousand (shehels) of silver ; 
 so also before 1m, gold: Ruth3:15, Dyn ww, 
 six (ephas) of barley. Thus ov is omitted 
 Gen. 8:5, and wih, 8:13. The number of 
 cubits is often stated thus: maxi ny, @ hun- 
 dred cubits, prop. a hundred by the cubit, Ex. 
 27.218, 
 
 5. Numbers are expressed distributively by 
 repetition of the cardinals, as ow Dd, two by 
 two, Gen. 7:9, 15. One time, once, is expressed 
 by orp (prop. tread, beat), Dual ovnyp, two times, 
 twice, Drv Wind, thrice; and also by the fem. 
 forms of the cardinals, as nox (and noxa, Num. 
 10: 4), once, DMN, twice, Wide, thrice. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 
 § 119. 
 
 USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 191—196.) 
 
 1. The suffix to the verb is regularly in the 
 accusative (§§ 33, 4.84, 1), and is the most com- 
 mon form of expressing the accusative of the 
 pronoun, (see Rem.) In certain cases, however, 
 it is used for the dative: (a) with intransitive 
 verbs, as Zech. 7:5, non, did ye fast for me? 
 i.e. for my benefit; Job 31:18, aw) wp, he 
 (the fatherless) grew up to me as to a father, i.e. 
 with me, under my care; (4) with verbs of 
 giving (where, however, it may be the accusa- 
 tive, the verb implying to cause to receive), Jos. 
 15319. Zech. 7215. Is..2724, 
 
 Rem. The accusative of the pronoun is 
 necessarily expressed by the sign of the accu- 
 sative nx, (a) when the pronoun, for the sake 
 of emphasis, precedes the verb, as ‘AN nk, 
 Num. 22:33; (6) when the verb has two pro- 
 
 15:25, and shew me it. The use of this sign 
 
 with the accusative of the pronoun is not 
 confined, however, to these cases; see Gen. 
 4:14. 15:13. 
 
 
 

 
 
 2. The suffixes to nouns (possessive pro- 
 nouns), which are properly genitives (§ 33, 4), 
 express, like nouns in the genitive (§ 113, 2), 
 not only the subject but also the object; e.g. 
 ‘Dor, the wrong done to me, Jer. 51:35; iney, 
 the fear of him, Ex. 20:20; ‘npn, the prayer to 
 me, Is. 56:7. 
 
 The possessive pronoun may be expressed 
 by circumlocution, after the manner of the 
 Syriac; Ruth 2:21, % Wx ow, the ser- 
 vants which (are) to me, for my servants ; espe- 
 cially after a substantive, which is followed by 
 another in the genitive, as in 1 Sam. 17:40. 
 Comp. the analogous mode of expressing the 
 genitive, § 112. In this case there is some- 
 times a pleonastic use of the possessive pro- 
 noun, as 770 ins, prop. his litter of 
 Solomon, Cant. 3:7. comp. 1:6. 
 
 3. When one noun is followed by another in 
 the genitive, so that they together express but 
 one complex idea, a suffix which refers to this 
 whole idea is appended to the second of the 
 two nouns. Compare the analogous construc- 
 tion with the article, § 109, 1. This occurs 
 most frequently in the case mentioned § 104, 1, 
 where the second noun is used to express a 
 quality of the first; e.g. Ps. 2:6, O17 0, my 
 holy mount ; Is, 2:20. 31:7, iED2 ‘ox, his silver 
 gods. We seldom have the construction 7271 
 ma, Ezek. 16: 27, thy lewd conduct, comp. 18: 7. 
 
 4, To the general rule (§ 33, 2) that the sepa- 
 rate pronouns are in the nominative and the 
 suffixes in the oblique cases, there is but one ex- 
 ception, viz. when the personal pronoun in an 
 oblique case is to be repeated for the sake of 
 emphasis (me, me; thy, thy), it is expressed the 
 second time by the separate form, which is then 
 in the same case with the preceding suffix, 
 (§ 33, 4;) e.g. in the accusative, 4 D2 7273, 
 Gen. 27 : 34, bless me, me also, comp. Proy. 
 22:19, in the genitive, mmx 02 923, 1 Kings 
 21:19, thy blood, yea thine (prop. sanguis tut, 
 imo tui), Prov. 23:15. Ps.9:7. So after a pre- 
 position (which is to be mentally repeated with 
 the separate pronoun, comp. § 152, 4), as 03) 
 pax, Hag. 1:4, for you, for you; x 13, 1 Sam. 
 25:24, on me, on me; TON Te? Nb, 2 Chron. 
 35:21, not against thee. On the same principle 
 is to be explained Gen. 4 : 26, sim D2 ny), to 
 Seth, to him also, and 10:21. 
 
 5. Sometimes masculine pronouns are used 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 109 
 
 
 
 with reference to feminine substantives, (pro- 
 bably an inaccuracy of the colloquial language, 
 which passed into that of books;) e.g. Ruth 
 1:22. Cant. 6:8. Ex. 1:21. The reverse also 
 occurs, though less frequently; Deut. 5:24. 
 2 Sam. 4:6. 
 
 § 120, 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 200.) 
 
 1. The demonstrative m (as well as », ‘) has 
 also, especially in poetry, the force of the rela- 
 tive; comp. in Eng. that for which; e.g. Ps. 
 104: 8, to the place, 7) mID m, which thou hast 
 destined for them. It is even employed (like 
 wy, § 121, 1) to give a relative sense to another 
 word; e.g. Ps. 74:2, mount Zion, ia mW Mm, 
 on which thou dwellest. 
 
 m is used adverbially (a) for here, there, 
 
 m my, Cant. 2:8, see there! and then merely 
 
 as an intensive particle, especially in ques- 
 
 tions, as 7 i799, wherefore then? Gen. 18: 13. 
 
 25:22; (6) in reference to time, for now, as 
 
 Drorp ™m, now (already) twice, Gen. 27 : 36. 
 
 2. The interrogative » may stand in the 
 genitive, as % na, Gen. 24:23, whose daughter ? 
 It is also, as well as mm, used indefinitely for 
 any one whoever, anything whatever. Job 13:13. 
 
 For the use of im in a form of negative 
 command, see § 150, 2, first note. 
 
 § 121. 
 
 USE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 197—199.) 
 
 1, The pronoun ‘wx often serves merely as a 
 sign of relation, i. e. to give a relative significa- 
 tion to substantives, adverbs, or pronouns; e. g. 
 “by-mnx— Wx, Gen. 13:16, quem pulverem ; Dw, 
 there, DS— wy, where ; maw, thither, mo — tty, 
 whither ; ove, thence, otn— x, whence. In 
 the same manner the Hebrew forms the oblique 
 cases of the relative pronoun who, which, viz. :— 
 
 Dative, %, to him, % wx, to whom; Di, m2 to 
 them, D7) Wx, 7772 We, to whom. 
 
 Accusative, ink, Ank, him, her ; inks TN, AINR Toy, 
 whom, (quem, quam.) ; 
 
 With prepositions, {2, therein, {2 Wx, wherein ; 
 un, therefrom, 329 Wx, wherefrom. 
 
 Genitive, 120) 1x, whose language, Deut. 28 : 49 ; 
 YE) Wy, whose wings, Ruth 2: 12. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 The accusative whom may, however, be ex- 
 pressed by “why alone, as in Gen, 1:31. 
 
 Rem. 1. The Hebrew is able in this way 
 to give a relative sense to the pronoun of the 
 first and second persons in the oblique cases, 
 for which in English the third must be used; 
 e.g. Gen. 45:4, one wx; Num. 22: 80, 
 wy WON; Is. 41 : 8, Jacob, TMA Wwe, lit. 
 whom I have chosen thee. 
 
 2. The word wx is commonly separated 
 from the one which it thus affects by one or 
 more words, as OD 77 Wx, where was —, 
 Gen. 13:3. But seldom are they written to- 
 gether as in Ex. 20: 21. 
 
 2. The English language admits the combina- 
 tions he (or she) who, that which, those who, 
 where the Hebrew employs only wx (§ 122, 2), 
 and where we are to supply before it the per- 
 sonal or demonstrative pronoun, as in Latin is 
 before qui; e.g. Num. 22: 6, Km Why, and 
 (he) whom thou cursest; Ex. 20:4, thou shalt not 
 make for thyself an image, Dy2 Wx, (of that) 
 which is in heaven. 'The pronoun is always to 
 be supplied where a preposition stands before 
 sax; the preposition is then construed with the 
 supplied pronoun, and the relative takes the case 
 which is required by its connexion with the 
 following part of the sentence; e.g. Wy), to 
 him who, Gen. 43:16, and for them who, 47:24; 
 sixvny, him who, that which, and those who; 
 sen, Jrom or of those who or which, Is. 47:13; 
 “wn, prop. according to that which, hence, as.* 
 
 Sometimes the idea of place or time is also 
 to be supplied, as -wixa, in (that place) where, 
 
 Ruth 1: 175 exp, from (that time) when. 
 
 The pronoun wx may be omitted in all of 
 the cases which have been specified: there is 
 then no expression of the relative, as in the 
 English construction the woman I love, the book 
 I told you of. This omission (most frequent 
 in poetry) takes place— 
 
 a) Where it would stand as a pronoun in the 
 nominative or accusative; e.g. Gen. 15: 13, 
 Dm) Nd psa, in a land (which belongs) not to 
 
 * I am aware of but two examples (and these have 
 been overlooked by all grammarians as far as I know) in 
 which the preposition before TS refers, as with us, to 
 the relative itself, viz. WN3, Is. 47:12, for D2 Ws, 
 in which, and WX DY, Gen. 31:32, for WY WY, with 
 whom. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 them; Gen. 39:4, ‘-u-bs, all (which) was 
 i.e. belonged, to him, comp. v. 5, where “wx is 
 inserted; Eccles. 10:5, comp. 6: 1, where 
 with the same words wx is employed.* 
 
 b) When it would be merely a sign of relation ; 
 e.g. Ps. 32:2, happy the man, mim at Nd 
 piv 9, to whom Jehovah imputeth not sin; Job 
 3:3, Ex. 18:20. Frequently in specifica- 
 tions of time, when it would have the signifi- 
 cation when; Ps, 4:8, 34 DYN) D227 My, i 
 the time (when) their corn and new wine are 
 abundant ; Is. 86:2. Ezek. 45:21. 
 
 c) When there is also an omission of the per- 
 sonal or demonstrative pronoun, (no. 2;) e.g. 
 Job 24: 19, Sheol [sweeps away] sar (those 
 who) sin; comp. v. 9. The pronoun thus 
 omitted may include the idea of place or time, 
 as 1 Chr. 15:12, 45 ningr dy, to (the place which) 
 I have prepared for it; comp. Ex. 23 : 20. 
 
 When the pronoun to be supplied would be 
 in the genitive, the preceding noun takes the 
 constr, st.; e.g. Ex. 4:13, mbam a, by the 
 
 hand (of him whom) thou wilt send ; Hos. 1 2125 
 mma nnn, the beginning (of that which) 
 Jehovah spake; Ps. 81:6, the speech (of one 
 whom) I knew not; 65:5. Lam. 1:14. Jer. 
 48 : 36. 
 
 § 122. 
 
 MODE OF EXPRESSING THOSE PRONOUNS FOR 
 WHICH THE HEBREW HAS NO PROPER 
 
 FORMS. 
 (Lehrg. §§ 201—203.) 
 
 1, The reflexive pronoun myself, thyself, him- 
 self, is expressed —(a) by the conjugations 
 Niphal and Hithpael, § 50, 2, b. § 53, 3,5; (b) 
 by the personal pronoun; e.g. Genesis 22 : 3, 
 Abraham took two of his servants, im, with him, 
 for with himself; 1 Sam. 1:24, she carried him 
 up, may, with her, for with herself; Gen. 8:9. 
 Jer. 7:19. Ezek. 34:2. 8:10; (e) by circum- 
 locution; e.g. maya, within herself (ap, the 
 inner part), Gen. 18:12; Wp vis Nb, J know not 
 myself. Job 9:21. 
 
 2, When the combinations mentioned § 121, 2, 
 
 are to be expressed in Hebrew, the personal or 
 
 * The Arabic omits the relative when the substantive 
 to which it refers is indeterminate, as above; but inserts 
 it when the substantive is determinate. In the latter 
 case, the Hebrew commonly inserts it in prose, (see Jer. 
 23:39. Ex. 14:13;) though it is sometimes omitted, Ex. 
 18:20. 2 Sam. 18:14, especially in poetry, Ps. 18:3. 
 49:13, 21. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 demonstrative pronoun is omitted before ~wx in 
 all cases of the singular and plural: very seldom 
 / it is expressed—(a) by the interrogative pro- 
 noun, as W-im, that which, Eccles. 1:9. 3:15; 
 (2) by the article, as ~winn, those whom, 2 Kings 
 6: 22. 
 
 Rem. 1. ach, every one, is expressed, 
 when a person is meant, by wx, a man, some- 
 times repeated wy wy, Ex. 36:4, Oy) wr, 
 Ps. 87:53; with reference either to persons or 
 things, by ‘s, commonly without the article, 
 (§ 109, 1;) by repetition 7732 33, every 
 morning; by the plural o%73), every morning, 
 Ps. 73: 14. 
 
 2. Any one, some one, is expressed by Wx, 
 Ex. 16:29. Cant.8:7, and by nix, Lev. 1:2; 
 anything, something, by 121752 without the ar- 
 ticle. The latter is also expressed by an 
 appropriate word m>xp formed from m2; 7, 
 Gen. 22: 12. 
 
 3. Self, the same, self-same (ipse), is ex- 
 pressed, in reference to persons or things, by 
 wn, NT, as sit wey, Job 1:1, this same 
 man; in reference to things, the noun oxy 
 (prop. bone, body, in this case fig. for essence, 
 substance) is also employed as a periphrasis 
 for the pronoun; e.g. Gen. 7:13, diy DYYR 
 ny, on the self-same day, comp. ‘an Dd¥zY3, 
 Job 21 : 23, in his very prosperity (in ipsa pros- 
 peritate), i.e. in the midst of his prosperity. 
 For the same use of ny with reference both 
 to persons and things, see § 37, 1, Rem. 3. 
 
 The Arabians, in a similar manner, peri- 
 phrase the idea self by eye, soul, spirit. 
 
 4. The one — the other (alter — alter) is ex- 
 pressed by m or Mx repeated, or by wx with 
 my brother or yy friend, and where the Fe- 
 minine is required, by tmx, woman, with 
 ning sister or my (fem.) friend; both the 
 masc, and fem. forms are used also with refer- 
 ence to inanimate objects of the same gender. 
 The same form is used to express one another, 
 as Gen. 13:11, and they separated, by wr 
 ym, the one from the other, i.e. from one an- 
 other; Gen. 11:3, they said, wey x we, to 
 one another ; Ex. 26:3, five curtains shall be 
 joined, mnimy>g Mx, to one another. 
 
 Some is often expressed by the plural form 
 alone, as oO, Dan. 8:27, some days, OX, 
 Dan. 11:6, 8, some years; and sometimes by 
 wy w, sunt qui, Neh. 5:2—4, 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 § 123. 
 USE OF THE TENSES; GENERAL VIEW. 
 
 1, From the poverty of the Hebrew language 
 in the means of expressing the absolute and re- 
 lative circumstances of time (§§ 40 and 48), we 
 
 might naturally expect some variety in the uses 
 
 of the same form, especially as in some cases 
 (where the relation of time has little or no influ- 
 ence) both tenses are employed with equal pro- 
 priety. 
 
 2. We are not to infer from this, however, 
 that there was scarcely any well defined and 
 established use of the two tenses of the Hebrew 
 verb. On the contrary, accurate observation 
 shews that the idea of the past, and of those re- 
 lations of time and mood which stand connected. 
 with it, predominates in the one, and in the 
 other that of the future and of the kindred re- 
 lations of the subjunctive and optative moods.* 
 It is only in certain clearly defined cases that 
 they coincide; in all others they are essentially 
 distinct. 
 
 It is a partial and false view which regards 
 the so-called Prater and Future not as tenses, 
 but as designed originally to express distinc- 
 tions of mood (Indicative and Subjunctive) 
 rather than relations of time. 
 
 As examples of the Preter and Future 
 used expressly to denote opposite relations 
 of time, we refer to Is. 46:4, "231 YLY oN 
 xtix, I have done it, and I will (still) bear 
 (you); and ver. 11, Rx ny) maIe AN TT 
 miyy, I have spoken it and will bring it to 
 pass, I have purposed and will accomplish it. 
 
 § 124. 
 
 USE OF THE PRATER. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 205.) 
 The form of the Preeter stands— 
 1. In itself and properly, for absolute past 
 time, (Preteritum perfectum ;) e. g. Gen. 3: 10, 11, 
 72 THT 2; who hath shewed thee? v.13, where- 
 
 * The uncertainty, conditionality, which belongs to 
 the subjunctive, and the reference to the future which is 
 apparent in the optative, have in all languages a clear 
 analogy with the future; comp. e.g. dicam, dices and 
 dicam, dicas. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eee 
 
 
 
 112 SYNTAX; 
 
 fore hast thou done this? comp. verses 14, 17, 
 22, 23. Hence frequently for the pluperfect ; 
 Gen. 2:2, mMpy Wy imei, his work which he 
 had made; v. 5, Jehovah had not yet caused it to 
 rain; 7,9. In these two cases the Future can 
 never be employed. 
 
 2. For the tense of narration; e.g. Genesis 
 29:17, aan nod om, Rachel was fair in 
 form; 3:1. 4:1; Jobl:1, py yRl MI Dy, 
 there was a man in the land of Uz. Where the 
 sentence is connected with what precedes, the 
 Futurum conversum (§ 48, 5) is more commonly 
 employed, (126, 2.) 
 
 8. For our present tense, where this denotes a 
 condition already long continued and still exist- 
 ing, or a permanent, habitual course of action ; 
 e.g. TOP, he ts small; YT, I know; Ps.1:1, 
 happy the man who walks not (33) in the counsel 
 of the wicked, nor treads (12) the path of sinners, 
 nor sits (ax) in the circle of scoffers ; 119 : 30, 40. 
 The Hebrew might here use the future also, as 
 the relation of time is not taken into account, 
 and indeed what is said has reference to all 
 times. In such cases Preters and Futures 
 are often used promiscuously; Psalm 1:1—3. 
 44:10—15. Is. 5:12. Proy. 1:20—22. Gen. 2:24. 
 
 4. The Preter, as a representative of the 
 present, is employed also to denote the future, 
 principally in prophecies, asseverations, assurances, 
 the fulfilment or verification of which is, in 
 the animated expression of the thoughts, repre- 
 sented as present. Is. 9:1, the people who walk 
 in darkness see (axy) a great light; 5:13, there- 
 fore my people goeth forth into captivity, (73); 
 14, 17, 25, 26. 11:1, 2, 4, 6,10. Very frequent 
 is the prophetic formula sw Dr mm), and it 
 comes to pass in that day, Is. 11:11. In all such 
 representations the Pret. is interchanged with 
 the Fut. and the Fut. convers.; see e. g. Is. 5. 
 
 In Arabic, the Preter preceded by the 
 particle 43 (jam, dudum) is employed in the 
 expression of a promise. ‘Thus it is said, 
 I have already given it to thee; as much as to 
 say, zt is as good as done. 
 
 5, Of the relative tenses, those are expressed 
 by the Prater in which the past is the principal 
 idea, viz.—(a) the imperfect subjunctive, (which 
 is also expressed by the Future, § 125, 5;) eg. 
 Is, 1:9, 3] MOY) wT DID, we should have 
 been [essemus] as Sodom, we should have been 
 
 like Gomorrha; Job 3:13; (6) the pluperfect 
 subjunctive, e.g. Is. 1:9, ymin “nd, of he had not 
 left; Num. 14:2, wma 9, if we had but died! 
 (> with the Future would be, if we might but 
 die! § 133, 2;) Job 10:19, may NNT ND TD, 
 I should be as if I had never been; (c) the future 
 perfect ( futurum exactum), e. g. Is. 4:4, YT Ox, 
 when he shall have washed away, prop. when he 
 hath washed away ; comp. 6:11. 
 
 6. In the cases hitherto considered, the Preter 
 stands by itself, without any immediate depen- 
 dence on what precedes. But this tense is in 
 Hebrew very often attached (commonly by the 
 conjunction }) to a Future or an Imperative. It 
 is then employed to continue the expression of 
 command, or the announcement of something 
 future, by an easy transition, in the progress of 
 the discourse, from the Imperative or Future to 
 the form of simple narration by the Preeter. 
 Is. 1:30, ye shall be as the terebinth...... 31, 
 and then is [has become] (m’m)......3 Gen. 
 6:21, mEDX) 7) MP, prop. take for thyself, and 
 then thou gatherest ; 27:48, 44. 6:14. So also 
 where the Future stands for the Present sub- 
 junctive: Gen. 3:22, ox) im muy yp, lest he 
 put forth his hand, and takes and eats, for and 
 take and eat; 32:12. 'The Hebrew put only the 
 first verb in the tense required by the sense, the 
 rest he connected with it in the simplest and 
 readiest form. On the similar use of the In- 
 
 
 
 finitive absolute, see § 128, 4, a. 
 
 In almost all the instances adduced of this 
 use of the Preter, it is connected with the pre- 
 ceding verb by Vav, and has the accent on the 
 final syllable, (see § 44, Rem. 3.) Yet there 
 occur examples— 
 
 a) In which it is not thus connected by Vav 
 when the Imperative is followed by the Preter 
 in the poetic parallelism, Ps. 4:2. 7:7. 
 
 6) In which it is preceded not by the form 
 of the Future, but by some other mode of 
 indicating futurity. Ex. 16: 6,7, opyr) my, 
 at evening, then ye learn; 17:4, yet a little 
 while, »ypo1, and they stone me. Isaiah 2: 12. 
 1 Sam. 20: 18. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 1b 
 USE OF THE FUTURE, 
 (Lehrgeb. § 206.) 
 The significations of the Future are even 
 more various than those of the Preter. The 
 
 uncertainty attending the use of it is obviated to 
 
 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 some extent, however, by the variations in its 
 form (Futurum figuratum), given in § 48, for the 
 expression of its different significations, ($ 126.) 
 But since many of its forms exclude these varia- 
 tions, as has been shewn in treating of the verb, 
 the common form is often found in almost all 
 the relations in which the varied Future is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The form of the Future stands— 
 
 1. For the proper future, (futurum absolutum ;) 
 Gen. 9:11, 22 Tv MAT Nd, there shall not again 
 be a flood; also for the future with relation to 
 some past event or period of time, as 2 Kgs. 3:27, 
 the first-born who was to reign, (regnaturus erat.) 
 
 2. For present time; 1 Kings 3:7, pix 8, I 
 know not; Is. 1:13, bax x5, I cannot bear. It 
 is employed especially in the expression of 
 general truths which have no relation to time; 
 e.g. Prov. 15:20, ax mm O77 72, a wise son 
 rejoices his father. Here the Preter may also 
 be employed, (§ 124, 2.) 
 
 In the same formula is used sometimes the 
 Preter and sometimes the Future, but not 
 necessarily without any difference of mean- 
 ing; e.g. san pro, Job 1:7, whence comest 
 thou? Gen. 16: 8, M82 AI" x, whence didst 
 thou come ? : 
 
 In the modern Arabic the Future bears the 
 name of Present. 
 
 3. For a number of relations which in Latin 
 are expressed by the Subjunctive, especially by 
 the Present Subjunctive. The shortened or 
 lengthened Future is preferred here when the 
 form permits, (§ 48.) 
 
 a) After particles signifying that, that not cut, 
 ne,) aS We, WD), WY, 2 } that, dx, 3, yB, that 
 not ;* e.g. pron ye, lest ye die; wm WD), 
 Deut. 4:1, that ye may live. 
 
 b) For the Optative. When the form cannot 
 be lengthened or shortened, it is followed by 
 
 | the particle x2; e.g. x2-van, Ps. 7:10, O that 
 
 might cease —! yay L77aT, Gen. 44:18, 
 
 might thy servant speak, for let thy servant 
 
 speak. 
 
 c) For the Imperative, the place of which it 
 always supplies in negative commands or pro- 
 hibitions. When it is dehortatory it is pre- 
 ceded by 5x, as NYa-by, Gen. 46:3, fear not; 
 * When these particles have a different signification, 
 
 the Future is not used; e.g. ]}?, because, with the 
 Pret. Judg. 2: 20, 
 
 
 
 
 
 when it expresses prohibition, by Nb, as N> 
 yn, Ex. 20:15, thou shalt not steal. It is | 
 also used for the Imperative when the third 
 person is required, and for the Imperatives 
 of the passive voice (Ex, 21:2, 18), the forms 
 of which are not in use, (for the only excep- 
 tions see § 46, second note.) 
 
 d) For the so-called Potential, where we use 
 may, can, must, could, should, &¢.; e. g. Ps. 
 22:9, amps, wbE, he may (let him) deliver him, 
 rescue him; Is. 5:19; 528m ox, Gen, 2:16, thou 
 mayst eat; 28% ‘2, Prov. 20:9, who can say? 
 
 4, Even for the past, which in lively represen- 
 
 tation is conceived as present. It is thus used— 
 
 a) After the particles wy, then, DY, not yet, 
 Dywa (when not yet) before; e. g. DOW VT Ty, 
 Jos. 10:12, then spake Joshua ; m7 ow, Gen. 
 2:5, there was not yet; xen oa, Jer. 1:5, 
 before thou camest forth. Compare the use of 
 the Pret. and Fut. in the same sentence, 
 1Sam.3:7. The Fut. retains its proper sig- 
 nification when tx means then, and refers to 
 future time, (Ex. 12: 48.) 
 
 6) Often also of customary or continued action, | 
 and in extended representation, — for the Im- 
 perfect of the Latin and French languages. 
 Repeated or customary action, as it involves 
 the conception of something yet to be, is pro- 
 perly expressed by the Future. Job 1:5, 
 thus did (Mwy?) Job continually ; 1 Kings 5:25. | 
 Gen. 2:6, 10, 25. Hab. 2:1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. For the Imperfect Subjunctive, especially 
 in conditional sentences (the modus conditionalis) 
 both in the protasis and apodosis. Ps. 23:4, 1 
 JN DOD... . NTN NY, even if I should go . . 
 I should not fear; Job 5:8, I would apply unto 
 Ged, (were I in thy place;) 10:18, I had died, 
 and no eye had seen me. 
 
 
 
 It is mere inaccuracy of expression when 
 it is employed e.g. for the future perfect, just 
 as in English we often use the present; Gen. 
 29:8, until they are collected, for shall have been 
 collected, 
 
 
 
 § 126. 
 
 USE OF THE FUTURUM FIGURATUM AND CON- 
 VERSUM, (THE VARIED AND CONVERSE 
 FUTURE.) 
 
 (Comp. §48. Lehrg. S. 870 ff.) 
 
 1. The paragogic Future is nsed almost exclu- 
 
 sively in the first person. The syilable n—, 
 ' Q 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from which it is named, is expressive of pur- 
 pose, endeavour (see § 48, 3), and hence this 
 form is employed—(a) to express excitement 
 of one’s self, or a determination, with some 
 degree of emphasis. Ps. 31:8, mimity) T72x, 
 let me be glad and rejoice! 2:3, ™mA2, come! let 
 us break asunder. Also, with less emphasis, in 
 soliloquy ; Ex. 3:3, Mynx) sacmps, J will go now 
 and see; Gen. 32:21. (6) To express a wish, 
 a request, (for leave to do something;) Deut. 
 2:27, mary, let me pass through; Num. 20: 17, 
 x2 imap, let us pass through I pray thee. (c) 
 When an object or design is to be expressed by 
 the verb, and the conjunction that, in order that 
 (commonly }), precedes; Gen. 27:4, bring tt 
 hither, Tox), that I may eat ; 29:21. 42:34. Job 
 10:20. Less frequently (d) it stands in condi- 
 tional sentences with if, though, expressed or 
 implied, Job 16:6, 11:17. Ps. 139:8. It also 
 stands (e) after Vav conversive, § 48, 5. 
 
 In Jeremiah it is used to give force and 
 emphasis of almost every kind; 3: 25. 
 4:19, 21. 6:10. 
 
 2. The shortened Future is used principally — 
 (a) in the expression of command, wish, as 
 nin, proferet, Is. 61:11, xin, proferat, Gen. 
 1:24; (6) to express prohibition and negative 
 entreaty, as nin-by, destroy not, Deut. 9: 26, 
 and also negative assertion, Deut. 18:16. Job 
 20:17; (c) after the conjunctions that, in order 
 that, m3}, that he may die, 10>), that he may re- 
 move, Ex. 8:8. 10:17; (d) after Vav conver- 
 stve, § 48, 5. 
 
 Only the poets use this form with the signi- 
 
 fication of the proper future; Job 18:12. 
 
 20:23. 24214. 27:7. 33:21) 
 
 3. The converse Future (Futurum conversum) 
 (binpy) is properly, according to § 48, 5, a tense 
 of narration (it happened that he killed), but 
 with the Vav copulative included, (and it hap- 
 pened that he hilled, § 48, 5, second remark.) 
 Hence it is the usual form where anything is 
 mentioned in connexion with what precedes, 
 the narration commencing with the Preter and 
 proceeding with the converse Future.* Gen. 
 1:1, im the beginning God created (Pret.).... 
 
 * Perhaps with reference to the priority in time of the 
 action described by the Przeter, the mind of the narrator 
 passing to those next described as posterior or relatively 
 future.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 3, Owing YON, and God said. As a Preeterite it 
 
 is also used— 
 
 a) Like the Pret. and Fut, § 124, 3, for the 
 Present, (and it happens that—-;) hence in 
 representations of the actual present, espe- 
 cially with reference to a continued state or 
 course of action. Is. 2:7, and his land is full 
 (xyam) of silver and gold; vy. 8, 15. 2 Sam. 
 19:2. Hence— 
 
 6) In animated representation of the future, 
 with preeterite and future forms interchanged, 
 (§ 124, 43) Is.2):9. 5:15, 16, 25; 975, 10, 
 11, 13. 22:7, 8 Gen. 49:15. 
 
 Like the Preter (§ 124, 5, b), it is also an 
 inaccurate expression of the Pluperfect sub- 
 junctive, as it had been = it would have been. 
 Is, 48:18, 19. 
 
 § 127, 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb, § 208.) 
 
 1, The Imperative expresses not only com- 
 mand, but also exhortation (Hos. 10:12), en- 
 treaty (sometimes with x3, 2 Kings 5:22. Is. 
 5:3), wish (Ps. 8:2, and with 35, Gen. 23: 18), 
 permission, (2 Sam. 18:23. Is. 45:11.) It is 
 employed especially in strong assurances, (comp. 
 thou shalt have it, which expresses both a com- 
 mand and a promise;) and hence in prophetic 
 declarations, as Is. 6:10, thou shalt make the 
 heart of this people hard, for thou wilt make. 
 These may be either promises, Ps. 128: 5, thou 
 shalt see (mx) the prosperity of Jerusalem; Is. 
 37:30. 65:18. Ps. 22:27. Genesis 20:7, or 
 threatenings,* Is. 23:1, wail, ye ships of Tarshish, 
 for ye shall (will) wail; v. 2,4. 10:30. 13:6. 
 In all these cases the use of the Imp. approaches 
 very near to that of the Fut. which may there- 
 fore precede (Gen. 20:7. 45:18) or follow it 
 Cis. 83: 20) in the same signification. 
 
 2. We may hence explain the peculiar use of 
 two imperatives: (a) where they are employed 
 in a good sense, the first containing an admoni- 
 tion or exhortation, and the second a promise 
 made on condition of obedience, e. g. Gen. 42:18, 
 ym wy nit, this do, and (ye shall) live; Prov. 
 20:13, keep thine eyes open (be wakeful, active), 
 and thou shalt have plenty of bread; Ps. 87 ; 27. 
 
 * Analogous is the form of contemptuous menace in 
 the comic writers, vapula, Terent. Phorm. V. 6, 10, 
 vapulare te jubeo, Plaut. Curculio, IV. 4, 12. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 Prov. 7:2. 9:6. Job 22:21. Is. 36:16. 45:22. 
 Hos. 10:12; (2) where a threat is expressed, 
 and the first Imp. tauntingly permits an act, 
 while the second declares the consequences ; 
 Is. 8:9, amin DmY wi, rage ye people, ye shall 
 soon be dismayed; Job 2:9, nD} DN BAPE 
 praise God (if you will) and die; Is.29:9. In 
 the second member, the Fut. also may be used ; 
 Is. 6:9. 8:10. 
 
 Rem. 1. How far the Pret. and Fut. may 
 be employed to express command has been 
 shewn § 124, 6, and § 125, 3, c. 
 
 2. It is very doubtful whether the form of 
 the Imp. is used, as some grammarians main- 
 tain, for the third as well as for the second 
 person (let him hill), like the Latin amato. 
 Among the examples adduced of this usage is 
 Gen. 17:10, “p3-92 025 dian, let every male 
 among you be circumcised. In verse 12 51> is 
 
 used. But the sense is the same if we regard 
 Syort_ as an Infinitive, (§ 128, 4,5, y.) Equally 
 indecisive are the other examples, viz. Gen. 
 $1760. Is.45:21. Ps, 22:9. 
 
 § 128. 
 
 USE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 209.) 
 
 The Infinitive absolute is employed, as has 
 been remarked § 45, 1, when there is occasion 
 to express the abstract idea of the verb by itself, 
 neither connected with a following genitive nor 
 dependent on a preceding nominative or par- 
 ticle.* |The most important cases in which it is 
 used are— 
 
 1. When it is governed by a transitive verb, 
 and consequently stands as an accusative. Is. 
 42:24, Fit cox Nd, they would not go; 7:15, 
 ia WN Ya ding inyy), until he learn to refuse 
 the evil and to choose the good; Jer.9:4. Here, 
 however, the Inf. constr. is often used, § 139, 1. 
 
 In the same construction is Isaiah 22:13, 
 behold! joy and gladness, nim) 2 37 
 
 * Where the Inf. constr. is always used. But when 
 several successive infinitives are to have a preposition, 
 it is often written only before the first, and the second, 
 before which it is to be supplied by the mind, stands in 
 the absolute form, as im) 7x2, to eat and (to) drink, 
 Ex. 32:6. comp. 1 Sam. 22:13. 25:26. Jer. 7:18. 44:17. 
 This case is strictly analogous with that explained 
 Comp. also no. 4, a, of this section. 
 
 § 119, 4. 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 2) NE, the slaying (prop. to slay) oxen, the 
 slaughtering sheep, the eating flesh, the drinking 
 wine, (where the Inf. is a mere accusative 
 governed by mz); 5:5, I will tell you what I 
 will do to my vineyard, 3173 yb... ingwp 17, 
 the taking away (to take away) its hedge and 
 the tearing down its wall,—q. d. that will I do. 
 2. When it is in the accusative and used ad- 
 verbially,* (the Latin gerund in do;) e.g. 107, 
 bene faciendo for bene, mx, multum faciendo for 
 multum. Hence— 
 8. When it is used with a qualifying force in 
 connexion with a finite verb. 
 
 a) It then stands most commonly before the 
 finite verb, to which it adds, in general, an 
 expression of intensity. 1 Sam. 20:6, 5xv' 
 9 yw, he urgently besought of me ; Genesis 
 43:3, he strictly charged us, (YY WT); 31:30. 
 A very clear example is in Amos 9:8, J will 
 destroy it [the kingdom] from the surface of 
 the earth, except that I will not utterly destroy 
 Crpwx rout) the house of Jacob. Its effect 
 is often merely to give a certain prominence 
 to the thought contained in the finite verb,— 
 which in other languages is done chiefly by 
 the expression of the voice or by particles,— 
 as in assurances, questions (such especially as 
 express excitement in view of something 
 strange and improbable), contrasts. Genesis 
 37:33, AID AD FS, he is surely torn in pieces ; 
 3:4.—43:7, could we (then) know? 37:8, 
 wilt thou (perhaps) rule over us? 31:30, now 
 then go (nox Firm), since thou so earnestly 
 longest, (meO22 HDD); Judg. 15:13, we will 
 bind thee, but we will not kill thee; 2 Sam. 
 24: 24, 
 
 b) When the Inf. stands after the finite verb, 
 this connexion generally indicates continued 
 action. Is. 6:9, yin wow, hear on conti- 
 nually; Jer. 23:17.—Gen. 19:9, tipo we, 
 and he must be always playing the judge! 
 [perhaps, and he must needs be judge!] Two 
 Infinitives may be thus used; 1 Sam. 6:12, 
 ipa) py 7 they went going on and lowing, 
 for they went on lowing as they went; 1 Kings 
 20:37. Instead of the second Inf. is some- 
 
 * On the Accusative as a casus adverbialis, see § 116. 
 In Arabic it takes, in this case, the sign of the Accu- 
 sative. Im general, the Inf. absol. answers in most 
 cases (see nos. 1, 2, 3, of this section) to the Accusative 
 of the Infinitive, to which no. 4 also is to be referred. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 times used a finite verb (Josh. 6:13), or a 
 participle, (2 Sam. 16: 5.) 
 
 Rem. 1. This usage in regard to the posi- 
 tion of the Inf. is certainly the common one, 
 hough not without exceptions. It sometimes 
 follows the finite verb which it qualifies, when 
 the idea of repetition or continuance is ex- 
 eluded by the connexion. Is. 22:17. Jer. 
 22:10. Gen. 31:15. 46:4. Dan. 10:11, 18. 
 In Syriac, the Inf. when it expresses intensity 
 stands always before, and in Arabic always 
 after, the finite verb. When a negative is 
 used it is commonly placed between the two 
 (Ex. 5:28), seldom before them both, (Gen. 
 3:4.) 
 
 2, With a finite verb of one of the derived 
 conjugations may be connected not only the 
 Inf. absol. of the same conjugation (Genesis 
 17:18. 40:15), but also that of Kal (eg. 
 Fo FD, Gen. 37:33), or of another of the 
 same signification, (Lev. 19 : 20.) 
 
 3. In expressing the idea of continuance 
 (letter b), the verb 73 is frequently em- 
 ployed, with the signification to go on, to con- 
 tinue on, and thus denotes also constant in- 
 crease; e.g. Gen. 26:18, 710 yor 722) he 
 became continually greater and greater. 2 Sam. 
 5:10.—Gen. 8:3, awh PT. ... DT away 
 (no. 2), and the waters flowed off continually. 
 (The participial construction is also frequent 
 here; e.g. 1 Sam. 2:26, 532) 32 On w27 
 1m, the child Samuel went on increasing in 
 stature and in favour ...; 2S8am.3:1. 17:41. 
 2 Chron. 17:12.) The same mode of ex- 
 pression is found in the French: la maladie va 
 toujours en augmentant et en empirant, grows 
 worse continually. 
 
 4, When it stands in place of the finite verb. 
 We have here the two following cases, viz.— 
 
 a) When it is preceded by a finite verb. This 
 is frequent, especially among the later writers, 
 in the expression of several successive acts or 
 states, where only the first of the verbs em- 
 ployed takes the required form in respect to 
 person and tense, the others being in the 
 Infinitive with those distinctions implied, 
 (comp. § 119, 4. § 124,6;) e.g. with the 
 Pret. Dan. 9:5, 0) wy, we have rebelled 
 and (we have) turned away. ... Gen. 41: 43, 
 he caused him to ride in the second chariot, 
 ine yin, and placed him..... 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Esth. 9:6, 12. Eccles. 8:9; with the Fut. 
 Jer. 32:44, they will buy fields for money 
 (Fut.), and write and seal bills of sale, and 
 take witnesses, (three Infinitives.) Num. 15:35. 
 33:3. [?] 
 
 6) It may stand at the beginning of the ser 
 tence or construction without a preceding 
 finite verb; for the Infinitive (the pure ab- 
 stract idea of the verb) serves for a short and 
 emphatic expression of any tense and person 
 which the connexion requires; e. g. it stands 
 (a) for the Pret. in lively narration and 
 description, like the Latin Injinitivus historicus. 
 Is, 21:5, FinY MON MELT Ay WT Fry, to 
 prepare the table, to set the watch, to eat, to 
 drink, (sc. this they do), for they prepare, &c. 
 Hos. 4:2; (€) for the Fut. 2 Kings 4:43, 
 anim dx, an eating and a leaving thereof! 
 (se. shall there be;) 1 Kings 22:30, (I will) 
 disguise myself and go; (y) most frequently 
 for the emphatic Jmp. (comp. § 46, note *), 
 as Deut. 5:12, inv, to observe, (sc. thou art 
 to, ye are to;) so Ex. 20:8, “10; remember ; 
 hence, with the full form, pen wow, Deut. 
 6:17. 11:22; “By 1, 7:18; invy ox, Is. 
 22:13, to eat and to drink! (sc. let us eat and 
 drink.) 
 
 Rem. 1. The Jnf: for the finite verb is 
 seldom found in connexion with the subject, 
 as in Job 40:2. Ezek. 1; 14. 
 
 2. The examples are also few of the Inf. 
 constr. employed in these cases. Such are 
 Is. 60:14, where it is used adverbially like 
 the gerund in do, (no. 2;) Ruth 2:16, Su, and 
 Num. 23 : 25, 3p, where it is connected with a 
 finite verb, (no. 3.) 
 
 8. In like manner the poets use also verbal 
 nouns (originally infinitives) for the finite 
 verb. Gen. 49:4, Reuben, my first-born.... 
 Dy mB, a@ boiling over as of water! (sc. there 
 was,) for thou didst boil over, [see wp, Lex. 
 Man. Lat.] Judg. 5:8. Is. 8:5. [?] 
 
 § 129. 
 INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 210, 211.) 
 
 1. The Inf. constr. as a verbal substantive 
 (§ 45, 1) is subject to the same relations of case 
 with the noun, and the modes of indicating them 
 (§$ 115) are also the same. Thus it is found (a) 
 
 Jer. 14:5. | in the nominative as the subject of the sentence, | 
 
 ee —————————————E—E———EEE rrr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
Se 
 
 SYNTAX, 
 
 Genesis 2: 18, im) DIN Mm 1D ND, zw is not 
 good (lit. the being of man in his separation) 
 that man should be alone; (6) in the genitive, 
 Gen, 29:7, FDO ny, tempus colligendi ;* (c) in 
 the accusative, 1 Kings 3:7, min) mez pix, J 
 know not (how) to go out and to come in, prop. I 
 know not the going out and coming in. In this 
 
 case the Inf. absol. may be used, § 128, 1. 
 
 2. For the construction of the Inf. with a 
 preposition, as in the Greek éy r@ eivac for 
 example, the German and English languages 
 generally employ a finite verb with a conjunction 
 which expresses the import of the preposition. 
 Gen. 2:4, Dyjama, when they were created, prop. 
 in their being created. Jer. 2:35, Jy2x Y, because 
 thou sayest, prop. on account of thy saying. Gen. 
 27:1, his eyes were dim, nixy, so that he could 
 not see; comp. the use of }2 before a noun to 
 express distance from, and the absence or want of 
 a thing, (absque, sine.) The lexicon must be 
 consulted for particular information on the use 
 of the different prepositions. 
 
 Rem. 1. niwy> mq (or nip) with the 
 ellipsis of m7) signifies (1) he is about to do, 
 intends or purposes to do, and he is intent upon, 
 is eager to do, (comp. I am to play.) Genesis 
 15:12, sia) Wor TM, and the sun was about 
 going down. Hence it serves for a periphrasis 
 of the Fut. omy wo wm, 2 Chron. 26:5, 
 he served God, intentus erat cultui divino: 
 without m7, Is. 38 : 20, xa) mT, Jehovah 
 saveth me; 21:1. 44:14. Prov. 19:8. comp. 
 16:20. (2) It is to do for it is to be done. 
 Jos. 2:5, 20> “rv 1m, and the gate was to 
 shut for was to be shut. More commonly mn 
 is omitted; 2 Kings 4:13, nivy? ma, what is 
 to be [can be] done; Is. 10:32. 2 Chr. 19:2. 
 (3) He was able todo. Judg. 1:19, win) s, 
 he could not drive out; comp. the Latin non est 
 
 _ solvendo. 
 
 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass 
 from the Infinitive construction (described in 
 no. 2) to the use of the finite verb, before 
 which the mind must then supply a conjunc- 
 tion answering to the preposition before the 
 Infinitive. Amos 1:11, yorm noh—ion , 
 because he pursued—and stifled his compas- 
 
 * It is also in the genitive in those cases where it is 
 dependent on a preposition (see no. 2) which is properly 
 | anounin the constr. st. §§ 99 and 101. 
 
 Wy 
 
 
 
 
 
 sion, Gen. 39:18, sp) Ap vor, when I 
 raised my voice and cried. Is. 5:24. 8:11. 
 Comp. the participial construction, § 131, 2. 
 
 § 130. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INF. CONSTR. WITH THE 
 GENITIVE AND THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 212.) 
 
 1. The Infinitive governs the proper case of 
 the verb, and hence, in transitive verbs, it takes 
 the accusative of the object; Is. 22:13. Num. 
 9:15. Even the verbal nouns retain the same 
 regimen, as Mr-ny my, Is. 11:9, knowledge 
 of Jehovah, prop. the knowing Jehovah. The 
 subject follows it in the genitive, as anit nity, 
 Judg. 13:20, the going up of the flame; maa 
 any, 1 Sam. 23:6, at the fleeing of Abiathar. 
 It is seldom construed thus with the object, as 
 wet nixy, to do justice. Mic. 6:8. 
 
 The suffixes to the Inf. follow the same 
 rules. Thus the object is expressed by the 
 verbal suffixes (accusatives), as ‘77, Ex. 
 
 2:14, to hill me; ‘0p2?, 1 Sam. 27:1, to seek 
 
 me, comp. 1 Chron. 12:17; the subject by the 
 nominal suffixes (genitives), as wp, Ps. 4:2, 
 my calling. Hardly correct is ‘313, at my 
 
 return, Ezek. 47:7, for 32. 
 
 2. What we have given as the common con- 
 struction for the subject and object is always 
 observed when they are both expressed in con- 
 nexion with the Infinitive. 1 Kings 13:4, 
 DTNT WR Winx FT yous, upon the king's 
 hearing the word of the man of God. Gen. 13:10, 
 DIO“ny Aim nd 6, before Jehovah destroyed 
 Sodom. Compare 2 Sam. 3:11. Ezek. 37:13. 
 So if the verb governs two accusatives, as "Tx 
 mer Sa-ny FR OTN yn, Gen. 41 : 39, since 
 God hath caused thee to know all this. 
 
 The genitive of the subject properly stands 
 next after the Jnf.; sometimes, however, the 
 accusative of the object intervenes, as in Is. 
 20:1, 29D ink mda, when Sargon sent him ; 
 Bie24, Pas 27s 25 5621 
 
 . 
 
 § 131. 
 
 USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 214.) 
 1. The only existing form of the Participle is 
 used to express all the relations of time (as nn, 
 dying, Zech. 11:9; he who has died, dead; he 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 who is to die, Gen. 20:3), though it most fre- 
 quently has the signification of the Present. 
 The passive participles may therefore stand for 
 the Latin Participle in -ndus; e.g. xq, metu- 
 endus, terrible, Psalm 76:8; m9, laudandus, 
 worthy to be praised, Ps. 18:4. 
 
 2. The Participle, standing in place of the 
 finite verb as predicate of the sentence, denotes, 
 
 a) Most frequently the Present :* Eccles. 
 1:4, x2 7) FTW, one generation goes, an- 
 other comes; v.7, D1 Oymt~b2, all the rivers 
 flow.... Genesis 4:10. If the subject is a 
 personal pronoun, it is either written, in its full 
 form, in immediate connexion with the par- 
 ticiple, as ‘3¢ NY, Genesis 32:12, I fear, 
 OXY wy, 1 Sam. 23:3, we are afraid; or it 
 is appended as a suffix to the word w, (is, 
 § 36, 2), as Judges 6:36, yin yw Dx, if 
 thou savest, [servaturus es.| In the same 
 manner it is appended, in negative sentences, 
 to py; eg. Toto Fry ox, Gen. 43:5, if 
 thou send him not. 
 
 Hence—(6) The Future, (conceived as pre- 
 sent, comp. § 124, 4.) Is. 5:5, I will tell you, 
 Muy ws Ws mx, what I do for what I will do. 
 Gen. 17:19, q2 9? MY AW, Sarah bears (for 
 shall bear) thee a son; 19:18. 
 
 c) The Past, especially when it stands con- 
 nected with the Pret. in the statement of past 
 and contemporaneous circumstances. ~ Job 
 1:16, 82 7 BID Mm Ty, the one (was) still 
 speaking when another came; v.17. Gen. 19:1, 
 au wid)... . akan, they came... . and Lot 
 (was) sitting. But it is also used with reference 
 to past time, and even for the perfect Preter, 
 without any such connexion; e.g. Deut. 4:3, 
 My oY, your eyes which have seen.t 
 
 In the later books, the verb ma is often 
 added in the designation of past time. Job 
 1:14, nw v7 1237, the oxen were ploughing. 
 Neh. 1:4, ox oy, I fasted; 2:13, 15. 
 
 Rem. 1. In all the three cases, a, 6, c, Am 
 is employed before the participle for awaken- 
 ing special attention; e.g. (@) M7 FA, Gen. 
 16:11, behold! thou (art) with child; 27 : 42. 
 
 * In Syriac and Chaldee it is more frequently used 
 thus than in its proper signification as a participle. 
 
 + For the use of the article here before the predicate 
 see § 108, 3, Rem. 
 
 t In Syriac the Present and Imperfect are expressed 
 by intenficiens ego (comp. let. a) and interficiens fui. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Ex. 34:11. (6) Gen. 6:17. Is. 3:1. 7:14. 
 DiedlerKc) Gen 37a Ale 
 
 2. Sometimes the participle is immediately 
 followed by a finite verb; the pronouns that 
 which, he who, &c. (yx) implied in the par- 
 ticiple, must then be mentally supplied before 
 the verb. Is. 5:8, TTH2 TWD ma m1 -y2 
 Ip), woe to those who connect house with house, 
 and (who) join field to field; v. 11, 23. Prov. 
 2:14, 19:26. Compare the strictly analo- 
 gous deviation from the Infinitive-construc- 
 tion, § 129, Rem. 2. 
 
 § 182. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 213.) 
 
 When participles are followed by the object 
 of the action which they express, they are con- 
 strued in two ways:—(1) as verbal-adjectives 
 having the same regimen as the verbs to which 
 they belong; e.g. Jer. 26:19, Tim-ny Ny, one 
 that fears Jehovah; 1 Sam. 18:29, TNAvny Yk, 
 David's enemy, (one that hated David ;) 1 Kings 
 9:23, oya ota, they who rule over the people; 
 Ezek, 9:2, oa wd, clothed with linen garments : 
 (2) as nouns followed by a genitive, (§ 110, 2 ;) 
 e.g. Gen. 22:12, ove ND, one that fears (a 
 fearer of) God; Ps. 84:5, Ama "wh, they that 
 dwell in (inmates of) thy house; Ezek. 9:11, 
 ora wr, the one clothed with linen garments. 
 
 This latter construction with the genitive is 
 
 properly confined to active verbs, (§ 135.) 
 
 The participle of the verb yija, to enter in, is 
 
 also construed thus, as this verb is followed 
 
 by the accusative ; e. g. Gen. 23:10, ww x, 
 
 those who enter in at the gate. But there are 
 
 also examples of the participle followed by a 
 
 genitive in cases where the verb to which it 
 
 belongs is construed only with a preposition ; 
 
 e.g. YOR, "OR, those who rise up against him, 
 
 —against me, for ‘Wy, YY DP, Ps. 18:40, 49. 
 
 Deut. 33:11. 
 
 § 138. 
 
 THE OPTATIVE, 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 215.) 
 We have already seen (§ 125, 3, 6) that the 
 Future, especially with He parag., or the par- 
 ticle x3, is employed to express the Optative. It 
 remains to mention two other forms under which 
 it is periphrased ; viz.— 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 

 
 1. Dr schce Cacicacibaa texerban eee’ akiive', +2 questions expressive of desire; e.g. 
 2 Sam. 15:4, wp wir , who will make me 
 judge? i.e. would that I were made judge! Judg. 
 9:29, "P2 my OYM-nN yp, would that this 
 people were placed sends my hand! Ps, 55:7. 
 Job 29:2. In the phrase jm p, the proper 
 force of the verb is often wholly lost, and 
 nothing more is expressed than would that! 
 (utinam !) God grant! It is followed (a) by an 
 accusative, as Deut. 28:67, wy ym, would it 
 were evening ! (b) by an infinitive, as Ex. 16 : 3, 
 umn yw, would we had died! (c) by a finite 
 verb (either with or without 1), Deut. 5 : 26, 
 Dm Mm 0239 mo) yn, O that they had this 
 heart! Job 23: 3. 
 
 2. By the particles ox, sit, O st! 5, O sil! 
 Sete by the latter. Ps. 139:19. The 
 particle is followed by the Fut. Gen. 17:18, by 
 the Part. Ps. 81:14, seldom by the Jmp. Gen. 
 23:13. When it is followed by the Pret. the 
 desire expressed has reference to past time, as 
 Num. 20:3, wy %, would we had died! 
 
 § 134. 
 
 PERSONS OF THE VERB. 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 216, 217.) 
 
 1. In the use of the persons of the verb there 
 is sometimes a neglect of the distinctions of 
 gender: especially are the masculine forms (as 
 being the most common, and most readily sug- 
 gested to the mind) employed with reference to 
 objects which are feminine; e.g. onpr, Ezek. 
 23:49; omvy, Ruth 1:8; mom, thou (fem.) 
 hast made a league, Is. 57:8. comp. Cant. 2:7. 
 Compare the analogous use of the pronoun, 
 § 119, 5. 
 
 2. The third person (most commonly its mase. 
 form) is very often employed impersonally ; 
 e.g. %M, and it happened; 3) 18 and 43%, 
 (lit. it was strait to him) he was in trouble; on 
 and orm, he became warm. It is also em- 
 ployed thus in the fem. e.g. 1 Samuel 30: 6, 
 NT) wm, David was in trouble. Psalm 50:3. 
 Jer. 10:7. 
 
 The Arabic and Ethiopic commonly em- 
 ploy here the masc. and the Syriac the fem. 
 form. 
 
 3. The indeterminate third person (Germ. 
 man, Fr. on, Eng. they, one, &c., or simply the 
 passive voice) is expressed (a) by the 3 pers. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 sing., @.. xy, they called ; (b) by the 3 pers. plur., 
 as Gen. 41:14, wT and they brought him in 
 haste for he was brought; (c) by the 2 pers. e. g. 
 Is. 7:25, mod wian-nd, there shall no one go 
 thither: so in the common phrase 9x32 WY or 
 WN, until one comes; (d) by the passive voice, 
 as Gen. 4:26, xiz) om ww, then they began to 
 call upon —.* 
 
 Rem. 1. In the first case (let. a) the force 
 of wx (impersonal, as we use one, men, they) 
 is implied: the full construction occurs in one 
 instance, 1 Sam. 9:9, wy Tox 7 wa OD), 
 formerly they said thus in Israel. The poets 
 employ also another construction, viz. the 
 repetition of the verb in the form of the par- 
 ticiple as a nominative ; e. g. Is. 16:10, yAT-N? 
 qi, the treader shall not tread, for they shall 
 not tread = there shall be no treading. 
 
 2. When the pronoun is to be expressed 
 with emphasis, it is written separately before 
 the corresponding verbal form; e.g. ‘M303, 
 m0] "wy, Ps. 2:6, J (my- 
 self) have anointed ; Ten Amy, 5:13, thou 
 wilt bless; 17:4. 18:29. 20:9. Job 1:10. 
 Sometimes one or more words intervene, as 
 RES 7. Tiseelo sOg lS 220.8. 20 ase ood fe 
 Eccles. 1:16. But in the later writers the 
 separate pronoun is written after the verbal 
 form of the same person without any special 
 emphasis, and is to be regarded as pleonastic ; 
 e. g. Eccles. 1:16, inté. 3 MT; 2:11. 
 122.13, 15, 20. 8.3 15. 
 
 I have anointed, 
 
 3. In the poets and prophets, especially, 
 there is often, in the same construction, a 
 
 sudden transition from one person to another. | 
 Is. 1:29, onTon wey OPW. wa, 2, for they | 
 shall be ashamed of the groves in which ye | 
 where both the third and second | 
 
 delight ; 
 persons are employed with reference to the 
 same subject. 
 shall be shame, &e.| 61:7. Deut. 32:15. 
 17. 28. Mic. 2:3. In Job 13:28, the third 
 person is probably employed deckruxdic for 
 the first. 
 
 * Sometimes on the contrary the impersonal dicunt 
 must be understood as strictly the passive diritur. 
 Job 7:3, nights of pain have they appointed me, fcr are 
 appointed me, (sc. by God;) 4:19, 17:12. 32:15. 34a 20. 
 So in Chaldee very frequently (Dan. 2:30. 3:4. 5 3) 
 and in Syriac. 
 
 [Comp. no. 3, b; q. d. there | 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 § 135. 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE VERB WITH 
 THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 (Lehrg. § 218.) 
 
 All transitive verbs govern the Accusative, 
 (§ 116.) On this general rule we remark— 
 
 1. There are many verbs which are construed 
 both with an object, and without one, (absolutely ;) 
 e.g. 723, to weep, and to weep for, bewail ; >», 
 to dwell, and to dwell in, inhabit; sx, to go forth, 
 and also like egredi in the form egredi urbem, see 
 Gen. 44:4. 
 
 Rem. 1. Several verbs of this kind take 
 after them the substantive from the same root 
 and with a corresponding signification, as 
 ‘To = voosiy vdcov, Ey py = Povdedery 
 Boudny ; most frequently as a specification, or 
 as a limitation of the general idea of the verb; 
 e.g. Gen. 27:34, Mya ma mye pyyn, he 
 cried a loud and bitter cry. 
 
 2. Verbs which signify to flow, to stream, 
 take in the poets an accusative of that which 
 is represented as poured forth in a stream. 
 Lam. 3:48, -yy TH one, my eye flows 
 down streams of water. Joel 4:18, the hills 
 Slow milk. So 533, to run, to flow, Jer. 9:17, 
 D2, to distil, Joel 4:18, and HOW, fo gush 
 Sorth, to flow abundantly (hence to bear along 
 as does a torrent), Is. 10:22: similar, but more 
 bold, is Prov. 24:31, oywap > my ME, 
 and behold it (the field) has all gone up to 
 thorns,—in spinas abit. Compare in Greek, 
 
 mpopiery UOwo, Hymn. in Apoll. 2, 202 ; dakpva 
 oraZey, [in English “ which all the while ran 
 blood.’’] 
 
 3. It is also to be regarded as a mere poetic 
 usage, when verbs which signify to do, to 
 speak, to ery, and the like, take an accusative 
 of the instrument or member with which the 
 act is performed. Most clear is this, for our 
 view of the subject, in: 512 Ap pos, Ezek. 
 11:13, to cry a loud voice (comp. Rem. 1) for 
 io cry with a loud voice; spy Ap, Ps. 3:5, 
 with my (whole) veice I ery; np 8, 66:17, 
 with my (whole) mouth I cry : so, to speak with 
 the mouth, Ps. 17:10, with the lips, 12:3, 
 with the tongue, Ps. 109 : 2; to labour with the 
 hand, Prov. 10:4; to help with the right 
 hand, with the hand, with the sword, Psalm 
 17:13, 14. 44:3. 60:7. 1 Sam, 25: 26, 33; 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 in which cases the accusativus instrumenti is 
 employed. In the same cases 3 instrumenti is 
 also used (1 NI2), eg. Ps. 89:2. 109: 30, 
 © 103, Job 19: 16; on which account it has 
 been customary to assume, in the above ex- 
 amples, an ellipsis of 3. But the same use 
 of the accusative is found in Greek; e.g. 
 mpobaivey moda, mais Eidoc, (see Porson 
 and Schafer ad Eurip. Orest. 1427, 1477, 
 Bernhardy Synt. Gr. Sprach. s. 110 ;) and that 
 the accusative is actually dependent on the 
 verb in these cases is clear from a comparison 
 with those given under Rems. 1 and 2. In 
 like manner in German, the instrument is 
 sometimes construed as the object of the verb, 
 as in the following examples which are strictly 
 analogous to those given above: Schlitischuhe 
 laufen ; eine herrliche Stimme_ singen ; eine 
 tiichtige Klinge schlagen, [so in English, to 
 sound the trumpet, to play the harp. | 
 2. Many verbs govern the accusative in con- 
 sequence of a peculiar turn given to their signi- 
 fication, when the corresponding verbs in Greek, 
 Latin, and German, are construed with other 
 cases; e.g. my, to reply to, (like dpei€opai rwa, 
 prop. to acquaint, to inform one;) 2, causam ali- 
 cujus agere, (prop. to defend him before the judge ;) | 
 qw2, leta nuntiare alicui, (prop. leto nuntio eum 
 exhilarare;) x}, to commit adultery with one, 
 (prop. to lie with [comp. old Eng. to bed] one, 
 adulterously ;) 3, to become surety for one, (to 
 bail him.) 
 
 Rem. 1. In the same manner are construed 
 even the passive and reflexive conjugations 
 Niph., Hoph., Hithpa., the verb sometimes 
 assuming under these forms a signification 
 which requires the accusative; exs. N32}, to 
 prophesy, Jer. 25:13; 103, to surround (prop. 
 to place themselves around), Judg. 19 : 22; 
 nym, Tam made to possess, Job 7:3; 2307, 
 to plot against (fraudulenter aliquem tractare), 
 Gen. 37:18; y:ianig, to consider, Job 37: 14. 
 
 2. In very common formule the accusative 
 after such verbs may be omitted without in- 
 jury to the sense, as nt, for ma m2, to make 
 a covenant, 1 Sam. 20:16; noe to stretch 
 Sorth, sc. 2, the hand, Ps. 18:17, 
 
 8. Classes of verbs which govern the accu- 
 sative are, (a) those which signify to clothe and 
 unclothe, as 33, to put on a garment, we, to 
 
 put pment S087 1 Si ead eae ens ge ae a garment, yy, to put on as an ornament ; 
 
 
 
 Seneeeeas Sane eemEESeEEEEeeeeeee 
 
 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 e.g. JNeT OQ wad, Ps. 65:14, the pastures 
 are clothed with flocks; 109:29. 104:2; (6) 
 those which signify fulness or want, as x2, to 
 be full, vx, to be satiated, yp, to overflow, “On, 
 to want, 553, to lose, (children ;) e. g. YIN NBM 
 Donk, Ex. 1:7, and the land was filled with them ; 
 Meo OPI Owe po AN, Gen. 18 : 28, lit. 
 perhaps the fifty righteous will want five, i. e. per- 
 haps there will be lacking five of the fifty ; S20 
 Dp 03, Gen. 27:45, (why) should I lose you 
 both together; (c) most verbs of dwelling, not 
 merely in a place (to inhabit) but also among a 
 people, with one, as anv, Wa; OOM) Made, Ps. 
 57: 5, I dwell among those that breathe out flames; 
 5:5. 120:5; (d) those which express going or 
 coming to a place, (petere locum ;) hence xia, with 
 the accus. to befal one. Here belongs the accus. 
 loci, § 116, 1. 
 § 136. 
 
 VERBS WHICH GOVERN TWO ACCUSATIVES. 
 
 (Lehrgeb. § 219.) 
 Such are— 
 
 1. The causative conjugations (Pié and 
 Hiphil) of all verbs which in Kal govern one 
 accusative; e.g. mor mm vory, Ex. 28:3, [ 
 have filled him with the spirit of wisdom; ‘nx way) 
 wy m2, Gen. 41:42, he clothed him in (caused 
 him to put on) garments of fine cotton. And 
 further; “3, to gird one with, Ps. 18:33, BaP 
 to bless one with, Deut. 15:14, rem, to cause one 
 to lack something, Ps. 8: 6. , 
 
 2. A numerous class of verbs whose significa- 
 tion in Kal is causative; such e. g. as to cover or 
 clothe one with anything, (Ex. 29:9. Ps. 5:13, 
 hence also to sow sc. a field with seed, to plant sc. 
 a field with trees, &c. Is.5:2, to anoint, Ps. 
 45:8;) to fill (with), to bestow (upon), to deprive 
 (of), (Ez. 8:17. Gen. 27 : 37 ;) to do one a favour, 
 or an injury, (1 Sam. 24:18;) to make one some- 
 thing (Gen. 17:5), e.g. Dip Nm pow ink Mwy), 
 Ex. 30: 25, and make it a holy anointing oil. 
 
 In such combinations as the one last men- 
 tioned, we often adopt another construction, viz. 
 and make of it a holy anointing oil, i. e. we treat 
 the first noun as an accusative of material, 
 1 Kings 18:32, mam oO2NA-ny mm, and he 
 built of the stones an altar, prop. built (formed ) 
 the stones into an altar, Lev. 24:5. More 
 striking examples of this construction are those 
 in which the accusative of material is placed 
 last; e.g. mun) mov ved, Ex. 38:3, all its 
 
 121 
 
 vessels he made of brass; Gen. 2:7. Ex. 25:39, 
 36:14. 
 
 There is another use of two accusatives 
 after the same active verb, viz. when the 
 second serves to limit the first, by expressing 
 more definitely the object of the action. This 
 nearly resembles the adverbial use of the 
 accusative, (§ 116;) e.g. ™ ‘'D max, to smite 
 one on the cheek, for to smite upon his cheek, 
 Ps. 3:8; w) ‘D mm, to smite one as to his 
 life, i.e. to smite him dead, Gen. 37:21; to 
 circumcise one in the flesh of the foreskin, 
 Gen. 17: 25. 
 
 RrIg7. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 (Lehrgeb, § 229.) 
 
 The Hebrew language has no verbs com- 
 pounded with prepositions. Those modifications 
 of the verbal idea which other languages indi- 
 cate by composition with prepositions, are 
 expressed in the Hebrew either (a) by appro- 
 priate verbal-stems, as 1, fo re-turn, DIP, to 
 pre-cede, ™p, oc-currit; or (6) by prepositions 
 written after the verb [as in English], e.g. sp, 
 to call, with 5, to call to, with 3, to call upon; 
 5p, to fall, with Sy, to fall upon, and also [with 
 or without by] to fall off (desert) from one party 
 to another, with 55, to fall down before ; 77 
 with “my, to go after, to follow. 
 
 It belongs to the lexicon to shew the use of 
 the several prepositions with each particular 
 verb. Of classes of words construed with 
 this or that particle we shall most properly 
 treat under § 151. 
 
 § 138, 
 
 CONSTRUCTIO PRAZGNANS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 222, b.) 
 
 Sometimes a verb has an object, or stands in a 
 construction, to which in signification it is not 
 adapted; and another verb (the force of which 
 was, in the writer’s mind, involved in that of the 
 verb employed) must be mentally supplied in 
 order to complete the sense. This is called 
 constructio pregnans, and is found chiefly in the 
 poets; e.g. Ps. 32:8, yy oy (Tm DN) TyYY, 
 I will care for (and keep) mine eye upon thee; 
 22:22, *xmy OD) ‘22, hear (and save) me from 
 the horns of the wild bulls; Is, 14:17, 8) YyYOR 
 
 m2 minp, his prisoners he did not release (and let 
 : R 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 go) to their homes; Ps. 89:40. This construc- 
 tion is found also in familiar phrases; e. g. 
 mim vy Nya for mim “my n3% xy, Num. 14:24, 
 (lit. implevit sequt Jehovam) to follow Jehovah 
 perfectly, (§ 139, Rem. 1;) Deut. 1: 26, 
 
 § 189. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF TWO VERBS WITH ONE 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 When one verb serves as the complement 
 of another, the second is construed as follows, 
 viz.— 
 
 1. It stands in the Znf. either adsol. ($ 128, 1) 
 or (more commonly) constr. after the other verb ; 
 e. g. Deut. 2:25, 31, nm bow, I begin to give; 
 Gen. 37:5, Nxip DD, and they went on to hate, 
 
 [or hated the more;] Ex. 18: 23, Toy nD’, thou | 
 
 canst endure. Still more frequently— 
 
 2. It stands in the Inf. preceded by }; e.g. 
 Deut. 3:24, missy? nib, thou hast begun to 
 shew; Gen. 11:8, mind soar, and they ceased to 
 build ; 27:20, x30) mT, thou hast hastened to 
 find, i.e. hast quickly found. 
 
 These are the usual constructions in prose 
 after verbs signifying to begin (orm, Prin), to 
 continue (FDI), to hasten (am), to cease (71, 
 m9), to be finished (Dm); so also, to make 
 good = to do well (aw), to make much or 
 many = to multiply (729), and the like modes 
 of action expressed, for the most part, by 
 Hiphil ; to be willing (max, yor), to be unwilling, 
 to refuse (3), to seek, to strive for (wpa), — to 
 be able (5%, yt, the latter signifying to know 
 (how) to do,) to learn (79), to permit.* It is 
 to be remarked, however, that in poetry the y 
 is often omitted where it is used in prose; 
 e.g. max, to be willing, with the Gerund, Ex. 
 10:27, with the mere Inf. Job 39:9. Is. 30:9. 
 42: 24.F 
 3. It has, like the first, the form of the finite 
 
 verb ; they are then construed, most frequently— 
 
 * To permit one to do a thing is expressed by 'B yo? 
 nin, and mivy D yo prop. to give or grant to 
 one to do a thing, Gen. 20: 6, yn? nn? nd, I have 
 not permitted thee to touch. 
 
 + So after words which include an analogous verbal- 
 idea; e.g. Ni) PX, it is not permitted to enter in; 
 78 TY TR, (poet.) there is nothing to be compared to 
 thee, Ps. 40:6; THY, ready, prepared, commonly with 
 5, without it, Job 3:8, 
 
 
 
 a) ’Aovydéirwe, both verbs being of the same 
 mood, gender, and number. Deut. 2: 24, begin, 
 take possession, for begin to take possession ; Hos. 
 1:6, OMY Ty ADIN NY, Twill not go on to pity, 
 i.e. I will no longer pity; 1 Sam, 2:3, 2 oy 
 main, multiply not (when) ye speak = speak not 
 much ; Is. 53:10, om SNOT YEN Tiny, Jehovah 
 was pleased to make severe (lit. sick) his wound, 
 i.e. to bruise him severely; Lam. 4:14, 27 sa 
 wy, so that they could not touch; Job 32:22, 
 mow vay NY, I know not how to flatter ; 19:3, 
 ) rN Wan N2, ye are not ashamed, ye stun me 
 = without shame ye stun me. 
 
 The verbs which exhibit this construction 
 are mainly the same, as the above examples 
 shew, with those which are construed with the 
 Infinitive and Gerund, (nos. 1, 2;) it is more 
 rare than those given under nos. 1 and 2, and 
 is found most frequently in poetical language, 
 though it occurs also in common prose, as in 
 Neh. 3:20, pry mn, he was zealous in 
 building; Deut. 1:5. Jos. 3:16. Hos. loc. cit. 
 
 b) ’Acuvdérwe, but with the second verb in 
 the. Fut. depending on the conjunction that 
 implied. 1 Sam. 20:19, Tn maby, and cause 
 on the third day, (that) thou come down, for on the 
 third day come down. 
 
 In Arabic and Syriac this construction is 
 very common.* In Hebrew it was neces- 
 sarily used in those cases where the second 
 verb was to be distinguished from the first in 
 person or number. Isaiah 47: 1, -ppin ¥&) 
 JONI, thou shalt not add (that) they shall call 
 thee, for thou shalt not continue to be called; 
 Num. 22:6, srwyax) iam? ox “ax, perhaps 
 I may be able, (that) we shall smite him, and I 
 shall drive him out. [See Lex. Man. nn, Piél.] 
 
 c) With } before the second verb; Gen. 
 26:18, 1br) aw), and he returned (repeated) 
 vw 7b, 
 
 * The Arabian says Cc whey | y) 
 
 dilaceraret, for he would rend; and so the Syrian 
 =x 
 
 Paps [Dy 
 lift up, but oftener with the 
 Aas o 
 |Zla> lo, » he would come. 
 
 t: Y 
 
 omit the conjunction in this case: 
 
 4 
 
 volebat 
 
 volebat tolleret (Luke 18:13), he would 
 
 conjunction that, 
 The Latin also may 
 Quid vis faciam ? 
 Ter. Volo hoe oratori contingat, Cic. Brut. 84. So in 
 German, Ich wollte, es wire; Ich dachte, es ginge; I 
 
 would it were, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 and dug, for he dug again; 37:7. 2 Kgs. 1:11, 
 13.—Job 23:3, aAxsON) “MYT? jE, O that I 
 knew (how) to find him! prop. what to do, that 
 I might find him. Esth. 8:6, myn Sox mrs, 
 how should I endure and witness, for how should 
 I endure to witness. 
 
 In all such cases the } denotes the strictest 
 connexion of the two verbs for the expression 
 of one idea. Compare in Syriac, he went on 
 and sent, for he sent on, [so in familiar lan- 
 guage, he went on and built, for he continued 
 building. ] 
 
 4, It takes the form of the Part., Is. 33:1, 
 THe *sponm2, when thou shalt cease as a de- 
 stroyer; i.e. to be a destroyer = to destroy ;t 
 1 Sam. 16:16, (though this example may be 
 referred to no. 3, a.) 
 
 In the same manner is construed also the 
 Verbal Adjective. 1 Sam. 3: 2, his eyes, 
 nina sim, Segan (to grow) dim. Of this con- 
 struction is Gen. 9:20, Mowd Wx md dm), 
 and Noah began (to be) a husbandman. 
 
 Rem. 1. In very many of the above ex- 
 amples the first verb only serves, in effect, 
 to qualify in some manner the second, and 
 hence we translate it by an adverb. Compare 
 also Gen. 31:27, mn) neat m2), wherefore 
 hast thou secretly fied; 37:7, your sheaves 
 stood around and bowed, for bowed around; 
 2 Kings 2:10, Sew) muipn, thou hast dealt 
 hardly in asking, i.e. hast made a hard demand ; 
 Ex. 13:15, pia) nine min, Pharaoh would 
 hardly let us go. The verb which qualifies 
 the other may also occupy the second place, 
 but never without special cause; e. g. Isaiah 
 53:11, vat mp, he shall see and be satisfied 
 (with the sight), and 66:11, that ye may suck 
 and be satisfied; 26: 11.—Jer. 4:5, sw wp 
 means, call ye (and that too) with the full 
 voice = ell aloud. 
 
 2. We are not to reckon here those verbs 
 which take after them (in place of an accu- 
 sative) a sentence or clause depending on ‘> 
 or wx, that, (§ 152, 1, e;) such e.g. as to 
 see (Gen. 1:4, 10), to hear (1 Kgs. 21:15), 
 to know (Gen, 22:12), to believe, to remember, 
 
 * For 32M ($19, Rem. a) Inf. Hiph. of DOD. 
 
 + This construction also is common in Syriac (see 
 Hoffmann Gram, Syr. p. 343, 4), where it is by no means 
 to be taken (as by J. D. Michaelis) for a Greecism. 
 
 ee 
 
 
 
 to forget, to say, to think, to happen. On the 
 omission of the conjunction before such 
 clauses, see § 152, 4, d. 
 
 § 140, 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 221.) 
 
 1, When a causative conjugation (Piél, Hi- 
 phil) has two accusatives (§ 136), its passive 
 retains only one of them, taking the other as a 
 nominative, or including its subject in itself. 
 Ps. 80:11, mys OND 2, the mountains are 
 covered with its (the vine’s) shade; 1 Kgs. 22: 10, 
 on; ovr, clothed with garments, (prop. made 
 to put on garments ;) Ex. 25:40, ANY TAN Ws, 
 which was shewn thee, (prop. which thou wast 
 made to see.) 
 
 Several striking phenomena in the con- 
 struction of the Passive are readily explained, 
 if we regard it as an impersonal Active 
 (dicitur = they say), just as, on the contrary, 
 the impersonal Active often supplies the place 
 of the Passive ; see § 134, note. We may thus 
 explain those cases, in which— 
 
 a) It takes the object of the action in the 
 Gen. 27:42, “aI-ny ABI 71299 
 yey, they made known to Rebecca the words of 
 Esau; 4:18, typ-ny Pry WM, one bore (for 
 his wife bore) to Enoch Irad; 21:5, 3) tna 
 pryy-ny, at the time of bearing (év rp rexeiv) 
 to him Tsaac ; 40:20. 
 
 6) It does not agree (as often happens) in 
 gender and number with the noun, even when 
 preceded by it, (comp. §§ 143, 144.) Is. 21:2, 
 Yay my My, visionem diram nunciarunt 
 mihi, (the noun in the accus.;) Dan. 9 : 24, 
 
 accusative. 
 
 septuaginta septimanas destinarunt, (Jan 5 Is, 
 
 14.53% 
 
 2. The efficient cause, after a passive verb, 
 most frequently takes >, by; as mr) 33, 
 blessed of Jehovah, Ruth 2:20. Gen. 14:20. 
 Prov. 14:20. More rare, but no less certain, is 
 the same use of yo (by which origin, source, in 
 general, is often denoted), Ps. 37 : 23. Genesis 
 9:11. Is. 22:3; En, a parte, Gen. 6:13; 2, 
 by, Num. 36:2. Is. 45:17. Sometimes this re- 
 lation is expressed without a preposition; as 
 Is. 1:20, 28m 397, by the sword shall ye be de- 
 voured. 
 
 * Comp. Olshausen Emendationen zum A. T., S. 24, 25. 
 

 
 
 
 124 
 
 This use of 5 to denote the author or 
 efficient cause is not confined to cases in which 
 it is preceded by a passive verb; e.g. 9 m7, 
 to conceive by any one; Is. 2:12, nim) or, a 
 day (of retribution) from Jehovah; 1 Kings 
 10:1. This so readily connects itself with 
 the other uses of > (§ 151, 3, e), that we may 
 regard it as properly signifying, in these cases, 
 according to, after, hence in consequence of, and 
 thus used of the efficient cause. [Comp. Lex. 
 Man. 4, A, 4, ¢.] 
 
 Rem. Many neuter verbs are sometimes 
 used as Passives, in consequence of a peculiar 
 application of their original meaning; e.g. 
 ty, to go down,—spoken of a forest, to be 
 felled; mx, for to be brought up (upon the 
 altar), Lev. 2:12, to be entered (in an ac- 
 count), 1 Chron. 27:24; xx, to be brought out 
 of, Deut. 14: 22. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CONNEXION OF THE SUBJECT WITH 
 THE PREDICATE. 
 
 § 141. 
 MANNER OF EXPRESSING THE COPULA, 
 
 The union of the substantive or pronoun, 
 which forms the subject of the sentence, with 
 ancther substantive or adjective as its predicate, 
 is most commonly expressed by simply writing 
 them together without any copula. 1 Kgs.18:21, 
 ove mim, Jehovah (is) the true God; Genesis 
 2:4, niin nbs, this (is) the history; 2:12, 
 0 ad yusa am, the gold of that land (is) 
 good ; Is. 31:2, Dom wT 03, yet he too (is) wise! 
 
 More seldom the copula is expressed :—(a) 
 By the personal pronoun of the third person 
 xin, DD, originally employed with special refer- 
 ence to the predicate, bringing it prominently to 
 view, (Gen. 2:14, and the fourth river MP NT 
 that (is) Euphrates ;) then without any such 
 reference, and simply as a copula; e.g. Gen. 
 41:26, the seven fair hine 733 DY vB seven 
 years (are) they; Zech. 1:9, x3x mag", what 
 these are; Ps. 16:3. Gen. 7:2. 9:3. It is thus 
 expressed even when the subject is a pronoun of 
 the second person. Zeph,2:12, may... . Om 03, 
 also ye....are.* (b) By the substantive verb 
 
 
 
 * So in Chaldee often; see Dan. 2:38, Ezr. 5:1. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 ma. Gen. 1:2, and the earth was (mIyq) waste 
 and empty; 3:1, the serpent was (799) crafty; 
 v. 20. (¢) Also in w: and py (which include 
 the idea of the substantive verb) when the sub- 
 ject is a pronoun and the predicate is a parti- 
 ciple; see §§ 36, 2. 131, 2, a. 
 
 On the gender and number of the copula 
 see § 144. 
 
 Rem. Instead of the adjective, the Hebrew 
 often employs the abstract substantive as a 
 predicate, (§ 104, 1, Rem. 2 ;) especially when 
 there is no adjective of the signification re- 
 quired (§ 104, 1), e.g. yy rnin, his walls 
 (are) of wood, (are walls of wood.) Here the 
 substantive, which stands as subject of the 
 sentence, is to be repeated, in the constr. st., 
 before the predicate. This full construction 
 occurs Job 6:12, TS DyIN MS Ox, ws my 
 strength the strength of stones? exs, Cant. 1:15, 
 my PP, thy eyes (are) doves’-eyes; Psalm 
 45:7, ovy FNOD thy throne (is) a throne of 
 God = solium divinum ;* second member (with 
 the full construction) ypay2 word re) v7, 
 a righteous sceptre is the sceptre of thy dominion; 
 Is, 5:29. 10:5. 29:4. Ps. 18 : 34. 
 
 § 142. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN 
 A SENTENCE; CASE ABSOLUTE. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 189.) 
 
 1. The only natural arrangement of words is 
 that of the simple sentence in calm discourse, 
 viz. subject, copula, predicate ; or, when the pre- 
 dicate consists of the verb with its object, subject, 
 verb, object. Adverbial designations (of time, 
 place, for example) may stand either before or 
 after the verb; a negative always immediately 
 before it.f 
 
 But the Hebrew can, at pleasure, render either 
 of these members prominent by giving it the 
 first place in the sentence; e. g.— 
 
 a) The verb: Proy. 28:1, there flee, when there 
 is no pursuer, the wicked. This is its common 
 position when there is implied in it an indeter- 
 minate subject (the impersonal construction 
 § 134, 3), as Om my, they howl (to wit) the 
 
 * But see Hengstenberg’s Christology, vol. i. pp. 91 
 et seg. of Prof. Keith’s translation. Philology requires 
 no other than the simple and natural construction, 
 ** Thy throne, O God!” &c.—Tr. 
 
 + A very rare exception may be seen in Eccles. 10:10. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 jackals, (comp. il vient des hommes ;) and also 
 wherever the sentence or clause is connected 
 with a preceding one by } (of course wherever 
 the Fut. convers. is employed), ‘Wx or °D; as 
 Gen. 3:1, all beasts >» Mey Wx which Jehovah 
 had made; 2:5, 2 oom 8) °2, for Jehovah 
 had not caused it to rain. 
 
 b) The adjective: this, when it is the predicate, 
 is commonly placed first as the most important 
 member of the sentence. Gen. 4:13, wy 73, 
 great (is) my sin. 
 
 c) The object of the verb: the verb then im- 
 mediately follows, as mim 79x 13, thus (this) 
 saith Jehovah.* Ps, 27:4, -noxd nis, one 
 thing have I asked. Very rare is the arrange- 
 ment in 2 Kings 5:13, some great thing had 
 the prophet commanded thee. 
 
 d) The adverbial designation, which is then 
 immediately followed by the verb. Gen. 1:1. 
 Jos. 10:12, poi wap w; Judg. 5:22. 
 
 Another arrangement, viz. subject, object, 
 verb, which is common in Aramean (Dan. 
 2:6, 7,8, 10), is seldom found in Hebrew, 
 and only in poetry. Ps, 6:10, mp nen mim; 
 11:5. Is. 13:18. 49:6. See the author’s 
 Comment. on Is. 42: 24. 
 
 2. But the greatest prominence is given to 
 any substantive in the sentence (whether it is 
 the genitive or accusative of the object, or em- 
 ployed by way of limitation or qualification of 
 any kind) by permitting it to stand, absolutely, 
 at the beginning of the sentence, and then re- 
 presenting it, in its proper place, by a pronoun, 
 (compare c’est moi, qu’on accusé;) e.g. the 
 genitive, Ps. 18:31, 7 OM yn, God—per- 
 fect is his way, for the way of God is perfect; 
 11:4. 104:17; — the accusative, Ps. 74:17, 
 winter and summer — thou hast made them, for 
 thou hast made winter and summer; Gen 47 : 21, 
 ink VID Opa-ny, the people—he transferred 
 them; comp. Jer. 6:19. The suffix may also 
 be omitted, and the connexion indicated by » 
 as sign of the apodosis, [Lex. l.e.] Ps. 18:41. 
 comp. 2 Sam. 22:41.—Job 36:26, WT NX) Ym, 
 se. O73, his years — there is no searching, (to 
 them.) Ex. 16:6, DAYT] Iw, at evening, then 
 shall ye know. Gen. 3:5. 
 
 * We have the same form (with the mere omission of 
 thus, which is here unnecessary) in the phrase so fre- 
 quently inserted in prophetic discourse, T/T Dx, 
 
 | saith Jehovah; comp. Gen. 2: 3, objecti. t+ Sect. 144, a. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The participle placed thus resembles the 
 Latin ablative absolute. Prov. 23 : 24, 7» 
 mow) orn, he who begets a wise son, (i. e. when 
 one begets, &c.,) then he may rejoice. More 
 frequently it is preceded by 55; Gen. 4:15, 
 DP? OMY PP xg, whoever shall kill Cain 
 (for if any one shall kill Cain) it shall be avenged 
 sevenfold. Still more fully 1 Sam. 2:13, 
 yi W2 XH mI oI weeds, when any one 
 brought an offering, then came the priest’s ser- 
 vant ; 9:11. 
 
 § 148. 
 
 RELATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 
 IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER, 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 184—186.) 
 
 The Predicate (verb, adjective, substantive 
 with copula) conforms, regularly, to the subject 
 in gender and number. From this rule, com- 
 mon to all languages, there are many deviations, 
 partly occasioned by regard to the sense rather 
 than the grammatical form of words, (constructio 
 ad sensum,) partly by the position of the predi- 
 cate before the other members of the sentence. 
 
 In respect to the first cause we remark :— 
 
 1. Collective nouns, e.g. oy, “3, people, mx, 
 family, and nouns used as such, as wx, men 
 (§ 106, 1), are usually construed (ad sensum) 
 with the Plural. Judg. 9:55, nim-wy wn, 
 when the men of Israel saw. 1 Kings 20: 20, 
 Dx 1529). So when the collective is itself fem., 
 but represents individuals which are of the masc. 
 gender; e.g. 2 Sam. 15:23, ovia pua-d, and 
 the whole land (its inhabitants) wept ;* Gen. 48:6. 
 1 Sam. 2: 33; and wice versd, Job 1:14, 97 730 
 niwin, the cattle (kine) were ploughing. For ex- 
 amples of the predicate with the singular forms 
 in such cases, see Gen. 35:11. Is. 2:4. comp. 
 Mic. 4:3. 
 
 Often the construction begins with the sin- 
 gular (especially when the verb is placed first), 
 and then, when the collective is introduced, 
 proceeds with the plural. Ex. 33 : 4, pot 
 YAN) cya, and the people heard..... 
 and mourned ; 1 : 20. 
 
 Collectives ‘which designate irrational ani- 
 mals, or things, may take the fem. construc- 
 tion, (§ 105, 3, ce.) 
 
 oe 
 
 * Sallust. Jugurth, 14, pars in erucem acti, pars bestiis 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 126 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 2. On the other hand plural nouns with a 
 singular signification (§ 106, 2) are construed 
 with the singular, especially the Pluralis excel- 
 lentiga. Gen. 1:1,3.* Ex. 21: 29, mov ya, 
 his owner shall be put to death. So feminine 
 forms with a masculine signification are con- 
 strued with the masculine. Eccles. 12:9, mo 
 Do nirip, the preacher was wise. 
 
 "3. Plurals which designate beasts or things 
 (but not persons), whether they are masc. or 
 fem., prefer the construction with the fem. sing.,} 
 whose analogy with the plural we have often 
 remarked, together with the grounds of it, 
 (see § 105, 2, 3.) Joel 1:20, x4yn TWD nin, 
 the beasts of the field pine for —. Jer. 48:41, 
 np m2, taken are the cities. Job 14:19, 
 TIMED Fon, zs floods wash away. Jer. 49 : 24, 
 TAIN DM, and pains have seized upon her. 
 The same principle applies to pronouns in con- 
 nexion with their antecedents. Job 39:14. 
 Is. 35:7. 2 Kgs. 3:3. 
 
 4. Moreover, those plurals also which de- 
 signate persons are construed with the singular, 
 when, instead of the whole sum of individuals 
 spoken of, the attention is directed to each one 
 of them, (comp. for omnes and omnis.) Prov. 
 3:18, Wo mM, and happy (is every one of) 
 those who retain her ; 27: 16, MPS MIS; 28:1. 
 
 5. Dual substantives have their predicates in 
 the plural, as verbs, adjectives and pronouns 
 have no dual-form. Job 4:3,4. Ps. 18:28. 
 But the principle stated in no. 3 is true also of 
 the Dual; Mic. 4:11. 
 
 § 144. 
 
 The other cause of deviation from the general 
 rule is the position of the predicate at the begin- 
 ning of the sentence. The subject, to which it 
 would regularly conform, not being yet ex- 
 pressed, it often takes its simplest and readiest 
 form, viz. the masc. sing., even when the subject, 
 
 J DTN is construed with the plwr. only in the older 
 biblical books, and in certain forms of expression which 
 perhaps had their origin in polytheism. Gen. 20:13. 
 35:7. 2 Sam. 7:23. 1 Kgs. 19:2. Ps. 58:12. The later 
 writers studiously avoid this construction as polytheistic ; 
 comp. Ex. 32:4, 8, and Neh, 9:18. 
 
 + Perfectly analogous is the Greek construction +a 
 mpofBata Baiver, where the Attics admit the plural only 
 when persons are designated: 7a dvdpamoda éAafov. 
 In Arabic such a plural is called pluralis inhumanus 
 (not used of men), and is construed chiefly with the 
 fem, sing., like all pluralia fracta, (collective forms.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 which comes after, is fem. or plur.: the predicate 
 
 in this case is not subject to inflexion; e.g.— 
 
 a) The verb: Is. 47:11, m4 T2 x3, there 
 comes upon thee evil; 1Sam. 1:2, mb) 
 oy, and Peninnah had children; Ps. 10:10, 
 Dna... . 952), and there fall.... the poor; 
 Job 42:15, 2 mie ow? xen) Nn, and there 
 
 Often the 
 verb may here be regarded as impersonal, as 
 in i vient des hommes, (§ 142, 1, a.) More 
 seldom before the plur. fem. we find (at least) 
 the mase. plur. Judg. 21:21, mi oNK¥)"DN 
 rina, when the daughters of Shilo come forth. 
 
 b) The adjective: Ps. 119:137, spupdn wn, 
 and righteous are thy judgments ; 66:3. 119:72. 
 The German also neglects, in this case, the 
 inflexion of the adjective: gerecht (sind) deine 
 Gerichte. 
 
 ce) The substantive: Gen. 47:3, spyay XZ nD, 
 shepherds (are) thy servants. 
 
 were not found women fair, &c. 
 
 The copula exhibits the same deviation from 
 the rule, when it precedes the subject.* Is. 18:5, 
 m2 Tm dna Ion, and the blossom has become a 
 ripe grape; Gen, 27:39. 31:8. 
 
 If the construction is continued after the in- 
 troduction of the subject, the verb must conform 
 to it in its gender and number. Ezek. 14:1, 
 Bp waa)... Duby Oy Nia97; Gen.1:14. Num.9:6. 
 
 Rem. 1. In general, the language is 
 sparing in the use especially of the feminine 
 
 forms (comp. § 110, 1, Rem. 2), and when a 
 
 feminine substantive has more than one pre- 
 
 dicate, contents itself with giving to the 
 nearest one the appropriate feminine form. 
 
 This is well illustrated by the following ex- 
 
 amples: Is, 33:9, yox Myx bax, the land 
 
 mourneth and languisheth; 14:9, mom oxo 
 
 DND) FY My... max, Sheol beneath is moved 
 
 ....%t stirreth up the shades to (meet) thee. 
 
 Examples of the masc. form in remote pre- 
 
 dicates, Levit.2:1. 5:1. 20:63; in such as 
 
 stand in dependent sentences, Job 6 : 10, 
 
 bon 8) (iy) mma; 20:26, after 9, 6: 20. 
 
 On the same principle pronouns which 
 refer to plural nouns take the form of the 
 singular when they stand remote from their 
 
 antecedents. Deut. 21:10. Jos. 2:4. 
 
 * Independently of this arrangement the copula Ni 
 is retained between plur. and fem. unchanged; Josh. 
 
 13:14, W972 NWT... +. 2 Wr, the offerings of Je- 
 hovah..... that is his inheritance. 
 
 
 
 ma) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 forms in gender and number to the genitive 
 instead of the governing noun, viz. when the 
 word in the genitive expresses the principal 
 idea; e.g. Job 32:7, wt op 31, and the mul- 
 titude of years (i. e. many years) should make wise ; 
 2 Sam. 10:9, money 2 YS TT, there was a 
 battle-front against him, i.e. the battle was directed 
 against him; Gen. 4:10. 1 Sam, 2:4, Is. 22:7. 
 With the substantive ‘s, the whole, and the 
 numerals, this construction is almost universal ; 
 
 e.g. Gen. 5:5, one rob) wm, and all the 
 
 days of Adam were —; Ex. 15:20. Genesis 
 
 8:10. 
 
 2. When several subjects are connected by 
 the conjunction and, their common predicate 
 usually takes the plural form, especially when it 
 follows them; Gen. 18:11, O32; me) OMI, 
 Abraham and Sarah (were) old. When it pre- 
 cedes, it often conforms in gender and number 
 to the first (as being the nearest) subject. Gen. 
 7:7, YI mH wins, there went in Noah and his 
 sons; Num. 12:1, jms on wm, there spake 
 Miriam and Aaron; Gen. 33:7. Rarely, the 
 preference for the masc. appears; Prov. 27:9, 
 may Mbp you, ointment and perfume rejoice 
 the heart. If the construction is continued, it is 
 always under the plural form. Gen. 21:32. 
 24:61. 31:14. 33:7. 
 
 SYNTAX. 127 
 2. The cases in which the predicate follows 
 the subject without conforming to it in gender CHAPTER V. 
 and number are mostly those in which the 
 yerb is passive and is to be regarded as im- USE OF THE PARTICLES, 
 personal, (§ 140, 1, Rem.) In some instances § 146, 
 there are special reasons for retaining the Of the particles, as connected with the system 
 predicate in its simple form; e.g. Gen. 4:7, | of forms and inflexions, we have already treated 
 yz) Meer mms}, at the door (is) sin,—a lurker, | in their relation to the other parts of speech. 
 (where by the lurker is meant the lurking lion, | we are now to consider the signification and 
 see Man. Lex. art. y3)); Eccles. 2:7, m2 20 | use of these words, which are so necessary to 
 my, verne mihi sunt, (where *) M77 18 to | the nice perception of the sense, and hold so 
 be understood as J have;) Genesis 15:17, important a place in the philosophical treatment 
 m7 mmppyy, and parKNess, there became, (with | oF the language. We shall present, in a general 
 a special emphasis on the noun,—the verb view, their most important peculiarities, leaving 
 standing impersonally ;) Jer. 48:15, 72 TI) | the more complete representation, as well as the 
 et urbes ejus surgunt, for tolluntur, (noy used necessary proofs, to the lexicon. 
 passively ; comp. the preceding 17%). 
 § 147. 
 § 145. 
 THE ADVERBS. 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMPOUND SUBJECT. ‘ 
 
 (Lehrgeb. §§ 187, 188.) The mod popertans adverbs, classed accord- 
 
 1. When the subject is composed of a nomi- | "5 to their signification, kia 
 native and genitive, the verb sometimes con- 1, Adverbs of place: Dw, there; tp,* m, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and ma, hic, here, oo and nyu, hither, the 
 latter also here (from the Chald. y5, this), 
 mon, thither, further on (prop. to a distance), 
 
 of thee, and mom A29 Cfrom thee further on) 
 beyond thee, 1 Sam, 20:21, 22, 37. Is, 18:2; 
 vy, more commonly Syn, above, non, below, 
 mova, upwards, 72, downwards, yn, outside, 
 yim, on the outside, m2a and m2, within, 
 DI, OD, before, on the east, rim, behind, 
 rihx, backwards, 132, over against, pm, to 
 the right, y232, on the right, 02, on the west 
 (prop. on the side towards the sea), yD and 
 PID, around, mDnD'p, upright. 
 
 To many of these adverbs yo is prefixed, 
 or n— appended, indicating respectively the 
 accessory relations from and towards; e.g. 
 Dw, there, Oth, thence, md, thither ; yr, 
 outside, foris, mn, outwards, foras. There 
 are several which occur only with m— ap- 
 mya 
 
 ' «tle 
 rit 
 
 pended, as 7729, 
 
 Both these additions, however, express also 
 the relation of rest in a place, as mpd some- 
 times there, yo, on the right, (not from the 
 right.) The m— is in this case merely de- 
 
 (loco), Arab. XA3, like 12, so, for 373, sicut hoc. 
 
 of A 
 
 
 
 hence mim a0 (from thee hither) on this side 
 
 * Probably for We, a hardened form of 373, in hoc 
 

 
 
 
 monstrative (§ 93, 1, 5), and yo properly 
 denotes hanging off from an object, and hence 
 being upon the side of it, like a dextra et sinistra, 
 a fronte, a latere, a tergo, and in French 
 dessous, dessus, dedans, dehors.* 
 
 2. Adverbs of time: these are in part the 
 same with those which have been mentioned 
 as adverbs of place, and which, by an easy 
 transition, are made to express relations of 
 time; as ow, then, like éxei; riz, now; TNF, 
 JSorward ; 737 Ty, and contr. mY, hitherto. 
 
 Originally such are: my, at the time, hence 
 now, at this time, (and besides the pure de- 
 signation of time, like viv viv,) also presently, 
 soon; ov" (this day) to-day; dv2, ov, at this 
 day, now; Sian, Ynonx, yesterday, and then of 
 old; wx, yester-evening, last night; ovr 
 (ww, three, and ov), three days since; "1, 
 to-morrow, nia, on the morrow ; Dn, by 
 day, seldom daily (Ezek. 30:16), for which 
 the common form is py oY; Ay, by night; 
 pa and opin, in the morning, early; DiI~b, 
 every day, also the whole day, then all the time, 
 always; 2m, perpetually, always, ody, dv, 
 Sor ever, m2, T23), continually; 33 (time), then, 
 with reference to both past and future time, 
 wn, long since, formerly, 075, do., 122 (length), 
 long since; Ay (iterando), again, repeatedly, 
 commonly yet, with a negative no more ; 7MK> 
 (as one), at once, together ; yap, do., moive), 
 first, 2 “78 (after it was so), afterwards, 
 mM, speedily, ONnd, instantaneously. 
 
 3. Adverbs (a) of quality: i> (see no. 1, 
 note,) and 2 (right), so; Wa, very, WM, ex- 
 ceedingly, very, “n¥, more, too much, 72, M2, 
 wholly, yx2, wyp2 (about or near nothing, about, 
 i.e. within, a little = wanting little), almost, 
 nibx, so, so then (Job 9:24), hence often used 
 intensively in questions [like zoré, tandem], 
 § 150, 2, Rem. fin, 230 and 27, well, bs (in 
 connexion with other adverbs), wholly, just, as 
 tiy-b2, wholly (just) so long, Job 27 : 3. 
 
 b) Of quantity: mx, much, 45, abundantly, 
 yit (riches), sufficiently, ™ followed by the 
 genitive (prop. a sufficiency), enough, as 427 
 what is enough for thee, nx, much, enough; 
 12), 192) (in separation), alone, the former 
 
 * Cant. 4:1, WWl2 WD www, which lie along the 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 also with suffixes, as ry), I alone; 1m, to- 
 gether. 
 
 c) Of affirmation: yox, TDN, truly, ys (prop. 
 Inf. Hiph, from 3, for 327, stabiliendo), cer- 
 tainly, indeed, by apocope FR; 73x, truly, also 
 (corrective) nay rather, immo Gen. 17: 19. 
 1 Kings 1:43; ‘x, perhaps.* 
 
 The expression of affirmation may easily 
 pass over into that of opposition (comp. verum, 
 vero) and of limitation; and hence some of 
 the above-mentioned affirmative particles are 
 partly adversative and restrictive, as 7x, only, 
 jos, day (especially in later usage), but. Most 
 strongly adversative is Dax, ex adverso, on the 
 contrary (the Seventy od jxjy ada), thus used 
 only in the Pentateuch and Job. Restrictive 
 also is p) (used before adjectives like 5x), 
 merely, i. e. altogether. 
 
 d) Of cause : y>-5y, 322, 73, therefore. 
 
 e) Of accession : D3, also, and (more poetical, 
 and expressive of gradation) x, prop. adeo, 
 yea more, even, both which, however, often 
 take the character of conjunctions. 
 
 4, Adverbs of negation: on these see § 149. 
 
 5. Interrogative adverbs include all the 
 former classes: thus the question may relate 
 to place, as °x, sox, where? the first with suff. 
 by, where (is) he? so mt °x, APS, TDS, Dx, 
 where? — 72 x, PRD, whence? mR (from 
 Ty), whither? to time, as ‘np, when? nD? WY, 
 until when? how long? mx 7y, the same; to 
 quality, as TPS, TR m2, how? to quantity, 
 as m2, how much? how often? to cause, as 
 ra and yr (§ 97, 8), wherefore? Respect- 
 ing the pure interrogative particles 4, ox, 
 see § 150. 
 
 Most of these interrogative particles are 
 formed by prefixing »x, ‘x, which in itself 
 signifies where, but by usage becomes also a 
 mere sign of interrogation before particles of 
 place, time, &c. 
 
 In this manner, and by the application of 
 n— parag., of the prefix yo, and of the rela- 
 tive Wx, are formed whole classes of corre- 
 lative adverbs, as m, here, ny, hence, m x, 
 
 * Compounded of {8 and %5, prop. if not, Num. 
 22:33, then whether not, (who knows) whether not, con- 
 sequently perhaps, expressing doubt, solicitude, and also 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 declivity of Mount Gilead, e monte quasi pendentes. hope, Exactly analogous, in etymology, are the Tal- 
 Comp. Soph. Antig. 411, Ka@jpeQ’ axpov && mayor; mudic particles NOW, Noy, whether not, then perhaps ; 
 Odyss. 21, 420, éx digpporo Kadnpevos. comp. DN, how if? for perhaps. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (relative ;) ow, there, mpd, thither, own, thence, 
 od wh, where, mod Ws, whither, ow Wy, 
 whence. 
 
 § 148. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 223.) 
 
 1. Adverbs not only express, in general, cir- 
 cumstances of time, place, &c., but also qualify 
 single words, as adjectives, e.g. INQ 210, very 
 good, and even substantives, (like 1) xOé¢ 1pépa.) 
 With the latter they stand either in apposition 
 (but commonly after them), oxy 07, 1 Sam. 
 25:31, [blood without cause,| innocent blood, 
 worn orto [men by little], a few men; or in the 
 genitive, oxy 3, 1 Kings 2:31, innocent blood 
 [as above, comp. § 114], ony yw, Ezek. 30:16, 
 daily persecutors, where the adverb is treated 
 substantively, as in sponte sud. 
 
 Compare the construction of numeral ad- 
 verbs, § 118, 1. 
 
 The adverbs also appear in the nature of 
 the Substantive, when, as in the later writers, 
 they take a preposition ; e.g. 323, a the [ie. 
 whilst it is] so—=y2, Esth, 4:16, ox-dx, prop. 
 for vainly, Ezek. 6 : 10. 
 
 2. The repetition of an adverb sometimes de- 
 notes intensity, and sometimes continual acces- 
 sion; @.g. IND Wo, Gen. 7:19 [with might, 
 with might], exceedingly, m2 22, Deut. 28: 43, 
 lower and lower, vyn wy, Ex. 23:30, by litile 
 and little, (peu a peu.) 
 
 On the use of verbs with the effect of ad- 
 
 verbs, see § 139, Rem. 1. 
 
 § 149. 
 WORDS WHICH EXPRESS NEGATION. 
 
 1. The most important adverbs of negation 
 are: N>=9b«, not, bx =}, not (subjective), 
 and the Lat. ne, that not, pr = wy NY, there is not, 
 Dw, not yet, DER, no more, and (almost exclu- 
 sively poetic) 53, a, not. Negative conjunc- 
 tions, 5x, ~}B, m2), that not. 
 
 We subjoin a more particular view of the 
 use of these words :— 
 
 Nb, like ov, ovx, is used principally for the 
 objective, unconditional negation, and hence 
 with the Fut. expresses prohibition, ($ 125, 
 8, c.) In connexion with %, when the latter 
 is not followed by the article, and therefore 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 129 
 
 means (§ 109, 1, Rem.) any one, anything, it 
 expresses the Lat. nullus, nullum, (comp. Fr. 
 ne — personne.) Gen. 3:1, j207 YY 19 pn NY, 
 ye shall eat of no tree of the garden. Ex. 
 12:16, Mom-Nd MoNdo-ba, no labour shall be 
 done. Proy. 12:21. 30:30. Ex. 10:15. 20:4. 
 2 Chron. 32:15. So also pp—=w nd; Eccles. 
 1:9, wma px, and there is nothing new. In 
 this construction x> always stands immedi- 
 ately before the verb which is made negative 
 by it, and -5) immediately before the noun, 
 which may either precede the verb or follow 
 it. But the case is different when ‘ takes 
 the article, or is followed by a noun made 
 definite, where it means all, the whole. Ps. 
 49:18, en mp ining xo, when he dieth he 
 taketh not all this with him. 1 Sam. 14:24, 
 om oyad: oy x», all the people tasted not 
 (refrained from tasting) food. Num. 23:13, 
 mW ND Shp, all of him (his whole) thou shalt 
 not see, (but only a part.) On the use of x} 
 in interrogative sentences, see § 150, 1. 
 
 bx, when it signifies not, is used, like 12), for 
 the subjective and dependent negation, with 
 reference to the views and feelings of the 
 speaker, hence exclusively with the future. 
 Gen. 21:16, meow bx, I could not witness ! 49:6, 
 into their counsel »2h) Nam ox, never would my 
 soul enter! 2 Kings 6:27, pxo mim yywr-ds 
 yorx, God (it seems) will not help thee,—ap- 
 pears not to help thee,—whence should I help 
 thee? 'The Seventy correctly, pi ce coca 
 Kupwe, I fear the Lord will not save thee. 
 
 Sometimes it stands absolutely, without the 
 verb (like ju2) for jr) rodro yévnrat), nay I 
 pray, not so, i.e. let it not be; e.g. Ruth 1:13, 
 ‘nia Oy, not so, my daughters; Gen. 19:18. It 
 is most frequently used like ne, that not 
 (§ 125, 8, a, 6), in the expression of strong 
 dissuasion, of desire that something may not 
 happen, even with the first person: Ps. 25:2, 
 mia by, may I not (let me not) be put to shame. 
 Where it expresses wish or entreaty, it is ac- 
 companied by x2; Gen. 18:3, “ayn xox, I 
 pray thee pass not by. On the interrogative 
 use of it, see § 150, 1. 
 
 Both x5 and 5x properly attach themselves 
 immediately to the verb; very seldom a quali- 
 fying. term or phrase intervenes, as Ps. 6:2. 
 49 :18. 
 
 px is the negative of w, there is, and in- 
 s 
 
 where? m2 s, whence? m2 “Ws, whence, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cludes the verb to be in all its tenses; e. g. 
 Gen. 37:29, ian ApY-py, Joseph was not in the 
 pit; DpIya Tie px, Jehovah is not among you. 
 The same formulas are expressed positively 
 with wy and negatively with px, as Gen. 31: 29, 
 p dybous, it is in my power, Neh. 5:5, 9) py 
 wT, it is not in our power. It follows, more- 
 over (a) that the personal pronouns, when 
 they are the subject of the sentence, are 
 appended to px as suffixes, as px, I am 
 not, I was not, I shall not be, wx, ory, &c. 
 (8) When the predicate is a verb, it almost 
 universally takes the form of the participle, 
 the verb of existence being implied in py, Ex. 
 5:16, yA) PR Jan, straw is not given; v. 10, 
 ja us, I will not give; 8:17. Deut. 1:32. 
 (y) As tw» sometimes signifies to be present, 
 to be near or at hand; px is used in the con- 
 trary sense to be not present or at hand; 
 Num. 21:5, 0% px) On? ps, there ts here no 
 bread and no water; yx, he was not there = 
 was no more, Gen. 5: 24. 
 
 From px is formed by abbreviation the pri- 
 vative syllable 3%, employed in compounds as 
 a prefix: it is found in Job 22:30, i-x, 
 not-guiltless, and in the proper names h12”x, 
 1 Sam. 4:21, and ‘pps. In Athiopic it is 
 the most common form of negation, and is 
 there also used as a prefix. On the formation 
 of the interrogative »» from px, see § 150, 
 1, ult. 
 
 ‘mba (prop. constr. st. with Yodh parag. of 
 nba, want, non-existence, stem-word Ma) is 
 most frequently employed before the Inf. 
 when it is to be expressed negatively with a 
 preposition, as bow, to eat, 3 1122), not to 
 eat, Gen. 3:11. With a finite verb it means 
 that not, Jer. 23: 14. 
 
 2 (@ removing, a clearing away) is used 
 as an adverb only in Prov. 5:6, to express 
 subjective denial, (like 5x): the way of life 
 prepares (walks) she not, [but the entire form 
 would be: (she takes care) that she walk not 
 in the way of life. Lex. Man.] Elsewhere it 
 is the same as ne, that not, lest, especially after 
 the mention of an action by which an appre- 
 hended evil is to be prevented or shunned, 
 (Gen. 11:4. 19:15) or after verbs signifying 
 to fear, to beware (like deidw pr), vereor ne), 
 31:24, 831; and even at the beginning of the 
 sentence, especially in the expression of ap- 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 prehension or fear, as Gen. 3: 22, nowy} nny) 
 
 in, and now, lest he stretch forth his hand, 
 
 2. Two negatives in the same sentence, in- 
 stead of destroying each other, as in Latin, 
 make the negation stronger, like od« ovdeic, ob« 
 obdapdc. 1 Kgs. 10:21, 20m xd ADD PS silver 
 was not at all regarded, (in the parallel passage, 
 2 Chron. 9:20, 85 is omitted.) Ex. 14:11. — 
 Zeph, 2:2, sin7n) opps, lit. before there shall not 
 come, [so in Lat. priusquam .. . non. | 
 
 8. When one negative sentence follows an- 
 other, especially in the poetic parallelism, the 
 negation is often expressed only in the first, 
 while its influence extends also to the second. 
 1 Sam. 2:3, multiply not words of pride, — let 
 (not) that which is arrogant come forth from 
 Job 3:10. 28:17. 30:20. Com- 
 pare the same usage in respect to prepositions, 
 § 151, 4. 
 
 your mouth. 
 
 § 150. 
 INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 
 (Lehrgeb. § 225.) 
 
 1. Interrogative sentences are sometimes, 
 though rarely, distinguished as such by the tone 
 in which they are uttered; e.g. 2 Sam. 18:29, 
 wid ina, ts it well with the young man? Gen. 
 27:24, Woy 22 Mm My, art thou my son Esau? 
 25am. 9:6. This is somewhat more frequent 
 when the sentence is connected with the previous 
 one by }; Jon. 4:11, Dimy N) p81, and should 
 I not spare? Job 10:8. 9. 13. Judg. 11: 23; 
 and when it is introduced by the particle na 
 (Zech. 8:6) or FX (Job 14:3.) But negative 
 sentences still more readily take in utterance 
 the interrogative character; e.g. with xb, when 
 an affirmative answer is expected, (nonne?) Job 
 14:16, onxen->y town No, dost thou not watch 
 Sor my sin? Jon. loc. cit. Lam. 3:36, 88; with 
 8, in expectation of a negative answer (7), 
 num), 1 Sam. 27:10, dit omown-by, ye have 
 not then made an excursion (for plunder) in these 
 days? the reply is, in effect, — we have not 
 indeed, for on every side dwell the Hebrews, my 
 
 countrymen.* 
 Even the few interrogative particles originally 
 expressed either affirmation or negation, and 
 
 * Tn the same manner are used odx (nonne?) and pf; 
 the former (Hom. Il. 10, 165. 4, 242) in expectation of an 
 affirmative, the latter (Odyss. 6, 200) of a negative an- 
 swer. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 : 
 | 
 
 
 

 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 only acquired by usage their interrogative 
 power.* 
 Respecting 7 and its original demonstrative 
 signification, see § 98, 4, Rem. 
 Dy also was originally affirmative and de- 
 monstrative, kindred with yy, jy, en (behold), 
 
 a C Cs 
 
 Arab. w) wl certe, wh ecce, and 
 
 S 
 
 still retains this character in some passages, 
 as Hosea 12:12. Job 17:13,16. In like 
 manner }7, behold! is used interrogatively 
 (whether), Jer. 2:10, as well as the corre- 
 
 sponding Arabic and Syriac words Jd} and 
 
 + 
 
 = 
 
 o 
 la, and the Greek 7. 
 
 On the contrary ‘x, where 2? probably 
 sprung from a negation; — full form jy, 
 (hence py, whence?) prop. not there, is not 
 there, — uttered interrogatively, is not there? 
 = where is? x, is he not there? for where is 
 he? Job 14:10, man dies Ys) and where is 
 he? = 27x), and he is no more, In Arabic »x 
 
 Sc 
 Ss 
 wt 
 
 has become an interrogative pronoun [ us! ] 
 
 =, who? (comp. the German wo (where), 
 and Eng. who,) but this is not its original use. 
 For another abbreviation (x) of px, see § 149. 
 
 2. Most commonly the simple question begins 
 with He interrogative n, — the disjunctive ques- 
 tion with 4 followed in the second clause by 
 Dx, (ox — 7 = utrum — an?) as in 1 Kings 
 22:15, SyyyON... IT, shall we go.....or 
 shall we forbear? The indirect form of inquiry 
 differs only in having ox more frequently in 
 the simple question, and in the first member of 
 the disjunctive question. 
 
 More particularly— 
 
 71 is strictly a sign of the simple and pure 
 question, when the inquirer is uncertain what 
 answer may or should be given. Job 2:9, 
 hast thou considered (43) W207) my servant 
 Job? Often the inquirer expects [or chal- 
 lenges] a negative answer, (num?) which may 
 be expressed in the tone itself; Gen. 4: 9, 
 Ge TM Wn, am I the keeper of my brother ? 
 
 * So in Greek and Latin, originally affirmative and 
 then interrogative are 4, num (= nune), an, (probably, 
 perhaps ;) originally negative and then interrogative,— 
 ovk, pj, —ne, in German nicht wahr? (not true ?) 
 
 Ee 
 
 131 
 
 Job 14:14, if a man die, mm, will he live 
 again? Such a question may have precisely 
 the force of a negative assertion; 2 Sam. 7:5, 
 m2 man TANT, shalt thou build a house for 
 me? (in the parallel passage, 1 Chron. 17:4, 
 ‘a maw ND, thou shalt not build a house for 
 me :)* and, vice versa, the negative form of the 
 question has the effect of an affirmation ; Non, 
 nonne ? is it not so? for mx, behold! 2 Kings 
 15:21. 20:20. comp. 2 Chron, 27:7. 32:32. 
 On the other hand, the question may be so 
 uttered as to shew that the speaker expects 
 affirmation and assent, when it corresponds, in 
 effect, with the negative form of the question 
 in English; compare the use of 7) yép; and 
 % yap ov; for is not? and of the Lat. —ne, for 
 noune?t Gen. 30:2, 38 Ovidy non, am I 
 (not) under God? 27:36. Job 20:4. This 
 simple question is very seldom introduced by 
 Dx; as 1 Kings 1:27. Job 31:16, 19, 20, 29, 
 (comp. 6 : 12.) 
 
 The disjunctive question (utrum — an?) is 
 usually expressed under the form Dy — 4, 
 also Dy — i, Job 21:6, with emphasis on 
 the first question Dx) — FANT, 34:17. 40:8, 9, 
 — more rarely with jx, or, before the second 
 clause. Job 16:3. Eccles. 2:19. Judg. 18:19. 
 This construction of the two particles ok: — 14 
 does not require opposition of meaning in the 
 clauses to which they belong, but often pre- 
 sents, in the poetic parallelism and elsewhere 
 (Gen. 37:8), merely the repetition of the 
 same question in different words, (num — an ? 
 num — et?) Job4:17, is man more just than 
 God, and (ox) ts a man more pure than his 
 Maker? 6:5,6. 8:3. 10:4,5. 11:2, 7. 22:3; 
 hence in parallelism of this kind the second 
 member may be introduced by }; Job 6:26. 
 10:3. 18:7. 15:7,83 or without any par- 
 ticle, 22:4. Seldom 4 occurs again in the 
 second member, Judg. 14:15, (where actual 
 contrariety is expressed;) more common is 
 the repetition of it in successive and less 
 
 * In a similar manner 1), what? [and why?) ex- 
 presses prohibition under the form of reproach or ex- 
 postulation. Cant. 8: 4, SVP, why should ye rouse ? 
 Job 16:6. 31:1. This idiom of the Heb. accounts for the 
 negative force which the same pronoun has gradually 
 acquired in the Chald., Syr., and Arab. 
 
 + See Heindorf ad Plat. Phzedr. 266. 
 Cic. de Off. 3, 17. 
 
 Heusinger ad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 closely connected questions, 1 Sam. 23:11. 
 Rarely also is ox found in the first member, 
 Job 6: 12. 
 
 The form of the indirect question is, in 
 general, the same. After verbs of inquiring, 
 doubting, examining, the simple question takes 
 it (whether), Gen. 8:8, and ox, Cant. 7:13. 
 2 Kings 1:2; the disjunctive question 
 (whether — or) Dx —n, Gen. 18:21. 27:21. 
 Ex. 16:4, and also 4— 7, Num. 13: 20. 
 The formula ox yiy » (who knoweth whether 
 — not = perhaps) is also used affirmatively 
 like the Lat. nescio an, Esther 4: 14, 
 
 For interrogative adverbs of place, time, 
 &c., see § 147, 5. 
 
 The words m (§ 120, 1) and winx, wholly, 
 thus, serve to give animation or intensity to a 
 question, (like zoré, tandem, Eng. then, now ;) 
 as Ning Pra, Is. 22:1, what aileth thee now ? 
 quid tibi tandem? xipx ms), Job 17:15, and 
 where now 2? 
 
 8. The affirmative answer is given, as in 
 Latin, by repeating the predicate of the inter- 
 rogative sentence; Genesis 27:24. 29:6; the 
 negative answer is NX), no, 19:2. 
 
 § 15T. 
 THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. The stmple* prepositions, like the adverbs, 
 originally denote for the most part physical re- 
 lations (viz. those of space,—prop. designating 
 portions of space, § 101), and are then used 
 tropically of immaterial relations, as those of 
 time, cause, &e. Those of place originally de- 
 note either rest in a place, or motion from or to a 
 place ; but in each class there are some (more in 
 the first than in the second) which take also the 
 signification of the other. 
 
 a) The most important prepositions of place 
 are— 
 
 a) Of rest in a place, 3, im, by, at, by, 
 upon and over, non, under, “my, Ws, behind, 
 after, 2, before, 33, M23, ‘yo, before, opposite 
 to, Osx, mx, with (apud) by, near, Wi, Wi (on 
 
 * Among these we reckon such forms as 25), 22, 
 which in themselves considered are indeed compound 
 words, but as prepositions they express only one idea, 
 and are thus distinguished from the compounds under 
 no. 2, e.g. pn, from before. 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 the outside of, near by), about (api), behind, 
 after, 13, between, “IY, on the other side of, 
 beyond. 
 
 B) Of motion, yo [prop. part of a thing, 
 as a partitive prep. designating a part taken 
 Jrom the whole, hence the idea of de-parting, 
 removing, from, away from, anything or place], 
 Jrom, 5x and 5, to, towards, “y, unto, and 
 also (from the former class) 3, to (usque ad), 
 by, upon, towards, 
 
 b) Very many of the above-mentioned pre- 
 positions express also relations of time, as 3, 
 in, within, yo, x, TY; there are none which 
 originally express these relations. 
 
 c) Of those which denote other relations 
 we may mention, 3, as (°J5, "53, according to), 
 oy, together with, with, nm, “wha, besides, ‘nia, 
 without, besides, yy, on account of, 32Y (as a 
 reward), for, because. 
 
 2. The composition of these particles exhibits 
 a great degree of dexterity, and accuracy of 
 discrimination, in expressing those relations 
 which are denoted by prepositions. Thus those 
 of motion are set before others denoting rest, so 
 as to express not only a change of relation, but 
 also the local one which was existing previously 
 to the change, or which follows as the result of 
 it, (comp. in Fr. de chez, d’auprés ;)* e. g.— 
 
 a) With yo: nom, away from under, pr, out 
 from between, yn, away from upon or above, Dyn, 
 my, de chez quelqu’un, ~mx2, away from behind 
 or after. 
 
 b) With ‘x (more seldom): ~My 5x, 2 Kings 
 9:18, (turn) in after (me); 9 yr, without, i. e. 
 on the outside of, 4 yw dy, Lev. 4:12, forth 
 without. 
 
 Thus also compound prepositions, which have 
 adopted an adverbial signification, take after them 
 > (more seldom p>) and again become preposi- 
 tions ; e. g. Syn (adv.), above, > Syn (prep.), above, 
 over, nnn (adv.), below, » monn (prep.), below, 
 under, yarta (adv.), without, 9 ym (prep.), with- 
 out, 73), separately, aside, 1 72), aside from, be- 
 sides, 
 
 * When the Hebrew says, he took the offering by 
 maT from upon the altar (away from the upper sur- 
 face of the altar), he presents the idea fully; while it is 
 but half expressed in the Fr. il prend le chapeau sur la 
 table, the Germ. er nimmt den Hut vom Tische weg, and 
 the Eng. he takes his hat from the table, the Fr. omitting 
 one relation, the Germ. and Eng. another. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 This accessory preposition may also pre- 
 cede the adverbial form; e. g. 122 =)9 12), 
 besides, 532, without, Syr. —s0 p> ;* 
 rarely it is wholly wanting, as nonmn for 
 ) nnn, Job 26:5. 
 
 3. We will now present a few prepositions,— 
 such as occur most frequently and have the 
 greatest variety of meaning, — with their prin- 
 cipal significations, in order to explain their 
 construction with verbs and the most important 
 idioms connected with them. 
 
 a) 3, which has the greatest number and 
 variety of significations, denotes, (1) prop. 
 rest in a place (év), hence in with reference 
 to time, and to state or condition, as }x3, 
 mun, ows, — with reference to a company, 
 or number of individuals, among, e.g. D¥23, 
 — with reference to bounds or limits, within, 
 as Oye, within the gates, —of high objects, 
 upon, as drDID3, Is. 66: 20, upon horses: rarely 
 it has these significations after verbs of mo- 
 tion = cic, (like ponere in loco.) The Hebrew 
 says (a) to drink in a cup (for, to drink what 
 
 is in it), Gen. 44:5, (8) im the manner, in 
 the model or rule, for after the manner or 
 model (comp. év Tp vduqp, hune in modum), as 
 
 272, according to the command, 'p nyv3, accord- 
 
 ing to the counsel of any one, wT) w7Z3, Gen. 
 
 1: 26, in (after) our image, after our likeness ; 
 
 y. 27, and 5:1. 5:3; Adam begat a son, 
 
 jnbza imny. Hence a has itself the signi- 
 
 fication after, secundum (Gen, 21:12), and 
 in the manner =as (comp. ii Snpdc, in the 
 manner of beasts, like beasts), Job 34: 36. Is. 
 
 44:4, Ps. 37:20. 102:4. In this significa- 
 
 cation of the particle is to be understood (y) 
 
 the a essentie or pleonasticum of the gram- 
 
 marians, which everywhere means as, tan- 
 quam, (Fr. en.) Ex. 6:3, I appeared to 
 
 Abraham, &e. "15 bya as God Almighty. Is. 
 
 40:10, the Lord will come pia as a strong 
 
 one. The most striking use of it is before 
 
 the predicate-adjective after the verb to be 
 
 (= conduct or behave as), Eccles. 7:14, in 
 
 | 
 | 
 
 * In the Syr. ot either precedes or follows; e.g. 
 
 oo SiS and ~~ os above, (see 
 
 Hoffmann Gram. Syr., p. 280 ult.) The Hebrew in like 
 manner says 1? from (a starting point) onward, for 
 ? YD, precisely the Lat. inde for de in, from to; comp. 
 
 | tecum, mecum, A2gyptum versus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the day of joy 102 m7 be thou joyful; Ex. 
 82:22, thou knowest the people Nit YI that 
 they are evil. In Arabic this idiom is fre- 
 quent ; see Thes, Ling. Heb., p. 174. 
 
 2. Nearness, vicinity (Lat. ad, apud), at, by, 
 on; Was éy moray, by the river, Ezek. 
 10:15; »yya, in the eyes of = before the eyes 
 of —, (év 6p0adpoic, I. 1,587.) In this sense 
 it frequently indicates motion (Lat. ad), to, 
 unto: it differs, however, both from 4x, to, 
 towards, and 1y, unto, usque ad, since it 
 denotes that the object towards which the 
 motion tends is actually arrived at (which 
 is not determined by the use of 5x), and 
 yet does not fix attention specially upon 
 this point, as is done by wy. Gen. 11:4, 
 a tower orta isn whose top may reach to 
 heaven. Hence it expresses the relation of 
 verbs of motion (and others analogous to 
 them) to their objects; e.g. a me, to lay 
 hold on, 3 0, to ask at, to consult, 2 Np, to 
 call upon, 2 m9, to look upon, 2 rot, to 
 hearken to. Verbs having the signification 
 of the last two often include the idea of the 
 pleasure or pain with which one sees or hears 
 anything. Gen. 21:16, I could not witness 
 the death of the child! Hence, in a tropical 
 sense, in respect to, on aecount of, as 3 mow, 
 to rejoice on account of. 
 
 With the idea of vicinity, nearness, that of 
 accompaniment, and of help, instrumentality 
 (with), readily connects itself. Gen. 32:11, 
 with my staff C722) I passed over this Jordan. 
 Ps. 18:30, by thee CH) have I rushed upon 
 troops. Verbs of coming and going, with 3 
 (to come, or go, with) express the idea of 
 bringing; e. g. Judg. 15 : 1, Samson visited 
 his wife with a kid, brought her a kid. Deut. 
 23:5. 
 
 b) Most nearly related to 3 in signification 
 is Sy, upon (é7i) and over (itp) ; ; very fre- 
 quently of motion (down) upon or over—(up) 
 upon or over a thing. In the sense of (resting) 
 upon, (coming) upon, it is used after verbs 
 signifying to be heavy, i.e. burdensome, a,fjlictive 
 (prop. to lie heavily upon), Is. 1:14. Job 7:20, 
 —to set or appoint over (commission), as 5Y TE, 
 —to pity, to spare, as by vin (prop. to look ten- 
 derly upon.) With the primary idea is con- 
 nected that of accession (conceived as a laying 
 upon, Genesis 28:9) and of conformity, after, 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 134 
 
 according to (with reference to the rule or 
 pattern, upon which a thing is laid to be 
 measured or modelled), and of cause (wip ob, 
 ob quam), on account of. In the signification 
 over, it is often used with verbs of covering, 
 protecting, by D>, Sy yu, prop. to place a 
 
 covering, a shield, over; and also with those of | 
 
 kindred meaning, as 5y 0m}, to contend for 
 one (prop. in order to protect him), Judg. 9:17. 
 It is used for at, by, chiefly in cases where 
 there is an actual elevation of one of the 
 related objects above the other, conceived as 
 an impending over; e.g. ox by, by the sea, 
 [so Eng. on the sea], py, by the fountain, Gen. 
 24:13; but also where this is not the case, as 
 1 5y, like our on the side. Hence it expresses 
 the relation of motion to the object at which it 
 terminates,—to, towards, so that in the later 
 Hebrew style and in poetry it is often used 
 for “xy and 5; e.g. Job6:27. 19:5. 22:2. 
 33; 23. HEsth. 3:9. Ezek. 27:5. 
 
 c) Motion, removal, away from anything is 
 indicated by yo. Its fundamental signification 
 is separation from a whole, derivation, descent. 
 As constr. st. of the noun }?, part, it properly 
 means part of, hence off of, used at first with 
 reference to the part which is taken from the 
 whole,—as to give, to take part of = from. 
 Most clear is this fundamental signification 
 when it expresses some (more rarely one) of; 
 e.g. tw pm, Ex. 17:5, some of the elders of 
 ‘Tsrael, pm, Ex, 29:12, some of the blood (du 
 sang), mip, Ex. 6:25, one of the daughters 
 of —. It has the same signification when it 
 is connected (apparently pleonastic) with the 
 words one, none, in the often misapprehended 
 idiom of the Hebrew and Arabic non ab uno, 
 i.e. not any one, not the least, prop. not even a 
 part, a piece, the least portion, of one. Ley. 
 4:2. Deut. 15:7. Ezekiel 18:10. So pxn, 
 Is, 41:24, and ppyn, 40:17, not anything, not 
 the least thing = nothing at all. 
 
 In its most common use, with reference to 
 motion from, it forms the opposite of x, 1, 
 and is employed not merely after verbs which 
 express actual motion, as to depart (from), to 
 flee (from), but also those of kindred signifi- 
 cation, as to be afraid, to hide, to beware; 
 comp. in Gr. and Lat. cadimrew a6, custodire 
 ab, In its tropical use with reference to time, 
 it may mean either from (a time) on, in which 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 case the reckoning is to be made from the 
 beginning, not from the end of the period 
 specified (like awd vucréc, de nocte, from the 
 coming on of night), as *pQ%2, Job 38 : 12, from 
 the beginning of thy days onward; or next from, 
 i.e. immediately after (2£ dpicrov, ab itinere), 
 as ppm, Ps. 73:20, from (the moment of) 
 awaking. 
 
 For the use of it to denote rest on the side of 
 an object, where the idea is that of near 
 distance, of being just off from (the prope 
 abesse ab, pendere ex aliqua re), see § 147, 1, 
 ult, For its use in the expression of com- 
 parison, see § 117, 1. 
 
 d) bx, ss (for orig. signif. see § 101), 
 
 towards, denotes motion, and also merely direc- 
 tion towards (with reference both to material 
 objects and the operations of the mind), 
 whether one reaches the place towards which 
 the motion is directed, and even passes into it 
 (in the former case equivalent to 1p, e.g. 
 app-by, even unto his mouth, Job 40 : 23, in the 
 latter to Fin“ y, e.g. TBAT Nia, to go into 
 the ark) or not. 
 
 It is certainly an unfrequent and improper 
 use of this particle, though sustained by un- 
 questionable examples, when it is employed 
 to denote rest in a place at which one has 
 arrived. Jer. 41:12, they found him ox DD- dy 
 by the great waters in Gibeon. It is so used 
 especially in the formula vipat-by, at the 
 place, Deut. 16:6. 1 Kings 8:30. Compare 
 the Gr. eic, ic, for év, e.g. é¢ Odpovg pévery, 
 Soph. Ajax, 80. 
 
 e) > (an abbreviation of 5x, but more com- 
 monly used in the tropical significations), to, 
 towards, denoting motion or merely direction, 
 either of physical objects or of the mind; 
 hence employed as a sign of the dative, and 
 also of the genitive of possession (§ 112, 2), 
 and then with the signification with respect to, 
 on account of, in behalf of. Such a dativus 
 commodi is used pleonastically (especially in 
 the language of common intercourse and in 
 the later style) after verbs of motion, as do go, 
 to flee, chiefly in the Fut. and Imp.; e.g. 
 7 J Genesis 12:1. 22:2, go, get thee away, 
 277M, 27:43, flee, (for thy safety ;) but also 
 after other verbs, as 72°72, Cant. 2°: 17, 
 be thou like. It is a solecism of the later 
 style, when active verbs are construed with 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
~~ 
 
 ‘TT . -* 3 * 
 
 
 
 Very often also, especially in poetry, it 
 denotes rest in a place,—hence até, or in, with 
 reference to time and condition, as Wo on 
 thy right, 3795, at evening, or, in sickness, 
 Is. 1:5. On the use of it after passive and 
 other verbs to denote the efficient cause or 
 author, see § 140, 2. 
 
 J) 2 (as an adverb, about, nearly), as a 
 prep. as, like to, denoting similarity ; according 
 to, after, from the idea of conformity to a 
 model or rule; as a designation of time, about, 
 at. With the first signification (of similitude) 
 is connected its use in those passages where 
 grammarians have found the so-called 3 veri- 
 tatis, which might more correctly be called 
 Kaph intensivum. Thus before adjectives and 
 adverbs it denotes the highest degree of a 
 property or quality,—as it (the quality) can 
 possibly be. So in Gr. and Lat. we BédrtoTOoe, 
 @¢ Taxiora, quam celerrime,—and with the 
 positive, we adnP&c, as (can possibly be) true 
 = as true as possible, quam magnus numerus 
 for quam maximus numerus [?], Ces. Bel. 
 Civ., 1,55. Neh. 7:2, for he was nox wry? 
 as a true man (can possibly be), a model of a 
 true man. 1 Sam. 10:27, wm) iM, quam 
 quietissime se gessit, [he seemed as if he heard 
 nothing at all;] Num. 11:1. Hos. 11:4. In 
 like manner with adverbs, as wyna = door 
 ddiyor, as little as possible, very little, Prov. 
 10:20. 
 
 4, A preposition (like the negatives, § 149, 3) 
 may be omitted when the relation which it ex- 
 presses is repeated, as e.g. in the second mem- 
 ber of the poetic parallelism ; exs, 3, Job 12:12, 
 mMpIA Oy PR (2) Me Ow, with the aged 
 is wisdom, and (with) length of days is understand- 
 ing; 15:3; yo, Is. 30:1. Gen. 49:25; by, Job 
 30:5, 1332) joy, nom; Is. 61:7. 
 
 The numerous ellipses which have been 
 assumed of the various prepositions are in the 
 highest degree uncritical. Even the cases in 
 which it has been customary to supply 3, 
 especially after >, are all (as we have seen, 
 § 116, 1, Rem., and 3, Rem. § 135, 1, Rem. 3) 
 to be regarded as examples of the accusative 
 used adverbially or governed by an active 
 verb: in a few cases the noun is actually in 
 the nominative, § 116, 3, Rem, ult. 
 
 § 152. 
 THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. The Hebrew language, considered with re- 
 ference to the number of its conjunctions, fre- 
 quently consisting of several words combined, 
 and its ability to form still others from most of 
 the prepositions by the addition of wx and »» 
 (§ 102, 1, ¢), exhibits no small degree of cultiva- 
 tion and copiousness compared with its usual 
 simplicity. But writers often neglect the means 
 which it furnishes for accurately expressing the 
 relations of sentences and members of a sentence, 
 contenting themselves with less perfect modes of 
 connexion ;* hence the various uses of certain 
 favourite conjunctions (particularly 3, %, 7x), 
 which, though they may not actually have in 
 Hebrew as great a variety of signification, must 
 yet be as variously expressed in translations 
 into our western languages, where we are not 
 permitted to retain the loose and indefinite con- 
 nexions sometimes made by these particles. 
 
 Of the most extensive application is }, 3, 
 § 102, 2 :— 
 
 a) Properly and usually copulative (and), 
 connecting single words as well as whole sen- 
 tences. When three or more words stand in 
 connexion, it is used either before every one 
 after the first (Deut. 14:26. Is. 51:19. 2 Kgs. 
 23:57) or before the last only, (Gen. 13:2 ;) 
 rarely after the first only, (Ps. 45:9.) In cer- 
 tain phrases it is commonly omitted, as yester- 
 day (and) the day before = heretofore, Ex. 5:8. 
 The tone of animated description or narration 
 may also occasion the omission of it, as Judg. 
 5:27, at her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay. 
 
 As a connective of words it is often expli- 
 cative, (like isque, et quidem.) 1 Sam. 28:3, 
 wn mB, in Ramah (and =i. e.) in his own 
 city, 17:40. Psalm 68:10; even when the 
 second idea is subordinate to the first, and 
 would properly be expressed as the genitive 
 after it (the év did dvoty of the grammarians), 
 as Gen. 1:14, let them be onyin® nink) for 
 signs of definite times, 3:16. Job10:17. 4: 16. 
 1 Kings 19;12. Jer. 29:11. 2 Chron. 16: 14. 
 
 * Comp. § 105, 1, Rem. § 144, Rem. 1. 
 
 + There is no ground for distinguishing this case from 
 the preceding ones, (as in the Lex. Man. }, 1, a3) the 
 second and following nouns are grouped together as of 
 the same class, being the ordinary names of celestial 
 objects.—Tr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 When it connects sentences or parts of a 
 sentence, it is either continuative (then, when), 
 hence placed before the apodosis (in the day 
 ye eat thereof then shall your eyes be opened), 
 and after absolute designations of time, (with 
 some degree of emphasis, — see Ex. 16 :6. 
 Prov. 24:27, 92 man we, afterwards, then 
 build thy house; or explicative (where the 
 relative might be used), as Gen. 49:25, yo 
 TY) Pre, from the God of thy father (and 
 he hath helped thee) and from the Almighty (and 
 he hath blessed thee), for who hath helped thee 
 and who hath blessed thee; or it expresses 
 heightening, enhancement (the Lat, immo, yea, 
 even), as Job 5:19, in six troubles he will 
 deliver thee, yea, in seven there shall no evil 
 touch thee; or comparison (and so), Job 5:7, 
 man is born to trouble, and so the sons of 
 lightning soar on high, for just as these (birds 
 of prey) fly high, [sons of flame = sparks ;] 
 12:11. 14:19. But it is also— 
 
 b) Adversative, (and yet, when yet;) Judg. 
 16:15, how canst thou say I love thee 3 
 ‘my pr and (yet) thy heart is not with me, (i. e. 
 when yet ;) Gen. 15:2. 18:13. 
 
 c) Causal, (for, because;) Ps. 5 : 12, let 
 them ever shout for joy, because (when, since) 
 thou dost defend them; Gen. 20:3. In de- 
 pendent clauses (that) after verbs of seeing, 
 believing, saying, and the like; Gen. 30:27. 
 Josh. 2:12. Is. 43:12, ye are my witnesses 
 ds28) and I(am) God, that Iam God. 
 
 d) Inferential, (then, so then, therefore ;) 
 Ezek. 18 : 32, I delight not in the death of him 
 that dieth —rxm therefore turn ye. In this 
 sense it may stand even at the beginning of a 
 sentence, when it implies an inference of some 
 kind from circumstances already mentioned : 
 2 Kings 4:41, and he said rmap-arjp then take 
 meal; Ps. 4:4, wh, (when ye should know) 
 now know ye then; 2:10, MAY), now therefore, 
 comp. v. 6. 2 Sam. 24:3. 
 
 e) Final and consecutive, (in order that, so 
 that;) in the former sense (chiefly with the 
 varied Fut. § 126), Job 10:20. Gen. 42:34; 
 in the latter, Num. 23: 19. Is, 41:26. 
 
 Of scarcely less extensive application are 
 the two relative conjunctions (prop. relative 
 pronouns) Wx and 2, bri, quod, quum, that, 
 because,—running almost parallel with each 
 other in their significations, except that »> oc- 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 curs very rarely as a pronoun, but as a conjunc- 
 tion far more frequently and in a great variety 
 of senses: moreover, WN alone takes prefixes. 
 
 Both are prefixed, like quod, to a whole 
 clause, standing in place of an accusative, and 
 governed by the preceding active verb as its 
 object. wx is even preceded by the sign of 
 the accusative; Joshua 2:10, mx “uyow 
 mim wins, we have heard Gd quod ex- 
 siccavit) that Jehovah hath dried up,—more 
 commonly wx ‘ayn, and still oftener pow 
 %. Hence the following uses of ‘> :—(qa) it is 
 employed before words directly quoted, like 
 the Gr. d71, (very seldom ‘Wx, 1 Sam. 15: 203) 
 (d) it is temporal = Gre, prop. (at the time) 
 that, (at the time) when, sometimes approach- 
 ing nearly to the conditional power of Dx 
 [Eng. when = if, differing only in the form 
 of representation], Deut. 14: 24, and still 
 more nearly, Job 38:5. comp. v. 4, and 18, 
 (seldom Td, Lev. 4:22. Deut. 11:6;) but 
 often with an accurate discrimination between 
 the two, well illustrated in Ex, 21: 2—6, [see 
 Lex. B, 3, ult.;] (ce) causal, eo quod, because, 
 fully 2 jy, Wx yw, propterea quod, also 
 (where the reason is placed last) for = yao; 
 repeated (°) —‘, Is. 1:29, 30, 3}, be- 
 cause—and because, Job 28:30), when more 
 than one cause for the same thing is assigned ; 
 (d) adversative (in which sense °> only is 
 used) either (a) after a negative, but,—prop. 
 but it is because, e.g. thou shalt not take a 
 wife for my son from the daughters of the 
 Canaanites—but thou shalt go to my native 
 land, = for thou shalt go, &c., the former 
 being prohibited because the latter is to be 
 done; or (8) where negation is only implied, 
 e.g. after a question which involves denial 
 (§$ 150, 1, 2), when it may be rendered no, 
 but,—but no,—for surely (comp. enim, for 
 minime vero, nam, Cic. Quest. Tuse., 2, 24), e. g. 
 Job 31:17, 18, have I eaten my morsel alone, 
 and hath the orphan not eaten thereof? JVay, 
 but (>) from my youth up, &c.; Mic. 6:38, 4, 
 what (injury) have I done to thee?..... for 
 I brought thee up, &c., [the import of which is 
 better expressed in Eng. by the question, did I 
 not bring thee up? &c.;] more rarely (y) with- 
 out previous negation, but yet, nevertheless (ada 
 yap, enimvero), Is. 28:28, wheat is threshed, 
 but yet (>) one is not ever threshing it; 8: 23. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —— a 
 
v 
 
 junctions in the order of their significations, ex- 
 
 hibiting together, however, the different uses of 
 each wherever it may be first presented. We 
 must here confine ourselves to a brief general 
 notice, leaving the more complete view, with the 
 references and proofs, to the Lexicon.* 
 
 a) Copulative: besides }, 3, the properly 
 adverbial forms o3, also, and FX intensive, 
 there is added, wholly, even, once combined 
 Da-FN, and even also, Lev. 26:44. The first 
 is often used with plural forms emphatically, 
 to include all, e.g. orm 03, Gen. 27:45. 
 1 Sam. 4:17, both the two, uterque, 4» 03, Ps, 
 25:8, all together, ad unum omnes. It also 
 merely gives emphasis to the following word ; 
 Gen. 29:30, and he loved n-ny-ns Rachel 
 (not, also Rachel) more than Leah; 1 Samuel 
 24:12.— > my is prop. add that, hence not to 
 mention, nedum, — according to the connexion, 
 much more, much less. 
 
 b) Disjunctive: is, or, (etym. free will, 
 choice, hence prop. vel, but also aut exclusive, 
 2 Kgs. 2:16.) Sometimes it stands elliptically 
 for > ix, or (be it) that, or (it must be) that, 
 when it may be rendered nisi forte, e.g. Is. 
 27:5; hence the transition to the conditional 
 sense, if, but if, Ex. 21:36 (the Seventy édy de, 
 Vulg. sin autem), if haply, 1 Sam. 2:10, which 
 has been contested without reason, (comp. 
 Yar, § 147, 3, note.) Repeated, ix — ix, 
 sive — sive, it is the same as OX — DN. 
 
 c) Temporal: 3, Wxy= bre, quum (see 
 above), for which more rarely is used the 
 conditional particle ox (Is. 4:4. 24:13); 
 YW, Wy Ww, 2 WW, until that, also oY ‘Y, 
 Dy Wx Ww, until that when, ww also during, 
 so long as, 7iv3, the same, Wx “Nx, after that, 
 ww (for x wr) since thai, Dyoa and oy, 
 before, n27p, for wx nop, before, (Ps. 129 :2.) 
 
 d) Causal: (besides »> and wwe, no. I, e, ¢) 
 wwe j2 %, because, or merely j2 Sy, with the 
 omission of Wy (§ 102, 1, c), Ps. 42:7. 45:3. 
 yte-2, (Gen. 18:5. 19:8. 2 Sam. 18:20) 
 and py we (Job 34:27), for » jay, 
 Tox py st We VT by, Wx nine by, prop. 
 
 * See especially the Lex. Heb. Man. and the Hand- 
 wérterbuch, 4te Ausgabe. 
 
 + For this position of Ws and 3, compare in Syr. 
 that of the relative 2, which in these cases may be 
 
 SYNTAX. 137 
 2. We will now arrange the remaining con-| _for the circumstances that = for this cause that, 
 and emphatically vwhy nitix 92 %y, for this very 
 
 
 
 
 
 cause that, Wx VIY2, Wx yy (prop. on the ac- 
 count, that) and »2 nnn (therefor that), eo quod, 
 because, "> 3PY (prop. as a reward that), that. 
 
 e) Final: wx yn), to the end that, wry W1v3, 
 in order that (also causal), }, that = in order 
 that (no. 1, e), perhaps >, 1 Kgs. 6:19. 
 
 J) Conditional : principally ny and »5 (rarely 
 in the lat. Heb. sb), if The first (which 
 is also a particle of interrogation, § 150, 1, 
 Rem.) is purely conditional, leaving it un- 
 certain whether what is expressed by the 
 verb is actually so, is actually done, or not 
 (rather the former),—as, if he is, if he was, 
 if I do—have done—shall do: on the con- 
 trary, % expressly implies that it is not so, 
 is not done (if he were, if I should do—had 
 done), at least that it is very uncertain and 
 even improbable. Hence ne may properly 
 stand where 35 would express the thought 
 more accurately (Ps. 50:12. Hos. 9:12), but 
 %5 cannot be used for ox. Especially in so- 
 lemn asseveration, expressed under the form 
 of conditional imprecation, ox is always used ; 
 Ps. 7:4—6, ‘xy FT. — mst py on, if 
 have done this — then let the enemy persecute 
 me, &c. In such asseverations, the speaker 
 assumes it as possibly and even actually the 
 case, that he has done this or that, in order 
 that he may offer himself for the severest 
 punishment, should it prove to be so. Ps. 
 44321..78:15. 18725. Seldom oy = st" is 
 used optatively with the Fut., for which pur- 
 pose 35 is commonly employed, (§ 133, 2.) 
 With us also the same form, (wenn es geschehe !) 
 with only a change of tone, represents both 
 the proper conditional force of 35 and its use 
 as an optative particle, (comp. in Eng. if it 
 might be! if it were !) 
 
 These particles retain their distinctive cha- 
 racter when combined with negatives, as 
 ND ox, nid, “nd. Of ox it is to be remarked, 
 moreover, that after forms of swearing, e.g. 
 mim 1, as Jehovah liveth, it has the effect of 
 a negative particle (hence > ox is affirma- 
 
 either prefixed or appended, and that of }!D (either before 
 or after the adverbial forms) in the compound prepo- 
 sitions, § 151, 2, 4, Rem. and note. Compare also D2 3, 
 Eccles. 4:14, for ) 03, although, and the Gr. on zi, 
 for zi Ot. 
 
 
 
 pe 
 
 LS AALS LES ELE ALT OEE! LO LIL ELI OEE LE DLE LET LIAL DLE LOE TS 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 tive), 1 Sam. 14:45. 2 Sam. 11:11. 20: 20. 
 This is in consequence of an ellipsis, which 
 is sometimes actually supplied, as in 2 Sam. 
 3:35, Ox FY ria) OTe bTiMy 13, so may 
 God ever deal with me, if —-. Hence gene- 
 rally after verbs of swearing, adjuring, Dx 
 has the force of not (Cant. 2:7. 3:5), and 
 elsewhere (rarely) in poetic style, Judg. 5:8. 
 Is, 22:14. Prov. 27:24. Respecting ix, °2, 1x, 
 which sometimes assume the character of con- 
 ditional particles, see no. 2, b, and no. 1, e, 
 
 g) Concessive: ox, with the Pret., even if 
 (= though) I am, Job 9:15, with the Fut. 
 (though one were), Is. 1:18. 10:22; by (for 
 wwx oy), although, Job 16:17; %) 03, even 
 when, although. 
 
 h) Comparative: x2, as, quemadmodum, 
 with j2 in the second member, as — 0, Is. 31:4. 
 52:14, 15. — Wx» may be omitted in the pro- 
 tasis, Is, 55:9. Ps. 48:5, and }3 in the apodosis, 
 Obad. 15. Exact conformity is expressed by 
 ‘ts mav-bs, in all points as, Eccles. 5:15. 
 
 7) Adversative : (see on the adverbs, § 147, 
 3.) Decidedly belong here, — °> dbx, only 
 that = but, nevertheless, and the difficult com- 
 bination ox 2, prop. that if, for if, most 
 frequently but if, in the sense of »» explained 
 under no. 1, e, d, but united with ox to form 
 a connexion with the verb. Ps. 1:1, happy 
 the man who walks not (if he walks not) in the 
 counsel of the ungodly.....2, but if (ox °2) 
 his delight is in.....: then simply but, Ps. 
 1:4. Gen. 32:29, but if, but when, Genesis 
 82:27, and merely but = except (after a nega- 
 tive), 39:9. 28:17. 
 
 8. A certain brevity and incompleteness* of 
 expression (see no. 1) appears in this among 
 other things, viz. that instead of the compound 
 conjunction, by which the relation is fully ex- 
 pressed, may be used one or the other of those 
 composing it. Thus instead of the full form 
 wy yw, on the account, that = because, we have 
 the shorter jy? or tx; instead of whe, as 
 
 * More rare is pleonasm, or an unnecessary fulness of 
 expression; e.g. DN 13, for "3, that, 2 Sam. 15:21, if, 
 Ex, 22:22, comp. old Germ, wenn dass (prop. if it is that) 
 and old Eng. * if so be that.’? On the contrary, a degree 
 of pleonasm in the particles is quite characteristic of 
 the Chaldee; e. g. vy~DIP- 9d, wholly-for-that = because, 
 m7- apd, just-for-this = therefore. 
 
 Emphatic, not pleonastic, is the repetition of the con- 
 junction in J) JY, because, even because, Lev. 26: 43. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 (conj.), 2, Is. 8:23. 61:11, and wy, Exodus 
 14:13. 1 Kings 8: 24. 
 
 4. This brevity of expression is sometimes 
 carried so far, that the conjunction, which is 
 required to shew the relation of one sentence or 
 part of a sentence to another, is omitted alto- 
 gether. This occurs— 
 
 a) In conditional clauses: Gen. 33:13, drive 
 they them hard, then they will die,—for, if they 
 drive them hard they will die. Job 7 : 20, (if) 
 I have sinned, what have I done unto thee? 
 Is, 48: 21, they thirsted not (when) he led them 
 through deserts, 51:15, who calms the sea 
 (when) its waves are raging. 
 
 b) Where comparison is expressed: Ps, 14:4, 
 DT) M2 wy Yok, who devour my people (as) 
 they would eat bread, prop. (as) those who eat 
 bread. Job 24:19, drought and heat bear off 
 the snow-water, wor ww, (so) Sheol (those 
 who) sim. Jer. 17:11. Ps. 40:8, lo! I come, 
 in the volume of the book it is prescribed to me, 
 for, as it is prescribed to me —, [written 
 concerning me.] In similar cases the con- 
 nexion is made by }, see no. 1, a, ult. 
 
 c) In the expression of a conclusion or a result 
 from what precedes, (therefore, wherefore.) 
 Is. 2:7, their land is full of silver and gold.... 
 v. 9, (therefore) is the mean man bowed down 
 and the great man humbled, 
 
 d) In members which are usually dependent 
 on the relative conjunctions. Gen. 12:13, 
 say mR onhy thou art my sister, commonly 
 Px ony 2. Ps. 9:21, (that) they may learn, 
 they are men. Is, 48:8, for I knew, thou art 
 utterly faithless, Ps. 17:3, I have purposed, 
 my mouth shall not sin. Yn all these cases, the 
 second member stands properly in the ac- 
 cusative ; comp. § 139, 4, Rem. 2. 
 
 § 153. 
 THE INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 The interjections which correspond to our ah! 
 
 oh! alas! woe! expressing denunciation as well 
 as lamentation (7mN, ‘ix, 7), are connected 
 with the object of the threatening or lamentation 
 either by the prepositions 5y, by, 5, or without 
 any intervening particle; as 12) ‘ix, woe to us! 
 = alas for us! 1 Sam. 4:8; 32 %n, woe to 
 the people! Is.1:4; My %n, alas, my brother! 
 1 Kgs. 13:30. On the construction of 3 with 
 the accusative, see § 36, 2. 
 
 
 
 
 
| 
 | 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 A.—REGULAR VERB. §§ 42—53. 
 
 Kal. Niphal. Piél. Pual.  Hiphil. Hophal. Hithpaél. 
 
 
 
 es 
 
 Prar.3m . TOR 723 7O 72 72Q Op rh 
 ay... =P map mp? mp mep  nyopy mop mpm 
 reir Tit bat Boi Be rT." TI, i Spee reir + Pa 8 © 
 Qm . opm eee BP PR aPRT ER npGPND 
 Bs nop nq23 mop? map PBR nbopir mbopa Abwpn7 
 stclr as 2 83 cles sete st sacke sich se Rae 
 | a ma. ‘npr MPEP ‘mye ATOR PeRN 
 
 oat esse ores each “3 esa lte ee Soar 2 F : 
 Plur. 3. . wp 723 wOp} wap 2) sop ‘op EP 
 2m.  opyeR OPP One ORPeP DER ORR ORPOP OPER 
 2f + mR Peer eeR Peer 
 L.'s) ip wha = who Syn) >) 2) >) 97 PY 8 
 
 Inr. absol. . oR op), OPN 7p BP PORT 
 
 constr. . 77 ORT TER, mR ORT a 
 IMPER. m . 7) D Opn Sap OPT - ‘ropnn 
 f+ MR ™ «RT EP ‘ony TED 
 
 . it eyl- . r rae ae 
 
 Plur.m. . an) m2 OPN wap sop sepny 
 aes map mn > mhop7 moep md mepnn 
 
 rT: : x oS? ria so Tr . rT: te 
 
 Bf. OPA ™n TOR yopn 7eynA pop mop PN 
 — is wt : iF : 
 
 2m, . = FoR ™A 7PM eM 7p RA morn OANA 
 af. eR eRA erp eae eRMA 
 hes ON OR yee REET 
 
 Plur. 3m. . oy may wap? nay? wrap aap? won =. apm 
 Sf. ome en mepean oo mebbep epee pPee apn epbenn 
 2m... opm EP) woPA apn sepn op sopn = apna 
 
 : * ? : : eye ore ir p=4' * 
 
 of. . map ionmon imtp men mp mito 4 6omtopm ombepnn 
 : _ Te>5* rT: «ed r re, ve ee t :> T5°°T Tao. € F 
 
 acts Fon? 22} TOR} 782} TER} POR op epm 
 
 ah 
 
 Fut. apoc. . ‘ TOP? 
 
 Part. act. mp pep eR RD penn 
 a 
 
 pass. . 
 
 Fur. 3m. . Yon 2 oR map? men? ap mop? epM 
 
 
 

 
 qe, 
 
 oft. 
 
 ctutch: 
 GIELCchs 
 
 urueick 
 GEC ces 
 'GECc 
 dutch: 
 GOEL 
 adtck, 
 eoeck, 
 wonce, 
 curecccus 
 LUeCck 
 cele, 
 ooeck, 
 
 ouch 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 LULCee 
 ooeLcesl 
 Gotta 
 CEL 
 eNigaat 
 wceces 
 utc 
 uleigaat) 
 wdeck, 
 ‘odypery 
 
 ruk 
 
 ELC 
 ELCcal 
 rica 
 Tick 
 ELLA 
 ELCLy 
 eLCUs 
 ELCL! 
 rk 
 yond 
 
 atch 
 
 
 
 iad 
 
 tad 
 44d 
 
 « 
 
 “sspd 
 ° 49D ‘LUV 
 
 *suoesn{u0d osoy} UI WLIOJ reTNOed ou sey ‘v0dp “Lay 
 
 tlctia 
 tick 
 
 ELC 
 eh ccs 
 tLCu 
 Bid 
 
 thad 
 utes 
 ueade 
 cade 
 Ede 
 Rad 
 ULE d 4 
 ued 
 usted 
 wiceltus 
 LV Ede 
 cited 
 Libs 
 Lia 
 tad 
 tiddce 
 cada 
 eadcra 
 tad 
 ciate, 
 chair 
 cia 
 Ce dus 
 tidd 
 
 "poydiny 
 
 cad 
 wigacis 
 tade 
 ciddtis 
 Nad 
 erie 
 tid 
 wigd 
 Lad 
 
 Boe 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 ‘s¢ § “IVUNLLAD NIAV GUIA—D 
 
 SZ 
 
 Sie: 
 
 Se 
 
 “UL & LNT 
 4 
 
 2 4 
 UG 
 ze 3 
 eae 
 4 & 
 "UL LUT 
 rs 
 
 ‘ue “AIAN 
 
 “LO 7 
 
 *.4QSuoa 
 * 708QD ‘ANT 
 
 "9 unig 
 
 Yb 
 
 fe 
 
 "wg *LaUg 
 
 
 
 
 
 é 
 1 
 
 Ee Br Bt 
 i pop P 
 fou 
 
 Br pr Bt 
 r- a os 
 
 BRE Ie er Ze ee Re fee 
 DE DE - 
 
 ' ‘ 
 
 FF 
 
 GaGa, 
 GEL, 
 een 
 eG 
 ECL 
 ciciLths 
 ECL 
 RECKL 
 ical 
 Baca, 
 Gee 
 GCL 
 
 LeGLtu 
 
 Lacie. 
 baaLeil 
 baaiia 
 Dac 
 ACL 
 Lacie 
 Gacitr 
 igadcu 
 Cac 
 yay 
 
 298 “"IVYNLLAD Td ANIA — ‘TF 
 
 
 
 Idee 0] 
 CaCiLe 
 tacicn 
 tacLer 
 tacit: 
 tac, 
 “oydeay 
 
 
 
 colt 
 GCL 
 
 aq 
 wecab tus 
 GaGLe 
 Bates 
 GGL 
 ROL 
 GaciLe 
 aac, 
 sicotl 
 GL 
 faites 
 GCiLk 
 acs 
 SQ 
 
 PIX 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‘ssnd 
 79D “LAV 
 ‘20dp *LO.t 
 
 2 34 
 
 he 
 
 og 
 
 “Ue & LNT 
 sae 
 
 ae 
 eng! 
 fs 
 Ts 
 f 
 “Ub LUT 
 2% 
 
 ‘uM "aaaWy 
 
 "Lag 
 
 *L]SU09 
 
 * J08qD *ANT 
 SZ 
 
 "UG 
 
 + game 
 a 
 
 SZ 
 
 UL S 
 
 fs 
 
 ‘ug LHUT 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 A 
 
 Prat. 3 m. 
 3 f. 
 2m. 
 of. 
 es ag 
 
 Phir San. 
 
 2m. 
 
 of 
 
 Inr. absol. 
 
 constr. 
 
 IMPER. m. 
 
 I 
 Plur. m. 
 
 7. 
 
 3m. 
 
 sf 
 
 For. 
 
 Fur. apoc. 
 
 Part. act. 
 
 pass. 
 
 noe 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 Niphal. 
 you) 
 mye) 
 net? 
 nowy 
 pee 
 wo) 
 DAyOy 
 AyD 
 
 on See 
 
 a 
 
 you) 
 
 D.— VERB LAMEDH 
 
 Piél. 
 
 yoy 
 
 youn 
 
 GUTTURAL. 
 
 Pual. 
 yaw 
 mnw 
 TI 
 mrp 
 mis & 
 rrp 
 AES 
 MYDD 
 WT 
 woo 
 tN 
 
 wwe 
 oS 
 
 mrypwn 
 Ts 4u3 
 wow 
 Se | 
 
 mrDon 
 Ti= 48 
 
 bop ahvap) 
 aw} 
 
 Hiphil. 
 yoo 
 
 me 
 
 pepe 
 PDS 
 SPIoT 
 
 yw 
 
 § 59. 
 
 Hophal. 
 you 
 mw 
 prety 
 nye 
 Ao 
 wy 
 DPyIwT 
 poy 
 mypwn 
 
 3" aT 
 
 Hithpaél. 
 
 yomuhy 
 
 PPD 
 
 apaMay 
 
 vont 
 
 wom 
 ONT 
 
 TOW 
 
 DoE 
 yonwin 
 yonwn 
 ‘yoran 
 Doney 
 PR 
 
 mpbntin 
 sendin 
 mre 
 yond) 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 f'ingIe wings figs ‘UIT e Mi “of ‘bury g ubagg fbug se ‘um bug % ‘bug 1 ayy sof saxugng 
 
 daga danced tadéa dence deacis dean deck: deicle dence - 50+ amg ‘Laug 
 He aa 4 sit s oF ot) 3 a old aie r of) 8 ot ‘ 
 daca decal acca eacice dacs eagelte darcl: dence dead * mg amg 
 oye pt ae tits oh 1 4 RFE 00790 uada un mn 
 — oa _ dace deadiis date - ack uote { ah sik 
 hte ott ta ey ats 08) 8 oe dats of) fe "tp bel eta? ofp toes 
 daga dace daqca ace uate dadue Reta Ra dace ‘ “eg Wy ‘Lay 
 tava 3 = tdcee San rata = “ nettd - + + avy -‘usany | 
 < dagu < 3 | I 
 w app4 apne apt te Aptian tye apie at » dale etd | 
 S dal daca dacél dagéa dace Actus daas aadk ae nS 7 2 * * avy ‘any | 
 bs = Ucuils dad 
 > : : 
 ty = to Beto a yet & -? Ae yet 12 
 fs dace daccwa dargcecl daceca = daccut dGecute daccuk, daccids — 5 PMT 
 an deur daduna _ — Hacc. dcidurets dake — — dacents ‘ US 
 = six pe olan * AR a Te tsa a at x ta yr s 
 1 o Caagel dGcca dercccl daceta Gigece Aicuit Acicuun aeigel deeds Ccicte PE hg 
 — < < < < « 
 Ss dadind dadcna dase dalinéa — dad ddidcn dadrt daiinds _ es 
 a= dada 
 sm Fo Aen pak —s cay TH Cage cm oad Sten . 3 4 
 = dagerd dagua dao decir { dado WoUSA SZ 
 ere dda tide Nada dag So re 
 | e " dais tele 
 : dagen. 
 Hat ae ye oa Weta ta ot He cag pb sie 8 Sts A ; | 
 decal dacaa dasuc dazuca aaguce dace { diz deci, agus daicut. 8 | 
 eae tata tye tA yn ta 12s tas act tte st tptews 
 Tera data daitl daita dace ovat dein dal: deadls dlaize. / mg IVY ‘LeU 
 
 ‘eo—09 §§ ‘SHXIMANS HLIM AUTA UVINNIU— ‘FT | 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2m. 
 af. 
 Te) e 
 Pir. Ss)» 
 2m. 
 of. 
 
 Le = 
 
 Inr. absol. . 
 
 constr. 
 
 IMPER. m. 
 
 i 
 Plur. m. 
 
 Plur. 3 m. 
 
 Fort. conv. . 
 
 Fur. with Suff- 
 
 Part. act. 
 
 pass. 
 
 F.— VERB AYIN DOUBLED (fy). 
 
 Kal. 
 3D 
 map 
 ple 
 mia 
 mae 
 niad 
 - 
 MRD 
 : 
 ple) 
 pniap 
 aD 
 Ey bie) 
 3420 
 alo) 
 25 
 o> 
 2D 
 13D 
 > 
 my30 
 TA 
 on 
 plel) > 
 257 2dA 
 2A plo) 
 > 
 207 ION 
 bx IDX 
 3D 20’ 
 —. te 
 > > 
 ny3oA main 
 Fy +r: 
 2A 25a 
 my30n np blohal 
 TFA = tee 
 15) plop] 
 r 
 > 
 303) 
 TT 
 3D 
 230" 
 mid 
 Etre) 
 
 Niphal. 
 
 DM3D2 
 wD} 
 
 2, 
 33D) 
 
 27 
 
 > 
 2A 
 
 
 
 Miphil. 
 307 
 mab 
 nog 
 nap 
 abo} 
 27 
 DMT 
 wae 
 
 Ts 
 3313077 
 
 300 
 307 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 Hophal. 
 
 on 
 mDv 
 misox7 
 njapin 
 HW 
 mow 
 oniabyt 
 ya0%7 
 
 Ep bie tal 
 
 2D 
 
 apy 
 
 § 66. 
 
 Poil. 
 aio 
 m2 
 naib 
 minio 
 ‘AID 
 snip 
 DAD 
 pax 
 
 >. 
 3231 
 
 mio 
 
 22D 
 1D 
 anid 
 
 mab 
 
 3310” 
 azion 
 zion 
 on 
 aioy 
 api, 
 
 malion 
 janioA 
 mBBION 
 
 3310) 
 
 ayia 
 
 
 
 Poal. 
 bb h)e) 
 m231D 
 ABH 
 maaio 
 MADD 
 snip 
 DAID 
 WRN 
 
 323310 
 
 aio” 
 anon 
 anion 
 
 31D 
 ‘aion 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 wi0N 
 iD 
 MIRON 
 sania 
 mIRDD 
 3310} 
 109 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “Part. act. . 4 Sony 
 
 144 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 | 
 G.—VERB PE NUN (5). § 65. 
 Kal. Niphal. Hiphil. Hophal. 
 PRET. 3m. . 022 2) wit wa 
 Sf. m2 min mh min 
 re 4 Bod he i ris 
 2m. mb poh pei mdi 
 2f-. my mn pes me 
 > > ac ake 
 «ORR RM ET aT 
 Plur. 3. . 022 ma) wT NOT 
 2m. . Dp DMs ONwAT ON 
 | 2f- . Wea MD pe Pe 
 lL  . 38) Mw i 
 Inv. absol. wi waa wT 
 constr. . nwa was WIT wan 
 i| IMpER. m . M2 wy wn 
 fo. Waa 
 Plur.m . 32H WHT 
 re 
 | ; : : ; 
 PUTs ss MM... wy way wr wD 
 { i . 
 SHB 5 wan Wn wan win 
 Bs 30 aF aF 
 OMT A wn wan wn wan 
 2f. . en wan win wan 
 Loe ip eete a ee erat WIN EN 
 Plur. 3m. . WSR HAR yup 903) 
 3f. . min mean mein min 
 srr acces rs = =e x 
 2 m. wan whan | aA wan 
 —_ > a, > 
 2f. . mean mam om Andon 
 m= a He a Ter coe fot 
 | Le | a hy wz 
 | % 
 Fur. apoc. «. wD 
 Part. act. . 25 03) wz 30 
 pass. . wa 
 
 
 
 H.—VERB PE ALEPH (fg). § 67. 
 
 Kal. Niphal. Hiphil. Hophai. 
 
 PER eat 22! 
 
 like the verb Pe Guttural. 
 
 
 
 Inv. absol. . Six ANT 
 constr. . ds Sn DONT 5oNT 
 IMPER. m . 8 SINT NT 
 Sf. . PR ete. ete. 
 Plur,m . x 
 Sf . my 
 Fur. 3m. . 5»? Paw P28? Spe? 
 SA aks) Sonn ete. ete. 
 2m. sen Son 
 2f. . %Nm ORR 
 Ice iy) teal TN 
 Plur. 3 m. yo YIN? 
 3 f. .midin  mbyn 
 2m. . YoNn DIN 
 2f. . mon nsdan 
 sees oN pals) 
 Fur. conv. . ON} Son? | 
 \ 
 
 PND 
 
 Te 
 
 pass.. ‘rox 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
far 3. . 
 2 m. 
 2 f. 
 ) 
 
 In. absol. , 
 
 constr. 
 
 IMPER. ™. . 
 
 ree 
 Plur. m.. 
 
 fe 
 
 For. 3m. 
 aya 
 2 mM. . 
 af 
 Ls ee 
 Plur. 3m. . 
 Cw iar 
 
 2 Ws 
 
 Qf. 
 
 Part, act.. 
 
 pass 
 
 I.— VERB PE YODH % (ORIG. 16). § 68. 
 
 Kal. 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 2 
 7 regular. 
 : aw? 
 eee Te IR 
 pe ee 
 . x3 a 
 - 7B wT 
 . uy wy 
 - TRB MET 
 : aw oY 
 - wn worn 
 - dn oy 
 . 7D TA 
 - ate wry 
 . swe wy 
 - mt mer 
 a a 
 mip | 
 . 13) wT? 
 ny 
 , aw 
 
 aw 
 
 
 
 Niphal. 
 101) 
 
 DAT 
 jp 
 
 Iwi 
 
 way 
 
 way 
 sy 
 Bey 
 
 mia 
 Tio Te 
 
 ay 
 
 hy 
 An 
 Dar 
 an 
 aloha) 
 wax 
 Woy 
 
 Fa ad 
 mp 
 Ebhabto| 
 sive 
 maw 
 bal Seed we 
 
 wh} 
 ee 
 
 beh ah) 
 4 
 
 Hiphil. 
 YON 
 Tyo 
 avin 
 pain 
 ‘moi 
 win 
 DAI 
 pein 
 
 pain 
 
 Hophal. 
 now 
 TOW 
 ART 
 pain 
 ww 
 pp In 
 pT 
 
 pw 
 
 YON, Win 
 
 ron 
 
 win 
 win 
 won 
 
 marvin 
 
 rer 
 rein 
 ran 
 ‘PUN 
 BIR 
 Woy 
 mein 
 Wen 
 mIvin 
 
 wid 
 
 2 
 
 20) 
 
 bi en)e) 
 
 an 
 
 ay 
 roan 
 wn 
 THAN 
 TON 
 wy 
 mim 
 Iwan 
 TpReAA 
 mh) 
 
 phone) 
 
 Kal. 
 
 x0 
 
 regular, 
 
 mn 
 aay) 
 TON 
 am? 
 
 Cy 
 mIDR 
 Sh) 
 men 
 
 107 
 
 20) 
 
 By 
 
 nwo 
 
 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 K.—VERB PROPERLY 
 PE YODH (5). § 69. 
 
 Hiphil. 
 I7 
 ney 
 OT 
 WoT 
 DRIOy 
 eT 
 
 > 
 DIT 
 
 oy 
 
 roy 
 
 27 
 WOT 
 
 ba boca) 
 Mn 
 POA 
 > 
 DOA 
 YOR 
 Sau) 
 mon 
 A id 
 > 
 wor 
 
 mmon 
 pmiay, 
 
 ro") 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ao 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 
 
 PRET. 3m. . =] 
 
 3f.. mR 
 2m.. ANP 
 2f- . ODP 
 lL. . TMP 
 
 bir is W127 
 
 2m. . DdMnp 
 2 fe. FRR 
 1is:ys" Fab 
 
 Inv. absol. . Dp 
 
 constr. . Dy 
 
 IMPER. m, . Dp 
 
 fp 
 Plur.m. . wp 
 
 fi. TSP 
 
 Fur. 3m. op 
 3 ff. Dyn 
 
 2m. Dpn 
 
 2f . pn 
 1. . Dp 
 Plur. 3m... wa 
 3 f. apEpA 
 
 2m. . wIpR 
 r 
 2 if aSppP 
 
 lL. . Dp 
 
 Fur. apoc. . Op? 
 
 Kal. 
 
 Niphal. 
 
 Dip2 
 mip) 
 A r 
 
 | 
 min) 
 nop 
 MD py 
 
 id 
 
 wip? 
 Dn) 
 real 
 
 Dp} 
 
 wy 
 
 mp 
 
 yp 
 
 conv. . Ops), OM 
 RY), OP) 
 
 For. with Suff. 327 
 
 Part, act. -. oR 
 
 pass... op 
 
 
 
 1) >) 
 
 L.— VERB AYIN VAV (1). 
 
 Hiphil. Hophal. 
 
 on oop 
 m7 | TT 
 nop] PAA 
 
 nowy = ADT 
 
 MO MPT 
 TOT WOT 
 DMP DDT 
 mop BAA 
 mop wT 
 
 opt oA 
 mp 
 vara 
 PT 
 me 
 Dy? opy 
 pyA OA 
 pDPpA CAA 
 PA DPA 
 ya oR 
 DY DPN 
 wp? yey 
 ad : 
 mop | TPPAAA 
 PA | WOM 
 mph ABRAM 
 D7 Dp 
 Dy? 
 pps) 
 33 D WPA 
 DP Dp 
 Tr 
 
 § 71. 
 
 Pilel. 
 
 Dip 
 mp 
 BDI 
 DIP 
 mNDIP 
 
 yi? 
 DED AP 
 Wp 
 
 wDDip 
 
 Dd 
 
 DDP 
 1) 
 WII" 
 
 mnDip 
 
 ony 
 DaipA 
 DpipA 
 “opin 
 
 DPN 
 
 ya? 
 
 maT 
 
 wDpA - 
 
 mI 
 
 ppp) 
 
 Pulal. 
 
 Dp 
 mop 
 rT: 
 monip 
 fh stat ae 
 AIP 
 mDDIP 
 
 Dp) 
 DEP 
 we? 
 
 wNDIp 
 
 Dnip 
 
 Dnipn 
 Dip 
 "221A 
 DDIpPN 
 wip? 
 myDDAPA 
 yp 
 mA 
 
 Dip} 
 
 DDD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M.—VERB AYIN YODH 
 
 ($). § 72. 
 
 Niphal. 
 
 R 3 p32 
 LS 
 nya mraz nina 
 Apa mya mina 
 ™2 omy. ot 
 
 323 3 m3) 
 Dn23 omira oni? 
 mR ya naa 
 23 3A 
 BR par 
 ie) pay 
 ne) pay 
 7 (as 1) 
 73 
 mm ee 
 pin (as x) 
 P33 
 hn 
 Pay 
 wT 
 — 
 WIA 
 132 
 om 
 Rh 
 > 
 p p2 
 pa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ee 
 
PRET. 8 m. 
 
 sf. 
 
 2m 
 
 af 
 
 tas 
 Plur. 3, 
 
 2m. 
 
 2f. 
 
 1. 
 
 Inr. absol. . 
 
 constr. 
 
 ImMpPeR. m. 
 
 i 
 Plur. m. 
 
 Sf 
 
 Fur. 3m. 
 
 Af af 
 
 2m. 
 
 af 
 
 Parr. act. 
 
 pass. 
 
 
 
 Fur. with Suff. 
 
 N.— VERB LAMEDH ALEPH 
 
 Kal. 
 
 ah 
 
 NSD 
 
 
 
 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 Niphal. 
 Nun} 
 ANS) 
 aS 
 NN3D) 
 sD} 
 DONNY) 
 TORS122 
 
 DNEND? 
 
 N10) 
 
 R27 
 
 R20) 
 
 Fur. apoc. like the common Future. 
 
 N30 
 > 
 WSO 
 
 TNS 
 
 
 
 Hithpaél. 
 
 Ne 
 rN 
 DNeoNT 
 nezony 
 
 ‘ON ON 
 
 wT 
 
 DDNEON 
 
 Peony 
 
 wNRTONT 
 
 
 
 ee 
 
 
 

 
 148 PARADIGMS OF VERBS. 
 
 
 
 O.— VERB LAMEDH HE (A). 
 
 Kal. Niphal. Piél. Pual, 
 
 PRET. 3m . ma m2 733 ma 
 Se oh ears] mb minha minha 
 Tilt Tr32¢ Ti° TIN 
 2m . mya myn mya mya 
 2 Fe) 5 ma m9 ma ma 
 1. oy} rp Dae mya 
 SLAP Se dee hc va 392 3 wa 
 2m. oma =) ae) oma oa 
 2f + Wyn ae Pe We 
 Ae re wear: wn wa wea 
 Inv. absol. . Ta 792) Tha rida 
 constr. . = nia nibay nib nia 
 IMPER. m . m3 may ma 
 a waie 2 O27 ee 
 Plur.m. . 33 v7 33 
 fo. mp oman mp3 
 For. 3s. . bay my my my 
 vite vt ¥~6 vu 
 Sipe G man man man man 
 ¥ee ve vrs FNS 
 2m . mn man mn npn 
 Pe) an Pa) Por 
 ore mor mx may TIN 
 wiv ¥TY t Sa3 wy 
 Plur.3m. . op OP Dy wy 
 sf (asm myoan myan mydan 
 Tie Gey thd bee |} eh 8 
 2m . an van san oan 
 2%, a: rn min nydan nydan 
 ae a TVvT Tr: FAN: 
 oe mR mp 73 mp2 
 > 
 Fur. apoc. . oy > oD 
 
 f 
 ri 
 
 Fur. with Suf. yr 23 
 
 i 2 : 
 Part. act. . m3 29 mp3 m0 
 pass. m3 
 
 
 
 § 74, 
 
 Hiphil. 
 nan 
 si 
 nen 
 moa 
 Paes 
 wT 
 on 
 wan 
 
 wom 
 
 m7 
 
 nid 
 
 Hophal. 
 ny 
 a 
 ny 
 nay 
 cave 
 on 
 ona 
 way 
 
 wii 
 
 may 
 
 nin 
 or 
 
 Hithpaél. 
 many 
 Bay 
 many 
 mang 
 any 
 yan 
 Drypaniy 
 Pan 
 wyany 
 
 Tang 
 
 nibaniy 
 

 
 EXERCISES 
 
 IN 
 
 HEBREW GRAMMAR, 
 
 AND 
 
 A HEBREW CHRESTOMATHY ; 
 
 PREPARED WITH REFERENCE TO THE TRANSLATION OF GESENIUS’ 
 HEBREW GRAMMAR, 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS J. CONANT, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HEBREW, AND OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION, 
 IN THE LITERARY AND THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION 
 AT HAMILTON, NEW YORK. 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Tue design of the following Exercises in 
 Reading and Orthography is to aid the student 
 in acquiring a knowledge of the Hebrew vowel- 
 system, and to accustom him to the ready appli- 
 cation of its principles. As one of the advan- 
 tages of this mode of treating the subject, the 
 writer has endeavoured to illustrate each prin- 
 ciple by itself, without embarrassing the learner 
 by anticipating, as must sometimes be done in 
 the Grammar, a knowledge of principles subse- 
 quently taught. This, together with the fa- 
 iniliarity and copiousness of illustration allowed 
 in a course of exercises, it is hoped, may leave 
 no occasion to complain of the difficulty of the 
 subject. 
 
 The learner is made to depend on the Gram- 
 mar for the statement of principles, which, as 
 far as possible, is avoided in the Exercises. 
 Occasionally, however, a summary is given for 
 his convenience, the particulars being supplied 
 in the Grammar. After the first section of the 
 Introduction, he should read attentively the 
 whole of Part First: the sections referred to at 
 the head of each division in the following pages 
 should then be studied (not committed to me- 
 mory) in connexion with the corresponding 
 exercises, until he understands the principles 
 
 
 
 and their application, and can state and illustrate 
 them in his own language. 
 
 The student should be cautioned against hur- 
 rying over the Elements, from an impatience to 
 enter upon exercises in translation whilst he is 
 yet spelling his way over Hebrew forms. If he 
 yields to this impatience, he will find himself 
 embarrassed with petty difficulties when he 
 would wish to have his whole attention directed 
 to other objects. A facility in reading Hebrew 
 is perhaps neglected more than any other part 
 of the elementary study of the language; and 
 hence many fail of ever acquiring the habit of 
 enunciating a Hebrew sentence with ease and 
 fluency. Such an one, even in his silent reading, 
 almost necessarily judges of the sentiments of a 
 passage by his own, and not by the writer’s 
 manner of expressing them. > 
 
 It may be proper to add, that the blackboard 
 will be found convenient and useful, both for 
 illustrating principles to the eye of the instructor, 
 and for affording the members of the class an 
 opportunity of profiting by the correction of 
 each other’s exercises. 
 
 *,* The sign § is used in references to the 
 sections of the Grammar ; those of the following 
 pages are indicated by the abbreviation Scet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE 
 CONSONANTS AND VOWELS, AND ON THE 
 MANNER OF WRITING THEM IN CONNEXION. 
 
 [$5 5, 6, 7, 8.*] 
 
 The student should carefully observe the 
 manner of writing and pronouncing the vowels 
 in connexion with the consonants, as exhibited 
 in the following examples, that he may learn to 
 distinguish to what consonant each vowel in a 
 word belongs. The pronunciation of the con- 
 sonants, and of the letters employed to represent 
 them, is given in the alphabet with diacritic signs 
 on page 10 of the Grammar, and that of the 
 vowels in the table on page 15. The portions 
 of the Grammar most necessary to be studied in 
 connexion with this section are, § 6, 2. § 8, 2, 3, 
 and Rems. 1, 2, 3, under § 8, 1. 
 
 ** Every syllable begins with a consonant ; 
 see § 26, 1, where the only exception is given. 
 The accent is commonly on the final syllable, 
 ($ 15, 2:) when it is on the penult, this is in- 
 dicated as in the Grammar, (§ 15, Rem. 3.) 
 
 a) Open syllables :f » ma, 1 mé, » mé, 9 mi, 
 b md, 0 mi, 4 lé, 5 Id, 3 nd, 3 nd, 2 ni, 0 td, 
 0 it, 7 hd, 7 hi, g td, ¥ tsu, 8 t80, B shé, D 
 
 Tr 
 A A 
 
 sd, ) vd, 3 za, ¢ 20, 4 7rd, 
 
 - A ne Pa 
 uf ul » ye, > Yd, D St, D SO, 
 ba, 3 bd, 3 96, 3 di, 3 dé, 2 hu, 
 
 RI RT 2 
 » hd, » pé, B pd, n 12, i td, 0 ti. 
 
 b) Closed syllables:¢ 09 lém, ra bdr, od 
 Shtm, 4 hidh, w shitr, oo stim, nd ith, p> leq, 
 po shin, 2 gal,» yadh, yp qats, o> lom, dio tom, 
 na both, yx von, > yol, Sp gol, wc) lot, yn tén, 
 wth yésh, m yith, 2 gddh, 2 pul, pr yug, 3 gitv, 
 W giv, VY vav. 
 
 * The tadle of vowels in No. 1 of § 8 should be passed 
 over, and the student’s attention directed to that given 
 
 in No, 2. 
 t+ See § 26, 1. 
 
 c) Vowels in connexion with their homo- 
 geneous vowel-letters, (§ 8, 3:)* % 16, % li, 
 3 92, ) li, fis tsdn, op qum, ya bin, pa bén, 
 JD ten, »2 ge. 
 
 Here the sound of ) and >» is not heard sepa- 
 rately from that of the preceding vowel,—i. e. 
 they are pronounced as vowels: see §7,2. The 
 feeble consonant power of x and 7 is also often 
 lost after a vowel (§ 23, 2, 3), like that of the 
 English 4 in ah, oh; e.g. xa bd, 8a 60, Na be, my 
 tsd, 7B pé, 71) 16, ND sé, m7 mé: so x (§ 23, Rem. 3) 
 after } and » when pronounced as vowels; nip 
 po, Nvd shd, sia nd, wa hi, wo li, wy si, wa hi, 
 Ns. isi. 
 
 EHholem is written over the consonant to which 
 it belongs (and after which it is pronounced), 
 unless } or x is the following letter, over which 
 it is then written, as nip gdm, nid lo’-vtth, xd 
 lo. When it belongs to 5 it is commonly written 
 over the following letter; eg. 5 lot; but 
 often as p>. Shureg is never written except in 
 the bosom of its homogeneous vowel-letter (a). 
 
 d) Dissyllables: ‘mp qd-tal, Sinn gd-tol, nop 
 qo-tél, 033 gd-zdm, rw3 tsa-bhdr, 13 tsd-dhddh, 
 37 ha-lal, 1x3 zd-bhadh, 3% z0-xebh, yo ha-man, 
 mn té-rédh, ww yé-shébh, Wyo shé-lév, wx Nxd-mir, 
 9» yd-khol, or ha-ldm, oy} sha-lém, bok Nd-hhel, 
 nai da-bhar, 4 lé-vity,t bx xd-bhal, yop qd-ton, 
 Examples containing feeble letters sounded as 
 vowels: jn} 7r4-thd, ‘70 shd-ni, wird sha-losh, 
 mind shd-liith, nd shd-li, nh yd-shith, x2 mo-leél, 
 ima bé-thd, rdw mit-shi, > yen,  lé-vi, “yd la-le, 
 3 bé-thi, wv) li-nit, pr u-bhén (§ 26, 1), yor) 
 lé-mor, wy shd-nim, yy vé-né. 
 
 * Until the student has learned to distinguish cases of 
 quiescence he will be guided by the pronunciation ap- 
 pended to the Heb. form, which contains the English 
 representative of the feeble letter whenever it retains its 
 
 power as a consonant. 
 + The consonant sound of y. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 152 
 
 
 
 For explanation of the following examples, 
 see Rems. 2 and 3 under § 8,1: wp posh, yw 
 sdn, JS shon, wy shd'-resh, yp go-vdv, Ws 
 xd'-sh&r, DIN td-vdm, TWh vd-shodh. 
 
 The student should adopt some pronunciation 
 for those consonants whose original sound is 
 unknown, or for which the English language 
 has no representative. The frequent repetition 
 of the following exercises will aid him in ex- 
 pressing the sounds which he may adopt for 
 these letters. 
 
 rm (commonly expressed by strongly rolling 
 the palate): 7 (hha), n, i (hh), 7, DA, YT, BIT; 
 TM, Mp, TR: Ms TH, m7, ms mt; 1, 7, 0 Pan 
 oT, ™, M1 
 
 > (§ 6, 2, 8, note): 9 (kha) 5, 3, 03, 555 7 
 7 JE A 2% 2 M2 M5 FY DY O95 P 
 TT 
 
 a: 1 (ghd), 3, 2 2 2 295 9 94 45-7 
 ay hy Sra. 
 
 y. Probably the nearest expression of the 
 original sound of this letter, and the one which 
 best exhibits its guttural character, is that given 
 by Gesenius, (§ 6, 2.) But even the “wholly 
 false Jewish pronunciation ng” is preferable to 
 the entire omission of the letter in reading. 
 bed, Wi, oy WD WL MT, VIB, wow; v1, yy 
 (dé-v4), wy, my (vd-dhd), vvb, By, “by, Dy, 
 2B, DY (Vit), PY (Vin), ny, NT, 5, Tp. 
 
 J J) MD, 7, 27, TIM, 22, 29, 722, M29, PB 
 32> Te A PT M2, 12, 23, 222, Pr, a, YNZ, 
 ym, M5, Twa, IBY, DIN, PD DB. 
 
 x. A slight appulse of the breath before or 
 after the vowel, according as it stands at the 
 beginning or end of a syllable: in the latter case 
 it is but seldom heard separately from the vowel, 
 and then resembles / in eh! uttered softly ; e. g. 
 yw mé-Nén, Wei ba-xdsh, WE pd-vdr; 7dx%* 
 yes-sdr, TOR) yex-tdr. 
 
 a. The full English A. 
 vowel requires no illustration: when uttered 
 after a vowel it has the fullest sound of h in hah! 
 eh! e.g. agm* yth-labh, yond lth-mar, nam lith- 
 mith, Dy tsah-rém. 
 
 In regard to it may be added, that the 
 proper pronunciation of r after a vowel (formed 
 
 Its sound before a 
 
 * One sign, which the learner would not yet under- 
 stand, is omitted under & and 7. 
 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 in the throat and the back part of the mouth, 
 
 without the vibration of the tongue) better ex- 
 presses the guttural sound of the Hebrew 4 than 
 the rolling French or Irish r. 
 
 Write the following words in Hebrew cha- 
 racters:—bddh, lédh, ’abh,* ’obh, hel, hil, hiv, 
 lén, lin, lon, bon, bin, bin, “dn,* “éts, pin, 
 pots, doth, lidh, sin, siin, shén, shddh, shibh, 
 shém, sin, siv, stv, tén, tom, tiubh, shdth, shith, 
 lov, rds, sor, ldsh, lish, ldsh, tsé-nd, tsi-thd, 
 go-tél, qd-til, tsii’-yith, dd-bhar, ’a-bhddh, “6-shd, 
 bi-nd, tsul, né-stiph, ta-von, né’-shéph,  sit-si, 
 s0-tity, sa-’iin, shddh, shd-’és, mo-“édh, pa-niy, 
 pa-né-khd, n0-shén, bd-rdts, bd-rd-tsdn, go-bhédh, 
 qo-vdz, tsd-ém, md-thd, tsd-vi, u-ghiz, hé-vots, 
 lé-résh, sd-tér, yé-shi, yO-shébh, qi-mi, pé'-légh, 
 pa-ligh, pa-khir, pi-thin, pig, pi-khdl, pi-non, 
 pi-shon, pi-lé’-ghésh, pd-lahh, pi-lit, péd-lil, 
 pa-nigh, pa-“i, pa-“al, po-“ il, qi’-yits, ra-chdz, 
 ré'-ghél, ré’-vahh, rod-hhibh, 
 ra-khil, rd-khdsh, 
 
 * * The student may find it most convenient 
 to omit & and y in pronunciation, and to make 
 no distinction between 3 and 3, 5 and 5, aecord- 
 ing to the practice of many teachers. It is 
 desirable, however, to preserve as far as possible 
 those peculiarities in pronunciation which serve 
 to explain the laws of the language. It is im- 
 portant, also, that the language should be ad- 
 dressed to the ear, as well as tothe eye. It may 
 be added, that the trouble of acquiring the pro- 
 nunciation of such a language as the Hebrew is 
 sufficiently rewarded by the knowledge of the 
 powers of the human organs of speech, and the 
 command of his own, which the student thus 
 obtains. 
 
 rad-zahh, ra-khds, 
 
 SECTION IL 
 
 EXERCISES IN SYLLABICATION, 
 [$§9—14. §15, 1, 2. § 16. § 26.] 
 
 As the use of Sheva (§ 10), and the distinction 
 between long and short Qamets (§ 9), depend on 
 the theory of the syllable exhibited in § 26, it is 
 found most convenient to present the subjects of 
 
 * In these exercises the sound of y is indicated by the 
 spiritus lenis (’), and that of » by the double spiritus 
 asper (‘‘), as in the alphabet. 
 

 
 
 
 these three sections in connexion. The other 
 sections referred to above are to be read with 
 care, in order that the occasional allusions to 
 them may be understood. 
 
 Use of Sheva, (§ 10.) 
 
 Sheva (emptiness, vacancy), merely denotes the 
 absence of a vowel, and is written, with the 
 single exception given in § 10, 1, under every 
 vowelless consonant.* Of course it has properly 
 no yocal power. When, however, two conso- 
 nants precede a vowel, the organs of speech 
 spontaneously supply a slight vowel-sound under 
 the first. Thus in such forms as htol, gmul, 
 gthar, the k and g are uttered with a very short 
 and slight vowel-sound, tol, g*mol, g*thar. 
 Sheva, therefore, is vocal (indicating a kind of 
 half-vowel) only when it stands under the first 
 of two consonants before a vowel. Accordingly it 
 is silent in, nid\p 94-tal-td, Sojpr yig-tol, mp 
 mig-né, ‘ro\7) hag-tél: and vocal in, Sap geédl. 
 12) lebhddh, yp p*rit, Ya) qa-t*lit, Wyn) vethe-ledh. 
 
 There is but one case in which the learner 
 finds any difficulty, viz. when simple Sheva occurs 
 between two vowels, (3D, AOD, Tm9p ). In this 
 case, the letter under which it stands might be 
 the final consonant of a closed syllable (silent 
 Sheva), or the initial consonant of the next fol- 
 lowing syllable, (vocal Sheva.) Thus 5) might 
 be ndph-shi or nd-pheshi, x22 qa-t*la or qat-li, 
 mp gdm-nd or go-m'nd, Marx xebh-rd or wé- 
 bherd. 
 
 Whether Sheya, in this case, is silent or vocal 
 depends on the nature of the syllable as taught in 
 § 26. A vowel sound is naturally prolonged, 
 unless interrupted by a consonant. Hence an 
 open syllable has properly a long vowel, (§ 26, 2.) 
 A syllable closed by a consonant, though its 
 vowel is naturally short, may have a long vowel 
 when the tone causes the voice to dwell upon it. 
 Accordingly, as a general rule— 
 
 Simple Sheva is silent under a final letter, 
 and under a letter which is preceded by a short 
 vowel or an accented iong vowel: in all other 
 cases it is vocal; e. g.:—f 
 
 * The feeble letters when pronounced as vowels of 
 course do not take Sheva. 
 
 + The examples which follow are adapted to the treat- 
 ment of the subject in the Grammar, as well as to the 
 above representation of it, and should be carefully 
 studied with reference to both. Teachers will observe, 
 that the rule here given is intended merely to guide the 
 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silent Sheva: yy dakh, 7)» yé-lekh, nyop qa- 
 talt, xy ytrb, nada madl-ka, JEN, qahh-tekh, roy 
 miig-tar, nyyy ver-vith, 
 
 MDP qdm-nd, myipn tig-tol-nd, wip yésht, 
 nérd, ‘20 sdm-ti, paler bi-vthdth-ni, nby ya- 
 sdth-ni, “nde akhd-lath-ni, mn mdy-la, my 
 ya-dhay-ta. 
 
 Vocal Sheva: ($ 10, 2, a) ya bekhd, wy v*ld; 
 (6, 1) mani nd-thend, m3, né-lehhd, 1 u-bhené; 
 (4, 2) why in tidh-r°shi, wy nibh-q*rvi, nieve 
 miiy-sroth ; (b, 3) xrap—=rAnOnp (see § 12, 1, 1) 
 git-telit, pe G 12, 1, note) = Ws tstv-vehha.* 
 For the case marked c, see Rem. 1, below. 
 
 The composite Shevas are always vocal (§ 10, 
 3), and of course always stand at the beginning 
 of a syllable; e.g. Wy Nish, wiya Ad-x*shir, 
 Wig Nendsh, PON) vé-x°mdts, wy» yd-y nil, 2 
 vebhi, DADE tstp-prim, HD siib-b°ld. 
 
 Exercises on the use of the composite Shevas 
 will be furnished by the paradigms of nouns, of 
 verbs with gutturals, &e. 
 
 Promiscuous examples: FY, IE, NON}, 
 ninyo, VHT, 2D), TOT, PVP, wm yit-tenw, 23, 
 TMI OP PMR WPS WP FN NAPS, 27} 
 Th FPS VT NB RTE PW. 
 
 Rem. 1.f When Daghesh f. is omitted at the 
 end of a syllable (§ 20, 3, b, and «), the simple 
 sheva which commences the next following one 
 remains vocal. There is here a sharpening of 
 the preceding short vowel, (comp. § 22, 1. § 26, 
 2, e, Rem.,) the consonant in which Daghesh is 
 omitted being pronounced rapidly between the 
 two syllables, as if it belonged to hoth;f e.g. 
 wpa (for wprs7) hd™m*bhdg-gésh, Mey7, (for 
 Mya) hd™mekhds-sé, Mix07 (for nizyp77) ha*s*bha- 
 noth, ryoxy (for ry) Adyema-ni, ory) (for 
 oyun) lay*sha-rim, int (for imm) hhdystho, 
 
 learner, at first, in the division of syllables. Gesenius 
 regards Sheva as quiescent after a long vowel, only 
 before a formative addition which makes a syllable by 
 itself,—as etymology would, in this case, forbid a new 
 division of syllables in the original form, 
 
 * It will be ‘perceived from the examples, that Nos. 2 
 and 3 are essentially the same. 
 
 + This remark is added in explanation of the statement 
 given in § 10, 2, under the letter c,—Sheva being vocal 
 under a letter which is repeated only when that letter 
 omits Dagh. f., (§ 20, 3, b, a.) 
 
 t Like / in docility, ¢ in veracity. 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 {| [RA 
 
 
 
 wo (for sso) haleliz, xm (for wM) vd¥ychi, wi 
 (for wer) yf 8s*at, 227 (for »2377) hi™ne-ni. 
 
 The instances of this omission of Dagh. f. will 
 be pointed out until the student learns to dis- 
 tinguish them by his knowledge of forms. 
 
 Rem. 2. The exceptions mentioned in § 26, 
 2, a—e, exhibit no essential deviation from the 
 general principle. Thus in the forms given 
 under @, 2, p2 for example, are nearly equi- 
 valent to yirebh, mélekh, the first vowel of which, 
 in rapid pronunciation, strikes the ear nearly as 
 if uttered in a closed syllable. In all the re- 
 maining cases, the voice (under the influence of 
 the tone, or of the half-accent Methegh = bridle, 
 i.e. restraint, delay, § 16, 2) dwells upon the 
 vowel, so that,—though not strictly long,—it 
 may properly stand in an open syllable. 
 
 Rem. 8. It should be added, that a short 
 vowel may also stand in an open syllable followed 
 by the same vowel, viz. when the latter, in the 
 course of inflexion, takes the place of the corre- 
 sponding composite Sheva; see § 28, 1,3. In 
 this case, also, it has the support of Methegh ; 
 eXS. TINY) né-vém-dhd (for myy2), TY? yd- 
 vdm-dhi (for y2y?), Ay] nd-val-hkha (for 77y2). 
 
 
 
 Qamets-Hhatuph, (§ 9.) 
 
 Qamets-Hhatuph (+ = &, see last line in the 
 table of vowels, § 8, 2) or short 0, like the other 
 short vowels, stands properly in a closed syllable: 
 but it may also, like them, stand in an open 
 syllable followed by the corresponding com- 
 posite Sheva (+), or by another short o (see 
 Rem. 3, above) which, in the course of inflexion, 
 has taken the place of the composite Sheva. In 
 both cases it has, like the other short vowels, the 
 support of Methegh; exs. ny xd-heli, nam mo- 
 hherdth, 313 b0-hheri, aya (for AYP) po-yol- 
 kha, ‘yon (for yarn) td-ydm-dhi, ArOp_ (for 
 WIP) q-todh-kha, oy3yn (for om) t6-yobh- 
 dhém. 
 
 In regard to the means of distinguishing short 
 from long Qamets, it is sufficient to observe 
 here, that the figure + is invariably short 0 only 
 in a closed unaccented syllable ; and that whether 
 it stands in such a syllable is determined by the 
 punctuation only in the following cases, viz. (a) 
 when it stands next before the tone-syllable, and 
 is followed by simple Sheva without a Methegh 
 intervening ; for in this case long Qamets is in- 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 variably followed by Methegh, (§ 16, 2, a;*) e.g. 
 max, xvkh-ld, (but with Methegh nipy, xd-hheld :) 
 (6) when it stands in an unaccented syllable, and 
 is followed by Dagh. f.; e.g. in (for yx): 
 (c) in a final closed syllable without the tone; 
 e.g. DS) vdy-yd-qUm. 
 
 The student should therefore confine his at- 
 tention to these cases, until he can distinguish 
 the quantity of Qamets by his knowledge of 
 forms. It is generally long: and the occasional 
 examples in which it is short will be pointed out 
 in the Exercises and Reading Lessons. It would 
 be better to make no reference to Methegh, as a 
 means of ascertaining the quantity of this sign, 
 except in the case marked a. 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. — ASPIRATION 
 OF THE MUTES. 
 [§§ 20, 21.] 
 
 Distinction of Daghesh forte and Daghesh lene. 
 
 It will be perceived, by comparing the two 
 sections, that Daghesh forte is always preceded 
 immediately by a vowel, which is never the case 
 with Daghesh lene. 
 
 Exs. Dagh. f.: »3xn y°dhib-bér, Dvs> mish-shdm, 
 np, yig-gahh, Tay xdt-td, my tsiv-vd, rd shdd- 
 diy, pu mib-bén, 
 
 Dagh. 1: or 
 gshit, wryp tir-gezt. 
 
 ydsh-hém, ri. ytz-bahh, ¥w3 
 
 Promiscuous examples: ‘nyt>, =m, 52, 
 am, I, 23-Dw, day, dom, nom, mydey, 0, 
 roan, mI (§ 14, 1), FRY, 722). 
 
 Use of Daghesh lene, (§ 21.) 
 
 The learner will observe, that the hard sound 
 of the letters 3, 3, 7, 3, 5, mn, is the original one, 
 (i.e. they are properly JZutes,) and that it is the 
 intermingling of a preceding vowel-sound which 
 produces the softer or aspirated pronunciation. 
 By comparing Nos. 1 and 2 of § 21, he will per- 
 ceive that the statements which they contain 
 may be briefly expressed thus: these letters take 
 
 * The distinction here made is not affected by single 
 instances of the irregular or erroneous application of 
 Methegh; as ]2)2. gdr-bdn, TOD shom-rd, JI 
 dor-bén, 171 dél-ydv. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 Daghesh lene, except when preceded by a vowel or 
 a vocal Sheva. 
 
 A vowel in which one of the feeble letters 
 quiesces (the vowel-sound alone being heard in 
 this case) of course aspirates the following mute 
 in the same manner as a pure vowel. 
 
 Often, as in the following examples, the as- 
 pirated letter begins a word, and the vowel- 
 sound which produces the aspiration closes the 
 preceding one,—the two words being uttered in 
 so close connexion that the effect is the same 
 as if they were but one; e.g. "23 193, Gen. 31:1, 
 words of the sons of —; TIT, Gen. 30: 34, 
 be it according to thy word, [for the omission of 
 Dagh. 1, in 3 (AID, composed of 37 and 3), 
 see § 21, Exceptions, a;| ykeI-b2 179), Gen. 
 31:8, and all the flock bare —; wx-) win, 
 Gen, 45:1, put forth every man. Sometimes, 
 however, the two words are so separated in pro- 
 nunciation (the former standing at the end of a 
 clause,* as indicated by one of the distinctive 
 accents, § 21,2. § 15, 3) that the closing vowel- 
 sound of the first does not affect the pronun- 
 ciation of the following mute: e.g. 1x3 Mm 
 (« § 15, A, Class II. 6), Judg. 11:5, it hap- 
 pened, when; ny3 %m, ( ibid. 7), Gen. 38:27, 
 it happened, at the time —; %> TPs, Gen. 32:27, 
 let me go, for —; HOD ya $n (7 Class IV. 
 20), Gen. 44:2, my cup, the silver cup ; "$23! 8) 
 (1 Class IV. 21), Gen. 48 : 7, and as for me, when 
 I came. 
 
 Promiscuous examples: 372, niet, in3, 
 "22127, DPT, FEN, WILT, DPPYR, MIM, PENN, Nn, 
 DAI, OMX, ATP). 
 
 Daghesh f. Euphonic (§ 20, 2) will be pointed 
 out as it occurs, in the Reading Lessons, and 
 the student will soon learn to distinguish it. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 QUIESCENCE OF THE FEEBLE LETTERS. 
 {$§'23, 24.] 
 The vowel-letters } and »,t when they are 
 said to quiesce, are properly sounded as vowels, 
 
 * i.e. of a division of the verse in reading; but these 
 divisions are often made by the accents without regard 
 to the sense. 
 
 t+ The sound of } is more nearly represented by 
 w (better still by the German w) than by v; but the 
 latter is employed for representing the consonant 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 155 
 
 (§ 7, 2. § 8,3.) Of a different nature is the 
 quiescence of m and x: the former represents 
 no vowel sound, the latter only that of long a, 
 for which, however, it is very rarely written, 
 (§ 7,2. § 8, 3, init. § 23, 2, Rem. 1.) These 
 two letters are lost to the ear, when preceded by 
 a vowel, merely in consequence of the feebleness 
 of their sound.* Hence (with the single excep- 
 tion of x used for long a), they are not treated 
 as homogeneous with the vowel in which they 
 quiesce (§ 8, 3), or as rendering it immutable, 
 (§ 25, 1.) But the two cases may properly be 
 treated together, as, in both, the effect on the 
 pronunciation is the same, (i.e. the sound of the 
 consonant is not heard separately from that of 
 the vowel,) and instances of quiescence are dis- 
 tinguished by the same rule. 
 
 For convenient reference, we present at one 
 view the feeble letters in connexion with the 
 vowels in which they quiesce. 
 
 x in all the vowels, (§ 23, 2;) Na 06, nv tsd, SP) 
 né, NB pe, 81 72, NIG (§ 24, 2, note), NB 
 pt, MP pd, wD shi, wa hu, § 23, 2, Rem. 8. 
 
 Hholem- - - - 716 
 . Qamets - - - - nD ma 
 a Seghol - - - - m3 mée aoa 
 Tseri - - - - ME 
 . Hholem- - - - $16 
 de { Shureq - - - - li } 3.075 
 Hhireq- - - - %k 
 > in Teri) f= > = LMage § 8, 3. 
 Seghol - - - - J hé 
 
 The following rule will enable the pupil to de- 
 termine by the punctuation when these letters 
 quiesce, and when they retain their power as 
 consonants :-— 
 
 The feeble letters are to be regarded as quiescent 
 when they have no vowel or Sheva, and also, at the 
 end of a word, when they are preceded by vowels in 
 which they are accustomed to quiesce. 
 
 power of 4, on account of the difficulty of making our w 
 heard as a consonant after a vowel. The readiness with 
 which } dissolves, as it were, or melts into a vowel, will 
 appear if we give it the sound of w as heard in water, in 
 the examples. 1, » (§ 24, 2,4), WW. The sound of * 
 flows into a vowel with equal facility, as may be seen by 
 pronouncing it as the consonant y in "7, "I. In the loss 
 of the original consonant power of these letters at the 
 end of a syllable, the English and Hebrew exhibit the 
 same analogy, except that in the former it is universal. 
 
 * Compare h in eh! hah! where final A is sounded, 
 and in ah, oh, where it is lost to the ear. 
 
 SS SERS NTS SS SS eT NS 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 156 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 This rule is founded on the principle (§ 10, 1) 
 that every consonant must have either a vowel 
 or a Sheva: when the feeble letter stands at the 
 end of a word, where Sheva is not written, the 
 character of the preceding vowel must deter- 
 mine whether it is to be sounded or not. 
 
 He Mappiq (a, § 14, 1) of course retains its 
 power as a consonant, whatever vowel may 
 precede. 
 
 berith, wo mé-tabh, m3 bith, Te ya-mé-ha, 
 bow yd-khél, pes tsdn, rid hd, meg tstth, 04 
 dibh-ré, Oy rash, Mxp pu-rd, 3 bé-ri, xb 16, 
 xD sd, Nv ts2, POX] ri-shon, xv li, ena beri, x) 
 laz-dhd-ni (§ 24, 2, note), % 16, ) li, ma gd-le. 
 
 Compare the punctuation of these letters in 
 the following examples, in which they retain 
 their power as consonants: no hém, 1Ow yer- 
 tbh, FOr. yé-xesoph, rx) vexoth, Fm? yth-doph, 
 aim yd-hardgh, Soy xchhol, ry vdv, 1 day, my yah. 
 
 Point out in the following examples the in- 
 stances in which these letters quiesce, and those 
 in which they retain their power as consonants, 
 and give the pronunciation of the words: 1x), 
 DYN}, MWY, ay M7, Ink}, My, TY, mH), 1, yn, 
 1G, TR, TPN, ND, Weir, 2, TN, 7, my, ab, 
 WPS PIN G =), AP, Pm, Tow, -v, 
 NDR, pain, WT, aN323, WW, oN, win, WIN, WY 
 TM, WRI, INA, MYND, TOXa («= 0), 
 
 The principles which regulate the quiescence 
 of the Ehevi ()77) are very fully illustrated by 
 the examples given in the Grammar, (§ 24:) 
 exercises for practice in the application of them 
 will be furnished by the inflexion of some of the 
 irregular verbs. 
 
 *.* Otium of the Ehevi. 'The term otiant has 
 been applied to 8, in some instances in which it 
 is preceded by a consonant with silent Sheva; 
 €. g. NOM, NV, NW, Nw, where the feeble sound 
 of » was lost in pronunciation,—at least, the 
 authors of the vowel-system have indicated 
 this by leaving it without punctuation. Com- 
 pare, however, § 28, 4, note*, With these 
 instances of 8 otiant are sometimes classed the 
 few examples of » preceded by a consonant with 
 silent Sheva; as ‘mx, Mma. But the cases are 
 different, the latter having the pointing of other 
 forms without » (mx, m2), their proper pune- 
 
 
 
 } 
 
 Examples of quiescence: 1 yi-tdébh, ma. 
 
 
 
 tuation being ‘py, ‘M21. Yodh is arbitrarily 
 passed over in pronunciation in the plural 
 sufiix y—, which is sounded dv, (§ 8, 4.) He 
 has also been represented as otiant before Dagh. 
 J. conjunctive, in such forms as m7 for m 7m, 
 Jz; but 7 is quiescent here, and this case 
 belongs to § 27, 1, 6. 
 
 Note. The vowel-letters (1, », and » when 
 sounded as long a), “written in the line as real 
 letters” (§ 1, 5), are original and essential ele- 
 ments of the words to which they belong ; hence 
 the vowel-signs written in connexion with them 
 (merely as representations of the different vowel- 
 sounds into which these feeble letters naturally 
 flow, § 8,3) are also essential elements of the 
 word, and of course, whether written fully or 
 defectively, are immutable, (§ 25, 1, 2.) This, 
 however, does not prevent the occasional, though 
 very rare, exchange of one representative of the 
 same vowel-letter for another; as, of ». (defec- 
 tively written -) for »,, of 3 (defectively written 
 . § 8, Rem. 5) for }: see § 27, Rem. 1. Ana- 
 logous to this is the other case in which a vowel 
 becomes essentially immutable ; see § 25, 4. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 CHANGES OF VOWELS; RISE OF NEW VOWELS 
 AND SYLLABLES, 
 
 [§§ 25, 27, 28, 29.] 
 I. Changes of Vowels. (§§ 25, 27.) 
 
 From a comparison of nos. 1, 2, 3, of § 27, the 
 student will perceive that a vowel— 
 
 a) is exchanged for the kindred short vowel, 
 when it loses the tone in a closed syllable, (comp. 
 § 26, 3; 
 
 b) is exchanged for the kindred long vowel, when 
 the syllable in which it stands is changed from a 
 closed to an open one, (comp. § 26, 2 ;) 
 
 c) falls away, when the tone is thrown for- 
 ward. 
 
 In applying the rules given in § 27, it should 
 be observed that in some cases, when an addition 
 is made to a word, the principles of syllabication 
 allow of more than one change in its form. 
 Thus— 
 
 1. The addition may begin with a vowel- 
 sound (as 7, »,) and be appended to a word 
 ending with a consonant, (e.g. 7p, 3, Dy): 
 
 
 
 
 
 ts 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 the final consonant of the latter must, in this 
 case, be united in a syllable with the initial 
 vowel of the former (as 7)—, 2—, "2—), because 
 a syllable cannot begin with a vowel, (§ 26, 1.) 
 The preceding vowel, when the tone is thus 
 thrown forward, and the support of the conso- 
 nant which closed the syllable is removed, must 
 either be passed over so slightly as to be heard 
 only as a half-vowel or vocal Sheva (5up, 
 (7) T2753 23, ©.) -28),—or be dwelt upon 
 with the full long sound required in an open syl- 
 lable. The most perfect amalgamation is effected 
 by the former method, and hence it is found in 
 the inflexion of verbs by person, gender, and 
 number. The other method is most commonly 
 used in connecting the suffix pronouns with 
 nouns and verbs, where, from the nature of the 
 case, a less perfect amalgamation is required 
 than in the inflexion of the verb by persons, &e.; 
 e. g- (in the inflexion of verbs) op, (7) T2O7 5 
 Sop’, (a) Ops Dep, C.) BP): Gn the union 
 of suffix pronouns with nouns and verbs) oy, 
 C.) ‘pays Mp, (0.) oMp. 
 
 2. An addition beginning with a consonant 
 (as m, Dm) may be made to a word ending with 
 a consonant. The final vowel is then treated 
 according to the principles contained in § 26, 3. 
 Hence— 
 
 (1.) When the tone is not thrown forward, 
 the final syllable suffers no change; e. g. tp, 
 (mm) mridp 5 7p mag § “i, Ga) wT. 
 
 (2.) When the tone is thrown forward— 
 
 a) The final syllable, if its vowel is short, 
 remains unchanged; e.g. 507, (Om) OMDP; (0) 
 bape, 
 
 b) If the final vowel is long and unchangeable, 
 the closing consonant must be united with the 
 accessory syllable (since a long vowel cannot 
 stand in a closed syllable without the tone), and 
 of course must take a vocal Sheva; e.g. Dx, 
 Gp) ppes ra PEs wiby, (Oy) OPPLEP. 
 
 ce) If the final vowel is long and changeable, 
 the original division of syllables is usually 
 retained, and the vowel, standing in a closed 
 syllable without the tone, is exchanged for the 
 kindred short one, (§ 26, 3;) e. g. nd, (0) 
 papa; OY, OZOds Vey GP res Me FNP 
 (first + = 0); %y (Op) ON G = 5 ym 
 CD HRs Or ©) DIEM D GD Az 
 
 157 
 
 
 
 Here also, as in the preceding case, the final 
 consonant might unite itself with the accessory 
 syllable, and leave the preceding long vowel 
 to stand in an open syllable, (as 133, @) 7235 
 y> GD) FPPs A, WR); but this is rarely 
 done. 
 
 8. When an addition is made to a word 
 ending with two consonants, the second of the 
 two is united with the accessory vowel or 
 syllable; the pronunciation of two consonants 
 after a vowel occasioning a harshness which 
 is avoided where it is practicable, and hence 
 occurs only at the end of words: compare 
 5 26,45 eg. Dy (A) POs WP (2) O7BIP2 
 BE Re 
 
 II. Rise of New Vowels and Syllables. (§ 28.) 
 
 Three consonants may, in the course of in- 
 flexion, come before a vowel, (§ 28, 1,)— 
 
 1, When a consonant without a vowel is 
 prefixed to a word whose initial consonant is 
 also destitute of a vowel; e.g. when 4, 3, 3, 1, 
 x, 3, &c., are prefixed to such forms as yal 
 Crp, &c.), Mop, Wav, °2Y, Soy. Write, with the 
 proper pointing, >, 3, 3, }, before MH, 95 28 
 before Sap; } before 55x, my; a before 5x, 
 ‘23 a 
 
 2. When a vowel, preceded by two conso- 
 nants, falls away on account of some accession 
 at the end, which causes the tone to be thrown 
 forward one syllable, (§ 27, 3, b;) e.g. Sop, 0.) 
 mens po G) wet (G 22, 3); wva, (9: aya; 
 met, (,) “Sd; avn, 022) whens on @ Pn; 
 ayn (+ = 4), ©.) DIWYA; supply the proper 
 punctuation in each of these examples. 
 
 8. When the tone is thrown forward two 
 syllables, (§ 27, 3, c.) Give the proper pointing 
 to the following examples: 3p}, (with the plural 
 ending >.) O27, § 27, 3, a, (with the tone 
 again thrown forward upon the suffix 5), amal- 
 gamated with the plural ending so as to form 
 the two syllables o>.) op; UA, Gr.) Ped; 
 WS, COP.) OPENS ED COP.) DPR (hence 
 DER *)- 
 
 * In a few instances, as in this word, Pattahh, instead 
 of Hhireq, is the supplied vowel, even under letters which 
 are not gutturals. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 158 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW OF THE 
 PRECEDING SECTIONS. 
 
 Point out in the following words— 
 
 1. The division of syllables, (distinguishing 
 open and closed syllables, silent and vocal 
 Sheva ;) 
 
 2. Instances in which the feeble letters quiesce, 
 and those in which they retain their power as 
 consonants ; 
 
 8. Examples of Dagh. f. and of Dagh. 1. 
 (giving the reason for the insertion or omission 
 of the latter), of Pattahh furtive, and of Mappig. 
 
 4, Substitute a guttural in place of the-letters 
 enclosed between perpendicular lines, and supply 
 the proper punctuation. 
 
 api, Ty, MAB TM, ANY, nwo, npso, 
 TAM, PPO, MY, ONT, TYP, MM, MYIWP, WM, 
 DEP PM, aya, rooyZ, N]Rl> WNP °]3]D, 
 aM, aww, orp, mp (composed of 7_ and 
 Dp), Py ( 9 1), syn, -[3pD, Inv, WP 
 2/R[> OM, MPT, Gr, and $5), mp (§ 29, 
 4, a), 3, 33, TPR, OT, ya cay Psy, ma, 
 DIN], TBy, TE, B]]/% TINT, Moe, my, Senn, 
 INR TZ) vO} wy 2 C2 with prefix y, 
 
 § 21, Except. a), », o>a29 ™, oR G=d), 
 
 TOW) NN, YT, MTT, TW, wows, evil 
 DR On, mio, wy, yay ah mS Gor 
 and 77), TZN (§ 29, 4, a.) 
 
 For a further review of these principles, the 
 First Lessons in Translating may be used as 
 exercises in reading. 
 
 Give the reason for the changes (or for re- 
 taining the original form) in the following 
 exercises, and supply the proper punctuation 
 where it is omitted. A perpendicular line 
 marks a division of syllables. 
 
 Ty, DTN Mur, wmbw; z2, 2s Te, Ts Mp 
 Tas 31 TVs bY, "ays be, DbDs pm, tps dep» 
 WON; NBR, mde (§ 21, 2); wo, two; yy, 
 J21s PA, PTs ak, ALR; cw, ta-Dw; my, 
 minhrg; oR, TEs ha, soos Te, om; op2, 
 pos (§ 21, Exe.c); yy, ts py, mpm; my} 
 (§ 28, 4, compared with § 22, 2, a), 1; nH, 
 (.) ny) (§ 28, 4); pm (for pan); Pw (for 
 Ds DY, FOX; wa, xy-war (§ 25, 3); sp, PIs 
 Yyond (Sion and 2); 2) Cay andy); am (for 
 aya); DW, ws TAZ “2; m2 Cx and 9), 
 § 24,1, a5; yw3, (71) mwa (§ 28, 4); xm Czy 
 and 3); 23, (02) DN; Tp C7) APs WI, 
 C7.) ~Biats 7B CO.) EBs CP) FEDS Bap, Ci) 
 TOPS AS ys BS CL.) TPs ND AD 
 
 SECTION VIL 
 [$§ 30—37.] 
 
 INFLEXION OF 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 [§§ 38—53.] 
 
 The sufformatives employed in the inflexion of the Pret., Imp., and Fut., and the prefor- 
 matives of the Fut. (§ 44, 1. § 47, 1, 2), are the same in all the conjugations, and are presented 
 in the following table, which contains also references for explanation of the variations from 
 
 the several ground-forms :— 
 
 PRaetr.3m .. . ‘mp 
 Sie seers a 
 2m. 
 Df. 6 éieecl, lemma — 
 Te Up 
 
 Sect. V. I. 2, (1.) 
 (ib.) 
 (ib.) 
 
 TAR Oe — (as3f) 
 OTE ec Dy 
 2 af tame p— (ib.) 
 1 32— (as 2 m. sing.) 
 
 
 
 § 27, 3, a, Sect. V. I. 2, (2), a. | 
 ibid. 
 
 § 27, 3,6, Sect. VL. 1. 
 
 Piel § 51,1.  Hiph. § 52, 1. 
 
 ibid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 IMPpER. m . 707 
 fies — 707)§ 27, 3, 5, Sect. V. I. 1. 
 Plur. m. — iid & IL. 2, § 28, 1. 
 HE m— Sect. V. I 2,1, Niph. 7opT* 
 
 For. 3m. — ) Sect. V. IL. 1. Hiph. opm § 19, 3, 8 
 Sf. —n}§ 28, 1. Hoph, Sopp tas 
 2m. —ar Hithp. apnip 
 2 Ff. —n (as Imp. sing. f.) 
 
 Ee, x § 28, 3. 
 Plur. 3 m. — 
 3f m—n (as Imp. pl. f-) 
 2m. seed, 
 af. nF 
 Tes — (as sing. 3 m.) 
 
 It is at least natural for the voice to dwell 
 less upon a long vowel in a penult than in a 
 final tone-syllable. On this principle might be 
 explained the transition (under the influence 
 of the tone) from >», to the shorter vowel - (see 
 § 8, Rem. 4, 2nd 4) in Hiph. Fut., as well as 
 that from » to - in Hiph. Pret., and from - to - 
 in the Pret. of the verb mid. Z, and of Piel, 
 Pattahh having, in the formation of the verb, 
 arbitrarily come in place of ». and - merely as a 
 shorter yowel-sound, 
 
 When the forms of the Regular Verb have 
 been made familiar, the student should go 
 through the other paradigmsft (in connexion 
 with the section referred to at the head of each), 
 and give the reason for every deviation from 
 the general form given in Parad. A; e.g. 
 Inf. const. Niph. 2073; Parad. B, (§ 22, 1. 
 § 27, 2, b,) Parad. H, (ibid.;) Pret. 3 m. Niph., 
 Hiph., and Hoph., ‘2p, Poy, Ta77; Parad. B, 
 (§ 22, 3, Rem. 2, b;) Parad. G, (§ 19, 2, a, 
 20, 1, 4, for Hoph. comp. § 52, Rem. 9;) Parad. J, 
 (§ 24, 1, a, and 2, b, compared with § 68, 2;) 
 Parad. K, (§ 24, 2, &. § 69, 1;) Parad. JN, 
 (§ 27, 2, c.) Imp. Kal, %op, mm (§ 46, 1, 
 Rem. 1); Parad. G, (§ 19, 3, a;) Parad. J, 
 (ibid. ;) Parad. VV, (§ 27, 2,¢.) Fut. Kal, Soy, 
 TPs Parad. B, (§ 22, 8. § 28,2;) Parad. G, 
 (§ 19, 2, a, 20, 1, ;) Parad. H, (§ 67, 1, Rem. ;) 
 Parad. J, (§ 68, 1;) Parad. K, (§ 24, 2, a.) 
 
 * If the first syllable is pronounced rapidly, it will be 
 perceived that the slight sound of He is easily lost to the 
 ear. 
 + Except Paradigms F, L, M, and O, which must be 
 explained chiefly from the section placed at the head of 
 each. 
 
 
 
 
 
 After he has thus made the structure of these 
 paradigms familiar, he will be able to recognise 
 their forms when pointed out in the subsequent 
 exercises. They may in this way be gradually 
 impressed upon the memory, or a paradigm, or 
 part of one, may be learned as a daily exercise. 
 
 In making the forms of the Verb familiar, 
 care should be taken that the English expres- 
 sion for a tense, person, &c. may suggest the cor- 
 responding one in Hebrew. To the following 
 exercises, which are given as a specimen, others 
 should be added by the instructor or by the 
 learner himself. 92, to visit (prop. he visited, 
 § 39, note), 13, to learn, nw, to cut off; 3 to 
 tread: I shall visit, thou (f.) wilt —, she will —, 
 they (m.) will —; we have learned, ye (f.) have —, 
 she has —, thou (f.) hast —; Piel, he has taught 
 (caused to learn), they have —, thou (f.) hast —, 
 she has —, ye (m.) have —, I have —, we have —, 
 thou (f-) shalt teach, we shall —, she shall —, 
 they Cf.) shall —, teach ye (f.), teach thou (m.), 
 I shall —, ye (m.) shall —, they (m.) shall —; 
 Niph. I have been visited, ye(f-) have been rey 
 thou (m.) hast been —, I shall be —, ye (m.) shall 
 be —, thou (f.) shalt be —, she shall be —, we 
 shall be —; Pual, taught, to be taught, I shall be 
 taught, she shall be —, ye (m.) shall be —, thou 
 (m.) shalt be —, we shall be —; to cut off, cutting 
 off, cut off (Part.), cut thou off (f-), Hoph. I am 
 cut off, we are —, thou (m.) art —, they are —, 
 ye Cf.) are —, she is —, we shall be —, thou (f.) 
 shalt be —, ye (m.) shall be —, I shall be —, 
 they (f.) shall be —; tread thou (m.), tread ye 
 (f-), they (m.) shall —, thou Cf.) shalt —, ye 
 (m.) shall —, Hiph. he hath caused to tread, they 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 160 
 
 have —, I have —, ye (m.) have —, she hath —, 
 thou Cf.) hast —, cause ye (m.) to tread, cause 
 thou (f.) —, cause ye (f.) —, he will cause to 
 tread, I will —, ye (f.) will —, she will —, they 
 (m.) will —, thou (f.) wilt --, ye (m.) will —. 
 
 * SECTION VIII 
 [§§ 78—92.] 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 The portions of the Grammar to be studied in 
 connexion with the following remarks are, § 33, 
 1—4, § 35, 1, 2. §§ 86—90. 
 
 The declension of Hebrew nouns is very 
 simple, the general principles which regulate it 
 being few and easily applied. Attention to the 
 following suggestions, and to the table of refer- 
 ences subjoined, will make the subject plain to 
 the learner. When he has made himself familiar 
 with the general forms of inflexion exhibited in 
 the paradigms, the occasional deviations from 
 them, which he will meet with in reading, will 
 cause him no embarrassment. 
 
 1. Construct State. By this is meant the state 
 of the noun when it is connected, in grammatical 
 construction, with a following one for expressing 
 the relation of the Genitive, (§ 87,1.) The two 
 nouns being thus nearly connected in sense, are 
 also uttered in very close connexion, almost as 
 one word; and as the tone is principally thrown 
 forward upon the second, the vowels of the first 
 (if mutable) are naturally shortened in pronun- 
 ciation. Thus in the constr, st, sing. a long and 
 mutable vowel in an open penult syllable falls 
 away, (§ 27, 3, a;) a long and mutable vowel in 
 a final closed syllable is shortened, (§ 27, 1, a;) 
 e.g. DI, blood; blood of bullocks, oyp ny*: 433, 
 word; word of God, Dv x WWI: THB, prefect; 
 prefect of the Levites, on VE: 1, hand, 
 dual wi, hands; hands of the artist (artist's 
 hands), way oy (§ 87, 2, a): oN, words, 
 (§ 27, 8, a;) words of peace, nid “17 (the 
 ultimate and penult vowels of 123 being both 
 mutable, § 27, 3, c), hence dir 27 (§ 28, 1.) 
 
 * Pronounced together, as a single word, expressing the 
 compound idea bullock’s blood. Compare the manner of 
 connecting suffixes with such compound expressions, as 
 if they formed but one word, (§ 119,33) as WIP 724, 
 word-of-holiness, (for holy word ;) WOR 127, his word-of- 
 holiness = his holy word. 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 Rem. In some forms of the noun (see Para- 
 digms VIL, VIIL, 6, IX.) the tone is retained 
 upon the final syllable in the sing. constr. st. Its 
 stronger tendency to the final syllable, in this 
 position of the noun, affects the preceding vowel 
 (if mutable) as in the other paradigms, and in 
 Parad. IX. occasions the substitution of Tseri 
 
 for the feebler final vowel, Seghol ; comp. § 74, 
 
 1, remarks 3rd 4. 
 2. The declension of nouns exhibited in the 
 first five paradigms consists merely in the appli- 
 
 
 
 cation of the principles presented in Sect. V. I. 
 to the last two vowels: in order to decline such 
 nouns, therefore, the learner needs only to know 
 the character of these vowels. Parad. VII. 
 follows (with one exception, 4, plur. absol.) the 
 analogy of the verb, to which so many of the 
 nouns thus declined properly belong, (§ 90, 
 expl. 7.) Comp. § 27, 3, 6, and the two modes 
 of receiving an accession which begins with a 
 vowel, Sect. V. I. 1. 
 
 3. Nouns of Parad. VI. are declined from the 
 original monosyllabic root,* which, in derivatives 
 from the regular verb, has the three forms 2 
 7D, Wp (§ 83, 11.) This root, when it has no 
 addition at the end, always appears under the 
 forms 7 (§ 27, Rem. 2,c), “pd, wy}, ie. with 
 a helping vowel, according to § 28,4. Witha 
 final guttural the helping vowel is Pattahh, 
 (§ 22, 2, a. § 28, 4;) with a middle guttural, 
 the original Pattahh also, in the first of the 
 above forms, may be retained; e.g. yi, from 
 M5 Wi, from yy, 
 
 Some nouns of the form 55 have Hhireg 
 under the first radical when they take suffixes. 
 When, therefore, the inflexion of a noun of this 
 form is required, its form with suffixes should 
 be given, as this can be known only from ob- 
 serving some instance in which the noun oceurs 
 with a suffix or other accession (as a paragogic 
 letter, § 93) at the end; e.g. jo8, land, 
 (Num. 10:30), my land; the suffix form or mono- 
 syllabic root is therefore yw: 03, womb, 72O2 
 (Gen. 25:23), thy womb: suffix form yo. 
 
 Analogous to these are the monosyllabic roots 
 derived from irregular verbs ; viz.— 
 
 a) From verbs {y, and % (§ 84, IV. 11), 
 ni for myo (§ 24, 2, 5), ma for ma (ibid.) ; with 
 
 * Except that in the Plural, light suffixes are attached 
 to the adso/. st. according to the general rule, § 90, d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 re ee Se 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 ve ee te i ie ES i ied Ras ee ee 
 
 a helping vowel nyo (§ 27, 2, a), m3 (§ 28, 4), 
 which is always its form except when some 
 addition is made at the end. 
 
 b) From verbs 45 (§ 84, V. 11), B, TN, 7), 
 %n. These forms would, by analogy, take a 
 helping vowel (8, &c.), and hence are properly 
 ranked with Segholates, though, on account of 
 their final feeble letter, they take the forms 
 “MB, TH, 1, MT (§ 24,1, & § 27, 3, &.) For 
 their inflexion, see § 90, expl. 6, Rem. 6. 
 
 4, Declension of Feminine Nouns. (S§ 91, 92.) 
 
 a) When n in the fem. termination n_ be- 
 comes n (§ 19, 1. comp. § 87, 2, 0b) in the 
 constr. st. and before a suffix beginning with a 
 consonant, (Sect. V. I. 2, (2), c,) the Qamets, 
 passing from an open to a closed syllable with- 
 out the tone, becomes Pattahh; mz, mov, ond. 
 If the accession begins with a vowel, (Sect. 
 V. I. 1,) the syllable remains an open one, and 
 Qamets is retained; nw. The final n also 
 unites itself with the suff 7, Gimia, § 88, table, 
 comp. § 89, 2, c), leaving Qamets in an open 
 syllable. 
 
 b) The fem. plur. ending ni suffers no change 
 in the constr. st., and only the preceding vowels 
 (if mutable) are affected by this position of the 
 noun. In the Plural, all suffixes are of course 
 attached to this shortened form; comp. § 35, 2. 
 
 
 
 The following examples (chiefly from the 
 Lehrgebiude) will shew the nature of the occa- 
 sional deviations from the Paradigms, and may 
 be of service to the learner after he has made 
 himself familiar with the general forms of in- 
 flexion :— 
 
 L ind, ome (§ 27, Rem. 1); own, oop. 
 
 IIT. Dnp, constr. DyD, but ODN D, constr. ‘MD and 
 
 
 
 DID, YOID; YB, constr. yp, but ons, eB; 
 PH, constr. yy, nit; Tap, op; 
 pwd; sma, “oy, wu, “vod (- = 9); 
 D179. 
 
 Di22, 
 79, 
 IV. Niz, constr. xz (§ 27, 2, ¢); yey, 
 constr. yy and wy; vos, constr. vos and yy, 
 yes. V. xn, constr. xo (§ 27, 2, ©); RY, 
 constr. 329, °37P5 IN, constr. 52x, 3x. VI. The 
 following nouns of the form yy have Hhireq 
 under their first radical in the suffix form: 
 Bh TOR TR OB Od, wy, o, Py, NI, mp, 
 Wy NB MY 2 22 OR, POR WR AS, VE 
 WS OR PTS MO MR, WR WL PPL AS, Ws, 
 the first radical: yx, yy, 222, 723, 7223 Te, TP 
 
 The following take Seghol under 
 
 and “I~; TTT (constr. 11m), "NN, ‘TH, with He 
 parag. TIT; 53}, 97, IT; day, Yan, but with 
 3, YIN2.—YY, VIG, von, constr. yy (once), yr, 
 vin.—np, B and 4p; DrMp and ons, DMB; 
 me, VIG and srg, OPIG, Od; PIDs 
 TPB BT Uy ODT. — PIB, dein, why, 
 plur. opr, Dywn, ONOY; warp, Ode. VIT. uv, 
 “25 YR (S95 24 M7. Final Hholem pure 
 is treated like the final Tseri of this paradigm, 
 in WR, WAR; Dry, nibowx (but see Lex.) 
 VIIL. 72, 3235 ny, MY. —1d, “WD, py and 3. — ph, 
 m and ‘pn, wy (see § 27, Rem. 1.) FD, DED; 
 ne, OB; IN, 13b2.— in, DWDs YO, consir. 
 JOD s FNP 22, OD; YI, DIYW.— ny, Ovny and 
 DAR; OM and OED; OND, "BR PRY 
 oryaa. IX. Seghol is sometimes retained in 
 
 the constr. st. as in my}, TMD. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ad, Se 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 
 
 
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 2 “18 § ‘Way *T ‘ou “may *] ‘ou (q) {}-utoy 1 ‘ou "LT moy ‘G ‘zz § (ysu0a § yosqn) *.ysu0a 
 xxF ‘9D “q fl 
 XI THA TIA ‘TA “avuvd 
 Cajou ‘e IA] 
 mG ‘18 § t "JOag veg *upsuoa ‘und se) (-4psu0a tnd se) *ysuoa 
 Il "s 3a § see (‘josqn *anjd se) "lh pa ‘9 ‘a ‘2a § *¢‘98§  ‘josqn pony 
 — —— — 9 ‘068 ‘a ‘ce§ cfns aansb 
 os sy => e a «9 06§ fins 1y6y 
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 8 
 TA "A 84 °AT ‘A “AI TH 1 ioe Sel 
 ‘'SNOON 40 NOISNATOIA 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 + ( 
 
 Lh 
 

 
 EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, 
 
 1. ow, fo my name: OW, name, Parad. VIL; 
 >, my, OG, my name; 5, to, (§ 100, 15) Ow? 
 (Sect. V. IL. 1), pw) (§ 28, 1.) 
 
 2.73, in my hand: 3, § 100,13 1 hand, 
 Parad. Il. a. Write in Hebrew, in our hand,* 
 in thy (m.) hand, (§ 89, 2, ¢,) in thy (f-) hand, 
 in your (m, and f.) hand, (§ 90, Expl. 2, Rem.) 
 
 3. 772), and in thy (m.) hand: 3, conj. 4, and, 
 (§ 102, Rem, a.) 
 
 4. 37131, from thy (m.) hand : yo, from, § 97, 2, 
 2nd. § 19, 2,¢. § 20, 1,5. § 100,1. Write 
 in Heb. from his, her, thy Cf.) hand, your (pl. f-) 
 hand. 
 
 5. or, hands; Dual number, § 86, 5, Pa- 
 rad. II, a. voy -p, hands of Esau: wy *Y3, 
 as Esau’s hands ; 2, § 100, 1, p32, Sect. V. IL. 1, 
 rp (hiy-dhé), § 28, 1, "T2, § 24, 1, a: DPPH, 
 and in (with) your (pl. m.) hands; op, (Dual 
 with suff.) 3, }, § 102, Rem. a. 
 
 6. 7122, glory; W137 (§ 32), the glory; h22= 
 aa? (with prep. 2, § 100, 1, and art. § 32, 
 Rem. 2. § 19, 3, b), according to the glory. 
 
 7. F22, from thy pitcher: yo, 12 (Parad. 
 VIIL.), 7 .- 
 
 8. AND, from thy land: yo, § 22, 1. § 27, 2, b. 
 ye monosyl. root yw, Sect. VIIL 3. V. I 3. 
 Parad. VI. a. 
 
 9. imp3, im its season: 3, ny (Parad. VIII), 4. 
 
 10. ian, in his right hand: 3, yo (Parad. 
 Lie 
 
 11. 4270, from thy midst : yo, 27 (lit. inward 
 part, Parad. VI. suffix form 3p, Sect. VIIL 3, 
 Rem.), 4. Write in Heb. in our midst, and in 
 thy (f.) midst, from their midst; my inward parts 
 
 * The exercises on the suffix pronouns may be written 
 with the table of suffixes before the eye of the student, or 
 trom memory, as the teacher shall direct. The lexicon 
 should be consulted on each of the elements given in the 
 analysis, 
 
 163 |) 
 
 (light suff. § 90, 6), and in his inward part, and 
 in their inward part, in my inward part (within 
 me), in your inward parts. 
 
 12. oy, people; ova, the people, 3 art., § 32; 
 oy yp, elders of the people, px plur. constr. 
 Parad. V.; ova “pr, and of (the) elders of the 
 people, 3 no. 3. 
 
 13. »yy3, on my affliction, 3, v (orig. monosyl. 
 root ‘2, Sect. VIIL 3, 5, Parad. VI. § 90, 
 expl. 6, Rem. 6; like *n, with suff. 5m), suff.>. || 
 
 14. Dyaxm, and the stones: &, plur. ending; 
 TBS, stone, Parad. VI.; 7 article, § 32, b; ‘ 
 
 15. sam, and I have taken thee: spam; 
 mp, Kal Pret.1 Sing. RITES I have taken, with 
 suff. apDIM> (§ 33, table. § 60, 2, a; tone, § 33, 
 Rem. 11. § 27, 3, a); 1. Give the forms with 
 suff. for I have taken them, thee (f.), him, her, 
 you (m. and f.) | 
 
 16. D/FIM thou hast taken us: Prat. 2 m. 
 sing. BND. 
 
 17. 1311, he took me: mp and 9, § 60, 2, b; 
 for vowel changes see § 27, 3, a, and 2, a. 
 
 Give 
 
 
 
 the form with the suffixes her, him, us, them, and 
 you (m. and f.) 
 
 18. ‘wine, according to his ruling: ‘xin, he 
 ruled ; Inf. constr. %t2 (a kind of verbal noun, 
 § 45, 1. § 129, 1 and 2), to rule, the ruling ; with 
 suff. Inn (+= 6), § 62, 1. § 90, expl. 6, 
 Rem. 4, his ruling ; >, § 100, 1. 
 
 19. 4323 (yD, Inf. constr. 72), when he reigned 
 (began to reign), lit. in (or at) his reigning. 
 
 
 
 20. box, he ate, Inf. constr. Yay; ws a2, when 
 we ate (or eat), lit. in (at the time of) our eating. 
 The principles of punctuation admit of another 
 form, (§ 62, Rem. 2;) orsox (§ 27, 1, a. Sect. | 
 V. I. 2, (2), ¢), with prefix 3, n3b2xa (§ 28, 2), / 
 in your eating = when ye eat. 
 
 21. »37, and when I speak,—lit. and in my |! 
 speaking ; 131 (like ep), Inf. constr. Piel of >23. 
 Give the forms with other suffixes. 
 
 22. wh, that I may dwell (there), lit. for (in | 
 order to) my dwelling; >, yo (Inf. constr, of | 
 
 
 
 24), > (§ 100, 1. § 129, 2.) 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 Tue following First Lessons in Translating have been selected and arranged with much pains. 
 in order to secure a great variety of forms in short and interesting phrases, and to conduct the 
 student gradually from the simplest forms and constructions to those which are more difficult. 
 The first examples of the Irregular Verb are of the classes p and . Verbs yp and % occur 
 first in nos. 83 and 93. It may not be thought best that the student should commit to memory 
 all the paradigms to which such forms belong, whilst he is going over these lessons the first time: 
 but the inflexions of nouns, and of all the classes of verbs, should be made familiar before the 
 study of the First Lessons is laid aside. 
 
 Some previous practice in translating is essential to the profitable study of the Syntax. The 
 author’s view of the use of the tenses (§§ 123—126) should be well understood, however, before 
 much progress is made in the First Lessons. The necessary references to the other parts of the 
 Syntax will be understood on a moment’s inspection of the passages referred to. 
 
 In the Notes, designed merely to aid the learner in his first grammatical study of the language, 
 the writer has endeavoured to remove every difficulty which might embarrass the attentive and 
 persevering student, without “ encumbering him with help.” These will be followed, as intimated 
 in the Preface to the Grammar, by brief notes on select portions of the Hebrew Scriptures, with 
 particular reference to the more critical study of the language. For obvious reasons, the selection 
 of continuous reading lessons commences with the purely historical portion of Genesis. 
 
 In the First Lessons the usual sign of the accent (-) stands on the penult syllable when it has 
 the tone, except at the end of a sentence, where it is marked by Sillnq. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN TRANSLATING. 
 
 mim ay 1 spy wa TY ND 14 
 
 iim Dy] wow 2 rim oma wea thy 15 
 toate Tm wy 8 TRY PTS ww ory 16 
 
 rbipa onrod xb 4 rim omy 2 ww 17 
 
 iT DIM DEB No aww 5 imam oy ney m 18 
 iy33 CHPOD ype 6 iDe2 "PR ipa 19 
 ON ANY Pee TT 7 ee TR OO a0 
 Hine y aww 8 ITAWA ON NA ya 21 
 toe NAN BT 8 tape ip) EYoY p22 
 rma weap ny 10 TENT DOIN NxM 23 
 imMimrny We a 11 sJ]22 Moa ABR MPNN? 24 
 SPIT opa ay pi 12 rm PT NT 25 
 102) MA ao mp > 13 rat acm nid xy 26 
 
 
 
CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 
 
 rajrp at Main 
 
 Haag sony) yng MET an? 
 Haga a nee-ny 
 
 iyBe MPD BR WY? 
 
 Peony 02) mn 
 
 soptns mo min 
 
 we «8 <<), : 
 
 Pyoa-a MON aT 
 oe Be a> v “= 
 ¢ PET) APY "pony 
 
 iM peIy-M 
 tT eye mae 
 iyo gy 
 
 Hype mpiona eoy 
 i) A-N? DIT 
 tm ARN AB APS 
 ‘oy mo 
 F? Dine 
 
 aN Ta 
 
 saa TN TWP ory 
 
 rmimemg TY 3? 
 
 Hye pg ns ApS 
 PVE OR ADS my 
 iss fas (nd a 
 : 11ND O72 WHY 
 a a 
 
 may 
 rp YT mM 
 ie aaa 
 prey 
 Pape yD OO DON OY RB 
 tyoRa Ta Ty py. WP 
 ’ . ts t -~ > « 
 typi wy PF? TR 
 HN? TOT. PRT by 
 Pye) wake Po we TDN 
 HPA) ink wy, wy 
 eye PIN 
 roy Vy: ya 
 ea 
 iON OY NA PN 
 t22 YEMY SP 
 LANAI -wWI-MED 
 imigha DV YA MP 
 tage yp Pe. boy oR 
 IT YEIND D3 
 tia DD WR NP MMT 
 iDRS 072 9 YI nv 
 se i 
 ime Dy MwA 
 
 
 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 Ad 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 
 48 
 49 
 
 ‘ye? iy 
 ah wily 
 
 ippy mo oR 71 
 raipy-bo-my on) mn my 72 
 pay 272 BNW 73 
 
 ‘a? 7D 
 imme? wa the 17, Don) 
 rmanaa ny by’) 
 f992) MR DPAB pagans 
 saya Ons. oOF2-nnd ON UAB 
 Lid 
 PROP PID FPPSN) TY TANT Ng 
 
 roy nny 0nd Px} 
 
 itr re the cm | 
 
 5p mat tps mia 
 im PS THB 
 
 t2 ePey yy) 
 
 PMP WDE") TN ED 1? 
 +392) DIN ny aiD-N) 
 
 TOPS UE AY DPD BT Hy) 86 
 tPA TA Ae Taps ne 87 
 ‘yp1 Ten my 88 
 
 amay nA WS) amin inky rod 9 
 
 MST TEP-NAT NEDO SPH JEN WY AR 
 Ee? 
 
 oR Wy wa Ay me, ny 
 
 ian PY WD 2 wy 
 
 types mR, 
 
 tink win N) DDeINa WAY W27°D) 
 
 tay eI PP Oy 
 
 4p nian vo-y 
 
 DIMOY wy by Nd AP ox Ta 
 
 Hp mola TS Ty PT ee 
 
 Hep pI 
 
 tNyT Mmryo nw 2 
 
 ‘peep Bim 
 
 t72 BIEN) VAN 73? 
 
 82 yu may pite-ma) ox 
 
 MONTY APO ww oF A pay ny 
 
 ‘hE YO ND oy my 
 
 eR VY By? 
 
 tOAN PITT TD ey Mardy 7 
 
 PRA FMB ep bs 
 
 101 
 102 
 
 104 
 105 
 106 
 107 
 108 
 
 Pa IT AOD tad wry ‘Tiwi 109 
 Haya ORI AY) weeny TI zRy 110 
 
 sayy TH Nay oknp » 111 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “ 
 
 ie. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 166 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 
 
 rama bibs oby vbs mb) 112 | var we WOP-ND) YOM We WNTTN? 
 
 FOR oy) Ta oY DPy ODT IN ny) 113 rom? nvr 
 s Daby- by APO Tw ny niqp xe ov meow iy 
 
 ra Mm kATng fa Pe] Wy ye 114 riya mye MQ Py 
 
 rrp oping Nipm) ip mio vp-by 115 | soy Sora Day) oN? 03? mM pp wow 
 ee 7 7 oe a = see rs 8 ° Hy wT Ts z 
 
 
 
 Hines ps Ting BN ORY 116 | rea vim) may Oyo Ra Men wa ney 
 
 TyT-yo MbpOA OM sx an om 117 17m WO) |W. APD 
 
 + raOR as Hop? wy aND HD AP TP TDS) 
 ropeT-oy Ipeny mo wy 118 | py ow pw! faa Ty apyr-ds OTA NM 
 
 :Dry2 Dong pes wy yon ope 119 tink 
 
 GENESIS, CHAPTER XII. 
 
 : ' tt : F ‘ fone a 5. 
 nig) AT EN MRE IN RR | apie Fe Py. Oe TAD 
 ‘Ay NocmT ate Aw-Ox Gosh monn 4) Foe AON WS PINTS PAY Ma 
 
 i a JT salad ese aT ¥ . = TiaTs* ai vive Thrin wre veOrr ¥ ar 2 
 fal AND TEM AN APM miss p12 | AA toa A) ANY many Asan bia 
 
 x Th to -) TTT: sit we = oped wh Tsir-t irr: ft iF Ate eese=si- 3 vaT-3 I> hy 
 PEP POR) NR WT ON ibs sO) DET mistin 5b 2 ap) ke Ae 7202 
 
 i's Emer’ | io yilts 4 fF 8 esis a's | Sa +t to c 3 J 33% aT chee VrusTs 
 nom yyaya Q-2er, esd mnie kaos 13 | qr nie fy a7 he ols po mom 
 
 Vries = ies Ae Eas, PAT MS (a te ORG aed ve Cee vol "i> nO Fs (hres ir 
 a) Tow oy Ni Fe rab de owp 14 | nega nde OPI) Dw wot-p dfay? wid img 
 
 & 3S. TtATs: © “¢ ATS vi © 3\- Pee gt He 1 sal} € : Ya et Wee | 2. ev . oe oe A ra! 
 
 ADR AY] PTR NE TEND TB Ay DT 15 | a wing) take eon uy npn ane 
 
 mes MRR) Tipe as mR Om A mw | ee ey oy bowery ying 
 “he om) rem ae yas ripe ma 16 pam pe AS nye) ke BR wee ey 
 (Obor mits Ap omy oye) Apa | ope dip TW yYse Oye tae sep mw 
 
 Imac oS OY Tens imim v4 17 | air oR SPINA IN °2YI9T7 AHN hor Ww 
 A° v3 C28 VTS 93° . ots ‘ ka om viTtr w Ge=4i= 3. i="s. ay had = 
 Dhod Fine Nap) poms mos ne cay 18 | aay xs PSTN pas AN TON) DAI hy 
 ct = - ee tas od Fad ye MI vy ok 2 aed te aed G2 viITT ° ere jag a oett” . = Ti = . 
 29 mjan-N> med ob my msm Th Dt pays syos mom nimd nim be 
 > y © Tis * t rTT< bd Tie TF c ~ . — y Be =e = S. (ee AS 5S Tr I- oe gay = 
 
 ADR TPR NT cn AYOx mod ry yee 19 [dy dg-ma pbs way oe-mad ON man 
 gt weir . = a a I Se <TT ‘ eyit = < | ATi itr en Ca et wer TTT 
 
 voy ww syd) mp yams ma may) mid ob 20 | ows ag nid dh os yh op wm 
 yrr > tea. bd Ch e40> Qe TFT? t At*t? c » Sat | e's = - I- mond (E4 aT fe ve.° aT: 
 
 -S9°-ny) imdacme ink ond owes amp Bb o¢ma93m vip 7 7 DIN YON ymin 
 ¥ vs Cates Or y put ates Gals Tilt- = eT bf a Ti- “a= Ivo: 
 1 35-yahy bd wd Amr DIN TTL PRA ow on 
 
 ‘ ee Tr JT ver C1 se Gd w~ vATT cr v3I- 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 Tejera pa me Tp os may | th poy) py eT ote clas “on 
 mae OB Mee A Tae Bipods om 4 | mpEa Pips WD ER Spy maT tp 
 
 zn widd-oH rnin. ova owe og a 5 | cpa ema 2220 reed FB) sam 
 
 CT, | 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 121 
 
 122 
 123 
 124 
 125 
 126 
 
 to 
 
 no 
 
 a) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 167 | 
 
 
 
 : an th ae g 
 "P27 a ad; wi PVR aw? ODE 
 
 AYM? OPEN OF) DIP wry 1D Ww Myr 
 
 + TD 
 
 TANS Bip yo ANP PPP 82 Nw joy 
 ‘uT- vot cr > : ° <r aT can 
 
 By TET TO chy ope a} 
 PINT MS Bm.) MBL MA MF Og 
 ’ Say = - “ Ng = ey 
 robe a Tame yp NT Tetey 
 is Sap" Das ey PINT ERP A NS Pe) 
 : .. 
 
 PAINT DY Be ANN Da PT WR Ny him 
 
 : 
 hoya) imam F? 2 Fama FEN? Rg 
 
 Nom DUN 
 
 Tyo 
 
 -» 5 - SSyy5 ob) 
 aa Tey We Neo We Ig 
 
 inimds mo ow 
 foe “3's .F 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 DOR NiI-N :OYOTN) Apres TA Opn 
 yt wr 3 eris cre i wT AT: v 
 Pr 8 3) eo) mA YTD med pa 
 mE Ope MP. RA pa Py. HT NB 
 ‘VND aw 
 
 72 AID CAN w} hy aibhy chy vow 
 
 WOMEN) YM wib-mpn yh 
 Me OFET) NIT wimp. 
 
 any OTN OPA PP pR wpa APN 
 NRT ON WIP NA TET Pe? PND Ng 
 merny wp Nm npyEby) pRAT-oN) ADDY) 
 HP) TRB. AY BTM weeny ky 
 FIN? ABP MEY ny bip-ny rip nw 
 TED Mme vi Yow ewe 7A oD 
 
 ryos wo thy MBN DTPO wid you pT 
 * By re tut v lave ¢ Ss -y-- 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 NiO el SESS 
 
 ON 
 
 
 
 THE FIRST LESSONS IN TRANSLATING. 
 
 1. Word of Jehovah. 123, Parad. IV. 
 
 2. Is. 1:10. Hear ye the word of Jehovah. 
 Art. omitted, as in the form Jehovah’s word, 
 
 § 108, 2. yow, Parad. D. 
 3. Judg. 6:10. JZ [am] Jehovah your God. 
 § 141. mix, Parad. I. § 22, 2,5. § 8,4. Plur. 
 
 maj. § 106, 2, &. Suff. § 33, table. 
 4. Ibid. Ye have not hearkened to my voice. 
 
 Position of the negative, § 142, 1. ‘ip, Parad. I. 
 3, to, § 100, 1. 
 
 5. Deut. 21:7. Our hands have not shed this 
 blood. 1%, Parad. Ila. (3)* yaw. (4) §37,1, 
 
 Rem. 3. "S27, 1, a. *§ °115,-1, 96). art. $32; 
 py, Parad. Il. a. (6) § 37, 1, and Rem. 2. 
 
 6. Gen.3:10. Thy voice I heard in the garden. 
 (2) Sip, § 8,4. yxa = yaa (Sect. IX. 6), 4a, 
 Parad. VIII. — § 29, 4, a. Arrangement of 
 words, § 142, 1, c. 
 
 7. 1 Chron. 11:1. Behold, thy bone and thy 
 flesh [are] we. (1) § 103. (2) dyy (oxy), 
 Parad. VI. a. (3) 1wa, Parad. IV. 1, Sect. IX. 3. 
 (4) § 33, table. 
 
 8. 2Sam. 4:7. He lay upon his bed. (2) 
 293, Kal Part. § 131, 1, & 2, ¢ (8) § 99,4. 
 § 101. (4) man, § 92, Parad. A. 
 
 9. Lev. 19: Speak to the whole congregation 
 of the sons of eae nai, Piel, Imp. “rg, § 101. 
 +>, a noun in the constr. st. (whole of) from ‘ 
 (Parad. VIII.), see lex. no. 1, and observe the 
 limitation of the following noun by a succeeding 
 genitive. (4) my, § 92, Parad. B,db. (5) 73, 
 § 94, inflected in plur. like Parad. II. a. 
 
 10, Gen. 24:58. Wilt thou go with this man? 
 (1) 7, § 150, 2, 249, § 98,4. bn (see lex. 
 
 * The words in each sentence are thus indicated, by 
 numbering them from the right. 
 
 J2q, defective verb § 77), Kal fut. 2 f. sing. of 
 qu, Parad. J. (2) §99,a. (3) wy, § 94, 9 
 art. (4) no. 5, art. § 109, 2. 
 
 11. Ps. 104:1. Bless, O my soul, Jehovah. 
 jz Parad. C, Piel. (2) wp, (we), Parad. VI. a. 
 
 12. Gen. 41:57. Sore was the famine in the 
 whole earth. Arrangement of words, § 142, 1, a. 
 (2) av, Parad. IV., art. § 32. (8) %, no. 9. 
 (4) pus (Sect. IX. 8), § 29, 4, a, and c, Rem.— 
 Article, § 109, 1, Rem. 
 
 13, Prov. 4:2. For good instruction I give to 
 
 you. mm (mpd), Parad. VI. Sect. VIII. 3. (3) 
 
 § 110,1. (4) ym, Parad. G. § 65, Rem. 3, 
 § 124, 3. (5) § 100, 2, table, a, Arrangement, 
 no. 6. 
 
 14, Gen. 42:38. My son shall not go down 
 with you. Arrangement,no. 12. (2) 7», Parad. 
 I, (8)no.9. (4) § 100, Rem. 3. 
 
 15. Jer.7:2. Stand in the gate of the house of 
 Jehovah. (2) wd (Cyd), Parad. VI. d. Sect. 
 VIII. 3. constr. st. Omission of art. § 108, 2. 
 (3) ma, § 94. Sect. VIII. 3, a. Parad. VI. h. 
 
 16. Gen. 44:16. God hath found out the guilt 
 of thy servants. (1) no. 8 Art. § 107, 2. (2) 
 Parad. VV; with plur. nominative § 143, 2. (4) 
 jv, Parad. III. § 8,4. Art. omitted, (no. 15.) 
 (5) 7329 (av), Parad. VI. a. 
 
 17. Genesis 32:27. Let me go, for the morn 
 ariseth, rin, Parad. D, Piel Imp. mpd, with 
 suff. 2, (§ 33, table, A. § 60,2,;) for the 
 falling away of the final vowel, § 27, 3,4. Ac- 
 cent (:) = to a comma or semicolon (§ 15, 3), 
 class II. 5.—», § 21, 1, comp. Sect, III. (3) 
 Parads. O and B. (4) 1 (yd), Parad. VI. d. 
 
 . Ex. 17:4. What shall I do to this people? 
 bey _cctentm acres a) gay 8G) gy Pa 3. (2) my, Parads. O and B, Kal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 169 
 
 Jut.1 Sing. (3) = dyad, Sect. IX. 6. ny, Parad. | proached and blasphemed ? 
 
 VIIL a. (4) no. 5. 
 
 19. Gen. 3: 16. In sorrow shalt thou bring 
 Sorth children. x39 (yy), Parad. VL a. (2) 
 ty, Parad. J. (3) no. 9. 
 
 20. Gen. 40:11. And Pharaoh’s cup [was] 
 in my hand. (1) vid, Parad. I, (8) Sect. IX. 2. 
 
 21. Prov. 3:1. My son, my law forget thou 
 not. (1) no. 9. Accent (-) § 15, class II. 7, 
 comp. no. 17. (2) min, § 92, Parad. A. (4) 
 mw. — § 125, 3, ¢. 
 
 22. Gen. 3:17. Because thou hast hearkened 
 to the voice of thy wife. (2) nos. 2 and 4. 
 (3) omission of the art. no. 15. (4) mix, § 94. 
 § 92, expl. 3, Rem. — § 29, 4, 4, «. 
 
 23. 2 Kgs. 20:14. What said these men? 
 (2) Parad. H. (3) no. 10 (8); 9 art. (4) 
 § 37, 1, and Rem. 2. § 109, 2. 
 
 24, Gen. 28:1. Thou shalt not take a wife of 
 the daughters of Canaan. (2) mp}, § 65, Rem. 2. 
 Form of prohibition, comp. no. 21, and ref. 
 (4) na, § 94; inflexion of plur. § 92, Parad. B, 
 a. yo, Sect. IX. 4, Lex. 1. 
 
 25. Ps. 103:14. He knoweth our frame. 
 
 (2) Parads. Jand D. (8) 1x (x) Parad. VI. 3, 
 
 with suff. Sect. V. I. 3. 
 
 26. Ex. 9:35. -(2) no. 17. 
 
 27. Proy.4:2. My law forsake ye not. (1) 
 no. 21, (3) aw, Parad. B, § 29, 4, 6.—comp. 
 no, 21. 
 
 28. Ex.10:1. For I have hardened his heart, 
 and the heart of his servants. (2) § 184, Rem. 2. 
 (3) "22, Hiph. see lex. Kal 5, Hiph. 3. (5) 25, 
 Parad. VIII. (8) no. 16. 
 
 29. Gen. 9:13. My bow I set in the cloud. 
 (2) mop, Parad. VL a. (3) no. 13. (4) joy, 
 Parad. IV. Prep. and art. § 32, b, and Rem. 2. 
 Use of the art. § 107, 3, Rem. 1, d. 
 
 30. Prov. 6:20. Keep, my son, the command- 
 ment of thy father. (3) myn, § 92, Parad. A. 
 (4) ax, § 94. 
 
 31. Gen. 9:3. I have given to you all, (2) 
 no. 13. (4) no. 9. 
 
 32. Job 35:2. This dost thou regard as right? 
 (1) no. 10 (1), and § 37,1. (2) § 124,3. (3) 
 Parad. Il. 4. 5 prep. for right = as right, see 
 lex. a7, Kal 2. 
 
 33, Lev. 22:2. (1) no. 9. (5) ibid. 
 
 34, 2 Kings 19 : 22, Whom hast thou re- 
 
 (2) comp. 18 (1). 
 (8) Parad. C, Piel. (4) Piel. 
 
 85. Ex. 17:2. Why should ye tempt Jehovah? 
 (1) lex. B. and C. Gram. p. 131, note. § 37, 3, 
 Rem. a; comp. Sect. IV. at the end. (2) no), 
 Parad. O, Piel fut. }, § 47, Rem. 4.—§ 125, 3, d, 
 
 36. Judg. 20:25, All these drew [lit. (were) 
 drawers of | the sword. (1) no. 9, (2) § 37,1; 
 omission of art. § 108, 2. (3) Hx, Kal Part. 
 Parad. VII. ; construction, § 132, 2; omission 
 of the copula, § 141. (4) 3 (ann). 
 
 37. Gen. 82:30. Tell, I pray thee, thy name. 
 (1) 12, Parad. G. Hiph. Imp. m. sing., lengthened 
 form, (§ 48, 6. § 52, Rem. 3.) (2) § 127, 1. 
 Dagh. f. conj. § 20, 2,a. (8) ow, Parad. VII. 
 suff. 1. (see table) in pause; elsewhere ow. 
 
 38. Num. 10:30. To my land and to my 
 kindred will I go. (1) prop. subst. in the constr. 
 st.; see § 101. (2) Sect. IX. 8, (4) nin, 
 § 92, Parad. D, a. (5) no. 10 (1). 
 
 39. Jer. 6:20. Your sacrifices are not plea- 
 sant to me. mn, Parad. VI. e. § 90, expl. 6, 
 Rem. 1, 2nd J. (4) § 100, 2, a, 
 
 40. 1 Chron. 10:4. Draw thy sword and 
 thrust me through therewith. (1) no. 36. (2) ibid. | 
 (3) 73, Imp. +p, with suff. § 60, 2, b. § 62, 2. | 
 comp. § 90, expl. 6, Rem. 4. (4) § 100, 2, a, 
 Rem. § 151, 3, 2, 2nd . 
 
 41, Ex. 10:3. Let my people go, that they 
 may serve me. (1) no. 17, (2) no. 18. (8) 729, 
 Kal, fut. plur. 3 m. yy; with suff. § 60, 2, a. 
 § 8,4, and Rem. 5,2. Use of } with the Fut, 
 § 125, 3, a. comp. § 126, 1, c, and § 152, Ist 4, 
 and let. e. 
 
 42. 1 Chron. 12:18. Peace to thee, and peace 
 to thy helpers; for thy God helpeth thee. (1) 
 Parad. III. (4) sy, Kal Part. (Parad. VII.) 
 plur. with suff. 7,, § 35, Rem. 3. Accent and 
 fol. mute, comp. no. 17. (6) iy, Kal Prat. 
 3 m, sing. with suff. (§ 60, 2, b) 4, which unites . 
 with itself the final stem-letter. For this de- 
 viation from the analogy of sufformatives begin- 
 ning with a consonant (Sect. V. I. 2, (2), a, 
 comp. c), see § 89, 2,c. Vowel changes, § 27, 
 2, a, and 3, a. —§ 124, 3. 
 
 43, Ex. 10:24. Go, serve Jehovah. (1) no, 
 10 (1). 
 
 44, 1 Kgs, 5:22. JI have heard that which 
 [the message which] thou hast sent unto me, 
 
 (2 and 8) § 121,2. (5) § 101. | 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 170 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 45. Judg.17:2. Behold, the silver is with me ; 
 I took it. (1) no. 7. (2) pa (ADD), Parad. 
 VI. a. (3) mx, prop. a substantive, accus. of 
 place, (§ 36,1. § 116, 1, 6;) with suff. § 100, 
 Rem. 2, Accent comp. no. 17. (4) emphatic,— 
 I took it; comp. no. 28 (2). (5) Sect. IX. 15. 
 
 46. Prov.4:1. Hear, ye children, a father’s 
 instruction. (8) Parad. II. 0d. 
 
 47, Jer. 16:2. Thou shalt not take for thyself 
 a wife, and thou shalt not have [lit. there shall not 
 be to thee] sons and daughters, in this place. (2 
 and 4) no. 24. (8) § 122, 1, & (6) mn, 
 Parad. O, Kal fut. plur. 3 m. (9) no. 24 (4). 
 (10) prep. and art. Sect. IX. 6. — Parad. IIL. 
 
 48. Ps. 104:24. The earth is full of thy 
 creatures, Arrangement, no. 12. (1) xm, 
 Parad. WV, § 73, Rem. 1. (2) § 90, expl. 6, 
 Rem. 1. (8) pop, Parad. II. 
 
 49. Job 35:3. What will it profit thee? 
 (1) § 37, 3, a. (2) yoo, fut. oor; § 27, 1, a. 
 
 50. Job 35:6. What wouldst thou do unto 
 him? (2) mivy, Parads. B and O. Kal fut. 
 § 125, 5. (8) Dagh. f. conj. § 20, 2, a. 
 
 51. Prov. 7:1. 
 and my precepts shalt thou treasure up with thee. 
 (3) vox, Parad. VI. b. § 29, 4, a. (4) no. 80, 
 § 8,4. (5) pox, § 125, 8,¢. (6) no. 45. 
 
 52. Ex.9:5. To-morrow will Jehovah do this 
 thing, in the land. (1) comp. § 98, 2, & (4) 
 no. 1. (5) no. 5. accent Tiphhha. (6) no. 12. 
 Sect. IX. 6. 
 
 53. 1 Kgs. 5:20. And the wages of thy ser- 
 vants will I give to thee, according to all which 
 thou shalt say. (1) -v, Parad. IV. (8) no. 13. 
 (4) accent Zageph-qaton. (7) final Tseri, 
 § 67, 1. 
 
 54, Lev. 20:2. The people of the land shall 
 stone him with stones. (1) omission of art. 
 § 108, 2. (3) Dm, comp. no, 41.—§ 148, 1. 
 (4) Jax Gy), Parad. VL, lit. with the stone, 
 (a, no. 40,) § 127, Rem, 1, 5. 
 
 55. 1 Sam. 12:10. But now, deliver us from 
 the hand of our enemies, and we will serve thee. 
 (1) § 152, b. § 147, 2, 2nd J. (2) by, Parad. 
 G, Hiph. Imp.; suff. 3 attached to the full 
 form, § 52, Rem. 1, and 3. (4) 2x, Kal Part. 
 Parad. VII. (5) no. 41. suff. § 34, 2. § 63. 
 
 56. Ley. 20:14. With fire shall they burn him 
 and them (eas). (1) Parad. VIII.; prep. and 
 
 My son, preserve my words, 
 
 art. no. 54. (2) indeterminate third person, § 134, 
 3. (8 and 4) § 100, Rem. 2, 
 
 57. Num. 6:24. Jehovah bless thee, and pre- 
 serve thee. (1) Parad. C; § 63, Rem. 3. (8) 
 § 63. Suff. 4,; the Sheva becoming Seghol in 
 pause (§ 29, 4, b, «), the final vowel of the verb 
 falls away as before other suffixes beginning 
 with a vowel. 
 
 58. Ex. 10:25. Thou shalt put into our hand 
 sacrifices. (1) no, 53. (3) no. 39. 
 
 59. Gen. 22:12. Stretch not forth thy hand 
 against the lad. (2)17. (1 and 2) 21. (4) 38; 
 lex. A, 3. 
 
 60. Judg. 6:8. I brought you up from Egypt. 
 (1) no. 28. (2) no. 17, Hiph. (3) no. 56 (4). 
 
 61. Psalm 105: 11. 
 
 62. Judg. 6:13. Our fathers have told us. 
 (1) "0, Piel. (3) no. 30, § 86, 4. 
 
 63. Jer. 43:9. Take in thy hand great stones. 
 (1) no, 24, (4) 5a, Parad. III. fem. § 91, 1; 
 declension, § 92, Parad. A.—S 8, 4. 
 
 64. Judg. 17:6. In those days there was no 
 king in Israel. (1) nv, § 94. (2) § 33, Rem. 
 10. (8) prop. subst. ps constr. st. px* (Parad. 
 VI. h) nothing of a king = no hing. § 149, 6th ¥. 
 
 65. Ex. 9:33. And rain was not poured upon 
 theearth. (1) ww, Parad. IV. (3) Wiph. Parad. 
 G. (4) He local, § 93, 1, a. 
 
 66. Lev. 21:23. Unto the altar he shall not 
 approach, because a blemish [is] in him. (2) 
 mam, Parad. VII. (4) Paradigm G, accent 
 Tiphhha. 
 
 67. Gen. 42:33. By this shall I know that ye 
 are true. (1) § 37,1. comp. § 105,2. (2) no. 25. 
 (4) yp, Parad. I. 
 
 68. Ex.10:21. Stretch forth thy hand towards 
 heaven. (1) m2 (§ 75, 2,6), Parads. O and G, 
 § 65, Rem. 1. ornw, § 86, 5, Rem. 
 
 69. Ex.17:2. Give us water, that we may 
 drink. (1) no. 13. (8) § 86,5,Rem. (4) ny; 
 use of ) with Fut. no. 41. 
 
 70. Judg. 6:16. (1) myn, Parad. O. (2) 
 no, 14, 
 
 71. Ps. 104:24, (1) no. 9; lit. their whole. 
 (2) moo (+ = 3), $92. Parad. d. (8) no. 50. 
 
 72. Genesis 1:29. (5) § 109, 1, Rem. (6) 
 Parad. VI. § 90, expl. 6, Rem. 2. 
 
 * § 98,1, represented as a primitive adverb; but see 
 Lex. 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 73. Judg. 9:10. Go thou, — reign over us. 
 (1) no. 10. (3) yop, Imp. § 46, Rem. 2. (4) 
 § 101. prop. a plur. noun, (accus. of place, § 116, 
 1, b, in the space above, § 106, 2, a,) with a 
 nominal suff. 
 
 74, 2 Kings 20:15. (2) my. (8) no. 15. 
 
 75. Num. 1:4, And there shall be with you a 
 man of each tribe. (1) no. 45. (2) no. 70; plur., 
 as required by the sense. (3 and 4) distributively, 
 § 106, 4. (5) men (with prep. and art.), Parad. 
 IX. 5, § 112, b;— the tribe, (i. e. which he re- 
 presents.) 
 
 76. Gen. 8:20. And he offered burnt offerings 
 upon the altar. (1) thy, Hiph. fut. apoc. § 48. 
 § 74, 4, and Rem. 3, d. Vav Conversive, § 48, 5. 
 § 126, 3. 
 
 77. Gen. 42:33. The dearth of your house- 
 holds (their necessities = what is necessary for 
 them) take and go. (2) jiav}, Parad. III; the 
 penult vowel falling away in the constr. st. a 
 helping vowel is required under the first radical, 
 § 28, 1 and 2. (8) no. 15. Methegh, § 9, 1, 
 Rem. (4) no, 24. (5) 3, § 102, Rem. c.—No. 
 10; § 29, 4, d. 
 
 78. Judg. 21:18. But we cannot give them 
 wives of our daughters. (3) 533, § 77, Rem. 1. 
 
 _(4) 5 for 5; pointed thus before many mono- 
 syllabic words, and dissyllables with a penult 
 accent. nn, no. 13; Inf. constr. § 65, Rem. 3. 
 Seiigouetp) 5 LOO, 1, ¢. (6) no, 222° (7) 
 no. 24. yo, orig. signif. part of, § 99, a. § 151, 1, 
 a, B, and 3, c. Lex. 
 
 79. Gen. 8:16. Go forth from the ark, thou; 
 and thy wife, and thy sons and thy sons’ wives, with 
 thee. (1) wx, § 75, 2, d. Parads. J and NV. 
 (3) man, § 92, Parad. A. (7) no. 78 (6). (9) 
 no. 45. Division of the verse by the accents 
 nearly as in the translation. 
 
 80. Ex. 17:1. And there was no water for the 
 people to drink. (1) no. 64 (3). (2) no. 69. 
 (3) ibid. (4); Jnfin. constr. with 5; lit. for the 
 drinking of the people, § 129. nv7, subject, § 130, 1. 
 
 81. Prov. 11:28. He that trusteth in his 
 riches, Ke shall fall. (1) rma, Kal Part. § 131, 
 1, § 142, 2, Rem. whoso trusteth. (2) -wy, Parad. 
 VI.c. (8) no, 28 (2). (4) ‘2, Parad. G. 
 
 82. Ex. 18:3. J am a sojourner in a strange 
 land. (1) Parad. I. (2) no. 70. § 124, 3. (4) 
 Sem. of 2 (9) and », § 85, 6); for the 
 doubling of », comp. § 90, expl. 8, Rem. 3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 83. Judg. 17:3. And now I will return it to 
 thee. (2) 13, Parad. L, Hiph. fut. Suff. § 34, 2, 
 table. 
 
 84. Gen. 3:19. (2) Parad IV. 
 
 85. Gen. 2:18. (3) no. 70. Infin. constr. 
 § 129, 1,4; followed by the subject, § 130, 1. 
 (4) art. § 107, 2. (5) 3, prep. im; 73, noun, 
 Parad. VIII.; i, suffi; § 98, 2, a. 
 
 86. Genesis 9:9. And I,—behold I esta- 
 blish my covenant with you. (1) comp. § 142, 2. 
 (2) § 103, 2. § 36,2. For forms with suffixes 
 see lex.; for the falling away of 7 final, comp. 
 § 74, Rem. 18. (8) no. 83. § 131, 2, a, and 
 Rem. 1. (5) Parad. I. fem. gender, § 90, a. 
 
 87. Ex.8:5. How long shall I pray for thee, 
 and for thy servants, and for thy people? (1) 
 ‘md; comp. § 98, 2,a. (2) xny, Hiph. (4) no. 16, 
 
 88. Ex. 2:13. Wherefore wouldst thou smite 
 thy fellow? (1) im, lex. D, 3. § 147,5. (2) 
 72, § 75, 2, 6. Hiph. fut. § 125, 3, d. (3) x, 
 Parad. I. 
 
 89. 1 Kings 5:15. (5:1.) For he had heard 
 that him they had anointed hing in the place of 
 his father. (2) pluperf. § 124, 1. (4) no. 56. 
 (5) no. 56 (2). (6) 5, lex. A, 3. (7) subst. in 
 the constr. st. prop. space beneath ; hence (lex. 2) 
 place, stead; here accus. loci, § 116, 1, b: comp. 
 § 99, a. Poa 
 
 90. 1 Kings 5:19. Thy son, whom I will put 
 in thy place upon thy throne, he shall build the 
 house to my name. (1 and 7) § 142,2. (4) no. 
 89; plur. § 101, at the end, § 106,2,a. (5) 
 orig. a subst. (space over or above) constr. st. of 
 oy, and accus. of place; comp. § 101, 7th ¥. 
 (6) no2, Parad. VII. see expl. 7, Rem. 6; 
 omission of Dagh. f. § 20, 3, b. With the 
 accent the suff. 7, becomes 7. (§ 29, 4, B, «); 
 without the accent the form is NDP On account 
 of the guttural. (8) m2. (10) Sect. IX. I. 
 
 91. Jer. 44:25. We will perform our vows 
 which we have vowed. (1 and 2) § 128, 3, a. 
 (4) vp, Parad. VI. 
 
 92. Judg. 20: 28. Go up; for to-morrow I 
 will deliver him into thy hand. (5) suff. sing. (thy) 
 collectively, with reference to the people as a | 
 whole; comp. no. 94 (3 and 5): § 144, Rem. 1, 
 2nd , is not applicable here. 
 
 93. Job 40:4, Behold, I am vile! what shall 
 I answer thee? (2) %p, Parad. F; for accent, 
 see § 15, table (15), and Rem. 2. (4) no. 83; 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 suff. § 34, 2, table ; with two accusatives (§ 136, 1), 
 see lex. Hiph. 2, b. 
 
 94. Ley. 19: 33. And if there shall sojourn 
 with thee a stranger in your land, ye shall not 
 oppress him. (1) prop. and when; see Gram. 
 p. 136, 7th ¥, 5, and Lex. B, 3. (2) ‘3, Parad. 
 L. (4) no. 82. (7) mm, § 75, 2, e, Hiph., fut. 
 Form of prohibition, comp. nos. 24 and 21, 
 (3 and 5) suff. comp. no. 92. 
 
 95. Lev. 19:2. 
 (1) Parad. III. 
 § 142, 1, d. 
 
 96. 2 Kings 19:22. Against whom hast thou 
 raised the voice? (3) on, Parad. Z, Hiph. (4) 
 strictly, indefinite: Dagh. f. conj. § 20, 2, a. 
 
 97, 2 Chron. 11:4. (8) accent Pazer. 
 omy, Wiph. (9) me, § 94. 
 
 98. Is. 37:10. Let not thy God, in whom thou 
 trustest, deceive thee. (2) sw (§ 75, 2, a), Parads. 
 G and N, Hiph. fut. xv, with suff. 4, which 
 becomes 7_, (§ 22, 3) on account of the guttural; 
 see § 63, Rem. 3, and § 73, 2, 3rd |. — § 8, 4. 
 (4 and 7) in whom, lit. who — in him; § 121, 1, 
 and Rem. 2. (6) no. 81. 
 
 99. Ex.17:2. Comp.no.35. (2) 2, Parad. 
 M, Kal fut. Gyn) with Nun paragog., (§ 47, 
 Rem. 4;) for the shifting of the tone, comp. 
 § 71,6. (3) § 100, Rem. 3. 
 
 100. Esth. 1:11. For fair of aspect was she. 
 (2) nr, fem. miw, § 91, 1; inflexion § 92, 
 Parad. A; connexion with the following subst. 
 § 110, 2. (8) Parad. IX. 
 
 101. Psalm 104:24. (1) lex. B, 2. 
 Parad. F. (8) Parad. IX. 
 
 102. Num. 10:29. (1) no. 10; Kal Imp. with 
 1 paragog. § 68, Rem. 1. (2) suff. § 35, Rem. 
 1, 2nd 4. (8) 3:0 § 77, where (in order to con- 
 form to the lex.) a7 should be added as Hiph. 
 of aim. Use of Pret., (and we do thee good,) 
 comp. § 124, 6. 
 
 103. Is. 62:11. (2) no, 24 (4). —§ 105, 2, ¢; 
 see lex. 5. (5) vw, Parad. C. Abstract for 
 concrete, § 104, 2, 2nd 4. (6) (cometh) xia, 
 § 75, 2, f. 
 
 104, Gen. 3:19. (1) ryt, § 92, Parad. A. 
 (2) my, Parad. VIII. (3) Parad. H. (4) (or) 
 Parad. VI.; see Rem. 1, 8rd J. (5) § 99,4. 
 (6) (thy returning) Inf. constr. with suff. governed 
 by the prep. wy; § 129, 1. §130,1, Rem. (7) 
 
 Be ye holy; for holy am I. 
 (2) no. 70. Arrangement, 
 
 (7) 
 
 (2) an, 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY., 
 
 § 151, 3,d. (8) § 92, Parad, B, c.— ‘in (with 
 penult accent) § 29, 3, b. 
 
 105. Jer. 6: 22. 
 III. 
 
 106. Ps. 105:42. (5) Parad. VI.c. (4 and 
 5) § 104, 1, with suff. § 119, 3; lit. his word-of- 
 holiness. 
 
 107. Prov. 6:6. (3) fem.—plur. o—, § 86, 4. 
 (6) Jy GyyD, Parad. VI. a. (7) 029, Kal Imp. 
 § 46, 2, Rem. 1. 
 
 108. Jer. 14:21. (2) 1p, Parad. F, Hiph. 
 fut. (8) no. 86. (4) no. 102. 
 
 109. 2 Chron.11:4, (1)no.104. (2) § 122, 
 Rem. 1. (5) lit. from with me, see § 151, 2, and 
 
 (6) msn, see lex. Miph. 1. 
 110. 2 Chron. 10:10. (2) no. 28. here, 
 literally, made heavy. (4) 5», Parad. VIII. (5) 
 1, but; thou, no. 28 (2). (6) no. 93; Hiph. 
 Imp.; §127, 1. (7) § 151, 2, a, with suff. of 
 plur. noun, § 101; — lit. lighten from upon us. 
 
 111. Jer. 6:26. (2) § 98, 3. (8) no. 103. 
 (4) 118, Kal Part. 
 
 112. 1 Sam. 25:35. And to her he said, — go 
 up, in peace, to thy house. (4) 42; 4, § 151, 3, e, 
 2nd 4. 
 
 113. 2 Chron. 10:11. (1) see lex. nny. (8) 
 cov, Hiph. (4) no. 110 (7). (5) no. 110 (4). 
 (8) AD, § 77, Rem. 1.—§ 8, 4. (9) § 151, 
 3, b. 
 
 114. Ex.17:5. (1) men, Parad. TX. (2 and 
 4) no. 98.3, no. 40. (3) no. 88. (6) Wy; 
 omission of Dagh. f. in », § 20, 3, 6, and «; use 
 of the art. § 107, 3. (7) no. 63. 
 
 115. 2 Kgs. 19:22. (1—4) no. 96. (5) xi, 
 § 75, 2, a; Vawv conversive, no. 76. (6) Pa- 
 rad. III. aceus. § 116, 1. (7) py, Parad. VI. h; 
 Dual with suff. 
 
 116. Judg. 18:11. (1) op, Parad. Z. (2) 
 no. 10. (1 and 2) converse fut. § 71, Rem. 4. 
 § 126, 3. (4) prop. plur. noun, space behind, 
 (comp. § 106, 2, a;) construct state and accu- 
 sative of place, in the rear of —, hence as a prep. 
 after; comp. § 101. (5) no. 22, 
 
 117. Judg. 20:32. (3) accent Zageph-qgaton. 
 (4) pv, Kal fut.; with He paragog. § 48. § 126, 
 1. (5) pm, Kal Pret. p, § 20, 2,6. Suff. him, 
 collectively, as often in English.— § 124, 6; let 
 
 (4) constr. st. (5) Parad. 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 us flee, —and we draw them away, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 

 
 
 
 
 (9) moon, § 92, Parad. d. 1 (without Dagh.) 
 § 20, 3, b. 
 
 Lisp bx.) 10:22: 
 converse fut, no. 116. 
 
 119. Neh. 1:8. (2) byn, § 29, 4, 5; should 
 ye deal faithlessly = if ye —, comp. § 125, 5. 
 (4) pe, Hiph. 
 
 120. Ex. 10:23. (8 and 5) § 122, Rem. 4. 
 (5) no. 97, (8) no. 109. (9) no. 90 (4). (10) 
 § 95, 1. § 118, 1, a; accusative designating 
 length of time, § 116, 2, 6. (11) no. 64. 
 
 121. Gen, 40:13. (1) 3 mm, and ty, Infin. 
 absol. of the verb ny, in the continuing = whilst 
 yet; comp. lex. iy, 5. (2) time how long as in 
 preced. no. (4) no. 115. (7) § 94. (8) 293; 
 Synt. no. 117 (5). (10) 72, Parad. VIII. 
 
 122. Jer. 7:23. (3) thenamT. (5) 5 (§ 28, 
 2. § 24, 2, a), comp. 5 mn, lex. > A, 3. 
 
 123. 1 Sam. 16:2. (1) § 92, Parad. A. (2) 
 Parad. IV. § 106, 1. (5) tone, § 44, Rem. 3, d. 
 (6) m3, Inf. constr. § 139, 2. (7) § 100, 1, 
 last {. (8) no. 103. 
 
 124, Ex.4:2. (1) § 37,3,a. (4) no. 114. 
 
 125. Gen. 6:21. (2 and 3) 9, § 151, 3, e. 
 (4) all hinds of, § 109, 1, Rem. (5) Parad. IT. 
 (7) Parad. H; § 125, 3, d. 
 
 126. Gen. 35:9. (1) my}, Miph. fut. apoc. 
 with Vav conversive; § 74, Rem. 7. (2) omis- 
 sion of art. § 107, 2. (5) no. 121. prop. Inf 
 absol. in the accusative expressing a qualifying 
 circumstance (§ 128, 2) with repeating = again; 
 § 98,2, d. (6) at (or in) his going = when he 
 went; xa (§ 8, 4) no. 103, Inf. constr. : comp. 
 Sect. IX. 19. (7) yx, Parad. IL (9) > with- 
 out Daghesh, § 20, 3, , 
 
 (1) no. 68 (1). § 75, 2, d; 
 
 GENESIS, CHAPTER XII. 
 
 V.1. (5 and 6) no. 10; § 151, 3, e& (8) no. 
 38; verbal form denoting often the place of the 
 action, § 83,14. § 84, III. (ult.) mn, Hiph. 
 with suff. § 74, Rem. 18. § 34, 2, table; with two 
 accusatives § 136, 1. 
 
 V. 2. (1) », helping vowel § 28,1. Methegh 
 § 16, 2,c. Sect. I. Rem. 3. (2) 5, see lex. A, 
 3. (4) no 57. (1 and 4) 4 without Dagh. 1. 
 § 21, 2, c, and § 33, Rem. 6, 2nd J. Divide 
 thus: v®xé-vds*-khd, vd-»*bhd-rthh?-khd; so v. 3, 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 
 
 173 
 
 u-meqdl-lele-khd. (5) paragog. fut.; with Vav 
 conversive, § 48, 5. (7) 3, comp. § 57, 2,¢. In 
 this and similar cases, Methegh may have indi- 
 cated such a delay of the voice upon the short 
 vowel, as is required in an open syllable: com- 
 pare its use in the combinations - 1- &c. § 26, 2, 
 Rem. d. Sect. II. Rem. 2.—Equivalent to thou 
 shalt be, § 127, 1. (ult.) Parad. B, ec. 
 
 V. 3. (2) Piel Part. plur. (3) no. 93; Piel 
 Part. sing.; with suff. § 90, expl. 7, b. The 
 change from the plur. to the: sing. is merely 
 a poetic variation in the form of expression. 
 (4) rx. (7) followed by a definite substantive. 
 (8) mmewo, Parad. B, § 92, expl. 1, 3rd 4. 
 (ult.) no. 104, 
 
 V. 4. (3) according to what =as. (4) § 51, 
 Rem. 1. (5)§$101. (8)no.45. (11) § 104, 2, d. 
 (42— 15) § 118 (16) no. 79; at his going 
 Sorth = when he went forth: mx, mez; comp. 
 § 24, 2, a. 
 
 V.5. (12) Parad. I. with suffin.. (14) § 29, 
 4,6. (16) Parad. VI. (wm). (21) no. 10. 5, 
 pointing, no. 78 (4); use with the Infin. lex. 5 
 C,1. (22) comp. no. 65. Last word but one, 
 myx (Hahn’s ed.) by mistake for my w. (23 
 and ult.) 3, § 20, 2, a. 
 
 V. 6. Observe the modifications of the ge- 
 neral idea of motion in the verbs 77; NZ, Nia, 
 “av. (5) bo. 47. genitive, (in place of apposition,) 
 § 113, 3. (10) art. § 107, 1. 
 
 V. 7. (1) no. 126. (10) § 37, 1, and Rem. 2. 
 (11) ma, convers. ful. § 74, Rem. 3, a. (13) no. 
 66: § 83, 14,— place where sacrifice is offered. 
 (15) mx, Wiph. Part.; art. § 108, 3, Rem. mid. 
 
 V.8. (2) § 147, last |. (3) “4 (with the 
 art. 17), Parad. VIII. comp. § 81, 2; with He 
 local, § 93,1, a. (4) (O12) Parad. VL; on the 
 east, comp. § 147, 1, 38rd J. (7) no. 118. (8) 
 ak, § 90, expl. 6, Rem. 3. (11) on the sea, i.e. 
 on the side towards the sea. ma and yn (art. 
 § 107, 3) in the accusative (the casus adverbialis) 
 as adverbial designations, — with Bethel on the 
 west, and Ai on the east. 
 
 V.9. (1) yo. (8 and 4) absolute Infinitives, 
 used adverbially (eundo et castra movendo) with 
 
 going and removing, i. e. continually removing ; | 
 § 128, 3, b, and Rem. 3. (5) 23) (Parad. VI.) | 
 
 with art. and He local. 
 
 V. 10. (1) converse fut. of 7, § 74, Rem. 
 3, e; » (without Dagh.) no. 126 (9). Methegh 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 174 
 
 may here indicate a delay of the voice upon the 
 vowel, in an open syllable, —v. 2 (7), — or ina 
 closed one of the form described Sect. II. Rem. 1: 
 comp. its use in 3% Ad'lelii, and before nm, 7m, 
 , »» when the article is prefixed. (2) no. 12. 
 (4) no. 14. (6) 7 local. (7) no. 94 (2). 4, 
 vy. 5 (21). (10) Parad. V. 
 
 V. 11. (2) v. 4; here with reference to time. 
 (3) mp, Hiph. (4) no. 103. § 139, 2. (6) 4, 
 comp. § 152, Ist{. (15) mp», fem. mm, (§ 91, 
 1, Parad, IX.,) Parad. B, a.. (15 and 16) Synt. 
 no. 100. 
 
 V. 12. 
 e, 8rd J, 6. (4) no. 56. 
 (ult.) mom, Piel. 
 
 V. 13. (8)§ 94. (5) yn, lex. A, 2, to the 
 end, it may be well = that it may—. (6) Parad. 
 K. (8) way. (ult.) 3, lex. 2. 
 
 V.14. (2) 3, lex. B, 5, b.—Infin. constr. 
 followed by the subject in the genitive, § 130,1: 
 the form has here the effect of the pluperfect ; — 
 when Abraham had entered. (ult.) § 98, 2, 6. — 
 niq, see § 33, Rem. 7, 2nd 4. 
 
 V..15. (3) Ww. ©) Gm, Pied. 5, § 10, 
 Rem. a; comp. § 20, 3, 6, a (9) no. 24; § 65, 
 Rem. 2. (11)'§ 116, 1, a. 
 
 V. 16. (1) > sign of the dative $115, 2. (5) 
 see lex. 5 A, 4, b. 
 
 V.17. (5) v2 (yp) Parad. VI. (1 and 5) 
 § 135, 1, Rem. 1, 8rd ex. (9 and 10) lex. 123, 4. 
 
 V. 18. ( and 6) comp. nos. 67 and 124, 
 (8 and 12) Dagh. f. conj. § 20,2,a. (11) no. 37. 
 
 Ve19NE AS 126.182 1(7)9S) 122516) for, 
 a wife, comp. lex. > A,9, lastex. (wlt.) 1 § 102, 
 Rem. c. 
 
 V. 20. (1) my Piel fut. apoc. § 74, Rem. 9. 
 (2) lex. by A,2,f. (ult.) § 112, a. 
 
 (1) comp. § 124, 4. (2) when, § 152, 
 (6 and 9) § 124, 6. 
 
 * * As an exercise on the use of the accents, 
 point out the tone-syllables marked by them, and 
 the instances in which they divide the verse in 
 accordance with the sense or otherwise. At first 
 only the large distinctive accents need be no- 
 ticed. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 V.1. (1) Kal fut. comp. no. 76; § 74, Rem. 
 3, d, and Rem. 14. (ulé.) see lex. 133, a 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 
 
 
 
 V. 2. (4—6) prep. and art. Sect. IX. 6. § 107, 
 Rem. 1, 5. (4 and 6) Parads. IX. and IV. 
 
 VY. 3. (2) von, Parad. II. The phrase ex- 
 presses the manner or mode of proceeding, (by 
 encampments or stations,) and hence ) may be 
 referred to lex. A, 9: according to (or by) his 
 encampments, i. e. from one encampment, or station, 
 to another. (9 and 11) § 121, 1, and Rem. 2. 
 comp. no. 98. (13) mm, Parad. A. (14 and 
 17) pa, constr. st. of pa, (Parad. VI.) a dividing, 
 or separating ; prop. a noun in the accusative, as 
 an adverbial designation, (§ 116 ;)—with a divid- 
 ing or separating of Bethel (to the one side), and a 
 dividing of Ai (to the other); hence, in the midst, 
 between. 
 
 V. 4. (7) yen. V.5. (2) > asin 12: 16 (5). 
 (4) § 151, 1,4, a (ult.) § 90, expl. 6, Rem. 3. 
 
 V.6. (5) 2 for dwelling =so that they 
 might dwell; lex. 5 C, 4. (6) 1m? prop. a 
 subst. in the accusative, (§ 98, 2, b,) with suffi— 
 (10) 1 Parad. VIII. ; 
 
 (13) 
 
 in their union = together. 
 in pause, § 29, 4, a. (12) no. 78 (8). 
 § 139, 2. 
 
 V. 7. (4) my Kal Part. (Parad. IX.) plur. 
 constr. st. (4—6) Abraham’s herdsmen, § 118, 1. 
 
 V.8. (5) $149, 52" 2nd. Sie) comin 
 12:10. § 126, 2, 6. (8) Parad. A. (16 and 
 17) nos. 23 and 97. § 111. 
 
 V.9. (1) §150,2,2nd4. (4) mp (as Parad. 
 IX.) lex. D, 2. 5 in, (lex. B,1.) (5) a; for 
 the penult accent see § 29, 3, 6. (7) lex. by, A, 
 3, and C, II. 2: comp. §151,3,6. (9) SXow with 
 art.; accus. of place whither. (10) ya», Parad. 
 K; fut. paragog. § 126, 1. } then, § 152, a, 3rd {. 
 (12) por Parad. IIT. (ult.) Syn. (10 and ult.) 
 § 38, 2, ¢. 
 
 V.10. (5) mn, § 74, Rem. 3,¢. (8) Parad. 
 II. (11) no. 71. (12) Parad. IX.; omission of 
 the copula, § 141. (13) v. 9, plur. constr. (14) 
 nw Piel Inf. constr.; in the genitive, followed 
 by another genitive as the subject and by the 
 accus. of the object (§ 130, 1 and 2),— before 
 Jehovah's destroying Sodom. (18—19) paren- 
 thetical. (20) no. 6. (20, 21) comp. lex. 4x, 
 8, 2nd J. (24) wxiz Infin. constr. with suff, 
 (2 pers. § 134, 3,¢ ;) in the accusative (§ 116, 3), 
 —in thy going = as thou goest, i. e. along its (the 
 Jordan’s) course to Zoar. 
 
 V.11. (8) 13:9. (10) see lex. yo, 3, c. mid. 
 comp. § 147, 1, 3rd J. (12 and 14) no, 120. 
 
 
 
eo, 
 
 CHRESTOMATHY. 175 
 
 Valen?) 20.117 (7). (8).art-S 107; 2. V. 15. (6 and 7) § 131, 2, a. 
 
 V. 13. (3) Parad. VIII. (5) § 100, 1, 3rd q ; V. 16. (1) and I make, § 124, 4, and remark. | 
 comp. 5 non, lex. 9 A, 1. (4) no. 84. (6) for, lex. B, 3. (8) no. 78. 
 
 V.14. (5)no.116. (8)$151,2,a. (9) § 75, | (9) § 122, Rem. 2. (10) ip, Infin. constr. ; 
 2,a. Imp. with xy, § 127, 1. (18) no. 105. complement of preced. verb, § 139, 2; followed 
 (18—21) with 7 local, § 93, 1, a. Comp. lex. by the proper case of the verb, § 130, 1. 
 nim, 2, 07, 3. V.17. (4) 7x, Parad. VI. (5) am, do. 
 
 
 
 
 
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