BX  8067  .L9  1906 
 Lutheran  Liturgical 
 
 Association. 
 Memoirs  of  the  Lutheran 
 
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 PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ASSOCIATION 
 
 PITTSBURGH.  PA.,  t906 
 
Copyright,  1906, 
 
 by 
 
 The  IvUtlieran  Liturgical  Association. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ThK  study  of  our  historical  antecedents  and  the  attainments  of 
 doctrinal  definiteness  by  our  Church  in  this  country  have  empha- 
 sized the  great  points  which  Lutherans  of  every  land  and  lan- 
 guage hold  in  common  and  which  show  us  to  be  more  truly 
 united  and  to  stand  more  firmly  within  the  unbroken  historical 
 development  of  the  Church  Universal  than  any  other  Christian 
 Communion.  Our  wide  dispersion,  the  various  national  and  lin- 
 guistic factors  and  especially  the  un-Lutheran  and  sectarian  in- 
 fluences to  which  various  parts  of  the  Church  were  subjected 
 have  naturally  resulted  in  a  very  decided  lack  of  uniformity  in 
 our  external  life.  The  recognition  of  our  essential  doctrinal 
 unity,  the  growing  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  value  of  the 
 liturgical,  musical  and  other  art  treasures  of  our  fathers,  the 
 adoption  of  common  liturgical  forms  upon  the  basis  of  a  con- 
 census of  historic  usage,  the  general  advancement  in  intelligence 
 and  culture  as  well  as  the  rapid  Anglicization  of  our  vast  num- 
 bers in  this  country, — these  are  the  potent  factors  in  the  present 
 powerful  movement  that  seeks  to  secure  beauty,  correctness  and 
 desirable  uniformity  in  the  department  of  Liturgiology  and  Ec- 
 clesiastical Art — our  Public  Worship,  Church  Architecture  and 
 Ornament,  Church  Music,  Hymnology,  Ministerial  Acts  and 
 every  other  element  of  a  churchly  life.  Such  consistent,  histor- 
 ical and  distinctive  practice  with  all  its  evident  advantages  can 
 be  established  only  upon  a  discriminating  knowledge  of  liturgical 
 
11  MEMOIRS. 
 
 history  in  general  and  of  the  historical  development  of  Church 
 Art,  as  well  as  upon  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  particular 
 liturgical  and  artistic  principles,  usages  and  traditions  of  our  own 
 distinctive  Church-life-  To  encourage  and  promote  such  study 
 the  Lutheran  Liturgical  Association  was  organized.  Its  con- 
 sistent purpose  and  effort  have  been  to  assist  clergymen  and  lay- 
 men in  developing  an  intelligent  and  deeply  spiritual  devotional 
 life,  and  in  rightly  interpreting  our  beautiful  Services,  to  guard 
 against  the  hasty  adoption  of  innovations  and  practices  foreign 
 to  Lutheran  principles  or  usages,  and  to  meet  and  solve  the  many 
 important  and  practical  questions  constantly  arising  in  the  indi- 
 vidual parish. 
 
 The  organization  of  the  Association  was  suggested  by  the 
 President  in  a  conversation  with  the  future  Vice  President  and 
 Secretary  during  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Pittsburgh  Synod 
 of  the  General  Council  at  East  Liverpool,  Ohio.  A  preliminary 
 meeting  was  held  during  this  session  of  the  Synod,  September 
 3rd,  1898,  which  was  attended  by  twenty  or  more  clergymen.  A 
 permanent  organization  was  effected  at  a  meeting  held  in  the 
 First  English  Lutheran  Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  Rev.  Dr.  D. 
 H.  Geissinger,  Pastor,  October  3rd,  1898,  by  the  adoption  of  a 
 constitution  and  the  election  of  the  following  officers : 
 
 President,  The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed. 
 
 Vice  President,  The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F-  Krauss,  D.  D. 
 
 Secretary  and  Treasurer,  The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith. 
 
 Archivariiis,  The  Rev.  George  J.  Gongaware. 
 
 These  officers  have  been  re-elected  every  succeeding  year. 
 Together  they  constitute  the  Executive  Committee.  The  prac- 
 tical direction  of  the  interests  of  the  Association  has  thus  been 
 uninterruptedly  in  the  hands  of  those  most  active  in  its  organi- 
 zation seven  years  ago. 
 
 The  regular  monthly  meetings  have,  without  exception,  been 
 licld  in  the  First  Church,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  the  Revs.  D-  H.  Geis- 
 
PREFACE.  Ill 
 
 Singer,  D.  D.,  and  George  J.  Gongaware,  Pastors.  Fifty-one  such 
 regular  Conventions  have  been  held,  at  which  many  valuable 
 papers,  prepared  by  many  of  the  best-informed  men  in  all  parts 
 of  the  Church,  have  been  presented.  During  the  first  few  years 
 of  the  Association's  history,  in  addition  to  the  afternoon  sessions 
 in  the  First  Church,  an  evening  session  was  held  each  month  in 
 one  of  the  various  churches  of  Pittsburgh  or  vicinity,  to  which 
 the  congregations  of  the  city  were  especially  invited.  At  these 
 sessions  Vespers  were  read  and  various  liturgical  subjects  of  a 
 more  generally  popular  nature  were  discussed. 
 
 From  the  very  beginning  the  Association  endeavored  to  give 
 the  results  of  its  studies  permanent  form  and  thus  to  make  them 
 useful  to  a  far  larger  number  than  could  possibly  attend  the  meet- 
 ings. The  income  received  from  subscriptions  permitted  the  pub- 
 lication of  the  most  valuable  papers  in  the  Memoirs.  Sub- 
 scribers receive  every  single  publication  as  it  is  issued,  as  well  as 
 copies  of  all  programs,  etc.,  and  are  also  entitled  to  club  reduc- 
 tion upon  publications  controlled  by  American  publishers  and 
 importers. 
 
 The  work  and  membership  of  the  Association  soon  expanded 
 beyond  all  anticipation  and  demonstrated  that  the  Association 
 had  found  a  sphere  of  real  usefulness  in  almost  every  portion  of 
 the  English-speaking  Lutheran  Church  in  America.  Synodical 
 boundaries  and  distinctions  have  never  limited  its  work. 
 
 The  first  year  the  membership  comprised  seventy-five  sub- 
 scribers in  seven  different  States.  Last  year  (1905)  there  were 
 enrolled  nearly  four  hundred  members,  most  widely  distributed 
 throughout  twenty-two  States  of  the  LTnion,  four  Provinces  of 
 Canada,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  India,  and  representing 
 five  General  Bodies  of  the  Church.  Members  of  nearly  all  the 
 Synods  of  the  General  Council,  the  General  Synod,  the  United 
 Synod  of  the  South,  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  the  Icelandic 
 Synod  and  the  United  Norwegian  Synod  have  prepared  papers 
 
IV  MEMOIRS. 
 
 for  the  Memoirs  and  the  surprisingly  extensive  correspondence 
 which  from  the  beginning  has  devolved  ujion  the  President  and 
 the  Secretary  of  the  Association,  is  unmistakable  evidence  of  a 
 widespread  and  genuine  interest  in  all  parts  of  the  Church  and 
 in  all  parts  of  the  country  on  subjects  within  the  liturgical  field. 
 
 In  the  publication  and  dissemination  of  its  printed  literature 
 the  Association  finds  its  most  important  work — the  work  that  is 
 of  permanent  value  to  the  Church.  The  first  publication  issued 
 was  a  sixteen  page  "Bibliography  and  Outline  of  Study"  which 
 soon  was  out  of  print.  Four  papers  were  also  published  the  first 
 year  and  comprised  Volume  1  of  the  Memoirs,  issued  at  a  cost 
 of  $64.75.  1*^ic  growth  of  the  work  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
 the  mere  printing  of  last  year's  Memoirs  (Volume  \  II,  187 
 pages)  cost  the  Association  $319.25.  The  total  receipts  from 
 membership  dues,  sale  of  publications  and  other  sources  since  the 
 organization  has  been  $2,249.60;  total  expenditures  $2,243.28. 
 
 The  papers  collected  and  issued  in  the  various  volumes  of 
 the  Memoirs  are  undoubtedly  of  very  unequal  merit.  Some  are 
 quite  brief;  otliers  are  exhaustive  treatises  which  cmbo<ly  the 
 fruits  of  years  of  earnest  and  patient  investigation.  Altogether 
 they  unquestionably  comprise  the  niost  extensive  and  most  valu- 
 able collection  of  Lutheran  liturgical  literature  in  the  English 
 language.  Gathered  from  innumerable  sources  and  adapted  to 
 the  conditions  of  our  Chm'ch  in  this  country  by  special  students 
 of  acknowledged  standing,  many  of  these  papers  present  informa- 
 tion that  is  invaluable.  'J'lie  MivMoirs  are  regularly  used  as  sup- 
 ])lementary  text  books  in  some  of  our  Theological  Seminaries 
 and  they  have  certainly  proved  of  inestimable  service  to  pastors 
 and  laymen  in  many  parishes. 
 
 At  a  meeting  of  the  .Association  held  December  4th.  1905. 
 the  Association  declined  to  accept  the  resignation  of  the  Presi- 
 dent, but  by  resolution  acceded  to  his  urgent  request  to  be  re- 
 lieved of  the  duties  of  his  office  for  the  j)resent.     It  was  also  re- 
 
pre;f'ace;.  v 
 
 solved  that  the  regular  meetings  and  publications  be  for  the 
 present  discontinued  and  that  the  present  publications,  in  so  far 
 as  possible,  be  collected  and  issued  in  a  single  bound  volume. 
 
 In  the  Preface  to  Volumes  III-VII  reference  is  made  to 
 the  fact  that  Volumes  I  and  II  were  out  of  print.  Recognizing 
 the  unsatisfactory  character  of  an  incomplete  set  of  the  Memoirs, 
 the  x^ssociation  has  had  these  two  volumes  reprinted  and  uni- 
 formly bound  with  Volumes  III-VII,  thus  enabling  it  to  furnish 
 them  complete.  The  exceedingly  valuable  Index,  prepared  by 
 the  Secretary,  includes  the  entire  seven  volumes. 
 
 In  taking  advantage  of  this  resting  point  in  the  Association's 
 work  and  in  issuing  this  bound  volume,  it  was  deemed  advisable 
 to  include  the  facts  and  figures  given  above  relating  to  the  origin 
 and  development  of  the  Association  and  its  work.  In  years  to 
 come  they  may  seem  of  greater  interest  than  even  in  the  imme- 
 diate present. 
 
 Luther  D.  Reed. 
 
 Epiphany,  1907. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 VOLXJINIE    I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1.  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Christian  Wor- 
 
 ship -  -  -  -  -  -  -       I 
 
 The  Rev.  J.  C.  F.  Rupp 
 
 2.  Our   Distinctive  Worship — The  Common   Service 
 
 AND  Other  Liturgies,  Ancient  and  Modern      9 
 
 The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed 
 
 3.  The  Significance  of  Liturgical  Reform       -        -     19 
 
 The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 
 
 4.  The  Sources  of  the  Morning  Service  of  the  Com- 
 
 mon Service  -  -  -  -  -    41 
 
 The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith 
 
 VOI^TJ]VIE    II. 
 
 1.  The  Architecture  of  the  Chancel  -  -       i 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 
 
 2.  The  Significance  of  the  Altar       -  -  -       7 
 
 The  Rev.  Vv^.  E.  Schramm 
 
 3.  The  Swedish  Liturgies  -  -  -  -     15 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  N.  Forsander,  D.  D. 
 
 4.  Altar  Linen  -  -  -  -  -         -     29 
 
 The  Rev.  Luther  D.  Reed 
 
 5.  The  Sources  of  the  Minor  Services  -  -     35 
 
 The  Rev.  R.  Morris  Smith 
 
 6.  The  History  of   the  Liturgy  of  the  Lutheran 
 
 Church  in  Denmark  -  -  -  -     57 
 
 The  Rev.  E.  Belfour,  D.  D. 
 (v) 
 
VI  MEMOIRS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 7.  Thematic  Harmony  of  Introit,  Collect,  Epistle 
 
 AND  Gospel  -  -  -  -  -     75 
 
 The  Rev.  D.  H.  Geissinger.  D.  D. 
 
 8.  Art  in  Worship  -  -  -  -  -     83 
 
 The  Rev.  J.  F.  Ohl,  Mus.  Doc. 
 
 VOI^XJIME    III. 
 
 1.  The  Administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  Dif- 
 
 ferent Ages  of  the  Church        -  -  -       i 
 
 The  Rev.  G.  S.  Seam.\n 
 
 2.  The  Liturgical  History  of  Confirm.\tion  -       9 
 
 The  Rev.  C.  Theodore  Benze,  B.  D. 
 
 3.  The  Church  and  the  Liturgy  -  -  -     19 
 
 The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 
 
 4.  The  Church  Prayer      -  -  -  -  -     35 
 
 The  Rev.  C.  Armand  Miller 
 
 5.  The  Value  of  Liturgical  Study  for  Organists      -     47 
 
 The  Rev.  Gomer  C.  Rees 
 
 6.  A  General  Survey  of  the  Book  of  Common  Pkayer     59 
 
 The  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp 
 
 7.  Means  of  Liturgical  Reform  -  -  -     75 
 
 The  Rev.  T.  W.  Kretschmann,  Ph.   I). 
 
 8.  Liturgical  Education  of  the  Church's  Youth       -     81 
 
 The  Rev.   R.  E.  McDaniel,  Ph.  D. 
 
 9.  The  Sacrificial  Idea  in  Christian  Worship  -     89 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  G.  F.  Spieker,  D.  D. 
 
 10.  The  Place  of  Liturgy  in  the  Church's  Thought, 
 
 Life  and  Art         .  .  .  .  .  loi 
 
 The  Rev.  John  A.  W.  Haas,  D.  D. 
 
 11.  The  Liturgical  History  of  Baptism  -  -   113 
 
 The  Rev.  H.  S.  Gilbert 
 
 VOI.UIMK     IV. 
 
 I.     The   Liturgical    Influence    of    the    Lesser    Re- 
 formers       -  -  -  -  -  -       I 
 
 The  Rev.  C.  Theodore  Benze,  B.  I). 
 
CONTENTS.  vn 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2.  The  Ecclesiastical  Calendar  -  -  -     17 
 
 The  Rev.  N.  R.  Melhorn 
 
 3.  Luther's  Liturgical  Writings  -  -  -     29 
 
 The  Rev.  Earnest  Anton  Trabert 
 
 4.  The  Pericopes    -  -  -  -  -  -     47 
 
 The  Rev    Prof.  A.  Spaeth,  D.  D...LL.  D. 
 
 5.  Liturgical  Development   in   the   Period  of  the 
 
 Reformation  -  -  -  -  -     63 
 
 The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 
 
 6.  The    Liturgical    Deterioration    of    the   Seven- 
 
 teenth  AND   Eighteenth   Centuries   -  -     67 
 
 The  Rev.  J.  F.  Ohl,  Mus.  Doc. 
 
 7.  Liturgy  and  Doctrine  -  -  -  -     79 
 
 The  Rev.  D.  II.  Geissinger,  D   D. 
 
 8.  Early  American  Lutheran  Liturgies  -  -     85 
 
 The  Rev.  D.  M.  Kemerer 
 
 9.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Icelandic  Church         -  -     95 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  F.  J.  Bergmann 
 
 VOLUIVIE    V. 
 
 1.  The  Liturgical  Influence  of  Gregory  the  Great       i 
 
 The  Rev.   A.  L.  Ramer,  Ph.  D. 
 
 2.  The  Function  of  the  Minister  in  Divine  Worship      9 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 
 
 3.  A  Laity  Liturgically  WellTnformed         -  -     21 
 
 The  Rev.  A.  B.  Markley 
 
 4.  The  Signific.\nce  of  Symbolism  and  Its  Employ- 
 
 ment in  the  Service  of  the  Church      -  -     31 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  George  J.  Gongaware 
 
 5.  The  Collects    -  -  -  -  -  -    41 
 
 The  Rev.. Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp 
 
 6.  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Divine  Service     53 
 
 The  Rev.  G.  W.  Mhchling,  D.  D. 
 
 7.  Regulations  and  Customs  Pertaining  to  the  Use 
 
 OF  the  Sacraments  -  -  -  -     69 
 
 The  Rev.  Ira  M.  Wallace,  Ph.  D. 
 
 8.  Liturgical  Accuracy  and  Spirituality       -  -     85 
 
 The  Rev.  H.  Douglas  Spaeth 
 
Vlll  MEMOIRS. 
 
 VOr^UMlEJ     VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1.  CONTRIBUTIVE    INFLUENCES    NoTED    IN    THE    HiSTORY 
 
 AND  Structure  of  the  Liturgy  -  -       i 
 
 The  Rev.  W.  A.  Lambert 
 
 2.  Remarks  on  Some  of  Our  Liturgical  Classics     -     17 
 
 The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 
 
 3.  Preaching  and  the  Day         -  -  -  -     23 
 
 The  Rev.  Paul  Zeller  Strodach 
 
 4.  Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age  -    41 
 
 The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 
 
 5.  The   Liturgical  History  of  Confession  and  Ab- 
 solution -  -  -  -  -  -     65 
 
 The  Rev.  James  F.  Lambert 
 
 6.  The  Sacramental  Idea  in  Christian  Worship     -     77 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  A.  Spaeth,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
 
 7.  Paraments  of  the  Lord's  House      -  -  -     89 
 
 The  Rev.  G.  U.  Wenner,  D.  D. 
 
 VOLXJME    VII. 
 
 1.  Liturgical  Colors        -  -  -  -  -       i 
 
 The  Rev.  Paul  Zeller  Strodach 
 
 2.  Consecration     -  -  -  -  -  -     19 
 
 The  Rev.  George  U.  Wenner,  D.  D. 
 
 3.  The  Liturgical  Use  of  the  Creeds  -  -     27 
 
 The  Rev.   Prof.  John  W.  Horine 
 
 4.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church     35 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  E.  Kr.  Johnsen 
 
 5.  Christian  Worship  in  the   First  Post-Apostolic 
 
 Age  -  -  -  -  -  -  -     49 
 
 The  Rev.  Charles  M.  Jacobs 
 
 6.  The  Application  of  Lutheran  Principles  to  the 
 
 Church  Building  -  -  -  -  -     75 
 
 The  Rev.  Edward  T.  Horn,  D.  D. 
 
 7.  The  Bidding  Prayer,  Litany,  and  Suffrages       -   121 
 
 The  Rev.  Charles  Krauth  Fegley 
 
 8.  The  Use  of  Stained  Glass  in  Ecclesiastical  Ar- 
 
 chitecture -  -  -  -  -  159 
 
 The  Rev.  Prof.  Elmer  F.  Krauss,  D.  D. 
 
 9.  Sacred  Monograms — The  Ciiris.via  and  the  Holy 
 
 Name  -  -  -  -  -  -  169 
 
 The  Rev.   Edwin  F.  Keever 
 
Vol.  I. 
 
THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP. 
 
 We  are  exploring  the  foundation  upon  which  the  glorious  temple 
 of  worship  is  built.  This  foundation  is  an  eternal  rock;  the 
 Tabernacle  revealed  on  Sinai  is  based  upon  it ;  the  glorious  Tem- 
 ple in  the  vision  of  Ezekiel  and  St.  John's  Tabernacle  with  men 
 in  the  New  Jerusalem  rest  upon  the  same  foundation.  There 
 "they  sing  the  song  of  Moses  the  servant  of  God,  and  the  song 
 of  the  Lamb."  It  is  the  worship  of  the  redeemed  in  the  Holy 
 City,  wherein  no  temple  is  seen;  "for  the  Lord  God  the  Almighty, 
 and  the  Lamb,  are  the  temple  thereof."  Thus  the  principles  of 
 worship  are  eternal,  though  it  is  adapted  to  the  changeful  spirit- 
 ual conditions  of  mankind. 
 
 Underlying  worship  is  a  divine  purpose,  just  as  the  moun- 
 tains are  the  visible  outlines  of  the  hidden  framework  of  the  earth, 
 upon  which  the  upper  and  outer  world  of  life  and  beauty  is  built. 
 We  come  to  this  Paradise  of  the  Lord  to  find  the  seed-germs  of 
 divine  grace  and  pov/er  which  luxuriate  so  richly  into  the  flowers 
 and  fruit  of  worship.  The  manner  of  Christian  worship,  how  it 
 becomes  an  avenue  of  grace  to  the  worshipper,  is  in  wondrous 
 harmony  with  the  appropriation  of  God's  gracious  purpose  of 
 salvation  to  man's  spiritual  wants.  The  essence  of  worship  has 
 the  flavor  of  the  divine  means  employed  as  the  vehicle  of  this 
 grace. 
 
 The  divine  purpose  underlying  is  worked  out  in  the  Provi- 
 dence of  history  and  illustrated  in  the  development  of  the  human 
 conception  of  worship.  God's  purpose  is  the  instruction  of  men 
 unto  edification  in  life.     In  all  things  man  learns  slowly  and  no- 
 
2  MEMORIES. 
 
 where  is  this  fact  better  ilhistrated  than  by  the  evolution  of  the 
 idea  of  worship,  as  recorded  in  its  several  stages  in  written  lan- 
 guage. True,  the  essence  of  worship  is  not  derived  from  ety- 
 mology, but  from  religion ;  equally  certain  it  is,  however,  that 
 the  meaning  of  the  word  ■zvorsJiip,  revealed  in  the  history  of  its 
 slow  growth,  is  a  search-light  upon  the  unrevealed  jiurposes  of 
 God ;  it  is  a  development  from  the  rudimentary  thought  of  human 
 personal  worthiness  up  to  its  present  exclusively  religious  mean- 
 ing. The  essence  of  the  religion  determines  the  essence  of  the 
 consequent  worship,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  worship  is  a  fair 
 index  of  the  religious  character  of  a  people.  The  life  of  religion, 
 pure  and  undefiled,  is  set  forth  in  warm  and  glowing  forms  of 
 living  faith.  Its  worship  is  a  robe  of  rich  but  modest  coloring 
 Worship  is  a  fine  old  word,  handed  down  in  its  original  Saxon 
 purity  with  striking  significance  in  the  now  archaic  form  used  in 
 olden  times  to  denote  the  outward  recognition  of  personal  worth. 
 Our  Saviour  says,  when  one  is  promoted  through  the  lower  de- 
 grees of  preparation  to  the  highest  emoluments  of  honor,  "then 
 thou  shalt  have  worship  ^o^ta)  in  the  presence  of  them  that  sit 
 at  meat  with  thee." 
 
 This  divine  purpose  outcrops  in  the  several  and  respective 
 strata  of  human  life.  It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the  social 
 bond,  involved  in  the  organic  unity  of  the  race,  is  a  principal  fac- 
 tor in  worship ;  in  the  same  way,  sin  became  universally  powerful 
 throughout  the  race.  Some  one  says,  that  the  secret  of  the  great 
 power  of  the  Christian  Church  is  discovered  in  the  habit  of  asso- 
 ciated worship.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  social  feature  is 
 one  of  the  normal  conditions  of  religion,  but  it  is  possible  to  give 
 it  too  great  prominence  and  hence  strike  the  source  whence  some 
 of  the  secret  dangers  come  that  constantly  threaten  religious  life. 
 To  linger  upon  the  social  beauties  of  our  worship  is  to  forget  the 
 divine  in  worship,  to  reduce  religion  to  mere  naturalism,  and 
 stripping  it  of  its  heavenly  habiliments  to  make  the  pure  fellow- 
 ship of  the  saints  only  the  baldest  anarchistic  socialism  .  Even  the 
 agnostic  finds  in  the  primal  idea  of  worship  the  moral  tendencies 
 arising  from  the  culture  and  refinement  of  civilized  life  and  conse- 
 quently he  limits  the  power  of  religion  to  the  eflfect  of  art  culti- 
 vation by  the  social  instinct  and  impulse  of  the  congregation. 
 
 The  geologist  explains  the  principles  underlying  the  effects 
 produced  by  the  cooling  mass  of  the  earth  in  the  convolutions  of 
 the  enfolding  crust.  But  back  of  these  smiling  valleys,  back  of 
 the  principles  of  art,  of  socialistic  theories,  and  the  religious  idea, 
 — back  of  these  there  is  somewhere  a  divine  purpose.  It  is  the 
 living  power  which  set  in  operation  the  laws  that  sometimes  har- 
 
e"undame:ntaIv  principles  o^  christian  worship.  3 
 
 monize  with  and  sometimes  contradict  our  philosophy  and  theories 
 of  natural  science.  There  is  no  elevating  power,  no  spiritual  up- 
 lift in  the  cultus  of  social  instinct  per  se.  God's  persistent  pur- 
 pose breaks  through  human  contradictions  as  a  divinely  upward 
 impulse  and  marks  the  unfathomable  abyss  between  natural  cultus 
 and  divine  worship. 
 
 Worship  is  a  communion  of  saints.  It  makes  the  race  feel 
 its  spiritual  destitution.  Certain  it  is,  the  history  of  the  word 
 is  abundant  evidence  of  this  recognized  human  need  for  a 
 divine  stimulus  to  loftier  motives  and  purer  emotions.  Chris- 
 tian worship  supplies  this  want.  Realizing  this  only  in  re- 
 ligious experience,  the  social  consciousness  gradually  re- 
 stricted the  meaning  of  worship  to  denote  chiefly  the  part  of 
 religion  and  to  direct  the  ascription  of  honor  and  dignity  to 
 the  Supreme  Being  alone.  In  this  way  worship  becomes  an 
 act,  or  the  acts  collectively,  of  homage  at  a  given  time  and 
 place,  "such  as  adoration,  thanksgiving,  prayer,  praise,  and 
 ofifering." 
 
 Therefore,  worship  in  spirit  and  truth  has  a  positive 
 power.  For  example,  the  soul  in  which  the  feeling  of  grati- 
 tude is  quickened  by  divine  gifts  is  susceptible  to  the  power 
 of  worship,  and  grace  reveals  to  it  the  character  of  our  God 
 as  worthy  "to  be  had  in  reverence  of  all  them  that  are  about 
 Him." 
 
 So  grace  provides  a  fulcrum  sufficient  to  make  worship 
 a  mighty  lever  for  the  spiritual  and  moral  uplift  of  humanity. 
 Christian  worship  is  a  divine  moral  uplift,  but  its  divine  pos- 
 sibilities are  not  evolved  from  the  merely  human  aspirations 
 for  the  beautiful,  the  true,  and  the  good.  This  motive  in 
 itself  is  only  a  noble  humanitarianism,  not  worth  cultivatinf 
 simply  for  its  own  sake,  but  of  great  value  in  its  proper  auxil- 
 iary relation  to  nobler  fruits,  and  very  different  in  style  and 
 effect  from  the  divine  element  in  worship,  whose  chief  and 
 only  end  is  to  glorify  God  and  magnify  Him  forever.  This 
 human  motive  may  have  great  moral  force  in  the  development 
 of  literature,  art,  and  science,  as  the  mental  activity,  the  artistic 
 spirit,  or  refining  influence  of  the  age.  But  all  such  moral 
 achievements  through  human  resources  alone  are  like  the 
 laurel  chaplets  that  wither  upon  the  victor's  brow.  It  has  no 
 eternal  principle,  no  controlling  purpose,  no  persistent  divin- 
 ity, to  implant  new  motives,  to  transform  character,  and  to 
 beautify  human  life. 
 
 All  this  is  a  part  of  Christian  worship,  its  human  element, 
 the  sacrifice  which  humanity  offers ;  but  this  is  its  lesser  half, 
 in  itself 
 
 ' '  As  idle   as  a  painted  ship 
 Upon   a  painted   ocean." 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Along  with  the  human  there  is  a  divine  element;  the  two  are 
 inseparably  wedded.  The  divine  is  a  sacrament  which  brings 
 imperishable  grace  to  the  worshipper  in  spirit  and  truth. 
 Christian  worship  is  the  channel  for  the  nicoming  grace,  rather 
 perhaps  the  flood-gate,  shut  and  opened  at  human  will,  joining 
 the  reservoir  of  the  fulness  of  divine  love  to  the  appointed 
 means  of  grace  in  word  and  sacrament.  Therefore,  in  its 
 essence,  worship  is  pre-eminently  sacramental ;  it  makes  man 
 the  recipient  of  good  and  reaches  its  climax  and  summum 
 bonum  in  the  Holy  Supper. 
 
 This  divine  element  of  worship  always  makes  a  man  re- 
 ceive more  than  he  can  give.  It  has  this  sacramental  char- 
 acter, because  it  revolves  around  Christ  as  its  center,  and  has 
 its  fulness  of  blessing  in  Him  who  is  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
 Christ  is  the  one  chief  stone  in  the  corner,  the  true  founda- 
 tion of  our  temple  of  worship.  This  sacramental  character 
 makes  it  the  purpose  of  every  act  of  worship  first  to  exalt 
 and  magnify  Him  forever.  It  is  a  truly  Christian  w^orship, 
 though  a  nominally  Christian  worship  may  be  lacking  in  every 
 essential  principle  of  Christian  worship,  and  be  only  a  kind  of 
 nominalism  with  no  objective  reality  in  the  faith  and  life  of 
 Christ.  He  is  the  heart,  the  magnet  that  draws  all  unto  Him- 
 self. He  is  the  divine  cause  that  calls  forth  the  act  of  worship. 
 He  appeals  to  the  heart  and  conscience  of  the  worshipper  and 
 comes  through  the  enlightening  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost  who 
 confers  His  gifts  upon  believers  and  creates  the  insatiable 
 thirst  for  the  water  of  eternal  life.  Thus  the  intellect  is 
 sharpened,  the  sense  of  esthetic  beauty  refined,  and  the  ethical 
 judgments  of  conscience  confirmed;  so  fully  does  Christ  enter 
 the  life,  absorb  every  faculty  of  the  soul,  and  make  every  act 
 of  worship  begin  and  end  in  Him. 
 
 But  one  may  fully  understand  the  general  truth  and  state 
 the  theory  of  worship  in  harmony  with  the  general  proposition 
 without  possessing  this  vital  principle  of  worship.  For  the 
 essence  of  worship  is  the  essence  of  religion.  At  their  root 
 religion  and  worship  coincide  "so  far,  that  no  man  can  fully 
 perform  all  that  is  involved  in  worship  without  doing  all  that 
 is  involved  in  religion." 
 
 The  Word  of  God  declares  the  divine  purpose  in  worship. 
 It  is  a  pure  worship  so  far  as  it  contains  the  pure  Word  of 
 God.  The  fruits  and  eft'ects  of  grace  are  bestowed  through 
 God's  \\\)r(l.  Worship  has  its  best  expression  in  the  language 
 of  Scripture.  Worship  in  spirit  and  truth  is  not  simply  a 
 spiritual  act  or  mental  abstraction  apart  from  the  spoken 
 word  or  spiritual  condition.    It  is  rather  the  spirit  of  devotion 
 
I'UNDAMliNTAL   PRINCIPLES   OF'   CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  5 
 
 quickened  by  the  truth — Thy  Word  is  truth — and  com- 
 forted by  the  Spirit  who  dwelleth  in  the  Word  of  truth.  We 
 find  in  the  words  of  Scripture  the  forms  in  which  every  act 
 of  worship  may  find  expression.  Long  usage  crystalHzes  the 
 thought  of  Scripture  into  forms  which  preserve  the  odor  of 
 sanctity.  For  there  can  be  no  worship  apart  from  the  Church 
 which  is  the  assembly  of  saints,  in  which  the  Gospel  is  truly 
 preached  and  the  sacraments  in  due  form  administered.  The 
 instruction  of  God's  AVord,  the  formal  preaching  of  the  Gospel, 
 is  the  centre  of  Christian  worship.  Its  truly  sacramental 
 character  is  set  forth  in  the  absolution  promised  in  the  Gospel 
 and  received  by  the  truly  penitent  and  believing.  So  worship 
 in  the  use  of  the  fixed  forms  of  Collect,  Word,  Creed,  Sermon, 
 and  Sacrament  preserves  the  doctrinal  purity  of  the  faith. 
 
 The  human  element  in  worship  is  of  minor  importance 
 only  in  a  comparative  degree ;  but  as  the  whole  consists  of 
 all  its  parts  there  is  superlative  necessity  for  it  to  round  out 
 the  act  of  perfect  worship.  The  neglect  of  the  human  in 
 worship  chills  it  and  tends  to  make  it  a  lifeless  formality. 
 According  to  the  law  of  liberty  this  is  the  place  of  the  variable 
 and  free.  It  leaves  room  for  so  wide  an  adaptation  to  cir- 
 cumstances as  to  meet  all  emergencies.  It  is  the  pre-eminently 
 sacrificial,  not  in  the  sense  of  making  propitiation  for  sin,  but 
 as  being  the  avenue  through  which  are  brought  the  offerings 
 of  confession,  praise,  and  adoration,  prayer,  supplication  and 
 thanksgiving.  Worship  is  both  sacramental  and  sacrificial, 
 for  it  brings  to  the  worshipper  the  gift  of  grace,  and  offers 
 to  God  honor,  reverence,  and  glory.  Worship  is  refreshing 
 because  in  it  men  receive  mercy  and  peace,  and  inexpressible 
 joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  decorous  in 
 action  and  dignified  in  confession  of  sin  and  eucharistic 
 oft'erings. 
 
 The  true  worshipper  is  devout ;  he  comes  in  the  spirit  of 
 devotion ;  when  edified  he  departs  with  the  fragrance  of  a  de- 
 vout spirit.  Devoutness  makes  the  heart  and  mind  receptive 
 to  sacramental  grace.  The  worshipper  sings  devoutly,  prays 
 devoutly,  and  listens  devoutly.  The  act  of  worship  is  estab- 
 lished as  a  habitude  by  observing  regularly  appointed  seasons, 
 by  using  fixed  forms,  especially  the  divinely  given  words  in 
 Gospel  and  Sacrament  as  the  voice  of  highest  service.  Of 
 course,  the  simple  act  of  worship  is  not  unattended  by  danger. 
 In  the  many  common  duties  of  life  many  things  are  done  in  a 
 perfunctory  way.  It  is  possible  even  in  worship  for  the  mind 
 to  wander  and  allow  the  formal  act,  apart  from  the  spirit  of 
 true  devotion,  to  crystallize  into  the  mere,  cold  formality,  like 
 an  icicle  sparkling  with  all  the  outward  richness  and  wealth 
 of  beauty  stored  up  in  the  cold  but  brilliant  jewel. 
 
6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 However,  this  danger  threatens  every  form  of  worship 
 and  is  never  quite  so  chiUing  as  in  the  threadbare  formaHty 
 that  knows  no  forms ;  it  is  obviated  in  all  only  by  a  living 
 sacrifice  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving;  by  the  faithful 
 and  intelligent  cultivation  of  the  sacrificial  in  the  variable 
 parts  of  worship  which  allow  ample  freedom  and  spontaneity. 
 In  the  fixed  centres  of  worship,  like  the  Word  and  Sacrament, 
 we  have  divinely  appointed  foci  to  quicken  spiritual  activity 
 and  put  within  reach  the  great  vv'ealth  of  divine  mercy  and 
 grace;  they  are  the  "golden  candlestick,"  "the  lamp  unto  our 
 feet  and  the  light  on  our  path,"  and  also  the  table  of  "shew- 
 bread,"  for  "man  lives  not  by  bread  alone  but  by  every  word 
 that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God."  Likewise  in  the 
 free  and  variable  forms  of  worship  we  have  our  sacrificial 
 altars  whereupon  the  flame  of  our  devotion  burns ;  the  golden 
 altar  of  incense  from  which  our  prayers  arise  like  clouds  of 
 incense  to  the  skies.  It  is  little  that  we  give  in  return  for  the 
 boundless  treasures  that  we  receive ;  but  in  our  destitution  our 
 offering,  at  best  but  a  scanty  gift,  is  still  our  all :  our  bodies 
 a  living  sacrifice,  holy,  acceptable  unto  God,  our  reasonable 
 service. 
 
 An  important  corollary  to  this  proposition  of  the  funda- 
 mental principles  of  worship  is  the  fitting  time  and  place. 
 In  our  worship  we  ought  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of  redemption. 
 Its  great  facts  are  to  be  emphasized.  Beginning  with  the 
 weekly  cycle  of  the  resurrection  in  the  Lord's  Day,  the  con- 
 templation of  the  year  of  grace  includes  every  feature  and 
 doctrine  of  the  redemptive  work. 
 It  is  true  that 
 "The  groves  were  God's  first  temples.     Er«  man  learned 
 
 To  hew  the  shaft,  and  lay  the  architrave, 
 
 And  spread  the  roof  above  them — ere  he  framed 
 
 Th-e   lofty  vanlt,  to   gather  and   roll   back 
 
 The  sound  of  anthems;  in  the  darkling  wood 
 
 Amid   the   cool   and   silence,   he   knelt   down. 
 
 And  offered  to  the  Mightiest  solemn  thanks  and  supplication." 
 
 But  it  is  equally  true  that  God  has  always  chosen  a  place  for 
 His  local  habitation  with  men.  The  place  where  His  people 
 meet  with  Him  should  be  suitable  for  such  an  occasion,  neither 
 in  barn  nor  opera-house.  Jewish  Temple  nor  Mohammedan 
 Mosque,  factory  nor  theatre,  but  in  a  Christian  Church.  On 
 such  an  occasion  the  church  should  harmonize  with  the  di- 
 vine purpose  in  worship. 
 
 Art  is  a  handmaid  to  worship.  In  architecture  it  makes 
 the  stones  speak  the  story  of  redemption  through  the  eye. 
 in  scul])turcd  wall  and  painted  arch.  Architecture,  sculpture 
 and   painting   tell    the   pictured    story,   while    the   other   arts 
 
FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP  7 
 
 poetry,  music,  and  eloquence  tell  the  same  story  to  other 
 sense-perceptions  and  fill  the  storied  temple  with  the  words 
 and  spirit  of  worship. 
 
 In  studying  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  Worship  the 
 following  outline  was  pursued : 
 
 I.     There  is  a  divine  purpose  for  instruction  and  edification 
 in  worship. 
 II.     It  appears  in  the  association  and  fellowship  of  worship, 
 III.     It  is  accomplished  by  the  means  of  grace  employed  in 
 worship. 
 
 1.  The  Sacramental  character,  or  the  divine  elements  of 
 worship : 
 
 (i)   It  is  Christo-centric; 
 
 (2)  It  uses  the  Word  of  Scripture ; 
 
 (3)  It  is  the  Means  of  Grace; 
 
 (4)  It  conserves  doctrinal  purity. 
 
 2.  The    Sacrificial   character,   or   the   human   elements   of 
 worship : 
 
 (i)   Eucharistic  ofTerings ; 
 
 (2)  Variable  forms ; 
 
 (3)  The  Times  and  Places; 
 
 (4)  The  use  of  Art. 
 
 J.  C.  F.  Rupp. 
 Scottdale,  Pa. 
 
OUR  DISTINCTIVE  WORSHIP— 
 
 THE  COMMON  SERVICE  AND  OTHER  LITURGIES, 
 
 ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 
 
 Principle  and  Form  are  related  as  Soul  and  Body.  The  lat- 
 ter is  the  medium  through  which  the  former  is  able  to  express 
 itself.  The  intellect,  the  will,  the  emotions,  in  fact  the  SOUL 
 LIFE  of  the  human  personality  is  only  able  to  reveal  itself, 
 and  indeed  only  possesses  objective  existence,  in  the  physical 
 life.  So  abstract  principles  may  have  some  quasi  existence 
 within  the  realm  of  the  metaphysical,  but  in  order  to  our 
 real  apprehension  of  them  in  time  and  space  they  must  have 
 a  concrete,  formal  expression.  The  animating  principles  of 
 Christian  faith  constantly  appear  in  the  several  spheres  of 
 Christian  life,  and  nowhere  more  clearly  than  in  the  depart- 
 ment of  Christian  Worship.  The  distinctive  dififerences  in 
 doctrine  held  by  different  Churches  may  not  be  evident  in  the 
 private  lives  of  their  members,  but  they  will  inevitably  appear 
 in  the  public  worship  of  their  congregations.  Doctrines  and 
 principles  of  worship  are  proclaimed  not  only  from  the  pulpit, 
 but  from  the  altar,  from  the  pew,  from  the  organ  bench  and 
 choir  room ;  in  Liturgy  as  truly  as  in  Confessional  Symbol ; 
 in  rubric  often  more  clearly  than  in  text ;  in  manner,  gesture, 
 posture  as  surely  as  in  spoken  or  printed  word.  Everything 
 is  pregnant  with  meaning  when  one  learns  to  read  it  aright. 
 We  understand  not  the  mannerisms  of  strangers,  but  the 
 simple  tone  of  voice,  the  glance  of  an  eye,  or  the  most  trivial 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 gesture  of  a  dear  friend  conveys  deep  significance.  So  greater 
 intimacy  with  the  forms  of  devotion  may  reveal  to  us  many 
 qualities  hitherto  unperceived. 
 
 It  is  a  very  superficial  opinion,  oft  expressed,  that  there 
 is  little  difference  between  Churches.  "We  all  are  going  to 
 the  same  place,"  it  is  said;  as  if  it  were  immaterial  in  under- 
 taking a  journey  to  a  distant  city  whether  we  kept  in  the 
 King's  highway  with  its  signboards  and  places  of  refreshment, 
 or  stumbled  in  danger  and  discomfort  through  the  woods  and 
 swam  swollen  streams.  Or  as  if  because  we  all  live  upon 
 what  we  eat,  there  were  no  difference  in  foods !  A  Lutheran 
 is  not  a  Romanist,  a  Quaker  or  a  Methodist.  We  have  a  dis- 
 tinctive doctrine,  a  distinctive  apprehension  of  God's  revela- 
 tion, as  have  they ;  and  our  cultus,  or  form  of  worship,  as 
 expressing  our  belief,  is  just  as  distinctive  in  character.  It 
 is  our  purpose,  therefore,  by  a  study  of  our  Service  and  a 
 comparison  of  it  with  others  to  see  wherein  this  distinctive- 
 ness lies. 
 
 We  may  look  first  at  the  Service  as  a  whole.  The  first 
 impression  we  gather  is  that  it  is  not  only  in  the  language 
 of  the  people,  but  that  the  latter  actively  participate  in  every 
 portion  of  it.  There  is  no  suggestion  of  a  vicarious  perform- 
 ance, but  of  a  personal  participation.  Pastor  and  people  to- 
 gether enter  the  Holy  of  Holies  and  commune  with  God. 
 Here  is  the  living  embodiment  of  a  cardinal  principle  of  the 
 Reformation,  and  indeed  of  the  New  Testament, — the  Univer- 
 sal Priesthood  of  All  Believers.  Hear  what  Dr.  Rock,  a  most 
 eminent  Roman  Catholic  divine,  says  with  reference  to  the 
 celebration  of  the  Roman  Mass.  "In  the  performance  of  this 
 sacred  service  no  of^ce  is  assigned  to  the  people.  The  sac- 
 rifice is  offered  up  by  the  priest  in  their  name  and  on  their 
 behalf.  The  whole  action  is  between  God  and  the  priest. 
 So  far  is  it  from  being  necessary  that  the  people  shall  under- 
 stand the  language  of  the  sacrifice,  that  they  are  not  allowed 
 even  to  hear  the  most  important  and  solemn  part  of  it.... 
 They  do  not  act,  they  do  not  say  the  prayers  of  the  priest, 
 they  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  actual  performance  of  the 
 Holy  Sacrifice."     (Hierurgia  1 :  314.) 
 
 Hear  again  the  words  of  Dr.  Boardnian,  one  of  the  most 
 prominent  Baptist  divines  in  this  country,  as  he  laments  the 
 vicarious  character  of  worship  in  his  own  and  other  non- 
 liturgical  Churches.  He  says,  "No  voice  but  the  preacher's 
 is  heard  in  adoration,  thanksgiving,  confession,  supplication, 
 intercession,  aspiration,  comnuuiion.  So  far  as  the  vocal  act 
 of  homage  goes,  the  preacher  alone  worships.  ..  .Alas !  this 
 individual  privilege  of  each  member  of  the  congregation  we 
 
OUR  DISTINCTIVE  WORSHIP.  II 
 
 allow  the  minister  to  appropriate  to  himself.  He  alone  lifts 
 the  veil,  and  enters  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  communes  be- 
 fore the  mercy-seat;  while  the  congregation  stands  mute  in 
 the  outer  court.  The  New  Testament  doctrine  of  the  rent 
 veil  and  the  priesthood  of  all  Christians  gives  way  to  the 
 Old  Testament  doctrine  of  a  sacerdotal  order;  or  what  is 
 worse,  to  the  Roman  heresy  of  a  priestly  caste  and  a  priestly 
 worship.  Even  the  pulpit  has  been  removed  from  the  side  to 
 the  centre ;  so  that  the  preacher  is  perpetually  in  the  fore- 
 ground, while  the  worship  of  Almighty  God  is  consigned  to  a 
 comparatively  subordinate  niche.  How  painfully  true  this 
 is,  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  while  it  is  not  considered  rude 
 to  enter  the  sanctuary  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  service, 
 such  as  the  singing  or  the  Bible  reading, — that  is  to  say,  be 
 it  observed,  during  that  part  of  the  service  which  is  distinct- 
 ively liturgical  or  worshipful, — it  is  considered  rude  to  come 
 in  or  go  out  while  the  minister  is  preaching,  as  though, 
 forsooth,  the  main  thing  in  worship  were  ignorant,  feeble, 
 sinful  man,  instead  of  Jehovah  of  Hosts."  (Christian  Wor- 
 ship, p.  291  sq.)  Out  of  their  own  mouths  they  stand  con- 
 victed, the  Romanist  asserting  the  doctrine  of  the  vicarious 
 work  of  a  priestly  order,  and  the  Baptist  admitting  its  virtual 
 practice.  Take  the  Common  Service  and  see  pastor  and 
 people  unite  in  common  confession,  and  appropriation  of  God's 
 forgiveness ;  see  them  direct  to  the  throne  of  grace  common 
 praise  and  petition  in  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  Kyrie,  the  Gloria 
 in  Excelsis,  the  Collect,  the  General  Prayer,  the  Preface, 
 Sanctus,  Agnus  and  Nunc  Dimittis ;  hear  their  common  con- 
 fession of  belief  in  the  Creed  as  well  as  many  other  parts 
 of  the  service;  see  them  together  honor  and  reverence  and 
 use  the  Word  and  the  Sacrament,  uniting  in  all  that  pertains 
 to  the  administration  and  the  reception  of  both.  In  its  every 
 line  our  Service  is  vocal  with  the  principle  of  a  Universal 
 Priesthood  engaging  in  a  Common  Ministry. 
 
 Worship  is  a  transaction  between  God  and  Man;  in  it 
 therefore  are  two  active  elements,  the  divine  and  the  human. 
 Theories  of  worship  fundamentally  differ  as  the  emphasis  is 
 placed  upon  either  of  these  elements.  The  Roman,  and  per- 
 haps to  a  less  degree  the  Greek  Liturgy,  reeks  with  the  hu- 
 man, the  sacrificial  element.  God  is  still  to  be  appeased,  His 
 wrath  averted  by  the  work  which  the  Church,  through  its  priest- 
 hood, must  do  every  day.  All  service  centres  about  the  work, 
 the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  It  is  not  what  God  brings  to  man 
 in  worship,  but  what  man  does  for  God.  The  Reformed,  by 
 which  we  understand  the  other  Protestant  Churches  except 
 the  Lutheran,  also  emphasize  the  human  or  sacrificial  side. 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Not  indeed  the  propitiary  sacrificial  theory  of  the  Romanists, 
 but  the  eucharist-sacrificial  idea.  God  is  appeased,  Christians 
 gather  to  thank  and  praise  Him,  and  to  offer  Him  their 
 prayer  and  grateful  service,  provoking  one  another's  devo- 
 tion and  sacrifice  by  mutual  fellowship.  But  again  it  is  not 
 what  God  brings,  but  what  man  does.  The  Lutheran  lays 
 stress  upon  the  Divine  element  in  worship.  The  propitiary 
 sacrifice  has  been  made  once  for  all  by  the  death  of  Jesus ; 
 this,  and  this  only,  is  the  basis  for  our  every  approach  to  God 
 in  worship.  God  desires  all  men  to  receive  most  fully  the 
 benefits  of  Christ's  work.  He  conveys  these  benefits  and 
 blessings,  pardon,  peace,  spiritual  strength,  GRACE  in  fact, 
 through  certain  means.  These  are  His  Word  and  Sacra- 
 ments. He  says,  "Thou  art  redeemed,  O  Man ;  Christ  died 
 for  thee.  Come,  commune  with  Me ;  I  will  give  thee  My 
 Word  and  Will ;  will  assure  thee  of  pardon ;  will  give  thee 
 My  Strength  to  help  thy  weakness ;  will  give  thee  in  My 
 Sacrament  a  seal  and  pledge  of  thy  acceptance,  and  will 
 make  and  confirm  with  thee  an  everlasting  covenant."  The 
 sinner,  though  assured  of  God's  mercy,  is  ever  conscious  of 
 his  own  sin ;  and  his  every  experience  but  impresses  him  with 
 his  own  weakness.  He  comes  to  receive  again  what  God 
 offers  him  through  the  means  entrusted  to  His  Church.  Hence 
 our  distinctive  teaching  is  that  we  gather  in  Divine  Service 
 primarily  to  receive  the  gifts  of  God,  and  then  secondarily  to 
 give  Him  our  praise  and  prayer.  We  receive  far  more  than 
 we  can  ever  give.  The  Divine  element  predominates;  the 
 human  is  governed  by  it.  It  is  not  what  man  does,  but  what 
 God  brings.  Examine  the  Service  in  the  light  of  this  dis- 
 tinctive principle ;  see  the  importance  accorded  the  Divine 
 element,  the  Means  of  God's  coming  to  us,  the  Word  and  the 
 Sacrament.  Luther  in  his  very  first  liturgical  writing  said, 
 "One  thing  is  needful,  namel}'',  that  Mary  should  sit  at 
 Christ's  feet  and  hear  His  Word  daily,  which  is  that  best 
 part  which  she  has  chosen,  and  which  shall  never  be  taken 
 from  her.  There  is  one  eternal  Word.  Everything  else  must 
 pass  away,  no  matter  how  much  concern  it  may  cause 
 Martha."  See  how  he  labored  to  give  the  Word  to  the  people 
 in  their  own  language ;  how  the  Sermon  as  the  exposition  of  it 
 was  restored;  how  the  legends  of  the  saints,  the  work  of  the 
 priests ;  the  penances  of  men,  the  figment  of  the  Virgin's 
 powers,  were  all  swept  aside.  Like  another  John  the  Baptist 
 he  came  crying.  "Make  straight  the  way  of  the  Lord." 
 
 We,  as  his  heirs  in  doctrine  as  in  name,  have  entered 
 into  his  works.  The  Greek  and  Roman  Liturgies  today  are 
 filled   with   works   and   ceremonies,   with   elaborate   dramatic 
 
OUR  DISTINCTIVE  WORSHIP.  I3 
 
 symbolism,  with  invocation  of  the  saints  and  adoration  of  the 
 Virgin;  but  of  the  pure  Word  of  God,  His  message  to  human 
 hearts,  there  is  Httle.  We  put  them  down  in  sorrow  and  turn 
 to  Orders  and  Directories  of  Worship  used  by  many  Protes- 
 tant Communions.  Here  is  abundant  provision  of  Hymns 
 and  Prayers  and  Anthems ;  even  the  Apostles'  Creed  may  be 
 said  and  the  Gloria  Patri  sung,  and  if  the  Lord's  Prayer  be 
 added  yet  it  is  regarded  as  a  remarkably  rich  liturgical  service. 
 And  yet  that  is  all  man's  work,  his  offering  to  God.  All  that 
 God  brings  to  man  must  come  through  perhaps  a  single  short 
 portion  of  His  Word,  for  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  Sermon 
 frequently  is  so  fdled  with  the  social,  political,  or  at  best 
 moral  opinions  of  the  preacher  that  there  is  scant  oppor- 
 tunity for  a  morsel  of  Divine  truth,  an  assurance,  a  promise, 
 or  a  pledge,  to  trickle  through.  In  sorrovv^  again  we  place 
 these  down.  Let  us  examine  our  Service.  At  the  very  be- 
 ginning pastor  and  people  encourage  each  other  to  approach 
 the  throne  of  grace  by  the  messages  of  God  delivered  to  His 
 people  thousands  of  years  ago,  and  so  we  say,  "Our  help  is 
 in  the  Name  of  the  Lord,.  . .  .For  Thou  forgavest  the  iniquity 
 of  my  sin."  and  after  united  confession  we  receive  the  assur- 
 ance of  His  Gospel  again  that  "Almighty  God,  our  Heavenly 
 Father,  hath  had  mercy  upon  us,  and  given  His  Only  Son 
 to  die  for  us,  and  for  His  sake  forgiveth  us  all  our  sins.  To 
 them  that  believe  on  His  Name,  He  also  giveth  power  to 
 become  the  Sons  of  God,  and  bestoweth  upon  them  His  Holy 
 Spirit.  He  that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall  be  saved." 
 Then  the  Introit  gives  us  in  the  language  of  the  Psalms  again 
 the  special  message  of  the  day,  which  we  are  to  receive  more 
 fully  later  in  Lessons  and  Sermon,  and  about  which  all  our 
 response  is  to  cluster.  The  very  words  of  the  Kyrie,  Gloria 
 in  Excelsis  and  Collect  bring  before  us,  chiefly  in  the  very 
 language  of  Scripture,  the  Person  and  Work  of  our  Saviour, 
 and  the  assui:ance  of  His  love,  Plis  intercession,  His  benedic- 
 tion. And  then  we  have  directly  His  particular  message  in 
 the  Epistle  and  Gospel ;  that  portion  of  His  Life,  His  Work, 
 Plis  Teaching  that  is  to  be  His  especial  assurance,  promise, 
 warning  or  exhortation, — the  particular  Gift  of  His  love  for 
 the  time  to  those  vvho  gather  in  His  courts  belovv?-. 
 
 And  now  about  this  message,  this  Divine  Gift,  which  is 
 further  explained  and  applied  in  the  Sermon,  based  directly 
 upon  it  and  not  determined  by  some  passing  whim  or  caprice 
 of  the  preacher; — about  this  Divine  Gift,  gathers  our  grateful 
 response  in  acceptance  and  affirmation  in  the  Creed,  and  our  fur- 
 ther appropriation  and  thankful  praise  in  the  Hymns.  And  so  it 
 is  the  WORD  that  rules,  that  is  the  centre,  that  is  the  life  of 
 
14  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  Service.  The  Church  in  its  Pericopes,  or  selection  of 
 Lessons,  as  related  to  the  j^encral  plan  of  tiie  Christian  Year, 
 has  rightly  divided  this  Word  of  Truth,  and  given  us  a 
 proper  portion  for  every  service  in  the  year.  "Worship," 
 says  the  President  of  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  he 
 voices  the  conception  of  all  the  Reformed  Churches  on  this 
 point,  "worship  has  for  its  characteristic  idea,  its  main  ob- 
 ject, not  impression,  but  expression."  "Its  two  chief  elements 
 are  praise  and  prayer."  (p.  312  &  306  in  Christian  Worship.) 
 "Not  so !"  says  the  Lutheran,  with  the  Common  Service  in 
 his  hand.  "The  chief  thing  is  God's  Gift  to  us,  Plis  Message 
 in  His  W^ord,  His  pledge  in  His  Sacrament."  About  these 
 have  grown  up  that  rich  devotional  literature,  as  well  as  that 
 wonderful  body  of  Church  Song, — the  Hymns,  the  Graduals, 
 the  Chorale,  the  Chants  and  part  compositions — that  show 
 most  clearly  that  the  Lutheran  Church  does  not  imderesti- 
 mate  the  subjective  or  human  element  in  worship,  but  that 
 she  bases  it  upon  the  Divine  element.  God  speaks  first ;  we 
 hear  and  answer. 
 
 It  is  hardly  necessary  to  indicate  the  manner  in  which 
 our  Service  emphasizes  the  Divine  element  in  the  Sacrament. 
 The  Eastern  Liturgy  of  S.  James  says  "Remembering,  there- 
 fore. His  life-giving  sufferings,.  .  .  .we,  sinful  men,  offer  unto 
 Thee,  O  Lord,  this  dread  and  bloodless  sacrifice,  prayinq:  that 
 Thou  wilt  not  deal  with  us  after  our  sins,  nor  reward  us 
 according  to  our  iniquities."  The  Roman  Liturgy  says 
 "Accept,  O  Holy  Father,  Almighty,  Eternal  God,  this  im- 
 maculate Host,  which  I.  Thy  unworthy  servant,  offer  unto 
 Thee,  my  living  and  true  God,  for  my  innumerable  sins, 
 offences  and  negligences,  and  for  all  here  present,  as  also  for 
 all  faithful  Christians,  both  living  and  dead,  that  it  may  be 
 profitable  for  my  own  and  for  their  salvation  unto  eternal 
 life  .  Amen."  Here  everything  is  human  offering  work  and 
 action.  Let  us  glance  at  some  Protestant  Liturgies.  Here 
 the  Holy  Communion  is  a  service  of  commemoration,  of 
 Christian  union  and  fellowship,  a  sign  of  faith  and  a  promise 
 of  consecration  on  the  part  of  men.  In  Zwingli's  Liturgy,  as 
 indeed  in  Knox's  and  in  many  of  Reformed  services  today  the 
 people  remain  in  their  seats,  the  bread  and  wine  are  dis- 
 tributed by  the  deacons  or  even  passed  from  hand  to  hand 
 while  a  Psalm  or  Hymn  is  sung  or  words  of  Scripture  read. 
 The  fundamental  idea  appears  in  a  sentence  of  the  recent 
 Liturgy  proposed  for  use  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  by  Dr. 
 Shields, — "And  here  we  offer  and  present  unto  Thee.  O  Lord, 
 ourselves,  our  souls  and  bodies,  to  be  a  reasonable,  holy  and 
 lively  sacrifice  unto  Thee ;  humbl}'  beseeching  Thee,  that  all 
 
OUR  DISTINCTIVE  WORSHIP.  15 
 
 we,  who  are  partakers  of  this  holy  Communion,  may  be  ful- 
 filled with  Thy  grace  and  heavenly  benediction."  (p.  245). 
 The  Liturgy  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S.  says  (p. 
 96),  "Almighty  God,  our  Heavenly  Father,  sanctify,  we  be- 
 seech Thee,  by  Thy  Word  and  Spirit,  these  elements  of  bread 
 and  wine,  that,  being  set  apart  now  from  a  common  to  a 
 sacred  and  mystical  use,  they  may  exhibit  and  represent  to 
 us  with  true  effect  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Thy  Son,  Jesus 
 Christ,"  and  in  the  Distribution  the  formula  is  '"The  bread 
 which  we  break  is  the  Communion  of  the  body  of  Christ"  and 
 "The  cup  of  blessing  which  we  bless  is  the  Communion  of 
 the  blood  of  Christ."  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the 
 Church  of  England  in  the  formula  for  distribution  says, 
 "Take  and  eat  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thee, 
 and  feed  on  Him  in  thy  heart  by  faith  with  thanksgiving." 
 Examples  might  be  multiplied,  but  this  will  suffice  to  show  us 
 that  here  again  is  human  work,  human  commemoration,  hu- 
 man consecration,  human  fellowship,  but  not  the  Divine  Gift 
 for  which  we  long, — the  real  Divine  Presence  in  the  transac- 
 tion and  the  personal,  individualized  assurance  of  Divine 
 forgiveness,  for  which  we  hunger  and  thirst.  Take  the  Com- 
 mon Service  and  see  its  simple  but  soul-satisfying  words. 
 The  communicants  come  to  the  altar  and  reverently  kneel 
 before  the  Lord  Who  has  chosen  this  way  in  which  to  impart 
 Himself  to  them.  Their  sin  sees  the  pledge  of  its  pardon  in 
 the  Holy  Elements ;  with  holy  reverence  and  deepest  grati- 
 tude they  receive  the  Divine  Gift,  as  they  hear  the  very 
 words  of  the  Giver,  "Take  and  eat,  this  is  the  Body  of  Christ, 
 given  for  thee."  "Take  and  drink,  this  is  the  Blood  of  the 
 New  Testament,  shed  for  thy  sins."  Devoutly,  we  appropri- 
 ate to  ourselves  the  message  of  pardon,  peace,  imputation, 
 impartation ;  reverently  we  receive  CHRIST,  with  all  His 
 Work,  in  all  His  plenitude  of  Power.  No,  in  this  solemn  mo- 
 ment, not  human  works  as  offering,  but  Divine  Gift  and 
 assurance. 
 
 There  are  many  other  distinctive  traits  in  our  beautiful 
 Service,  but  time  permits  us  to  mention  but  one  particularly. 
 It  presents  Christ  our  Saviour  as  the  object  and  center  of 
 all  our  worship ;  it  is  a  living  embodiment  of  the  spirit  of 
 the  First  and  Second  Commandments,  which  declare  that 
 "thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  beside  Me ;"  and  "thou  shalt 
 not  take  My  Name  in  vain".  We  have  already  seen  how  the 
 Roman  Service  centres,  not  in  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  which 
 Christ  once  offered  on  the  cross,  but  in  that  which  the  Church 
 now  from  day  to  day  continually  offers.  Its  Liturgy  is 
 further  crowded  with  references  to  the  Virgin,  the  Archangel 
 
l6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Michael,  the  Apostles,  Martyrs  and  Saints,  some  forty  oi 
 whom  are  mentioned  by  name ;  not  simply  references  to  them, 
 but  we  should  have  said  confession  made  to  them,  and  prayers 
 offered  to  them  for  their  intercession  with  God  And  while 
 the  clergy  are  hastily  mumbling  or  chanting  this  service  in 
 a  foreign  tongue  the  laity  are  busy  in  the  pew  "working  out 
 their  salvation",  as  with  marvelous  celerity  they  cover  the 
 decades  of  the  rosary,  reeling  off  the  "vain  repetitions"  of 
 Ave  Marias,  Pater  Nosters,  and  Gloria  Patris.  Work!  Work! 
 Work !  Christ's  work  ignored ;  man's  work  exalted !  The 
 Church,  Mary,  the  Martyrs,  the  Saints,  traditions  and 
 legends,  but  little  of  Christ  and  His  Word.  Now  take  up  a 
 Monday  morning's  paper  in  any  great  city  and  read  the  re- 
 ports of  a  majority  of  the  sermons  there  given.  Political 
 situations,  industrial  conditions,  sociological  problems,  criti- 
 cisms of  the  national  policy,  reviews  of  recent  publications, 
 discussion  of  athletics  or  Art,  disquisitions,  philosophical, 
 geographical,  historical,  ethnological,  biographical, — but  what 
 of  "Christ  and  Him  crucified"  than  Whom  Paul  declared  that 
 he  would  know  nothing?  Take  up  again  the  Common  Service. 
 Its  very  beginning  is  in  the  Name  of  the  Iriune  God;  His 
 assurance  of  pardon  meets  our  confession  of  sin ;  our  cry  of 
 need  ascends  to  Christ  in  our  Kyrie,  and  Agnus  Dei;  our 
 praise  is  given  Him  in  the  Gloria,  the  Hallelujah,  the  Re- 
 sponse to  His  Gospel,  the  Sanctus,  the  Thanksgiving,  the 
 Benedicamus^  we  confess  our  faith  in  Him  in  Creed,  in 
 Canticle  and  in  every  part  of  the  Service ;  our  petitions  ascend 
 to  Him  in  Collect,  General  Prayer  and  x\gnus ;  we  lift  our 
 hearts  to  Him  in  Preface  and  Nunc  Dimittis;  from  Him  we 
 receive  sacramental  grace  in  Lessons,  Sermon,  Absolution, 
 Communion  and  Benediction.  His  Life,  His  Work,  His 
 Teaching,  His  Intercession,  His  Exhortation,  His  Promise. 
 We  are  on  the  Mount  of  Transfiguration, — Christ  is  with  us 
 in  all  His  Divine  Glory,  Majesty  and  Power.  All  else  is 
 down  in  the  valley,  far  beneath.     Jesus  is  all  in  all. 
 
 Not  only,  however,  does  our  Service  reflect  in  its  form 
 our  distinctive  views  of  Divine  Worship,  but  it  is  a  living 
 embodiment  of  our  whole  doctrinal  system,  from  which,  in- 
 deed, our  conceptions  of  Worship  naturally  emerge,  ^^'e 
 believe  that  in  the  very  words  of  the  service  not  only  every 
 fundamental,  but  every  distinctive  doctrine  of  our  Church 
 finds  expression.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  proclaimed 
 constantly  in  Invocation,  Declaration  of  Grace,  Gloria  Patri, 
 Kyrie,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collects,  Creeds,  General  Prayer, 
 Proper  Preface,  Sanctus,  and  Benediction.  The  doctrine  of 
 Creation  and  Providence  in  the  very  first  Versicle,  as  well  as 
 
OUR  DISTINCTIVE  WORSHIP.  I7 
 
 in  Collects,  Creeds  and  General  Prayer ;  human  sin  and  God's 
 mercy  and  forgiveness  appear  in  the  Confession  and  Declara- 
 tion, Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collects,  Creeds,  Offertory,  General 
 Prayer,  Proper  Prefaces,  Verba,  Agnus  and  Distribution. 
 Concerning  the  Person  of  Christ,  the  doctrine  of  His  two 
 Natures  is  shown  in  Collects,  Creeds,  Proper  Prefaces ;  the 
 doctrine  of  His  Offices  passim, — as  Prophet  in  Collect  and 
 Sanctus ;  as  Priest  making  intercession  and  satisfaction  in 
 Declaration,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collects,  Creeds,  Proper  Pre- 
 face ;  as  King  reigning  in  His  kingdoms  of  Power,  Grace  and 
 Glory  in  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collects,  Creeds,  General  Prayer 
 and  Gloria  Patri  everywhere.  Likewise  the  doctrine  of  His 
 States.  The  Humiliation  appears  in  Confession,  Collects,  Gradual, 
 Creeds,  General  Prayer,  and  Proper  Prefaces :  the  Exaltation  in 
 Gloria  in  Excelsis,  Collects,  Creeds  and  Proper  Prefaces.  Of 
 the  teaching  concerning  the  Holy  Spirit,  we  see  faith,  justi- 
 fication, calling,  illumination,  regeneration,  conversion,  sancti- 
 fication  proclaimed  in  Confession,  Declaration,  Collects,  and 
 Creeds. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Means  of  Grace  not  only  underlies 
 the  whole  conception  of  the  Service,  but  appears  specifically 
 as  well  in  individual  portions  of  it.  The  power  and  efficacy 
 of  the  Word  is  not  only  emphasized  by  the  dominating  posi- 
 tion accorded  it  as  controlling  every  variable  part  of  the 
 Service,  but  the  very  words  of  the  Liturgy  itself  are  in  great 
 measure  Scriptural,  and  if  not  literally  so,  entirely  so  in  spirit. 
 The  whole  second  part  of  the  Service  enshrines  in  forms  of 
 living  beauty  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 We  have  already  spoken  of  at  least  one  of  the  individual  parts 
 which  shows  that  he  who  engages  in  this  holy  service  in 
 the  spirit  and  words  of  this  Liturgy  cannot  regard  the  Sacra- 
 ment either  as  a  sacrificial  offering,  or  a  mere  commemorative 
 or  consecratory  form,  but  as  in  very  truth  the  way  chosen  by 
 our  Lord  Himself  to  impart  Himself  in  all  His  plenitude  of 
 saving  grace  and  power  to  us  personally  and  individually. 
 And  so  we  may  mention  every  vital,  fundamental  doctrine  of 
 Christian  faith,  and  every  distinctive  principle  and  tenet  of 
 Lutheranism  and  we  find  it  not  only  dimly  reflected  but 
 generally  most  clearly  stated  in  our  incomparable  Service. 
 
 It  had  been  our  intention  to  give  a  concise  summary  or 
 characterization  of  the  different  families  of  liturgies,  and 
 indicate  the  place  of  the  Common  Service  among  them ; — in 
 other  words,  to  treat  of  the  somewhat  complicated  questions 
 of  liturgical  consanguinity  and  affinity,  to  present  a  few 
 pages,  at  least,  of  the  ledger  in  which  History  has  recorded 
 the  debt  and  credit  account  of  these  near  relatives   in  their 
 
l8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 dealings  with  one  another, — but  this  manifestly  lies  beyond 
 the  limits  of  this  paper.  We  trust  that  sufficient  has  been 
 presented  to  show  that  not  only  in  its  general  outline  and 
 spirit,  but  in  its  individual  parts,  our  Service  is  at  once  a  living 
 embodiment  and  a  luminous  and  lovel}'  exposition  of  the  Holy 
 Christian  Faith  as  apprehended  by  the  Lutheran  Church,  and 
 that  as  such  it  deserves  to  stand  as  a  worthy  contribution  of 
 American  Lutheranism  to  the  number  of  Confessional  Sym- 
 bols of  our  Church ;  not  as  a  dry,  dogmatic  formula  of  belief 
 to  be  taken  down  from  dusty  shelves  in  time  of  controversy 
 and  argument,  but  as  a  living  thing  of  surpassing  beauty, 
 which  our  hands,  lips  and  heart  may  together  use  whenever 
 we  enter  the  sanctuar}^  of  God  to  commune  with  Him. 
 
 LuTiiER  D.  Reed. 
 
 Allegheny.  Pa. 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  LITURGICAL  REFORM. 
 
 Few  delights  are  comparable  with  that  of  a  scholar  who  thinks  he 
 has  lighted  on  a  fact  which  other  students  have  not  known,  or 
 recognized,  or  taken  into  account.  As  when  a  chemist,  who  has 
 put  certain  substances  together  a  hundred  times  without  being 
 able  to  make  them  unite,  suddenly  hits  upon  the  right  proportions, 
 and  in  the  right  temperature  fails  of  no  necessary  condition,  and 
 sees  them  make  the  combination  which  exactly  imitates  and  there- 
 fore explains  nature,  so  the  ardent  student  glows  over  the  possi- 
 bility that  in  Occam  he  will  find  the  germs  of  Luther's  theory  of 
 the  Sacraments,  recognizes  in  Augustine  the  beginning  or  reflec- 
 tion of  the  Collects,  or  constructs  from  the  "faithful  sayings"  of 
 the  New  Testament  Epistles  a  theory  of  the  daily  life  of  the 
 Apostolic  Church.  But  how  common  is  it  to  find  that  he  is  only 
 repeating  a  discovery  made  many  times  before ;  to  have  men  say 
 in  the  face  of  his  prophetic  voice,  0,  I  knczv  that;  that  is  an  old 
 story.  The  critics  are  fond  of  showing  that  every  poet  is  a  pla- 
 giarist. The  commentator  discovers  in  earlier  seers  the  material 
 of  later  prophecy.  The  plots  of  our  novels  and  dramas  are  track- 
 ed to  prehistoric  story-tellers.  And  we  are  almost  compelled  to 
 believe  that  all  possible  knowledge  is  made  up  of  a  few  score 
 original  elements,  whose  combinations  only  are  variable,  as  in  a 
 Chinese  puzzle. 
 
 It  is  very  curious  again  how  often  a  great  discovery  has  been 
 made  simultaneously  by  several  investigators.  Astronomers  dif- 
 fer over  the  right  to  name  a  planet ;  physicians  challenge  the  title 
 to  the  discovery  of  anaesthetics ;  steam  and  electrical  appliances 
 are  ascribed  to  different  inventors.  It  seems  as  if  when  the  time 
 had  come  for  the  evolution  of  some  new  contrivance,  when  all  the 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 conditions  had  at  last  been  perfected  by  patient  work  in  many 
 lands,  and  further  progress  waited  on  its  emergence,  it  waited  on 
 no  man's  wit  to  discover  it,  but  forced  its  way  through  the  brains 
 and  hands  of  many,  wherever  there  were  thoughtful  and  unself- 
 ish men  fitted  to  be  the  conductors  of  the  gifts  of  God. 
 
 Let  me  congratulate  this  Association  formed  for  liturgical 
 study  and  research,  upon  your  program  and  the  zeal  with  which 
 you  have  begun  to  follow  it.  I  may  not  be  wrong  in  the  surmise  that 
 the  Association  owes  its  being  and  the  direction  and  thoroughness 
 of  its  studies  to  the  impulse  given  b}-  a  teacher  in  our  theological 
 Alma  Mater  and  the  delightful  fruits  of  labour  in  these  fields 
 under  his  guidance.  And  he  was  called  into  these  special  studies 
 by  the  opportunity  which  occurred  (now  twenty  years  ago)  to 
 review,  extend  and  defend  our  liturgical  forms.  And  this  op- 
 portunity came  out  of  the  growth  and  refinement  of  our  Church, 
 as  it  cast  the  chrysalis  of  its  ancestral  tongue  and  began  to  think 
 and  speak  and  pray  in  English.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  for 
 this  Association  to  conceive  itself  to  be  a  pioneer ;  or  as  it  puts 
 its  hand  to  the  axe  to  hew  itself  a  way  and  to  build  itself  a  home 
 in  what  seems  still  a  wilderness,  to  think  there  are  no  other  work- 
 men, that  there  are  no  other  clearings,  and  that  stately  cities 
 have  not  risen  where  a  forest  was.  1  propose  that  we  consider 
 the  Origin  of  Liturgical  Reform;  that  we  analyze  the  work  in 
 which  we  are  interested,  and  ask  whence  came  the  impulse  to  it, 
 a.'  worthy  of  those  who  are  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God  in 
 the  world. 
 
 No  one  will  deny  that  there  are  strong  practical  reasons  in 
 the  present  for  liturgical  reform.  All  of  us  can  remember  bald 
 and  tiresome  religious  services,  which  repeated  and  multiplied  the 
 iteration  of  hymn  and  long  prayer  and  targumed  Scripture  lesson 
 and  lengthy  sermon  and  doxology  and  benediction,  as  if  no  other 
 way  of  worshipping  God  ever  had  been  known  or  was  possible ; 
 and  there  are  around  us  extravagances  enough  to  show  us  how 
 overwearied  men  are  trying  to  escape  from  it.  Wonderful  things 
 have  been  accomplished  within  the  memory  of  living  man.  But 
 much  remains  to  do.  There  are  churches  of  hopeless  ugliness ;  in 
 many  congregations  an  historical  service  is  mangled  and  mis- 
 shapen ;  there  are  ministers  who  seem  to  think  of  themselves  only 
 in  the  Church,  who  do  and  say  things  revolting  to  delicate  taste 
 and  to  the  reverent  mind,  and  who  are  unable  to  explain  to  their 
 flocks  any  of  the  parts  of  worship  or  even  to  discern  any  reason 
 in  it.  Eccentric  mistakes,  the  idiosyncrasies  of  a  man  or  a  con- 
 gregation, are  repeated  over  a  wide  country  in  lesser  churches. 
 And  many  a  change,  which  for  a  while  is  applauded,  is  after  all 
 but  a  heartless  following  of  a  fashion. 
 
THE  significance;  of  liturgical  reform.  21 
 
 But  our  Church  has  awakened  to  the  necessity  of  Hturgical 
 reform.  Our  people  share  in  the  general  culture  of  the  com- 
 munit}^  They  wish  to  have  fine  churches,  and  ecclesiastical  archi- 
 tecture and  an  historical  service  answer  to  each  other.  They 
 read ;  and  as  they  read  the  best  English  books  they  imbibe  the 
 spirit  of  the  Anglican  Church,  and  demand  the  same  tone  in  their 
 own,  or  that  pure  and  better  spirit  which  fanned  the  worship  of 
 the  English  Church.  They  are  unwilling  to  be  abandoned  to  the  ig- 
 norance or  impertinence  or  vagaries  or  narrowness  of  any  preach- 
 er, and  yearn  to  breathe  the  commuinon  of  saints,  the  native  air 
 of  the  Universal  Church,  in  the  house  of  God.  Then  we  have 
 grown  in  appreciation  of  the  doctrinal  belief  of  the  Church.  The 
 Holy  Sacrament  is  the  centre  of  our  worship  and  asserts  its  place. 
 The  Word  of  God  will  no  longer  be  dealt  out  as  the  utterance  of 
 a  man,  but  must  have  its  sacramental  dignity.  Nor  should  we  leave 
 out  of  view,  on  the  other  hand,  that  liturgical  reform  is  demanded 
 by  just  such  a  time  of  decaying  faith  as  this.  It  is  noteworthy 
 that  what  are  called  Broad  Churchmen  in  the  Protestant  Episco- 
 pal Church  make  much  of  ritual.  As  beliefs  become  cloudy,  when 
 men  are  holding  their  faith  in  abeyance,  they  want  a  standard,  a 
 beacon ;  and  they  value  a  worship  whose  forms  stand,  and  which 
 goes  on  undisturbed,  even  when  the  worshippers  are  cold  and 
 faith  is  weak.  These  are  some  of  the  reasons  which  make  litur- 
 gical reform  a  necessity  in  the  present  time  merely  as  a  practical 
 measure,  and  would  justify  earnest  men  in  studying  the  measures 
 to  adopt,  the  principles  to  be  observed,  and  the  aim  to  keep  in 
 view.  But  I  wish  to  remind  you  that  liturgical  reform  is  a  larger 
 thing  than  this.  It  is  a  part  of  a  wide,  deep  and  venerable  move- 
 ment. It  is  a  world-tendency  upon  which  we  are  borne.  It  is 
 rooted  in  the  life  of  the  Church. 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  this  Century  in  many  of  the  churches  of 
 Germany  the  Gottesdienst  had  given  place  to  Gottcsverchrung. 
 In  some  of  the  churches  the  service  of  the  i6th  Century  still  was 
 said,  the  ministers  wore  the  alb,  there  were  many  services  on  a 
 Sunday  and  during  the  week,  and  every  regulation  of  the  reform- 
 ers was  unchanged ; — to  such  an  extent,  indeed,  that  in  some 
 places  on  high  days  the  main  parts  of  the  Service,  except  the 
 pericopes  and  the  Words  of  Institution,  were  sung  in  Latin,  and, 
 I  fear,  on  other  days,  when  they  were  not  sung  in  Latin,  were  not 
 said  at  all.  It  is  not  hard  to  see  that  if  the  Liturgy  in  such  a 
 case  was  faultless  in  form,  it  was  an  opus  operatmii:  the  people 
 had  no  part  in  it ;  they  were  spectators  only.  Such  a  liturgy  was 
 only  a  survival.  The  life  of  the  Church  was  not  in  it,  and  was 
 not  nourished  by  it.  It  was  not  altogether  a  false  motive  which 
 led  men  to  substitute  a  new  order  and  new  formularies  for  the 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 old  that  seemed  to  have  no  meaning;  just  as  in  this  country  the 
 simpler  and  emptier  Service  of  1786  no  douht  seemed  to  answer 
 the  mind  of  the  Church  better  than  the  full  Lutheran  Order  of 
 1748.  But  the  change  went  very  far.  The  new  formularies  were 
 pompous,  and  were  intended  to  move  the  people  to  worship.  The 
 Holy  Supper  no  longer  was  regarded  as  the  centre  and  focus  of 
 
 worship.  The  Sacramental  idea  was  forgotten.  With  alb  and 
 Latin  song  went  the  whole  structure  of  the  Service.  Not  much 
 was  left  to  the  congregation  but  to  be  preached  to  and  prayed  at. 
 But  at  the  beginning  of  this  Century  the  whole  face  of  Europe 
 was  changed.  The  conquests  of  Napoleon  broke  down  the  old 
 order.  He  demonstrated  the  worthlessness  of  the  structure.  And 
 when  he  had  been  overcome,  it  was  impossible  to  set  it  up  again. 
 The  French  Revolution  with  the  horrors  that  attended  and  fol- 
 lowed it  had  made  men  feel  how  far  they  had  drifted  from  patri- 
 otism, purity,  homely  affection  and  religious  faith,  and  brought 
 about  a  great  revival,  a  conversion  of  the  nations.  It  was  natural 
 there  should  be  a  reaction  after  the  excesses  of  skepticism  and 
 political  liberty.  With  renewed  assertion  of  the  rights  of  kings, 
 renewed  submission  to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  a  painful  en- 
 deavour to  restore  what  was  venerable,  there  was  an  honest  abase- 
 ment before  God, — the  hearts  of  the  earnest  cried  out  for  more 
 tlian  rationalistic  forms  could  give  them.  To  this  era  belongs 
 what  is  called  the  Romantic  movement  in  literature — of  which 
 Walter  Scott  was  a  product  and  a  force,  to  which  the  Schlegels 
 belonged  in  Germany,  and  from  which  come  the  Pre-raphaelite 
 School  in  Art  and  the  revival  of  Gothic  architecture  .  The  Ter- 
 Cv^ntenary  of  the  Reformation  occurred  in  1817  and  directed  the 
 thoughtful  to  the  principles  and  achievements  of  the  reformers. 
 Frederick  William  HL  of  Prussia  sought  the  union  of  the  Evan- 
 gelical Church  in  Germany — the  ancestral  dream  of  his  house. 
 He  and  his  successor  hoped  for  a  closer  relation  to  the  Church 
 of  England.  He  discerned  the  real  causes  of  the  disunion,  weak- 
 ness and  overthrow  of  Germany.  The  Liturgy  for  the  Garrison 
 Church  at  Berlin,  of  which  tlie  king  was  the  compiler,  Bunsen's 
 Capitoline  Liturgy  intended  for  the  use  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
 ii  the  Embassy  at  Rome,  and  finally  the  new  Liturgy  for  the 
 Prussian  Church,  all  followed  one  line,  namely,  a  return  to  the 
 historical  order  of  service  which  had  been  in  use  in  tlie  Western 
 Church  from  early  times,  and  a  return  to  the  order  and  forms  of 
 that  Service  as  "Father  Luther"  had  purified  and  arranged  them. 
 Different  views  may  be  taken  of  the  liturgies  which  the  king  and 
 his  friends  published  and  he  tried  to  force  on  the  Church.  But  it 
 is  evident  that  they  rested  on  a  study  of  the  original  and  charac- 
 teristic Service  of  Worshii)  of  our  reformers,  which  deserved  to 
 
the;  significance  of  liturgical,  reform.  23 
 
 be  recalled  to  mind.  In  the  controversy  that  ensued  men  were 
 compelled  to  study  the  old  Church  Orders,  to  admire  the  wealth 
 of  liturgical  material  so  strangely  forgotten,  to  recognize  that 
 such  a  liturgical  service  at  every  point  answered  to  the  structure 
 of  the  old  faith,  which  had  been  forgotten  too,  so  that  in  every 
 part  the  one  demanded  the  other,  and  to  seek  and  regard  the  es- 
 sential principle  of  the  worship  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
 past  century  seemed  to  have  been  lost  time.  The  Church  awoke 
 with  a  sigh  to  the  faith  of  the  fathers  and  to  their  mode  of  wor- 
 ship. The  contest  in  Prussia  spread  to  the  other  states.  And  so 
 the  work  of  liturgical  reform  has  steadily  proceeded  in  Germany. 
 Probably  no  German  state  has  been  content  with  the  Order  and 
 constituents  of  worship  which  were  in  use  at  the  Deginning  of  the 
 century.  At  present  the  liturgy  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Rus- 
 sia is  under  revision.  And  everywhere — while  in  some  places 
 there  is  incompleteness,  and  in  some  a  conscious  and  obdurate 
 aversion  to  Lutheran  forms,  based  on  an  aversion  to  the  Lutheran 
 faith, — wherever  there  has  been  intelligent  guidance,  liturgical  re- 
 form has  returned  to  the  principles  and  liturgy  of  "Father 
 Luther." 
 
 In  this  country  our  churches  owe  so  much  to  the  influence  of 
 the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  for  the  maintenance  of  liturgical 
 taste,  that  we  are  apt  to  think  that  the  Anglican  Church  has  al- 
 ways been  as  well-ordered  as  it  is  to-day.  It  is  a  curious  fact 
 that,  as  in  the  Reformation  the  Lutheran  Service  was  practically 
 fixed  in  the  period  between  1523- 1539,  while  the  first  English 
 Service,  which  was  drawn  from  it,  was  not  published  till  1548,  9, 
 so  the  reaction,  conversion  and  reform  of  which  I  have  spoken 
 had  declared  itself  and  taken  shape  and  started  on  its  resistless 
 way  before  the  beginning  of  the  Oxford  movement,  which,  in 
 spite  of  the  Romeward  tendency  it  developed,  has  had  so  mighty 
 an  influence  on  the  liturgical  reform  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
 It  would  be  unfair  to  say  that  it  is  due  to  the  movement  in  Ger- 
 many. The  Romantic  movement,  the  conservative  reaction,  fdund 
 leaders  and  prophets  in  England.  The  English  and  the  Germans 
 are  of  the  same  stock.  German  sovereigns,  wliose  continental 
 realm  possesses  one  of  the  purest  of  Lutheran  communities,  sat 
 on  the  throne  of  England.  There  is  too  much  in  common  between 
 the  Lutheran  and  the  Anglican  Churches  for  one  to  be  deeply 
 stirred  without  the  other  feeling  it.  Yet  it  must  not  be  left  un- 
 noticed that  German  influence  in  this  direction  zvas  felt  in  Eng- 
 Umd.  Baron  Bunsen,  for  instance,  was  as  effective  in  England 
 as  in  Germany.  He  profoundly  influenced  Broad  Churchmen 
 there.  The  healthy  core  of  the  English  Church  always  is  nour- 
 ished on  Lutheran  theology.    And  the  very  attempt  of  Frederick 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 William  IV.  to  unite  the  German  and  Anglican  churches  in  the 
 lerusalem  bishopric,  though  it  rested  on  a  misconception  of  the 
 genius  of  both  churches,  urged  on  the  movement  to  the  revival 
 and  criticism  and  repristination  of  the  forms  of  the  past. 
 
 I  may  say  that  in  the  Church  of  England  in  this  country  be- 
 fore this  movement  began,  there  was  little  order.  And  in  Eng- 
 land the  churches  were  neglected,  instruments  of  handiwork  stood 
 in  chancels,  the  usages  of  the  fathers  were  forgotten,  the  clerk  and 
 not  the  congregation  said  the  responses,  and  it  even  was  forgot- 
 ten what  vestments  were  in  use  in  earlier  time.  There  is  much 
 reason  to  admire  the  dignity  of  the  Service  of  the  English  Church 
 and  its  so-called  uniformity,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  it  has 
 been  attained  under  much  greater  advantages,  yet  not  without 
 sore  struggle,  in  the  course  of  that  very  movement,  of  liturgical 
 reform  upon  which  we  are  borne  in  our  own  Church,  which 
 seems  so  incomplete,  but  in  which  we  are  striving  to  do  our  part. 
 
 The  progress  of  liturgical  reform  in  our  own  country  has 
 Sfone  the  same  course  that  I  have  described.     The  earliest  liturgy 
 
 & 
 
 of  our  Church  in  this  country  was  of  the  historical  Lutheran  type, 
 but  by  the  beginning  of  this  century  another  had  succeeded  it. 
 v/hich  answered  to  the  colder  faith  of  the  time.  And  when  our 
 first  English  Churches  were  organized,  our  first  books  breathed 
 the  grandiloquent  uncertainties  and  touching  periphrase  which 
 were  a  truthful  utterance  of  weakness  of  conviction.  The  revival 
 of  Church-consciousness,  a  renewed  interest  in  doctrine,  were  in 
 no  small  measure  due  to  the  movement  in  Germany,  and  in  later 
 years  the  influence  of  controversy  in  England  was  felt.  The  same 
 movement  began  in  other  churches.  Dr.  Nevin  revived  a  church- 
 ly  theology  and  his  followers  tried  to  establish  a  liturgy  con- 
 structed on  ancient  models.  Dr.  Schaff  gave  a  voice  to  German 
 thought.  The  General  Synod  was  always  aiming  at  an  improved 
 liturgy.  In  that  improvement  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  was  the 
 pioneer.  The  Southern  Churches  practically  ado])ted  the  Penn- 
 sylvania Synod's  scheme.  The  Churcli  Book  finally  came  into 
 being;  and  then  the  Kirchcnhuch;  and  finally  the  Common  Ser- 
 vice. We  now  have  the  full  Lutheran  Service  with  all  its  pro- 
 visions for  all  who  wish  to  use  it.  We  see,  ever  more  clearly, 
 the  Christian  principle  of  worship.  We  are  learning  to  discern 
 the  principle  of  worship  which  our  fathers  held  to  be  Scriptural 
 and  proper  to  the  Church  from  that  wl)ich  has  mastered  the  Ro- 
 man Catholic  Church  and  so  troubles  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
 Church  to-day.  And  having  reached  this  stage,  we  recognize  it 
 is  but  a  stage.  We  have  yet  to  understand  one  book;  to  criticise 
 it;  to  live  it;  and  to  make  it  the  jiossession  and  life  of  our  peo- 
 ple.   It  is  yet  a  mark  to  aim  at.    It  will  be  long  before  the  fidelity 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  LITURGICAL  REFORM.  2$ 
 
 of  many  make  it  a  standing  point  for  further  development  of  the 
 Church. 
 
 I  have  dwelt  at  length  on  the  origin  of  the  present  movement 
 of  liturgical  reform.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  same  in- 
 terest that  occupies  us  is  felt  throughout  the  CTiristian  Church. 
 It  has  its  roots  very  deep  in  history.  It  is  a  part  of  the  progress 
 of  our  race.    And  it  is  not  a  spent  force. 
 
 There  have  been  several  great  eras  of  liturgical  reform.  Per- 
 haps the  first  was  when  the  simple  vService  of  New  Testament 
 time,  such  a  Service  as  the  Didachc  or  Justin  Martyr  tells  of,  be- 
 came such  as  that  of  the  earliest  Greek  written  liturgies  that  have 
 come  down  to  us.  The  adoption  of  the  dramatic  principle,  the 
 secret  discipline,  the  growing  distinction  between  a  clergy  and 
 laity,  the  transference  to  Christian  worship  of  Old  Testament 
 forms,  the  development  of  a  priesthood  and  a  Sacrifice,  are  ele- 
 ments of  it ;  there  are  evidences  of  hesitation  and  criticism ;  and 
 we  are  not  yet  able  to  say  how  much  of  this  early  form  may  have 
 been  borrowed  in  Alexandria  from  Egyptian  rites  and  in  the 
 Greek  world  from  the  Mysteries. 
 
 A  second  period  of  liturgical  reform  of  the  greatest  import- 
 ance was  that  of  the  formation  of  the  Latin  Service.  How  strange 
 that  so  momentous  a  change  should  have  taken  place  somewhere 
 in  the  3d  Century,  and  yet  there  should  be  no  record  of  it ;  strange 
 enough  if  it  had  been  a  mere  translation  of  the  venerable  Greek 
 form ;  but  stranger  as  manifesting  a  critical  and  creative  spirit 
 guiding  it.  so  as  to  form  a  distinctive  Western  Service,  which 
 shall  be  the  old  Service,  yet  a  new,  simpler,  no  less  majestic,  and 
 lucid ;  without  the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  ele- 
 ments, though  there  is  evidence  that  there  was  a  question  about 
 this  omission ;  but  with  the  marvellous  addition  of  the  Collects, 
 for  which  we  should  ever  be  grateful,  and  the  skilful  and  sug- 
 gestive variation  of  the  liturgy  at  every  Service  of  the  Christian 
 Year. 
 
 The  next  great  period  of  liturgical  reform  is  marked  by  the 
 name  of  Charlemagne.  How  I  wish  we  knew  more  of  him!  He 
 was  the  first  great  German.  The  Roman  Service  took  the  place 
 of  the  particular  liturgies  which  had  maintained  themselves  in 
 Spain,  for  instance,  and  in  France.  Among  many  other  reforms 
 we  owe  it  to  Charlemagne  that  the  reading  and  inculcation  of  the 
 Scriptures  in  the  Service  were  arranged  and  enforced ;  an  en- 
 deavor that  early  to  make  the  Roman  Liturgy  something  else 
 than  an  opus  operatum. 
 
 The  fourth  great  period  was  the  era  of  the  Reformation. 
 Before  the  Lutherans  began  it  for  themselves,  the  movement  to 
 liturgical  reform  had  begun  in  the  Roman  Church.     In  1525  the 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Pope  took  steps  for  the  reformation  of  the  Breviary,  and  the 
 work  was  completed  and  published  by  Cardinal  Quignonez  in 
 1533-6.  The  debates  between  Roman  and  Protestant  theologians 
 showed  how  unsettled  was  the  doctrine  of  Sacrifice  which  was 
 held  by  many  adherents  of  the  old  order.  Charles  V.  attempted 
 a  reformation  at  Augsburg  in  1548.  And  finally  the  Council  of 
 Trent  instituted  a  reformation  of  the  office  of  the  Mass.  In  this, 
 of  course,  the  conception  of  Christian  Worship  as  a  Sacrifice  of- 
 fered to  God,  in  which  our  Lord  is  immolated  in  the  Holy  Sup- 
 per, and  which  reaches  its  culmination  in  the  consecration  and 
 oblation  of  the  elements,  was  established.  This  was  the  Roman 
 liturgical  reform.  The  opposite  conception  and  the  uncertainties 
 about  the  matter  were  condemned  and  cast  out.  The  work  of 
 liturgical  reform  did  not  then  come  to  an  end  in  the  Roman 
 Church.  It  was  merely  confined  within  a  narrow^  channel.  But, 
 besides  the  addition  of  new  festivals  and  new  forms  of  devotion, 
 hymns  in  the  vernacular  have  been  admitted,  the  Scriptures  are 
 read  in  the  language  of  the  people,  a  sermon  is  made  customary 
 at  Mass,  a  translation  of  the  whole  service  is  published  for  the 
 use  of  worshippers,  and  there  have  been  teachers  to  urge  the  use 
 of  the  whole  Mass  in  the  common  tongue. 
 
 The  reformation  of  worship  which  Rome  condemned,  took 
 two  opposing  lines.  One  set  of  teachers  would  have  brushed 
 away  the  whole  structure  of  Vi^orship  which  had  grown  up  in  the 
 history  of  the  Church,  to  reconstruct  it  anew  on  the  principles 
 of  the  Scriptures  and  perhaps  after  the  example  of  the  Churches 
 in  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  This  tendency  has  gone  so  far  as 
 practically  to  deny  the  possibility  of  any  common  worship:  if 
 there  is  to  be  any  public  prayer,  it  is  to  be  only  the  occasional 
 outpouring  of  an  overcharged  soul ;  and  the  Word  of  God  is  not 
 presented  as  God's  Word,  but  never  without  comment,  and  al- 
 ways addressed  as  the  word  of  man  to  the  minds  of  men  and  sub- 
 jected to  the  private  judgment  of  every  hearer.  On  the  other 
 hand  the  vast  majority  of  the  Protestants  against  Rome  acknowl- 
 edged a  certain  right  and  authority  of  the  traditional  order  of 
 worship.  They  might  criticise  or  reshape  it  or  try  to  purify  it 
 or  seek  to  give  it  another  explanation  than  that  which  Rome  can- 
 onized;  they  might  accept  or  reject  more  or  less  of  it;  but  the 
 Order  of  the  Mass  was  there,  to  be  reckoned  with  like  the  Scrip- 
 tures and  the  ancient  Creeds  and  the  decrees  of  Councils  and  the 
 llierarcli}.  In  the  course  of  time  there  has  been  a  deep  difference 
 between  the  principles  of  liturgical  reform  which  have  guided 
 diflferent  communions.  Roman  Catholic  writers  will  tell  you  that 
 Luther  was  not  honest  in  his  reformation  of  the  Service.  They 
 say  that  he  left  the  forms  of  the  old  worship,  so  that  all  appear- 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE^  OF  LlTURGICAIy  REFORM.  2/ 
 
 ed  to  simple  folk  as  it  had  hitherto,  and  skilfully  slipped  out  of 
 it  all  that  was  of  moment,  and  thus  furtively  changed  the  faith 
 of  the  people  while  he  amused  their  ears  and  eyes.  The  very 
 objection  betrays  its  groundlessness.  It  was  the  change  of  faith, 
 which  was  of  moment.  Doctrine  was  at  the  heart  of  the  Lutheran 
 reformation  of  worship  and  governed  every  part  of  it.  And 
 while  addresses  to  the  saints,  for  instance,  were  lopped  off,  and 
 the  Scriptures  were  read  to  the  people  in  a  tongue  they  could 
 understand,  and  in  the  hymns  they  were  given  a  voice  in  wor- 
 ship, and  gradually  all  the  parts  were  translated  with  much  study 
 and  anxious  attention  to  form  as  well  as  meaning,  the  heart  of 
 I,uthcr's  reform  is  that  God  gives  us  all  and  we  bring  Rim  noth- 
 ing but  open  mouths  and  empty  hearts, — that  Word  and  Supper 
 are  primarily  and  essentially  Sacrament  not  Sacrifice,  the  impar- 
 tation  of  complete  redemption  and  sufificient  grace,  and  that  our 
 Sacrifice  is  only  the  other  side  of  it.  begotten  by  it,  included  in  it, 
 subordinate  to  it.  This  is  the  centre  and  focus  of  the  Lutheran 
 reform.  It  casts  out  the  whole  doctrine  of  a  propitiatory  Sacri- 
 fice in  the  Mass,  which  the  Roman  Church  made  to  be  the  whole 
 of  worship.  And  it  starts  the  question  whether  Luther  and  his 
 coadjutors  in  so  many  German  cities  had  a  theory  of  Christian 
 worship  which  demanded  and  justified  their  retention  of  the  old 
 Order  and  constituents  of  worship  after  they  had  cut  the  Canon 
 of  the  Mass  out  of  it.     There  are  those  who  say  he  had  none. 
 
 There  are  German  scholars  who  say  that  his  work  was  incom- 
 plete, but  was  not  meant  to  be  incomplete ;  that  he  set  up  the 
 principle  which  was  destined  to  be  the  solvent  before  which  the 
 whole  of  the  old  Order  should  crumble ;  and  that  therefore  the 
 disappearance  of  the  traditional  order  in  the  German  Churches 
 in  the  last  century  was  the  result  of  the  persistence  of  the  good 
 leaven,  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  adherents  of  Luther  in  the 
 present  age  not  to  go  "back  to  Father  Luther,"  as  the  king  of 
 Prussia  essayed  to  do,  but  to  construct  a  new  Order  of  fresh  ma- 
 terials, the  original  utterance  of  an  emancipated  age.  This  is  one 
 of  the  issues  of  liturgical  reform  to  which  I  shall  revert.  I  al- 
 lude to  it  to  show  two  of  the  lines  of  liturgical  reform  which  the 
 movement  of  the  era  of  the  Reformation  has  taken, — Luther's 
 reconstruction  of  the  Service  on  the  Sacramental  principle  and 
 the  demand  for  a  modern  revision  of  his  work.  But  there  was' 
 also  another  line,  which  must  be  taken  into  account.  It  is  repre- 
 sented in  the  history  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  vary- 
 ing currents  of  the  English  Reformation  need  not  be  described 
 again.  But  it  will  not  be  too  much  to  say  that  the  Church  of  Eng- 
 land has  received  the  liturgical  reform  of  the  Protestants — the 
 order  of  the  old  Service  with  the  distinctive  Roman  and  mediaeval 
 
28  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Sacrifice  taken  out  of  it — but  is  unwilling  to  supply  the  Lutheran 
 content.  She  wonders  at  and  prizes  the  ancient  relic,  but  cannot 
 explain  it ;  and  goes  about  to  invent  other  sacrificial  theories  to 
 take  the  place  of  the  central  immolation  of  our  Lord  in  the  Mass. 
 — Here  we  have  five  theories  of  Christian  worship,  all  represent- 
 ed in  the  movement  of  liturgical  reform  in  tiic  life  of  the  Chris- 
 tian Church  today. 
 
 Let  us  turn  to  the  Pfoblcins  of  liturgical  reform.  It  is  clear 
 that  men  may  engage  in  the  work  of  liturgical  reform  from  very 
 different  interests.  Let  us  classify  them  as  cesthetical,  historical 
 and  practical.  A  taste  for  ritual  or  for  extreme  simplicity  in 
 worship  might  be  without  any  appreciation  of  the  historical  ques- 
 tions involved  and  might  lead  to  steps  hurtful  to  the  congrega- 
 tion. On  the  other  hand  a  scholar  might  take  great  delight  in 
 historical  studv  of  Christian  worship  and  yet  be  entirely  careless 
 of  the  Service  in  his  own  Church.  Many  a  practical  man  wishes 
 uniformity  and  order,  but  has  no  taste,  and  violates  the  historical 
 meaning  of  the  Service  ruthlessly. 
 
 What  authority  has  taste?  If  taste  had  been  consulted,  we 
 could  not  have  secured  the  Common  Service.  It  was  by  tlie  ex- 
 clusion of  personal  preference  and  common  submission  to  the 
 norm,  that  agreement  was  reached.  Yet  taste  had  play.  There 
 were  minor  parts  of  worship  which  taste  ruled  out.  The  Nunc 
 Dimittis  is  retained  in  our  Communion  Service  because  the  taste 
 of  all  agreed  on  this  point  rather  than  because  it  belongs  to  the 
 normal  Lutheran  order.  Taste  had  much  to  do  with  the  original 
 Lutheran  reform.  Luther's  sympathetic  preference  for  rhymed 
 verse,  his  keen  musical  perception,  caused  him  to  hesitate  to  re- 
 ceive translations  of  texts  which  were  at  hand,  and  t6  spend  a 
 long  time  i^erfecting  his  Service,  and,  no  doubt,  this  had  a  good 
 deal  to  do  with  his  retention  of  the  Latin  and  of  many  of  the 
 songs.  Even  his  taste  was  sometimes  at  fault,  as  witness  his 
 Cierman  Saitcliis.  Isaiae  deiii  Proplieten  dies  geschah!  And 
 some  of  his  cotemporaries  made  a  clumsy  work  of  the  Collects. 
 To  eminent  delicacy  and  courage  in  liturgical  composition  we 
 owe  the  English  form  of  parts  of  the  Service.  But  while  we 
 wonder  at  the  marvellous  skill  and  taste  of  German  and  Eng" 
 lish  reformers,  there  was  much  in  the  i6th  Century  Service- 
 books  which  does  not  suit  the  taste  of  this  age.  This  suggests  a 
 question  which  the  scientific  liturgist  must  meet.  What  are  the 
 canons  of  liturgical  taste?  In  how  far  can  the  subjective  and  the 
 temporary  be  allowed  to  alter  that  which  belongs  to  the  whole 
 Church  of  all  ages  and  times? 
 
 It  is  somewhat  annoying  to  one  whose  interest  in  liturgical 
 reform  is  largely  historical  to  meet  with  men  and  women  who  have 
 
the;  significance  of  uturgicai,  reform.  29 
 
 a  taste  for  ritual  and  would  change  our  churches  and  pass  judg- 
 ment on  our  usages  and  manner  of  worship  from  the  standpoint  of 
 fashion.  They  think  they  are  "liturgical"  because  they  sing  Amen  at 
 the  end  of  hymns.  They  would  require  us  to  kneel  in  prayer, 
 against  the  custom  of  our  fathers  and  the  Nicene  rule.  They  de- 
 clare it  is  essential  to  kneel  in  the  Holy  Supper,  against  the  cus- 
 tom of  the  Early  Church.  They  add  a  song  instead  of  the  Offer- 
 tory Sentences.  They  subordinate  ecclesiastical  symbolism  to 
 adornment.  But  another  question  has  to  be  met  here.  Liturgi- 
 cal taste  is  set  among  us  principally  by  the  English  Church ;  and 
 its  canons,  when  not  arbitrary,  are  derived  from  the  Roman. 
 Why  are  these  to  be  preferred  to  those  of  the  German  Churches? 
 Why  is  that  to  be  called  churchly  or  liturgical  which  agrees  with 
 English  or  Roman  usage,  rather  than  that  which  has  the  sanc- 
 tion of  the  churches  from  which  we  sprung?  It  will  therefore  be 
 the  task  of  the  aesthetic  liturgist  to  compare  these  uses,  and  trace 
 them  to  their  real  origin,  and  detect  their  real  worth.  There  are 
 canons  of  taste  in  every  art.  There  should  be  such  in  liturgical 
 reform. 
 
 There  is  a  large  body  of  Churchmen  in  Germany  who  have 
 no  sympathy  with  the  repristination  of  the  Reformation  liturgies. 
 I  believe  they  would  even  deny  the  possibility  of  the  maintenance 
 of  such  a  Service  as  we  have.  But  they  are  not  without  liturgical 
 taste  and  zeal.  They  are  eager  for  what  they  call  the  enrichment 
 of  ivorship.  They  publish  journals.  They  collect  information. 
 They  propose  the  employment  of  the  most  diverse  elements.  For 
 instance,  some  of  them  urge  that  the  organ  and  choir  be  put  be- 
 hind and  above  the  altar ;  they  censure  the  erection  of  Gothic 
 churches  with  the  old  arrangement  of  chancel  and  altar;  they 
 clamour  for  the  development  of  a  modern  and  evangelical  style 
 of  architecture ;  they  advocate  the  recension  of  venerable  forms, 
 for  instance,  of  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  the  formula  of  Con- 
 secration; they  abandon  the  historical  and  claim  everything  and 
 hold  that  they  have  a  right  to  adopt  it.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
 this  in  our  American  churches.  It  is  the  assertion  of  "taste." 
 And  what  do  we  mean  when  we  say  it  is  "unliturgical"  ?  Smend 
 says  Zwinglie  had  more  liturgical  genius  than  Luther.  What 
 right  have  we  to  say  that  taste  must  be  limited,  governed,  sub- 
 jected by  any  rule;  and  what  shall  the  rule  be  except  the  consent, 
 that  is  the  common  taste,  of  the  worshippers?  This  is  an  issue 
 in  the  movement  to  liturgical  reform. 
 
 And  so  we  come  to  another  question — What  is  liturgical 
 progress,  and  what  is  liturgical  decay  ?  We  look  upon  the  effect 
 of  Pietism  and  the  final  triumph  of  Rationalism  over  the 
 Reformation  liturgies  as  steps  of  decay.     But  in  their  time  they 
 
3C  MEMOIRS. 
 
 were  thought  steps  of  progress.  It  was  thought  a  great  thing 
 when  the  old  full  list  of  services,  the  varied  vestments  and  com- 
 plete Service,  which  had  lingered  at  Nuremberg  until  this  cen- 
 tury, while  church  after  church  throughout  Germany  had  put  on 
 the  stately  emptiness  of  the  i8th  century,  were  done  away.  Now 
 we  are  looking  back  to  what  was  abandoned.  If  we  go  into 
 a  Church  where  hearty  congregational  singing  has  given  place 
 to  an  artistic  service,  and  there  are  lights  and  genuflexions  and 
 vestments,  which  appeal  to  a  refined  taste,  but  are  a  mere  gazing- 
 stock  to  the  people,  do  we  not  again  say  that  this  is  decay  ?  How 
 shall  we  decide  what  is  liturgical  progress  and  what  is  decay? 
 Are  the  Introits  always  to  be  chained  to  their  archaic  music? 
 Are  the  Gregorian  tones  as  sacred  as  the  Psalms?  Cannot  his- 
 tory show  us  some  forms  or  principles  which  are  inseparable 
 from  Christian  worship  and  assert  and  maintain  themselves 
 through  all  change?     This  is  a  question  for  liturgical  taste. 
 
 The  historical  student  finds  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  an 
 authentic  witness  of  the  past.  As  in  rebuilding  old  churches 
 they  find  in  the  walls  traces  of  the  work  of  masons  and  architects 
 separated  from  each  other  by  centuries,  so  he  delights  to  recog- 
 nize the  parts  of  the  Service  v/hich  belong  to  various  remote  ages, 
 to  trace  their  development,  to  read  the  story  of  their  own  time 
 in  them,  and  to  explain  their  place  in  this  secular  mosaic.  We 
 owe  a  great  deal  to  such  cool  investigators.  The  devotee  accepts 
 all  without  question,  even  the  tradition  concerning  its  origin ; 
 every  part  of  the  Sacramcntary  of  Gregory  he  ascribes  to  him 
 and  shudders  to  be  told  of  a  comparison  of  manuscripts  which 
 proves  that  a  great  part  of  it  is  centuries  later  in  date  than  Greg- 
 or}'.  But  the  scholar  is  cool  as  an  anatomist.  He  burrows  and 
 speculates,  hesitates  and  decides,  like  Layard  and  Schliemann 
 among  the  ruins  of  the  past. 
 
 We  have  not  more  than  begun  the  investigation  of  liturgies. 
 So  far  as  our  own  Church  is  concerned,  and  its  own  order  de- 
 rived from  the  i6th  century  forms,  we  have  only  secured  an  out- 
 line upon  which  to  work.  There  are  questions  about  all  the  texts : 
 whence  are  they  derived ;  what  variations  appear  in  the 
 Reformation  formularies  ;why  do  different  Church  Orders  insist 
 on  slight  variations ;  what  was  the  objection  to  the  earliest  trans- 
 lations, which  caused  the  neglect  and  final  rejection  of  them ;  and 
 what  can  be  said  of  the  merit  of  the  rhymed  translations  which 
 got  such  vogue?  New  discoveries  are  being  made  of  letters, 
 memoranda,  city  records,  Church  Orders,  in  hbraries,  sacristies, 
 and  town-halls,  which  multiply  the  knowledge  of  ten  years  ago. 
 
 Then  comes  the  question  as  to  the  originals  from  which  these 
 German   texts   were    rendered:      What   Missals   and   Breviaries 
 
the:  significance  of  uturgical  reform.  31 
 
 were  in  the  hands  of  our  reformers?  And  what  is  to  be  said 
 of  the  variations  between  these  Missals?  And  when  the  original 
 usage  has  been  discovered,  then  comparison  must  be  made  be- 
 tween the  Ambrosian,  Galilean  and  Mozarabic  Masses  and  the 
 Roman.  This  brings  the  liturgist  back  to  the  origins  of  the  Latin 
 Service.  He  seeks  them  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian  and 
 Cyprian,  in  North  Africa  rather  than  in  Rome.  And  then  come 
 the  Eastern  liturgies.  What  a  maze !  How  shall  he  disentangle 
 the  original  from  later  additions;  and  to  which  shall  he  assign 
 priority — to  the  versions — the  Syriac,  the  Armenian,  the  Coptic, 
 — or  to  the  extant  Greek  form?  And  here  again  he  must  go  to 
 what  remains  of  early  Christian  literature  for  a  check  upon  the 
 forms  themselves. 
 
 The  texts  ascertained,  or,  rather,  their  history  and  variations 
 having  been  chronicled  (and  on  the  way  to  this  how  much  will 
 our  liturgist  have  learned  of  the  interaction  and  successive  su- 
 periority of  the  divine  and  the  human  factors  in  the  life  of  the 
 Church,) — he  will  meet  the  cjuestion  of  the  rationale,  the  mean- 
 ing, of  the  parts  and  their  order.  Is  there  any  reason  why  the 
 worship  of  the  Church  should  contain  just  such  parts  in  just  such 
 order?  Was  there  a  conscious  purpose  in  tTie  construction  of 
 the  Church  Service?  Has  the  whole  a  single  and  definite  sig- 
 nificance, and  is  each  part  essential  to  the  structure?  Are  not 
 many  venerable  parts  of  the  traditional  worship  merely  rudimen- 
 tary survivals,  whose  use  is  forgotten,  unascertainable,  and  which 
 are  subjected  to  arbitrary  and  varying  explanation,  like  the  lights 
 on  the  altar,  for  instance?  Are  they  like  knots  on  a  tree's  trunk, 
 only  marks  where  something  else  was?  Do  they  give  forth  the 
 same  voice  they  had  at  first?  Or  are  they  organic  utterances 
 of  the  very  heart  of  the  Christian  worship?  And  if  there  is  a 
 meaning,  what  are  you  to  say  of  the  variations  between  Greek 
 Liturgy  and  Roman  Mass  and  Protestant  Communion ^  Is  Ihere 
 a  common  residuum  on  which  the  variants  are  an  exfoliation? 
 Or  can  one  maintain  its  claim  to  have  its  root  in  the  Upper 
 Chamber  and  its  topmost  boughs  flower-crowned  in  the  Holv 
 of  Holies  ? 
 
 This  brings  us  to  the  numberless  questions  involved  in  the 
 development  of  ritual.  I  have  adverted  to  the  dififerent  element? 
 of  which  the  Christian  Service  is  composed.  We  may  find  rem- 
 nants of  the  earliest  Service  in  the  New  Testament.  Was  it  not 
 natural  that  forms  of  the  Old  Testament  worship  should  be 
 taken  over?  Perhaps  these  were  at  first  used  figuratively,  then 
 kept  in  token  of  their  fulfilment  in  Christian  realities,  but  can  we 
 wonder  if  those  whose  Christian  life  was  in  so  large  part  nour- 
 ished by  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  and  who,  coming  out  o*i 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  corruptions  of  heathenism,  so  needed  the  discipHne  of  thp 
 Law,  and  still  wore  accustomed  to  sacrifices  as  the  universal  ex- 
 pression of  worsliip.  adopted  also  forms  of  the  Ceremonial  Law? 
 That  Ceremonial  Law  was  constructed  on  patterns  of  things 
 heavenly  showed  to  Moses  in  the  Mount.  Still,  the  heavenly 
 patterns  were  expressed  in  forms  not  unknown  to  the  jiatriarchs, 
 to  Egypt  and  to  Assyria.  Universal  forms  of  worship  were 
 purified  and  rearranged  in  the  Tabernacle.  Here  seems  to  be 
 a  sanction  of  the  adoption  of  what  appears  characteristically  hu- 
 man, as  well  as  the  promulgation  and  fixation  of  something  which 
 is  Divine  and  therefore  eternal,  immutable.  What  is  that  im- 
 perishable, normal,  real  thing  in  the  Old  Testament  ritual,  which 
 dares  not  be  absent  from  its  worship  in  Heaven  ?  The  same  consid- 
 dares  not  c  babsent  from  its  worship  in  Heaven  ?  The  same  consid- 
 it  is  not  absent  from  its  worship  in  Heaven?  The  same  consid- 
 erations join  with  the  genius  of  the  peoples  among  whom  the 
 worship  of  the  Church  took  form,  to  justify  the  use  of  symbol- 
 ical action.  This  had  a  use  and  a  meaning  then,  which  amonglus  it 
 has  not.  The  beginnings  of  ritual  perhaps  are  traceable  to  Jeru- 
 salem. It  does  not  seem  a  false  tradition  which  ascribes  a  stand- 
 ard Greek  Liturgy  to  Alexandria.  Scholarship  has  as  yet  done 
 no  more  than  suggest  the  great  part  Egyptian  traditions  and 
 habits,  ingrained  in  the  people  and  fortified  by  the  remains  of  age- 
 old  cults,  had  in  the  formation  of  the  Christian  forms  of  wor- 
 ship. At  places  also  the  Christian  ritual  strangely  touches  the 
 Mithraic  ceremonies  which  maintained  themselves  in  Italy.  Greg- 
 ory's principle  expressed  in  his  letter  to  Augustine  of  Canterbury 
 and  illustrated  in  the  religious  habits  of  Germany  and  Scandi- 
 navia, to  adopt  and  Christianize  heathen  customs,  was  no  inven- 
 tion of  his  age,  but  in  all  probability  was  the  tradition  of  the 
 Church  from  the  beginning.  It  is  the  task  of  the  scientific  lit- 
 urgist  to  seek  the  heart,  the  essence,  the  soul,  of  Christian  wor- 
 ship, that  is  incorporate  in  a  body  nourished  upon  and  assimilat- 
 ing these  elements ;  but  when  the  soul  is  encountered,  shall  the 
 scientific  liturgist  stay  and  strip  ofif  this  body?  Can  the  soul 
 live  disembodied?  Or  shall  we  admire  and  value  and  use  the 
 Service  which  bears  the  mark  and  is  the  offering  of  every  age 
 and  every  people  and  every  conquered  faith  through  which  the 
 undying  Church  has  passed? 
 
 We  need  a  complete  study  of  the  doctrine  of  Sacrifice  in 
 Christian  Worship.  How  early  was  the  figure  mixed  with  a 
 literal  interpretation?  The  priesthood  of  all  believers,  the  spir- 
 itual sacrifices,  the  Eucharist  of  the  Church,  strive  to  maintain 
 themselves  side  by  side  with  the  immolation  of  Christ  by  a  regu- 
 lar priesthood.     Political  urgency,  innate  convictions,  false  exe- 
 
the;  significance  of  uturgicai,  reform.  33 
 
 q-esis,  all  conspired  to  fix  this  doctrine  on  the  Church,  so  that, 
 though  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  there  were  many  more 
 or  lets  Scriptural  theologians  to  deny  it,  it  long  had  been  prac- 
 tically the  rule  and  habit  of  faith.  So  we  come  upon  a  serious 
 question:  at  what  stage  did  the  historical  Service  begin  to  leave 
 the  true  type ;  when  did  it  cease  to  be  Christian ;  how  can  we 
 explain  the  true  elements  which  not  only  continued  to  exist  in  it, 
 but,  like  the  Collects,  for  instance,  seem  to  have  been  forgotten 
 and  born  in  what  we  pronounce  an  age  of  retrogression  and  de- 
 cay? In  how  far  are  we  justified  in  picking  out  the  framework, 
 in  which  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  is  imbedded,  as  if  the  latter 
 had  been  a  complete  superaddition  on  the  former? 
 
 Two  events  in  the  early  history  of  the  Service  are  most 
 suggestive.  One  is  the  omission  from  the  Western  Service  of 
 Bpiclcsis,  the  Invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  Ele- 
 ments (and  upon  the  worshippers)  in  the  Holy  Communion. 
 It  occurs  in  all  of  the  older  liturgies.*  It  has  been  urged  by  the 
 Eastern  Church  against  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Roman  Mass,  that 
 
 *  Cyril  Cat.  Myst.  V.  7.  After  hallowing  ourselves  by  these  spiritual 
 hymns,  we  beseech  the  merciful  God  to  send  forth  His  Holy  Spirit  upon  the 
 elements  displayed  on  the  table,  to  make  the  bread  the  Body  of  Christ  and 
 the  wine  the  Blood  of  Christ.  For  most  certainly,  whatsoever  the  Holy 
 Spirit  may  have  touched,  that  is  hallowed  and  transformed. 
 
 Lit  Clem.  Ap.  C.  VIII.  12.  17.  That  he  may  declare  (airofjjrjvr])  this 
 bread  the  J^ody  of  Thy  Christ,  and  this  cup  the  Blood  of  Thy  Christ,  in 
 order  that  they  who  partake  of  it  ma}'  be  confirmed  in  piet}-,  obtain  remis- 
 sion of  their  sins,  be  delivered  from  the  devil  and  his  deceits,  be  filled  with 
 the  Holy  Spirit,  be  made  worthy  of  Thy  Christ,  obtain  everlasting  life,  Thou 
 being  reconciled  to  them  O  Lord  Almighty. 
 
 it  omits  this  essential  rite.  The  Nonjurors  in  England  insisted 
 on  its  restoration  to  the  Service  and  it  has  been  inserted  in  the 
 Scottish  and  the  American  Prayerbooks,  over  against  the  Book 
 of  Comnton  Prayer.  The  liturgies  betray  the  force  that  was 
 ascribed  to  it.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  found  in  the 
 Greek  Liturgy  of  the  Church  at  Rome.  But  it  is  omitted  in  the 
 Latin,  which  came  into  being  in  the  3d  century.  Yet  there 
 survives  in  one  of  the  oldest  MSS.,  the  so-called  Leonine  Sac- 
 ramentary.  "a.  distinct  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit."*  Its  omis- 
 sion therefore  was  deliberate,  purposed.  Why?  What  doctrinal 
 departure  v/as  represented  by  this  momentous,  almost  essential 
 liturgical  change?  To  me  this  seems  a  question  of  the  greatest 
 importance,  and  if  it  cannot  be  answered,  only  shows  how  igno- 
 rant we  really  are  of  the  genius  and  rationale  of  our  Liturgy. 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Another  very  curious  variation  occurs  between  the  Armenian 
 and  Coptic  versions  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Greek  Hturgies  as 
 they  have  come  down  to  us.  In  the  latter  the  offering  is  made 
 to  God  the  Father.  In  the  former,  on  the  other  hand,  the  offer- 
 ing is  made  to  the  Lord  Himself.**  It  hardly  is  conceivable  that 
 in  the  earliest  form  of  the  Liturgy  the  Church  immolated  Christ 
 and  offered  Him  to  Himself.  Are  these  ancient  versions  in  this 
 particular  a  faithful  translation  (imbedded  in  a  corrupt  repre- 
 sentation of  earlier  forms)  of  the  original  thank-offering  of  the 
 
 Lit.  Chrys.     (Make)  this  bread  etc.-changing  them  by  Thj' Holy  Spirit. 
 
 Lit.  St.  Mark.  Send  forth  Thy  Holy  Spirit  upon  us,  and  upon  these 
 cups,  that  He  may  sanctify  and  consecrate  them,  as  God  Almight}',  and  may 
 make  the  bread  the  Body  etc. 
 
 Mozarabic  (for  2  S.  after  Ep.)  That  Thou  woiildst  sanctify  this  oblation 
 by  the  permixture  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  and  ^vouldst  conform  it  with  full 
 transformation  to  the  Body  and  Blood  etc. 
 
 Syriac  St.  Basil.  He  beseeches  God  that  His  Spirit  should  come  on  the 
 congregation  and  the  gifts  and  (avaoetcat)  exhibit  the  bread  and  cup  as  the 
 precious  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord. 
 
 *  "The  first,  and  undoubtedly  the  oldest,  is  a  sacramentary  discovered 
 in  the  library  at  Verona  and  published  by  Blanchini  in  the  year  1735.  He 
 gave  to  it  the  title  Sacramentarium  Leonianum,  and  attributed  it  (without 
 any  documentary  evidence)  to  pope  IvCO  the  Great.  .  .It  seems  now  to  be 
 generally  agreed  that  the  MS,  was  prepared  by  some  ecclesiastic  for  his  own, 
 either  private  or  public  use.  .  .It  contains  a  collection  of  pra3-ers  such  as 
 were  used  at  the  eucharistic  ser\'ices  etc.  .  .A  distinct  invocation  of  theHol}- 
 Spirit  is  on  pp.  79,  147  (cf.  p.  139)."  Diet.  Christ.  Antt.  1032. 
 
 **  Lit.  St.  Greg.  "Remembering  Thy  comingupon  earth,  Thy  Death, 
 Thy  Resurrection,  Ascension,  and  coming  Advent,  we  offer  to  Thee  of  Thine 
 own  gifts."     And  he  beseeches  Christ  to  come  and  complete  the  mystic 
 
 redeemed  Church,  the  Body  of  Christ,  to  its  Head ;  of  which  the 
 present  form  preserves  the  gradual  and  final  misconception  and 
 perversion? 
 
 As  we  study  the  Liturgy  we  shall  become  more  and  more 
 enamoured  of  the  ancient  forms.  At  first  taste  may  select  a  few 
 forms  or  texts ;  then  we  allow  ourselves  to  criticise  old  forms ;  we 
 even  rearrange  (as,  for  instance,  some  would  place  the  Litroit- 
 before  the  Confession  of  Sins  and  the  Kyric  before  the  Declara- 
 tion of  Grace  in  the  Communion)  ;  it  does  not  seem  wrong  to 
 adapt  the  old  Service  to  modern  taste  and  a  logical  scheme ;  but 
 as  we  persist  in  studying  it.  it  more  and  more  seems  sacrilege  to 
 depart  in  the  least  from  the  model.  Finally  it  is  enough  that 
 "in  the  Sources''  the  text  is  given  in  that  way   (which  it  were 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OE  LITURGICAL  REFORM.  35 
 
 sacrilege  to  amend)  and  the  parts  in  that  order  (which  it  is 
 "unhturgical"  and  "unchurchly,"  to  criticise).  Another  way  to 
 state  this  is  that  as  we  use  the  old  Order  it  justifies  itself.  And 
 this  suggests  a  question  which  the  student  must  settle  for  him- 
 self, the  question  of  the  liturgical  value  of  tradition,  of  ancient 
 usage.  We  may  be  glad  to  have  the  historical  Service  as  a  wit- 
 ness to  the  history  of  the  Church.  So  we  would  revere  a 
 mediaeval  Cathedral.  But  ought  we  insist  on  copying  it  in  a 
 place  of  worship,  if  no  words  that  were  said  could  be  understood 
 in  it?  Are  not  we  and  each  successive  age  of  the  Church  to 
 resist  the  erection  of  archaic  forms  instead  of  the  living  worship 
 of  the  Church ;  to  criticise,  select  and  reconstruct ;  and  to  yield 
 due  respect  to  the  new  forms  of  worship,  which,  just  like  the 
 Collects,  the  Sunday  Gospels,  the  Lutheran  church-hymns,  and 
 the  Confession  and  General  Absolution  in  the  Communion,  still 
 are  being  developed  in  every  age?  It  is  easy  to  answer  this 
 question  in  the  affirmative ;  but  what  are  the  rules  on  which  this 
 criticism  shall  proceed  and  which  will  defend  us  against  the 
 vagaries  of  personal  taste  and  preserve  for  us  the  seminal  forms 
 in  the  use  of  which  we  participate  with  the  whole  body  of  the 
 faithful?    I  urge  this,  that  we  may  feel  the  peril  that  awaits  the 
 
 service,  to  send  His  Spirit  and  sanctify  and  change  the  gifts  into  the  Body 
 and  Blood  of  our  redemption. 
 
 In  the  Greek  and  Arabic  St.  Basil  in  the  Epiclesis  the  appeal  is  to  God, 
 in  the  Coptic  to  Christ. 
 
 Sf.  Mark.  The  intercessory  pra3'ers  which  are  offered  by  the  priest 
 after  the  giving  of  thanks  in  the  "dignum  et  justum  est,"  are  addressed  in 
 the  Greek  Liturgy  to  the  Father,  in  the  Coptic  to  our  Ivord.  .  .In  the  Coptic 
 the  prayer  is  addressed  to  Christ  to  receive  "the  sacrifices  and  oblations  of 
 those  who  offer  on  His  spiritual  heavenly  alter;"  in  the  Greek  a  similar 
 petition  is  addressed  to  God. 
 
 Syriac  St.  Bas.     Addressed  to  God.     D.  C.  A.  1022. 
 
 historical  liturgist,  and  to  defend  our  Church  against  the  unhappy 
 condition  of  the  Anglican  liturgists,  who  resolutely  shut  th^ir 
 eyes  against  all  that  is  not  fotmd  in  their  Service,  seek  and  re- 
 vere every  pre-Reformation  precedent,  and  labour  to  invent  a 
 convenient  explanation  for  all  they  have  or  have  not,  until, 
 threatened  by  endless  contradictions,  they  are  driven  to  the  faith 
 and  practice  of  the  nought-explaining  Church  of  Rome. 
 
 We  need  spend  but  little  time  upon  the  problems  of  the 
 practical  liturgist.  His  devices  must  be  subject  to  liturgical  taste 
 and  liturgical  knowledge.     He  seeks  order  and  edification.     He 
 
36  MEMOIRS. 
 
 estimates  the  demands  and  limitations  of  the  present.  He  guards 
 against  a  development  of  the  liturgy  away  from  the  congregation. 
 While  he  depends  on  the  student,  as  a  pastor  waits  for  the  in- 
 struction of  the  tlicologian,  we  are  not  to  forget  that  the  Church 
 owes  all  to  her  practical  liturgists.  Gregory  reformed  the  Serv- 
 ice, vigorously  cutting  out  superfluities,  and  impressing  order 
 upon  those  who  wished  for  independence.  Luther  and  his 
 friends  seem  to  have  studied  the  different  uses  of  the  West  and 
 the  liturgies  of  the  East,  and  they  possessed  intuitive  taste,  but 
 he  was  a  practical  liturgist, — as  was  Cramner  in  his  own  age, 
 and  Cosin  in  a  later.  He  put  his  hand  to  the  very  central  sanc- 
 tuary of  the  Roman  Mass,  and  cut  the  Canon  out  of  it;  he  put 
 the  Gospels  into  the  vernacular;  he  passed  every  prayer  in  re- 
 view ;  he  criticised  the  feast-days ;  and  he  put  an  end  to  the  awk- 
 ward transference  of  Epiphany  Sundays  to  the  end  of  the  Chris- 
 tian year,  supplying  an  appropriate  finial  to  the  whole  year.  There 
 is,  however,  a  sphere  in  which  the  historical  liturgist  and  the 
 practical  come  together — in  the  region  of  Symbolisw.  All  the 
 constituents  of  the  Service  are  said  to  have  a  meaning,  and  all 
 the  accessories,  too.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  the  signifi- 
 cation of  colours,  vestments,  candles,  incense,  shapes,  materials, 
 architectural  ornaments,  rites.  What  if  the  explanations  differ? 
 Do  we  turn  to  the  altar  in  prayer,  because  we  pray  with  the  con- 
 gregation, or  because  the  Sun  rises  in  the  East,  or  because  we 
 wish  to  pray  towards  Jerusalem,  or  because  the  Incarnate  Lord 
 is  on  the  altar?  Or  wh:  t,  again,  if  these  things  did  once  speak 
 volumes  in  an  imaginative  age?  The  practical  liturgist  must  de- 
 cide whether  they  are  now  vocal  or  dumb,  or  whether  they  preach 
 truth  or  falsehood,  and  liow  they  may  be  made  to  contribute  to 
 communion  between  man  and  God. 
 
 The  practical  liturgist  has  to  consider  not  only  how  he  may 
 speak  to  men,  or  how  he  may  help  men  to  speak  to  God,  or  how 
 he  may  bring  God's  Word  to  men;  it  is  his  duty  also  to  main- 
 tain Chnrchlincss.  And  what  is  "churchliness"?  It  is  conscious 
 fellowship  with  all  the  members  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  in  the 
 present,  in  the  past,  and  in  the  world  to  come.  Here  taste  and 
 historical  scholarship  and  practical  purpose  will  unite,  and  find 
 in  the  possession  of  the  historical  Service  the  means  of  enkind- 
 ling the  consciousness  of  the  Communion  of  Saints. 
 
 We  must  hrielly  notice  the  results  to  be  expecteil  from  lit- 
 urgical reform,  es])ecially  in  our  own  communion.  The'  attain- 
 ment of  a  beautiful  and  rigiit  praxis  will  not  guarantee  its  main- 
 tenance. Our  Service  or  worship  seems  to  be  a  truthful  utter- 
 ance of  our  faith,  and  at  the  same  time  is  well  adapted  to  nour- 
 ish the  right  faith,  and  we  value  it  because  it  is  commended  by 
 
the;  significance  of  liturgical  reform.  37 
 
 the  example  and  precept  of  the  Refonners.  Perhaps  it  is  more 
 beautiful  now  than  it  was  in  their  time,  for  our  congregations 
 are  more  intelligent  than  most  of  theirs  were,  and  say  and  sing, 
 for  they  do  not  need  to  depend  upon  choirs  better  trained.  Un- 
 hampered by  tradition,  we  are  able  to  omit  many  things  whose 
 use  even  then  was  a  riddle,  and  which  perhaps  interfered 
 strangely  with  the  Service.  Our  Service,  again,  is  a  witness  to 
 the  unity  and  continuity  of  the  One  Holy  Christian  Apostolic 
 Church.  But  dear  as  it  is  to  us  and  sacred,  the  mere  recovery 
 of  it  and  its  re-establishment  in  our  congregations,  fortified  as 
 it  will  be  by  such  earnest  research  as  this  Association  has  entered 
 on,  will  not  guarantee  its  perpetuity.  The  Orders  of  worship 
 which  the  Reformers  occupied  years  in  perfecting  fell  into  disuse. 
 A  time  came  when  there  was  hopeless  dissonance  between  the 
 taste  and  faith  of  the  churches  and  the  old  forms.  The  pld  lit- 
 urgies that  lingered  were  obsolete  long  before  men  replaced  them 
 with  others.  It  was  wise  in  Muhlenberg  to  bring  the  Lutheran 
 liturgy  to  America,  but  in  less  than  fifty  years  one  was  com- 
 posed which  that  age  thought  better,  or  at  least  more  manage- 
 able. We  must  face  this  fact  and  provide  against  hurtful 
 change.  But,  at  the  same  time,  not  against  all  change.  There 
 is  a  sense  in  which  even  what  is  loveliest  becomes  obsolete  and 
 needs  amendment.  Every  age  will  have  its  own  faith  springing 
 from  the  old  truth,  and  its  own  voice  in  which  to  confess  it.  The 
 Service  of  the  Church  is  what  it  is  because  every  age  has  given 
 to  it  its  life-blood.  It  has  been  sprouting  in  new  forms,  opening 
 into  new  blossoms  continually.  It  would  be  false  (unliturgical) 
 to  go  back  to  the  First  Age,  or  even  to  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
 for  an  absolute  standard.  It  is  a  delight  and  a  nourishment  to 
 qur  souls  to  mark  the  origin  of  the  different  parts  of  our  worship 
 in  successive  eras.  An  incense  fills  our  churches  in  which  linger 
 the  devotions  of  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor,  of  Jerusalem,  of  the 
 catacombs,  of  Roman  churches  when  the  barbarians  were  hover- 
 ing on  the  borders  of  the  Empire,  of  France  when  the  Moors 
 had  swept  over  Spain,  of  the  heroic  age  in  Germany,  and  just  as 
 well  of  the  Pietistic  and  Moravian  eras,  and  of  later  days.  We 
 must  expect  and  serve  the  development  of  the  liturgy,  its  healthy 
 and  natural  growth. 
 
 Therefore  while  truthfulness  of  life  and  in  the  expression  of 
 life  must  be  a  prime  law,  liturgical  reform  among  us  will  aim  at 
 the  ascertainment  of  the  true  principle  of  liturgical  authority.  I 
 account  it  a  great  gain  to  the  Church  that  Lutherans  have  made 
 the  Liturgy  a  principal  subject  of  study.  They  are  not  bent  on 
 a  defense  of  what  is,  like  Roman  scholars.  Too  often  Anglicans 
 are   averse  to  the   consideration   of   any   fact   which   will   make 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 against  their  own  Order.  You  will  look  in  vain  into  their  books 
 for  a  comprehensive,  scientific  and  exhaustive  study  of  all  the 
 elements  of  Christian  worship.  But  the  Lutheran  is  keenly  alive 
 to  the  perils  of  authority  and  of  historical  authoritv  ^vithout 
 criticism.  That  a  thing  has  been  so,  is  rather  a  reason  for  doubt 
 than  acceptance.  The  clear  light  of  the  Word  and  an  imperturb- 
 able modernness  in  the  application  are  his  means.  He  turns 
 from  a  dim  fane,  bleak  and  cobwebbed,  in  which  is  the  moan  of 
 archaisms,  and  says,  Ye  make  void  the  Word  of  God  with  your 
 traditions. 
 
 We  may  expect  great  things  in  our  Church  from  the  litur- 
 gical reform  in  progress.  The  possession  of  a  Book,  of  a  uni- 
 form Service,  of  an  historical  Service — the  peculiar  possession  of 
 an  historical  Church,  the  explanation  and  inculcation  of  that 
 book,  and  the  use  of  it  from  childhood,  will  produce  a  generation 
 very  different  from  our  hardy  fathers.  This  is  not  yet  attained ; 
 but  it  is  in  process.  The  sense  of  the  unity  among  our  churches, 
 of  the  unity  of  our  own  time  with  the  past,  of  the  unity  of  those 
 of  our  faith  with  all  the  saints  of  God,  will  become  a  much  more 
 potent  element  in  our  religious  life.  It  may  be  expected  that  our 
 churches  will  retain  a  larger  proportion  of  their  educated  mem- 
 bers, whose  taste  is  cultivated,  for  hitherto  these  have  been  at- 
 tracted to  churches  more  in  sympathy  with  the  literature  on 
 which  their  culture  is  based ;  and  their  influence  will  be  felt. 
 Impelled  by  them  we  shall  have  to  meet  larger  questions  of 
 popular  concern  than  hitherto  have  seemed  to  require  an  an- 
 swer from  us.  It  will  be  a  great  thing  to  have  order  impressed 
 on  our  religion.  I  look  to  see  a  fuller  expression  of  the  mind  of 
 the  reformers  in  this  land  than  under  the  repression  of  Europe 
 ever  found  voice.  The  antimonies  of  our  confession  will  again 
 demand  solution.  And,  no  doubt,  under  the  mellowed  tone  of 
 this  old  ritual,  in  the  daily  consciousness  of  the  communion  of 
 saints,  the  controversial  spirit  which  has  characterized  our 
 teachers  will  yield  to  a  broader  sympathy. 
 
 A  great  result  of  the  closer  study  of  liturgical  history  and 
 the  forms  of  Christian  worship  will  be  a  development  of  the  doc- 
 trine concerning  the  Church.  A  "liturgical  service"  is  incom- 
 patible with  individualism.  It  is  a  worship  in  fellowship;  and  in 
 the  fellowship;  in  real  fellowship  with  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ; 
 and  therefore  with  His  Body,  the  whole  Church  of  which  He  is 
 Head;  a  worship  rendered  not  by  men  simply,  but  by  men  in 
 their  several  estates  and  offices,  as  they  are  organically  related  in 
 our  Lord.  The  Holy  Scriptures  in  this  worship  are  imparted 
 as  the  living  Word  of  God ;  arc  divided  and  applied  on  days  and 
 in  seasons  which  derive  their  sanctity  from  it;  but  are  not  pro- 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OE  LITURGICAL  REEORM.  39 
 
 posed  to  the  private  judgment  of  the  hearers;  but  are  interpreted 
 by  the  Church's  Service  and  offered  as  the  Means  of  Grace.  No 
 doubt  Ritschl  is  right  in  saying  that  our  reformers  set  forth  "the 
 Church  basis  for  the  course  of  justification  and  renovation,"  The 
 doctrine  of  the  Church  was  not  fully  developed.  There  are  con- 
 tradictions in  it  yet  unsolved,  which  perhaps  are  as  stubborn  as 
 those  between  "free  will  and  foreknowledge  absolute,"  and  those 
 which  are  fused  in  the  Person  of  our  Lord;  yet  doubtless  they 
 would  be  as  fruitful  to  the  mind  and  spirit  as  the  exploitation  of 
 those  mysteries  is.  Those  embarked  on  the  stream  of  liturgical 
 reform  are  carried  directly  to  the  problem  of  the  Church.  Per- 
 haps God  is  calling  the  Lutheran  Church  to  a  thorough  study,  a 
 fuller  recognition,  a  clear  and  convincing  statement,  of  the  truth 
 of  the  One  and  the  Real  Church  which  transcends  all  outward 
 mechanism. 
 
 Edward  T.  Horn. 
 Reading,  Pa. 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OF  THE 
 COMMON  SERVICE. 
 
 We  are  the  possessors  of  a  matchless  liturgical  Order  of  Worship. 
 What  is  the  origin  of  its  component  parts  ?  To  this  question  many, 
 who  have  used  it  for  years,  cannot  return  a  satisfactory  answer.  Their 
 ideas  respecting  the  origin  of  the  various  parts  are  hazy  and  confused. 
 Some  seem  to  think  that  their  source  Ues  bodily  in  the  Office  Books  of  the 
 Roman  Church  ;  others,  that  Luther,  his  co-laborers  and  followers  com- 
 posed and  presented  our  Service  to  the  Church.  To  trace  the  origin 
 and  to  some  extent  the  development  of  the  different  parts,  their  use  in 
 the  Christian  worship  of  the  early  and  mediaeval  church,  and  their  re- 
 tention in  the  Orders  of  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  of  the  XVI  cen- 
 tury, (the  consensus  of  which  formed  the  basis  of  "The  Common  Ser- 
 vice"), is  the  design  of  this  paper.  If  by  it  any  are  stimulated  to  fur- 
 ther research  of  their  own,  or  obtain  a  higher  appreciation  of  our  Ser- 
 vice, the  writer  will  feel  amply  repaid  for  the  many,  by  no  means  un- 
 pleasant, hours  spent  in  poring  over  volumes  that  exhaled  the  fragrance 
 of  languages  other  than  his  mother-tongue. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church  has  ever  claimed,  and  rightfully  too,  to  be  the 
 Church  conforming  most  closely  to  Holy  Scripture.  Her  Liturgical  Ser- 
 vice cannot  consequently  be  incompatible  with  Scripture.  We  purpose, 
 therefore,  to  trace 
 
 I. 
 THE  SCRIPTURAL  SOURCES. 
 
 The  Invocation  is  at  once  recognized  as  the  Baptismal  Formula  in 
 Matt.  28  :  19. 
 
 The  Call  to   Confession  has  its  origin  in  Hebrews  10  :  22. 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  first  part  of  the  Versicle  is  taken  from  Ps.  124  :  8,  and  the  sec- 
 ond from  Ps.  32  :  5. 
 
 The  Confession  is  not  Scripture,  word  by  word,  but  is  nevertheless 
 Scriptural. 
 
 The  Declaration  of  Grace  has  its  source  in  John  3  :  16,  i  :  12  ; 
 Mark  16  :  16. 
 
 The  Introits  are  found  as  follows  : 
 
 I.  Advent,  Ps.  25  :  1-4  ;  II.  Advent,  Zech,  9:9;  Isa.  30  :  30,  29  ; 
 Ps.  80  :  I.  III.  Advent,  Phil.  4:4-6;  Ps.  85  :  i.  IV.  Advent,  Isa 
 45  :  8  ;  Ps.  19:  I.  ("hristmas,  Isa.  9;  6;  Ps.  98  :  i.  Sunday  after 
 Christmas,  Ps.  93  :  5,  2,  i.  New  Year,  Ps.  8  :  i,  4;  Isa.  63  :  16. 
 Epiphany,  Mai.  3  :  i  ;  Ps.  72  :  i.  I.  Epiphany,  Isa.  6:1;  Rev. 
 19:  6;  Ps.  100:  I.  II.  Epiphany,  Ps.  66:  4,  i,  2.  III.  Epipha- 
 ny, Ps.  97  :  7,  8,  I.  VI.  Epiphany,  Ps.  77  :  18  ;  84,  i.  Septuagesi- 
 ma,  Ps.  18  :  5,  6,  i,  2.  Sexigesima,  Ps.  44  :  23-25,  i.  Quinquagesi- 
 ma,  Ps.  31  :  2,  3,  i.  Ash  Wednesday,  Ps.  57  :  2,  i.  Invocavit,  Ps.  91  : 
 15,  16,  I.  Reminiscere,  Ps.  25  :  6,  2,  22,  i.  Oculi,  Ps.  25  :  15,  16, 
 I,  2.  Laetare.  Isa.  66  :  10;  Ps.  122  :  i.  Judica,  Ps.  43  :  i,  2,  3. 
 Palmarum,  Ps.  22  :  19,  21,  i.  Monday  in  Holy  Week,  Ps.  35  :  1-3. 
 Tuesday  and  Thursday  in  Holy  Week,  Gal.  6  :  14  ;  Ps.  67  :  i.  Wed- 
 nesday in  Holy  Week,  Phil.  2  :  10,  8,  11  ;  Ps.  102  :  i.  Good  Friday, 
 Isa.  53  :  3-6  ;  Ps.  102  :  i.  Easter,  Ps.  139  :  18,  5,  6,  i,  2  ;  or  Luke 
 24  :  6,  5,  7  ;  Ps.  8  :  5-6.  Quasimodogeniti,  i  Pet.  2:2;  Ps.  81  :  8, 
 I.  Misericordias,  Ps.  33  :  5,  6,  i.  Jubilate,  Ps.  66  :  i,  2,  3.  Cantate, 
 Ps.  98  :  I,  2.  Rogate,  Isa.  48  :  20;  Ps.  66  :  i,  2.  Ascension  Day, 
 Acts  I  :  II  ;  Ps.  47  :  i.  Exaudi,  Ps.  27  :  7,  8,  9,  i.  Whitsunday,  Wis- 
 dom I  :  7  ;  Ps.  68  :  3,  I.  Festival  of  the  Trinity, — I.  Ecclesiastical,  Ps. 
 8:1.  II.  Isa.  6:3;  Rom.  11  :  36  ;  Ps.  8  :  i.  Sundays  after  Trinity, — 
 I.  Ps.  13  :  5,  6,  I.  II.  Ps.  18  :  18,  19,  i,  2.  III.  Ps.  25  :  16,  18,  i,  2. 
 IV.  Ps.  27  :  I,  2,  3.  V.  Ps.  27  :  7,  9.  i.  VI.  Ps.  28  :  8,  9,  i.  VII. 
 Ps.  47  :  I,  3.  VIII.  Ps.  48  :  9,  10,  I.  IX.  Ps.  54  :  4,  5,  i.  X.  Ps. 
 55  :  t6,  18,  19,  22,  I.  XI.  Ps.  68  :  5,  6,  35,  i.  XII.  Ps.  70  :  i,  2. 
 XIII.  Ps.  74  :  20-23,  I.  XIV.  Ps.  84  :  9,  10,  i.  XV.  Ps.  86  ;  1-4. 
 XVI.  Ps.  86:  3.  5,  I.  XVII.  Ps.  119:  137,  124,  i.  XVIII.  Eccle- 
 siasticus  36  ;  16,  17  ;  Ps.  122  :  i.  XIX.  Ps.  35  :  3  ;  34  :  17  ;  48  :  14  ; 
 78  :  I.  XX.  Dan.  9  :  14 ;  Ps.  115  :  i  ;  119  :  124  ;  51  :  i  ;  48  :  i.  XXI. 
 Psalm  119:  I.  XXII.  Ps.  130:  3,  4,  i,  2.  XXIII.  Jer.  29:  11, 
 12,  14;  Ps.  85:  I.  XXIV.  Ps.  95:  6,  7,  I.  XXV.  Ps.  31:  9,  15,  17, 
 I.  XXVI.  Ps.  54:  I,  2,  5.  Festival  of  Harvest,  Ps.  65:  11,  9,  10,  i. 
 Festival  of  the  Reformation,  Ps.  46:  7,  2,  i.     Day  of  Humiliation  and 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE.  43 
 
 Prayer,  Isa.  i:  2,  4  ;  Ps.  130:  3.  Day  of  General  or  Special  Thanks- 
 giving, Ps.  150:  6,  2,  I.  Annunciation,  Ps.  45:  12,  14,  15,  i.  Evan- 
 gelists', Apostles',  and  Martyrs'  Days,  2  Tim.  i:  12  j  4:  8  ;  Ps.  139:  i, 
 2.  St.  Michael's  Day,  Ps.  103:  20,  21,  i. 
 
 The  Gloria  Patri  has  as  its  basis  Rom.  16  :  27  ;  Eph.  3:21;  Phil. 
 4  :  20  j  Rev.  1:6. 
 
 The  Kyrie  is  found  in  Ps.  51  :  i  ;  123  :  3  ;  Matt.  9  :  27  ;  15  :  22  ; 
 20  :  30  ;  Mark  10  :  47. 
 
 The  Gloria  in  Excehis  rests  upon  the  angels'  song  as  wafted  over 
 Judea's  plains  on  the  night  of  the  Saviour's  nativity, —  ^uke  2  :  14. 
 
 The  Salutation  is  taken  from  Ruth  2  :  4,  and  the  Response  follows 
 Ruth  2  :  4  ;  2  Tim.  4:22. 
 
 The  Collects  are  largely  Scriptural.  This  fact  may  not  always  be  ev- 
 ident, owing  to  the  changes  made  in  translation.  An  example  is  furn- 
 ished in  the  Collect  for  Epiphany,  which  is  plainly  built  upon  Matt,  2  : 
 9;  2  Cor.  5:7;!  John  3  :  2. 
 
 The  Epistles  and  Gospels  are  necessarily  all  Scripture. 
 
 The  Sentences  after  Epistle  are  found  as  follows  :  Advent,  Ps.  25:6; 
 Epiphany,  117  :  1-2  ;  Passion,  Phil.  2:8;  Easter,  i  Cor.  5:7;  Whit- 
 suntide, Ps.  104:  30;  Trinity,  Ps.  119:  124-125  ;  or  Ezra  7:  27  and 
 Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children. 
 
 The  Creed  has  its  basis  in  Scripture. 
 
 The  Sermon  should  be  largely  a  "Thus  saith  the  Lord." 
 
 The  Votiim  is  found  in  Phil.  4:7. 
 
 The  Offertory  selections  are  from  Ps.  51:  17-19  ;  51:  10-12. 
 
 The  Gefiei-al  Prayer  like  the  Collects  is  largely  Scriptural.  The 
 Lord's  Prayer  is  from  Matt.  6:  9-13. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  Response  of  Preface  are  from  Ruth  2 :  4  ;  2  Tim. 
 4:  22. 
 
 The  Sursum   Cor  da  (?) 
 
 The  Proper  Prefaces  abound  in  Scriptural  expressions. 
 
 The  Sanctus  is  taken  from  Isa.  6:  3  and  Ps.   118:  26. 
 
 The  Exhortation  contains  many  interwoven  Scriptural  phrases. 
 
 The  Words  of  Institution  are  found  in  Matt.  26:  26-28  ;  Mark  14: 
 22-24;  Luke  22:  19—20;  I  Cor.  11:  23—25. 
 
 The  Agnus  Dei  is  taken  from  John  i :  29  ;  Matt.  9:  27. 
 
 The  Pax  has  its  origin  in  Luke  24:  30;  John  20:  19-21  ;  Rom.  16: 
 16;  I  Pet.  5:  14. 
 
 The  Words  of  Disttibtition  onXy  zssMmt  Q.  slightly  different  form  of 
 Christ's  own  words  at  the  Institution. 
 
44  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Nujic  Dimiitis  is  the  grand  hymn  of  Simeon  recorded  in  Luke 
 2:  29-32. 
 
 The  Call  to  Thanksgiving  and  Response  are  taken  from  Ps.  136:  i. 
 
 The  Collect,  while  not  Scripture,  is  Scriptural. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  Response  as  above. 
 
 Hhe  Benedicamus.  (?) 
 
 The  Benediction  is  from  Num.  6:  24-26. 
 
 From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  unscripturalness  can  certainly  not 
 be  charged  against  "The  Common  Service."  What  may  be  of  greater 
 nterest  is  reserved  for  the  consideration  of 
 
 II. 
 THE  LITURGICAL  SOURCES. 
 
 It  must  ever  be  remembered  that  Luther  had  no  desire  to  break  with 
 the  past  in  beginning  and  prosecuting  the  work  to  which  in  the  provi- 
 dence of  God  he  had  been  called.  Reformation,  not  revolution  ;  re- 
 construction, not  destruction;  revision,  not  creation,  was  his  aim.  His 
 energies  were  directed  against  all  corruptions  whether  in  doctrine  or 
 practice ;  and  to  bring  the  Church  to  the  purity  of  both  was  his  stead- 
 fast endeavor.  As  he  moved  in  the  van  in  purifying  the  doctrines,  so 
 also  he  led  the  way  in  purging  the  Service  of  the  Church.  Whatever 
 was  evangelical  and  not  in  conflict  with  the  Word  of  God,  he  retained ; 
 and  whatever  was  the  fabrication  of  a  corrupt  hierarchy  he  set  aside  as 
 so  much  dross.  We  are  consequently  not  at  all  surprised  to  find  many 
 things  in  our  Service  that  have  come  to  us  as  a  heritage  from  the 
 Church  of  past  ages. 
 
 We  do  not  pretend  to  speak  with  final  authority  as  to  the  sources  of 
 all  the  various  parts.  In  some  instances  this  is  impossible  :  but  enough 
 will  be  said  to  establish  the  claim  that  when  worshipping  in  our  church- 
 es, we  connect  directly  with  the  saints  of  the  most  ancient  times.  To 
 trace  the  liturgical  origin  of  our  Morning  Service  we  shall  now  proceed. 
 
 The  Confiteor, 
 
 Although  not  a  component  part  of  the  normal  Lutheran  Service,  this 
 is  nevertheless  a  fitting  introduction.  While  it  has  its  origin  in  the 
 Cotifiteor  or  Praeparatio  in  Ahssani  of  "The  Ordinary  of  the  Mass," 
 it  bears  but  faint  resemblance  to  it  when  analyzed.  Its  usage  even  in 
 the  Roman  Church  is  not  of  a  very  early  date, — probably  the  13  th  cen- 
 tury. Most  of  the  Lutheran  orders  of  the  i6th  century  rejected  it.  A 
 few,  e.g.,  Reformation  of  Cologne  1543,  Bugenhagen  1524,  Strassburg 
 Kirchenampt  1524,  Doeber's  Nuernburg  Ev.  Mass  1525,  Mecklen- 
 burg 1552  retained  it.     Brandenburg- Nuernburg    1533  says   concern- 
 
SOURCES    OF    THE    MORNING    SERVICE.  .  45 
 
 ing  it:  "Wenn  der  Priester  zum  Altar  kommt,  mag  er  das  Confiteor 
 Oder  was  ihn  seine  Andacht  errinert,  spreciien."  (When  the  priest 
 comes  to  the  altar  he  may  say  the  Confiteor  or  what  his  meditation 
 suggests.)  Loehe  gives  several  formulas  for  such  devotions.  The 
 Invocation,  "In  the  Name  of  the  Father  etc.,"  is  found  in  the  Prae- 
 paratio  in  Missam  and  also  occurs  as  the  beginning  of  the  Strassburg- 
 Erfurth  Kirchenampt  1525. 
 
 The  ^^/^//rjj- is  not  found  in  the  Roman  Confiteor  and  the  form  in 
 The  Common  Service  is  taken  from  Mecklenburg  1552.  It  is  also 
 found  in  Wittenberg  1559  and  Austria  157 1. 
 
 The/ri-/  Versicle  is  found  in  the  Roman  Order  having  been  proba- 
 bly introduced  about  the  first  quarter  of  the  8th  century.  Mecklen- 
 burg 1552  also  contains  it.  The  second  Versicle  dots  not  occur  in  the 
 Roman  Confiteor  and  The  Coi-nmon  Service  adopted  it  from  Doeber's 
 Nuernberg  Spitalmesse  1525,  Strassburg  Kirchenampt  1524,  Cologne 
 1543  and  Austria  157 1.  The  Confession  nnVikc  anything  in  the  Ro- 
 man Order  save  the  phrase,  "thought,  word  and  deed,"  is  from  Meck- 
 lenburg 1552. 
 
 The  Declaration  of  Grace  is  likewise  from  the  same  order. 
 The  Introit. 
 
 The  Introits  have  their  origin  in  the  Psalmody  with  which  in  the 
 primitive  ages  of  the  church  the  services  began.  Originally  entire 
 Psalms  were  sung ;  but  already  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great 
 (t6o4),  we  find,  instead  of  entire  Psalms,  individual  verses  from  the 
 same.  Also  to  be  noticed  is  the  change  of  Introits  to  correspond  with 
 the  different  seasons  of  the  Church  Year  {I?itroitus  de  tempore).  Cel- 
 estine  I.  (t432)  is  supposed  to  be  the  originator  of  this  change. 
 About  the  beginning  of  the  8  th  century  an  Antiphon  announcing,  in 
 an  emphatic  way,  the  thought  of  the  day,  was  prefixed.* 
 
 Luther  in  his  Formula  Missae  1523,  says, — "We  approve  and  pre- 
 serve the  Introits  for  the  Lord's  Days  and  the  festivals  of  Christ,  viz., 
 Easter,  Whitsunday,  Christmas  ;  although  we  prefer  the  Psalms  whence 
 they  were  taken,  as  of  old ;  but  we  permit  the  usage  already  estab- 
 lished." His  preference  was  not  generally  followed.  The  ruric, — "In- 
 stead of  the  Introit,  a  Psalm  or  Hymn  may  be  used,"  was  undoubtedly 
 the  result  of  different  usages  in  the  various  i6th  century  Orders. 
 The  Gloria  Patri. 
 
 Just  at  what  period  of  time  the  Gloria  Patri,  which  follows  every 
 Psalm  and  also  every  Psalm  verse  of  the  Introit,   had  its  origin,    seems 
 
 *  Schoeberlein,  "Schatz  et;."  Vol.  i.  p.  45. 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 impossible  to  determine.  Of  an  early  usage,  however,  we  are  assured. 
 Originally  the  form  was  either  "Glory  to  the  Father,  through  the  Son,  in 
 the  Holy  Ghost,"  or  "Glory  to  the  Father,  in  the  Son,  and  in  the 
 Holy  Ghost."  But  in  the  time  of  Arius  (318)  and  his  followers 
 who  denied  the  co-equality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  the  more 
 definite  form,  "Glory  be  to  the  Father  and  to  the  Son  and  to  the 
 Holy  Ghost,"  was  given  it;  and  because,  in  the  Arian  controversy, 
 the  co-eternity  of  the  Son  with  the  Father  was  denied,  the  conclu- 
 sion, "as  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,  world 
 without  end.  Amen,"  was  added,  first  in  the  Eastern,  then  in  the 
 Western  Church.* 
 
 The  Kyrie. 
 
 This  comeB  to  us  hoary  with  the  frosts  of  time.  The  Liturgies  of 
 St.  James,  St.  Mark  and  the  Greek  fathers  as  well  as  those  of  the 
 Armenians,  Syrians  and  others  contain  it.  From  the  earliest  times  it 
 was  used  in  the  Greek  Church,  only  in  a  different  connection,  either 
 with  the  General  Prayer  or  the  Litany.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions 
 prescribe  that  in  the  recitation  of  the  Litany  by  the  deacon,  the  whole 
 congregation  and  especially  the  children  shall  respond,  Kyrie  Eleison 
 (Lord,  have  mercy)  after  each  petition.  This  very  ancient  custom  has 
 continued  in  the  Eastern  Church  to  the  present,  so  that  in  the  Greek 
 Church  of  Russia,  e.  g.  the  "Gospodi  pomilui"  is  repeated  innumerable 
 times.f  Its  introduction  into  the  Latin  Church,  though  attributed  to 
 Gregory  the  Great,  is  by  no  means  certain.  Sylvester  L  (314-335) 
 is  supposed  to  have  first  introduced  the  use  of  the  Greek  words  into 
 the  Roman  Church.  Thence  was  added  the  ^^Christe  Eleison'"  and 
 the  formula  became  the  well-known 
 
 Kyrie  Eleison  (Lord,  have  mercy), 
 
 Christe  Eleison  (Christ,  have  mercy), 
 
 Kyrie  Eleison  (Lord,  have  mercy). 
 
 Bearing  evident  reference  to  the  Trinity  in  this  form,  it  was  soon 
 separated  from  the  Litany  and  became  a  distinct  part  of  the  Liturgy. 
 As  such  the  form  was  apparently  too  brief  and  then  it  began  to  be  oft 
 repeated  on  the  one  hand  and  enlarged  on  the  other.  According  to 
 the  old  Roman  service  the  choir  was  to  continue  singing  the  Kyrie  un- 
 til the  priest  signified  it  to  cease.  In  the  Roman  mass  Kyrie  Eleison 
 was  to  be  sung  thrice,  then  Christe  Eleison  thrice,  then  Kyrie  Eleison 
 thrice  again. 
 
 •  Alt,  Kirchl.  Gottesdienst,  p.  500. 
 t  Alt.  p.  492. 
 
SOURCES    OF    THE    INIORNING    SERVICE.  47 
 
 In  the  Formula  Missae  1523,  Luther  says:^"The  Kyrie  Eleison,  as 
 heretofore  used,  with  its  various  melodies  adapted  to  the  various  sea- 
 sons, we  accept ;"  but  in  his  German  Mass  1526,  he  directs  that  the 
 Kyrie  be  sung  three  and  not  nine  times,  as  had  been  the  Roman  prac- 
 tice. Reduced  to  this  threefold  form  we  use  it  in  The  Common  Service. 
 The  Gloria  in  Excelsis. 
 
 This  is  as  old  as  the  Kyrie  and  its  use  in  the  Liturgical  Service  of  the 
 Church.  In  its  original,  simple  form,  ^^  Gloria  in  Excelsis  Deo,  et  in 
 terra  pax  hominibus  bonae  voluntatis,^''  \l  is  indisputably  one  of  the 
 oldest  of  all  the  hymns  of  the  Christian  Church.  It  is  of  Eastern  ori- 
 gin. Its  ascription  to  Bishop  Telesphorus  (127-138)  cannot  be  sub- 
 stantiated ;  neither  is  there  sufficient  authority  to  attribute  its  Latin 
 form  to  Hilary  of  Poictiers  (1368).  It  is  supposedly  older.  Already 
 in  very  early  times  it  developed  beyond  the  simple  form  above  given, 
 as  may  be  seen  from  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  7:  47.  * 
 
 In  the  earliest  Ordo  Romanus  it  was  used  only  at  Christmas  by  the 
 bishop,  and  as  given  in  St.  Luke.  The  Gregorian  order  allows  it  to  be 
 sung  on  Easter  by  a  priest.  Many  of  the  Lutheran  Orders  of  the  i6th 
 century  prescribe  a  versification  of  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  by  Nicolas 
 Decius  1 53 1. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  Response. 
 
 In  the  early  Greek  Liturgies,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Preface,  are 
 found  the  Salutation  and  Response.  They  introduced  the  lections  in 
 the  Mozarabic  and  Coptic  Liturgies.  In  the  mediaeval  church  they  in- 
 troduced every  integral  part  of  the  Service.  Although  not  mentioned 
 in  the  outline  of  many  of  the  Orders  of  the  i6th  century,  they  were  evi- 
 dently not  intended  to  be  omitted,  because  music  for  them  is  provided 
 in  the  old  Cantionales.  Brandenburg-Nuernberg  1533;  Branden- 
 burg 1540 ;  Prussia  1544  ;  Ritzebuettel  1544;  Waldeck  1556  and  I. 
 Edward  1549,  prescribe  them.f 
 
 "^I'he  Collects. 
 
 The  Collects  are  found  principally  in  the  old  Sacramentaries.  Until 
 at  least  the  year  1000  the  Order  of  Holy  Communion  or  "The  Mass," 
 as  then  called,  was  distributed  through  four  books, — the  Lectionary 
 containing  the  Epistles ;  the  EvangeHstary  containing  the  Gospels ;  the 
 Antiphonary  containing  the  Introits,  Communions  and  Post-Commun- 
 ions ;  and  the  Sacramentary  containing  the  Collects  and  "The  Canon 
 of  the  Mass."     Three  such  Sacramentaries   were  in  existence.      The 
 
 *  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Scribner  Ed.  Vol.  7,  p.  478. 
 
 t  See  Horn,  Liturgies,  p.  62;  and   Lutheran  Sources  &c.     p.  13. 
 
48  MEMOIRS. 
 
 oldest  was  that  of  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome,  440-461  ;  next  came  that  of 
 Gelasius  raised  to  the  Bishopric  of  Rome,  492  ;  and  then  followed  that 
 of  Gregory  the  Great  raised  to  the  same  Bishopric,  590.  In  these  Sac- 
 ramentaries  are  principally  found  the  originals  of  which  the  Collects  of 
 The  Common  Service  are,  in  the  main,  translations.  Designating  these 
 Sacramentaries,  in  their  order,  by  Z.  GL,  and  Gr.,  the  following  will 
 show  whence  the  Collects  are  derived  : — 
 
 I.  Advent,  Gr.  Thursday  in  Holy  Week-?  VII.  Trinity,         Gl. 
 
 II.  "      Gl.  I.  Good  Friday,     Gr.  VHI.    "  Gl. 
 
 III.  "       Gl.  II.     "         "  ?       IX.       "  Gl. 
 
 IV.  •'      (il.  III.  "         •<  ?       X.         •'  (;i. 
 
 I.  Other  Advent  Collect.Gl. Easter  Eve,  Gl.  XI.        "  Gl. 
 
 II.  "  "  •'        Gr.Easter    Day,    Gr.,    though  XII.     "  L. 
 
 III.  *•  "  "     — ?  the  first  half  appears  already  XIII     "  L. 
 Christmas  Night,  Gl.             in  the  Gelasian    Sacramen-  XIV.     "                 Cil. 
 
 "         Day       "  tary.  XV.      "  Gl. 
 
 Sunday  after  Christmas,  Gr.I.  Other  Easter  Collect,  Gr.  XVI.     "  Gr. 
 
 I.  New  Year,  Gr.  partly.      II.     "         "  "     Gl.  XVII.  "  Gl. 
 
 II.  "  "         ?  This  is  the  second    half    of  XVIII."  Gl. 
 
 Epiphany,  Gr.  that     noted    under    Easier  XIX.     "  Gl. 
 
 I.  "  Cir.  Day.  XX.       •'  Gl. 
 
 II.  '•  Gr.  Quasimodogeniti,  Gr.  XXI.     "  Gr. 
 
 III.  "  Gr.  Misericordias,  Gl.  XXII.  "  Gr. 
 
 IV.  "  Gr.  Jubilate,  L.  XXIII.-'  Gr. 
 
 V.  "  Gr.  Cantate,  Gl.  XXIV."  Gr. 
 
 VI.  "  ?  Rogate,  Gl.  XXV.   "  ? 
 
 Septuagesima,  Gr.  I.  Ascension  Day,  Gr.  XXVI.  "  ? 
 
 Sexagesima,  Gr.  II.     "  "  This  Festival  of  Harvest. 
 
 Quinquagesima,  Gr.  appears    as   an     Antiphon         "        "  Refornmtion. —  ? 
 
 Ash     Wednesday,    I.    Ed-  for  Vespers  on   Ascension  Day   of     Humiliation     and 
 
 ward  VI.  1549,  though  the  Day    in     Sarum    Breviary.  Prayer ? 
 
 Invocation  and  first  clause  May  have  an  earlier  origin.  Special  or  General  Thanks- 
 may  have  a  Gregorian  ori-  Exaudi,  Gl.  giving, ? 
 
 gin.  Whitsunday,  Gr.                      Presentation  of  Christ,  In- 
 
 Iiivocavit,     ?  Monday     in      NMiitsunday  vocation     and    first   clause, 
 
 Keminiscere,  Gr.  Week,  Gr.                                 Gl.,  rest  Gr. 
 
 Oculi,  Gr.  Trinity,   Gr.                          Annunciation,  Gr. 
 
 Laetare,  Gr.  I.       "  Gl.  Visitation, ? 
 
 Judica,  Gr.  II.      "                   Gl.               I.  Evangelists'  &c.  Days — ? 
 
 Palmarum,  Gl.  III.    "  Gr.( Probably  older) II          "               "      "     — ? 
 
 Monday  in  Holy  Week,  Gr  IV.      "  L.               III.       "                "       " 
 
 Tuesday    "     "  "       "V.        "                  Gl.             I.  Edward  1549. 
 
 Wendesdsy     "  "       "    VI.      "                  Gl-             St.  Michael's  Day,  Gr. 
 
 Only  a  thorough  and  devout  study  of  the  Collects  will  reveal  their 
 true  beauty  and  sublimity.  "One  has  seen  at  the  root  of  a  decaying 
 tree  tufts  of  wild  hyacinths  or  primroses,  the  seeds  of  which,  wafted  by 
 winds,  or  carried  by  birds  or  insects,  have  found  in  this  friable,  cor- 
 rupting soil  a  congenial  habitat.  And  there  are  correspondences  in 
 the  moral  world  with  this  natural  phenomenon.  When  the  old  Ro- 
 man Empire  was  in  its  last  stage  of  decay ;  when  all  old  landmarks 
 were  being  removed,  and  old  institutions   were   going  to    pieces,    then 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE.  49 
 
 appeared  for  the  first  time  these  bunches  of  fragrant,  beautiful  prayers, 
 giving  token  of  a  spiritual  vitality  below  the  surface  of  society,  a  sure 
 evidence  that  all  was  not  corrupt,  that  the  antiseptic  salt  of  God's  grace 
 in  the  hearts  of  His  elect  endured  still,  and   had  not  lost    its    savor."* 
 
 The  Epistle. 
 
 In  the  ancient  Liturgies  and  the  works  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  the 
 general  appellation  of  the  Epistle  was  "The  Apostle."  It  is  so  spo- 
 ken of  by  St.  Augustine  and  also  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary.  The 
 patriarchate  of  Constantinople  even  now  retains  this  designation.  In 
 the  early  ages  of  the  Church  the  Epistle  was  read  from  the  ambon  by 
 a  special  reader.  Many  of  the  Eastern  Churches  still  employ  a  special 
 reader  for  this  office.  This  custom  was  abandoned  by  Rome  about  the 
 eighth  century  and  the  sub-deacon  then  read  the  Epistle.  Later 
 the  custom  of  reading  the  Epistle  from  the  left  side  of  the  altar  was  in- 
 troduced by  the  Roman  Church.  In  our  church  the  Epistle  was  usu- 
 ally read  by  the  minister,  although  this  office  was  at  times  delegated  to 
 an  assistant,  also  called  sub-deacon. f  Following  Luther  in  his  Ger- 
 man Mass,  1526,  the  reader  stood  with  "face  turned  to  the  people" 
 and  it  was  left  optional  whether  he  stood  in  the  middle,  at  the  right  or 
 south  side  of  the  altar  as  viewed  from  the  congregation,  at  a  lecturn, 
 or  in  a  place  where  he  could  be  heard  by  the  whole  congregation.  In 
 the  sixteenth  century  arose  the  custom,  here  and  there,  to  read  the 
 Epistle  from  the  pulpit  when  it  formed  the  text  for  the  sermon. 
 The  Hallelujah  and  Sentence. 
 
 From  the  earliest  times  the  Hallelujah  was  in  liturgical  use.  It  was 
 sung  at  the  Passover  Feast  of  the  Jewish  Church.  For  a  long  time  it 
 was  sung  in  the  Eastern  Church  only  from  Easter  to  Pentecost.  St. 
 Jerome,  however,  did  not  approve  of  this  restricted  use  and  the  Halle- 
 lujah was  then  sung  even  during  Masses  for  the  dead. 
 
 In  the  Western  Church,  it  was  restricted  at  first  to  Easter  Day ;  but 
 in  the  time  of  St.  Augustine  this  restriction  was  removed  and  in  many 
 churches  it  was  sung  every  Lord's  Day.  The  old  Mozarabic  and  Galil- 
 ean Liturgies,  following  the  custom  of  the  Eastern  church,  used  it  dur- 
 ing Masses  for  the  dead.  Since  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  it  be- 
 came a  general  custom  to  omit  it  during  penitential  seasons. 
 
 In  our  church  it  is  omitted  during  the  Passion  season. 
 
 The  Hturgical  use  of  the  Sentences  is  not  easily  determined.  Wheth- 
 er all  of  them  had  a  pre-Reformation  origin  is  doubtful.     Those  for  the 
 
 *  Goulburn,  Collects,  Vol.  i,  p.  38. 
 t  Ottheinrich,  1543. 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Passion  season  and  Whitsuntide  were  used  as   Graduals  in   the    Roman 
 Church. 
 
 Their  Lutheran  source  is  also  not  very  apparent.  Schoeberlein  in 
 his  "Schatz  etc."  gives  all  those  of  The  Common  Service  with  the  ex- 
 ception of  that  for  Whitsunday.  His  notations  are  that  the  Advent 
 Sentence  is  traced  through  Elizabeth  1542  to  Deutsch  Kirchenampt  of 
 Erfurth  1526  ;  that  for  Epiphany  z.%  occurring  in  Hessian  Agenda  1574  ; 
 for  the  Passion  season  in  Elizabeth  1542  ;  first  for  Trinity  in  I.  Stras- 
 burg  1525  ;  second  for  Trinity  in  Elizabeth  1542  ;  for  Easter  in  Eliza- 
 beth 1542  ;  this  also  occurs  as  a  Versicle  and  Response  in  Onalzbach, 
 and  in  fuller  form  as  a  Gradual  in  Lossius,  Elerus  and  Rhein-Pfalz 
 1570 ;    that  for  Whitsunday  occurs  as  an  Antiphon  in  Lossius. 
 
 The  Gospel. 
 Especial  reverence  has  always  been  paid  the  Gospel  inasmuch    as   it 
 comprises  a  part  either  of  Christ's  life  or  His  teachings.        In  primitive 
 times  it  was  read  either  by  a  deacon,  arch-deacon,  or  priest,  and  on  the 
 Lord's  Day  by  the  Bishop.     It  was  read  from  the    ambon    and  in    the 
 IV.  century  the  reader  was   preceded  by  lighted  wax  tapers.       In    Ae- 
 thiopia  bells  were  rung  before  the  Gospel.     After  the    reader   had   as- 
 cended the  pulpit  and  announced    the  Gospel,  the   people    responded 
 "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord."    "This  custom  of  giving  glory  to  God  for 
 His  holy  Gospel  appears  to  have  prevailed  from  remote  antiquity  in  all 
 the  churches  of    the    East   and   West."  *     Reverence  originated    the 
 beautiful  custom  of  standing  during  its  reading  and  this  custom  prevailed 
 already  in  the  time   of  the  author  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  where 
 in  Book  11.  57  f  it  is  expressly  commanded,    "And  while  the  Gospel  is 
 read,  let  all  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  and  all  the  people,  stand  up  in 
 great  silence."     Very  early  also  the  custom  obtained  in    the    West   for 
 the  "Gospeller"  to  stand  "facing  the  South."     Anciently  in  the  church- 
 es of  Gaul  and  Spain  a  Hallelujah  or  Anthem  was  sung  after  the  Gospel 
 and   this  custom  was  in  all  probability  the   origin   of  the    sentence, 
 "Praise  be  to  Thee,   O  Christ."      In  the  mediaeval  and  still  in  the  Ro- 
 man Church  the  Gospel  was  and    is    introduced   by   a    special    prayer. 
 This  is  followed  by  the  Salutation  and  Response,  and  the  announcement 
 of  the  Gospel.     The  answer,  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord,"  follows.     At 
 the  end  of  the  (iospel  comes  the    response,    "Praise   be    to   Thee,    O 
 Christ."     The  Common  Service  does  not   contain    this    elaborate  ar- 
 rangement, and  omits  all  that  precedes  the  announcement  of  the    Gos- 
 pel and  with  the  Pomeranian  Agenda    1553,  allows  \\^t  "Glory  be    to 
 
 *  Palmer,  "Origines  Liturgicae,"  Vol.  11.  p.  51. 
 t  Scribner  Ed.  p.  421   . 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE.  51 
 
 Thee,  O  Lord,"    before   and    "Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ,"  after  the 
 Gospel.  * 
 
 The  Lections. 
 
 We  take  occasion  here  to  say  a  word  with  reference  to  the  particular 
 selections  known  as  the  ^'■Epistles  and  Gospels.''  About  the  middle  of 
 the  V.  century  the  Roman  church  still  observed  the  lectio  contmua 
 throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  But  certain  it  is  that  even 
 then  particular  Pericopes  were  begun  to  be  appointed  for  particular 
 days.  There  were  books  called  Comites  in  which  such  selections  were 
 noted  with  reference  to  the  Church  Year.  According  to  the  testimony 
 of  Jerome,  Hippolytus,  a  pupil  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  already  gave 
 a  collection  of  lections  in  his  Canon  Paschalis.  A  similar  collection 
 was  arranged  by  Claudianus  Mamercus  for  the  church  at  Vienna,  and 
 another  by  the  presbyter  Musaeus  for  the  church  at  Marseilles.  These 
 collections,  however,  have  been  lost  and  of  those  that  have  come  down 
 to  us,  the  oldest  is  the  Lectiona?'iu?n  Gallicanum  of  the  VL  century, 
 and  the  next  oldest  the  Cotties  sive  Lectionarius  per  Circulum  Anni 
 ascribed  to  Jerome,  but  which  later  received  so  many  additions  that  it 
 is  impossible  to  determine  what  the  original  work  of  Jerome  was  like. 
 The  Lectionariu7n  Romanum  treated  by  Gregory  the  Great  in  40  ser- 
 mons and  belonging  in  its  original,  constituent  parts  to  the  VI.  century, 
 contains  appointed  lections  from  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  that  in  the 
 main  agree  with  our  Pericopes.  f 
 
 The  committee  on  The  Common  Service  did  not  revise  the  Pericopes, 
 but  took  them  as  in  use  in  Germany  in  the  pre- Reformation  missals, — 
 Bamberg  and  Nuernberg.  The  Epistles  and  Gospels  for  Holy  Week 
 are  from  the   Comes  Theotitichi  except  the    Epistle   for   Good  Friday.  J 
 
 The  Creed. 
 
 The  Nicene  or  Communion  Creed  was  the  result  of  the  opposition  to 
 the  heresy  of  Arius.  It  was  formulated  at  the  first  General  Council  of 
 Nice,  A.  D.,  325.  As  presented  then  it  ended  with  "I  believe  in  the 
 Holy  Ghost."  The  second  General  Council  of  Constantinople  in  May, 
 381,  added  the  remainder,  affirming  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
 against  the  heresy  of  Macedonius.  It  was  not  until  the  V.  century  that 
 the  controversial yf//(?^«^  was  added.  This  affirmed  the  procession  of 
 the  Holy  Spirit  from  both  the  Father  and  the  Son  and  produced  a 
 schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 
 
 *  Kliefoth   VIII.  V.p.  33;    Horn,  "Lutheran  Sources,"  p.  15. 
 
 t  See  Alt,  I.  p.  547. 
 
 X  See  Appendix  to  Ranke's  "Perikopen  System,'     LXXXVI. 
 
52  MEMOIRS. 
 
 When  the  Creed  was  first  used  in  the  Liturgy  we  are  not  certain.  It 
 is  supposed  to  have  been  inserted  first  by  the  patriarch  of  Antioch,  Pe- 
 ter FuUo,  about  471.  In  511,  the  Liturgy  of  Constantinople  adopted  it. 
 The  churches  of  Spain  adopted  it  in  589.  The  Roman  Church  was 
 very  slow  in  receiving  it  and  only  incorporated  it  about  the  beginning 
 of  the  XL   century. 
 
 Anciently  the  Creed  was  not  recited  until  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
 catechumens  and  infidels  :  but  as  this  division  of  the  Service  gradually 
 became  obsolete,  the  Creed  was  placed  before  the  Sermon,  which  po- 
 sition it  occupies  in  our  Service. 
 
 The  Nicene  Creed  was  generally  prescribed  by  the  XVI.  century  Or- 
 ders. Only  one,  Doeber's  "Messordnung  fuer  die  Spitalkirche  in  Nu- 
 ernberg" 1525,  has  the  Apostles'  Creed.  According  to  the  Pomeraniaii 
 A<^enda,  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  to  be  used  at  the  opening  of  Synods, 
 on  Trinity  Sunday,  and  once  a  month.  It  permits  the  use  of  the  Te 
 Deujti  because  of  its  Trinitarian  contents.  * 
 
 The  Offertory. 
 In  the  Roman  sense  the  Lutheran  Church  knows  no  Offertory.  Or- 
 iginally it  was  an  anthem,  taken  principally  from  the  Psalms,  and  was 
 intended  to  give  the  deacons  time  and  opportunity  to  gather  the  obla- 
 tions of  Bread  and  Wine  brought  by  the  faithful  to  the  Church  for  use 
 in  the  Sacrament,  f  Time  wrought  a  fearful  perversion  of  this  ancient 
 idea  as  may  be  seen  by  a  careful  perusal  of  the  Roman  Offertory. 
 
 The  so-called  (but  scarcely  deserving  the  name)    Offertory    of   The 
 Common  Service  has   reference  altogether   to    Psalmody.      Following 
 Schoeberlein  in  his  "Schatz  &c,"  where  the  second  of   our   Offertories 
 is  given  with  musical  settings,  The  Common  Service  adopted  two  taken 
 from  Psalm  51,  with  permission  to  use  "any  other  suitable." 
 The  General  Prayer. 
 This  has  its  origin  in  the    Pauline   injunction,    i.  Tim.  2.   1-2.     In 
 very  early  times  it  immediately  followed  the  Sermon   and   formed    the 
 connecting  link  between  it  and  the  Communion.     Later,  when  the  ser 
 vice  was  divided  into  the  Missa  Catechumenorum  and  the  Missa  Fide- 
 lium,  the  General  Prayer  was  likewise  divided.     The  first   part  was  of- 
 fered in  behalf  of  the  catechumens,    energumens,    and    penitents  after 
 which  they  were  dismissed.     The  Fideles,  or  those  who  remained,  then 
 assembled  during  the  "secreta,"  after  which    they  reverently  joined  the 
 deacon  in  the  second  part  of  the  prayer    which  in   form    and   contents 
 
 Tsce  Klietoth,  VIII.   (V  )  p.  45- 
 t  Alt,  Kirchl.  Gottesdienit,  p.  505. 
 
SOURCES    OF    THE    MORNING    SERVICE.  53 
 
 somewhat  resembles  the  Litany.     This  part  of  the  prayer  contained  pe- 
 titions 
 
 1 .  For  the  peace  of  the  world  and  the  prosperity  of  the  church ; 
 
 2.  For  the  congregation,  its  elders  and  church  officers; 
 
 3.  For  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men.  For  all  in  distress,  for 
 travellers,  for  prisoners,  for  enemies  and  false  believers  and  for  the 
 children. 
 
 4.  For  grace  and  strength  to  lead  a  Christian  life  and  to  die  a  happy 
 death. 
 
 Subsequent  hierarchical  development  pressed  the  General  Prayer  in- 
 to the  Act  of  Communion,  becoming  a  part  of  the  Offertory  where 
 it  lost  its  distinctive  nature  and  degenerated  into  a  series  of  petitions 
 connected  v/ith  the  worship  of  saints  and  prayers  for  the  dead.* 
 
 The  Reformation  found  the  Church  without  a  true  General  Prayer. 
 Rejecting  the  Roman  Offertory,  Luther  nevertheless  felt  the  necessity 
 for  such  a  prayer.  His  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  to  be  used  af- 
 ter the  Sermon  before  the  altar,  is  as  to  form  and  contents  a  type  of  the 
 General  Prayer.  Some  of  the  Orders  prescribe  the  Litany,  others  the 
 Te  Deum,  and  still  others  like  Brandenburg-Nuernberg  of  1533  have  a 
 combination  of  several  Collects. 
 
 While  we  owe  the  General  Prayer,  as  such,  to  the  Reformation,  traces 
 of  it  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  earliest  periods  of  the  Church.  The 
 following  parallel  between  parts  of  our  General  Prayer  and  those  in  the 
 Eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  shows  a  very  striking  analo- 
 
 gy» 
 
 Church  Book.  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
 
 Most  heartily  we  beseech    Thee  so  We  further  pray  unto  Thee,  O  Lord, 
 
 to  rule  and  govern  Thy  Church  univer-  for  Thy  holy  church  spread    from    one 
 
 sal,  with  all  its  pastors    and    ministers,  end  of    the   world   to   another,    which 
 
 that  it  may  be    preserved    in    the   pure  Thou  hast  purchased  with  the  precious 
 
 doctrine  of  Thy  saving  Word,  whereby  blood   of  Thy  Christ,  that   Thou   wilt 
 
 faith  toward  Thee  may  be   strengthen-  preserve  it  unshaken  and  free  from  dis- 
 
 ed  and  charity  increased  in    us  toward  turbance  unto  the  end  of    the    world; 
 
 all  mankind.  for  every    episcopate    who    rightly  di- 
 vides the  Word  of  truth. — Sec.  II.  12. 
 
 Grant  also  health  and  prosperity  to  We  further  pray  Thee,  O  Lord,  <-for 
 
 all  in  authority,  especially  to  the  Presi-  the  king  and  all  in  authority,"    for  the 
 
 dent    (and   Congress)    of    the  United  whole  army  that  they  may  be  peaceable 
 
 States,  the  Governor  (and  Legislature)  toward  us,  that  so,  leading  the   whole 
 
 *  See  Alt,  Kirchl.  Gottesdienst,   pp.   650-651. 
 
54 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  this  Commonwealth,  and  to  all  our 
 Judges  and  Magistrates;  and  endue 
 them  with  grace  to  rule  after  Thy  good 
 pleasure,  to  the  maintenance  of  right- 
 eousness, and  to  the  hinderance  and 
 punishment  of  wickedness,  that  we 
 may  lead  a  quiet  and  peaceable  life  in 
 all  godliness  and  honesty. 
 
 May  it  please  Thee  also  to  turn  the 
 hearts  of  our  enemies  and  adversaries, 
 that  they  may  cease  their  enmity,  and 
 be  inclined  to  walk  with  us  in  meek- 
 ness and  in  peace. 
 
 time  of  our  life  in  quietness  and  una- 
 nimity, we  may  glorify  Thee  through 
 Jesus  Christ.      Sec.   II.    12. 
 
 Let  us  pray  for  "kings  and  those  in 
 authority,"  that  they  may  be  peaceable 
 toward  us,  "that  so  we  may  have  and 
 lead  a  quiet  and  peact-abie  life  in  all 
 godliness  and  honesty."     Sec.  II.   13. 
 
 We  further  also  beseech  Thee  for 
 those  that  hate  us  and  persecute  us  for 
 Thy  Name's  sake;  that  Thou  wilt  con- 
 vert them  to  goodness,  and  pacify  their 
 anger.     Sec.   II.    12. 
 
 All  who  are  in  trouble,  want,  sick- 
 ness, anguish  of  labor,  peril  of  death, 
 or  any  other  adversity,  especially 
 those  who  are  in  suffering  for  Thy 
 Name  and  for  Thy  truth's  sake,  com- 
 fort, O  God,  with  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  that 
 they  may  receive  and  acknowledge  their 
 afflictions  as  the  manifestation  of  Thy 
 fatherly  will.  Preserve  us  from  false 
 and  pernicious  doctrine,  from  plague 
 and  pestilence,  from  all  calamity  by 
 fire  and  water,  from  hail  and  tempest, 
 from  failure  of  harvest  and  from  fam- 
 ine, from  anguish  of  heart  and  despair 
 of  Thy  mercy,  and  from  an  evil  death. 
 And  in  every  time  of  trouble,  show 
 Thyself  a  very  present  Help,  the  Sav- 
 iour of  all  men,  and  especially  of  them 
 that  believe. 
 
 Let  us  pray  for  our  brethren  exer- 
 cised with  sickness,  that  the  Lord  may 
 di-'liver  them  from  every  sickness  and 
 disease,  and  restore  them  sound  into 
 His  holy  Church.  Let  us  pray  for 
 those  that  travel  by  water  or  by  land. 
 Let  us  pray  for  those  that  are  in  the 
 mines,  in  banishment,  in  prisons,  and 
 in  bonds,  for  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
 Let  us  pray  for  those  that  are  afflicted 
 with  bitter  servitude.     Sec.  II.   10. 
 
 Thou  who  dost  nothing  fur  favour; 
 Thou  whom  none  can  deceive;  deliver 
 them  from  every  sickness,  and  every 
 disease,  and  every  offence,  every  inju- 
 ry and  deceit,  from  the  ft-ar  of  the  en- 
 emy, from  the  dart  that  flieth  in  the 
 day,  from  the  mischief  that  walketh 
 about  in  the  darkness.     Sec.  II.    11. 
 
 We  further  beseech  Thee  also  for 
 this  city  and  its  inhabitants,  for  those 
 that  are  sick;  for  those  in  bitter  servi- 
 tude; for  those  in  banishment,  for 
 those  in  prison;  for  those  that  travel 
 by  water  or  by  land;  that  Thou,  the 
 helper  and  assister  of  ail  men,  wilt  be 
 their  supporter.     Sec.  II.  12. 
 
 Cause  also  the  needful  fruits  of  the 
 earth  to  prosper;  that  we  may  enjoy 
 them  in  due  season. 
 
 We  further  offer  to  Thee  also  for 
 the  good  temperature  of  the  air,  and 
 the  fertility  of  the  fruits,  that  so,  par- 
 taking perpetually  of  the  good  things 
 derived  frcmi  Thee,  we  may  praise 
 Thee  without  ceasing.     Sec.  II.  12. 
 
 Let  us  pray  for  the  good  tempera- 
 ture of  the  air,  and  the  proper  maturity 
 of  the  fruits.     Sec.   II.  13. 
 
SOURCES    OF    THE    MORNING    SERVICE.  55 
 
 The  General  Prayer  of  the  Common  Service  is  a  combination  of  a 
 number  of  Collects.  The  first  paragraph  after  the  invocation  is  taken 
 from  the  Hesse  Order  of  1657.  The  second  introduces  General  Col- 
 lect, sixteen  ;  the  third  Bidding  Collect,  four ;  the  fourth  General  Col- 
 lect, twenty-six ;  the  fifth  seems  to  have  no  dependence  upon  any  Col- 
 lect in  the  Church  Book ;  the  sixth  is  taken  from  the  Leipzig  Order  of 
 1707  and  introduces  important  Litany  elements;  the  seventh  Bidding 
 Collect,  eight.* 
 
 The  combination  of  these  Collects  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  construc- 
 tion of  the  General  Prayer,  although  they  do  not  form  it  verbatim. 
 
 "The  first  General  Prayer  of  The  Common  Service  is,  except  the  first 
 paragraph,  in  the  Strassburg  Order  of  1598,  and  is  probably  considera- 
 bly older.     In  its  main  features,  it  is  found  in  the    Austrian   Order   of 
 i57i.t 
 
 We  now  approach  the  most  solemn  part  of  the  Service, — peculiarly 
 The  Liturgy.     It  begins  with 
 
 The  Preface. 
 No  part  of  the  Service  has  undergone  less  change  than  this.  It  is  also 
 the  oldest  portion  of  the  Liturgy.  Tertullian  (about  201  A.  D.)  allud- 
 ed to  it.  Cyprian,  about  the  middle  of  the  3rd  century,  directly  men- 
 tions it.  In  his  treatise  on  "The  Lord's  Prayer,"  he  says  :  "Moreover, 
 when  we  stand  praying,  beloved  brethren,  we  ought  to  be  watchful  and 
 earnest  with  our  whole  heart,  intent  on  our  prayers.  Let  all  carnal  and 
 worldly  thoughts  pass  away,  nor  let  the  soul  at  that  time  think  on  any- 
 thing but  the  object  only  of  its  prayer.  For  this  reason  also  the  priest, 
 by  way  of  preface  before  his  prayer,  prepares  the  minds  of  the  breth- 
 ren by  saying,  "Lift  up  your  hearts,"  that  so  upon  the  people's  re- 
 sponse, "We  lift  them  up  unto  the  Lord,"  he  may  be  reminded  that  he 
 himself  ought  to  think  of  nothing  but  the  Lord."| 
 
 Augustine  avers  that  the  Sursum  Corda  was  used  ''per  universum 
 orbem,''  i.  e.  in  all  churches.  It  is  found  in  the  Eastern  liturgies  of  Sts. 
 James,  Mark,  Clement,  Chrysostom,  Basil  and  the  Malabar.  It  occurs 
 also  in  those  of  Rome,  Milan,  Gaul  and  Spain.  Minor  differences  may 
 be  noted  by  a  comparison  of  these  ancient  Liturgies.  In  general  it  may 
 be  stated  that  in  the  Eastern  Church,  the  Introduction  consisted  of  the 
 Apostolic  benediction  with  response,  and  in  the  Western,  of  the  Saluta- 
 tion with  responee,  which  are  found  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary, 
 as   in   our  service,  immediately  before  the  Sursum  Corda. 
 
 *  See  "The  Lutheran,"  Jan,  4th,  1894,  Article,  The  General  Paryer. 
 t  Jacobs,  "The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,''  p.  303. 
 X  See  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Scribner  Ed.,  Vol.  V,  p.  455:3 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  *^  Common  Pfe/ace,"  is  found  in  both  the  ancient    Eastern    and 
 Western  Churches,  though  as  a  rule,  the  Western  is  much  shorter. 
 Proper  Prefaces. 
 
 These  are  pecuHar  to  the  West  and  have  a  very  early  origin.  Origi- 
 nally there  was  but  one  Preface  for  all  Lord's  Days  and  festivals,  but 
 with  the  development  of  the  Church  Year,  Proper  Pre/aces  were  com- 
 posed and  introduced.  They  multiplied  so  rapidly  that  they  were  soon 
 numbered  by  the  hundred.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  they 
 were  reduced  to  nine.  The  Common  Service  retains  but  six.  The 
 originals  may  be  found  as  follows: 
 
 For  OmZ/z/dti-,  Gregorian  Sacramentary,  Muratori,  II.  lo;  for  the 
 Passion  Season,  Greg.  Sacr.  Mur.  II.  318;  for  the  Easier  Season, 
 Gelasian  Sacr.  Mur.  I.  572  or  Wilson,  89  ;  for  Ascension,  Greg.  Sacr., 
 Mur.  II.  85,  for  Whit  Sunday,  Greg.  Sacr.  Mur.  II.  90,  although  the 
 first  half  is  found  already  in  Gelasian  Sacr.,  Wilson,  120  ;  for  Festival 
 of  the  Trinity,  Gelasian  Sacr.,  Mur.  I.  606,  Wilson,  129.  The  orig- 
 inal of  the  Trinity  Preface  is  much  longer  than  that  of  The  Common 
 Service.  The  translation  of  our  Proper  Preface  for  the  Passion  Season 
 is  taken  from  Shipley's   "Ritual    of  the  Altar." 
 
 The    SANcrrus. 
 
 This  is  frequently,  though  incorrectly,  called  the  Trisagion.  The 
 Trisagion  is  peculiar  to  Eastern  Liturgies.  Neale's  translation  of  it  is 
 as  follows: — "Holy  God,  Holy  and  Mighty,  Holy  and  Immortal,  have 
 mercy  upon  us."  The  difference  between  it  and  the  Sanchis  is  readily 
 discerned.  The  Sanctus  is  in  all  probability  of  apostolic  origin  so  far 
 as  its  use  in  the  Liturgy  is  concerned.  At  least  its  early  use  in  the 
 churches  of  the  East  and  West  is  attested  by  TertuUian,  The  Apostolic 
 Constitutions,  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
 dria, Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Gregory  of  Tours,  Hilary  of  Poictiers,  Caesa- 
 rius  of  Aries,  and  Isidore  of  Seville.  The  Benedictus,  or  the  words, 
 "Blessed  is  He  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,"  is  supposed  to 
 have  been  added  by  Caesarius  of  Aries.*  The  Ilosanna  occurs  in  the 
 earliest  known  Communion  Service  as  may  be  seen  from,  "The  Teach- 
 ing of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  ch.  X, 
 
 The  Exhortation. 
 
 This  has  no  earlier  origin  than  the  Reformation.  It  is  a  new  Litur- 
 gical part  peculiar  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  It  was  introduced  for  the 
 purpose  of  instructing  those  raised  under  Romish  error  concerning  the 
 true  nature  of  the  Sacrament.     However  edifying  its  character,  it  acts 
 
 *  Daniel.  Cod.  Lit.  I.  p.  31. 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE.  57 
 
 as  an  intruder  and  hence  is  often  omitted.  Luther's  paraphrase  of  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  with  appended  Exhortation  was  one  form  very  largely 
 used.  Another  one,  that  of  The  Common  Service,  is  by  Wolfgang  Vol- 
 precht,  1525. 
 
 The    Lord's  Prayer. 
 
 This  prayer  has  always  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  Communion 
 Liturgy.  There  is,  however,  no  direct  testimony  for  its  use  until  the 
 4th  century.  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  and  Origen  bear  indirect  testimony. 
 But  the  fact  that  Cyprian  referred  to  it  as  "a  public  and  common 
 prayer;"  that  it  was  frequently  called  "the  prayer  of  the  faithful ;"  that  in 
 the  first  centuries  already  the  fourth  petition  was  referred  to  the  bread 
 in  the  Sacrament, — all  this  argues  very  strongly  for  the  later  tradition 
 that  it  was  always  a  part  of  the  Communion  Service.  The  earliest  di- 
 rect testimony  seems  to  be  that  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.,  350,  who 
 after  explaining  to  his  "competentes,"  or  more  advanced  catechumens, 
 parts  of  the  Liturgy,  says: — "Then,  after  these  things,  we  say  that 
 prayer  which  the  Saviour  delivered  to  His  intimate  disciples,  out  of  a 
 pure  conscience  addressing  God  and  saying,  'Our  Father,  &c.'  "* 
 
 In  the  time  of  St.  Augustine  it  was  in  so  general  a  use  that  he  de- 
 clares, '■^Quam  tota?n  petitionein  fere  omnis  ecclesia  Dominica  ora- 
 tione  concludit." 
 
 St.  Jerome  in  a  work  written  about  A.  D.  415,  says  : — "So  He  taught 
 His  Apostles  that  daily  in  the  Sacrifice  of  His  body,  believers  should 
 make  bold  to  speak  thus,  'Our  Father,  &c.'  "t  It  is  found  in  all  the 
 early  Liturgies,  as  well  as  later  Greek,  Roman  and  other  Western.  Its 
 pre-Reformation  usage  was  after  the  Words  of  Institution.  It  is  not  a 
 consecratory  prayer  and  is  not  essential  to  the  Service. 
 The  Words  of  Institution. 
 
 These  are  essential  to  the  consecration  of  the  elements.  They  are 
 found  in  the  early  as  well  as  the  later  Greek  and  Roman  Liturgies,  but 
 usually  in  an  interpolated  form.  In  the  consecration  of  the  bread  the 
 words,  "which  is  given  for  you"  are  omitted  by  the  Roman  Liturgy.  J 
 The  Common  Service  gives  the  words  of  the  New  Testament  in  their 
 grand  simplicity. 
 
 The  Agnus  Dei. 
 
 Virtually  this  is  of  Western  origin,  although  reference  is  made  to 
 "The  Lamb  of  God"  in  the  Liturgies  of  Sts.  James   and  Chrysosiom.§ 
 
 *  Diet.  Chri^t.  Antt.  II.  1056. 
 
 t  Diet.  Christ.  Antt.  II.  iO;-6. 
 
 X  Durand's  Catholie  Ceremonies,  p.  259. 
 
 §  See  Neale's  Primitive  Liturgies,  pp.  71,  141. 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 This  addition  to  the  Service  is  ascribed  to  Sergius  I.  (687-700). 
 How  often  the  versicle  was  to  be  repeated  is  not  stated  in  the  older 
 Roman  orders;  but  before  the  year  1000  the  threefold  repetition  was 
 enjoined  in  the  Church  of  Tours,  and  in  the  12th  century,  this  was  the 
 universal  custom.*  The  words  "Grant  us  Thy  peace"  at  the  end  of 
 the  third  repetition  were  added  since  the  XI.  century  and  Innocent 
 III.  informs  us  that  they  were  the  result  of  the  disturbances  that  beset 
 the  Church  at  that  time.j 
 
 Our  Church  also  adopted  the  Agnus  Dei  into  her  Liturgy,  but  alto- 
 gether in  a  different  position  from  its  use  in  the  Roman  Church.  In 
 the  Romish  Mass  it  had  and  still  has  its  place  in  ih& /radio  panis,  and 
 was  said  by  the  priest.  In  setting  this  act  aside,  another  place  had 
 to  be  found  for  the  Agnus  Dei,  if  it  was  to  be  retained.  Restricting 
 the  consecration  solely  to  the  verba  testamenti,  Luther  in  his  Formula 
 Missae  placed  it  in  the  Act  of  Administration,  to  be  sung  while  the  pas- 
 tor "administers  the  communion  both  to  himself  and  the  people."  In 
 his  German  Mass,  he  thought  it  would  be  more  appropriate  to  conse- 
 crate and  administer  the  bread  first,  then  to  bless  the  cup  and  adminis- 
 ter the  same  while  the  Agnus  Dei  was  bemg  sung. 
 
 Daniel,  J  quoting  Gerbert,§  mentions  as  an  ancient  custom,  what  is 
 frequently  the  case  in  our  Church,  viz., -the  singing  of  the  Agnus  Dei 
 during  the  distributing  of  the  elements. 
 
 It  was  retained  in  Formula  Missae,  1523,  German  Mass,  1526,  entire 
 Nuernberg  Series,  Prussia,  1525,  Nordheim,  1539,  Saxony,  1539,  Meck- 
 lenberg,  1552,  Austria,  157 1,  Nassau,  1575.  Coburg,  1626  and  others. 
 
 The  Pax. 
 
 The  development  of  the  Pax  is  most  interesting.  Its  origin  lies  un- 
 doubtedly in  the  greeting  of  the  risen  Saviour,  Luke  24:  36  ;  John  20  : 
 19  and  21.  This  greeting  was  in  all  probability  with  the  words,  "Peace 
 be  unto  you"  and  the  kiss.  Luther  commenting  on  I.  Peter  5:14  says: 
 "In  the  Gospel,  we  read  clearly  that  Christ  received  His  disciples  with 
 the  kiss.  This  was  the  usage  in  those  lands."  ||  This  custom  found 
 its  place  in  the  worship  of  the  Apostolic  Church.  In  conformity  with 
 the  injunctions  of  the  Apostle,  St.  Paul,  Rom.  16  ;  16  ;  I.  Cor.  16  :2o; 
 II.  Cor.  13:12;  I.  Thess.  5:  26  ;  and  of  St.  Peter,  I.  Epistle  5  :  14,  the 
 
 •  D.  C.  A.  p.    44. 
 
 t  Alt,  Kirch.  Gottesdienst,  p.  509. 
 
 }   Codex  Litur^icus,  I.  p.   148. 
 
 §  Dc  Cantu  et    Musica   Sacra,   I  p.  438. 
 
 II  Luth.  Com.  Rom.  16: 16. 
 
SOURCES  OF  THE  MORNING  SERVICE.  59 
 
 "  Kiss  of  Peace  "  became  a  fixed  form  in  the  x,(nvu>via  (communion, 
 fellowship) .  At  what  point  of  the  Service  this  ceremony  took  place 
 we  are  not  informed ;  but  its  significance  shows  that  it  was  either  at 
 the  beginning  of  the  General  Prayers  and  Oblations  as  an  attestation,  or 
 at  the  end  of  these,  as  a  seal  of  their  fellowship. 
 
 Later  in  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  the  General  and  Eucharistic 
 Prayers,  (with  the  latter  of  which  the  oblations  were  connected,)  were 
 separated  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace  formed  the  conclusion  of  the  form- 
 er. This  separation,  TertuUian  perfected  still  further,  and  speaks  of 
 the  General  Prayers  as  ^^precationes  et  ofaiiones'"  and  of  the  Euchar- 
 istic Prayers  as  '■'■  Oblationes'''  or  '■'■Sacrificio>'um  Orationes."  The  Gen- 
 eral Prayers  were  divided  and  the  last  division,  "oratio  cumfratribus,'" 
 was  said  after  the  expulsion  of  the  catechumens.  Then  followed  the 
 Kiss  of  Peace.  In  the  time  of  Cyprian,  the  old  division  of  the  Ser- 
 vice into  three  parts  was  reduced  to  two, — the  Missa  Catechumenorum 
 and  Missa  Fidelium.  The  General  Prayer,  in  the  developmental  period 
 of  the  cultus  of  the  Church  likewise  appeared  in  a  twofold  division, — 
 one  before,  the  other  after  the  Kiss  of  Peace.  The  first  division 
 closed  the  homiletical  part  of  the  Service,  the  second  with  the  Kiss  of 
 Peace  began  the  Sacrifice  of  the   Mass. 
 
 The  19th  Canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  gives  this  order  for  the 
 Missa  Fidelium, — (a)  Silent  prayer ;  (b )  two  public  prayers  ;  (c)  Kiss 
 of  Peace,  (d)  distribution.  Here  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  Kiss  of 
 Peace  has  been  removed  further  into  the  Communion  Service  and 
 closes  the  Eucharistic  Service,  as  formerly  it  closed  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
 prayers  and  oblations.  In  the  time  of  St.  Augustine,  the  principles  of 
 Cyprian  were  carried  to  a  fuller  development.  With  a  proper  General 
 Prayer  began  the  Missa  Fidelium,  in  which  we  find  another  General 
 Prayer  that  closed  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace. 
 The  order,  then,  is  as  follows:  {a)  prayer;  (^)  Preface;  (<f)  conse- 
 cration ;   i^d)  Lord's  Prayer ;    {e)  Kiss  of  Peace. 
 
 St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  gives  but  little  on  this  point  in  his 
 works.  In  a  letter  to  Marcellinus  he  mentions  the  Kiss  of  Peace 
 once  ;  and  in  his  De  Dignitate  Sacerdotali,  cap.  5,  he  refers  to  the  im- 
 partation  of  peace  as  the  function  of  the  bishop  :  "pronuntial  enim 
 episcopus  ad populufn  dicens  :  Pax  vobis."  Thus  the  formula  is  spo- 
 ken, but  the  actual  kiss  is  not  given.  Minor  points  of  difference  may 
 be  noted  in  the  Spanish  and  Galilean  Liturgies,  but  are  not  necessary  to 
 be  embodied  here.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  where  Roman 
 influence  prevailed  over  the  Galilean  Canon,    the     prayer    Ad  Pacem 
 
60  MEMOIR.S. 
 
 was  dropped  from  the  latter  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace  before  the  Preface 
 in  the  Gallican  Sacramentary  was  removed  to  the  end  of  the  Conse- 
 cration, where  the  Romish  Canon  has  it ;  and  from  this  time  forth  we 
 find  that  the  Kiss  of  Peace  was  given  to  one  another  by  the  com:nuni- 
 cants  only,  and  not  by  the  whole  congregation. 
 
 In  the  Gregorian  Sacramentary  the  Pax  Domini  sit  semper  veins - 
 cum  follows  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  precedes  the  Agnus  Dei.  It  seems 
 to  have  been  retained  until  the  time  of  Innocent  111.  (1161)  and  then 
 abolished  because  it  was  deemed  inappropriate.  Here  and  there  arose 
 the  custom  of  passing  metal  plates  whereon  was  the  image  of  Christ, — 
 the  so-called  osculatoria,  which  the  people  kissed.  But  this  custom 
 did  not  obtain  long,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  priest 
 simply  gave  the  salutation  to  the  people,  while  he  and  his  assistants 
 exchanged  kisses.  A  trace  of  this  remains  in  the  Roman  Church  "in 
 the  custom  of  the  congregation  kissing  the  Pax  after  the  priest  has 
 kissed  it."  Also  continued  is  it  in  the  Christos  vosciess  of  Easter  Day 
 in  the  Greek  Church,  when 
 
 "See!  the  bearded  faces   kiss  each  other; 
 Every  Russian  Christian  loves  his  brother. 
 Serf  or  noble,  each  to-day  may  claim 
 Friendly  kiss  in  that  all  triendly  Name.'"* 
 
 The  Reformation  found  the  Pax  in  this  form,  viz  :  at  the  end  of  the 
 Consecration  and  as  an  introduction  to  the  Distribution  the  priest  sa- 
 luted the  congregation  with  the  words  Pax  Domini  sit  semper  vobis- 
 cum  (The  peace  of  the  Lord  be  with  you  alway)  and  the  congregation 
 responded,  et  cum  spiritui  tiio   (and  with  thy  spirit.) 
 
 Luther  in  his  Formula  Missae  very  forcibly  states  his  views  of  the 
 Pax,  when  he  calls  it  'a  public  absolution  of  the  communicants;  a 
 voice  truly  evangelical  announcing  the  forgiveness  of  sins ;  the  only  and 
 most  worthy  preparation  for  the  Lord's  Table,  if  it  be  apprehended  by 
 faith  not  otherwise  than  as  directly  issuing  from  the  mouih  of  Christ."! 
 Warmly  as  Luther  received  it,  it  is  more  than  strange  that  in  his  Ger- 
 man Mass  he  dropped  it,  and  in  this  he  was  followed  generally  by  the 
 XVI.  century  Liturgies.  It  was  retained,  however,  besides  Formula 
 Missae,  1523,  by  the  entire  Nuernberg  family  of  Liturgies  and  Prussia, 
 1525.  The  Standard  MS.  of  The  Common  Service  inserts  it  immedi- 
 ately after  the  Consecration  and  before  the  Agnus  Dei  and  the  rubric 
 is,  "Then  shall  be  sung  the  Agnus  Dei  and  the  Distribution  shall  be- 
 gin." Who  is  responsible  for  the  unhappy  departure  from  this  order 
 in  the  Church  Book  we  know  not. 
 
 *  Pulpit  Com.  I.  Cor.  p.  551.  \  Danitl,  Cod.  Lit.  II.  p. 
 
sources  of  the  morning  service.  61 
 
 The  Formula  of  Distribution. 
 It  is  difificult  to  determine  when  words  were  first  used  in  connection 
 with  the  delivery  of  the  consecrated  elements.  From  the  writings  of 
 Tertulhan  and  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  it  would  appear  that  the  custom 
 dates  back  at  least  as  far  as  the  second  or  third  century.  That  this 
 custom  had  an  early  origin  is  evident  from  the  ApostoHc  Constitutions. 
 In  Book  VIII.  14  sec. 3,  we  read  :  "Let  the  bishop  minister  the  oblation 
 saying,  'The  Body  of  Christ'  and  let  him  that  receiveth  say  Amen ;  and 
 let  the  deacon  hold  the  cup,  and  say  as  he  administers,  'The  Blood  ot 
 Christ,  the  Cup  of  Life,'  and  let  him  that  drinketh  say,  Amen." 
 
 The  Liturgy  of  St.  James  gives  no  formula  whatever. 
 
 The  Coptic  of  St.  Mark  has  simply,  "The  Holy  Body;"  "The 
 precious  Blood  of   our  Lord  and  God  and  Saviour." 
 
 The  Byzantine  of  St.  Chrysostom  gives  a  fuller  formula.  The  priest 
 as  he  distributes  the  elements  to  each,  says,  "N.,  the  Servant  of  God 
 is  made  partaker  of  the  pure  and  holy  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord  and 
 God  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ,  for  the  remission  of  his  sins,  and  life 
 everlasting."*  In  the  time  of  Gregory  the  formula  was:  '^Corpi/s 
 Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Clwisti posit  tibi  in  reniissionem  omnium  peccatu- 
 rum  et  vitam  aefernam."  (The  Body  of  our  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  avail 
 for  thee  unto  the  remission  of  all  sins  and  eternal  life.) 
 
 In  the  time  of  Charlemagne  it  read  :  ''Corpus  Domini  Nosiri  Jesii 
 Christi  custodiat  te  i?i  vitam  aeternatn."  (The  Body  of  our  Lord, 
 Jesus  Christ,  preserve  thee  unto  eternal  life.) 
 
 Luther  in  his  Formula  Missae  virtually  preserved  the  old  formula  : 
 "The  Body  of  the  Lord,  &c.  preserve  my  or  thy  soul  unto  eternal  life  ;' 
 and  "The  Blood  of  our  Lord  preserve  thy  soul  unto  eternal  life." 
 
 Some  of  the  XVI.  century  orders  retained  no  words  of  Distributior. 
 inasmuch  as  all  that  needed  to  be  said  was  said  already  in  the  Conse- 
 cration. Many  allow  them  but  have  no  fixed  formula.  A  number  of 
 formulas  may  be  found  in  Hoefiing's  Urkundenbuch,  p.  124. 
 
 The  formula  of  The  Common  Service  is  from  Brandenberg-Nuernberp., 
 1533.  Traces  of  the  permissive  formula  of  dismissal  are  recognized  iii 
 the  ancient  Distribution  formulas.  That  of  the  Church  Book  is  found 
 first  in  Augsburg-Strassburg  (1565  ?). 
 
 The  Nunc  Dimiitis. 
 
 The  use  of  this  is  permissive.  Beautiful  and  even  appropriate  as  it 
 is,  it  has  no  early  authority  in  the  Communion  Liturgy.  According  to 
 Schoeberleinf  it  is  used  in  the  Greek  Church.  It  has  authority  as 
 Lutheran  usage  in  Bugenhagen,  1524,  Doeber,  1525  and  Slueter,  1531. 
 
 •  Neale,  Prim.  Lit.,  p.  123.  t  Schatz  &c.,  p.  450. 
 
62  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Thanksgiving. 
 This  has  no  earlier  authority  than  the  Reformation,  so  far  at  least  as 
 the  contents  of  the  form  are  concerned.  In  the  old  orders  a  great  di- 
 versity is  noticed  in  this  part  of  the  Service  ;  but  very  many  (  Coburg, 
 1626,  E.  Frisia,  1631,  Hildburghausen,  1685,  Magdeburg,  (2)  1667, 
 Schwarzburg.  1675,  Dantziger,  1708,  ),  introduced  the  Collect 
 with  the  Versicle  and  Response  *  Later  Agendas  as  a  rule  followed  this 
 arrangement.  The  Versicle  and  Response  appear  first  in  Coburg, 
 1626.    The  Collect  is  first  found  in  Luther's  German  Mass,  1526. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  The  Benedicamus. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  Response  are  found  in  the  Roman  and  Ambro- 
 sian  Liturgies. t  They  are  found  also  in  Prussia,  1525,  Pomraern,  1535, 
 Schleswig-Holstein,  1542. 
 
 Early  in  the  Middle  Ages  there  appeared  a  companion  to  the  cus- 
 tomary formula  of  dismissal,  "//i?  missa  esf  in  the  "Benedicamus 
 Domino."  (Bless  we  the  Lord  )  with  the  response  "Deo  Graiias," 
 (  Thanks  be  to  God  ).  In  the  "Micrologus,  etc^  of  Ivo  von  Chartres 
 (date  uncertain)  we  find  these  two  formulas  paralleled.  After  the 
 Council  of  Trent  the  Benedicamus  was  only  permitted  during  Advent 
 and  Lent. 
 
 Luther  in  his  Formula  Missae  says:  "In  place  of  the  "lie  Afissa"  let 
 the  Benedicamus  Domino  be  said,  with  the  Hallelujah  added,  where 
 and  when  it  pleases,  in  its  own  melodies  ;  or  the  Benedicamus  may  be 
 borrowed  from  the  Vespers."  In  this  he  was  followed  by  the  entire 
 Nuernburg  family  of  Liturgies. 
 
 The  Benediction. 
 The  use  of  the  Aaronic  Benediction  appears  already  in  the  Apostolic 
 Constitutions.  In  Book  II.  Sec.  7:57,  we  read  that  the  deacon  af- 
 ter offering  a  General  Prayer  and  a  prayer  for  peace,  concluded  with 
 "The  Lord  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee ;  the  Lord  make  His  face  to  shine 
 upon  thee,  and  give  thee  peace."  Only  bishops  and  presbyters  were 
 allowed  to  pronounce  this  blessing.  In  Book  III.  Sec.  1:10,  a  dis- 
 tinction is  made  between  the  greater,  (Num.  6  :  24)  and  the  lesser, 
 (2  Cor.  13:  14)  formulas  of  blessing.  During  the  Middle  Ages  a 
 large  number  of  Benedictions  came  into  vogue,  the  use  of  several  of 
 which  Luther  in  his  Formula  Missae  allowed.  But  in  his  German  Mass  j 
 he  cast  aside  all  except  that  from  Numbers  6  :  24.      Numerous  as  were  1 
 
 •  KItcfoth,  V,  140;  Schocberlein,  Schatz,  etc.,  451 
 t  Daniel.  Cod.  Lit.  I.,  p.  108. 
 
SOURCES    OF    THE    MORNING    SERVICE.  63 
 
 the  forms  of  Benediction   in  our  own   ("hurch  during  the  Reformation 
 era  *they  were  gradually  supplanted  by  the  Aaronic. 
 
 It  should  be  remembered  that  the  Bendiction  is  not  a  prayer  or  pi- 
 ous wish,  in  which  the  minister  can  include  himself ;  but  it  is  the 
 Lord's  Word  of  Blessing,  and  only  can  the  change  of  pronouns  from 
 "thee"  or  "you"  to  "us"  be  sanctioned  when  the  formula  is  turned  in- 
 to a  prayer  or  wish,  e.  g.,  "May  the  Lord  add  His  blessing  upon  us  etc."t 
 
 *  See  Hoefling's  Urkundenbuch,  pp.  132-133. 
 t  Kliefoth,  V.  142-143. 
 
 R.  Morris  Smith. 
 Bade?i,   Pa. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page  44, — tenth  line  from  top,  for  "nterest"  read  "interest." 
 «'    45, — sixth  line    from  bottom,  for  "ruric"  read  "rubric." 
 "    48, — last  line  of  first  column,  for  "Wendesdsy"  read  "Wednesday." 
 "   48, — ninth  line  from   bottom  of  second   column,    for    "Whitsunday   Week" 
 
 read  "Whitsun-week"" 
 «<    55^ — second  line  from  bottom,  for  "responee"  read  "response." 
 «'    55, — in  first  foot-note,  for  "Paryer"   read  "Prayer." 
 
Vol.  II. 
 
THE  ARCHITKCTURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL. 
 
 The  Church  of  Christ  may  be  infallibly  recognized  by  two 
 marks,  or  characteristics.  These  are  the  pure  teaching  of 
 the  Gospel  and  the  right  administration  of  the  Sacraments. 
 In  order  that  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments  may  be  properly 
 administered,  some  structure  is  ordinarily  demanded,  in  which 
 those  may  gather  for  whom  the  Means  of  Grace  are  designed. 
 A  certain  part  of  this  structure,  however,  must  necessarily  be 
 reserved  as  the  place  from  which  the  Word,  read  and 
 preached,  may  sound  forth ;  and  in  which  the  Sacraments  may 
 be  applied  to  the  people.  "Order  is  Heaven's  first  law,"  and 
 dare  not  be  absent  from  the  arrangement  of  our  earthly 
 temples.  The  specific  place  in  the  churches  designed  for  the 
 administration  of  the  Means  of  Grace  is  popularly  known  as 
 the  Chancel.  The  name  now  applied  to  this  section  of  the 
 church  is  derived  from  the  Cancelli,  screens,  or  barriers, 
 which  in  the  ancient  Church  separated  this  part  from  the 
 Nave,  or  main  body  of  the  church.  In  this  discussion,  the 
 term  Chancel  is  used  in  a  general  sense,  and  includes  all  that 
 is  commonly  understood  by  the  words,  choir,  recess,  apse,  and 
 sanctuary. 
 
 The  time  allotted  to  the  presentation  of  the  architecture 
 of  the  Chancel  and  its  essential  furniture  does  not  admit  of 
 an  elaborate  treatment  of  the  subject.  It  will  not  be  possible 
 to  outline  the  processes  whereby  some  of  the  conclusions 
 stated  in  this  paper,  have  been  arrived  at.  The  object  is 
 merely  to  state  results,  and  to  furnish  in  brief  and  succinct 
 form  some  of  the  principles  which  ought  to  be  observed  in 
 the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  most  important  and 
 suggestive  part  of  our  Houses  of  Worship.  The  aim  through- 
 out has  been  to  keep  in  view  the  practical  wants  of  our 
 churches  in  this  country.  If  the  lynx-eyed  critic  should  feel 
 inclined  to  carp  at  some  of  the  suggestions  contained  in  this 
 paper,  let  him  rest  assured  that  it  was  not  prepared  with  a  view 
 to  instruct  the  architects  of  Protestant  cathedrals ;  but,  to  outline 
 
2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  best  and  most  practical  arrangement  of  the  Chancel  and 
 its  fixed,  essential  furniture  for  the  House  of  Worship  of  an 
 average  Evangelical  Lutheran  congregation. 
 
 In  treating  an  important  subject  like  this,  we  must  ever 
 bear  in  mind  that  we  dare  not  break  abruptly  away  from  the 
 line  of  our  historical  development,  nor  fail  to  take  into  account 
 that  healthful  conservatism  which  has  always  marked  our 
 beloved  Church,  where  her  adherents  enjoyed  a  due  apprecia- 
 tion of  her  Scriptural  doctrine,  her  correct  usages  and  her 
 glorious  history.  Nor  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  dare  we  be  so 
 bound  by  the  opinions  and  practices  of  the  ancients  as  to 
 impair  our  usefulness  and  adaptability  in  vievv-  of  the  age  in 
 which  we  live,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  manifests  a  strong 
 tendency  to  exalt  the  practical  and  the  utilitarian  at  the  ex- 
 pense of  the  artistic  and  refined ;  and  shows  an  alarming  want 
 of  reverence  for  the  wholesome  usages  of  the  past.  The  Nine- 
 teenth and  the  Twentieth  centuries  contribute  their  quota  to 
 the  development  of  cultus  and  ecclesiastical  architecture  as 
 well  as  the  Ninth  and  the  Sixteenth.  In  a  consideration  like 
 this  it  is  as  unpardonable,  to  put  it  mildly,  to  be  indifferent  to 
 the  trend  of  the  present  in  these  matters,  as  it  is  to  ignore  the 
 results  of  wholesome  development  in  the  past,  and  to  refuse 
 to  profit  by  them. 
 
 In  treating  of  the  architecture  of  the  Chancel,  we  must  in 
 the  first  place  decide  upon  its  proper  place  in  the  church. 
 The  historical  position  of  the  Chancel  is  toward  the  East,  so 
 that  the  worshipping  congregation  always  faces  in  the  direc- 
 tion of  the  rising  sun.  To  the  devout  mind,  a  number  of 
 beautiful  and  forcible  reasons  at  once  present  themselves  and 
 make  it  self-evident  that  this  is  the  most  suitable  place  for  the 
 Chancel.  If  at  all  possible,  the  eastern  position  should  al- 
 ways be  selected  for  this  important  part  of  our  Houses  of 
 Worship,  not  merely  because  this  is  in  accord  with  the  his- 
 torical practice;  but  because  it  is  eminently  beautiful  and 
 suggestive.  Our  churches  should  be  sermons  in  stone,  and 
 every  individual  part  should  be  vocal  with  the  exalted  truths 
 of  our  holy  religion. 
 
 The  floor-space  occupied  by  the  Chancel  in  proportion  to 
 that  of  the  whole  church,  is  a  matter  worthy  of  special  con- 
 sideration. Many  of  our  churches  are  marred  by  such  small- 
 sized  Chancels  as  to  give  the  painful  impression  that  the 
 Word  and  the  Sacraments,  instead  of  being  of  essen- 
 tial importance,  may  be  suitably  disposed  of  in  an  in- 
 significant little  corner.  In  begrudging  the  ample  space  which 
 ought  tc  be  assigned  to  the  Chancel,  we  manifest  a  want  of 
 a   due   appreciation   of   the   importance   of   what   takes   place 
 
TH^  ARCHITECTURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL.  3 
 
 there.  \\'hile  unprepared  to  lay  down  a  hard  and  fast  rule 
 stating  the  exact  proportion  which  should  exist  between  the 
 Auditorium  and  the  Chancel,  one  may  safely  say  that  there  is 
 no  tendency  manifesting  itself  anywhere  at  present  in  tiic 
 direction  of  making  the  Chancel  too  large.  One-eighth  of  the 
 floor-space  of  the  whole  structure  is  not  too  much  to  devote 
 to  its  exclusive  use. 
 
 In  the  majority  of  our  churches,  the  Chancel  may  well 
 extend  throughout  its  whole  width  a  short  distance  into  the 
 Nave.  This  will  make  it  possible  for  the  pulpit  and  Lectern 
 to  be  stationed  near  the  people.  The  floor  of  the  Chancel 
 should  be  raised  from  that  of  the  Auditorium  by  three  low 
 and  wide  steps. 
 
 The  three  liturgical  stations  in  our  Church,  as  accepted 
 by  all  our  writers  upon  this  subject,  are: — the  Baptismal 
 Font ;  the  Pulpit,  and  its  co-ordinate,  the  Lectern ;  and  the 
 Altar.  These  liturgical  stations  are  properly  considered  under 
 the  subject  before  us;  for  Baptismal  Font,  Pulpit  and  Altar 
 dare  not  be  regarded  as  mere  portable  articles  of  furniture ; 
 but  as  fixed  parts  of  the  Church  in  which  they  are  placed. 
 They  are  more  essential  to  a  proper  conception  of  a  Christian 
 church  than  the  walls. 
 
 Let  us  take  up  the  liturgical  stations  in  their  order,  and 
 begin  naturally  with  the  consideration  of  the  Baptismal  Font. 
 In  the  great  majority  of  our  churches,  a  special  Baptistry,  like 
 in  ancient  times,  would  be  out  of  the  question.  The  placing 
 of  the  Font  at  the  West  end  of  the  church,  on  the  North 
 side,  is  not  practical  in  most  of  our  churches ;  and  no  amount 
 of  emphasis  laid  upon  the  historic  and  symbolic  significance 
 of  this  place  will  ever  make  it  general.  There  is  only  one 
 other  proper  place  left,  and  that  is,  at,  or  within,  the  Chancel. 
 The  center  of  the  church,  immediately  in  front  of  the  Chancel 
 steps,  suggests  itself  as  the  best  and  most  significant  place 
 for  the  Font.  Here  it  will  not  intercept  the  view  of  the  Altar, 
 yet  it  will  be  in  line  with  it  in  the  centre  of  the  church.  Rest- 
 ing on  the  floor  of  the  auditorium,  it  suggests  that  Baptism 
 meets  us  on  the  level  of  our  natural  life,  bestows  upon  us 
 God's  grace,  passes  us  on  to  the  ministry  of  the  audible  Word 
 from  Pulpit  to  Lectern,  until  we  finally,  in  proper  order,  attain 
 to  the  Altar,  with  its  holy  mysteries  and  its  celestial  bless- 
 ings, marking  the  most  exalted  point  of  worship  on  this  side 
 of  the  glories  of  Heaven. 
 
 The  Pulpit  has  been  subjected  to  many  and  devious 
 wanderings  in  the  course  of  the  Christian  centuries.  In  the 
 beginning  the  Bishop  used  to  preach  from  his  cathedra,  in  the 
 Apse,   back   of   the    Altar.      Whenever    the    Bishop    did    not 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 preach,  tlic  ncacDii  read  a  homily  from  the  South,  or  Epistle, 
 Ambo.  Owinj^  to  the  distance  of  the  Catliedra  of  the  Bishop 
 from  tlie  people,  it  early  became  customary  for  the  Bishop  as 
 well  to  preach  from  this  Ambo.  Of  these  Ambos  there  were 
 usually  two  in  the  ancient  Church,  placed  respectively  to 
 the  North  and  South  of  the  Choir  where  it  joined  the  Nave. 
 From  these  Ambos  the  Scriptures  were  read,  the  Gospel  on 
 the  North  anfl  the  Epistle  on  the  South ;  and  from  them  the 
 Cantores  intoned  the  Psalms.  The  early  practice  of  preach- 
 ing from  the  South  Ambo  is  no  doubt  responsible  for  the 
 southern  position  of  the  pulpit  in  many  of  our  important 
 churches.  The  growing  practice  of  placing  the  pulpit  on  the 
 North  side  has  no  historical  warrant,  although  we  may  well 
 bear  in  mind  what  Mcurer  says  in  his  "Kirchenbau,"  page 
 214: — "The  question  whether  the  pulpit  should  be  placed  on 
 the  North  or  South  side,  in  respect  to  which  there  has  been  no 
 established  usage,  becomes  for  us  simply  a  matter  of  expedi- 
 ency ;  for  the  distinction  between  the  women's  and  the  men's 
 side  of  the  Nave,  or  between  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  side,  has 
 for  us  no  longer  any  significance.  The  South  side  might  be 
 preferred  simply  for  this  reason,  because  the  preacher  facing 
 the  North,  is  at  no  time  in  danger  of  having  the  sun  shine  in 
 his  eyes.  Certainly  this  might  also  be  avoided  by  means  of 
 curtains." 
 
 It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  practice  will  never  become  gen- 
 eral among  us  in  this  country  of  placing  the  Pulpit  in  the 
 Nave  at  one  of  the  pillars.  Yet  the  Pulpit  should  be  fixed  as 
 far  out  into  the  Auditorium  as  practically  possible.  Its  most 
 approved  ])lace  doubtless  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  Chancel 
 as  near  as  possible  to  the  people.  The  great  mistake  is  to  be 
 avoided  of  building  the  Pulpit  so  inordinately  high  as  to  dety 
 a  simple  law  of  acoustics,  and  do  violence  to  the  neck- 
 muscles  of  the  audience  in  looking  at  the  preacher. 
 
 The  Lectern,  or  Reading  Desk,  is  not  universally  used 
 in  our  churches.  With  respect  to  it,  our  most  distinctive 
 practice  follows  the  later  developments,  according  to  which 
 the  lessons  are  read  from  the  Altar.  There  are  a  number  of 
 reasons  which  show  this  practice  to  be  an  objectionable  one: 
 and  warrant  a  return  to  the  more  ancient  i)ractic?  according 
 to  which  the  lessons  were  read  from  Ambos  from  the  north 
 and  south  sides  of  the  Chancel  where  it  joins  the  Nave. 
 Having  concluded  that  the  Pulpit  properly  occupies  the  place 
 of  the  south  Ambo,  from  which  in  the  ancient  Church,  tb-c 
 Deacon,  as  already  explained,  used  to  read  a  homily  when 
 the  Bishop  did  not  preach,  the  Lectern  may  properly  take  the 
 place  of  the  north  Ambo;  and  thus  aflford  greater  balance  and 
 
THE  ARCPIITECTURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL.  5 
 
 symmetry  to  the  arrangements  of  our  Chancels.  Here  the 
 Word  of  God  will  be  more  audible  to  the  people  than  if  read 
 from  the  Altar.  The  Word  is  not  anything  offered  to  God ; 
 but,  God's  message  and  gift  of  Grace  to  the  people.  It  is  a 
 cheering  sign  to  note  that  the  trend  in  the  development  of 
 the  arrangement  of  our  Chancels  has  of  late  been  in  this 
 sensible  and  practical  direction. 
 
 Having  now,  in  our  consideration  of  the  ideal  Chancel 
 Architecture,  placed  the  Baptismal  Font  in  the  center  immedi- 
 ately before  the  three  low  steps  which  ascend  to  the  Chancel, 
 and  having  placed  the  Pulpit  and  Lectern  on  this  elevated 
 platform,  as  far  into  the  Nave  as  possible,  we  now  proceed  to 
 a  consideration  of  the  Altar.  The  recess  in  which  the  Altar 
 stands,  call  it  Sanctuary  if  you  will,  is  reached  by  a  low  step 
 from  the  elevation  on  which  are  fixed  the  Pulpit  and  Lectern. 
 This  step  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  prie-dieu,  or  kneeling- 
 stool,  for  the  communicants.  A  slight  and  inconspicuous 
 railing,  always  open  in  front  of  the  Altar,  except  at  the  times 
 when  persons  kneel  thereat,  may  be  placed  at  a  proper  dis- 
 tance from  the  edge  of  this  step ;  so  as  to  serve,  not  as  a 
 chancel,  or  barrier,  to  the  Altar,  but  merely  as  a  support  for 
 the  body.  The  Altar  itself,  which  should  be  of  geneorus  pro- 
 portions, may  be  raised  from  this  elevation  by  three  low  and 
 wide  steps,  thus  elevating  it  on  seven  steps,  all  told,  from  the 
 level  of  the  auditorium,  and  bringing  it  within  plain  view  of 
 every  worshipper,  the  center  and  most  conspicuous  object  in 
 the  church. 
 
 The  Reredos,  or,  in  lieu  of  that.  Dossal  hangings,  are  be- 
 coming quite  popular.  These  are  doubtless  what  remains  of 
 the  Reliquaries,  as  we  see  them  in  the  Mediaeval  churches. 
 They  are  not  essential  to  the  architecture  of  the  Altar,  but 
 are  permitted  ;  and  submit  to  great  artistic  treatment.  As  in 
 the  Mediaeval  Church,  so  in  those  of  today,  the  Reredos 
 is  the  place  where  the  canons  of  good  taste  and  of  pure 
 ecclesiastical  art  are  most  frequently  transgressed.  The  Re- 
 redos must  correspond  with  the  architecture  of  the  church 
 in  which  it  is  placed.  The  round,  semi-circular  arches  of  the 
 Byzantine  style  are  decidedly  out  of  place  upon  the  Reredos 
 in  a  Gothic  church.  It  must  not  surpass  in  costliness  and 
 elaborateness  of  design,  the  Altar  itself,  as  if  the  Altar  existed 
 for  the  sake  of  the  Reredos,  and  not  the  Reredos  for  the  Altar. 
 The  Reredos  may  so  powerfully  overshadow  the  Altar  as  to 
 give  the  impression  conveyed  by  the  attachment  pf  a 
 $1500.00  portico  to  a  $300.00  cottage.  Again  all  statuary  and 
 paintings  on  the  Reredos  must  refer  distinctively  to  the  re- 
 demptive work  of  Christ.     Unity  and  harmony   must  exist 
 
6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 throughout  the  whole  of  the  sacred  edifice.  From  its  foun- 
 dation-stone to  the  cross  upon  its  spire,  a  church  ought  to 
 produce  the  impression  of  a  grand  symphony  proclaiming  the 
 great,  central  truths  connected  with  the  redemption  of  man. 
 
 In  conclusion,  let  the  prospective  builders  of  churches 
 be  urged  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  organic  centre  of  the 
 church  is  the  Chancel,  and  especially  the  Altar  within  the 
 Chancel ;  and  that  here  is  the  place  to  give  character  to  the 
 whole  structure.  If  the  building  must  be  stinted  in  any 
 place,  let  it  not  be  the  Chancel  and  the  Altar  Here  the  wealth 
 and  affection  of  every  worshipper  may  well  find  their  exalted 
 expression  in  forms  of  chaste  beauty  and  of  simple  elegance. 
 Just  as  in  the  human  body,  the  condition  and  activity  of  the 
 heart  determine  the  general  health  of  the  individual,  so  the 
 architecture  and  arrangement  of  the  Chancel  express,  in  no 
 uncertain  characters,  not  only  the  general  character  of  the 
 whole  structure ;  but,  the  taste  and  intelligence  of  the  wor- 
 shippers as  well. 
 
 Although  we  dare  not  tolerate  for  a  moment  the  far- 
 fetched symbolism  which  some  claim  to  see  in  the  Chancel 
 and  its  arrangements:  yet  it  is  cheerfully  admitted  that,  as 
 the  Gospel  sounds  from  it,  and  in  it  the  Holy  Sacrament  of  the 
 Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  is  administered,  it  should  remind  us, 
 by  its  architecture  and  symbolisms,  of  that  more  glorious 
 temple  not  made  with  hands,  in  which  dwells  the  inapproach- 
 able glory  of  God.  The  earthly  tabernacle  should  be  a  pattern 
 of  the  heavenly. 
 
 Elmkr  F.  Krauss. 
 
 Lccchbun:,  Pa. 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  ALTAR. 
 
 Of  all  visible  accessories  to  worship,  either  of  God's  ordering 
 or  of  man's  devising,  the  altar  is  the  most  ancient.  The  very 
 first  divine  service  of  which  we  have  any  record  was  an 
 altar  service.  True,  it  is  not  stated  explicitly  that  Cain  and 
 Abel  erected  altars,  but  the  fact  that  they  brought  offerings 
 unto  the  Lord  implies  some  form  of  altar.  Whether  these 
 sons  of  Adam  were  instructed  of  God  as  to  how  they  were  to 
 worship  is  a  question.  It  seems  very  probable  that  they  were ; 
 certain  it  is  that  "the  Lord  had  respect  unto  Abel  and  to  his 
 offering."  The  altar  which  Noah  builded  unto  the  Lord  and 
 upon  which  he  oft'ered  burnt  offerings,  likewise  met  with 
 divine  favor.  In  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs,  a  number  of 
 altars  were  erected ;  some  at  God's  express  command,  others 
 were  voluntary  expressions  of  a  desire  to  worship,  on  the 
 part  of  godly  souls.  These  altars  of  early  times  were  often 
 built  in  places  where  the  Lord  had  appeared,  or  in  spots 
 hallowed  by  other  religious  associations.  The  usual  pur- 
 pose for  which  they  were  erected  was  naturally  that  of  offer- 
 ing sacrifice ;  although  in  some  instances,  they  served  simply 
 as  memorials.  These  rudely  constructed  altars  of  the  pa- 
 triarchal age  gave  way  to  the  portable  altar  in  the  court  of  the 
 Tabernacle;  and  this  in  turn  was  superseded  by  the  larger 
 and  more  beautiful  altar  of  the  Temple.  To  trace  in  detail  the 
 development  of  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  to  study  its 
 construction  and  to  notice  its  relation  to  the  altar  of  incense 
 
8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 would  doubtless  prove  interesting:,'  in   tliis  connection,  but  all 
 this  would  naturally  be  manifestly  foreign  to  our  purpose  here. 
 
 To  God's  people  of  the  old  dispensation  the  altar  was 
 wholly  sacrificial  in  its  significance.  The  most  devout  and 
 thoughtful  of  th  epatriarchs  and  prophets  seem  to  have  had 
 no  knowledge  of  the  symbolic  meaning  of  the  sacrifices  which 
 they  offered.  There  is  no  record,  cither  in  Holy  ^^>it  or  in 
 the  ancient  profane  writings,  to  indicate  that  these  men  had 
 even  an  inkling  of  the  truth  that  their  sacrifices  were  but  a 
 type  of  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
 world.  They  expected  a  redemption  through  a  Redeemer,  but 
 they  did  not  understand  that  this  meant  the  remission  of  sins 
 through  a  crucified  Savior.  They  understood  and  believed 
 the  divinely  given  laws  concerning  sacrifice  without  grasp- 
 ing the  truth  that  those  sacrifices  were  efficacious  before  God 
 only  in  as  far  as  the  merits  of  the  Messiah  gave  them  efficacy. 
 Their  altars  were  to  them  a  constant  reminder  of  man's  duty 
 to  bring  his  gifts  to  God ;  but  concerning  God's  Gift  to  man, 
 their  altars  were  silent.  While  the  light  of  fuller  revelation 
 makes  manifest  in  the  Old  Testament  altar  a  sacramental 
 character,  to  the  belie\ers  under  the  Law  the  altar  was  en- 
 tirely sacrificial  in  its  significance. 
 
 In  the  coming  of  Christ  Jesus,  Who.  as  our  great  High 
 Priest,  offered  Himself  as  a  spotless  sacrifice  to  God  for  the 
 propitiation  of  our  sins,  we  have  the  substance  of  that  which 
 was  foreshadowed  by  the  types  and  ceremonies  of  the  Old 
 Testament.  In  Him  all  types  found  their  anti-tA-pe  and  all 
 ceremonies  found  their  fulfillment.  These  glorious  shadow- 
 pictures  by  which  the  Jews  were  taught  spiritual  truths  were 
 therefore  done  away  when  the  superior  glory  of  that  which 
 was  portrayed  in  the  pictures  was  made  manifest.  From  this 
 it  becomes  obvious  that  the  Jewish  altar  has  no  place  or 
 part  under  the  present  dispensation.  Calvary's  cross,  upon 
 which  our  blessed  Savior  suffered  and  died  is  the  only  altar 
 of  sacrifice  in  the  Church  of  the  New  Testament.  Sin  with- 
 out a  sacrifice  now,  as  in  times  past,  clamors  for  vengeance, 
 but  the  Sacrifice  of  the  cross  is  amply  sufficient  to  silence 
 the  clamoring  of  all  the  wc^rld's  transgressions. 
 
 Howevey  it  does  not  follow  from  this  that  that  which  we 
 designate  as  an  "altar."  in  our  churches  at  the  present  time, 
 is  a  misnomer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  term  "altar"  as  ap- 
 plied to  the  Christian  communion  table  has  an  ai)propriate- 
 ness  which  is  readily  ajiparent  to  the  thoughtful  Christian. 
 This  use  of  the  word  is  of  ecclesiastical  rather  than  of  scri]i- 
 tural  origin.  The  New  Testament  speaks  of  "the  Table  of  the 
 Lord, "but  does  not  refer  to  it  as  an  "altar,"  unless  Hebrews 
 
THK  SJCNIFICANCK  OF  THU  ALTAR.  9 
 
 xiii.  lo  is  such  a  reference,  a  matter  which  cannot  be  proven. 
 Certain  it  is  that  the  word  was  used  in  this  sense  very  early 
 in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church.  We  find  it  so  used 
 ah'eady  in  the  writings  of  Ignatius,  who  was  tlie  contemporary 
 of  some  of  the  apostles.  Therefore  the  expression  "Christian 
 altar"  has  been  sanctioned — 3'es,  hallowed — -by  not  less  than 
 eighteen  centuries  of  use. 
 
 The  celebration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  demanded  some 
 form  of  table,  upon  which  the  elements  might  be  placed 
 during  their  consecration,  and  from  which  the}^  might  be  dis- 
 tributed. As  long  as  the  little  bands  of  believers  met  for 
 worship  in  private  houses,  the  ordinary  table  of  the  home 
 was  utilized  for  this  purpose.  But  the  external  development 
 of  the  Church  required  changes  in  the  arrangements  for  the 
 assend)ling  of  the  believers;  and,  just  as  naturally,  the  internal 
 development  brought  about  changes  in  the  ceremonies  and 
 customs  of  the  service.  The  spiritual  life  of  the  l^elievers  gave 
 birth  to  very  beautiful  and  edifying  forms,  already  in  the  early 
 years  of  Christianity.  It  was  during  these  years  of  the 
 Church's  pristine  purity  that  the  Tal)le  of  the  Lord  began  to 
 develop  in  form  and  to  grow  in  meaning.  The  result  of  this 
 development  and  growth  is  the  Christian  Altar  as  found  in 
 the  true  visible  Church  of  Christ  at  the  present  time.  It  must, 
 therefore,  be  conceded  that  the  altar  as  such  is  a  human  ar- 
 rangement; yet  we  do  not  concede  that  it  it  a  human  inven- 
 tion. It  is  a  legitimate  growth  of  the  same  nature  as  are  the 
 Church  Year  and  the  Liturgy. 
 
 The  prime  purpose  of  the  altar  is,  and  always  has  been, 
 for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Without  this  Sac- 
 rament, the  altar  would  in  all  probability,  never  have  been 
 introduced  into  any  branch  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
 dispensation  of  the  blessed  Body  and  Blood  of  our  Lord  from 
 it,  is  what  gives  the  altar  its  right  to  exist.  Not  that  the 
 altar  adds  to  the  essence  or  validity  of  this  feast  of  grace. 
 The  Sacrament  is  in  every  way  complete  and  perfect,  as  in- 
 stituted by  the  Lord  Jesus.  When  in  times  of  persecution. 
 Christians  celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper  on  the  trunks  of  trees, 
 on  the  stones  of  graves  and  on  elevations  in  the  fields,  the 
 absence  of  an  altar  detracted  absolutely  nothing  from  the 
 efficacy  of  the  Sacrament.  Notwithstanding  this,  he,  who 
 under  normal  conditions,  would  not  prefer  to  receive  the  Lord's 
 Supper  from  an  altar,  rather  than  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
 or  the  stone  of  a  grave,  either  does  not  grasp  the  idea  of  this 
 Sacrament,  or  else  is  sadly  lacking  in  his  sense  of  churchl}^ 
 order  and  propriety.  The  Christian  who  has  a  correct  con- 
 ception of  the  Eucharist  and  any  appreciation  whatever  of 
 
lO  MEMOIRS. 
 
 that  wliich  is  churchly,  woulfl  show  a  decided  preference  for 
 an  altar.  To  us  as  Lutherans  the  Lord's  Supper  is  so  inti- 
 mately associated  with  an  altar  that  we  commonly  designate 
 it  as  "the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar."  To  us  the  altar  has  a 
 meaning.  To  us  it  stands  for  one  of  God's  precious  means  of 
 grace.  As  the  pulpit  stands  for  the  Word  and  the  font  for 
 Baptism,  so  the  altar  stands  for  the  Holy  Supper  of  our  Lord. 
 Even  at  a  minor  service  the  altar  is  eloquent  with  meaning. 
 It  speaks.  It  proclaims  a  rich  feast  of  grace.  It  tells  of 
 gracious  pardon  for  the  sinful;  it  tells  of  nourishment  and 
 strength  for  the  weak  and  faltering;  it  tells  of  sweetest  heavenly 
 comfort  for  the  afflicted  and  distressed.  It  tells,  in  short,  of 
 a  blessed  communion  in  which  sinful  men  may  be  drawn 
 nearer  to  Heaven  than  is  possible  for  them  to  approach  in 
 any  other  way  on  earth.  These  are  the  fundamental  truths 
 for  which  our  altar  stands.  It  is,  therefore,  primarily  sacra- 
 mental in  its  significance. 
 
 But  our  altar's  significance  is  not  restricted  to  the  sacra- 
 mental. The  Holy  Supper  is  so  suggestive  of  the  atoning 
 work  of  our  Savior  that  we  can  hardly  think  of  this  Sacrament 
 without  being  reminded  of  Christ's  agony  and  death.  It  is 
 this  atoning  work  that  we  plead  in  all  our  supplications  and 
 prayers  at  the  throne  of  grace.  When  we  petition  our 
 Heavenly  Father  for  mercy,  our  reliance  is  solely  upon  the 
 blood  and  righteousness  of  Jesus  our  Redeemer.  The  altars 
 in  our  churches  are,  in  a  certain  sense  at  least,  symbolical  of 
 Golgotha's  altar  upon  which  our  Savior  e.xpiated  our  sins. 
 Therefore  while  the  altar  speaks  of  one  of  the  means  through 
 which  God  comes  to  us  with  His  grace,  it  also  proclaims  the 
 ground  of  our  acceptableness  when  we  approach  our  God. 
 This  gives  the  altar  also  a  certain  sacrificial  meaning. 
 
 There  is  yet  another  idea  which  augments  this  sacrificial 
 significance  of  our  altar,  though  not  in  a  co-ordinate  manner. 
 In  the  ancient  Church  it  was  customary  at  the  .services,  for 
 each  communicant  to  ofifer  some  gift  upon  the  altar.  Of  these 
 offerings,  such  as  were  necessary  for  the  celebration  of  tlKr 
 Holy  Sup])er  were  set  apart  for  that  purpose ;  the  remainder 
 were  used  for  the  support  (^f  the  ministry  and  for  the  benefit 
 of  the  poor.  Practically  this  same  custom  still  obtains  in  our 
 churches.  The  justification  of  this  custom  lies  on  the  very 
 surface  of  the  matter.  The  offering  is  an  integral  part  of  a 
 divine  service.  It  is  a  blessed  privilege  as  well  as  an  itnpera- 
 tive  duty  devolving  uj^on  every  Christian  to  bring  regularly 
 a  gift  unto  the  Lord.  When  a  congregation  of  Christians 
 meets  for  worship,  these  gifts  of  the  people  are  collected. 
 What  disposition  shall  now  be  made  of  them?     The  Chris- 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OE  THE  ALTAR.  II 
 
 tian  Church  has  always  regarded  the  altar  as  the  most  ap- 
 propriate place  upon  which  to  lay  these  offerings.  Nor  does 
 this  in  any  way  militate  against  the  primary  purpose  of  the 
 altar.  Our  altar  stands,  and  ever  must  stand,  primarily  for 
 God's  gift  of  grace  to  us,  bestowed  in  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
 Now  upon  this  same  altar  from  which  we  receive  this  rich 
 and  gracious  feast,  we  lay  our  humble  offerings,  in  token  of 
 our  appreciation  of  God's  manifold  mercies,  and  of  our  grati- 
 tude to  their  beneficient  Giver. 
 
 But  perhaps  we  may  be  enabled  to  discern  more  clearly 
 the  scripturalness  and  beauty  of  our  altar's  significance  by 
 contrasting  it  with  the  altars,  real  and  so-called,  of  other 
 Christian  denominations.  Let  us  make  comparisons,  first 
 with  the  altar  as  found  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  then 
 with  the  altars  of  the  various  Reformed  Bodies,  and  briefly 
 note  the  points  of  contrast. 
 
 The  altar  of  the  Romish  Church  dift'ers  very  materially 
 from  the  Lutheran  altar,  just  as  the  Romish  conception  of  the 
 Eucharist  differs  essentially  from  our  own  doctrine.  Accord- 
 ing to  papistical  teaching,  there  is  in  the  Romish  Mass  a 
 sacrifice ;  not  simply  a  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  of 
 Christ  upon  the  cross,  but  a  true  propitiatory  sacrifice  where- 
 by God  is  pacified.  The  celebrant  in  this  ordinance  is  said 
 to  offer  an  unbloody  sacrifice  to  God,  by  which  atonement 
 is  made  for  the  mortal  and  venial  sins  both  of  the  living  and 
 of  the  dead.  By  this  unscriptural  view  of  the  Eucharist,  the 
 Table  of  the  Lord  becomes,  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  an  altar 
 of  sacrifice.  This  makes  obvious  a  very  important  point  of 
 difference  between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Romish  altars. 
 While  to  the  Lutheran  the  altar  speaks  primarily  of  divine 
 grace  bestowed  upon  men,  to  the  Romanist  it  speaks  of  a 
 sacrifice  which  men  endeavor  to  bring  unto  God. 
 
 Again,  the  Romish  Church  makes  a  consecrated  altar  ab- 
 solutely essential  to  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  Accord- 
 ing to  this  viev\^,  the  use  of  an  altar  in  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
 not  merely  a  matter  of  churchly  order  and  propriety,  but  the 
 altar  is  a  part  of  the  essence  of  the  Sacrament.  To  the  Luth- 
 eran, the  Sacrament  makes  the  altar;  to  the  Romanist,  the 
 altar  makes  the  Sacrament. 
 
 There  is  yet  another  point  of  difference.  The  Church  of 
 Rome  has  for  many  centuries  made  use  of  her  altar  in  her 
 idolatrous  martyr  worship.  Every  altar  used  for  the  celebra- 
 tion of  Mass  must,  according  to  Roman  Catholic  rule,  contain 
 some  authorized  relics.  These  are  preserved  in  a  cavity  pre- 
 pared for  their  reception,  called  "the  tomb."  At  the  conse- 
 cration of  an  altar,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  inserts  the  relics, 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  seals  up  "the  tomb"  with  the  Episcopal  seal.  These 
 relics  are  reg'arded  with  a  veneration  which  amounts  to 
 worship.  The  Romish  altar  is,  therefore,  also  a  shrine,  con- 
 sidered as  sanctified  by  the  presence  of  some  martyr's  bone 
 or  other  relic.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  always  regarded 
 the  veneration  of  relics,  and  all  kindred  practices,  with  horror. 
 There  is  not  even  a  semblance  of  saint  adoration  or  martyr 
 worship  in  the  significance  of  the  Lutheran  altar. 
 
 To  make  a  comparison  with  the  altar  as  found  in  the 
 various  Reformed  churches  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  We 
 might  dismiss  the  whole  matter  by  saying  that  these  churches 
 have  no  altars ;  for,  while  it  is  true  that  in  nearly  all  Chris- 
 tian churches  there  is  a  table  of  some  sort,  it  is  very  doubtful 
 if  that  article  of  furniture  should  be  dignified  by  the  name  of 
 "altar."  Some  of  the  sects  apply  this  word  to  their  com- 
 munion tables ;  others  repudiate  it.  Even  the  Anglican  or 
 Episcopal  Church  has,  since  the  year  1552,  designedly  eliminated 
 the  word  "altar"  from  her  Prayer  Book. 
 
 Concerning  tlie  Episcopalians  we  can  hardly  do  more 
 than  say  that  there  is  among  them  a  very  wide  diversity  of 
 views  on  this  subject.  On  the  one  hand,  there  are  clergymen 
 of  this  Church  who  have  ascribed  a  significance  to  their  altar 
 which  can  barely  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Romish 
 altar ;  some,  on  the  other  hand,  declare  that  their  Church  has 
 no  altar,  contending  that  it  is  misleading  to  designate  the 
 Table  of  the  Lord  by  this  term.  These  are  the  two  extreme 
 views.  The  majority  of  those  who  have  written  on  the  sub- 
 ject take  positions  somewhere  between  these  extremes.  This 
 great  lack  of  unity  in  the  teaching  of  the  Episcoj^al  Church 
 renders  her  altar  practically  nondescript.  Therefore  no  satis- 
 factory comparison  with  our  own  altar  can  l/C  made. 
 
 As  regards  the  altars  of  the  other  Reformed  bodies,  if 
 we  ascribe  any  significance  at  all  to  them,  it  is,  strange  to 
 say,  more  like  that  of  the  Romish  than  of  the  Lutheran 
 altar.  It  is  sacrificial  rather  than  sacramental,  .\mong  the 
 various  sects  the  Eucharist  has,  to  a  large  extent,  degenerated 
 into  a  means  whereby  the  ])articipants  proclaim  their  faith 
 in  the  fact  that  Christ  died  for  them.  It  is  more  a  token  of 
 faith  and  of  brotherly  love  than  a  true  means  of  grace.  Such 
 a  conception  of  tlie  Eucharist  naturally  deprives  an  altar  of 
 any  real  sacramenlal  significance,  and  leaves  it  but  a  meager 
 sacrificial  aspect.  To  the  average  sectarian  congregation.,  the 
 altar  is  simjjly  a  table  placed  in  the  church  for  the  convenience 
 of  the  ])astor,  deacons  and  the  ciimmiltee  on  ilccorations.  b.av- 
 ing  no  significance  Vvhatever. 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  AL,TAR.  I3 
 
 The  difference,  therefore,  between  the  Lutheran  altar 
 and  the  altars  of  other  Christian  bodies  is  not  merely  one  of 
 degree  but  of  kind.  The  difference  is  identical  with  that  between 
 truth  and  error.  Would  that  all  Lutherans  had  a  better 
 understanding  of  these  matters !  Then  would  all  appreciate 
 and  love  this  beautiful  heritage  of  former  ages,  the  altar  of 
 our  Church. 
 
 W.  E.  Schramm. 
 
 Allegheny,  Pa. 
 
THE  SWEDISH  LITURGIES. 
 
 In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Latin  language  was  the  language  of  the 
 Catholic  Mass,  and  the  Divine  Service  was  then,  in  all  essentials, 
 conducted  according  to  the  Ordo  Romaniis.  The  liturgical  forms 
 used  in  Sweden  deviated,  however,  in  several  details  from  the 
 Missale  Romaniim  of  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
 The  reason  probably  was  that  the  forms  used  in  Sweden  were 
 older  by  one  or  two  centuries,  the  later  Roman  innovations  hav- 
 ing not  yet  been  incorporated  into  the  same,  perhaps  because 
 Sweden  was  such  a  remote  ecclesiastical  province  and  not  so  often 
 visited  by  papal  legates. 
 
 The  five  printed  missals  of  the  mediaeval  Church  of  Swedea 
 are:  Missale  Upsalense  veins  (printed  between  1475  and  1484)  ; 
 Missale  Stregnense  ( 1487)  ;  Missale  Aboense  or  Mismle  secun- 
 dum ordinem  fratrum  predicatornm  (1488);  Missale  Ups'alense 
 novum  (1513)  ;  and  Missale  Lundense  (1514),  The  Manuals  of 
 that  time  are  two:  Manuale  Lincopense  (1525)  and  Manuale 
 Aboense  (1522).  To  these  may  also  be  added  Breviarium  Scar- 
 ense  (1498),  also  containing  Actus  Sacerdotales.  The  missals 
 differ  from  the  general  Latin  ritual  in  some  details  and  these 
 even  from  each  other.  Thus  the  Missale  Stregnense  and  M. 
 Lundense  differ  from  the  three  others  and  from  M.  Romanum  in 
 the  order  of  the  Collects  read  before  the  Epistle;  especially  is 
 
 (XV) 
 
l6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 this  the  case  for  the  Sundays  following  upon  the  Third  Sunday 
 after  the  Festival  of  the  Trinity.  This  difference  and  its  results 
 in  the  Swedish  Service  ever  since  1553  will  be  remarked  upon 
 later. 
 
 Olavus  Petri,  the  Swedish  Church  reformer,  not  only  trans- 
 lated into  Swedish  the  New  Testament  and  some  of  Luther's  Ser- 
 mons, but  he  also  wrote  an  original  Collection  of  Sermons,  a 
 Catechism,  a  Manual,  a  Service  Book  and  other  smaller  works 
 for  edification  or  ])olemics.  And  it  is  with  great  pleasure  that  we 
 attempt  to  make  his  liturgical  works  known  to  American  friends 
 of  Lutheran  Liturgiology.  The  first  work  of  Olavus  Petri  was: 
 A  Manual  in  Sivcdish,  wherein  Baptism  and  Other  Things  are  to 
 he  Foimd.  Concerning  this  book  Dr.  O.  Quensel,  Professor  in 
 Upsala,  says:  "Olavus  Petri  has  here  hardly  had  access  to  more 
 than  one  Lutheran  manual,  namely  Das  TaufbnechJein  of  1523; 
 Luther's  Tranbncchlcin  aj^pcared  first  in  1534.  The  oldest  Luth- 
 eran Ritual  of  Burial  mentioned  by  Daniel  dates  from  1540. 
 Neither  Daniel  nor  Bodemann  seem  to  know  any  Ritual  earlier 
 than  1539  for  The  Pastor's  Visitation  of  the  Sick.  Thus  every- 
 thing signifies  that  Olavus  Petri  independently,  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  what  is  mentioned,  composed  the  handbook  of  1529,  with- 
 out the  guidance  of  any  existing  foreign  Ritual,  and  that  conse- 
 quently this  handbook  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  first  Church  Man- 
 ual not  only  in  Sweden,  but  in  the  whole  Lutheran  church." 
 
 I  may  be  permitted  to  state  here,  in  passing,  that  we  still 
 have  many  ])recious  jewels  from  this  handbook  in  the  Swedish 
 Lutheran  Church  Books.  Among  others  may  be  mentioned  the 
 following  beautiful  prayer,  composed  by  Olavus  Petri  and  read 
 at  the  burial  of  the  dead:  "Almighty,  ^^lerciful  and  Eternal  God, 
 Who  on  account  of  sin,  etc. — "  This  prayer  has  been  translated 
 from  the  Swedish  Church  Book  of  181 1  and  inserted  in  Die 
 Preus.  Hofkirchen-Agende,  as  follows :  "Allmaechtiger,  barm- 
 herziger,  ewiger  Gott !  Der  Du  um  der  Suende  willen,  etc. — " 
 The  same  is  true  of  the  Swedish  custom  that  the  minister  shall 
 throw  eartli  into  the  grave  three  times,  while  he  savs :  "Dust 
 thou  art;  and  unto  dust  shalt  thou  return;  Jesus  Christ,  our 
 Saviour,  shall  raise  thee  on  the  last  day."  This  form  has  been 
 transferred  from  the  handbook  of  Olavus  Petri  to  the  Danish 
 ritual  of  1680  and  to  the  I'russian  ".\gende."  Kliefoth  ( Liturg. 
 Abhandlungen  I:  291)  says:  "Die  altcn  Agenden  der  deutschen 
 lutherischen  Kirchen  kcnnen  niche  diesen  Ritus."  Ami  from 
 Nitzch's  Theologisches  I'otntn  neber  die  Xeue  Hofkirchen- 
 /Igcnde,  Dr.  Quensel  quotes  these  words:  "Gewiss  ist,  dass  die 
 Schwedische  .A.gende  vorgelegen.  denn  z.  B.  das  ITauptgebet  fuer 
 die  Beerdigung  und  mehreres  zur  Ortlinations-handlung  gehoerig, 
 
THE  SWEDISH  LITURGIES.  \^ 
 
 ist  woertlich  aus  derselben  entlehnt."     Six  more  or  less  changed 
 editions  of  this  Manual  were  printed  before  1614. 
 
 But  we  shall  direct  our  attention  to  the  Church  Services. 
 Olavus  Petri  published  in  1531 :  The  Swedish  Mass,  as  it  is  Cele- 
 brated ill  Stockholm,  With  Reasons  for  Conducting  it  in  Such 
 M'anner.  This  Service  Book  has  as  an  introduction  a  little 
 treatise :  Reason  zvhy  the  mass  ought  to  he  conducted  in  such  lan- 
 guage that  the  common  people  may  understand.  In  a  following 
 special  preface:  Olavus  Petri  to  the  Christian  Reader,  he  gives  an 
 account  of  what  had  to  be  changed  or  not  changed  in  the  Mass. 
 In  the  first  mentioned  introduction  O.  Petri  says,  among  other 
 things,  "We  Swedes  as  well  as  other  people  belong  to  God,  and 
 God  has  given  us  the  language  we  have."  These  words  have 
 been  inscribed  on  the  statue  of  O.  Petri,  erected  in  1898  in  the 
 front  of  Storkyrkan  in  Stockholm,  in  which  church  he  served  as 
 pastor  from  1543  until  his  death  in  1552. 
 
 This  Swedish  Liturgy  must,  however,  have  been  composed 
 by  Olavus  Petri  some  years  previous  to  1531.  According  to  the 
 historian  Messenius,  the  Swedish  Mass  was  celebrated  for  the 
 first  time  in  1525  at  the  marriage  of  O.  Petri;  and  in  the  begin- 
 ning of  1529  certain  conspirators  against  King  Gustavus  Vasa, 
 accused  the  king  for  allowing  the  Mass  to  be  celebrated  in  the 
 Swedish  language.  The  title  of  O.  Petri's  Service  Book  confirms 
 this  statement;  and  in  the  first  lines  of  the  book  the  author  also 
 says  that  in  many  places  of  the  country  it  was  known  that  the 
 Swedish  and  Evangelical  Mass  was  administered  in  Stockholm 
 and  at  sundry  places  in  the  kingdom. 
 
 The  Swedish  Service  of  1531  contains,  in  order,  the  follow- 
 ing parts : 
 
 I.)  Allocution  to  the  Congregation.  Originally  written 
 by  O.  Petri,  it  has  been  abbreviated  and  changed  in  later  Service 
 Books. 
 
 2.)  Confession  of  Sins.  "We  poor  miserable  sinners, 
 conceived  and  born  in  sin,  with  all  our  heart  confess  unto  Thee, 
 holy  and  righteous  God,  merciful  Father,  that  we  in  manifold 
 ways  during  all  our  life,  have  offended  against  Thee.  We  have 
 not  loved  Thee  above  all  things,  nor  our  neighbor  as  ourselves. 
 Against  Thee  and  Thy  holy  commandments  have  we  sinned  bv 
 thought,  word  and  deed,  and  we  acknowledge  that,  if  Thou 
 shouldst  judge  according  to  Thy  justice  and  our  sins,  we  have 
 deserved  eternal  condemnation.  But  Thou,  Heavenly  Father, 
 hast  promised  to  receive  with  tender  mercy  all  penitent  sinners, 
 who  return  unto  Thee  and  with  living  faith  flee  for  refuge  to  Thy 
 fatherly  compassion  and  to  the  merits  of  our  Saviour  Jesus 
 Christ.     Their  transgressions  Thou  wilt  not  regard,  nor  impute 
 
l8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 unto  them  their  sins.  Relying  upon  Thy  promise,  we  poor  sin- 
 ners confidently  beseech  Thee  to  be  merciful  and  gracious  unto  us 
 and  forgive  us  all  our  sins  to  the  praise  and  glory  of  Thy  holy 
 name.  May  the  Almighty,  Everlasting  God,  in  His  infinite 
 mercy  and  for  the  sake  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  forgive  all 
 our  sins,  and  grant  us  grace  that  we  may  amend  our  lives,  and 
 finally  with  Ilim  obtain  eternal  life.  Amen."  (Church  Book  of 
 Augustana  Synod,  Church  Services  with  Music.  Page  3.)  This 
 confession,  also  a  composition  of  O.  Petri,  is  still,  with  a  few 
 alterations,  read  in  all  Swedish  Lutheran  churches.  It  contains 
 several  expressions  from  an  old  prayer  book  in  the  Swedish  ver- 
 nacular and  is  written  in  good  evangelical  and  liturgical  style; 
 its  last  sentence,  a  prayer  for  absolution,  is  a  free  translation 
 from  the  Latin  Missal. 
 
 3.)  Introitus.  a)  A  Psalm  of  David  or  any  other  song 
 from  Holy  Scriptures. 
 
 b)  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us !    Christ,  have  mercy  upon 
 us !    Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us  ! 
 
 c)  Glory  be  to  God  on  high,  and  on  earth  peace,  good 
 will  toward  men.    We  praise  Thee,  we  bless  Thee,  etc. 
 
 4.)  Salutation.  The  minister  says  (not  sings  as  he  does  in 
 the  Introitus)  :"The  Lord  be  with  you!"  The  congregation 
 sings:  "And  with  thy  spirit!" 
 
 5.)  Collccta.  The  General  Collect:  "Grant  us,  we  beseech 
 Thee,  Almighty  God,  Heavenly  Father,  a  steadfast  faith  in  Jesus 
 Christ,  a  cheerful  hope  in  Thy  mercy  and  a  sincere  love  to  Thee 
 and  to  all  our  fellowmen ;  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord."  Or 
 any  other,  "according  to  the  time." 
 
 6.)  The  Epistle.  A  chapter  or  a  half  from  St.  Paul  or  any 
 other  Apostle. 
 
 7.)  Gradiiale.  The  Hymn  on  the  Ten  Commandments,  or 
 any  other  Hymn. 
 
 8.)  The  Gospel.  A  chapter  or  a  half  from  any  of  the  four 
 Gospels.  In  an  Appendix  to  his  Service  Book  O.  Petri  has  add- 
 ed, that  if  this  reading  of  the  Scriptures  gives  ofTence  to  anybody, 
 then  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  in  the  Latin  Mass  may  be  read, 
 until  the  peo])le  have  been  better  instructed. 
 
 9.)  Either  the  Apostles'  Creed  or  the  Xieene  is  to  be  read. 
 A'.  B.  The  usual  place  is  not  here  given  to  the  Sermon. 
 According  to  the  Latin  Mass  and  Luther's  formula  Missae  of 
 1523.  the  Sermon  very  likely  had  its  independent  place  before  the 
 Mass  began.  O.  Petri  says  in  his  first  Introiluction  to  the  Ser- 
 vice Book:  "No  Mass  is  to  be  held,  if  there  has  not  first  been 
 preaching."     He  had  already  in  1530  published  a  collection  of  his 
 
the:  SWEDISH  LITURGIES.  I9 
 
 own  sermons  as  a  help  for  ignorant  preachers.  This  Postil  also 
 gives  instructions  how  to  begin  and  finish  a  sermon,  and  the  ser- 
 mons are  from  the  old  Gospel  Pericopes. 
 
 10.)  Preface  to  the  Communion.  No  Ofifertorium,  but  the 
 following  parts. 
 
 a)  The  Salutation:  "The  Lord  be  with  you,  etc." 
 
 b)  "Lift  up  your  hearts  to  God!"  "We  lift  up  our 
 hearts." 
 
 c)  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  God  our  Lord!"  "It  is  meet 
 and  right." 
 
 d)  "It  is  truly  meet  and  right,  becoming  and  salutary, 
 that  we  should  at  all  times,  and  in  all  places,  give  thanks  unto 
 Thee,  O  Lord,  Holy  Father,  Almighty,  Everlasting  God,  through 
 Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord ;  Who  is  our  Paschal  Lamb  offered  for  us, 
 the  innocent  Lamb  of  God,  Who  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world ; 
 Who  has  conquered  death,  is  risen  again,  and  liveth  forever  more. 
 Therefore,  we  who  trust  in  Him  shall  also  through  Him  be  vic- 
 torious over  sin  and  death,  and  inherit  eternal  life.  And  in  order 
 that  we  may  keep  in  remembrance  His  unspeakable  mercy,  He 
 hath  instituted  His  Holy  Supper."  (Ch.  Book  of  Aug.  Synod. 
 Services  with  Music,  Page  18).  This  form  of  the  Vere  dignum 
 was  written  by  O.  Petri,  and,  having  been  omitted  in  the  Swedish 
 Church  Book  of  181 1,  has  been  again  restored  in  the  Church 
 Books  of  1894  and  1895. 
 
 II.)  Consecration.  The  elements  are  consecrated  by  read- 
 ing from  the  Holy  Scriptures  the  Institution  of  the  Lord  s  Sup- 
 per, not  the  paraphrase  in  the  Roman  Mass. 
 
 12.)  Sanctus  (to  be  read  or  sung).  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
 Pax,  Agnus  Dei.     (All  in  Swedish.) 
 
 A''.  B.  This  order  of  the  Consecration  and  Sanctus  has 
 been  preserved  in  all  Swedish  Services,  although  in  the  present 
 Service  Books  the  Lord's  Prayer  precedes  the  Sanctus.  Luther's 
 Formula  Missae  of  1523  and  the  Brandenhurg-Nuernherg  Ser- 
 vice of  1533  also  place  the  Act  of  Consecration  between  the  Vere 
 dignum  and  the  singing  of  the  Sanctus.  The  proper  place  for 
 the  Sanctus  in  the  Service  seems  to  us  to  be  after  the  Consecra- 
 tion of  the  Bread  and  Wine  and  not  before,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
 Gregorian  Mass,  Missale  Romanum  and  some  Lutheran  Church 
 Books.  The  Church  as  the  bride  of  the  Lamb,  greets  her  Bride- 
 groom and  King,  and  we  Lutherans  believe  this  sacramental  ad- 
 vent of  our  Lord  to  the  communicants  to  take  place,  not  at  the 
 Consecration  but  at  the  Distribution  and  reception  of  the  conse- 
 crated Bread  and  Wine.  The  tenth  article  of  the  unaltered  Augs- 
 burg Confession  reads:  "Of  the  Lord's  Supper  they  teach,  that 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  are  truly  present  and  are  com- 
 municated to  those  that  eat  in  the  Lord's  Supper"  (vesceutibus 
 itt  Coma  Domini).  Compare  with  this  also  the  answer  given  to 
 the  first  question  in  the  Fifth  Part  of  Luther's  Small  Catechism. 
 
 13.)  The  CoiiDiniiiioii.  To  this  belong,  a)  An  Admonition 
 to  the  Communicants.  This  Admonition  was  written  by  O.  Petri 
 himself  and  is  wholly  independent  of  the  Exhortation  that  in  Die 
 Deutsche  Messe  follows  on  the  paraphrased  Lord's  Prayer.  Al- 
 though abbreviated  and  put  in  another  connection,  the  Admoni- 
 tion of  O.  Petri  was  used  in  the  Swedish  Service  until  1894. 
 
 b)  The  Distribution  of  the  Bread  and  afterwards  of  the 
 Wine  to  the  communicants.  The  minister  says  to  those  who  re- 
 ceive the  holy  elements:  "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 preserve  your  soul  unto  everlasting  life!"  And:  "The  Blood  of 
 our  Lord,  etc." 
 
 14.)   a)   A  Swcdisli  Hymn  or  the  A^unc  Dimittis  in  Swed- 
 
 b)  Salutations.     "The  Lord  be  with  you,  etc." 
 
 c)  Collect  of  Thanksgiving.    "O  Lord.  Almighty  God, 
 
 d)  Bcncdicamus.     "Let  us  thank  and  praise  the  Lord. 
 
 ish. 
 
 etc." 
 
 etc." 
 
 15.)  Benediction.  "Bow  your  hearts  to  God  and  receive 
 the  bene<liction.  The  Lord  bless  us  and  keep  us.  The  Lord  make 
 His  face  shine  upon  us.  and  be  gracious  unto  us.  The  Lord  lift 
 up  His  countenance  upon  us,  and  give  us  peace.  In  the  name  of 
 the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,     /vmen." 
 
 Finis. 
 
 As  an  Appendix  to  his  Service  Book.  Olavus  Petri  has  also 
 translated  the  seven  penitential  Psahus  of  David,  to  be  used  "pro 
 introitu."  Thereupon  follow  sixteen  Collects,  all  translated  from 
 the  Latin  Missal,  and  twelve  of  them  belonging  to  the  latter  half 
 of  the  Church  Year.  These  Collects  are  ordered  to  be  read  by 
 the  minister  before  the  reading  of  the  Ejiistle  at  his  own  pleasure, 
 no  direction  being  given  for  the  selection  of  the  Collects. 
 
 It  may  suffice  here  to  note,  as  a  general  remark  on  this  first 
 Swedish  Service,  that  in  the  main  it  follows  that  classic  Liturgy, 
 Luther's  formula  Missac  of  1523.  Olavus  Petri  is  however  some- 
 times quite  independent  of  Luther,  as  he  had  already  shown  him- 
 self to  be  when  translating  the  Xew  Testament  into  Swedish  in 
 1526.  He  had  the  courage  and  the  evangelical  spirit  of  Luther 
 and  was  his  true  discij^le  in  faith,  but  at  the  saiue  time  searched 
 the  Scripture  himself  for  truth  and  life.  Special  characteristic 
 traits  in  all  the  works  of  O.  Petri  are  his  faithful  conservatism, 
 deep  humility  and  holy  earnestness.    The  natural  result  of  this  has 
 
THE  SWEDISH  LITURGIES.  21 
 
 been,  that  the  old  Swedish  Service  has  always  been  dear  to  Swed- 
 ish Lutherans,  even  though  it  may  be  acknowledged,  that  the  al- 
 locutions of  O.  Petri  sometimes  fall  from  the  pure  liturgical  style 
 into  a  certain  manner  of  preaching. 
 
 Olavus  Petri  published,  with  a  few  but  important  changes, 
 new  editions  of  his  Service  Book  in  1535  and  1537.  The  last  in- 
 creased the  number  of  Collects  to  thirty,  of  which  fifteen  were  re- 
 ferred to  certain  named  Festival  Days.  The  Bible  texts  to  be 
 used  as  Introits  are  limited  to  "at  most  six  verses,"  and  the  Grad- 
 uale  is  allowed  to  be  sung  in  Latin,  provided  that  it  is  taken  from 
 the  Holy  Scriptures.  All  these  editions  of  the  Service  Book 
 were  semi-official,  the  king  Gustavus  Vasa,  for  political  reasons, 
 keeping  himself  neutral  as  yet  in  such  matters.  He  had,  how- 
 ever, tried  to  abrogate  the  Latin  Mass  in  Stockholm  as  earlv  as 
 1528. 
 
 In  1 54 1  the  Swedish  Church  Service  received  further  changes 
 under  the  editorship,  as  it  seems,  of  a  certain  German  nobleman, 
 Georg  Norman,  a  disciple  of  Melanchthon,  and  from  1539  the 
 king's  adviser  in  church  government.  This  new  edition  has  the 
 title:  The  Mass  in  Sivcdish,  Upsala  1541,  and  its  most  important 
 changes  are  the  following.  The  minister  is  allowed  to  read  his 
 Confession  of  Sins  in  Latin ;  both  the  Introitus  and  the  Graduale 
 may  be  sung  in  Latin ;  and  the  old  pericopes  may  be  used  as  the 
 Epistle  and  Gospel  for  the  Sunday.  Between  the  reading  of  the 
 Gospel  and  the  Creed  is  now  inserted  a  rubric  indicating  this  as 
 the  place  for  the  Sermon.  This  rubric  was  taken  from  Die 
 Deutsche  Messe  of  1526,  where  the  Sermon,  however,  has  its  cor- 
 rect place,  that  is  to  say,  after  the  Creed.  The  Nunc  Dimittis  in 
 Swedish  after  the  Communion  has  also  been  exchanged  for  a 
 Swedish  hymn. 
 
 The  archbishop  Laurentius  Petri,  a  brother  of  Olavus  Petri, 
 had  probably  assisted  Norman  in  the  editing  of  the  Service  Book 
 of  1 541,  and  it  is  quite  certain  that  Laurentius  Petri  himself  exe- 
 cuted the  new  edition  of  1548.  This  edition  has  no  changes  in 
 the  text,  only  adding  four  new  Collects  after  the  Communion  and 
 introducing  indications  as  to  the  manner  of  singing  the  responses 
 in  the  Service.  The  singing  of  hymns  in  the  Service  was  very 
 deficient  and  m  that  respect  still  far  below  the  use  in  Germany. 
 Olavus  Petri  had,  however,  published  a  collection  of  15  Swedish 
 hymns  in  1530,  and  another  of  45  hynms  in  1536,  and  Laurentius 
 Petri  published  in  1567  The  Szcedish  Hymn  Book,  containing  99 
 hymns,  of  which  many  are  still  sung  in  Swedish  Churches. 
 
 The  Mass  in  Szvedish.  Improved,  Stockholm  1557.  This  is 
 the  title  of  the  following  Service  Book  of  Laurentius  Petri.  Its 
 two  good  improvements  are,  that  the  Gospel  follows  immediately 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 upon  tlie  Gradualc.  and  tliat  the  Collects  for  the  whole  Church 
 Year  arc  printed  in  an  Appendix.  These  Collects  are  all  trans- 
 lated from  the  Roman  ritual ;  but  Laurentius  Petri,  following 
 here  his  Missalc  Strcgnensc,  has  all  the  Collects  from  the  Third 
 Sunday  after  Trinity  Sunday,  one  Sunday  ahead  of  the  Roman 
 ritual  and  the  Episcopalian  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  This 
 Swedish  order  of  the  Collects  for  the  latter  half  of  the  Church 
 Year  is  also  followed  in  the  Common  Service  and  in  the  Church 
 Book  of  the  Augustana  Synod. 
 
 Liturgia  Svccanae  Bcclcsiac  Catholicac  ct  orthodoxac  con- 
 formis.  1576.  This  Liturgy,  having  king  John  III  for  its  author, 
 was  in  reality  a  kind  of  restoration  of  the  Roman  Mass,  although 
 with  some  Lutheran  features,  as  that  the  Sacrament  was  to  be 
 administered  in  both  kinds  to  the  laity.  A  new  edition  was  pub- 
 lished in  1588.  Both  editions  were  written  partly  in  Latin  and 
 partly  in  Swedish  and  pretended  to  restore  the  ritual  of  the  old 
 Apostolic  Church.  Enforced  with  violence  by  the  king  until  his 
 death,  this  liturgy,  commonly  called  the  Red  Book,  was  in  the 
 following  year,  1593,  rejected  at  the  Church  Diet  of  Upsala  as 
 superstitious  and  conformable  to  the  papal  Mass.  Not  a  single 
 person  caring  to  defend  the  Red  Book,  it  was  then  resolved,  that 
 the  church  should  return  to  the  use  of  its  old  evangelical  models 
 
 of  liturgy. 
 
 After  the  Church  Diet  of  Upsala  a  long  and  hard  strife  be- 
 gan between  the  Swedish  clergy,  who  preferred  to  use  the  liturgy 
 of  Laurentius  Petri,  and  Charles  IX,  who  had  Calvinistic  tenden- 
 cies and  presented  two  dififcrent  Calvinistic  draughts  of  a  liturgy 
 of  his  own.  These  were  not  adopted  by  the  clergy,  and  the  Swed- 
 ish Church  in  defending  its  Lutheran  faith  against  Calvinism 
 grew  more  conservative  in  doctrine  and  liturgical  customs  than 
 
 it  otherwise  might  have  been. 
 
 During  the  reign  of  the  illustrious  Lutheran  king  and  hero 
 Gustavus  Adolphus,  a  new  Swedish  Liturgy  was  published  in 
 1614  by  a  committee  of  seventeen  learned  divines,  the  sources  and 
 rule  for  their  work  being  "the  Church  Law  of  1571  and  other 
 pure  and  blameless  liturgies."  This  Service  Book  is  called : 
 Church  Book,  Containing  the  Manners  in  Which  Vublic  Worship 
 ivith  Christian  Ceremonies  and  Rituals  shall  be  Conducted  in  our 
 Swedish  Congregations.  The  title  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
 the  Pennsylvania  Agenda  of  1748.  and  the  word  "Mass  is  no 
 longer  used.  The  Church  Book  of  1614  contains  also:  Forms  for 
 the  Ministerial  Acts:  but  here  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  first 
 part:  The  Manners  for  Public  Worship  on  Sundays  and  Festival 
 Days.    The  contents  are  as  follows : 
 
THE  SWEDISH  LITURGIES.  23 
 
 I.)  An  Allocution.  This  now  pertains  not  only,  as  in  the 
 former  Services,  to  the  Communion,  but  to  the  whole  Divine  Ser- 
 vice. 
 
 2.)    The  Confession  of  Sins.    The  same  as  that  of  1531.    The 
 
 only  change  is  in  the  beginning: "that  we  with  our  fathers  in 
 
 manifold  ways."  The  words  "with  our  fathers,"  having  been 
 very  properly  inserted  here,  are  however  omitted  in  the  Service 
 Book  of  1811  and  later  editions. 
 
 3.)  Kyrie  and  Gloria.  As  from  1531.  The  Intvoitus  proper 
 is  omitted  and  has  been  omitted  in  Swedish  services  ever  since. 
 And  instead  of  the  Laudanins  the  first  hymn  of  Decius  (Church 
 Book,  No.  9:  All  glory  be  to  God  on  High,  etc. J  is  given  as  an 
 alternative. 
 
 4.)  Salutations.  As  from  1531.  The  Collects.  As  in  the 
 Service  of  1557. 
 
 5.)  The  Epistles  and  Gospels  are  now  definitely  fixed  to  be 
 the  old  pericopes  of  the  Church  Year.  The  Gradualc  between  tliL- 
 Epistle  and  the  Gospel  is  a  Swedish  Hymn,  which  in  the  Church 
 Book  was  named  for  each  Sunday.  After  the  Gospel  follows  the 
 Apostles'  Creed,  with  either  the  Nicene  Creed  or  Luther's  Credo 
 Hymn  as  alternatives. 
 
 6.)  The  Sermon,  preceded  by  a  Swedish  Hymn,  is  closed 
 with  prayers,  and  a  new  Confession  of  Sins  is  here  given  to  be 
 read  at  the  minister's  pleasure.  This  confession  is  a  translation 
 from  the  Brandenburg-Nuernberg  ritual :  "O  most  merciful  God 
 and  Father,  Whose  grace  endureth  from  generation  to  genera- 
 tion! Thou  art  patient  and  long-suffering,  and  forgivest  all  who 
 are  truly  penitent,  their  sins  and  transgressions.  Look  with  com- 
 passion upon  'ihy  people  and  hear  their  supplications.  We  poor 
 sinners  confess  unto  Thee  that  we  are  by  nature  sinful  and  un- 
 worthy of  Thy  goodness  and  love.  Against  Thee  have  we  sinned 
 and  done  wickedness  in  Thy  sight.  Remember  not  our  transgres- 
 sions :  have  mercy  upon  us ;  help  us,  O  God,  our  Savior !  For 
 Thy  Name's  sake,  grant  us  remission  of  all  our  sins  and  save  us. 
 Give  us  the  grace  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit  that  we  may  amend  our 
 sinful  lives  and  obtain  with  Thee  everlasting  life ;  through  Thy 
 Son  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.     Amen. 
 
 The  Blood  of  Jesus  Christ  cleanseth  us  from  all  sin.  He 
 that  believeth,  and  is  baptized,  shall  be  saved.  Grant  us,  O  Lord, 
 this  Salvation."  (Augustana  Church  Book  with  Music.  Page 
 39.)  These  prayers  in  the  pulpit  close  with  the  Lord's  Prayer 
 and  a  Swedish  Hymn  sung  by  the  congregation. 
 
 7.)  As  from  1557.  a)  Salutations,  b)  Both  the  Prefaces. 
 c)  The  Consecration,  d)  Sanctus  (to  be  read  or  sung),  e) 
 The  Lord's  Prayer  (to  be  sung  by  the  minister),     f)   The  Ad- 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 monition  to  the  Communicants,     g)  Pax. 
 
 8.)  The  Distribution,  during  which  the  Agnus  Dei  is  sung 
 by  the  congregation.  The  words  said  by  the  minister  at  the  dis- 
 tribution arc  here  changed  to :  "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ  preserve  your  body  and  soul  unto  everlasting  Hfe."  And : 
 "The  Dlood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  preserve  your  body  and 
 soul  unto  everlasting  life."  These  anti-Calvinistic  words  are 
 taken  from  the  already  mentioned  Missale  Stregncnse,  which  has 
 this  unique  reading. 
 
 9.)  a)  Salutation,  b)  Collect  of  Thanksgiving,  c)  Salu- 
 tation ivith  response,  d)  Bencdicanins  e)  Benediction.,  as  in 
 1 53 1,  but  the  word  "us"  is  now  changed  to  "you." 
 
 10.)  A  Sivedish  Hymn  is  added  in  the  Service  of  1614  "pro 
 exitu." 
 
 A  new  edition  of  this  Church  Book  appeared  in  1693  with 
 the  ratification  of  king  Charles  XL  who  positively  prohibited  the 
 ministers  from  making  any  alterations  in  the  Service.  And  the 
 Church  Book  of  1614  continued  thus  to  be  used  in  all  Swedish 
 Churches  until  181 1,  when  a  new  Church  Book  was  adopted, 
 which  was  not  an  improvement  but  indeed  a  deterioration  from 
 the  former  pure  and  noble  liturgy. 
 
 During  the  reign  of  Gustavus  IIL  when  the  Church  was 
 more  or  less  under  the  baneful  influence  of  rationalism  and  neo- 
 logy, there  was  a  proposition  in  1789  to  modernize  the  language 
 of  the  Divine  Service,  although  keeping  the  Lutheran  faith  un- 
 altered. And  in  1793  at  the  centennial  jubilee  of  the  Upsala 
 Church  Diet  a  new  Church  Book  ap])eared.  which  however  wa:^ 
 not  adopted  in  its  proposed  form.  But  the  proposed  Book  was 
 afterwards  examined  and  modified  by  the  clergy  of  the  realm.  In 
 such  amended  form  the  new  Church  Book  was  ratified  in  1810 
 by  the  king,  and  in  the  following  year  it  was  ordered  by  a  royal 
 proclamation  to  be  generally  used  in  all  the  Churches. 
 
 It  is  really  a  wonderful  thing,  that  the  Church  Book  of  181 1 
 was  as  good  as  it  turned  out  to  be ;  it  could  have  been  worse  in 
 those  times.  All  the  churches  seemed  to  acquiesce  in  the  chani:i. 
 of  Church  Books.  Several  believing  Christians  in  the  southern 
 part  of  Sweden,  however,  murmiu'cd,  but  made  no  oitposition.  and 
 some  of  those  in  the  northern  part,  commonly  called  Luther  read- 
 ers, made  some  opposition  and  were  at  last  allowed  to  choose  be- 
 tween the  old  and  the  new  Church  Book.  This  Church  Book  of 
 1811  was  used  in  the  Established  Church  until  1894,  wdien  the 
 new  and  far  better  Church  Book,  adopted  the  previous  year  by 
 the  Church  Diet,  was  authori/.ed  by  the  king  and  ordered  to  be 
 exclusively  used  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Sweden. 
 
THE  SWEDISH  LITURGIES.  25 
 
 The  most  characteristic  trait  of  the  Church  Book  of  1811  is 
 its  rhetorical  style.  We  will  here  render,  as  an  example,  the  very 
 peculiar  beginning  of  the  Morning  Service.  It  begins  with  a  short 
 hymn,  and  the  Pastor,  having  in  the  meantime  entered  and  ad- 
 vanced to  the  altar,  turns  toward  the  congregation,  and  continues 
 the  Service  thus :  "Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord  God  Almighty  !  Heaven 
 and  earth  are  full  of  Thy  glory !  We  praise  and  honor  Thee,  we 
 worship  Thee,  we  thank  Thee  for  Thy  wonders.  O  Lord,  the 
 only  begotten  Son  of  the  Most  High,  Jesus  Christ!  O  Holy 
 Ghost,  Spirit  of  peace,  truth  and  grace! 
 
 All  Thy  works,  O  eternal  God,  praise  Thee ;  eternal  as  Thou 
 art,  is  Thy  power,  unchangeable  is  Thy  goodness.  Behold,  eter- 
 nal Father,  with  mercy.  Thy  people,  assembled  in  Thy  sanctuary 
 to  worship  Thee,  to  thank  Thee  for  Thy  goodness,  and  to  implore 
 Thv  grace  for  their  spiritual  and  bodily  welfare.  Enlighten  our 
 understanding  to  know  Thee,  and  teach  our  hearts  to  make  unto 
 Thee  holy  oliferings  of  a  true  obedience.  Bowed  down  under  the 
 burden  of  our  sins,  we  humble  ouselves  in  the  dust  before  Thee 
 and  pray  for  grace  and  deliverance  of  Thee,  O  God,  our  Saviour ! 
 Merciful  and  good  art  Thou ;  great  in  mercy  and  compassion. 
 Hear  graciously  the  united  supplications  which  now  ascend  to 
 Thy  throne." 
 
 Thereupon  follows  the  Confession  of  Sin,  Kyrie  and  Gloria 
 in  Bxcclsis,  as  from  1531.  In  the  Salutations,  the  Response  of 
 the  congregation  has  been  changed  to  "The  Lord  be  with  thee 
 also."  The  same  Response  is  given  in  the  Service  of  1894  and 
 in  the  Augustana  Synod's  Swedish  Church  Book,  but  its  English 
 Church  Book  has:  "And  with  thy  spirit."  The  Graduale  (a 
 Swedish  Hymn)  is  taken  away  after  the  Epistle,  and  the  Gospel 
 is  to  be  read  in  the  pulpit.  In  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  third  arti- 
 cle has  the  change  of  "The  Resurrection  of  the  body"  to  "The 
 Resurrection  of  the  dead."  The  Service  of  1894  has  the  same 
 phrase ;  but  both  the  Augustana  Church  Books  have  the  old  sent- 
 ence: "The  Resurrection  of  the  body."  In  the  Augustana  Synod 
 the  congregation  reads  aloud  the  Creed  and  in  like  manner,  after 
 the  Sermon  is  ended,  and  at  its  proper  place,  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 This  is  not  done  in  Sweden. 
 
 Among  other  alterations  in  1811  we  observe  that  the  old  ex- 
 hortation of  O.  Petri  to  the  communicants  has  gained  a  more 
 rhetorical  style,  and  that  the  same  has  been  entirely  omitted  by 
 the  Swedish  Service  of  1894  and  both  the  Augustana  Church 
 Books.  The  Church  Book  of  181 1  had  omitted  the  V^erc  digntini, 
 but  this,  in  its  old  form  as  given  by  O.  Petri,  was  restored  again 
 in  these  three  Church  Books.  The  Agnus  Dei  in  the  Swedish 
 Services  of  1811  and  1894  and  in  the  Swedish  Augustana  Church 
 
2!^  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Book  reads  thus :  "O  Lamb  of  God,  that  takest  away  the  sins  of 
 the  world,  save  us  merciful  Lord  God!  O  Lamb  of  God.  that 
 takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world,  hear  us  merciful  Lord  God !  O 
 Lamb  of  God,  that  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world,  give  us  Thy 
 peace  and  blessing!"  Instead  of  this  the  English  Augustana 
 Church  Book  has  the  old  form  of  x\gnus  Dei  found  in  Missale 
 Romanxim,  the  Swedish  Services  of  1531  and  1614,  and  in  the 
 Connnon  Service.  When  distributing  the  consecrated  elements 
 the  minister  says  to  each  communicant,  according  to  the  Service 
 of  181 1  :  "Jssus  Christ,  Whose  Body  thou  reccivest.  preserve  thee 
 unto  everlasting  life.  Amen  !"  And  again :  "Jesus  Christ,  Whose 
 P)lood  thou  receivest,  preserve  thee  unto  everlasting  life.  Amen." 
 In  the  Service  of  1894,  and  the  Swedish  Augustana  Church 
 P>ook,  there  is  a  shorter  form  given  as  alternative :  "The  Body  of 
 
 Christ,   given    for   thee!" "The    Blood   of   Christ,   given    for 
 
 thee!"  And  when  this  form  is  used,  the  minister  says  when  dis- 
 missing the  communicants :  "The  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Whose  Body 
 and  Blood  you  have  received,  preserve  you  unto  everlasting  life! 
 Amen."  The  English  Augu'^tana  Church  Book  says :  When  the 
 minister  giveth  the  Bread;  he  shall  say:  "Take  and  eat;  this  is 
 the  body  of  Christ,  given  for  thee."  When  he  giveth  the  Cup,  he 
 shall  say :  "Take  and  drink ;  this  is  the  Blood  of  Christ,  shed  for 
 thee."  In  dismissing  the  Communicants,  the  Minister  shall  say: 
 "The  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Whose  true  Body  and  Blood  you  have 
 now  received,  strengthen  and  preserve  you  unto  everlasting  life. 
 Amen." 
 
 In  i860  a  change  was  made  in  the  Service  of  181 1.  After 
 the  Epistle  follows  now  as  Graduale  a  Swedish  Hymn  and  the 
 old  Gospel  text,  which  is  to  be  preached  upon  only  every  third 
 year.  And  two  new  series  of  texts  for  Morning  and  Evening 
 vServices  arc  to  be  read  in  the  pulpit  and  preacheil  upon  in  each 
 of  the  two  succeeding  years.  The  same  order  is  still  kej^t  in  the 
 Church  of  Sweden  and  in  the  Augustana  Synod.  In  the  year 
 1874  the  third  article  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  was  again  altered. 
 The  sentence :  "The  holy  Christian  Church"  has  since  been  given 
 us:  "Thy  holy  universal  Church."  And  still  again  in  1804  another 
 change  was  made  in  the  second  article.  The  words :  "He  de- 
 scended into  hell"  are  changed  to:  "He  descended  into  Hades." 
 The  Swedish  Augustana  Church  Book  has  the  same  changes,  but 
 the  English  translation  uses  the  old  common  form  in  English. 
 
 There  remains  now  to  notice  only  the  beginning  and  the  close 
 of  the  ritual  of  the  Swedish  Service  of  1804  •'^"•^^  of  the  .\ugustana 
 Synod's  Morning  Service,  In  all  three  Church  Books  the  Minis- 
 ter turns  to  the  Congregation  and  proceeds  thus:  "Holy,  holy, 
 holy,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts;  the  whole  earth  is  full  of  His  glory. 
 
THE  SWEDISH  IvlTURGlES.  27 
 
 The  Lord  is  in  His  holy  temple ;  His  throne  is  in  heaven.  The 
 Lord  is  nigh  unto  them  that  are  of  a  humble  and  broken  spirit. 
 He  heareth  the  supplications  of  those  who  truly  repent  and  in- 
 clineth  to  their  prayers.  Let  us  therefore  come  boldly  unto  the 
 throne  of  grace  and  confess  our  sins." 
 
 The  Morning  as  well  as  the  Evening  Services  in  the  Church 
 Book  of  Sv/eden  close,  as  from  1614,  with  the  Aaronic  Benedic- 
 tion and  a  Swedish  Hymn.  According  to  the  Church  Books  of 
 the  Augustana  Synod,  the  same  Services  close  with  that  Benedic- 
 tion and  silent  prayer. 
 
 Literature  on  the  History  of  the  Swedish  Liturgies. 
 
 Baelter.  S.  Historiska  Anmaerkningar  om  Kyrko  Ceremoni- 
 erna.  (Historical  Remarks  on  Church  Ceremonies.)  Oerebro, 
 1830. 
 
 This  book  is  however  antiquated  and  superseded  by  the  fol- 
 lowing works. 
 
 Kleberg.  O.  Den  Svenska  hoegmessan  fran  Reformationen 
 till  narvarande  tid.  L  (The  Swedish  Morning  Service  from  the 
 Reformation  to  the  Present  Time.)     Lund.  1882. 
 
 Klemming.  G.  B.  Sveriges  aeldre  liturgiska  literatur.  (The 
 Oldest  Liturgical  Literature  of  Sweden.)     Stockholm,  1879. 
 
 Quensel.  0.  Svenska  Liturgiens  historia.  (History  of  the 
 Swedish  Liturgy.)     Upsala,  1890. 
 
 Ullmaii.  U.  L.  Evangelisk  Luthersk  Liturgik.  (Ev.  Luth. 
 Liturgies.)     Lund.  1885. 
 
 Articles  of  Bishop  Ullman  and  Prof.  Quensel  in  The  Church 
 Review.    Upsala,  1896-99. 
 
 N.    FORSANDER. 
 
 Rock  Island,  III. 
 
ALTAR    LINEN. 
 
 The  mind  that  accords  to  the  Holy  Sacrament  the  supreme  dignity 
 and  importance  which  the  Word  of  God  and  the  Church  have  ever 
 given  it,  cannot  regard  any  detail  pertaining  to  its  administration  as 
 unimportant.  Here,  on  this  summit  peak  of  our  earthly  worship,  we 
 come  to  receive  a  Divine  gift.  But,  as  in  other  spheres,  we  "have  this 
 treasure  in  earthen  vessels."  Earthly  elements  become  the  media  for 
 the  heavenly  impartation,  and  these  must  be  kept  in  material  vessels 
 and  spent  by  human  hands.  And  while  realizing  that  the  word  and 
 will  of  its  Founder  alone  give  the  Sacrament  its  virtue,  and  well  know- 
 ing that  they  can  add  nothing  to  it,  yet  believing  hearts  delight  to 
 employ  reverent  hands  in  fashioning  and  disposing  everything  needful 
 for  its  administration,  and  give  loving  thought  to  each  detail.  Hence 
 it  is  not  strange  that  the  Linens  which  are  required  for  the  Table  of 
 the  Lord  should  receive  very  particular  attention  from  those  who  rightly 
 value  its  Sacrament.  Woman,  ever  anxious  to  engage  in  thoughtful 
 service  for  her  Saviour  or  His  Church,  has  found  here  a  most  congenial 
 field  for  her  labor.  While  the  hands  of  man  wrought  the  story  of  his 
 faith  in  sculptured  arch  and  pillar,  massive  tower  or  tinted  glass, 
 woman's  deft  fingers  have  plied  swift  needles  through  fine  linens  and 
 bright  silks  and  in  "needle  paintings"  for  the  Altar  have  told  their  be- 
 lief in  language  no  less  sublime.  The  Empress  Helena,  Etheldreda, 
 queen  of  the  Anglo  Saxons,  and  many  others,  even  to  our  own  day, 
 have  thus  employed  royal  hands.  Nuns  and  princesses  and  devout 
 women  in  every  age  and  every  station  have  thus  concerned  themselves 
 with  this  part  of  "the  King's  business." 
 
 It  IS  true  that  at  times  the  Church  has  forgotten  her  privileges  and 
 neglected  her  treasures.  Rationalism,  scepticism,  and  materialistic  in- 
 difference, no  less  than  sectarian  iconoclasm,  were  the  open  and  subtle 
 foes  that  exhausted  her  vitality  and  dimmed  her  vision.  With  the 
 denial  of  the  simple   Word,  came   the  depreciation  of  the   Sacrament 
 
 (xxix) 
 
30  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  the  mutilation  or  total  loss  of  the  Liturgy  in  which  both  were  en- 
 shrined. Every  detail  of  the  Divine  Service  felt  the  poisonous  breath 
 of  doctrinal  error.  Hence  minds  that  thought  much  of  the  relation 
 of  man  to  his  brother,  thought  little  of  man's  relation  to  his  God,  as 
 expressed  in  his  worship  of  Kim  ;  and  women,  scrupulous  in  their  con- 
 cern for  correct  details  of  the  napery  of  their  own  well-appointed  dining 
 rooms,  failed  to  think  of  the  Linens  requisite  for  the  Table  of  the  Lord. 
 But  we  rejoice  to  know  that  our  generation  has  returned  to  the  "Rock 
 from  which  we  are  hewn ;"  the  old  paths  have  been  sought,  the  old 
 faith  found,  and  the  old  practices  revived.  Not  only  do  our  church 
 buildings,  with  their  towers  and  v.indows,  again  proclaim  the  distinctive 
 faith  of  Christianity,  but  the  very  walls  and  chancel  furniture  are  vocal 
 with  sacramental  suggestion  in  color  and  ornament  of  vestment.  Altar 
 Societies  in  many  congregations  emulate  the  pious  zeal  displayed  by  the 
 Deaconesses  of  Kaiserswerth,  and  Church  Needlework  has  again  laid 
 many  a  noble  offering  of  time  and  toil  upon  our  altars. 
 
 Let  us  understand  clearly  that  this  renewed  interest  in  the  appoint- 
 ments of  the  Lord's  House  is  not  to  be  viewed  simply  in  the  light  of 
 an  sesthetic  or  artistic  revival.  The  Art  that  has  been  awakened  has 
 but  responded  again  to  the  call  of  the  Faith  and  devotion  that  once 
 inspired  her  greatest  efforts.  This  Faith  labored  for  centuries  upon  the 
 structure  which  Christian  Art,  in  its  several  departments,  reared.  Gen- 
 eration after  generation  of  believing  artists  laid  down  chisel  and  brush 
 and  needle  or  pen  when  the  sun  of  their  day  set,  and  passed  on  their 
 work  to  their  children  in  the  faith.  And  so  we  have  a  distinctively 
 Christian  and  a  distinctively  "churchly"  type  of  Art,  whether  it  be  in 
 Architecture,  Painting,  Music  or  Embroidery,  that  is  not  the  product  of 
 any  one  man  or  any  single  age,  but  in  its  conventional  and  symbolical 
 forms  has  gathered  and  treasured  the  sacrificial  offerings  of  the  Com- 
 munion of  Saints  in  every  age  of  its  earthly  experience.  In  her  Art  no 
 less  than  her  Faith,  can  the  Church  of  one  generation  cut  herself  loose 
 from  the  achievements  of  her  past.  In  our  consideration  of  the  sub- 
 ject of  ALTAR  LINEN,  therefore,  it  will  be  necessary  for  us  to  leiun 
 the  principles  of  utility  and  art  which  determined  the  development  of 
 the  past,  and  endeavor  to  build  our  future  efforts  upon  these  established 
 and  significant  forms. 
 
 The  Altar  Vestments,  with  their  succession  of  color  and  ornament, 
 illustrate  and  emphasize  the  particular  thought  of  the  various  parts  of 
 the  Church  Year.  The  Altar  Linens  are  essentially  unchangeable,  and 
 ever  voice  the  single  thought  of  the  Lord's  Supper.     It  is  certainly  not 
 
ALTAR    LINEN.  31 
 
 necessary  to  say  that  the  Season  Vestments  are  never  rernoved  v:^en 
 the  Linens  are  placed  on  the  Altar  for  an  administration  of  the  Sacra- 
 ment, but  are  simply  covered  by  the  Linens.  In  this  manner  the 
 thought  suggested  by  the  Church  Year  and  the  idea  of  the  Sacrament 
 are  always  linked  together  and  presented  to  the  worshipper  by  a  prop- 
 erly draped  Altar.  For  not  only  at  the  time  of  an  Administration,  but 
 at  all  times,  the  Altar  should  have  upon  it  the  white  Altar  Cloth,  which 
 ever  marks  it  as  the  "Table  of  the  Lord."  For  while  the  place  of 
 Prayer  and  Benediction,  and  suggestive  of  our  offerings  to  God,  the 
 Altar's  highest  significance  is  in  representing  the  sacramental  gift  which 
 our  Lord  offers  His  Church  in  His  Supper. 
 
 THE    ALTAR    CLOTH. 
 
 The  Altar  Cloth  is  not  placed  immediately  upon  the  Season  Vest- 
 ments, but  the  latter  are  first  covered  with  a  heavier  cloth,  frequently 
 of  unbleached  linen,  and  cut  exactly  the  size  of  the  top  of  the  Altar. 
 Upon  this  is  spread  the  Altar  Cloth  proper,  of  fine,  white  linen,  never 
 damask.  The  best  usage  requires  this  to  be  simply  the  width  of  the 
 Altar,  but  about  a  yard  longer,  so  that  it  may  hang  down  eighteen 
 inches  at  each  end.  It  is  also  correct  to  have  it  hang  but  a  hand- 
 breadth  at  the  ends,  while  good  German  and  High  Anglican  usage 
 even  allows  it  to  fall  as  far  as  the  floor  at  either  end.  These  ends  may 
 be  trimmed  with  a  knotted  Hnen  fringe.  Lace  is  not  regarded  as  so 
 pure  or  churchly  an  ornament,  though  quite  generally  employed  on 
 Roman  Altars.  The  Cloth  may  be  hemstitched  or  double  hemstitched 
 all  around,  and  if  any  ornament  is  desired,  a  simple  cross  may  be  em- 
 broidered in  each  corner,  or  five  crosses,  symbolical  of  the  five  wounds 
 in  the  Body  of  our  Saviour,  may  be  worked  upon  it  in  such  manner 
 that  one  comes  in  the  very  centre  and  the  others  at  each  corner  of  the 
 A/far  when  the  Cloth  is  spread  upon  it. 
 
 As  we  have  already  said,  it  is  proper  ro  have  this  Altar  Cloth  upon 
 the  Altar  at  all  times.  We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  Linens 
 peculiar  to  the  Administration  of  the  Sacrament — the  Corporal,  Pall, 
 Purificators  and  Veil. 
 
 THE    CORPORAL. 
 
 The  Corporal  is  a  square  cloth  of  very  fine,  smooth  hnen,  and  is 
 placed  on  the  center  of  the  Altar  Cloth.  The  Sacred  Vessels  are  dis- 
 posed upon  it.  It  should  come  almost  to  the  front  of  the  Altar,  and 
 its  size  will  vary  according  to  the   depth   of   the   latter.     It  is   usually 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 made  twenty  or  twenty-one  inches  square,  with  a  very  narrow  hem  or 
 else  hemstitching.  When  laundered  it  is  folded  in  three  folds  length- 
 wise and  three  crosswise,  thus  making  a  perfect  sr4uare  consisting  of 
 nine  equal  squares.  In  this  form  it  is  carried  to  the  Altar  in  the  Burse, 
 if  one  be  used,  and  there  unfolded,  not  shaken  out.  The  Corporal  has 
 from  very  early  times  been  regarded  as  representing  the  linen  in  which 
 our  Lord's  Body  was  wrapped  before  burial,  and  Durandus,  the  great 
 mediaeval  symbolist,  finds  a  reason  for  the  unfolding  of  it  upon  the  .Al- 
 tar in  the  fact  that  the  winding  sheet  of  our  Lord  was  found  unrolled 
 in  the  tomb.  The  only  ornamentation  permitted  on  the  Corporal  is  a 
 small  cross,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  fore-part  near  the  hem,  thus 
 indicating  the  side  which  is  to  be  turned  towards  the  Minister. 
 
 THE    PALL. 
 
 The  Pall  is  a  square  of  heavy  cardboard,  covered  tightly  with  a 
 piece  of  linen  sewed  like  a  bag  over  it.  This  is  used  to  cover  the  top 
 of  the  Chalice  at  all  times  except  in  the  act  of  Consecration  or  Admin- 
 istration. Its  usual  size  is  six  inches  square,  though  it  may  be  slightly 
 larger.  Apart  from  any  symbolical  significance,  the  practical  demands 
 of  absolute  purity  make  it  indispensable.  Perhaps  one  who  serves  at 
 the  Altar  alone  realizes  how  frequently,  especially  in  warm  weather, 
 foreign  substances  are  apt  to  find  their  way  into  the  Chalice.  Upon 
 the  upper  side  of  the  I^all  is  embroidered  or  chain-stitched  the  cross 
 or  monogram  I  N  R  I  surrounded  by  a  crown  of  thorns,  or  the  latter 
 alone.  Upon  the  under  side  is  tacked,  by  a  stitch  at  each  corner, 
 another  square  of  plain  linen  with  narrow  hem.  This  lining  may  be 
 readily  removed  for  laundering,  while  it  will  then  not  be  necessary  to 
 take  the  Pall  itself  to  pieces  for  washing  so  frequently. 
 
 THE    PURIFICATORS. 
 
 The  Purificators,  of  which  there  should  be  several,  are  squares  or 
 napkins  of  moderately  heavy  linen,  more  usually  of  diaper  weave  than 
 plain,  and  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  square  in  size.  They  are  made 
 with  a  plain,  narrow  hem,  and  may  have  a  simple  cross  in  one  corner. 
 They  are  brought  to  the  Altar  folded  in  three  folds  like  the  Corporal, 
 and  are  used  by  the  Minister  to  cleanse  the  rim  of  the  Chalice  during 
 the  Administration.  This  is  done  either  after  each  individual  reception, 
 or  after  each  table  has  partaken,  and  before  a  fresh  supply  of  wine  is 
 poured  into  the  Chalice.     This  practice  is  rightly  regarded  as  an  abso- 
 
ALTAR    LINEN.  33 
 
 lute  requirement  in  the  interest  of  cleanliness,  and  its  careful  observance 
 will  do  much  to  diminish  the  feeling  of  aversion  which  some  entertain 
 toward  the  common  cup.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  for  this  pur- 
 pose the  Greeks  employ  a  sponge,  in  memory  of  the  one  filled  with 
 gall  and  given  to  our  Lord  upon  the  Cross. 
 
 THE    VEIL. 
 
 The  Veil  is  not  regarded  by  strict  liturgiologists  as  belonging  to 
 the  number  of  Sacred  Linens,  though  in  general  use.  In  the  Roman 
 Church,  Chalice  and  Paten,  when  borne  to  the  Altar,  are  covered  by 
 the  Chalice  Veil,  originally  made  of  linen  but  now  of  silk  in  the  color 
 of  the  Mass  Vestments.  This  Veil  is  removed  at  the  Offertorium  and 
 replaced  at  the  Ablutio,  and  its  removal,  according  to  their  symbolists, 
 recalls  the  "stupidity  and  ignorance  veiUng  the  great  mystery  of  the 
 Eucharist  from  the  eyes  of  the  Apostles."  The  Anglican  Church 
 employs  a  Chalice  Veil  of  about  twelve  inches  square  of  finest  linen 
 cambric,  and  also  uses  a  larger  Veil  of  silk  or  satin,  lined  with  linen, 
 made  in  the  color  of  the  Season,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  cover  all  the 
 Sacred  Vessels.  Inasmuch  as  they  never  employ  a  Flagon  on  the 
 Altar,  but  keep  the  wine  in  Cruets  on  the  Credence  Table,  this  Veil 
 rarely  exceeds  twenty-two  or  twenty-four  inches  in  size.  In  the  Church 
 in  Germany  many  congregations  do  not  use  the  Veil  at  all ;  others  em- 
 ploy it,  and  fashion  it  out  of  finest  linen,  or  ,  silk  lined  with  linen,  of 
 sufficient  size  to  cover  all  the  vessels,  and  never  of  any  other  color  than 
 white,  while  using  the  richest  embroidery  in  gold,  silver  and  silk.  The 
 Veil  has  been  universally  adopted  by  us,  and  the  best  usage  would 
 seem  to  require  the  finest  of  white  linen  or  mull,  made  sufficiently 
 large  to  cover  all  the  communion  vessels.  This  will  determine  the  size 
 as  at  least  a  yard  wide.  It  may  be  hemstitched  and  richly  embroid- 
 ered with  white  linen  or  marking  thread,  always  remembering  that  the 
 designs  chosen  must  bear  the  closest  reference  to  the  sacrificial  death 
 of  Christ  and  the  sacramental  significance  of  the  Supper  itself.  When 
 removed  from  the  vessels  it  should  be  carefully  folded,  and  placed 
 on  the  Altar  until  required  for  recovering. 
 
 THE   BURSE. 
 
 The  Burse  was  not  known  to  the  Early  Church,  and  is  not  now 
 used  by  the  Church  in  Germany,  though  generally  employed  by  the 
 Roman  and  AngUcan  Churches.     It  is  a  cover  or  case  in  which  the 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Corporal  and  small  Chalice  Veil  are  enclosed  and  carried  to  and  from 
 the  Altar.  Two  pieces  of  cardboard,  nine  inches  square,  lined  with 
 linen  and  covered  with  silk  the  color  of  the  Season,  are  sewed  together 
 at  the  bottom,  A  gore  or  pleat  of  linen,  made  to  fold  in  like  a  pocket, 
 is  set  in  at  each  side,  leaving  the  top  open.  The  upper  side  may  be 
 embroidered.  The  Burse  seems  to  be  used  but  rarely  by  our  congre- 
 gations, and  is  always,  we  believe,  covered  entirely  with  white  linen, 
 and  never  made  with  colored  silk. 
 
 To  briefly  recapitulate — 
 
 A  heavy  cloth  of  unbleached  linen,  and  the  Altar  Cloth  are  spread 
 over  the  Season  Vestments  at  all  times. 
 
 The  Altar  Cloth,  of  fine  white  linen,  comes  just  to  the  front  of  the 
 Altar,  but  may  overhang  at  the  ends  five,  eighteen  or  thirty  inches. 
 
 Upon  these,  at  Communion  seasons,  is  placed  the  Corporal,  2 1 
 by  2 1  inches ;  the  Pall,  6  by  6  inches,  is  provided  to  cover  the  Chal- 
 ice ;  Purificators  are  prepared  for  cleansing ;  and  over  all  the  Vessels 
 the  Veil,  of  fine  white  linen  or  mull,  is  spread. 
 
 Linen,  or  damask,  is  to  be  used. 
 
 No  color  but  pure  white  is  permitted.  In  Germany  the  embroid- 
 ery is  usually  in  red,  but  best  usage  here  seems  to  demand  even  the 
 embroidery  in  white. 
 
 The  finest  white  cotton  floss  is  employed  for  the  embroidery,  as 
 silk  will  yellow  in  the  washing. 
 
 Lace  is  not  used  for  trimming — knotted  fringe  is  permitted  on  the 
 ends  of  the  Altar  Cloth. 
 
 All  designs  for  embroidery  must  be  symbolically  pure  and  refer 
 directly  to  the  Sacrament. 
 
 The  highest  ornament  of  the  Linens  is  their  absolute  immaculate- 
 ness.     No  starch  or  blueing,  however,  is  used  in  laundering. 
 
 Luther    D.  Reed, 
 
 Allegheny,  Pa. 
 
 I 
 
THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MINOR  SERVICES. 
 
 The  custom  of  observing  appointed  hours  for  devotion  was  trans- 
 planted from  the  Old  into  the  New  Testament  Church.  The 
 t/iird,  sixth  and  ninth  hours  were  distinguished  as  hours  of 
 prayer,  and  Talmudists  ascribe  the  appointment  of  morning  de- 
 votion to  Abraham,  noon  to  Isaac,  and  evening  to  Jacob.  Daniel 
 ( vi.  lo)  "kneeled  upon  his  knees  three  times  a  day,  and  gave 
 tlianks  before  his  God."  That  the  apostles  remained  faithful  to 
 this  Jewish  custom  is  clearly  shown  in  the  N.  T.  In  Acts  ii.  15 
 we  read  that  at  "the  third  hour  of  the  day"  the  apostles  were  as- 
 sembled presumably  for  prayer,  and  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  took  place.  Again  in  Acts  x.  9  we  find  that  "Peter  went 
 upon  the  house-top  to  pray  about  the  sixth  hour ;"  and  again  in 
 Acts  iii.  I  we  read  that  "Peter  and  John  went  up  together  into 
 the  temple,  at  the  hour  of  prayer,  being  the  ninth  hour." 
 
 Just  at  what  exact  period  of  time  other  "hours  of  prayer" 
 began  to  be  added  cannot  be  definitely  ascertained,  though  we  ap- 
 proximate very  closely  in  saying  that  it  was  about  the  middle  of 
 the  third  century.  Evidently  Clement  of  Alexandria  (tabout 
 217)  and  Tertullian  (^sonie  time  after  220)  knew  only  of  the 
 three  appointed  hours,  for  the  former  in  Stromata  (Book  7.  ch. 
 7),  says,  "If  some  assign  definite  hours  for  prayer — as  for  exam- 
 ple the  third,  sixth  and  ninth — yet  the  Gnostic  prays  throughout 
 his  whole  life,  endeavoring  by  prayer  to  have  fellowship  with 
 God;"*  and  the  latter  in  his  work  "On  Fasting"  (ch.  10)  argues 
 thus, — "Since  the  third  hour  is  demonstrated  as  an  hour  of  prayer, 
 about  which  hour  it  was  that  they  who  had  received  the  initia- 
 
 *Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Vol.  II.  p.  534.  (xxxv) 
 
36  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tory  gift  of  the  Jloly  Spirit  were  held  for  drunkards;  and  the 
 sixth,  at  which  Peter  went  up  on  the  roof ;  and  the  ninth,  at  which 
 thev  entered  the  temple ;  why  should  we  not  understand  that,  with 
 absolutely  perfect  indifference,  we  must  pray  always,  and  every- 
 where, and  at  every  time,  yet  still  that  these  three  hours,  as  being 
 more  marked  in  things  human — (hours)  which  divide  the  day, 
 which  distinguish  businesses,  which  re-echo  in  the  public  ear — 
 have  likewise  ever  been  of  special  solemnity  in  divine  prayers."''' 
 But  Cyprian  (t258)  either  as  originator  or  approver,  adds  three 
 other  hours  as  "hours  of  prayer."  In  his  treatise  "On  the  Lord's 
 Prayer"  (Sees.  34,  35,  3O)  he  desires  that  the  Christian  observe 
 not  only  the  already  established  Old  and  New  Testament  hours, 
 but  also  that  he  pray  in  the  morning,  evening  and  at  midnight. 
 In  the  third,  sixth  and  ninth  hours  he  sees  the  mystery  of  the 
 Holy  Trinity  indicated.  The  morning  hour  should  be  observed 
 so  that  "the  Lord's  resurrection  may  be  celebrated ;"  the  evening 
 hour,  "for  since  Christ  is  the  true  Sun  and  the  true  day,  as  the 
 worldly  sun  and  the  worldly  day  depart,  when  we  pray  and  ask 
 that  light  may  return  to  us  again,  we  pray  for  the  advent  of 
 Christ;"  the  night  hour,  "since  in  the  kingdom  we  shall  posses 
 day  alone,  without  the  intervention  of  night,  let  us  so  watch  in  the 
 night  as  if  in  the  daylight. "'^ 
 
 Still  more  decidedly  speak  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Bk. 
 \  III.  34)  which  apparently  appeared  toward  the  end  of  the  third 
 century, — "Offer  up  your  prayers  in  the  morning,  at  the  third 
 hour,  the  sixth,  the  ninth,  the  evening,  and  at  cock-crowing ;  in 
 the  morning,  returning  thanks  that  the  Lord  has  sent  you  light, 
 that  He  has  brought  you  past  the  night,  and  brought  on  the  day ; 
 at  the  third  hour,  because  at  that  hour  the  Lord  received  the  sent- 
 ence of  condemnation  from  Pilate ;  at  the  sixth,  because  at  that 
 hour  He  was  crucified;  at  the  ninth,  because  all  things  were  in 
 commotion  at  the  cruciiixion  of  the  Lord,  as  trembling  at  the  bold 
 attempt  of  tlie  impious  Jews,  and  not  bearing  the  injury  offered 
 to  their  Lord ;  in  the  evening,  giving  thanks  that  He  has  given 
 you  the  night  to  rest  from  the  daily  labours ;  at  cock-crowing,  be- 
 cause that  hour  brings  the  good  news  of  the  coming  on  of  the 
 day  for  the  operations  jiroper  for  the  light."  || 
 
 Thus  far,  then,  we  have  presented  to  our  notice  six  special 
 hours  at  which  devotions  were  offered  to  (lOd.  That  all  these 
 lunirs  were  not  to  l)e  observed  in  the  Church  is  vorv  exideiit  from 
 
 *Ante-Xicenc  Fathers,  \ol.  IV.  p.  to8. 
 t  Ibid.  \o\.  y.  p.  457. 
 II  Ibid,  Vol.  VII.  p.  496. 
 
THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  37 
 
 the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  where  (Bk.  II.  36)  we  read, — "More- 
 over, do  not  leave  the  Church  of  Christ;  but  go  thither  in  the 
 morning  before  all  thy  work,  and  again  meet  there  in  the  evening 
 to  return  thanks  to  God  that  He  has  preserved  thy  life;"*  and 
 again  (Bk.  VII.  59),  "When  thou  instructest  the  people,  O  bishop, 
 command  and  exhort  them  to  come  constantly  to  Church,  morning 
 and  evening  every  day,  and  by  no  means  to  forsake  it  on  any  ac- 
 count  but  assemble  yourselves  together  every  day,  morn- 
 ing and  evening,  singing  Psalms  and  praying  in  the  Lord's  house ; 
 in  the  morning  saying  the  sixty-second  Psalm  (A.  V.  L,XIII) 
 and  in  the  evening  the  hundred  and  fortieth  (A.  V.  CXLI),  bat 
 principally  on  the  Sabbath  day."t 
 
 To  be  noted  here  is  the  fact  that,  while  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
 tutions retain  with  Cyprian  six  stated  hours,  the  midnight  hour 
 has  been  transferred  to  that  of  dawn. 
 
 Later,  however,  to  fulfil  with  literal  exactness  the  words  of 
 Ps.  cxix.  164,  "Seven  times  a  day  do  I  praise  Thee,"  a  seventh 
 hour  was  added  and  the  midnight  hour,  reference  being  made  to 
 Ps.  cxix.  62  and  Acts  xvi.  25,  was  again  restored. 
 
 When  the  cloisters  arose,  the  observance  of  the  Canonical 
 liours  or  Horae  with  special  devotions  was  one  of  their  dail}' 
 features  and  Benedict  of  Nursia  (t543)  added  an  eighth.  He 
 appointed  seven  day  hours  and  one  night.  Beginning  with  the 
 latter  they  were  Vigils  (2  o'clock  at  night),  Matins  (dawn). 
 Prime  (6  o'clock),  Terce  (9  o'clock),  Sext  (12  o'clock).  Nones 
 (3  o'clock).  Vespers  (6  o'clock),  and  Compline  (9  o'clock).  For 
 each  of  these  hours  he  prescribed  a  special  order  of  Psalms,  Lec- 
 tions, Hymns  and  Prayers.  These  hours  were  especially  observed 
 in  cloisters  and  educational  institutions.  With  but  a  slightly  dif- 
 ferent arrangement  the  Roman  Church,  both  before  and  since  the 
 Reformation,  observed  and  observes  these  Plorae, — the  customary 
 ones  being  Matins,  Lauds,  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  Nones,  Vespers 
 and  Compline. 
 
 The  question  naturally  occurs, — What  efifect  had  the  Refor- 
 mation upon  these  different  Plours?  Both  in  the  "Ordnung  Got- 
 tesdienst"  and  "Formula  Missae"  Luther  bore  testimony  to  the 
 significance  and  appropriateness  of  the  Horae  and  declared  him- 
 self in  favor  of  their  retention ;  but  he  recognized  the  fact  that 
 great  changes  had  to  be  made  in  order  to  make  them  serviceable 
 to  our  Church.  There  was  much  in  the  Responsories,  Antiphons 
 and  Collects  that  savored  of  saint-worship,  Mariolatry  and  other 
 
 *  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Vol.  VII.  p.  413. 
 t  Ibid,  Vol.  VII.  pp.  422-423. 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 papistical  errors.  All  this  liad  to  be  expunged.  But  revision 
 could  not  stop  there.  Eight  daily  Horae  were  decidedly  too  many 
 to  be  of  anv  service  to  the  congregation.  He  consequently  drop- 
 ped Prime.  Terce.  Sext  and  Xoncs  and  combined  Lauds  with 
 Matins  and  Compline  with  \'espers.  Thus  resulted  only  two  daily 
 liorae,  Matins  and  X'espcrs. 
 
 To  trace  the  origin  and  give  a  partial  history  of  the  various 
 ixirts  of  these  Services  is  our  purpose. 
 
 I. 
 THE  SCRIPTURAL  SOURCES. 
 
 The  Vcrsicles  are  found  in  Psalms  li.  15;  Ixx.  i. 
 
 The  Gloria  Patri  has  its  origin  in  Rom.  xvi.  27;  Eph.  iii.  21  ; 
 Phil.  iv.  20;  Rev.  i.  6. 
 
 The  general  Invitatory  is  taken  from  Ps.  xcv.  6. 
 
 The  Venite  consists  in  the  use  of  Ps.  xcv.  1-7. 
 
 The  festival  hwitatorics,  Antiphons,  Rcsponsorics  and  ]'cr- 
 sicles  are  found  as  follows, — 
 
 Advent.  Invitatory, — Zech.  ix.  9;  Matt.  xxi.  5.  Antiphons, 
 — I,  Is.  XXX.  27,  Ps.  Ixxii.  19.  2.  Ps;  xl.  17,  Ixx.  5,  Is.  Hi.  2. 
 3.  Zech.  ix.  9.  4.  Zech.  xiv.  5.  Responsory,^Jer.  xxiii.  5-6. 
 V'ersicles, — i.     Ps.  1.  2-3.     2.    Luke  iii.  4.     3.    Is.  xlv.  8. 
 
 Christinas.  Invitatory, — Luke  ii.  11.  Antiphons. — i.  Ps.  ii. 
 7.  2.  Ps.  cxi.  9.  3.  Ps.  cxxxii.  ii.  Responsory, — John  i.  14,  i. 
 V'ersicles, —  i.  Ex.  xvi.  6-7.  2.  Ps.  xix.  5.  3.  John  i.  14.  4.  Ps. 
 cxviii.  26-27.    5-   Is.  ix.  6.    6.   Luke  ii.  11. 
 
 Epiphany.    Invitatory, .    Antiphons, —  i.    Ps.  xxix.     1-2. 
 
 2.  Ps.  xcviii.  2.  3.  Luke  ii.  32.  4.  Matt.  ii.  2.  Responsory, — 
 Is.  Ix.  I,  3.  Versicles, — i.  Ps.  Ixxii.  10.  2.  Is.  Ix.  6.  3.  Ps. 
 cxvii.  I. 
 
 Passion-Season.  Antiphons, —  1.  Matt.  iv.  4.  2.  II.  Cor. 
 vi.  2.  3.  Ps.  ii.  2.  4.  Is  liii.  7.  Responsory, — Is.  liii.  7,  Ps.  Ixxvi. 
 2.     \crsiclcs, —  I.    Ps.  xxii.  21.     2.    Phil.  ii.  8.     3.    Is.  liii.  5. 
 
 Easter.  Invitatory, — Luke  xxiv.  34.  Antiphons. —  i.  Ps. 
 cxiii-cxvii.     2.    Ps.  iii.  5.     3.    Matt,  xxviii.  6.     4.    Luke  xxiv.  29. 
 
 Responsory. — Rom.  vi.  9,  10;  iv.  25.    Versicles, — i. .    2.  John 
 
 XX.  20.     3.    Ps.  cxviii.  24.     4.    Luke  xxiv.  34. 
 
 Ascension.     Invitatory. .     .\ntiphons, — i.    John  xvi.  7. 
 
 2.  Vs.  Iwiii.  iS;  Eph.  iv.  8.  3.  John  xx.  17.  Responsory. — 
 Mark  xvi.  15.  16;  Alatt.  xxviii.  19.  Versicles. —  i.  John  xiv.  18, 
 28.    2.    Ps.  xlvii.  5. 
 
 Il'hitsutitide.    Invitatory, .    Antiphons, — i. .    2.  Ps. 
 
 civ.  30.  3.  John  xiv.  t8;  xvi.  22.  Responsory, — Acts.  ii.  3.  4. 
 II.     N'ersicles, — 1.   John  xiv.  26.     2.    Acts  ii.  4.    3.    Ps.  li.  10. 
 
 Trinity  Sunday.     Invitatory, .     Antiphons. — i. .     2. 
 
THE  SOURCES  OP  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  39 
 
 3.    Rev.  iv.  8.     Responsory, .    Versicle,- 
 
 Reformation.      Invitatory, .      Antiphon, — Ps.    cxix.    46 
 
 Versicles, — i.  Ps.  cxix.  105.  2.  I.  Kings  viii.  57.  3.  Ps.  li.  18. 
 4.   Gal.  V.  I. 
 
 Humiliation  and  Prayer.  Antiphon, — Ps.  Ixxxvi.  3,  i.  Ver- 
 sicles,— I.    Ps.  li.  I.     2.    Ps.  cxliii.  2.     3.    Ps.  ciii.  10.    4.    Ps.  li. 
 
 10.  5.   Ps.  cvi.  6. 
 
 Church  Dedication.  Antiphon, — Ps.  xi.  4.  Versicles, — Ps. 
 xciii.  5. 
 
 Commemoration  of  the  Dead.  Antiphons, — i.  Rev.  xxi,  4. 
 2. .    Versicles, — i.   Heb.  xiii.  14.    2.  Rev.  xiv.  13. 
 
 For  other  times.  Antiphons, — i.  Ps.  cxxx.  i.  2.  Ps.  1.  2. 
 3  Ps.  xxxvii.  5.  4.  Ps.  Ixiv.  i.  5.  Ps.  cxlvii.  i.  6.  Ps.  cxxxviii. 
 8.  7.  Ps.  xxvii.  I.  8.  Ps.  ex.  i.  9.  Ps.  Ixxii.  18.  10.  Ps.  cxxxv. 
 21.     II.    Ps.  Ixxii.  19.     12.    Ps.  cxxii.  i.     13.    Ps.  Ixxxvi.  7.     14. 
 
 Ps.  cxlv.  2.     15.    Ps.  xvi.  II.     16. .     17.    Ps.  cxii.  i.    Re- 
 
 sponsories, — i.  Ps.  cxix.  89,  105  ;  xxvi.  8 ;  Luke  xi.  28.  Versicles, 
 — I.  Ps.  cxlv.  15.  2.  Ps.  ciii.  8.  3.  Luke  x.  2.  4.  John  xvi. 
 24.    5   Ps  cxxxvi.  I.    6.    Ps.  xcii.  i.    7.   Ps.  x.  17.    8.   Ps.  xxix. 
 
 11.  9.  Dan.  xii.  3.  10.  Prov.  viii.  15,  16.  11.  Ps.  xci.  ii.  12. 
 Ps.  Ixxxiv.  II.  13.  John  xvii.  17.  14.  Ps.  cxliii,  10.  15.  Ps. 
 XXV.  4.  16.  Ps.  xxviii.  9.  17.  Ps.  Ixxix.  9.  18.  Ps.  xiii.  5.  19. 
 Mark  X.  14.    20.  Ps.  ciii.  i,  2.    21.  Ps.  1.  15.    22.   Ps.  cxix.  2^,  28. 
 
 The  Versicle  (Vespers)  is  found  in  Ps.  cxli.  2. 
 
 The  Canticles  may  be  found  as  follows, — Matins,  i.  Te 
 Dcum.  Though  ecclesiastical,  its  contents  are  scriptural  even  to 
 direct  quotations.  2.  Benedictus,  Luke  i.  68-79..  Vespers,  i. 
 Magnificat,  Luke  i.  46-55.    2.   Nunc  Dimittis,  Luke  ii.  29-32. 
 
 The  Kyrie  occurs  in  Ps.  li.  i ;  cxxiii.  3 ;  Matt.  ix.  27 ;  xv.  22 ; 
 XX.  30;  Mark  x.  47. 
 
 The  Lord's  Prayer  is  given  in  Matt.  vi.  9-13. 
 
 The  Salutation  and  Response  are  found  in  Ruth  ii.  4;  Tim. 
 iv.  22. 
 
 The  Versicle  (Vespers)  is  from  Ps.  xxix.  11. 
 
 The  Collects,  both  for  Matins  and  Vespers,  like  the  Chief 
 Service  Collects,  are  pre-eminently  scriptural. 
 
 The  Benedicamus (  ?) 
 
 The  Benediction  is  found  in  IL  Cor.  xiii.  14. 
 
40  MEMOIRS. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE  LITURGICAL  SOURCES. 
 
 THE  VERSICLES, 
 
 The  first  I'crsiclc.  "()  Lord,  open  Thou  my  Hps,"  with  the  re- 
 sponse. "And  my  mouth  shall  shew  forth  Thy  praise,"  is,  in  all 
 l)robabilitv,  of  Eastern  origin,  occurring  in  the  Office  of  Lauds 
 and  prefacing  the  Hcxat'sahnus  (Psalms  3,  28,  63,  88,  103,  143). 
 The  X'ersicle  had  this  form,  "Thou  shalt  open  my  lips,  O  Lord, 
 and  my  mouth  shall  shew  forth  Thy  praise,''  and  was  said  twice. 
 
 Whether  the  Western  Church  derived  this  Versicle  from  the 
 Eastern  Office  or  adopted  it  independently  is  a  questionable  point. 
 It  occurs,  however,  in  the  Horae  Order  of  Benedict  of  Xursia 
 (529).    Properly  it  should  only  occur  in  Alatins. 
 
 The  second,  "^lake  haste,  O  God,  to  deliver  me,"  with  the 
 response,  "Make  haste  to  help  me,  O  Lord,"  is  likewise  found  in 
 the  Rule  of  Benedict.  Its  origin,  however,  is  earlier  though  not 
 probably  as  a  fixed  liturgical  form.  John  Cassian  (350-433)  in 
 his  "Collationes  Patrum"  (an  account  of  the  teachings  of  some 
 hermits  in  the  desert  of  Scete),  mentions  the  fact  that  the  monks 
 before  his  time  often  used  this  Versicle. 
 
 In  the  monastic  Breviaries,  of  which  the  Benedictine  is  the 
 type,  this  Versicle  precedes  the  first.  Both  passed  over  into  the 
 Hreviary  of  Gregory  the  Great  (t6o4). 
 
 The  Lutheran  Orders  of  the  i6th  century  present  quite  a  di- 
 versity with  reference  to  the  use  of  these  historical  X'ersiclcs. 
 Many  discarded  them.  Some  of  the  principal  Orders  that  retain- 
 ed either  one  or  both  were, — Prussia  1526;  Schwacbisch-liall 
 1526;  Calenberg-Gocttingen  1542;  Prussia  1544;  Braunschweig- 
 Lucneberg  1544;  Prussia  1558. 
 
 THE  GLORIA   PATRI. 
 
 For  the  origin  and  history  of  this  part,  see  "Sources  of  the 
 Morning  Service  of  the  Common  Service,"  ]i.  45.  Its  use  at  this 
 l)lace  is  distinguished  from  that  in  connection  with  the  Introit  by 
 the  addition  of  the  Hallelujah. 
 
 THE  INVITATORY. 
 
 The  Invitatory,  or  invitation  to  praise  (iod,  occurs  only  in 
 Matins,  and  is  a  characteristic  and  distinguishing  part  of  this 
 ( )ffice.  It  is  unquestionably  of  Eastern  origin,  though  its  form  and 
 use  differ  vastly  from  those  of  the  West.  In  tlie  Ivistern  Church 
 it  assinnrd  from  most  primitive  times  the  following  threefold 
 form, — 
 
THE  SOURCES  OE  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  4I 
 
 "O  come,  let  us  worship  and  fall  down  before  God,  our  King. 
 
 O  come,  let  us  worship  and  fall  down  before  Christ,  our  King 
 and  God. 
 
 O  come,  let  us  worship  and  fall  down  before  Christ  Him- 
 self, our  King  and  God." 
 
 In  this  invariable  form  it  prefaced  all  the  daily  Offices  of  the 
 Eastern  Church. 
 
 In  the  Western  Church  it  found  a  place  only  in  the  Office  of 
 Matins,  and  its  form  varied,  conforming  to  the  Church  ^ear  and 
 the  various  festivals. 
 
 Its  use  and  form  in  our  Church  follow  those  of  the  West,  in 
 so  far  as  its  variable  aspect  is  concerned.  The  different  seasons 
 have  their  particular  Invitatories  with  the  exception  of  the  Pas- 
 sion Season.  Why  it  should  have  been  omitted  from  the  Church 
 Book  for  this  season  seems  strange,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
 that  the  Committee  on  Common  Service  had  prepared  one  for  it. 
 Connected  with  the  Invitatorv  is 
 
 THE  VENITE. 
 
 The  use  of  the  95th  Psalm  (Venite  exultemus),  or  "Invita- 
 tory  Psalm,'  is  in  some  respects  peculiar  to  the  West.  The  East- 
 ern Church  did  not  use  the  Psalm  as  a  whole,  but  only  took  from 
 it  the  Invitatory  (as  above),  based  upon  the  first,  third,  and  sixth 
 verses.  The  Western  Church  invariably  used  the  entire  Psalm. 
 Palmer  says,* — "This  Psalm  has  from  a  very  remote  period  heev. 
 placed  before  the  Psalms  of  the  nocturn,  in  the  Western  Churches. 
 It  is  probable  that  the  custom  of  prefixing  one  or  two  Psalms  to 
 the  noctural  office,  arose  from  a  desire  to  allow  some  little  time 
 for  the  clergy  and  people  to  collect,  before  the  office  began.  In 
 the  time  of  Cassian,  or  early  in  the  fifth  century,  it  was  lawful 
 for  the  brethren  to  enter  the  church  at  any  time  before  the  end  of 
 the  second  Psalm.  In  the  following  century,  this  custom  was 
 probably  thought  inconvenient,  so  that  Benedict  appointed  two 
 Psalms  to  be  chanted  before  the  nocturns  began,  in  order  to  afford 
 sufficient  time  for  the  brethren  to  assemble ;  and  of  these  two 
 Psalms,  the  second  was  the  95th,  or  Venite  Bxultemus." 
 
 Its  introduction  into  the  Office  of  Matins  is  often  attributed 
 to  Pope  Damasus  (t384).    It  is  not  improbable  that  the  daily  ser- 
 
 *  "Origines  Liturgicae,"  Vol.  I.  p.  249. 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 vice  of  the  Temple  began  with  this  Psahn,  or  at  least  a  portion 
 of  it.    In  Matins  it  is  customary  to  omit  the  last  four  verses. 
 
 TIIK   l'S.\LM. 
 
 The  use  of  Psalms  was  transplanted  from  the  Old  into  the 
 .\cw  Testament  Church.  Their  use  in  Apostolic  times  is  express- 
 ly attested  in  Eph.  v..  19;  Col.  iii.  16;  I.  Cor.  xiv.  26;  James  v. 
 13.  The  Church  Fathers  also  bear  testimony  to  the  love  manifest- 
 ed by  the  primitive  Christians  for  them.  They  were  then  sung  at 
 \arious  parts  of  the  service.  They  introduced  the  Missa  Catechu- 
 iiienorum,  were  sung  between  the  Lections,  and  were  even  used 
 during  the  Distribution  in  the  Missa  Fidelium.  Matins  began 
 with  Ps.  63  and  Vespers  with  Ps.  141.  Special  festivals  had  spe- 
 cially assigned  Psalms.  The  rise  of  Monasticism  in  the  4th  cen- 
 tury gave  the  Psalms  a  more  general  use.  A  divisional  arrange- 
 ment was  made  as  early  as  the  time  of  St.  Jerome  ('^420)  ;  but  it 
 was  not  until  the  time  of  the  Monastic  Reformer,  Benedict  of 
 Nursia  (529),  that  the  custom  of  singing  the  whole  Psalter  week- 
 ly came  into  vogue. 
 
 The  Greek  Church  also  said  the  whole  Psalter  weekly  except 
 from  Tyrophagiis  Sunday  (corresponding  to  our  Ouinquagesima) 
 to  Palmarum,  when  it  was  sung  twice  a  week. 
 
 We  need  not  enter  here  into  a  minute  analysis  of  the  weekly 
 arrangement  of  the  Psalter  in  different  periods  of  the  Church's 
 development.  The  following  tables,  however,  show  such  arrange- 
 ment of  the  Benedictine  and  Gregorian  Psalters, — 
 
THE  SOURCES  OE  TllE  MINOR  SERVICES. 
 
 43 
 
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 6 
 
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44 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 (V, 
 
 8 
 
 4,31 
 
 (vv.  1-6), 
 91,  134. 
 
 d 
 
 Q 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 d      !      d 
 
 Q               Q 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 Q 
 
 d 
 
 i 
 
 VESPERS 
 
 110,  111,  112, 
 113,  114,  115. 
 
 116.  117, 
 120, 121. 
 
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 cvi" u-T 
 
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THE  SOURCES  OE  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  45 
 
 From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  the  general  scheme  is 
 the  same,  and  only  in  minor  details  are  changes  noticeable. 
 
 The  present  Roman  use  is  that  of  the  Gregorian  Psalter  ex- 
 cept that  Pss.  22-26  are  no  longer  said  on  Sunday  at  Prime,  but 
 are  distributed  as  follows, — Monday,  24;  Tuesday,  25;  Wednes- 
 day, 26 ;  Thursday,  23  ;  Friday,  22.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
 with  few  exceptions  Pss.  1-109  were  assigned  to  Matins  and  Pss. 
 110-150  to  Vespers. 
 
 The  Reformation  necessitated  changes  in  the  use  of  Psalm- 
 ody. The  retention  of  Matins  and  Vespers  only  required  a  com- 
 plete revision  of  the  historical  arrangement  of  the  Psalter.  A  re- 
 duction in  the  number  of  Psalms  at  a  service  was  likewise  regard- 
 ed essential, — three  being  the  rule.  The  essential  characteristics 
 of  the  old  arrangement  were,  however,  retained  and  thus  Pss.  i- 
 109  were  assigned  to  Matins  and  Pss.  110-150  to  Vespers,  with 
 the  exception  of  Ps.  119.  This  Psalm  was  divided  into  22  parts 
 of  8  verses  each  and  one  part  sung  at  every  Matin  Service. 
 
 Wherever  this  arangement  could  not  be  carried  out,  on  ac- 
 count of  daily  Matins  and  Vespers  not  being  held,  Pss.  no,  4, 
 113,  121,  were  usually  selected  for  Saturday,  and  Pss.  in,  112, 
 114  for  Sunday  and  festival  Vespers.  In  general  Pss.  110-114,  4, 
 25,  91,  134  were  the  Vesper  and  Pss.  i,  2,  3,  93,  100,  43,  47,  148 
 the  Matin  Psalms. 
 
 The  Church  Book  embodies  91  Psalms,  of  which  number  89 
 only  have  received  assignment, — the  77th  and  150th,  being  in- 
 cluded but  not  assigned.  The  Books  of  Worship  (G.  S.  and 
 United  Synod  of  the  South)  include  70  Psalms  in  their  selection. 
 
 As  far  as  the  Method  of  rendering  the  Psalms  is  concerned 
 we  would  respectfully  refer  to  the  Preface  to  the  "Psalter  and 
 Canticles"  (Archer  and  Reed,  1897),  and  to  the  article,  "Psali-p- 
 ody,"  in  the  collection  of  "Essays  on  Church  Music." 
 
 THE  ANTIPHON. 
 
 The  Antiphonal  method  of  singing  is  beyond  question  of  Jew- 
 ish origin.  The  parallelism  of  the  Psalms  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
 this  method.  Its  introduction  into  Christian  worship  is  common- 
 ly ascribed  to  Ignatius  (tii5),  bishop  of  Antiocli,  who,  tradition 
 says,  saw  in  a  vision  two  heavenly  choirs  singing  alternately 
 Theoderet,  however,  attributes  its  introduction  to  Flavian  and 
 Diodorus,  two  monks  of  Antioch,  about  the  year  250,  and  this 
 supposition  has  its  supporters.''' 
 
 The  Western  Church  derived  it  from  the  East.     The  honor 
 
 *  See  Kurtz's  "Church  History,"  Vol.  I.  34:4. 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  its  introduction  into  the  Latin  Churches  has  been  variously 
 ascribed  to  Damasus  (t384),  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan  (tSQ/), 
 and  Cclcstine  I.  (t432).  St.  Ambrose,  however,  is  usually  ac- 
 corded the  honor,  though  Celestine  was  probably  the  first  to  di- 
 vide the  antiphonics  into  verses  and  to  prescribe  rules  governing 
 the  same.  The  Antiphons  were  embodied  in  the  Rule  of  Benedict 
 of  Xursia,  although  Gregory  the  Great  (604)  probably  gave  them 
 their  present  form. 
 
 The  i6th  century  Orders  generally  retained  them.  "An  .\nti- 
 phon  should  precede  and  conclude  the  Psalmody,  and  on  Sundays 
 and  other  Festivals  may  precede  and  follow  every  Psalm.  An- 
 nouncing the  thought  of  the  Season,  it  should  be  given  out  by  a 
 solo  voice,  Tenor  preferably,  or  by  several  of  the  Choir,  before 
 the  Psalm  and  repeated  by  the  entire  Choir  after  the  i'salm."* 
 
 THE  LESSON. 
 
 In  the  Monastic  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  (chs.  8-20)  there  is  no 
 divisional  arrangement  of  the  Lections  such  as  we  have  of  the 
 Psalter.  He  onl\-  specifies  in  a  general  way  how  many  lessons 
 from  the  Old  and  New  Testament  were  to  be  read,  and  that  on 
 Festival  days  the  assigned  Pericopes  were  to  be  used.  The  neces- 
 sity for  a  more  definite  division  of  the  Scriptures  soon  began  to 
 be  felt  and  thus  "Breviaries"  arose.  One  of  the  oldest  of  these 
 is  the  "Brcvianim  St.  Blasiamim."  This  has  been  edited  by  Ger- 
 bert  from  a  Codex  used  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Blasius  and  has 
 been  reprinted  b\-  Rankc  in  his  "Perikopensystem,"  p.  22.  Its 
 characteristic  features  are, —  i.  It  begins  the  Church  Year  with. 
 ICaster ;  2.  Is  the  first  to  speak  of  a  Sexagesima  Sunday ;  3.  Calls 
 the  non-festival  half  of  the  Church  Year  tctiipiis  acstatis ;  4.  Has 
 only  an  Advent  Season  of  14  da>s.  It  evidently  belongs  to  a  pe- 
 riod no  later  than  the  7th  century.  In  the  table  below  we  desig- 
 nate it  as  the  I.  St.  Blasian.  The  next  are  the  two  St.  Gallen. 
 also  edited  by  Gerbert  from  two  accordant  Mss.  in  the  monastery 
 of  St.  Gall  and  agreeing  essentially  with  the  above.  Their  char- 
 acteristic feature  is  that  they  know  of  no  Sexagesima  Sunday, 
 but  begin  the  Church  Year  with  Ouinquagesima.  They  belong 
 to  about  the  same  period  as  the  T.  St.  I'lasian.  The  third  is  the 
 II.  St.  Illasian,  also  edited  by  Gerbert  and  reprinted  in  an  epi- 
 tomized form  by  Ranke,  p.  24.  Its  feature  is  that  it  begins  the 
 Church  Year  with  Christmas.  Its  date  is  later  than  the  others 
 alxjve  mentioned. 
 
 \  fourth,  which  in  the  table  below  we  designate  as  the  Mura- 
 torian,  was  edited  bv  Muratori  from  two  \'atican  Mss.     Its  fea- 
 
 *  Preface  to  "Psalter  and  Canticles,"  p.  xiv. 
 
THE  SOURCKS  Ol-  THE  MINOR  SERVICES. 
 
 47 
 
 tures  are  that  it  knows — i.  A  Septuagesiina  Sunday;  2.  Has  no 
 litui'gical  arrangement  of  the  Sundays  between  Pentecost  and  Ad- 
 vent ;  3.  Begins  the  Church  Year  with  Advent.  It  belongs  to  the 
 9th  century.  The  following  table  shows  how  each  of  these  four 
 Breviaries  assigned  the  different  books  of  the  Bible, — 
 
 1  St.  Blasian. 
 
 St.  G ALLEN.   11  St.  Blasian. 
 
 MUKATOKIAN. 
 
 Sexagesima 
 
 to 
 Holy  Week. 
 
 Pentateuch, 
 Joshua, 
 Judges,  Ruth. 
 
 1 
 
 Quinquagesima 
 to  Holy  Week. 
 
 Same  as  I. 
 St.Blasian.    ] 
 
 Sexagesima 
 to  Judica. 
 
 !                            1       Same  as  I. 
 j  St.  Blasian. 
 
 Same  as  I. 
 St.  Blasian. 
 
 Judica  to 
 Easter. 
 
 Passion  History 
 Lamentations, 
 Hosea,      Zecha- 
 riah. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Holy  Week. 
 
 Lamentations 
 
 Same. 
 
 Easter 
 
 to 
 Pentecost. 
 
 Acts,  Revela- 
 tion,   Genei'al 
 Epistles. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Pentecost  to 
 2  weeks  before 
 Christmas. 
 
 Samuel,  Kings, 
 Ohronicles, 
 Proverbs,  Eccle- 
 siastes.      Canti- 
 cles,      Wisdom, 
 Sirach,  Job.  To- 
 bit,  Judith,   Es- 
 ther,Ezra, Nehe- 
 miah ,        Macca- 
 bees.Isaiah,  Jere- 
 miah,    Ezekiel 
 Daniel,      Minoi 
 Prophets 
 (partly). 
 
 Same. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Pentecost 
 
 to 
 Advent. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Samuel,  King.s. 
 Ohronicles,  Ez- 
 ra,   Nehemlah, 
 Proverbs,     Ec- 
 clesiastes.  Can- 
 ticles, Wisdom, 
 Sirach,  Job,  To- 
 bit,  Judith,  Es- 
 ther, Maccabees 
 
 •J  weeks  before 
 Christmas  to 
 Epiphany 
 
 Isaiah. 
 
 Same. 
 
 Same. 
 
 During  Advent. 
 
 Isaiah. 
 
 Christmas  to 
 Sexagesima. 
 
 Jeremiah.  Eze- 
 kiel,       Daniel, 
 Minor,         Pro- 
 phets. 
 
 Epiphany  to 
 Sexagesima. 
 
 Continuation  of 
 Minor  Prophets 
 
 Same. 
 
 Same. 
 
48  MKMOIRS. 
 
 If  it  be  rcniciiibcred  that  the  Gospels  and  I'auline  Epistles 
 were  reserved  for  the  Mass.  and  that  the  Psahns  had  their  partic- 
 ular places  in  the  Divine  Office,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole 
 Hible  was  thus  read  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
 
 The  Breviaries  from  the  loth  to  the  12th  centuries  show  that 
 the  Lections  during;  this  jjeriod  remained  essentially  the  same  as 
 those  above.  But  when  we  penetrate  a  little  deeper  into  the  Mid- 
 dle Ages  and  examine  those  of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  e.  g., 
 those  of  the  Prebendaries  of  Friaul  and  of  the  Malta  Order,  a 
 difference  at  once  becomes  evident.  The  lengthy  Lections  of 
 former  periods  were  successively  shortened  until  the  whole  Scrip- 
 ture? were  no  longer  read  and  the  significance  of  the  original  ar- 
 rangement was  lost.  The  Church  of  the  Reformation  sought  to 
 re-establish  the  old  idea  of  reading  the  whole  Bible  in  the  course 
 of  a  year.  Luther's  advice  in  Formula  Missae  was, — "universa 
 Scriptiira  in  Icctioncs  partita  persevcrct  in  auribus  ecclcsiac" 
 ( let  the  whole  Scripture,  divided  into  lessons,  remain  in  the  cars 
 of  the  Church).  While  there  was  to  be  a  lectio  contitiua,  the  Old 
 and  New  Testaments  were  still  separately  assigned.  Luther, 
 writing  in  his  "Order  of  Divine  Service"  on  Vespers,  says, — ".\t 
 this  time  the  books  of  the  O.  T.,  one  after  another,  should  be 
 taken  up,  viz.,  the  prophets,  just  as  in  the  morning  the  books  of 
 Moses  and  the  histories.  But  since  the  X.  T.  is  also  a  book  of 
 the  Bible.  I  use  the  O.  T.  in  the  morning,  and  the  New  in  the 
 evening,  or  vice  versa."  In  his  Formula  Missae  he  allowed  the 
 choice  between  N.  or  O.  T.  for  Matins,  but  designated  the  Old  for 
 Vespers.  In  his  German  Mass,  however,  he  assigned  the  New  to 
 Matins  and  the  Old  to  Vespers.  A  large  majority  of  the  i6th 
 century  Orders  followed,  in  this  respect,  his  Gernmn  Mass.  A 
 few.  like  Prussia  1525,  Herzog  Heinrich  1539.  and  Austria  1571 
 reversed  the  order. 
 
 The  Common  Service  assigns  the  New  to  Matins  and  the  Old 
 to  Vespers.  The  arrangement  of  the  Lections  follows  the  Meck- 
 Icnberg  Cantionale.  to  which  work  (Part  II.  Div.  i.).  we  would 
 respectfully  refer  all  interested  for  the  reasons  governing  the  se- 
 lections. How  ancient  the  custom  is  of  closing  all  the  Lections 
 with  the  words,  "I'n  aiitcm,  Dominc,  miserere  nobis"  (But  Thou, 
 O  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us).  Response,  "Deo  Gratias"  (Thanks 
 1)(^  to  God),  we  cannot  definitely  determine.  Schoeberlein,*  citing 
 Binterim  as  authority,  says  that  this  form  of  concluding  the  Les- 
 sons was  added  since  the  12th  century.  By  whom  we  cannot  tell 
 Not  all  of  the  lOth  centruy  Orders  used  it. 
 
 *  Schatz,  etc.,  p.  612. 
 
THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  49 
 
 The  Common  Service  rubric  is, — "After  each  Lesson  may  be 
 sung  or  said" 
 
 But  Thou,  O  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us. 
 Thanks  be  to  God. 
 
 THE  RESPONSORY. 
 
 When  and  by  v^'hom  the  Responsory  was  first  introduced  is 
 difficult  to  determine.  Gregory  of  Tours  (+595)  and  Lsidore  of 
 Seville  (t636)  mention  it.  Isidore  relates  that  the  Spanish  Church 
 long  before  his  time  adopted  the  Responsory  from  Italy.  His  ex- 
 act words  are, — "Respo>isoria  ab  Italis  longo  ante  tempore  sunt 
 reperta."  Originally  it  was  a  lengthy  portion  of  Scripture,  con- 
 sisting of  a  whole  Psalm  or  Canticle,  but  later  was  reduced  to  a 
 few  verses.  The  natural  position  of  the  Responsory  was  between 
 the  Epistle  and  Gospel  in  the  Liturgy,  and  between  tlie  Lections 
 in  the  Horae.  Sung  on  the  step  from  which  the  Epistle  had  been 
 read  it  was  also  called  the  Gradual.  It  was  usually  followed  by 
 the  Gloria  Patri  except  when  it  comprised  the  penitential  Psalms. 
 
 VERSiCLE  (Vespers). 
 
 The  Versicle  preceding  the  Vespers  Canticles  was  used  by 
 the  Western  Church  from  very  early  times.  The  exact  time  of  its 
 introduction  and  by  whom  we  have  not  been  able  to  discover.  The 
 pre-Reformation  use  of  this  Versicle,  as  also  the  present  Roman, 
 was, — Dirigatiir,  D amine,  oraiio  mea.  (Let  my  pra3'er  be  set 
 forth,  O  Lord.)  Sicut  incensum  in  conspcctii  tiio.  (As  incense 
 in  Thy  sight.) 
 
 To  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  second  part  of  our  form 
 we  are  not  able  to  state. 
 
 THE  CANTICLES. 
 
 A.  Te  Deum.  The  origin  of  this  most  beautiful  hymn  is 
 obscure.  No  reliance  can  ue  placed  upon  the  tradition  that  it 
 was  composed  by  Ss.  Ambrose  and  Augustine  at  the  baptism  of 
 the  latter  by  the  former  (387).  Neither  is  certainty  attached  to 
 the  view  that  St.  Ambrose  alone  was  the  author.  In  fact  its 
 authorship  cannot  be  definitely  determined.  The  time  of  its  com- 
 position seems  to  be  about  the  5th  century.  The  earliest  traces 
 we  have  of  it  are  that  it  was  incorporated  in  the  Divine  Office  of 
 Benedict  of  Nursia  (529)  and  also  in  that  of  Caesarius  of  Aries 
 (542).  However,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  germ  of  this  noble 
 composition  is  found  in  the  East.  The  Eucharistic  Hymn  of  the 
 Liturgy  of  Jerusalem  and  the  morning  Alexandrine  Hymn  show 
 decided  traces  of  its  contents.  It  is  possible  that  its  essence  is 
 Eastern  and  its  present  form  Western. 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  nioflijeval  Churcli  used  it  rei^ularly  in  the  Horae,  but  in 
 the  Mass  it  was  used  only  on  festival  occasions. 
 
 On  account  of  the  dogmatic  purity  of  its  contents  and  its 
 strong  Trinitarian  acknowledgment  our  Churcli  has  always  ac- 
 cordeil  the  7V  Dciiiii  high  honor.  On  extraordinary  occasions  it 
 was  sung  in  the  Chief  Service  as  a  General  Prayer.  It  was  also 
 used  at  marriages,  opening  of  Synods,  ordinations,  seldom,  how- 
 ever, at  \'espers.  From  old  its  assigned  i)lacc  was  in  Matins. 
 The  Orders  of  lloya  and  Pommern  permitted  it  to  be  sung  in 
 their  Chief  Service  before  the  Introit. 
 
 B.  Bf.nedictus.  This  Canticle  was  used  in  the  Office  of 
 Lauds  in  botii  the  ICastern  anrl  Western  Churches.  Its  introduc- 
 tion into  the  Latin  Church  is  attributed  to  St.  Benedict.  In  the 
 Greek  Church,  in  connection  with  the  Magnificat,  it  is  the  last 
 of  the  nine  odes  used  at  Lauds. 
 
 The  combination  of  Matins  and  Lauds  into  one  Office  has 
 given  us  the  Bcncdictns  as  a  ?\latin  Canticle.  It  is  readily  dis- 
 tinguished from  that  in  connection  with  the  Saiictiis^  in  the  Com- 
 munion. 
 
 C.  M.AGNiFiCAT.  Already  in  the  first  centuries  was  till?; 
 Praise-Hymn  of  Mary's  used  in  Divine  Service.  The  Greek 
 Church  assigned  it  a  place  in  the  Office  of  Sunday  Lauds  in  con- 
 nection with  the  Bcnedictus.  The  Latin  Church,  on  the  other 
 hand,  placed  it  in  Sunday  Vespers.  Caesarius  of  Aries  is  sup- 
 posed to  have  introduced  it  into  the  Western  Church.  In  the  time 
 of  Gregory  the  Great  it  became  a  part  of  daily  \'espers. — a  posi- 
 tion it  still  occupies.  Recognizing  the  highly  liturgical  and  edi- 
 fying character  of  this  Canticle  the  i6th  century  Orders  retained 
 it  and  thus  the  Common  Service. 
 
 D.  Nunc  Di.mittis.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Bk. 
 VII.  48)  already  mention  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  or  Song  of  Simeon, 
 as  an  Evening  Prayer.  The  Eastern  Church  gave  it  a  place  in 
 \'espcrs  and  the  Western  in  Compline.  The  Rule  of  Benedict 
 does  not  mention  it  as  used  at  Compline,  but  Amalarius  (820) 
 speaks  of  it.  The  combination  of  X'espers  and  Conii)]ine  gave  us 
 the  Nunc  Dimittis  as  a  Vesper  Canticle. 
 
 THE  SUFFRAGES  AND  LITANY. 
 
 Inasmuch  as  the  SITFRAGES  and  LITANY'  are  permitted 
 to  be  used  as  substitutes  for  the  prayers  ordinarily  employed,  it  is 
 within  our  province  to  trace  these  as  far  as  possible.  And  here 
 we  must  give  expression  to  our  thorough  disap]iointment  at  not 
 being  able  to  state  definitelv  the  origin  of 
 
THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  5I 
 
 THE  SUFFRAGES. 
 
 Whether  these  are  a  development  from  the  ECTENE  of  the 
 Eastern  Church,  or  from  the  numerous  LITANIES  of  the  West- 
 ern, or  whether  they  have  an  origin  independent  of  both  the 
 above,  we  have  not  been  able  to  determine.  PRECES,  the  name 
 by  which  the  Suffrages  were  anciently  known,  were  in  the  earli- 
 est centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  distinguished  from  the  more 
 specific  ORATIONES  or  Collects.  But  whether  the  Prcces  in 
 The  Divine  Office  of  the  later  mediaeval  era  preserved  the  form 
 of  the  Preces  in  the  earlier  Galilean,  Mozarabic  and  Ambrosian 
 Missals  is  a  question  we  cannot  answer.  If  such  should  be  the 
 case,  then,  a  very  early  origin  must  be  given  the  Suffrages.  Here 
 is  a  most  interesting  and  fascinating  field  for  liturgical  investi- 
 g?tion,  and  if  plans  do  not  miscarry,  we  may  have  something  more 
 definite  to  say  upon  this  point  somewhat  later.  If,  however,  we 
 are  not  able  to  state  the  origin  of  the  Sufi:rages,  we,  at  least,  know 
 their  use  in  the  Church  immediately  preceding  the  Reformation. 
 As  given  in  The  Common  Service,  The  Suffrages  (No.  ii.)  under 
 General  Prayers,  cleansed  of  all  unscriptural  doctrine,  were  the 
 week-day  PRECES  of  the  old  Lauds  and  Vespers.  The  Morn- 
 ing Suffrages  (No.  iii.)  were  the  PRECES  of  Sunday  Prime. 
 The  Evening  Suffrages  (No.  iv.)  were  the  PRECES  of  Com- 
 pline. The  Collects  of  the  Suffrages,  however,  are  not  trans- 
 lations of  the  old  Collects,  but  are  the  Morning  and  Evening 
 Ijrayers  familiar  to  those  who  use  Luther's  Cathechism  at  Morn- 
 ing and  Evening  Worship. 
 
 THE  UTANY. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Litany  lies  in  the  Bidding  Prayer  of  the 
 Primitive  Church.  It  was  customary  for  the  Deacon  to  announce 
 the  subject  to  be  prayed  for,  then  offer  the  prayer,  to  which  the 
 people  responded  Kyrie  elcison  (Lord,  have  mercy). 
 
 When  in  the  4th  century  Processions  became  usual,  the 
 Litany  was  connected  with  them.  In  opposition  to  the  Proces- 
 sions of  the  heretical  Arians,  the  form  of  the  Litany  became  more 
 elaborate  and  well-defined  and  the  alternate  responses,  Miserere 
 nobis  (Have  mercy  upon  us),  Libera  nos  (Deliver  us),  Audi  nos 
 (Hear  us,)  were  added.  There  were  special  Processions  on  the 
 three  days  preceding  Ascension  Day.  These  days  were  known  as 
 P-ogation  Days.  They  were  instituted  by  Claudius  Mamercus, 
 Bishop  of  Vienne,  about  450,  A.  D.  During  his  time  as  Bishop, 
 the  city  of  Vienne  was  visited  and  partially  destroyed  by  earth- 
 quakes and  floods.     It  was  hoped  that  the  approaching  Easter 
 
52 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 festival  would  bring  an  alleviation  of  the  calamity ;  but  while  cele- 
 bratincr  Mass  on  Easter  Eve  the  ro\al  ])alace  was  struck  by  light- 
 ning and  destroyed.  The  people  rushed  out  of  Church  and  Mam- 
 ercus  alone  remained* at  the  Altar,  praying.  He  conceived  the 
 idea  of  aiipointing  the  three  days  before  Ascension  as  Litany 
 Days.  ( )ther  dioceses  adopted  the  rite  and  the  council  of  Orleans 
 (511)  decreed, — "Roi^atioiics  i.  c.  lita)iias  ante  asccnscioncn  Dom- 
 ini ab  omnibus  ccclcsiis  placuit  cclcbrari."  (Rogations  i.  e.  litanies 
 were  to  be  celebrated  by  all  churches  before  the  Lord's  Ascen- 
 sion). These,  then,  became  general  in  the  Gallican  Church.  If 
 not  earlier  than,  at  least  contemporaneous  with,  the  Gallican  Pro- 
 cessions, were  the  litanical  Processions  in  Rome.  The  full  form 
 of  these  Litanic^.  has  not  been  preserved  to  us,  although  it  is  al- 
 most certain  that  their  structure  was  similar  to  our  present  forms 
 and  this  is  about  equal  to  saying  that  as  far  as  contents  and  forms 
 were  concerned  they  were  modelled  after  the  General  Prayer 
 found  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
 
 Among  the  most  important  processional  Litanies  was  the 
 Litania  Septifomiis  (Seven-fold  Litany)  of  Gregory  the  Great. 
 After  his  elevation  to  the  Bishopric  in  Jan.  590, — a  severe  pesti- 
 lence following  an  overflow  of  the  Tiber,  raged  in  Rome.  Greg- 
 ory delivered  a  sermon  and  at  its  close  requested  the  people  to 
 render  a  Litania  Septifomiis,  i.  e.  the  people  were  to  be  divided 
 into  seven  choirs  or  groups  (Clergy,  Men,  Monks,  \'irgins.  Mar- 
 ried Women,  Widows,  the  Poor  and  Children).  Each  of  these 
 seven  groups  was  to  start  from  a  different  Church,  singing  Lit- 
 anies on  their  way  till  they  all  met  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mary 
 the  Great.  This  was  on  St.  Marks'  Day,  A])ril  25th.  though  it 
 i>  beyond  doubt  incorrect  to  ascribe  the  institution  of  the  solenm 
 fast  on  this  day  to  Gregory. 
 
 Litanies  rapidly  multiplied  in  the  Roman  Church  antl  the 
 product  of  this  multiplication  included  a  number  of  unscriptural 
 doctrines.  The  response  Ora  pro  nobis  (Pray  for  us)  at  once 
 suggests  the  unscripturalness.  Under  Clement  VIII.,  1601,  the 
 man\-  Litanies  of  the  Roman  Church  were  reduced  to  three, — 
 "The  Great  Litany  of  the  Sai)its;"  "The  Lanretanian :"  "The 
 Litany  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus."  In  1529  Luther,  using 
 "The  Great  Litany  of  the  Saints"  as  a  basis,  prepared  and  pub- 
 lished a  Litania  Latina  eorrecta  (corrected  Latin  Litany)  and 
 also  a  German  version.  Luther's  Latin  form  was  the  basis  nf  the 
 Litanx  in  The  Common  Service.'" 
 
 *  Kliefoth.  ■■Lilurgisciii.  .\hhandlungen"  V.,  301,  t^Jt^.  398. 
 \"\.  155.  Horn.  "Liturgies,"  68-(h;.  "The  Lutheran  Cvclop;edia," 
 277-278. 
 
THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MINOR  SERVICES.  53 
 
 THE  KYRIE  AND  LORD'S  PRAYER. 
 
 From  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  we  learn  that  the  primitive 
 Church  had  fixed  forms  of  Prayer  in  her  Morning  and  Evening 
 Services.  The  former  began  with  Ps.  Ixiii  and  was  followed  by 
 the  Gloria  in  E.vcelsis  with  Laiidamus  as  Morning  Prayer.  The 
 latter  began  with  Ps.  cxli,  was  followed  by  the  Ag)ius  Dei  and 
 A'Unc  Dimittis,  and  this  by  the  Evening  Prayer, — "Praise  the 
 Lord,  O  ye,  His  servants."  Towards  the  end  of  the  5th  century 
 the  Agnus  Dei  disappeared  and  the  Kyrie  Bleison  was  embodied 
 as  introductory  to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  At  the  end  of  the  Mass, 
 Benedict  of  Nursia  had  prescribed  this  prayer  to  be  said  by  the 
 abbot,  the  congregation,  however,  joining  in  with  the  5th  peti- 
 tion; but  in  the  Horae  the  congregation  only  joined  in  with  the 
 7th  petition.  Later  it  became  customary  for  the  priest  to  sing  the 
 words  "Pater  noster,"  then  proceed  silently  until  reaching  the 
 6th  petition  which,  together  with  the  7th  and  Amen,  were  again 
 sung  aloud. 
 
 The  i6th  century  Orders  present  quite  a  variety  of  usage  of 
 these  parts.    To  detail  this  variety  is  beyond  our  'SCope. 
 
 THE  SALUTATION  AND  RESPONSE. 
 
 According  to  historic  practice  the  Salutation  and  Response 
 introduced  every  integral  part  of  the  Service.  Hence  its  position 
 here.  (See  further  "Sources  of  the  Morning  Service  of  the  Com- 
 mon Service,"  p.  47.)  .^ 
 
 THE  COLLECT  (Matins). 
 
 The  germ  of  this  Collect  is  found  in  the  Sacramentary  of 
 Gelasius  (1492).*  It  occurs  there  as  the  first  of  eleven  "Prayers 
 at  Matins"  and  is  as  follows, — 
 
 Gratias     tibi     agimiis,    Domine  Wo    give    Thee     thanks,     holy 
 
 Sancte,          Pater        Omnipotens,  Lord,   Almighty  Father,  everlast- 
 
 aeterne     Deus,  qui  nos  transaeio  ing  God,  who  hast  vouchsafed  to 
 
 noetis  spatio   ad  matutinas  horas  bring    us,    after    passing   through 
 
 perducere,    dignatus    es;    quaesu-  the    period    of    the    nig'ht   to    th-e 
 
 mus,   ut    dones   nobis    diem    hunc  hours  of  the  morning;   Grant  us, 
 
 sine    peecato    transire,    quatenus  we    beseech    Thee,    to    pass    this 
 
 ad    vesperum    gratias    referamus.  day  without  sin,  so  that  at  even- 
 
 Per.  tide     we     may     return      thajilcs. 
 
 Throuorh. 
 
 *  See  Wilson,  The  Gelasian  Sacramentary,  p.  291. 
 
54 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 In  the  Sacraincntary  of  Gregory  (590)  it  ha?  been  ampHfied 
 as  follows, — 
 
 Dciis,  qui  nos  ad  principinin 
 hiijus  dioi  j^ervenire  tcfisti,  da 
 nobis  hunc  diem  sine  peceato 
 transire,  ut  in  nullo  a  tuis 
 scniitis  doclincinus,  sed  ad  tiiani 
 justitiam  facicudam        nostra 
 
 sompor    procodant    olnquia.      Per. 
 
 ()  God,  who  hast  brought  us  to 
 the  beginning  of  this  day,  grant 
 us  to  pass  tlirough  it  withoui 
 sin,  tiiat  in  nothing  we  may  turn 
 aside  out  of  Thy  paths,  but  that 
 the  words  which  go  forth  from 
 us  may  be  always  directed  to  do 
 that  which  is  righteous  in  Thy 
 sight.     Through. 
 
 The  Roman  version  expanding  the  latter  clause  and  using 
 the  characteristic  ending  is  as  follows, — 
 
 Domine  Dens  Omnipotens,  qui 
 ad  principium  hujiis  diei  nos  per- 
 venire  leeisti;  tua  nos  houii' 
 salva  virtute;  ut  in  hac  die  ad 
 nullum  declinemus  peccatum,  sed 
 semper  ad  tuam  justitiam  facien- 
 dam  nostra  proccdant  eloquia, 
 dirig'antur  cogitationes  et  ojjcra. 
 Per  Dominum  nostrum  Jesuni 
 Cliristum  Filium  tuum,  qui 
 tecum  vivit  et  regnat  in  unitate 
 Spiritus  Sancti  Dcus,  per  omnia 
 sa-ocula   saecidorum. 
 
 O  Lord  God  Almighty,  who 
 h;ist  brought  us  to  the  beginning 
 of  this  da}',  defend  us  today  by 
 Thy  mighty  power,  that  in  this 
 day  we  may  turn  aside  to  no 
 sin,  but  that  our  words  may  go 
 forth  and  our  thoughts  and  ac- 
 tions be  directed  to  do  that 
 which  is  righteous  in  Thy  sight. 
 Through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
 Thy  Son,  who  liveth  and  reigneth 
 with  Thea  in  the  unity  of  the 
 Holy  Ghost,  God  forever  and 
 ever. 
 
 The  Sarum  I'.rcviarv  has  the  following  version, — 
 
 Domine  Sancte  Pater  Omnijt- 
 otens,  seterne  Deus,  qui  nos  ad 
 principium  hu.jus  diei  ])ervenire 
 fv^cisti;  tua  nos  hodie  salva 
 virtute;  et  concede  ut  in  hac 
 die  ad  nullum  declinemus  pecca- 
 tum; nee  ullura  incurramus 
 pcriculum;  sed  semper  ad  tuam 
 justitiam  faciendam  omnia 
 nostra  actio  tuo  nunleraiuiuf 
 diiiyiitur.      Pv'r. 
 
 O  Lord,  our  Heavenly  Father, 
 Almighty  and  everlasting  God, 
 who  hast  safely  brought  us  to 
 the  beginning  of  this  day;  de- 
 fend us  in  the  same  with  Thy 
 mighty  power;  and  grant  that 
 this  day  we  fall  into  no  sin, 
 neither  run  into  any  kind  of 
 danger;  but  that  all  our  doings 
 may  be  ordered  by  Thy  govern- 
 ance, to  do  always  that  is  right- 
 eous in  Thy  sight;  through  Jesus 
 Christ    our    Ijord. 
 
 T.  Kdward  \'l.  (  1540)  has  "everliving"  instead  of  "ever- 
 lasting" before  (^lod  in  the  Invocation.  II.  Edward  \'I.  (1552) 
 and  present  .Anglican  have  the  translation  above  given. 
 
 It  api^ears  very  evident  that  the  Common  Service  followed 
 the  Sarum  Breviary,  adding,  however,  the  full  ending. 
 
the;  sources  0^  the  minor  services.  55 
 
 THE  VERSICLE  (Vespers). 
 
 Strange  as  it  may  appear  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  any 
 use  whatever  of  the  Versicle 
 
 The  Lord  will  give  strength  unto  His  people. 
 The  Lord  ivill  bjess  His  people  with  peace. 
 
 except  in  the  old  Church  Book  and  in  the  Common  Service.  Im- 
 mediately preceding  the  Collect  for  Peace  one  would  naturally 
 suppose  that  it  had  formed  the  standing  Versicle  for  this  Collect 
 for  many  centuries ;  but  such  seems  not  to  have  been  the  case. 
 The  pre-Reformation  Vespers  embodied  what  were  known  as 
 " C ommemorationes ."  These  consisted  of  Antiphon,  Versicle,  Re- 
 sponse, Collect.  These  commemorations  were  usually  de  S. 
 Maria,  de  Apostolis,  de  Patrono,  and  de  Pace.  The  last,  de  Pace, 
 was  as  follows, — 
 
 Antiphon.     Da  pacem,  Domine,  in  diebus  nostris,  quia  non  est 
 alius,  qui  pugnet  pro  nobis,  nisi  tu,  Deus  noster. 
 
 Versicle.     Fiat  pax  in  virtute  tua. 
 
 Et  abundantia  in  turribus  tuis. 
 
 Collect.     Oratio  pro  pace. 
 
 We  have  carefully  examined  Herold's  "Vesperale,"  and  no- 
 where have  we  found,  among  the  many  Versicles  of  the  dififerent 
 Vespers  given,  the  Versicle  of  The  Common  Service. 
 
 The  Da  Pacem  with  which  some  of  the  i6th  century  Orders 
 closed  their  V^espers  is  a  versification  of  the  Antiphon,  Versicle 
 and  Response  above  given.     Its  full  form  is  as  follows, — 
 
 Verleih  uns  Frieden  gnaediglich, 
 Herr  Gott,  zu  unsern  Zeiten ; 
 Es  ist  ja  doch  kein  andrer  nicht, 
 Der  fuer  uns  koennte  streiten, 
 Denn  Du,  unser  Gott,  alleine. 
 Gott,  gieb  Fried  in  Deinem  Lande, 
 Glueck  und  Heil  zu  allem  Stande. 
 
 This  was  followed  by  the  "Collect  for  Peace"  as  given  in  the 
 Common  Service.  It  will  be  observed  here  that  the  last  two  lines 
 are  but  a  versified  reproduction  of  the  old  A'ersicle  and  Response : 
 
 Fiat  pax  in  virtute  tua. 
 
 Et  abundantia  inturribustuis, 
 
 and  this  seems  to  have  been  the  usual  Versicle  for  the  Collect. 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Whence  our  X'ersiclc  is  desired,  or  how  it  made  its  way  into 
 The  Common  Service,  we  are  not  able  to  state.  Xo  one,  how- 
 ever, will  question  its  beauty  and  api>ropriateness,  and  the  end  of 
 our  search  for  a  historic  usage  is  not  yet. 
 
 TJIE  COLLECT  FOR  PEACE  (Vespers). 
 
 This  most  beautiful  of  all  Collects  is  found  first  in  the  Ge- 
 lasian  Sacramentary.  It  occurs  there  twice,  thoug^h  in  slightly 
 different  forms.  This  diflference  at  once  becomes  apparent  by 
 ccmi)aring  the  following  originals, — 
 
 1.     Oinnipotens  scmpitorne  2.     Deiis,    a    quo      sancta     de- 
 
 Deus  a  quo  sola  sancta  desideria,  sid-sria,  et  recta  consilia.  et  justa 
 
 recta     consilia,     et     justa     sunt  sunt   opera,   da   servis   tuis   illam, 
 
 Of>3ra,  da  servis  tuis  iilam,  quain  quam    mundus    dare    non    potest, 
 
 niundus  dare   non   potest,   pacom;  i)ac('in;  ut  et  corda  mandatis  tuis 
 
 ut  et  corda  nostra  mandatis  tuis  dedita,   et,   hostium   siiblata,   for- 
 
 dedita,   et   tompora  sint   tua   pro-  iiiidiiic,     teuipora     sint    tiia    jiro- 
 
 tcctionc    trauquilla.      Per.*  tcctione   tranquiila.     Per.t 
 
 The  first  form  is  the  second  of  two  Collects  (the  first  of 
 which  is  that  of  The  Common  Service  for  the  Eleventh  Sunday 
 after  Trinity),  and  occurs  in  a  Missa  assigned  by  Gerbert  to  the 
 Thirteenth  Sunday  after  Pentecost. 
 
 The  second  form  is  tlic  tirst  of  three  Collects  that  occur  in 
 the  Missa  pro  Pace.  The  translation  of  our  Collect  follows  this 
 form. 
 
 THE  1:Ex\EDICAML'S. 
 
 For  the  source  and  use  of  the  Bciicdicamus  see  "Sources  of 
 the  Morning  Service  of  the  Common  Service,"'  p.  62. 
 
 THE  BENEDICTION. 
 
 Inasmuch  as  at  Matins  and  Vespers  the  presence  of  a  pastor 
 was  not  necessary,  it  became  customary  to  close  the  Services  with 
 the  .\.  T.  Hcncdictioii  instead  of  the  .\aronic  as  in  the  Chief  Ser- 
 vice. 
 
 R.  Morris  S.mith. 
 Baden,  Pa. 
 
 *  Wilson.  The  (u'lasian  Sacramentarw  p.  228. 
 t  ibid,  p.  271. 
 
THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  LITURGY  IN  THE  LUTHERAN 
 CHURCH  IN  DENMARK. 
 
 Almost  immediately  after  the  ushering  in  of  the  great  Reforma- 
 tion in  Germany  in  15 17,  the  revived  apostohc  doctrines  found 
 their  way  into  Denmark  and  were  preached  with  intense  enthu- 
 siasm, especially  by  several  men,  who  had  sat  at  the  feet  of 
 Luther  and  Melanchthon  in  Wittenberg.  And  it  is  one  of  the 
 marvels  of  history  that  in  less  than  twenty  years,  1536,  the 
 Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  establishment  had  been  abolished 
 and  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  order  had  risen  in  its  place.  This 
 wonderful  revolution  was  not  the  result  of  the  labors  of  any  one 
 great  leader,  but  was  a  spontaneous  movement  throughout  the 
 whole  country,  reaching  all  classes  of  people.  And  the  leading 
 feature  was  the  historical  characteristic  of  Protestantism — the 
 earnest  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  which  had  for  ages  been  ob- 
 scured and  kept  in  the  background  by  the  blinding  and  mislead- 
 ing errors  and  ceremonies  of  the  papacy. 
 
 In  some  of  the  cities  well  arranged  orders  of  public  worship 
 were  used,  but  in  the  smaller  communities  and  in  the  rural  dis- 
 tricts the  ministers  conducted  the  services  according  to  their  own 
 judgment,  but  in  harmony  with  the  fundamental  teachings  of  the 
 Word  of  God.  When  a  minister  was  appointed  to  the  charge  of 
 a  parish,  he  was  enjoined  "to  teach  and  preach  to  the  people  of 
 the  parish  God's  pure,  clear  Word  and  Gospel,  which  he  can 
 prove  by  Holy  Scripture,  and  to  teach  them  their  souls'  salvation, 
 as  he  will  answer  before  God  and  be  known  before  the  king. 
 He  shall  conduct  divine  service  for  them  in  Danish,  if  they  re- 
 quire it,  without  any  human  additions  or  ungodly  ceremonies, 
 
 (Ivii) 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 uiul  i^ivc  thciii  ihc  Holy  Sacrament,  the  Body  and  Klood  of  tlie 
 Lord,  in  both  kinds,  as  Christ  Himself  instituted  and  commanded 
 it ;  and  he  shall  lead  a  good,  honest  life,  and  give  his  people  a 
 ^ood  example.  And,  if  he  have  not  the  grace  of  continence, 
 then  he  shall  take  unto  himself  a  worthy  woman  to  wife,  and 
 live  with  her  in  ydod.  honorable.  Christian  wedlock,  and  not  have 
 a  concubine  (as  the  custom  had  been),  nor  any  other  person 
 with  him,  of  whom  any  may  have  suspicion." 
 
 The  people  were  happy  in  the  possession  of  an  excellent 
 Danish  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  made  by  Christian 
 IV'derson  in  1529,  which  superseded  those  previously  published. 
 It  ranked  with  the  Danes  as  Luther's  did  with  the  Germans.  A 
 collection  of  hymns  was  also  composed  by  Claus  Mortensen  in 
 Danish.  An  intense  religious  fervor  characterized  the  services 
 and  was  long  maintained,  as  we  learn  from  a  letter  addressed  by 
 Bugenhagen  to  his  Elector  on  his  return  from  Denmark  to  Wit- 
 tenberg in  1539.  He  used  the  following  strong  language:  "The 
 Gospel  is  preaciied  purely  and  powerfully  in  Denmark.  ]\lay 
 God  grant  progress  as  He  has  begun.  1  have  been  nowhere 
 where  the  people  so  gladly  and  so  diligently  hear  preaching  as 
 in  Denmark,  even  on  week  days,  in  winter,  and  before  daylight, 
 throughout  the  whole  day  at  the  Festivals ;  and  they  pray  dili- 
 gcntl}-." 
 
 But,  in  1536,  it  was  felt  b}-  the  clergy  and  the  pious  king, 
 Christian  HL  that  an  authorized  and  uniform  Church  law,  gov- 
 erning the  whole  sphere  of  the  ministerial  and  pastoral  activity, 
 ought  to  be  prejiared  and  promulgated.  And,  with  this  object 
 in  view,  the  king  recpiested  the  Elector  of  Saxony  to  send  John 
 P)Ugenhagen  to  Denmark  to  aid  in  the  great  work  of  reorganiza- 
 tion. But  the  answer  was  given  that  he  could  not  be  spared  at 
 that  time;  and  he  did  not  arrive  until  the  summer  of  1537. 
 
 In  the  meanwhile  the  new  Church  law  was  drawn  up  by  a 
 committee  of  29  ministers  and  theologians,  among  whom  were 
 Peder  Laurensen,  Frants  Vormordsen,  Oluf  Chrysostomus 
 (Gyldenmund),  Hans  Tausen,  Joergen  Jensen  Sadolin,  and 
 members  of  the  Cathedral  Cha])ters,  ami  prominent  ministers 
 from  Sleswig,  as  Herman  Tast,  Gert  Slewcrt  and  John  \andal. 
 When  this  document,  which  is  known  in  history  as  the  Ordinance 
 of  Christian  III.  was  completed,  the  king  amended  it  and  then 
 .sent  it,  as  he  expressed  himself  in  his  later  letter  of  confirmation, 
 to  "worthy  Father  Doctor  Martin  Luther,  by  whom  God  in  His 
 mercy  and  kindness,  in  these  last  times,  has  again  sent  Christ's 
 holy  and  pure  Gosjiel ;  thus  he.  with  several  other  men  highly 
 learned  in   Scripture,   in   Wittenberg,  examined  the  same  Ordi- 
 
THE  LITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  59 
 
 nance  and  adjudged  it  to  be  good  and  right."  And,  wlien  Bugen- 
 hagen  arrived  in  Denmark,  he  still  further  revised  it,  after  which, 
 in  the  same  year,  it  was  published  in  Latin,  but  did  not,  in  the 
 fullest  sense,  become  the  law  of  the  Church  until  1539,  when  it 
 was  translated  into  Danish  by  Peder  Palladius  and  duly  adopted 
 bv  the  Diet  in  Odense,  June  14,  1539. 
 
 This  Ordinance,  directing  how  the  Church  service  shall  be 
 held  in  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  and  the  Duchies  of  Sleswig  and 
 ITolsten,  thus  became  the  established  law  of  the  Danish  Lutheran 
 Church.  The  Diet  did  not  change  it,  but  advised  prudence  and 
 gentleness  in  introducing  it.  This  Ordinance  is  very  compre- 
 hensive. It  confirms  the  true  doctrines  of  the  Church ;  gives 
 suggestions  for  their  presentation  in  the  sermons  ;  designates  the 
 festival  days  and  their  proper  pericopes ;  the  mode  of  procedure 
 in  calling  Pastors,  Provosts  and  Bishops  and  defines  their  duties 
 and  rights  ;  sets  forth  the  proper  church  usages ;  gives  rules  for 
 tlie  religious  instruction  of  the  children,  the  management  of  the 
 church  property,  the  care  of  the  poor,  and  provision  for  the  edu- 
 cation of  men  for  the  ministry. 
 
 And,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  Ordinance 
 under  proper  supervision,  the  king  appointed  the  first  Bishops, 
 seven  in  number,  who  were  ordained  to  their  high  office  by 
 Fkigenhagen.  September  2,  1537.  The  ceremony  took  place  in 
 Copenhagen  in  Frue  Kirke,  which  is  still  standing.  The  names 
 of  the  Bishops  are :  Peder  Palladius,  Frants  Vormordsen,  Joer- 
 gen  Jensen  Sadolin,  Jakob  Skoenning,  Peder  Thomesen,  Mads 
 Lang,  and  John  Vandal,  the  last  named  being  a  German  appoint- 
 ed to  the  diocese  of  Ribe.  The  ministers  desired  the  appoint- 
 ment of  an  archbishop,  but  such  was  not  made ;  yet  the  bishop  of 
 Zealand  has  always  practically  occupied  that  position,  being- 
 regarded  as  primus  inter  pares. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  order  of  public  service,  the  Ordinance,  like 
 the  older  German  Kirchen  Ordnungen,  confined  itself  to  the  gen- 
 eral outlines  of  the  evangelical  service,  and,  as  a  rule,  did  not 
 give  the  full  formulas,  which  had  long  been  in  use,  but  with 
 the  opening  words  indicated  what  the  minister  should  say.  But 
 this  did  not  imply  the  minister's  liberty  to  fill  out  the  formulas 
 according  to  his  own  judgment ;  for  when  such  was  contem- 
 plated it  was  specifically  so  stated.  These  formulas  were,  how- 
 ever, given  in  full  in  later  "law  books"  of  the  church.  The  Or- 
 dinance remained  in  force  until  1640.  But  it  became  necessary 
 to  prepare  books  giving  more  specific  directions  for  the  conduct 
 of  public  service,  and  these  took  their  place  by  the  side  of  the 
 (^^rdinance.  And  the  first  of  these  "Hand  Books,"  or  "Altar 
 r>ooks,"  as  they  were  called,  and  the  only  ones  now  extant,  are 
 
Co  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tlic  Enchiridion  of  Palladius.  1538.  and  the  Hand  Book  of  Vor- 
 niordscn.  1539.  The  latter  of  these  aimed  especially  to  explain 
 and  facilitate  the  use  of  the  directions  of  the  Ordinance.  Neither 
 of  these  contained  the  text  of  the  Pericopes,  but.  from  I'alladius' 
 introduction  to  the  edition  of  the  Altar  Books  of  1555.  we  learn 
 that  there  were  smaller  books  in  use  containing  the  Gospel  and 
 F.pistle  lessons  and  the  Collects.  From  this  state  of  things,  as 
 we  might  expect  ,there  arose  a  want  of  uniformity  in  the  order 
 of  service,  and,  to  remedy  this,  Palladius,  by  order  of  the  Synod 
 of  Copenhagen,  issued  a  new  edition  of  the  Altar  Book  in  1556, 
 giving  fuller  directions  and  forms.  (Pontoppidan's  Aiinales 
 Danicaj  Ecclcsiae,  3,  335.) 
 
 But,  as  the  right  to  make  changes  in  the  Liturgy  was  ac- 
 corded to  the  Bishops,  and  as  many  matters  needed  to  be  cleared 
 up,  a  Synod  was  convened  in  Copenhagen  in  1540,  which  enacted 
 27  Statuta  bearing  on  the  Liturgy,  church  discipline,  and  the 
 jurisdiction  of  ministers.  This  marks  the  second  great  act  in 
 ecclesiastical  legislation  in  Denmark. 
 
 But  the  r.ishops  often  gave  special  directions  in  liturgical 
 matters,  and  hence  arose  again  considerable  confusion;  and  to 
 overcome  this  it  was  ordered  that  the  practice  in  Fruc  Kirke  in 
 Copenhagen  should  be  followed  as  the  norm.  It  will  thus  be 
 seen  that  the  church,  as  such  and  as  a  whole,  had  no  direct  voice 
 in  framing  the  liturgical  orders ;  still  it  was  held  that  the  pastors 
 were,  in  an  important  sense,  the  representatives  of  the  congrega- 
 tions in  the  Synod.  And  the  people  did  exercise  a  marked  influ- 
 ence in  regard  to  forms  and  usages  in  the  churches,  for  the  min- 
 isters were  very  largely  governed  by  their  wishes  and  demands, 
 as  in  the  questions  raised  about  the  elevation  in  the  Lord's  Supper 
 and  the  exorcism  in  Baptism.  But.  in  1685.  the  king  assumed 
 tlic  right  to  regulate  all  liturgical  matters,  though  he  claimed 
 that  he  exercised  it  with  the  advice  of  the  Bishops  and  other 
 learned  men.  He  made  the  Altar  Book  binding  on  all,  and  pre- 
 scribed penalties  for  disobedience,  but  arbitrarily  granted  special 
 privileges  and  made  exceptions  in  favor  of  some  of  the  clergy 
 and  parishes. 
 
 In  the  Duchies  the  Synodical  authority  given  by  Christian 
 l\  in  1646  continued  in  force,  and  in  i6gi  Christian  V  restored 
 that  order  throughout  the  kingdom.  The  Synods  effected  many 
 changes  in  the  cultus  and  in  other  matters.  In  1730  thev  began 
 the  i)reparation  of  a  new  Ritual,  and  in  1737  they  determined  to 
 abolish  the  order  of  exorcism. 
 
 J^trcnuous  efforts  were  made  to  bring  about  the  desired  uni- 
 formity in  the  service,  and  at  the  Synod  in  Rocskildc.   1585,  a 
 
THE  LITURGY  IX  DENMARK.  6l 
 
 Bishop  complained  that  some  of  the  pastors  omitted  the  exhorta- 
 tion and  the  prescribed  Benediction  in  the  Communion  service, 
 and  several  were  removed  from  their  parishes  for  failing  to 
 follow  the  approved  order.      (Pont.,  3,  501.) 
 
 The  importance  of  uniformity  was  affirmed  already  in  the 
 Synod  of  Copenhagen,  in  1540,  in  very  emphatic  language.  And 
 Palladius.  in  the  appendix  to  his  Enchiridion,  says  to  the  clergy, 
 — -"it  is  my  humble  prayer  and  request  to  you.  each  and  all.  chief- 
 Iv  first  for  the  honor  of  God,  and  farther  for  the  edification  of  the 
 holy  church,  that  you  will  all  unitedly  keep  these  ceremonies  in 
 force."  and  the  Synod  of  Antvorskov  in  1546  closed  with  these 
 words. — "we  wish  and  ask  in  love,  according  to  the  authority 
 given  us  by  God.  that  the  servants  of  God's  word  throughout 
 this  Danish  kingdom,  all  as  one  man,  will  govern  themselves  by 
 these  rules."  (Pont..  3,  296.)  And  these  admonitions  and  re- 
 quests were  very  generally  respected. 
 
 The  legislation  of  the  Danish  Church,  in  regard  to  the  order 
 of  worship,  was  in  close  accord  with  Luther's  instructions  and 
 the  example  of  the  German  Churches.  Luther's  order  of  1523 
 was  more  closely  followed  than  that  of  1526  out  of  regard  for 
 the  prejudices  and  weaknesses  of  the  people  and  because  it  re- 
 tained some  old  features  which  were  viewed  with  favor.  Several 
 parts  of  the  service  were  intoned  by  the  minister,  guided  by 
 musical  notes  provided  in  the  Hand  Book  of  1539.  This  prac- 
 tice still  prevails  in  the  Scandinavian  Church  even  in  this  country. 
 
 The  singing  of  Danish  hynms  became  a  very  prominent  part 
 ot  the  public  service  and  more  and  more  forced  out  several  an- 
 tliems  and  set  aside  some  of  the  old  formulas,  even  versifying  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten  Commandments.  The  great  and 
 praiseworthy  aim  was  to  have  much  congregational  singing  and 
 less  praise  by  proxy. 
 
 After  these  general  observations  on  the  subject  before  us,  wc 
 may  now  proceed  to  note  more  minutely  the  several  parts  of  the 
 service,  and  first — 
 
 OF    THE   CHIEF    SERVICE.      HOEIMESSE. 
 
 The  original  conception  of  the  chief  service,  as  that  of  the 
 Holy  Communion,  is  recognized  in  the  first  section  of  the  instruc- 
 tions of  the  Ordinance — "On  the  outward  order  and  the  minis- 
 ter's prayer." 
 
 I.  The  Ordinance  directs  that  the  minister  shall  appear  be- 
 fore the  Altar  in  the  appropriate  vestments  and,  kneeling,  say 
 the  Confiteor  in  Danish  or  Latin,  as  stated  in  the  Hand  Book. 
 And  it  was  ordered  that  at  this  point  a  prayer  should  be  offered 
 
(rl  MEMOIRS. 
 
 for  the  king  and  the  kingdom,  but  this  was  later  omitted,  and  in 
 its  stead  was  inserted  an  "oratio  concionatoris  ante  missam,"  and 
 this  in  Danish  translation  in  the  XVI  century.  Hence  the  serv- 
 ice began  with  a  silent  prayer  by  the  minister,  the  people  also 
 praving,  kneeling.  In  the  XYIl  century  two  forms  of  prayer 
 were  provided,  tlie  one  for  the  beginning  and  the  other  for  the 
 close  of  the  service,  to  be  oflFered  audibly  by  the  Deacon  stand.ing 
 at  the  door  of  the  chancel  or  in  the  middle  aisle.  But  in  the 
 Hymn  Book  of  1553  there  are  indications  that  the  minister  made 
 confession  for  the  people  and  used  a  form,  in  which  they  par- 
 ticipated in  the  prayer.  In  that  book  there  are  three  parts  be- 
 fore the  Introitus,  "adjutorium  nostrum  in  nomine  Domini," 
 "Confiteor"  in  Danish,  and  an  "evangelical  absolution  over  the 
 congregation"  in  the  precatory  form.  The  adjutorium  is  given 
 in  a  stanza  of  four  lines,  as  follows, — 
 
 Our  help  is  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord, 
 Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 
 Acknowledge  the  Lord,   for  He  is  good, 
 And  His  mercv  endureth  forever. 
 
 These  words  were  doubtless  said  by  the  minister,  who  then  read 
 the  confession  of  sin  and  expressed  the  wish  for  the  pardon  of  the 
 people.  And  we  have  here  an  instance  of  the  transformation  of 
 the  Catholic  Ritus  which  the  Lutherans  were  wont  to  make,  for 
 these  same  three  parts  occur  in  the  jiriest's  personal  preparation 
 for  the  Mass  in  the  Catholic  cultus.  as  is  fully  explainetl  in 
 Siegel's  Handbuch  dcr  Christ,  kircli.  Altcrthucmcr.  3.  376. 
 
 2.  The  Ordinance  prescribed  that,  after  the  prayer,  there 
 shall  be  said  or  sung  the  Introitus.  or.  in  its  stead,  some  Danish 
 hymn.  es]K'cially  in  the  country.  And.  in  the  Hymn  Book  of 
 1569,  the  rule  is  laid  down  that  the  hymn  shall  be  in  harmony 
 with  the  Gospel  lesson  or  the  special  occasion. 
 
 3.  Immediately  after  the  hymn,  the  Kyrie  was  sung  by  the 
 Deacon  in  the  original  form,  Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  Kyrie 
 eleison,  or  in  the  corresponding  Danish  words.  This  form  wa.« 
 sung  by  the  Catholic  jiriest  nine  times,  but  the  Synod  of  Copen- 
 hagen, in  1540,  limited  it  to  three  times.  (Pont.,  3,  350.)  By 
 assigning  this  to  the  Deacon  the  way  was  paved  for  making  it  a 
 hymn  by  the  choir  or  congregation,  and  hence  we  find  that  it  ap- 
 pears as  such  in  the  Hymn  Book  of  1539.  The  first  line  is  "Kyrio 
 Cud  Fader  alsomhoeiste  Troest."  And  in  the  Hymn  Book  from 
 1453  to  1778  there  were  three  hymns,  which  versified  the  Kyrie. 
 The  Synod  of  1546  prescribed  that  the  Kyrie  .should  be  sung 
 three  times  in  the  cities,  but  in  the  form  of  a  hvnin  in  ruralibus. 
 
THE  LITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  63 
 
 4.  After  this  it  is  ordered  that  "the  minister  shall  intone 
 the  angelic  song  of  praise, — 'Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo,"  in  Latin  or 
 Danish,  and  then  the  church  shall  follow  it."  The  meaning  here 
 is  made  clearer  when  we  note  that,  in  the  Danish  translation, 
 the  order  is  that  the  minister  shall  sing, — "Glory  to  God  in  the 
 liighest"  and  the  choir  and  congregation  shall  join  in  the  rest. 
 In  later  years  this  was  modified  and  it  was  used  only  on  special 
 occasions,  and  was  then  sung  by  the  minister  in  Latin ;  and  at 
 the  regular  services  a  hymn  took  its  place. 
 
 5.  The  minister  then  turns  and  faces  the  congregation,  and, 
 after  the  Responsory,  there  follows  the  prescribed  Collect.  After 
 the  Psalm,  the  Deacon  and  congregation  respond — Amen. 
 
 6.  After  this  the  minister  again  turns  to  the  altar  and  in- 
 tones the  Epistle  "slowly,  clearly,  so  that  the  people  can  well 
 understand  and  mark  him."  In  the  Hymn  Book  of  1569  careful 
 provision  is  made  for  correct  intoning,  the  musical  notes  being 
 given,  but  especially  for  the  Epistle  and  Gospel.  There  a  mu- 
 sical division  in  live  parts  is  made, — comma  et  colon,  periodus, 
 periodus  alia,  questio  et  finale. 
 
 7.  The  ordinance  next  directs, — "The  Hallelujah,  which  is 
 a  perpetual  sound  in  the  holy  church,  shall  be  sung  by  two  chil- 
 dren, and  also  the  long  Halle  after  it.  After  this,  in  the  place 
 where  it  is  customary  to  sing  the  gradual,  a  Danish  hymn  shall 
 be  sung,  or  a  gradual  alone  with  two  verses.  All  Sequences 
 shall  be  left  out  except  at  the  three  great  Christian  Festivals." 
 But  later  the  strong  desire  for  congregational  singing  led  to  the 
 substitution  of  a  hymn  for  the  Hallelujah.  This  hymn  was  in 
 harmony  with  the  Epistle.  Still  the  Hallelujah  is  found  in  the 
 Hymn  Book  of  1690. 
 
 8.  The  Sequences  were  retained  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
 though  for  several  years  they  were  used  only  on  festival  days. 
 But,  in  the  Hymn  Book  of  1553,  they  were  provided  for  the 
 whole  year  and  verses  of  a  hymn  were  combined  with  the  Psalm, 
 and  there  were  several  other  minor  variations,  which  were  modi- 
 fied in  the  Hymn  Book  of  1569,  that  follows  the  Ordinance  and 
 makes  only  this  addition,  that,  after  the  Hallelujah,  from  Pente- 
 cost to  Candlemas  Day,  there  shall  be  sung  the  hymn  to  the 
 Holy  Ghost — "Nu  bede  vi  den  hellig  Aand,"  in  four  stanzas. 
 And  here  the  Ritual  farther  specifies  some  changes  for  the  sev- 
 eral great  sections  of  the  church  year. 
 
 9.  Then  the  minister  turns  and  faces  the  people  and  reads 
 the  Gospel.  The  Ordinance  does  not  speak  of  the  repetition  of 
 the  Responsory — "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  nor  that  with  which 
 the  choir  greeted  the  Gospel — "God  be  praised  for  His  joyful 
 message;"  but  the  Hand  Book  of  1539  has  both,  and  the  Synod 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  1540  ordered  that  they  should  be  retained,  (rent.,  3.  250.) 
 And  the  Hymn  Book  of  1569  contains  musical  notes  for  both 
 the  minister's  words  and  the  response  of  the  Deacon  and  the  con- 
 gregation. The  Ritual  keeps  the  Responsory  as  it  presents  two 
 forms. — "God  be  praised  for  His  joyful  message"  and  "Praise 
 and  honor  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord." 
 
 JO.  After  the  Gospel  the  minister  turns  to  the  altar  and 
 intones  "Credo"  and  the  choir  joins  in  with  "Patrem  omnipo- 
 tentem,  etc.,"  and  immediately  after  this  the  congregation  sings 
 the  h\mn  "\'i  troe  allesammen,"  that  is.  We  all  do  believe.  But 
 the  Hand  Cook  of  1539  directs  that  the  Latin  Credo  shall  be  sung 
 only  where  there  are  Latin  schools,  and  this  became  the  general 
 custom.  But  later  a  hymn  took  the  place  of  the  Creed,  which 
 was  always  that  of  Nicea. 
 
 1 1 .  The  Ordinance  directs  that  the  Creed — always  the 
 Xicene — shall  be  followed  by  the  sermon,  but  the  Hand  Book  of 
 1539  says  that  a  hymn  shall  be  sung  between  the  Creed  and  the 
 sermon. 
 
 12.  The  sermon  was  preceded  and  followed  by  prayer, 
 minister  and  people  kneeling.  Near  the  close  of  the  sermon  the 
 minister,  according  to  the  Hand  Book  of  1539,  must  "exhort  the 
 people,  that,  each  in  his  or  her  place,  should  humbly  make  con- 
 fession before  the  face  of  God,  and  repeat  the  holy  catechism, 
 word  for  word,  without  comment,  in  that  form,  which  the  worthy 
 Father  Martinus  has  set  before  us  out  of  the  Holy  Scripture, 
 which  the  Danish  catechism  book  contains."  This  was  the  prep- 
 aration lor  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  it  was  discontinued  later,  as 
 such,  wlien  private  confession  was  introduced,  as  ordered  by 
 the  Synod  of  1540.  But  in  some  localities  the  public  confession 
 was  practiced.  Yet  the  recitation  of  the  catechism  was  continued 
 as  a  means  of  instruction.  This  change  disturbed  the  close  con- 
 nection of  the  sermon  with  the  Holy  Communion,  and  the  direc- 
 tion was  given  that,  at  the  close  of  the  sermon  and  before  leaving 
 the  pulpit,  the  minister  should  begin  the  singing  of  a  prescribed 
 hymn. 
 
 13.  .\t  this  point  the  Holy  Communion  was  administered, 
 of  whose  order  we  will  treat  separately  farther  on.  Tiie  Catholic 
 office  of  the  Offertorium  with  its  unscriptural  representation  of 
 the  sacrifice  was  excluded.  The  service  of  the  communion  was 
 short,  the  Ordinance  giving  this  rule. — "after  a  hymn  or  two 
 there  shall  be  read  a  collect  or  two  antl  the  pronouncing  of  the 
 l>enediction."  But  later  this  was  shortened  by  the  limitation  to 
 line  hymn  and  one  collect,  and  between  1556  and  1564,  the  par- 
 ticular collect  to  be  used,  when  there  was  no  Communion,  was 
 designated.     This  and  the  Benediction,  with  the  Responsoriuni, 
 
the;  liturgy  in  dEnmark.  65 
 
 by  which  they  were  preceded,  constituted  the  altar  service  after 
 the  sermon. 
 
 14.  A  hymn  pro  pace  or  pro  exitu  closed  the  whole  service. 
 For  this  purpose  the  Hand  Book  of  1539  provides  the  Decalogue 
 versified,  and  the  Hymn  Book  of  1553  has  it  in  four  forms,  and 
 the  Hymn  Book  of  1569  recommends  the  singing  of  the  Deca- 
 logue, so  that  thus  the  whole  of  Luther's  Catechism  may  be 
 used  at  the  service;  but  in  1573  this  was  prescribed  for  the  coun- 
 try parishes  only,  and  that  during  the  Trinity  season.  Then  the 
 minister  and  congregation,  kneeling,  ofifered  silent  prayer. 
 
 MATINS  AND  VESPERS. 
 
 The  Danish  term  for  Matins  is  Ottesang,  that  is,  eight 
 o'clock  song,  as  the  service  is  held  from  8  to  9  A.  M.,  and,  for 
 Vespers,  Aftensang,  evening  song,  from  2  to  3  P.  AI.  The  daily 
 services  at  those  hours  closely  followed  Luther's  Deutsche  Messe, 
 where  there  were  Latin  schools,  and  were  especially  intended  to 
 train  the  young  in  religious  knowledge  and  worship.  The  Latin 
 was  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  the  Danish  was  also  used 
 for  the  benefit  of  those  who  did  not  understand  the  former, 
 Antiphons,  Kyrie  eleison,  and  hymns  were  sung  and  lessons  read 
 from  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  Sermons  were  not  always 
 preached,  but,  when  they  were,  they  treated  chiefly  of  penitence 
 and  good  works,  so  that  the  Law  as  well  as  the  Gospel  might 
 be  put  before  the  people.  The  Holy  Communion  was  sometimes 
 administered,  but  only  in  very  special  cases ;  but,  after  the  time 
 of  Christian  V,  it  became  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  in 
 the  larger  places.  Two  services  were  held  on  Wednesdays  and 
 Fridays  which  conformed  to  the  Sunday  service,  and  the  fore- 
 noon service  followed  the  full  order  of  the  Hoeimesse  or  chief 
 service  and  included  the  Communion.  At  the  Matin  and  V^esper 
 service  on  Sunday  and  Festivals  the  whole  Catechism  was  re- 
 cited. 
 
 THE  COLLECTS. 
 
 Much  might  here  be  written  about  the  history  and  use  of  the 
 Collects  in  the  Danish  church,  but  I  will  not  enter  fully  into  this 
 extensive  subject,  but  merely  state  that,  immediately  after  the 
 introduction  of  the  Reformation,  the  Collects  or  Orationes  of  the 
 Catholic  Church  were  used,  with  some  exceptions,  in  accordance 
 with  Luther's  practice.  The  first  collection  of  these  short 
 prayers  in  the  Danish  church  is  found  in  the  Hand  Book  of  1539, 
 and  a  revised  edition  is  given  in  the  Hymn  Book  of  1553.     The 
 
66  MRMOIRS. 
 
 collection  now  in  use  is  very  full  for  all  Sundays.  Festivals,  and 
 all  special  services  and  subjects,  and  sacramental  acts.  And  we 
 note  tiiat  the  Collects  are  from  two  to  three  times  as  long  a^^ 
 those  in  our  Church  JJook.  They  are  very  devout  in  spirit  and 
 expression,  and  are  given  in  jjure  Danish. 
 
 TIIR  ORDIvR  OF    IXFA.XT    r.AI'TISM. 
 
 In  passing  from  the  consideration  of  the  more  general  serv- 
 ices of  the  church,  we  naturally  direct  our  attention  to  the  Sacia- 
 ments,  and,  hrst  to  that  of  Baptism. 
 
 It  is  not  known  who  was  the  first  to  administer  Baptism  in 
 Danish,  but  the  eminent  reformer,  Hans  Tausen.  published  the 
 first  baptismal  formula  in  that  language.  And  whilst  that  form 
 is  in  harmony  with  the  original  Taufbuechlein  of  Luther,  it  was 
 not  copied  from  it;  and  internal  evidence  shows  that  the  euthor 
 tlid  not  have  it  before  him,  although  he  must  have  been  ac- 
 (juainted  with*  it,  as  he  had  been  with  Luther  in  Wittenberg  He 
 retained  all  the  symbolical  features,  as  he  deemed  it  unwise  to 
 hasten  radical  changes  in  things  immaterial,  but  he  stated  that 
 the  use  of  these  minor  forms  was  not  compulsory.  And  the  Lit- 
 urgy of  Malmoe  in  1535  indicates  that  these  forms  had  been  aban- 
 doned ])revious  to  that  date.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  ritual 
 varied  before  the  full  establishment  of  the  Reformation.  The 
 (Ordinance  of  1.536  does  not  give  the  full  form  for  Baptism,  but 
 simply  says,  "Thus  shall  he  begin :  Depart,  thou  unclean  spirit." 
 And  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  Luther's  form,  of 
 1523,  was  closely  followed,  of  which  t'alladius  provided  an  ac- 
 curate translation  in  his  Enchiridion  of  1538,  and  declared  that 
 there  should  be  no  variation  from  Luther's  words,  though  he 
 made  an  exception,  namely,  in  the  long  prayer  at  the  exorcism. 
 "O  Almighty,  eternal  God.  Who  in  the  Flood,"  etc.  Here  Luther 
 says, — "(lass  (lurch  diese  heilsame  Suendtluth  an  ihm  er  sauflfe 
 und  untergelie  Alles,  was  ihm  von  Adam  angebohren  ist  und  was 
 er  selbst  dazu  gethan  hat ;"  but  I'alladius  has, — "All  that  which 
 is  born  in  him  from  Adam,  that  is,  that  sin  which  Adam  commit- 
 ted," which  has  a  dogmatic  significance.  This  book  was  used 
 by  the  side  of  the  Ordinance,  which  designates  some  additional 
 particulars.  lUit  some  variations  were  j^racticed.  especiallv  in  the 
 IVovinccs  and  the  Synod  of  1540  gave  strict  directions  to  ob- 
 serve the  prescribed  order  (Pont.,  3,  252).  as  also  that  of  1556. 
 
 In  the  oldest  orders,  in  the  Ordinance  and  the  Hand  Book 
 f^f  1539'  t'lc  act  begins  with  the  questions  who.se  child  it  is  and 
 whether  it  had  been  baptized  at  home,  but  later  the  former  of 
 these  was  omitted  as  casting  a  shadow  on  the  baptismal  scene 
 
THE  IvITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  d"] 
 
 in  the  case  of  illegitimate  children.  The  minister  was  then 
 directed  "to  declare  to  the  company  standing  around  (the  font), 
 in  few  but  forcible  words,  the  exalted  nature  of  Baptism;"  and 
 the  outline  given  indicates  that  the  address  was  intended  for  the 
 whole  congregation  as  well  as  for  the  sponsors.  And  this  direc- 
 tion was  emphasized  by  the  Diet  at  Aarhuus  in  1631,  in  the 
 words:  "Caveant  Pastores,  ne  ommitatur  adhortatio,  quae  ad 
 patrinos  necessario  fieri  solet."  But  this  very  proper  direction 
 was  stricken  out  at  the  Diet  at  Viborg  in  1699. 
 
 The  act  of  Baptism  began  with  Exorcism.  This  part  of  the 
 Catholic  ritual  had  been  abolished  by  the  Reformation  and  was 
 excluded  by  Luther  in  his  first  "L'nterrecht  \m\^  man  einen  j\Ien- 
 schen  zum  christlichen  Glauben  taufen  lassen  solle,  1521."  And 
 the  Danish  Lutherans  also  began  to  omit  Exorcism,  but  the 
 early  Liturgies  show  that  it  was  re-adopted  with  Luther's  modi- 
 fications. \'igorous  efforts  were  soon  made  to  abolish  it  alto- 
 gether, but  failed  for  the  time  being. 
 
 The  Exorcism  was  followed  by  the  Gospel,  and  that  by  the 
 Lord's  Prayer.  In  the  older  books  the  doxology  of  the  prayer 
 is  wanting,  after  the  example  of  Luther,  but  in  all  the  later  ones 
 i^  is  inserted.  During  this  prayer  the  minister  and  the  people 
 kneeled,  with  the  thought  that,  as  the  prayer  was  offered  over 
 the  child,  the  Lord  Himself  was  blessing  it.  But  in  the  later 
 Altar  Books  this  beautiful  practice  was  omitted. 
 
 Then  the  minister  calls  the  sponsor  to  the  font  and  says, — 
 "The  Lord  preserve  thy  coming  in  and  thy  going  out."  This 
 was  followed  by  the  renunciation  of  the  devil  and  by  the  Creed, 
 each  of  which  is  respectively  uttered  in  three  parts.  The  ques- 
 tions were  addressed  to  the  child.  Then  come  the  baptizing  in 
 the  name  of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost,  the  last  prayer, 
 and  the  Pax,  admonition  to  the  sponsors  to  teach  the  child  the 
 Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 
 
 No  change  was  made  in  this  part  of  the  Liturgy  until  1783, 
 when  the  act  01  Exorcism,  even  in  its  modified  form,  was 
 strongly  opposed  as  weakening  the  thought  of  the  daily  conflict 
 with  the  devil.  And,  after  some  controversy,  it  was  abolished. 
 ^  but  the  signing  with  the  cross  was  retained,  with  the  addition, — 
 "for  a  witness  that  thou  shalt  believe  on  the  crucified  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ." 
 
 The  order,  as  revised  in  1895,  is  as  follows:  Address  to  the 
 sponsors;  signing  with  the  cross;  prayer;  Gospel,  Mark  10: 
 13-16;  Lord's  Prayer;  praise  to  God  who  will  now  regenerate 
 the  child;  "God  preserve  thy  coming,"  etc.;  renunciation  and 
 Creed  in  singularis  with  questions  to  the  child:     "Wilt  thou  be 
 
68  MEMOIRS. 
 
 baptized?";   lja])tisin  ;  cliikl   coiiimciulcd  to  God;    Pax;  admoni- 
 tion to  sponsors ;   Collect. 
 
 ADL'LT    UAI'TISM. 
 
 As  infant  Uaptism  was  practically  nniversal  at  the  opening 
 of  the  Reformation,  Luther  did  not  provide  a  special  form  for 
 the  liaptism  of  adults,  and  in  Denmark  there  was  no  such  form 
 for  150  Nears.  The  first  case,  of  which  we  have  knowledge,  oc- 
 curred in  1620.  The  form  finally  given  was  that  for  infants,  with 
 some  omissions  rather  than  alterations,  namely,  the  Exorcism, 
 signing  with  the  cross,  and  the  Gospel,  a  hymn  taking  the  place 
 of  the  last  of  these  parts.  But,  in  the  revised  form  of  1895,  part 
 of  the  Gospel  is  read, — Matt.  28:  18-20,  and  the  signing  with  the 
 cross  is  restored.  On  the  preceding  Sunday  the  intended  Bap- 
 tism is  announced,  and  on  the  day  of  its  occurrence  the  service 
 had  special  reference  to  this  Sacrament.  The  candidate  occupied 
 a  seat  specially  set  apart  for  him,  was  examined  and  commended 
 to  the  love  and  care  of  the  congregation.  The  person  baptized 
 assumed  a  new^  or  additional  name,  at  his  pleasure.  And,  at  the 
 close  of  the  service,  the  minister  briefly  addressed  the  sponsors 
 or  witnesses,  who  stood  at  either  side  of  the  altar.  The  pres- 
 ence of  such  sponsors  at  adult  Baptism  was  no  new  thing.  They 
 appeared  in  the  ante  Christie  period  at  the  Baptism  of  adult 
 proselytes  to  Judaism  as  well  as  of  "exposed  children"  or  found- 
 lings. The  Babylonian  Talmud  says  that  the  number  was  two. 
 l)ut  the   lerusalem  Talmud  and  Maimonides  sav  three. 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 In  the  Catholic  Church.  Confirmation  was  and  is  still  held 
 to  be  a  Sacrament,  and  to  supplement  and  complete  Baptism. 
 (Cone.  Trident.  L)e  Confirmatione.)  And  hence  it  was  entirely 
 abandoned  uy  the  Protestants  for  a  long  time.  The  latter  held 
 that  the  rite  was  related  to  the  Lord's  Supper  and  connected  with 
 the  proper  preparation  for  that  Sacrament.  As  it  was  necessary 
 that  all  who  come  to  the  Communion  should  be  prepared  in  head 
 and  heart  for  the  sacred  act  and  were  examined  before  they 
 were  admitted,  it  was  felt  that  the  young,  who  presented  them- 
 selves for  the  first  time,  should  be  carefully  questioned  as  to 
 their  fitness,  and  when  they  gave  satisfactory  evidence  of  this, 
 they  should  be  approved.  Bugenhagen.  in  his  introduction  to 
 Talladius'  ICnchiridion.  without  a  word  about  vows  or  Baptism, 
 ccjmbines  the  examination  of  children  and  other  communicants  in 
 
THR  LITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  69 
 
 that  he  declares  the  words  of  Luther's  Small  Catechism  to  be 
 the  confession  upon  which  the  child  of  eight  years  and  the  cen- 
 tenarian are  alike  admitted  to  the  Communion.  Through  the 
 labors  of  Melanchthon  and  Chemnitz  (Exam.  Cone.  Trid.  De 
 Confirmatione)  Confirmation,  divested  of  papal  errors,  was  re- 
 introduced in  Germany,  and  still  farther  in  the  movement  under 
 Spener  in  the  XVII  century;  but  it  did  not  reach  the  Danish 
 Church.  The  Danish  Ordinance  gave  directions  for  the  exam- 
 ination of  all  communicants,  though  in  practice  there  were  some 
 special  features  in  that  of  the  young  admitted  for  the  first  time, 
 but  nothing  that  would  justify  the  application  to  it  of  the  term 
 confirmation,  as  we  now  use  it  to  designate  a  distinct  act.  Niels 
 Hemmingsen,  in  the  middle  of  the  XVI  century,  is  the  first  to 
 use  the  word  "confirm,"  but  without  any  reference  to  Baptism. 
 "Episcopi  in  visitationibus  publice  examinant  juventutem  in  ar- 
 ticulis  fidei  et  in  doctrina  de  Sacramentis.  Deinde  eam  doctrina 
 et  exhortationibus  coiifiniiaiit.  Idem  fit  quoque  privatim  a  pas- 
 toribus,  antequam  admittantur  praesertim  rudiores  ad  participa- 
 tionem  Coense  Dominicae."  The  children  were  often  admitted  to 
 the  Communion  when  they  were  only  from  six  to  seven  years  of 
 age.  Under  tlie  influence  of  Spener  catechetical  instruction  re- 
 ceived the  most  earnest  attention.  And,  as  the  chief  aim  was 
 that  the  minister  should  be  assured  of  the  fitness  of  the  young, 
 the  examination  sometimes  took  place  privately  in  his  house.  In 
 Resenius'  book  of  1627,  "De  executione  visitationis  catecheticse," 
 it  is  said  that  the  examination  in  Luther's  Catechism  occurred  in 
 the  Church.  "If  then  any  are  found  to  have  learned  well,  with 
 explanation  and  pious  feeling,  they  shall  not  only  be  commended, 
 but  shall  be  confirmed  with  the  imposition  of  hands  either  by 
 the  Bishop  or  the  Pastor,  and  then  be  admitted  to  the  Com- 
 munion." 
 
 In  Iceland,  which  belongs  to  Denmark,  Bishop  Gudbrand 
 Thorlakson,  in  1596,  ordered  that  the  young,  who  had  learned 
 the  Catechism,  should  meet  for  examination  on  the  first  or  second 
 Sunday  after  Easter  and  Pentecost ;  that  the  minister  should 
 announce  to  the  congregation  that  these  young  Christians  de- 
 sired to  come  into  closer  union  with  the  Lord  through  the  Sac- 
 rament of  the  altar ;  and  that  he  should  ask  the  prayers  of  the 
 congregation  for  their  spiritual  welfare.  Then  the  young  people 
 declared  their  faith  by  reciting  the  Catechism,  after  which  the 
 minister  read  a  promise  which  they  repeated  after  him,  but 
 which  made  no  reference  to  Baptism.  Then  followed  the  im- 
 position of  the  right  hand,  and  the  young  accompanied  their 
 parents  to  the  altar  and  communed. 
 
70  MEMOIRS. 
 
 In  view  of  this  presentation  of  the  suhject  we  are  not  sur- 
 prised at  the  statement  of  Pontoppidan  (Annales,  4.  518)  that, 
 during  the  X\  II  and  well  into  the  X\'1II  century.  Confirmation 
 was  not  known  in  Denmark,  although  in  1706  Bishop  Mueller 
 proposed  its  restoration  according  to  the  "primitivje  ecclesiie 
 ritum,"  an  attempt  which  failed.  Cut  individual  ministers,  and 
 especially  the  German  pastors  in  Copenhagen,  began  to  practice 
 the  public  examination,  and,  in  1734,  Bishop  Hersleb  introduced 
 it  in  Christiania.  And  on  the  13th  of  January,  1736,  King  Chris- 
 tian \'I,  by  the  advice  of  Bishop  Bluhme,  enacted  a  law  bearing 
 on  the  subject.  The  principal  changes  made  in  the  general 
 practice  were :  The  solemn  repetition  of  the  baptismal  vows,  and 
 the  statement  that  the  aim  is  to  prepare  the  young  for  the  Com- 
 munion. In  one  Section  it  is  declared  that  "the  nature,  quality 
 and  importance  of  Confirmation  consist  in  this,  that  the  cate- 
 chumens shall  repeat  and  confirm  that  covenant,  which  their 
 sponsors,  at  their  Baptism,  made  for  them,  and  that  they  shall  be 
 reminded  that  now  in  these  days  they  must  examine  themselves 
 before  the  Lord  as  to  how  they  have  kept  their  baptismal  cov- 
 enant, and  whether  they  find  themselves  in  the  state  in  which 
 Baptism  placed  them,  as  otherwise  they  would  not  be  worthy  to 
 appear  before  the  face  of  the  Lord  and  the  Christian  congre- 
 gation. 
 
 It  was  also  ordered  that  a  prescribed  course  of  study  must 
 be  pursued,  and  that  then  the  pastor  must  meet  them  in  his  house 
 twice  in  each  week  for  at  least  three  months,  and  not  simply  go 
 over  the  course,  but  labor  for  their  salvation.  And  it  was  farther 
 ordered  that  the  Confirmation  should  take  place  publicly  in  the 
 church  on  apjjointed  days;  that  these  requirements  were  binding 
 on  all ;  and  that  the  service  should  be  conducted  with  the  greatest 
 solemnity.  This  new  order  met  with  some  opposition  at  first, 
 but  that  soon  ceased,  and  very  few  changes  have  been  made  down 
 to  the  present  time. 
 
 Tliis  order  is  also  observed  in  the  Lutheran  Churches  in  the 
 Danish  West  India  Islands.  Their  '"Liturgy  and  Prayers."  in 
 the  luiglish  language,  printed  in  Copenhagen,  is  in  the  hands  of 
 the  writer. 
 
 TIIK  I.oRD  S  SriTKR. 
 
 In  the  order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the 
 Danish  Church  departed  from  the  canon  of  the  Catholic  Church 
 and  limited  it  to  the  Lord's  Praver,  the  words  of  the  Institution, 
 
THE  LITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  71 
 
 Collect  and  Benediction,  as  Luther  had  done,  but  added  an  emi- 
 nently practical  address  to  the  communicants.  This  address  was 
 given  immediately  after  the  consecration  and  before  the  distribu- 
 tion, as  seen  in  the  Liturgy  of  Malmoe  of  1529,  but,  in  1535,  it 
 was  placed  before  the  consecration.  The  Lord's  Prayer  has 
 been  generally  used  at  the  consecration,  but  not  always  in  con- 
 nection with  the  words  of  the  Institution  as  now.  In  1529  it 
 appears  coupled  with  the  Admonition,  and  the  Ordinance  direct- 
 ed that  the  Prayer  should  be  intoned  according  to  the  prescribed 
 musical  notes. 
 
 The  words  of  the  Institution,  which  in  the  Catholic  Church 
 were  repeated  by  the  priest  inaudibly,  were  in  all  the  evangelical 
 churches  sung  aloud,  and  the  Danish  ritual  directed  that  it 
 should  be  done  "alta  voce."  And  at  this  point  the  question  of  the 
 elevation  of  the  elements  received  attention.  The  Catholic  prac- 
 tice of  elevating  the  elements  for  adoration  was,  of  course,  aban 
 doned  at  once,  but  the  first  instruction  on  the  subject  was  given 
 in  1529,  when  the  minister  was  directed  to  "lift  up"  (loefte)  the 
 plate  and  cup,  but  the  Ordinance  left  this  to  the  judgment  of  the 
 minister.  But  in  the  Hand  Book  of  1539  Vormordsen  directly 
 forbade  it,  and  yet  the  proceedings  of  the  Synod  of  Antvorskov 
 show  that  it  was  still  practiced  in  many  places,  and  hence,  in 
 the  spirit  of  compromise,  the  Synod  of  Copenhagen  ordered  that, 
 during  the  consecration  and  near  its  close,  the  minister  should 
 make  a  "decens  elevatio."  (Pont.  Annal.,  3,  250.)  But  the  ele- 
 vation as  a  separate  act  was  forbidden,  and  before  the  Norwegian 
 Ordinance  was  published,  the  "lifting  up"  gave  place  to  the  later 
 practice  of  merely  taking  the  plate  and  cup  in  the  hand. 
 
 Another  question  also  arose,  namely,  whether  there  should 
 be  another  consecration  if  the  consecrated  bread  and  wine  jv-rt 
 exhausted.  An  affirmative  answer  is  given  by  the  Ordinance 
 and  the  Synod  of  1540;  and  the  Hand  Books  of  1535  and  1539 
 both  direct  that  such  consecration  shall  take  place  without  inter- 
 rupting the  singing  of  the  hymn,  and  that  the  words  of  the  In 
 stitution  shall  be  said  and  not  sung. 
 
 In  accord  with  the  example  of  Luther,  the  Hand  Book  of 
 ^535>  ^iicl  Bugenhagen's  instructions  for  the  monasteries,  the 
 words  of  the  Institution  were  divided  and  the  bread  distributed 
 as  soon  as  consecrated,  and  then  the  wine  consecrated  and  dis- 
 tributed. But  the  Synod  of  Copenhagen,  1540,  ordered  the 
 simultaneous  consecration  of  both  elements.  (Pont.  Annal.,  3, 
 251,  De  distributione.)  And  the  distribution  took  place  imme- 
 diately after  the  consecration. 
 
 In  connection  with  the  distribution  the  question  arose 
 whether  the  minister  should  partake  of  the  Communion  at  his 
 
72  MEMOIRS. 
 
 own  hands.  lie  was  autliorizcd  by  the  Synod  of  Antv(3r>kov  to« 
 do  so  at  the  jnibhc  service,  and  also  when  administering  the 
 Sacrament  to  the  sick.  And  the  practice  was.  of  course,  ap- 
 proved by  Bugenhagen,  who  gives  the  following  rubric  in  his 
 (jcrman  "Ordnung  der  evangclische  Mcsse"  of  1524 — a  copy  of 
 which  lies  before  me — "Nach  diesem  gebet  speyst  der  priester 
 sich  selbs,  darnach  das  \'olck."  But  in  1640  the  practice  was  al- 
 lowed onI\-  in  exccj)tional  cases.  In  1886  the  practice  was  official- 
 ly and  witlu»ut  liiiiitatioiis  authorized,  and  so  the  matter  stands 
 now. 
 
 At  the  distribution,  according  to  the  Liturgy  of  1529.  the 
 minister  said, — "the  receiving  of  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ 
 strengthen  thee  unto  eternal  life ;  the  partaking  of  the  blood 
 of  Jesus  Christ  be  unto  thee  for  help  and  comfort.  Amen."  But 
 the  Ordinance,  1536,  directed  that  the  distribution  should  take 
 ])lace  ill  silence,  as  follows :  "the  minister  shall  say  nothing  to 
 those  who  commune,  since  it  was  audibly  said  to  all  the  people 
 when  it  was  consecrated."  But  the  Synod  of  Copenhagen  mod- 
 ified this  by  allowing  "that  something  might  be  said,  but  as  briefly 
 as  possible,  as  "receive  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ ;  receive  the 
 blood  of  Jesus  Christ."  For  a  time  the  word  "true"  was  pre- 
 fixed to  the  words  "body"  and  "blood,"  but  later  it  was  omitted 
 as  implied  and  therefore  unnecessary.  At  the  close  of  each 
 Communion,  where  the  Catholic  Church  offered  a  prayer  called 
 the  "Communio,"  there  the  Danish  church  used  a  hymn,  as  noted 
 in  the  Liturgy  of  1529,  and  in  that  of  1553  this  hymn  is  desig- 
 nated, which  begins  as  follows :  "God  be  praised  and  blest,  who 
 Himself  has  fed  us  with  His  body  and  blood  ;  may  God  turn  this 
 to  our  good.     Kyrie  eleison." 
 
 A  hymn  was  always  sung  during  the  distribution.  Some- 
 times the  Sanctus  and  Agnus  Dei  were  sung  as  hymns,  the 
 former  before  the  consecration  and  the  latter  either  before  or 
 after  the  distribution.  P)Ut  the  Synod  of  .\ntvorskov  limited  the 
 u.se  of  these  to  the  great  Festivals.  WHien  the  singing  ceased 
 a  prescribed  Collect  was  offered.  Then  followed  the  Responsory 
 — "the  i)eace  of  the  Lord  be  with  you."  and  then  the  Aaronic 
 I'enediction  sung  in  the  same  tone  as  the  Collect.  In  1554  Pal- 
 ladius  urged  that  it  should  be  said  in  singularis. 
 
 The  revised  order  of  1895  is  as  follows: 
 
 1.  .\ddrcss  to  the  Communicants. 
 
 2.  Lord's  Prayer. 
 
 3.  Words  of  the   Institution. 
 
 4.  Distribution.      "This    is    Jesus'    true    body.      This    is 
 Jesus'  true  blood." 
 
THE  LITURGY  IN  DENMARK.  J'i) 
 
 5.  At  the  close  of  each  Communion:  ''The  crucified  and 
 risen  Christ  Jesus,  Who  has  now  fed  you  with  His  body  and 
 blood,  wherewith  He  made  fullest  satisfaction  for  all  your  sins, 
 strengthen  and  uphold  you  therewith  in  a  true  faith  unto  life 
 everlasting." 
 
 6.  Collect. 
 
 7.  Aaronic  Benediction. 
 
 The  remaining  parts  of  the  Liturgy  arc  full  of  interest,  but 
 for  want  of  space  cannot  be  treated  in  this  paper. 
 
 Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
 
 Edmund  BelEour. 
 
THEMATIC     HARMONY     OF     INTROIT,     COLLECT, 
 EPISTLE    AND    GOSPEL. 
 
 The  Church  Year  moves  about  Christ  as  the  natural  year 
 moves  about  the  sun.  In  the  sphere  of  redeemed  time  Christ 
 is  the  Sun.  In  the  kingdom  of  God,  on  earth  as  in  heaven, 
 "the  Lamb  is  the  light  thereof." 
 
 The  light  of  the  natural  sun  and  all  that  his  shining  does 
 for  the  material  world,  reach  their  highest  significance  as  the 
 parable  of  the  light  that  shines  forth  from  the  Person  of 
 Christ  and  of  what  that  light  works  in  the  world  of  the  spirit. 
 
 Thus  it  comes  that  the  great  theme  of  the  entire  Church 
 Year  is  Jesus  Christ,  the  "Light  of  the  World."  All  the  les- 
 sons, prayers,  hymns,  sermons  and  services  of  every  form, 
 time  and  place,  however  varied  in  outward  features,  have  their 
 inner,  living  harmony  in  Christ. 
 
 Directly  or  indirectly  Christ  is  the  essential  element  in 
 all  true  worship,  public  and  private.  "Without  Me,  ye  can 
 do  nothing."  "I  determined  not  to  know  anything  among  you, 
 save  Jesus  Christ."  "Whatsoever  ye  do  in  Avord  or  deed, 
 do  all  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord  Jesus." 
 
 The  sacrificial  element  in  our  worship  is  all  in  the  Name 
 of  Christ  and  is  rendered  possible  by  the  sacrifice  He  has 
 made  for  us.  Prayer,  praise,  thanksgiving,  almsgiving,  all 
 spring  out  of  the  love  that  His  love  has  kindled  in  our  hearts. 
 The  sacramental  element  in  our  worship  is  Christ.  It  is 
 Christ  giving  Himself  to  us  in  all  the  fulness  of  His  truth, 
 love  and  life,  in  and  through  the  means  that  He  Himself 
 has  ordained. 
 
 Since,  therefore,  Christ  is  the  great,  central  Theme  of  the 
 whole  ecclesiastical  cycle  it  must  follow  Ithat  the  particular 
 Theme  of  each  season  and  service  will  be  a  presentation  of 
 
 (Ixxv) 
 
76  MEMOIRS. 
 
 some  specific  truth  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  or  phase  of  His 
 life,  or  feature  of  His  mission,  or  fact  of  His  ministry. 
 
 In  carrying  out  this  general  harmony,  the  Introit,  Col- 
 lect, Epistle  and  Gospel  for  each  Festival  and  Sunday  of  the 
 Church  year  have  their  particular  thematic  harmony.  These 
 chief  parts  of  the  service  move  about  a  central,  fundamental 
 thought.  They  are  all  intended  to  concentrate  the  attention 
 ot  the  worshipper  upon  a  particular  phase  or  fact  of  salva- 
 tion, so  that  while  he  is  always  edified,  more  or  less,  from 
 the  whole  council  of  God,  yet  that  instruction  and  the  grace 
 of  the  word  that  conveys  it,  come  to  him  at  each  service 
 through  some  single  view  of  the  Lord,  or  of  His  work,  or  of 
 His  teaching. 
 
 The  mind  of  man  is  so  constituted  that  it  can  only  give 
 its  full  and  effectual  attention  to  one  thing  at  a  time.  So  the 
 heart  can  go  out  with  the  full  current  of  its  emotions  to 
 only  one  object  at  a  time  .  Our  service  takes  this  important 
 fact  into  account.  It  is  arranged  to  meet  a  human  necessity. 
 It  is  designed  to  make  the  deepest  impression  upon  the 
 mind  and  heart;  to  minister  the  highest  measure  of  edification 
 to  the  whole  being  of  the  worshipper. 
 
 From  these  considerations  it  ought  to  be  obvious  that,  in 
 order  to  secure  the  most  salutary  results  :  in  order  to  accom- 
 plish the  most  effectual  edification  we  should,  at  both  service.-., 
 ordinarily  at  least,  confine  ourselves  to  the  specific  Theme 
 presented  in  the  leading  parts  of  the  service  for  the 
 day,  or  to  some  cognate  subject.  The  secondary  lessons  pre- 
 sent such  regulated  themes,  and  man}^  others  may  be  found 
 outside  of  the  appointed  pericopes. 
 
 The  theme  for  each  Season.  Festival  and  particular  Day 
 is  announced  in  the  Introit.  This  is  the  principal  jnirposc  of 
 the  Introit.  It  combines  botli  llic  sacramental  and  tlic  sac- 
 rificial elements  of  worship.  It  is  the  Word  of  God  bearing 
 grace  to  us,  and  it  is  the  sanctified  channel  through  which  we 
 offer  praise  to  God. 
 
 The  Introit  is  properly  the  beginning',  the  entrance  to  the 
 sanctuary  of  worship.  After  the  worshipper  has  been  pre- 
 pared b}'  the  confession  of  his  sins,  and  has  received  the  gra- 
 cious declaration  of  forgiveness,  he  now  "draws  near  with  a 
 true  heart,  in  full  assurance  of  faith."'  He  now  comes  "bold- 
 ly unto  the  throne  of  grace."  He  now  approaches  God  with 
 filial  confiflence.  that  he  may  commune  with  Him  and  be  built 
 up  in  the  knowledge  of  His  truth  and  love. 
 
 At  this  entrance  to  the  heavenly  place  of  true  worship  it 
 is  very  proper  that  the  keynote  of  the  service  should  be  sound- 
 
THfiMATlC  HARMONY.  yj 
 
 ed ;  the  keynote  of  a  clear  harmony  that  is  developed,  elab- 
 orated and  intensified  in  the  Collect,  Epistle  and  Gospel,  and 
 which  should  then  be  consistently  carried  out  and,  as  far  as 
 possible,  completed  in  the  sermon,  hymns,  anthems,  and  in 
 everything  pertaining  to  that  particular  service. 
 
 The  Theme  for  the  particular  Season  is  usually  indicated 
 by  the  name  given  to  it.  Advent  thus  designates  the  Theme 
 for  the  x\dvent  Season.  This  Theme  is.  The  Coming  of 
 Christ.  All  the  services  during  Advent  harmonize  in  that  one 
 central  thought  or  truth.  The  several  services  may  each  cen- 
 ter in  a  single  phase  of  His  coming,  as  His  birth  in  the  flesh  or 
 His  coming  in  glory,  but  the  greater  Theme  of  the  entire  Sea- 
 son is.  His  perpetual  coming,  from  the  creation  of  the  world 
 to  its  ultimate  glorification. 
 
 The  Theme  for  the  first  Sunday  in  x\dvent  is,  Prepara- 
 tion, in  view  of  the  Coming  of  the  Lord.  In  the  Introit  the 
 worshipper  lifts  up  his  soul  to  God ;  puts  his  trust  in  God ; 
 prays  for  protection  and  divine  guidance.  The  Collect  prays 
 for  the  coming  of  the  Lord  in  power;  for  deliverance  and  de- 
 fense. The  Epistle  is  an  admonition  to  awake  and  be  pre- 
 pared. The  Gospel  is  the  account  of  the  triumphal  entry  into 
 Jerusalem.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Gospel  for  Palm  Sunday.  It 
 is  used  here  by  anticipation.  Its  purpose  here  is  preparation. 
 The  event  which  this  Gospel  relates  is  not  only  a  historical  in- 
 cident, it  is  a  parable  of  all  the  comings  of  Christ.  Its  devout 
 contemplation  stirs  up  the  soul  to  prepare  for  any  and  for 
 every  coming  of  the  Lord. 
 
 In  the  Festival  services  the  Theme  is  most  prominently 
 announced. 
 
 Take,  for  example,  the  Chief  Service  for  Christmas  Day. 
 Introit:     UNTO  us  a  Child  is  born,  unto  us  a  Son  is 
 given :   and    the   government   shall     be    upon     His 
 shoulder. 
 
 And  His  Name  shall  be  called  Wonderful,  Coun- 
 sellor, the  Mighty  God :  the  Everlasting  Father,  the 
 Prince  of  Peace. 
 
 Ps.  O  sing  unto  the  Lord  a  new  song:  for  He 
 hath  done  marvelous  things. 
 Nothing  could  be  clearer  than  the  Theme  of  that  adoring 
 outburst.  It  is,  The  Incarnation,  at  that  point  where  it  be- 
 comes a  historical  fact  in  our  human  world  ;  the  birth  of  Christ 
 in  the  flesh.  The  birth  of  the  Son  of  God  as  the  Son  of  man. 
 It  fixes  the  whole  attention  of  the  w^orshipper  upon  that  one 
 stupendous  fact.  Fills  him  with  that  one  overwhelming  truth. 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Collect  grasps  this  glorious  fact  and  makes  it  the 
 ground  of  a  conlidcnt  petition  for  deliverance  from  sin.  as  it 
 is  in  itself  the  most  blessed  assurance  of  the  reality  of  such  re- 
 lease from  the  bonds  of  iniquity. 
 
 GR.\X'J\  vvc  beseech  Thee,  Almigiity  God,  that  the  new 
 birth  of  Thine  Only-Begotten  Son  in  the  flesh  may  set  us  free 
 who  are  held  in  the  old  bondage  under  the  yoke  of  sin. 
 
 The  Epistle,  Titus  2:11-14,  Isa.  9:2-7,  takes  n\)  the 
 Theme.  In  the  first  part  Paul  tells  us  what  the  Incarnation 
 means  for  us,  and  makes  practical  application  of  its  glorious 
 lesson.  In  the  second  part  we  have  the  very  words  of  the 
 Introit  with  their  immediate  context,  thus  elaborating  the 
 Theme  and  pouring  additional  light  upon  it. 
 
 The  intelligent  worshipper  here  begins  to  feel  his  fellow- 
 ship with  the  whole  Church  from  the  beginning  of  time;  his 
 t)neness  with  the  redeemed  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  and  with 
 all  the  holy  angels  who  fall  down  in  adoration  before  the 
 Babe  of  Bethlehem. 
 
 The  Gospel,  Luke  2:1 — 14.  is  the  account  which  this 
 Evangelist  gives  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  Theme  an- 
 nounced in  the  Introit  meets  us  again  in  the  message  of  the 
 angels  to  the  shepherds:  "Unto  you  is  born  this  day,  in  the 
 city  of  David,  a  Saviour,  Which  is  Christ  the  Lord." 
 
 In  a  service  where  the  Theme  is  so  very  prominent; 
 where  the  harmony  of  the  several  parts  is  so  clearly  evident, 
 it  is  impossible  to  sound  a  discordant  note  anywhere  in  the 
 whole  order,  or  during  the  entire  day,  without  offending  the 
 feeling  of  congruity  and  the  sense  of  propriety  in  the  intelli- 
 gent worshipper.  Even  those  who  have  not  been  particularly 
 instructed  but  who  have  been  accustomed  to  such  an  order, 
 resent  the  l)ringing  in  of  anything  that  does  not  bear  upon 
 the  one  great  Theme,  especially  the  importing  of  secular  ob- 
 jects and  spectacular  exercises. 
 
 The  Epiphany  Theme  is.  The  Manifestation  of  Christ  as 
 the  Royal  Redeemer. 
 
 Introit :  l^EHOLD  the  Lord,  the  Ruler  hath  coiue  :  and 
 the  Kingdom,  and  the  power  and  the  glory  are  in 
 His  hand. 
 
 Ps.     Give  the  King  Thy  judgments.  O  God:  and 
 Thy  righteousness  unto  the  King's  Son. 
 
 The  Collect  refers  to  the  manifestation  of  Christ  as  King 
 of  the  Jews  to  the  wise  men  who  are  the  representatives  of 
 the  Gentile  world,  and  thus  lie  is  acknowledged  as  the  King 
 of  the  whole  world.  The  jx^tition  recognizes  the  Godhead  as  it  is 
 revealed  in  Christ,  and  by  anticipation  apprehends  the  eternal 
 sovereignty  of  Christ  with  the  Father  and  the   Holy  Ghost. 
 
THEMATIC  HARMONY.  79 
 
 The  Epistle,  Isa.  6o:i-6,  is  a  thrilling  call  to  the  nations 
 of  the  earth  to  rise  and  welcome  the  coming  of  the  true  light, 
 and  to  behold  the  gathering  of  all  the  ends  of  the  world  to 
 the  standard  of  the  King  of  kings. 
 
 The  Gospel,  Alatt.  2:1-12,  is  the  account  of  the  visit  of 
 the  wise  men  to  the  Holy  Family,  in  which  the  Kingly  char- 
 acter of  Jesus  is  acknowledged  and  honored. 
 
 The  order  for  Quinquagesima  furnishes  an  example  of  a 
 profound  thematic  harmony,  which,  however,  is  not  at  once 
 apparent. 
 
 Theme :     God  is  our  Refuge ;  a  present  help  in  trouble. 
 Introit :     BE  Thou  my  strong  Rock :  for  an  house  of 
 defence  to  save  me. 
 
 Thou  art  my  Rock  and  my  Fortress :  therefore 
 for  Thy  Name's  sake  lead  me  and  guide  me. 
 
 Ps.     In  Thee,  O  Lord,  do  I  put  my  trust;  let  me 
 
 never  be  ashamed :  deliver  me  in  Thy  righteousness. 
 
 Collect :     O  LORD,  we  beseech  Thee,  mercifully  hear 
 
 our  prayers,  and  having  set  us  free  from  the  bonds 
 
 of  sin,  defend  us  from  all  evil. 
 
 The  Theme  is  plain  in  the  Collect,  which  recognizes  the 
 
 presence  of  the  Lord,  the  deliverance  He  has  already  wrought, 
 
 and  the  further  defence  He  will  surely  vouchsafe. 
 
 The  Epistle  is  I  Cor.  13:1-13.  This  is  the  chapter  in 
 which  Paul  sets  forth  the  essential  and  all  inclusive  character 
 of  love.  Love  in  the  believer.  God  is  not  mentioned.  There 
 is  no  reference  to  a  refuge,  or  to  a  Divine  presence.  Where 
 then  is  the  note  in  this  Epistle  that  accords  with  the  plam 
 Theme  of  the  Introit? 
 
 Upon  examination  we  find  that  the  truth.  God  is  our 
 Refuge,  is  the  underlying  truth  of  the  Epistle.  The  sum  of  its 
 teaching  is,  that  no  matter  what  wc  may  have  in  the  way  of 
 attainments,  endowments,  works  or  possessions,  if  we  have 
 not  love  we  have  nothing  and  are  nothing.  Also  that  the 
 greatest  of  God's  gifts  is  love.  It  is  anly  a  short  step  from 
 this  to  the  reflection  that  God  Himself  is  love.  That  He  is 
 our  Refuge  because  He  is  love.  That  the  pavilion  in  which 
 lie  hides  His  children,  the  secret  place  of  His  tabernacle  in 
 which  He  keeps  them  in  everlasting  security  is  His  love. 
 Thus  the  thought  of  Introit  and  Collect  here  finds  a  har- 
 monious response. 
 
 The  Gospel  is  Luke  18:31-43.  It  treats  of  two  distinct 
 incidents,  which  appear  to  have  been  sequent  in  their  occur- 
 rence but  which  have  no  obvious  thematic  relation  to  the 
 Introit  and  Collect,  or  even  to  each  other. 
 
8o  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  first  incident  is  the  announcement  of  Jesus  to  His 
 disciples  that  they  are  about  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem;  His 
 sufferings,  death  and  resurrection.  "Then  He  took  unto  Him 
 the  twelve  and  said  unto  them,  behold,  we  go  uj)  to  Jerusalem." 
 
 The  second  incident  is  the  miracle  wrought  on  the  blind 
 beggar  near  Jericho. 
 
 The  Theme — God  is  our  Refuge — is  not  at  once  obvious. 
 Uut  the  instant  we  think  of  it  we  perceive  that  it  is  here.  It 
 is  strikingly  illustrated  in  each  part  of  the  Ciospel.  Each  of 
 these  incidents  is  a  powerful  e.xemplitication  of  the  truth  that 
 Ciod  is  our  Refuge  ;  that  fie  is  our  strong  Rock  of  defence  and 
 safety. 
 
 The  case  of  the  blind  beggar  shows  how  God  comes  to  us 
 in  our  darkness  and  helplessness,  and  is  ever  present  for  our 
 deliverance  and  j:)rotection. 
 
 The  sufferings,  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ  portray 
 the  same  truth  as  no  other  incident  in  the  life  of  any  man  or 
 in  the  history  of  the  whole  world  does  or  can  exhibit  and 
 authenticate  it. 
 
 The  Lenten  Theme  has  an  objective  and  a  subjective  side. 
 The  objective  is,  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ;  the  sub- 
 jective, our  own  sorrow  for  sin  and  our  penitent  cry  for 
 forgiveness. 
 
 In  the  order  for  Ash-Wednesday  it  is  the  subjective  side 
 that  is  prominent.  The  Introit  is  the  cry  of  a  penitent 
 sufi'erer  to  God.     A  cry  of  sorrow  yet  of  perfect  trust. 
 
 Introit:     I  WILL  cry  unto  God  Most  High:  unto  God 
 that  performeth  all  things  for  me. 
 
 Yea,  in   the  shadow   of  Thy   wings   will   1   make 
 my  refuge :  until  these  calamities  be  overpast. 
 
 I's.      lie   merciful   unto   me,  O   God.  be   merciful 
 unto  me;  for  my  soul  trusteth  in  Thee. 
 The  Collect,  Epistle  and  Gospel  are  all  in  the  closest  and 
 most  obvious   harmony   with   the   tlu)ught   and   feeling  of   llic 
 Introit. 
 
 The  Theme  for  Easter  is,  of  course,  the  Resurrection.  It 
 is  clearly  and  impressively  announced  in  the  alternative  In- 
 troit, which  seems  to  me  much  i)referable  to  the  lirst  Introit 
 given.  It  is  plain  also  in  the  Ct)llect  and  in  the  Gospel,  which 
 is  St.  Mark's  account  of  the  Resurrection.  lUit  it  is  not^  plain. 
 to  me  it  is  indeed  very  obscure,  in  the  ICpistle.  The  Epistle, 
 I  Cor.  5:6-8,  is  taken  from  a  passage  in  which  Taul  is  treating 
 a  case  of  discipline.  There  is  no  mention  of  the  Resurrection. 
 Christ  is  declared  to  be  our  I'assover,  and  we  are  exhorted  to 
 keep  the  feast,  assumably  the  Easter  Festival,  "with  sincerity 
 
THEMATIC  HARMONY.  8l 
 
 and  truth."  But  why  should  we  not  have  an  Epistle  for 
 Easter  Sunday  in  which  the  thematic  harmony  is  more  pro- 
 nounced? The  lection  in  the  Episcopal  Prayer  Book,  Col. 
 3:  1-7,  is  more  in  harmony  with  the  Easter  Theme,  yet  it,  too, 
 is  predominantly  subjective.  We  are  tempted  to  wonder 
 how  this  lection  got  its  place  in  our  order,  and  to  venture 
 the  suggestion  that  the  Epistle  in  the  secondary  table  for 
 Easter  Monday,  I  Cor.  15:12-20,  would  be  more  appropriate 
 as  the  Epistle  for  the  Festival  Day. 
 
 We  have  an  example  of  prominent  thematic  harmony  in 
 the  Introit,  Collect,  Epistle  and  Gospel  for  Misericordias. 
 
 Theme :  The  Divine  Providence ;  the  abundant  good- 
 ness of  the  Lord  in  the  creation  and  preservation 
 of  the  world. 
 
 Introit :    THE  earth  is  full  of  the  goodness  of  the  Lord : 
 By  the  Word  of  the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made. 
 Ps.     Rejoice  in  the   Lord,  O  ye  righteous :  for 
 praise  is  comely  for  the  upright. 
 Collect:     GOD,  Who,  by  the  humiliation  of  Thy  Son, 
 didst  raise  up  the  fallen  world :   Grant  unto  Thy 
 faithful  ones  perpetual  gladness,  and  those  whom 
 Thou  hast  delivered  from  the  danger  of  everlasting 
 death,  do  Thou  make  partakers  of  eternal  joys. 
 The   Epistle,    i    Peter  2:21-25,  follows  the  very   lines  of 
 the    Collect,    setting    forth    the    fact    and    the    manner    of    the 
 sufferings  of  Chiist,  and  placing  by  the  side  of  the  petition 
 the  ground  upon  which  it  is  made,  and  adding  the  precious 
 assurance  which  certifies  that  the  petition  cannot  fail  to  be 
 granted.     "Ye  were  as  sheep  going  astray ;  but  are  now  re- 
 turned unto  the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  your  souls." 
 
 In  the  Gospel,  John  10:11-16,  the  Theme  is  fully  and 
 most  beautifully  illustrated  in  the  parable  of  the  Good 
 Shepherd. 
 
 So  prominent  in  all  these  parts  of  the  service  for  Miseri- 
 cordias is  the  Good  Shepherd  idea,  that  this  Sunday  has 
 come  to  be  recognized  and  observed  with  us  as  Good  Shepherd 
 Sunday. 
 
 This  imperfect  study  will  serve  to  show  that  it  was  the 
 design  of  those  who  arranged  and  developed  our  Order  of 
 Service  that  each  day  and  each  service  should  have  its  proper 
 unity  and  harmony.  And  further,  that  this  object  has  been 
 to  a  very  large  extent  attained.  We  believe  that  it  would 
 be  exceedingly  helpful  and  suggestive  to  our  pastors,  espe- 
 cially to  the  3^ounger  brethren,  if  some  competent  hand  would 
 elaborate  a  work,  something  in  the  nature  of  a  full  and  com- 
 
82  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ])rehensive  analysis,  or  a  homiletical  commentary  upon  this 
 material.  It  seems  to  us  that  such  a  work  would  not  only  be 
 helpful  to  pastors,  hut  that  it  would  be  instructive  to  the  laity 
 as  well,  and  that  it  would  promote  a  better  understanding  and 
 a  deeper  .errasj)  nf  the  genius  of  our  Service. 
 
 D.  H.  Grissinger. 
 Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
 
ART  IN  WORSHIP. 
 
 Our  subject  brings  together  two  terms  that  may  seem  to 
 some  to  involve  a  contradiction.  Art  is  a  product  of  the  natural 
 human  intellect;  worship,  in  the  Christian  sense,  a  devotional  act 
 of  the  sanctified  heart.  Art  has  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
 nature  for  its  teacher  and  mistress ;  worship  rests  upon  the  per- 
 son and  work  of  the  Divine-human  Redeemer.  Art  knows  only 
 beauty  as  its  law  ;  worship  must  always  be  truthful  and  holy.  Art 
 serves  only  aesthetic  purposes  and  is  often  illustrative ;  worship 
 is  rooted  in  faith,  deals  with  eternal  verities,  and  has  education 
 for  its  aim. 
 
 In  truth,  however,  there  is  as  little  antagonism  between  re- 
 ligion and  art  as  there  is  between  revelation,  rightly  interpreted, 
 and  a  correct  science.  The  material  and  spiritual  both  emanate 
 from  the  same  God  as  their  Creator.  "All  things  were  made  by 
 Him;  and  without  Him  was  not  anything  made  that  was  made." 
 He  is  the  Maker  and  preserver  of  the  soul  as  well  as  of  the  body. 
 The  Giver  of  all  the  noble  faculties  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of 
 food  and  raiment.  He  is  the  Author  of  beauty  and  of  our  ca- 
 pacity to  enjoy  beauty,  as  well  as  the  Source  of  all  truth  and 
 goodness.  He  is  as  truly  the  God  of  the  natural  world  as  of  the 
 spiritual ;  and  excepting  where  the  harmony  between  these  is  dis- 
 turbed by  sin  there  can  be  no  conflict  between  the  two. 
 
 In  speaking  of  art  in  worship  we  mean  the  use  in  the  Cultus 
 of  the  Church  of  the  so-called  fine  arts,  to  wit,  architecture,  paint- 
 ing, sculpture,  poetry  and  music.  These  are  the  arts  that  minis- 
 ter not  to  man's  material  necessities  or  conveniences  like  tUe  so- 
 
 (Ixxxiii) 
 
84  MEMOIRS. 
 
 called  useful  arts,  but  to  his  love  for  the  beautiful.  Man  is  so 
 constituted  that  he  needs  the  beautiful  as  well  as  the  useful. 
 This  ])rinciple  the  Church  recognizes.  The  complete  and  perfect 
 actualization  of  the  true,  the  holy,  and  the  good  in  the  Son  of 
 Alan,  was  also  the  tirst  perfect  realization  of  the  beautiful;  and 
 as  He  is  the  Source  of  all  real  spiritual  life,  that  life  is  at  once 
 holy  and  beautiful,  and  loves  the  beautiful  in  accordance  with  the 
 apostolic  injunction:  "Whatsoever  things  are  true,  whatsoever 
 things  are  honest,  whatsoever  things  are  just,  whatsoever  things 
 are  pure,  whatsoever  things  are  lovely,  whatsoever  things  are  of 
 good  report;  .  .  .  tliink  on  these  things."  (Phil.  4:8). 
 Hence  it  is  said :  "Christianity  is  akin  to  the  beautiful.  He  who 
 would  work  out  all  that  the  Christian  life  involves,  cannot  but 
 work  out  the  aesthetic  element  which  is  inherent  in  it.  The  good 
 can  never  be  deformed.  In  Christianity  beauty  entered  into  the 
 service  of  truth.  Therefore  the  Church  also,  the  vehicle  of  Chris- 
 tianity, has  enlisted  the  service  of  art  in  all  its  branches,  of  archi- 
 tecture in  sacred  buildings,  of  sound  in  sacred  music,  of  poetry 
 in  sacred  song,  of  painting  and  sculpture  in  sacred  decoration. 
 -Vn  attitude  of  antagonism  between  them  never  takes  place  till 
 art  sinks  below  the  Christian  level,  till  she  seeks  to  disseminate 
 within  the  province  of  Christianity  what  she  has  derived  from 
 merely  natural  religion,  till  she  debases  herself  to  the  vulgar,  or 
 ministers  to  sensual  gratification.  Otherwise,  it  is  the  part  of 
 Ciiristianity  and  the  Church  to  act  as  the  guardians  of  the  healthi- 
 ness, purit\-  and  truth  of  art."* 
 
 But  as  the  handmaid  of  religion  art  serves  still  another  pur- 
 pose. "Every  religion,"  says  Luthardt,  "has  an  inward  need  ex- 
 ternally to  represent  under  a  symbolical  form  those  truths  and 
 notions  which  it  proclaims,  a  form  in  which  the  mind  finds  that 
 sensible  manifestation  which  man's  nature  demamls."  .\>  man 
 is  essentially  a  religious  being,  art  and  religion  have  had  an  al- 
 most simultaneous  development.  J\luch  of  the  history  of  art  is 
 also  the  history  of  religion.  Says  Luthardt  again:  "It  was  in  the 
 service  of  religion  that  architecture  was  chietly  fosteretl.  The 
 mighty  rock  temples  and  pagodas  of  India,  the  magnificent  pil- 
 lared structures  of  Greece,  the  lofty  cathedrals  of  Christendom, 
 what  are  they  but  speaking  witnesses  to  this  relation  of  service? 
 And  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  other  plastic  arts.  The  sculp- 
 ture of  Greece  took  the  gods  and  their  sublime  forms  for  its  sub- 
 jects, before  it  passed  over  to  the  representation  of  profane  life. 
 
 *Hrucckner:   The  Church. 
 
 tThe  Moral  Trulh.s  of  Christianity,  p.  228. 
 
ART   IN    WORSHIP.  85 
 
 The  best  and  richest  produce  of  painting  is  found  within  the 
 Christian  Church,  in  rehgious  painting,  whence  all  other  branches, 
 and  especially  the  highest  branch  of  the  art,  historical  painting, 
 have  arisen.  Music  was  the  first  employed  in  the  services  of  the 
 gods,  and  poetry  in  their  praise,  and  not  till  afterwards  in  honor 
 of  heroes ;  while  even  the  drama  was  at  first  a  kind  of  worship, 
 both  among  the  Greeks  and  in  Christian  Germany.""* 
 
 Again  it  is  not  only  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  man's  nature 
 as  a  physico-spiritual  being  that  religion  instinctively  takes  art 
 into  its  service,  but  it  does  so  in  entire  accord  with  Divine  author- 
 ity.   The  prohibition  contained  in  the  First  Commandment  is  not 
 directed  against  every  species  of  art-representation  in  the  ser- 
 vice of  religion,  but  against  the  making  of  graven  images  and 
 pictures  to  be  used  for  purposes  of  worship.     That  this  is  the 
 correct  interpretation  is  evident  from  the  Cultus  of  the  Jewish 
 Church  itself.     The  Tabernacle  and  Temple,  where  dwelt  the 
 glory  of  the  Lord,  and  where  the  nation  gathered  for  worship ; 
 their  pattern  and  furnishings ;  their  wealth  of  vegetable,  animal 
 and  celestial  forms,  of  costly  wood  and  precious  metals,  of  fine 
 linen  and  purple  and  embroideries ;  together  with  the  garments 
 worn  by  the  priests  when  ministering  in  holy  things : — all  these 
 were  of  Divine  appointment.     Nor  are  we  justified  in  assuming 
 much   less   regarding   the    vocal   arts,   poetry   and    music.      The 
 Psalms  were  the   songs  of   inspiration ;  and   the  account  given 
 concerning  the  musical  arrangements  for  the  public  service  leaves 
 the  impression  that  these  were  likewise  by  Divine  sanction.     It 
 was  in  the  time  of  David  and   Solomon  that  the  twin  arts   of 
 poetry    and    music    began    to    be    systematically    cultivated    and 
 reached  their  highest  development,  tirst  in  the  schools  of  the  pro- 
 phets and  afterward  in  connection  with  the  Temple  Service.    For 
 the  latter  David  made  most  elaborate  preparation.    Of  the  38,000 
 Levites  he  set  apart  4,000,  divided  into  24  courses  or  choirs,  cor- 
 responding to  the  24  courses  of  priests,  to  be  singers  and  players 
 on  instruments  of  various  kinds,  whose  duty  it  was  "to  stand 
 every  morning  to  thank  and  praise  the  Lord,  and  likewise  at  even," 
 in  connection  with  the  daily  morning  and  evening  sacrifice    (i 
 Chron.  23  :5,  30) .     These  choirs  had  their  own  leaders,  received 
 special  instruction,  and  were  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
 three  chief  leaders,  Asaph,  irleman  and  Jeduthun.     We  are  fur- 
 thermore told  that  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple  the  members 
 of  this  great  choir  were  "arrayed  in  white  linen"   (2  Chron.  5: 
 I2j,  i.  e.,  the  choir  was  vested;  and  again  we  read  that  when 
 Hezekiah  restored  the  perfect  Temple  Service  after  the  wicked 
 and  idolatrous  reign  of  his  father  Ahaz,  "he  set  the  Levites  in 
 
 *  The  Fundamental  Truths  of  Christianity,     p.  16S. 
 
86  MliMOIRS. 
 
 the  house  of  the  Lord  with  cymbals,  with  psalteries  and  with 
 harps  accorciiiit^  to  the  cominaiidment  of  David,  and  of  Ciad  the 
 King's  seer,  and  Xathan  the  prophet;  for  so  i<.'as  the  command- 
 ment of  the  Lord  by  His  prophets"  (2  Chron.  29:25).  Accord- 
 ing to  this  it  would  seem  that  even  the  musical  arrangements  of 
 the  Temple  Service  were  Divinely  authorized. 
 
 It  is  therefore  not  strange  that  in  the  teachings  of  Christ 
 and  in  the  writings  of  His  inspired  Apostles  we  find  nothing  inimi- 
 cal to  art.  Christianity  does  not  recognize  a  hostile  dualism  be- 
 tween spirit  and  matter,  between  the  super-natural  and  natural. 
 It  disallows  only  what  is  sinful,  but  makes  use  of  everything  that 
 has  Divine  right  to  exist  (i  Tim.  4:4,  5).  In  the  person  of  the 
 Redeemer  Himself  we  have  the  most  perfect  union  of  the  super- 
 natural and  the  natural — the  Divine  made  human  and  the  human 
 taken  up  into  the  Divine.  Hence  this  imion  of  divine  and  human, 
 of  the  heavenly  and  earthly,  of  the  internal  and  external,  of  spirit 
 and  body,  is  also  throughout  characteristic  of  the  Redeemer's 
 Kingdom.  That  Kingdom  is  both  visible  and  invisible ;  it  is  at 
 once  earthly  and  heavenly.  The  spiritual  and  life-giving  medium 
 wherebv  its  members  are  called,  gathered,  enlightened,  sanctified 
 and  preserved  in  union  with  Jesus  Christ  in  the  true  faith,  is  the 
 Divine  Word  preached  by  human  lips,  heard  by  human  ears,  and 
 received  into  human  hearts.  .-Vud  the  Lord  Himself  connected 
 worship  w'ith  nature  when  He  united  the  heavenly  and  the 
 earthly  in  the  Sacraments,  and  made  use  of  parables  drawn  from 
 nature  to  symbolize  Divine  truth.  Even  the  new  Jerusalem  and 
 its  worship  are  described  in  terms  borrowed  from  things  with 
 which  we  are  familiar  in  the  natural  world.  We  read  of  a  wall 
 adorned  with  precious  stones ;  of  a  street  of  pure  gold ;  of  golden 
 candlesticks ;  of  a  golden  altar  before  the  throne ;  of  golden  vials 
 full  of  odors;  of  a  pure  river  of  water  of  life,  clear  as  crystal 
 ])rocee(ling  out  of  the  throne  of  God  and  the  Lamb ;  of  the  tree 
 of  life  whose  leaves  are  for  the  healing  of  the  nations  ;  of  angels 
 clothed  in  pure  white  linen,  and  having  their  breasts  girded  with 
 golden  girdles ;  of  harpers  bearing  the  harps  of  God  and  to  their 
 accompaniment  singing  the  song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb.  Surely 
 when  the  Church  that  was,  that  is,  and  that  is  to  come,  sets  be- 
 fore us  such  an  example,  we  have  full  warrant  for  giving  art  its 
 appropriate  place  in  worship.  The  soul  of  true  relignon  needs  a 
 body,  the  spirit  of  de\otion  a  visible  cultus.  "We  are  never  so 
 spiritual  as  to  be  out  of  the  body.  The  more  spiritual  the  soul 
 ot  religion  is,  the  more  glorious  and  heavenly,  but  not  the  less 
 real  is  the  body  with  which  it  is  invested,  for  that  soul  also  de- 
 sires not  to  be  unclothed  but  clothed  upon."*  It  is  only  where 
 falsehood  takes  the  place  of  truth,  and  where   faith   has  never 
 
ART    IN    WORSHIP.  87 
 
 been  forgotten  or  has  ceased  to  live,  that  everything  is  made  of 
 the  outward,  and  that  the  Cultus  of  the  Church  degenerates  into 
 a  mere  opus  opcratum. 
 
 When  Christianity  took  art  into  its  service  it  gave  it  a  new 
 meaning,  and  opened  to  it  a  new  workl.  Heathen  art,  which  had 
 reached  its  highest  development  among  the  Greeks,  was  purely 
 aesthetic.  Christian  art  is  not  merely  aesthetic,  but  pre-eminent- 
 ly ethic.  The  former  served  a  religion  of  external  representation 
 and  ceremonies ;  the  latter  served  the  religion  of  the  Word.  The 
 one  idealized  the  finite,  and  saw  in  it  the  perfect  manifestation  of 
 the  infinite ;  the  other  proceeds  upon  the  principle  that  even  the 
 most  ideal  form  is  incapable  of  manifesting  the  infinite,  but  can 
 only  point  to  it.  Hence  our  Lord's  mode  of  instruction  by  para- 
 bles has  been  called  "the  starting  point  of  Christian  art,"  con- 
 taining "the  germ  of  the  new  principle,  that  the  sensible  is  a 
 parable  of  the  super-sensible." 
 
 This  principle  found  expression  in  the  symbolical  art  of  the 
 Early  Church  as  revealed  by  the  burial  monuments  and  the  cata- 
 combs. Among  the  symbols  were  the  lamb,  the  fish,  the  cross, 
 the  Chi-Rho  monogram,  the  Alpha  and  Omega,  and  the  vine,  all 
 of  which  symbolized  Christ  and  His  work  and  office  ;  the  door, 
 the  sheep,  the  lambs,  and  the  ship  as  representative  of  the  rela- 
 tion of  believers  and  the  Church  to  Christ ;  the  anchor,  the  palm 
 and  palm  branches,  the  crown,  the  lyre,  and  other  symbols,  sug- 
 gestive of  the  Christian's  confidence  and  blessed  hope. 
 
 Early  Christian  painting  served  both  a  decorative  and  a 
 symbolic  purpose,  and,  when  the  latter,  was  evidently  intended 
 to  be  a  means  of  religious  teaching.  The  subjects  treated  em- 
 braced Old  Testament  characters  and  events,  and  scenes  from 
 the  life  and  work  of  Christ.  The  frescos  found  in  the  catacombs, 
 says  Bennett,  "become  invaluable  indexes  of  the  belief  and  life 
 of  the  Infant  Church.  They  prove  that  the  aesthetic  feeling, 
 common  to  all  men,  is  struggling  for  expression  amidst  the  ad- 
 verse influence  of  the  time,  and  that  the  new  religion,  so  far  from 
 being  hostile  to  art,  is  seeking  to  purify  and  inspire  it  by  its  own 
 richer  spiritual  truths."  The  "seeming  hostility  of  a  few  of  the 
 Christian  fathers,"  says  the  same  writer,  "was  chiefly  occasioned 
 by  the  corrupting  associations  of  the  prevalent  art,"  and  was  not 
 a  hostility  to  art  per  se.  They  "clearly  discerned  the  threat  to  the 
 purity  of  Christian  life  and  doctrine  coming  from  the  indiscrimi- 
 nate use  of  heathen  art,"  and  yet  "assumed  that  to  represent  to 
 the  eye  what  the  Scriptures  teach  by  word-symbol  was  not  idola- 
 trous." 
 
 *  Krauth. 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Sculpture  as  the  most  materializing  of  the  arts,  and  because 
 of  its  verv  extensive  employment  in  the  pagan  cultus.  received 
 the  least  attention  in  the  Early  Church.  Only  a  few  free  statues 
 of  Christ  have  been  found,  and  these  represent  Him  as  the  Good 
 Shepherd.  Much  more  numerous  are  the  carvings  in  relief  on  the 
 br.rial  caskets  (sarcophagi).  These,  as  a  rule,  follow  the  same 
 CNcle  of  Biblical  subjects  treated  in  the  frescos,  and.  like  the 
 statues  of  Christ,  are  strikingly  symbolical.  That  neither  paint- 
 iig  nor  sculpture  reached  a  very  high  degree  of  excellence  in  the 
 Early  Church  does  not  surprise  us  when  we  consider  the  condi- 
 tions under  which  these  first  Christian  art  works  were  produced. 
 
 Protestantism  does  not  give  painting  and  sculpture  the  same 
 place  in  its  Cultus  that  was  and  is  accorded  those  arts  in  the 
 Cultus  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  Churches,  for  it  knows  no  pic- 
 ture and  image  worship.  Zwingli  and  others  for  the  sake  of 
 saving  the  Word  rejected  all  plastic  art ;  Luther,  with  an  equal 
 concern  for  the  Word,  but  far  more  conservative,  would  have  all 
 the  arts  to  be  the  servants  of  the  Gospel.  "I  am  not  of  the 
 opinion."  said  he,  "that  through  the  Gospel  all  the  arts  should  Ije 
 banished  and  driven  away,  as  some  zealots  want  to  make  us  be- 
 lieve ;  but  I  wish  to  see  them  all,  especially  music,  in  the  service 
 of  Him  Who  gave  and  created  them."  Again  he  says:  "I  have 
 myself  heard  those  who  oppose  pictures,  read  from  my  German 
 Bible.  .  .  .  But  this  contains  many  pictures  of  God,  of  the 
 angels,  of  men,  and  of  animals,  especially  in  the  Revelation  of 
 St.  John,  in  the  books  of  ]\Ioses,  and  in  the  book  of  Joshua.  We 
 therefore  kindly  beg  these  fanatics  to  permit  us  also  to  paint 
 these  pictures  on  the  wall  that  they  may  be  remembered  and  bet- 
 ter understood,  inasmuch  as  they  can  harm  as  little  on  the  walls 
 as  in  books.  Would  to  God  that  I  could  persuade  those  who  can 
 afford  it  to  paint  the  whole  Bible  on  their  houses,  inside  and  out- 
 side, so  that  all  might  see ;  this  would  indeed  be  a  Christian 
 work.  For  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  God's  will  that  we  should 
 hear  and  learn  what  He  has  done,  especially  what  Christ  suffered. 
 But  when  I  hear  these  things  and  meditate  upon  them,  I  find  it 
 impossible  not  to  picture  them  in  my  heart.  \Miether  I  want  to 
 or  not,  when  I  hear  of  Christ,  a  human  form  hanging  uj^on  a 
 cross  rises  up  in  my  heart:  just  as  I  see  my  natural  face  reflect- 
 ed when  I  look  into  water.  Now  if  it  is  not  sinful  for  me  to 
 have  Christ's  picture  in  my  heart,  why  should  it  be  sinful  to  have 
 it  before  my  eyes?  The  Lutheran  Cultus  has  therefore  never 
 excluded  painting  and  sculpture,  but  it  assigns  these  arts  the 
 last  place.  It  recognizes  on  the  one  hand  the  fact  that 
 many  of  their  noblest  examples  have  been  jiroduced  in  the  ser- 
 vice of  the  Church:  and  on  the  other  that  "in  Christianity  pic- 
 
ART    IN    WORSHIP.  89 
 
 torial  or  sculptured  representations  are  language  made  visible, 
 symbolized  thought."  Whether  it  then  be  the  Bible  scenes  and 
 the  suggestive  symbols  portrayed  in  rich  colors  on  the  walls  and 
 windows  of  our  churches,  or  the  beautiful  carvings  on  their  col- 
 umns and  furniture,  or  the  exquisite  productions  of  the  needle 
 on  their  altar  and  pulpit  hangings,  or  even  the  free  statuary  of 
 a  Thorwaldsen,  so  long  as  it  is  a  holy  and  chaste  art,  that,  by  the 
 scenes  and  objects  it  sets  forth,  awakens  and  stimulates  devotion, 
 its  use  is  not  to  be  enjoined. 
 
 Though  God  may  be  worshiped  anywhere  and  "dwelleth  not 
 in  temples  made  with  hands,"  yet  "man  has  need  of  setting  apart 
 from  all  that  is  worldly  and  unholy  the  place  in  which  he  bows 
 in  adoration,  and  of  so  ordering  the  same  that  the  spirit  of  de- 
 votion is  awakened  and  called  forth  by  his  surroundings."  We 
 read  of  sacred  places  in  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs.  We  have 
 seen  how  by  Divine  precept  Israel  has  its  Tabernacle  and  its 
 Temple,  and  how  in  all  their  appointments  these  were  calculated 
 not  only  to  furnish  instruction,  but  also  to  excite  and  express 
 devotion.  And  though  Christian  worship  is  no  longer  typical  as 
 was  the  Jewish,  but  the  celebration  and  appropriation  of  a  com- 
 pleted atonement,  yet  it  needs  for  this  an  appropriate  place. 
 Luther  says :  "We  build  churches  for  this  one  purpose,  that  Chris- 
 tians may  meet  together  and  pray,  hear  God's  Word,  and  receive 
 the  Sacrament ;  and  when  they  cease  to  be  built  for  this  purpose 
 they  had  better  be  torn  down  like  any  other  building  that  has 
 become  useless." 
 
 The  first  Christians  assembled  for  worship  in  private  houses 
 (Acts  1:13;  12:12;  Rom.  16:23;  I  Cor.  16:19;  Col.  4:15)  ;  but 
 as  their  number  increased  and  the  Churches  began  to  take  form, 
 the  need  of  special  and  suitable  buildings  made  itself  increasing- 
 ly manifest.  The  first  of  these,  erected  during  the  third  century, 
 were  unpretentious  and  frail  structures ;  and  not  until  the  time 
 of  Constantine  and  the  cessation  of  persecution  did  Christian 
 architecture  become  an  art.  Two  styles  were  simultaneously  de- 
 veloped— the  Basilican  and  the  Byzantine,  the  one  representative 
 of  the  Western  Church  and  civilization,  the  other  of  the  Eastern. 
 The  former  was  derived  from  the  Roman  basilica — a  style  of  rec- 
 tangular building  that,  with  its  large  vestibule  (narthex),  its 
 long  nave  and  side  aisles,  and  its  semi-circular  recess  (tribune) 
 in  the  rear,  required  but  few  changes  in  its  general  plan  to  make 
 it  serve  as  a  model  for  Christian  churches.  The  vestibule  was 
 made  to  answer  as  the  gathering  place  of  the  catechumens ;  the 
 long  interior  hall  for  the  assembly  of  the  baptized  or  faithful; 
 and  the  recess  became  the  apse  or  saiictuarium  of  the  church, 
 raised  a  few  steps  above  the  nave,  and  containing  the  altar,  the 
 
go  MEMOIRS. 
 
 bishops  throne,  and  seats  for  the  clergy.  Somewhat  in  front  of 
 the  saiictuarium  was  the  space  reserved  for  the  singers  and  the 
 minor  clergy.  On  the  north  side  of  this  space  stood  the  reading- 
 desk  (ambo)  for  the  Gospel;  on  the  south  side,  that  for  the 
 Epistle.  The  exterior  of  the  Christian  basilica  was  plain ;  but  the 
 interior,  with  its  splendid  columns,  rich  mosaics,  and  costly 
 hangings  and  furniture,  was  most  beautiful.  "The  early  Chris- 
 tian basilica."  says  Bennett,  following  out  a  thought  expressed 
 by  Messmer,  "impresses  by  its  chaste  yet  noble  simplicity ;  in  it 
 the  student  of  delicate  art-sensibility  may  discover  the  germs  of 
 that  richer  and  fuller  development  which  was  afterward  realized 
 in  the  Gothic  cathedral.  Here  is  seen  the  solution  of  the  most 
 important  problems  of  sacred  architecture ;  namely,  to  develop 
 the  form  through  the  influence  of  the  religion  whose  rites  were 
 therein  to  be  celebrated ;  in  other  words,  to  efifect  a  harmony  be- 
 tween the  containing  material  and  the  contained  and  inspiring 
 spirit.  This  significant  victory  was  achieved  by  the  Christian  re- 
 ligion. Herein  is  noticed  the  difference  between  the  Greek  and  the 
 Christian  idea  of  architecture.  The  spiritual  significance  of  the  in- 
 terior of  the  Christian  basilica  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the  impos- 
 ing grandeur  of  the  Greek  temple.  Subjective  truth  and  beauty 
 are  here  shown  to  be  of  more  worth  than  material  splendor.  In- 
 stead of  passing  from  a  perfect  exterior  to  an  unmeaning  in- 
 terior, the  basilica  obeys  the  law  of  all  true  development  and 
 growth  in  first  invigorating  and  purifying  the  subjective  spirit, 
 and  then  by  virtue  of  the  transforming  power  of  truth,  subordi- 
 nating to  this  the  exterior  form." 
 
 The  introduction  of  the  transept — giving  the  ground-plan 
 the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  the  valuted  roof  in  place  of  the 
 horizontal  rafter  ceiling,  marks  the  transition  of  the  earlier  form 
 oF  the  Christian  basilica  to  the  Romanesque  or  round-vaulted 
 style  of  church  architecture  ;  and  in  the  intersection  of  the  vaulted 
 roof  of  the  transe])t  with  that  of  the  main  nave,  and  the  cross- 
 vaulting  introduced  to  support  the  roof  of  the  latter,  we  find  the 
 germs  of  the  later  Gothic  in  all  its  glorious  forms.  This  style 
 above  every  other  is  most  distinctively  Christian,  having  grown 
 to  its  perfection  of  beauty  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  Church, 
 expressing  most  completely  the  heavenward  aspirations  of  be- 
 lievers, and  symbolizing  most  fully  that  spiritual  edifice  "built 
 ujion  the  foundation  of  the  apostles  and  j^rophets.  Jesus  Christ 
 Himself  being  the  chief  corner-stone;  in  whom  all  the  building 
 fitly  framed  together  groweth  into  a  holy  temple  in  the  Lord ;  in 
 whom  ye  also  are  builded  together  for  an  habitation  of  God 
 through  the  S])irit."    (Kph.  2:20-22.) 
 
ART    IN    WORSHIP.  91 
 
 The  furniture  of  God's  house,  no  less  than  its  form  and  ar- 
 rangement, must  give  expression  to  the  fundamental  ideas  under- 
 lying the  Cultus.  The  church  is  designed  to  be  "the  house  of 
 prayer,"  where  God  meets  His  people  to  communicate  to  them, 
 through  'Word  and  Sacrament,  all  the  treasures  of  grace  in  Christ' 
 Jesus ;  and  where  they  meet  Him  with  the  eucharistic  sacrifices  of 
 prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving.  For  the  performance  of  these 
 acts  not  only  must  proper  provision  be  made,  but  the  significance 
 of  the  acts  themselves  must  be  kept  in  view.  A  true  Cultus  rec- 
 ognizes the  distinction  between  the  two  elements  in  worship — the 
 sacramental  and  the  sacrificial,  and  yet  avoids  the  error  of  sepa- 
 rating the  clergy,  as  though  it  were  an  order,  from  the  universal 
 priesthood  of  believers.  All  this  must  silently  appear  in  the  in- 
 ternal arrangement  and  furnishing  of  the  place  of  worship.  A 
 correctly  developed  Cultus  therefore  provides  a  sancfuarium  for 
 those  acts  in  which  the  Lord  more  especially  draws  nigh  to  His 
 people,  as  He  does  above  all  in  the  Holy  Supper ;  and  a  fiavc  as 
 the  gathering  place  of  the  worshiping  congregation,  drawing 
 nigh  to  God ;  but  it  puts  no  screen  between  the  two.  It  places 
 an  altar  in  the  sanctuary,  not  as  a  place  of  sacrifice  in  the  Romish 
 sense,  but  as  the  "table  of  the  Lord,"  and  as  the  place  where  the 
 acts  of  benediction  are  performed,  and  the  prayers  of  the  con- 
 gregation are  offered.  It  gives  the  altar  the  most  prominent 
 place  because  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar  Christian  worship 
 reaches  its  culmination,  and  that  by  its  very  position  it  may  at 
 all  times  remind  us  of  this  glorious  mystery  of  our  faith.  It 
 adorns  the  altar  and  its  covering  with  a  suitable  symbolism  that 
 this  may  silently  speak  to  us  of  redemption.  It  puts  a  crucifix 
 upon  the  altar  that  the  eye  may  see  what  the  heart  feels  when  it 
 sings:  "O  sacred  Head  now  wounded:"  or,  if  not  a  crucifix,  at 
 least  a  Cross,  as  the  symbol  of  the  Christian's  faith.  And  for 
 the  administration  of  the  Holy  Supper  it  provides  vessels  of  ap- 
 propriate design  and  precious  metal. — To  the  audible  Word  as 
 the  means  whereby  faith  cometh  (Rom.  10:17)  a  true  Cultus 
 assigns  the  central  place,  and  therefore  both  for  practical  and 
 symbolical  reasons  stations  the  pulpit  towards  the  central  part  of 
 the  church,  near  the  people,  where  all  can  hear  and  understand. 
 For  the  same  reason  the  lecturn  must  occupy  a  forward  position. 
 — Nor  does  a  true  Cultus  fail  to  recognize  the  Sacrament  where- 
 by we  are  made  members  of  the  body  of  Christ.  It  has  a  perma- 
 nent place  for  the  baptismal  font.  Sometimes  near  the  main  en- 
 trance of  the  church,  sometimes  toward  the  side  in  close  connec- 
 tion with  the  saiicfnarinm,  but  never  so  as  to  obstruct  the  view 
 to  the  altar. — Font.  Pulpit,  Altar — these  three  give  expression  to 
 the  liturgical  principle  that  Baptism  is  the  beginning,  the  Ser- 
 
02  MEMOIRS. 
 
 nion  the  center,  and  tlie  Holy  Supj^er  the  culmination  of  Chris- 
 tian wor.'ihip. 
 
 But  before  any  of  the  arts  already  mentioned  began  to  re- 
 ceive Christian  development,  the  vocal  arts,  poetry  and  music 
 were  already  in  use  in  the  Church.  Christianity  is  pre-eminently 
 the  religion  of  the  Word.  Its  whole  Cultus  rests  on  the  "Word 
 made  flesh."  on  the  Divine-human  Redeemer,  as  He  and  His 
 work  are  set  forth  and  His  grace  is  offered  and  communicated  in 
 the  Gospel.  Hence  the  faith  begotten  and  nurtured  by  Word  and 
 Sacrament  expresses  itself  first  of  all  in  devout  adoration,  and 
 tinds  in  this,  when  it  is  common  Service,  one  of  the  most  power- 
 ful means  of  edification.  That  sacred  song  formed  an  important 
 part  of  the  worship  of  the  early  Christians  is  evident  from  numer- 
 ous passages  of  the  New  Testament  (Matt.  26:30;  Mark  14:26; 
 Luke  24:53;  Acts  2:47;  16:25;  i  ^^r.  14:26;  Eph.  5:19;  Col. 
 3:16).  Nor  do  we  lack  testimony  from  other  sources.  The 
 Christian  writers  Justin  Martyr,  Clement.  Tertullian,  and  Euse- 
 bius  all  bear  witness  to  the  custom ;  and  even  the  heathen  Pliny, 
 in  his  letter  to  Trajan,  A.  D.  no  mentions  the  Christians  as  meet- 
 ing "on  a  certain  day  before  sunrise,  and  singing  by  turns  (i.  e. 
 antiphonally)  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  to  God." 
 
 The  hymn-book  of  the  first  Christians  was  beyond  doubt  the 
 Psalter;  but  when  Paul,  in  addition,  speaks  of  "hymns  and  spirit- 
 ual songs."  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  other  portions  of 
 the  Old  Testament  like  Ex.  15:1-18;  Deut.  32:1-43;  i  Sam.  2: 
 I -10;  Isaiah  6:3,  etc.,  also  passed  into  use  in  the  Christian  ser- 
 vices. At  a  very  early  period  such  inspired  and  distinctly  Chris- 
 tian hymns  as  the  Magnificat  (Luke  1:46-55).  the  Bcncdictus 
 (Luke  1:68-79),  3"d  the  Nunc  Dimittis  (Luke  2:29-32),  were 
 likewise  addt-d.  These,  with  the  Gloria  in  E.vcelsis,  developed 
 from  Luke  2:14,  and  the  Te  Dcnni  Laudamns  still  furnish  the 
 norm  of  the  perfect  hymn.  Ry  some  it  is  supposed  that  the  fol- 
 lowing additional  passages  of  the  New  Testament  are  likewise 
 fragments  of  hymns:  Acts  4:24-30;  Eph.  5:14;  i  Tim.  3:16;  6: 
 15.  16;  James  1:17;  Rev.  1:4-8;  5:9.  10,  12-14;  11:15.  17,  18; 
 21  :io-i4;  22:17. 
 
 Christian  hymnoloij^y  had  its  first  bloom  in  the  Eastern 
 Church,  but  reached  its  highest  development  before  the  Refor- 
 uMtion  in  the  Church  of  the  West  and  in  the  Latin  language. 
 In  its  strict  sen.se,  however,  as  a  {popular  religious  .song  of  the 
 worshiping  congregation,  the  Church  hymn  was  a  product  of  the 
 Reformation  ;  and  German  hynmody.  in  the  wealth  of  its  treas- 
 ures, surpasses  that  of  any  other  land  and  tongue.  Pre-Refor- 
 mation  Church  song  was  not  congregational.  The  whole  Ser- 
 vice was  sung  by  the  priests  and  choristers    in    a    language    to 
 
ART   IN    WORSHIP.  93 
 
 which  the  people  were  strangers.  But  as  the  Reformation  again 
 gave  the  people  the  Bible  in  their  own  language,  so  it  gave  them 
 hymns  they  could  understand  and  sing.  Luther  himself  heads 
 the  long  list  of  German  hymn-writers,  with  thirty-seven  hymns 
 to  his  credit.  Julian  calls  him  "the  Ambrose  of  German  Hymn- 
 ody,"  and  says :  "His  hymns  are  characterized  by  simplicity  and 
 strength,  and  a  popular  churchly  tone.  They  breathe  the  bold, 
 confident,  joyful  spirit  of  justifying  faith  which  was  the  beating 
 heart  of  his  theology  and  piety."  Next  to  Luther  the  most  gifted 
 and  popular  hymn-writer  of  the  Lutheran  Church  was  Paul  Ger- 
 hardt. 
 
 The  first  English  hymns  in  Coverdale's  Goostly  Psalmes  and 
 Spiritual  Songs  can  most  of  them  be  traced  to  Lutheran  sources ; 
 but  when  Calvinistic  conceptions  gained  the  ascendency  in  Eng- 
 land, these  also  made  their  influence  felt  in  the  hymnody  of  the 
 English  Church.  The  rage  for  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms, 
 the  vast  majority  of  which  were  most  wretched,  for  a  long  time 
 paralyzed  original  productiveness.  Not  until  the  time  of  Isaac 
 Watts,  who  has  been  called  "the  father  of  English  Hymnody," 
 did  original  hymns  begin  to  meet  with  favor.  Watts  was  fol- 
 lowed by  numerous  writers  down  to  the  present  to  whom  the 
 Church  is  indebted  for  many  hymns  that  will  continue  to  be  sung 
 ab  long  as  the  English  language  endures. 
 
 Here  it  may  be  well  to  pause  for  a  moment  to  consider  what 
 must  be  the  characteristics  of  a  true  hymn,  whether  metrical  or 
 unmetrical.  A  genuine  hymn  must  deal  with  the  great  objective 
 facts  of  religion.  It  must  be  addressed  to  the  Triune  God,  or  to 
 one  of  the  three  Persons  in  the  Trinity.  It  must  be  inspired  by 
 the  perfections,  attributes,  offices  and  works  that  we  connect  with 
 each  of  the  three  Persons  in  the  Godhead.  Its  contents  must 
 take  the  form  chiefly  of  supplication,  prayer,  praise  and  thanks- 
 giving. It  must  be  lyrical,  i.  e.,  singable,  and  must  at  all  times 
 serve  the  purposes  of  common  worship,  or,  in  other  words,  be 
 true  people's  song.  These  rubrics  therefore  exclude  all  so-called 
 hymns  that  contain  false  doctrine  or  that  are  mere  dry  state- 
 ments of  correct  doctrine;  hymns  that  are  purely  subjective,  re- 
 flective or  sentimental ;  hortatory  hymns ;  the  so-called  "narra- 
 tive hymns ;"  hymns  that  moralize  about  certain  virtues  and 
 graces  or  sing  the  praises  of  objects  that  cannot  be  worshiped; 
 hymns  expressive  of  morbid  sentiment,  and  hymns  that,  how- 
 ever excellent  as  to  contents,  possess  no  lyrical  character.  Many 
 of  these  may  answer  admirably  for  private  reading  and  devotion, 
 but  they  are  not  Church  hymns,  i.  e.,  hymns  suitable  for  common 
 Vv^orship.  Still  far  beneath  all  such  are  the  rhymes  lacking  even 
 the  qualities  of  respectable  poetry,  that  with  their  equally  insipid 
 
94  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tunes  have  in  recent  years,  through  the  pubHcations  of  a  certain 
 tvpe,  helped  to  degrade  the  song  of  church  and  school. 
 
 The  devotional  sentiments  begotten  by  the  great  objective 
 facts  of  religion  find  their  appropriate  expression  in  the  music 
 of  public  worshij).  which,  when  of  the  right  kind,  is  also  a  most 
 powerful  promoter  of  devotion.  It  is,  as  it  were,  the  censor  in 
 which  the  worshiping  congregation  oflfers  its  incense  of  prayer, 
 praise  and  thanksgiving  to  the  Most  High,  and  which  by  the 
 fragrance  of  its  odors,  directs  mind  and  heart  to  the  great  real- 
 ities of  the  unseen  world.  What  the  music  of  the  early  Chris- 
 tians was  like  we  hardly  know.  Perhaps  some  of  it  was  derived 
 from  the  Hebrew  Temple  Service.  IVobably  Aug.  Wilh.  Am- 
 bros  is  right  in  surmising  that  "from  the  Musica  Sacra  of  the 
 Hebrews  the  music  of  Christianity  derived  its  sacredness,  from 
 the  musical  art  of  the  Greek,  its  form,  shape  and  beauty."  It 
 reached  its  first  stage  of  development  under  Ambrose,  Bishop  of 
 Milan,  who  introduced  the  so-called  Ambrosian  Chant;  another 
 stage  began  with  Gregory  the  Great,  the  father  of  the  Gregorian 
 Chant;  in  the  works  of  Palestrina  pure  Church  music  attained  its 
 greatest  perfection  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  those 
 of  Eccard,  Hassler  and  others  of  the  same  school  in  the  Luther- 
 an Church ;  whilst  sacred  music  as  distinguished  from  pure 
 Church  music  came  to  its  most  glorious  unfolding  in  the  works 
 oi  Bach  and  Haendel. 
 
 The  Music  of  the  Church,  if  it  is  to  serve  its  right  function, 
 must  be  inspired  by  the  Church's  Liturgy  in  its  completeness  for 
 all  seasons  and  occasions.  Starting  with  this  fundamental  con- 
 ception the  Lutheran  Church  gives  place  to  three  forms  of  music 
 in  her  Cultus,  to  wit,  the  recitative  or  liturgical,  for  which  the 
 ancient  Plain  Song  is  best  adapted ;  the  melodic  as  it  appears  in 
 the  unisonous  congregational  hymn-tune ;  and  the  poly[>honic  for 
 the  choir.  All  three  must  serve  to  transfigure  the  text,  and  must 
 be  of  such  a  character  and  so  related  as  not  to  do  violence  to  a 
 correct  devotional  feeling  or  disturb  the  unit\  of  the  Service  as 
 an  act  of  reverent  worship.  The  latter  is  done,  however,  and  the 
 text  assigned  a  secondary  place,  when  the  liturgical  song  degen- 
 erates into  the  sensuously  sweet  and  languid  from  which  every 
 trace  of  the  virile  and  dignified  FMain  Song  has  disappeared ; 
 when  hymn-tunes  arc  chosen  they  say  nothing  either  musically 
 or  devotionally,  and  that  too  often  remind  of  the  street  or  the 
 play-house ;  and  when  choirs,  unmindful  of  their  proper  func- 
 tions, arrogate  to  themselves  an  independent  place,  and  sing  what 
 is  neither  fitting  for  the  house  of  God  nor  related  in  any  organic 
 way  to  the  Service  itself.  These  altogether  too  prevalent  sins 
 both   against  a  correct  artistic  taste  and  a   reverent   devotional 
 
ART    IN    WORSHIP.  95 
 
 feeling,  will  not  be  corrected  until  pastors  and  organists,  choirs 
 and  congregations  come  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  purpose 
 that  music  is  designed  to  serve  in  public  worship ;  and  until  the 
 Church  is  prepared  to  accept  a  musical  setting  of  her  Service 
 that  in  every  part  sets  forth  the  deep  spiritual  meaning  of  that 
 Service. 
 
 The  congregational  hymn-tune  is  a  distinct  product  of  the 
 Reformation.  Upon  its  history  we  cannot  here  enter.  Its  noblest 
 form  is  found  in  the  Protestant  Choral  in  its  original,  fresh, 
 rhythmical  form,  which  should  always  serve  as  the  standard 
 whereby  all  hymn-tunes  admitted  into  our  Services  are  to  be 
 judged.  When  these  incomparable  melodies  are  beginning  to 
 meet  with  merited  appreciation  in  other  church  bodies,  it  is  not 
 to  our  credit  that  they  are  so  rarely  heard  in  our  own  English 
 congregations  whose  lawful  heritage  they  are.  It  seems  that  in 
 this  as  in  many  other  things  we  are  quite  willing  to  give  up  our 
 own  treasures  in  exchange  for  the  rubbish  that  a  totally  different 
 type  of  church-life  has  produced. 
 
 The  artistic  element  in  Church  song  finds  expression  chiefly 
 through  the  choir  and  the  organ.  Both  however  must  subordi- 
 nate the  purely  artistic  to  the  devotional.  The  purpose  of  every- 
 thing that  is  sung  or  played  must  be  worship.  Hence  it  is  im- 
 portant that  the  choir  (in  the  Lutheran  Cultus  always  a  chorus) 
 be  composed  of  persons  who  are  themselves  devout  Christians 
 and  "who  will  sing  with  the  spirit,  and  with  the  understanding 
 also"  (i  Cor.  14:15).  Hence  what  they  sing  is  also  a  matter  of 
 the  gravest  importance.  On  the  one  hand  the  vulgar  and  mean 
 must  be  excluded ;  on  the  other  the  intensely  subjective  and  dra- 
 matic is  rarely  in  place.  Because  of  the  latter  quality  the  oratorio 
 and  cantata  style  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  called  Church 
 music,  however  greatly  we  reverence  the  genius  of  Bach  and 
 Haendel,  the  two  greatest  masters  in  this  style.  Neither  the  vul- 
 gar nor  the  intensely  dramatic  is  profitable  for  worship.  The  one 
 offends,  the  other  ministers  to  purely  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
 enjoyment. 
 
 As  regards  the  use  of  the  organ  I  repeat  what  I  have  said 
 elsewhere,  that,  as  some  of  the  old  Church  Orders  direct,  it 
 should  not  be  used  during  service  for  the  performance  of  flip- 
 pant and  vulgar  music,  nor  for  mere  artistic  display.  The  strict, 
 pure  style  of  the  great  masters  in  organ  music  should  determine 
 the  character  of  the  voluntaries.  In  accompanying  voices  the 
 frnction  of  the  organ  is  to  encourage  and  support,  but  it  must 
 never  obscure  the  words  or  attract  attention  to  itself  by  striving 
 after  unusual  effects.  He  only  is  well  qualified  as  an  organist 
 in  whom  musical  and  liturgical  understanding,  pure  taste,  tech- 
 
g6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 meal  ability,  and  sincere  piety  are  found  combined. 
 
 Having  now  to  an  extent  sketched  the  historical  develop- 
 ment of  Christian  Art,  and  having  seen  how  Christian  Worship 
 takes  Art  into  its  service  not  merely  to  gratify  the  aesthetic  sense, 
 but  as  a  means  of  edification,  let  us  yet  briefly  see  what  must  be 
 its  characteristics,  in  order  to  serve  its  proper  purpose.  Harnack 
 mentions  four:  veracity,  -fidelity  to  history,  intelligibility,  and 
 simplicity  and  dig)nty. 
 
 Christian  Art  must  set  forth  the  Christian  Faith  according 
 to  its  objective  and  subjective  truth.  Nothing  must  therefore  be 
 admitted  as  an  art-form  into  the  Cultus  of  the  Church  that  does 
 not  correctly  set  forth  or  symbolize  an  objective  truth  of  God's 
 Word,  and  call  forth  that  reverence  and  devotion  which  only  the 
 Word,  rightly  received  and  believed,  can  beget.  Hence  many  pic- 
 tures found  in  Roman  Catholic  churches  as  also  much  of  the 
 hymnology  and  music  both  of  Romish  and  Protestant  churches 
 should  have  no  place  in  the  house  of  God. 
 
 As  the  Church  has  an  unbroken  history,  and  in  all  her  pure 
 arts  in  all  ages  knows  but  "one  Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism,  one 
 God  and  father  of  all,  Who  is  above  all,  and  through  all,  and  in 
 all"  (Eph.  4:5,  6),  she  should  therefore  also  reflect  this  in  her 
 art  today.  By  degrees,  the  Church  developed  her  own  art,  repre- 
 senting in  all  its  departments  a  distinct  and  recognizable  type: 
 and  from  this  there  should  be  no  wider  departure  than  the  prin- 
 ciple of  truth  and  present-day  requirements  demand. 
 
 Again  her  art  must  be  intelligible,  i.  e.,  of  a  kind  that  readily 
 commends  itself  to  the  understanding  of  the  people.  Pictures 
 must  not  be  so  allegorical,  nor  symbols  so  mysterious,  nor  hymns 
 so  stilted,  nor  the  music  so  intricate  as  to  become  meaningless 
 and  unprofitable  to  the  average  worshiper.  But  this  does  not 
 mean  that  the  art  of  the  Church  may  ever  descend  to  the  vulgar. 
 For  God  and  His  people  only  the  best  and  most  beautiful  is  good 
 enough.  Hence  a  reverent  devotional  feeling  combined  with  a 
 pure  artistic  taste  will  not  allow  a  quack  architect  to  build  a 
 church,  nor  permit  a  quack  artist,  a  quack  poet,  or  a  quack  musi- 
 cian to  desecrate  the  house  of  God  and  ofTend  eye  and  ear  of 
 devout  worshipers  by  their  rude  productions. 
 
 Above  all  must  the  art  of  the  Church  be  simple  and  digni- 
 fied. The  beauty  of  all  ecclesiastical  art  must  be  the  beauty  of 
 holiness ;  and  it  is  only  then  most  beautiful  when  by  its  chaste 
 simplicity  and  noble  dignity  it  most  readily  awakens  holy  thoughts 
 and  attunes  the  heart  to  holy  service.  Hence  art  that  pleases 
 only  by  its  technical  perfection,  and  ministers  only  to  the  aesthetic 
 sense,  but  docs  not  at  the  same  time  serve  the  holy  j)urposc  which 
 all  ecclesiastical  art  is  meant  to  serve,  can  have  no  place  in  a  pure 
 
ART    IN    WORSHIP.  97 
 
 Cultus.  This  principle  excludes  many  beautiful  conceptions  in 
 poetry,  music,  painting,  and  sculpture,  that  as  art  works  are  de- 
 serving of  the  highest  appreciation,  but  that  in  the  worshiping 
 congregation  are  altogether  useless  as  aids  to  devotion  and  edi- 
 fication. 
 
 And  now  let  me  summarize  this  presentation  by  asking  and 
 answering  the  question :  How  does  the  ideal  Lutheran  congrega- 
 tion, rooted  in  sound  doctrine,  vitalized  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  per- 
 meated by  a  true  spirituality,  and  having  a  pure  liturgy,  treat  the 
 arts  we  have  considered,  in  its  worship?  It  uses  all  of  them  to 
 magnify  Christ  and  His  grace.  It  has  a  Cultus  that  sets  forth 
 the  great  objective  facts  of  redemption  on  the  one  hand,  and  ex- 
 presses the  heart's  faith  and  gratitude,  its  love,  its  aspirations, 
 and  its  hopes  on  the  other.  It  assigns  to  the  audible  and  visible 
 Word  the  chief  place  in  that  Cultus.  It  gathers  for  wor- 
 ship both  to  receive  and  to  give.  It  sees  in  it  a  sacramental  and 
 a  sacrificial  side.  Its  place  of  worship  is  therefore  neither  a  mere 
 preaching  place,  nor  an  opera  house,  nor  an  art  gallery,  but  the 
 "house  of  the  Lord,"  a  "house  of  prayer,"  which  in  all  its  ap- 
 pointments speaks  only  of  holy  things  and  holy  service,  of  a 
 gracious  Giver  and  of  sanctified  givers.  Whether  it  build  a 
 cathedral  or  a  modest  chapel,  it  permits  no  profane  pattern  in  its 
 form,  no  shams  in  its  construction,  no  bizarre  effects  and  gaudy 
 show  in  its  decorations  and  adornments,  no  caricature  of  sacred 
 things  on  painted  wall  or  in  stained  glass  and  sculptured  stone. 
 It  guards  with  equal  care  the  vocal  arts.  It  adapts  its  hymns  and 
 music  to  the  place,  purpose  and  season.  It  does  not  offend 
 against  reverence  and  propriety  by  singing  doggerel  and  jingles, 
 nor  allow  the  use  of  hymns  so  unintelligible  and  of  tunes  so  diffi- 
 cult as  to  profit  no  one.  It  will  not  shout  Alleluia  on  Good 
 Friday  and  chant  Dc  Profuudis  on  Easter.  It  cannot  tolerate  an 
 organist  and  choir  whose  principal  object  is  the  display  of  vir- 
 tuosity, and  will  dismiss  both  as  soon  as  they  rob  it  of  one  jot 
 or  tittle  of  its  Divine  right  to  worship  God  in  sacred  song.  In 
 a  word,  the  art  of  the  ideal  Lutheran  congregation  is  Christian 
 art,  dignified,  noble,  and  pure ;  never  coarse  and  vulgar ;  refined 
 and  beautiful,  yet  always  simple  and  holy,  serving  at  once  to 
 arouse  and  to  express  devotion. 
 
 It  is  sometimes  said,  even  among  us,  that  all  these  things 
 t>.nd  only  to  externalize  devotion.  But  there  is  no  such  danger 
 so  long  as  the  Divine  Word  remains  the  center  of  our  worship, 
 and  we  allow  that  Word  to  do  its  saving  and  sanctifying  work  in 
 our  hearts  and  lives.  Then  these  will  themselves  become  beauti- 
 ful;  and  the  soul  that  has  the  beauty  of  the  Lord  upon  it  will 
 also  find  pleasure  in  clothing  its  devotions  in  a  beautiful  form. 
 
98  MKMOIRS. 
 
 Ivikc  the  woman  with  the  box  of  precious  ointment,  it  will,  in 
 sinccrest  love  and  gratitude,  honor  the  Lord  with  the  costliest 
 ai.d  best  that  it  has.  *"The  highest  and  best"  says  even  a  Re- 
 formed writer,  "must  express  itself  in  no  other  than  the  noblest 
 forms  and.  nowhere  is  the  tasteless  and  misshapen  less  appropri- 
 ate, than  where  God  is  to  be  worshiped  in  spirit  and  in  truth." "^ 
 
 When  the  Lutheran  calls  this  "Ritualism"  and  "High 
 Churchism."  or  an  arrogant  "churchman"  sets  up  the  extraordin- 
 ary claim  that  whatever  of  pure  art  and  worship  we  have  is  only 
 copied  from  the  Anglican  communion,  both  are  to  be  commiser- 
 ated for  their  dense  but  by  no  means  excusable  ignorance.  The 
 Church  of  the  pure  faith  and  the  pure  worship  knows  no  such 
 terms  and  acknowledges  no  such  indebtedness.  Our  Cultus  is  our 
 own,  and  is  but  the  outgrowth  and  expression  of  our  spiritual 
 life,  and  not  a  sign  of  spiritual  death.  In  its  evangelical  form  it 
 came  and  developed  with  the  Reformation  itself;  and  surely  no 
 one  would  accuse  the  Church  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  of  dead 
 orthodoxy  and  formalism !  Even  the  so-called  "non-liturgical" 
 Churches  are  coming  to  realize  that  the  spirit  which  prompted  a 
 large  part  of  Protestantism  to  be  hostile  to  sacred  art.  is  also  in 
 the  long  run  fatal  to  reverent  common  worship.  It  is  this  very 
 si)irit  that  has  in  so  many  places  transformed  the  modern  church 
 into  an  amphitheatre,  the  chancel  into  a  lecture  platform,  the 
 minister  into  a  moral  instructor,  and  the  song  of  the  people  into 
 a  sacred  concert  by  the  choir !  To  guard  against  such  tendencies 
 among  us  we  need  increasingly  to  study  and  faithfully  to  follow 
 the  principles  upon  which  our  Cultus  is  based.  Then  will  our 
 churches  be  churches  indeed;  and  those  who  regularly  gather  in 
 them  will  come  both  to  receive  from  the  Lord,  and  to  worship 
 Him  "in  the  beautv  of  holiness." 
 
 Among  the  authorities  consulted  in  the  i)rc])aration  of  this 
 paper  are  the  following:  Tii.  Harnack  :  Praktischc  Thcologic; 
 RiETSCHEl:  Lchvbuch  dcr  Liturgik;  Meurkr  :  Dcr  Kirclicnbau 
 Tovi  Standpnnktc  nnd  nach  dcm  Brauchc  dcr  luthcrischcn 
 Kirchc:  ScmokukklivIn  l'.  Rikgkl:  Schatz  dcs  liturg.  Char.  u. 
 Cicinci)idcgcsa}igs;  SciioivHErlKin  :  Die  Musik  im  Cultus  dcr 
 craiig.  Kirche ;  Koch  :  Geschichtc  dcs  Kirchcnlicds  n.  Kirchen- 
 gcsangs:  Julian:  Dictionary  of  Hymnology :  \'an  OosterzKE: 
 Fracticoil  Theology:  Rknnktt:  Christian  .Irchacology :  LuT- 
 iiakdt:  The  Moral  Truths  of  Christianity:  vSch.\i"i"-Mi:rz(k;  :  En- 
 cyelopacdia  of  ReliQ;ious  Knoivlcdge. 
 
 I.  F.  Qui,. 
 Philadelphia.  Pa. 
 
 *  Van  Oosterzee. 
 
Vol.  III. 
 
THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE   LORD'S  SUPPER 
 IN  DIFFERENT  AGES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 The  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  described  by  the  synop- 
 tists  and  by  St.  Paul.  The  latter,  who  received  the  revelation 
 from  the  Lord,  gives  the  fullest  account.  We  have  therefore 
 the  firm  historic  basis  of  inspired  Scripture  for  the  account  of  the 
 institution,  whilst  that  which  pertains  to  the  subsequent  history 
 and  the  churchly  development  of  its  doctrine  and  forms  of  admin- 
 istration is  shrouded  in  considerable  obscurity. 
 
 It  was  on  the  night  of  the  betrayal,  in  the  large  upper  room 
 in  Jerusalem,  in  the  presence  of  the  eleven  disciples,  that  the  Lord 
 instituted  the  Supper.  It  followed  immediately  upon  the  paschal 
 meal.  The  elements  used  were  the  unleavened  bread  and  the 
 wine  upon  the  table  at  the  time.  The  apostles  reclined  about  the 
 table  according  to  the  custom  at  meals.  The  Lord  took  the 
 bread,  gave  thanks,  brake  it  and  distributed  to  the  disciples.  As 
 to  its  nature  and  use.  He  said,  "Take,  eat;  this  is  My  Body,  which 
 is  given  for  you;  this  do  in  remembrance  of  Me."  "After  the 
 same  manner,  also,  when  He  had  supped,  He  took  the  cup,  and 
 when  He  had  given  thanks.  He  gave  it  to  them,  saying,  Drink 
 ye  all  of  it;  this  cup  is  the  New  Testament  in  My  Blood,  which 
 is  shed  for  you,  and  for  many,  for  the  remission  of  sins;  this  do, 
 as  oft  as  ye  drink  it,  in  remembrance  of  Me."  Doubtless  all  the 
 eleven  ate  and  drank  of  it.  Having  further,  instructed  them  that 
 through  such  participation  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  True 
 Passover,  each  believing  communicant  had  a  foretaste  of  that 
 feast  when  he  should  eat  and  drink  with  Him  in  the  Father's 
 Kingdom,  they  sang  a  hymn   and  went  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
 
 Great  simplicity  marked  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  in  the  first  Christian  congregation  in  Jerusalem.  The  ser- 
 vices of  the  Church  were  homiletical  or  sacramental.  The  service 
 of  the  Word  was  of  a  popular  and  missionary  character,  and  was 
 
2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 even  held  in  llie  temple  or  in  Jewish  synagogues  and  usually  in 
 the  morning.  The  sacramental  services  at  the  first  took  place  in 
 the  evening  and  usually  in  the  close  circle  of  the  Church  alone,  all 
 others  being  dismissed.  When  the  services  were  held  in  one 
 place  the  first  part  was  the  Missa  Catechumenorum,  the  second, 
 the  Missa  Fidelimn.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  there  ap- 
 peared a  growing  tendency  to  separate  the  services  of  the  Word 
 and  of  the  Sacrament.  The  former,  whose  forms  were  contained 
 in  the  Breviary,  became  more  and  more  the  distinct  type  of  ser- 
 vice for  monastics.  The  sacramental,  especially  the  eucharistic, 
 whose  forms  were  embraced  in  the  Missal,  became  the  special 
 service  for  the  people,  and  preaching  the  Word  fell  into  disuse. 
 The  importance  of  the  homiletic  services  was  recognized  by  the 
 Reformers,  and  these  w^ere  again  restored  to  their  proper  place. 
 
 From  the  earliest  period,  probably  in  imitation  of  the  paschal 
 meal  which  preceded  its  institution,  there  was  combined  with  the 
 Supper  the  "Agape"  or  Love  Feast.  The  Eucharist  afforded 
 the  believers  fellowship  with  their  Lord;  the  Agapae  were  of  a 
 social  nature,  showing  the  fraternity  and  fellowship  among  be- 
 lievers. Much  obscurity  still  hangs  about  this  institution.  But 
 it  is  clear  that  the  Agape  was  closely  associated  with  and  com- 
 bined in  form  with  the  Eucharist.  In  the  parent  congregation  at 
 Jerusalem  they  had  a  communit}-  of  goods,  they  assembled  daily 
 in  the  temple  and  from  house  to  house  did  eat  their  bread.  They 
 were  a  new  spiritual /am //j'.  What  more  appropriate  than  to  eat 
 at  a  common  table?  At  their  meetings  the  Word  was  read 
 and  prayers  made.  Oblations  (offerings)  of  common  bread  and 
 wine  w^ere  brought.  After  Thanksgiving  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace, 
 they  joyfully  ate  the  common  meal.  When  this  was  done  the 
 leader  took  the  bread,  gave  thanks,  brake  and  gave,  or  assisted 
 by  the  deacons,  divided  it  and  the  cup  among  the  people. 
 
 The  Agape  is  mentioned  in  Jude  12.  But  St.  Paul  already 
 refers  to  it  in  i  Cor.  11,  and  seeks  to  correct  certain  abuses,  as 
 that  "Each  took  before  other,"  (perhaps  the  rich  before  the 
 poor)  or  that  of  excess  in  eating  and  drinking,  whereby  they 
 were  in  danger  of  forgetting  the  Sacrament  connected  therewith. 
 Paul  did  not  propose  to  abolish  the  Agape  but  to  correct  its  abuse 
 as  he  did  in  reference  to  the  homiletical  services  in  the  same  con- 
 gregation. 
 
 The  whole  service  is  sometimes  called  the  Eucharist,   some- 
 
THU   ADMINISTRATION   OF  THK   LORD'S   SUPPER.  3 
 
 times  the  Agape.  The  Didache  includes  the  Agape  in  the  de- 
 scription of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  Epistle  of  Ignatius  shows 
 that  they  were  celebrated  together  if  not  combined  in  one  form. 
 Probably  the  customs  differed  in  the  several  churches.  Justin 
 Martyr  (ob.  165)  who  gives  the  earliest  description  of  the  I^ord's 
 Supper,  makes  no  mention  of  the  Agape.  He  says,  "On  Sunday 
 all  gather  in  one  place,  the  memoirs  of  the  Apostles  are  read,  the 
 president  instructs  and  verbally  exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these 
 good  things.  Then  all  arise  together  and  pray.  After  praj-er 
 bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  prayers  and  thanksgivings 
 are  offered,  the  people  responding  Amen.  There  is  a  distribution 
 and  participation  by  all  present  and  a  portion  is  sent  to  the  ab- 
 sent. The  offerings  are  taken  and  deposited  with  the  president 
 who  succors  the  orphans,  widows,  destitute  and  strangers  among 
 us." 
 
 St.  Paul's  rebuke  of  the  Corinthian  Church  implies  that  the 
 social  meal  or  Agape  was  combined  with  the  Eucharist.  To 
 avoid  abuses,  he  teaches  them  to  eat  at  home  and  to  meet  in  the 
 church  for  the  Divine  Service  and  Sacrament.  This  rebuke,  to- 
 gether Vv'ith  the  edict  of  Trajan  against  strange  religions,  pre- 
 pared the  way  for  the  subordination  of  the  Agape.  A  further 
 step  is  observed  in  Justin  who  tells  us  that  the  Sacrament  was 
 transferred  to  the  Sunday  morning  service.  The  Agape  was 
 doubtless  continued  as  the  evening  social  or  charitable  feast  of 
 Christians.  At  Alexandria  it  was  still  connected  with  or  fol- 
 lowed the  Eucharist  in  the  third  century.  Its  final  stages  were 
 reached  when  the  Agapse  were  prohibited  in  the  churches,  and  at 
 last  were  altogether  suppressed  by  the  second  Trullan  Council, 
 A.  D.  692.  This  was  necessar}'  that  the  Lord's  Institution  might 
 retain  its  proper  place  and  meaning. 
 
 We  have  a  description  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  administered 
 in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries:  "After  the  common  homiletical 
 service  and  dismissal  of  all  but  the  faithful,  tlie  deacons  gather 
 the  oblations  of  bread  and  wine.  One  loaf  is  selected  as  the 
 'hostia.'  Then  follows  Lhe  Kiss  of  Peace,  the  clergy  wash  their 
 hands,  the  bread  and  wine  are  placed  on  the  altar,  a  subdeacon 
 stands  at  each  end  with  fan  in  hand  to  keep  off  the  flies,  the  robed 
 bishop  and  priests  approach.  Then  follows  a  long  General  Prayer 
 and  special  supplications  for  various  estates  and  conditions,  the 
 thirty-fourth  Psalm  is  sung,  after  which,  first  the  clergy,  then  the 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 congregation  receive  the  Sacrament . ' '  The  simple  primitive  forms 
 of  administration  gave  way  to  various  and  divergent  enlargements 
 called  lyiturgies,  which,  though  often  incorrectly,  were  ascribed 
 to  Apostles  or  celebrated  Church  Fathers.  There  are  many  de- 
 tails which  need  to  be  mentioned  to  complete  the  history. 
 
 Ancient  paintings  represent  the  priest  consecrating  the  ele- 
 ments laid  upon  the  altar,  by  extending  both  hands  over  them 
 and  doubtless  using  the  words  of  institution. 
 
 Originally  the  Comnnmion  was  celebrated  every  day,  then 
 every  Siuiday.  Later  it  was  restricted  to  the  three  great  festivals 
 and  at  the  Lateran  Council,  12 15,  the  minimum  was  fixed  at  the 
 Easter  Communion. 
 
 The  people  prepared  themselves  by  fasting,  ablutions,  dress- 
 ing in  clean  clothes  and  the  Kiss  of  Peace.  In  earliest  times  the 
 deacons  distributed  to  the  people,  later  the  people  approached  the 
 altar,  two  by  two,  and  received  the  elements  standing  (Apost. 
 Const.).  Afterward  the  women,  then  the  men,  were  excluded 
 from  the  altar  and  choir  and  the  elements  were  handed  to  them 
 over  the  rail  which  separated  the  choir  from  the  nave.  In  earlier 
 periods  the  bread  was  received  with  the  hand,  then  it  was  put 
 into  the  mouth  in  order  to  prevent  the  people  from  taking  it  home 
 for  superstitious  purposes.  Kneeling  does  not  occur  till  the 
 twelfth  century. 
 
 The  Eastern  Church  continued  the  use  of  leavened  bread 
 whilst  the  Western  Church,  referring  to  the  circumstances  at  the 
 institution,  began  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  ninth  cen- 
 tury. The  wine  was  commonly  mixed  with  water  witli  no  dis- 
 tinction between  red  and  white. 
 
 By  heretical  sects  various  substitutes  were  used  for  wine,  as 
 water,  milk,  honey,  unfermented  grape  juice.  The  breaking  of 
 the  bread  in  the  consecration  was  the  general  custom  and  has  been 
 retained  by  all  except  the  Lutheran  Church  which  rejects  it  as  a 
 protest  against  the  symbolizing  tendency.  Sometimes  the  bread 
 was  dipped  into  the  wine,  and  the  Greek  Church  even  drops  the 
 bread  into  the  wine  and  offers  it  by  means  of  a  spoon,  to  the 
 connnunicants. 
 
 Since  the  third  century  children  were  admitted  to  the  Lord's 
 Supper.  Cyprian  approves  of  this  custom  and  implies  that  it 
 was  common.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Augustine  also 
 mention  it. 
 
THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF   THE    LORD'S    SUPPER.  5 
 
 The  form  of  celebration  developed  in  the  Greek  Church  dif- 
 fers from  the  Roman.  It  is  more  symbolical,  representing  the 
 Lord's  passion.  Five  loaves  are  laid  on  the  altar.  The  priest 
 selects  one,  pierces  it  with  a  lance,  while  the  deacon  pours  wine 
 and  water  into  the  cup.  Amid  solemn  dirges,  with  lighted  can- 
 dles and  burning  incense,  the  elements  are  borne  through  the 
 church,  and  then  back  to  the  altar  and  placed  like  the  body  of 
 Christ  in  the  tomb.  A  curtain  is  lowered  before  the  altar, 
 unseen,  the  bishop,  with  an  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  conse- 
 crates the  elements.  When  the  curtain  is  raised,  the  altar  repre- 
 sents the  tomb  from  which  Christ  is  arisen.  While  the  choir 
 sings  a  hymn  of  praise,  the  elements  are  distributed  without  any 
 special  formula. 
 
 The  Roman  rite  displays  (if  possible)  a  still  wider  diver- 
 gence from  the  original  institution.  The  name  "oblation"  or 
 offering  was  indeed  from  the  first  applied  to  the  people's  gifts  of 
 bread  and  wine.  When  the  idea  of  a  Christian  priesthood,  so 
 earnestly  advocated  by  Cyprian,  came  into  vogue,  the  other  re- 
 lated idea  of  a  sacrifice  also  appeared.  The  consecrated  elements 
 were  offered  to  God  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  sin.  Gregory 
 the  Great,  (A.  D.  590),  saw  a  sacrificial  victim  in  the  bread  on 
 the  altar.  Masses  began  to  be  offered  for  the  dead,  who  could 
 thus  be  delivered  from  purgatory,  and  magical  effects  also  were 
 claimed.  Thus  the  Eucharist  was  divided.  The  congregational 
 Communion  began  to  be  overshadowed  by  the  sacrificial  mass, 
 which  was  celebrated  with  more  than  apostolic  frequency  and 
 often  privately.  The  thirteenth  century  brought  radical  changes, 
 Transubstantiation  was  fixed  in  the  Lateran  Council,  12 15,  as  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Church.  Thomas  Aquinas  taught  that  the  Sacra- 
 ment is  consummated  in  the  act  of  consecration,  according  to  the 
 intention  of  the  priest,  not  in  the  Communion  of  believers.  The 
 mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  whose  benefits  extend  to  the  ab- 
 sent and  to  the  dead.  The  Council  of  Trent  established  these 
 doctrines  in  all  their  baldness.  So  far  as  the  Eucharist  is  a  sac- 
 rifice, it  is  the  sole  act  of  the  priest,  who  is  a  mediator  between 
 God  and  the  congregation.  The  words  of  consecration  are  spoken 
 in  Eatin  in  an  undertone  and  addressed  to  the  elements.  When 
 the  priest  speaks  the  words,  "This  is  My  Body,"  he  bows  his 
 knees  and  prays  to  the  Christ  who  is  present  in  the  host,  and 
 shows  it  to  the  people  who  may  also  adore  it.     Likewise  with  the 
 
6  MEMOIRS, 
 
 cup.  This  is  the  elevation  and  adoration  of  the  host.  The  priest 
 then  communicates  and  distributes  to  the  people,  if  any  are 
 present. 
 
 Fear  that  the  consecrated  wine  might  be  spilt,  afforded  the 
 pretext  for  withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  real  motive  being  a  purpose  to 
 elevate  the  priesthood.  Even  before  this,  we  meet  with  the 
 occasional  use  of  gold  or  silver  tubes  for  takirig  the  wine.  The 
 Comiminio  sub  7inaqiie  was  further  supported  b}^  the  scholastic 
 invention  of  the  doctrine  of  Concomitance. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  decidedl}-  affects  its  ad- 
 ministration. Consequently  in  those  branches  of  the  Protestant 
 Chiu-ch  in  which  the  Supper  is  viewed  as  only  a  memorial,  little 
 importance  attaches  to  the  manner  of  its  administration  and  the 
 Sacrament  itself  falls  into  neglect.  There  is  a  wide  divergence 
 of  method  between  those  branches  tliat  are  rooted  in  the  past  and 
 the  growths  of  recent  days.  Where  the  spiritualizing  tendencies 
 are  very  marked,  the  objective  means  of  grace  are  but  lightly  es- 
 teemed. The  Quakers  have  no  sacraments,  and  many  others  are 
 in  danger  of  losing  theirs,  even  if  their  false  doctririe  had  not 
 already  practically  destroyed  them. 
 
 We  will  close  with  a  brief  excursus  upon  the  Es.sentials  of  a 
 Proper  Administration. 
 
 1.  The  presence  of  the  congregation  which  believes  the 
 Lord's  promise  and  is  assembled  in  His  Name  to  do  according 
 to  His  appointment,  is  necessary  for  the  consinnmation  of  the 
 Communion.  The  mini.ster  is  but  the  organ  of  the  congregation, 
 which  blesses  the  elements  and  receives  the  Communion.  The 
 validity  of  the  Sacrament  does  not  depend  upon  the  intention  of 
 the  ministrant,  as  Rome  erroneously  teaches,  nor  upon  the  faith 
 of  the  individual  recipient,  nor  upon  the  exact  and  literal  repeti- 
 tion of  the  words  of  institution,  but  only  upon  this,  that  it  is  an 
 act  of  the  Christian  congregation,  performed  according  to  the  in- 
 tention and  appointment  of  Christ,  in  faith  in  His  Word  and  for 
 the  i>urpose  of  its  institution.  "No  human  work  nor  any  decla- 
 ration by  the  minister  of  the  Church  can  effect  the  presence  of 
 the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  in  the  Sacrament,  but  only  the 
 onniipotent  power  and  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ." 
 
 2.  With  reference  to  the  elements,  bread  and  wine  are  es- 
 .sential  according  to  the  Lord's  institution.     Christ  without  doubt 
 
THK   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE)   I^ORD'S   SUPPER.  7 
 
 used  the  unleavened  passover  bread.  The  ancient  Church,  how- 
 ever, used  the  common  leavened  bread.  The  kind  of  bread  used, 
 the  breaking  of  bread  in  the  consecration,  whether  the  wine  is 
 red  or  white,  pure  or  mingled  with  water,  whether  the  elements 
 are  received  by  the  hand  or  mouth,  whether  the  communicants 
 stand,  sit  or  kneel,  are  adiaphora. 
 
 3.  The  elements  are  to  be  used  only  according  to  Christ's 
 appointment,  that  is,  they  are  to  be  corisecrated  and  distributed. 
 Augustine's  famous  dictum, — Acccclit  verbiun  ad  elemenhim  et 
 fit  sacramentiLvi,  is  defective.  This  would  make  it  a  Sacrament 
 without  its  distribution  and  for  other  uses  than  that  of  its  insti- 
 tution. It  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  the  words  of  I^utlier  and 
 the  Formula  of  Concord, — N^ihil  habet  rat'wnem  sacramaiti  extra 
 usum  a  Christo  instituiiim  sen  extra  actionem  dhdnifus  institutam. 
 Requiritur  consecratio  sen  verba  mstitidionzs,  distribiUio  et  suviptio. 
 
 According  to  ancient  custom  the  consecration  is  by  the  sol- 
 emn recitation  of  the  verba  testamenti.  With  this  was  combined 
 the  Lord's  Prayer  as  the  filial  and  fraternal  petition  for  the  sanc- 
 tification  of  the  congregation,  but  it  does  not  possess  the  nature 
 nor  has  it  the  design  of  a  consecratory  praj-er  and  its  proper  place 
 is  after  the  Words  of  Institution. 
 
 While  there  is  no  sacrament  and  no  promise  of  Christ  without 
 the  distribution,  we  must  nevertheless,  view  the  consecration  as  an 
 integral  part  of  the  act  and  of  the  connnand,  "This  do."  By  the 
 explanatory  addition  "which  we  bless"  (i  Cor.  10:  16),  the 
 Apostle  gives  special  emphasis  to  the  consecration  through  vdiich 
 the  cup  is  set  apart  to  become  the  "Communion  of  the  Blood  of 
 Christ."  Hence  we  must  regard  it  as  an  essential,  and  the  words 
 of  institution  should  never  be  omitted.  The  plural  form  shows 
 that  it  is  the  act  of  the  whole  congregation,  which  also  indicates 
 its  participation  and  assent  by  its  Amen.  By  the  consecration, 
 the  bread  and  wine  are  separated  from  the  ordinary  sphere  of 
 natural  gifts  for  bodily  nourishment,  and  are  transferred  into  the 
 service  of  Christ  for  the  application  of  the  gifts  of  redemption. 
 
 "The  true  consecration,"  says  Gerhard,  "does  not  alone  con- 
 sist in  the  recitation  of  those  four  words,  '''Hoc  est  corpzts  meujn," 
 but  in  this,  that  we  do  as  Christ  did,  that  is,  that  we  bless,  dis- 
 tribute and  receive  tlie  bread  and  wine  as  He  appointed."  This 
 is  the  chief  thing  in  the  Sacrament.  For  it  the  other  acts  are 
 but  a  preparation.     The  giving  and  receivi?ig  are  always  neces- 
 
8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 saiy,  while  the  mode  of  ghnng  and  receiving  is  left  in  the  sphere 
 of  the  Church's  liberty. 
 
 Not  so  weighty,  but  still  of  great  importance  is  the  formula 
 of  di.stribution.  Here  the  aim  must  be,  not  only  to  promote  pious 
 feelings  in  the  heart,  but  to  .speak  for  Christ  WHio  gives,  and  in 
 His  Name  to  assure  the  penitent  and  believing  comnumicant  that 
 to  him  belong  the  full  benefits  of  the  broken  Body  and  the  shed 
 Blood  of  his  gracious  Lord  and  Savior.  Here  the  Church  should 
 give  unequivocal  expression  of  its  faith,  as  the  Oriental,  Roman 
 and  I/Utheran  Churches  do  in  the  use  of  the  ancient  formula  of 
 distribution,  "The  Body  of  Christ,  the  Blood  of  Christ,  the  cup 
 of  life." 
 
 G.  S.  Seaman. 
 Homestead ,  Pa. 
 
THE   IvlTURGICAI,  HISTORY  OF  CONFIRMATION. 
 
 Just  as  the  character  of  the  works  manifests  the  nature  of  the 
 faith  which  produces  them,  and  as  the  objective  factors  of  wor- 
 ship are  but  the  outward  expression  of  the  real  life  of  devotion 
 itself,  so  also  any  liturgical  observance  is  ever  the  outgrowth  or 
 embodiment  of  a  corresponding  doctrinal  view.  Therefore  the 
 history  of  any  liturgy  or  part  of  it,  is  the  history  of  the  doctrine 
 out  of  which  it  has  grown  and  which  is  its  life  and  spirit.  To 
 trace  the  liturgical  history  of  Confirmation,  is  almost  impossible 
 without  tracing  at  the  same  time  the  views  which  the  Church 
 has  held  concerning  this  rite. 
 
 The  custom  of  Confirmation  has  its  beginnings  in  the  early 
 days  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  while  many  outward  conditions 
 have  changed  since  then,  there  is  still  much  in  the  catechumenate 
 and  subsequent  Confirmation  of  the  present  day  that  is  closely 
 connected  with  the  customs  of  the  first  few  centuries.  It  need 
 hardly  to  be  stated  here  that  in  the  early  days,  catechisation  pre- 
 ceded baptism,  as  the  accessions  to  the  church  were  principally 
 through  adults.  It  is  this  fact  however,  that  accounts  for  the 
 catechetical  observances  of  that  period.  In  early  Apostolic  days, 
 the  instruction  was  confined  to  that  which  was  absolutely  essen- 
 tial, and  baptism,  whether  of  adults  or  of  infants,  represented  full 
 entrance  and  admission  into  the  Chiu-ch  of  Christ,  without  any 
 additional  ceremonies.  As  the  missionary  activities  of  the  Church 
 extended  and  Christianity  came  into  contact  with  Hellenic  culture 
 and  Roman  power,  with  philosophic  thought  and  heretical  doc- 
 trine, adults  of  all  descriptions  entered  the  catechumenate,  and 
 these  needed  both  instruction  and  refutation  by  argument.  Dur- 
 ing this  period,  which  Zockler  calls  that  of  the  Ancient  Church, 
 the  catechumenate  consisted  of  two  distinct  periods:  the  actual 
 catechumenate  or  period  of  instruction,  lasting  about  two  years, 
 and  the  period  of  immediate  preparation  by  fasting  and  prayer. 
 
 (ix) 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 During  the  former  period  the  aspirants  for  baptism  were  called 
 Karyjxovfj^evoL,  catccJiumcui,  or  catechumens;  during  the  latter,  <^toTi^- 
 o'/xcrot,  competentes,  i.e.  eligibles.  A  further  distinction  was  made 
 as  to  their  participation  in  the  services  of  the  church.  During 
 the  catechumenate  (of  the  first  stage)  they  were  distinguished  as 
 aKpoiofievoi,  auditores,  or  hearers,  and  yow  kXiVovtcs,  gemc  fiectentes, 
 or  kneelers,  i.  e.  such  as  had  the  privilege  of  joining  in  the 
 prayers.  While  they  were  known  as  hearers,  they  had  only  the 
 privilege  of  listening  to  the  sermon  and  were  required  to  withdraw 
 before  the  acts  of  prayer  and  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper.  There  are  still  extant,  the  acts  of  consecration  b}'  which 
 the  hearers  were  set  aside  as  fellow- worshipers,  genu  Jlecteiites, 
 and  were  known  specifically  as  catechumens.  Frequently  the 
 transition  from  the  first  stage  to  the  second  was  immediate,  but 
 separate  acts  of  consecration  were  in  use  for  the  two  stages,  as 
 well  as  a  special  prayer  for  the  genu  flcdentes  after  the  dismissal 
 of  the  aiidicntes  from  the  public  services.  In  these  acts  of  conse- 
 cration or  setting  apart,  we  must  find  the  beginnings  of  the  rite 
 of  Confirmation. 
 
 When  the  period  of  the  genu  flcdcntia  was  passed,  i.  e.  after 
 the  two  years  of  the  catechumenate,  the  genu  flectentes  were  set 
 apart  as  eompetcntes  or  eligibles,  by  a  special  act  of  prayer  and 
 benediction,  occurring  directly  after  the  .sermon.  The  final  stage, 
 that  of  compete7itia ,  was  passed  in  special  prayer-meetings  in 
 which  according  to  the  custom  of  the  times,  exorcism  was  repeat- 
 edly practiced.  The  congregation  was  entitled  to  take  part  in 
 these  meetings  for  prayer  and  as  they  usually'  occurred  in  the 
 Quadragesima  before  Easter,  they  were  for  all  a  time  of  earnest 
 fasting  and  contrition,  known  as  the  iioii.o\6yi](n<i,  eon/essio,  period 
 of  confession.  This  shows  us  a  grand  feature  of  the  life  of  the 
 early  Church,  for  the  preparation  for  baptism  or  ingrafting  into 
 the  body  of  Christ,  took  place  in  the  very  midst  of  the  congrega- 
 tion and  was  accompanied  by  the  devotional  acts  of  all.  This 
 meant  especiall>'  nuich  for  the  eonipetenfes,  for  while  they  could 
 not  take  part  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass  like  those  baptized 
 (this  was  the  period  of  liturgical  growth  and  establishment,  con- 
 sequently also  of  the  Mass  Seivice)  they  learned  to  look  fonvard 
 to  higher  mysteries  and  higher  honors.  This  gave  them  a  grad- 
 ual participation  in  the  liturgical  acts  of  the  worship  and  a  special 
 sy.stem  of  prayers,  while  also  their  names  were  ab'ead)-  entered 
 
THK    LITURGICAI,    HISTORY    OF    CONFIRMATION.  11 
 
 upon  the  lists  of  the  congregation.  The  Hturgical  acts  mentioned, 
 took  place  during  the  period  directl)^  before  baptism  and  while 
 they  were  learning  the  formulated  "sums"  of  doctrine  by  heart, 
 and  occurred  in  the  public  services  during  the  service  of  the  Mass 
 proper,  and  they  were  called  in  from  time  to  time,  for  the  partici- 
 pation in  these  liturgical  acts.  The  acts  themselves  were  called 
 '  'scmtinics' '  and  formed  a  beautiful  parallel  to  the  periods  of  cate- 
 chumenate  passed  through.  The  first  scrutiny  was  the  signatio 
 crucis  or  marking  with  the  cross.  By  it  they  had  once  been  re- 
 ceived as  hearers.  By  it  now  they  were  reminded  of  the  real  im- 
 port of  the  XptoTTiavows  TToiuaOoL,  the  becoming  Christians.  The 
 second  scrutiny  was  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  corresponded  to 
 the  second  period  of  the  catechumenate,  the  specific  KaTr]xovfji.ivov<; 
 TToiddOai  or  becoming  catechumens.  Exorcism  and  prayer  accom- 
 panied these  acts  and  in  many  of  our  lyUtheran  orders  the  same 
 prayers  are  still  used  for  the  same  acts  in  baptism.  The  signing 
 with  the  cross  signified  the  negative  moment  of  renouncing  the 
 devil,  etc.,  by  removal  from  heathenism,  and  the  laying  on  of 
 hands  the  positive  moment,  corresponding  to  the  rearing  in  the 
 faith  and  bearing  the  promise  of  God's  mercy  and  hearing  of 
 prayer.  Corresponding  to  the  two  principal  subjects  of  the  in- 
 struction the  baptismal  symbol,  traditio  symboli,  and  the  L^ord's 
 prayer,  trad,  orationis  dominko',  were  now  formally  and  solemnly 
 delivered  to  them.  Then  followed  the  scrutiny  in  which  an  ex- 
 press deliverance  of  the  key  to  the  understanding  of  Scriptures 
 was  made  in  a  special  act,  officiuni  qiiattuor  evangeliorum  or  evan- 
 gelistaruDi.  Finally,  in  the  last  scrutiny  came  the  act  of  baptism 
 itself,  hedged  in  with  symbolico-liturgical  acts.  With  all  this 
 rich  development  of  liturgical  forms,  the  practices  of  the  catechu- 
 menate were  far  from  being  formal.  The  very  fact  of  such  a 
 long  catechumenate  showed  that  the  Church  was  not  eager  for 
 promiscuous  reception  of  members  and  while  great  stress  was  laid 
 upon  the  foundation  of  a  true  Christian  character,  individual  free- 
 dom was  guarded  to  such  an  extent  that  many  catechumens 
 deferred  their  baptism  until  their  time  of  death,  for  fear  of  the 
 greater  responsibility  devolving  upon  them  in  the  datio  ^lotninis 
 at  the  time  of  entering  the  competentia.  Special  emphasis  was 
 laid  on  the  rcnuntiatio  before  baptism  and  in  all  the  acts  it  is  evi- 
 dent that  the  catechumenate  denoted  the  training  of  a  real  Chris- 
 tian  life  almost   to    the   exclusion   of  the  theoretico-doematical 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 element,  and  that  liturp^ical  functions  served  to  impress  this  fact 
 while  they  were  the  logical  crown  of  the  work  of  the  stages  pre- 
 ceding them. 
 
 In  the  Middle  Ages  much  of  the  character  of  the  catechu- 
 menate  was  lost,  while  the  liturgical  acts  were  retained  and  de- 
 veloped. The  soil  was  the  Teutonic  world  with  its  individually 
 ethic  propensities.  The  Church  herself  maintained  herself  on  the 
 basis  of  her  traditions.  Infant  baptism  became  almost  universal. 
 The  task  of  missions  among  uncivilized  races,  favored  a  catechu- 
 mcnate  of  masses,  and  compulsion,  not  free  choice,  was  often  its 
 characteristic.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Confirmation  as 
 such  became  a  distinct  and  separate  rite  and  was  finally  declared 
 to  be  a  sacrament.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Tertullian,  baptism 
 is  described  as  consisting  of  three  parts,  viz.,  baptism  itself, 
 anointing  with  the  holy  oil,  and  the  laying  on  of  hands.  The  last 
 act  is  said  to  bring  down  the  blessings  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  con- 
 sequently to  be  the  culmination  of  the  v.hole  act.  The  unity  of 
 the  three  moments  (or  acts)  is  dependent  upon  the  person  of  the 
 bishop.  As  the  hierarchical  s)-stem  was  more  developed,  while 
 the  administration  of  baptism  was  permitted  to  the  lower  clergy 
 and  others,  the  laying  on  of  hands  was  regarded  as  the  special 
 privilege  and  function  of  the  bishop.  This  gave  to  the  laying  on 
 of  hands  a  sort  of  sacramental  character,  against  which  Jerome 
 and  Augustine  inveighed  in  vain.  The  fact  remained,  that  the 
 child  which  had  been  baptized,  needed  a  still  higher  blessing,  and 
 this  was  bestowed  in  Confirmation.  In  the  time  of  Innocence  I. 
 we  meet  with  a  distinction  between  the  anointing  at  baptism  and 
 that  at  Confirmation.  The  special  iniix)rtance  gradually  given  to 
 Confirmation  was  due  to  the  hierarchical  interests  of  the  clergy, 
 and  the  episcopal  act  of  Confirmation  was  finally  declared  a  sac- 
 rament at  the  synods  of  Lyons  ( 1 274)  and  Florence  ( 1439 ) .  This 
 sacrament  is  the  second  in  order  in  the  Roman  Church.  As  to 
 its  object  it  is  called  Confirmation,  as  to  its  success  sigillum  or 
 cotisig)ia{io  (sealing),  as  to  its  matter  r//;7Vw<7  (anointing),  as  to 
 its  form  hnpositio  vianuiivi.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  host  of  for- 
 malities. As  to  its  effect  it  is  said  to  bestow  the  Holy  Ghost  as 
 an  auq;nic)iiu?n  and  Jirniiias  JiisiHio',  as  an  armor  in  the  battle  of 
 life,  and  in  opposition  to  baptism  as  an  entrance  into  the  real  ac- 
 tivity of  the  gratia  gratum /adepts.  This  sacrament  is  not  strict- 
 ly necessary:  but  as  giving  a  character  it  can  not  be  repeated.     The 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF   CONFIRMATION.  13 
 
 Greek  Church  considers  Confiniiation  a  sacrament  as  does  the 
 Roman;  but  this  is  administered  by  any  priest  and  immediately 
 after  baptism,  thus  retaining  ancient  tradition  and  later  develop- 
 ment in  unmitigated  contradiction. 
 
 Of  all  the  ancient  rites  of  the  Church  none  met  with  such 
 opposition  at  the  hands  of  the  Reformers  as  that  of  Confirmation. 
 It  was  not  only  considered  that  there  was  too  little  Scriptural  au- 
 thority for  it,  but  what  was  more,  there  was  so  much  unscriptur- 
 al  and  even  superstitious  ceremonial  connected  with  it,  that  it 
 was  thrown  overboard  with  other  Romish  rites  and  institutions  as 
 being  equally  harmful.  This  being  the  general  view  among  the 
 Reformers,  very  few  Kirch enordnungen  of  the  earlier  reconstruc- 
 tion period  of  the  Refonnation  contain  any  provisions  for  its 
 observance.  Later  on  a  few  KOO  purified  the  rite  from  objec- 
 tionable feattu-es  and  retained  it.  While  the  Lutheran  church 
 hesitated  between  the  objections  to  the  Romish  style  of  Confirma- 
 tion and  the  necessity  of  a  regulation  for  the  admittance  to  the 
 Lord's  Supper  of  only  approved  persons,  they  began  to  see  the 
 practical  utility  as  well  as  the  churchly  suitability  of  a  pure  rite 
 of  Confirmation.  During  the  subsequent  times  of  the  Interim, 
 so  many  compromises  were  made  with  Rome,  that  anything  orig- 
 inating in  this  period  was  regarded  with  suspicion  by  strict  Lu- 
 therans. The  disturbances  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  interfered 
 so  largely  with  all  education  and  also  catechetical  instruction, 
 that  during  this  time  nothing  was  done.  When  the  Pietistic 
 movement  brought  about  a  revival  of  religious  activity.  Confir- 
 mation too,  received  more  attention  and  gradually  won  its  way  in 
 every  land  until  it  became  an  institution  dear  to  all  Lutherans 
 and  held  in  honor,  not  as  a  divine  institution,  but  as  a  most 
 efi&cient  churchly  rite. 
 
 Luther,  as  early  as  1522,  in  his  sermon  on  Matrimony,  in 
 speaking  of  the  Roman  rite  of  Confirmation  (Firmelung)  calls  it 
 an  apish  foolery  and  a  play  of  lies.  He  concedes  that  we  may 
 confirm,  if  we  maintain  the  rite  as  a  human  ordinance.  He 
 proves  from  Titus  3:  5,  that  the  Apostle  does  not  recognize  a 
 sacrament  of  Confirmation,  but  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  bestov/ed 
 in  baptism.  Melanchthon  refers  to  the  examination  of  doctrine 
 made  in  olden  times  and  says  it  was  a  custom  most  useful  for  the 
 instruction  of  men  and  for  distinguishing  between  the  evil  and 
 the  pious.     "After  this,"  he  says,  "public  prayer  was  made  and 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  Apostles  laid  their  hands  upon  them  and  thus  the  manifest 
 g^fts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were  bestowed.  But  now  the  rite  of  Con- 
 firmation of  the  Bishops  is  an  empty  ceremony.  But  it  would  be 
 useful  that  an  examination  and  confession  of  doctrine  be  made 
 and  public  prayer  for  the  confessors,  nor  would  this  prayer  be 
 without  avail."  The  Augsburg  Confession  rejects  Confirmation 
 as  a  sacrament  by  implication,  the  Apology  and  the  Smalcald 
 Articles  expressly.  (Apol.  Chap.  7,  6  and  S.  Art.  App.  Pt.  II. 
 73.)  At  the  Ratisbon  Colloquium,  Melanchthon,  Bucer  and 
 Pistorius  proposed  (1541)  "That  Confirmation  comprise  remind- 
 ing, admonition,  prayer,  blessing  and  thanksgiving  and  be  ad- 
 ministered only  to  those  of  sufficient  age,  who  had  been  well 
 instructed  before  their  first  approach  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Thus 
 constituted,  they  could  and  would  readily  consent  that  it  be  re- 
 tained, and  also  allow  the  imposition  of  hands  and  the  use  of  the 
 sign  of  the  cross  in  the  blessing,  as  both  these  were  unobjectiona- 
 ble observances  and  might  suggest  many  good  thoughts."  In 
 the  Wittenberg  Reformation  (1545)  prepared  by  Melanchthon, 
 assisted  by  Caspar  Cruciger  and  George  Major  with  Luther's  ap- 
 proval, demand  was  made  for  a  thus  purified  order  of  Confirma- 
 tion and  provision  made  for  its  obser\-ance. 
 
 At  the  Augsburg  Interim  (1548)  Confirmation  was  declared 
 a  sacrament,  its  necessity  conceded  and  the  apostolic  institution 
 of  it  and  the  right  of  bishops  alone  to  administer  it,  were  main- 
 tained. To  this  the  Lutherans  objected  vigorously  and  at  last  at 
 the  Council  of  Trent,  Lutheran  Confirmation  was  condemned. 
 Naturally  the  Lutheran  theologians  defended  themselves  and 
 among  much  written  at  that  period,  nothing  sets  forth  the  Luther- 
 an position  so  clearl}'  as  Martin  Chemnitz'  statements  in  his  Exam- 
 en  Concilii  Tyidcniini  (Pt.  2  L.  3  Dc  Confirmatio)ic^ .  He  declares 
 there  that  the  Lutherans,  after  freeing  the  rite  from  all  supersti- 
 tions and  useless  superstructure,  insist  on  a  thorough  indoctrina- 
 tion of  the  catechumens  after  which  they  are  to  be  presented  to 
 the  bishop  and  the  Church.  Then  follows  first,  the  admonition 
 concerning  the  efficacy  of  holy  baptism  and  the  sealing  of  the 
 promises  therein  l)y  the  entire  Trinity,  by  which  act  was  included 
 a  renunciation  of  Satan,  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  promise  of 
 obedience.  Second,  by  the  catechumen  himself,  a  personal  pub- 
 lic profession  of  this  doctrine  and  faith.  Third,  a  thorough  ex- 
 amination in  doctrine.      Fourth,  an  admonition  that  this  implies  a 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY    OF   CONFIRMATION.  15 
 
 dissent  from  all  heathen,  heretical,  fanatical  and  unholy  opinions. 
 Fifth,  a  weighty  exhortation  to  persevere  in  the  baptismal  cove- 
 nant. Sixth,  public  prayer,  that  God  should  be  pleased  by  His 
 Holy  Spirit  to  govern,  preserve,  and  confirm  them  in  this  profes- 
 sion. To  this  prayer  might  be  added  the  imposition  of  hands, 
 without  any  superstition.      (Schmucker.) 
 
 The  Catechism  was  adopted  in  all  I^utheran  lands  and  church- 
 es. There  was  a  diligent  instruction  of  those  admitted  for  the 
 first  time  to  the  Lord's  Supper  and  a  careful  examination  of  their 
 preparation,  but  a  special  act  of  Confirmation  was  left  among  the 
 adiaphora  or  matters  in  which  evangelical  liberty  was  allowed. 
 By  many  I^utherans  Confirmation  was  not  adopted,  or,  on  account 
 of  interimistic  and  adiaphoristic  controversies,  positively  rejected. 
 By  others  it  was  retained,  or  its  introduction  desired,  either  be- 
 cause an  ancient  and  wholesome  usage,  or  in  order  to  differ  as 
 little  as  possible  from  the  Catholic  Church,  or  for  the  maintenance 
 of  discipline.      (Schmucker.) 
 
 As  early  as  the  i6th  century  we  meet  three  distinct  views  of 
 Confirmation,  which  differ  according  as  they  view  the  relative  im- 
 portance of  the  sacraments  between  which  Confirmation  logically 
 stands  and  which  are  the  two  biblical  pillars  of  churchly  instruc- 
 tion, and  as  they  view  separately  or  emphasize  specially  the  three 
 essential  and  component  parts  of  Confirmation,  viz..  Examination, 
 Profession  and  Vow,  Prayer  (intercession)  with  imposition  of 
 hands.  The  first  view  is  the  catechetical .  This  is  most  closely 
 connected  with  the  lyUtheran  doctrine  of  the  means  of  grace: 
 Word  and  Sacraments.  On  the  basis  of  baptism,  the  child  is  to 
 be  brought  by  instruction  and  training  to  the  ability  of  giving  a 
 reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  it  and  when  this  end  is  reached,  it 
 is  to  be  examined  in  church,  is  to  affirm,  confess  and  promise 
 what  the  sponsors  have  done  for  it  in  baptism,  and  if  it  thus  be 
 proven  prepared  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  is  to  be  admitted  to  the 
 same.  Among  the  representatives  of  this  view  there  is  never  any 
 mention  made  of  a  renewal  of  the  covenant  of  baptism,  but  only 
 of  a  reminding  of  this  covenant.  Another  view,  just  as  old,  may 
 be  denoted  as  the  sacramental  one,  in  so  far  as  it  lays  stress  on  the 
 third  point  in  Confirmation:  the  prayer  with  the  laying  on  of 
 hands.  It  looks  upon  this  as  an  act  that  is  sacramental,  bestow- 
 ing grace  and  salvation.  It  appeals  to  Acts  8:  17;  19:  6,  2  Tim. 
 1:6.     It  arose  in  such  German  churches  as  witnessed  in  their 
 
16  MEMOIRS. 
 
 midst,  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  Swiss  Re- 
 formed ideas  and  German  Lutheran  ideas  in  constant  intermin- 
 gling, and  in  which  beside  the  desire  to  apply  grace  and  salvation 
 to  men  by  churchly  means,  there  was  a  secret  distrust  of  the 
 complete  efl&ciency  of  infant  baptism.  According  to  this  view 
 Confirmation  is  the  completion  of  baptism.  (Cf.  Kassel  KO. 
 1539  where  occurs  for  the  first  time  the  formula  of  benediction: 
 "Receive  the  Holy  Ghost,  protection  and  defence  from  all  evil,  etc. , 
 etc.")  A  third  view,  in  some  instances  approaching  the  sacra- 
 mental view,  is  called  the  cluirch-disciplinaj-y  view.  According  to 
 this  .special  stress  is  laid  not  as  in  the  catechetical,  on  the  exami- 
 nation, or  as  in  the  sacramental,  on  prayer  and  imposition  of 
 hands,  but  on  the  profession  of  faith  and  the  vow  connected  with 
 it.  (Hessen — Kassel — Nassau.)  This  view  looks  upon  the  con- 
 gregation of  the  baptized  merely  as  the  congregation  of  the  called, 
 from  which  the  congregation  of  believers  must  be  segregated. 
 Thus  Confirmation  becomes  the  act  by  which  a  Christian  is  re- 
 ceived into  the  narrower  circle  or  congregation  privileged  to  ad- 
 minister the  power  of  the  Church.  This  view  depreciates  baptism 
 in  favor  of  a  churchly  ordinance  of  human  election,  and  leads  to 
 a  separation  or  di.sj unction  of  the  Church,  which  can  not  be  admit- 
 ted according  to  Art.  VIII  Conf.  Augsb.  Schmucker,  in  his  article 
 The  Rite  of  Confirmation  (Lutheran  Church  Review,  April  1SS3) 
 gives  a  list  of  the  various  KOO  wdiich  either  omit  or  reject  Con- 
 firmation and  those  which  adopt  it  and  make  provision  for  it.  To 
 give  the.se  lists,  which  have  the  merit  of  personal  investigation  by 
 their  author,  would  unduly  .swell  the  length  of  the  present  article 
 but  the  following  summary  which  Schmucker  quotes  from  Bacli- 
 mann,  may  perhaps  be  of  interest,  as  presenting  a  brief  geograph- 
 ical survey: — 
 
 "The  original  Lutheran  churches  (gnesio-Lutheran),  that 
 is,  tho.se  of  middle  Germany  distinctively,  except  Mansfield,  know 
 nothing  of  Confirmation  as  a  special  rite;  it  is  found  only  in  north- 
 ern, western  and  southwestern  Gennany  and  there  is  not  of  uni- 
 versal acceptance.  In  Austria,  in  addition,  it  is  found  standing 
 alone  through  the  personal  influence  of  Chytraeus  and  with  much 
 opposition  from  congregations  and  pastors.  In  North  Gennany 
 it  was  carried  from  Pomerania  by  Bugenhagen  to  Stralsund  and 
 from  Brandenburg  by  the  relation  of  the  reigning  houses  to  Bruns- 
 wick, where  afterwards  Chemnitz  secured  and  enlarged  its  preva- 
 
THE   LITURGICAL  HISTORY   OF   CONFIRMATION.  17 
 
 lence.  From  Brunswick  it  passed  to  Hoya  (Hannover).  In  the 
 v^^estern  countries  it  owed  its  acceptance  partly  to  the  Reformation 
 of  Cologne,  but  preeminently  to  Hesse,  which  under  the  influ- 
 ence of  Strasburg,  and  especially  of  Francis  Lambert,  tended 
 toward  a  Reformed  type.  Waldeck,  Nassau  and  Lower  Saxony 
 received  their  order  of  Confirmation  from  Hesse."     (Bachmann). 
 
 "The  efforts  for  the  restoration  or  introduction  of  Confirma- 
 tion began  here  and  there  early  in  the  seventeenth  century  and 
 increased  in  energy  until  in  and  after  Spener's  time,  they  so  in- 
 fluenced the  action  of  the  Church  as  to  effect  its  ofl&cial  adoption 
 in  one  land  after  another.  Among  its  earl}^  advocates  were  Tele- 
 man  Heshusius,  Aeg.  Hunnius,  Polycarp  Li'ser,  Leonh.  Hutter, 
 Fred  Baldwin,  Jno.  Tarnow,  Jno.  Gerhard,  Conr.  Dietrich,  Geo. 
 Calixtus,  Theoph.  Grossgebauer,  Martin  Heinsius,  and  preemi- 
 nently in  practical  efficiencj^  Jacob  Spener."     (Schmucker.) 
 
 It  was  Spener  who  after  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  in- 
 troduced Confirmation.  He  based  his  views  on  the  pietistic  view 
 of  baptism,  which  in  connection  with  i  Peter  3:  21  is  regarded 
 more  as  a  covenant  between  God  and  men,  than  a  laver  of  regen- 
 eration, so  that  infant  baptism  necessarily  appeared  incomplete 
 and  defective.  The  key- word  now  became  "renewal  of  the  bap- 
 tismal covenant"  and  this  was  to  be  accomplished  by  means  of 
 conversion  (piercing  of  the  heart),  for  which  the  time  of  Confirma- 
 tion was  deemed  to  be  the  most  suitable  time.  The  main  stress 
 was  laid  on  the  vow,  which  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  conversion 
 and  renewal  of  the  baptismal  covenant.  The  universal  practice 
 was  to  appeal  to  the  emotions  of  the  children  and  to  work  with 
 all  available  means  to  bring  about  a  conversion  (Die  Bekehrung 
 zum  "Durchbruch"  zu  bringen). 
 
 Rationalism  finalh?-  voided  Confirmation  of  its  churchly  con- 
 tents. The  renewal  of  the  baptismal  covenant  now  became  an 
 actual  covenant-pledging,  which  the  child  itself  performed  in  Con- 
 firmation. In  a  strange  contrast  to  this  inner  voiding,  the  ration- 
 alistic Confirmation  appeared  in  very  pretentious  garb.  The  inner 
 emptiness  and  shallowness  was  concealed  by  outward  pomp;  the 
 children  were  dressed  up;  they  were  marched  out  in  solemn  pro- 
 cession, grouped  theatrically  and  were  made  to  perform  their  vow 
 to  the  covenant  of  virtue  in  the  most  touching  manner.  In  this 
 form  Confirmation  found  its  way  into  most  congregations  and  be- 
 came a  part  of  their  church  life.     But  the  influences  of  rational- 
 
18  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ism  upon  Confirmation  are  seen  also  in  another  direction.  While 
 it  had  been  officialh-  adopted  in  Various  parts  of  Germany  from 
 1646  to  1724,  its  actual  insertion  into  the  system  of  church  life 
 was  not  completed  until  the  period  of  rationalism.  In  this  period 
 we  find  the  regulations  of  age,  time  of  the  year,  etc.;  in  it  also 
 the  connection  between  Confirmation,  catechisation  and  the  pub- 
 lic schools  of  Germany. 
 
 With  the  revival  of  religious  life  in  the  nineteenth  centurj-, 
 Confirmation  too,  has  had  the  gain  of  material  advantages. 
 Through  this  revival  it  received  again  its  original  import,  and  its 
 relation  to  the  sacraments  once  scripturally  and  confessionally  es- 
 tablished, has  given  its  important  parts  correctly  according  to 
 this  relation.  Still  there  is  not  yet  a  uniform  view  of  the  full 
 meaning  of  Confirmation.  The  original  three  views  of  the  i6th 
 century  have  again  found  representatives,  the  sacramental  view 
 is  defended  by  Villmar,  the  church-disciplinary  view  by  Schleier- 
 macher,  Hoefling,  von  Hoffmann,  Harnack,  von  Zezschwitz. 
 The  latter  are  influenced  by  the  desire  to  prevent  an  unworthy 
 participation  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  to  protect  the  church 
 from  violence  by  unbelieving  majorities. 
 
 This  closes  the  outline  of  the  liturgical  history  of  Confirma- 
 tion. The  writer  of  the  article  has  endeavored  to  trace  the 
 development  of  the  rite  in  its  details  historically  and  in  their  re- 
 lation to  the  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  One  feature  still 
 might  remain  for  inquiry,  namely,  the  relation  of  Confirmation  to 
 the  doctrines  of  the  sacraments,  of  catechization  and  of  Clu-istian 
 life,  and  the  successive  development  of  each  detail  bearing  upon 
 these  relations,  but  that  would  unduly  increase  the  extent  of  the 
 article  and  might  best  be  made  the  subject  of  further  inquiry. 
 
 Authorities  consulted: — ScHirucKER:  Confinfiaiion  hi  the 
 Lutheran  Church;  LoiiE:  Litiirgische  Formularc;  Schaefer: 
 Evangelisches  Volkslexikon ;  Herzog-Plitt:  Real  Encyclopedia; 
 Meusel:  Kirchliches  Handlcxikon;  Pal:mer's  Katcchctik;  ZoCK- 
 LER's  Handbiich  der  theol.  IVisscnsch a/ten;  Kurtz'  Church  His- 
 tory; etc.,  etc. 
 
 Chief  Authorities: — Bachmann:  Die  Confirmation,  etc.: 
 KuEFOTH:  Bd.j;  W.  Casp.\ri:  Die  evang.  Confirmation. 
 
 C.  Theodore  Benze. 
 Erie,  Pa. 
 
THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  UTURGY. 
 
 The  subject  indicated  in  the  title  of  this  paper — The  Church  and 
 the  Liturgy — is  so  broad  that  there  is  need  to  preface  the  discus- 
 sion of  the  theme,  with  a  few  words  of  explanation  and  definition. 
 
 There  have  been  two  great  epochs  in  the  history  of  church 
 doctrine,  the  formative — in  which  the  self-consciousness  of  the 
 Church  was  developed  from  its  rudimentary  form  in  the  minds  of 
 the  Apostolic  Fathers  and  their  immediate  successors  with  the 
 elaborate  corpora  dodrince  of  the  later  Middle  Ages,  and  the  re- 
 formative— in  which  the  results  of  the  earlier  period  were  tested 
 and  sifted,  emerging  finally  in  the  three  or  four  types  of  dogmat- 
 ic theology  which  are,  in  the  main,  the  recognized  standards  of 
 the  present  day.  Similarl}^  the  liturgical  idea  has  had  its  two 
 epochs,  i\\Q  formative — during  which  the  rudimentary  liturgy,  the 
 earliest  indications  of  which  are  found  in  the  Didache,  grew  into 
 the  elaborate  ritual  of  the  Mediaeval  Church,  and  the  reformative — 
 in  which  that  liturgy — subjected  to  the  same  criticism  as  its  co- 
 temporary  doctrine,  was  tested  and  proved,  emerging  finally  in 
 the  forms  of  worship  used  in  the  modern  churches.  This  histor- 
 ical parallelism  is  not  without  its  significance.  It  is,  in  fact, 
 more  than  mere  parallelism,  for  the  two  lines  of  development  are 
 closely  related  and  the  general  relation  is  one  of  cause  and  effect. 
 Unconscious  tliis  relation  may  at  times  have  been,  other  than 
 doctrinal  considerations  have  certainly  had  their  influence  in  li- 
 turgical development  and  practice,  but  the  underlying  principles 
 of  liturgical  service,  the  decisive  factors  in  moulding  the  Church's 
 forms  of  worship  have  been  neither  artistic  nor  aesthetic  but  doc- 
 trinal, and  the  mere  circumstance  that  the  greatest  diversity  in 
 methods  of  conducting  public  worship  exists  among  those  denom- 
 inations which  are  most  radically  different  in  dogmatical  bias, 
 furnishes  convincing  testimonj^  to  this  fact. 
 
 Now  the  doctrines  which  have  most  vitally  affected  the  litur- 
 
 (xix) 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 gy  are  four,  viz.,  the  Word,  the  Sacraments,  the  Church,  and  the 
 Ministry;  which  fall  into  two  group.s,  the  finst  containing  the  log- 
 ically precedent  but  historically  subsequent  pair — the  Word  and 
 the  Sacraments;  the  latter  containing  the  logically  subsef|uent  but 
 historically  precedent  pair — the  Church  and  the  Ministry.  It  is 
 with  this  latter  group  that  we  shall  attempt  to  deal,  merely  touch- 
 ing on  the  former  when  its  importance  is  too  great,  or  its  bearing 
 on  the  subject  too  obvious  to  be  disregarded.  The  subject  of  this 
 paper  may,  therefore,  be  more  definitely  stated  as — "The  Doc- 
 trines of  the  Church  and  the  Ministry  in  Relation  to  the  Liturgy." 
 That  such  a  relation  actually  exists  and  is  widel)'  recognized  is 
 shown  by  a  practice  current  among  the  unthinking  and  theolog- 
 ically ignorant — unfortunately  also  among  .'^ome  who  should 
 know  better — I  mean  the  practice  of  using  the  term  "High- 
 church,"  the  significance  of  which  is  essentially  doctrinal,  to  de- 
 note a  distinction  in  mere  elaborations  of  ritual  observ'ance.  The 
 true  relation,  however,  is  an  historical  relation  and  must  be  treat- 
 ed as  such.  We  shall  therefore  discuss  our  theme  under  the 
 three  heads: — A.  The  Formative  Epoch,  B.  The  Reformative 
 Epoch,    C.  The  Outcome. 
 
 A.     THE  FORMATIVE  EPOCH. 
 
 I.       THE    DOCTRINES. 
 
 /.      The  Church. 
 
 a).  It  is  doubtful  whether  in  the  earliest  times  there  ex- 
 isted any  clear  conception  of  a  universal  church.  Certain  is  it 
 that  for  a  long  while  there  was  no  definitely  stated  doctrine  of 
 the  Church  in  our  modern  sense.  The  unit  of  church  organi- 
 zation seems  to  have  been  the  individual  Christian  congregation, 
 these  congregations  recognizing  the  right  of  other  similar  congre- 
 gations to  the  name  Christian,  but  acknowledging,  after  the  death 
 of  the  Apostles,  no  authority  higher  than  that  of  their  own  local 
 officers.  What  the  exact  form  of  organization  in  these  churches 
 may  have  been  is  yet  to  be  determined  and  is  a  matter  of  small 
 importance  except  as  it  throws  light  on  the  development  of  the 
 doctrine  of  the  ministry.  This  much,  however,  we  do  know, 
 i).  In  each  congregation  there  were  two  classes  of  ministers, 
 the  bishops  or  presbyters,  terms  used  interchangeably  in  the  New 
 Testament  and  earliest  sub-apostolic  writings  as  names  for  the 
 
THE   CHURCH    AND  THE   I.ITURGY.  21 
 
 superior  officers  of  the  congregation,  and  deacons  whose  office 
 was  subordinate.* 
 
 2).  In  course  of  time  there  arose  a  distinction  between  the 
 bishops  and  the  presbyters,  the  name  of  Bishop  being  applied  to 
 only  one  man  among  the  presbyters  of  each  congregation. 
 
 b).  In  the  conflict  with  Gnosticism  the  emphasis  laid  on 
 purity  of  doctrine  caused  the  first  great  advance  in  the  doctrine 
 of  the  Church.  Faith  in  the  truth  becoming  the  important  thing, 
 all  those  who  believed  the  truth  as  handed  down  from  the  Apostles 
 were  to  be  considered  members  of  the  Church,  and  thus  the  way 
 was  opened  for  a  broader  conception  of  church  unity.  At  the 
 same  time  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  was  extended,  for  he  was 
 designated  the  officer  of  the  congregation  whose  special  duty  was 
 to  guard  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Apostles.  Thus  a  beginning 
 was  made  in  the  gradual  advancement  of  the  Bishop  to  the  chief 
 place  in  the  congregation,  over  which  he  became  pastor,  and  the 
 subordination  of  the  presbyters  to  the  secundary  position  of  as- 
 sistants, f  So  we  find  that  early  in  the  3rd  century  the  rul- 
 ing conception  of  the  Church  was  '*the  community  of  those  who 
 beheve  the  truth,"  the  Bishops,  in  addition  to  their  pastoral  of- 
 fice, standing  as  sponsors  and  guarantors  of  that  truth. | 
 
 c) .  The  next  considerable  change  in  the  idea  of  the  Church 
 was  brought  about  by  Callistus,  Bishop  of  Rome  217-222,  who 
 asserted  the  right  of  interpreting  and  limiting  the  discipline  of 
 the  Church  as  he  saw  fit,  thus  making  membership  in  the  Church 
 to  depend  exclusively  on  the  toleration  of  the  Bishop,  and  the 
 Church  itself  instead  of  the  holy  people  of  God  became  known  as 
 the  society  ruled  by  the  Bishop  v/ho  was  now  lord  over  life  as 
 well  as  over  faith.  It  remained,  however,  for  Cyprian  (1258)  to 
 carry  this  idea  to  its  conclusion  and  it  was  his  view  that  proved 
 the  deciding  factor  in  moulding  the  old  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
 Church  into  its  final  form.  His  doctrine  may  be  briefly  sum- 
 marized as  follows: — 
 
 i).     The  Bishop  is  the  successor  of  the  Apostles.  § 
 
 *  A  full  discussion  of  the  ministry  in  the  Early  Church  is  to  be  found  in  Light- 
 foot,  Appendix  to  Comm.  on  Phil,  to  which  cf.  Hatch.  Organization  of  the  Early 
 Christian  Churches,  and  Allen,  Christian  Institutions,  Book  I;  Rothe,  Anfaenge  d. 
 Christetithums,  though  old  (1837)  is  still  valuable. 
 
 t  Cf.  Hatch,  in  Diet.   Chris.  Ant.  Art.  Priest. 
 
 %  Cf.  Seeburg,  Dcgmengeschichte ,  I.  133. 
 
 §  The  view  of  Irenaeus. 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 2).  According  to  Matt.  16:  18,  the  Church  is  therefore  built 
 upon  the  Bishop,  who  is  both  a  priest  and  "a  judge  in  place  of 
 Christ."  As  priest  he  conducts  service  and  offers  sacrifice  on  the 
 altar,  and  as  judge  decides  on  all  questions  of  church  membership 
 and  reinstatement. 
 
 3).  The  Bishops  form  the  collegium  episcopatus  in  whose 
 unity  consists  the  unity  of  the  church.  In  this  collegium  the 
 Bishop  of  Rome  holds  the  highest  place  as  he  is  successor  of  St. 
 Peter. 
 
 4).  Rebellion  against  the  Bishop  is  therefore  rebellion 
 against  God.     Extra  cede  si  am  7111 1  la  sali'.s. 
 
 Thus  obedience  to  the  Bishop,  not  faith  in  Christ,  is  made 
 the  condition  of  membership  in  the  Church,  and  the  Church  itself 
 becomes  an  institution  founded  on  law  instead  of  a  community 
 based  on  faith.  There  needed  only  Augustin's  distinction  be- 
 tween the  visible  and  invisible  Church  to  silence  critics  and  afford 
 theological  justification,  and  the  conversion  of  an  Emperor  to 
 give  an  opportunity  for  the  advance  of  Rome  and  Constantinople, 
 and  the  hierarchical  system  was  ready  for  occupancy,  the  "Cath- 
 olic" doctrine  of  the  Church  w^as  practically  complete. 
 
 2.      The  Ministry. 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Ministry,  as  we  have  seen,  was  closely 
 connected  with  the  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
 each  step  of  that  development  being,  in  fact,  the  result  of  a  pre- 
 ceding advance  in  the  conception  of  the  Episcopate,  but  there  is 
 one  important  feature  on  which  we  have  barely  touched.  We 
 have  seen  that  Cyprian  made  much  of  the  idea  that  the  Bishop 
 was  a  priest.  The  sacerdotal  idea  was  not  new  with  him,  how- 
 ever. Clement  of  Rome  had  previously  compared  the  Christian 
 minister  to  the  Old  Testament  priest,  and  Origen  and  TertuUian 
 had  applied  the  term  saeerdos  to  Bishops  and  Presbyters,  but 
 there  is  nothing  to  show  that  tlie>'  regarded  the  clergy  as  a  sepa- 
 rate class,  and  the  original  idea  of  the  priesthood  of  all  Christians 
 still  maintained  itself,  preventing  any  sharp  line  of  distinction  be- 
 tween clergy  and  laity.  But  Cyprian  declared  the  Bishop  to  be  a 
 priest  in  a  special  sense.  All  the  ministerial  functions,  therefore, 
 belonged  of  right  to  him,  and  without  the  express  authorization 
 of  a  Bishop  no  one  could  hold  office  in  tlie  Church  or  perform  any 
 official  acts.  Such  authorization,  however,  was  conferred  in  or- 
 dination, by  W'hich  men  were  .^et  apart  for  those  duties,  and  ordi- 
 
THE    CHURCH    AND   THE   LITURGY.  23 
 
 nation  thenceforth  became  the  Hne  of  distinction  between  clergy 
 and  laity,  the  clergy  being  thus  constituted  a  separate  class  and 
 the  convenient  analogy  of  the  Levitical  priesthood  was  used  to 
 legitimate  this  new  Christian  order.  From  this  time  on  the 
 Christian  minister  was  a  "priest,"  and  the  doctrine  invented  by 
 Augustin,  of  a  character  indclibilis,  conveyed  in  ordination  was 
 later  used  to  give  material  ground  for  the  distinction.* 
 
 j".     Sacrifice. 
 
 The  sacrificial  is  a  necessary  corollary  of  the  sacerdotal 
 idea.  The  sacrificial  conception  contained  in  the  doctrine  of  uni- 
 versal Christian  priesthood  was  of  course  eucharistic.  The  Chris- 
 tian sacrifices  were  faith,  obedience  and  righteousness,  which 
 attained  visible  expression  in  prayer  and  charity.  That  there 
 was  from  the  first  a  special  sacrificial  idea  connected  with  the 
 I,ord's  Supper  is  undeniable.  The  congregations  brought  to  the 
 Agape  its  "oblations"  of  bread  and  wine — the  offerings  for  char- 
 ity were  also  included  in  the  oblations — and  the  bread  and  wine 
 so  offered  were  then  used  in  the  L,ord's  Supper,  but  the  "sacri- 
 fice' '  was  made  by  the  congregation  as  an  expression  of  thanks, 
 sj^mbolic  of  the  yielding  to  God  of  heart  and  life  commanded  by 
 St.  Paul  (Rom.  12:  i).  The  idea  of  propitiatory  sacrifice  found 
 its  first  clear  expression  in  Tertullian's  conception  of  asceticism 
 as  an  atoning  sacrifice,  but  it  remained  for  Cyprian's  doctrine  of 
 the  priesthood  to  give  the  Church  a  new  sacrificial  idea.  If  the 
 priesthood  is  a  specific  order  it  must  offer  a  specific  sacrifice. 
 This  sacrifice,  which  the  layman  cannot  offer,  is  the  Mass,  and 
 the  Mass  is  the  passio  domini,  even  the  sanguis  Christi  sxid  hostia 
 do7ninica.  Though  Cyprian,  and  even  Augustin,  was  not  quite 
 clear  as  to  the  real  object  in  the  sacrifice  the  natural  outcome  was 
 to  regard  every  celebration  of  the  lyord's  Supper  as  a  repetition 
 of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  and  to  attach  to  it  a  full  propitiator)^ 
 value,  f  When  the  doctrine  of  trausubstantiation  had  been 
 adopted  to  justify  this  view  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
 Mass  was  essentially  complete. 
 
 Throughout  this  line  of  development  there  runs  one  consist- 
 ent idea.     It  was  all  a  part  of  that  process  of  externalization 
 
 *  Cf.  Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte  I.  420  ff.  Hatch,  Art.  Ordination  and 
 Priest,  Diet.  Christ.  Ant. 
 
 t  Cf.  Harnack,  DG.  I.  422.  Seeburg,  DG.  I.  153  ff.  Real-Encyclopedie, 
 Art.  Messopfer,  also  Hoi;fling,  Die  Lehre  d.  aelt.  Kirche  v.  Opfer,  Erlangen  185 1. 
 
24  MEMOIRS, 
 
 which  was  to  mean  so  much  for  the  subsequent  histor>'  of  the 
 church,  exalting  its  temporal  power  at  the  expense  of  spiritual 
 life,  sacrificing  the  pure  ideal  for  a  glittering  but  empty  reality. 
 It  belonged  to  what  Hamack  has  well  called  the  '' Ethnisirung'" 
 of  the  church. 
 
 II.       THE     LITURGY, 
 
 We  pass,  next,  to  the  influence  of  these  doctrines  upon  the 
 liturgy,  and  here  we  meet  a  much  mooted  question: 
 
 I.      What  zcas  the  earliest  form  of  icorship  f  * 
 
 a).  It  is  quite  impossible  to  answer  this  question  explic- 
 itly, for  our  knowledge  of  the  most  ancient  rituals  depends  en- 
 tirely upon  a  few  brief  fragments,  but  from  the  traces  of  liturgy-  in 
 the  Didache  and  Justin  Martyr  we  know  that  the  formal  Christian 
 worship  was  at  first  an  accompaniment  of  the  Agape  or  evening 
 meal,  and  that  it  must  have  been,  in  the  main,  an  adaptation  of  the 
 Jewish  synagogue  service  with  the  addition  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 It  seems  to  have  comprised  the  following  elements: — Reading  of 
 Scripture,  Sermon,  Prayer,  Consecration  by  "EvxaptcrTia,  or  Prayer  of 
 Thanksgiving,  of  bread  and  wine  selected  from  the  oblations. 
 Distribution  and  Communion. 
 
 b) .  In  course  of  time  the  Lord's  Supper  was  separated  from 
 the  Agape,  and  as  the  Christian  communities  increased  in  num- 
 bers it  became  necessary  to  guard  the  Communion  more  closely. 
 Bearing  originally  the  name  "Mystery,"  it  is  likely  that  the  exam- 
 ple of  the  Greek  Mysteries,  from  which  the  uninitiated  were  ex- 
 cluded, had  some  influence  on  the  Christian  practice,!  but,  at  all 
 events,  only  those  who  had  been  baptized  and  were  not  under  dis- 
 cipline were  allowed  to  be  present  at  the  celebration,  which  was 
 known  as  the  niissa  fideliiini.  But  in  order  that  those  under  dis- 
 cipline and  those  who  were  candidates  for  baptism  might  not  be 
 entirely  deprived  of  participation  in  the  ser\-ice,  the  ynissa  fidelium 
 was  preceded  by  a  homiletic  and  didactic  ser\-ice  known  as  the 
 missa  catechuwenoruin  at  which  all  were  present. 
 
 This  is  the  form  that  is  found  in  the  earliest  complete  litur- 
 
 *  A  list  of  works  bearing  on  this  subject  is  to  \yc  found  in  Allen,  Lect.  on 
 Primitive  Liturgy  in  Christian  Worshi/i,  Scribner's,  1897. 
 
 t  A  full   discussion  in    Hatch,  Hibbert  Lectures  for    iSgT,   Scribner's,  though 
 Hatch  is  an  extremist  on  this  point. 
 
THE   CHURCH    AND   THE    LITURGY.  25 
 
 gies  that  have  come  down  to  us.  When  the  hturgy  assumed  this 
 form  we  cannot  say  definitely  since  until  after  the  conversion  of 
 Constantine  the  liturgy  belonged  to  the  disciplina  arcani,  and  was 
 held  a  profound  secret,  but  it  is  likely  that  some  such  form  had 
 been  reached  by  the  year  250 — the  time  of  Cyprian. 
 2.      The  influence  of  CJnirch  Doctrine. 
 
 a).  The  "Catholic"  conception  of  the  Church  directly  es- 
 tablished the  theory  that  whatever  liturgical  form  authorized  by 
 the  Church — i.  e.  by  the  Bishops — might  be,  that  form  must  be 
 jure  divino  binding.  Thus  Christian  worship  was  deprived  of  one 
 of  its  greatest  prerogatives,  the  freedom  to  choose  the  medium  of 
 expression  best  suited  to  its  own  spirit,  and  while  the  conse- 
 quences of  this  deprivation  may  not  have  been  immediately  ap- 
 parent they  were  far-reaching,  and  to  the  present  day  this  theory 
 remains  the  root  of  ritual  formalism. 
 
 b).  The  "Catholic"  conception  of  the  ministry  as  a  priest- 
 hood had  a  still  greater  effect,  which  made  its  appearance  in  three 
 prominent  ways: 
 
 I ) .  It  made  public  worship  a  ceremony  performed  exclu- 
 sively by  the  priest  in  which  the  people  were  allowed  only  the 
 part  of  silent  spectators. 
 
 2).  It  caused  all  the  emphasis  of  the  public  service  to  fall 
 upon  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  forcing  the  reading  and  preaching 
 of  the  Word  into  the  background. 
 
 3).  Making  of  the  Lord's  Supper  a  repetition  of  the  sac- 
 rifice of  Christ  it  opened  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  Pagan 
 and  Jewish  elements  into  the  servdce.  The  ceremonies  borrowed 
 from  the  Temple  service,  prominent  among  which  are  the  vest- 
 ments of  the  priests,  carried  of  course,  the  authority  of  the  Old 
 Dispensation,  but  in  the  "Catholic"  theory  there  was  no  pomp  or 
 ceremony  of  Pagan  sacrifice  which  could  not  be  introduced  into 
 the  ritual  for  Christian  worship,  since  the  sacrifice  of  the  Body 
 and  Blood  of  Christ  so  far  surpassed  in  dignity  and  meaning  the 
 sacrifices  to  the  heathen  gods.  Where  no  analogy  could  be  found 
 in  the  Old  Testament  these  practices  were  legitimated  by  invest- 
 ing them  with  some  symbolic  meaning.  Thus  the  Mass  became 
 laden  with  unchristian  and  anti-christian  elements  centering 
 around  the  doctrine  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  result  was  the 
 Mass  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  differs  in  no  essential  feature 
 from  the  Roman  Mass  of  the  present  day. 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 B.     THE   REFORMATIVE   EPOCH. 
 
 I.      THE    DOCTRINES. 
 
 The  completion  of  the  course  of  doctrinal  development  the 
 beginnings  of  which  have  been  sketched  was  a  slow  process.  It 
 took  a  thousand  years  to  carry  the  premises  of  Cyprian  to  their 
 logical  conclusion.  But  after  Ecumenical  Councils  and  Church 
 Synods  had  converted  earlier  doctrine  into  dogma  and  the  scho- 
 lastic theologians  had  elaborated  and  interpreted  these  dogmas 
 into  imposing  systems,  the  result  was  only  a  stronger  indorsement 
 of  the  position  of  Cyprian,  reinforced  by  the  theolog}'  of  Augus- 
 tin  and  still  further  clinched  by  the  acknowledged  supremacy  of 
 Rome.  Along  with  a  theoretical  distiiiction  between  the  visible 
 and  invisible  Church  went  the  practical  contention  that  the  visible 
 Church  possessed  by  virtue  of  divine  institution  all  the  character- 
 istics and  prerogatives  of  the  invisible.  The  Church  was  con- 
 ceived as  a  divinely  appointed  earthly  organization  administered 
 by  a  priesthood,  whose  forms  were  practically  unlimited.  This 
 priesthood  formed  a  hierarchy  in  which  the  Pope  was  the  high- 
 priest,  to  whom,  as  the  representative  of  God  and  the  earthly 
 vicar  of  Christ,  the  individual  was  in  all  respects  absolutely  sub- 
 ject, not  only  in  matters  of  faith  and  doctrine  but  in  every  thing 
 that  had  to  do  with  his  daily  life. 
 
 The  Reformation  was  in  this  respect  a  protest  against  this 
 conception  of  the  Church,  and  stands  for  the  emancipation  of  the 
 individual  from  the  domination  of  the  institution.  It  brought  to 
 light  an  idea  of  the  Church,  new  and  yet  closely  approximating 
 the  most  ancient  conception  of  the  Church  as  the  holy  people  of 
 God.  Time  forbids  detailed  discussion  of  all  the  factors  which 
 entered  into  the  Reformation  doctrine  of  the  church  and  we  shall 
 content  ourselves  with  a  brief  sketch  of  Luther's  doctrine  which, 
 though  differing  in  detail  from  those  of  the  Swiss  Reformers,  may 
 be  considered  essentially  representative.  On  the  doctrine  of  the 
 ministry,  however,  the  divergence  is  so  great  as  to  call  for  sepa- 
 rate treatment. 
 
 /.      The  Church. 
 
 a).  Lutlier  begins  with  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  an 
 invisible  Church,  which  is  the  Church  in  the  proper  .sense  of  the 
 word, — the  essential  in  contradistinction  to  the  empirical  Church. 
 It  is  invisible  onlv  in  the  sense  that  the  meml.iers  of  this  essential 
 
THE    CHURCH    AND   THE    LITURGY.  27 
 
 church  are  unknown  to  all  but  God.  Is  it,  therefore,  no  earthly- 
 organization  and  contains  no  hierarchy;  it  is  the  "communion" 
 or  "congregation  of  saints,"  and  the  saints  are  those  who  in  true 
 faith  receive  and  acknowledge  Christ  as  their  Lord.  There  are 
 only  two  factors  necessary  to  the  existence  of  this  Church — the 
 Word  of  God  and  individuals  to  receive  it — and  individual  recep- 
 tion is  the  sole  condition  of  membership. 
 
 b).  On  the  other  hand,  since  the  Word  is  necessary  to  the 
 existence  of  the  essential  Church  there  must  be  some  means  of 
 preservdng  and  communicating  the  Word.  This  is  the  function 
 of  the  visible  or  empirical  Church  which  is  the  congregation  of 
 confessors  of  Christ,  to  which  is  committed  the  oral  and  sacra- 
 mental administration  of  the  Word.  The  existence  of  the  Church 
 in  this  sense  depends  not  on  form  or  continuity  of  organization, 
 but  solely  on  the  fulfilment  of  its  original  purpose — i.  e.  the  ap- 
 plication of  Christ  to  individuals  through  the  medium  of  Word 
 and  Sacraments.* 
 
 Where  these  means  are  rightly  used  the  Church  exists  re- 
 gardless of  form  of  organization;  v/here  they  are  neglected  the 
 Church  does  not  exist,  the  organization  may  continue  but  it  is  no 
 longer  the  Church.  The  "marks"  by  which  the  true  Church — 
 empirically  considered — is  to  be  known  are  therefore  the  preach- 
 ing of  the  Word  and  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments. 
 
 c).  Furthermore,  since  the  Word  of  God  is  always  efiica- 
 cious,  the  presence  of  these  "marks"  of  the  empirical  Church  is 
 the  guarantee  of  the  presence  of  the  essential  Church.  There  has 
 been  no  age  in  which  the  Church  has  been  without  the  guidance 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit.  One  result  of  the  Spirit's  guidance  appears 
 in  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  but  that  tradition  must  be  tested 
 by  the  Word  of  God.  All  that  is  found  to  be  contrary  to  the 
 Word  must  be  rejected  as  human  invention,  but  that  which  is  not 
 contrary  to  the  Word  should  be  received.  It  is  this  doctrine  that 
 makes  Luther's  Reformation  so  essentially  conservative,  forbid- 
 ding the  wholesale  rejection  of  the  legacy  of  the  preceding  cen- 
 turies; of  Christianity. 
 2.      The  Ministry. 
 
 Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Ministry  develops  logically  from 
 
 *  An  admirable  outline  of  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Church  is  to  be  found  in 
 Seeburg,  DG.  II.  277  ff.  to  which  cf.  Koestlin,  Theology  of  Luther  (Eng.  trans.)  II. 
 538  ff. 
 
28  MEMOIRS. 
 
 his  doctrine  of  the  Church.  Since  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments 
 — which  are  significant  only  as  they  apply  the  Word — are  put  in- 
 to the  hands  of  the  Church  they  are  the  property  not  of  an}-  one 
 class  of  the  Church's  members  but  of  the  whole  Church.  By  vir- 
 tue of  his  faith  in  Christ  every  Christian  is  a  priest,  whose  duty 
 is  to  proclaim  the  Word,  but  in  order  that  the  preaching  of  the 
 Word  and  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments  may  not  suffer, 
 it  is  necessary  that  men  properly  qualified  shall  be  appointed  in 
 due  order  by  the  Church,  to  whom  shall  be  committed  the  duty  of 
 representing  the  congregation  in  public  functions — the  public 
 preachhig,  administration  of  the  Sacraments  and  pastoral  duties. 
 These  men  are  to  be  looked  upon  not  as  an  order,  a  separate  class 
 who  derive  from  ordination  a  specifically  priestly  character,  but 
 merely  as  the  office  holders  or  properly  authorized  public  servants 
 of  the  congregation,  from  which  alone  they  derive  their  right 
 of  ministration.  This  conception  of  the  Ministry  as  an  office 
 meant  of  course  the  absolute  denial  of  the  Roman  Catholic  doc- 
 trine of  the  priesthood  and  all  that  went  with  it. 
 
 3.     Before  concluding  this  sur\'ey  a  word  is  necessary  touch- 
 ing the  Calvinistic  doctrines  which  bear  on  our  subject. 
 
 a).  Calvin  insisted  strongly  on  the  distinction  between 
 the  invisible  Church — which  he  called  the  congregation  of  the 
 elect — and  the  visible  or  empirical  Church.  Holding  as  he  did 
 the  possibility  of  the  ineffectual  preaching  of  the  Word,  he  could 
 not  make  the  existence  of  the  empirical  Church  depend  entirely 
 upon  the  presence  of  the  Word  of  God,  as  did  Luther,  and  was 
 obliged  to  fall  back  upon  a  divinely  instituted  ministry  to  ensure 
 the  existence  of  the  Church.  He  rejected  the  priesthood  of  the 
 clergy — maintaining  the  divine  institution  of  the  presbyterate  in- 
 stead— and  affirmed  emphatically  the  spiritual  priesthood  of  the 
 elect,  but  never  disassociated  the  empirical  Church  from  the  idea 
 of  the  institutional  ministry. 
 
 b).  There  is  also  one  other  doctrine  of  Calvin's  which 
 touches  closely  on  our  subject  and  that  is  his  conception  of  the 
 Word  of  God.  Starting  as  he  does  with  the  idea  of  God  as  abso- 
 lute, sovereign  Will,  he  is  obliged  to  regard  the  Scriptures  prima- 
 rily as  the  revelation  of  God's  Will,  therefore  God's  Law,  and 
 this  legalistic  conception  pervades  his  entire  system.* 
 
 •  Cf.  Secburg,  DG.  II.  398  ff. 
 
THE  CHURCH  AND  THE  LITURGY.  29 
 
 II.   THE  LITURGY. 
 
 The  question  now  arises,  what  influence  had  these  doctrines 
 on  the  Reformation  of  the  liturgy?  And  the  question  is  not  easy 
 to  answer.  The  Reformation  in  doctrine  and  Hturgy  was  a  process 
 differing  radically  from  the  process  which  formed  doctrine  and 
 liturgy.  The  formative  process  was  evolution.  Starting  with  a 
 mass  of  comparatively  vague  ideas,  the  conditions  of  the  Church's 
 life  rendered  the  definition  now  of  one,  now  of  another  phase  of 
 doctrine  necessary,  and  thus  the  emergence  of  the  doctrine  and  its 
 assimilation  into  a  system  was  the  work  of  centuries.  The  for- 
 mation of  the  liturgy  was  a  similar  process.  Small  and  simple  in 
 its  beginnings,  each  succeeding  age  added  its  contribution  to  the 
 forms  of  worship  until  the  sum  was  complete.  The  reformative 
 process  however,  was  criticism.  Starting  with  one  or  two  funda- 
 mental principles  which  were  treated  as  criteria,  it  applied  them  in 
 rapid  succession  to  every  feature  of  the  Catholic  system.  Every 
 truly  reformative  conception,  therefore,  either  in  doctrine  or  prac- 
 tice, bears  the  marks  of  those  doctrines  which  were  used  as  the 
 standards  of  criticism.  The  great  criterion  with  all  the  Reform- 
 ers was  the  Word.  lyUther  began  with  Justification  and  by  it  his 
 conception  of  the  Word  is  conditioned;  Calvin  began  with  the  doc- 
 trine of  Predestination,  and  with  that  in  view  formed  his  concep- 
 tion of  the  Word.  Both  Luther  and  Calvin  then  applied  the  latter 
 doctrines  to  the  Church  as  they  found  it.  Thus,  as  we  have  seen, 
 Luther's  doctrines  of  Church  and  Ministry  are  the  direct  outcome 
 of  his  doctrine  of  the  Word  and  the  same  is  true  of  his  conception 
 of  the  liturgy.  He  believed  that  every  public  service  had  but  one 
 aim — the  proclamation  and  application  of  the  Word — to  which  all 
 else  was  subordinate,  but  despite  the  direct  influence  which  this 
 doctrine  had  on  his  liturgical  conception  we  find  indisputable 
 traces  of  the  doctrines  with  which  we  are  dealing. 
 
 That  this  may  be  more  fully  apparent  it  may  be  well  to  state 
 briefly  Luther's  idea — which  remains  the  Lutheran  idea — of  the 
 .service: — The  service  is  a  service  of  the  congregation,  led  or  con- 
 ducted by  the  representative  whom  they  have  chosen,  in  which 
 all  the  members  are  not  only  privileged  but  bound  in  duty,  as 
 one  of  the  functions  of  spiritual  priests,  to  take  part.  The  es- 
 sential factors  of  the  service  are  the  Word  and  the  sacraments,  the 
 ritual  setting  in  which  they  are  placed  belonging  to  the  non-es- 
 sentials, to  be  determined  by  the  time,  place,  circumstances  and 
 
30  MEMOIRS. 
 
 spiritual  needs  of  the  congregation.  The  Church  has  no  authori- 
 ty to  command  the  obser\'ance  in  the  service  of  anything  save 
 what  God's  Word  expressly  commands,  i.  e.  Word  and  Sacra- 
 ment; on  the  other  hand  the  Church  has  no  authority  to  forbid 
 the  observance  of  any  ordinances  save  such  as  are  contrar}-  to 
 God's  Word  or  tend  to  obscure  and  obstruct  the  pure  administra- 
 tion of  Word  and  Sacraments;  but  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  Church 
 to  recommend  for  use  those  forms  of  public  worship  which  histo- 
 r>'  has  developed  as  expressions  of  the  idea  of  worship,  and  which 
 are  found  to  be  not  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God. 
 
 What  place  Luther's  doctrines  of  Church  and  Ministry  have 
 in  this  theorj'  may  be  clearly  seen: 
 
 a).  His  rejection  of  the  specific  priesthood  of  the  clerg>' 
 and  his  affirmation  of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers  is  evidenced 
 in  the  importance  he  attaches  to  the  fact  that  the  ser\'ice  is  the 
 service  of  the  congregation  and  the  large  significance  he  lays  upon 
 their  participation,  a  pertinent  illustration  of  which  is  found  in 
 the  stress  which  he  laid  on  the  hymn  in  the  sendee. 
 
 b).  His  rejection  of  the  formal  idea  of  the  Church  appears 
 in  small  emphasis  which  he  lays  on  the  rigidity  of  the  forms  of 
 service.  The  Church,  he  believes,  depends  on  no  form  of  organ- 
 ization for  its  existence  but  only  on  the  presence  within  it  of 
 Word  and  Sacrament;  so  the  service  is  a  true  ser\dce  without  the 
 use  of  prescribed  forms,  if  only  the  Word  and  Sacraments  are  ad- 
 ministered. 
 
 c).  The  essential  conser\'atism  of  Luther's  doctrir^e  of  the 
 Church  is  seen  in  his  liturgical  conservatism.  If  the  Church  has 
 always  had  the  Spirit  of  God  then  the  forms  of  worship  long  used 
 by  the  Church  are  not  to  be  lightly  cast  aside  merely  because  they 
 have  been  misused  or  have  been  covered  over  with  false  ideas. 
 They  are  to  be  tested  and  proved  by  the  Word  of  God.  If  con- 
 trary to  the  Word  of  God  they  must  be  rejected;  if  not,  they 
 should  be  retained. 
 
 d).  Finally  Luther's  doctrinal  position  is  reflected  in  his 
 absolute  disregard  for  rules  of  liturgical  practice.  The  kind  and 
 extent  of  ceremonial  usage  practiced  in  any  congregation  was  a 
 matter  of  utter  indifference  to  him.  Personally,  he  could  not 
 conceive  that  such  accessories  as  incense,  tapers,  vestments  and 
 processions  could  affect  the  puq)ose  of  the  ser\'ice  in  any  way  so 
 long  as  the  pure  Word  was  preached.     It  remained  for  the  adia- 
 
THE   CHURCH   AND  THE   LITURGY.  31 
 
 phoristic  controversy  to  discuss,  and  the  Formula  of  Concord  to 
 decide  the  principle  that  such  ceremonial  might  have  a  serious 
 effect  on  the  service,  but  that  where  it  did  not  tend  to  interfere 
 with  the  pure  Word  or  obscure  the  pure  conception  of  the  Sacra- 
 ments, its  use  was  optional  with  the  congregation.* 
 
 So  much  for  the  influence  of  Lutheran  doctrine  on  the  litur- 
 gy. Space  forbids  a  similar  treatment  of  the  Calvirustic  influence 
 which  will,  however,  be  touched  upon  later.  We  pass  on  to  a 
 view  of  the  latest  development  of  the  liturgy. 
 
 C.     THE    OUTCOME. 
 
 The  real  meaning  of  the  Reformative  epoch  can  only  be 
 understood  after  a  survey  of  its  results.  The  criticism  of  the 
 Reformative  time  furnished  the  Protestant  Churches  with  an  ag- 
 gregate of  doctrine  and  practice  which  the  intervening  centuries 
 have  busied  themselves  with  assimilating  and  interpreting.  The 
 results  have  been  similar  to  those  which  attended  the  development 
 of  the  formative  period,  in  so  far  that  the  doctrines  have  been 
 crystallized  into  dogmas,  and  the  dogmas  elaborated  into  systems, 
 while  the  practical  life  of  the  Protestant  Churches, — one  side  of 
 which  the  liturgy  represents — has  also  attained  fairly  definite 
 form.  Excluding  the  Greek  Church,  which  follovv'ed  an  inde- 
 pendent line  of  development,  the  liturgical  result  has  been  to  give 
 the  world  four  distinct  types  of  Christian  worship. 
 
 1 .  The  first  of  these  is  the  Roman  Mass  which  retains  all 
 the  distinctive  features  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  based  on  the 
 same  externalizing  conception  of  the  Church  which  permits  it  to 
 prescribe  invarying  forms  for  even  the  smallest  parts  of  the  litur- 
 gy; it  centers  around  the  same  doctrine  of  priesthood  of  the  clergy 
 and  exhibits  the  same  pagan  attitude  toward  the  sacrifice  of  the 
 Mass.  It  is  enriched  with  all  the  beauty  of  symbolic  art  and  sur- 
 rounded by  all  the  pomp  and  ceremony  of  the  empire  under 
 which  it  grew.  It  is  artistically  beautiful  and  aesthetically  im- 
 pressive, but  it  is  a  spectacle  rather  than  a  form  of  worship. 
 
 2.  The  second  type  is  that  which  finds  its  expression  in  the 
 ideal  Lutheran  service.  It  centers  around  the  Word  of  God,  and 
 rests  upon  the  conception  of  the  Church  as  the  congregation  in 
 
 *  On  this  subject  see  Formula  of  Conr.ord  Chap.  X,  and  Frank,   Theologie  d. 
 Concordienfonneh. 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 which  every  member  is  a  priest,  who  has  his  part  in  all  the  ser- 
 vice. It  lays  all  the  emphasis  upon  the  two  essentials — Word 
 and  Sacrament,  and  while  providing  the  forms  which  the  constant 
 practice  of  a  thousand  years  has  shown  most  helpful  and  the  rigid 
 test  of  God's  Word  has  sanctioned,  it  allows  the  widest  liberty  in 
 the  use  of  whatever  forms  may  be  best  suited,  in  any  given  case, 
 to  the  fullest  expression  of  the  idea  and  the  most  perfect  fulfil- 
 ment of  the  purpose  of  public  worship.  It  lacks  the  artistic  sym- 
 bolism and  sensuous  ceremonial  of  the  Roman  Mass,  but  in  sim- 
 plicity, unity  of  purpose,  and  power  to  express  and  satisfy  the 
 needs  of  the  heart,  it  is  the  nearest  approximation  to  what  we 
 believe  to  be  the  highest  ideal  of  Christian  worship.  Doctrinally 
 it  differs  from  the  Roman  Mass  in  its  fundamental  conception  of 
 the  imity  and  authority  of  the  Church  and  in  the  conception  of 
 the  clerical  priesthood  and  the  sacrifice,  no  less  than  in  the  esti- 
 mate it  places  on  tlie  Word. 
 
 3.  The  third  type  is  the  so-called  "non-liturgical,"  and  is 
 the  child  of  Calvinism.  Following  Calvin's  legalistic  conception 
 of  the  Word  of  God  to  which  reference  has  previously  been  made, 
 it  disregards  set  forms  of  worship  because  it  fails  to  find  them  ex- 
 pressly commanded  in  Holy  Scripture.  Emphasizing  the  divine 
 institution  of  the  ministry  but  affirming  the  universal  priesthood, 
 it  makes  the  pleasure  of  the  minister  the  rule  of  the  liturgy  and 
 suborvlinates  everything  to  the  sermon,  sacrificing  depth  of  feel- 
 ing, beauty  of  meaning  and  unity  of  wor.sliip — everything  to  the 
 pedagogical  element.  Its  great  doctrinal  anthesis  to  Rome  is  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Church;  to  IvUtheranism  its  doctrine  of  the  Word. 
 
 4.  A  fourth  type  remains.  It  is  the  Anglican.  What  it 
 represents  is  difficult  to  say.  for  it  represents  so  many  things. 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Church  and  the  liturgy  are  in  fact  the  only 
 basis  of  unity  in  the  Anglican  Communion,  and  both  are  different- 
 ly interpreted  by  the  two  great  Anglican  schools.  To  the  Low- 
 Church  Anglican  the  liturgy  means  very  nearly  what  the  Luther- 
 an liturgy  means  to  us.  He  holds  a  doctrine  of  the  Church  that 
 is  "Catholic"  in  the  sense  that  it  lays  stress  on  the  external  form 
 of  the  Church;  he  holds,  in  theory-  at  least,  a  doctrine  of  the 
 priesthood  of  the  clergy  v.-hich  he  fails  to  carry  consistently  into 
 his  liturgy;  he  retains  the  ancient  forms  of  worship  purged  of 
 their  non-Christian  elements  and  believes  them  Inndiug  because 
 they  are  the  latest   authorized  by  his  Church.     But  his  Church 
 
THE   CHURCH   AND  THE   LITURGY.  33 
 
 doctrine  and  his  liturgical  practice  are  inconsistent,  and  his  prac- 
 tice is  better  than  his  doctrine. 
 
 The  High-Church  Anglican,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  con- 
 sistent, but  he  presents  a  peculiar  problem.  To  what  extent  is 
 his  doctrine  the  result  of  his  liturgical  practice,  and  conversely, 
 how  much  of  his  practice  depends  directly  upon  his  doctrine? 
 He  holds  with  great  tenacity  to  the  Cyprianic  conception  of 
 Church  and  Ministry.  "The  Church"  is  the  Church  founded  on 
 the  successors  of  the  Apostles,  who  are  the  Bishops;  the  clergy  is 
 an  order,  a  specific  priesthood  offering  the  specific  sacrifice  of  the 
 Mass;  the  fact  that  the  Church  in  its  formative  period  surrounded 
 the  Mass  with  high  ceremonial  affords  him  abundant  reason  for 
 using  the  same  ceremonies;  he  fills  his  service  with  the  same  sym- 
 bolism and  strives  for  the  same  imposing  aesthetic  effect  that  is 
 seen  in  the  Roman  Mass;  he  puts  the  Word  of  God  into  the  same 
 relatively  unimportant  place  and  reads  his  lessons  in  Latin  when 
 he  dares.  His  liturgy  is  in  fact  the  Roman  Mass  with  Rome  left 
 out.  He  has  long  since  discarded  his  Church's  doctrinal  confes- 
 sion and  professed  to  find  his  doctririe  in  his  Prayer  Book;  now 
 he  has  altered  the  liturgy  of  his  Prayer  Book  and  appealed  to 
 the  Ecumenical  Councils  and  the  "unbroken  tradition  of  the 
 Church."  L,aughed  at  by  Rome,  disowned  by  his  ov/n  denomina- 
 tion, he  is  consistent  with  himself  but  with  nothing  else  under 
 Heaven.  These  are  the  two  extremes  and  the  Anglican  Church 
 exhibits  every  shade  of  doctrine  and  practice  which  can  exist 
 between  them. 
 
 If  the  limits  of  such  a  paper  as  this  were  coextensive  with 
 the  limits  of  the  subject  it  would  be  interesting  to  go  a  step  far- 
 ther and  note  how  closely  the  worship  of  the  lyUtheran  and  Re- 
 formed Churches  of  the  present  day  corresponds  to  type,  and  in 
 what  degree  variations  are  due  to  doctrinal  influence,  but  space 
 and  time  forbid.  Permit  me,  however,  in  conclusion  to  touch 
 upon  a  verj^  important  question  that  connects  directly  with  the 
 subject  in  hand  and  is  a  matter  of  practical  moment  to  all  of  us. 
 
 It  is  evident  to  all  that  the  lyUtheran  Church  in  America  is 
 leaving  the  period  of  liturgical  infancy  and  will  soon  enter  the 
 stage  of  adolescence.  As  the  appreciation  of  our  liturgy  broadens 
 and  deepens,  its  use  becomes  more  wide-spread  and  more  intelli- 
 gent. The  question.  Shall  we  use  the  liturgy  ? — a  burning  ques- 
 tion within  the  memory  of  all  save  the  youngest  of  us — is  pass- 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ing,  and  in  its  place  the  question  is  rising, — How  shall  we  use 
 the  liturgy  ?  There  are  some  who  feel  that  the  liturgy  should 
 be  used  in  its  simplest  form,  with  as  few  accessories  as  possible; 
 there  are  others  who  believe  that  the  use  of  such  accessories  as 
 may  ser\'e  to  interpret  and  emphasize  its  meaning  is  a  distinct 
 gain;  there  are  some  who  would  make  use  of  every  ceremonial 
 precedent  which  the  Lutheran  store-houses  of  Germany,  Denm.ark 
 and  Sweden — and  they  are  capacious — contain.  There  is  a  strong 
 feeling  in  certain  quarters  that  a  limit  should  be  set.  Who  is  to 
 set  the  limit?  Consistently  with  Lutheran  doctrine  the  Church 
 has  no  legislative  jurisdiction  in  the  matter.  It  dare  not  pre- 
 scribe a  minimum  limit  save  that  prescribed  in  its  doctrine,  i.  e., 
 the  presence  of  Word  and  Sacrament,  and  just  as  little  has  it 
 authorit}^  to  say:  "Thus  far  and  no  farther."  In  either  case  it 
 trespasses  on  Christian  liberty  by  making  an  issue  of  an  adi- 
 aphoron  and  so  does  violence  to  its  own  doctrine.  But  there  is  a 
 limit  and  it  is  already  set.  It  lies  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Word. 
 All  that  is  contrary  to  God's  Word  must  be  summarily  rejected; 
 and  whatever  tends  to  cover  over  the  clear  teaching  of  the  Word 
 or  to  interfere  with  the  pure  conception  of  the  Sacraments  is,  in 
 effect,  contrary  to  God's  Word.  If  liturgical  practice  needs  regu- 
 lation let  it  be  governed  by  a  few  safe  rules,  i)  No  accessory 
 of  the  liturgy  .should  be  used   unless  it  has  a  clear  meaning, 
 
 2)  That  meaning   must   be   understood   by    the   congregation; 
 
 3)  must  bear  directly  upon  the  interpretation  of  the  liturgy,  and 
 
 4)  must  be  consistent  with  Lutheran  doctrine.  Uniformity  of 
 practice  cannot  be  enforced,  nor  is  it  desirable,  since  the  varying 
 needs  and  circumstances  of  different  congregations  call  for  a  di- 
 versity of  administration.  In  uniformity  of  doctrine  and  in  that 
 alone  the  Church  finds  its  true  unity — that  unity  of  the  Spirit 
 which  is  the  bond  of  peace. 
 
 ClIARLKS    M.    J.VCOBS. 
 
 North    Wales,   Pa. 
 
THE   CHURCH    PRAYER. 
 
 This  title  sufl&ciently  denotes  that  the  object  of  our  paper  is  to 
 examine  and  describe  the  prayer  of  the  believing  people  of  God 
 in  their  assemblies  for  Christian  worship,  and  not  the  general 
 subject  of  prayer,  or  its  particular  use  in  relation  to  the  individ- 
 ual disciple.  It  is  not  the  question  of  how  ''thou  when  thou 
 prayest' '  art  to  enter  thy  closet  and  shut  the  door  and  pray  to 
 the  Father  in  secret,  but  the  question  answered  by  our  I^ord  when 
 He  said,  "when  j^  pray,  say,  6>«r  Father." 
 
 The  distinctive  grounds  for  Christian  public  or  common 
 prayer  are  to  be  found  in  the  giving  of  the  injunction  and  the 
 form  for  such  prayer  by  our  Lord,  in  Matt,  vi,  and  Luke  xi,  and 
 in  the  passages  Matt,  xviii,  19,  I  Tim.  ii,  1-4,  and  the  several 
 instances  of  the  practice  of  united  prayer  found  in  Acts  i,  13,  14; 
 ii,  46,  etc. 
 
 It  will  be  interesting  and  instructive  to  look  with  some  de- 
 tail at  the  earliest  examples  of  the  use  and  place  of  prayer  in 
 congregational  worship. 
 
 the;  gunkral  prayer. 
 
 The  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians*  presents,  at  some 
 length,  the  prayer  of  the  Roman  congregation  at  Rome  about  the 
 year  96  A.  D.  The  prayer  is  not  presented  as  a  mere  incident  of 
 the  Epistle,  but  has  an  important  relation  to  the  whole,  which 
 may  be  said  to  lead  up  to  it.  It  bears  all  the  marks  of  a  careful 
 composition.  Balance  and  rhythm  are  carefully  studied,  and  al- 
 most every  alternate  expression  is  selected  and  adapted  from  some 
 part  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  distinctly  a  general  prayer. 
 Beginning  with  an  elaborate  invocation  of  God,  arranged,  for  the 
 most  part,  in  antithetical  sentences,  there  follow  special  interces- 
 sions for  the  needy,  the  wanderers,  the  hmigry,  the  prisoners,  etc. 
 
 *  Appendix,  Lightfoot,  p.  269.  (xxxv) 
 
36  MEMOIRS. 
 
 After  this  comes  a  general  confession  of  sins  and  prayer  for  for- 
 giveness and  help.  It  closes  with  a  prayer  for  unity,  (especially 
 appropriate  in  view  of  the  tone  of  the  whole  Ejnstle),  "Give  con- 
 cord and  peace  to  us  and  to  all  that  dwell  on  the  earth,  as  Thou 
 gavest  to  our  fathers  when  they  called  upon  Thee."  After  this 
 comes  an  intercession  for  rulers.  The  whole  closes  with  a  dox- 
 ology. 
 
 The  prayer,  again,  may  be  analyzed  as  consisting  of  two 
 parts,  each  begiiniing  with  a  hymn  to  God.  The  first  part  has 
 ten  petitions,  for  the  needy  and  suffering  of  every  sort.  The 
 second  part  has  nine  petitions,  essentially  related  to  the  develop- 
 ment of  the  moral  life,  through  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and 
 increase  of  spiritual  strength.* 
 
 Lightfoot  concludes  from  the  examination  of  the  prayer  that 
 "there  was  at  this  time  no  authoritative  written  liturgy  in  use  in 
 the  church  at  Rome,  but  the  prayers  were  modified  at  the  discre- 
 tion of  the  ofl&ciating  minister.  Under  the  dictation  of  habit  and 
 experience,  however,  these  prayers  were  gradually  assuming  a 
 fixed  form." 
 
 As  the  prayer  is  found  in  an  Epistle,  and  not  in  connection 
 with  any  account  of  the  regular  order  of  worship  in  the  Church, 
 we  have  no  indication  of  its  place  in  the  liturgy. 
 
 Justin  Martyr,  (b.  114,  d.  165  A.  D.),  living  at  Rome  when 
 he  wrote,  gives  an  account  in  two  passages,  of  the  worship  of  the 
 Church  at  his  time.  The  liturgy,  as  he  describes  it,  consisted  of 
 I.  The  reading  of  ''the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  or  the  Writings 
 of  the  Prophets. ' ' 
 
 2.  The  Sermon,  "the  president  verbally  instructs." 
 
 3.  Prayer,  "then  we  all  rise  together  and  pray." 
 
 4.  The  Oblation,  "bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought 
 to  the  president." 
 
 5.  Prayer  of  Thatiksgivijig ,  "the  president,  in  like  manner 
 offers  prayers  and  thanksgivings  according  to  his  ability,  and  the 
 people  assent,  saying.  Amen."  f 
 
 The  prayer  following  the  sermon,  of  whose  contents  nothing 
 is  said  in  the  connection  above,  is  further  described  in  another 
 place,  X  where  he  tells  of  the  welcome  given  to  the  newly  bap- 
 tized, who  is  to  be  brought  to  the  place  "where  those  who  are 
 
 *  Meusel's  Ilandlexikon,  sub.  t.  Kirchengebet. 
 
 t  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  Vol,  I.   p.  186.  +  Ibid,  p.  1S5. 
 
THE   CHURCH   PRAYER.  37 
 
 called  brethren  are  assembled,  in  order  that  we  may  offer  hearty 
 prayers  in  common  for  ourselves  and  for  the  baptized  person  and 
 for  all  others,  in  every  place,  that  we  may  be  counted  worthy, 
 now  that  we  have  learned  the  truth,  by  our  works  also  to  be  good 
 citizens  and  keepers  of  the  commandments  so  that  we  may  be 
 saved  with  an  everlasting  salvation."  After  the  prayer  the  kiss 
 of  peace  is  given,  and  then  the  order  of  the  service  is  identical 
 with  that  just  given. 
 
 In  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  ch.  lo,  a  work  as- 
 cribed to  a  period  as  early  as  120  A.  D.,  the  order  of  the  celebra- 
 tion of  the  Eucharist  is  described  as  including  first,  a  prayer  of 
 thanksgiving  concerning  the  cup,  then  concerning  the  broken 
 bread.  Then,  "after  ye  are  filled,"  (an  expression  which  seems 
 to  render  it  evident  that  the  Agape  is  understood  as  preceding) , 
 another  giving  of  thanks  takes  place.  The  form  here  supplied 
 includes  thanks  for  God's  name,  for  knowledge,  faith  and  immor- 
 tality made  known  through  Jesus  His  servant,  for  the  creation 
 of  all  things,  for  spiritual  food  and  drink,  and  concludes,  "Re- 
 member Thy  Church,  deliver,  make  perfect,  gather  it  from  the 
 four  winds,  sanctified,  into  Thy  Kingdom." 
 
 The  Apostolic  Constitutions,  (from  the  close  of  the  third 
 century,  but  undoubtedly  representing  largely  the  usage  of  an 
 earlier  date),  offer  us  the  "earliest  form  in  which  liturgical  ar- 
 rangement, to  any  extent,  is  found."  In  the  second  book  of  the 
 Constitutions ,'^  one  account  of  the  Eucharistic  liturgy  is  found. 
 
 The  order  given  is,  first,  the  Scriptures  are  read.  Then  the 
 presbyters  and  bishop  exhort,  and  after  this,  all  rise,  and  looking 
 toward  the  East,  after  the  penitents  and  catechumens  have  gone 
 out,  pray  to  God,  eastward.  The  oblations,  the  announcements, 
 "lyCt  no  one  have  any  quarrel  against  another,"  "L,et  no  one 
 come  in  hypocrisy' '  and  the  kiss  of  peace  follow,  and  then  the 
 deacon  prays  for  the  whole  Church,  for  the  whole  world  and  the 
 several  parts  of  it,  and  for  the  fruits  of  it,  for  the  priests  and  the 
 rulers,  for  the  high  priest  and  the  king,  and  for  the  peace  of  the 
 universe.  After  this  the  "high  priest"  prays  for  peace  upon  the 
 people,  and  blesses  them  with  the  O.  T.  benediction.  Then  the 
 bishop  prays  for  the  people,  and  says:  "Save  Thy  people,  O  I^ord, 
 and  bless  Thine  inheritance  which  Thou  hast  obtained  with  the 
 precious  blood  of  Thy  Christ,  and  hast  called  a  royal  priesthood 
 
 *  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  pp.  421,  422. 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  an  holy  nation."  "After  this  let  the  sacrifice  follow,  the  peo- 
 ple standing  and  praying  silently.  And  when  the  oblation  has 
 been  made  let  every  rank  by  itself  partake  of  the  Lord's  body 
 and  precious  blood  in  order,  and  approach  with  reverence  and 
 holy  fear,  as  to  the  body  of  their  King." 
 
 Tlie  eighth  book  is  regarded  as  of  later  date  than  the  others, 
 but  in  the  character  of  its  material  and  the  influence  it  had  upon 
 later  forms  of  devotion,  it  is  of  great  significance.  It  presents  a 
 much  fuller  form  of  worship,  in  which  the  exceedingly  large  place 
 given  to  prayer,  and  the  great  length  of  many  of  the  prayers  is 
 very  noticeable.     It  may  be  thus  summarized: 
 
 1.  Scripture  Readbig,  from  the  "Law,  Prophets,  Epistles, 
 Acts  and  Gospels." 
 
 2.  Salutation,  in  the  form  of  the  N.  T.  Benediction,  and 
 Response,  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
 
 3 .  Ex/i  orta  tion . 
 
 4.  Dismissal  of  the  U?ibelievers. 
 
 5.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Catechumens,  who  are  then  dis- 
 missed. 
 
 6.  Bidding  Prayer  for  Energumens.  Both  these  prayers  are 
 to  be  said  by  the  deacon.  After  each  is  a  prayer  by  the  bishop, 
 and  the  dismissal  of  those  prayed  for,  the  following  prayers  after 
 the  .same  manner. 
 
 7.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Baptized.  Prayer  by  the  bishop. 
 Dismissal. 
 
 8.  Biddi7tg  Prayer  for  the  Penitents.  Prayer  by  the  bishop. 
 Dismissal. 
 
 9.  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful.  This  is  a  truh^  General 
 Prayer.  The  people  are  called  upon  to  pray  for  the  world,  all 
 the  holy  churches,  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church,  the  parish 
 in  this  place,  every  bishop  and  our  bishop,  other  bishops  and  par- 
 ishes named,  for  presbyters,  deacons,  readers,  singers,  virgins, 
 widows  and  orphans,  for  all  in  the  Church,  for  those  in  marriage 
 and  child-bearing,  the  .sick,  tho.se  that  travel  by  water  or  by  land, 
 those  in  the  mines,  in  banishments,  prisons  or  bonds,  in  bitter 
 ser\'itude,  for  enemies  and  persecutors,  for  wanderers,  for  infants 
 of  the  Church,  and  for  one  another. 
 
 ID.  The  ''High  Priest'^  Prays.  His  prayer,  however,  not 
 being  nearly  so  long  as  the  bidding  prayer,  nor  taking  up  its  ob- 
 jects in  detail. 
 
THE   CHURCH   PRAYER.  39 
 
 11.  Salutation,  "the  peace  of  God  be  with  3'ou  all,"  and 
 Response. 
 
 12.  The  Kiss. 
 
 13.  Salutation  and  Response  as  at  first. 
 
 14.  The  Sursuni  Corda. 
 
 15.  The  Preface,  continuing  without  interruption  into  the 
 Thanksgiving .  Of  extreme  length,  containing  within  it,  and  as 
 a  part  of  it,  the  Consecration  and  Oblation. 
 
 16.  Another  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful,  general  in  its 
 character,  followed  by  prayer  by  the  bishop. 
 
 1 7 .  Distrib  u  tion . 
 
 18.  Bidding  Prayer. 
 
 It  is  noteworthy,  in  comparing  this  liturgy  with  later  ones, 
 that  it  lacks  the  I^ord's  Prayer.* 
 
 The  liturgies  of  St.  James,  (Palestine),  of  St.  Mark,  (Alex- 
 andria), of  St.  John,  (Gallican,  Mozarabic  and  Ephesian),  and  of 
 St.  Peter,  (Roman),  all  begin  with  a  prefatory  prayer;  the  first 
 two  provide  for  a  prayer  after  the  L/Cctions,  and  the  first  three 
 put  the  praj'er  variousl}^  referred  to  as  the  '  'prayer  for  all  condi- 
 tions," the  "prayer  for  the  Church  Militant,"  or  the  "prayer  for 
 the  Church,"  in  much  the  same  relative  position  in  reference  to 
 the  whole  service. 
 
 A  glance  at  the  material  cited  indicates  that  in  the  early  wor- 
 ship of  the  Church  common  pra5^er  had  a  recognized  and  promi- 
 nent place.  Its  purpose  and  spirit  were  fully  apprehended.  C3'- 
 prian's  statement,  '''' Publica  est  7iobis  et  communis  oratio,  et  quando 
 oramus,  non  pro  u7io,  sed  pro  toto  populo  oramus  quia  totus  populus 
 unum  siunus"  is  exemplified  in  all  the  forms  which  have  remained 
 to  us.  '  'The  Church  prayer  always  regards  the  need  of  the  whole 
 congregation,  and  therefore  maintains  a  certain  spiritual  tone. 
 According  to  their  content  and  form  the  oldest  congregational 
 prayers  that  have  come  to  us  bear  this  character,  as  well  as  those 
 in  the  agenda  of  the  century  of  the  Reformation.  Not  until  the 
 time  of  Pietism  was  the  appreciation  of  the  distinction  between 
 the  subjectively-Christian,  and  the  churchl}'  prayer  gradually  lost. 
 The  Illumination,  however,  no  longer  had  any  idea  of  what  true 
 prayer  is. ' '  f 
 
 The  distinction,  referred  to  in   the  quotation,  between  the 
 
 *  Apostol.  Const.     Ante-Niceiie  Fathers,  book  VIII,   p.   483,    ff. 
 t  Harnack,  in  Zoeckler's  Handbuch,  Vol.  IV.  p.  432. 
 
40  MEMOIRS. 
 
 subjective  prayer  of  the  Christian,  in  his  private  devotion,  and 
 the  prayer  of  the  collected  congregation  is  one  that  is  of  essential 
 importance  if  this  part  of  the  public  service  is  to  be  rendered  in 
 appropriate  form  and  spirit.  To  confuse  the  scope  and  object  of 
 the  two  sorts  of  praj'er  is  to  impair  seriously  the  beauty  and  fit- 
 ness of  our  worship.  Nothing  can  be  more  necessary  than  pri- 
 vate prayer.  Where  there  is  no  true,  spontaneous  reaching  out 
 of  the  inner  life  toward  God,  telling  Him  of  the  burden  and  trial, 
 beseeching  Him  for  the  relief  and  defence  needed,  imploring  His 
 grace  and  goodness,  laying  before  Him  the  perplexities  and  ask- 
 ing Him  to  give  the  promised  guidance,  there  is  no  true  life  of 
 the  soul. 
 
 But  there  is  a  life  of  the  Church  which  is  as  true  and  as 
 much  to  be  recognized  as  the  life  of  the  individual.  The  Church 
 is  an  organism  not  an  organi;4ation.  It  is  the  one  body  of  the 
 One  Head.  It  has  its  own  needs,  its  own  duties,  its  own  neces- 
 sit)'  for  worship.  Hence  have  arisen  its  own  forms  of  worship, 
 for  it  is  evident  that  the  Church  as  such  cannot  worship  accept- 
 ably and  unitedly  through  any  form  which  is  not  framed  to  suit 
 its  needs,  but  which  is  merely  the  expression  of  the  subjective 
 condition  of  the  one  who  leads  its  devotions.  Hence  the  value  of 
 the  fixed  forms  which  have  been  subject  to  criticism  and  have 
 been  proven  by  the  test  of  actual  use,  which  being  known  to  the 
 congregation,  and  before  their  eyes,  enable  them  to  follow  and  to 
 participate,  as  they  could  not  do  in  any  form  of  words  arising  in 
 the  mind  of  the  person  who  was  directing  their  worship.  An 
 extemporaneous  phraseology  has  no  advantage,  because,  for  the 
 most  part,  the  things  for  which  the  Church  is  bound  to  pray  are 
 the  same  from  time  to  time.  The  need  of  confession,  of  thanks- 
 giving, of  intercession,  of  supplication  for  the  welfare  of  God's 
 people,  for  the  ingathering  of  the  wandering,  for  the  rulers,  for 
 the  distressed  and  the  oppressed,  is  a  constant  need,  and  cannot 
 be  voiced  in  more  beautiful  and  appropriate  language  than  that 
 in  which  for  centuries  the  Church  has  given  it  expression.  The 
 distinction  must  be  made  between  the  Christian  in  his  closet 
 praying,  pouring  out  before  God,  in  spontaneous  speech,  all  his 
 private  fears  and  hopes  and  needs,  on  the  one  hand;  and,  on  the 
 other,  the  worshipping  congregation,  uttering  its  common  sup- 
 plications, and  it  is  the  failure  to  make  this  distinction,  that  so 
 often  results  in  the  entire  lack  of  a  true  General  Prayer,  and  in 
 
THB   CHURCH   PRAYER.  41 
 
 the  painful  spectacle  of  a  pastor  ignoring  and  misinterpreting  his 
 office  and  duty,  as  the  mouth-piece  of  the  congregation,  putting 
 some  desires  and  hopes  of  his  own,  or  even  some  moralings  over 
 the  Sermon  he  has  just  preached,  in  the  place  that  belongs  to  the 
 people  for  their  common  prayer.  And  it  is  the  ignorance  of  this 
 distinction  on  the  part  of  the  people  that  is  the  ground  for  what- 
 ever prejudice  may  yet  be  found  against  a  form  of  prayer  for 
 congregational  use.  In  the  closet  we  could  never  consent  to 
 confine  our  praj-ers  to  forms.  There  the  heart  must  speak  out  in 
 the  words  that  the  changing  circumstances  and  duties  and  sins  of 
 every  day  suggest,  there  is  the  place  for  our  personal  entreaties 
 and  for  the  utterance  in  His  sympathizing  ear  of  what  we  could 
 say  in  no  human  ear,  and  of  what  none  else  could  say  for  us. 
 God  forbid  that  we  should  underestimate  or  fail  to  use  that  pre- 
 cious privilege.  But  when  we  assemble  as  the  Church, 
 "Our  hopes,  our  fears,  our  aims  are  one, 
 Our  comforts  and  oiir  cares," 
 
 and  we  lose  much  if  we  do  not  understand  the  meaning  of  our 
 common  worship,  or  if  we  throw  away  the  perfect  forms  in  which 
 our  fathers  have  enshrined  the  common  aspirations  of  the  Church 
 in  the  past,  and  the  present  and  the  future,  until  Jesus  comes 
 again. 
 
 The  ancient  authorities  also  indicate,  as  the  proper  place 
 for  the  General  Prayer,  that  which  it  holds  in  the  Common  Ser- 
 vice, betw^een  the  Sermon  and  the  Communion.  The  posture 
 was  that  of  standing. 
 
 From  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  the  Church  Prayer  as 
 an  especial  act  of  worship  disappears,  having  been  pushed  close  to 
 the  Consecration  and  offering  of  the  Sacrament,  under  the  influ- 
 ence of  the  development  of  the  sacrificial  idea  of  the  Mass  and  of 
 the  thought  that  prayer  offered  in  the  offering  of  the  Mass  would 
 be  sure  of  an  answer.*  The  Reformation  brings  back  the  Church 
 Prayer  into  the  chief  service,  and,  with  few  exceptions  into  the 
 proper  place,  providing  different  forms  when  the  I^ord's  Supper 
 was  celebrated  and  when  it  was  omitted.  The  Reformed  Church- 
 es, in  their  Orders,  without  exception  prescribe  that  a  formulated 
 Church  Prayer  be  read  from  the  pulpit  at  each  service.  In  the 
 Deittsche  Messe  I^uther  gave  a  paraphrase  of  the  Ivord's  Prayer 
 which  the  Pastor  was  to  read  at  the  altar,  after  the  Sermon  and 
 
 *  Cf.   Horn,  Liturgies. 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 before  the  Consecration.  Almost  all  the  Lutheran  Orders  give  a 
 form  of  the  General  Prayer,  to  be  read  from  the  pulpit,  while  a 
 few,  only,  leave  it  to  the  pastor  to  extemporize.  This  is  in  case 
 the  Lord's  Supper  is  to  follow.  When  there  are  no  communi- 
 cants the  Prayer  is  to  be  read  at  the  altar  and  in  a  form  in  which 
 the  congregation  actively  participates;  praj'ing  with  the  pastor, 
 the  Litany,  (in  Luther's  improved  form),  or  the  Da  pacem,  or, 
 in  special  cases,  singing  the  Te  Deum.* 
 
 THE   LITANY. 
 
 The  term  Litany,  (from  A.it^,  A.iWo/Aai),  used  by  the  pagans 
 for  a  supplicatory  form  of  worship,  was  early  adopted  by  Chris- 
 tian writers.  It  was  applied  to  earnest  prayer  arising  from  spe- 
 cial necessities.  Early  litanies  are  connected  with  such  trials  as 
 earthquakes,  droughts,  etc.  Fixed  litanies  are  first  found  in 
 France  in  the  fifth  Century.  An  earthquake  in  450  A.  D.  gave 
 occasion  to  Bishop  Mamercus  of  Vienna  to  appoint  the  three  days 
 before  Ascension,  dies  rogationuvt,  for  processions  through  the 
 fields,  with  supplications  to  God.  Palmer  f  says  that  the  form  in 
 which  the  prayers  of  the  Litanj-  are  convej'ed,  is  plainly  derived 
 from  oriental  models,  and  again  that  the  "litaneutical  form," 
 common  in  the  East  was  sparingly  used  in  the  West.  But  it  is 
 to  be  noticed  that  as  early  as  Justin  Martyr  the  general  prayer 
 was  responded  to  by  the  people  with  Kyrie  Eleison,  and  that  the 
 Apostolic  Constitutions  give  a  prayer  in  which  the  resemblance 
 in  form  to  the  Litany  is  very  marked,  the  Deacon  announcing  the 
 prayer,  Prosphonesis,  and  the  people  responding,  Kyric  Eleison. 
 The  LitanicT  Minores,  supposed  by  Bingham  to  consist  only  of  a 
 repetition  of  Kyrie  Eleison,  may  well  have  been  the  original  from 
 which  the  Litania  Major,  developed,  and  if  form,  rather  than  the 
 peculiar  processional  use,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  mark  of  identi- 
 fication, the  beginning  of  the  Litany  must  certainly  be  put  back 
 much  earlier  than  the  fifth  or  even  the  fourth  century,  the  dates 
 most  generally  accepted. 
 
 As  has  been  suggested,  the  litanies  were  appointed  for  par- 
 ticular times.  Rome  fixed  April  25,  for  the  regular  use  of  the 
 Litany,  the  Litania  Septiformis  of  Gregory  the  Great.  The 
 Council  of  Orleans,  511  A.  D.  appoints  them  permanently  for  the 
 use  of  the  Gallic  Churches  preparatory  to  the  celebration  of  a 
 
 •  Meusel,  HandUxikon,  sub.  v.  Kirchen^ebet.  +   Originei,  Vul.  I,  p.  267. 
 
THE   CHURCH    PRAYER.  43 
 
 high  festival.  In  the  Spanish  Church  they  were  observed  in  the 
 week  after  Pentecost.  Other  Councils  appointed  them  for  various 
 other  seasons,  till,  in  the  .seventeenth  Council  of  Toledo,  in  694 
 A.  D.  the  use  of  them  was  decreed  once  each  month.  By  de- 
 grees, they  were  extended  to  two  days  in  each  week,  and  Wed- 
 nesday and  Friday,  being  the  ancient  dies  stationum,  were  set 
 apart  for  that  purpose.  This  usage  was  characteristic  of  the 
 Western  Church,  the  Eastern  Church  of  ancient  days  and  of  the 
 present  not  appointing  stated  seasons  for  their  use,  but  confining 
 such  services  to  extraordinary  occasions. 
 
 The  text  of  the  Litany  was  never  directed  to  the  special  oc- 
 casion. Hymns,  the  seven  penitential  Psalms,  and  the  simple 
 Kyrie  were  the  basis.  Later  their  use  was  so  extended  that  the 
 clergy  intoned  the  single  petitions  and  the  people  responded  with, 
 ^'eleison,  miserere,  exaudi,  libera  7ios,  parce  nobis.'"  So  the  Lita- 
 ny received  more  and  more  the  form  of  a  general  prayer. 
 
 A  Fuldensian  Codex  offers  the  oldest  form  of  the  text  of  the 
 Litany.  It  has  no  invocations  of  saints,  (these,  also,  are  not 
 found  in  any  of  the  Eastern  litanies) ,  and  remembers  the  cate- 
 chumens and  penitents,  as  well  as  the  Roman  Emperor  and  army. 
 A  second  form,  from  the  ninth  century,  directs  petitions  to  Marj^ 
 the  angels  and  saints,  and  concludes  with  the  Agnus  Dei. 
 
 The  full  Roman  Litany  has,  after  the  Kyrie,  the  invocation 
 of  Mary  and  the  saints,  and  after  this  the  petitions,  deprecations, 
 etc.,  concluding  with  the  .-^^^w//^  Z>6'/.  Then  follow  different  re- 
 sponsories  and  prayers.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  response  of 
 the  congregation  to  the  invocation  of  saints  is  ''ora pro  nobis.'' 
 A  large  number  of  litanies  also  arose  in  the  Roman  Church  which 
 were  directed  only  to  Mary,  or  even  to  the  heart  of  Mary,  or  to 
 other  saints.  After  the  Reformation  the  Romanists  prayed  spe- 
 cial litanies  adversiis  hccreticos. 
 
 Luther  simply  took  out  what  was  unsound  and  unscriptural 
 in  the  Roman  Litany,  changed  the  order  of  some  of  the  petitions 
 and  added  others,  enriching  the  ancient  prayer.  He  prepared 
 and  published  it  in  Latin  and  German.  The  two  are  not  essen- 
 tially different.  The  German  Litany  was  taken  up  by  almost  all 
 the  Lutheran  orders,  with  slight  changes. 
 
 From  an  early  period  the  litanies  had  been  used  in  the  Mat- 
 ins, Vespers  and  Hours.  After  Gregory  the  Great  they  had  a 
 place  also  in  the  Chief  Service,  at  the  beginning,  after  the  Introit, 
 
44  MEMOIRS. 
 
 on  the  Sundays  of  the  Passion  season,  when  the  Gloria  in  P^xcel- 
 sis  was  omitted.     This  usage  still  exists  in  the  Milan  Church. 
 
 After  the  Reformation  the  Litany  is  found  appointed  for 
 stated  times,  Rogation  Sundays,  prayer-services  in  the  week,  dies 
 statio7tiim,  and  also  for  special  occasions,  e.  g.  Ordination.  But 
 it  also  finds  a  place  now  in  the  Chief  Service,  as  a  general  Prayer. 
 This,  according  to  Lutheran  conception  and  practice,  it  properly 
 is,  and  ought  not  to  be  conceived  of  as  merely  a  prayer  of  re- 
 pentance as  the  Church  of  Rome  considers  it. 
 
 The  Reformed  Churches  entirely  rejected  the  Litany.  In 
 the  time  of  liturgical  destruction,  also,  the  use  of  the  Litany  as  a 
 General  Prayer  was  almost  entirely  abandoned.  But  the  appre- 
 ciation of  this  prayer  which  Luther  expressed,  and  the  correct 
 conception  of  its  meaning  and  purpose,  with  the  peculiar  propri- 
 ety of  the  active  participation  of  the  congregation  in  its  common 
 prayer,  has  brought  this  historically  given  form  into  ever  increas- 
 ing favor.  Up  to  the  i8th  century  the  Litany  was  highly  es- 
 teemed, so  much  so  that  in  the  17th  century  several  commentaries 
 on  the  Litany  appeared.  After  that  it  fell  into  disesteem.  Its 
 length  was  criticised.  Its  objective  character  was  displeasing  to 
 the  subjectivism  of  Pietism.  In  South  Germany  it  was  used 
 without  responses  /';/  luio  tenore.  The  petitions  were  grouped  to- 
 gether. It  disappeared  entirely  from  some  hymn-books.  Ra- 
 tionalism put  it  aside.  The  method  is  aptly  described  by  Klie- 
 foth,  and  has  its  counterpart  in  some  experiences  in  our  own  land. 
 "First  they  would  not  have  the  congregations  sing  the  Litany 
 with  the  necessary  result  that  it  became  unfamiliar.  Then  they 
 used  the  ignorance  of  it  on  the  part  of  the  congregation  as  a  re- 
 proach against  it."  To  the  liturgical  awakening  due  so  largely 
 to  Kliefoth  and  Schoeberlein  we  owe  it  that  the  value  of  the  Lit- 
 any has  again  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  Lutheran  congre- 
 gations, and  that  it  has  regained  its  due  position. 
 
 Luther's  Latin  Litany  was  used  in  Wittenberg,  and  was 
 sung  by  two  choirs  of  school-boys.  The  German  Litany  was  al- 
 so rendered  by  the  leadership  of  two  choirs  of  school-boys,  one 
 choir  in  the  middle  of  the  church  intoning  the  single  petitions, 
 and  the  congregation  led  by  the  other  choir,  singhig  the  re- 
 sponses. Another  method  was  to  have  the  pastor,  facing  the  al- 
 tar, intone  the  petitions,  the  congregation  and  choir  responding.* 
 
 •  For  the  whole  treatment  of  the  Litany  sec  Meusel's  HanMexikon. 
 
TH:e   CHURCH    PRAYER.  45 
 
 THE   COI.I.ECTS. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Collects  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Dr. 
 Horn  *  conjectures  that  their  model  may  have  been  given  by  Acts 
 i.  24,  25  and  Acts  iv.  24-30.  Their  name  denotes  that  they  are 
 prayers  in  which  the  wants  and  perils,  or  wishes  and  desires,  of 
 the  whole  people  or  Church,  are  collectively  presented  to  God. 
 They  are  comprehensive  prayers,  changing  with  the  seasons  and 
 festivals  of  the  Church  Year,  many  of  which  our  Church  has 
 adopted  from  the  ancient  liturgies,  and  some  which  she  has  formed 
 for  herself.  They  are  either  penitential  or  supplicatory  Collects 
 which  as  introductory  prayers,  (read  before  the  Epistle  and  Gos- 
 pel), express  the  fact  of  the  day  or  the  thought  of  the  season  and 
 connect  with  it  a  supplication  for  appropriate  grace;  or  they  are 
 Collects  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  which  as  closing  prayers  be- 
 gin with  thanks  for  the  gift  of  grace  received  and  end  with  a 
 prayer  to  be  kept  in  the  same.  They  were  used  from  a  remote 
 period  in  the  Western  churches,  and  are  found  in  the  earliest 
 monuments  of  the  Roman  liturgy,  f  Most  of  those  which  we  use 
 are  taken  from  Gregory  the  Great,  or  the  Sacramentaries  of 
 Gelasius  or  I^eo.  The  latter  was  used  in  the  Roman  Church,  A. 
 D.  483,  and,  according  to  Palmer,  its  Collects  are  much  more 
 ancient  than  those  of  Gelasius,  (A.  D.  494)  and  may  be  referred 
 to  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 
 
 The  Gregorian  Mass  gave  a  special  Collect  to  every  principal 
 Service.  I^ater  the  multiplication  of  Collects  caused  complaint. 
 IvOhe  says:  "the  lyUtheran  Church  retained  in  her  most  ancient 
 liturgies  the  custom  of  praying  a  collect  de  tempore  before  the 
 Epistle.  She  arranged  festival  collects  for  the  first  half  of  the 
 Church  Year,  but  made  no  provision  for  the  second  half,  except 
 to  leave  it  to  the  ministers  to  select  one  of  the  common  collects 
 according  to  the  character  of  the  Sunday." 
 
 Luther  restricted  the  use  of  collects  before  the  Lection  to  one, 
 but  favored  the  change  of  collect  with  the  varying  season.  The 
 Brandenburg-Niirnburg  Order  has  fifteen  common  collects  and 
 one  each  for  the  festival  of  Christmas,  the  Passion  season,  and 
 the  festivals  of  Easter,  Ascension,  Whitsunday  and  Trinity;  one 
 for  the  coming  of  God's  Kingdom,  one  for  the  doing  of  God's  will 
 and  two  Pro  Pace.     Nearly  all  the  other  Orders  followed  the  same 
 
 Liturgies,  p.  72.  t  Palmer's  Orig. 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 plan  of  giving  a  small  number  of  collects.  The  objection  to  a 
 change  of  collect  for  each  Sunday  and  festival  was  that  the  peo- 
 ple ought  to  be  able  to  follow  and  pray  them  with  the  pastor,  an 
 objection  which  has  no  force  when  every  member  of  the  congre- 
 gation has  a  book  containing  the  appointed  collect  which  is  easily 
 to  be  found.  The  sources  of  the  collects  given  in  the  Common 
 Service  may  be  found  in  "The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England."* 
 The  Church  has  ever  used  and  provided  for  the  united  sup- 
 plication of  her  worshipping  people,  and  our  forms  of  prayer  are 
 scriptural,  historical  and  in  fullest  accord  with  the  best  traditions 
 of  the  purest  days  of  the  Church's  life.  Hallowed  by  the  use  of 
 the  centuries,  tested  and  approved  by  their  perfect  adaptedness 
 to  bear  the  devotion  of  the  saintly  generations  to  the  throne  of 
 grace,  fragrant  as  the  incense  of  the  Temple  with  the  odor  of 
 sanctity  and  with  the  associations  that  cannot  be  separated  from 
 them,  they  are  vital  to-day,  to  every  devout  spirit,  and  bear  us 
 backward  in  sw'eet  communion  with  the  Church  of  all  ages,  while 
 they  lift  us  Heavenward,  in  our  purest  aspirations. 
 
 "O  where  are  Kinj^s  and  empires  now. 
 
 Of  old  that  went  and  came? 
 But,  Lord,  Thy  Church  is  praying  yet, 
 
 A  thousand  years  the  same." 
 
 C.  Armand  Mili^er. 
 New   York,  N.    V. 
 
 *  Jacobs,  p.  297. 
 
THE   VALUE   OF 
 LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS. 
 
 The  church  organist,  by  virtue  of  his  position,  is  a  person 
 of  more  than  passing  importance,  for  upon  him  is  largely  depend- 
 ent the  proper  expression  of  public  worship,  and  in  him  is  vested 
 an  educational  power,  which  is  wielded,  not  only  over  a  few  indi- 
 viduals, but  over  the  entire  congregation.  It  is  true  in  case  of 
 necessity,  we  may  be  forced  to  ignore  him,  yet  we  all  feel,  under 
 normal  conditions,  the  value  of  his  presence  and  services.  From 
 the  organ-loft  he  rules,  for  weal  or  woe,  over  the  most  subtle  in- 
 fluence temporally  speaking,  that  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
 people.  While  in  all  else  listlessness  may  be  in  control,  yet  mu- 
 sic may  permeate  quietly  and  unobtrusively  into  the  soul  with 
 the  gentle  touch  of  revivifying  power.  Gladness  ought  to  be  ex- 
 pressed and  from  the  organ  comes  the  jubilant  invitation  to  "Re- 
 joice all  ye  believers."  Penitence  is  to  take  possession,  then  by 
 the  plaintive  sighings  of  the  organ  our  emotions  are  led  in  the 
 proper  way.  So,  to  all  intervening  states  music  adapts  itself,  and 
 readily  lends  its  power  and  influence  to  obtain  the  desired  results. 
 Unless  deafness  be  our  portion  we  can  scarcely  escape  its  influ- 
 ence, for  where  it  is  heard,  there  it  takes  quiet  possession.  How 
 essential  is  it  then,  that  this  power  should  be  properly  and  judi- 
 ciously exercised;  that  its  influence  should  be  understandingly 
 utilized  and  made  most  effective.  In  the  church  such  under- 
 standing is  of  vital  necessity  to  its  proper  use.  Hence  arises  the 
 question  concerning  the  value  of  liturgical  study  for  organists. 
 
 The  value  of  such  study  is  plainly  evident  to  all  who  are  in- 
 terested in  any  way  in  the  proper  comprehension  of  the  subject 
 under  consideration,  and  of  these  none  should  be  more  interested 
 than  organists.  They,  by  their  very  position,  are  constrained  to 
 follow  such  lines  of  study.     They  are  continually  confronted  by 
 
 (xlvii) 
 
48  MEMOIRS. 
 
 liturgical  questions,  theoretical  and  practical,  and  should  be  in  a 
 position  to  properly  deal  with  them.  This  necessitates  study, 
 and  study  which  is  not  of  the  superficial  type,  for  here  as  in  oth- 
 er relations 
 
 "A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing; 
 
 Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring." 
 
 To  do  this  they  must  step  backward  into  past  ages,  yea  even 
 beyond  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  cultus,  for  in  the  Jewish  ritual 
 we  find  the  first  established  form  of  worship  to  the  only  true  God. 
 And  as  the  prophecies  preceded  the  Son  of  Righteousness  and 
 found  in  Him  their  fullest  expression,  so  has  the  ancient  Jewish 
 ritual  yielded  to  the  spirit  of  Christian  worship.  This  ancient 
 worship  of  the  Jews  however,  was  not  entirely  destroyed  but 
 only  superseded,  and  we  find  it  in  many  ways  coloring  the  more 
 enlightened  worship  of  the  new  era.  This  condition  we  note  in 
 the  transfer  of  the  Psalter  bodih'  to  the  new  form  of  worship, — 
 in  the  merging  of  the  Passover  into  the  Festival  of  Easter, — of 
 the  Festival  of  Har\-est  or  Pentecost  into  the  Christian  Pentecost 
 or  Whitsunday.  Thus  is  seen  the  inception  of  the  new  cultus  of 
 worship,  meagre  in  point  of  details,  yet  carrying  over  the  Holy 
 songs  of  the  tem])le  worship  and  infusing  them  with  renewed  life. 
 Man  realizes  with  pleasure  that  the  Master  Himself  sang  thus 
 with  His  Disciples  at  their  last  Passover.  And  from  the  heathen 
 Pliny  in  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Emperor,  we  learn  that  the  early 
 Christians  were  wont  to  come  together  to  sing  their  "psalms,  and 
 hymns,  and  spiritual  songs."  Soon  certain  great  truths  came 
 into  clearer  light  and  aljout  them  were  clustered  forms  of  expres- 
 sion. These  integral  parts  readily  found  points  of  contact  and 
 thus  the  liturgy  was  gradually  woven  into  one  harmonious  whole. 
 The  attention  of  the  organist  will  then  find  an  abundant  field 
 of  operations  in  tracing  the  growth  of  the  liturg\-  until  it  became 
 overweighted  and  was  returned  in  the  Reformation  among  the 
 Swiss  Reformers  to  a  bald,  bare  type  of  worship,  and  among  the 
 Germans  to  a  conservative  mean.  In  tracing  the  growth  of  the 
 liturgy  the  organist,  if  he  is  thorough,  will  be  led  into  a  con.sid- 
 eration  of  the  ramifications  of  that  growth  as  they  group  them- 
 selves into  families,  e.  g.  the  Eastern  and  Western  Church;  and 
 as  these  are  again  subdivided  in  the  East  into  the  Greek,  Arme- 
 nian, Nestorian,  etc.;  and  in  the  West  into  Roman,  Gallican. 
 Ambrosian,    Mozarabic   and   others.      By   thus    approaching    the 
 
THE   VALUB   OF    LITURGICAL   STUDY    FOR    ORGANISTS.  49 
 
 subject  in  its  broadest  and  most  general  aspects,  the  ground  plan 
 is  laid  according  to  an  ample  measure  and  of  substantial  materi- 
 al, so  that  the  superstructure  will  not  be  endangered  by  the 
 weakness  of  the  foundation. 
 
 In  this  way  is  gained  not  simply  knowledge  but  a  glimpse  is 
 also  obtained  of  the  animating  spirit  of  liturgies  generallj?^,  and 
 of  its  different  manifestations.  lyiturgics  is  simply  engaged  with 
 the  proper  setting  forth  of  the  worship  of  the  Eternal  God.  It 
 aims  to  put  that  worship  in  the  most  chaste  form,  to  beautify  it, 
 as  the  Psalmist  has  said  to  "worship  the  Lord  in  the  beauty  of 
 holiness,"  to  invest  every  act  with  fullest  significance,  to  impress 
 the  great  truths  of  Christianit}-,  to  declare  unto  man  in  many 
 wa}^s  that  he  worships,  that  he  is  in  the  presence  of  the  Most 
 High.  The  spirit  of  liturgies  is  essentially  the  spirit  of  worship. 
 With  organists,  in  a  greater  degree  than  with  most  men,  should 
 this  spirit  be  present,  that  God  may  be  worshipped  in  spirit  and 
 truth,  and  that  all  things  may  be  done  decently  and  in  order. 
 This  spirit  goes  much  further  than  sinipl}^  to  follow  rubrical  di- 
 rections, but  is  a  spirit  moving  upon  the  face  of  the  waters  bring- 
 ing order  out  of  chaos.  It  is  a  guardian  angel  protecting  us  from 
 excrescences,  from  mutilations  and  extraneous  matters.  It  guides 
 and  directs  where  there  are  no  written  laws  and  at  all  times  and 
 under  all  conditions  it  exerts  its  powerful,  even  if  silent,  influence. 
 
 It  will  not  be  long  before  the  student  organist  will  find  that 
 the  liturgy  is  not  simply  a  form  of  worship  but  is  essentially  a 
 confession  of  faith.  We  see  this  in  the  differences  between  the 
 Greek  and  Roman  Church,  and  find  it  especially  marked  in  the 
 Nestorian  liturgy  where  its  parts  are  adapted  to  meet  the  arch- 
 error  of  Nestorianism,  namely,  its  Christological  doctrine.  The 
 Reformers  found  abundant  error  in  the  Roman  liturgy  and  among 
 their  early  tasks  was  the  necessity  of  purging  and  purifying  the 
 liturgy  that  it  might  give  proper  expression  to  the  true  faith. 
 This  confessional  character  of  the  liturgy  must  be  ever  kept  in 
 mind,  so  that  we  may  not  only  possess  the  spirit  of  worship  but 
 also  the  spirit  of  true  worship. 
 
 A  general  knowledge  of  liturgies,  however,  is  not  sufficient, 
 for,  as  we  intimated  above,  there  are  many  digressions  and  many 
 animating  spirits.  This  should  lead  organists  to  more  specific 
 lines  of  study,  that  they  may  learn  to  know  the  animating  spirit 
 of  each  church  body,  the  significance  of  their  forms  of  w^orship, 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  the  general  trend  of  tlieir  teachings  and  practice.  This  will 
 be  especially  valnable  in  the  consideration  of  such  church  bodies 
 as  are  immediately  about  the  organist  or  even  those  of  the 
 same  coinitry.  Each  body  will  have  distinctive  characteristics 
 and  will  disseminate  its  particular  influences  in  a  narrow  sphere 
 by  its  practices  and  in  a  broader  sphere  bj'  means  of  its  publica- 
 tions. Organists  should  know  them  well  in  order  that  the>-  may 
 avoid  their  extravagances,  profit  by  their  shortcomings,  escape 
 their  weaknesses  and  not  be  led  astra}^  by  the  passingly  beautiful. 
 Rather  be  strong  enough  to  influence  them  or  they  will  surely 
 influence  3'ou.  This  means  that  of  all  churches  you  must  be 
 best  acquainted  with  your  own.  Information  that  is  general 
 .should  be  reinforced  by  that  which  is  specifically  to  your  pur- 
 pose. Here  there  enters  that  study  of  the  church  of  the  Refor- 
 mation with  her  conser\'ative  tendencies,  3"et  strongly  contending 
 for  the  truth;  the  central  position  she  gives  to  the  Word  and  at 
 the  same  time  not  neglecting  the  place  and  power  of  the  Holy 
 Sacraments;  the  retention  of  much  that  was  proper,  lawful,  beau- 
 tiful and  not  contrary-  to  Scripture — as  opposed  to  iconoclasm. — 
 her  animating  spirit  should  be  thorough!}-  imbibed  if  we  would 
 comprehend  her  liturgy. 
 
 If  we  stop  to  compare  the  different  church  bodies  we  will 
 find  further  reason  for  thought  connected  with  our  subject.  In 
 the  non-liturgical  church  bodies  w'e  find  the  controlling  power 
 to  be  exercised  mainly  through  the  emotions.  This  naturally 
 affects  whatever  form  of  worship  they  may  have  and  has  its 
 influence  over  all  that  pertains  to  public  worship,  notably  over 
 its  music.  Hence  we  must  not  be  too  quick  to  adopt  music 
 which  has  .sprung  from  such  a  source.  The  liturgical  church 
 bodies  ordinarily  adopt  the  educational  mode  of  indoctrination 
 and  this  is  reflected  in  their  .sober  forms  of  worship.  But  here 
 again  distinctions  arise  according  to  doctrine  and  according  to 
 the  dominating  spirit  in  worship,  whether  of  display  or  of  devo- 
 tion. Thus  by  a  comparative  study  we  may  know  how  to  act 
 judiciou.sly.  And  here  pennit  me  to  add  we  ha\e  a  strong  argu- 
 ment for  distinctively  Lutheran  organists,  i.  e.  organists  imbued 
 with  the  Lutheran  spirit  of  worshiji. 
 
 The  sjiirit  of  liturgies  l)eing  the  spirit  of  worship  we  can 
 readily  imagine  that  the  best  results  will  only  be  obtained  by 
 those   who   approach    the   subject    with   true   Christian    feeling. 
 
THE   VAI.UE   OF   LITURGICAL  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         51 
 
 How  an  infidel  or  unbeliever  can  gain  the  best  results  is  incon- 
 ceivable. At  the  best  it  would  be  simply  an  intellectual  process 
 which  could  not  adequately  comprehend  the  hidden  beauties 
 alone  revealed  to  believers.  The  mysteries  of  the  Christian  faith 
 as  expressed  in  the  liturgy  should  be  received  into  sympathetic 
 minds  and  hearts,  or  else  we  will  have  nothing  more  than  the 
 senseless  verbiage  of  lip- worship.  This  condition  being  present, 
 it  can  not  help  but  show  itself  practically. 
 
 As  the  organist  proceeds  in  his  stud}-,  he  will  learn  that  the 
 liturgy  does  not  stand  alone,  an  isolated,  forsaken  creature,  but 
 is  intimately  bound  up  with  many  avenues  of  church  activity, 
 and  has  continually  exercised  its  influence  over  them.  Thus  the 
 cruciform  style  in  church  architecture  arises  from  a  liturgical 
 consideration.  The  position  of  the  altar,  the  painting  of  win- 
 dows, and  the  other  sjmibolical  creations  have  sprung  largely 
 from  this  same  consideration.  But,  what  is  more  to  the  point  of 
 our  subject,  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the  liturgy  over  church 
 music.  If  we  step  back  again  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  we 
 will  find  that  the  music  is  principally  vocal,  sustained  and  accom- 
 panied by  instruments  such  as  the  harp,  psaltery,  horn,  trumpet 
 and  cornet.  Undoubtedly,  the  sweet  singer  of  Israel  in  providing 
 for  the  courses  of  priests  to  take  charge  of  the  temple  worship, 
 made  ample  provision  for  the  musical  portion  of  that  worship. 
 Music  that  would  be  adapted  especially  for  the  services  of  the 
 temple  to  set  forth  the  glory  and  honor  of  God.  In  the  number 
 of  instruments,  in  the  multitude  of  singers  we  see  the  indications 
 of  this  elaborate  musical  arrangement.  When  we  enter  the 
 Christian  era  we  do  not  have  this  elaborate  ritual,  but  it  would 
 be  most  natural  for  us  to  think  of  the  Christians  as  appropriating 
 some  of  the  temple  music.  And,  in  that  age  of  purity  we  would 
 expect  the  thoughts  of  their  hymns  and  spiritual  songs  to  influ- 
 ence and  modify  their  musical  settings.  A  large  repertoire  of 
 music  the}^  undoubtedly  did  not  have,  but  what  they  did  have  we 
 would  expect  to  be  marked  by  chasteness  and  simplicity.  In  the 
 quickly  succeeding  centuries  we  have  seen  the  growth  of  the  lit- 
 urgy and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  its  musical  accompani- 
 ment did  not  lag  far  behind.  When  we  come  to  clearer  historical 
 light  we  learn  that  music  had  become  a  very  necessary  part  of 
 worship  and  special  efforts  were  made  to  properly  render  it  by 
 establishing  schools  for  singers  whose  spheres  of  activity  were 
 
52  MEMOIRS. 
 
 within  the  church.  At  about  the  same  time,  and  perhaps  result- 
 ing from  the  special  interest  awakened  in  the  subject,  the  ecclesi- 
 astical modes  were  established.  These  modes,  ascribed  partly  to 
 Gregory  the  Great  and  partly  to  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  are 
 the  links  uniting  ancient  and  modern  music.  The  modes  were, 
 without  doubt,  influenced  by  the  liturgy.  They  seem  to  have 
 been  the  special  propert}^  of  the  church  as  they  are  to  this  day. 
 Their  u.se  was  to  render  vocal  and  more  impressive  the  subject 
 matter  of  the  liturgy.  From  this  we  readily  infer  that  music  was 
 not  the  dominating  power  but  rather  the  liturgy,  and  that  music 
 was  the  obedient  servant  of  a  most  worthy  mistress,  seeking  to 
 serve  her  to  the  best  of  its  ability.  This  truth  we  see  again  ex- 
 emplified in  the  productions  of  the  classic  period  of  figurated 
 church  music.  When  music  had  sunk  so  low  as  to  give  cause  for 
 serious  consideration  of  its  abandonment  in  connection  with  the 
 liturgy,  Palestrina  arose,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  liturgy-, 
 wdiich  threw  its  influence  about  him  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
 thoroughly  permeate  his  works  by  its  devotion.  "This  was 
 the  commencement  of  a  revolution  in  sacred  music,  which  by 
 his  influence  became  .simple,  thoughtful,  aspiring,  sincere  and 
 noble  but  destitute  of  passion  and  tenderness.  The  most  spiritual 
 of  all  arts  it  raised  the  heart  into  immediate  communion  with  the 
 Infinite  ...  it  found  opportunity'  to  express  and  to  elevate  by 
 its  various  combinations  of  sounds  ever}'  kind  of  Christian  feel- 
 ing." Hence  a  proper  understanding  of  the  liturgy  is  essential 
 to  the  proper  and  full  understanding  of  church  music. 
 
 Such  liturgical  knowledge  proves  its  value  when  organists 
 seek  to  express  the  liturgy  in  the  best  way  possible.  Music,  be 
 it  remembered,  is  the  most  acceptable  and  effective  means  by 
 which  to  obtain  this  end.  For  "a  fer\'ent  spirit  of  devotion  in- 
 .stinctively  seeks  to  express  itself  in  song.  On  the  strains  of 
 poetr}',"  or  prose,  "joined  with  nuisic  it  finds  an  easy  and 
 natural  utterance  of  its  elevated  emotions."  This  leads  us  to  the 
 thought  of  the  purpose  of  music  in  the  church.  In  the  liturgy 
 we  render  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving  and 
 receive  the  ministrations  of  the  Word  and  Sacraments.  The  mu- 
 sic of  the  liturgy  should  be  expressive  of  the  .same  emotions  which 
 are  expressed  in  the  liturgy  itself.  Such  music  should  be  able  to 
 express  devotion,  a  devotion  which  reaches  the  heart  of  the  be- 
 liever and  stirs  it   with    the  th()U<'ht   of  Ciod.      It  should  be  ex- 
 
THE  ^AI,TD:E   of   LITURGICAl.  STUDY   FOR   ORGANISTS.         53 
 
 pressive  of  praise  wliicli  arouses  the  soul  to  honor  God.  Its 
 nninistrations  should  deepen  the  impression  of  prayer.  And  in 
 thanksgiving  it  should  find  no  difiiculty  in  rendering  vocal  the 
 ■Dutponrings  of  the  appreciative  heart.  Whatever  the  liturgy  de- 
 >mands  that  is  the  pro\'ince  of  church  music  to  express.  If  the 
 piercing  sorrows  of  Good  Friday  encompass  us,  to  this  the  music 
 is  to  adapt  its  cr}^;  but  if  the  joys  of  Easter  strive  for  expression 
 then  shall  the  music  break  forth  in  joyful  tones.  Thus  church 
 .music  must  first  of  all  express  the  varying  changes  of  the  liturgy 
 and  in  such  a  way  that  the  thought  of  the  liturgy  is  exalted  and 
 not  the  music  alone  as  such.  Such  music  must  as  well  fill  the 
 requirements  of  devotion  for  its  very  purpose  is  to  enhance,  not 
 to  detract  from  the  spirit  of  worship.  In  this  connection  we  are 
 reminded  of  Augustine's  definition  of  a  hymn.  "Know  ye  what 
 a  hymn  is?  It  is  a  song  with  praise  of  God.  If  thou  praisest 
 God  and  singest  not,  thou  utterest  no  hjnnn;  if  thou  singest  and 
 praisest  not  God,  thou  utterest  no  hymn;  if  thou  praisest  aught 
 else  which  pertaineth  not  to  the  praise  of  God,  although  thou 
 singest  and  praisest,  thou  utterest  no  hymn.  An  hymn,  then, 
 containeth  these  three  things,  song,  and  praise,  and  that  of  God." 
 And  thus  does  the  proper  expression  of  the  liturgy  contain  these 
 three  things,  song,  and  praise,  and  that  of  God. 
 
 The  rigid  requirements  of  devotional  propriety  will  not  re- 
 lieve the  organist  from  liturgical  inquiry,  but  will  rather  enhance 
 the  necessity  for  such  investigation.  For  only  thus  will  he  be  in 
 a  position  to  make  such  a  selection  of  music  as  will  meet  the  re* 
 quirements.  By  his  researches  he  will  find  that  liturgy  and  mu- 
 sic have  long  been  wedded,  and  in  worship  one  is  scarcely  complete 
 without  the  other.  He  will  find  what  he  may  deem  a  peculiar 
 kind  of  music  but  which  has  been  in  the  sole  possession  and  use 
 of  the  church — music,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  has  responded  to 
 the  strong  influence  of  the  liturgy  and  thus  is  eminently  fitted  to 
 express  all  the  liturgy's  varying  moods.  To  this  source  he  will 
 turn  for  his  choicest  settings  of  the  liturgy,  settings  marked  by 
 simplicit3^,  yet  capable  of  utmost  grandeur. 
 
 The  worshipful  spirit  should  as  well  be  present  in  the  hymn 
 tunes,  so  that  here  the  organist's  liturgical  animus  renders  valua- 
 ble aid.  The  tunes  will  thus  be  adapted  to  the  thought  of  the 
 hymn  and  will  be  selected  from  the  very  best  sources  made  avail- 
 able by  research.     The  major  mode  will  not  be  made  to  express 
 
54  MEMOIRS. 
 
 that  for  which  it  is  not  intended,  but  will  be  ably  seconded  by  its 
 sister,  the  minor  mode  whose  plaintive  strains  will  give  voice  to 
 our  feelings  of  penitence  and  sorrow.  Neither  will  the  one  and 
 same  tune  be  made  to  do  an  endless  multitude  of  tasks,  now  tripping 
 along  gladly,  again  suddenly  assuming  a  dignified,  sober  counte- 
 nance, then  presumptuously  called  upon  to  wail  forth  in  a  funeral 
 dirge,  and  in  the  next  attempt  rebounding  to  the  first  extreme  of 
 joy.  Nor  do  we  advocate  an  endless  number  of  tunes,  but  at 
 least  one  for  the  distinctive  character  of  classes  of  hymns,  suited 
 to  properly  express  that  distinctive  character.  In  the  selection 
 of  responsories  and  anthems  the  same  judicious  care  will  be  exer- 
 cised by  the  organist  who  is  liturgically  instructed  and  he  will 
 allow  nothing  to  find  place  which  does  not  add  to  the  devotional 
 plan  of  that  particular  service. 
 
 In  his  individual  work  upon  the  organ  in  prelude,  interlude 
 or  postlude  the  same  rule  will  confine  him  within  the  bounds  of 
 the  proprieties  of  the  worship  of  the  Eternal  One.  Where  there 
 is  a  proper  liturgical  spirit  on  his  part  we  will  .scarcely  be  called 
 upon  to  listen  to  one  of  Rossini's  overtures  as  an  accompaniment 
 to  worship,  a  selection  from  some  symphony,  an  adaptation 
 from  Cavaleria.  Rusticana,  or,  as  is  frequentl)'  the  case,  to  find 
 Wagner  doing  service  through  the  medium  of  one  of  his  operas 
 which  can  scarcely  be  said  to  revel  in  a  worshipful  spirit.  Quiet- 
 ly the  music  transports  you  from  your  pew  to  a  large  building 
 filled  with  Grand  Opera  enthusiasts.  You  hear  their  comments 
 on  the  singers,  the  orchestra,  the  managers,  the  unfortiniate 
 neighbor  who  has  excited  their  curiosity  or  ire.  A  prelude  is 
 being  played,  50U  enjoy  it,  yet  you  are  waiting  patiently  for  the 
 curtain  to  rise.  The  closing  cadences  fall  upon  your  ears.  Your 
 eyes  seek  the  stage.  But — what  meaneth  that  dark-rol)ed  figure, 
 — Ah!  it  is  the  pastor  and  you  are  returned  rather  hurriedly,  un- 
 decorously,  and  a  trifle  shamefacedly  to  your  pew,  to  find  the 
 scattered  threads  of  worship  as  you  may. — Or  perchance  a  living 
 scene  is  conjured  up  before  you,  and  you  behold  Lohengrin  and 
 his  promised  bride  slowh'  moving  along  to  the  entrancing  strains 
 of  music.  You  are  ready  to  offer  your  congratulations. — But 
 something  has  gone  wrong,  the  mu.sic  stops,  the  delusion  vanish- 
 es.— The  deacons  have  with  becoming  dignity  collected  the  offer- 
 ings of  the  congregation,  and  the  organist  has  steadily  marched 
 them  along  to  the  strains  of  the  Bridal  chorus  from  Lohengrin. 
 
THB   VAI^TXE    OF    LITURGICAIv   STUDY   FOR    ORGANISTS.  55 
 
 Bnoitgh  is  said  to  indicate  the  absurdity  of  such  situations,  which 
 would  scarcely  be  brought  to  pass  by  an  organist  who  had  been 
 liturgically  trained. 
 
 We,  however,  of  this  age  are  not  alone  in  having  suffered 
 from  the  perv^ersion  of  church  music  for  even  in  the  early  cen- 
 turies debasing  influences  were  soon  at  work.  We  quote  a  pas- 
 sage dealing  with  that  period  as  being  not  inapplicable  to  our 
 own  times,  "It  must  have  already  become  a  matter  of  complaint, 
 however,  as  well  in  the  Western  as  in  the  Greek  Church,  that 
 the  ecclesiastical  music  had  taken  too  artificial  and  theatrical  a 
 direction,  and  departed  from  its  ancient  simplicity;  for  we  find 
 the  Egyptian  abbot  Pambo,  in  the  fourth  century,  inveighing 
 against  the  introduction  of  heathen  melodies  into  the  church 
 psalmod3\  'The  monks,'  says  he,  'have  not  retired  into  the  des- 
 ert to  sing  beautiful  melodies,  and  move  hands  and  feet;'  and  the 
 abbot  Isidore  of  Pelusium  complaining  of  the  theatrical  style  of 
 singing,  particularly  among  the  women,  which  instead  of  exciting 
 emotions  of  penitence,  served  rather  to  awaken  sinful  passions; 
 and  Jerome  in  remarking  on  the  words  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in 
 Eph.  5:  19,  says,  'Eet  our  youlhs  hear  this;  let  those  hear  it 
 whose  office  it  is  to  sing  in  the  church.  Not  with  the  voice,  but 
 with  the  heart  must  we  make  melody  to  the  Eord.  We  are  not 
 like  comedians,  to  smooth  the  throat  with  sweet  drinks,  in  order 
 that  we  may  hear  theatrical  songs  and  melodies  in  the  church; 
 but  the  fear  of  God,  piety,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  Scripture 
 should  inspire  our  songs;  so  that  not  the  voice  of  the  singer,  but 
 the  divine  matter  expressed,  may  be  the  point  of  attraction;  so 
 that  the  evil  spirit  which  entered  into  the  heart  of  a  Saul  may  be 
 expelled  from  those  who  are  in  like  manner  possessed  by  him, 
 rather  than  invited  by  those  who  would  turn  the  house  of  God 
 into  a  heathen  theatre." 
 
 Upon  the  proper  rendition  of  even  the  best  of  music  depends 
 largely  its  effect.  We  recall  the  story  related  of  the  world  re- 
 nowned Miserere  as  sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome.  A  copy 
 of  this  famous  music  was  at  one  time  sent  to  a  specially  favored 
 church,  but  the  attempt  to  render  it  was  so  disastrous  that  ac- 
 cusations were  made  that  the  copy  was  not  an  authentic  one. 
 The  cause,  however,  of  its  failure  was  finally  located  in  the  man- 
 ner of  rendition.  Thus  the  entire  musical  part  of  public  worship 
 depends  very  much  on  the  manner  of  rendition  for  its  proper  ef- 
 
56  MEMOIRS, 
 
 feet  atid  for  this  the  organist  is  held  responsible.  Here  aj^afi? 
 ap])ears  the  value  of  his  ]itur;<ical  study  coiipled  with  his  nuisica} 
 knowledge  in  properly  adjusting  the  forces  of  the  organ  and  clioir 
 to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  situation.  And  if  he  is  wise,  he 
 will  endeavor  to  inspire  his  choir  with  the  same  general  liturgical 
 spirit  in  order  that  they  may  co-operate  with  and  not  unknow- 
 ingly oppose  him, 
 
 A  further  value  to  the  organist  of  consistent  and  constant 
 litiu'gical  study,  is  that  it  gives  to  him  a  proper  appreciation  of 
 the  dignity  and  power  vested  in  his  position.  Not  that  the  indi- 
 \-idual  is  to  liecome  puffed  up  in  his  own  conceit,  rather  that  his 
 attitude  should  be  one  of  humility.  He  is  the  leader  of  the  con- 
 gregational nmsical  and  liturgical  life  and  may,  hi  a  large  degree, 
 form  a.  proper  spirit  of  worship.  But  he  first  of  all  should  be  a 
 devout  worshiper  or  how  can  he  properly  form  the  worship  of 
 others.  "Can  the  blind  lead  the  blind?  Shall  they  not  both  fall 
 into  the  ditch?" — Having  imderstood  the  responsfljility  of  his 
 position,  the  organist  should  earnestly  seek  the  knowledge  neces- 
 sary to  the  proper  discharge  of  his  duties.  This  will  give  him 
 a  correct  spirit  of  wor.ship  and  will  give  him  the  power  to  proper- 
 ly express  the  same.  A  spirit  of  worship,  however,  which  is  not 
 that  of  the  individual  but  the  "geist"  of  the  church  body,  whose 
 animating  spirit  he  seeks  to  express.  His  ministration  will  not 
 then  be  riiled  by  caprice  but  a  masterful  hand  will  rest  upon  the 
 helm  to  guide  the  ship  into  the  peaceful  waters  of  devotion.  No 
 longer  \\i\\  he  be  imbued  with  the  idea  simply  to  entertain,  even 
 if  the  less  enlightened  would  thus  be  pleased.  He  will  rather 
 elevate  them  than  pamper  to  a  taste  vitiated  by  muvholesome 
 food.  His  study  will  give  him  the  necessar}'  command  of  re- 
 sources which  will  enable  him  the  better  to  meet  the  obligations 
 of  his  position.  The.se  .sources  are  not  all  at  luuul  but  are  coming 
 to  the  light.  The  progress  may  be  slow  on  account  of  the  less 
 studious  and  more  effeminate  influences  which  are  all  about  us, 
 but  we  bespeak  success  and  a  return  to  a  robust,  healthful  spirit 
 of  worship. 
 
 To  the  church  one  of  the  greatest  reasons  for  thankfulness 
 will  be  the  homogeneity  of  the  service  as  a  result  of  liturgical 
 study  among  organists.  No  longer  then  will  the  organist  be  go- 
 ing in  one  direction,  the  pastor  in  another  and  the  congregation, 
 perhaps,  in  still  another,  but  there  will  be  luiity  of  aim  and  pur- 
 
THE   VALUE   OF    LITURGICAL   STUDY    FOR   ORGANISTS.  5/ 
 
 pose.  The  opening  part  of  the  service  will  be  a  gradual  unfold- 
 ing of  spiritual  worship  until  it  reaches  the  climax,  then  gradual- 
 ly subsiding  receives  the  word  of  peace.  The  Sermon  will  thus 
 reach  the  hearts  of  the  people  who  have  been  prepared  to  receive 
 it,  and  its  effect  will  not  be  nullified  by  the  vagaries  of  an  organ- 
 ist who  is  unable  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  his  position.  The 
 thematic  arrangement  of  the  changeable  portions  of  the  services 
 will  not  remain  a  matter  of  theory  but  will  be  reduced  to  prac- 
 tice. The  liturgical  beauty  and  consistencj^  we  have,  but  many 
 musical  excrescences  and  outrages  are  with  us.  The  remedy  lies 
 largely  with  organists  who  have  proper  liturgical  taste  and  feel- 
 ing. Then  their  endeavor  will  be  to  give  proper  expression  to 
 every  part  of  the  liturgy  and  the  much  desired  result  will  be  uni- 
 ty and  homogeneity  of  the  services,  liturgically  and  musically. 
 
 The  advantage  to  the  congregation  can  not  help  but  be 
 marked  where  served  by  such  a  consistent  combination  of  forces. 
 It  will  be  as  a  strong  lever  uplifting  the  devotions  of  the  people, 
 while  where  this  is  not  the  case  the  lever  is  unable  to  sustain  the 
 weight  and  when  it  breaks  returns  the  participants  to  their  ordi- 
 nary level.  The  heart  of  man  seeks  to  be  elevated  to  the  proper 
 plane  of  divine  worship,  and  the  higher  that  plane  is,  so  is  the 
 greatness  of  his  spiritual  enjoyment.  All  matters,  not  leading  to 
 that  end  or  distracting  the  attention,  are  out  of  place.  Man's 
 sense  of  worship  should  be  increased  not  diminished,  and  that 
 sense  should  not  be  simply  sentiment  but  a  true  relation  to  God, 
 truly  expressed  in  a  true  spirit  of  worship.  The  result  will  be  a 
 positive,  beautiful,  uplifting  sense  of  the  spirit  and  privilege  of 
 worship,  which  is  to  commune  with  God  as  becometh  the  sons  of 
 God.  Hence  the  value  of  liturgical  study  for  organists  that,  hav- 
 ing obtained  a  proper  comprehension  of  the  subject,  they  may 
 give  an  adequate  and  soulful  expression  to  the  spirit  of  true  wor- 
 ship as  incorporated  in' our  liturgy, — that  God  may  be  honored  in 
 the  hearts  of  men. 
 
 GOMER    C.   Rees. 
 Chestnut   HilL    Pa. 
 
A   GENERAL  SURVEY 
 OF   THE   BOOK   OF   COMMON    PRAYER. 
 
 I^iTURGiCAL  orders  are  as  truly  confessional  as  properly  desig- 
 nated and  regularly  received  confessions  of  faith.  The  Liturgy  is 
 the  expression  of  the  faith.  It  is  the  creed  translated  into  terms 
 of  worship.  The  relation  between  confession  and  Eiturgy,  how- 
 ever, is  far  closer  and  more  intimate  than  that  of  cause  and  effect. 
 The  Service,  it  is  true,  grows  out  of  the  confession  but  the  long- 
 ing of  the  heart  after  God  and  its  crying  out  in  prayer  and  praise 
 and  thanksgiving  for  the  living  God,  resting  its  plea  on  His  sure 
 promises,  certainly  precede  the  formal  expression  of  that  belief  in 
 carefully-defined,  logically-distributed  terms  and  phrases  consti- 
 tuting an  ecclesiastical  symbol.  The  heart's  worship  is  simulta- 
 neous with  the  heart's  faith.  Just  as  the  child  lisps  its  prayers 
 long  before  it  realizes  their  meaning,  so  by  sacrament  and  prayer 
 and  Christian  fellowship  did  the  Apostolic  Church  express  its  de- 
 votion to  the  risen  Eord  many  years  before  the  completion  of  its 
 first  formal  confession. 
 
 These  facts  of  Christian  experience  in  no  wise  depreciate  the 
 value  of  ecclesiastical  symbols.  They  simply  bring  vividly  before 
 our  minds  the  truth  that  the  heart's  faith  expressed  in  worship  is 
 its  earliest  confessional  act  and  that  in  the  growth  of  this  faith 
 and  its  constantly-increasing  appropriation  of  revealed  truth  lies 
 the  beginning  of  the  later  scientific  statement  in  the  confession  of 
 faith.  The  symbol  is  the  product  of  a  historic  crisis,  laying  hold 
 upon  the  strength  of  the  past  in  order  to  meet  the  dangers  of  the 
 present,  and  in  its  determination  no  thoughtful  student  will  deny 
 that  the  Service,  the  expression  of  the  common  creed,  has  a  recog- 
 nized value.  Many  features  of  the  Eiturgy,  especially  the  mys- 
 tery surrounding  the  celebration  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar 
 resulting  from  the  highl5^-developed  sacerdotal  doctrine,  prepared 
 
 (lix) 
 
60  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  way  for  the  formulation  of  the  dogma  of  transubstantiation. 
 Reverence  for  the  saints  and  the  Virgin  Mary;  the  constant  repe- 
 tition of  their  names  in  the  hearing  of  the  people;  the  legends  of 
 miracles  which  soon  grew  up  about  their  persons  and  appealed 
 especially  to  the  credulous;  the  chivalry  of  mediaeval  knight- 
 hood and  the  poetry  and  romance  gathered  about  the  crusades; 
 the  hero-worship  natural  to  every  age  but  appealing  with  the 
 greatest  power  to  the  childlike  imagination  of  pre-Reformation 
 times;  and,  above  all,  the  almost  total  lack  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 in  their  entirety  in  available  popular  form — how  blessed  the  frag- 
 ments in  the  pericopes,  the  very  saving  salt  in  the  body  of  cor- 
 ruption ! — all  of  these  indicated  the  widespi'ead  belief  in  the  invo- 
 cation and  the  intercession  of  the  saints  and  the  clemency  and 
 protection  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary  hundreds  of  years  before 
 the  ecclesiastical  promulgation  of  these  facts  as  dogmas.  A  num- 
 ber of  the  Lutheran  Orders,  including  Luther's  own  liturgical  re- 
 forms, preceded  the  Augsburg  Confession  just  as  later  the  First 
 Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  anticipated  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 
 
 The  above  facts  not  only  emphasize  the  close  connection  be- 
 tween Liturgy  and  confession  but  also  illustrate  the  truth  that  the 
 attitude  and  spirit  and  life  of  a  Church  as  expressed  in  its  Ser\-ices 
 may  dilTer  widelj^  from  the  statements  of  its  received  confession. 
 The  Thirty-nine  Articles  are  far  less  the  symbol  of  the  Anglican 
 communion  in  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and  other  parts 
 of  the  world  to-day  than  is  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  "The 
 glor>'  of  the  English  Church,"  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  is 
 still  loved,  quoted,  referred  to  and  used  both  in  public  and  in  pri- 
 vate by  probably  a  larger  number  of  Protestant  Christians  than 
 any  other  post- Reformation  work  of  devotion.  This  is  not  an 
 extravagant  statement  when  we  remember  that  the  thirt)'  million 
 adherents  claimed  by  the  Anglican  Church  tliroughout  the  world 
 use  no  other  services  and  acknowledge  in  life  and  practice  no 
 other  standard  differentiating  them  from  other  Chri.stians  than 
 this  book,  sanctified  by  the  love,  the  faith,  the  prayers,  the  holy 
 lives,  of  true  believers  during  the  past  three  centuries  and  a  half. 
 
 Whence  does  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  derive  its  power  ? 
 Wherein  lies  its  widespread  and  constantly-increasing  influence  ? 
 Various  answers  may  be  given  the.se  questions,  but  passing  by  all 
 other  points  of  view,  we  believe  that  its  power  lies  in  these  three 
 facts;  its  large  infusion  of  Scriptural  material,  its  general  haruio- 
 
A  GENKRAL  SURVKY  OF  THK  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   61 
 
 ny  with  the  ancient  liturgies  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  its  sin- 
 gular adaptability  to  various  theological  teachings.  The  first  of 
 these  facts  any  one  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  the  Book  will 
 at  once  acknowledge,  for  the  pericopes,  the  Psalter  and  much  of 
 the  other  liturgical  material  are  of  cou'rse  taken  directly  from  the 
 Holy  Scripttires.  The  discussion  of  the  second  will  take  up  a 
 large  part  of  the  present  paper,  but  the  third  is  the  unique  fact. 
 In  regard  to  the  first  two  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  does  not 
 stand  alone.  The  lyUtheran  orders  have  always  had  that  which 
 is  of  the  very  essence  of  the  true  lyitiu'gy,  a  large  infusion  of  Holy 
 Scripture,  and  our  Service,  we  are  abundantly  justified  in  believ- 
 ing, expresses  the  pure  worship  of  the  Church  of  Christ  from  the 
 very  earliest  ages.  As  to  the  marvelous  adaptability  of  the  Book, 
 its  doctrinal  elasticity,  so  to  speak,  we  need  hardly  do  more  than 
 observe  that  it  is  the  common  platform  of  Churchmen,  High  and 
 Broad  and  Low,  so  little  stress  is  laid  on  doctrine  in  comparison 
 with  the  imperative  requirement  of  liturgical  uniformity.  This 
 has  always  been  the  most  marked  characteristic,  we  may  almost 
 say  the  genius  of  the  English  Church. 
 
 To  the  truth  and  fairness  of  this  characterization  the  West- 
 minster Assembly,  with  its  logically-elaborated  Confession,  its 
 Ivarger  and  Shorter  Catechism  and  greatly  simplified  Directory  of 
 Worship,  eloquently  testifies.  Those  Presbyterian  divines,  gath- 
 ered in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber,  realized  from  their  own  experi- 
 ence the  doctrinal  indefiniteness  and  unsatisfactoriness  of  the 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  presented  to  the  Assembly  a  confes- 
 sion so  positive  and  decided  as  hardly  to  be  capable  of  misunder- 
 standing, still  worthy  of  respect  and  to-day  the  subject  of  much 
 controversy  and  theological  debate.  Because  of  the  externalism 
 of  eighteenth  century  religious  life  the  Wesleys  sought  to  enjoy 
 a  deeper  spiritual  experience  and  the  work  inaugurated  by  the 
 "Holy  Club"  at  Oxford  spread  with  amazing  rapidity  and  suc- 
 cess throughout  England  and  America.  A  century  later  the 
 Tractarian  Movement  started  from  Oxford  and  its  great  leaders, 
 Pusey  and  Newman  and  Keble,  endeavored  to  attain  not  only 
 greater  richness  and  fulness  in  the  Service  but  especially  a  surer 
 doctrinal  position  in  closer  harmony  with  patristic  teachings  and 
 as  far  as  possible,  removed  from  dependence  upon  the  Reforma- 
 tion. Had  the  Reformation  in  England  been  less  involved  in 
 political  meshes  and  more  surely  guided  by  the  Word  of  God  and 
 
62  MEMOIRS. 
 
 its  power  upon  the  individual  heart  and  life,  the  whole  subsequent 
 course  of  the  English  Church  would  probably  have  been  changed, 
 and  there  might  have  been  no  need  for  these  goings-out  of  thous- 
 ands of  her  noblest  children  from  her  sheltering  care. 
 
 The  theology  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  whatever  it  is, 
 and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  characterize  it,  is  the  theology  of 
 the  English  Church.  A  product  of  the  Reformation  era  as  the 
 Book  is,  showing  decided  Lutheran  as  well  as  Calvinistic  influ- 
 ences, there  is  much  of  the  old  Romanism  still  clinging  to  it,  good 
 in  so  far  as  it  harmonizes  with  the  Word  of  God  and  tends  to  pre- 
 serve unbroken  the  historic  continuity  of  the  Church  but  danger- 
 ous because  of  its  indefiniteness  and  capability  of  strange  and  al- 
 most unlimited  contortion.  Thus  the  teaching  of  prayers  for  the 
 dead,  of  an  intermediate  probationary  state  and  of  the  sacrifice  of 
 tlie  Mass  are  based  upon  or  perhaps  rather  read  into  certain  brief 
 and  somewhat  obscure  statements  of  the  Book  bj'  extreme  ritual- 
 ists who,  in  extenuation  of  their  methods,  lay  great  stress  upon 
 the  hypothetically  implicit  teachings  of  the  Book.  According  to 
 such  a  method  of  interpretation  a  book  may  mean  anything  and 
 everything  and  we  can  place  but  little  value  upon  the  doctrinal 
 position  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Stretched  to  acccom- 
 modate  ultra-Romanistic  teaching  as  well  as  the  preaching  of  a 
 religion  sometimes  little  more  than  ethical  and  idealistic,  the  sig- 
 nificance and  power  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  to-day  lie  in 
 its  sterling  devotional  worth.  That  it  echoes  the  very  words  of 
 Holy  Scripture  and  confesses  in  the  ancient  oecumenical  creeds 
 the  incarnate,  atoning,  risen,  glorified  Jesus  as  the  Lord,  the 
 Christ  of  God,  these  after  all  are  the  forces  that  have  made  it 
 quick  and  powerful  and  salutary  to  loving,  trusting,  hopeful 
 souls,  age  after  age  bearing  their  devotions  Heavenward  to  the 
 throne  of  grace  and  bringing  them  help  from  tlie  mercy-seat. 
 
 Just  as  varied  as  are  the  views  concerning  the  doctrinal  teach- 
 ings of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  are  the  explanations  and  ap- 
 plications of  its  liturgical  rubrics.  Congregations  of  the  Low 
 Church  type,  w'hich  usually  celebrate  the  Holy  Communion  at 
 least  twice  a  month  and  on  festival  days,  generally  combine  three 
 distinct  services  into  one  on  the  morning  of  the  Lord's  Day,  thus 
 making  the  so-called  "long  Service  of  the  Episcopal  Church," 
 against  which  we  hear  so  many  complaints.  Beginning  with 
 Morning  Praj'er,  often  with  an  elaborate  musical  setting  to  the 
 
A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   63 
 
 Te  Deuvt  and  on  festival  days  to  the  Venite,  the  Psalter  and  the 
 Benedidus  also,  after  the  collects  de  tempore^  for  peace  and  for 
 grace,  instead  of  concluding  Morning  Prayer,  the  Service  continues 
 with  the  Litany — itself  a  distinct  order — and  then  effects  the 
 transition  to  the  Communion  by  the  singing  of  a  hymn.  If  the 
 Holy  Eucharist  be  celebrated,  all  except  those  who  desire  to  re- 
 ceive the  sacrament  are  dismissed  after  the  prayer  "for  the  whole 
 state  of  Christ's  Church  Militant." 
 
 In  ritualistic  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  so  strange  a  litur- 
 gical Service  is  not  met  with.  Morning  Prayer  is  always  kept 
 distinct  from  the  numerous  celebrations  of  the  Holy  Communion 
 and  the  Litany  is  not  used  just  before  the  Divine  Office.  In 
 churches  of  this  type  many  additions  are  made  to  the  Services 
 and  the  rubrics  are  strangely  twisted  in  justification  of  the  inno- 
 vations. By  this  process  candles,  vestments,  incense,  processions, 
 the  stations  of  the  Cross,  private  Confession  and  Absolution, 
 Lady-chapels  and  altars  to  the  Virgin,  the  teaching  of  the  seven 
 sacraments,  prayers  for  the  dead,  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the 
 reservation  of  the  sacrament  for  the  sick,  extreme  sacerdotalism 
 and  various  other  features  abhorrent  to  the  perhaps  ultra-Prot- 
 estant sense  of  Low  Churchmen  are  declared  right  and  proper. 
 Many  of  them  are  covered  b}'  the  frequently-quoted  "vestments' 
 rubric,"  not  found  in  the  American  Book  but  repeated  in  the  va- 
 rious editions  of  the  English  Book  from  that  of  1559  to  the  last 
 revision  of  the  Book  in  1661  and  printed  in  a  prominent  place  in 
 the  Prayer  Book  of  to-day.  This  rubric  reads:  "And  here  is  to 
 be  noted  that  such  ornaments  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Ministers 
 thereof,  at  all  times  of  their  ministrations,  shall  be  retained  and 
 be  in  use  as  were  in  this  Church  of  England  by  the  authority  of 
 Parliament  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  VI." 
 No  rubric,  probably,  has  ever  aroused  so  much  discussion  and 
 certainly  no  liturgical  system  so  elaborate  as  that  of  the  High 
 Church  party  ever  rested  to  so  great  an  extent  on  the  basis  of  a 
 more  slender  fabric. 
 
 In  his  excellent  book,  "The  Lutheran  Movement  in  Eng- 
 land," Dr.  Jacobs  refers  to  the  mistaken  conception  that  there 
 was  a  general  uniformity  of  worship  in  the  Western  Church  prior 
 to  the  Reformation.  The  miiformity  in  the  Roman  Church  to- 
 day is  in  large  measure  due  to  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
 In  England  just  as  in  Germany  before  the  Reformation  various 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 dioceses  had  their  own  orders,  the  most  prominent  of  which  and 
 the  one  most  frequently  referred  to  was  the  Missal  according  to 
 the  use  of  Salisbury  (the  "Sarum  Use").  Upon  the  ancient  sac- 
 ramentaries,  the  Leonian,  the  Gelasian  and  the  Gregorian,  as  well 
 as  upon  the  numerous  local  modifications  or  "uses"  of  those  old 
 orders,  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  in  England  like  the  Church 
 on  the  continent  had  to  base  its  revision  of  the  ser^-ices.  Many 
 liturgiologists  trace  the  orders  of  the  so-called  Gallican  group  to 
 which  the  British  uses  belonged,  back  to  the  Eastern  Church,  es- 
 peciall)'  to  Ephesus,  and  English  writers  are  very  fond  of  attrib- 
 uting as  much  as  possi])le  of  their  services  to  this  source  in  their 
 desire  constantly  to  affirm  the  greatest  possible  pre-Reformation 
 independence  of  the  see  of  Rome  on  the  part  of  the  British 
 Church. 
 
 Ver>'  little  was  done  by  way  of  purifying  the  ser\'ices  during 
 the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  always  a  good  Romanist  in  many  re- 
 spects. Only  the  Eitany,  purged  of  Roman  errors,  was  transla- 
 ted into  English  by  Archbishop  Cranmer  who  followed  Luther 
 very  closely,  jDrobably,  through  the  Reformation  of  Cologne  in 
 which  the  Litany  of  Luther  appeared.  But  from  the  very  begin- 
 ning of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  efforts  were  making  for  liturgic- 
 al reform  until  the  First  Prayer  Book,  which  bears  his  name,  ap- 
 peared in  1549.  This  Book  to  which  so  many  of  the  High  Church 
 party  both  in  England  and  in  our  own  country  long  to  return, 
 is  of  great  interest  because  of  the  Lutheran  origin  of  many  of  its 
 parts  and  its  close  adherence  to  the  ancient  liturgies.  It  retains 
 the  Introits  in  the  form  of  the  entire  Psalm  and  directs  that  the 
 .■1jr7ijis  Dei  be  sung  during  the  distribution  of  the  Holy  Conunun- 
 ion.  Its  other  chief  points  of  difference  from  the  present  Book 
 are  the  retention  of  the  Gloria  in  Exalsis  in  its  old  ]ilace  before 
 the  Epistle  and  the  position  of  the  Confession,  the  Absolution, 
 the  Comfortable  Words  and  the  Prayer  of  Humble  Access  after 
 the  Con.sccration  and  ju.st  before  the  distribution.  In  the  Second 
 Book  of  Edward  VI.  (  1552),  the  book  to  which  the  gravest  devi- 
 ations from  the  ancient  liturgical  standards  are  traceable,  the 
 Decalogue  was  introduced  into  the  Connniniion,  probably  be- 
 cause of  Calvinistic  influt-'uces,  the  Introits,  the  prayer  called  the 
 Oblation  and  the  .lofins  Dei  were  wholly  omitted;  and  the  Con- 
 fession, the  Absolution  and  the  Comfortable  Words  were  placed 
 before   the   Consecration.     One  of  the  strangest  and  most  unac- 
 
A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   65 
 
 countable  changes  was  that  of  placing  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  after 
 the  distribution,  a  change  wholly  without  liturgical  precedent  and 
 robbing  the  early  part  of  the  Service  of  one  of  its  most  beautiful 
 and  appropriate  features.  All  of  these  changes  were  followed  by 
 the  Prayer  Book  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (1559),  and  by  the  final  re- 
 vision of  the  Book  in  1662  and  are  incorporated  into  the  present 
 Book  in  England.  With  regard  to  the  points  enumerated  the 
 American  Book  differs  from  the  English  only  in  the  use  of  the  so- 
 called  Oblation  in  the  Communion,  following  the  Scottish  Book 
 which,  of  course,  is  based  on  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI. 
 
 The  orders  for  Matins  and  Vespers  in  the  First  Book  of  Ed- 
 ward VI.  were  almost  identical  with  the  old  Eutheran  Matins  and 
 Vespers  restored  in  the  Common  Service.  In  the  Second  Book 
 (1552)  the  General  Confession  and  Absolution  were  prefixed  to 
 Morning  Prayer  and  the  Sentences  at  the  beginning  were  ad- 
 ded both  to  Matins  and  Vespers.  The  Prayer  Book  of  Queen 
 Elizabeth  retained  these  forms  but  the  General  Confession  and 
 Absolution  were  not  prefixed  to  Evening  Prayer  until  1662.  The 
 Scottish  Book  of  1661  gives  the  old  Invitatories.  Writers  on  the 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer  always  speak  of  the  Sentences  as  sub- 
 stituted for  them.  The  present  INIorning  and  Evening  Prayer 
 follow  all  these  changes. 
 
 We  notice  then  that  the  Introits  are  entirely  lost  to  the  Book 
 of  Common  Prayer.  The  Invitatories,  Antiphons,  Responsories 
 and  Graduals  which,  like  the  Introit,  the  Collect  and  the  Eessons, 
 always  strike  the  keynote  of  the  church  festival,  never  found  any 
 place  in  the  Book  nor  was  the  Agnus  Dei  ever  restored  after  its 
 omission  from  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  America  the 
 Magnificat  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  which  the  English  Church  had 
 never  lost,  were  not  restored  to  Evensong  until  1892  when  the 
 Suffrages,  omitting  the  Miserere  and  a  number  of  the  Versicles, 
 were  again  added  to  Evening  Prayer.  They  were  first  inserted 
 in  the  daily  services  in  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  the 
 English  Book  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  used  on  Christmas  Day, 
 the  Epiphanj^  Easter  Day,  the  Ascension,  Whitsun  Day,  Trinity 
 Sunday  and  other  festivals. 
 
 Besides  showing  the  close  similarity  of  the  Holy  Communion 
 and  Matins  and  Vespers  in  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI.  to  cor- 
 responding German  orders.  Dr.  Jacobs  traces  the  connection  be- 
 tween the  forms  for  Confirmation,  Marriage,  the  Visitation  of  the 
 
66  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Sick  and  the  Burial  of  the  Dead  and  previously-published  Luther- 
 an orders.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  paj^er  to  take  up 
 these  services  but  the  writer  desires  to  call  attention  to  the  indis- 
 putable facts  which  Dr.  Jacobs  has  so  admirably  presented,  be- 
 cause they  are  usually  either  altogether  overlooked  or  else  very 
 unfairly  stated  by  writers  of  repute  on  the  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer.  Dr.  Blunt,  for  example,  in  his  exhaustive  and  very  in- 
 teresting Commentary,  never  seems  able  to  speak  kindly  or  even 
 fairly  of  the  vast  German  liturgical  development  in  the  sixteenth 
 centur>^  and  whenever  at  a  loss  how  to  explain  either  what  is  of 
 Lutheran  origin  or  what  is  practically  an  innovation  in  the  Book 
 as  the  result  of  Calvinistic  influences,  always  finds  the  Sarum 
 Use  very  convenient  as  a  last  resource.  In  that  spirit  and  with 
 so  unscientific  a  method  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  suggestions  of 
 almost  anything  almost  anywhere  and  to  imagine  adaptations 
 wherever  such  suit  convenient  hypotheses  and  pleasing  preju- 
 dices. 
 
 The  orders  for  the  Daily  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer  in  the 
 English  Book  differ  slightly  from  those  in  the  American  Book. 
 In  structure  both  services  are  similar  save  that  the  Vcnitc  pre- 
 cedes the  Psalter  in  Morning  Prayer.  The  General  Confession 
 and  the  Absolution  here,  just  as  in  the  Holy  Communion,  are 
 unliturgical  and  soxne  churches  are  going  back  to  the  old  usage 
 of  beginning  Evensong  at  least  with  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This 
 prayer  occurs  twice  in  the  services,  here  and  again  at  the  same 
 place  as  in  the  Lutheran  orders,  before  the  collects  at  the  close. 
 The  versicle  Dcus  in  adjutorium  follows  the  Doviinc  labia  mea. 
 A  canticle  follows  each  of  the  lessons.  Only  the  Apostle's  Creed 
 is  used  but  for  certain  festivals  the  Athanasian  Creed  is  pre- 
 scribed. Besides  the  Lord's  Prayer  the  Kyrie  and  the  Suffrages 
 precede  the  collects.  The  Morning  Prayer  of  the  First  and  Sec- 
 ond Books  of  Edward  \'I.,  of  the  present  English  Book  and  of 
 the  American  Book  is  exhibited  by  the  side  of  our  own  Matins  in 
 the  P'irst  Table  at  the  close  of  this  article. 
 
 The  Holy  Communion  in  the  present  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  begins  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  incomparable  Col- 
 lect for  Purity,  the  one  the  divinest  of  prayers,  the  other  in  its 
 form,  its  contents,  its  spirit,  as  nearly  perfect  as  any  prayer  of 
 man  can  ever  be.  These  were  originally  the  private  prayers  of 
 the  priest  in  the  sacristy  or  before  approaching  the  altar  to  offer 
 
A  GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   67 
 
 incense  at  the  Introit.  Can  any  other  prayers  more  appropriate 
 and  more  helpful  be  suggested  to  our  own  ministers  to-day  ? 
 
 The  use  of  the  Decalogue  or  our  Lord's  Summary  of  the 
 Law,  of  which  only  the  former  is  found  in  the  English  Book,  and 
 the  two  prayers  for  the  sovereign  are  wholly  unliturgical.  The 
 Kyrie  is  broken  up  into  ten  responses,  one  after  each  of  the  Com- 
 mandments. In  the  American  Book  when  the  Summary  is  used, 
 the  simple  threefold  Kyrie  follows. 
 
 After  one  of  the  two  collects  for  King  Edward  VII.,  the 
 collect  de  tempore,  the  Epistle,  the  Gospel  with  the  Gloria  Tibi 
 after  its  announcement,  and  the  Nicene  Creed  follow  in  regular 
 order.  The  distinction  between  the  Epistle  and  the  Gospel  side 
 of  the  altar  is  observed  as  in  the  Roman  Church  and  the  people 
 always  stand  at  the  reading  of  the  Gospel.  The  announcements, 
 the  publication  of  the  Bans  of  Marriage  and  the  sermon  or  homi- 
 ly here  find  their  proper  place. 
 
 At  the  Offertory  the  minister  repeats  appropriate  sentences 
 and  places  the  offerings  of  the  congregation  upon  the  altar.  If 
 the  Holy  Communion  is  to  be  celebrated,  the  rubric  directs  the 
 minister  then  to  place  upon  the  altar  "so  much  Bread  and  Wine 
 as  he  shall  think  sufficient,"  after  which  he  offers  the  prayer  "for 
 the  whole  state  of  Christ's  Church  Militant."  Three  exhorta- 
 tions in  regard  to  approaching  the  Holy  Communion  are  given, 
 one  in  anticipation  of  the  Sacrament  with  notice  of  its  celebration, 
 another  in  case  of  the  people's  neglect  thereof,  and  the  third  to 
 be  used  at  the  time  of  the  celebration. 
 
 At  this  point  of  the  service  when  Morning  Prayer,  the  Lita- 
 ny and  the  sermon  have  immediately  preceded  and  the  congrega- 
 tion has  grown  wearied — as  people  so  easily  become  in  God's 
 house — many  leave  the  church  and  sometimes  onl}^  a  few  wor- 
 shippers remain  for  the  Communion.  This  annoying  distraction 
 is  not  customary  in  ritualistic  churches  even  though  only  a  few 
 persons  approach  the  altar. 
 
 The  preparation  for  the  Communion  in  the  call  to  confession, 
 the  General  Confession  and  the  Absolution  follow.  These  corre- 
 spond to  the  Lutheran  orders  of  Private  and  Public  Confession 
 and  Absolution  but,  like  the  Litany,  are  altogether  out  of  place 
 from  a  liturgical  point  of  view,  at  the  joyous  Eucharist  of  our 
 glorified  Lord.  With  the  exhortations  and  the  "Comfortable 
 Words"  (St.  Matthew  xi.   28;  St.  John  iii.  16;  I  St.  Timothy  i. 
 
68  MEMOIRS. 
 
 15;  I  St.  John  ii.  i)  these  forms  are  a  novelty  in  Hturgical  usage 
 and  were  adopted  from  the  Reformation  of  Cologne  in  the  First 
 Praj'cr  Book  of  Edward  VI.  Their  present  position  of  course 
 is  preferable  to  their  earlier  place  after  the  Consecration  and  the 
 Pax  Domini,  a  strange  liturgical  sequence. 
 
 Then  begins  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  Of  the  Preface  Dr. 
 Blunt  .says:  "It  is  found  almost  word  for  word  in  ever}-  known 
 liturgy  in  every  part  of  the  Catholic  Church  from  the  earliest 
 times  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  correct  tradition  which 
 a.s.signs  it  to  the  Apostolic  Age."  There  are  five  Proper  Prefaces, 
 for  Christmas,  Easter,  Ascension  Day,  Whitsun  Day  and  the 
 Feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Those  for  Christmas  and  Trinity 
 Sunday  differ  from  the  Lutheran  while  we  have  shortened  those 
 for  the  Ascension  and  Pentecost.  The  Easter  Preface  is  identi- 
 cal. The  Sa?ichis  immediately  follows  the  Preface.  It  omits  the 
 Benedidus  qtii  veyiit  in  Nomine  Domini  and  has  changed  the  Ho- 
 sanna  in  Excelsis  to  the  words,  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord  most 
 High,"  just  as  the  place  of  the  Hallelujah  in  the  daily  services  is 
 taken  by  the  words,  "Praise  ye  the  Lord,"  with  the  response, 
 "The  Lord's  Name  be  praised." 
 
 The  prayer  of  Humble  Access  beginning,  "We  do  not  pre- 
 sume to  come  to  this  Thy  Table,  O  merciful  Lord,  trusting  in  our 
 own  righteousness,"  very  beautifully  placed  just  before  the  dis- 
 tribution in  the  First  Book  of  Edward  VI.,  has  preceded  the  Con- 
 secration since  the  Second  Book  of  1552.  In  the  present  English 
 Book  the  Consecration  consists  of  a  prayer  and  the  use  of  the 
 Words  of  Institution  together  with  the  customary  manual  acts, 
 followed  immediately  by  the  distribution.  This  is  in  exact  cor- 
 respondence with  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.  In  the  First 
 Book  the  Prayer  for  the  Church  occurred  here  and  was  followed 
 by  a  commemoration  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary  and  the  saints,  a 
 prayer  for  the  departed  and  the  Consecration  in  which  the  Obla- 
 tion, the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Pax  Domini  as  well  as  the  Words 
 of  Institution  were  used.  The  American  Book  contains  the  Ob- 
 lation which  is  not  objectionable  and  the  Invocation  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost  before  the  distribution.  In  the  English  Book  the  Lord's 
 Prayer  and  the  Oblation  follow  the  distribution  and  the  service 
 closes  with  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  the  Blessing.  The  Thanks- 
 giving from  the  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Agenda  of  1533  is  found 
 in  both  books.     The  occasional  collects  to  be  used  after  the  Offer- 
 
A  GENERAI.  SURVEY  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.   69 
 
 tory  and  before  tlie  Blessing  when  there  is  no  Communion  are 
 well-known  and  require  no  comment. 
 
 The  Holy  Communion  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  not 
 a  unity.  It  is  marked  by  unwarranted  additions,  unjustifiable 
 omissions  and  unliturgical  changes.  Its  harmony  and  its  presen- 
 tation of  the  great  central  truth  of  redemption,  the  one,  all-suffi- 
 cient, prevailing  sacrifice  of  the  Incarnate  God,  and  its  direct 
 communication  of  redemptive  grace  in  the  m3^stery  of  the  Real 
 Presence  are  seriously  impaired  by  the  introduction  of  the  Deca- 
 logue, the  lengthy  Exhortation  and  the  Confession  just  before 
 the  Communion.  The  omission  of  the  Introit,  the  Hallelujah, 
 the  Sequence  and  Gradual,  the  Benedidus  and  the  Agjius  Dei  is  a 
 loss  which  English  liturgical  scholars  keenly  regret  and  which 
 ritualistic  rectors  do  not  hesitate  to  make  good  in  their  services. 
 There  is  so  much  to  be  said  and  done  in  the  services  of  the  En- 
 glish Church  that  in  order  to  finish  them  in  reasonable  time  their 
 reverent  use  seems  almost  impossible  at  the  rapid  rate  usually  fol- 
 lowed. Their  beauty  would  be  much  enhanced  were  their  ex- 
 crescences lopped  off  and  their  omissions  made  good  and  in  so  far 
 the  work  of  liturgical  reform  in  the  use  of  the  Book  since  the 
 Puseyite  movement  and  directly  resulting  therefrom  is  only  com- 
 mendable. 
 
 The  Ivitanj'  whose  lyUtheran  source  has  already  been  re- 
 ferred to  is  considerably  fuller  than  the  Lutheran  but  does  not 
 gain  thereby  because  of  its  redundancy  of  expression.  It  is  used 
 regularly  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  and  frequently  on  the 
 morning  of  the  Lord's  Day,  sometimes  at  a  special  service  on 
 Sunday  afternoon,  at  the  Ordination  of  Deacons  and  Priests  and 
 the  Consecration  of  Bishops. 
 
 The  Gospels  and  Epistles  have  always  been  printed  as  an  in- 
 tegral part  of  the  Book  of  Common  Pra3'er.  The  entire  Psalter 
 which  is  read  through  once  every  month,  the  Commandments  and 
 the  Comfortable  Words  are  still  used  in  the  words  of  the  Cover- 
 dale  Version. 
 
 The  chief  and  distinguishing  feature  in  the  lyUtheran  Litur- 
 gy is  its  clearly-drawn  distinction  between  the  sacramental  and 
 the  sacrificial  acts  of  divine  worship.  That  which  God  offers  and 
 really  gives  us  is  the  sacramental  element.  Acts  of  this  nature 
 are  the  reading  and  preaching  of  the  Word,  the  Absolution,  the 
 Salutation,  the  Pax  Domini,  the  Benedictions  and  the  administra- 
 
70  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tion  of  the  sacraments.  That  which  we  offer  to  God  is  the  sacri- 
 ficial element.  Prayers,  the  Litany,  the  SuflFrages,  confessions  of 
 sin,  hymns,  canticles,  praises,  thanksgivings,  acts  of  adoration 
 and  of  faith,  these  are  acceptable  offerings,  sacrifices  well-pleasing 
 to  God,  our  reasonable  sen-ice.  Not  that  there  is  always  a  hard 
 and  fast  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two,  as  certain  acts  such 
 as  the  use  of  the  Psalter  and  the  preaching  of  the  Word  through 
 the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  bear  our  praises  and  confessions 
 Heavenward  simultaneously  with  our  reception  of  the  divine  gift 
 of  grace.  Clearly  to  illustrate  this  principle  in  the  use  of  the 
 sendees  at  sacramental  acts  the  minister  as  the  representative  of 
 the  Lord,  turns  to  the  people  to  declare  to  them  the  Divine  will 
 and  promises  while  in  performing  sacrificial  acts  as  the  represen- 
 tative of  the  Church  and  the  leader  in  the  devotions  of  the  priest- 
 hood of  all  believers,  he  turns  to  the  altar  to  oifer  their  eucharistic 
 sacrifices  to  God.  In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  while  both  el- 
 ements are  present  the  distinction  is  not  appreciated  and  Blunt 
 speaks  even  of  the  reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  an  offering 
 of  praise  to  God  in  the  words  of  inspiiation.  There  must  of 
 course  always  be  a  holy  joy  and  reverent  thanksgiving  in  the  per- 
 formance of  all  sacramental  acts  but  we  wish  to  emphasize  our 
 belief  that  this  is  truly  the  means  whereby  God  brings  us  grace 
 and  the  power  of  an  endless  life.  So  also  in  the  Holy  Commun- 
 ion the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  lays  such  stress  upon  the  offer- 
 ing of  the  consecrated  elements  to  God,  the  memorializing  of  the 
 Passion,  the  presentation  of  ourselves,  our  bodies  and  souls,  as  a 
 reasonable  service,  and  the  prayers  for  the  Church — all  of  which 
 are  excellent  and  in  no  wise  to  be  depreciated — as  often  to  cause 
 the  people  to  lose  sight  of  the  main  things  in  the  sacrament,  the 
 Body  and  Blood  of  the  incarnate  Lord  and  the  precious  words  of 
 forgiveness  and  peace. 
 
 The  whole  consideration  of  any  religious  service  depends  up- 
 on our  point  of  view  and  this  again  rests  upon  a  clear  apprehen- 
 sion of  this  distinction  or  the  failure  to  recognize  it.  It  is  to  be 
 feared  that  the  Romish  error  of  the  justifying  power  of  good 
 works  may  be  latent  in  the  tenacious  adherence  to  set  forms  and 
 the  scrupulous  observance  of  rubrical  prescriptions  characteristic 
 of  the  devotees  of  the  Book  of  Connnon  Prayer  even  to  the  under- 
 estimation of  the  Word  of  Truth  itself.  The  sacrificial  element 
 pervades  not  so  much  the  letter  as  the  spirit,  the  real  genius  of 
 
A  gkne;rai,  survey  of  the  book  op  common  prayer.  71 
 
 the  system  of  Christian  doctrine  contained  in  the  Book  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer. 
 
 As  EngHsh  Lutherans  we  should  always  be  willing  to  ac- 
 knowledge our  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
 for  the  beautiful  rhythmical  English  into  which  the  old  Latin 
 services  were  translated  more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half  ago. 
 It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  translations  in  the  main  more  admira- 
 ble— the  collects  are  a  notable  example — so  perfectly  do  they  re- 
 produce the  innermost  spirit  of  the  originals.  If  the  influence  of 
 the  Lutheran  movement  in  England  is  clearly  evident  in  the  orig- 
 inal formation  and  the  present  contents  of  the  Book,  the  whole 
 English-speaking  Protestant  world  is  indebted  to  the  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  for  its  choice  diction,  its  thoroughly  devotional 
 spirit  and  its  glorious  "form  of  sound  words." 
 
 Ours  is  a  rich  liturgical  inheritance,  a  very  treasure  trove  of 
 inestimable  worth,  long  unappreciated  and  neglected,  it  is  true, 
 but  providentially  preserved  to  us  that  in  these  latter  days  we 
 may  worship  the  one  Lord  not  only  in  the  beauty  of  holiness 
 whose  elements  are  truth  and  love,  but  in  the  holiness  of  a  beau- 
 tiful spiritual  worship,  expressing  the  loftiest  truth  of  our  faith. 
 Let  us  then  study  our  own  Services  so  as  to  know  them  better; 
 let  us  endeavor  to  bring  our  people  to  a  clearer  conception  of 
 their  liturgical  inheritance,  and  let  us  realize  our  personal  ac- 
 countability to  God  for  OUT  approach  to  the  throne  of  grace  in 
 the  services  of  His  house,  whether  it  be  cold  and  careless  and  ill- 
 informed  or  intelligent  and  reverent  and  all  aglow  with  love  di- 
 vine. We  need  more  daily  services,  the  more  frequent  celebra- 
 tion of  the  Holy  Communion,  the  more  general  use  of  the  Litany 
 and  the  Suffrages.  We  learn  from  the  loving,  intelligent  use  of 
 the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  by  its  faithful  adherents  many  les- 
 sons as  to  the  use  of  our  own  Services.  May  God  use  the  Book, 
 purified  and  clarified  if  need  be,  in  the  generations  to  come  as 
 He  has  so  signally  honored  it  in  the  ages  past,  to  His  glory  and 
 honor  and  the  continued  spread  of  His  Kingdom  among  men. 
 
 Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp. 
 
 Lutherayi    Theological  Semiyiary , 
 Mi.   Airy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
72 
 
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MEANS  OF  LITURGICAL  REFORM, 
 
 As  Christians  we  all  believe  in  the  sendee  and  worship  of  God. 
 We  believe  in  public  worship  and  in  the  "communion  of  saints." 
 From  the  earliest  days  there  has  ever  been  such  public  worship 
 among  the  people  of  God.  This  worship  has  always  assumed 
 some  form.  All  substance  is  at  present  manifested  to  us,  to  our 
 senses  and  perceptions  in  some  form.  Even  the  very  substance 
 of  God  was  revealed  in  the  form  of  words,  or  of  the  Word  of 
 God,  in  conjunction  with  certain  experiences  which  could  impress 
 the  senses.  The  Divine  substance  is  especially  revealed  to  us 
 in  the  form  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  Who  was  "God  manifest 
 in  the  flesh."  We  must  have  form:  and  our  worship  must 
 assume  some  form.  This  constitutes  a  Eiturgy  or  a  Eiturgical 
 Service,  more  or  less  developed  or  elaborated. 
 
 Even  so  we  believe  in  reform.  The  Church  of  the  Refor- 
 mation, in  fact,  the  Church  of  Protestantism  believes  in  reform. 
 We  believe  in  liturgical  reform — if  that  is  necessary.  Perfection 
 is  our  goal  in  every  respect;  so  also  in  the  liturgical  service  ren- 
 dered unto  God.  In  the  Reformation  of  the  i6th  century  this 
 reform  manifested  a  two-fold  tendency;  the  one  was  destructive 
 and  radical,  which  could  hardly  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  reform; 
 the  other  was  eliminating  and  constructive — exhibiting  the  char- 
 acter of  true  reform.  There  is  no  particular  reason  why  this 
 work  should  cease.  But  there  is  every  reason  why  it  should  be 
 encouraged.  Now  the  question  arises,  how  shall  this  reform  be 
 effected  ? 
 
 I.)  Some  might  reply — in  whatever  way  possible,  that  is 
 right  and  proper.  But  what  is  right  and  proper?  The  particular 
 reform  might  be  very  much  needed.  Through  an  adherence  to 
 old  forms  the  worshippers  might  be  experiencing  a  serious  loss. 
 But  the  sudden  introduction  of  a  new  and  improved  form  might 
 
 (Ixxv) 
 
7G  MEMOIRS. 
 
 cause  such  a  shock  to  sensitive  natures  as  to  produce  more  harm 
 than  good.  Here  of  course  we  must  make  a  distinction  between 
 matters  that  are  essential  and  unessential.  In  essential  matters 
 of  reform  the  truth  must  be  proclaimed  at  once,  and  proper  means 
 must  be  employed  to  effect  the  reform  as  speedily  as  possible. 
 But  in  matters  which  have  not  the  same  essential  significance  it 
 is  proper  to  pursue  another  course.  And  the  course  that  is  rec- 
 ommended by  the  writer  of  this  paper  in  what  follows  is  strictly 
 educational,  because  he  believes  that  the  forms  for  which  conten- 
 tion is  made  in  our  day,  and  especially  in  our  own  Lutheran 
 Church,  are  largely  of  the  latter  class. 
 
 II.)     Education  is  needed  among  our  people  and  congrega- 
 tions and  pastors. 
 
 1 )  With  the  Church  at  large.  Here  there  are  two  impor- 
 tant channels  of  reform.  The  Church  Press  should  be  employed 
 to  set  forth  the  principles  of  true  reform  and  the  elements  in 
 which  the  worship  might  be  improved.  And  in  this  particular 
 as  well  as  in  those  efforts  yet  to  be  mentioned  great  care  should 
 be  exercised  by  all  concerned  that  what  is  proposed  be  done  in 
 the  spirit  of  patience  and  love.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
 to  avoid  bigotr)-,  censorious  criticism,  narrowness  of  view,  and 
 downright  error  through  the  undue  emphasis  of  what  is  unessen- 
 tial. General  services,  held  under  the  auspices  of  a  Synod,  Con- 
 ference, League  or  some  other  general  body  of  the  Church,  as 
 well  as  the  services  of  worship  conducted  in  our  Theological 
 Seminaries,  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  models  in  their  arrange- 
 ment of  propriety  and  in  their  spirit  of  edification. 
 
 2)  With  the  individual  congregations.  In  the  Lutheran 
 Church,  even  as  in  the  Church  of  Apostolic  days,  the  local  con- 
 gregation representing  the  Church  of  that  particular  place  -ilie 
 assembly  in  the  name  of  Christ  with  the  promise  of  His  presence, 
 cannot  surrender  its  responsibility,  nor  can  it  be  deprived  of  its 
 spiritual  privileges  or  authority.  The  Pastor  is  the  Bishop  of  his 
 people.  Reform  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  to  a  large 
 extent  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  proceeds  from  above  downward; 
 in  the  Lutheran  Church,  though  some  reforms  might  take  that 
 course,  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  they  must  proceed  in 
 the  reverse  direction.  We  are  here  speaking  of  liturgical  reform 
 in  matters  that  are  not  regarded  as  absolutely  essential.  And 
 though  the  Pastor  be  first  on  the  field  of  reform  in  his  congrega- 
 
MEANS    OF    LITURGICAL    REFORM.  77 
 
 tion,  it  will  be  the  evidence  of  wisdom  on  his  part  to  make  that 
 reform  proceed  in  the  way  indicated.  The  view  here  presented 
 is  not  a  theory,  but  one  that  will  make  the  Pastor  practically 
 more  efficient.  Whether  the  reform  come  through  the  minis- 
 ter or  through  intelligent,  educated  laymen  in  the  congregation, 
 the  greatest  tact  and  care  must  be  employed,  because  though 
 a  large  and  important  part  of  the  work  must  be  done  from  the 
 pulpit,  and  in  special  services,  and  with  lectures  and  addresses 
 both  by  the  pastor  and  by  those  who  can  speak  with  special  au- 
 thority, yet  individuals  must  be  dealt  with.  Here  a  leaflet,  there 
 a  Church  paper,  a  personal  friendly  interview  and  an  exhibition 
 of  Christian  self-submission  in  precept  and  example — all  may  be 
 needed.      "A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break." 
 
 3)  With  the  Ministry.  Effective  reform  certainly  must 
 reach  the  minister  himself,  if  it  would  affect  his  congregation. 
 And  he,  with  his  superior  education  and  training  in  such  matters, 
 should  be  more  susceptible  of  reform.  He  has  more  opportunity 
 to  become  acquainted  with  the  significance  of  these  things  through 
 his  reading,  by  frequent  intercourse  with  other  pastors,  attend- 
 ance upon  the  general  services  of  a  typical  character,  and  through 
 interest  in  the  proceedings  and  results  of  such  a  Liturgical 
 Association.  But  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  before  he  has 
 entered  upon  his  public  ministry,  he  shall  have  received  an  ac- 
 quaintance with  the  principles  underlying  all  reform,  and  the 
 spirit  that  must  pervade  all  reformatory  movements,  and  the  ele- 
 ments in  which,  in  any  particular  day,  there  is  need  of  reform. 
 This  work  is  to  be  accomplished  in  his  course  in  the  Theological 
 Seminary.  Somewhere  and  somehow  in  the  Seminary  this  ele- 
 mentary work  should  be  done  in  the  name  of  the  Church  so  that 
 the  Church's  adherents  shall  not  be  left  to  the  whims  and  notions 
 of  every  new  minister  w^ho  may  not  have  any  fixed  principles  of 
 the  proprieties  of  public  worship.  Of  course  where  it  is  possible 
 and  where  the  institution  is  of  such  development  as  to  warrant  it, 
 a  liturgical  chair  might  be  established  with  great  profit.  The 
 Seminary  in  furnishing  a  satisfactory  equipment  of  the  young 
 pastor  cannot  send  him  forth  into  that  important  part  of  his  min- 
 istry, namely,  the  conduct  of  public  worship,  without  a  knowl- 
 edge of  sound  liturgical  principles.  But  there  is  the  practical 
 difficulty  of  adjusting  in  the  Seminary  all  these  various  sub-de- 
 partments, so  that  each  shall  have  its  due  share  of  attention,  and 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 that  no  department  shall  be  slighted.  There  are  some  depart- 
 ments which  should  receive  the  special  attention  of  every  theo- 
 logical student;  and  there  may  be  others  which  should  receive  the 
 general  attention  of  all  and  the  special  attention  of  some.  The 
 greater  institutions  of  learning  recognize  this  principle,  so  that 
 with  the  general  culture  of  all,  there  is  specialization  of  each  ac- 
 cording to  his  special  aptitude  and  desire.  Such  work  in  a  Theo- 
 logical Seminary  might  cost  much  labor  and  require  much  discre- 
 tion, but  it  would  be  of  inestimable  benefit  to  the  individual 
 student  and  to  the  Church.  It  is  impossible  that  all  shall  be 
 specialists.  There  is  not  the  time,  nor  sufficient  aptitude  to  jus- 
 tify the  expenditure  of  so  much  time.  But  we  believe  the  time 
 will  come  when  the  Theological  Seminary  will  provide  for  the 
 selection  of  specialties,  Homiletics,  Liturgies,  Old  Testament 
 Hebrew^  New  Testament  Greek,  Missions  (with  special  prepara- 
 tion for  work  in  home  and  foreign  fields),  and  special  subjects  in 
 other  departments. 
 
 We  can  never  forget  that  the  prime  purpose  of  the  Theo- 
 logical Seminary  is  to  train  pastors  and  not  to  turn  out  specialists. 
 Such  specialization  of  a  scientific  character  must  be  reserved  for 
 a  post-graduate  course.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  in 
 some  part  of  the  regular  theological  course  there  should  not  be 
 given  to  every  student  the  opportunity  of  doing  some  special  work 
 in  some  selected  department  under  the  direction  and  instruction 
 of  his  theological  professors,  whose  object  shall  not  be  necessarily 
 scientific  specialization,  and  certainly  not  the  development  of  a 
 ministerial  hobby  (which  may  seriously  affect  the  effectiveness  of 
 his  ministerial  labors) .  The  fact  is  that  almost  ever>'  student  in 
 his  own  mind  and  work  selects  his  specialt3^  And  the  contention 
 of  the  writer  is  that  the  student  should  not  be  left  to  himself  in 
 the  formation  of  the  principles  to  govern  him  in  his  subsequent 
 work,  but  he  should  have  the  special  guidance  of  the  Theological 
 Seminary  in  his  chosen  specialty. 
 
 With  such  guidance  in  liturgical  reform,  the  Church  may  be 
 protected  against  excess  and  extremes  in  reformatory  efforts.  It 
 is  not  suppression  of  individual  effort  for  which  we  contend,  but 
 the  guidance  thereof  by  those  who,  by  individual  labors  and  by 
 the  call  of  the  Church,  are  fitted  for  such  work. 
 
 In  conclusion  let  us  not  forget  that  God  desires  the  spiritual 
 worship  of  the  heart,  which  may  be  encouraged  by  the  use  of  ap- 
 
MEANS    OF     LITURGICAI,    REFORM.  79 
 
 propriate  forms.  And  if  such  forms  hamper  the  soul's  fellowship 
 with  God,  (for  all  souls  are  not  of  the  same  disposition  and  in- 
 clination) we  dare  not,  in  a  spirit  of  Pharisaic  holiness  of  formal- 
 ism, condemn  such  souls  to  a  life  of  hard  ecclesiastical  and  litur- 
 gical bondage.  Let  us  educate  and  lead  the  people  and  show  by 
 our  spirit  of  liberality  and  concession  in  regard  to  the  less  essen- 
 tial, the  appreciation  of  the  need  of  spiritual  fellowship  with  God. 
 Rather  the  simplest  service  of  devout  praise  from  the  heart,  than 
 the  most  sublime  service  of  formal  worship  with  or  without  the 
 understanding  but  not  from  the  heart! 
 
 T.  W.  Kretschmann. 
 
 Buffalo,  N.    Y. 
 
 Mote. — The  writer  of  this  paper  is  exceedingly  grateful  to  the  Litur- 
 gical Association  for  the  privilege  of  expressing  his  views  on  the  above  sub- 
 ject. He  desires  each  one  to  supply  for  himself  the  material  of  history  and 
 of  experience  for  further  illustration.  It  was  his  purpose  to  state  as  con- 
 cisely as  possible  facts  and  principles  which  might  be  easily  recognized,  and 
 which  he  regards  to  be  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  liturgical  reform.  They 
 deserve  to  stand  out  in  bold  relief  :  and  they  should  not  be  hidden  by  a 
 wealth  of  other  material,  interesting  as  it  might  be. 
 
 T.  W.  K. 
 
I.ITURGICAI.  EDUCATION  OF  THE  CHURCH'S  YOUTH. 
 
 To  comprehend  the  nature  of  Christian  worship  as  a  whole,  and 
 the  elements  constituting  the  same,  and  by  which  modified  in 
 particular,  and  directed  in  general,  is  the  task  of  those  who  min- 
 ister to  the  youth  of  the  Church.  Upon  the  manner,  method  and 
 line  of  procedure  in  which  the  worship  by  the  youth  is  performed, 
 conducted  and  taught  will  depend  a  correct,  stimulating  and  edi- 
 fying form  of  worship  in  the  congregation  that  develops  from  the 
 youth  in  the  schools  of  the  Church. 
 
 The  non-liturgical  Sunday  School  grows  the  non-liturgical 
 congregation.  This  is  under  the  law  "that  which  ye  sow  ye  shall 
 also  reap."  It  is  a  well  established  fact  that  "men  do  not  gather 
 figs  from  thistles."  Recognizing  this  law  how  can  a  liturgical 
 congregation,  one  in  full  sympathy  and  spirit  with  every  script- 
 ural element  in  the  liturgy,  help  being  the  outgrowth  of  a  cor- 
 rectly taught  liturgical  youth? 
 
 There  are  several  sides  to  every  child  that  may  be  recog- 
 nized: the  subjective,  the  objective  and  the  physio-psychological 
 basis.  These  several  sides  enter  into  the  growth  of  every  child. 
 In  the  subjective  aspect  it  draws  in,  absorbs  and  appropriates 
 ideas,  notions,  customs  and  practices  which  it  applies  objectively 
 as  the  mode  of  expression;  as  the  thought  in  action;  as  the  feel- 
 ing performed;  as  the  deeper  experiences  developing  his  con- 
 sciousness of  God. 
 
 The  average  pupil  in  the  Sunday  School  has  not  arrived  at 
 the  mature  age  of  reasoning,  but  accepts  in  pure  faith  that  which 
 is  placed  before  it.  The  memory  holds  whatever  may  be  taught, 
 and  the  necessary  action  required  in  the  mode  of  worship  will  be 
 most  readily  acquired  and  utilized  with  utmost  ease  until  it  is 
 part  of  the  pupil's  life  to  "rise"  in  repeating  those  parts  of  the 
 
 (Ixxxi) 
 
R2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Sunday  School  Service  that  demand  "rising,"  and  to  participate 
 in  the  parts  that  are  "said"  or  "sung."  This  "saying,"  "sing- 
 ing" and  "rising"  have  become  parts  of  the  child's  life  when 
 engaged  in  worship  in  either  the  Sunday  School  or  that  of  the 
 congregation. 
 
 The  child  has  a  sense  of  things  orderly.  The  Sunday  School 
 being  conducted  along  lines  of  good  order  and  decorum  soon  im- 
 presses this  sense  of  order  upon  the  psychical  side  of  the  child 
 and  it  learns  orderly  methods  and  with  growing  years  becomes 
 impressed  with  the  deeper  meaning  of  song,  prayer  and  Scripture 
 teachings. 
 
 Through  its  objective  sense  it  may  quite  unconsciou.sly  learn 
 to  approve  and  accept  the  purest  form  of  worship  and  could  give 
 no  intelligent  reason  why  it  would  feel  spiritually  wronged  to  be 
 asked  to  use  any  form  with  which  it  was  not  familiar. 
 
 It  is  well  known  that  where  there  is  physical  order  there  will 
 the  more  readih-  follow  mental  order.  The  mentality  is  affected. 
 When  this  is  done  the  lower  basis  for  order  is  left,  to  enter  a 
 higher,  the  realm  of  mind,  soul.  From  the  sphere  of  mind  it  is 
 but  a  step  to  the  metaphysical,  realm  of  pure  spirit,  th.e  spiritual 
 domain.  Here  again  enters  the  law  of  good  order  which  directs 
 the  spiritual  man  to  the  presence  of  Him  Whose  demand  is  that 
 He  shall  be  worshipped  in  the  beauty  of  holiness. 
 
 There  is  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  acts  which  have  often  been 
 done.  Herein  lies  the  power  of  a  fixed  service  in  the  schools  of 
 the  Church.  Services  wrought  out  of  the  Scriptures,  tried  by 
 centuries  of  usage  and  found  helpful  and  edifying  when  once 
 woven  into  the  inmost  nature  of  religious  life  by  constant  prac- 
 tice during  the  apjiropriating  age  of  youth  in  the  Sunday  School 
 will  give  zest  and  spiritual  power  not  olherwi.se  obtained  in  the 
 congregation. 
 
 Habit  gives  facility  in  doing  acts  which  have  been  often  per- 
 formed. At  first  it  is  quite  a  difficult  task  to  repeal  the  nuilti- 
 plication  table  rajMdly,  but  the  habit  of  repetition  produces  the 
 momentum  that  gives  tlie  velocity  or  rapidity.  In  the  Sunday 
 vSchool  the  constant  repetition  gives  the  momentum  re(;uired  to 
 render  an  acceptable  service.  Then  back  of  it  all  lies  ilie  fact 
 that  the  nature  and  character  of  the  Service  has  become  ingr.iined 
 into  the  life,  conscience  and  individuality  of  the  \n\\n\  until  the 
 spiritual  essence  pervades  his  very  being  when  lie  engages  in  the 
 
LITURGICAI,    EDUCATION    OF   THE    CHURCH'S    YOUTH.  83 
 
 solemn  acts  of  worship  in  either  school,  home  or  congregation. 
 This  law  of  habit  was  appointed  for  good  by  Him  Who  made  all 
 things  and  pervadeth  all  things. 
 
 Those  ideas  which  are  attended  with  deep  feeling  are  called 
 up  more  readily.  The  child  that  has  learned  its  lessons  at  home, 
 in  the  Church's  school,  will,  when  at  mature  age,  learn  the  mean- 
 ing of  the  "Confession  of  sins,"  sorrow  and  contrition,  with  par- 
 don through  the  tender  mercies  of  Christ  the  Redeemer. 
 
 It  is  another  well  established  fact  that  the  easily  recited  les- 
 son is  as  easily  forgotten  and  those  retained  longest  required  the 
 greatest  amount  of  intellectual  energy.  The  song  ditty,  sung  to 
 "quick-step"  time,  vanishes  with  the  martial  music  which  is 
 played  to  be  forgotten.  But  the  hymn,  psalm  and  canticle  that 
 required  time  and  energy  to  master  will  endure  while  life  endures. 
 When  the  principle  of  right  worship  and  scriptural  practice  is 
 carried  through  the  very  life  of  the  Church's  school,  it  will  grow 
 into  one  of  higher  ideals,  loftier  conceptions  of  the  dignity  and 
 spirit  of  holy  worship. 
 
 It  is  important  that  the  directors  of  thought  in  the  Sunday 
 School  teach  their  pupils  word  for  word  the  significance  of  every 
 act  in  the  performance  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Service  and 
 the  source  and  meaning  of  all  the  words  in  the  Service  in  both 
 Church  and  Sunday  School  Services. 
 
 As  the  Sunday  School  age  of  children  is  the  recognized 
 "memory-age,"  it  would  be  well  to  constantly  keep  in  mind  the 
 fact  that  this  is  the  golden  age  to  teach  all  the  truths  of  our  holy 
 religion.  When  once  the  form  has  been  learned  it  leaves  no 
 room  for  those  of  an  unchurchly  and  unscriptural  character. 
 
 It  is  the  duty  of  all  parents  to  educate  their  children.  Spe- 
 cially so  with  Christian  parents  is  it  to  train  them  in  "the  fear 
 and  admonition  of  the  Lord."  How,  when  and  why  to  worship 
 is  a  part  of  the  training  children  should  receive  at  home  and  in 
 the  Sunday  School,  and  the  catechetical  class.  Make  the  Luther- 
 an Service  an  intellectual  endowment  and  a  spiritual  possession 
 more  to  be  desired  than  "fine  gold." 
 
 We  plant  and  water,  but  it  is  God  that  giveth  the  increase 
 (i  Cor.  3:  7),  and  this  saying  is  applicable  to  the  teachings  of 
 the  pupils  in  the  Sunday  School  and  class,  and  of  their  growth  in 
 a  knowledge  and  practice  of  pure  liturgical  principles. 
 
 The  psychic  side  of  the  child  must  not  be  forgotten.     It  is 
 
84  MEMOIRS. 
 
 from  this  side  the  spiritual  growth  comes.  Through  this  side 
 the  child  is  approached  with  a  proper  conception  of  liturgical  de- 
 velopment and  orderly  life  in  its  acts  of  devotion  both  public  and 
 private. 
 
 There  is  a  psychic  power  that  lies  in  wonder,  reverence  and 
 awe.  It  begets  reverential  attitudes  of  the  mind  toward  the 
 house  of  God,  its  altar,  its  lectern,  its  pulpit  and  its  religious  acts 
 and  sacred  associations  that  appeal  to  its  sub-conscious  feelings, 
 sentiments  and  emotions  which  are  motor  forces  that  grow  into 
 the  acts  of  worship  by  the  child,  the  man. 
 
 Christianity  being  life,  its  acts  are  exhibited  in  the  moving 
 springs  of  that  life;  its  feelings.  These,  again,  are  seen  in  the 
 orderly  manner,  the  liturgical  concept  of  religious  devotion.  The 
 attitude  toward  the  holy  place  of  worship  differs  from  that  toward 
 the  public  hall,  as  its  use  and  purpose  is  different.  In  the  approach 
 to  God's  house  the  modes  of  procedure  are  deferential,  reveren- 
 tial. The  advance  to  it  is  from  the  human  side  toward  God.  It 
 begins  in  earliest  sacred  impressions  and  ends  when  life  here  ends. 
 
 The  laws  of  repetition,  of  attention,  and  of  reproduction  fix 
 the  form  and  content  of  the  Service  in  the  Sunday  School,  also 
 the  Church  Service,  and  exhibit  themselves  in  religious  action. 
 These  Services  have  become  parts  of  the  life  that  is  full  of  faith 
 and  reverence. 
 
 By  obser\dng  these  laws  and  principles  the  Pastor  will  be 
 able  to  develop  the  youth  in  a  knowledge  not  only  of  Christian 
 doctrine,  as  set  forth  in  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  Inil  also  in 
 the  meaning  and  significance  of  the  great  Festivals  of  the  Church 
 Year:  Advent,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter  and  Pentecost,  and 
 to  impress  the  nature,  character  and  peculiar  feeling  attached  to, 
 and  connected  with,  each  of  these  festival  seasons,  with  the  dis- 
 tinctive type  of  worship  most  suitably  adapted  to  each  period  and 
 best  calculated  to  make  a  lasting  impression  and  bring  out  the 
 deepest  and  most  heartfelt  praise  and  devotion. 
 
 He  will  thus  be  able  to  teach  those  whom  he  is  preparing  for 
 active  membership  in  the  Church,  the  h>inns  designated  for  each 
 season  of  the  Church  Year;  the  use  of  the  Psalter;  the  design  of 
 the  Chief  Service  and  the  Minor  Services;  the  purpo.se  of  the  Con- 
 fessional or  Preparatory  Service;  the  object  of  the  Conununion 
 Service  and  the  significance  of  each  act  in  the  Ser\-ice.  with  its 
 distinct  meaning,  scriptural  authoritj-  and  evident  .spiritual  neces- 
 
WTURGICAL   EDUCATION   OF  THE   CHURCH'S   YOUTH,  85 
 
 sity.  Also  the  distinguishing  marks  between  the  Church  prayer 
 and  free,  or  private  prayer;  the  object  and  place  for  art  in  devel- 
 oping and  applying  the  different  acts  in  worship;  the  arrangement 
 of  the  church  furniture  within  the  chancel — of  the  pulpit,  for 
 proclaiming  and  teaching  the  Gospel;  the  lectern,  for  reading  the 
 Scriptures;  and  the  altar,  with  its  coverings,  their  colors  and  im- 
 port, from  which  is  the  dispensing  of  the  holy  sacrament  of  the 
 Body  and  Blood  of  our  lyord;  the  setting  forth  of  the  marks  of 
 difference  that  distinguishes  the  sacred  edifice  dedicated  to  God's 
 service  from  one  of  secular  use, — that  "from  its  foundation-stone 
 to  the  cross  upon  its  spire,  a  church  ought  to  produce  the  im- 
 pression of  a  grand  symphony  proclaiming  the  great  central  truths 
 connected  with  the  redemption  of  man," 
 
 Thought  and  language  are  mysteriously  connected.  Right 
 use  of  liturgical  language  helps  to  develop  correct  liturgical  con- 
 cepts. It  is  the  office  of  the  teacher  to  convey  and  impress  such 
 forms  of  right  use  of  liturgical  language  that  correct  liturgical 
 ideas,  concepts  and  essence  of  biblical  truth  shall  be  stamped  in- 
 delibly upon  the  memory  of  }'outh  that  they  remain  as  an  endur- 
 ing and  blessed  heritage. 
 
 The  teacher  should  urge  a  search  of  the  inner  consciousness, 
 that  in  worship  may  be  found  God's  highest  expression  of  truth; 
 that  as  beauty  is  seen  in  the  flower,  glory  may  be  seen  in  the 
 heavens;  that  as  they  sing  of  Divine  love,  they  may  possess 
 Divine  aspirations. 
 
 The  mighty  engine  may  have  within  it  the  potency  of  great 
 work,  yet  it  may  remain  idle  unless  the  right  means  are  employed 
 to  utilize  it.  Dikewise  the  agency  through  which  God  is  wor- 
 shipped in  spirit  and  in  truth  may  lie  dormant  until  it  is  awak- 
 ened and  directed  into  the  best  ways  of  making  it  tell  for  the 
 highest  usefulness  to  the  soul. 
 
 "Progress  is  the  condition  of  life."  Education  and  training, 
 acquisition  and  utilization  fill  out  the  condition.  "Childhood 
 and  youth  is  the  period  when  tendencies  are  most  easily  estab- 
 lished." The  mind  is  teachable  and  receives  impressions  readily; 
 around  those  cluster  kindred  impressions,  which  if  Christian, 
 form  Christian  character  and  life. 
 
 It  is  said  "To  prepare  for  the  highest  moral  life  and  a  perse- 
 vering religious  life,  early  habits  of  the  right  kind  are  the  only 
 secure   foundations."     Then  to  prepare  for  highest  devotional 
 
8G  MEMOIRS. 
 
 life,  and  a  constant  religious  life,  should  demand  of  the  youth 
 early  training  of  his  soul  in  all  the  elements  of  worship  and  the 
 teachings  of  the  Word  connected  with  religious  action. 
 
 Let  the  youth  be  taught  that  "if  nature  is  a  congeries  of 
 metaphors  arrayed  in  a  system  of  relations  and  constituting  a 
 sublime  allegory,  and  we  being  the  offspring  of  God,  may  inter- 
 pret this  allegory  and  thereby  come  to  a  consciousness  of  its  ver- 
 ities, if  there  is  a  spiritual  sense  that  may  feel  the  presence  of 
 great  truths  and  of  a  personal  God" — then  man  pursuing  his 
 search,  through  the  laws  of  his  spiritual  nature,  for  the  pure  and 
 true  expressions  of  holy  worship  through  the  words  of  Scripture 
 and  the  beauty  of  its  forms  which  have  come  down  through  the 
 world's  histor>'  and  the  Church's  literature,  finds  the  goal  in  an 
 exalted  and  spiritual  Ser\'ice. 
 
 The  love  of  art  is  necessary  to  the  complete  man.  He  sees 
 a  higher  meaning  than  mere  color  in  the  rainbow.  It  speaks  of 
 God's  promise  and  love.  The  tints  of  faded  leaf  reminds  him  of 
 God's  order  in  the  universe.  The  sparkle  of  the  limpid  rill  tells 
 him  of  the  river  of  life  and  God's  eternal  fountains  of  love.  He 
 is  taught  to  see  the  real  spirit  shining  through  material  forms, 
 and  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  music  and  poetr>-  follow 
 with  their  interpretations  and  portrayals  of  the  deeper  and  spirit- 
 ual insight.  Noble  thought  and  action,  right  and  truth  of  Divine 
 things  enables  the  soul  to  partake  of  holy  draughts  of  pure  wor- 
 ship from  the  stream  of  spiritual  life. 
 
 The  liturgical  education  is  the  development  of  a  liturgical 
 ideal,  purpose  and  marshalling  of  the  devotional  forces  for  active 
 service  in  the  Church's  inner  life.  The  liturgical  ideal  is  needed. 
 "The  Gothic  cathedral,  with  its  mullioned  window,  tapering 
 spire,  and  upward-running  lines,  indicating  the  hope  and  aspira- 
 tion of  the  middle  ages,  with  its  cniciform  shape,  typical  of  the 
 faith  of  the  Christian,  is  more  than  the  stone  and  mortar  of  which 
 it  is  constructed.  The  truly  educated  man  in  art  perceives  the 
 adaptation,  polish  and  perfection  in  literature;  discovers  the  grace, 
 the  just  proportions,  the  ideal  form  and  typical  idea  in  sculpture; 
 views  the  expression,  grouping  sentiment,  coloring,  and  human 
 passion  in  painting;  enjoys  the  harmonies,  movements,  and  ideas 
 in  music,  that  combination  of  effects  that  makes  subtile  and  eva- 
 sive metaphors;  discovers  the  conventionalized  fonns  and  mute 
 symbols,  the  'frozen  music'  of  architecture;  finds  grandeur  in  the 
 
IvlTURGICAL   EDUCATION   OF  THE   CHURCH'S   YOUTH.  87 
 
 mountains,  glory  in  the  sunset,  laughs  with  the  morning  breeze, 
 finds  strength  in  the  giant  oak,  and  sorrow  in  the  drooping 
 willow." 
 
 The  foresight  of  the  Heavenly  beauty  is  caught  and  trans- 
 mitted to  this  earthly  sphere,  and  taken  up  to  be  given  back  in 
 highest  forms  of  praise. 
 
 The  spirit  of  this  holy  worship  must  be  first  caught  by  the 
 teacher.  This  deeper  nature,  aye,  spiritual  feeling  must  be  in 
 the  heart  of  the  instructor.  When  he  reaches  beyond  himself 
 and  sees  in  the  Gothic  building  with  its  pinnacles,  arches  and 
 curves  of  beauty  an  attempt,  at  least,  to  imitate  the  lines  of  beau- 
 ty, grandeur  and  deeper  feeling  of  adoration  and  sublimity  in  the 
 heavens — creative  handiwork  of  Him  Whom  men  are  taught  to 
 adore  and  worship  in  the  most  appropriate  and  soul-elevating 
 manner  possible. 
 
 The  teacher  possessing  this  spirit  and  mind  will  be  able  to 
 lead  his  pupils  out  through  the  merely  formal  down  into  the  very 
 depths  of  heart  to  heart  praise  in  the  very  essence  of  Scripture 
 words,  embodying  the  life  of  the  Church  doctrines  of  the  Word 
 of  God.  The  veiy  saving  truths  of  Christianity  will  appear  in 
 every  liturgical  act  of  the  youth,  and  thus  will  be  founded  upon 
 the  faith  of  the  Word,  but  they  will  also  be  grounded  in  the  ve- 
 hicle and  agency  of  that  Word,  that  life  in  Christ,  and  their  ev- 
 ery thought  will  be  developed  from  holy  and  established  usage, 
 consecrated  by  centuries  of  use  in  the  Church's  growth  and  life. 
 He  will  possess  a  concensus  of  the  very  best  that  has  come  down 
 as  a  heritage.  He  early  learns  that  the  formularies  of  worship 
 are  but  the  expression,  by  the  soul,  of  the  faith,  teachings  and 
 life  of  the  Church.  By  connecting  this  fact  with  that  other  of 
 the  golden  memory  age  will  he  prepare  himself  to  make  the  most 
 of  his  opportunities  in  fixing  the  truths  of  holy  religion  firm  and 
 deep  in  the  minds  of  his  class;  knowing  it  is  the  seed,  which  is 
 the  Word,  he  is  sowing  into  a  soil  that  will  be  productive  of  a 
 rich  fruitage  in  days  to  come. 
 
 Primarily  it  rests  upon  the  Pastor  to  lead,  direct  and  instruct 
 all  who  teach  in  the  schools  of  the  Church,  and  iipon  these  teach- 
 ers, secondarily,  is  the  duty  to  study  the  nature  and  deeper  spir- 
 itual meaning  of  the  Church's  worship,  and  to  invest  themselves 
 with  the  heartfelt  devotional  attitude  toward  true  worship  and 
 be  filled  with  its  deeper  spiritual  feeling  so  they  may  '  'out  of  the 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 abundance  of  the  heart"  speak  sound  words  of  Hfe,  and  bj-  pre- 
 cept and  example  show  their  pupils  the  "more  excellent  way." 
 
 The  instructor  of  youth  being  full  of  his  subject,  and  feeling 
 its  importance,  will  the  more  readily  teach  the  sacred  song  which 
 soothes  the  sorrows,  assuages  pain,  encourages  the  disheartened 
 and  lifts  the  soul  God- ward.  He  will  have  his  class  commit  to 
 memory  those  standard  hymns  with  which  the  battles  of  the 
 Church  have  been  fought  and  through  which  souls  have  been 
 drawn  to  Christ,  as  also  the  psalmody  of  the  inspired  writer  of 
 Israel  for  soul  strengthening  and  prayer.  He  will  analyze  and 
 explain  the  hymns  for  the  several  seasons  of  the  Church  Year. 
 Each  part  of  the  Catechism  or  statement  of  Christian  doctrine, 
 will  be  set  forth  and  its  relation  to  each  part  as  an  act  of  worship 
 be  fully  defined. 
 
 In  fact  he  will  teach  that  every  doctrine  and  every  liturgical 
 act  have  an  inner  harmony  and  unity,  creating  one  beautiful  and 
 complete  whole  as  the  offering  of  the  heart  to  God  in  solemn 
 worship  and  praise. 
 
 "Here  Thy  praise  is  gladly  chanted, 
 Here  Thy  seed  is  dul}'  sown : 
 Let  my  soul,  where  it  is  planted. 
 Bring  forth  precious  sheaves  alone." 
 
 R.  E.  McDaniel. 
 Spring  dale,  Pa. 
 
THE  SACRIFICIAL  IDEA  IN  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP. 
 
 Over  against  all  other  forms  of  worship,  Christian  worship  has 
 a  character  of  its  own,  the  true  realization  of  the  communion 
 between  God  and  man.  This  character,  although  formally  re- 
 lated to  the  worship  of  the  temple  and  the  synagogue,  is  distinct 
 from  them  both  as  to  its  principle  and  its  contents.  Christian 
 worship  has  all  its  springs  in  the  person  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ. 
 The  atoning  sacrifice  of  our  Lord  is  so  clearly  the  centre  of  His 
 person  and  work  as  to  constitute  the  vital  source  of  the  two  great 
 elements  of  Christian  worship,  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial. 
 Christian  worship  is  a  communion  between  God  and  man,  based 
 upon  Divine  communication  of  grace,  followed  by  responsive  ac- 
 ceptance of  the  Divine  gifts.  In  the  order  of  actual  worship,  the 
 sacramental  element  of  communicating  grace  has  the  precedence, 
 and  the  responsive  sacrificial  human  element  follows.  But  both 
 as  constituent  parts  of  the  Service  flow  from  the  fountain  of 
 Christ's  sacrifice.  In  this  Divine-human  sacrifice,  the  two  parts 
 of  the  Christian  worship  have  their  original  and  originating  point 
 of  union.  The  two  essential  factors  of  worship  are  to  find  their 
 formal  external  manifestation  in  harmony  with  the  rule  laid  down 
 in  Scripture:  "Let  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order." 
 I  Cor.  14:  40.  How  this  principle  has  been  applied,  as  regards 
 the  sacrificial  element,  will  become  apparent  as  we  proceed.  In 
 this  connection,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  this  principle  requires 
 an  ofi&cial  leadership  of  the  congregation,  which  the  Lord  has 
 provided  for  by  instituting  the  office  of  the  Holy  Ministry. 
 
 THE  PERIOD  OF  NORMAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  SACRIFICIAL  IDEA. 
 
 The  New  Testament  requires  the  whole  man  as  a  sacrifice, — 
 all  that  he  is  and  has  by  God's  grace.     As  a  priesthood  of  believ- 
 
 (Ixxxix) 
 
90  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ers,  enabled  by  grace  to  serve  God  acceptably,  we  are  by  Jesus  to 
 offer  the  sacrifice  of  praise  to  God  continually,  that  is,  the  fruit 
 of  our  lips,  giving  thanks  to  His  name.  But  to  do  good  and  to 
 communicate  forget  not:  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is  well 
 pleased.  Heb.  12:  28;  13:  15,  16.  The  Apostle  Paul,  writing  to 
 the  Philippians,  rejoices  at  the  prospect  that  he  may  perhaps  be 
 offered  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  their  faith — Phil.  2:  17, 
 and  he  beseeches  the  Romans  by  the  mercies  of  God  to  present 
 their  bodies  a  living  sacrifice.  Rom.  12:  i.  St.  Peter  also  says 
 that  this  holy  priesthood  is  to  offer  up  spiritual  sacrifices,  accept- 
 able to  God  by  Jesus  Christ,  i  Pet.  2:5.  As  the  entire  man  is 
 to  present  himself  as  a  sacrifice,  so  the  whole  of  his  life  is  to  be 
 the  sphere  of  his  offerings.  But  the  individual  is  not  to  isolate 
 himself  in  this  regard.  There  is  a  communion  of  saints,  a  fel- 
 lowship of  believers,  a  spiritual  house,  a  holy  priesthood,  enjoy- 
 ing sacramental  blessings  in  common,  and  uniting  in  the  sacrifi- 
 cial expression  of  gratitude  as  a  congregation.  All  the  spiritual 
 sacrifices  of  Christians,  specified  in  the  New  Testament  may  be 
 divided  into  two  classes:  on  the  one  hand,  the  fruit  of  the  lips, 
 prayer,  confession,  praise,  thanksgiving,  and  on  the  other,  the 
 fruit  of  activity — a  holy  walk,  good  works,  the  consecration  of 
 all  one  is  and  has  to  the  service  of  the  brethren. 
 
 The  worship  of  the  Pentecostal  Church  is  described  in  Acts 
 2:  42 — "And  they  continued  steadfastly  in  the  Apostles'  doctrine 
 and  fellowship,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers."  In- 
 terpreting the  word  Koivwvia,  fellowship,  in  accordance  with  its  use 
 in  2  Cor.  9:13  and  Heb.  13:  16,  we  have  one  of  the  elements  of 
 New  Testament  sacrificial  worship,  communication,  liberal  dis- 
 tribution, giving  to  those  in  need,  an  expression,  a  result  of  fel- 
 lowship, of  communion.  This  act  includes  the  offering  of  the 
 general  prayer,  in  addition  to  which  we  have  the  prayers,  irpoa- 
 evxai,  which  accompanied  the  other  parts  of  the  Ser\'ice  of  tlu 
 Pentecostal  congregation.  The  Services  which  were  held  in  the 
 temple,  were  public  Services  apparently  coincident  with  the  usual 
 hours  of  prayer,  while  the  meetings  held  "from  house  to  house," 
 were  private  gatherings.  There  is  no  reason  to  think,  that  the 
 meetings  in  the  temple,  apart  from  the  mere  association  with  the 
 place  and  the  hours  of  prayer,  indicate  a  distinction  between 
 Jewish  and  Gentile  Christian  forms  of  worship.  All  the  elements 
 of  Christian  worship  named  in  Acts  2:  42,  were  observed  in  the 
 
THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  91 
 
 congregational  gatherings  in  private  houses.  In  all  probability- 
 sacred  song,  at  least  the  psalmody,  and  that  in  all  likelihood  an- 
 tiphonal,  formed  a  part  of  the  Service,  Eph.  5:  19;  Col.  3:  16; 
 James  5:  13.  There  is  here  no  confusion  or  perversion  of  the  re- 
 lation between  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  elements  of  the 
 Service.  The  first  hint  in  this  direction  occurs  in  the  '  'Shepherd 
 of  Hermas"  where  gifts  to  widows,  orphans  and  the  poor  are 
 spoken  of  as  propitiatory,  meritorious:  "  Z/^«  hostia  erit  accepia 
 Domino. ' '  Justin  restricts  the  sacrificial  phase  of  the  Eucharist 
 to  the  offering  of  bread  and  wine  for  the  Sacrament  and  before 
 the  consecration  of  the  elements,  but  he  does  lay  exceptional 
 stress  on  these  offerings  over  against  pra3'er  and  gifts  for  the 
 poor.  There  is  no  departure  from  the  lines  laid  down  by  the 
 Apostolic  Church  until  we  reach  the  Old  Catholic  Period. 
 
 THE    DETERIORATION    OF  THE   SACRIFICIAL    IDEA. 
 
 The  pioneer  of  the  tendency  toward  confusion  by  perversion 
 is  the  man  who  stamped  the  impress  of  his  powerful  personality 
 on  the  language  of  the  Western  Church:  Tertullian.  At  the 
 close  of  the  second  century,  hovvcver,  we  meet  with  a  Church 
 Father,  who  belongs  to  the  East  and  the  West,  and  who  serves 
 to  a  slight  extent  as  a  connecting  link  between  Justin  and  Ter- 
 tullian, namely  Irenseus. 
 
 His  position  is  essentially,  one  might  sa}^  dogmatically 
 speaking,  equivalent  to  that  of  Justin.  Irenaeus  knows  nothing 
 of  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  of  Christ  or  of  a  priesthood  on  which 
 that  sacrifice  depends.  He  distinguishes  three  forms  of  sacrifice: 
 first,  the  fruit  of  the  lips;  secondly,  gifts  of  charity  to  the  needy; 
 thirdly,  bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  as  the  first-fruits 
 of  God's  creatures,  to  be  consecrated  by  the  eucharistic  prayer. 
 The}'  are  consecrated  by  the  prayer  to  their  sacramental  use,  af- 
 ter which  they  are  eucharistic,  i.  e.,  the  communion  of  the  earth- 
 ly and  the  Heavenly.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  confusion  of 
 the  sacrificial  and  the  sacramental  elements  is  noticeable  in  Ire- 
 nffius,  and  it  is  even  more  pronounced  than  in  Justin.  Irenaeus 
 terms  the  entire  Service  of  the  Eucharist,  from  the  prayer  ad- 
 dressed to  the  Fabricator  imaidi,  to  the  consecration  inclusive, 
 the  Novi  Testaincnti  nova  oblatio,  vm  Trpocr^opa  ev  ttj  Katvy  SwiOrjKr)- 
 He  does  not  confine  himself  to  such  expressions  as  "we  offer  to 
 God  bread  and  the  cup  of  benediction."     He  goes  a  step  farther. 
 
92  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  views  the  act  of  consecration  as  a  sacrificial  act,  the  prayer  of 
 consecration  as  a  sacrificial  prayer,  thus  drawing  the  sacramental 
 act  in  the  narrower-  sense,  into  the  sacrificial  sphere.  Further, 
 he  states  that  the  Lord  taught  Christians  to  sacrifice,  when  He 
 said:  "This  is  My  body,  My  blood." 
 
 Finally,  in  his  desire  to  prove  that  Christian  sacrifice  is  not 
 carnal  but  spiritual,  he  points  out  how  Christians,  after  they 
 returned  thanks  over  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  gifts  of  God  in 
 creation,  call  upon  the  Holy  Spirit  to  make  this  sacrifice  as  the 
 body  and  blood  of  the  Lord  prove  a  spiritual  blessing  to  those 
 who  partake  of  it.  The  consecration  becomes  a  part  of  the  sacri- 
 ficial action.  Yet  all  this  must  not  lead  one  to  infer  that  Irenaeus 
 has  in  mind  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Not  in 
 the  least.  The  Eucharist  is  only  a  sacrifice,  because  it  is  accom- 
 panied by  prayer,  and  all  prayer  is  sacrificial.  But  in  emphasiz- 
 ing the  subjective  side  of  the  Eucharist,  human  action  and  prayer 
 in  such  a  w^a}^  as  to  place  the  Sacrament  on  the  same  line  with  our 
 thank-offerings,  he  goes  bej'ond  Justin.  There  is  an  advance  in 
 the  general  direction  of  confusing  the  sacrificial  and  the  sacra- 
 mental. In  this  particular  instance,  the  Sacrament,  notwith- 
 standing the  fact  that  it  is  known  and  appreciated,  is  put  into  the 
 background  compared  with  man's  function  in  connection  with  it, 
 and  human  thanksgiving  and  prayer  is  the  leading  object  of  con- 
 sideration. We  notice  that  the  sacrificial  idea  is  being  warped. 
 Such  expressions  as:  "/y,  qui  offert^  glo7'ificatur  ipse  /;/  co,  quod 
 offert,  si  acccptchir  Dunnis  ejus,"  and,  "Deus  in  se  assumit  bonas 
 operationes  nostras  ad  hoc,  ut  prcsstet  nobis  irtributioncm  bonorum 
 suoruvi,''  indicate  that  the  pure,  unselfish  spirit  of  responsive 
 gratitude  is  being  alloyed  by  the  introduction  of  human  merit. 
 Before  leaving  Irenaeus  our  attention  may  be  directed  for  a  mo- 
 ment to  the  antiquity  of  the  expression,  "world  without  end," 
 CIS  Tous  aiwms  twv  aitovov,  which  was  then  already  used  as  a  conclud- 
 ing formula  of  prayer  in  the  administration  of  the  Holy  Com- 
 munion. 
 
 In  Tertullian  the  Eucharist  from  the  sacrificial  point  of  view, 
 controls  the  whole  situation,  the  entire  Service.  The  sacrifices, 
 indeed,  are  prayers,  thanksgiving,  alms,  good  works,  and  bread 
 and  wine.  He  knows  nothing  of  a  sacrifice  of  the  body  of  Christ. 
 But  he  looks  upon  the  entire  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  as  a 
 sacrifice,  and  the  idea  of  the  Service,  and  that  of  this  eucharistic 
 
THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  93 
 
 sacrifice  are  practically  identical.  We  must  not  forget  that  the 
 disciplina  arcaiii  originated  at  this  time,  and  that  the  line  was 
 drawn  between  the  homiletic-didactic  Service  to  which  non-Chris- 
 tians were  admitted,  and  the  eucharistic  sacramental  Service 
 which  was  private,  and  restricted  to  those  who  were  baptized. 
 Tertullian  is  very  guarded  in  his  allusions  to  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 The  comprehensive  view  taken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  sacri- 
 fice is  best  illustrated  by  the  advice  he  gives  to  those  who  are 
 fasting.  He  advises  them  to  be  present  during  the  celebration  of 
 the  Communion,  but  not  to  partake  of  the  bread  at  that  time, 
 but  later  in  their  homes,  that  in  this  way  the  participation  in  the 
 sacrifice  would  be  2iSS\xrQd,  pai^ticipatio  sacrificii  salva.  Thus  the 
 whole  act  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  sacrifice.  Besides  the  sacrifi- 
 cial idea  is  applied  to  matters  outside  the  Service,  such  as  fasting 
 and  penitential  observances.  The  notion  of  merit  has  infected 
 the  entire  Church  in  the  time  of  Tertullian.  Prayer,  fasting, 
 alms,  as  works  of  penitence,  possess  a  meritorious  power  and  sig- 
 nificance. They  are  works  of  satisfaction.  According  to  Ter- 
 tullian: "A^(37/  enim  oravius  tantuvi,  sed  et  dcprecaniiir,  et  satisfaci- 
 mus  Deo  Domino  nostra.''  No  Roman  mass  as  yet,  no  sacrifice 
 of  the  body  of  Christ  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins, — but  prayers 
 and  oblations  are  offered  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  ev- 
 ery needed  grace.  Why  not  apply  the  meritorious  power  thus 
 connected  with  the  Eucharist  to  the  martyrs  and  others  who  had 
 departed  this  life?  The  step  which  leads  to  this  goal  is  not  a  long 
 one.  Ignore  the  sacramental,  regard  the  Service  chiefly  as  wor- 
 ship, overemphasize  the  sacrificial,  and  the  way  to  Rome  is  open. 
 Up  to  this  time  we  have  heard  nothing  of  sacerdotalism  in 
 its  relation  to  the  sacrificial  element.  How  does  Tertullian  view 
 this  relation? — In  the  first  place  he  lays  great  stress  on  the  uni- 
 versal priesthood  of  all  Christians.  Clearer  and  stronger  lan- 
 guage than  his  is  not  found.  ''Nonne  ct  laid  sacerdotes  sicmus? 
 Scriptum  est:  regnum  quoqiie  nos  ct  sacerdotes  deo  et  patri  sno  fe- 
 cit,'" and,  ''Sed  ubi  tres,  ecclesia  est,  licet  laid.''''  All  Christians 
 are  priests,  and  as  such  originally  authorized  to  exercise  the 
 functions  of  the  priesthood,  and  in  case  of  necessity  may  do  so, 
 but  for  the  sake  of  order  in  the  Church,  one  takes  the  place  of 
 all,  and  does  that  which  all  are  entitled  to  do.  If  the  office  of 
 the  ministry  is  an  outflow  of  the  universal  priesthood,  if  his  func- 
 tions are  sacerdotal,  if  the  minister  of  the  Word,   only  officiates 
 
94  MEMOIRS. 
 
 as  the  organ  of  the  priestly  congregation,  then  the  office  of  the 
 ministry  is  a  priesthood,  a  sacerdotiiim.  The  idea  of  a  minister 
 of  the  Word  and  Sacraments,  a  dispenser  of  the  means  of  grace, 
 is  foreign  to  his  conception;  but  the  one  who  presides  is  a  sacerdos, 
 a  priest,  and  offcrre,  to  bring  sacrifice,  is  his  office  and  his  ser\ice. 
 Here,  again,  in  the  office  of  the  ministry,  we  have  the  sacrificial 
 point  of  view  made  prominent  over  the  sacramental. 
 
 The  sacerdotal  character  of  the  ministerial  office  retains  its 
 paramount  position  in  the  view  taken  by  Cyprian,  but  the  bearers 
 of  the  office  are  not  regarded  as  priests  because  they  bring  the 
 prayers  of  the  congregation  before  God  in  its  name;  they  are  not 
 the  priests  of  the  congregation;  they  do  not  officiate  before  God 
 in  the  name  of  the  congregation;  on  the  contrar>'  they  are  the 
 priests  of  God,  who  act  in  the  name  of  God  for  the  good  of  the 
 congregation.  The  prayers  they  offer  are  not  the  prayers  of  the 
 congregation,  but  rather  acts  enjoined  by  God,  for  the  spiritual 
 welfare  of  the  congregation,  for  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins,  and 
 their  reception  into  the  good  will  of  God.  Cyprian  voices  a  false 
 realism  in  his  estimate  of  prayer,  which  in  itself  is  too  spiritual, 
 lacks  contents,  and  must  be  supplemented  in  order  to  be  a  true 
 offering.  Gifts,  alms,  fasting  must  be  added,  and  fill  up  the 
 void.  Moreover  Cyprian  extends  the  sacrificial  view  of  the  Eu- 
 charist so  as  to  include  the  passion  of  our  Lord.  The  old  view 
 that  bread  and  wine  are  oflFered  by  thanksgi^'ing  before  the  con- 
 secration as  \.\\^  primitice  crcatiirariun  disappears  entirely.  "Pas- 
 sio  est  Domini  sac7'ificiiim,  quod  offerimusy  Again  in  the  institu- 
 tion of  the  Holy  Supper  the  Lord  as  the  High-Priest  offers  up 
 His  body  and  blood  to  the  Father,  under  the  bread  and  whie 
 which  is  an  imago  dominiccs  passionis.  The  institution  of  the 
 Sacrament  is  a  part  of  the  passion,  and  is  termed  'Sacrijia'um 
 quod  Christus  obtulerit,''  and  the  Lord  Himself  is  "Socri/icii  Iiujus 
 audor  ct  doctor. ''  The  passion  of  our  Lord  was  accomplished 
 once  for  all  on  the  cross,  but  the  celebration  of  the  Sacrament  is 
 a  constant  repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  a  commemoration, 
 in  which  the  Lord's  passion  is  offered,  presented,  brought  before 
 the  Lord.  This  view  is  not  identical  with  the  doctrine  of  the 
 Church  of  Rome.  Cyprian  places  a  part  of  that  which  belongs 
 to  the  death  of  Christ  into  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 The  death  of  Christ  includes  both  the  presentation  of  Himself  by 
 Christ,  and  the  sufTcrings  of  the  Lord  in  His  sacrifice.     Cj'prian 
 
THE   SACRIFICIAI,    IDKA    IN    CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP.  95 
 
 separates  the  former  from  the  death  of  the  Lord,  and  includes  it 
 in  the  Sacrament,  hence  our  Communion  is  only  a  repetition  of 
 the  first,  and  of  the  High-Priestly  self-presentation  which  took 
 place  on  that  occasion,  but  not  yet  a  repetition  of  the  sacrificial 
 death  of  Christ. 
 
 A  detailed  discussion  of  the  development  within  the  Greek 
 Church  is  unnecessary.  Our  object  is  to  trace  the  perversion  of 
 the  sacrificial  sphere,  and  its  reformation.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
 the  Greek  Church  has,  in  this  regard,  taken  essentially  the  same 
 course  as  the  Latin,  which  has  surpassed  it  in  logical  thorough- 
 ness, dogmatic  precision,  liturgical  fulness,  and  formal  develop- 
 ment. The  difference  in  the  liturgical  evolution  of  the  Greek 
 Church  begins  to  show  itself  already'  after  Cyprian  and  the  Eighth 
 Book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitution.  The  language  of  Cyril  of 
 Jerusalem,  and  especially  of  Chrysostom  are  indicative  of  the  in- 
 creasing confusion  respecting  the  character  of  the  Sacrament. 
 
 The  line  of  Latin  continuity  lies  in  the  North  African  Church, 
 and  Augustine  is  the  next  to  take  up  the  thread.  How  does 
 Augustine  differ  from  Cyprian?  In  theory,  or  rather  by  his  deep 
 knowledge  of  sin  and  grace,  Augustine  stands  in  opposition  to 
 Cyprian,  as  the  representative  of  the  prevailing  ideas  of  merit 
 and  satisfaction.  In  practice,  however,  he  was  not  always  con- 
 sistent. Not  infrequently  we  find  him  yielding  to  the  popular 
 practice,  upholding,  extenuating,  defending  it.  This  accounts 
 for  the  limitation  of  his  salutary  influence  on  the  development  al- 
 ready in  progress.  Hence  his  deep  and  often  correct  views, 
 compared  with  those  of  his  time,  have  no  immediate  future. 
 Cyprian  and  Augustine  start  from  different  points  of  view.  Cy- 
 prian's view  of  the  Service  begins  with  the  sacerdotal  office, 
 whose  essential  function  it  is  to  offer  sacrifices  for  the  congrega- 
 tion. Augustine  here  interposes  the  idea  of  the  Sacrament.  He 
 holds  that  every  Service  is  carried  out  by  means  of  sacrifices, 
 which  we  offer  to  God;  but  every  sacrifice,  in  so  far  as  it  does  not 
 stop  with  the  inner  offering  of  the  heart,  but  expresses  itself  in 
 external  acts,  is  a  sacrament;  in  other  words,  every  Service,  in  so 
 far  as  it  is  not  purely  internal,  is  rendered  by  means  of  sacra- 
 ments, which  are  sacrifices.  Thus  Augustine  views  the  idea  of 
 the  Service  from  the  subjective  point  of  view,  a  human  function 
 before  God,  service  and  reverence  shown  to  God.  The  other 
 side,  the  dealing  of  God  with  man  by  means  of  the  Word,  Bap- 
 
9G  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  is  not  ignored,  but  is  simply  regarded 
 as  the  prerequisite  of  worship,  in  which  the  Service  consists.  The 
 means  of  grace  are  virtually  outside  the  conception  of  the  Service 
 as  such.  Divine  Service  is  not  God's  doing  in  relation  to  man, 
 but  man's  doing  before  God.  This  is  his  argument:  God  is  the 
 highest  good;  only  by  a  vital  connection  with  this  highest  good 
 can  man  find  the  salvation  he  craves;  and  the  worship  of  God 
 consists  in  all  that  man  does  in  order  to  put  and  maintain  himself 
 in  vital  communion  with  God. 
 
 And  this  constitutes  his  conception  of  sacrifice:  All  that 
 man  does  in  order  to  bring  about  and  preserve  his  living  com- 
 munion with  God  is  sacrificial.  Dcum  colere  and  Deo  sanificare 
 are  synonymous.  The  Divine  side  is  almost  lost  from  sight. 
 One  might  think  that  -Augustine's  subjective  conception  of  the 
 sacrificial  would  find  a  corrective  in  the  fact  that  he  terms  every- 
 sacrifice  a  sacrament.  But  Augustine's  definition  of  a  sacrament 
 includes  everj^  visible  and  real  manifestation  of  spiritual  and  Di- 
 vhie  things.  Of  cour.se  the  sacrifice,  in  order  to  be  called  and  to 
 be  a  sacrament,  even  though  it  be  only  an  offering  brought  by 
 man,  nnist  have  and  present  something  Divine  and  spiritual. 
 ''Etsi  cnim  ab  homine  Jit  vel  offerfur,  tamcn  sacrificium  res  divina 
 est.''  But  this  need  not  be  a  Divine  act  affecting  man;  it  need 
 only  be  an  act  of  man  directed  toward  God;  it  is  sufficient  if 
 man's  sacrifice  is  offered  for  God's  sake, — to  make  the  sacrifice  a 
 sacrament.  For  example,  a  work  of  mercy  done  from  a  mere 
 philanthropic  motive,  would  not  be  a  sacrifice,  because  it  is  not  a 
 res  divina,  but  a  work  of  mercy  done  for  God's  sake,  is  a  sacri- 
 fice. Accordingly  a  sacrament  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  Di- 
 vine act,  but  even  a  mere  human  act  becomes  a  sacrament  when 
 it  is  done  with  reference  to  God.  In  this  sense  Augustine  is  to 
 be  understood  when  he  says:  ''Saerijiciian  ergo  visibi/is  invisibilis 
 sacrijidi  sacramentum,  id  est  saenim  sign  urn  est."  The  result  is 
 that  by  this  peculiar  combination  Augustine  presences  a  sacra- 
 mental idea  in  the  Service,  and  in  a  new  way  lets  the  sacramental 
 be  absorbed  by  the  sacrificial,  the  act  of  God  by  the  act  of  man. 
 If  we  now  enter  into  the  extent  of  the  sacrificial  sphere  as  viewed 
 by  Augustine,  wc  find  that  fasting,  ascetic  acts,  martyrdom,  are 
 sacrifices  as  well  as  the  works  of  mercy  and  love,  as  they  are  all 
 done  for  the  good  of  one's  own  soul.  All  must  be  done  for  God's 
 sake,  for  His  glory,  if  they  are  to  have  any  .sacrificial  value.     All 
 
the:  sacripiciai,  idea  in  christian  worship.  97 
 
 these  works  are  sacrifices  because  tliey  proceed  from  within,  are 
 external  signs  of  our  internal  consecration  to  God.  The  real 
 sacrifice  consists  in  the  complete  consecration  of  ourselves  with 
 all  that  we  have  and  are  to  God  Who  has  redeemed  us  through 
 the  one  Mediator  and  High-Priest,  and  all  those  external  acts, 
 alms  as  well  as  prayers,  the  fruit  of  the  lips  as  well  as  the  fruit 
 of  works,  are  only  the  individual  signs  and  activities  of  this  real 
 and  true  sacrifice.  Herein  Augustine  reaches  back  with  depth 
 and  decision  to  the  older  views  of  Christian  sacrifice,  which  in 
 C)^prian,  had  already  fallen  into  the  background.  But  Augus- 
 tine does  not  continue  in  this  right  path,  but  departs  from  it  in 
 two  directions.  First,  he  makes  all  that  transpires  in  the  Chris- 
 tian Service  to  belong  to  his  conception  of  sacrifice.  Every  act 
 of  the  Service  is  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  self-consecra- 
 tion. Even  the  celebration  of  the  Christian  festivals.  His  view 
 of  the  character  of  such  a  festival  is  not  that  God,  on  those  days 
 by  His  Word,  renews  the  memory  of  His  great  deeds  and  faith  in 
 them,  but  that  we  celebrate  those  great  deeds  of  God,  and  offer 
 thanks  to  God  for  them.  And  this  applies  to  the  Lessons,  and 
 the  Sermon,  and  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  Here  believers  of- 
 fer themselves  up  to  God  by  offering  up  the  body  of  Christ.  The 
 sacramental  yields  to  the  sacrificial.  {De  Civ.  Dei,  X.  6.)  In 
 the  second  place,  we  find  that  all  the  offerings  of  prayers,  good 
 works  and  the  like  are  instances  of  devotion,  but  not  a  responsive 
 yielding  up  of  ourself  to  God,  but  when  man  ha^been  born  again 
 by  baptism,  are  of  an  atoning  character,  man  offering  up  him- 
 self in  Christ  to  God,  as  Christ  has  offered  Himself  to  God  by  the 
 complete  sacrifice  of  our  nature  as  the  atonement  and  propitia- 
 tion.    In  the  Eucharist  the  Church  offers  itself  up  to  God. 
 
 In  the  Church  of  Rome  at  the  time  of  Innocent  I,  according 
 to  a  letter  written  by  him  in  415  to  a  bishop  named  Decentius, 
 we  find  in  the  Roman  liturgy  a  conscious,  logically  consistent 
 formal  application  of  the  sacrificial  theor}^  as  applied  to  the  Lord's 
 Supper,  at  a  period  when  the  liturgies  of  all  other  churches  were 
 still  oscillating  between  the  old  forms  and  those  which  corre- 
 sponded to  the  sacrificial  theory.  Half  a  century  later  Eeo  I. 
 holds  that  consecration  effects,  brings  about  the  body  and  blood 
 of  Christ:  ''' Sacramentiim  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi  conficere.''' 
 What  took  place  in  the  death  of  Christ,  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  is 
 repeated  in  the  Lord's  Supper.     Gregorj^  the  Great,  (590-604), 
 
98  MEMOIRS. 
 
 concludes  the  theory  as  such  even  in  its  practical  bearings.  He 
 applies  the  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  his  doctrine  of 
 purgaton*'.  The  conclusion  is  evident:  If  the  Holy  Supper 
 availed  for  the  dead,  the  presence  of  those  who  were  to  be  bene- 
 fited by  it  was  unnecessary,  and  the  Sacrament  was  simply  a 
 sacerdotal,  atoning  act,  performed  by  the  priest  for  man,  howev- 
 er distant,  reaching  even  into  the  depths  of  purgaton,-,  if  it  were 
 only  done  in  behalf  of  the  person  whom  it  was  intended  to  aid. 
 The  sacrificial  idea  had  reached  the  climax  of  its  distortion,  and 
 the  misdirected  current  flowed  on  in  unchecked  force  throughout 
 the  entire  mediaeval  period. 
 
 THE   RESTORATION   OF   THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  centurj-^  paid 
 due  regard  to  the  historical  continuity  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 WHiere  the  correcting  touch  of  revision  was  needed  the  work  of 
 restoration  was  conducted  deliberately  and  carefully  until  the 
 result  was  reached.  As  early  as  the  year  1518  Luther  begins  to 
 develop  the  principles  on  which  the  restoration  of  the  Ser\'ice 
 depended.  In  discussing  the  existing  arrangements  he  uses  the 
 Word  of  God  as  the  guide  and  touch-stone.  His  tractate  on 
 "The  Ten  Commandments  preached  to  the  people  at  Wittenberg," 
 gave  him  the  opportunity  to  refer  to  the  Sendee  in  treating  of 
 the  third  Commandment.  With  increasing  clearness  he  contin- 
 ues along  this  line  year  after  year,  initil  he  could  embody  the 
 results  in  his  ''' Dexdsche  Messc  2ind  Ordnung  Gottesdienstes^''  in  the 
 year  1526.  Most  of  the  Lutheran  orders  of  Ser\'ice  in  the  first 
 half  of  the  sixteenth  century  are  based  on  Luther's  "German 
 Mass."  The  principle  which  dominates  the  entire  Lutheran 
 cultus  is  this:  Every  Service  must  contain  a  sacramental  ele- 
 ment; no  Service  dare  consist  of  the  purely  sacrificial  element; 
 the  sacramental  is  the  fundamental ;  the  sacrificial  is  the  accident- 
 al element.  The  sacramental  leads  the  way;  the  sacrificial  fol- 
 lows. Luther  expresses  this  very  clearly:  "If  man  desires  to  be 
 in  touch  with  God,  and  to  receive  aught  at  His  hands,  this  is  the 
 proper  course:  Man  dare  not  begin  and  lay  the  first  stone,  but 
 God  alone  must  first  come,  without  any  cjuest  or  desire  on  the 
 ])art  of  man  He  must  first  come,  and  give  man  a  promise.  This 
 same  Word  of  God  is  the  first  thing:  the  foundation,  the  rock, 
 on  which  the  works,  words  and  thoughts  of  man  are  built;  this 
 
THE   SACRIFICIAL   IDEA    IN    CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  99 
 
 Word  man  is  to  receive  with  thanks  and  to  believe  the  Divine 
 assurance  with  a  true  heart,  and  in  no  wise  doubt  that  it  is  and 
 comes  to  pass,  in  accordance  with  the  Divine  assurance."  The 
 two  elements  of  public  worship  are  here  recognized  together  with 
 their  relation.  The  Service  is  a  responsive  one.  In  some  acts 
 the  two  elements  are  found  together:  hymns  are  not  always  pure- 
 ly sacrificial,  nor  are  sermons  always  exclusively  sacramental. 
 The  reading  of  the  Word,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  adminis- 
 tration of  the  Sacrament  are  entirely  sacramental,  while  the  of- 
 fering of  prayer  is  solely  sacrificial.  Bearing  this  qualification 
 in  mind  it  will  be  easy  to  distinguish  those  parts  of  the  Service, 
 whose  distinguishing  character  is  the  expressive  attitude  of  the 
 recipient  worshiper  to  the  Divine  Giver  of  grace.  The  distinc- 
 tion is  as  obvious  as  the  difference  is  real  and  one  might  say  nec- 
 essary in  the  nature  of  the  case.  The  false  sacerdotalism  of  the 
 deterioration  disappears,  and  the  congregation  resumes  its  proper 
 functions  in  the  entire  order  of  worship. 
 
 A  glance  at  the  constituents  of  the  sacrificial  sphere  impress- 
 es one  with  the  fulness  of  the  responsive  opportunity.  All  muti- 
 lation is  at  an  end.  The  Sacrament  is  administered  in  its  com- 
 pleteness, and  the  Sacrament  itself  marks  the  completeness  of 
 the  full  Service.  Reverently  we  enter  the  vestibule  of  sacrificial 
 worship.  The  Introit  has  its  devotional  culmination  in  the  Gloria 
 Patri,  and  prepares  the  way  for  that  cry  out  of  the  depths,  the 
 supplication  for  mercy  addressed  to  the  I,ord  in  the  Kyrie  filled 
 with  the  same  burden  as  the  Agnus  Dei.  And  now  arises  the 
 great  Gloria  in  Excclsis,  an  angelic  outburst  of  adoration  and 
 prayer  to  the  Triune  Source  of  grace.  The  brief  prayer  for  the 
 presence  of  the  lyord  with  the  minister  is  followed  by  the  collect- 
 ive presentation  of  all  the  wants  of  the  Church  in  the  Collect  for 
 the  Day.  The  note  of  joyous  praise  is  continued  after  the  Epistle 
 and  the  Gospel,  the  hallelujah  of  the  Old,  akin  to  the  victorious 
 shout  hosanna,  and  the  New  Testament  ascription  of  praise  to 
 Christ.  Faith,  the  centre  of  the  human  movement  throughout 
 the  Service,  finds  special  utterance  in  one  of  the  Creeds,  and  then 
 the  hymn,  representative  of  that  wealth  of  responsiveness  in 
 which  the  Reformation  Church  abounds  and  rejoices.  After  the 
 offertory,  the  General  Prayer,  so  comprehensive,  so  majestic  in 
 its  simplicity,  so  beautiful  in  its  dignity.  The  model  prayer  giv- 
 en by  the  I^ord  is  the  fitting  conclusion  of  this  sacrifice.     Nor 
 
1 00  MEMOIRS. 
 
 dare  the  Litany  be  forgotten,  that  gem  which  Luther  says  is  the 
 best  after  the  Lord's  Praj'er,  that  has  come  upon  earth,  or  that 
 may  be  thought  out  by  man.  Before  the  closing  hymn  the  ma- 
 terial offerings  are  placed  upon  the  altar,  denoting  the  consecra- 
 tion of  the  least  as  well  as  the  greatest.  All  thought  of  merit,  of 
 atoning  efficacy  is  absent  from  the  sacrifices  thus  offered,  and  the 
 Service  has  been  restored  to  its  original  purity.  All  in  all,  the 
 Service  shines  out  in  the  beauty  of  holiness,  radiant  in  all  its 
 man}'  jewels  of  praise,  whether  of  intonation  or  responsory,  from 
 the  Adjiitormm  to  the  Niuic  Dimittis,  so  suggestive  of  the  sacri- 
 fices of  the  Church  on  high. 
 
 Principal  Source: — Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandhmgen. 
 
 G.  F.  Spieker. 
 Mt.  Airy,   Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
THE  PIvACE   OF  LITURGY 
 IN  THE   CHURCH'S   THOUGHT,    UFE   AND   ART. 
 
 It  is  of  no  small  importance  to  attempt  an  outline  of  the  place  of 
 liturgy  in  the  whole  sphere  of  the  thought,  life  and  art  of  the 
 Church.  Such  an  attempt  will  indicate  the  wide  relationship, 
 the  far-reaching  dependence,  and  the  deep  and  necessary  influ- 
 ence of  liturgy.  Perhaps  it  may  serve  to  impress  some,  to  whom 
 liturgies  appears  as  one  of  the  appendices  of  practical  theology 
 appealing  to  certain  aesthetic  souls  but  of  very  minor  value  to  the 
 whole  Church,  with  the  error  of  their  position.  Others,  in  be- 
 coming more  fully  conscious  of  the  dependence  of  liturgies  and 
 seeing  it  in  the  whole  organism  of  Christian  theology  and  life, 
 may  be  prevented  from  an  enthusiastic  overestimation  and  an 
 excessive  emphasis  of  liturgy  in  practise. 
 
 If  liturgy  is  considered  in  its  place  in  the  Church,  it  is  with 
 no  necessary  theory  of  the  Church  as  a  presupposition,  but  sim- 
 ply for  the  reason  that  in  the  Church  liturgy  has  its  place.  This 
 is  to  be  marked  in  the  thought  of  the  Church,  i.  e.,  its  theology; 
 in  the  life  of  the  Church,  which  theology  comprehends  in  its  in- 
 tellectual unfolding  and  wliich  it  influences  through  its  "divine 
 content;  and  in  the  art  of  the  Church,  which,  in  the  beautiful, 
 gives  expression  of  the  truth  of  thought  and  life. 
 
 The  thought  of  the  Church  arises  from  the  interpretation  and 
 imderstanding  of  the  message  given  her  by  her  Founder  and  Cor- 
 ner-stone, and  His  Apostles,  guided  and  led  by  His  Spirit. 
 Whatever  preparatory  and  prophet io  message  the  whole  and  the 
 parts  of  the  Old  Testament  contain,  is  normative  only  in  the 
 light  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  New  Testament.  The  shadows  of 
 the  old  covenant  are  determined  by  the  substance  of  the  new,  but 
 the  new  covenant  is  not  to  be  interpreted  by  the  forms  of  the  old. 
 But  the  New  Testament  contains  the  germs  of  new  fixed  forms. 
 
 (ci) 
 
102  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Christ,  Who  fulfilled  the  law  and  the  prophets,  not  only  reveres 
 the  Old  Testament  forms  and  the  Old  Testament  Temple-ser\'ice, 
 but  He  also  indicates  that  the  new  wine  of  the  Kingdom  is  not 
 to  be  without  vessels,  but  is  to  be  found  in  new  skins.  (Matt. 
 9:  17;  Mark  2:21;  Luke  5:  37).  The  new  spirit  of  the  Kingdom 
 is  not  to  be  formless,  but  to  have  new,  adequate  forms.  Jesus 
 looks  forward  to  the  worship  in  spirit  and  truth  (John  4:  23), 
 and  yet  He  teaches  His  disciples  upon  their  request,  not  simply 
 a  model  but  also  a  form  of  prayer.  (Luke  11:  i  ff.  cf.  Matt.  6: 
 9  ff.).  And  the  very  "Abba"  of  the  Spirit  in  the  heart  of  be- 
 lievers (Rom.  8:15;  Gal.  4:  6)  is  the  echo  not  only  of  the  Lord's 
 own  prayer  (Mark  14:  36),  but  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  given  the 
 disciples.  The  Spirit  takes  Christ's  form  of  "Our  Father"  and 
 uses  it  to  move  the  heart  to  cry  out  in  childlike  confidence.  And 
 is  it  not  an  indisputable  fact,  that  the  most  anti-liturgic  churches 
 have  kept  the  very  words  of  this  form  of  prayer,  and  contend  for 
 the  words  "debts"  and  "debtors"  as  against  "trespasses"  used 
 by  liturgic  churches.  This  simply  proves  that  the  Lord's  Prayer 
 is  universally  accepted  as  a  form.  In  baptism  the  command  "in 
 the  Name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost" 
 (Matt.  28:  19)  has  been  and  is  generally  received  as  a  formula. 
 The  free  homiletic  utterance  of  Peter,  "in  the  name  of  Christ" 
 (Acts  2:  38)  is  neither  the  starting  point  of  Matt.  28:  19,  which 
 is  textually  so  well  established,  nor  its  abrogation.  The  other 
 institution  of  Christ,  His  Supper,  to  be  held  in  remembrance  of 
 Him  (Luke  22:  19;  i  Cor.  11:  24),  is  the  nucleus  for  a  form,  and 
 the  prayers  and  celebration  which  grew  out  of  it  are  indicated  in 
 the  word  "testament"  and  furthered  by  the  command  "this  do." 
 If  we  enter  the  assemblies  of  the  early  Apostolic  Church,  we 
 find  the  disciples  met  for  "the  prayers"  (Greek  text.  Acts  2:  42), 
 which  seem  to  be  not  Jewish  prayers,  though  these  and  their 
 hours  were  still  observed  (Acts  3:  i),  but  the  new  Christian 
 prayers,  connected  with  "the  fellowship"  and  "the  breaking  of 
 bread,"  i.  e.,  the  Communion.  The  more  certain  are  we  of  this 
 as  the  congregation  at  Jerusalem  "with  one  accord  lifted  up  their 
 voice' '  to  what  is  the  earliest  known  psalm  of  Christian  thanks- 
 giving, kindling  the  new  praise  b}^  the  old  promise  as  they  said: 
 "Lord,  Thou  art  God,  Which  hast  made  Heaven,  and  earth,  and 
 the  sea,  and  all  that  in  them  is;  Who  by  the  mouth  of  Thy  serv'ant 
 David   hast    said,    Why  did    the   heathen  rage,   and  the  people 
 
THE   PLACE   OF   I.ITURGY.  103 
 
 imagine  vain  things?  The  kings  of  the  earth  stood  up,  and  the 
 rulers  were  gathered  together  against  the  L,ord,  and  against  His 
 Christ.  For  of  a  truth  against  Thy  holy  child  Jesus,  Whom 
 Thou  hast  anointed,  both  Herod,  and  Pontius  Pilate,  with  the 
 Gentiles,  and  the  people  of  Israel,  were  gathered  together,  for  to 
 do  whatsoever  Thy  hand  and  Thy  counsel  determined  before  to 
 be  done.  And  now,  I^ord,  behold  their  threatenings:  and  grant 
 unto  Thy  servants,  that  with  all  boldness  they  may  speak  Thy 
 Word,  by  stretching  forth  Thine  hand  to  heal;  and  that  signs  and 
 wonders  may  be  done  by  the  Name  of  Thy  holy  child  Jesus." 
 (Acts  4:  24-30.)  Could  this  beautiful  psalm  have  been  prayed 
 in  common,  unless  it  had  been  a  form  commonly  known  and 
 prayed  by  the  body  of  believers  ?  Did  the  Holy  Spirit  ever  pro- 
 duce psalms  and  hymns  and  prayers  through  the  voice  of  a  mul- 
 titude, or  not  always  through  the  individual  ?  The  further  de- 
 velopment of  the  liturgy  of  the  Apostolic  Church  is  not  merely 
 indicated  by  "psalms,  hymns,  spiritual  songs"  (Eph.  5:  19;  Col. 
 3:  16),  pointing  to  the  retention  of  Jewish  psalmody  and  the 
 beginning  of  Christian  hj'mnody,  but  there  is  evidently  in  the 
 announcement  of  the  mystery  of  godliness  (i  Tim.  3:  16)  the 
 rhythm  of  an  early  hj-mn  to  Christ,  (cf.  Plinj^'s  letter:  a  hymn 
 to  Christ  as  God).  There  is  in  this  hymn  the  ring  of  confession. 
 The  confession  at  baptism  is  beginning  to  grow  into  a  creed. 
 And  it  is  highly  probable,  as  Theodore  Zahn  contends,  that  in 
 the  light  of  subsequent  history  we  may  conclude  from  the  com- 
 parison of  I  Tim.  6:  12,  13;  2  Tim.  2:  8;  Rom.  i:  3;  2  Tim,  4:  i; 
 Acts  10:  42;  I  Pet.  4:  5;  2  Tim.  2:  2;  3:  10;  i:  13,  14,  that  Tim- 
 othy confessed  Christ  is  a  creed,  which  contained  according  to 
 clear  evidence  "of  the  seed  of  David,"  standing  "before  Pontius 
 Pilate,"  and  to  come  "to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead,"  and 
 probably  it  contained  more,  if  we  give  due  consideration  to  the 
 researches  of  Kunze.  At  this  same  time  of  Paul's  late  labor  we 
 can  also  note  the  growth  of  the  general  prayer  as  seen  in  i  Tim. 
 2:  I. 
 
 All  these  exegetic  facts  placed  in  the  light  of  New  Testament 
 freedom  furnish  the  foundation  as  well  as  the  norm  for  liturgy. 
 
 But  not  only  does  the  whole  liturgy  rest  on  such  proofs,  but 
 individual  parts  are  exegetically  defensible.  If  we  take  "The 
 Kyrie"  of  the  Morning  Service  and  the  common  objection  to  its 
 place,  we  shall  find  upon  examination,  that  the  liturgy  has  kept 
 
104  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  primary  meaning  of  "Kyrie  eleison,"  as  a  cr>'  for  mercy  in 
 bodily  misery.  (Matt.  9:  27;  15:  22;  17:  15:  20:  30;  Mark  10:  47: 
 Luke  17:  13;  18:  38).  Though  other  individual  features  may 
 not  show  such  literal  usage,  yet  in  the  freest  sacrificial  echo  of 
 the  Word  there  is  an  aptness  and  correctness,  which  often  has 
 not  at  all,  or  at  least  very  slightly,  been  touched  by  exegetic  ab- 
 errations. The  truth  is  kept  much  more  correctly  than  in  the 
 freedom  of  homiletical  employment.  There  is  a  large  opportuni- 
 ty for  minute  investigation  and  proof  of  this  fact  in  showing  the 
 correct  transmission  of  much  Bible  truth  embedded  in  the  liturgy^, 
 which  was  kept  during  the  darkest  period  of  the  Church's  de- 
 formation. Therefore  the  Reformers,  despite  their  fundamental 
 change  of  attitude,  could  use  so  much  of  the  liturgic  material  of 
 the  Roman  Church. 
 
 It  has  become  evident,  that  the  interpretative  thought  of  the 
 Church,  showing  the  inception  of  development,  leads  into  ^Z^^/;)'. 
 The  Church's  thought  was  unfolded  in  time.  Liturgies  cannot 
 be  understood  luiless  we  trace  its  growth;  how  it  developed  to  the 
 third  century  as  a  SerA-ice  of  the  congregation,  prayers  and  hymns 
 first  clustering  about  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  how,  soon  after,  the 
 degeneration  begins  with  the  growth  of  the  hierarchic  idea,  the 
 change  of  the  sacrament  into  a  sacrifice,  the  introduction  of  hea- 
 then ideas  of  mj'steries,  and  how,  later,  the  written  fixation  takes 
 place  in  the  fourth  century,  and  the  priestly  cultus  is  gradually 
 developed  into  the  rich  symbolism  of  the  Eastern  and  the  present 
 Russian  Church,  for  which  liturgj^  is  a  constituent  exponent  of 
 its  elemental  ceremonialism,  or  how  it  degenerated  in  the  West 
 where  the  idea  of  sacrifice  gains  even  larger  practical  import,  and 
 where  the  Ser\'ice  must  also  lend  itself  to  express  the  Latin  rule 
 of  the  Latin  priest.  In  this  history  it  is  of  interest  to  note  the 
 influence  of  Gregory  I.  in  wedding  most  closely  the  growing  lit- 
 urgy to  the  growing  CliurcJi  Yiar.  Both  belong  together,  both 
 CO- work.  The  truth  and  justification  of  one  implies  that  of  the 
 other.  Gregory  with  all  his  errors  has  in  this  helped  to  shape  a 
 true  union  and  given  a  pro]:)er  impulse.  But  the  Church  Year 
 and  the  liturgy  in  their  interrelation  of  development  and  charac- 
 ter have  not  yet  been  adequately  described.  The  coming  back  of 
 the  old  Gospel  necessitated  the  removal  of  many  unevangelical 
 barnacles  in  liturgy,  but  it  as  such  was  not  repudiated  at  Wit- 
 tenberg or  Geneva.     Later,  radicalism  from  Zwinglian  impulses, 
 
THE   PLACE   OF  LITURGY.  105 
 
 one-sided  spiritualism,  leveling  rationalism  have  given  many  a 
 wrong  conception  of  the  attitude  of  the  Reformers  and  the  neces- 
 sity of  evangelical  truth,  and  these  and  cognate  influences  still 
 enable  uninformed  and  prejudiced  men  to  interpret  the  evangel- 
 ical freedom  of  the  Reformers  as  rejection  of  the  historic  Service 
 of  the  Church,  while  here  as  everywhere  the  programme  was: 
 reformation,  not  revolution;  purification,  not  rejection. 
 
 lyiturgy  was  conserved  by  the  Reformers  as  a  legacy  of  his- 
 tory, as  a  gift  of  the  Spirit  leading  into  truth  despite  error.  All 
 those  rites  were  to  be  kept,  which  could  be  kept  without  sin. 
 Evangelical  truth  cleansed,  it  did  not  destro}^  the  historic  liturgy. 
 It  has  been,  it  appears  to  me,  one  of  the  errors  of  later  systema- 
 tization  to  place  the  historical  stud}^  of  liturgies  into  the  practical 
 department.  On  the  basis  of  its  direct  practical  application  and 
 its  use  in  the  congregation  it  has  been  subjected  to  much  disfig- 
 urement. The  present  demand  is  made  regulative  of  liturgy. 
 Some  late  writers  on  liturgies,  influenced  by  the  conception  that 
 the  liturgy  is  predominatingly  a  practical  science,  are  beginning 
 to  suggest  changes  in  the  essential  elements  and  thoughts  of  the 
 Service,  because  their  conception  of  evangelical  does  not  measure 
 up  to  that  of  the  Reformers.  This  is  a  part  of  that  individual- 
 ism which  still  claims  large  rights  in  determining  liturgic  ques- 
 tions and  usages  on  the  plea  of  the  present  condition  and  state  of 
 the  churches.  Individual  choice  adds,  removes,  transposes  with 
 the  claim  of  the  right  of  individuality  in  practical  theology.  All 
 this  flows  from  the  erroneous  position  of  liturgies.  If  it  were 
 assigned  to  the  historic  department,  it  were  not  only  removed 
 from  these  dangers,  but  it  would  be  where  it  belongs  by  its  ge- 
 netic, determinative,  and  characteristic  principles.  These  princi- 
 ples and  not  the  application  determine  the  place  of  a  science.  In 
 our  land  the  IvUtheran  Churches,  who  have  adopted  the  Common 
 Service,  have  virtually  been  moved  thereto  by  historic  reasons. 
 The  fundamental  rule  for  the  formation  of  this  Service,  the  com- 
 mon consensus  of  the  pure  liturgies  of  the  i6th  century,  is  a  his- 
 torical rule.  Why  do  we  hesitate  to  emphasize  in  thought  what 
 we  have  affirmed  in  practise?  Historical  character  does  not 
 mean  archseological  exactness.  The  truly  historical  in  Christian- 
 ity ever  influences  the  living  present  and  has  never  been  imprac- 
 ticable. The  conservation  of  the  great,  fundamental,  historical, 
 principles  means  no  slavery  to  antiquated  forms,  but  it  guarantees 
 
lOG  MEMOIRS. 
 
 for  the  present  the  objective  majesty  and  power  of  the  grand  old 
 forms  and  prayers,  which  still  appeal  to  the  human  heart  and  by 
 their  ver\'  dignit)'  and  simplicity  stand  for  the  unchangeable  ver- 
 ities of  Christianitj'.  Whatever  minor  changes  may  be  contem- 
 plated can  only  be  made  by  those,  who,  understanding  fully  the 
 historical  character  of  liturgy,  are  also  competent  to  judge  of  the 
 practicability  not  by  the  standard  of  defective  conditions  but  of 
 educative  possibilities. 
 
 The  historical  character  of  liturgies  is  irenic.  It  voices  the 
 harmony  of  the  great  common  centre  of  faith.  In  it  saints  of 
 every  age  have  prayed,  and  it  expresses  a  wonderful  communion 
 of  saints.  Polemics  may  have  their  place  in  the  sermon,  but  the 
 language  of  the  liturgy,  the  language  of  devotion,  does  not  at- 
 tack. It  cannot,  when  true  to  its  principles,  pennit  the  sanctity 
 of  the  Communion  to  be  marred  by  any  formula  like  "this  is  the 
 trtie\iO(\.y  of  the  Lord,"  which  savors  of  discussion  and  contro- 
 versy. Nevertheless  it  is  not  undecided.  It  is  a  clear  expression 
 of  the  symbolic  position  of  a  Church.  In  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene 
 Creeds  the  old  common  rules  of  faith  voice  the  faith  once  (onra^) 
 delivered  to  the  saints.  In  the  very  Holy  of  Holies,  the  sac- 
 rament of  the  altar,  definite  formulas  give  forth  a  clear  sound  of 
 a  definite  faith.  It  is  this  confessional  import,  this  living  impress 
 of  faith  and  creed,  which  the  liturgy  bears,  that  explains  how  it 
 can  be  attacked  by  those,  whose  difficulty  finally  is  not  with  the 
 liturgy  but  with  the  creed  upon  which  it  rests. 
 
 This  symbolic  value  of  liturgy,  especially  when  seen  in  the 
 historic  development,  at  once  shows  how  the  full  understanding 
 of  liturgies  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  the  History  of  Dogma 
 and  Doctrine.  In  this  its  own  history  is  fully  bound  up.  The 
 doctrine  of  the  Church  and  the  ministry'  have  ever  influenced 
 worship.  The  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the 
 purgatory  and  other  wrong  doctrines,  beside  the  true,  have  al- 
 ways acted  and  reacted  upon  the  liturgy. 
 
 The  whole  historic  character  of  liturgies  forms  its  theoretical 
 apologetic.  This  derives  its  force  when  compared  with  the  forms 
 of  other  religions.  The  most  corrupt  form  of  Christian  liturgy- 
 will  be  found  immeasurably  above  the  ceremonies  of  all  other 
 faiths.  Apologetics  has  not  j'et  begun  to  use  this  argument  to- 
 gether with  other  lines  of  reasoning,  as  cumulative  in  the  defence 
 of  Christian  faith. 
 
THE  PIvACE   OF   LITURGY.  107 
 
 The  truest  apologetic  within  Christianity  was  given  by  the 
 doctrinal  impress  of  the  Reformation,  Its  reconnection  with  the 
 ^original  faith  made  the  liturgy  correct  and  put  it  on  the  proper 
 doctrinal  foundation.  Three  great  evangelical  doctrines  serve  to 
 -explain  it.  The  doctrine  of  the  Word  of  God,  the  Word  as  it 
 Hves  in  the  Gospel  and  as  the  sacraments  individuate  it,  while 
 resting  on  its  power,  is  the  truth  and  strength  of  the  sacramental 
 side  of  liturgy.  God's  gifts  come  through  His  Word.  Whatev- 
 er is  imparted  of  grace,  forgiveness,  faith,  is  through  the  Word, 
 in  which  the  Spirit  dwells  and  through  which  He  works.  There 
 can  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  sacramental,  the  God- 
 giving,  side  of  liturgy,  where  the  doctrine  of  the  Word  is  really 
 believed.  The  second  great  doctrine  is  that  of  the  priesthood  of 
 believers.  The  evangelical  Service  is  that  of  the  congregation. 
 The  royal  priesthood  prays,  responds,  sings.  This  thought  of 
 the  right  of  the  believer,  as  a  priest,  in  the  Service  was  very  fun- 
 damental with  the  Reformers,  Because  of  it  the  Service  was 
 rendered  into  the  vernacular,  and  the  people  were  given  back 
 their  ancient  privilege.  Wherever  this  truth  is  reall}^  alive,  there 
 can  be  no  misunderstanding  of  the  sacrificial,  the  man-giving,  side 
 of  the  Service.  It  is  only  where  it  is  perverted  in  a  Romish  man- 
 ner, or  where  the  Reformed  minister  usurps  the  right  of  the  peo- 
 ple in  worship,  that  it  is  objected  to.  The  priesthood  of  believers 
 is  the  safeguard  against  liturgy  being  imposed  as  a  yoke.  But  it 
 must  be  clearly  determined,  that  royal  priesthood  does  not  mean 
 the  right  of  majority,  the  Messrs.  Omnes,  as  IvUther  called  the 
 indiscriminate  and  indiscriminating  mass.  The  true  priest  is  on- 
 ly the  believer.  Not  the  whole,  actual  congregation,  but  the 
 spiritual  core  of  the  congregation  is  the  priesthood.  Even  this 
 may  be  weak  and  its  weakness  must  be  respected.  Yet  the  more 
 a  believer  out  of  faith  grows  in  love  he  will  be  ready  upon  infor- 
 mation to  surrender  individual  preferences  and  to  receive  a  com- 
 mon Service  even  when  he  does  not  at  once  fully  see  its  bearing, 
 as  long  as  he  is  assured  that  the  faich  is  pure.  Intermediate  and 
 connecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Word  and  the  priesthood  of  be- 
 lievers is  the  doctrine  of  the  ministry.  It  was  given  to  the 
 Church  with  the  Word  and  for  its  preaching,  with  the  sacraments 
 and  for  their  administration.  But  it  is  filled  from  the  spiritual 
 priests,  who  elect  to  the  ministry  those  whom  Christ  marks  by 
 His  gifts  of  grace.     When  the  minister  announces  the  Word, 
 
lOS  MEMOIRS. 
 
 whether  in  preaching  or  sacramental  administration,  he  is  carr>^- 
 ing  out  the  sacramental  part  of  the  Service.  Christ  speaks 
 through  His  servant.  Whoso  heareth  the  minister  heareth 
 Christ,  provided  that  the  minister  announce  only  Chri.st's  mes- 
 sage. When  the  minister  confesses  sins,  prays,  he  is  carrying 
 out  the  sacrificial  side  of  the  Service,  bringing  the  spiritual  sac- 
 rifices of  the  people  as  one  of  the  spiritual  priests,  at  times  speak- 
 ing for  them,  at  times  only  with  them.  This  conception  changes 
 much,  which  in  Roman  and  Anglican  liturgy  has  a  different 
 meaning.  In  such  an  incidental  matter  as  the  attitude  of  turning 
 to  and  from  the  people  the  evangelical  doctrine  gives  the  true  ex- 
 planation. When  the  minister  turns  to  the  people,  he  speaks  as 
 the  messenger  of  God.  How  the  meaning  of  this  attitude  is 
 misconceived;  for  while  it  elevates  the  minister  it  is  commonly 
 regarded  as  Protestant  co-ordination.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
 the  minister  as  one  of  the  spiritual  priests  turns  to  the  altar, 
 bringing  at  this  symbolic  place  the  sacrifice  of  prayer,  the  dignity 
 of  his  office  is  not  at  all  emphasized.  This  turning  to  the  allar  is 
 in  evangelical  liturgy  a  sign  of  the  very  freedom,  which  some  fear 
 to  lose  in  this  symbolic  act.  Thus  in  a  very  minor  point  we  can 
 note  the  influence  of  doctrine  upon  evangelical  liturgy. 
 
 Nor  does  the  dogmatic  alone  influence  liturgy.  It  is  finally 
 in  its  totality  prayer.  But  the  whole  subject  of  prayer  is  an 
 ethical  question.  Ethics  determines  the  source  of  prayer,  it 
 shows  its  freedom,  it  unfolds  the  necessity  of  the  use  of  forms, 
 and  portrays  by  psychological  analysis  the  growth  of  a  form  out 
 of  the  ethical  life,  which  in  prayer  but  specializes  the  fonnative 
 character  of  virtue  in  the  whole  of  ethical  life.  Ethics  develops 
 in  its  communal  part  the  relation  of  the  Church  in  its  prayers  as 
 well  toward  God,  as  toward  itself.  The  edification  which  liturgy 
 offers,  in  the  whole  edification  of  the  body  of  Christ,  is  an  ethical 
 question.  Errors  in  understanding  liturgy  very  often  arise  from 
 a  lack  of  thorough  and  balanced  study  of  the  subject  of  prayer 
 and  its  place  in  Christian  life  of  the  individual  and  the  Church. 
 
 The />rar//Vrt//)a;V  of  theology  also  stands  in  closest  relation 
 with  the  liturgy.  Homilctics  is  determined  by  the  fact  that  the 
 sermon  follows  the  creed,  and  that  it  must  express  the  faith  con- 
 fessed. Yet  at  the  same  time  the  sermon  adds  the  element  of  in- 
 dividuality and  freedom.  The  pulpit  is  the  place  for  much  which 
 is  erroneously  done  at  the  altar.     The  work  of  the  pastor  is  aided 
 
TITE   PLACK   OF   LITURGY.  109 
 
 b}^  the  liturgj^  his  care  of  souls  is  easier,  when  he  has  seen  the 
 reflection  of  the  soul-life  of  centuries  at  its  height  in  the  out- 
 breathings  of  prayers  and  collects.  His  strength  is  rekindled  at 
 the  fire  of  many  a  saintly  intercession.  He  finds  in  the  Service 
 points  of  contact,  through  which  he  may  pass  from  that  which  is 
 familiar  to  a  soul  to  that  which  is  less  familiar.  The  very  dig- 
 nity of  the  liturgy  gives  the  pastor  in  the  freedom  of  pastoral 
 work  a  power,  which  is  not  possessed  by  those  not  thus  inspired, 
 lyiturgy  truly  used  makes  good  praying  ministers  and  people. 
 The  form  does  not  kill,  but  as  the  form  of  sound  words  adds 
 power  and  comfort.  This  influence  of  liturgy  is  its  practical 
 apologetic  known  to  those  who  employ  it,  and  never  im.agined  by 
 the  prejudiced  who  have  not  fairly  attempted  to  find  its  true 
 spirit. 
 
 Liturg37^,  though  it  cannot  be  used  in  the  beginning  of  mis- 
 sionary effort,  among  the  heathen  or  at  home,  yet  may  be  a  pow- 
 erful educator,  if  it  be  wisely  and  judiciously  introduced.  It  can 
 lead  to  order  and  by  its  stately  power  impress,  incite,  inspire 
 men. 
 
 The  indication  of  these  relations  in  theology  have  everywhere 
 touched  on  questions  of  life.  But  the  life  of  the  Church  is  pecul- 
 iarly seen  in  liturgy  as  devotion.  Liturgy  is  the  common  expres- 
 sion of  the  experience,  that  God  has  com.e  to  men,  and  that  men 
 may  come  to  God.  This  approach  in  evangelical  worship  is  a 
 free  one.  It  rests  on  grace  experienced,  to  which  God  ever  testi- 
 fies anew.  Every  Service  helps  and  furthers  devotion.  It  is 
 true  that  devotion  is  not  circumscribed  by  the  fixed  acts  of  wor- 
 ship, but  through  them,  if  they  are  true,  it  receives  its  deepest 
 impulse.  Devotion  has  created  the  liturgy,  which  is  the  outcome 
 of  soul -life  in  petition  and  praise  on  the  basis  of  God's  promise 
 and  gift.  Devotion  can  alone  understand  the  Service.  It  is  on- 
 ly where  there  is  no  Christian  life,  no  reality  corresponding  to 
 profession,  or  where  this  life  is  unsound,  that  liturgy  becomes  a 
 dead  letter  and  an  idle  form.  It  oily  kills  where  men  do  not 
 live  in  the  Word.  It  is  a  savor  of  death  to  the  dead.  But  the 
 living  Christian,  whatever  his  intellectual  attitude,  the  prejudices 
 of  his  education,  or  the  warp  of  his  ecclesiastical  position,  must, 
 if  he  honestly  looks  into  liturgy,  find  in  it  gem  upon  gem  of  the 
 purest  water  of  spiritual  life  and  true  devotion. 
 
 The  truth  of  this  life  can  and  ought  to  come  to  beautiful  ex- 
 
110  MEMOIRS. 
 
 pressioii.  This  is  arl.  Christian  art  must  begin  with  the  Word. 
 It  must  grow  out  of  its  beauty  of  spirit  and  form.  How  full> 
 does  this  beauty  appear  in  the  depth  of  devotion,  which  the 
 Psahns  breathe.  The  reflection  of  this  beauty,  augmented  by 
 the  sublime  art  of  the  structure  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  has  fallen 
 upon  the  Church's  Ser\'ice.  The  knowledge  and  understanding 
 of  its  beauty  can  impress  the  sermon  with  the  beauty  of  truth, 
 and  make  it  a  very  poem  in  prose.  Translations,  sometimes 
 made  by  men  without  artistic  perception,  have  taken  away  from 
 the  beauty  of  the  ancient  forms  of  the  liturgy.  But  it  ought  to 
 be  our  endeavor,  in  whatever  language  we  worship,  to  carry  with 
 us  something  of  this  wonderful  beauty  of  the  Service.  Nearest 
 to  the  art  of  the  Word,  and  seeking  it  in  its  highest  triumphs  is 
 the  art  of  music.  In  the  Church  it  can  never  be  pure  tone,  but 
 always  word-tone  and  tone  of  the  Word.  The  character  of  the 
 Service  must  determine  the  character  of  the  music.  It  must  be 
 objective,  simple,  grand,  churchly,  majestically  monotone  in  its 
 sacramental  part,  and  can  be  freer,  richer  in  the  sacrificial  part, 
 but  never  with  the  involved  harmony  of  worldly  music,  express- 
 ing the  wild  and  passionate  throb  of  the  natural  man.  The  har- 
 mony of  sound,  w^hich  must  appropriately  clothe  the  word,  ought 
 to  be  accompanied  by  the  harmony  of  structure,  the  harmony  of 
 architecture.  Stones  can  and  ought  to  be  w'ords.  The)-  ought  to 
 tell  what  the  Servdce  says.  Liturgy  should  determine  architect- 
 ure. Whatever  form  is  best  adapted  to  our  liturgy  caunot  be  so 
 easily  decided,  though  the  preference  seems  to  be  for  the  Gothic 
 style.  The  great  objectivity  despite  all  freedom,  the  great  ma- 
 jestic lines  and  arches  must  somehow  speak  of  the  heavenward 
 sweep  of  prayer,  while  the  minor  arrangements  must  tell  of  bap- 
 tism, communion,  preaching  in  accord  with  the  great  historic 
 principles  of  worship.  When  art  becomes  plastic  or  pictorial  it 
 ought  to  avoid  the  modern  realism,  which  is  too  often  critical  in- 
 dividualism or  photographic  historicity,  and  adhere  to  the  histor- 
 ical idealism  of  ecclesiastical  forms.  Art  ought  to  speak  of  the 
 great  eternal  truths  in  no  whims  of  the  individual  artist.  It  may 
 have  its  sacrificial  place,  where  freer  motives  are  expressed,  but 
 these  dare  not  usurp  historic  objectivity  in  sculpture,  painting, 
 and  stained  glass,  as  little  as  in  music.  But  the  historic  in  art 
 must  be  used  in  no  spirit  of  sen'ile  imitation  nor  of  uncritical 
 importation.     It   must  agree    with    the    Evangelical    Service    in 
 
THE    PLACE   OF   LITURGY.  Ill 
 
 character  and  spirit.  Roman  and  Anglican  models  are  not  ade- 
 quate to  the  full  and  true  expression  of  the  L^utheran  litui'gy. 
 Therefore  this  must  finally  create  its  own  art,  equally  distant 
 from  unchurchly  individualism  and  ecclesiastical  slavery  of  sacer- 
 dotalism. The  great  fundamental  principles  of  the  sacramental 
 and  sacrificial  must  be  worked  out  in  their  proper  unity  and  sep- 
 arateness.  Only  with  these  guiding  principles  clearly  in  mind, 
 can  the  Church  rightly  use  art  to  speak  in  every  form  of  beauty 
 of  Him,  Who  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  sons  of  men,  by  spirit- 
 ualizing all  material  into  the  pure  and  lofty  echo  of  its  prayer 
 and  praise. 
 
 John  A.  W.  Haas. 
 
 New   York.  N.    Y. 
 
THE   LITURGICAI^   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM. 
 
 When  our  blessed  Ivord  said  to  His  Church,  "Go  ye  therefore, 
 and  make  disciples  of  all  nations,  baptizing  them  into  the  name 
 of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  He  as 
 positively  gave  the  essential  part  of  the  form  to  be  used  in  the 
 administration  of  this  sacrament  as  His  command  was  positive  for 
 the  institution  of  Baptism.  Widely  different  doctrines  have  been 
 developed,  untold  volumes  have  been  written,  bitter  discussions 
 have  constantly  been  raging,  and  the  Church  has  been  divided 
 by  schism  and  sect  all  because  men  have  been  determined  to 
 prove  that  Christ  made  full  provision  for  every  part  of  the 
 liturgy  to  be  used,  including  the  mode  of  applying  the  water,  and 
 the  particular  class  of  Christians  who  are  to  be  baptized.  All  the 
 bad  fruitage  that  comes  from  such  planting  would  not  have  had 
 to  be  gathered,  if  the  professed  followers  of  Christ  could  only 
 have  taken  Him  at  His  Word  and  realized  that  the  Savior  posi- 
 tively commands  all  to  be  baptized,  that  He  positively  promises 
 grace  through  this  sacrament,  fully  declaring  the  benefits  that 
 come  to  all  who  truly  receive  it;  but  that  Christ  has  left  it  to  the 
 choice  of  men — to  the  taste  and  development  of  the  Church — to 
 determine  how  the  water  is  to  be  applied  as  well  as  the  form  that 
 is  to  be  used  in  addition  to  the  words  of  Christ  by  which  He  in- 
 stituted this  blessed  sacrament  of  regeneration.  But  the  doc- 
 trines that  underlie  the  great  subject  of  Holy  Baptism  have  no 
 direct  place  in  this  discussion;  and  yet,  since  the  Liturgy  is  always 
 founded  on  positive  doctrines,  and  is  expressive  of  those  doc- 
 trines, it  is  impossible  to  ignore  the  doctrines  in  discussing  the 
 liturgical  history  of  Christian  Baptism. 
 
 The  very  nature  of  existing  conditions  determined  that  with 
 the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Church,  the  vast  majority  of  those 
 who  were  baptized  must  have  been  adults;  but  this  is  no  argu- 
 ment that  children  are  not  to  be  baptized.     Jesus  plainly  ascribes 
 
 (cxiii) 
 
114  MEMOIRS. 
 
 saving  faith  *  to  infants.  He  declares  the  child  to  be  the  model 
 Christian.!  And  the  Apostles  often  baptized  entire  households.  J 
 This  makes  it  very  probable  that  children  were  baptized  by  the 
 Apostles;  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  teaching  of  Christ,  or  in  the 
 practice  of  the  Apostles,  by  which  any  one  has  a  right  to  draw 
 the  conclusion  that  the  children  are  not  to  be  baptized.  There- 
 fore the  burden  of  proof  rests  with  those  who  teach  that  children 
 are  excluded  from  this  sacrament  (and  hence  from  the  Church), 
 which  is  a  doctrine  that  cannot  be  established  from  the  Word  of 
 God,  even  though  it  had  been  the  practice  of  the  early  Church, 
 and  is  well  supported  by  the  teachings  of  the  Church  fathers. 
 But  it  cannot  be  proven  that  there  ever  was  a  time  when  infants 
 were  not  baptized. 
 
 The  mode  of  applying  the  water  in  baptism  has  also  been  a 
 great  bone  of  contention.  And  it  is  very  plain  that  the  practice 
 of  immersion  was  due  to  custom  and  taste,  since  there  is  nothing 
 in  the  history  of  the  early  Church  that  denies  the  validity  of 
 sprinkling  and  pouring;  and  the  earliest  writing  of  the  fathers 
 plainly  shows  this:  namely,  "And  concerning  baptism,  thus  bap- 
 tize ye:  Having  first  said  all  these  things,  baptize  into  the  name 
 of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  living 
 water.  But  if  thou  have  not  living  water  baptize  into  other  wa- 
 ter; and  if  thou  canst  not  in  cold,  in  warm.  But  if  thou  have 
 not  either,  pour  out  water  thrice  upon  the  head  in  the  name  of 
 the  Father  and  Son  and  Holy  Spirit."  This  statement  of  the 
 Didache  is  acknowledged  by  all  as  having  been  written  at  least 
 between  loo  and  150  A.  D.  This  shows  that  the  early  Church 
 never  looked  upon  immersion  as  essential,  but  that  it  was  a  mat- 
 ter of  taste  only.  And  it  is  also  evident  that  Christians  were  al- 
 ways conscious  of  this  fact;  and  hence  the  practice  of  immersion 
 gradually  went  into  disfavor,  and  sprinkling  and  pouring  began 
 to  be  more  popular  with  the  Church.     But  still  for  about  thir- 
 
 •  Matt,  xviii.  6:  "Whoso  shall  cause  one  of  these  little  ones  which  believe  in 
 Me  to  stumble,  it  is  profitable  for  him  that  a  great  millstone  should  be  hanged  about 
 his  neck,  and  that  he  should  be  sunk  in  the  depth  of  the  sea.  The  word  fUKpwv 
 certainly  means  7vv-)'  little  children.  And  the  word  TriCTTevw  is  the  general  word  for 
 faith  used  all  through  the  New  Testament.     It  means  /u  adhere  as  well  as  to  trust. 
 
 t  Mark  x.  14:  Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto  Me;  forbid  them  not: 
 for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  God. 
 
 X  Acts  X.  48;   Acts  xvi.  15,  33. 
 
THK   LITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM.  115 
 
 teen  hundred  years,  immersion  was  all  but  the  universal  practice. 
 The  common  people,  however,  became  the  champions  of  pouring 
 and  sprinkling;  and  hence  this  became  at  last  the  general  usage. 
 And  after  this  reasonable  change  had  been  made,  and  had  be- 
 come the  mode  by  which  baptism  was  generally  administered, 
 and  since  the  practice  had  become  permanently  fixed,  then  the 
 Council  of  Ravenna  (1311)  decreed  that  the  mode  of  baptism 
 should  be  left  to  the  choice  of  the  officiating  minister.  Immer- 
 sion still  lingers  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  case  of  the 
 cathedral  of  Milan;  among  Protestants,  it  is  feebly  and  vainly  de- 
 fended by  the  numerous  Baptist  sects;  the  Oriental  and  the  Rus- 
 sian orthodox  Greek  Churches  require  even  a  threefold  immer- 
 sion to  this  very  day,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  and  they  look 
 down  upon  all  others  as  being  unbaptized  heretics.  The  Church 
 of  England  also  still  observes  immersion  in  theor^^  The  rubric 
 in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  says  that  the  minister  shall  in- 
 quire if  this  child  is  too  delicate  to  be  immersed,  and  upon  the 
 statement  of  the  parents  he  is  to  sprinkle  water  upon  its  head. 
 
 The  practice  of  immersion  had  evidently  come  into  use  at  a 
 very  early  date.  For,  by  the  opening  of  the  fourth  century,  spe- 
 cial baptistries  were  built  in  all  the  leading  cities.  The  baptistry 
 consisted  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  chamber,  having  separate 
 apartments  for  the  males  and  for  the  females.  The  candidates 
 undressed  as  if  entering  a  bath;  but  Hofling  says  that  those  parts 
 which  nature  and  reason  demand  to  be  concealed  were  always 
 kept  covered  during  the  reception  of  this  sacrament.  The  dea- 
 cons waited  upon  the  male  candidates,  and  the  deaconesses  at- 
 tended the  females.  These  attendants  rubbed  the  bare  limbs  of 
 the  candidates  both  before  and  also  after  the  baptism.  Each  of 
 the  newly  baptized  was  given  a  taste  of  honey  and  milk;  and  al- 
 so received  the  kiss  of  peace.  This  sacrament  was  generally  only 
 administered  on  Easter  and  on  Whitsunday;  and  at  first  took 
 place  between  the  hours  of  one  and  two  in  the  morning.  The 
 administration  of  this  sacrament  at  such  special  times  was  called 
 "Solemn  Baptism,"  especially  that  which  was  administered  on 
 the  above  named  days,  and  even  here,  the  decided  preference 
 was  for  Whitsunday. 
 
 The  liturgy  used  by  the  Apostles  themselves  must  have  been 
 very  simple;  and  we  have  nothing  in  the  New  Testament  that  in- 
 dicates that  any  preparation  was  ever  made  to  administer  Bap- 
 
116  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tism  by  any  special  mode.  They  evidentl}'  did  not  place  much 
 importance  on  the  manner  in  which  the  sacrament  was  adminis- 
 tered; and  it  was  not  at  all  necessary-  that  they  should.  There 
 was  enough  in  their  own  lives,  and  their  experience  with  Jesus, 
 that  would  make  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  solemn  to 
 all  to  whom  they  ministered.  For,  there  could  not  help  but  be  a 
 great  reverence  shown  them  b)^  all  classes  of  Christians,  on  ac- 
 count of  having  been  those  whom  the  Savior  had  chosen  to  walk 
 with  Him  and  to  be  His  holy  Apostles.  And  with  each  coming 
 generation,  this  respect  would  even  be  greater,  since  as  the 
 Church  became  older,  Christians  would  be  able  to  understand 
 what  a  distinguished  privilege  had  been  accorded  to  the  Apostles 
 in  being  chosen  to  be  the  companions  of  the  Lord. 
 
 But  immediately  after  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  we  have  ev- 
 idences of  a  churchly  disposition  in  ever)'thing  that  pertained  to 
 the  Church  of  Christ;  and  this  tendency  was  not  due  to  a  desire 
 to  please  the  world,  or  because  the  Chm-ch  was  losing  spirituality, 
 as  is  sometimes  intimated.  One  need  only  study  carefully  the 
 character  of  the  ancient  catechumenate  in  order  to  realize  that 
 the  discipline  of  the  Christian  Church  never  was  so  rigid  as  then. 
 It  seems  a  wonder  that  with  such  requirements  as  the  Church 
 then  made  of  those  who  sought  to  enter  her  communion,  together 
 with  the  terrible  heathen  persecution  which  appeared  constantly 
 about  to  crush  the  Christians  out  of  existence,  that  so  many  came 
 into  her  communion,  and  that  the  Church  grew  so  rapidly.  The 
 catechumenate,  like  almost  everj'thing  in  the  discipline  of  the 
 Church,  was  a  growth  and  not  something  suddenly  adopted. 
 But  that  it  had  a  rapid  development  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
 there  is  much  said  about  the  reception  of  catechumens,  as  early 
 as  the  third  century.  The  period  of  instruction  lasted  from  one 
 to  three  years,  during  which  time  the  candidate  was  passed  from 
 one  period  to  another  by  a  special  service  for  each  period.  At 
 first,  these  people  who  were  thus  undergoing  preparation  and  in- 
 struction were  not  permitted  to  be  present  at  many  of  llie  public 
 services  of  the  Church;  and  when  they  were  present  during  part 
 of  the  regular  services,  they  had  a  special  place  assigned  to  them. 
 But  as  they  advanced  toward  the  close  of  their  period  of  proba- 
 tion, they  were  permitted  to  be  presen  during  more  of  the  public 
 service,  and  those  who  had  completed  the  course,  and  were  re- 
 ceived as  candidates  for  baptism,  could  remain  during  all  the  ser- 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM.  117 
 
 vices.  When  the  catechumenate  was  fully  developed,  there  were 
 seven  distinct  steps  through  which  one  had  to  pass  before  he 
 could  be  received  into  the  communion  of  the  Church  by  the  sac- 
 rament of  Holy  Baptism.  These  steps  through  which  the  cate- 
 chumen was  required  to  pass,  were  named  from  the  parts*  of  the 
 divine  worship  in  which  they  were  permitted  to  take  part,  or  be 
 present. 
 
 St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (347  A.  D.)  gives  a  very  full  account 
 of  the  liturgy  of  baptism  as  used  at  that  place.  On  Easter,  the 
 candidates  assembled  in  the  outer  chamber  of  the  baptistry. 
 Facing  the  west,  they  said,  "I  renounce  Satan  and  all  his  works." 
 Then  turning  toward  the  east,  they  said,  "I  believe  in  the  Father, 
 and  in  the  Son,  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  one  baptism  of 
 repentance."  They  then  went  into  the  inner  chamber,  where 
 the  baptistry  itself  was,  put  off  their  garments,  were  anointed  with 
 oil  from  head  to  foot;  advanced  to  the  font.  Here  they  were 
 asked,  "Dost  thou  believe  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
 Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost?"  In  answer  they  witnessed  the 
 saving  faith  of  their  confession;  and  dipped  themselves  thrice  in 
 the  water.  And  coming  out  of  the  water,  they  were  clothed  in 
 white,  and  were  anointed  with  holy  oil,  on  the  forehead,  on  the 
 ears,  on  the  nostrils,  and  on  the  breast.  Then  followed  the  Holy 
 Communion,  of  which  the  newly  baptized  all  partook. 
 
 One  of  the  most  curious  of  all  the  ancient  baptismal  services 
 that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  Book  of  Christianity  (Baptismal 
 Book)t  of  the  Ethiopic  Church.  It  is  interesting  in  every  way, 
 following  the  order  of  all  of  the  liturgies  of  those  times,  and  yet 
 differing  from  all  of  them  in  most  of  the  material  that  composed 
 it.  The  servnce  is  arranged  to  be  administered  by  a  priest  and 
 aided  by  a  deacon;  seven  different  Scripture  lessons  are  read,  or 
 recited;  a  multitude  of  symbolic  acts  are  provided  in  the  rubrics. 
 Then  the  priest  leading  the  candidate  from  the  west  toward  the 
 east  (in  the  font),  takes  water,  sa3'ing,  "I  baptize  thee  in  the 
 name  of  the  Father,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Son,  and  in  the  name 
 
 *  F'or  the  liturgy  of  each  step  in  the  catechumenate,  see  Hoefling,  Vol.  I. 
 PP-  303-318. 
 
 t  Published  by  Prof.  Trumpp  of  Munich,  in  the  Ahhandlungender  Koen.  bayer, 
 Akademie  der  IVissenschafteii,  1878,  ICL.  Vol.  XIV.  Sec.  3,  pp.  155-167.  It  was 
 translated  into  English  by  Prof.  Geo.  H.  Schodde,  Ph.  D.,  Cap.  Univ.,  Col.  O.,  and 
 appeared  in  the  Lutheran  Qtiarterly  in  1882. 
 
lis  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  Hoh'  Ghost."  This  is  repeated  three  times.  Then  the 
 priest  at  once  begins  with  the  confirmation  service  without  any 
 interruption. 
 
 The  Gallican  liturgy  is  different  from  all  other  ancient  orders 
 in  the  peculiar  figurative  lauguage  used  in  the  opening  address. 
 A  synopsis  of  this  venerable  service  is  not  only  interesting  but 
 also  valuable.  "Standing,  dearest  brethren,  on  the  bank  of  this 
 crystal-clear  font,  bring  ye  from  the  land  to  the  shore  new-comers 
 to  ply  the  traffic  whereof  they  have  need.  Let  all  who  embark 
 on  this  voyage  make  their  way  over  this  new  sea,  not  with  rod, 
 but  with  the  cross;  not  with  traveller's  staff,  but  in  sacramental 
 mystery.  The  place  is  small  but  full  of  grace.  Happy  hath 
 been  the  pilotage  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Therefore  let  us  pray  the 
 Lord  God  that  He  will  sanctify  this  font,  and  make  it  a  laver  of 
 blessed  regeneration  in  the  remission  of  all  sins;  through  the 
 Lord."  Then  follows  (i),  Prcefatio  anteqiiam  exorcidictur;  (2), 
 Collectio;  (3),  Exorcismus  aqucefontis;  (4),  Prcefatio  ad  benedicen- 
 dumfontis;  (5),  Denedidio  fontis;  (6),  Contcstatio  fontis;  (7),  Pos- 
 tcafacis  criices  super  aqiiam  de  chrisma  et  diets;  (8),  Interrogatio; 
 (9),  the  act  of  baptism  itself,  Baptizo  te  eredentem  in  nomine  Pa- 
 tris,  et  Filii,  et  Spiritus  Sancti,  7it  habeas  vitam  cBternam  in  sceeula 
 sactdoriim;  (10),  Infusio  chrismce;  (11),  Ad  pedes  lavandos;  (12), 
 Post  baptismum. 
 
 The  best  account  of  the  liturgy  of  the  sixth  century  is  pre- 
 served in  the  Sacramentaries  of  Gelasius  and  Gregory.  It  was 
 very  much  the  same  as  the  more  ancient  liturgies  (only  more 
 lengthy),  with  this  notable  exception  that  it  was  rather  arranged 
 for  children  than  for  adults.  And  it  is  stated  that  a  great  deal 
 of  pomp  attended  the  administration  of  Baptism.  At  2  P.  M., 
 the  clergy  and  people  assembled,  the  ministers  being  clothed  in 
 the  usual  vestments.  The  ministers  went  within  the  sacrariuvi 
 and  a  lighted  taper  was  held  at  each  corner  of  the  altar.  The 
 choir  sang  the  Litania  Septena;  a  reader  went  up  to  the  ambon 
 and  read  eight  Scripture  lessons,  after  each  lesson  a  collect  was 
 sung,  and  before  the  last  lesson  was  sung  the  collect,  "Like  as 
 the  hart  desireth  the  water-brooks."  A  procession  was  formed 
 from  the  altar,  ad  foniem,  with  the  tapei--bearers,  a  minister  car- 
 rying the  ampulla  of  consecrated  oil.  At  the  font,  the  bishop 
 was  supported  by  a  deacon  on  each  side.  The  prayers  for  the 
 benediction  of  the  font  were  said  by  the  bishop,  who  at  one  place 
 
THE   I.ITURGICAL   HISTORY   OF    BAPTISM.  119 
 
 divided  the  water  (with  his  hands)  in  the  form  of  a  cross;  at  an- 
 other place,  he  held  a  lighted  taper  in  the  water;  at  another  place, 
 he  breathed  upon  the  water  three  times;  at  another  place,  he 
 poured  in  chrism  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  spreading  it  with  his 
 hands.  Then  those  who  presented  children  were  asked,  "  Vis 
 baptizarif  Response,  ''Volo.''  This  question  was,  however, 
 preceded  by  four  questions,  into  which  the  creed*  was  divided 
 for  this  purpose.  Then  the  children  were  baptized,  first  the  boys, 
 then  the  girls,  with  the  words  of  Christ,  ^'Ego  baptizo  te  in  nomi- 
 ne Patris,  et  Filii,  et  Spiritus  Sancti. ' '  One  of  the  priests  now 
 made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  with  chrism,  on  the  crown  of  the 
 head,  saying,  "Almighty  God,  the  Father  of  our  I^ord  Jesus 
 Christ,  Who  hath  regenerated  thee  by  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 and  hath  given  thee  remission  of  all  thy  sins,  anoint  thee  with 
 the  chrism  of  salvation  unto  eternal  life.  Amen."  Then  all  the 
 newly  baptized  were  confirmed,  their  names  being  given  them  in 
 the  confirmation.  The  service  was  concluded  with  the  Holy 
 Communion,  which  was  administered  to  infants  as  well  as  to 
 others.  This  was  likely  a  very  primitive  service;  and  upon  it 
 were  founded  all  the  leading  medieeval  offices  for  baptism.  But 
 the  service  was  still  made  far  more  lengthy  by  the  addition  of 
 many  ceremonies  and  symbolic  rites.  Hence  the  liturgy  for  bap- 
 tism was  finally  divided  into  three  parts:  "Ordo  ad  faciendum 
 Catechtimenuni,''''    '''■  Benedictio  Fontis,"   and   ''''Ritus  Baptizandiy 
 
 The  Church  administered  the  sacrament  of  Holy  Baptism  to 
 infants  in  the  same  waj^  as  to  adults,  only  in  the  case  of  infants 
 sponsors  made  reply  for  the  child;  and  this  is  how  the  custom  of 
 having  sponsors  came  into  vogue.  So  closely  was  the  regular 
 order  of  service  followed  that  children  were  not  even  relieved 
 from  the  liturgical  action  of  the  catechumenate.  In  short,  the 
 entire  service  of  the  catechumenate  was  simply  transferred  over 
 without  change  (except  the  addition  of  sponsors)  and  used  for 
 infant  baptism.  Hence  it  naturally  followed  that  "child-com- 
 munion" was  practiced,  which  was  the  general  custom  since  the 
 third  century,  and  is  still  the  custom  of  the  Eastern  churches. 
 The  early  Church  regarded  confirmation  as  the  title  given  to  the 
 unction  which  accompanies  baptism;  and  the  Eastern  Church  so 
 holds  it  to-day.  But  the  Western  Church  finally  made  confirma- 
 tion the  title  given  to  the  open  adoption  of  the  Christian  faith 
 
 *  See  Hoefling's  discussion  on  the  development  of  the  Creed,  Vol.  I.  p.  208. 
 
120  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  life  in  matiirer  years.  And  this  change  laid  the  foundation 
 for  catechetical  instruction  before  confirmation,  as  we  have  it 
 to-da}'.  But  the  separation  of  baptism  and  confirmation  also 
 brought  about  another  important  change;  namely,  as  originally 
 constituted,  baptism  could  only  be  administered  by  a  bishop;  but 
 after  these  services  were  separated,  the  privilege  of  administering 
 this  Sacrament  was  at  once  extended  to  presbyters,  soon  to  dea- 
 cons, then  to  laymen,  and  finally  also  to  women — in  case  of  ex- 
 treme necessity.  But  the  liturgical  acts  of  the  catechumenate 
 and  of  baptism  itself  were  united  into  one  ser\-ice.  And  also 
 since  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  was  almost  universal,  the 
 tendency,  as  Hofling  says,  was  to  draw  together  the  liturgical 
 acts  of  the  catechumenate,  of  adult  baptism,  and  of  infant  bap- 
 tism, into  one  complete  service.  Traces  of  this  are  ^^sible  in 
 some  liturgies  for  baptism  at  this  verj^  day:  for  instance,  the  ex- 
 pression in  many  litiu-gies  is  still  made;  "The  Lord  preserve  thy 
 coming  in  and  thy  going  out,"  which  was  in  ancient  times  ad- 
 dressed to  the  compctcntcs  who  for  the  first  time  entered  the 
 Church  privileged  to  take  part  in  the  entire  Ser^'ice. 
 
 The  intention  of  the  early  Church  in  the  strict  discipline  of 
 the  catechumenate  was  no  doubt  good;  the  idea  of  instruction 
 was  all  right.  But  to  keep  the  children  out  of  the  fold,  which 
 Christ  prepared  as  much  for  them  as  for  adults,  was  certainly  all 
 wrong.  This  wrong  notion,  together  with  the  corruptions  that 
 crept  into  the  Church  and  her  liturgy,  as  Roman  Catholicism  be- 
 gan to  rise,  divested  baptism  of  much  of  its  Scriptural  meaning, 
 and  at  the  same  time  well-nigh  ruined  the  rite  of  confirmation. 
 For,  during  the  Reformation,  when  the  reconstruction  of  the 
 Church  was  going  on,  confirmation  was  almost  abrogated  for  a 
 time;  and  Protestants  seemed  opposed  to  it  because  the  papacy 
 had  declared  it  to  be  a  sacrament,  second  in  order  to  baptism. 
 And  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  abuse  of  the  ancient 
 catechumenate,  together  with  the  Romish  ex  opcrc  opcrato  doc- 
 trine concerning  the  sacraments,  were  the  leading  things  which 
 made  the  Christian  life  so  low  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
 
 When  the  Refonnation  came  on,  we  find  that  the  liturgy  for 
 baptism  was  well  based  upon  Scripture,  and  the  historical  litur- 
 gies of  the  Church,  but  so  intermixed  with  symbolical  ceremonies, 
 and  surrounded  by  fal.se  doctrines,  that  the  true  significance  of 
 the  sacrament  was  almost  hidden  from  view.     For,  while  the  an- 
 
THE   LITURGICAI.   HISTORY   OF   BAPTISM.  121 
 
 cient  Church  used  a  long  liturgy,  and  administered  the  sacrament 
 with  many  symbolic  rites,  she  kept  the  true  meaning  of  baptism 
 before  the  people.  The  Romish  Church  placed  more  stress  upon 
 the  power  of  the  Church  in  administering  the  sacrament,  than 
 upon  the  Word  of  God,  together  with  instruction  and  admoni- 
 tion, as  did  the  early  Church. 
 
 I^uther's  first  Taufbuechlein  (1523)  was  simply  a  translation 
 of  liturgies  then  in  use.     But  it  is  evident  that  he  selected  with 
 great  care  and  wonderful  wisdom  the  liturgies  from  which  he 
 made  his  translation.     And  even  then,  the  result  was  not  such  as 
 he  personally  liked,  but  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  many 
 consciences,   he  did  not  deem  it  prudent,  at  that  time,  to  revise 
 the  liturgy,  which  contained  many  ceremonies  that  obscured  the 
 simplicity  of  this  sacrament.     But  in  1526,  he  published  his  sec- 
 ond   Taufbuechlein,    from   which    he   omitted    the   distinctively 
 Romish  features.     This  liturgy  was  based  on  the  Scriptural  idea 
 of  Holy  Baptism,  and  is  in  accordance  with  the  ancient  usage  of 
 the  Church.     This  Service  was  at  once  received  with  favor.     Its 
 influence  was  immeasurable.     The  numerous  independent  Kirch- 
 enordnungen  of  the  Reformation  period  almost  without  exception 
 and  with  but  the  slightest  changes  give  it  as  their  form  for  the 
 administration  of  the  sacramsnt.     The  Order  of  Baptism  in  the 
 Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  of   England  was  largely 
 determined  by  it,*  and  through  this  liturgy  its  influence  has  also 
 been  felt  in  many  other  parts  of  the  Christian  Church.     No  lit- 
 urgy framed  independently  of  this  order  of  lyUther's,  has  been 
 satisfactory;  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  these  newer  liturgies 
 have  continually  been  undergoing  alteration,  or  else  have  been 
 discarded  altogether.     lyUther's  liturgy  makes  the  most  emphatic 
 distinction  betv/een  sin  and  grace — between  the  kingdom  of  Sa- 
 tan and  the  Savior's  kingdom.     As  above  indicated  more  than  a 
 hundred  of  the  leading  Lutheran  liturgies  of  the  i6th  and  17th 
 centuries  contain  no  other  form  but  this,   with  occasional  local 
 variata.     During  the  i8th  and  19th  centuries,  the  disposition  was 
 just  as  strong  to  cling  to  this  form  which  Luther  arranged  from 
 the  ancient  sources.     And  the  very  latest  Agenda  almost  invaria- 
 bly give  it  first  place  under  this  head  of  services.     The  Dresden 
 Lit.    Con.    (1854),   composed   of   representatives   from    Bavaria, 
 Hannover,  Wiirtemberg,   and  both  Mecklenburgs,  unanimously 
 
 *  See  especially  Dr.  Jacobs'  Lutheran  Alovement  in  England,  Chap.  XXI. 
 
122  MEMOIRS. 
 
 agreed  upon  this  form.  The  Prussian  Church,  though  composed 
 of  Lutheran  and  Reformed,  yet  in  1894  adopted  this  as  her  first 
 form,  which  is  worthy  of  note  since  the  Prussian  Union  Church 
 probably  represents  more  scholarship  than  any  one  branch  of  the 
 Church  in  the  world.  And  since  the  spirit  of  the  Lutheran 
 Church  is  conservative,  not  revolutionary',  being  disposed  to  keep 
 in  the  line  of  histor>'  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word 
 of  God,  this  form  should  ever  be  retained. 
 
 The  only  part  of  Luther's  second  Taiiflmcchlein  that  has  fur- 
 nished the  basis  of  much  discussion  is  the  matter  of  addressing 
 the  questions,  some  contending  that  they  should  not  be  addressed 
 to  the  child,  but  to  the  sponsors.*  But  by  far  the  larger  majority 
 of  theologians  have  always  been  decidedly  against  such  a  change. 
 The  Lutheran  Church  baptizes  a  child,  not  because  it  is  presented 
 
 •  The  Cologne  Liturgy  of  1543  adfiresses  the  questions  to  the  sponsors.  The 
 Erbach  Agende  of  1560  omits  all  questions.  The  Augsburg  Kirchenordnung  of  the 
 first  half  of  the  l6th  century  omits  the  questions.  The  Austrian  Liturgy  of  1571  ad- 
 dresses all  questions  to  the  sponsors.  The  Strassburg  Kirchenordnung  of  1598  ad- 
 dresses all  questions  to  the  sponsors.  This  is  also  the  case  with  many  Liturgies  that 
 are  in  use  in  the  United  Slates.  The  eight  Liturs^ies  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
 New  York  Ministeiiums  all  address  the  questions  to  the  sponsors.  And  again  in 
 i860  the  Ministerium  adopted  an  order  for  baptism,  in  which  all  the  questions  are 
 addressed  to  the  sponsors.  The  English  Liturgy  of  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  adopt- 
 ed in  1874,  also  addresses  the  questions  to  the  sponsors;  but  the  German  Agende, 
 however,  has  two  forms — the  first  addresses  all  the  questions  to  the  child,  and  the 
 other,  all  questions  are  addressed  to  the  sponsors.  In  1855  a  change  was  also  made 
 in  the  Swedish  Liturgy  in  which  all  questions  to  the  child  were  omitted;  but  after 
 the  confession  of  the  Creed  the  sponsors  were  asked,  "Do  you  desire  that  this  child 
 shall  be  baptized  into  this  Christian  faith,  and  through  its  baptism,  shall  be  received 
 into  the  fellowship  of  Christ  and  His  Church?"  In  1S95  the  Swedish  Augustaaa 
 Synod  adopted  the  same  form.  And  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Iceland  has  no  ques- 
 tions at  all.  But  the  orders  ]  repared  by  Luther  addressed  all  the  questions  l>efore 
 baptism  to  the  child;  and  Iloefling,  who  is  the  greatest  authority  on  this  subject, 
 strongly  defends  this  form  of  address.  The  latest  Liturgy  adopted  by  the  General 
 Synod  (at  York,  Pa.  in  189Q)  addresses  all  questions  to  the  sponsors,  otherwise  it  is 
 a  translation  of  Luther's  second  Taufbnechlein.  The  Church  of  Prussia  (Germany), 
 in  its  form  adopted  in  1895,  has  its  first  form  arranged  with  all  the  questions  ad- 
 dressed to  the  (7//A/,  which  are  to  be  answered  by  the  sponsors.  The  Liturgy  of  the 
 General  Council  is  arranged  with  «// the  questions  addressed  to  the  child;  this  Litur- 
 gy is  also  based  upon  Luther's  second  l^aufhiechUin,  with  additions  from  the 
 Kirchenordnung  of  Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  1539;  the  KO  of  Saxe-Coburg,  1626; 
 Wuertemberg  KO,  1553;  Brandenburg-Nuernberg  KO,  1533.  The  United  Syn- 
 od South  also  uses  a  translation  of  Luther's  second  7'oufl'uechlein,  and  addresses 
 all  questions  to  the  child. 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   HISTORY  OP   BAPTISM.  123 
 
 by  any  one,  but  solely  upon  Christ's  own  command.  It  is  also 
 claimed  that  a  change  of  the  liturgy  would  actually  create  two 
 baptisms;  one  for  infants,  and  another  for  adults.  Also  that 
 such  a  change  in  the  liturgy  is  only  desired  by  the  rationalist 
 who  wishes  to  reduce  everything  to  the  level  of  his  own  reason. 
 These  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  liturgy  come  from 
 differences  of  belief  concerning  what  is  known  as  "infant  faith," 
 which,  after  all,  does  not  absolutely  necessitate  the  questions  ad- 
 dressed to  the  sponsors,  no  matter  which  view  is  taken. 
 
 Authorities  consulted: — The  Internatio7ial  Cyclopcsdia^  The 
 E7icyclopcEdia  Britannica,  The  Lutheran  Quarterly,  The  Lutheran 
 Church  Review,  Baptizein  by  E.  Gerfern,  The  Lutheraii  Move- 
 ment in  England  by  Jacobs,  The  Annotated  Book  of  Common 
 Prayer  hy].  H.  BlunT,  The  Lutheran  Cyclopedia,  The  History 
 of  the  Christian  Church  by  P.  Schaff,  The  Ante  Nicene  Fathers, 
 the  Didache,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  by  Smith  and 
 Cheetham,  Christian  Institutions  by  A.  P.  Stanley,  Das 
 Sakramejit  der  Taufe  by  Hofling,  and  Theses  on  the  Order  of 
 Baptism  by  H.  Peters  and  Dr.  E.  J.  Wolf. 
 
 Chief  authority: — Hofling. 
 
 H.  S.  Gilbert. 
 Allegheny,  Pa. 
 
Vol.  IV. 
 
THE  LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF  THE  LESSER 
 REFORMERS. 
 
 When  one  studies  the  formative  period  of  the  doctrines  and 
 forms  of  worship  that  constitute  the  exclusive  property  of  the 
 Lutheran  Church,  he  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  fact 
 that  so  many  influences  were  at  work  at  the  same  time,  that  it  is 
 almost  impossible  to  ascribe  a  greater  or  less  effect  to  one  cause 
 or  the  other.  While  even  the  development  of  a  doctrinal  system 
 depended  on  the  workings  of  many  and  varied  historical  causes, 
 it  is  found  in  the  tracing  of  liturgical  practices  that  they  depend 
 fully  as  much  (if  not  more)  upon  the  history  of  given  conditions, 
 as  they  do  upon  specific  theories  or  decided  views  concerning 
 their  propriety.  So  powerful  are  the  claims  of  the  past,  that  they 
 had  to  be  considered  and  respected  even  in  the  formulating  of 
 ecclesiastical  laws,  and  an  examination  of  the  Kirchenordnungen 
 reveals  numerous  examples  of  the  firm,  stiff  grasp  in  which  the 
 dead  hand  of  the  past  clasped  the  issues  of  the  present.  Thus 
 we  find  that  exceptions  from  prescribed  orders  are  made  in  favor 
 of  certain  churches  within  the  same  sphere  of  jurisdiction,  pre- 
 scribing e.  g.  the  robe  in  one  church  and  permitting  its  disuse  in 
 another,  ordering  certain  forms  of  Service  for  the  whole  district 
 and  exempting  from  it  certain  congregations  in  the  same  terri- 
 tory. Or,  also  we  find  the  Reformers  laying  down  certain  rules 
 in  one  Kirchenordnung  and  themselves  departing  widely  from 
 them  in  the  composition  of  another.  And  to  go  further,  we  see 
 instances  of  a  complete  change  of  view  at  certain  periods  of  life, 
 not  only  in  the  case  of  Luther,  but  notably  so  also  in  the  case  of 
 Melanchthon  and  Brenz.  Some  of  these  changes  of  view  were 
 such  truly  speaking,  others  again,  especially  those  of  Melanch- 
 thon and  Brenz,  were  enforced  accommodations  to  existing  con- 
 ditions. These  changes  of  view,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
 times,  when  men  lived  their  intellectual  life  in  the  public  gaze, 
 
2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 as  much  as  their  outward  life,  were  always  promulgated,  always 
 published  and  always  had  a  certain  effect  and  made  a  distinct  im- 
 pression upon  the  views  of  the  contemporaries.     It  was  an  age  of 
 argumentation  and  public  discussion,  the  utmost  consequence  of 
 the  scholastic  spirit;  but  withal,  the  fairest  flower  that  sprung 
 like  a  white  water-lily  from  those  dark  and  murky  waters.     Ow- 
 ing to  these  views  promulgated,  changed,  reiterated,  embodied  in 
 doctrines  and  made  active  in  regulations,  producing  ecclesiastical 
 laws  through  their  ethical  inspirations,  and  voicing  the  devotions 
 of  the  believer  through  their  religious  aspirations,  the  different 
 KOO  took  their  origin  in  all  Europe  among  Lutherans  and  Re- 
 formed alike.     Those  of  the  one  side  frequently  had  a  reflex  in- 
 fluence upon  those  of  the  other,  frequently  the  Lutheran  adopted 
 the  hue  of  Reformed,  frequently  the  latter  shone  in  the  borrowed 
 glories  of  the  former.     Sometimes  one  master-mind  made  a  con- 
 tribution which  for  the  time  was  made  use  of  and  sought  after  as 
 a  treasure,  and  then  it  was  lost  and  buried,  either  to  remain  for- 
 ever unused  among  all  the  rummage  in  the  storied  attics  of  the 
 past,  or  to  be  brought  to  light  and  use  again,  by  the  descendants 
 who  in  the  present  age  are  inquiring  into  the  possessions  of  their 
 fathers.     For  these  reasons  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  a  true 
 estimate  of  the  influence  of  any  given  Reformer,  if  the  problem 
 be  to  state  what  effect  he  had  upon  the  liturgical  observances  of 
 the  present  da}',  though  one  might,  with  propriet}-,  follow  him 
 through  his  works  and  discover  what  he  advocated  and  for  what 
 he  strove.     The  most  abiding  work  of  all  these  great  ones  of  that 
 great  time  was  transmitted  to  us  in  the  KOO,  but  even  they  have 
 not  yet  been  adequately  treated,  as  Rietschel  tells  us,  though  much 
 excellent  work  has  so  far  been  done  upon  them. 
 
 Among  these  KOO  we  can  find  various  types,  some  (and  we 
 deal  here  only  with  those  that  are  Lutheran)  correct  in  their  doc- 
 trinal position,  but  conservative  in  their  treatment  of  Roman 
 forms;  some  genuinely  Lutheran,  based  upon  the  Formula  jl/isstr 
 (1523)  and  Lutheran  in  regard  to  doctrine  and  forms;  some  which 
 are  more  radical  in  their  treatment  of  forms  of  worship  and  medi- 
 ate between  the  Lutheran  type  and  the  Reformed.  Among  the 
 first  type  we  find  the  Brandenburg  KO  prepared  by  Stratner  and 
 Buchholtzer,  the  Pfalz-Neuburg  KO,  1543,  the  Austrian  Agenda 
 of  Chytrceus,  1571.  The  second  type,  called  the  Saxo-Lutheran, 
 represented  as  stated,  by  the  Formula  Misscc^  which  became  au- 
 
LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  6 
 
 thoritative  for  Prussia  under  Duke  Albrecht,  1525;  for  the  Elect- 
 orate of  Saxony,  for  all  the  KOO  by  Bugenhagen,  viz.,  Bruns- 
 wick 1528,  Hamburg  1529,  Minden  and  Gottingen  1530,  Liibeck 
 1531,  Saest  1532,  Bremen  1534,  Pommerania  1535;  for  that  of 
 Brandenburg-Nuremberg  1533  by  Osiander  and  Brenz;  for  Hano- 
 ver 1536  by  Urbanus  Regius;  for  Naumburg  1537;  for  the  KO  of 
 Duke  Henry  of  Saxony  by  Justus  Jonas  1539;  for  Mecklenburg 
 1540  and  1552  by  Aurifaber,  Riebling,  Melanchthon  and  later 
 Chytrseus;  for  Braunschweig-Wolf enbiittel  1543  and  1569  by 
 Chemnitz  and  Andrese;  for  Riga  1531;  for  Courland  1570;  for  the 
 Hessian  Agenda  of  1566  and  1573  with  the  exception  of  the  act 
 of  Communion.  Of  the  third  or  mediating  t3'pe  the  regulations 
 at  Strassburg,  the  Wiirttemberg  KOO  among  which  less  than 
 the  others  that  by  Brenz  for  Schwabisch-Hall  1526,  the  KO  of 
 Duke  Ulrich  1536  and  of  Duke  Christopher  1533;  the  Palatine 
 KO  1554,  the  Badensian  1556,  the  Wormsian  1560.*  Those 
 among  the  above  that  have  become  most  fundamental  or  basic 
 for  others  are  the  Braunschweig  KO  of  Bugenhagen  and  the 
 Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO  of  Osiander.  It  is  upon  the  consen- 
 sus of  the  orders  of  the  second  type  that  the  forms  of  Service  of 
 our  Comm.on  Service  are  based,  and  it  is  with  them  and  the  men 
 who  produced  them  that  the  present  inquiry  is  chiefly  concerned. 
 As  has  been  indicated  all  of  these  KOO  are  partly  based  up- 
 on the  Formula  Misses  issued  by  Luther  in  1523,  partly  derive 
 their  spirit  and  impetus  from  it  and  partly  develop  in  the  direction 
 indicated  by  it.  Thus  even  in  this  inquiry  Luther's  name  de- 
 serves especial  mention,  for  he  is  the  Prometheus  who  brought 
 the  fire  from  Heaven  and  taught  his  knowledge  to  the  sons  of 
 men.  His  giant  form  overtowers  every  other  of  the  mighty  men 
 of  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  but  beside  him,  near  him,  reach- 
 ing toward  him  and  approaching  his  stature  in  conspicuous  meas- 
 ure are  the  persons  of  Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen.  How 
 much  the  prophet  of  the  Reformation  was  indebted  to  its  gram- 
 marian and  to  its  pastor  will  perhaps  never  be  known;  but  he 
 refers  to  them  so  constantly,  and  describes  their  labors  and  influ- 
 ence so  lovingly,  that  one  is  compelled  to  ascribe  to  these  two, 
 Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen,  no  mean  share  in  the  outcome  of 
 that  momentous  upheaval  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  a 
 time  of  tearing  down  and  of  building  up.  Luther,  the  genius, 
 *  For  this  classification  see  Zoeckler,  Vol.  IV,  p.  456. 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 did  both,  Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen  mainly  built  up.  Luther 
 was  the  greater  for  he  was  more  versatile,  more  many-sided;  he 
 was  equal  to  the  destruction  that  his  work  implied,  and  equal  to 
 the  construction  that  it  necessitated;  but  in  his  constnictive  abil- 
 ities he  was  ably  assisted  and  almost  matched  by  the  other  two 
 of  this  great  triumvirate.  But  if  we  give  due  credit  to  the  labors 
 of  the  grammarian  and  the  pastor,  we  cannot  pass  by  le.sser  men 
 who  influenced  them  and  whose  labors  in  the  connnon  cause  were 
 similar  to  theirs  and  whose  influence  in  certain  directions  as  great 
 as  theirs.  And  so  upon  a  plane  but  little  lower,  acting  and  acted 
 upon  mutuall}^  and  reciprocall}'  with  them  appear  Brenz  and 
 Osiander,  Justus  Jonas  and  others  whose  names  have  been  men- 
 tioned above. 
 
 To  Philip  Melanchthon,  the  Prcrccptor  Gcnnani^,  is  usually 
 ascribed  the  place  of  honor  directly  after  Luther.  His  life  is 
 too  well  known  to  be  described  here,  but  it  may  be  well  to  recall 
 certain  details  of  it  which  explain  the  part  he  played.  Born 
 Feb.  6,  1497  the  son  of  a  man  standing  in  high  favor  with  the 
 Palatine  Elector  Philip,  and  of  a  woman  the  niece  of  one  of  the 
 greatest  humanists,  Reuchlin,  his  opportunities  for  learning  and 
 advancement  were  the  ver}^  best.  His  learning  was  such  that  as 
 a  mere  stripling,  he  could  easily  win  in  debate  with  the  wander- 
 ing bachantes,  that  he  was  soon  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
 of  Greek  and  the  elegance  of  his  Latin  and  was  ready  to  take  the 
 master's  degree  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg  before  his  age 
 made  him  eligible.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  University 
 of  Tiibingen,  took  an  active  part  in  Reuchlin' s  controversy,  pub- 
 lished a  Greek  grammar  before  he  was  twenty-five  and  received 
 the  most  enthusiastic  praise  of  Erasmus.  In  the  meantime  he 
 devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theology,  law  and  medicine. 
 Such  was  the  man  who  in  1518  was  installed  as  professor  of 
 Greek  in  the  University  of  Wittenberg  and  who,  with  his  address 
 on  the  "Improvement  of  the  Studies  of  Youth"  attracted  Luther's 
 attention,  which  grew  into  admiration,  then  to  esteem  and  lastly 
 to  love.  And  this  grammarian  soon  entered  so  heartily  into  the- 
 ology that  while  he  never  received  a  doctor's  degree,  he  became 
 the  master  of  many  doctors.  Entering  into  active  participation 
 in  theological  questions  by  his  interest  in  Luther's  dispute  with 
 Eck,  he  soon  obtained  the  honor  of  a  baccalaureus  biblicus,  and  as 
 early  as  15 19  began  to  lecture  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and 
 
LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE  OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.         5 
 
 the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  Out  of  these  studies  grew  his  Loci  Com- 
 viunes  which  was  first  pubHshed  in  15 19,  the  first  dogmatical 
 treatise  of  the  I^utheran  Church,  reprinted  more  than  eighty 
 times  during  his  life. 
 
 When  Luther  was  absent  at  Worms  and  then  at  the  Wartburg, 
 the  care  for  the  University  and  the  condition  of  the  work  of  the 
 Gospel  began  to  rest  more  heavily  upon  Melanchthon's  shoulders. 
 When  lyUther  returned  he  brought  with  him  the  dawn  of  an  era 
 of  work  mutually  borne.  This  literary  and  theological  partner- 
 ship, of  more  import  to  the  world's  welfare  than  any  described  in 
 the  purely  literary  annals  of  the  race,  comprised  particularly  the 
 work  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  and  the  visitation  of  the 
 churches  of  Saxony.  It  was  out  of  this  visitation  that  the  work 
 originated,  which  most  directly  influenced  the  composition  of  the 
 various  KOO.  This  work  is  known  as  the  Saxon  Articles  of  Vis- 
 itation and  appeared  in  1528,  the  same  year  as  Bugenhagen's 
 Brunswick  KO.  Then  followed  in  rapid  succession,  the  protesta- 
 tion at  Spires  in  1529,  and  the  Marburg  colloquy  in  the  same 
 5'ear.  Early  in  1530  we  find  Melanchthon  indicating  the  basis  of 
 the  Torgau  articles,  collaborating  the  Schwabach  articles,  practi- 
 cally writing  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  himself  producing 
 the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  the  next  sixteen 
 years  he  is  busy  in  assisting  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation 
 in  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  giving  his  counsels  in  Cologne,  at 
 Smalcald,  and  at  Ratisbon,  and  producing  the  Wittenberg  Con- 
 cordia. The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  endless 
 doctrinal  controversies,  in  which  his  position  was  not  always  ap- 
 preciated and  which  brought  him  many  sorrows. 
 
 As  has  been  well  said,  he  was  the  Preceptor  of  Germany  by 
 reason  of  his  reforms  in  the  management  of  the  schools,  from  the 
 University  down  to  the  boys  in  the  Latin  schools.  He  would  be 
 the  Preceptor  of  the  Church  if  he  had  left  us  nothing  but  the 
 Augsburg  Confession  and  its  Apology,  But  these  two  so  far  out- 
 shine his  other  productions  that  his  work  as  a  theologian  as 
 shown  in  his  other  writings  need  not  even  be  counted  to  make 
 him  glorious.  That  he  was  preeminently  the  schoolmaster  of 
 the  Church  is  not  only  evident  in  the  lasting  and  imperishable 
 instruction  which  he  bequeathed  to  her  in  his  theological  writings 
 but  in  the  rules  for  her  management  and  guidance  which  he  left 
 in  the  Saxon  Articles  of  Visitation  and  which  scattered  broad- 
 
6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 cast  even  through  his  doctrinal  works.  Besides  he  does  not  deny 
 a  schoolmaster's  noblest  aim,  the  education  of  the  young,  in  the 
 very  regulations  which  he  gives  for  the  ordering  of  public  Ser- 
 vices. To  him  Church  and  school  were  one,  always  inseparable; 
 and  while  in  the  school  he  trains  the  youth  for  the  Church  he 
 does  not  forget,  even  in  such  matters  as  the  singing  of  Latin 
 hymns  and  the  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  Latin  to  impress  the 
 Church  with  the  sense  of  her  duties  in  the  training  of  the  5'oung. 
 It  seems  as  if  this  pedagogical  principle  for  which  he  stood,  can 
 not  be  left  out  of  consideration  when  one  estimates  the  work  he 
 did  in  the  Church.  Without  a  just  appreciation  of  this  principle 
 much  in  Melanchthon's  regulations  appears  incongruous,  and,  so 
 far  as  modern  liturgical  views  go,  even  out  of  place. 
 
 With  this  in  mind,  we  can  understand  Melanchthon's  litur- 
 gical position.  To  him,  as  to  Luther  in  his  earlier  views,  worship 
 was  of  the  nature  of  a  training.  It  lies  in  the  nature  of  things 
 that  he  demands  that  all  things  be  done  decentlj'  and  in  order 
 and  consequently  he  demands  a  quiet  dignified  conduct  of  the 
 things  of  public  worship.  But  beyond  this,  the  entire  Service 
 has  to  him  a  preeminently  educative  tendency.  The  public  as- 
 semblies depend  upon  Christ's  conmiand  to  preach  the  Gospel 
 publicly.  The  publicity  of  worship  assures  the  widest  spread  to 
 the  Gospel  and  prevents  ethical  and  moral  aberrations.  The  in- 
 dividual is  to  confess  himself  a  member  of  the  congregation  pub- 
 licly and  the  congregation  must  publicly  separate  itself  from  the 
 sects.  He  only  belongs  to  God's  people  who  is  called.  He  only 
 is  called,  who  is  a  member  of  the  visible  congregation  and  re- 
 ceives its  benefits.  But  as  the  congregation  in  its  assemblies  on- 
 ly presents  the  means  of  thus  calling  to  the  childhood  of  God,  the 
 idea,  consequences,  effects  and  aims  of  worship  are  those  known, 
 but  its  real  essence  is  not  grasped.  Hence  Melanchthon's  view 
 implies  that  the  regenerated  Christian  has  no  absolute  need  for 
 this  public  worship.  It  is  to  Melanchthon  the  means  and  place 
 for  the  experienced  Christian,  to  lead  to  perfection  the  inexperi- 
 enced one.  As  Jakoby  says,  an  outer  motive,  formally  God's 
 command,  materially  the  consideration  for  the  masses,  impels 
 him  to  Church;  it  is  the  Law,  not  the  Gospel,  and  Melanchthon 
 lacks  the  worshipping  subject,  while  he  looks  to  the  object;  in  a 
 word,  it  is  a  pedagogical  institution,  exalted  and  spiritual,  edu- 
 cating for  the  inheritance  of  the  children  of  light;  but  no  worship. 
 
LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.  7 
 
 In  this  Luther  and  Melanchthon  thought  alike;  but  while  Luther 
 hoped  for  a  future  worship  of  the  trained  and  experienced  con- 
 gregation, Melanchthon  regarded  this  as  an  illusion.  But  on  the 
 other  hand  he  saw  the  constitutive  factors  of  Christian  worship. 
 The  way  to  perfection  here  indicated  when  once  entered,  led  to 
 glories  far  beyond  those  aspired  to  by  Melanchthon;  but  as  all 
 worship  was  to  him  mandatory  in  Christ's  command,  and  as  he 
 was  on  the  other  hand,  confronted  by  the  demands  of  evangelical 
 liberty,  he  could  not  harmonize  the  tendencies. 
 
 As  to  the  object  of  worship,  he,  like  Luther,  contended  that 
 it  lay  in  the  adoration  of  God.  For  this  reason  he  strove  to  abol- 
 ish the  adoration  of  the  saints,  claiming  that  it  limited  the  adora- 
 tion of  God,  and  the  mediatorial  work  of  the  Savior. 
 
 His  pedagogical  views  also  modify  his  views  of  the  contents 
 of  worship,  namely,  the  sacraments  and  their  application.  As  to 
 baptism  he  teaches  plainly  that  it  is  the  implanting  into  the  new 
 life;  but  he  cannot  explain  the  baptism  of  children  in  any  other 
 way  than  that  thereby  they  receive  access  to  all  that  is  implied  in 
 worship.  For  this  reason  the  faith  of  infants  is  to  him,  as  he  ad- 
 mits, unintelligible,  but  he  insists  on  baptizing  them  as  in  accord- 
 ance with  the  Divine  command.  This  has  a  natural  bearing  upon 
 the  form  of  the  act  of  baptism.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  Melanchthon  defended  Luther's  view.  It  is  but  natural 
 therefore,  that  he  contended  against  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  and 
 therefore  becomes  a  powerful  protagonist  for  a  purified  order  of 
 Service.  His  convictions  as  to  this  doctrine  also  led  him  to  re- 
 pudiate the  Romish  celebration  sub  una  and  to  contend  first  mild- 
 ly, then  emphatically  for  the  administration  sub  utraque.  As  to 
 confession,  his  views  also  coincide  with  those  of  Luther.  We 
 still  possess  a  beautiful  prayer  for  individual  confession,  composed 
 by  him.  His  formula  of  absolution  however,  is  replete  with  doc- 
 trinal statements  and  vindications  and  was  condemned  by  Luther 
 as  being  too  prolix. 
 
 In  his  views  on  the  means  of  worship  or  cermonies,  he  occu- 
 pies the  same  position  as  Luther.  He  is  conservative  and  does 
 not  abolish  anything  except  what  he  finds  to  be  in  contradiction 
 to  the  Word  of  God;  but  he  contends  against  the  false  value  giv- 
 en all  ceremonies  in  the  Catholic  Church.  This  conservative 
 position  as  expressed  in  Article  VII  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
 is  due  partly  to  Melanchthon's  pedagogical  views,  partly  to  his 
 
8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 irenical  endeavors.  On  the  other  hand  at  Ratisbon  in  1541  he 
 presented  a  memorandum  to  the  Emperor  in  which  he  urged  that 
 all  ceremonies  should  be  sifted  and  the  measure  of  dignity  applied 
 to  all.  What  was  accordant  with  churchly  dignity  was  to  re- 
 main, what  was  out  of  harmony  with  it  was  to  be  cast  aside. 
 
 In  his  criticism  of  Catholic  forms  of  worship  he  concedes  to 
 the  bishops  the  power  of  oversight  limited  by  the  powers  and 
 rights  of  the  congregation ;  but  clearly  separated  the  ecclesiasti- 
 cal powers  from  the  civil  ones.  This  removes  from  them  the 
 powers  which  they  wielded  and  with  these  powers  he  takes  the 
 authorization  of  their  commands.  Thus  he  looks  upon  fasting, 
 not  as  a  meritorious  deed,  but  as  a  useful  honoring  of  festival 
 days  and  a  furtherance  of  prayer  and  the  consideration  of  the 
 Gospel.  The  festivals  of  an  evangelical  character  he  advised  to 
 retain.  The  principle  guiding  him  herein  was  the  abolition  of 
 unevangelical  abuses.  Thus  he  abolished  the  Corpus  Christi  cele- 
 brations and  contended  against  all  processions,  not  only  those  in 
 which  the  sacrament  was  carried  about,  but  all  others  also,  be- 
 cause he  claimed  that  they  gave  occasion  to  abuses. 
 
 An  important  liturgical  consideration  is  Melanchthon's  view 
 of  the  language  question.  He  and  Luther  from  a  feeling  of  con- 
 servatism were  both  strongly  in  favor  of  retaining  the  Latin  lan- 
 guage in  the  public  Services.  The  sermon  of  course  was  to  be 
 excepted,  as  through  it  the  Gospel  was  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
 people.  When  the  Zwickau  fanatics  appeared  in  Wittenberg, 
 the  question  first  assumed  shape.  Melanchthon's  answer  was, 
 that  Latin  should  be  used  for  the  whole  Service  with  the  excep- 
 tion of  the  sermon  and  the  Communion  Service.  In  a  writing  to 
 the  Senate  of  Nureniberg  in   1525  he  declared: — 
 
 "Those  who  do  not  understand  Latin  have  practice  enough 
 even  when  the  singing  is  in  Latin  for  they  hear  the  German  ser- 
 mon and  lessons.  And  even  if  one  sang  in  German,  not  all  would 
 sing  or  understand  the  singing.  The  Latin  singing  is  good  for 
 the  boys  who  are  being  educated.  Besides  I  do  not  wish  to  cast 
 aside  figurated  singing."  From  this  incidentally  we  also  learn 
 his  views  on  music  in  the  congregation.  As  to  the  use  of  Latin 
 he  ordered  later  that  the  lessons  should  first  be  sung  in  Latin  and 
 then  read  in  German.  What  solicitude  for  the  boys  that  could 
 thus  influence  his  liturgical  views  ! 
 
 Intimately  comiccted  with  these  questions  is  also  the  one 
 
LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE;   OF   THE  LESSER   REFORMERS.  9 
 
 concerning  the  vestments.  His  position  was  that  they  should  be 
 continued  where  they  were  still  in  vogue;  but  he  was  very  indif- 
 ferent to  their  introduction  where  they  had  fallen  into  disuse. 
 However  he  protests  against  the  wearing  of  those  vestments  that 
 recall  the  mass,  and  favors  the  wearing  of  a  robe. 
 
 Extreme  unction,  the  chrism  in  baptism,  the  exorcism  and 
 consecration  of  oil,  he  opposed;  but  owing  to  the  many  questions 
 to  be  solved  at  the  time,  he  resorted  to  an  extreme  Fabian  policy, 
 by  which  the  discussion  of  the  question  of  unction  was  delayed 
 until  it  was  no  longer  a  menace  to  the  peace  of  the  church. 
 
 Melanchthon  favored  the  rite  of  confirmation.  It  had  fallen 
 into  disuse  as  Luther  had  regarded  it  as  a  rite  to  be  suffered  only 
 under  certain  conditions.  Melanchthon  considered  it  as  an  in- 
 stitution which,  if  filled  with  the  evangelical  spirit,  would  become 
 of  the  greatest  value  for  the  Christian  life  of  the  young.  He 
 stands  therefore  as  one  of  the  earliest  lyUtheran  champions  for 
 confirmation,  and  its  retention  among  the  institutions  of  the 
 Church  is  very  largely  due  to  him. 
 
 In  regard  to  the  Service  of  the  Church  he  gives  us  an  out- 
 line in  his  Reformatio  Wittenbergeiisis  (1545).  Its  constitutive 
 factors  are  enumerated  as  Hymns,  Prayers,  Scripture  Lessons, 
 Sermon,  Intercession,  Communion.  In  the  Repetitio  Confessionis 
 Augusta7ice  1551  he  gives  the  following  for  the  first  part  of  the 
 Service: — Prayers,  Hymns,  Confession  of  the  Creed,  Lessons, 
 Sermon,  Thanksgiving  and  Intercession.  The  second  part  is  the 
 administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  comprising  the  words  of  in- 
 stitution, the  self-communion  of  the  minister,  then  the  distribu- 
 tion to  the  congregation  (previously  confessed  and  absolved), 
 then  the  thanksgiving. 
 
 ,  And  as  Melanchthon  urged  the  necessity  for  confirmation, 
 establishing  the  needs  and  the  nature  of  instruction  and  provid- 
 ing a  form  to  be  used,  so  he  also  advocated  a  dignified  conduct  of 
 funerals.  He  provided  for  the  singing  of  hymns,  prayers  and 
 lessons.  A  funeral  sermon  was  not  recommended  except  for  per- 
 sons of  distinction. 
 
 Such  were  the  principles  that  actuated  the  man  in  the  estab- 
 lishment of  liturgical  practices.  On  the  whole  his  influence  is  felt 
 more  in  the  principles  he  laid  down  and  advocated  than  in  actual 
 forms  which  he  introduced,  and  this  influence  can  hardly  be  esti- 
 mated at  its  full  value  because  so  many  others  worked  in  the 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 same  direction.  It  has  been  said  (Jakoby)  that  Melanchthon 
 was  more  didactic  than  Luther  and  had  not  the  same  gift  of  put- 
 ting statements  into  concise  but  pregnant  Hturgical  form.  On 
 the  other  hand  he  exhibited  a  tact  and  dignity  that  were  not  al- 
 ways to  be  found  in  Luther's  Hturgical  expressions,  {^e.  g.  Luther 
 reminds  those  to  be  ordained  that  their  congregations  do  not  con- 
 sist of  geese  and  cows.)  To  quote  Jakoby:  "Both  reformers 
 were  liturgical  architects  who  drew  model  plans  and  gave  perma- 
 nent norms.  In  this  respect  their  work  was  basic  and  typical,  a 
 guide  for  all  times.  But  to  execute  their  plans  with  equal  skill 
 and  authority  they  had  not  sufl&cient  strength.  For  this  work 
 other  men  were  called." 
 
 Next  to  Melanchthon  in  the  assistance  of  Luther  came  John 
 Bugenhagen,  whom  Luther  usuall}'  called  Pommer,  or  Dr.  Pom- 
 mer,  from  his  native  land.  He  was  the  gifted  and  richly  blessed 
 practician  or  organizer  of  the  Reformation  and  has  frequently 
 been  named  the  "pastor."  He  was  born  at  Wollin,  June  24, 
 1485,  the  son  of  a  counsellor.  In  1502  he  entered  the  University 
 of  Greifswald  but  owing  to  lack  of  means  he  soon  after  began  to 
 teach  a  children's  school.  During  this  work  he  continued  his 
 studies  and  in  1505  was  called  as  rector  of  the  Latin  school  at 
 Treptow.  The  school  flourished  and  Bugenhagen  at  the  same 
 time  busily  increased  his  learning  and  was  at  last  ordained  as 
 priest.  Having  loved  the  Scriptures  from  childhood,  he  began  a 
 series  of  lectures  on  biblical  books  after  he  was  made  lector  in 
 Belbuck  and  gathered  many  hearers.  During  this  time  he  began 
 his  "Passional"  and  composed  a  history  of  Pommerania.  Until 
 1520  Luther's  works  seemed  to  make  no  impression  upon  him; 
 but  when  the  tract  on  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church 
 fell  into  his  hands,  he  immediatel}^  assented  to  its  teachings.  He 
 could  not  stay  any  longer  in  Treptow,  but  hastened  to  Witten- 
 berg and  met  Luther  just  before  the  latter' s  departure  to  Worms. 
 His  first  work  was  a  series  of  private  lectures  on  the  psalms;  but 
 by  the  time  he  reached  the  sixteenth  he  had  so  many  hearers 
 that  Melanchthon  advised  him  to  lecture  in  public.  His  expla- 
 nations won  Luther's  unqualified  approval  and  the  praise  that  no 
 other  exegete  had  so  entered  into  the  .spirit  of  the  psalms.  His 
 firmness  in  dealing  with  the  Anabaptists  induced  the  congrega- 
 tion and  the  University  to  call  him  as  pastor  of  the  town  church. 
 This  office  he  filled  for  years  with  unexcelled  fidelity  and  left  his 
 
IvlTURGICAL   INFI.UKNCE   OF  THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.       11 
 
 post  only  when  important  duties  temporarily  called  him  away. 
 Even  the  year  1527,  when  the  pestilence  raged  in  Wittenberg, 
 found  him  comforting  the  congregation  and  lecturing  to  the  few 
 students  who  had  not  fled.  He  was  busy  also  during  these  years 
 in  a  literary  waj^,  defending  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
 per, publishing  a  tract  on  "The  Christian  Faith  and  true  Good 
 Works,"  and  produced  explanations  of  various  biblical  books  and 
 rendered  lyUther  valuable  assistance  in  the  translation  of  the 
 Bible. 
 
 It  is,  however,  as  an  organizer  that  he  rendered  his  most  val- 
 uable service.  In  1528  he  was  called  to  organize  the  Church  of 
 the  Reformation  in  Braunschweig,  in  the  same  year  in  Hamburg, 
 1530  in  Liibeck,  1534  in  Pommerania,  1537  in  Denmark  where  he 
 gained  the  confidence  of  the  king  and  enjoj^ed  the  honor  of  per- 
 forming the  coronation,  and  in  1542  in  Braunschweig  for  the  sec- 
 ond time  and  in  Hildesheim.  The  results  of  his  work  in  these 
 places  were  embodied  in  various  KOO,  first  and  most  important 
 among  which  was  that  of  Braunschweig.  His  object  did  not  con- 
 sist in  formalities;  but  in  the  training  of  true  Christian  congre- 
 gations, the  raising  of  an  efiicient  ministry,  the  founding  and 
 management  of  schools,  and  the  proper  financial  management 
 of  the  Church.  In  1542  he  returned  to  Wittenberg  to  stay;  but 
 the  increasing  work,  the  bitterness  of  theological  strife,  the  thin- 
 ning of  the  ranks  about  him,  and  most  of  all,  Luther's  death, 
 visibly  broke  down  his  constitution  and  in  1558  he  was  called  to 
 his  reward. 
 
 His  Braunschweig  (or  Brunswick)  KO  is  the  most  lasting 
 monument  of  his  labors,  acre perennms.  In  it  he  gives  directions 
 for  the  organizing  of  the  Church,  the  conducting  of  the  Services 
 and  the  performance  of  ministerial  acts.  As  Melanchthon  in  his 
 Loci,  so  Bugenhagen  in  this  KO  establishes  the  principles  upon 
 which  his  practices  are  based.  Baptism  is  the  first  subject  to 
 which  he  attends.  He  develops  the  Scriptural  and  doctrinal 
 statements  concerning  the  sacrament,  insists  on  the  baptism  of 
 children,  and  devotes  considerable  attention  to  proving  their  faith. 
 For  this  reason  he  can  follow  the  directions  of  Luther's  Taiifbuech- 
 lein  much  more  confidently  than  Melanchthon.  He  insists  on 
 baptism  in  the  vernacular  and  asserts  that  its  real  glory  lies  in  its 
 application  to  all  hearts  and  not  in  the  adornments  of  lights,  ban- 
 ners, consecrations,  and  unctions.     All  these  he  rejects. 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 In  giving  his  directions  for  the  establishment  of  the  schools, 
 their  curricula,  their  methods  of  instruction,  he  pays  much  atten- 
 tion to  the  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  Latin.  For  the  ministers 
 he  has  explicit  directions  for  the  observance  of  the  Church  Year, 
 giving  the  details  even  for  their  preaching.  He  likewise  insists 
 on  private  confession  and  absolution  as  well  as  public,  permits 
 giving  the  sacrament  to  the  dying,  orders  the  visitation  of  the 
 sick  and  gives  directions  what  to  do.  He  forbids  the  blessing  of 
 water,  fire,  light,  herbs  and  fruit  as  a  sacrilege  and  rejects  ex- 
 treme unction.  He  gives  full  directions  for  extra  services,  both 
 Matins  and  Vespers  and  the  so-called  catechism  services.  It  is  to 
 him  that  we  are  principally  indebted  for  the  ordering  of  the  mi- 
 nor services,  but  to  him  they  were  mainly  acts  of  devotion  pre- 
 scribed for  the  schools.  In  regard  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass 
 and  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  he  maintains  the  same 
 standpoint  as  Luther  and  Melanchthon  and  he  devotes  much 
 space  to  the  discussion  of  these  subjects.  For  the  Chief  Service 
 he  orders  Luther's  German  Mass  and  does  not  develop  anything 
 new.  Thus  Bugenhagen  stands  to  us,  considered  from  the  view- 
 point of  liturgical  influence,  preeminently  as  the  Reformer  who 
 has  given  the  Church  the  minor  services.  It  is  true,  the3'  are 
 not  fully  developed  in  the  form  in  which  we  possess  and  use 
 them;  but  from  him  we  have  received  the  essential  outlines. 
 
 In  the  case  of  John  Brenz  we  see  a  most  varied  life  and  can 
 trace  in  his  works  the  influence  of  political  and  doctrinal  differ- 
 ences and  especially  the  influence  of  the  Reformed  t^'pe  of  doc- 
 trine and  life  while  his  doctrinal  positions  must  be  regarded  as 
 true  to  the  confessions  of  the  Church.  He  was  bom  in  Weil, 
 Wiirttemberg  in  1499  and  entered  Heidelberg  University  when 
 he  was  but  thirteen  years  old.  Here  among  others  he  became 
 acquainted  with  Melanchthon  and  Oecolampadius.  At  the  age 
 of  fifteen  he  became  Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  at  seventeen  Master 
 of  Arts  and  from  that  time  on  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
 theology.  Luther's  Theses  first  inflamed  his  soul  and  he  eagerly 
 read  everything  coming  from  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  This 
 was  of  the  greatest  influence  on  the  views  expressed  in  his  lect- 
 ures, but  he  suffered  himself  to  be  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
 1520.  He  made  no  secret  of  his  Lutheran  tendencies  and  in  1521 
 was  put  under  the  ban.  In  1522  he  was  called  as  pastor  to 
 Schwabisch-Hall  and   remained   there  twenty-four  years.     The 
 
LITURGICAI,   INFI^UENCE)   OF  THE)   LESSER   REFORMERS.       13 
 
 next  seven  years  were  a  period  of  severe  tribulations  and  perse- 
 cution, but  for  fourteen  years  more  he  labored  as  provost  in 
 Tiibingen,  where  he  ended  his  days  in  1570. 
 
 He  took  part  in  the  preparation  of  five  KOO.  The  first  was 
 that  of  Schwabisch-Hall,  1526;  the  next  that  of  Brandenburg- 
 Nuremberg  in  1533;  the  First  or  I^ittle  Wiirttemberg  KO  ap- 
 peared in  1536;  in  1543  Brenz  prepared  a  new  KO  for  Schwabisch- 
 Hall  and  in  1553,  that  known  as  the  Great  Wiirttemberg  KO. 
 The  KO  of  Schwabisch-Hall  he  prepared  with  the  help  of  Isen- 
 mann  and  perhaps  of  others.  The  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO 
 is  an  important  one.  It  is  said  that  it  is  second  in  influence  only 
 to  the  Saxon  Visitation  Articles.  ='^  Its  authority  derives  from 
 the  fact  that  it  represents  the  consensus  of  many  theologians, 
 leading  and  otherwise.  The  first  sketch  was  prepared  by  Osian- 
 der,  but  Luther,  Melanchthon  and  Brenz,  with  the  theologians  of 
 Brandenburg  and  Nuremberg,  added  their  judgment  and  con- 
 tributed to  its  final  shape.  The  Little  Wiirttemberg  KO  was 
 written  by  Schnepf,  revised  and  approved  by  Brenz.  The  history 
 of  this  KO  vividly  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  Brenz  contrary 
 to  his  own  judgment,  was  obliged  to  yield  to  Reformed  influ- 
 ences. When  Brenz,  however,  after  the  "Interim"  during  which 
 the  first  KO  of  Schwabisch-Hall  was  destroyed,  found  himself 
 before  the  task  to  prepare  a  new  KO  for  this  church,  he  was  not 
 hampered  by  the  difficulties  that  beset  him  in  the  preparation  of 
 the  Little  Wiirttemberg  KO.  He  was  free  to  write  this  himself 
 and  in  so  doing,  based  it  upon  the  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Or- 
 der, thus  giving  the  sanction  of  his  authority  to  this  latter.  He 
 was  equally  fortunate  when  he  prepared  the  Great  Wiirttemberg 
 KO.  He  was  now  free  to  correct  at  least  some  of  the  abuses  of 
 the  Little  Wiirttemberg  Order  and  based  it  upon  his  second  one 
 of  Schwabisch-Hall.  This  then,  is  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
 Brandenburg-Nuremberg  KO  and  as  it  was  sanctioned  by  the 
 authority  of  Duke  Christopher,  it  became  a  model  for  many  other 
 Orders.  It  might  be  interesting  to  trace  Brenz's  departures  from 
 and  returns  to  his  own  views  throughout  these  Orders,  but  this 
 would  far  exceed  the  scope  of  the  present  paper.  The  student  is 
 referred  for  this  to  the  excellent  article  of  Dr.  Horn.  For  the 
 present  purpose  suflice  it  to  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the 
 Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Order  is  the  one  with  which  the  litur- 
 
 *  Horn  on  authority  of  Richter. 
 
14  MEMOIRS. 
 
 gical  part  of  our  Common  Service  most  nearly  agrees.  We  must, 
 therefore,  measure  Brenz's  liturgical  influence  by  the  part  he 
 took  in  the  preparation  of  this  famous  Order  and  the  sanction  he 
 gave  it  by  its  introduction  and  by  the  Orders  which  he  based  up- 
 on it.  WHien  we  consider  that  the  provisions  of  this  KO  are  the 
 fullest  and  simplest  for  the  major  and  minor  ser\-ices  of  the 
 Church,  and  that  the  ministerial  acts  are  here  treated  more  fully 
 and  approximately  in  the  form  which  our  American  Church 
 authorizes  to-day,  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  this  influ- 
 ence was  no  mean  or  insignificant  one. 
 
 Closely  associated  with  the  labors  of  Brenz,  but  more  espe- 
 cially identified  with  the  Reformation  at  Nuremberg  and  conse- 
 quentl}^  the  production  of  the  just  mentioned  famous  Order,  is 
 the  name  of  Osiander.  Andrew  Osiander  was  born  at  Gunzen- 
 hausen  in  1498  and  studied  at  Leipzig,  Altenburg  and  the  Uni- 
 versity of  Ingolstadt.  His  education  and  earl)^  history  have  never 
 been  traced  and  he  never  obtained  academic  honors.  His  enemies 
 taunted  him  with  being  a  self-made  theologian.  Still  he  became 
 distinguished  in  humanistic  studies,  mathematics  and  theolog>' 
 and  was  a  master  of  Hebrew- .  At  Nuremberg  he  was  ordained 
 a  priest  and  made  teacher  of  Hebrew.  He  soon  became  the 
 mainspring  of  reformatory  activity  in  this  city  and  soon  be- 
 came widely  known  for  his  bold  preaching  and  his  literary  activ- 
 hy.  He  did  not  meet  Luther  until  1529  and  always  strictly 
 maintained  his  independence  of  him.  He  never  fully  entered  in- 
 to Luther's  view  of  justification  and  thereby  became  the  occasion 
 of  numerous  theological  controversies;  but  he  thoroughly  agreed 
 with  Luther  in  the  main  and  especially  in  regard  to  the  doctrine 
 of  the  Lord's  Supper.  His  name  also  was  soon  known  every- 
 where as  that  of  a  spirited  and  uncompromising  champion  of 
 evangelical  truth.  It  was  on  this  account  that  he  was  enabled  to 
 take  a  prominent  part  in  the  organization  of  the  Church  at  Nu- 
 remberg, both  by  aiding  in  the  Brandenburg-Nuremberg  Church 
 visitation  and  also  by  preparing  the  first  draft  of  the  Branden- 
 burg-Nuremberg KO.  It  is,  perhaps,  due  to  his  personality  that 
 this  Order  prevailed  so  extensively,  for  during  many  years  he  was 
 a  power  in  Nuremberg,  of  such  influence  as  to  be  called  the 
 Nuremberg  Pope.  His  fearless  defence  and  promulgation  of  the 
 truth,  his  unrelenting  opposition  to  everything  unevangelical,  his 
 uncompromising  insistence  on  the  carrying  oixt  of  the  Reforma- 
 
LITURGICAI,  INFI.UENCE;   OF   THE   LESSER   REFORMERS.       15 
 
 tion  ideas,  all  these  gave  the  supports  and  backing  that  his  KO 
 needed  to  secure  its  adoption  and  retention.  And  having  said 
 this,  we  need  say  no  more  to  characterize  his  influence. 
 
 One  more  character  deserves  mention  in  this  connection.  It 
 is  Justus  Jonas,  the  intimate  friend  of  Luther.  He  was  born  in 
 1493,  studied  at  Erfurt  and  took  his  degree  in  15 10.  He  devoted 
 much  attention  to  eloquence  and  the  composition  of  Latin  verses; 
 but  soon  entered  upon  the  study  of  law  to  please  his  father. 
 While  studying  at  Wittenberg  he  heard  Luther  and  was  converted 
 by  him,  as  he  himself  says.  He  soon  turned  from  law  after  hav- 
 ing been  licensed,  and  devoted  himself  to  theology.  It  was  he . 
 who  translated  the  Ninety-five  Theses,  but  notwithstanding  he 
 was  made  canon  at  Erfurt  and  rector  of  its  Latin  school.  It  was 
 Erasmus  who  persuaded  him  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  theolo- 
 gy and  in  this,  his  knowledge  of  languages  and  history  served 
 him  admirably.  His  eloquence  soon  increased  the  number  of  his 
 hearers  and  he  attracted  such  attention  that  he  was  soon  called 
 — "another  Luther" — to  the  provostship  at  Wittenberg.  In 
 1 52 1  he  became  Doctor  of  Divinity  and  in  his  new  position  and 
 dignity  he  began  an  earnest  controversy  against  all  abuses,  prin- 
 cipally that  of  the  mass,  of  mariolatry  and  worship  of  the  saints, 
 and  proposed  a  new  Order  of  Service,  which,  however,  was  not 
 adopted  until  the  accession  of  a  new  elector.  He  is  preeminently 
 the  German  translator  of  the  documents  of  the  Reformation, 
 principally  of  Luther's  ''De  Servo  Arbitrio,''  Melanchthon's 
 ''Loci"  and  the  "Apology."  He  has  left  the  Church  some 
 beautiful  hymns  which  he  composed.  In  1523  he  conducted  the 
 second  Saxon  Church  visitation;  in  1536  he  aided  the  introduc- 
 tion of  the  Reformation  at  Naumburg;  in  1539  he  was  engaged 
 in  the  same  work  at  Meissen  and  in  1541  at  Halle.  At  Halle  he 
 composed  a  KO  based  on  the  one  at  Wittenberg.  His  death  oc- 
 curred in  1555.  His  direct  influence  upon  the  ordering  of  the 
 Church  at  Wittenberg  is  not  so  directly  appreciable  on  account 
 of  the  presence  and  labors  there  of  so  many  other  great  minds; 
 but  the  KOO  of  Meissen,  Naumburg  and  Halle  are  enough  to 
 entitle  him  to  distinction  in  this  field  also. 
 
 Upon  such  men  and  their  labors  did  the  ordering  of  the 
 Church  of  the  Reformation  depend.  We  can  not  read  a  detailed 
 description  of  this  period  without  thinking  of  the  "helden  lobe 
 baeren,  und  grozzer  arebeit"  of  the  Nibelungen,  but  far  greater, 
 
16  MEMOIRS. 
 
 far  more  wonderful  are  the  great  labors  of  these  praiseworthy 
 heroes.  We  are  astounded  at  their  condition,  we  are  humbled 
 by  their  faith,  we  admire  their  versatility,  we  can  not  compre- 
 hend the  many  and  varied  causes  to  which  they  gave  their  atten- 
 tion. We  can  not  but  think  of  the  great  things  they  accom- 
 plished and  compare  with  them  the  humble  following  of  their 
 footsteps  to  which  we  of  a  latter  day,  are  limited,  and  we  ex- 
 claim as  Schiller  did  of  Kaut,  "Wenn  die  Kbnige  bauen,  haben 
 die  Karmer  zu  thun." 
 
 Authorities  consulted  and  used: — Jakoby:  Liturgik  der 
 Reformatoren;  Bellermann:  Das  Leben  des  Johamies  Btigen- 
 hagen;  Horn:  The  Liturgical  Work  of  John  Braiz,  {^Church 
 Review^  1882);  Rietschel,:  Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik;  Zockler: 
 Handbuch  der  theologischen  Wissenshafte7i;  Meusel:  Kirchliches 
 Handlexikon. 
 
 C.  Theodore  Benze. 
 
 Erie^  Pa. 
 
THE   ECCI.ESIASTICAI.   CALENDAR. 
 
 The  Calendar,  (from  Calends),  is  the  mode  of  adjusting  the 
 artificial  divisions  of  time,  such  as  months.  Lent,  Advent  and  the 
 like  to  the  natural  or  Solar  year.  Calendars  are  devised  for  civil 
 and  religious  purposes,  each  embracing  the  same  period  of  time 
 as  their  unit,  (365^  days),  but  differing  in  accordance  with  the 
 use  for  which  they  are  intended.  We  are  concerned  with  the 
 civil  calendar  only  in  so  far  as  the  religious  is  related  to  it.  In 
 the  beginning,  the  Christians  simply  employed  the  divisions  of 
 time  current  in  the  country  of  which  they  were  citizens.  Certain 
 days  were  marked  as  anniversaries  of  great  events  in  the  life  of 
 Christ;  for  example  the  festival  days  of  the  early  Church.  To 
 these  were  added  commemorations  of  the  deaths  of  the  first  mar- 
 tyrs. As  the  Roman  wrote  on  his  tablets  the  obligations  he  must 
 meet,  or  the  debts  he  would  receive,  connecting  each  with  its 
 date  in  the  Julian  year,  so  the  Christian  marked  opposite  certain 
 dates,  the  name  or  event  he  thought  worthy  of  special  note  in  his 
 devotional  life.  Such  lists  were  the  earliest  Calendars  of  the 
 Church.  A  formal  and  authoritative  division  of  the  year  for 
 religious  use  was  arranged  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
 century. 
 
 As  the  religious  Calendar  was  simply  an  adaptation  of  the 
 civil  year,  and  grew  up  from  traditional  usages  by  different  bodies 
 of  believers,  many  differences  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  parts 
 of  Christendom,  b}^  which  local  conditions  of  the  life  of  the 
 Church  are  marked.  Nationality,  controversy  and  doctrinal  fun- 
 damentals have  each  been  factors  in  the  determination  of  what 
 should  be  marked  by  the  Church.  Almost  ever)^  day  in  the  year 
 in  the  Greek  Church  is  dedicated  to  some  event  in  the  life  of 
 Christ,  or  to  the  Apostles,  or  saints,  or  national  heroes.  With 
 the  Puritans  at  the  other  extreme,  even  the  anniversary^  of  our 
 Lord's  nativity  was  scarcely  admitted  to  form  a  special  day  in 
 
 (xvii) 
 
18  MEMOIRS. 
 
 their  year.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are 
 two  great  families  of  Calendars;  one  from  the  Eastern,  the  other 
 from  the  Western  division  of  Christendom.  Through  the 
 Roman  or  Western  wing,  we  derive  the  Church  Year  in  use  by 
 Lutherans. 
 
 The  three  great  events  in  the  life  of  Christ,  His  birth.  His 
 resurrection,  and  the  sending  of  the  Holy  Ghost  have  been  the 
 nuclei  around  which  all  the  Calendars  have  been  formed.  The 
 latter  two  of  these  were  marked  from  the  Apostolic  period,  and 
 in  fact,  are  simply  modifications  of  feasts  established  by  God  for 
 the  Jews.  Instead  of  the  Passover,  we  have  Easter  and  its  asso- 
 ciated days,  and  in  the  room  of  the  Harvest  festival,  we  celebrate 
 Pentecost  as  the  memorial  of  the  pouring  forth  of  the  Holy 
 Ghost.  Christmas  and  the  connected  festivals  of  Epiphany  and 
 Circumcision  arose  somewhat  later,  and  are  of  Gentile  origin. 
 These  three  feasts  became  the  centers  of  cycles  and  octaves.  As 
 the  Church  grew  older,  and  its  cultus  became  more  complex,  va- 
 rious customs  were  added.  Martyriology  gave  us  Saints'  days, 
 asceticism  furnished  the  preparatorj^  seasons  of  fasting,  and  now 
 and  then  the  settlemeijt  of  a  great  doctrinal  battle  added  a  special 
 day  to  the  Calendar.  By  the  time  the  Reformation  occurred,  the 
 entire  year  was  occupied  with  the  commemoration  of  events  in 
 the  history  of  the  Church.  The  opposition  of  the  reformers  to 
 the  worship  of  the  saints  and  of  the  Virgin  resulted  in  the  re- 
 moval of  many  names  and  customs  from  the  list;  or  where  they 
 were  not  officially  removed,  the  spirit  of  the  denomination  caused 
 them  to  fall  into  desuetude.  B)^  us,  little  not  directly  connected 
 with  the  life  of  our  Lord,  was  retained. 
 
 If  we  should  study  the  seasons  of  the  Church  Year  in  the 
 order  of  its  development,  we  would  begin  with  Easter,  this  being 
 the  festival  earliest  obser\'ed,  and  for  a  long  time  the  beginning 
 of  the  year.  But  since  we  are  accustomed  to  Advent  being  con- 
 sidered as  the  first  of  the  Calendar,  we  will  begin  with  the  Christ- 
 mas cycle,  of  which  Advent  is  the  preparatory  season. 
 
 Concerning  Advent  itself,  it  may  be  said,  that  there  is  no 
 mention  of  this  season  under  this  title  before  the  seventh  century. 
 Essentially  however,  it  had  a  place  in  the  Calendar  at  a  much 
 earlier  time.  Jerome  has  pericopes  and  collects  for  "the  five 
 Sundays  before  the  Nativity  of  our  Lord."  Like  Lent,  it  was 
 observed  as  a  season  of  penance  and  fasting.     An  ancient  canon 
 
THE    ECCI.ESIASTICAL    CALENDAR.  19 
 
 forbids  marriages  during  its  continuance.  The  time  over  which 
 it  extended,  varied  at  different  places  and  dates.  In  Jerome's 
 time,  and  in  parts  of  France  at  a  later  date,  it  covered  five  Sun- 
 days. In  the  Greek  Church  to  the  present  day,  under  the  name 
 "Fast  of  the  Nativity"  it  covers  forty  days  and  is  one  of  the  four 
 great  periods  of  fasting,  set  for  each  year.  To  Gregory  the 
 Great,  is  ascribed  its  duration  of  the  four  Sundays  preceding 
 Christmas.  One  of  its  four  Sundays  was  used  for  each  of  the 
 four  comings  of  Christ  to  man;  i.  e.,  to  mankind  in  the  flesh,  to 
 the  believer  in  the  hour  of  death,  to  Jerusalem  at  its  fall,  and  on 
 the  day  of  Judgment. 
 
 Since  the  sixth  century,  Advent  has  been  the  beginning  of 
 the  Church  Year  in  the  Western  Church.  The  chief  cause  of 
 the  change  from  the  Easter  cycle  was  the  desire  to  have  the 
 Christian  year  begin  at  a  time  different  from  the  beginning  of  the 
 Jewish  ecclesiastical  year. 
 
 The  Christmas  cycle  makes  its  appearance  in  the  Church 
 under  the  name  of  Epiphany.  There  was  a  heathen  festival 
 widely  celebrated  among  the  Greeks,  in  honor  of  the  manifesta- 
 tion of  one  of  their  myths  to  mankind,  under  the  name  of  EPI- 
 PHANEIA  (e7rt<^av£ta) ;  this  was  replaced  in  the  Oriental  Church 
 by  the  festival  in  honor  of  the  coming  of  Christ  in  the  flesh.  The 
 date  first  set  for  the  celebration  was  the  sixth  of  January,  which 
 date  is  still  retained  by  the  Armenian  Church  for  the  Christmas 
 festival.  The  only  attempt  to  explain  the  choice  of  this  day,  so 
 far  as  we  have  seen,  was  an  example  of  Oriental  allegory.  Since 
 Adam  was  created  on  the  sixth  day  of  time,  the  sixth  of  the  year 
 might  well  be  chosen  to  commemorate  the  birth  of  Christ.  Mean- 
 time, the  Western  Church  had  adopted  December  25th  as  the 
 Natal  Day.  When  the  controversies  of  the  Grecian  Church  re- 
 quired more  emphasis  to  be  placed  on  the  human  birth  of  the 
 Lord,  the  Greek  Church,  retaining  Epiphany,  added  the  Festival 
 of  the  Nativity  to  their  Calendar,  using  for  it  the  date  current 
 among  the  Roman  Christians. 
 
 When  December  25th  was  chosen  as  the  date  of  the  anniver- 
 sary of  the  birth  of  Christ,  is  not  known,  nor  have  we  any  clear 
 reason  given,  why  this  time  was  taken.  Chrysostom  says  in  a 
 Christmas  homily,  that  Pope  Julius  I,  (A.  D.,  337-352),  had 
 caused  strict  inquiry  to  be  made  as  to  the  time  of  Christ's  birth, 
 and  confirmed  its  customary  celebration  on  this  day.     Some  his- 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 torians  claim  that  this  date  was  chosen  by  the  Church  to  counter- 
 balance a  heathen  festival  occurring  December  25th  by  the  Julian 
 calendar.  Piper  derives  the  date  from  March  25tli,  which  the 
 early  Church  considered  as  the  normal  time  for  the  beginning  of 
 the  world,  the  resurrection  of  Christ,,  and  the  date  of  His  con- 
 ception. 
 
 Early  in  the  development  of  the  Church  Year,  it  became 
 customary  to  connect  with  a  festival,  its  Octave.  The  events  of 
 Easter  week  probably  form  the  precedent  for  this  habit.  With 
 Christmas  was  thus  connected  the  eighth  day  after,  and  from  a 
 Gospel  basis,  this  became  specifically  the  Festival  of  the  Circum- 
 cision, after  the  6th  century.  Between  Christmas  and  the  Festi- 
 val of  the  Circumcision,  our  Church  also  retains  the  minor  days 
 of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  John,  Dec.  26th  and  27th.  In  the  ancient 
 Church,  Dec.  28th  w^as  also  marked  as  the  Festival  of  the  Holy 
 Innocents.  The  association  of  Stephen  with  Christ  is  in  the 
 manner  of  his  death.  That  of  John  is  probably  due  to  his  near- 
 ness to  Christ  during  His  ministrj^  and  the  distinctive  teaching  in 
 his  Gospel  concerning  the  Incarnation.  The  innocency  of  the 
 child  victims  of  Herod's  jealousy,  so  similar  to  Christ's  faultless- 
 ness,  probably  led  the  Early  Church,  deeply  honoring  martyrdom 
 of  every  kind,  to  connect  their  death  with  the  festival  of  the 
 Master's  birth. 
 
 We  have  already  said  that  Epiphany  so  far  as  name  is  con- 
 cerned, was  earlier  in  its  origin  than  Christmas.  It  was  less  spe- 
 cifically devoted  to  Christ's  birth,  however,  than  to  marking  in 
 general  His  manifestation  to  men.  The  baptism  by  John,  and 
 the  appearance  in  the  home  at  Cana  of  Galilee  were  themes  in  its 
 celebration  as  well  as  the  assuming  of  the  flesh.  Onh-  after  the 
 fourth  centun,^  was  it  coupled  with  the  Visit  of  the  Magi  and  the 
 Manifestation  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  Theophaneia,  Bethpan- 
 eia,  are  early  titles  showing  its  first  significance.  Our  Gospel 
 Lessons  for  the  season  still  show  its  various  applications.  The 
 length  of  the  season  of  Epiphany  varies,  and  first  shows  the  in- 
 fluence of  the  "Queen  of  Festivals,"  Easter,  around  which  is 
 grouped  the  second  cycle  of  our  year. 
 
 We  have  already  said  that  the  celebration  of  Easter  is  of 
 Apostolic  origin.  It  would  be  only  natural  that  the  Jewish  con- 
 verts to  the  faith  in  the  first  year  of  Apostolic  preaching,  should 
 give  a  peculiar  significance  to  their  great  Paschal  feast,  whenever 
 
THK    ECCLKSIASTICAI,    CAI.KNDAR.  21 
 
 it  would  occur.  They  would  recall  Christ's  teaching  concerning 
 Himself  as  the  true  Lamb  of  God,  and  with  the  eating  of  unleav- 
 ened bread,  thej^  would  connect  the  crucifixion,  and  the  resur- 
 rection. Of  course  the  date  of  this  commemoration  would  be 
 that  of  the  Jewish  Pascha,  i.  e.,  the  14th  Nisan.  Nisan  was  a 
 lunar  month,  beginning  with  the  moon  following  the  Vernal 
 Equinox.  With  the  Gentile  converts,  however,  the  Jewish  Pass- 
 over had  little  or  no  significance.  They  had  not  even  adopted 
 the  keeping  of  the  vSabbath,  but  observed  instead  the  first  day  of 
 the  week,  distinctively  the  Lord's  Da5^  The  Resurrection  rather 
 than  the  Crucifixion  was  most  emphaticallj'-  preached  to  the  non- 
 Jewish  converts,  and  their  whole  religious  life  made  only  Sunday 
 suitable  for  the  commemoration  of  the  festival  of  Christ's  coming 
 from  the  grave.  The  result  was  that  the  Roman  Church  adopted 
 the  custom  of  m.aking  Easter  a  movable  festival,  seeking  to  mark 
 it  only  on  Sunda}^,  and  caring  only  to  have  a  time  approximately 
 corresponding  to  the  do}'  of  the  month  on  which  Christ  rose  from 
 the  dead.  By  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  the  influence  of 
 the  Italian  Church  had  become  sufiicient  to  make  a  marked  con- 
 flict between  the  days  on  which  Easter  was  celebrated.  The  first 
 colloquy  on  tlie  subject  was  between  Poljxarp  of  Smj^rna  and 
 Anicetus,  bishop  of  Rome.  Polycarp  declared  that  it  was  the 
 custom  of  John  to  observe  the  14th  of  Nisan,  but  Anicetus  re- 
 fused to  be  convinced.  Tradition  was  invoked  that  Peter  and 
 Paul  might  offer  authority  to  the  Roman  party.  A  bitter  con- 
 troversy was  carried  on  for  more  than  a  century,  until  finall}'  at 
 the  Council  of  Nicea,  the  matter  was  settled  by  passing  the  rule 
 now  in  force  for  determining  the  date  of  the  celebration  of  Easter. 
 That  rule  is,  that  Easter  shall  occur  on  the  first  Sunday,  follow- 
 ing the  first  full  moon  on,  or  next  after  the  21st  of  March. 
 When  this  is  Sunday,  the  following  Sunday  shall  be  taken. 
 
 This  Nicean  legislation  simply  compromises  by  determining 
 that  the  Sunday  nearest  to  the  14th  of  Nisan  shall  be  Easter. 
 At  least  that  would  be  the  result  if  the  beginning  of  Nisan  is  ac- 
 curately determined.  For  this  month  would  begin  with  the  new 
 moon  following  the  Vernal  Equinox,  i.  e.,  the  21st  of  March, 
 and  the  14th  was  the  day  of  the  full  moon.  The  followers  of  the 
 Jewish  custom  had  already  been  contemptuously  called  Quarto- 
 decimanians,  and  after  the  Nicean  Council,  any  one  holding  to 
 the  fixed  festival,  was  excommunicated.     It  is  none  the  less  true 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 however,   that   so   far  as  Apostolic   authority  is  concerned,   its 
 weight  is  in  favor  of  the  14th  of  Nisan. 
 
 Any  date  fixed  in  a  lunar  month  would  yet  be  movable  in 
 the  solar  year,  and  hence  in  a  civil  year  which  corresponded  in 
 length  with  the  sun's  annual  revolution.     The  requirement  of  a 
 certain  day  in  the  week  would  add  a  second  mutation.     In  the 
 years  immediately  following  the  Nicean  Council  the  Bishop  of 
 Alexandria  was  deputed  to  announce  to  the   other  bishops  the 
 date  on  which  Easter  would  occur,  and  the  bishops  through  their 
 metropolitans  would  inform  the  whole  Church.     This  plan  was 
 soon  found  inadequate  however,  and  the  mathematicians  set  them- 
 selves to  formulate  tables  by  which  the  date  of  the  moon  follow- 
 ing the  Vernal  Equinox  could  be  found,  and  the  day  of  the  week 
 could  be  determined.     The  Metonic  cycle  of  nineteen  years  for 
 determining  the  date  of  the  moon's  phases  had  already  been  in 
 use  for  centuries.     A  "solar"  cycle  for  twenty-eight  years  was 
 also  known,  by  which  the  succession  of  the  days  of  the  week 
 could  be  found.     Victorinus   of   Aquitain    combined   these   two 
 numbers  as  factors  in  a  period  of  532  years,   to  which  the  name 
 of  the  Victorian  cycle  has  been  applied.     The  factors  in  this  unit 
 are  indicated  in  our  Calendars  by  the  Golden  Number  and  the 
 Dominical  or  Sunday  letter.     The  first  is  obtained  by  dividing 
 the  number  of  the  year  plus  one  by   19.     If  there  is  no  remain- 
 der, the  Golden  Number  is  19.     Any  remainder  from  the  division 
 is  the  Golden  Number  for  the  year  divided.     The  Dominical  let- 
 ter is  the  capital  set  opposite  Sunday.     The  ist,  2nd,  3rd,  4th, 
 5th,  6th  and  7th  of  January  are  named  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F  and  G. 
 If  the  ist  of  January  is  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter;  if  the 
 3rd  is  Sunday,  the  letter  is  C;  and  so  on.     The  table  of  the  Vic- 
 torian Cycle  was  used  for  determining  the  date  of  Easter  until 
 the  time  of  the  papal  reign  of  Gregory  XIII,  without  correction, 
 although  the  Venerable  Bede  had  noted  that  the  Venial  Equir.ox 
 no  longer  fell  on  the  21st  of  March.     Owing  to  the  various  errors 
 in  the  ancient  Julian  year  and  in  the  Victorian  cycle,  a  day  was 
 lost  every  130  years.     In   1582,  the  actual  date  of  the   Vernal 
 Equinox  was  March   nth.     To  correct    this   error,  Gregory  or- 
 dered the  5th  of  October  to  be  called  the  15th.     The  Catholic 
 countries  adopted  the  revision  at  once;    the  Protestant  govern- 
 ments later,  England  making  a  correction  of  eleven  days  in  1752. 
 The  Greek  Church  has  not  yet  adopted  the  correction,  so  that 
 
THE    ECCLESIASTICAI.    YEAR.  23 
 
 there  is  a  divergence  of  twelve  days  between  the  dating  of  their 
 events  in  their  own  "Old  Style"  and  our  "New  Style."  Neces- 
 sary corrections  in  the  Victorian  cycle  have  made  it  so  complex 
 that  it  can  no  longer  be  generally  employed  in  determining  Eas- 
 ter. Hence  tables  are  published  giving  the  actual  date  of  its  oc- 
 currence during  a  period  of  years.*  A  very  good  article  on  the 
 formulae  for  the  Golden  number  and  the  Dominical  letter  can  be 
 found  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britarinica  under  "Calendar." 
 
 By  the  time  the  Nicean  Council  had  decreed  the  date  of  the 
 occurrence  of  Easter,  many  of  the  elements  of  its  cycle  had  be- 
 come established  in  the  customs  of  the  Church.  The  custom  of 
 fasting  in  the  days  preceding  the  festival  is  very  early,  although 
 it  was  first  practiced  only  during  the  forty  hours  during  which 
 Christ's  soul  was  separated  from  His  body.  Yet  it  was  not  long 
 until  the  tendencies  toward  asceticism  led  to  the  extension  of  this 
 preparatory  season  over  a  period  of  forty  days.  Origen  makes 
 mention  of  this  length  of  time  as  proper  for  the  preceding  of  Eas- 
 ter. This  period  of  course  grew  out  of  the  time  of  the  Master's 
 temptation  in  the  wilderness.  The  number  of  weeks  covered  by 
 a  fast  of  forty  days  was  effected  by  the  estimate  in  which  the 
 days  of  the  week  were  held  by  various  parts  of  the  Church. 
 Sundays  were  universally  excluded  from  the  list  of  fast  days. 
 Parts  of  the  Church  also  excluded  Saturdays  and  Thursdays. 
 Such  omissions  would  extend  the  forty  days  to  the  ninth  week 
 before  Easter,  and  would  account  for  the  cycle  beginning  with 
 Septuagesima  Sunday,  although  the  names  of  the  Sundays  before 
 Lent  are  derived  by  analogy  with  Quadragesima.  In  the  West- 
 ern Church,  Gregory  the  Great  brought  uniformity  by  enacting 
 that  Eent  should  consist  of  the  forty-six  days  preceding  Easter, 
 Sundays  being  excepted  from  fasting.  Thus  it  takes  its  begin- 
 ning on  Wednesday  of  the  seventh  week  before  Easter. 
 
 Ash  Wednesday  takes  its  name  from  a  custom  of  the  Roman 
 Church  of  burning  the  palm  branches  consecrated  at  the  previous 
 Palm  Sunday  and  with  the  ashes  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  on 
 the  forehead  of  those  kneeling  before  the  altar  on  this  day.  The 
 ancient  name  is  Caput  Jejunii.  In  the  Lutheran  Church,  the  day 
 is  marked  simply  as  the  beginning  of  the  Lenten  season. 
 
 The  English  word  Lent  is  from  the  old  word  for  Spring,  this 
 season  of  the  Church  Year  being  distinguished  as  the  Lenten 
 
 *    Cf.   Church  Book. 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Fast.  The  names  of  the  first  five  Sundays  are  taken  from  the 
 initial  words  of  the  Latin  Introits  for  each  day;  i.  e.,  Invocavit, 
 Roninisccrc,  Ocicli,  Lcctarc  and  Jiidica.  Pahn  vSunday  takes  its 
 name  from  the  custom  of  bearing  branches  in  the  processionals. 
 By  Gregor)'  it  is  called  Dominica  in  ramis  palmatian,  by  Am- 
 brose, Dominica  in  ramis  olivariini.  By  St.  Jerome  it  is  entitled 
 Indulgence  Day  from  the  custom  of  the  Emperors  of  setting  free 
 prisoners  and  closing  the  courts  of  justice  during  the  week  be- 
 ginning with  this  Sunday.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
 Church,  this  week  received  the  name  of  the  Great  Week  or  the 
 Holy  Week,  and  was  marked  by  special  religious  obser\-ances 
 and  by  the  closing  of  places  of  business. 
 
 Maundy  Thursday  has  its  popular  name  either  from  a  cor- 
 ruption of  the  Latin  title  ''Dies  Ma^idatV  or  from  the  custom  of 
 delivering  gifts  to  the  iX)or  in  baskets  (maunds).  The  Lord's' 
 command,  "Do  this"  of  course  led  to  the  name  Mandati.  Other 
 titles,  arising  from  the  Lord's  teaching  in  the  Upper  Room  are, 
 Feria  jnysferionim,  Lavipcdiiim  and  MeyaA?;  Pora?. 
 
 It  has  alread}'  been  noted  that  the  marking  of  the  day  of  the 
 Lord's  death  by  a  suitable  memorial  is  one  of  the  earliest  customs 
 of  Christendom.  The  Jewish  converts  in  selecting  the  14th  of 
 Nisan  as  their  Easter,  gave  the  crucifixion  the  first  ]>lace  as  com- 
 pared with  the  resurrection.  At  first  in  the  Western  Church, 
 both  the  crucifixion  and  the  resurrection  were  connected  with  the 
 Sunday  celebration  of  the  Pasclia,  but  after  the  time  of  Leo  I, 
 the  two  events  are  definitely  separated,  and  Friday  marked  as 
 the  Paraskeue  or  Dies  Dominican  passionis.  Saturday  following, 
 called  by  the  Jews,  An  high  Day,  is  known  to  the  Christians  as 
 The  Great  vSabbath.  It  has  been  marked  only  by  the  Easter 
 vigils. 
 
 The  name  Easter  is  derived  b}-  Venerable  Bede  from  the 
 name  of  a  Pagan  goddess  Eostre  or  Ostera,  vrhose  festival  oc- 
 curred about  the  time  of  the  Vernal  Equinox.  Later  philologists 
 derive  the  name  from  the  .Saxon  "urstnn,"  to  rise,  "urstand," 
 the  resurrection.  The  ancient  name  was  '"Pasc/ia  Dotninica;  res- 
 urrectionis''  and  later  simply  ''  Dies  Pasclucy  From  the  purely 
 Church  standpoint,  it  is  and  always  has  been  the  greatest  of  the 
 Church  festivals. 
 
 The  forty  days  following  Easter  belong  to  the  Easter  cycle 
 and  are  characterized  by  the  prolongation  of  the  Easter  festivi- 
 
THE    ECCIvESIASTlCAL    CAI^ENDAR.  25 
 
 ties.  Fasting  was  not  permitted,  and  the  most  joyous  celebra- 
 tions of  the  Church  and  family  were  set  for  this  period.  The 
 Sundays  take  their  names  from  the  Introits. 
 
 Thursday,  the  fortieth  day  after  Easter  is  set  apart  for  the 
 marking  of  the  Lord's  ascension.  Holy  Thursday  is  the  name 
 usually  aj^plied  to  it  in  the  old  Calendars,  though  it  is  not  shown 
 to  be  very  early  marked  by  the  Church.  Chrysostom  is  the  first 
 authority  for  its  observance,  he  having  a  homily  for  the  day. 
 Augustine  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  mark  it  in  a  similar  manner. 
 
 Pentecost,  the  fiftieth  day  after  Easter,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
 festivals,  being  probably  contemporary  with  Easter  in  its  first  ob- 
 servance. Its  Christian  observance  is  simply  a  transformation  of 
 the  Jewish  Harvest  Feast,  with  a  new  significance  due  to  the  out- 
 pouring of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  this  day.  Pentecost  is  of  course 
 the  earliest  name.  Our  English  title  of  Whit-Sunday  is  usually 
 derived  from  the  custom  of  the  catechumens  appearing  in  white 
 robes  on  this  day,  their  baptism  having  occurred  at  the  vigil  im- 
 mediately preceding.  Other  derivations  are  "Whitsun  Day" 
 from  the  German  "Pfingsten  Tag,"  and  Wit  Sunday,  the  day  of 
 the  pouring  forth  of  wisdom,  from  the  old  English  word  for  wis- 
 dom, Wit.  In  the  early  Church,  the  remaining  Sundays  of  the 
 year  were  attached  to  Pentecost,  and  this  custom  still  obtains  in 
 the  Greek  Church,  where  Trinity  Sunday  is  not  observed. 
 
 Trinity  Sunday  is  the  latest  of  the  great  festivals  to  be 
 placed  in  the  Calendar.  There  was  no  occasion  for  its  observ- 
 ance until  after  the  Arian  controversy,  the  Sunday  following 
 Pentecost  being  simply  the  octave  of  that  feast,  and  specially  set 
 apart  as  the  Day  of  all  the  Martyrs.  In  some  parts  of  the 
 Church,  the  Sunday  before  Advent  was  connected  with  the  Trin- 
 ity. The  Synod  of  Aries,  1260,  officially  gave  it  its  present 
 place  in  the  Calendar,  choosing  the  Sunday  following  Pentecost, 
 because  after  the  sending  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  man  had  for  the 
 first  time  full  knowledge  of  the  Trinity. 
 
 Our  custom  of  naming  the  remaining  Sundays  of  the  year 
 "Sundays  after  Trinity"  is  not  so  much  the  forming  of  along 
 Trinity  cycle,  as  it  is  the  making  of  a  second  principal  division 
 of  the  Church  Year.  The  first  division  with  its  three  great  feasts 
 and  their  cycles  is  the  Semester  Domini,  ending  with  Trinity  Sun- 
 day. The  second  half  is  the  Semester  Ecclesice.  In  the  first,  we 
 mark  the  history  of  the  life  of  Christ  from  its  Advent  to  the  send- 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ing  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  in  the  second,  we  have  man's  appropria- 
 tion of  redemption.  In  this,  the  lessons  mark  the  Call  to  the 
 Kingdom  of  God,  the  Righteousness  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and 
 the  Final  Consummation  of  the  Christians'  Life.      (Spaeth.) 
 
 In  the  Greek  Church  on  the  other  hand,  the  entire  year  is 
 divided  into  cycles  grouped  around  the  great  festivals  commem- 
 orative of  the  ministry  of  Christ.  Their  conception  of  the  Church 
 Year  can  best  be  shown  by  tables.  They  are  quoted  from  Neale's 
 Holy  Eastern  Church. 
 
 Festivals  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
 
 A.  Great. 
 
 1 .  Easter. 
 
 2.  The  following  twelve: 
 Christmas,  Dec.  25th. 
 Epiphany,  Jan.  6th. 
 
 Hypapante,  Feb.   2nd.     (Meeting  of  our    Lord  with 
 
 Simeon  and  Anna.) 
 Annunciation,  Mar.  25th. 
 Palm  Sunday. 
 Pentecost. 
 
 Transfiguration,  Aug.  6th. 
 Repose  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Aug.  15th. 
 Nativity  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Sept.  8th. 
 Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sept.  14th. 
 Presentation  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Nov.  21st. 
 
 3.  Festivals  Adodekata.     (Fewer  than  12.) 
 The  Circumcision,  Jan.  ist. 
 
 Nativity  of  S.  John  the  Baptist. 
 SS.  Peter  and  Paul. 
 Decollation  of  John  the  Baptist. 
 
 B.  Middle. 
 
 1 .  Festivals  in  which  the  office  is  not  entirely  of  the 
 
 commemoration,  but  has  the  addition  of  a  canon 
 in  lauds  in  honor  of  the  Mother  of  God;  such  as 
 Jan.  30,  SS.  Basil,  Gregor>',  and  Chrysostom.' 
 May  6th,  St.  John,  the  Divine. 
 
 2.  Those    in    which   the    Polyeleos  (135th    and    136th 
 
 Psalms)  occur  in  the  lauds.  For  the  minor  apos- 
 tles, the  God-bearing  Fathers,  (Simon  St\lites), 
 a!id  the  more  famous  Metropolitans. 
 
THE    ECCLESIASTICAI.    CALENDAR.  27 
 
 C.    Little. 
 
 1 .  Those  having  the  Great  Doxology. 
 
 2.  Those  without  the  Great  Doxology. 
 
 The  great  Fasts  of  the  Greek  Church  are  as  follows: 
 
 The  lyenten  Fast,  Monday  after  Quinquagesima  to  Kaster. 
 
 The  Fast  of  the  Apostles,  Monday  after  Trinity  to  June  29. 
 
 The  Fast  of  the  Mother  of  God.     Aug.  ist  to  14th. 
 
 The  Fast  of  the  Nativity.  Nov.  15th  to  Dec.  25th. 
 The  first  of  these  Fasts,  the  Lenten,  is  of  exceeding  rigor. 
 "Not  only  is  meat  forbidden,  but  fish,  cheese,  butter,  oil,  milk, 
 and  all  preparations  of  it.  The  Fast  continues  on  Sunday,  though 
 a  little  oil  is  permitted.  General  indulgences  are  never  granted." 
 "In  all  226  days  of  the  year  are  observed  with  scrupulous  fidelity 
 as  Fasts.  In  the  Lenten  Fast,  poor  men  throw  away  their  only 
 loaf  of  bread,  if  a  drop  of  oil  or  forbidden  food  happens  to  fall 
 upon  it." 
 
 N.  R.  Melhorn. 
 Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
28 
 
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LUTHER'S   UTURGICAL  WRITINGS. 
 
 As  would  be  expected,  he  who,  under  God's  hand,  purified  the 
 faith  of  the  Church,  also  laid  down  the  principles  for  a  purified 
 worship  in  the  reformed  Church.  The  fundamental  principles 
 of  liturgical  reform  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Luther,  and  it 
 is  upon  these  principles  that  every  Evangelical  Liturgy  is  based. 
 There  are  but  three  great  liturgical  wTitings  from  the  hand  of 
 Luther,  in  fact  only  two  which  provide  an  order  of  worship,  the 
 Formula  Missa,  1523,  and  the  Deutsche  3fesse,  1526;  but  with 
 these  must  also  be  mentioned  the  tract  "Von  Ordenung  Gottes- 
 dienst  in  der  Geraeyne,"  of  1523,  and  his  letter  to  the  chapter 
 of  All  Saint's  Church  at  Wittenberg,  of  August  19,  1523. 
 
 All  through  his  writings  from  the  year  151 6  to  the  year 
 1545  we  find,  again  and  again,  reference  made  to  the  worship  of 
 the  Church;  some  deal  with  the  matter  fully  and  other  writings 
 again  barely  touch  it.  It  is  therefore  a  difficult  matter  to  refer 
 to  every  reference  of  liturgical  importance.  We  will  content 
 ourself  with  the  most  important. 
 
 When  Luther,  in  the  year  15 17,  wrote  the  sixty-second 
 Thesis,  "The  real  and  true  treasure  of  the  Church  is  the  most 
 holy  Gospel  of  the  gl6ry  and  grace  of  God,"  he  was  the  David 
 who  gave  the  Goliath  of  the  old  order  of  worship  its  death 
 wound.  The  very  center  of  the  infamous  system  of  Rome  lay  in 
 its  worship  in  the  Mass.  From  early  infancy  all  the  religious 
 surroundings  of  the  people  were  bound  up  in  this  worship,  and 
 to  destroy  it  was  a  herculean  task.  Luther  knew  this,  and  in 
 his  treatise  on  the  Babylonian  Captivity  (1520)  declares  that  the 
 Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  by  far  the  most  iniquitous  captivity  and 
 which  has  drawn  with  it  an  endless  chain  of  further  abuses.  He 
 knows  he  has  to  contend  with  an  evil  which  has  been  firmly  in- 
 trenched for  centuries,  which  has  received  universal  approval  and 
 which  cannot  be  overthrown  without  changing  almost  the  entire 
 
 (xxix) 
 
so  MEMOIRS. 
 
 present  organization  of  the  Church  and  introducing  a  different 
 mode  of  conducting  worship.  At  first  his  entire  attention  was 
 given  to  the  preaching  and  teaching  of  a  purified  doctrine.  But 
 in  this  teaching  he  laid  down  the 
 
 PRINCIPLES   OF    DIVINE   WORSHIP, 
 
 In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe  (1520)  Luther  says,  "If  a 
 man  is  to  have  any  dealings  with  God  and  to  receive  anything 
 from  Him,  it  must  come  to  pass  in  such  a  way  that  the  first  step 
 is  not  taken  by  man  but  that  God  alone,  without  any  petition  on 
 the  part  of  man,  must  take  the  initiative  and  give  to  man  a  prom- 
 ise. This  Word  of  God  is  the  first  thing,  and  upon  it  are  built 
 all  the  words,  works,  and  thoughts  of  man."  Here  the  first 
 principle  of  worship  is  laid  down.  Again  and  again  this  princi- 
 ple is  repeated.  In  the  Ordnung  des  Gottesdienstes  he  declares 
 emphatically,  "The  Christian  congregation  should  never  assem- 
 ble, except  the  Word  be  preached  and  prayer  be  offered,  even 
 though  it  be  very  brief.  Therefore  when  the  Word  of  God  is 
 not  preached,  it  were  better  there  should  be  neither  singing,  nor 
 reading,  nor  meeting."  In  1524,  in  writing  against  Carlstadt  he 
 gives  preeminence  to  the  Word.  Upon  this  depends  primarily 
 for  him  the  entire  genuine  process  of  intercourse  between  man 
 and  God,  and  thus  also  distinctively  salvation  itself,  as  tendered 
 from  above,  and  not  as  an  achievement  to  be  attained  by  efforts 
 originating  within  ourselves. 
 
 In  1522  he  declares  that  in  everything  bearing  upon  the  plan 
 of  salvation  and  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  God,  absolutely  "noth- 
 ing dare  be  added"  to  the  Word  of  Scripture,  and  yet  the  Divine 
 worship  appointed  by  God  in  His  Word  has  also  an  external, 
 earthly,  local  embodiir.ent  which  is,  just  because  of  its  unessen- 
 tial character,  variable  and  left  to  the  choice  of  Christian  liberty. 
 Beyond  the  Scriptures  nothing  must  be  appointed,  or,  if  anything 
 be  appointed,  it  must  be  regarded  as  voluntary  and  not  necessary'; 
 all  things  which  Christ  has  not  appointed  are  voluntary  and  un- 
 necessarj',  and  therefore  not  injurious.  Here  he  lays  down  the 
 principle  of  liberty  in  worship.  This  principle  he  follows  out 
 again  and  again  in  all  of  his  writings. 
 
 This  principle  is  treated  of  more  fully  in  his  Address  to  the 
 Christian  Nobility  (1520)  where  he  says  this  liberty  must  not  be 
 abused.     Many  want  to  be  free,  and  as  Christians  only  in  despis- 
 
LUTHER'S  LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  31 
 
 ing  ceremonies,  traditions  and  human  laws:  whereas  the  opposing 
 party  seek  to  attain  salvation  only  by  observance.  The  Christian 
 must  in  his  conduct  concerning  outward  ceremonies  always  have 
 in  view  two  different  classes  of  men.  One  the  hardened  ceremo- 
 nialist,  the  other  the  weak  in  faith.  To  deal  with  the  former  we 
 must  do  just  the  opposite  and  the  latter  we  must  bear  with  until 
 they  are  properly  instructed.  When  Carlstadt  in  his  dictatorial 
 manner  sought  to  enforce  certain  laws  in  worship,  Luther  op- 
 posed him  forcibly.  "We  are,"  says*  he,  "free  and  Christian 
 and  can  therefore  elevate  the  sacrament  or  not  elevate  it,  howev- 
 er, wherever,  whenever  and  as  long  as  we  please."  For  the  ex- 
 press purpose  of  opposing  Carlstadt  he  retained  the  custom  at 
 Wittenberg.  He  took  the  same  stand  on  other  ceremonies.  In 
 his  sermon  Wider  die  Himmlischen  propheten  (i 524-1 525)  he 
 says  again,  "we  have  Christian  liberty  to  observe  the  Mosaic  laws, 
 but  that  all  this  should  be  accommodated  to  the  people  amongst 
 whom  we  live." 
 
 In  his  Address  to  the  Christian  Nobility  he  also  lays  down 
 the  principle  on  which  he  bases  his  reasons  for  not  abolishing  cer- 
 emonies. "We  cannot  live  on  earth  without  them,"  he  declares. 
 "Hot,  impetuous  youth  requires  bonds,  every  one  needs  chastise- 
 ment." He  illustrates  this  by  referring  to  the  fact  that  Christian 
 poverty  incurs  danger  in  the  midst  of  wealth,  fidelity  and  faith 
 in  the  rush  of  business,  humility  in  enjoyment  of  the  hour,  so 
 also  righteousness  of  faith  is  endangered  in  the  multiplicity  of 
 ceremonies.  Nevertheless,  we  must  live  and  move,  as  in  the 
 midst  of  wealth,  business,  etc.,  so  also  amid  ceremonies,  i.  e. ,  in 
 constant  danger.  And  now  he  declares  there  will  be  a  time  when 
 such  ceremonies  are  no  longer  necessary.  They  are  as  the  scaf- 
 folding which  artisans  and  mechanics  use  in  erecting  a  building. 
 When  the  building  is  completed  the  scaffolding  is  laid  aside;  so 
 when  the  Christian  has  reached  a  perfect  faith  ceremonies  are  no 
 longer  necessary. 
 
 He  lays  down  the  principle  that  worship  should  be  for  the 
 sake  of  helping  one  another.  In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe,  he 
 says,  "We  may  not  be  at  all  times  the  same;  therefore  the  Mass 
 has  been  instituted,  that  we  may  assemble  with  one  another  and 
 together  offer  this  sacrifice."  Here,  he  says,  one  stirs  up,  moves, 
 inflames  the  other  to  earnestly  press  near  to  God,  and  we  receive 
 the  things  for  which  we  ask.     The  pastor  does  not  utter  the  ap- 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 pointed  words  by  himself,  but  he  is  our  mouthpiece  and  we  all 
 unitedly  speak  from  the  heart  with  him. 
 
 REASONS    FOR    A    CHANGE    IN    WORSHIP. 
 
 We  might  mention  four  reasons  for  a  change  in  worship  ne- 
 cessitated by  the  change  in  doctrine.*  The  first  is  found  in  the 
 supreme  normative  authority  of  the  Word.  According  to  the 
 Roman  practice  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  a  good  work  and 
 justified  the  sinner.  There  was  therefore  no  room  for  the  Word, 
 and  the  Word,  of  necessity,  was  crowded  out.  The  Word  must 
 have  the  first  place  in  worship,  according  to  Luther,  for  it  is  the 
 faith  of  the  individual  that  justifies  him.  As  early  as  1516  Lu- 
 ther declares  that  the  hearing  of  the  Word  is  a  far  greater  neces- 
 sity than  hearing  the  Mass,  In  his  Sermon  von  der  Messe,  he 
 says,  "The  central  place  of  the  worship  and  the  sacrament  is  ac- 
 corded to  the  Word.  The  Word  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
 Mass."  The  outward  observance  without  the  Word  is  of  no  ac- 
 count to  Luther,  and  in  all  his  liturgical  writings  this  is  one  of 
 the  chief  reasons  for  changing  the  form  of  worship.  The  Word 
 must  be  given  the  preeminence. 
 
 The  second  reason  was  one  growing  out  of  the  first.  Wor- 
 ship is  the  approach  of  the  individual  soul  to  God,  therefore  the 
 basis  of  worship  is  not  on  Divine  appointment  as  Rome  held,  but 
 on  the  activity  of  the  worshippers'  faith.  The  mediation  of  an 
 ofiiciating  priest  is  not  necessary.  The  individual  must  go  before 
 God  himself;  he  must  pray,  confess  and  give  thanks  for  himself. 
 The  conclusion  from  this  is  inevitable:  if  the  individual  must  go 
 before  God  himself,  there  is  no  need  of  a  mediating  priesthood. 
 In  the  Sermon  von  der  Messe  Luther  sa5'S,  "The  Sacrifice  of  the 
 Mass  is  effected,  not  through  the  priest,  but  through  faith  of 
 every  Christian  believer.  All  are  real  parsons  who  believe  Christ 
 is  a  minister  for  them  before  God,  and  who  offer  their  prayers, 
 their  praise,  their  wants,  and  themselves,  and  then  receive  the 
 sacrament  and  testament  bodily  and  spiritually'.  All  are  priests, 
 man  and  woman,  young  and  old,  learned  or  laity,  there  is  here 
 no  difference,  unless  it  be  in  the  measure  of  faith."  He  declares 
 the  same  thing  in  his  tract  on  the  Abrogation  of  the  Private 
 Mass. 
 
 In  the  Babylonian  Captivity  he  says,  "The  minister  differs 
 
 *  See  Christian  IVorship,  Its  Principles  and  Forms.     Chap.  VI. 
 
Luther's  liturgical  writings.  33 
 
 nothing  from  the  laity  except  in  administrating  the  Word  and 
 Sacraments,"  and  again,  "Baptized  persons  are  all  priests." 
 Here,  too,  he  defines  the  office  of  the  diaconate,  which  is  not  for 
 reading  the  lections,  but  to  distribute  the  alms  of  the  Church  to 
 the  poor. 
 
 The  abrogation  of  the  priesthood  is  the  abrogation  of  the 
 sacrifices  and  therefore  he  would  change  the  worship  because  of 
 that  abomination  of  Rome,  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Worship 
 must  be  participated  in  by  the  people.  There  can  be  no  proper 
 celebration  of  the  comnumion  except  there  be  communicants  who 
 actually  receive  the  sacrament,  "for  the  sacrament  is  a  commun- 
 ion of  all  saints,  hence  its  name  Conunjuiio,  that  is,  communion, 
 and  in  Latin  Commitnicare  means  to  receive  the  Sacrament,  or  as 
 we  say  in  German,  to  go  to  the  Sacrament.  It  means  that  Christ 
 and  His  saints  are  spiritually,  all  one  bod5\"  "To  make  a  sac- 
 rifice out  of  this  is  to  change  the  very  substance  of  the  sacrament 
 and  institution  of  Christ." 
 
 To  purify  worship  the  idea  of  sacrifice  in  the  Mass  had  to  be 
 overthrown.  And  the  purified  Mass  to  Luther  is  really  a  part  of 
 the  Gospel,  in  fact,  a  summar}^  of  the  latter,  and  all  sermons 
 should  be  nothing  else  but  the  exposition  of  the  Mass.  The 
 Mass  is  more  thorough!)^  Christian  under  any  circumstance  the 
 more  nearly  it  resembles  the  first  celebration,  which  was  eminent- 
 ly simple  without  any  pomp  and  ceremonies. 
 
 Luther's  fourth  reason  for  changing  the  worship  is  found  in 
 the  true  teaching  in  regard  to  the  Eucharist.  He  says  it  is  not 
 an  officiiim  of  man,  but  a  bencfichim  for  man.  Christ  is  not  sac- 
 rificed in  the  Eucharist:  He  is  given  and  applied.  The  worship- 
 per is  not  a  donor  in  the  Eucharistic  Service,  but  is  the  recipient 
 of  the  Divine  gift.  The  benefits  of  the  vSacrament  are  not  given 
 except  through  remembrance  of  Christ  and  faith  in  these  words, 
 "Given  and  shed  for  you  and  for  manyfor  the  remission  of  sins." 
 This  led  to  a  complete  change  in  the  entire  Communion  Service. 
 It  was  this  doctrine  that  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman 
 Mass  and  the  introduction  of  an  Evangelical  Mass. 
 
 Thus  we  see  that  the  root  of  all  the  reasons  for  a  change  in 
 worship  lay  in  the  purified  doctrine  of  the  Word,  and  we  might 
 sum  up  all  of  Luther's  conclusions  by  declaring  that  all  changes 
 were  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  present  the  Word  purely  to 
 the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  worshippers. 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 EXTERNAL   ORDINANCES. 
 
 Luther,  althout^h  retaining  ceremonies,  shows  somewhat  of 
 a  contemptuous  indifTerence  to  all  ordinances.  This  indifference 
 grows  as  he  grows  older,  and  in  his  later  writings  he  is  very  out- 
 spoken for  the  destruction  of  all  outward  observances,  although 
 he  does  not  in  every  case  deem  this  advisable  on  account  of  the 
 weak. 
 
 In  1520  in  his  sermon  "Von  Guten  Werken,"  he  says  the 
 Christian  is  free  from  all  external  ordinances.  Even  the  out- 
 ward observance  of  Sunday,  for  bodily  rest,  is  for  him  not 
 expressly  commanded.  All  days  are  holy  days.  All  days  are 
 working  days.  And  here  he  presents  the  idea  too,  that  the  spe- 
 cial observances  are  only  for  the  sake  of  the  innnature  lait}'  and 
 working  people,  in  order  that  they  may  come  and  hear  the  Word 
 of  God. 
 
 Luther  acknowledges  the  importance  of  external  customs  or 
 modes  of  administrations.  But  for  him  they  have  no  sanctifying 
 power  and  have  not  been  instituted  b}-  God,  as  he  says  they  "are 
 outwardly  necessary  and  useful,  are  proper  and  becoming,  and 
 produce  an  orderly-  discipline  and  Church  economy."  They  are 
 the  orderly  and  approved  forms  in  which  the  dispensing  and  ad- 
 ministration of  the  means  of  grace  in  the  congregation,  prayer, 
 etc.,  are  to  be  clothed.  He  also  enumerates  the  chief  external 
 customs  as,  the  appointed  order  of  Divine  worship,  the  celebra- 
 tion of  particular  days  and  hours,  the  use  of  the  altar,  priestly 
 vestments,  etc.,  and  further,  for  example,  as  the  observance  of 
 fasting,  as  a  religious  ceremony,  by  the  congregation  at  large. 
 But  all  the.se  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  essential  or  binding  on  the 
 congregation. 
 
 Often  does  the  Reformer  lay  particular  stress  on  the  fact  that 
 freedom  is  allowed  in  these  questions  of  priestly  robes  and 
 ordinances,  and  in  the  Babylonian  Captivit}'  he  aflSrms  that  the 
 Church  has  no  right  to  impose  laws  and  take  captive  our  liberty. 
 Nor  has  the  Church  a  right  to  impose  fasts,  prayers,  and  ordi- 
 nances. "Neither  Pope  nor  Bishop,  nor  an}-  man  has  the  right 
 to  impose  a  single  sjdlable  upon  a  Christian  man,  unless  it  be 
 with  his  consent." 
 
 The  Pastor  or  Bishop  is  not  allowed  to  appoint  these  observ- 
 ances, the  Church  must.  Necessity  itself  requires  that  they 
 should  be  diverse  and  suited  to  the  different  classes  of  people,  but 
 
IvUTHER'S  I.ITURGICAI,  WRITINGS.  35 
 
 once  the  Church  does  lay  down  ordinances,  individual  believers 
 should  submit  as  long  as  they  are  wholesome.  And  yet,  if  the 
 weak  will  not  submit ,  there  must  be  no  compulsion  to  make  them 
 do  so,  for  all  things  which  adorn  with  the  ceremonies,  as  vest- 
 ments, postures,  fasts,  festivals — are  secular  matters,  under  the 
 supervision  of  reason. 
 
 That  ceremonies  are  useful  lyUther  admits  in  a  letter  to  John 
 Sutel  (1531).  He  says  "Ceremonies  are  not  necessary  to  salva- 
 tion but  they  are  useful  to  move  slow  minds.  Concerning  the 
 ceremonies  of  the  Mass  which  are  altars,  vestments,  candles,  etc., 
 if  they  are  not  deposed,  they  are  able  to  be  observed,  just  as  we 
 do  at  Wittenberg.  For  children  and  fools  they  are  necessary,  for 
 whom  they  are  to  be  observed."  In  1523  he  writes  that  it 
 is  not  possible  to  live  in  the  Church  of  God  without  ceremonies, 
 but  he  makes  no  plea  for  uniformity  in  this.  In  an  earlier  letter 
 written  to  John  Sutel  (1524)  he  declares  that  it  is  not  necessary 
 all  should  be  one  in  ceremonies,  but  that  they  should  be  one  in 
 faith  and  the  Word.  Let  the  ceremonies  be  varied  so  the  indi- 
 vidual subjectivity  can  speak  its  own  religion.  And  in  1530  to 
 the  Elector  John  he  says  in  substance  the  same  thing.  In  1545 
 he  writes  to  Prince  George  of  Anhalt,  "I  am  not  able  to  give  the 
 advice  that  every  place,  everywhere  there  should  be  uniform  cer- 
 emonies." In  this  letter  he  takes  a  more  advanced  step  and  says, 
 "I  ani  impatient  of  even  necessary  ceremonies,  but  hostile  to 
 those  which  are  not  necessary,  for  it  is  easy  for  ceremonies  to 
 grow  into  laws  and  once  established  as  laws,  they  soon  become 
 snares  for  the  conscience." 
 
 When  we  turn  to  the  chief  liturgical  writings  of  Luther  we 
 find  practically  the  same  thoughts  expressed  there.  In  his  Form- 
 tda  MisscE  he  says,  "External  rites,  even  though  we  cannot  do 
 without  them,  as  we  cannot  do  without  food  or  drink,  neverthe- 
 less do  not  commend  us  to  God Vestments  are  permitted 
 
 to  be  used  in  liberty,  providing  pomp  and  luxury  be  absent.  For 
 neither  are  you  more  acceptable  if  you  consecrate  in  vestments, 
 nor  less  acceptable  if  you  consecrate  without  vestments.  For 
 vestments  do  not  commend  us  to  God." 
 
 In  his  German  Mass  he  speaks  very  particularly  of  the  rea- 
 son for  having  a  form  of  worship,  and  also  for  all  having  one 
 form.  "We  should  in  love,  as  Paul  teaches,  endeavor  to  be  of 
 one  mind,  and  in  the  best  waj^  possible  to  be  of  like  forms  and 
 
36  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ceremonies,  just  as  all  Christians  have  one  baptism,  one  sacra- 
 ment, and  to  no  person  is  given  of  God  a  special  one.  .  .  .  Yet 
 I  will  not  ask  those  who  already  have  their  good  order  of  Service, 
 or  who  through  God's  grace  can  make  a  better  one,  to  let  it  go 
 and  yield  to  us It  would  be  excellent  if  in  every  princi- 
 pality Divine  Service  were  conducted  in  the  same  form,  and  the 
 surrounding  towns  and  villages  directly  shared  with  a  city." 
 
 "We  institute  such  Orders  not  for  the  sake  of  those  who  al- 
 ready are  Christians,  for  they  need  none  of  these  things,  for 
 which  also  one  does  not  live;  but  they  only  live  for  the  sake  of 
 us,  who  are  not  Christians,  that  they  may  make  us  Christians.  .  . 
 We  must  have  such  Orders  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  yet  to 
 become  Christians  or  to  become  stronger.  .  .  .  But  most  of  all  it 
 is  done  on  account  of  the  simple  and  the  j-oung,  who  are  to  be 
 and  must  be  exercised  daily  and  educated  in  the  Scriptures  and 
 God's  Word  .  .  .  for  the  sake  of  such  we  must  read,  write,  sing, 
 preach,  and  poetize,  and,  if  it  would  be  helpful  and  advantageous 
 thereto,  I  w^ould  let  all  the  bells  ring,  and  all  the  organs  play  and 
 ever>'thing  sound  that  can  sound." 
 
 In  this  connexion  let  us  also  see  what  Luther  thought  of  the 
 Church  Festivals  which  also  belong  to  the  outward  observances. 
 In  his  Von  Ordnung  Gottesdienst  he  would  abolish  the  festivals 
 of  all  the  saints — in  fact,  all  but  five  festivals  are  abolished;  the 
 Purification  of  the  Virgin,  the  Annunciation,  the  Nativity  of  our 
 Lord,  and  the  Festivals  of  John  the  Baptist  and  Paul  remain. 
 On  account  of  the  idolatrous  worship  he  wished  "that  every  fes- 
 tival be  abolished,  and  that  the  Sabbath  alone  be  retained." 
 
 In  the  Formula  Missa  he  adds  to  this  list  the  Circumcision 
 of  Christ,  Epiphany,  Easter  and  Pentecost.  In  the  German 
 Mass  he  adds  Michaelmas,  and  allows  the  fasts  of  Palm  Sunday 
 and  Holy  Week  to  remain,  and  also  observes  Good  Friday  as  a 
 holy-day.  Therefore  we  have  retained  the  following  festivals: 
 The  Nativity,  Circumcision  of  Christ,  Epiphany,  Conversion  of 
 Paul,  Purification  of  the  Virgin,  the  Annunciation,  Day  of  John 
 the  Baptist,  Easter,  Holy  Week,  Good  Friday,  Pentecost  and 
 Michaelmas. 
 
 THE    ORDER    OF    WORSHIP. 
 
 We  have  now  reached  the  point  where  we  can  consider  the 
 Order  of  worship  as  it  was  arranged  and  prepared  by  Luther. 
 
LUTHER'S  LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  37 
 
 These  Orders  give  a  concensus  of  all  his  liturgical  writings  and 
 are  the  practical  embodiment  of  all  his  principles  of  worship. 
 
 In  his  letter  to  the  chapter  of  All  Saints  at  Wittenberg 
 (1523)  he  gives  his  first  outline  of  a  renovated  Service.  In  this 
 writing  he  demands,  in  the  first  place,  that  all  who  are  not  fit 
 persons  to  conduct  the  Mass  be  excluded,  for  the  Mass  is  not  a 
 sacrifice  or  work.  In  the  second  place  all  mercenary  Masses  and 
 vigils  are  to  be  abolished  and  no  consideration  is  to  be  taken  of 
 the  weak  in  this.  In  the  third  place,  the  morning  and  evening 
 hours  as  the  Completoriuin  are  to  remain,  but  are  to  be  purged. 
 And  in  the  place  of  the  Masses  at  the  morning  hours,  while  using 
 the  old  form  of  worship,  a  lesson  is  to  be  read  after  the  Te  Deum 
 Laudamus  from  the  Old  Testament,  with  an  exhortation  and  in- 
 terpretation. In  the  evening  this  lesson  is  to  be  from  the  New 
 Testament  before  the  Magnificat.  In  the  fourth  place,  presents, 
 which  were  given  to  those  present  at  Masses  and  vigils,  may  now 
 be  given  to  those  present  at  the  lections.  In  the  fifth  place,  the 
 minor  chorus  is  to  be  abolished  as  it  leads  to  idolatrous  worship. 
 
 "The  letter  contains  Luther's  entire  system  in  epitome.  It 
 expresses  with  distinctness,  and  seeks  to  make  a  practical  appli- 
 cation of  each  of  the  great  evangelical  principles  which  has  come 
 to  him  through  years  of  devout  study  of  the  Divine  Word,  and 
 had  been  tested  by  his  own  experience."* 
 
 The  first  distinctively  liturgical  writing  in  which  Luther  pro- 
 vides forms  for  conducting  worship  was  the  tract  '  'Von  der  Ord- 
 nung  des  Gottesdienst  in  der  Gemeine"  (1523).  As  Jakoby 
 says,  "This  writing  prepares  the  way  for  the  Formula  Misses  and 
 is  the  forerunner  of  that."  It  provides  especially  for  the  daily 
 worship  and  makes  little  change  in  the  Sunday  Services. 
 
 VON    DER    ORDNUNG   DES   GOTTESDIENST   IN   DER  GEMEINE. 
 
 The  principle  on  which  he  bases  his  right  to  prepare  such  a 
 tract  is  stated  in  the  preface.  Divine  worship  has  a  noble  Chris- 
 tian origin,  so  has  the  ofl&ce  of  preaching.  But  as  the  ofl&ce  of 
 preaching  has  been  corrupted,  so  has  the  worship.  Therefore  as 
 the  ofl&ce  of  preaching  is  being  brought  again  to  its  true  position, 
 so  also  miist  be  Divine  worship. 
 
 We  will  briefly  sketch  this  writing.  There  are  three  great 
 abuses  in  Divine  worship.     The  first  that  the  Word  of  God  has 
 
 *   Christian  Worship,     p.    154. 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 been  silenced.  The  second,  that  many  unchristian  fables  and  lies 
 came  in  in  consequence.  The  third  that  such  service  is  to  be 
 performed  as  a  work  with  which  to  secure  God's  grace  and  salva- 
 tion. 
 
 To  reform  these  abuses  the  first  thin^  to  know  fand  here  is 
 the  keystone  to  lyUther's  idea  of  worship;  is  that  "the  Christian 
 congregation  should  never  assemble  except  the  Word  of  God  is 
 preached  ....  for  where  God's  Word  is  not  preached  it  were 
 better  neither  to  .sing,  nor  to  read,  nor  to  assemble." 
 
 As  for  the  worship  itself.  Christians  should  assemble  every 
 morning,  when  a  lesson  is  to  be  read.  Then  follows  an  explana- 
 tion. This  lesson  should  be  from  the  Old  Testament,  one  book 
 at  a  time.  After  the  reading  and  explanation  have  lasted  a  half 
 an  hour  or  longer  then  come  prayers  and  praise,  for  which  a 
 Psalm  or  Responsory  or  Antiphon  may  be  used.  In  the  evening 
 the  people  should  assemble  again  when  the  same  order  is  to  be 
 obsen-ed,  but  the  lesson  should  be  from  the  New  Testament. 
 Another  service  may  be  held  after  dinner. 
 
 On  Sunday  the  Mass  and  Vespers  are  sung  as  formerly  but 
 at  both  Services  the  Word  must  be  preached,  on  the  Gospel  in  the 
 morning,  and  upon  the  Epistle  or  some  Book,  in  the  evening. 
 The  daily  Masses  are  abolished,  but  if  some  one  desires  the  Sac- 
 rament a  Mass  may  be  held.  The  singing  of  the  Sunday  Masses 
 remains,  but  the  pastor  shall  regulate  it  and  see  to  it  that  the 
 Word  is  read  and  explained.  The  Antiphons,  Responsories  and 
 Collects,  the  legends  of  saints  and  the  cross  are  to  be  omitted  un- 
 til they  are  purified.  The  chief  thing  in  all  is  that  the  Word 
 may  be  preached — "It  were  better  all  be  abandoned  rather  than 
 the  Word,  and  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  Word." 
 
 In  this  writing  Luther  docs  not  take  the  advanced  step 
 which  we  would  expect  him  to  do.  He  makes  haste  slowly  and 
 lays  the  foundation  for  greater  changes  in  the  future.  Jakoby 
 draws  the  following  conclusions  from  the  study  of  all  parts  of 
 this  Order  as  a  summary  of  its  teachings:  i.)  "The  Service  is 
 to  be  purified,  not  abolished.  2.)  The  Word  of  God  is  the  cen- 
 tral point  of  the  Service.  3.)  The  true  understanding  is  received 
 through  the  medium  of  the  expounded  Scriptures.  4.)  He  dis- 
 tinguishes what  the  objective  norm  of  the  Word  opposes. 
 5.)  The  appropriation  of  the  Word  demands  a  multiplicity  of 
 necessary  services,  to  prepare  for  the  Sunday  and  weekly  Ser- 
 
LUTHER'S  LITURGICAL   WRITINGS.  39 
 
 vices.  6.)  These  last  show  only  a  small  number  of  Churchly 
 Orders  for  they  are  devoted  to  the  Service  of  God's  Word  and 
 worship  and  continually  draw  from  them.  7.)  The  celebration 
 of  the  lyord's  Supper  is  limited  to  Sunday,  if  there  is  not  a  par- 
 ticular wish  to  cause  its  celebration  on  another  day.  8.)  Saints 
 days  are  not  permitted.* 
 
 It  was  in  December,  1523,  when  the  greatest  of  lyUther's  li- 
 turgical writings  appeared  addressed  to  Nicholas  Hausman,  Pas- 
 tor of  the  people  of  Zwickau  at  the  Church  of  the  Swan.  It  was 
 entitled 
 
 FORMULA    MISS^ 
 
 et  commu7tionis  pro  ecdesia  Wittenberg ensi.  This  writing  provides 
 for  a  Latin  Evangelical  Mass,  as  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  a  Mass 
 in  the  vernacular. 
 
 That  lyUther  was  a  Reformer  and  not  an  innovator  appears 
 very  manifest  in  this  writing.  The  changes  he  made  were  very 
 gradual  for,  as  he  says  in  the  introduction  to  the  Formula  Missa 
 ' '  I  always  hesitated  and  feared  on  account  of  persons  weak  in 
 faith,  from  whom  the  old  and  familiar  mode  of  addressing  God 
 cannot  suddenly  be  taken  away  in  favor  of  a  new  and  untried 
 mode. ' '  But  now  many  minds  have  been  prepared  by  an  evan- 
 gelical Gospel  for  an  evangelical  Service,  the  time  has  come  to 
 "treat  of  a  godly  form  for  saying  Mass  (as  they  call  it)  and  for 
 administrating  Communion."  His  work  is  only  to  purify  what 
 is  in  use  and  not  to  abolish  it. 
 
 Following  this  introduction  lyUther  gives  an  interesting  study 
 of  the  development  and  growth  of  the  Service  in  the  ancient 
 Church.  He  traces  the  corruptions  which  have  entered  the  Ser- 
 vice, culminating  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  As  this  writing  is 
 not  a  doctrinal  treatise  he  avoids  all  reference  to  the  Mass  as  a 
 good  work  treating  it  only  as  a  sacrament,  and  indicating  the  rite 
 according  to  which  he  thinks  it  ought  to  be  used. 
 
 THE   SERVICE. 
 
 First.  The  Introits  are  allowed  to  remain,  although  the  en- 
 tire Psalm  is  preferred.  Second.  The  Kyrie  Eleison  remains, 
 with  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  following  it.  These  may  be  omitted 
 as  the  pastor  desires.     Third.     The   Collect  remains,  but  only 
 
 *  Liturgik  der  Reformatoren.     p.  275. 
 
40  MEMOIRS. 
 
 one,  and  after  that  follows  the  Epistle.  He  hopes  to  see  the 
 Epistles  changed  for  there  is  too  little  faith  in  them.  Fourth. 
 The  Gradual  of  two  verses  together  with  the  Hallelujah,  or  either 
 may  be  sung.  And  here  Luther  makes  the  statement  that  "it  is 
 not  right  to  distinguish  Lent  and  Holy  Week  or  Good  Friday  by 
 rites  which  differ  from  other  festivals."  P'ifth.  Sequences  and 
 Proses  are  abolished.  Those  about  the  Holy  Spirit:  Sancii  Spir- 
 itus  and  Ve7ii  Sancti  Spirihis  may  be  used.  Sixth.  The  Gospel, 
 in  which  candles  and  incense  are  permitted.  Seventh,  The  Ni- 
 cene  Creed  may  be  used  after  which  comes  preaching  in  the  ver- 
 nacular. It  makes  no  difference  whether  preaching  comes  here 
 or  before  the  introduction  of  the  Mass.  Eighth.  AW  offerto}'ies 
 which  sound  of  oblation,  together  with  the  entire  Canon  are 
 abolished. 
 
 The  Commiuiion.  i.)  During  the  Creed  or  after  the  sermon 
 the  bread  and  wine  are  prepared  for  the  blessing  by  the  accus- 
 tomed rite.  Pure,  unmixed  wine  is  recommended.  2.)  The 
 Preface.  After  the  preparation  of  the  elements  the  following  is 
 the  order:  The  Lord  be  with  you.  Response:  And  with  thy 
 spirit.  Lift  up  your  hearts.  Response:  We  lift  them  up  unto 
 the  Lord.  Let  us  give  thanks  to  our  Lord  God.  Response:  "It 
 is  meet  and  just.  It  is  truly  meet  and  just,  right  and  salutarj' 
 that  we  always  and  everywhere  give  thanks  unto  Thee,  Holy 
 God,  Father  Omnipotent,  Eternal  God,  through  Jesus  Christ  our 
 Lord . "  3. )  The  Consecration  is  preceded  bj-  a  brief  pause.  Then 
 the  words  of  Christ  used  in  the  institution  are  repeated.  4.)  The 
 Sanctus  follows,  and  during  the  Benedict  us  the  bread  and  cup  are 
 elevated  on  account  of  the  weak  and  with  an  evangelical  signifi- 
 cance. 5.)  The  Lord's  Prayer  follows,  and  immediately  after  it 
 comes  the  Pax  Domini  with  the  pastor  facing  the  people.  6.) 
 During  the  distribution  the  Ag7ius  Dei  is  sung.  7.)  It  is  per- 
 mitted to  chant  the  Communion,  but  the  closing  prayer  is  changed. 
 The  Benedicainus  Domino  together  with  the  Alleluia  follows. 
 8.)  The  Be?iediction,  either  the  Aaronic  or  the  96th  Psalm  con- 
 cludes the  Service.  The  administration  of  the  elements  is  left  to 
 the  option  of  the  pastor.  He  may  bless  both  consecutively,  or 
 bless  the  bread  and  after  its  distribution  the  cup. 
 
 Other  directions  follow  in  reference  to  the  examination  of 
 communicants  so  that  the  unworthy  are  not  admitted.  Luther 
 advises  that  all  should  stand  in  one  place,  for  on  this  account  the 
 
i^uther's  liturgical  writings.  41 
 
 altar  and  chancel  were  devised.  Private  confessions  are  allowed 
 also,  and  the  Communion  is  to  be  in  both  forms.  Hymns  in  the 
 vernacular  are  to  be  used  and  as  many  as  possible,  as  there  is  a 
 lack  in  spiritual  hymns,  he  suggests  two  or  three. 
 
 matins  and  vespers 
 remain  for  other  festival  days,  but  the  Mass  is  left  for  Sunday. 
 The  only  revision  would  be  to  limit  the  number  of  Psalms  to  three 
 for  each  Service  and  but  one  or  two  Responsories.  The  lessons 
 are  from  the  entire  Scriptures  divided  into  parts.  In  addition  to 
 this,  daily  lessons,  one  for  the  morning  in  the  New  or  Old  Testa- 
 ment, and  another  for  the  evening  in  the  Old  Testament,  are  ap- 
 pointed. 
 
 This  Formula  Misses  is  nothing  more  than  a  revision  of  the 
 Roman  Mass  ritual.  Jakoby*  characterizes  it  as  follows:  "It  is 
 not  a  liturgical  construction  that  here  holds  our  attention,  much 
 more  a  liturgical  rebuilding,  which  proceeds  from  the  criticism  of 
 given  materials.  In  this  Luther  lays  down  the  rule  of  Evangel- 
 ical belief.  He  distinguishes  in  the  worship  of  the  Roman 
 Church  three  separate  parts:  the  one  he  destroys,  the  second  he 
 tolerates,  of  the  third  he  approves.  He  destroys  that  which 
 hung  together  with  the  sacrifice,  which  appears  to  him  as  an 
 abomination;  he  tolerates  that  which  has  not  sprung  from  an 
 evangelical  spirit,  but  in  its  ground- thought  does  not  antagonize 
 it;  he  tolerates  the  abuses,  which  dangers  can  be  overcome  by  the 
 pastor;  he  approves  the  venerable  traditions,  which  represented 
 the  Christian  consciousness  when  the  spirit  of  the  Apostles  was 
 very  little  estranged.  He  laid  down  three  principles,  of  which 
 the  one  was  the  ethical,  the  second  the  psychologic-aesthetic,  the 
 last  the  political  side  of  the  worship.  He  moves  for  the  freedom 
 of  worship,  he  will  not  have  it  as  a  godly  decree,  but  he  looks 
 upon  it  as  the  outcome  of  the  Christian  knowledge;  he  censures 
 the  overloading  of  the  worship  with  prayers  and  songs,  which 
 cause  weariness  and  satiety;  he  laid  down,  finally,  the  remaining 
 constituent  parts  of  the  worship,  the  changing  elements,  over  the 
 insertion  or  withdrawal  of  which  the  bishop  is  to  decide." 
 DIE    DEUTSCHE    MESSE. 
 
 lyUther's  last  purely  liturgical  writing  appeared  in  1526  under 
 the  title  "Die  Deutsche  Messe  und  Ordnung  des  Gottesdienstes." 
 
 *  Liiurgik  der  Reformatoren.     p.    270. 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Its  great  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  states  the  great  prin- 
 ciples of  evangelical  worship  more  clearly  than  the  Formula  Mis- 
 see  and  is  far  more  independent  of  the  Roman  ritual.  This  brings 
 the  sermon  to  its  proper  place  as  the  principal  factor  in  evangel- 
 ical Divine  worship. 
 
 In  every  Lutheran  or  Evangelical  Kirchenordnung,  either 
 the  Formula  Misses  or  the  German  Mass  was  the  basis.  Where 
 there  was  the  greater  attachment  to  the  Roman  ritual,  the  former 
 was  used,  and  where  there  was  the  greater  independence,  the  lat- 
 ter. The  chief  element  of  the  German  Mass  lies  in  its  liberty. 
 In  publishing  it  Luther  had  no  desire  to  change  the  Formula 
 Missce,  but  he  wishes  the  two  to  go  together  hand  in  hand.  The 
 purpose  in  sending  forth  another  form  of  Service  was  to  help  the 
 uneducated  laity  who  could  not  understand  Latin.  He  had  in 
 view  a  third  form  which  was  only  to  be  used  by  Christians  and 
 not  to  be  celebrated  publicly.  This  form  would  be  very  simple, 
 "no  need  of  elaborate  singing.  Here  also  baptism  and  the  sac- 
 rament might  be  celebrated  in  a  short,  good  form,  and  everj-thing 
 be  directed  to  the  Word,  and  to  prayer,  and  to  love."  Luther 
 never  published  such  a  form,  but  following  his  directions  Count 
 Von  Zinzendorf  set  forth  a  Service  for  the  Moravians. 
 
 In  the  introduction  to  the  German  Mass  Luther  says  the 
 first  thing  necessary  in  German  worship  is  a  good,  simple,  plain, 
 easy  catechism.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  instruct  in  the  Word 
 and  properly  prepare  for  Divine  Services. 
 
 PREACHING. 
 
 The  principal  part  of  worship  is  preaching  and  teaching 
 God's  Word.  That  it  may  be  preached  often  on  Sundays,  the 
 Epistles  and  Gospels  remain,  and  there  are  three  sermons.  Ear- 
 ly at  six  o'clock,  mostly  for  the  sake  of  servants,  one  preaches 
 on  the  Epistles.  Then  an  Antiphon,  and  the  Te  Dc7im  Lauda- 
 mus  or  the  Benedicttis,  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Collects  and  Bcn- 
 edicamus  Domino.  At  the  Mass  at  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  one 
 preaches  on  the  Gospel.  In  the  afternoon  at  \^espers,  before  the 
 Magnificat,  one  preaches  on  the  Old  Testament  in  regular  order. 
 The  Gospels  and  Epistles  are  retained,  although  there  is  liberty 
 to  preach  consecutively  on  the  entire  Books  of  the  Evangel- 
 ists. 
 
LUTHER'S   LITURGICAL  WRITINGS.  43 
 
 THE    DAILY    SERVICES. 
 
 Here  the  laity,  if  they  desire  more  preaching  than  the  Sun- 
 day Services  afford,  can  get  it.  Mondays  and  Tuesdays  are 
 devoted  to  the  catechism.  Wednesday  a  German  lecture  on 
 Matthew.  Thursday  and  Friday,  the  days'  lessons  on  the  Epis- 
 tles, and  Saturday  the  Evangelist  John  is  studied.  All  of  these 
 services  with  the  exception  of  Saturday  are  early  services. 
 
 THE    DAILY    SERVICES    FOR    SCHOOLS. 
 
 Every  morning  before  the  lesson  for  the  day  some  Psalms 
 are  sung  in  Latin.  Afterward  two  or  three  read  a  chapter  in 
 Latin  from  the  New  Testament.  Then  another  reads  the  same 
 chapter  in  German.  Then,  with  an  Antiphon,  they  proceed  to 
 the  German  lecture.  After  this  a  German  song,  then  the  Lord's 
 Prayer  is  repeated  by  one  silently.  A  Collect  follows  and  the 
 service  closes  with  the  Benedicanius  Domino. 
 
 In  the  evening  some  Vesper  Psalms  are  sung  in  Latin  with 
 an  Antiphon  and  hymn.  Then,  as  in  the  morning,  the  Scrip- 
 tures are  read,  but  from  the  Old  Testament  instead  of  the  New. 
 The  Magnificat  in  the  Latin,  with  an  Antiphon  or  hymn  follows, 
 then  the  Lord's  Prayer  silently,  and  the  Collects  with  the  Bene- 
 dicanius. 
 
 THE    SUNDAY    SERVICES. 
 
 Vestments,  altars  and  lights  are  allowed  to  remain,  but  the 
 altar  has  not  the  same  significance  as  it  had  and  the  priest  must 
 always  turn  himself  to  the  people,  as  without  doubt  Christ  did  at 
 the  Last  Supper. 
 
 A  spiritual  song  or  a  German  Psalm  in  pri7no  tono  opens  the 
 Service.  Then  tlje  Kyrie  in  the  same  tone  thrice.  Then  the 
 priest  reads  a  Collect  in  F  of  the  natural  scale,  in  unisono,  with 
 his  face  to  the  altar.  Then  the  Epistle  in  octavo  tono,  with  his 
 face  turned  to  the  people.  A  German  Hyr7in  follows.  The  Gos- 
 pel in  qidnto  tono  is  then  read  with  the  face  toward  the  people. 
 The  Cr<?(f^  follows,  sung  in  German,  "Wir  glauben  all  an  einen 
 Gott."  Then  comes  the  Sermon  on  the  Gospel  for  the  Sunday. 
 After  the  sermon  follows  a  paraphrase  of  the  Lord' s  Prayer,  and 
 an  Exhortatioji  to  those  about  to  partake  of  the  sacrament.  This 
 paraphrase  and  exhortation  may  be  used  in  the  pulpit  after  the 
 sermon  or  from  the  altar  as  the  pastor  desires. 
 
44 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 THE    COMMUNION. 
 
 Tlie  consecration  and  administration  are  as  follows:  the 
 Words  of  Institution,  "Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  etc.  Luther  here 
 as  in  the  Formula  Missce  prefers  to  administer  the  bread  before 
 blessing  tlie  cup.  While  the  bread  is  being  administered  the 
 congregation  sings  the  German  Sanctus  or  the  hymn  "Gott  sei 
 Gelobt,"  or  "Jesus  Christus  unser  Heiland."  After  this  the  cup 
 is  blessed  and  the  remainder  of  the  above  songs  or  the  Agnus  Dei 
 is  sung.  The  elevation  of  the  host  is  retained.  Luther  never 
 abolished  this  ceremony  but  after  most  of  the  Churches  had  given 
 it  up,  he  allowed  it  to  fall  into  disuse.  Then  follows  the  Collect 
 of  thanksgiving,  and  then  the  Benediction. 
 
 The  German  Mass  brings  the  Word  to  the  front  and  is  the 
 Service  for  the  common  people.  The  sermon  is  the  chief  part  of 
 the  Service  and  the  Communion  order  is  \<ixy  simple  and  brief. 
 Placing  the  Formula  Afisscs  and  the  German  Mass  side  by  side  we 
 see  the  fundamental  principles  are  the  same,  but  the  execution  of 
 the  latter  is  much  more  free: 
 
 FORMUXA     MISS^. 
 
 Introit 
 
 Kyrie 
 
 Gloria  in  Excelsis 
 
 Collect 
 
 Epistle 
 
 Gradual  or  Hallelujah 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Creed 
 
 Sermon 
 
 Preface 
 
 Consecration 
 
 Sanctus 
 
 Elevation — Benedictus 
 
 Lord's  Prayer 
 
 Pax  Domini 
 
 Communion — Agnus  Dei 
 
 GERMAN    MASS. 
 
 Song  or  German  Psalm 
 Kyrie 
 
 Collect 
 
 Epistle 
 
 German  Hymn 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Creed 
 
 Sermon 
 
 Paraphrase   of  Lord's  Prayer 
 
 and  Exhortation 
 Consecration 
 
 Elevation 
 
 German  Sanctus,  during  dis- 
 tribution of  bread 
 
 Agnus  Dei,  during  distribu- 
 tion of  wine 
 
I^UTHER'S  IvlTURGICAL  WRITINGS.  45 
 
 Benedicamus  Domini  Collect  of  Thanksgiving 
 
 Benediction  Benediction 
 
 LUTHER'S    TAUFBUECHLEIN. 
 
 This  paper  would  not  be  complete  without  some  reference  to 
 lyUther's  "Taufbiichlein"  which  takes  the  highest  position 
 among  the  various  orders  of  baptism.* 
 
 It  appeared  first  in  1523  and  was  a  translation  of  Romish 
 Liturgies  then  in  use.  Luther  made  selections  from  various 
 Liturgies  and  permitted  many  ceremonies  that  obscured  the  sim- 
 plicity of  the  Sacrament. 
 
 In  1526  his  second  "Taufbiichlein"  appeared  in  which  the 
 distinctively  Romish  features  did  not  appear.  This  served  as  a 
 foundation  on  which  almost  all  other  forms  for  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  sacrament  were  built.  And,  in  fact,  no  Liturgy,  since 
 then  has  been  successful  which  did  not  take  its  rise  from  Luther's 
 formula.  In  this  he  carried  out  the  same  principles  of  conserva- 
 tism which  is  seen  in  his  other  forms,  aiming  to  reform  the  order 
 and  not  to  introduce  a  new  order.  We  will  not  enter  fully  into 
 the  discussion  of  this  work,  for  it  is  beyond  the  object  of  this 
 paper. 
 
 At  the  present  time  when  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to 
 lay  great  stress  on  ceremonials,  forms  of  Service,  facing  the  altar, 
 etc.,  there  can  be  no  more  stimulating  study  than  to  return  to 
 the  writings  of  Luther  and  learn  the  principles  from  which  the 
 great  Reformer  worked.  His  principle  of  liberty  in  the  Church 
 is  the  only  principle  for  an  evangelical  faith  and  the  only  princi- 
 ple which  will  abide. 
 
 "When  the  cry,  so  often  heard  in  our  day,  is  raised  "Back  to 
 the  faith  of  the  Apostles,"  we  say  "Yea."  But  in  the  worship 
 of  God  in  His  sanctuary  we  say,  "Back  to  Luther  who  so  suc- 
 cessfully carried  out  the  principles  of  the  Apostles  in  all  his  litur- 
 gical writings. ' ' 
 
 Earnest  Anton  Trabert. 
 Uniontown,  Pa. 
 
 *  Condensed  from  Memoirs.     Vol.  Ill,  p.  121. 
 
THE  PERICOPES. 
 
 The  main  Service  of  the  Church,  (Haiiptgottesdienst, — Com- 
 viunio)  is  generally  divided  by  liturgical  scholars  into  two  dis- 
 tinct groups,  that  of  the  Word,  (Wortgruppe)  and  that  of  the 
 Sacrament.  The  former  culminates  in  the  reading  of  certain 
 Scripture  lessons,  the  Creed  and  the  exposition  of  the  Word  in 
 the  sermon  that  follows  it.  We  do  not  propose  to  take  up  in  this 
 paper  the  homiletical  question  whether  the  lessons  appointed  for 
 public  reading  on  the  different  Sundays  and  festivals  of  the 
 Church  Year  are  to  form  the  regular  texts  for  the  sermon.  We 
 simply  deal  with  the  liturgical  aspect  of  a  certain  set  of  lessons 
 to  be  used  in  the  Service  itself. 
 
 From  the  earliest  times  we  can  trace  the  practice  of  reading 
 the  Word  of  God  in  the  public  Service  of  God's  people.  Moses 
 took  the  book  of  the  covenant  and  read  it  in  the  audience  of  the 
 people.  (Exodus  24:  27).  Ezra,  the  priest,  brought  the  I^aw 
 before  the  congregation  both  of  men  and  women,  and  all  that 
 could  hear  with  understanding  .  .  .  and  he  read  therein  .  .  and 
 the  ears  of  all  the  people  were  attentive  unto  the  Book  of  the 
 Law.  (Nehemiah  8:  2ff).  The  book  of  the  Acts  tells  us  that 
 "the  reading  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets"  was  the  rule  in  the 
 synagogues  of  those  days,  (13:  15);  that  "the  voices  of  the 
 Prophets  are  read  every  Sabbath  day,"  (v.  27);  that  "Moses  of 
 old  time  hath  in  every  city  them  that  preach  him,  being  read  in 
 the  synagogues  every  Sabbath  day,"  (15:  21).  When  the  Lord, 
 in  Nazareth,  "went  into  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath  day,  and 
 stood  up  for  to  read,  there  was  delivered  to  Him  the  book  of  the 
 Prophet  Esaias."      (Luke  4:  16,  17). 
 
 At  the  time  of  Christ,  then,  and  His  Apostles,  the  reading 
 of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  was  the  universal  custom  in  the 
 Jewish  synagogue.  The  exact  time  when  the  reading  of  the 
 Prophets  was  added  to  that  of  the  Law,  can  hardly  be  determined. 
 
 (xlvii) 
 
48  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Some  say,  it  was  at  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (died  164 
 before  Christ),  when  the  reading  of  the  Thorah  was  forbidden. 
 Certain  it  is,  that  the  reading  of  prophetical  passages  was 
 most  appropriate  in  the  synagogues  where  thousands  of  Jews, 
 scattered  abroad,  worshipped  God  far  from  the  Temple  Service  in 
 Jerusalem.  Thus  their  eyes  were  directed  to  the  coming  of  the 
 Messiah  who  should  replace  the  old  Temple  Service  by  its  New 
 Testament  fulfillment.  As  the  reading  of  Moses  and  the  Proph- 
 ets in  the  synagogue  was  not  continuous,  but  in  sections  ap- 
 pointed for  the  different  Sabbath  days,  we  have  practically  in  the 
 service  of  the  synagogue  already  a  system  of  Pericopes,  that  is  of 
 selected  Scripture  passages  for  public  reading,  called  Parashes 
 and  Haphthars. 
 
 It  was  in  the  nature  of  things  that  this  practice  was  carried 
 over  into  the  earliest  Christian  Churches.  The  reading  of  the 
 Word  of  God  was  first  confined  to  Old  Testament  readings,  as 
 long  as  there  was  not  yet  a  canonical  literature  of  the  New  Tes- 
 tament. Gradually  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  was 
 added  to  the  Old  Testament  passages,  and  finally  the  latter  were 
 in  most  cases  supplanted  by  the  former.  As  long  as  the  Old  and 
 the  New  Testament  lessons  were  used  side  by  side,  the  arrange- 
 ment was  one  of  a  gradual  climax  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
 order:  Law,  Prophets,  Epistles,  Gospel.  ''Ut  ex  miiioribus  ani- 
 imis  azidicntium  ad  majora  senticiida  projiciat,  et  gradatim  ab  imo 
 ad  siinima  contendat.''  (Durantus  II,  18,  5.)  The  Apostolic 
 Constitutions  appoint  the  following  order  of  lessons:  First,  Pen- 
 tateuch, Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
 Esther.  Second,  Job,  Solomon,  the  sixteen  Prophets.  Third, 
 Acts,  and  Pauline  Epistles,     Fourth,  Gospels. 
 
 While  the  regular  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  lessons  was 
 gradually  discontinued  in  most  churches,  it  held  its  place  in  the 
 Armenian  and  some  Syriac  Liturgies,  and  in  the  Western  Church 
 in  the  Ambrosian,  the  Mozarabic  and  the  Gallican  Liturgies. 
 But  the  general  rule  was:  Two  lessons  in  the  Ser\-ice  of  the  Mass, 
 Apostolus  and  Evangeluim,  Epistle  and  Gospel. 
 
 During  the  first  three  or  four  centuries,  however,  as  long  as 
 the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  had  not  been  finally  estab- 
 lished by  the  Church,  we  find  among  the  passages  for  public 
 reading  in  the  Service,  also  selections  from  the  writings  of  the 
 Fathers,  such  as  the  Pastor  Hermae,  Apokalypse  of  Peter,  Clem- 
 
THE    PERICOPES.  49 
 
 ent  of  Rome,  (First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians),  Cyprian,  Chry- 
 sostom,  Origen,  and  others.  The  decrees  of  the  Councils  of 
 Laodicea,  about  362,  Hippo,  393,  and  Carthage,  397,  finally  de- 
 termined the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  and  ordered  that 
 ^^Prceter  Scripturas  Sacras  nihil  in  Ecclesia  legatur  sub  nomine 
 DiviJiarum  Scriphirarum.'"  (That  besides  the  Holy  Scriptures 
 nothing  should  be  read  in  the  Church  under  the  name  of  Divine 
 vScriptures).  The  reading  of  martyrs'  stories,  {Martyrum  Histo- 
 ricB)  was  distinctly  forbidden  by  Pope  Gelasius,  who  died  in  496, 
 and  by  the  Concilium  Trulla^ium,  680. 
 
 In  the  beginning,  the  Scripture  reading  in  public  Service  of 
 the  Church  was  the  so-called  Lectio  Continua,  continuous  read- 
 ing. Sometimes  the  selection  of  the  passage  was  left  to  the 
 leader  of  the  Service.  From  three  to  four  pages  were  generally 
 considered  as  the  measure  of  an  ordinary  lesson.  The  leader  of 
 the  Choir  would  indicate  the  end  of  the  lesson  with  the  words 
 '^Tu  autem,'"  the  reader  being  obliged  to  continue  ''Domine  mis- 
 erere nobis,''  the  Choir  responding  with  ''Deo  Gratias."  While 
 this  might  impress  us  as  rather  an  unceremonious  and  impromptu 
 way  of  stopping  the  lesson,  it  was  undoubtedly  more  dignified 
 than  the  manner  in  which  Charlemagne  is  said  to  have  brought 
 the  lesson  to  an  end,  by  hissing  (!). 
 
 As  the  Church  Year  gradually  began  to  take  shape  in  the 
 practice  of  the  Church,  first  with  the  observance  of  certain  festi- 
 val days  and  seasons,  such  as  Good  Friday,  Easter,  Pentecost,  it 
 was  natural,  that  special  passages  suited  to  those  days  and  sea- 
 sons, should  be  selected  and  read  with  more  or  less  regularity. 
 This,  in  the  course  of  time,  led  to  the  desire  to  have  fixed  les- 
 sons also  for  the  common  Sundays  of  the  Church  Year,  and  thus 
 the  system  of  Pericopes,  that  is  of  certain  selected,  fixed  lessons 
 throughout  the  Church  Year  established  itself. 
 
 There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  common  tradition  that  Je- 
 rome, at  the  request  of  Pope  Damasus,  (who  died  a.  384)  pre- 
 pared the  first  catalogue  of  regular  lessons  for  the  whole  Church 
 Year,  the  so-called  Comes  Hieronymi.  It  was  first  adopted  in 
 Rome,  and  gradually  worked  its  way  into  the  Service  of  the 
 Western  Church.  Up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  its  general 
 introduction  was,  however,  a  rather  slow  process,  meeting  with 
 considerable  difiiculties  in  some  of  the  most  prominent  churches. 
 Augustinus,  (St.  Austin),  the  missionary  of  England  who  was 
 
60  MEMOIRS. 
 
 sent  there  by  Gregory  the  Great,  in  596,  and  afterwards  became 
 the  first  incumbent  of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  (died  607)  raises 
 the  question,  ^'^Cur,  cum  una  sit  fides,  sunt  ecdesiarum  co7isuctu- 
 dincs  tain  diversa?  et  altera  consuetudo  viissaruvi  est  m  Romana 
 Ecclesia,  atque  altera  in  Galliarum  ecclesiis  teneturV  Gregory 
 himself  had  indeed  done  his  very  best  to  adapt  himself  in  his  li- 
 turgical work  to  the  order  of  the  Comes  of  Jerome.  Micrologus, 
 a  Gallican  priest,  testifies  on  this  point,  as  follows:  Y'^'d^^^  ^^^^ 
 ordincm  S.  Gregorijis  diligentissime  observavit,  sive  ditm  Evangcliis 
 et  Icctiotiibiis  missales  orationes  in  sacramentario  adaptaret,  sive  dum 
 Antiphonas  ex  ejusdem  Evangeliis  qiiain  pluribiis  diebus  in  An- 
 tiphonario  articu/aret.''  But  even  after  Gregory'' s  influence  Wal- 
 afried  Strabo,  (died  849)  writes,  X'' Lectiones  Apostolicas  et  Evan- 
 gelicas  qui  ante  celebrationein  sacrificii  iiistittierit,  non  adeo  certuni 
 est:  creditur  tame?i  a  pritiiis  successoribus  Apostolorum  eandeni  dis- 
 pensationem  factam  esse  ea  prcscipue  causa,  quia  in  Evayigeliis  ea- 
 deni  sacrificia  celebrari  jubentur  ( ! )  et  in  Apostolo,  qualiter  celebrari 
 debeant,  docetur.'" 
 
 The  Roman  order  finally  obtained  in  France,  especially 
 through  the  exertions  of  Charlemagne,  while,  after  nearly  one 
 thousand  years  of  conflict.  Pope  Alexander  the  sixth  had  to  ac- 
 quiesce in  the  Ambrosian  order  of  Milan,  as  distinct  from  that  of 
 Rome.  It  had  held  its  ground  even  against  the  vigorous  and  un- 
 scrupulous measures  of  Charlemagne  to  exterminate  it,  which 
 Landulph  describes  in  this  manner,  ^"0?nnes  libros  Anihrosii  titulo 
 sigillatos,  quos  vel pretio,  vet  dono,  vet  vi  habere  potuit,  alios  combu- 
 
 *  Since  there  is  one  faith,  why  is  it,  that  there  are  such  different  customs  in 
 the  Churches?  One  form  of  Masses  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  another  in  the  Gal- 
 lican Churches? 
 
 t  St.  Gregory  has  most  carefully  preserved  the  order  of  this  book  (the  Comes) 
 either  when  he  adapted  the  prayers  of  the  Mass  to  the  Gospels  and  lessons,  in  the 
 Missal,  or  when,  in  the  Antiphonary,  he  appointed  the  Antiphons  from  the  same 
 Gospels  for  as  many  days  as  possilile. 
 
 +  It  is  not  quite  certain  who  arranged  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  lessons  before 
 the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice  (Mass).  Hut  it  is  believed,  that  this  appointment 
 was  made  by  the  first  successors  of  the  Apostles,  especially  for  this  reason,  that, 
 while  in  the  Gospels  those  sacrifices  are  commanded  to  be  celebrated,  in  the  Epistles 
 we  are  taught,  how  they  ought  to  be  celebrated. 
 
 §  All  the  Books  signed  with  the  name  of  Ambrosius,  which  he  could  obtain 
 either  by  purchase  or  by  donation,  or  by  force,  he  disposed  of,  either  by  burning 
 them  or  carrying  them  away  across  the  mountains,  as  it  were,  into  exile. 
 
THE    PERICOPES.  51 
 
 reus,  alios  trans  monies,  quasi  in  exilio  secuni  detulit.''''  The 
 Homiliarius  of  Charlemagne  has  probably  done  more  than  any- 
 thing else  toward  the  general  introduction  of  Jerome's  system  of 
 Pericopes  in  the  Western  Church.  The  earliest  printed  edition 
 of  this  Homiliarius,  Speyer  1482,  contains  many  additions  and 
 enlargements  of  later  times  particularly  additions  of  Saints'  Days 
 which  were  unknown  at  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  In  recent 
 times,  however,  an  ancient  manuscript  of  the  Homiliarius,  of  the 
 Carolingian  era,  which  reaches  as  far  as  the  end  of  Holy  Week, 
 has  been  discovered  among  the  manuscripts  of  the  Grandducal 
 library  in  Carlsruhe,  Baden.* 
 
 We  might  expect  that  the  conservative  spirit  of  Lutheranism 
 was  from  the  very  outset,  favorable  to  the  retention  of  the  ancient 
 Pericopes  in  the  regular  main  Service  of  the  Church.  Luther's 
 Church  Postil  (1521-1527)  did  perhaps  as  much  in  his  time  to 
 perpetuate  the  use  of  the  Pericopes,  as  the  Homiliarius  had  done 
 in  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  But  Luther  freely  criticized  the 
 selection  made  in  the  ancient  system,  and  the  Lutheran  Agenda 
 of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  we  will  presently  see,  are  by  no 
 means  unanimous  in  their  adoption  and  recommendation  of  the 
 Pericopes  as  the  regular  lessons  in  the  Service.  Luther's  Von 
 Ordenung  Gottis  Dienst  ynn  der  Gemeyne.  Wittemberg,  1523, 
 recommends  as  texts  for  the  sermon,  f'Des  Morgens  das  ge- 
 woehnlich  Evangelion,  des  Abends  die  Epistel,  oder  stehe  bei 
 dem  Prediger,  ob  er  auch  ein  Buch  fuer  sich  nehme  oder  zwei." 
 The  Formula  Misses,  of  the  same  year,  after  describing  the  main 
 Service  up  to  the  reading  of  the  Collect,  continues  as  follows: 
 X'''' Post  hanc  lectio  Epistol(s.  Verum  nonduni  tenipus  est  et  hie  no- 
 vandi,  quando  nulla  iinpia  legitur.  Alioqui  cum-  raro  ece  partes 
 ex  Epistolis  Pauli  legantur,  in  quibus  fides  docetur,  sed potissimum 
 
 *  See  Wiegand,  Das  Homiliarium  Karls  des  Grossen,  auf  seine  urspruengliche 
 Gestalt  hin  untersucht.  Leipzig,  1897.  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  Theologie  und 
 Kirciie.       i.  Band.     2.  Heft. 
 
 t  At  the  morning  Service  the  usual  Gospel,  at  the  evening  Service  the  Epistle, 
 or  it  may  be  left  to  the  pastor,  if  he  chooses  to  take  up  a  whole  book  or  two. 
 
 X  After  this  the  Epistle  lesson.  For  the  time  has  not  yet  come  co  make  any 
 innovation  on  this  point,  as  long  as  nothing  is  being  read  that  would  be  ungodly 
 {impia).  Though  those  parts  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  are  rarely  read,  in  which  the 
 faith  is  being  taught,  but  mostly  moralizing  and  parsenetical  passages.  The  man 
 who  arranged  the  Epistles  seems  therefore  to  have  been  a  remarkably  unlearned  and 
 superstitious  devotee  of  works  {^operum ponder ator'),  while  the  Service  required  that 
 
52  MEMOIRS. 
 
 morales  et  exhortatoria.  Ut  ordinalor  ille  Epistolaruni  videatur 
 fuisse  insigniter  indoctus  et  superstitiosus  operum  ponderator,  offi.- 
 ciuni  rcqiiircbat  eas  potiiis  pro  majore  parte  ordinare,  quibiis  fides  in 
 Christian  docetur.  Idem  certe  in  Evangeliis  spectavit  sepins,  gids- 
 quis  fuerit  lectionum  istarum  autory  From  this  passage  it  ap- 
 pears that  Luther's  principal  objection  to  the  Pericopes  was  that 
 the  Epistles,  particularly,  did  not  paj-  sufficient  attention  to  the 
 doctrine  of  the  faith,  that  their  contents  were  too  much  of  the 
 parsenetical,  moralizing  character.  In  his  German  Mass  of  1526 
 Luther  says  on  this  point:  *"Dass  wir  aber  die  Episteln  und 
 Evangelia  nach  der  Zeit  des  Jahrs  geteilt,  wie  bi.sher  gewohnet, 
 halten,  ist  die  Ursach,  wir  wissen  nichts  Sonderlichs  in  solcher 
 Weise  zu  tadeln.  So  ists  mit  Wittenberg  gethan  zu  dieser  Zeit, 
 dass  viel  da  sind,  die  predigen  lemen  sollen  an  den  Orten,  da 
 solche  Teilung  der  Episteln  und  Evangelia  noch  geht  und  viel- 
 leiclit  bleibt.  Weil  man  denn  mag  denselbigen  damit  nuetze  sein 
 und  dienen,  ohn  unser  Nachteil,  lassen  wir's  so  geschehen,  damit 
 wir  aber  nicht  die  tadeln  woUen,  so  die  ganzen  Buecher  der 
 Evangelisten  vor  sich  nehmen."  This  shows  that  during  the 
 three  years  since  the  publication  of  the  Forimda  Misses  Luther 
 had  become  less  critical  toward  the  Pericopes,  though  the  homi- 
 letical  aspect  of  the  question  concerning  the  continuation  of  the 
 Pericopes,  evidently  predominates  over  the  liturgical  considera- 
 tion of  using  the  old  lessons  as  a  stereotype  part  of  the  Ser\'ice. 
 
 Among  the  Lutheran  Agenda  which  are  in  favor  of  retaining 
 the  Pericopes,  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Brunswick,  152S, 
 by  Johannes  Bugenhagen,  which  greatly  influenced  many  North 
 German  Orders.  Wittenberg,  1533.  fDarnach  liest  der  Pries- 
 ter  ein  Deutsch  Collect  zum  Altar  gewandt,  und  singt  die  Epistel 
 
 rather  such  lessons  should  chiefly  be  appointed,  in  which  the  faith  of  Christ  is  being 
 taught.  Whoever  may  have  been  the  author  of  those  lessons,  he  has  certainly  in 
 the  Gospels  also  aimed  at  the  same  thing. 
 
 *  We  retain  the  usual  Epistles  and  Gospels  arranged  for  the  Church  Year,  for 
 this  reason,  that  we  have  no  particular  fault  to  find  with  this  order.  This  is  our 
 practice  in  Wittenberg  at  the  present  time,  because  there  are  many,  who  must  learn 
 to  preach  in  such  places  where  this  arrangement  of  Epistles  and  Gospels  is  still  re- 
 tained and  possibly  may  abide  for  ever.  As  we  may  be  of  use  to  those  men,  with- 
 out any  disadvantage  to  ourselves,  we  let  it  pass,  without  however,  blaming  those 
 who  take  up  whole  books  of  the  Evangelists. 
 
 t  After  this  the  Pastor  reads  a  German  Collect,  turning  to  the  Altar,  and  sings 
 the  Epistle,  facing  the  people. 
 
THE   PERICOPES.  63 
 
 zum  Volk  gewendet."  Saxon  Order,  1539,  by  Just  Jonas,  one 
 of  the  most  extensively  used  Agenda  of  our  Church.  Mark 
 Brandenburg,  1540,  *"Darauf  die  Kpistel,  nach  Gelegenheit  der 
 Zeit  und  Festa  .  .  lateinisch  gesungen,  folgend  soil  man  dem 
 Volk  die  gesungene  Epistel  deutsch  lesen  ....  Darnach  das 
 Kvangelion  mit  vorgehender  gebuerlicher  Benediction  lyateinisch 
 gesungen,  darauf  das  gesungen  Evangelion  dem  Volk  Deutsch 
 mit  heller  Stimm  vorgelesen."  The  usage  of  the  Swedish  Lu- 
 theran Church  was  determined  by  the  Council  of  Upsala,  1593, 
 in  favor  of  the  Pericopes.  For  the  Churches  of  Denmark,  Nor- 
 way and  Iceland  the  same  result  had  been  reached  long  before 
 that  time  through  the  influence  of  Bugenhagen. 
 
 Full  lists  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  Church  Year 
 appear  at  a  very  early  time  in  the  editions  of  Euther's  German 
 New  Testament.  The  first  editions  of  the  years  1522  and  1523, 
 it  is  true,  are  still  without  them,  but  since  1524,  when  they  are 
 found  in  three  different  editions,  they  form  a  frequent  addition 
 to  the  text  of  the  German  New  Testament.  Ranke,  (Der  Fort- 
 bestand  des  herkoemmlichen  Pericopenkreises,  Gotha,  1859)  pub- 
 lishes such  a  list  of  the  year  1528,  from  an  edition  of  the  German 
 Testament,  printed  by  order  of  Philipp  von  Hessen,  in  large  type, 
 for  the  use  of  the  churches,  and  which  is  ordered  to  be  bought 
 by  all  congregations.  This  fact  goes  far  to  show  the  tendency 
 in  the  first  decade  of  the  Reformation  era  to  retain  the  old  lessons 
 in  the  public  Service  of  the  congregation.  This  appears  also  a. 
 1 53 1  from  a  statement  in  the  Apology,  Art.  XXIV  De  Missa. 
 ''Servantur  usitatcE  ceremonicE  publicce,  ORDO  LECTIONUM, 
 orationwm,   vestitus  et  alia  shnilia.^''\ 
 
 On  the  other  hand  some  of  our  most  prominent  Agenda  rec- 
 ommend the  Lectio  Continiia  in  the  main  Service,  or  propose  a 
 sort  of  compromise  measure.  Among  them  the  following  deserve 
 special  attention:  Prussia,  1525,  by  the  Bishops  Geo.  v.  Polenz 
 and  Erhard  V.  Quels.  ^"Zur  Epistel  soil  der  Priester  ein  halb 
 oder  ganz  Capitel  aus  dem  Neuen  Testament,  in  Paulo  anzufahen. 
 
 *  Afterwards  the  Epistle  appointed  for  the  day,  sung  in  Latin  and  afterwards 
 read  in  German  to  the  people.     (The  same  with  the  Gospel.) 
 
 t  See  Mueller's  edition.     Page  248. 
 
 X  For  the  Epistle  lesson  the  Pastor  shall  read  a  whole  chapter  or  one-half  from 
 the  New  Testament,  beginning  with  Paul,  through  all  the  Epistles  and  Acts  of  the 
 Apostles,  facing  the  people,  reading  distinctly  in  German,  without  accent,  (that  is. 
 
54  MEMOIRS. 
 
 durch  alle  Episteln  der  Aposteln  und  Acta  Apostolonim  .  .  .  ge- 
 gen  dem  Volk  verstaendlich  und  Deutsch  lesen  und  prononciren 
 ohne  Accent,  damit  die  Worte  so  viel  besser  vernommcn  werden 
 von  den  Umstaendern.  .  .  .  Darauf  soil  der  Diener  oder  Priester 
 ein  ganz  oder  halb  Capitel  des  Evangelions  lesen,  anzufahen  vom 
 Matthaeo  bis  zum  Ende  Johannis,  mit  der  Form  .  .  .  wie  bei  der, 
 Epistel  gemeldt  ist."  Likewise  Riga,  1530,  which  is  based  upon 
 Prussia,  1525.  Brandenburg-Niirnberg,  1533,  *"Nach  dem 
 Gebet  soil  man  lesen  ein  Capitel  aus  den  Episteln  der  Aposteln, 
 Pauli,  Petri,  oder  Johannis,  etc.  Teutsch,  das  soil  er  also  an- 
 fahen:    Eure    Liebe  vemehme  mit   Fleiss,    das  erst   Capitel  der 
 
 Epistel    des   heiligen  Pauli,  zun    Roemern   geschrieben 
 
 Darnach  soil  er  aber  lesen  ein  Capitel  aus  dem  Evangelio  oder 
 Geschichten  der  Apostel."  The  so-called  small  Wiirttemberg 
 KO  of  1536,  composed  by  Schnepf  and  approved  by  Brentius, 
 recommends  the  following  arrangement:  First,  select  passages  for 
 the  treatment  of  the  principal  doctrines.  Second,  the  customary 
 Gospels  so  well  known  to  the  common  people.  Third,  by  and  by 
 in  towns  or  large  boroughs,  a  whole  Evangelist, — all  these  as 
 texts  for  the  sermon.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  provision 
 that  every  Sundaj^  or  festival  day,  at  the  second  tolling  of  the 
 bell,  the  pastor  or  diacoims  should  ascend  the  pulpit,  and  read  a 
 chapter,  beginning  with  Matthew  and  so  on  through  the  whole 
 New  Testament.  "So  wollen  wir,  dass  alle  Sonntag  und  Feier- 
 tag  der  Pfarrer  oder  sein  Heifer,  so  er  einen  hat,  auf  die  Kanzel 
 steige,  und  mit  guten,  verstaendlichen  Worten  allda  ein  Capitel 
 lese,  also,  dass  er  vorn  anfahe  in  dem  Evangelisten  Matthaeo, 
 und  also  fuer  und  fuer,  bis  zu  End  des  Neuen  Testaments  dar- 
 nach fange  er  wiederum  vorne  an."  The  KO  of  Schwabisch- 
 Hall,  1543,  composed  by  Brentius,  which  otherwise  provides  for 
 a  much  fuller  liturgical  Service  than  Wiirttemberg,  1536,  has  no 
 reference  to  the  Epistle  at  all,  and  says,  after  the  Gradual,  Hal- 
 lelujah or  Sequenz,  "then  the  text  of  the  Gospel  on  which  the 
 sermon  is  to  be  based."  "Darnach  der  Text  des  Evangelions 
 darvon  man  predigen  will."     Pfalz-Neuburg,  1542,  chiefly  the 
 
 not  intoning),  that  the  words  may  be  the  better  understood Afterwards  the 
 
 Deacon  or  Priest  shall  read  a  chapter,  or  one-half,  of  the  Gospel,  beginning  with 
 Matthew  to  the  end  of  John,  the  same  way  as  the  Epistle. 
 
 *  After  the  Collect  shall  be  read  a  chapter  from  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  Peter  or 
 John,  in  German Afterwards  a  chapter  from  the  Gospel  or  the  Acts. 
 
THE    PERICOPES.  55 
 
 work  of  Osiander,  introduces  the  reading  of  the  Epistle  at  the 
 proper  place,  after  the  Collect,  and  adds  the  following  provision: 
 "In  order  that  the  people,  and  the  pastors  themselves,  may  all 
 the  more  be  benefited  thereby,  they  shall  read  the  Epistles  of 
 Paul,  Peter,  John,  and  the  Acts,  all  in  their  order,  one  after  the 
 other  .  .  .  except  on  high  festivals  which  have  their  own  les- 
 sons. The  reading  of  the  Gospel  is  to  be  after  the  same  manner, 
 which  is  here  appointed  for  the  Epistle." 
 
 This  tendency,  however,  to  give  preference  to  the  Lectio 
 Contbma  in  the  main  Service,  and  to  dispense  with  the  reading 
 of  the  old  Pericopes,  did  not  become  the  final  and  general  prac- 
 tice of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Gradually,  even  in  those  districts 
 where  the  Lectio  Continua  had  been  favored  for  a  time,  a  reaction 
 set  in  in  favor  of  the  ancient  lessons.  The  continuous  reading  of 
 Scripture  was  more  and  more  assigned  to  the  Week  day  Matins 
 and  Vespers,  and  for  the  main  Service  of  Sundays  and  festivals 
 the  retention  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  became  the  common 
 characteristic  feature  of  the  lyUtheran  Service.  The  controversies 
 between  Westphal  and  Calvin  in  the  sixteenth,  and,  between 
 Carpzov  and  the  Pietists  in  the  eighteenth  century,*  strongly 
 testify  to  this  fact,  though  we  may  not  be  willing  to  accept,  at 
 this  present  day,  all  the  arguments  then  advanced  in  defence  of 
 the  old  order. 
 
 We  have  yet  to  present  as  briefly  as  possible,  some  important 
 and  difficult  questions  which  have  in  recent  times  engaged  the 
 attention  of  prominent  scholars  on  this  subject.  The  points  at 
 issue  are  these:  How  can  we  account  for  the  differences  existing 
 between  the  system  of  Pericopes  which  is  in  common  use  with 
 the  Lutheran  Church,  and  that  which  is  found  in  the  Roman 
 Missal  ?  Which  of  the  two  comes  nearer  the  old  order?  And 
 how  far  are  we  able  to  ascertain  the  original  order  of  the  Comes 
 of  Jerome  ?  f 
 
 The  differences  between  our  Lutheran  Order  and  that  of  the 
 
 *  See  Carpzov,  De  Pericopis  non  temere  abrogandis.      1758. 
 
 t  See  R.  V.  Liliencron,  Die  altkirchlichen  Unterlagen  der  Lutherischen  Litur- 
 gie,  Siona,  1897.  pp.  41-48.  Chorordnung  fuer  die  Sonn-und-Fest-Tage  des 
 Evangelischen  Kirchenjahres,  entworfen  und  erlaeutert  von  Rochus  Freiherr  von 
 Liliencron.  Guetersloh.  C.  Bertelsmann.  1900.  K.  Giesecke,  Sind  wir  verpflich- 
 tet  unser  Pericopensystem  auf  Grund  des  Roemischen  zu  revidieren?  Siona.  1900. 
 P.  170  ff.     P.  201  ff. 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Missale  Rcnnanum  appear  chiefly  at  the  following  points:  The 
 Sundays  in  Advent;  the  sixth  Sunday  after  Epiphany  and  the 
 second  Sunday  in  L,ent,  {Rcminisccrc^\  and  the  whole  line  of  the 
 Trinity  Sundays,  v.  Liliencron  has  shown  conclusively  that  the 
 differences  are  not  due  to  any  innovations  which  the  Lutheran 
 reformers  would  have  introduced,  in  conscious  and  intentional 
 opposition  to  the  practice  of  the  Roman  Order.  The  Lutheran 
 Church  took  the  Pericopes  essentially  as  she  found  them  in  the 
 German  Missals  and  Antiphonaries  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with- 
 out being  aware  of  the  possibility  of  discrepancies  between  the 
 Order  of  these  German  Missals  and  the  Roman  Order.  The 
 authoritative  Missalc  Roinanum  appeared  in  1570  In'  order  of 
 the  Council  of  Trent.  The  very  date  of  its  publication  is  suf- 
 ficient to  prove  that  the  differences  did  not  originate  with  the 
 Lutherans.  The  question,  however,  arises,  which  of  tl:e  two  is 
 nearer  the  original  Order,  the  Lutheran  or  that  of  the  Missale? 
 V.  Liliencron  believes,  the  Missale.  He  holds  that  in  its  arrange- 
 ment the  Roman  Church  restored  the  correct  ancient  Order,  and 
 that,  therefore,  by  the  law  of  logical  and  historical  consistency, 
 we  ought  to  feel  ourselves  constrained  to  revise  our  present  Order 
 of  Pericopes,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  full  accord  wnth  the  Order  of 
 the  Missale.  In  his  own  Chorordnung,  however,  v.  Liliencron 
 does  not  carry  out  such  an  extreme  and  radical  theory.  Again 
 and  again  he  decides  in  favor  of  the  accepted  Lutheran  Order 
 over  against  the  Missale.  Giesecke  takes  issue  with  Liliencron 
 on  the  question  of  the  correctness  of  the  Missale.  Pie  comes  to 
 the  conclusion  that  we  need  not  think  of  revising  our  own  Order 
 so  as  to  bring  it  into  harmou}^  with  the  Missale.  He  maintains 
 that  our  Lutheran  system  of  Pericopes  represents  the  old  Order 
 as  far  back  as  the  close  of  the  eighth  centur>^  in  a  remarkably 
 pure  and  complete  form.  So  far  from  recommending  our  own 
 accommodation  to  the  I\Iissale  he  urges  that  the  Missale  adopt 
 our  Order. 
 
 Let  us  briefly  consider  the  points  of  difference  in  detail. 
 
 I.      THE    SUNDAYS    IN    ADVENT. 
 
 Here  the  Missale  Roina)iuin  has  for  the  first  Sunda}'  the  same 
 Epistle  which  we  have,  but  for  the  Gospel  Luke  21:  25-33,  "^vith 
 the  exception  of  the  three  closing  verses,  our  Gosj-tel  for  the 
 second  Sunday  in  Advent.     On  the  second  Sunday  in  Advent  the 
 
THE    PERICOPES.  57 
 
 Missale  has  again  our  Epistle  for  that  day,  but  its  Gospel  lesson 
 is  our  Gospel  for  the  third  Sunday.  For  the  third  Sunday  in 
 Advent  the  Missale  has  our  Kpistle  and  Gospel  lessons  of  the 
 fourth.  On  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Advent  the  Missale  has  the 
 Bpistle  of  our  third,  (i  Cor.  4:  1-5),  and  for  the  Gospel,  Luke  3: 
 1-6.  Our  lessons,  according  to  Giesecke,  for  all  the  Sundays  in 
 Advent  are  all  supported  by  the  oldest  lectionaries,  and  our  four 
 Gospels  by  the  testimony  of  the  Homiliarium  of  Charlemagne. 
 V.  Iviliencron  also  adopts  them  all,  with  the  one  exception  that  on 
 the  third  Sunday  in  Advent  he  inserts  the  Missale' s  Gospel  of 
 the  Fourth  (Luke  3:  1-6).  He  will  not  for  a  moment  listen  to  a 
 proposition  to  throw  out  our  Gospel  for  the  first  Advent  Sunday, 
 on  which  so  many  of  the  finest  Lutheran  Advent  hymns  are 
 based. 
 
 For  the  Christmas  octave,  (New  Year's  Day)  the  Missale, 
 with  some  of  the  old  lectionaries,  repeats  the  Epistle  for  Christ- 
 mas, Tit.  2:  11-14,  while  our  Epistle,  which  is  also  approved  by 
 V.  Liliencron,  is  based  on  the  Comes  (Edit.  Pamelius),  and  some 
 older  Lectionaries. 
 
 2.       SIXTH    SUNDAY    AFTER    EPIPHANY    AND    SECOND 
 SUNDAY    IN    LENT. 
 
 The  older  lectionaries  generally  stop  in  their  provision  for 
 the  Epiphany  Sundays  with  the  fourth,  {Homiliarijim) ,  or  with 
 the  fifth,  for  which  the  Comes  (Edit.  Pamelius)  gives  the  beau- 
 tiful and  most  appropriate  Gospel,  Matt.  11:  25-30.  (Also  found 
 in  the  Edition  of  the  German  New  Testament  of  1528).  Instead 
 of  this  we  have,  in  accord  with  the  Missale  and  some  old  lection- 
 aries, Matt.  13,  24-30  which  evidently  found  its  place  at  this 
 point  in  connection  with  the  week  day  lessons,  containing  a  num- 
 ber of  parables  representing  the  character  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
 Our  lessons  for  the  sixth  Sunday  after  Epiphany  were  inserted 
 from  the  Missa  de  Transjigiiratione ,  and,  certainly  a  more  appro- 
 priate Gospel  selection  for  the  last  Sunday  of  the  Epiphany  sea- 
 son could  not  be  imagined,  v.  Liliencron  also  agrees  to  this  and 
 retains  it.  This  arrangement  is  generally  ascribed  to  Lutheran 
 influence,  (Veit  Dietrich?)  though  Luther  in  his  Kirchenpostille 
 ignores  it.  This  Gospel  passage  is  appointed  in  the  Homiliarium 
 and  the  Missale  for  the  second  Sunday  in  Lent.     But  here  again 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 our  Gospel,  Matt.  15:  21-28,  is  supported  by  the  oldest  lectiona- 
 ries,  and  again  v.  Liliencron  accepts  it. 
 
 3.      TRIXITY    SUNDAYS. 
 
 WTiat  is  now  our  Trinity  Sunday,  or  the  Festival  of  the  Ho- 
 ly Trinity,  was  originally,  in  the  Order  of  the  Church  Year,  sim- 
 ply the  Octave  of  Pentecost,  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost.  Only 
 about  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  this  Sunday  grad- 
 ually changed  its  character  from  the  first  Sunday  after  Pentecost 
 to  the  Festival  of  Trinity.  For  the  latter  the  lessons  of  the  Mis- 
 sale  are  Rom.  11,  33-36,  and  Matt.  28,  18-20.  The  Trinity 
 Epistle  of  the  Missalc  has  been  adopted  in  our  Order,  in  place  of 
 the  older  Epistle,  Revelation  4:  1-8,  which  is  retained  in  the 
 Anglican  Church.  '  But  our  Gospel,  John  3:  1-15,  is  undoubted- 
 ly the  old  Gospel  lesson  for  the  Octave  of  Pentecost,  as  testified 
 by  the  Comes,  v.  Liliencron  also  accepts  it,  though  he  calls  it, 
 wrongly,  as  we  think,  "the  Gospel  of  the  later  Order." 
 
 Our  first  Sunday  after  Trinity  uses  here  the  Epistle  of  the 
 first  Sunday  after  Pentecost  in  the  lUissale  and  inserts  for  the 
 Gospel  lesson  the  popular  story  of  Dives  and  Lazarus. 
 
 Our  fourth  Sunday  after  Trinity  uses  for  the  Gospel  lesson 
 one  of  the  lessons  for  the  Pentecost  Octave,  Luke  6:  36-42,  shift- 
 ing the  Gospels  of  all  the  following  Sundays  after  Trinity  down 
 to  the  twenty -fourth.  But  as  the  Epistles  were  left  in  their 
 place,  the  whole  De  Tempore  provision  for  each  Sunday  was  dis- 
 arranged, as  v.  Liliencron  holds.  As  this  disorder  affects  also 
 the  other  Dc  Tempore  parts,  v.  Liliencron  insists  that  every  thing 
 here  ought  to  be  rearranged  on  the  basis  of  the  J/issa/e  Romanum. 
 Giesecke,  however,  maintains  that  the  disorder  is  by  no  means  so 
 great,  and  decidedly  opposes  the  idea  of  a  reconstruction  after 
 the  model  of  the  Missale. 
 
 If  we  could  even  approximately  ascertain  the  original  Order 
 of  Jerome's  Comes,  all  these  difficulties  would  easily  settle  them- 
 selves, and  it  would  at  once  appear,  which  of  the  two  Orders,  the 
 Lutheran  or  that  of  the  Missale,  is  nearer  to  the  original.  But 
 the  Comes  of  Jerome  is  known  to  us  only  in  the  form  of  a  frag- 
 ment, or  even  of  a  ruin,  as  some  liturgists  view  it.  The  two 
 main  sources  for  our  knowledge  of  the  Comes  are  the  editions  of 
 Pamelius  and  Baluzius.  Jacob  Pamelius  was  a  Roman  Catholic 
 theologian,  born    at   Bruegge,    1536,  died,    1587.     In   1571,  one 
 
THE    PERICOPES.  59 
 
 year  after  the  appearance  of  the  Missale  Romanum,  he  published 
 the  Comes  of  Jerome  from  a  manuscript  of  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
 Donatianus  in  Bruegge,  comparing  also  some  other  MSS.  of 
 Cologne.  "Divi  Hieronymi  Comiteni  sive  Lectionarhivi,  uti  re- 
 centiorcs  nuncupa^it,  e  Bibliotheka  et  Sacrario  Ecclesice  nostra; 
 Cathedralis  Bnigensis  ad  D.  DoJiatiatti  descripsmiiis ,  deinde  ad 
 veteres  codices  aliquot  Colonicnses  per  Dn.  Hittorpiuni  collatione 
 facta  rcstiticimits  etc."  This  codex  is  generally  supposed  to  belong 
 to  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century.  It  has  no  appointments 
 for  week  days  except  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and  very  few 
 Saints'  days.     Nebe  thinks  that  it  is  of  Galilean  origin. 
 
 Stephan  Baluzius,  1630-1718,  was  a  French  Jesuit,  since 
 1667  librarian  of  the  valuable  Colbert  library,  and  afterwards 
 Rector  of  the  Royal  College.  In  1677  he  published  the  Comes 
 of  Theotinchus,  belonging  to  the  time  of  Louis  the  Pious,  (lyud- 
 wig  d.  Fromme)  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  In  this 
 codex  the  Trinity  season  is  divided  into  sections  named  after  the 
 Natale  Apostolorum,  (June  29);  St.  lyorenz  day,  (August  10)  and 
 Cyprian's  day,  (September  16);  while  in  the  Codex  of  Pamelius 
 these  Sundays  are  simplj-  mentioned  as  Sundays  post  Octavain 
 Pentecostes . 
 
 Those  who  would  like  to  have  a  convenient  summary  of  the 
 oldest  sources  for  the  Churchly  system  of  Pericopes  are  referred 
 to  the  following  comparative  table  which  shows  side  by  side,  the 
 lessons  for  the  Church  Year  as  found  in  the  Homiliarium,  in 
 Pamelius  and  Baluzius.  A  study  of  this  table  will  convince  the 
 impartial  reader  that  Giesecke  is  not  far  from  the  truth  when  he 
 claims  for  the  Pericopes  as  found  in. our  Lutheran  Order  the 
 oldest  and  most  correct  historical  arrangement. 
 
 LIST  OF  LESSONS  AS  CONTAINED  IN  THE   HOMILIARIUM  OF 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE    AND    THE    TWO    EDITIONS    OF    THE 
 
 COMES  OF  JEROME,  PAMELIUS  AND  BALUZIUS. 
 
 (From  Nebe's  Pericopes.     Vol.  /,  pp.  100-102.) 
 
 SUNDAY 
 
 HOMIWARIUM 
 
 PAMELIUS 
 
 BAI,UZIUS 
 
 1  Advent 
 
 Matt.   21,  1   sqq. 
 
 Rom.  13,   11  sqq. 
 Matt.    21,    1   sqq. 
 
 2  Advent 
 
 Luke  21,  25  sqq. 
 
 Rom.   15,   4   sqq. 
 Luke  21,  25  sqq. 
 
 3  Advent 
 
 Matt.  9,  2  sqq. 
 
 1  Coi-.  4,   1  sqq. 
 Luke  11,  2  sqq. 
 
 1  Cor.  4,  1-15 
 John    1,    19-28 
 
60 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 SUNDAY 
 4  Advent 
 
 Vigils 
 
 Christmas 
 
 IIOMILIARIUM 
 
 John  1.   19  sqq. 
 Mark  l,  l  sqq 
 
 Matt.  1,  18  sqq. 
 Luke  2,   1  sqq. 
 Luke  2,  15  sqq. 
 
 Juhu  1,  1  sqq. 
 
 St.  Stephen  Matt.  23,  34  sqq. 
 
 Sun.   aft.   Christmas  I>uke  2,  33  sqq. 
 
 Circumcision 
 Vigils 
 Epiphany 
 Octave 
 
 Luke  2,    21 
 
 Matt.  2,  19  sqq. 
 
 Matt.  2,   1   sqq. 
 
 John  1,  29  sqq. 
 Matt.   3,   1   sqq. 
 
 1st  S.  after  Epiph.  Luke  2,  41  sqq. 
 2d  S.  after  Epiph.  John  2,  1  sqq. 
 3d  S.  after  Bp.  Matt.  8,  1  sqq. 
 
 4th  S.  after  Ep. 
 5th  S.  after  Ep. 
 Septuagesima 
 Sexagesima 
 Quiuquagesiuia 
 1st  S.  in  Lent 
 2d  S.  in  Lent. 
 3d  S.  in  Lent 
 4th  S.  in  Lent. 
 5tb  S.  in  Lent 
 Palm    S. 
 Uoly   Thursday 
 Good   Friday 
 
 Vigils 
 
 Matt.  8,  23  sqq. 
 Matt.  11,  25  sqq. 
 Matt.  20,  1  sqq. 
 Luke  8,  4  sqq. 
 Luke  18,  31  sqq. 
 Matt.  4,  1  sqq. 
 Matt.   15,   21  sqq. 
 Luke  11,  14  sqq. 
 Johu  G,  1  sqij. 
 John  8,  46  sqq. 
 Matt.  21,  1  sqq. 
 John   i;5,  1   sqq. 
 
 Matt.  28,  1  sqq. 
 
 PAMELIUS 
 
 Phil.  4,  3  sqq. 
 Jolin  1,  19  s<iq. 
 
 Tsa.  02,  1  sqq. 
 Koni.    1,    1   sqq. 
 Matt.  1,   18,   sqq. 
 
 (1)  Isa.  9,  2  sqq. 
 Titus  2,   11    sqq. 
 Ltiki'  2,  1  s(iq. 
 
 (2)  L><a.  Gl,  1  sq.j. 
 Titus  3,  4  sq<i. 
 Luke  2,  15  sqq. 
 
 (3)  Heb.  1,  1  sqq. 
 John  1,   1  sqq. 
 
 Acts  6,  8  sqq. 
 Matt.  23,  3i 
 
 Gal.  3,  23  sqq. 
 Luke  2,  21  sqq. 
 Kotn.  3.  19  sqq. 
 Malt.  2,  i9  sqq. 
 Isa.  60,  1  sqq. 
 Matt.  2,  1  sqq. 
 Isa.   12,   1  sqq. 
 Isa.  61,   1   sqq. 
 Jolin  1.  29  sqq. 
 Horn.  12,   1   sqq. 
 Luke  2,   41   sqq. 
 Uoui.  12,  G  sqq. 
 Johu  2,  1  sqq. 
 Hum.   12,  17   sqq. 
 Matt.   8,   1  sqq. 
 Rom.   13,  8  sqti. 
 Matt.  8,  23  sqq. 
 Col.  3,  12  sqq. 
 Matt.  11,  25  sqq. 
 
 1  Cor.  9,  24  sqq. 
 Matt.  20,  1  sqq. 
 
 2  Cor.  11,  19  sqq. 
 Luke  8,  4  sqq. 
 
 1  Cor.   13,   1   sqq. 
 Luke  18,   31   sqq. 
 
 2  Cor.  G,  1  sqq. 
 Matt.  4,  1  sqq. 
 
 1  Thess.  4, 1  sqq. 
 Matt.  15,  21  sqq. 
 Ephes.   5,    1    sqq. 
 Luke  11,   14   sqq. 
 Gal.  4,  22  sqq. 
 John  6,  1  sqq. 
 Hebr.    9.    11    sqq. 
 Johu  8,  46  sqq. 
 Phil.  2,  5-11 
 Matt.  2G,  2  sqq. 
 1  Cor.  11,  20  sqq. 
 John  13,  1  sqq. 
 Hosea  5,   15  sqq. 
 Exod.    12,    1    sqq. 
 John  18,  1  sqq. 
 CI.  3,   1   sqq. 
 Matt.  28,  1  sqq. 
 
 BALUZIUS 
 
 Phil.   4,   3-7 
 John    1,    19-2S 
 
 Rom.  1.  1-G 
 Isa.   02,   1-4 
 Matt.   1,  lS-21 
 Titus  2,    11-15 
 Isa.   9,  2-7 
 Luke  2.  1-14 
 
 (1)  Titus  3,  4-7 
 Isa.  Gl.  1-9. 
 Luke  2,    1.-.-20 
 
 (2)  H.b.  1.  1-12 
 Isa.  52,  6-10 
 John  1,  1-14 
 
 Acts  6,  8-7,  .59 
 Matt.   2.3.    34-39 
 
 Gal.    4,   1-7 
 Luke   2,    33-40 
 
 Titus  2,    11-15 
 Luke  2,  21-32 
 Titus  3,  4-7. 
 Matt.  2.  19-2.3. 
 Isa.   GO.   1-0 
 Matt.   2,    1-12 
 Isa.  12,  1-15 
 Johu  1,   29-34 
 
 Rom.   12,   1-5 
 Luke    2,    41-52 
 Rom.  12,  Grl6 
 John  2,  1-11 
 Rom.    12,    17-21 
 Matt.   8,   1-13 
 Rom.   13,  8-10 
 Matt.  8,   23-27 
 Col.  3,  12-17 
 Matt.   11,   25-30 
 
 1  Cor.  9,  24-10,  4 
 Matt.    20,    1-lG 
 
 2  Cor.  11, 19-12.  9 
 Luke  8,   4-15 
 
 1  Cor.  13,  1-13 
 Luke    lt>,    31-43 
 
 2  Cor.  6,  1-10 
 Matt.   4,    1-11 
 
 1    Thess.   4,    1-7 
 Matt.    15,    21-28 
 Ephes.  5,   1-9 
 Luke   11,    14-28 
 Gal.  4,   22-.">.   1 
 Johu    6,    1-14 
 Heb.  9,    11-15 
 Johu  8,  40-59 
 I'hil.   2.   5-11 
 Matt.  20,  2-27.  66 
 1   Cor.    11,   20-32 
 Johu  13,    1-32 
 Hosea    5,    15-6,  ti 
 Exod.     12,    1-11 
 John   18.   1-19.   42 
 Col.  3,    1-4 
 Matt,   2.S,   1-7 
 
THK    PERICOPES. 
 
 61 
 
 SUNDAY 
 Easter 
 
 Easter  Monday 
 Octave 
 
 2cl  S.  after  Easter 
 3d  S.  after  Easter 
 4tli  S.  after  Easter 
 5th  S.  after  Easter 
 Ascension  Day 
 S.  after  Ascension 
 Vigils 
 
 HOMILIARIUM 
 Marlx  16,  1  sqq. 
 Lulie  24,  13  sqq. 
 John  20,  19  sqq. 
 John  10,  12  sqq. 
 John  16,  16  sqq. 
 John  16,  5  sqq. 
 John  16,  23  sqq. 
 John  17,  1  sqq. 
 John  15,  26  sqq. 
 John  14,   15  sqq. 
 
 Whitsunday 
 Oct.  Pent. 
 
 D.  2.  p.  P.  (2d 
 after    Penteco 
 
 D.  3.  p.  P.  (8d 
 after    Penteco; 
 
 D.  4.  p.   P. 
 
 D.  5.   p.   P. 
 D.  6.   p.   P. 
 D.  7.  p.   P. 
 D.  8.   p.    P. 
 D.  9.   p.   P. 
 D.  10.  p.   P. 
 D.    11.    p.   P. 
 D.  12.  p.  P. 
 D.    13.    p.    P. 
 D.  14.  p.  P. 
 D.  15.   p.   T. 
 D.  16.  p.  T. 
 D.    17.   p.   T. 
 D.  18.    p.    T. 
 
 John  14,  23  sqq. 
 Jolin  3,  16  sqq. 
 Jolin  3,  1  sqq. 
 John  15,   26  sqq. 
 
 S.  Lulve  16.   19  sqq. 
 
 ^t) 
 
 S.  Lulie  14,  16  sqq. 
 Luke  15,  1  sqq. 
 Lulie  6,  36  sqq. 
 Luke  5,  1  sqq. 
 Matt.  5,  20  sqq. 
 Mark  8,  1  sqq. 
 Matt.  7,   15  sqq. 
 Luke  16,  1  sqq. 
 Luke  19,  41  sqq. 
 Luke   18,   9  sqq. 
 Mark  7,   31   sqq. 
 Luke  10,  23  sqq. 
 Luke  17,  11  sqq. 
 Matt.  6,  24  sqq. 
 Luke  7,  11  sqq. 
 Luke  14,  1  sqq. 
 
 PAMEIyIUS 
 
 1  Cor.  5,  7  sqq. 
 
 Mark  16,  1  sqq. 
 
 Acts  10,  36  sqq. 
 
 Luke  24,   13  sqq. 
 
 1    John  5,   4  sqq. 
 
 John  20,    19   sqq. 
 
 1   Pet.  2,  21  sqq. 
 
 John   10,   12   sqq. 
 
 1   Pet.   2,  11   sqq. 
 
 John   16,    16   sqq. 
 
 James  1,  17  sqq. 
 
 John  16,  5  sqq. 
 
 James  1,  22  sqq. 
 
 John   16,   23   sqq. 
 
 Acts  1,   1  sqq. 
 
 Mark  16,   14  sqq. 
 
 1    Pet.    4,    8   sqq. 
 
 John  15,   26  sqq. 
 
 Gen.     1,     1     sqq, 
 22,  1   sqq. 
 
 Exod.  14,  24  sqq. 
 
 Deut.  31,  22  sqq. 
 
 Isa.  4,  1  sqq. 
 Baruch   3,    9 
 Acts  19,   1  sqq. 
 John   14,   15  sqq. 
 Acts  2,   1  sqq. 
 John   14,   23   sqq. 
 Rev.   4,  1  sqq. 
 Acts  5,  29  sqq. 
 John  3,  1  sqq. 
 1  John  4,  16  sqq. 
 Luke  16.  19  sqq. 
 1  John  3,  13  sqq. 
 Luke  14,   16  sqq. 
 1  Pet.  5,  6  sqq. 
 Luke  15,   1  sqq. 
 Rom.   8,   18  sqq. 
 Luke  6,  36  sqq. 
 1  Pet.  3,  8  sqq. 
 Luke  5,   1   sqq. 
 Rom.   6,   3  sqq. 
 Matt.    5,    20   sqq. 
 Rom.  6,   19  sqq. 
 Mark   8,   1  sqq. 
 
 Rom.  8,   12  sqq. 
 Matt.  7,  15  sqq. 
 1  Cor.  10,  6  sqq. 
 Luke  16,   1  sqq. 
 1  Cor.   12,  2  sqq. 
 Luke  19,   41  sqq. 
 
 1  Cor.  15,   1   sqq. 
 Luke  18,   9  sqq. 
 
 2  Cor.  3,  4  sqq. 
 Mark  7,  31  sqq. 
 Gal.   3,    16   sqq. 
 Luke  10,  23  sqq. 
 Gal.   5,   16  sqq. 
 Luke  17,    11  sqq. 
 Gal.   5,   25   sqq. 
 Matt.    6,   24   sqq. 
 Bphes.  3,  13  sqq. 
 Luke  7,   11   sqq. 
 Ephes.  4,  1  sqq. 
 Luke  14,  1  sqq. 
 
 BALUZIUS 
 
 1  Cor.  5,  7-8 
 Mark  16,    1-7 
 Acts  10,  36-43 
 Luke  24,  13-35 
 1  John  5,   4-10 
 John  20,   24-31 
 1  Pet.  2,  21-25 
 John   10,    12-16 
 1  Pet.  2,  11-19 
 John  16,  16-22 
 James   1,   17-21 
 John  16,   5-14 
 James   1,    22-27 
 John    16,    2.3-30 
 Acts    1,    1-11 
 Mark   16,    14-20 
 1  Pet.  4,  8-11 
 John  15,  26-16,  4 
 Gen.  22,  1-19 
 
 Deut.    32,    22-30 
 Isa.   4.   1-6 
 Baruch  3,  9-38 
 Acts  19,  1-8 
 John  14,  15-21 
 
 Acts  2,   1-11 
 John  14,  23-31 
 Rev.  4,  1-9 
 John  3,  1-15 
 
 1  John  4,   16-21 
 Luke    16,    19-31 
 1  John  3,   13-18 
 Matt.   5,  20-24 
 1  Pet.  5,  6-11 
 Luke    15,    1-10 
 Rom.   8,    18-23 
 Luke  6,  36-42 
 1    Pet.   3,   8-15 
 Luke  5,    1-11 
 Matt.  7,  15-21 
 
 Rom.  8,  1-6 
 Luke   16,    1-9 
 Rom.  8,   12-17 
 Luke    10,    25-37 
 1  Cor.  15,  39-46 
 Luke  18,    9-14 
 
 2  Cor.  5,  1-10 
 Mark  7,  31-37 
 Luke  10,  23-37 
 
 Gal.   — 
 Luke  17,  11-19. 
 Gal.  5,  16-24 
 Matt.   6,  24-33 
 
62 
 
 MEMOIRS. 
 
 SUNDAY 
 D.  19.  p.  T. 
 D.  20.  p.  T. 
 D.  21.  p.  T. 
 D.  22.  p.  T. 
 D.  23.  p.  T. 
 D.  24.  p.  T. 
 D.  25.  p.  T. 
 D.  26.  p.  T. 
 
 HOMILIARIUM 
 Matt.  22,   34  sqq. 
 Matt.  9,    1   sqq. 
 Matt.  22,   1  sqq. 
 John  4,  47  S(iq. 
 Matt.  18,  23  sqq. 
 Matt.  22,  15  sqq. 
 Matt.  9,   18  -sqq. 
 John  6,  5  sqq. 
 
 PAMELIUS 
 
 1  Cor.  1,  4  sqq. 
 Matt.  22,  34  sqq. 
 Ephes.  4,  23  sq(i. 
 Matt.   9,   1   sqq. 
 Ephes.  5,  15  sqq. 
 Matt.   22,    1    sqq. 
 Ephes.  G,  10  sqq. 
 John  4,   47   sqq. 
 Phil.   1,  3  sqq. 
 Matt.  18,  23  sqq. 
 I'hll.  3,  17  sqq. 
 Matt.  22,   15  sqq. 
 Rom.   11,  25  sqq. 
 Mark  12,  28  sqq. 
 Jer.    23,   5  sqq. 
 John  6,  5  sqq. 
 
 BAi^uzrus 
 
 Gal.  5.  2.5-r,,  lo 
 Luke  7,  11-16 
 Eplies.  4,  1-6 
 Luke  14,  1-11 
 1   Cor.   1,    1-8 
 Matt.   22,   23-."i3 
 Ephes.   4,   23-28 
 Matt.  9,   1-S 
 Ei)hes.   5,    l.".-21 
 Matt.   18,   23-35 
 
 Mt.  Airy,  PhiladclpJna,  Pa. 
 
 A.  Spaeth. 
 
LITURGICAL  DEVELOPMENT 
 IN  THE   PERIOD   OF  THE  REFORMATION. 
 
 At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  reformatory 
 tendencies,  which  afterwards  divided  Christendom,  were  included 
 within  "the  Holy  Catholic  Church"  owning  allegiance  to  the 
 Roman  pontiff.  The  ferment  was  not  confined  to  the  Teutonic 
 nations.  It  may  be  said  that  the  earlier  movement  in  Spain  pre- 
 vented the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Pope  and  gave  the  note  of 
 the  counter-reformation.  There  was  a  considerable  lack  of  uni- 
 formity in  the  Service  of  the  Church,  and  the  writers  on  the 
 Roman  side  acknowledge  that  abuses  had  crept  in.  A  reformed 
 Breviary  was  proposed  but  not  adopted.  The  issue  of  these 
 movements  in  the  Roman  Church  was  the  attainment  of  a  higher 
 degree  of  uniformity  through  the  reformed  Breviary  and  Missal 
 which  the  Council  of  Trent  authorized  the  Pope  to  publish. 
 A  second  main  issue  was  the  doctrine  of  sacrifice.  There  can 
 be  no  doubt  that  the  doctrine  of  a  propitiatory  offering  in  the 
 Mass  was  recognized  before  this  period  and  was  a  legitimate  de- 
 velopment of  teachings  and  tendencies  prevalent  in  the  Church 
 since  the  third  century.  This  is  not  the  place  to  account  for  this, 
 or  to  estimate  its  relation  to  the  Gospel.  But  that  this  theory 
 was  not  accepted  by  all,  may  be  seen  from  the  various  theories  of 
 the  sacrifice  in  the  Mass  which  were  urged  by  the  Conservatives 
 in  the  compromise-propositions  during  the  Reformation  period. 
 For  a  more  particular  account  of  them  I  may  refer  to  my  articles 
 on  The  Three  Interims  in  the  Lutheran  Church  Review  and  on 
 The  Liturgy  in  the  Lutheran  Cyclopedia.  The  Reformers  re- 
 jected the  theory  of  a  sacrifice  in  the  Mass,  and  thereby  cut  away 
 the  root  of  the  false  theories  and  actual  abuses  of  which  all  com- 
 plained. The  Conservatives — those  fair-minded  men  who  fain 
 would  have  preserved  a  fidelity  to  the  Scriptures  and  conscience 
 
 (Ixiii) 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 without  breaking  with  the  visible  Church,  and  therefore  sought 
 a  formula  which  both  Romanists  and  Reformers  could  subscribe, — 
 urged  many  theories  of  sacrifice.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the 
 earlier  period  these  are  more  liberal,  more  Lutheran;  while  in  the 
 later  they  become  more  uncompromising.  Even  in  the  Council 
 of  Trent  a  few  voices  urged  the  vanishing  criticism,  arguing  that 
 if  the  Lord  offered  Himself  in  the  Supper,  there  was  nothing  left 
 to  do  upon  the  Cross.  But  the  Council  cut  away  the  more  mod- 
 erate views  and  established  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Ro- 
 man Service,  namely,  that  the  Mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for 
 the  quick  and  the  dead,  and  may  be  offered  to  God  to  obtain 
 various  temporal  blessings. 
 
 The  period  of  the  Reformation,  therefore,  is  a  period  of  de- 
 velopment of  the  Roman  liturgy.  It  issued  in  the  extrusion  of 
 various  forms  and  doctrines  of  the  Mass;  in  a  vigorous  uniformi- 
 ty; and  in  the  fixation  of  the  sacrificial  theor>\ 
 
 The  Protestants  were  at  one  in  rejection  of  this  theory. 
 Pope  Leo  XIII  touches  the  very  nerve  of  Protestantism  when 
 (from  his  standpoint)  he  denies  the  validity  of  the  Orders  of  the 
 English  Church,  because  no  one  of  its  priests  has  been  ordained 
 to  be  a  sacrificing  priest.  The  result  of  this  rejection  of  the  doc- 
 trine that  the  Mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  is  a  new  conception 
 of  the  Divine  Service,  a  conception  practically  new  to  the  Church 
 after  a  mistaken  theory  had  obtained  for  many  centuries.  The 
 worship  of  the  Church  no  longer  was  regarded  as  something  done 
 for  the  people  by  a  priesthood;  and  which  even  might  be  done 
 for  them  in  their  absence.  But  here  a  new  division  arose  among 
 the  Protestants  themselves.  On  the  one  hand.  Christian  worship 
 was  regarded  as  something  done  simply  by  the  people.  Freed 
 from  the  compulsion  of  the  Church,  these  accepted  the  Scriptures 
 as  a  new  law.  The  Church  was  held  to  be  bound  by  the  exam- 
 ple of  the  Church  in  the  New  Testament  time.  As  the  New 
 Testament  Church  did,  so  must  the  Churches  do  forever,  no  more, 
 no  less.  And  of  consequence,  there  grew  up  (just  as  had  been 
 the  case  in  the  post- Apostolic  period)  a  notion  of  the  binding 
 authority  of  the  Old  Testament  law.  The  people  had  part  in  the 
 Service.  In  some  places  a  ministry  was  superfluous.  Sermons 
 were  demanded.  And  no  songs  were  admitted  but  those  of  Holy 
 Scripture  itself.  Hymns  of  human  composition  were  forbidden. 
 The  Church  was  thrown  back  upon  Holy  Writ  itself  for  all  the 
 
LITURGICAI.  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  REFORMATION  PERIOD.     65 
 
 material  of  worship.  (See  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  on  Hymns.') 
 But  there  was  another  line  of  development.  The  use  of  the 
 vernacular  was  insisted  on,  of  course.  But,  besides,  the  other 
 tongues  were  employed  which  were  representative  of  the  history 
 of  the  Church.  While  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  were  read  in  Ger- 
 man, they  might  be  first  read  in  L^atin  too;  and  if  the  Creed  and 
 the  sacred  songs  were  translated  and  versified  for  the  people's 
 use,  they  were  also  sung  in  lyatin;  the  Greek  Kyrie  could  not  be 
 taken  from  the  people;  and  Amen  and  Hosanna  were  sacred  lega- 
 cies from  the  Hebrews.  This  was  not  through  impotence,  or  for 
 music's  sake  only,  but  it  was  a  recognition  of  the  Divine  element 
 in  the  historical  development  of  the  Church.  The  same  principle 
 rescued  the  framework  and  purer  constituents  of  the  Western 
 liturgy,  to  which,  not  the  first  century  only,  but  all  Christian 
 centuries,  had  contributed.  The  people  had  their  part  in  the 
 Service.  To  give  them  this  the  Old  Testament  Psalms  were 
 rejuvenated  in  German  versions;  which  were  not  translations 
 either  prose  or  in  verse,  but  fresh  outpourings  of  Christian  faith, 
 as,  for  example,  the  version  of  the  forty-sixth  Psalm  in  Ein'  feste 
 Burg.  So  the  I^iturgical  Songs  were  turned  into  rhymed  Ger- 
 man hymns.  Some  of  these  were  happy,  some  were  not.  But 
 they  answered  to  a  principle.  Not  only  were  they  in  rhyme,  in- 
 stead of  in  the  parallelisms  of  Hebrew  poetry,  so  that  the  people 
 could  remember  and  sing  them  more  easily;  but  the  necessary 
 Christianization  of  the  Old  Testament  Psalms,  which  all  of  us 
 attempt  by  ignoring  some  things  they  say  and  injecting  a  fuller 
 meaning  than  their  inspired  authors  could  conceive,  and  which 
 the  Church  attempted  in  former  ages  by  means  of  Antiphons  be- 
 fore and  after,  and  which  other  Protestants  helplessly  resigned, 
 the  Lutheran  Reformation  successfully  accomplished  b)^  means  of 
 a  new  and  Christian  psalmody,  in  native  German  forms,  fresh, 
 and  of  inexhaustible  volume.  Here  the  people  found  their  part 
 in  the  Service.  But  the  Service  was  not  merely  sacrificial;  be- 
 fore all  things  it  was  sacramental.  This  was  its  fundamental 
 character,  and  the  songs  of  the  people  only  answered  to  the  gift 
 of  God  it  brought.  The  ministry  instituted  by  God  were  stew- 
 ards of  His  mysteries.  They  absolved.  They  ministered  His 
 saving  Word.  They  are  the  hands  and  lips  whereby  Christ  gives 
 His  Body  and  Blood,  His  forgiveness.  Himself. 
 
 It  may  be  asked  whether  the  liturgical  development  of  the 
 
66  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Reformation  period  was  complete.  No  development  of  a  living 
 organism  can  have  been  complete  long  ago.  The  Roman  Catho- 
 lic Church  has  adhered  to  its  rule  of  uniformity  and  to  the  prin- 
 ciple of  a  propitiatory  sacrifice;  but  there  have  been  attempts  to 
 render  the  Service  in  the  vernacular,  to  read  the  Gospels  and 
 Epistles  in  it,  and  to  admit  songs  of  the  people.  It  must  be  ad- 
 mitted also  that  the  Lutheran  development  of  the  liturgy  was  not 
 complete  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  relegation  to  a  second 
 place  of  the  principle  of  uniformity,  the  assertion  of  the  sacra- 
 mental principle  and  the  rejection  of  the  propitiatory,  and  the 
 claim  of  the  people  to  spontaneous  utterance,  were  established. 
 But  external  events  arrested  the  free  criticism  of  the  forms  of 
 worship.  Certain  temporary  elements  of  expression  hardened 
 and  were  made  a  fetish.  This  was  seen  when,  in  the  next  cen- 
 tury, after  the  devastations  of  war  and  the  excitement  of  con- 
 troversy, old  forms  out  of  which  the  life  had  departed,  were  re- 
 stored. It  would  not  be  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  Refonnation  to 
 reinstall  the  exact  Service  of  the  German  Churches  of  the  six- 
 teenth century.  The  Common  Service  of  our  Churches  is  as  Lu- 
 theran as  it  was  and  more  Lutheran  than  it  would  be  to-day. 
 
 Edward  T.   Horn. 
 
 Reading,  Pa. 
 
THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION  OF  THE 
 SEVENTEENTH  AND   EIGHTEENTH    CENTURIES. 
 
 "For  all  the  destructive  processes  which  later  on  made  them- 
 selves felt  in  the  Lutheran  churches  of  Germany  the  historic 
 beginnings  and  elucidation  must  be  sought  in  the  period  of  res- 
 toration which  followed  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  extended 
 into  the  first  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century."  With  these 
 words  Kliefoth  begins  his  dissertation  on  the  Destruction  of  the 
 Lutheran  Order's  of  Service.  That  prolonged  contest  had  brought 
 disaster  not  only  to  the  national,  but  also  to  the  religious  life  of 
 Germany.  "The  whole  land  had  been  tortured,  torn  to  pieces, 
 wrecked  and  brayed  as  in  a  mortar."*  The  war  had  not  been 
 carried  on  by  disciplined  armies,  but  by  adventurous  hordes, 
 which  swept  over  the  country  in  search  of  plunder,  burnt  its 
 towns  and  villages,  and  turned  entire  provinces  into  deserts. 
 Hiuidreds  of  churches  and  schools  were  closed.  Two-thirds  of 
 the  native  population  disappeared,  only  to  give  place  by  degrees 
 to  a  new  vagabond  element  brutalized  by  warfare,  unaccustomed 
 to  work,  and  with  no  bond  of  blood  and  traditional  customs  to 
 hold  it  together.  The  princes  too,  lost  their  German  sympathies 
 and  habits,  and  by  frequent  contact  with  the  court  of  France 
 during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  rapidly  imbibed  that  monarch's 
 autocratic  and  extravagant  ideas.  "Instead  of  studying  the  gen- 
 eral welfare,  they  cruelly  wrang  from  exhausted  states  the  larg- 
 est possible  revenue  to  support  a  lavish  and  ridiculous  expendi- 
 ture. The  pettiest  princeling  had  his  army,  his  palaces,  his 
 multitudes  of  household  ofl&cers;  and  most  of  them  pampered 
 every  vulgar  appetite  without  respect  either  to  morality  or 
 decency,  "t 
 
 Such  were  the  conditions  that  succeeded  the  Thirty  Years' 
 *  Carlyle.  t  Encydopcedia  Britannica. 
 
 (Ixvii) 
 
68  MEMOIRS. 
 
 War, — conditions  that  gave  rise  to  a  problem  far  more  difl5cult 
 of  solution  than  that  which  confronted  the  Reformers  of  the  pre- 
 ceding century.  The  latter  entered  upon  their  work  at  a  time  of 
 real  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  Gospel.  The  masses,  together 
 with  many  of  the  princes,  were  therefore  responsive;  they  re- 
 ceived the  Gospel  with  grateful  hearts;  in  the  purified  Orders  of 
 Service  which  came  with  the  restored  Gospel,  these  vitalized 
 hearts  found  the  appropriate  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  their 
 faith  and  love;  and  thus  the  form  itself  became  a  thing  of  life  be- 
 cause life  was  breathed  into  it. 
 
 Altogether  different  was  the  problem  at  the  middle  of  the 
 seventeenth  century.  It  was  not  the  problem  of  renovation  but 
 of  restoration;  not  the  work  of  purifying  the  Church's  faith  and 
 practice,  which  had  already  been  done,  but  the  much  more  diffi- 
 cult task  of  again  bringing  the  purified  faith  and  practice  into 
 the  consciousness  and  life  of  a  people  demoralized  by  war,  having 
 no  real  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  Gospel,  and  therefore  not  re- 
 sponsive to  it  as  the  masses  of  the  preceding  century  had  been. 
 
 The  first  step  in  the  process  of  restoration  was  the  reissue 
 and  fresh  promulgation  of  the  KOO  (Church  Orders),  many  of 
 which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  war,  and  none  of  which  were 
 operative.  These,  with  numerous  additions  and  new  provisions, 
 were  meant  to  reestablish  order  in  the  churches.  But  the  fatal 
 defect  of  these  revised  Orders  was  their  bureaucratic  character. 
 The  conceptions  underlying  many  of  their  new  provisions  were 
 legalistic  and  often  dogmatically  unsound;  obedience  was  to  be 
 effected  not  solely  by  the  power  of  evangelical  truth  as  in  the  six- 
 teenth century,  but  rather  by  threats  of  punishment  for  disobedi- 
 ence; and  the  result  was  that  the  verj^  idea  of  the  Church  and  its 
 purpose  became  externalized,  grades  and  hierarchical  tendencies 
 began  to  manifest  themselves  in  its  ministry,  and,  when  at  last 
 the  Church  became  a  mere  department  of  the  civil  government, 
 the  latter  not  only  undertook  to  regulate  the  more  external  pa- 
 rochial affairs,  but  even  to  prescribe  what  liturgies,  hymn-books 
 and  doctrinal  standards  should  be  used. 
 
 It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  all  this  affected  the 
 Church's  worship.  The  disciplinary  measures  in  force  indeed 
 filled  the  churches;  but  those  who  gathered  in  them  came  rather 
 in  obedience  to  custom  and  external  requirement  than  to  satisfy 
 an  internal  need.     The  conception  of  the  healthful  relation  that 
 
LITURGICAI.  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.     69 
 
 must  subsist  between  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  had  be- 
 come obscured;  with  many  faith  had  degenerated  into  a  matter 
 of  the  intellect  rather  than  of  the  heart;  a  false  estimate  was  placed 
 upon  the  purely  objective;  undue  stress  was  laid  upon  the  exter- 
 nal act;  mere  presence  in  God's  house  and  at  the  Lord's  Table 
 was  deemed  sufficient;  and  thus  worship  itself  became  external- 
 ized. The  form  still  remained,  but  it  was  now  a  thing  without 
 life,  because  those  who  used  it  no  longer  had  life  to  breathe  into 
 it. 
 
 The  reaction  against  a  one-sided,  lifeless  orthodoxy  and  its 
 consequent  formalism  came  in  the  Pietistic  movement,  which 
 however  soon  proved  to  be  as  intensely  and  one-sidedly  subjective 
 as  orthodoxy  had  been  objective.  It  was  the  professed  purpose 
 of  Pietism  to  make  the  truth  vital,  and  to  convert  "the  outward 
 orthodox  confession  into  an  inner  living  theology  of  the  heart," 
 the  evidence  of  which  was  to  be  seen  in  a  godly  life.  To  bring 
 about  this  result  it  adopted  new  methods  and  went  new  ways. 
 Though  at  first  by  no  means  disposed  to  break  with  the  con- 
 fessions, institutions  and  usages  of  the  Church,  it  nevertheless 
 deemed  it  necessary  to  supplement  these.  To  the  public  meet- 
 ings for  worship,  public  communion,  and  private  confession  and 
 absolution,  it  added  private  religious  meetings  in  houses  {collegia 
 pietatis),  private  communion,  and  private  religious  conversation 
 in  the  pastor's  study.  Thus  Pietism  endeavored  to  bring  the 
 Church  into  the  house,  a  living  Christianity  into  every-day  life, 
 so  that  not  only  public  worship  might  again  become  a  worship  in 
 spirit  and  in  truth,  but  that  the  whole  walk  and  conversation  of 
 each  one  might  be  a  sacrifice  well-pleasing  to  God. 
 
 But  the  very  methods  by  which  the  earlier  Pietism  hoped  to 
 revive  spiritual  life  ultimatel}^  proved  destructive  to  the  Church's 
 Cultus.  Whilst  Spener  regarded  these  methods  only  as  addition- 
 al and  not  as  antagonistic  means,  the  later  Pietism  made  them 
 the  chief  means.  Its  idea  of  edification  was  in  its  way  as  narrow 
 as  that  held  by  Orthodoxy.  The  latter  made  edification  to  con- 
 sist chiefly  in  the  furtherance  of  Christian  knowledge,  Pietism  in 
 the  promotion  of  Christian  life,  i.  e.,  of  godliness.  But  Pietism 
 conceived  of  godliness  not  in  its  broader  sense  as  it  is  also  related 
 to  and  includes  man's  duties  to  the  world  about  him,  but  rather 
 as  that  isolated  state  of  being,  devoted  to  pious  contemplations 
 and  reflections,  which  finds  its  suprem^e  delight  in  the  quiet  spir- 
 
70  MEMOIRS. 
 
 itual  exercises  of  the  closet  and  in  communion  with  God.  Thus 
 the  objectiv'e  and  sacramental  elements  came  to  be  underestimated 
 to  the  same  extent  that  Orthodoxy  had  overestimated  them,  and 
 public  worship  became  more  and  more  subjective  and  sacrificial. 
 Its  value  and  the  value  of  its  component  parts  were  gauged  alto- 
 gether according  to  subjective  results;  the  claim  was  made  that 
 spiritual  life  could  be  awakened  only  by  those  who  were  them- 
 selves spiritually  alive;  and  edification  was  sought  not  so  much 
 in  the  worship  of  the  whole  congregation  as  in  the  exercises  of 
 the  small  private  assemblies.  This,  however,  was  virtually  put- 
 ting the  awakened  personality  above  the  Means  of  Grace,  the 
 ecclesiolcc  in  ecdesia  above  the  ccdcsia. 
 
 Now  the  destructive  process  began  in  earnest.  The  person- 
 al, subjective  element  and  individual  experience  were  struggling 
 for  expression.  The  more  the  personal  character  and  the  spirit- 
 ual ripeness  of  the  officiating  minister  came  to  be  looked  upon  as 
 conditioning  edification — and  indeed  the  saving  eflScacy  of  the 
 Word  itself,  the  greater  became  the  antipathy  to  everything  that 
 limited  freedom  of  expression,  and  the  higher  was  the  estimate 
 placed  upon  those  acts  of  public  worship  that  could  serve  as  a 
 channel  for  the  utterance  of  individual  reflections  and  emotions. 
 Thus  the  fixed,  liturgical  element  was  made  to  yield  to  the  sub- 
 jective element;  extempore  prayer  was  substituted  for  the  Church 
 prayer;  the  objective  Church  hymn  gave  way  to  hymns  descrip- 
 tive of  the  soul's  changing  conditions,  experiences  and  feelings; 
 the  hymn-books  were  arranged  according  to  the  Order  of  Salva- 
 tion instead  of  the  Church  Year;  new  melodies  suited  to  the 
 emotional  character  of  the  new  hymns  displaced  the  vigorous  old 
 Church  tunes;  the  sentimental  aria  and  strains  patterned  after 
 the  prevailing  style  in  opera  completely  crowded  out  the  noble 
 polyphonic  choir  music  of  the  early  masters;  the  order  of  the 
 Christian  Year  was  broken  in  the  choice  of  texts;* — in  a  word, 
 what  Pietism  set  out  to  do  finally  resulted  not  in  bringing  about 
 again  a  proper  union  between  the  objective  and  the  subjective, 
 but  in  the  overthrow  of  the  former  and  the  triumph  of  the  latter. 
 
 ♦  Thus  Gottfried  Arnold  spoke  of  the  system  of  Pericopes  as  "a  vicious  and 
 abominable  mutilation  of  the  r.iblo;"and  Spener  himself  declared :  "How  I  wish, 
 with  all  my  heart,  that  our  Church  had  never  adopted  the  use  of  the  Pericopes,  but 
 had  either  allowed  a  free  choice,  or  else  had  made  the  Epi.-tles  instead  of  the  Gos- 
 pels the  chief  texts." 
 
LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.     71 
 
 The  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  were  divorced,  and  the  sacri- 
 ficial alone  remained.  Public  worship  ceased  to  be  a  celebration 
 of  redemption,  and  became  only  an  act  of  edification.  From  the 
 one  extreme  of  a  frigid  orthodoxy  and  its  resultant  formalism, 
 the  pendulum  had  swung  to  the  other  extreme  of  an  emotional 
 piety  that  regarded  all  fixed  forms  and  churchly  order  as  a  detri- 
 ment to  spiritual  life,  and  a  hinderance  to  its  expression. 
 
 But  far  more  destructive  was  the  influence  of  Rationalism. 
 "In  Rationalism,  reason  is  the  sole  arbiter.  What  reason  cannot 
 comprehend  and  accept  can  never  form  part  of  the  Rationalist's 
 conviction.  His  consciousness  is  homogeneous,  and  his  intellect 
 consistent  throughout.  To  him  Scripture  is  like  any  other  book. 
 He  accepts  it  only  when  it  agrees  with  his  opinions,  and  then 
 only  as  an  illustration  and  afl&rmation,  not  as  an  authority."* 
 With  such  a  view  of  Scripture,  it  is  evident  that  Rationalism 
 could  have  no  sympathy  with  a  Cultus  that  was  in  every  part  a 
 confession  of  the  faith  which  it  rejected.  Whilst  Pietism  re- 
 garded the  historic  Service  as  too  objective  and  sacramental,  and 
 therefore  broke  with  its  fixed  forms  rather  than  with  its  contents, 
 Rationalism  rejected  both  its  forms  and  its  contents.  What  sort 
 of  appreciation  for  the  Church  Year  could  a  theology  have  that 
 based  its  belief  not  on  the  great  historic  facts  of  redemption,  but 
 on  its  own  speculations?  How  could  such  a  religion  of  reason 
 permit  the  Service  on  its  sacramental  side  to  remain  what  it 
 originally  was  in  the  IvUtheran  Church, — a  real  communication 
 of  Divine  grace  through  the  audible  and  visible  Word  ?  What 
 spiritual  pleasure  could  it  find  in  the  hymns  and  prayers  and 
 liturgical  formularies  in  which  the  living  faith  begotten  by 
 Word  and  Sacrament  was  once  wont  to  bring  its  sacrifice  of 
 thanksgiving  and  praise  ?  Or  how  could  it  even  understand  the 
 meaning  of  a  Cultus  with  whose  history  it  did  not  care  to  become 
 familiar,  and  that  stood  for  a  past  to  which  it  was  absolutely  in- 
 different ? 
 
 Like  the  later  Pietism,  so  Rationalism  could  not  tolerate  the 
 fixed  and  recurring,  but  was  ever  seeking  something  new,  to  the 
 confusion  of  the  congregation  and  the  ever-increasing  destruction 
 of  the  lyiturgy.  Under  its  influence  the  Church  edifice  became  a 
 mere  lecture-hall,  and  the  minister  a  moral  instructor,  unfettered 
 by  anything  traditional  and  fixed,  and  therefore  free  to  say  and 
 *  Reinhart. 
 
72  MEMOIRS. 
 
 do  in  public  worship  what  he  pleased;  the  Church  Year  was  re- 
 arranged and  to  a  great  extent  abolished;  the  Chief  Service  was 
 mutilated  beyond  recognition;  the  Minor  Ser\-ices  with  their 
 scheme  of  Lessons  fell  into  decay;  all  the  most  ancient  and  beau- 
 tiful liturgical  parts — Introits,  Kyries,  Creed,  Prefaces,  Litany, 
 Canticles,  etc.,  were  consigned  to  oblivion;  the  brief,  sententious 
 old  Collects  were  exchanged  for  verbose  and  sentimental  new 
 fabrications;  the  Words  of  Institution  and  Distribution,  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  and  the  Benediction  were  recast;  the  great  Church  hymns 
 were  diluted  and  "modernized,"  or  else  gave  way  entirely  to  new 
 ones  reflecting  the  moralizing,  sentimentalizing  spirit  of  the  age; 
 and  with  the  old  hj-mns  also  disappeared  the  vigorous  and  fresh 
 rhj'thni  of  the  old  melodies,  and  the  very  last  trace  of  a  proper 
 churchly  style  in  the  music  of  the  sanctuary'.  Even  the  so-called 
 "Ministerial  Acts"  became  individual  products,  and  were  "made 
 up"  in  a  moralizing  fashion  as  the  occasion  and  circumstances 
 seemed  to  demand,  or  were  taken  from  one  or  the  other  of  the 
 man}'  private  Agendas  that  made  their  appearance.*  Thus  what 
 Pietism  began,  but  did  not  really  mean  to  do,  Rationalism  fin- 
 ished, and  the  destruction  of  the  Church  Service  was  complete. 
 
 *  Thus  SiNTENis  wrote:  "Inn-^much  as  teaching  is  the  chief  vocation  of  an  evan- 
 gelical minister,  the  teacher  must  become  prominent  in  every  function  he  is  called 
 upon  to  perform.  Hence,  he  must  endeavor  not  only  to  make  his  specific  lectures 
 (Lehrvortraege)  as  instructive  as  possible,  but  also  ever}'  so-called  ministerial  act." 
 And  again  the  same  writer  says:  "How  unendurable  it  must  become  to  people  of 
 culture  to  have  to  listen  to  an  everlasting  sameness  at  the  performance  of  religious 
 acts  which  they  should  look  upon  with  respect  1  Should  this  unpleasant  feeling  not 
 influence  them  unfavorably  even  against  the  acts  themselves,  how  disgusting  it  must 
 be  to  a  minister  who  has  come  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of  his  call- 
 ing (  !),  to  have  to  read  off  the  same  formulary  again  and  again,  and  thus  make  it 
 seem  to  him  (!)  as  if  he  were  doing  his  holy  work  in  a  mere  mechanical  and 
 thoughtless  manner!" 
 
 Of  private  Agendas  and  Collections  of  Forms  and  Prayers  may  be  mentioned: 
 ZOLI.lKOFER:  AiireJen  und  Gchrte  heim  ^s^ciHciftschaftl.  uud  aiich  haeusl.  Gottesd. 
 1777. — Seiler:  I'erstich  einer  Chrisil.-evangel.  Liturgie.  1782. — Kleine  auser- 
 lesene  liturg.  Bihliothek,  6  Bde.  1 793. — KOESTER:  Allgem.  Altarliturgie.  1 799. — 
 GUTBIER:  Liturg.  Handbuch  sum  Gcbrauch  fuer  Prediger  hei  kirchl.  Verrichtting- 
 cn.  1805.— SiNTENis:  Agende.  1808. — BuscH:  Agende  fuer  ez'atigd.  Christen. 
 1821. 
 
 In  Hanover  the  Consistory  in  the  year  1800  granted  pastors  the  right,  "after 
 careful  examination  and  consideration,  and  after  consultation  with  the  more  cul- 
 tured members  of  their  congregations"  to  propose  and  make  alterations  and  im- 
 provements (!)  in  the  Service,  by  omissions  and  additions,  changes  in  the  phraseol- 
 
LITURGICAI.   DETKRIORATION,    17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.     73 
 
 A  few  extracts  from  Agendas  of  this  period  will  serve  to  il- 
 lustrate their  general  character: 
 
 ORDER    FOR    BAPTISM.* 
 
 (For  the  baptism  of  a  child  of  well-to-do,  cultured  and  highly 
 respected  parents.) 
 
 Exposed  to  danger  man  comes  into  the  world — danger  that 
 threatens  alike  the  life  of  child  and  mother:  but  of  this  danger 
 and  the  struggle  only  the  mother  is  conscious,  and  the  more  pain- 
 fully so,  because  a  life  almost  as  precious  as  her  own,  is  at  stake. 
 Thanks  be  to  Thee,  Thou  all-governing  Providence,  for  the  pres- 
 ervation of  this  dear  child  and  its  noble  mother  in  the  momentous 
 hour  of  its  birth!  Thanks  for  the  health  of  both,  and  for  the 
 favorable  conditions  under  which  this  child  begins  its  earthly 
 career!  Before  its  birth  it  was  looked  for  with  ardent  expecta- 
 tion; and  from  the  moment  of  its  appearance  it  became  the  high- 
 est joy  of  its  parents,  whilst  innumerable  children  are  received 
 by  father  and  mother  with  indifference,  3'ea,  even  with  disfavor, 
 and  are  taken  altogether  no  notice  of  by  the  rest  of  the  world. 
 
 Abundant  provision  had  already  been  made  in  advance  for 
 the  needs  of  this  new  arrival,  and  in  all  human  probability  it  will 
 in  the  future  not  lack  the  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life,  nor  be 
 denied  a  careful  bringing  up  in  mind  and  heart,  whilst  many 
 thousands  of  infants  waste  away  in  dire  povert}^  or  else  will  be 
 obliged  for  a  life-time  to  struggle  with  the  errors,  needs  and  im- 
 perfections that  result  from  insufficient  training  of  their  spiritual 
 faculties.  Mayest  thou,  dear  child,  in  time  to  come,  gratefully 
 recognize  thy  earthly  good  fortune,  of  which  thou  now  knowest 
 as  little  as  of  the  higher  spiritual  happiness  (geistigen  Glticke)  to 
 which  thy  baptism  would  lead  thee;  and  mayest  thou  prove  a 
 benefactor  of  others  as  God  is  thine. 
 
 It  is  the  purpose  of  thy  good  parents  to  train  thee  to  become 
 a  worthy  recipient  of  temporal  blessings;  and  in  this  they  will 
 doubtless  succeed   if  they  will  faithfully  fulfill   the  pious  vows 
 
 ogy,  etc.,  as  local  circumstances  in  each  case  might  require;  also  to  use  "other 
 new  Agendas  and  private  collections  of  liturgical  compositions  (  !),  especially  when 
 called  on  to  officiate  before  an  audience  of  more  than  average  intelligence,  or  to  per- 
 form ministerial  acts  in  houses." 
 
 *  Evatigelische  Kirchen-Agende  fuer  Prediger  wekhe  an  keine  Landeslitui'gie 
 ausschliesslich  gebunden  sind.  VoN  J.  F.  Schlez,  Grossh.  Hess.  Kirchenrath,  Dr. 
 Theol.  Giessen,  1834. 
 
74  MEMOIRS. 
 
 with  which  the}'  to-day  also  unite  their  prayers  for  thy  spiritual 
 good.  It  must,  however,  then  be  thy  serious  endeavor  to  become 
 what  thou  already  unconsciously  art — the  greatest  joy  of  their 
 life. 
 
 With  the  parents  of  this  subject,  you,  esteemed  sponsors, 
 likewise  enter  into  a  beautiful  covenant  for  its  bringing  up,  inas- 
 much as  you  bring  the  dear  child  to  this  holy  act  of  Christian 
 consecration,  and  permit  it,  by  means  of  the  symbolical  sprink- 
 ling of  water,  to  be  solemnly  received  into  the  congregation  of 
 those  who  as  the  confessors  of  Jesus  should  be  cleansed  of  their 
 sins.  But,  inasmuch  as  that  faith  which  alone  can  give  real  value 
 to  baptism  is  still  wanting  in  this  child,  the  question  is  asked, 
 whether  it  is  the  firm  resolve  of  yourself  and  these  dear  parents, 
 that  the  ward  entrusted  to  you  of  God,  after  it  has  become  re- 
 ceptive, shall  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  Chistian  faith  and 
 brought  up  to  be  a  voluntary,  upright  confessor  and  adherent  of 
 
 the  religion  of  Jesus  ? 
 
 res. 
 
 You  will  now  also  give  the  child  baptismal  names,  which  will 
 ser\^e  constantly  to  remind  it  and  its  parents  of  the  vows  made 
 to-da5^     How  shall  it  be  named  ? 
 
 N.  N. 
 
 I  therefore  baptize  thee,  dear  N.  N.  to  the  glory  of  God  the 
 Father,  of  His  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 Laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  child  the  Minister  shall  say: 
 
 May  God  preserve  thy  life,  dear  child,  so  that  thou  mayest 
 learn  to  know  the  bliss-giving  Christian  faith  into  which  thou 
 hast  now  been  baptized,  live  in  accordance  with  it,  and  '"or  thy- 
 self experience  the  truth  of  the  promise:  "He  that  believeth  and 
 is  baptized  shall  be  saved."     Amen. — 
 
 Vv'ater,  an  element  required  by  the  whole  of  nature,  has  thus 
 been  the  emblem  of  thy  Christian  consecration,  dear  child.  May 
 the  religion  of  Jesus  become  the  element  of  thy  entire  moral  life  ! 
 
 Water  is  the  common  property  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the 
 high  and  the  low.  Thus  also  the  religion  of  Jesus  is  intended 
 for  all:  and  to  thee,  dear  child,  as  we  hope  to  God,  it  will  come 
 of  purer  quality  and  in  larger  measure  than  to  countless  others. 
 
 Water,  the  best  means  for  cleansing  the  body,  is  the  most 
 fitting  emblem  of  soul-purity.  May  thy  heart  remain  pure  and 
 thy  life  unspotted,  thou  still  innocent  angel  ! 
 
LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.    75 
 
 Water  contains  great  and  refreshing  potencies  for  our  bodies. 
 Still  greater  healing-powers  for  the  soul  are  contained  in  the  gen- 
 uine Christian  belief.  May  the  religion  of  Jesus  prove  to  thee, 
 dear  child,  a  never-failing  source  of  moral  health  ! 
 
 Water  is  related  to  heaven  and  earth,  rises  from  the  latter 
 to  the  former,  and  falls  down  from  the  former  upon  the  latter. 
 May  thy  whole  life,  dear  child,  be  directed  toward  the  higher, 
 heavenly  things  !  May  est  thou  often  lift  thy  heart  toward 
 heaven  and  bring  down  for  thyself  the  heavenly  into  the  earthly! 
 
 Water,  so  often  scorned  by  those  in  health,  is  generally  the 
 last  physical  refreshment  of  the  dying.  May  the  religion  of  Je- 
 sus be  and  remain  throughout  thy  entire  life  thy  daily  refresh- 
 ment !  May  it  be  to  thee  and  to  us  all  a  quickening  draught  in 
 life's  sufferings,  until  we  reach  that  better  land,  where  we  shall 
 hunger  and  thirst  no  more!     Amen, 
 
 In  the  Agenda  by  Sintenis  we  read  in  the 
 
 ORDER    FOR    PUBLIC    CONFESSION   AND    ABSOLUTION: 
 
 "Let  us  do  as  the  Apostles  did,  and  not  come  to  the  Altar  to  re- 
 ceive a  sacrament,  but  to  bring  our  sacrament  (!)  thither,"  viz., 
 "the  obligation  to  hold  fast  His  teachings,  which  bring  us  so 
 much  happiness,  and  always  and  everywhere  to  show  public 
 spirit,  as  He  did." 
 
 In  an  Exhortation  to  newly  confirmed  communicants  found 
 in  the  same  Agenda,  the  following  occurs: 
 
 "At  this  Table,  consecrated  to  the  Lord,  let  all  eat  and 
 drink  with  profoundest  emotion  !  Let  this  bread  and  wine  typify 
 to  you  the  death  of  Jesus  on  the  cross;  and  let  the  eating  of  this 
 bread  and  the  drinking  of  this  wine  symbolize  the  participation 
 in  all  the  blessings  of  His  death  !  May  you  be  deeply  moved  by 
 the  surpassing  greatness  and  beauty  of  soul  of  which  this  Divine 
 One  gave  evidence  when  for  your  salvation  He  permitted  His 
 body  to  be  broken  and  His  blood  to  be  shed,  and  died  upon  the 
 cross  !  Come  to  Him  then,  as  it  is  natural  for  good  people  to 
 do  (!),  with  ardent  gratitude;  and  inflamed  by  this,  say:  "Wheth- 
 er we  live,  we  live  unto  the  Lord;  and  whether  we  die,  we  die 
 unto  the  Lord;  whether  living  or  dying  we  want  to  be  His." 
 
 *  'To  you,  who  to-day  for  the  first  time  appear  at  the  sim- 
 ple ( ! )  yet  very  significant  Table  here  prepared  for  you — to  you 
 these  words  are  especially  addressed. 
 
76  MEMOIRS. 
 
 "Sufficiently  prepared  for  it  for  some  time  past — yesterday 
 once  more  prepared  for  it  to  all  superfluity  (!) — you  can  feel 
 yourself  highly  honored,  that  3'ou  are  to-day  here  permitted  to 
 do  what  heretofore  only  your  parents  and  the  other  actual  mem- 
 bers of  the  congregation  were  permitted  to  do.  But  as  you  were 
 already  told  yesterday,  you  must  now  also  seek  to  surpass  all  the 
 other  communicants  in  devotion  and  feeling  when  you  partake  of 
 the  H0I3'  Supper  !  Surpass  them  too  in  the  fervor  of  3'our  reso- 
 lution to  live  and  die  unto  the  Lord  !  You  to-da}'  ratify  your 
 sacrament  (!),  which  5'ou  made  to  this  end  at  your  confinnation  : 
 therefore,  let  the  ratification  be  as  important  to  you  as  was  the 
 vow." 
 
 "Young  Christians  !  consider  well  what  is  now  told  you,  and 
 let  it  lead  you  to  lay  a  still  more  solid  foundation,  yes,  the  most 
 solid  foundation  for  a  truly  Christian  life,  and  therefore  for  your 
 true  well-being.  Whether  we  live — into  these  self-addressed 
 words  let  3'Our  whole  heart  be  poured — whether  we  live,  we  live 
 unto  the  Lord;  and  whether  we  die,  we  die  unto  the  Lord.  He 
 lived  and  He  died  for  us,  therefore  let  us  entirelj'  belong  to  Him 
 in  life  and  in  death." 
 
 In  this  same  Agenda  the  Words  of  InstiUition  are  treated 
 thus:  "Let  all  hear  the  invitation  of  Jesus  Himself  to  His  Sup- 
 per !  After  this  manner  spake  the  Lord  when  He  took  bread, 
 brake  it  praj'ing,  and  distributed  it:  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Bod}^ 
 which  shall  soon  be  offered  for  3'our  benefit.  Repeat  this  in  re- 
 membrance of  Me  !  Thus  spake  the  Lord  when  He  afterward 
 also  pra3^erfull3'  passed  the  cup  around:  Take,  drink,  this  is  My 
 Blood;  which  shall  soon  be  shed  for  3^our  benefit.  Repeat  this  in 
 remembrance  of  Me  !" 
 
 The  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving  is  as  follows:  "Before  Thee,  the 
 Omnipresent  One,  have  these  admirers  of  Jesus  professed  their 
 Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  To  Thee,  Omniscient  One,  do  they  ap- 
 peal with  all  confidence  and  J03',  that  the3'  have  done  so  with 
 trul3'  upright  hearts.  Therefore  the3'  beseech  Thee,  the  All- 
 powerful  One,  to  enable  them  to  be  increasingly  faithful.  Not 
 as  if  they  would  feel  themselves  weaker  than  the3'  are(!);  No! 
 No!  they  can  do  much  for  themselves,  but — the  spirit  is  willing 
 and  the  flesh  is  weak  !  Father  !  support  them  in  their  weakness, 
 so  that  when  tempted  to  be  unfaithful  to  Jesus  and  their  vows, 
 and  to  depart  from   their  Christian  convictions  and  sentiments, 
 
LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION,   17TH  AND  18TH  CENTURIES.    77 
 
 their  moral  nature  may  always  triumph  over  their  carnal  nature. 
 Thou  hast  a  thousand  means  to  bring  this  about,  and  certainly 
 also  hast  their  hearts  in  Thy  power  in  a  manner  incomprehensi- 
 ble to  them.  O  be  Thou  their  stay,  therefore,  when  they  are  in 
 danger  of  wavering;  and  should  the  world  by  its  sorrows  endeav- 
 or to  separate  them  from  Jesus,  then  cause  the  world  itself  to  dis- 
 appear for  them  in  spirit,  and  open  heaven  to  them,  that  they 
 may  refresh  themselves  with  the  glory  which  all  those  shall  there 
 share,  who  remain  in  fellowship  with  Jesus  to  the  end,  and  who 
 suffer  as  He  did  !  ,  .  .  .  My  Beloved:  May  God,  through  His 
 Son  bless  you  more  and  more  with  holy  thoughts."  (Amen 
 wanting. ) 
 
 A  Form  of  Distribution^  of  this  period  was  as  follows: 
 
 "Eat  this  bread;  may  the  spirit  of  devotion  rest  upon  you 
 with  all  its  blessings." 
 
 "Drink  a  little  wine;  moral  power  does  not  reside  in  this 
 wine,  but  in  you,  in  the  teachings  of  God,  and  in  God." 
 
 Or: 
 
 "Use  this  bread  in  remembrance  of  Jesus  Christ;  he  that 
 hungereth  after  pure  and  noble  virtue  shall  be  filled." 
 
 "Drink  a  little  wine;  he  that  thirsteth  after  pure  and  noble 
 virtue  shall  not  long  for  it  in  vain." 
 
 The  following  is  a  sample  of  the  numerous  reconstructions 
 of  the  Lord' s  Prayer:  f 
 
 "Most  High  Father;  Let  it  be  our  .supreme  purpose  to  glo- 
 rify Thee;  Let  truth  thrive  among  us;  Let  virtue  already  dwell 
 here  as  it  does  in  heaven;  Reward  our  industry  with  bread.  And 
 our  forgiving  disposition  with  grace;  From  severe  conflicts  pre- 
 serve us;  And  finally  let  all  evil  cease;  That  Thou  art  powerful, 
 wise  and  good  over  all — let  this  forever  be  our  confidence." 
 
 The  Benediction  was  recast  into  this  form: 
 
 "The  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  with  the  happiness  of  a 
 blameless  heart  and  life." 
 
 *  'The  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  with  the  assurance  of  His 
 good  pleasure." 
 
 *  In  Hufnagel:  Liturg.  Blaetter, 
 +   SiNTENIS. 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 "Tlie  Lord  bless  and  cheer  you  \vith  the  joy-giving  hope  of 
 
 everlasting  life.     Amen."* 
 
 Or: 
 
 "May  God,  our  Father,  protect  and  prosper  us." 
 
 "May  Jesus  Christ  teach  and  guide,  comfort  and  encourage 
 us." 
 
 "May  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  ennoble  us.     Amen."t 
 
 Or: 
 
 "The  Lord  bless  us  with  wisdom,  with  a  heart  and  strength 
 for  good  works." 
 
 "The  Lord  keep  our  souls  pure,  our  consciences  quiet,  and 
 our  hearts  contented." 
 
 "The  Lord  grant  us  a  modest  portion  of  this  life's  happiness, 
 and  at  last  the  higher  joy  of  the  life  eternal.     Amen."  J 
 
 To  such  frightful  and  incredible  depths  had  the  Cultus  of 
 the  Church  sunk  when  the  work  of  restoration  was  once  more 
 begun  in  the  nineteenth  century.  That  movement  is  still  in 
 progress,  and  to  the  impulse  it  gave  and  the  literatiu-e  it  pro- 
 duced, we  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America  are  indebted  for 
 the  revival  of  a  Cultus  that,  like  our  faith,  links  us  again  with 
 the  purest  and  best  period  of  the  Church's  history. 
 
 *  ScHLEZ :   Kirchen-Agende. 
 
 t   Frosch  :    Allgeineine  Liturgie. 
 
 %  Schleswig-Holsteinische  Kirchen-Agende  of  1797  CAdler). 
 
 Lit. — KliEFOTH:  Liturgische  Abhandhmgen;  Kostlin: 
 Geschichte  des  Christlicheyi  Gottesdienstes;  Alt:  Dcr  Christliche 
 Cultus;  Harnack:  Praktische  Theologie;  Rietschel:  Lehrbuch 
 der  LUnrgik.  < 
 
 J.   F.  Ohl. 
 
 Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
LITURGY  AND   DOCTRINE. 
 
 There  is  a  very  intimate  relation  between  I^iturgy  and  Doctrine. 
 Liturgy  is  the  form  that  doctrine  takes  for  the  purposes  of  wor- 
 ship. Worship  formularies  are  based  upon  fundamental  doc- 
 trines and  are  conditioned  by  them.  The  Liturgy  is,  however, 
 something  more  than  a  mere  expression  or  interpretation  of  the 
 doctrines  that  underlie  it.  Liturgy  is  related  to  doctrine  rather 
 as  an  art  form  is  related  to  its  underlying  conception,  or  even  as 
 outward  forms  of  living  things  are  counterparts  of  their  inward 
 essential  reality.  The  liturgy  is  informed  by  the  doctrine,  and, 
 if  it  be  true  and  pure,  it  must  at  every  point  be  in  harmony  with 
 its  inner  doctrinal  and  spiritual  life.  As  the  bloom  and  fruit  of 
 a  tree  are  the  expression  of  its  inner  life,  so  a  pure  and  sufficient 
 liturgy  is  the  natural  bloom  and  proper  fruitage  of  the  living 
 doctrine  from  which  it  springs. 
 
 Because  a  true  liturgy  is  a  growth,  a  living  product  and  not 
 a  mere  mechanical  construction,  it  is  seen  how  important  a  his- 
 torical liturgy  becomes  for  the  preservation  of  true  doctrine.  If 
 a  liturgy  is  broken  away  from  its  historical  sources  and  forms, 
 and  made  subservient  to  the  tastes  and  whims  of  individuals  or 
 particular  schools  of  thought  and  tendency,  it  endangers  the  very 
 foundations  of  the  Church,  which  are  her  great  central  doctrines. 
 Even  in  church  architecture  as  a  liturgical  form  there  is  an  in- 
 sidious danger  to  pure  doctrine.  For  it  should  be  remembered 
 that  architecture  from  a  liturgical  point  of  view  is  not  a  method 
 of  constructing  church  buildings  upon  a  merely  aesthetic  principle, 
 or  in  accordance  with  a  secular  vogue,  but  it  is  an  embodiment,  as 
 fully  as  that  is  possible,  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  our 
 Christian  confessions.  The  church  building  should  be  an  im- 
 pressive symbol  of  the  Atonement,  involving  the  great  doctrine  of 
 the  vicarious  sacrifice  upon  the  cross,  the  reconciliation  wrought 
 by  that  sacrifice,  the  sacramental  blessings  procured  for  us  on 
 
 (Ixxix) 
 
so  MEMOIRS. 
 
 account  of  it,  and  the  worship  that  realizes  this  restoration  and 
 holy  connnunion  with  God  and  spiritual  realities.  The  church 
 building  that  is  simply  a  grand  auditorium,  that  is  constructed 
 for  the  most  part  on  the  lines  of  the  amphitheater  or  concert  hall, 
 that  provides  chiefly  for  seeing  and  hearing,  and  that  is  without 
 suggestion  of  the  important  sacrificial  element  in  worship,  indeed, 
 that  would  not  ordinarily  suggest  any  idea  of  worship  at  all,  such 
 a  church  building  is  a  menace  to  true  doctrine,  a  crystallized 
 peril  that  obscures  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  our  Faith  and  subtly 
 leads  in  the  direction  of  rationalism  and  empty  humanitarianism. 
 And  the  same  must  be  said  of  church  decoration  as  a  liturgical 
 sphere.  This,  too,  must  have  its  close  and  obvious  relation  to 
 doctrine.  Here  there  is  a  most  important  field  in  which  the  his- 
 torical Christian  symbolism  may  be  made  to  play  an  impressive 
 and  effectual  part  in  the  preservation  of  fundamental  orthodox 
 teaching. 
 
 In  the  same  way  music,  which  is  perhaps  the  highest  and 
 most  essential  liturgical  art  form,  should  be  in  the  most  perfect 
 attainable  harmony  with  the  inmost  spirit  of  the  doctrine  that 
 apprehends  God  as  He  is  revealed  in  His  Word,  and  that  grasps 
 and  interprets  the  reconciliation  of  sinful  man  to  such  a  God 
 through  the  gift  and  sacrifice  of  His  Only-begotten  Son,  as  that 
 reconciliation  is  realized  and  enjoyed  in  the  act  of  worship.  The 
 general  characteristics  of  conservative  liturgical  music  are,  sim- 
 plicity, and  subsei-viency.  It  is  simple.  Like  the  coat  of  the 
 Master  it  is  of  one  piece,  and  it  always  clothes  the  iNIaster's 
 form.  It  is  a  servant  that  always  bears  the  word,  and  interprets 
 and  impresses  the  Word.  It  brings  the  worshipper  humbly  and 
 penitently  to  God,  and  it  brings  God  joyously  and  blessedly  to 
 the  worshipper.  Its  very  tones  tell  of  sin,  and  sacrifice,  and  sal- 
 vation. Liturgical  music  is  thus  a  mighty  power  that  holds  us 
 close  to  the  central  doctrine  of  our  precious  religious  inheritance. 
 
 So,  also,  the  furniture  of  the  church,  especially  the  furniture 
 of  the  chancel  and  its  arrangement,  the  vestments  and  colors 
 which  mark  the  seasons  of  the  Christian  year  are  all  closely  iden- 
 tified with  specific  fundamental  doctrines.  Tiiey,  too,  are  the 
 clothing  of  the  Master  in  which  He  walks  before  us  and  with  us. 
 They  call  our  attention  to  Him,  and  hold  our  attention  upon  Him 
 as  the  "Lamb  of  God  Which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world." 
 They  preach  a  perpetual  sermon  upon  the  text:  "God  so  loved 
 
I,ITURGY    AND    DOCTRIN:^.  81 
 
 the  world  that  He  gave  His  Only-begotten  Son,  that  whosoever 
 believeth  on  Him  should  not  perish  but  have  everlasting  life." 
 All  these  things,  while  they  are  in  themselves  adiaphoristic,  have 
 their  significance  in  doctrine,  and  when  separated  from  the  doc- 
 trinal meaning  which  they  are  intended  to  interpret  and  illustrate 
 become  mere  formalism.  Rightly  understood  they  impart  doc- 
 trinal instruction  and  conserve  doctrine.  And  even  when  not 
 understood,  while  they  do  not  then  edify,  they  still  keep  the  doc- 
 trine and  carry  it  over  to  a  more  intelligent  and  a  more  apprecia- 
 tive age. 
 
 But  it  is  in  that  which  we  properly  speak  of  as  the  I^iturgy 
 itself,  that  is  in  the  actual  verbal  forms  and  orders  of  worship, 
 that  its  relation  and  importance  to  doctrine  are  most  obvious. 
 
 First  of  all,  the  forms  of  the  historical  Liturgy  are  in  the  very 
 words  of  inspired  Scripture.  They  thus  exhibit  and  continually 
 teach  the  doctrines  of  Holy  Scripture.  In  so  far  as  the  Liturgy 
 appropriates  the  Word,  therefore,  it  is  one  with  the  Bible  itself  in 
 setting  forth  the  true  doctrine.  And  in  the  creedal  forms  which 
 enter  into  the  Liturgy  the  Confessions  themselves  are  made  use 
 of  for  the  purposes  of  worship.  Thus  the  central  and  chief  doc- 
 trines are  not  only  preserved  but  they  become  means  and  channels 
 of  the  very  highest  acts  of  worship.  We  may  well  believe  that 
 Peter  never  worshipped  the  Lord  with  profounder  adoration  or 
 with  mightier  spiritual  exaltation  than  when  he  exclaimed:  "Thou 
 art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God,"  and  thus  gave  us  the 
 germ  of  all  the  later  Creeds.  Thus  the  Liturgy  in  its  use  of  the 
 Apostolic  and  Nicene  Creeds,  at  once  attains  the  highest  point  of 
 adoring  worship,  and  witnesses  to  all  the  fundamental  doctrines 
 of  the  Christian  Faith. 
 
 As  a  matter  of  fact  our  whole  Liturgical  Order  of  Services 
 from  beginnitr,  to  end,  and  in  all  its  special  parts  is  positively  and 
 emphatically  doctrinal.  It  exhibits  doctrine  in  clear,  thetical 
 statements,  in  petitional  assumptions,  in  the  very  attitude  of  the 
 worshipper  who  uses  it. 
 
 Take  the  heart  of  the  Liturgy,  which  is  the  Order  for  The 
 Holy  Communion.  Even  a  superficial  examination  reveals  the 
 fact  that  this  Order  is  the  entire  Apostles'  Creed  wrought  into 
 a  form  that  is  appropriate  for  the  highest  act  of  Christian  wor- 
 ship, and  in  which  the  central  facts  of  true  worship  come  before 
 us  in  the  most  objective  form.     The  Order  for  The  Holy  Com- 
 
82  MEMOIRS. 
 
 nuinion  thus  realizes  our  Christian  Faith  in  worship,  so  that  in 
 this  Faith  we  really  have  a  holy  communion  with  God,  with 
 "Angels  and  Archangels  and  with  all  the  company  of  Heaven." 
 And  if  we  take  any  specific  doctrine  and  examine  the  Litur- 
 gy with  reference  to  it  we  shall  find  that  such  doctrine  is  not  on- 
 ly present  clearly  and  fully,  but  that  it  is  realized  and  used  in 
 the  lyiturgy  as  it  can  be  realized  and  used  nowhere  else.  For 
 example  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  taught  in  the  Sun- 
 day School,  in  the  catechetical  class,  from  the  pulpit,  and  is  wit- 
 nessed to  in  the  Word.  But  only  in  the  right  use  of  the  Liturgy 
 is  this  fundamental  doctrine  appropriated  by  the  worshipper:  that 
 is,  so  laid  hold  of,  and  made  use  of  in  an  act  of  believing  and  sur- 
 rendering worship,  that  it  becomes  a  spiritual  force  and  an  illu- 
 minating principle  in  the  thought  and  life.  It  is  so  with  all  the 
 doctrines  of  our  Faith.  We  do  not  apprehend  and  assimilate 
 their  truth  and  essential  reality  by  a  mere  intellectual  process, 
 but  in  and  through  a  believing  act  of  worship  the  heart  lays  hold 
 of  the  living  essence  of  spiritual  truth  and  reality,  makes  it  its 
 very  own,  and  lives  in  it. 
 
 The  cardinal  doctrine  of  Justification  by  Faith  is  only  a  the- 
 ory until  it  is  realized  in  an  act  of  faith,  which  is  really  an  act  of 
 worship.     And  this  is  most  fully  provided   for  in  the  Liturgy. 
 
 It  is  obvious  that  the  historical  Evangelical  Liturgy  is  a 
 mighty  witness  and  a  grand  exponent  and  practical  realization 
 of  the  doctrine  of  the  Spiritual  Priesthood  of  all  believers.  All 
 parts  of  this  Liturgy  are  for  all  the  people.  The  actual  render- 
 ing of  certain  parts  is,  indeed,  assigned  to  certain  persons,  but 
 the  whole  Church  speaks  or  is  spoken  to  in  ever)-  part,  and  every 
 part  is  for  ever)'  one  and  for  all. 
 
 We  can  not,  therefore,  emphasize  too  forcefulh'  the  impor- 
 tance of  the  Liturgy,  in  its  widest  range,  to  doctrine.  For  the 
 practical  teaching  of  doctrine,  for  the  conservation  of  doctrine  the 
 Liturgy  is  equally  important  with  the  Confessions  and  dogmatic 
 systems.  If  we  neglect  any  one  of  these  it  were  perhaps,  even 
 better  to  let  the  dogmatic  and  the  confessional  fornuilaries  lie  in 
 some  measure  of  disuse  rather  than  give  up  the  constant  and  the 
 faithful  use  of  the  Liturgy.  If  we  keep  and  rightly  use  the 
 Liturgy,  with  all  that  it  includes  and  involves,  we  need  not  be 
 afraid  that  the  true  doctrine  will  ever  be  lost.  But  if  we  disre- 
 gard or  underestimate    the  value  and   importance  of   liturgical 
 
LITURGY    AND    DOCTRINE.  83 
 
 worship,  our  doctrines,  no  matter  how  clear,  how  true,  how  fully 
 formulated,  will  stand  in  constant  danger,  as  the  history  of  many 
 of  the  sects  will  abundantly  prove. 
 
 "With  the  heart  man  believeth  unto  righteousness,"  and  it 
 is  the  heart  especially  that  is  concerned  and  deeply  affected  in 
 true  worship.  Thus  in  the  proper  use  of  the  Liturgy  there  is  a 
 devotional  study  of  the  Word  and  of  Scriptural  doctrine.  In  an 
 act  of  worship  the  thoughts  of  the  heart,  which  are  deeper  than 
 the  thoughts  of  the  mind,  are  occupied  with  the  great,  inspiring, 
 uplifting  themes  of  our  holy  religion.  And  this  is  often  the  only 
 regular  and  systematic  study  of  these  important  themes  in  which 
 the  great  mass  of  our  people  can  engage. 
 
 If  in  addition  to  this  refreshing  and  edifying  worship  study 
 of  spiritual  truth  which  we  have  in  the  use  of  the  Liturgy  there 
 are  inclination  and  opportunity  for  tracing  out  the  Scriptural 
 and  Confessional  sources  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Service,  and 
 their  relation  to  each  other,  one  may  easily  find  the  chief  con- 
 tents of  the  doctrinal  system.  As  a  matter  of  fact  if  the  Confes- 
 sions were  lost  we  could  restore  their  substance  from  the  Liturgy. 
 But  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  Liturgy  be  entirely  and  permanently 
 abandoned  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  retain  the  doctrines  in  their 
 original  purity  and  living  power. 
 
 D.  H.  Geissinger. 
 
 Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
 
EARLY  AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  LITURGIES. 
 
 Our  subject  has  to  do  with  the  founders  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
 in  this  country,  their  methods  of  conducting  public  worsliip  and 
 the  books  provided  for  this  purpose.  As  the  first  Lutheran 
 Liturgy  was  prepared  in  1748  and  the  last  one  issued  in  i860,  be- 
 fore the  appearance  of  the  excellent  Church  Book  now  in  use 
 among  our  congregations,  our  investigations  will  cover  a  period 
 of  over  one  hundred  years. 
 
 The  first  Lutheran  settlers  in  this  new  world  were  of  Swedish, 
 Dutch  and  German  extraction.  The  pastors,  who  ministered 
 unto  them,  were  of  like  various  nationalities.  They  had  been 
 educated  in  different  institutions,  under  diverse  theological  influ- 
 ences, came  here  as  strangers  to  each  other,  with  nothing  in  com- 
 mon save  their  desire  to  minister  to  the  spiritual  necessities  of 
 their  brethren  of  the  household  of  faith  and  build  up  God's 
 Kingdom  in  this  western  world.  Their  fields  of  labor  were  wide- 
 ly separated.  The  settlements  were  sparce  and  the  people  were 
 scattered.  Everything  was  in  a  chaotic  state.  The  Word  was 
 to  be  preached;  congregations  gathered;  spiritual  life  awakened 
 and  nurtured.  And  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  each  pastor 
 in  doing  his  work  followed  the  religious  customs,  and  used  the 
 Church  forms  with  which  he  was  familiar  in  the  land  of  his  na- 
 tivit)^  The  home  congregation  was  the  model  after  which  he 
 built.  Until  these  faithful  and  zealous  missionaries  could  form 
 each  other's  acquaintance,  meet  for  consultation  and  mature  a 
 formula  of  worship,  each  would  pursue  the  even  tenor  of  his 
 way  according  to  his  own  sense  of  duty. 
 
 But  they  took  in  the  situation;  they  needed  each  other's 
 sympathy.  Although  distance  barred  the  way,  a  common  inter- 
 est drew  them  together.  Swede,  Dutchman  and  German  met, 
 prayed,  counseled  and  planned  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  over 
 whom  the  Holy  Ghost  had  made  them  overseers.     They  realized 
 
 (Ixxxv) 
 
S6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  necessity  of  cooperation,  the  advantages  of  uniformity,  the 
 benefits  of  a  common  brotherhood,  the  value  of  a  homogeneous 
 Church  development. 
 
 Fortunately  for  the  American  Lutheran  Church  the  fathers 
 were  men  of  excellent  education,  sound  judgment,  good  common 
 sense,  who  were  willing  to  lay  aside  their  likes  and  prejudices, 
 who,  out  of  love  for  the  Church,  prayed  for  her  peace  and 
 wrought  for  the  things  which  contributed  to  her  unity.  As  a 
 means  to  this  the  Liturgy  of  1748  was  prepared.  It  was  the  work 
 of  Muhlenberg,  Brunholtz  and  Handschuh.  An  extract  taken 
 from  the  diary  of  Dr.  Muhlenberg  found  in  Dr.  Mann's  Lt/e  of 
 the  Patriarch,  p.  184,  gives  an  exceedingly  interesting  account  of 
 its  preparation: — 
 
 "April  28th — We  held  a  Conference  in  Providence  and  de- 
 liberated about  a  suitable  Liturgy  to  be  used  by  us  and  intro- 
 duced into  our  congregations.  Thus  far,  we  had  used  a  small 
 formulary,  but  had  nothing  definite,  in  all  its  parts  harmonious, 
 since  we  thought  it  best  to  wait  for  the  arrival  of  more  laborers, 
 and  to  acquire  a  better  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  things  in 
 this  country.  To  adopt  the  Swedish  Liturgy  did  not  appear  to 
 be  advantageous  or  necessary,  since  most  of  the  members  of  our 
 congregations  from  the  districts  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Main  con- 
 sidered the  singing  of  Collects  as  papal.  Neither  could  we  select 
 a  Liturgy  according  to  the  forms  to  which  any  individual  had 
 been  accustomed,  since  almost  every  countr}-  town  or  village  had 
 its  own.  For  this  reason  we  took  the  Liturgy  of  the  Savoy  con- 
 gregation of  London  as  the  basis;  abbreviated  it  or  made  addi- 
 tions to  it  as  after  due  consideration  of  the  circumstances  in 
 which  we  were  here  placed  seemed  advisable  to  us  and  calculated 
 to  edify,  and  adopted  it  tentatively  until  we  had  a  better  under- 
 standing of  the  matter,  and  deteimined  it  with  a  view  of  intro- 
 ducing into  our  congregations  the  same  ceremonies,  forms  and 
 words." 
 
 In  August  of  that  year  a  meeting  was  called  in  Philadel- 
 phia for  the  purpose  of  consultation  in  regard  to  the  formation  of 
 a  synodical  body,  and  the  consideration  of  other  important  ques- 
 tions. The  Synod  was  organized  and  the  Liturgy  then  in  use 
 among  the  congregations  was  discussed  and  unanimously  ap- 
 proved. And  so  important  was  the  matter  regarded,  that  the 
 pastors  and  delegates  from  the  congregations  solemnly  pledged 
 
EARLY  AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  87 
 
 themselves  to  use  no  other  forms  in  conducting  the  Services  of 
 the  Church;  and  J.  Nicholas  Kurtz  who  was  ordained  at  that 
 meeting  was  required  to  obligate  himself,  that  "he  would  intro- 
 duce no  other  ceremonies  in  public  Services  and  the  administra- 
 tion of  the  Sacraments  but  those  prescribed  by  the  Collegium 
 pastoriim .'' '' 
 
 A  translation  of  this  interesting  Agende  which  was  in  Ger- 
 man and  found  only  in  manuscript  form,  was  made  by  Rev.  Dr. 
 C.  W.  Schaeffer,  and  is  given  in  Dr.  Jacobs'  History  of  the  Ltither- 
 an  Cluirch,  pp.  269-275.  It  consists  of  the  following  parts: 
 I .  The  manner  in  which  public  worship  shall  be  conducted  in  all 
 our  congregations.  2.  Baptism  and  what  is  to  be  observed  in  its 
 administration.  3.  Proclaiming  the  Bans.  4.  Of  Confession 
 and  the  Holy  Communion.     5.  Burial  of  the  dead. 
 
 The  order  of  Morning  Service  is  thus  arranged:  Hymn  of 
 Invocation  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  Confession  of  Sins,  Gloria  in 
 Excelsis  (metrical  form),  Collect  with  Salutation  and  Response, 
 Epistle,  Hymn,  Gospel,  Creed  (I^uther's  metrical  version),  Gen- 
 eral Prayer,  Proclamations  and  Announcements,  Votum,  H5^mn, 
 Collection  of  Alms,  Closing  Collect  with  Salutation  and  Response, 
 Benediction,  Closing  Verse.  The  order  for  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
 given  as  follows:  Preface  with  Salutation,  Surswn  Corda  and 
 Sanctus,  Exhortation,  Consecration,  Invitation,  Distribution, 
 Benediction,  Benedicamus.  Thanksgiving  Collect,  Benediction  and 
 Closing  Collect. 
 
 What  is  particularly  to  be  noted  in  regard  to  these  Orders  is 
 the  rubrics. .  They  are  positive  and  definite  and  all  in  the  imper- 
 ative mode.  The  attitude  of  the  minister  is  defined.  His  every 
 movement  is  directed.  The  very  form  of  words  to  be  used  in 
 introducing  the  several  parts  is  prescribed.  Nothing  is  left  to 
 choice.  The  disjunction  "cr"  is  employed  in  only  three  in- 
 stances. Once,  to  give  direction  to  use  one  or  the  other  of  two 
 hymns  chosen,  the  other  to  sing  part  or  whole  of  the  Hymn,  and 
 the  third  having  reference  to  the  length  of  the  Sermon.  "It  shall 
 be  limited  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  or,  at  the  utmost,  to  an 
 hour."  In  this  latter  case  together  with  the  last  clause,  this 
 might  have  been  omitted  without  detriment  to  either  pastor  or 
 people,  on  cold  days,  especially,  since  the  churches  were  not  pro- 
 vided with  stoves  or  any  other  means  of  heating. 
 
 Dr.  B.  M.  Schmucker,  who  is  acknowledged  to  have  been  one 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  most  learned  Liturgiologists  of  this  or  any  other  country-, 
 thus  speaks  of  this  Liturgy:  "It  is  the  old,  well-defined,  conserva- 
 tive Service  of  the  Saxon  and  North  German  Liturgies.  It  is, 
 indeed,  the  pure,  biblical  parts  of  the  Service  of  the  Western 
 Church  for  a  period  of  a  thousand  years  before  the  Reformation, 
 with  the  modifications  given  it  by  the  vSaxon  Reformers.  It  is 
 the  Service  of  widest  acceptance  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Mid- 
 dle and  North  Germany,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden."* 
 
 This  Liturg}^  was  never  published.  The  pastors  had  made 
 copies  of  it  for  individual  use.  For  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years 
 it  was  an  acknowledged  authority  among  Lutheran  congregations 
 in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  17S2  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania 
 ordered  it  published.  This  was  done  in  1786,  but  when  it  ap- 
 peared in  printed  form  under  synodical  sanction,  it  had  been 
 materially  altered.  These  changes  are  noted.  The  rubrics,  di- 
 recting the  minister  when  to  turn  his  face  to  the  altar,  and  to  the 
 people  are  omitted.  Any  suitable  hymn  is  allowed  instead  of  the 
 invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Gloria  in  Excehis  is  omitted. 
 A  voluntary  prayer  or  a  morning  prayer  is  substituted  for  the 
 Collect  for  the  Day.  The  announcement  of  the  Gospel  and  Epis- 
 tle is  omitted.  The  suitableness  of  the  hymn  to  the  season  of 
 the  Church  Year  is  omitted.  The  reading  of  the  Gospel  at  the 
 altar  is  omitted  and  it  is  read  only  in  the  pulpit.  The  people  are 
 no  longer  directed  to  stand  during  the  reading  of  the  Gospel. 
 The  Creed  is  omitted.  Other  texts  than  the  Gospel  are  permit- 
 ted, at  the  option  of  the  minister.  Another  and  much  longer 
 General  Prayer  is  used. 
 
 Referring  to  these  alterations  and  omissions.  Dr.  B.  M. 
 Schmucker  remarks: — "Every  one  of  them  is  an  injury  to  the 
 pure  Lutheran  type  of  the  old  Service.  The  chaste  liturgical 
 taste  of  the  fathers  has  become  vitiated.  The  accord  of  spirit 
 with  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  is  dying  out  gradually. 
 The  Service  of  the  Church  is  sinking  slowly  toward  the  immeas- 
 urable depths  into  which  it  afterwards  fell.  The  order  of  Service 
 of  1748  is  beyond  comparison  the  noblest  and  purest  Lutheran 
 Service  which  the  Church  in  America  prepared  or  possessed  un- 
 til the  publication  of  the  Church  Book.'" 
 
 In  1795  Dr.  Kunze  of  New  York,  in  order  to  make  provision 
 for  the  English  portion  of  his  congregation,  published  a  transla- 
 
 *   Church  Review.     Vol.  I.  p.   174. 
 
EARLY   AMERICAN  LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  89 
 
 tion  of  the  Liturgy  of  1786,  in  connection  with  a  book  of  Hymns. 
 It  calls  for  no  special  mention.  It  seems  to  have  been  short 
 lived,  for,  two  years  afterwards,  Rev.  Strebeck,  who  was  associ- 
 ated pastor  with  Dr.  Kunze,  issued  a  work  bearing  the  title: — A 
 Collection  of  Evangelical  Hy^nns,  made  from  different  authors  and 
 collections  for  the  Lutheran  Church  in  New  York,  to  which  was 
 also  added  the  Liturgy  in  a  much  changed  and  abridged  form. 
 Whatever  may  have  been  its  merits  or  demerits,  it  evidently 
 failed  to  meet  with  favor,  as  Rev.  Ralph  Williston  who,  after 
 the  defection  of  Rev.  Strebeck  to  the  Episcopal  Church,  became 
 the  associate  of  Dr.  Kunze,  published  a  Book  of  Hymns  and  Lit- 
 urgy of  the  Lutheran  Chnrch.  It  appeared  in  1806,  with  the  ap- 
 proval and  recommendation  of  Dr.  Kunze,  President  of  the  Min- 
 isterium  of  New  York.  The  Liturgy  is  evidently  an  adaptation 
 of  that  of  1786,  and  parts  taken  from  the  Book  of  Commoyi  Prayer. 
 From  the  copy  before  us,  we  give  the  order  of  Morning  Service, 
 After  singing  a  hymn,  the  minister  (from  the  altar)  addresses 
 the  congregation  and  leads  them  in  Confession  of  Sin — then  fol- 
 lows the  Salutation  and  Response.  Then  the  minister  prays  ex- 
 tempore or  uses  the  short  form  given,  the  congregation  respond- 
 ing with  the  Amen.  The  Gospel  and  Epistle  are  read,  a  hymn 
 is  sung,  the  minister  offers  an  extempore  prayer  (ending  with  the 
 Lord's  Prayer)  in  the  pulpit,  then  the  Sermon.  After  the  Ser- 
 mon the  Litany  may  be  used,  or  Te  Deum.  The  hymn  for  the 
 conclusion  is  announced  and  the  Service  in  the  pulpit  concluded 
 with  the  sentence,  "The  peace  of  God,  which  passeth  all  under- 
 standing, keep  your  hearts  and  minds  through  Christ  Jesus." 
 Before  the  hymn  is  sung  the  alms  are  collected.  Then  the  min- 
 ister goes  again  before  the  altar  and  says:  "The  Lord  be  with 
 you;"  and  the  congregation  responds:  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
 Then  follows  an  extempore  prayer,  or  a  form  provided,  closing 
 with  the  Aaronic  benediction,  to  which  is  added:  "In  the  Name 
 of  the  Father,"  etc.  In  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
 the  order,  with  slight  modifications,  is  substantially  that  given  in 
 the  Liturgy  of  1786,  with  the  exception  that  there  is  a  separate 
 prayer  for  the  consecration  of  the  elements,  and  in  the  distribu- 
 tion the  words:  "Jesus  said,"  etc.  are  used.  With  the  noting  of 
 these  changes  nothing  further  need  be  said. 
 
 In  1817  Drs.  Quitman  and  Wackerhagen,  at  the  instance  of 
 the  New  York  Synod,  edited  and  published  a  Hymn  Book  and 
 
90  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Enlarged  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  Evangelical  Lutheran  congrega- 
 tions. The  liturgical  portion  of  the  work,  like  its  eminent  au- 
 thor, is  rationalistic,  liberal  and  un-Lutheran.  It  possesses  not 
 a  single  redeeming  quality  and  its  chief  characteristic  is  that  it 
 is  bad  all  the  way  through.  It  gives  variety  in  overflowing  ful- 
 ness. Two  forms  of  Confessions  are  provided;  two  other  prayers 
 after  the  singing  of  the  first  hymn,  and  eight  general  prayers  are 
 placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  officiating  minister,  wherein  he  may 
 address  his  Father  in  Heaven,  in  the  lofty  titles  of  "Supremely 
 Exalted  and  Adorable  Jehovah,"  "Infinite  and  Incomprehensible 
 Jehovah,"  "Self-existent  and  Infinite  Jehovah."  He  is,  like- 
 wise, given  a  long  list  of  benedictions  from  which  to  make  selec- 
 tion. A  table  of  Gospels  and  Epistles  is  furnished  him  with  the 
 kindly  assurance  (?)  that  "there  is  an  impropriety  in  congrega- 
 tions confining  themselves,  j'ear  after  3'ear,  to  these  portions  of 
 Scripture."  So,  too,  in  the  invitation  to  the  Lord's  Supper, 
 he  is  enjoined  to  say,  "All  who  receive  Him  as  your  Saviour 
 and  resolve  to  be  faithful  subjects  to  Him,  ye  are  welcome  to  this 
 feast  of  love."  While  in  the  distribution  he  may  say,  "/csus 
 said,"  etc.,  he  is  generously  permitted  to  substitute  an)'  other 
 words  for  these. 
 
 The  Ministerium  of  Pennsylvania  showed  its  dissatisfaction 
 with  its  own  and  all  other  existing  Liturgies  by  publishing  in 
 1818  another  Agende,  from  which  almost  every  vestige  of  a  re- 
 sponsive service  is  eliminated.  Its  order  of  Morning  Service 
 opens  with  a  Confession  of  Sin,  but  without  Absolution.  A 
 prayer  may  be  substituted  ending  with  the  Kyric,  then  follows 
 the  Salutation,  the  reading  of  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  or  any  suit- 
 able selection  of  Scripture,  the  Hymn,  Sermon,  General  Prayer, 
 Votiim,  Closing  Verse  and  Benediction. 
 
 A  second  form  is  given  beginning  with  a  selection  of  sen- 
 tences, among  them  the  Versicles  of  Matins  and  Vespers,  and 
 part  of  the  "  Venite  Exidtenius."  Then  follows  the  Hymn,  after 
 which  the  pastor  is  directed  to  read  at  the  altar,  a  modern  version 
 of  the  Te  Dciim;  then  another  Hymn,  Prayer  in  the  pulpit,  Ser- 
 mon, Praj'er,  Hymn,  Benediction. 
 
 Three  forms  are  presented  for  the  administration  of  the 
 Lord's  Supper,  all  of  which  are  departures  from  the  chaste  an- 
 cient forms  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  devoid  of  good  liturgical 
 taste.     In  the  distribution  the  offensive  words,  "Jesus  said"  are 
 
EARI.Y  AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  91 
 
 used.  It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  further  discuss  the  incon- 
 gruities of  this  religious  Manual. 
 
 In  September,  1833  the  Tennessee  Synod,  then  in  session  at 
 Salem  Church,  Lincoln  County,  North  Carolina,  requested  Revs. 
 Andrew  Henkel,  Jacob  Killian  and  Jacob  Stirewalt  "to  complete 
 a  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  our  own  Church."  In  pursuance  with 
 this  action,  as  we  are  informed  in  the  preface  of  the  book,  the 
 Rev.  Solomon  Henkel  issued  from  his  press  at  New  Market,  Va., 
 1843,  a  Liturgy  or  Book  of  Forms  for  the  use  of  the  Evangelical 
 Lutheran  Church.  It  contains  forms  for  the  performance  of  all 
 ministerial  acts,  and  is  mainly  a  translation  of  the  Liturgy  of 
 the  Ministerium  of  Pennsylvania  of  1786.  Its  Order  of  Public 
 Worship  is  very  brief  and  simple.  It  contains  no  responses 
 whatever,  and  only  provides  prayers  for  use  before  and  after  the 
 sermon,  and  a  number  of  benedictions.  The  other  portions  of  the 
 work  are  eminently  Scriptural  and  in  full  accord  with  Lutheran 
 doctrine.  Special  care  is  exercised  to  furnish  suitable  prayers 
 for  all  festival  da5'S.  It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Tennessee 
 Synod  and  is  still  used  by  some  of  its  old  members  and  congre- 
 gations. 
 
 In  1834  the  New  York  Ministerium  felt  constrained  to  pub- 
 lish a  new  Liturgy  for  the  use  of  its  English  congregations.  It 
 differed  only  on  a  few  minor  points  from  the  Agende  of  181 8,  and 
 was  possibly  only  a  free  translation  of  it.  This  was  approved  by 
 the  Pennsylvania  Synod  in  1835  and  at  its  recommendation  the 
 General  Synod  adopted  it  at  its  meeting  1837,  and  ordered  it  to 
 be  appended  to  its  Hymn  Book. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  had  received  such  endorse- 
 ment, the  Liturgy  of  the  New  York  Ministerium  did  not  prove 
 satisfactory,  for  in  1839  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  appointed  a 
 Committee  to  prepare  a  new  Edition  of  our  Church  Liturgy  in  an 
 improved  and  more  complete  form.  In  this  work  it  asked  the 
 cooperation  of  all  Synods  using  the  present  Liturgy.  The  New 
 York  Ministerium  and  the  Synod  of  Ohio  willingly  acceded  to  the 
 request  and  appointed  committees,  so  that  the  preparation  of  the 
 proposed  Liturgy  might  be  made  conjointly.  The  Committee 
 charged  with  the  matter,  addressed  themselves  at  once  to  the 
 work  and  in  1841  reported  the  results  of  their  labors  to  the  Synod 
 of  Pennsylvania;  and  so  well  had  the  Committee  met  the  expecta- 
 tion of  that  Body,  that  it  ordered  the  Liturgy,  prepared  by  them, 
 
92  MEMOIRS. 
 
 to  be  published.  It  appeared  in  1842,  signed  by  the  committees 
 of  the  respective  Synods  cooperating  in  its  production.  The 
 General  Synod,  meeting  in  1843,  heartily  approved  of  this  Litur- 
 gy and  commended  it  in  highest  praise  to  its  German  congrega- 
 tions, and  at  the  same  Convention  appointed  a  Committee  "to 
 prepare  a  Liturgy  in  the  English  language,  having  reference  to 
 the  German  Liturgy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Synod,  as  the  basis  of 
 the  same,  as  well  as  other  liturgical  forms  now  in  use  in  our 
 Church."  The  Committee,  consisting  of  Drs.  C.  P.  Krauth,  Sr., 
 Benj.  Kurtz,  Wm.  Reynolds,  Ezra  Keller,  J.  G.  Morris  and  C. 
 A.  Smith,  in  1845  reported  that  they  had  resolved  to  translate 
 the  German  Liturgy  of  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  and  abridge  or 
 enlarge  it  as  thej^  deemed  advisable.  Two  j^ears  hence  they  pre- 
 sented their  work  in  a  completed  form,  and  claimed  for  it  that  it 
 was  more  complete  than  any  other  Liturgy;  that  it  was  purel}-  an 
 American  Lutheran  Liturgy;  that,  if  uniformity  be  desired,  it 
 will  be  reached  by  the  adoption  of  these  forms.  Whether  we  at- 
 tend German  or  English  Ser\nces  we  will  hear  the  pastor,  as  he 
 stands  before  the  altar,  utter  the  same  truths,  address  us  in  the 
 same  manner  and  pour  out  the  same  praj^er  to  the  Hearer  of 
 prayer;  that  no  other  Liturgy  could  have  the  same  association 
 and  lastly,  as  a  large  number  of  Synods  had  already  adopted  the 
 German  Liturgy,  it  did  not  seem  desirable  to  have  an  English 
 Liturgy  not  similar  to  it,  but  if  possible,  the  same  in  all  its  pro- 
 visions.    It  was  published  in  1847. 
 
 But  withal,  this  Liturg}^  on  which  so  many  different  Com- 
 mittees had  wrought,  and  to  which  various  Sy nodical  Bodies  had 
 given  generous  approval  from  its  incipienc}^  until  it  was  devel- 
 oped into  an  English  speaking  medium,  was  almost  identical  with 
 that  of  1835  and  was  scarcely  an  improvement  over  the  Liturgy 
 of  1818.  It  was  no  responsive  Liturgy  at  all.  There  is  no  pro- 
 vision for  the  people's  taking  a  part.  The  minister  did  it  all  and 
 his  congregation  stood  silent  before  him. 
 
 The  Service  opens  with  a  Votnm  or  an  inspiring  passage  of 
 Scripture;  the  minister  then  announces  a  h5'mn;  after  the  hymn 
 is  sung,  he  goes  to  the  altar,  counsels  the  people  to  make  con- 
 fession of  sins,  or  reads  one  of  the  general  praj-ers.  Then  fol- 
 lows the  reading  of  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  or  any  suitable  selec- 
 tion of  Scripture;  another  hymn  is  announced;  the  minister 
 ascends  the  pulpit,  prays,  preaches,  and  prays  again,  gives  out 
 
EARLY  AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   LITURGIES.  93 
 
 another  hymn  and  dismisses  the  congregation  with  a  benediction. 
 For  the  ordering  of  this  Service  there  is  an  abundance  of  materi- 
 al provided.  The  minister  has  choice  of  five  Opening  Sentences 
 and  eleven  Scriptural  expressions,  three  forms  of  Confession,  six 
 prayers  following  Confession,  four  prayers  after  reading  the 
 Scriptures,  three  prayers  after  the  Sermon  and  three  forms  of 
 benediction.  In  Preparatory  Services  three  forms  are  prescribed; 
 the  same  number  for  the  administration  of  the  I^ord's  Supper  all 
 of  a  piece  in  their  objectionable  features.  The  one  redeeming 
 feature  of  the  Liturgy  is,  it  is  not  binding.  The  minister  is  left 
 free  to  make  his  own  selection.  He  can  use  any  part  or  reject  all 
 and  substitute  his  own,  in  harmony  with  directions  of  Luther 
 given  in  his  rules  for  ordering  worship,  when  he  says,  "but  the 
 Antiphons,  the  Responsories  and  Collects,  the  Legends  of  the 
 Saints  and  the  Cross  may,  for  a  time  at  least,  be  omitted  until 
 they  have  been  purified,  because  they  contain  a  great  deal  of 
 abominable  filth." 
 
 It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  publication  of  this  Liturgy 
 was  a  disappointment  and  did  not  supply  the  want  of  the  Church. 
 Owing  to  its  many  and  grave  defects  it  could  not  satisfy  men  of 
 correct  liturgical  tastes,  who  loved  the  pure  forms  of  Lutheran 
 worship.  Hence  in  1850  we  find  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  taking 
 the  initiative  in  securing  the  cooperation  of  the  Synods  which  had 
 participated  in  the  publication  of  the  present  Liturgy,  in  the  prep- 
 aration of  a  new  one  in  harmony  with  the  doctrine  and  spirit  of  the 
 Lutheran  Church.  This  was  readily  secured.  The  committees  of 
 the  Synods  acted  jointly  with  the  encouragement  and  approval  of 
 the  General  Synod.  After  five  years  of  patient  examination  and 
 painstaking  labor,  they  finished  their  work  and  the  Liturgy  of 
 1S55  was  published.  Its  advent  was  hailed  with  joy.  It  was  a 
 decided  improvement  over  its  immediate  predecessors.  It  elimi- 
 nated many  of  their  objectionable  features.  It  supplied  many 
 primitive  orders.  It  restored  the  responses.  It  contained  all  the 
 essential  features  of  a  true  Lutheran  Service,  not  in  their  natural 
 and  proper  order,  it  is  true,  nor  according  to  the  true  principles 
 of  liturgical  construction,  but  in  confessedly  Scriptural  purity. 
 In  the  order  of  Morning  Service  the  voice  of  the  people  is  heard 
 in  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  Excelsis,  the  Amens,  the  Responses,  the 
 Sandus,  the  Agnus  Dei  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis.  The  Creed 
 is  made  optional   and  its  reading  is  assigned  to  the  minister. 
 
94  ■  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Although   it   has   its  defects   it   has    much    to    recommend   it. 
 
 Notwithstanding  the  many  excellencies  of  this  Manual,  it 
 was  destined  to  be  soon  replaced  by  another.  The  Pennsylvania 
 Synod  had  authorized  the  translation  of  the  German  Liturgy  of 
 1855  for  use  of  its  English  speaking  congregations.  The  Com- 
 mittee entrusted  with  this  work,  consisting  of  Revs.  Drs.  C.  F. 
 Schaeffer,  C.  W.  Schaeffer,  G.  F.  Krotel,  B.  M.  Schmucker  and 
 C.  F.  Weldin,  had  been  instructed  to  omit  much  matter,  as  su- 
 perfluous, and  "to  make  a  number  of  alterations,  chiefly  for  the 
 purpose  of  securing  a  stricter  conformity  to  the  general  usage  of 
 the  ancient  and  purest  Liturgies  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  in 
 a  few  instances,  to  conform  to  the  practice  of  our  English 
 churches  in  this  country." 
 
 Thus  they  provided  a  selection  of  Introits  to  be  sung  by  the 
 congregation,  substituted  a  new  form  for  Confession  of  Sin,  added 
 the  Nicene  Creed  for  occasional  use,  placed  the  General  Prayer 
 before  instead  of  after  the  Sermon,  supplied  a  number  of  General 
 and  Special  Collects,  and  gave  but  one  form  for  the  performance 
 of  Ministerial  Acts. 
 
 While  the  changes  made  by  the  Committee  were  not  numer- 
 ous, they  were  deemed  important  in  order  that  their  claim  might 
 be  successfully  supported,  to  wit:  "that  the  present  work  wall  be 
 found  to  agree  more  nearly  with  the  ancient  usage  of  the  Luther- 
 an Church,  than  any  which  has  yet  been  published  in  the  English 
 language  by  any  portion  of  our  church  in  this  country."  It  was 
 published  in  this  country  in  i860.  Its  preparation  and  publica- 
 tion were  the  harbinger  of  a  brighter  day.  It  demonstrated  that 
 the  leaven  of  a  purer  liturgical  principle  was  working.  It  gave 
 evidence  of  a  love  for  the  old  faith  and  an  appreciation  of  vener- 
 able forms.  It  breathed  the  pious  longings  for  a  return  to  the 
 practices  of  the  fathers.  It  revealed  a  veneration  for  the  songs 
 and  prayers  that  were  the  delight  of  the  Lord's  saints  in  all  the 
 ages  past,  and  it  led  the  way  to  the  preparation  of  the  Church 
 Book  which  has  placed  the  Church  of  to-day  in  communion  with 
 the  worshipping  assemblies  of  ancient  days,  and  enables  them  to 
 join  their  praises  wath  the  angelic  hosts,  chanting  their  hymns  in 
 the  courts  of  glory. 
 
 D.  M.  Kemerer. 
 Pittsburgh,   Pa. 
 
THE   IvlTURGY   OF   THE    ICELANDIC   CHURCH. 
 
 I.     the;  pre-reformation  service. 
 
 Christianity  was  peaceably  introduced  into  Iceland  from  Nor- 
 way, A.  D.  looo.  Before  that  time,  however,  the  first  Christian 
 churches  had  already  been  erected.  Iceland  was  at  that  time  a 
 commonwealth  or  a  republic  and  had  a  representative  assembly, 
 the  so-called  Althing.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Althing  at  T/iing- 
 vellir  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  in  the  middle  of  the 
 summer,  the  Icelandic  chiefs,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christi- 
 anity during  their  travels  among  their  kinsmen  in  Norway  and 
 especially  during  their  stay  at  the  court  of  King  Olafur  Tryggva- 
 son,  who  was  brought  up  in  England,  and,  glowing  with  zeal  for 
 missions,  preached  the  Christian  doctrines  to  the  assembled  mul- 
 titudes and  celebrated  the  Mass  according  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
 ritual.  Naturally  there  was  a  great  deal  of  friction  between 
 the  two  parties,  the  heathen  party  tenaciously  clinging  to  the 
 old  Asa-ioMh,  and  the  Christian  party,  by  all  means,  desiring 
 to  bring  about  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  To  the  latter 
 party,  however,  belonged  the  more  liberal-minded  and  progressive 
 part  of  the  people, — the  younger  generation  of  chiefs,  who  had 
 received  their  education  in  foreign  lands  and  were  fully  aware, 
 that  the  world  was  fast  becoming  Christian.  The  Liturgy  intro- 
 duced was  naturally  that  of  the  then  universal  Roman  Catholic 
 Church.  The  first  books  written  in  Iceland  were  in  all  probabil- 
 ity books  used  by  the  clergy,  such  as  Missals  and  Breviaries, 
 containing  the  ecclesiastic  forms,  copied  from  books  brought  from 
 foreign  countries.  As  far  as  the  present  writer  knows,  none  of 
 these  books  have  come  down  to  us,  intensely  interesting  as  they 
 undoubtedly  would  have  been.  But  we  may  rest  assured  that 
 they  contained  nothing  original  and  did  not  in  any  way  deviate 
 from  the  fixed  liturgical  path  of  the  Roman  Church. 
 
 (xcv) 
 
96  MEMOIRS. 
 
 II.      THE   INTRODUCTION   OF   THE    REFORMATION. 
 
 Our  review  of  the  history  of  Liturgy  in  the  Icelandic  Church 
 may,  therefore,  very  properh'  commence  with  the  introduction  of 
 the  Reformation  into  Iceland.  The  republic  had  passed  away, 
 furnishing  a  glorious  prototype  to  all  later  republics,  with  a  most 
 comprehensive  code  of  legal  procedure  and  its  famous  and  excel- 
 lent jury  system.  A  union  had  been  entered  into  with  Norway 
 under  the  rule  of  King  Hakon  the  Old,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
 1262.  Norway  had  in  its  turn,  with  Iceland  as  her  dependency, 
 passed  under  Danish  rule  in  1388.  Hence  it  is  that  in  Iceland 
 the  Reformation  and  the  spiritual  resurrection  following  it  was 
 brought  about  from  Denmark.  In  that  country  the  Reformation 
 had  triumphed  in  the  year  1536.  At  that  time  Iceland  was  di- 
 vided into  two  bishoprics,  one  at  Skalholt  in  the  southern  part  of 
 the  country,  and  the  other  at  Holar  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
 island. 
 
 The  first  echo  of  the  great  Reformation,  heard  in  Iceland, 
 probably  was  a  sermon,  preached  by  the  officiating  priest  at 
 Skalholt  in  the  year  1530,  on  Khidlanas-day  in  which  he  de- 
 nounced the  practice  of  addressing  prayers  to  saints  or  holy  nien 
 as  a  damnable  heresy.  The  bishop  whose  name  was  Ogviundur 
 Palsson,  an  old  man  already  by  this  time,  was  seriously  offended, 
 and  more  so  because  the  priest  happened  to  be  a  very  intimate 
 friend  of  his.  He  remonstrated,  but  in  vain,  as  the  priest  was 
 unwilling  to  recant;  he  was  consequently  removed  to  a  neighbor- 
 ing parish. 
 
 But  at  Skalholt  there  were  a  number  of  young  men,  whose 
 hearts  touched  by  the  fires  of  the  Reformation,  were  quietl.\- 
 studying  and  preparing  themselves  for  the  inevitable  conflict, 
 without  committing  themselves  too  early.  The  most  prominent 
 among  these  were  Giziir  Emarsso7i  and  Oddiir  GottskalkssoJi.  The 
 former  had  been  brought  up  from  youth  by  the  bishop  and  sent 
 to  German}'  to  complete  his  education.  There  he  came  into  con- 
 tact with  the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  embraced  them  in  his  heart. 
 Oddur  Gottskalksson  was  the  son  of  the  bishop  at  Holar.  He 
 was  brought  up  in  Norway,  educated  in  Germany  and  there  con- 
 verted to  the  Lutheran  faith.  Both  these  men  from  prudential 
 reasons  concealed  their  convictions  for  some  time  and  kept  the 
 worthy  bi.shop  in  utter  ignorance  of  their  Lutheran  proclivities. 
 Oddur  Gottskalksson  however  commenced  at  this  time,  his  work 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF  TPIE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  97 
 
 on  the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Icelandic,  but  made 
 a  close  secrecy  of  it. 
 
 In  1536  Christian  III  ascended  the  throne  of  Denmark.  His 
 ascension  was  hailed  with  much  enthusiasm  by  the  part}^  favor- 
 ing the  Reformation,  which  then  was  at  once  consummated  as 
 far  as  Denmark  and  Norway  were  concerned.  Shortly  after  a 
 new  law  was  drawn  up  to  prescribe  and  regulate  the  then  rather 
 loose  and  irregular  practices  in  the  Danish  Church.  In  this  vv^ork 
 a  number  of  the  greatest  lights  and  most  prominent  dignitaries 
 of  the  Church  participated.  This  document  is  known  as  the 
 Ordinance  of  King  Christian  III.  It  was  .sent  to  Martin  Luther 
 at  Wittenberg  for  approval  and  subsequently  corrected  and  re- 
 vised by  Biigenhagcn,  who  was  sent  to  Denmark  for  that  very 
 purpose.  In  the  fullest  sense  it  did  not  however  become  a  law  in 
 the  Danish  Church  before  the  year  1539,  although  it  had  been 
 considered  as  the  binding  rule  of  the  new  Church  for  some  time. 
 This  may  best  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  already  the  3'ear  before, 
 1538,  it  had  been  sent  to  Iceland  with  the  view^  that  it  should 
 become  a  law  in  that  country.  At  the  same  time  both  the  bish- 
 ops in  Iceland  received  royal  orders  to  change  the  error  of  their 
 ways  and  live  from  that  time  on  according  to  this  new  ecclesias- 
 tical code.  But  they  were  both  in  their  hearts  fervent  adherents 
 of  the  old  faith  and  shelved  these  royal  orders  as  dead  and  impo- 
 tent measures.  Bishop  Ogmundur  Palsson  however,  blind  and 
 decrepit  as  he  now  was,  desired  to  free  himself  from  the  arduous 
 duties  of  his  high  office  and  brought  about  the  election  of  Gizur 
 Einarsson,  his  foster  son,  whom  he  did  not  in  the  least  suspect 
 of  Lutheran  heresj',  to  the  episcopal  office.  The  successful  can- 
 didate at  once  sailed  to  Denmark  to  receive  his  ordination  and 
 get  instructions  from  his  government  at  the  same  time.  And 
 cheerfull}'  did  he  vow  to  champion  the  Lutheran  cause  according 
 to  his  ability  and  to  preach  the  Word  of  God  in  its  purity  to  his 
 countrymen.  His  la}^  co-laborer  and  friend,  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
 son,  followed  him  to  Copenhagen  and  had  his  masterl)^  transla- 
 tion of  the  New  Testament  into  Icelandic  printed  in  Roskilde, 
 1540. 
 
 In  the  diocese  of  Skalholt,  comprising  three-fourths  of  Ice- 
 land, the  Lutheran  Reformation  was  thus  practicall}^  introduced 
 with  the  elevation  of  Gizur  Einarsson  to  the  episcopal  office. 
 There  the  Church  Ordinance  of  Christian  III  was  at  least  nomi- 
 
98  MEMOIRS. 
 
 nail)'  put  in  force,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  the  young  bishop 
 put  forth  all  his  endeavors  that  it  should  also  be  followed  in  prac- 
 tice. But  he  had  a  fierce  and  persistent  opposition  to  encounter. 
 The  old  bishop  was  furious,  but  could  not  do  nuicli.  But  the 
 bishop  at  Holar,  Jon  Arason,  put  up  a  prolonged  and  most  obsti- 
 nate fight  against  the  new  faith  during  the  next  decade  (1540- 
 1550).  He  was  a  very  influential  man  in  his  diocese  and  in  fact 
 all  over  the  island,  upholding  the  old  Roman  Catholic  authority 
 and  practice  with  a  bold  hand. 
 
 One  of  the  melancholy  incidents  of  that  struggle  was  the 
 death  of  the  champion  of  the  Lutheran  cause,  bishop  Gi/.ur 
 Kinarsson,  before  the  victory  was  gained.  At  a  noted  farm- 
 house in  his  diocese  there  was  a  cross  of  much  miraculous  fame — 
 one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  dying  faith.  To  this  cross  pilgrim- 
 ages were  made  from  afar.  To  put  an  end  to  these  superstitious 
 practices  the  bishop  travelled  to  the  place  and  took  the  cross 
 down  with  his  own  hand.  But  as  soon  as  he  returned  home  he 
 was  taken  sick  and  died.  The  part}^  which  was  yet  loyal  to  Ca- 
 tholicism of  course  interpreted  this  as  a  miraculous  interference 
 of  Providence.  The  antagonist  of  the  Lutheran  movement,  Jon 
 Arason,  had  however  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  his  reckless  violence 
 two  years  later,  when  he  met  a  violent  death  at  the  hands  of  his 
 adversaries  with  whom  he  had  been  keeping  up  an  armed  warfare 
 for  a  long  time.  After  his  decease  the  Reformation  became  tri- 
 umphant in  the  whole  island  in  the  year  1550. 
 
 In  the  3'ear  1571  Gudbiandur  TJiorlaksson  was  appointed  by 
 the  King  to  the  diocese  of  Holar.  He  was  at  that  time  by  far 
 the  best  educated  man  in  his  country  and  endowed  with  rare 
 abilities.  He  is  the  real  reformer  of  his  countrj-.  He  was  a  man 
 of  tireless  energy,  a  strong  will,  fervent  faith,  profound  learning 
 and  nuich  literary  ability. 
 
 III.       THE    REFORMATION    SERVICE. 
 
 Bishop  Jon  Arason  had  imported  the  first  printing  press  into 
 the  island  shortly  before  his  death.  Of  this  printing  press  bisho]> 
 Gudbrandur  Thorlaksson  now  made  a  good  use.  He  translatetl 
 the  Bible  and  issued  an  illustrated  edition  of  it  in  15S4,  having 
 made  the  wood-cuts  with  his  own  hand.  Besides  he  issued  a 
 nuiltitude  of  religious  books  and  in  a  short  time  transformed  the 
 religious  life  of  the  country  according  to  the  ideals  of  the  Refor- 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF  THE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  99 
 
 mation.  In  1589  he  published  the  first  Hymn-book  and  then  the 
 Graditale,  which  after  that  was  the  only  Church-book  in  Iceland 
 until  1801.  It  appeared  in  no  less  than  nineteen  editions,  the 
 first  of  which  was  printed  in  1594  and  the  last  in  1779.  He  was 
 bishop  for  fiftj^-six  years  and  was  untiring  in  his  labors  for  the 
 Church  of  the  Reformation.  His  endeavors  were  crowned  with 
 so  complete  a  success  that  the  Church  of  Iceland  became  as  truly 
 Lutheran  in  faith  and  practice  as  any  other  part  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion Church. 
 
 At  first  the  Liturgy  of  the  Danish  Church  was  naturally  in  a 
 rather  unsettled  condition.  The  first  evangelical  pastor  at  Mal- 
 mo,  Hans  Tausen,  had  made  a  collection  of  the  first  Danish  hymns 
 to  the  number  of  about  one  hundred,  and  had  his  book  published 
 at  Malmo  in  1528.  It  also  contained  the  Evangelical  Order  of 
 Service,  not  a  translation  of  Luther's  work,  neither  the  Formula 
 Misses,  nor  the  Deutsche  Alesse,  but  an  original  adaptation  of  the 
 Roman  Catholic  Service  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation. 
 This  book  is  known  as  the  Malmo-book .  According  to  that  the 
 order  of  Service  was  as  follows: — 
 
 1.  A  Hymn  {Adjtdormm  nostrmn). 
 
 2.  Confession  of  Sins  {Co7ifUeor,  in  altered  form). 
 
 3.  Evangelical  Absolution. 
 
 4.  hitroitus  {De  profu7idis,  a  Hj'mn). 
 
 5.  Kyrie  eleison,  a  Hymn. 
 
 6.  Gloria  hi  Excelsis. 
 
 7.  Salutation  and  Collect. 
 
 8.  Epistle,  especially  i  Cor.  11. 
 
 9.  Hallelujah. 
 
 10.  The  Gospel,  especially  John  6. 
 
 11.  Credo  and  Hymn. 
 
 12.  Sermon. 
 
 13.  Hymn. 
 
 14.  Luther's  paraphrase  of  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 
 15.  Sanctus. 
 
 16.  The  Words  of  Institution  with  Agnus  Dei  and  Lu- 
 ther's Exhortation  to  the  Communicants;  the  Distribution;  a 
 Hymn  of  Thanksgiving. 
 
 17.  Salutation  and  Luther's  Collect  for  the  Lord's  Sup- 
 per (^Deutsche  Messe). 
 
 18.  Benediction. 
 
100  MEMOIRS. 
 
 19.   The  Ten  Commandments  in  versified  form  by  Claus 
 Mortensen. 
 
 Sometimes   the  Pra-fatio,  Sursuvi  Corda,  was  sung  before 
 the  Lord's  Supper. 
 
 This  is  the  very  first  Lutheran  Order  of  Service,  used  in  the 
 Scandinavian  countries.  It  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  Liturgies  in 
 northern  Kurope.  I  have  therefore  considered  it  of  sufficient  in- 
 terest to  be  incorporated  into  this  sketch.  This  Liturgy  was 
 printed  in  a  separate  form  in  Malmo  in  1529  and  1535,  probably 
 at  the  instance  of  Claus  Mortensen.  In  the  year  1529  both  Hans 
 Taus€7i  and  0/aus  Chrysostomos  were  called  to  Copenhagen,  the 
 Danish  Capital,  the  latter  from  Malmo,  to  take  charge  of  the  pas- 
 torate at  Fnic  Kirkc,  where  the  royal  family  worshiped,  the  litur- 
 gical practices  at  that  church  exercising  in  coming  years  norma- 
 tive influence  all  over  the  Danish  Kingdom.  Both  these  men 
 have  therefore  ordered  their  Services  according  to  the  Malmo- 
 book.  The  Malmo  Order  of  Service  is  the  foundation  of  the 
 Swedish  Liturgy,  which  was  not  published  by  Olaus  Petri  until 
 the  5'ear  1531.  In  fact  it  came  very  near  prevailing  in  all  the 
 Scandinavian  countries,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  it  is 
 only  to  be  regretted,  that  it  did  not  prevail  altogether  in  its  main 
 characteristics.  It  retained  the  old,  time-honored  feature  of  con- 
 sidering the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  climax  of  the  whole  Service. 
 Its  most  serious  defect  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  old  system  of 
 Pericopes  has  been  discarded.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  good 
 deal  of  vacillation  in  regard  to  the  use  of  Pericopes  and  Confes- 
 sion of  Sins. 
 
 As  before  stated,  the  first  echoes  of  the  Refonuation  began 
 to  be  heard  in  Iceland  about  the  year  1530.  During  the  preced- 
 ing decade  the  men  who  were  destined  to  become  the  reformers 
 of  the  Church  in  Iceland,  Gizur  Einarsson  and  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
 son,  had  both  been  in  Germany  and  Denmark,  the  latter  having 
 even  been  brought  up  in  Norway.  Both  undoubtedly  made  them- 
 selves thoroughly  conversant  with  the  new  order  of  things  as  it 
 was  taking  shape  especially  in  the  Danish  Kingdom.  The  prob- 
 ability is  that  they  brought  copies  with  them  of  the  famous  Mal- 
 mo-book  and  that  the}-,  as  soon  as  circumstances  permitted  them 
 to  do  so,  adopted  that  form  of  Service  in  their  churches.  We 
 have  no  direct  evidence  of  this  however,  as  books  began  to  be 
 printed  in  Iceland  at  a  much  later  date.     But  the  probability  is 
 
THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  101 
 
 SO  strong  that  it  almost  takes  the  form  of  certainty.  We  there- 
 fore take  it  for  granted  that  it  was  the  Mahno  Order  of  Service 
 which  was  first  introduced  into  the  I^utheran  Church  in  Iceland; 
 that  this  was  done  a  considerable  time  before  the  Reformation 
 was  formally  accepted  all  over  the  island,  and  that  this  same  Ser- 
 vice has  been  followed  even  up  to  the  year  1560.  As  we  shall 
 see  presently,  a  great  man}^  changes  were  introduced  in  Denmark, 
 but  the  Icelandic  Church  has  always  been  very  conservative  in 
 regard  to  its  Liturgy  and  naturally  would  be  inclined  to  accept 
 that  lyiturg}'  which  best  harmonized  with  old  Roman  Catholic 
 practice. 
 
 The  permanent  stage  had  not  been  reached  in  Denmark  by 
 any  means.  The  Malmo  Order  of  Service  did  not  satisfy  the  de- 
 mands of  the  Danish  reformers  and  had  consequently  to  undergo 
 violent  changes.  A  draft  was  made  by  the  most  learned  theo- 
 logians in  Denmark  and  the  Duchies,  and  submitted  to  King 
 Christian  III,  who  had  it  revised  and  corrected  by  his  secretary, 
 Jcspcr  Brochviand.  He  then  sent  it  through  his  court  preacher, 
 Andreas  Jaedike,  to  Wittenberg.  It  was  to  receive  full  sanction 
 at  the  hands  of  German  reformers,  before  it  should  be  made  final- 
 ly binding  on  the  churches.  It  was  closely  examined  by  "the 
 worthy  father,  Martin  Luther,  and  many  other  learned  men  at 
 Wittenberg."  Dr.  Bugenhagen,  the  famous  pastor  and  preacher 
 at  Wittenberg,  was  in  1537  called  to  Denmark  for  the  purpose  of 
 perfecting  the  Liturgy  and  he  is  in  this  connection  called  "our 
 beloved  Bugenhagen."  It  was  then  finally  adopted  by  the  Royal 
 Council  in  1537  and  afterwards  by  the  Diet  of  Odense  1539.  The 
 first  part  of  this  new  Service  followed  closely  Luther's  Formida 
 Missce  as  far  as  the  Sermon.  But  the  second  part,  containing  the 
 order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  was  made  to 
 conform  more  closely  to  his  Deictsc/ie  iMesse. 
 
 This  Service  was  the  first  Service  officially  introduced  in  Ice- 
 land. In  all  probability  it  was  translated  by  Oddur  Gottskalks- 
 son,  the  already  famous  translator  of  the  New  Testament.  For 
 a  number  of  years  this  Order  of  Service  existed  only  in  written 
 copies  throughout  the  island.  About  the  year  1560  it  was  pub- 
 lished for  the  first  time  by  Olafur  Hjaltason,  bishop  of  Holar, 
 and  printed  on  the  first  printing  press,  imported  by  bishop  Jon 
 Arason,  as  before  mentioned,  and  located  at  Bi^eidabolsiad ,  in  a 
 small  volume,  called  Manuale. 
 
102  MEMOIRS. 
 
 In  this  new  Order  of  Service  the  Confession  of  Sins  had  been 
 done  away  with  in  its  original  form.  Kneehng  at  the  Epistle- 
 side  of  the  altar,  or  the  left  corner,  the  minister  was  to  pronounce 
 the  Confitcor  in  silence,  while  the  Introitus  was  sung  by  the  con- 
 gregation. Then  came  the  Kyrie  and  the  Gloria  iii  Excelsis,  or 
 Ca?i/us  Ajigclicus.  The  Salulatio  with  the  usual  response  from 
 the  congregation  preceded  the  Collect.  The  Collect,  as  well  as 
 the  whole  altar-service,  was  chanted  or  intonated  by  the  minister. 
 The  old  Gregorian  Collects  were  used  uniformly  in  Iceland,  al- 
 though in  Denmark  a  new  series  of  Collects  was  introduced  in 
 1556,  to  be  used  along  with  the  others,  it  being,  as  it  appears, 
 left  to  the  individual  judgment  or  preference  of  each  pastor  which 
 to  use.  The  new  series  of  Collects  was  taken  from  a  Postill  by 
 Veit  Dietrich  in  Niiernburg,  published  in  1549,  and  was  intended 
 by  the  author  to  be  read  as  prayers  before  the  sermon.  They 
 are  long  and  rather  clumsy,  although  the  spirit  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion breathes  in  them.  After  first  being  used  in  the  Danish 
 Church  along  with  the  old  Gregorian  Collects,  they  aJtogether 
 displaced  these,  and  after  the  year  1564  the  German  Collects 
 were  used  exclusively,  although  they  had  never  been  intended  as 
 Collects  by  their  author. 
 
 Fortunately  the  German  Collects  were  not  introduced  into 
 the  Icelandic  Service  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
 tury and  then  in  a  much  altered  and  reduced  form.  During  the 
 seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and  down  to  the  middle  of 
 the  nineteenth  the  old,  time-honored  Gregorian  Collects  were 
 used  in  the  Icelandic  Church,  although  these  German  Collects 
 were  in  exclusive  use  in  the  rest  of  the  Danish  Kingdom,  both 
 Denmark  and  Norway. 
 
 But  let  us  proceed  with  our  description  of  this  Order  of  Ser- 
 vice, which  might  be  adorned  by  the  name  of '  'our  beloved  Bugen- 
 hagen."  After  the  Collect  comes  the  Epistle  with  the  Hallelu- 
 jah and  Sequence,  varying  with  the  Church  Year.  Then  follows 
 a  so-called  Graduale-hymn,  with  Ayrie  eleison.  After  the  singing 
 of  that  hymn  comes  the  announcement  of  the  Gospel  with  a  re- 
 sponse from  the  congregation.  Then  the  Gospel  is  chanted,  fol- 
 lowed by  the  Nicene  Creed  in  versified  form.  At  first  the  Nicene 
 Creed  was  read  in  Latin  and  then  the  versified  translation  sung 
 by  the  congregation  in  the  form  of  a  hymn.  But  later  the  read- 
 ing in  Latin  was  omitted.     Now  the  minister  ascends  the  pulpit. 
 
the;  liturgy  of  the  Icelandic  church.  103 
 
 announces  his  text,  and  the  congregation  rises  and  remains  stand- 
 ing while  it  listens  to  the  Divine  message.  The  text  was  almost 
 invariably  the  Gospel  or  Kpistle  for  the  day.  Then  the  Sermon 
 is  preached.  The  Sermon  is  followed  by  a  General  Prayer  from 
 the  pulpit  in  wliiLh  the  congregation  is  exhorted  to  pray  for  ev- 
 erything needful.  This  General  Prayer  is  followed  b}'  the  Pater 
 Noster,  the  congregation  uniting.  Besides,  the  beautiful  lyitany 
 was  often  used.  Then  follows  a  versiis  by  the  congregation. 
 After  that  Holy  Communion  takes  place,  commencing  with  Lu- 
 ther's Exhortation,  the  lyord's  Prayer  and  the  Words  of  Institu- 
 tion. While  the  elements  are  being  distributed  the  Agnus  Dei  is 
 sung  in  the  vernacular.  If  the  communicants  were  many,  Jubi- 
 hnn  S.  Bernhardi,  Jesji  dulcis  mernoria,  or  some  other  sacramental 
 hymn  was  sung.  At  first  it  was  the  practice  in  the  Danish 
 Church  that  nothing  should  be  said  by  the  minister  while  the 
 distribution  of  the  elements  was  taking  place,  because  evei'ything 
 had  been  said  when  the  Words  of  Institution  had  been  pro- 
 nounced and  needed  not  to  be  repeated.  But  as  this  custom  pre- 
 vailed in  the  Danish  Church  only  till  the  year  1646  it  is  doubtful 
 whether  it  ever  became  prevalent  in  Iceland.  Still  I  am  inclined 
 to  infer  that  it  has  also  been  the  practice  there  for  some  time. 
 After  the  distribution  the  Salutation  with  response  was  followed" 
 by  lyUther's  Collect  of  Thanksgiving,  the  Aaronic  Benediction 
 and  a  Hymn.  On  the  great  festivals  of  the  Church  Year  the 
 Lord's  Supper  w^as  celebrated  with  more  solemnity,  the  Prcefatio, 
 Surszim  Corda,  and  Sanctis  being  chanted  by  the  minister  before 
 the  Exhortation.  Then  also  the  Pro  Offertorio  was  rendered,  be- 
 fore the  offerings  were  made  by  the  congregation.  At  first  these 
 parts  of  the  Service  were  rendered  in  Latin,  but  later  they  were 
 gradually  translated  into  the  vernacular.  The  Confession  of  Sins 
 with  the  Absolution  has  been  eliminated  from  this  Service,  ex- 
 cept in  connection  wath  the  Communion,  because  Communion 
 was  administered  at  almost  every  Service  during  the  Reformation 
 Period. 
 
 IV.       THE    POST-REFORMATION    SERVICE. 
 
 In  time  this  excellent  form  of  Service  was  destined  to  suffer 
 several  changes  and  modifications  in  the  Danish  Church  as  else- 
 where, brought  about  by  the  corresponding  changes  in  theology 
 and  in  views  regarding  Divine  Services.     The  Ritual  of  1685  and 
 
104  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  Altar  Book  of  1688  give  a  greater  prominence  to  the  sermon 
 and  the  singing  of  hymns.  The  Lord's  Supper  becomes  more  of 
 an  appendix  to  the  regular  Service  than  anything  else.  The  old, 
 time-honored  Hcilige  Worte  of  the  Church,  such  as  Introitus,  Ky- 
 r/V,  I/a/k/uJa/i,  Gloria,  Credo,  Agnus  Dei  are  transformed  into 
 metrical  paraphrases,  called  hymns.  Each  Sunday  has  a  fixed 
 hymn,  characteristic  for  the  day,  in  order  to  give  prominence  to 
 the  Church  Year.  The  beautiful  Pne/atio  was  for  the  most  part 
 omitted  after  Latin  was  no  longer  used.  Even  the  hi  trait  us- 
 hymn  must  also  disappear  and  in  its  place  the  Service  now  com- 
 mences with  a  short  prayer,  read  by  the  deacon,  from  the  chan- 
 cel-door. The  whole  Servnce  is  also  brought  to  a  close  by  a  cor- 
 responding prayer  by  the  deacon,  both  these  prayers  being  trans- 
 lated from  the  German  of  Veit  Dietrich.  The  General  Prayer 
 now  becomes  a  direct  prayer  by  the  minister  and  the  sermonic 
 part  of  the  Service  is  brought  to  a  close  by  the  Aaronic  Benedic- 
 tion from  the  pulpit.  The  whole  tendency  is  to  make  the  Altar- 
 Service  suffer  from  the  encroachments  of  the  Pulpit-vService. 
 
 All  these  changes  and  alterations  were  probably  not  intro- 
 duced into  the  Service  in  Iceland,  although  it  gradually  has  been 
 by  practice  modified  in  the  same  direction.  In  its  essentials  the 
 Gradiiale-Sorvxc^  in  Iceland,  which  has  been  described  above, 
 held  its  own  down  to  the  year  1801,  as  before  stated. 
 
 V.      THE    PRESENT   SERVICE. 
 
 In  the  year  1801  a  new  Hymn-book  was  published  in  Iceland, 
 suffering  greatly  from  the  theological  and  liturgical  defects  of  the 
 times.  A  Royal  Rescript  of  1802  further  reduced  and  impover- 
 ished the  Danish  Service.  And  unfortunately  it  was  now  consid- 
 ered imperative  to  mould  the  Divine  Services  in  the  Church  of 
 Iceland  into  perfect  harmon}'  with  that  of  the  Danish  Church. 
 But  the  change  was  not  a  Reformation,  but  a  deformation  in  ac- 
 cordance with  the  prevalent  ideas  of  the  eighteenth  century.  As 
 this  new  form  of  Service  has  prevailed  in  Iceland  through  all  the 
 nineteenth  century  and  up  to  the  present  time,  a  detailed  account 
 of  it  will  be  next  in  order. 
 
 When  the  church-bells  have  rung  for  the  third  and  last  time 
 before  the  Service,  the  congregation  assembles  or  is  supposed  to 
 be  assembled  in  the  church.  The  minister  takes  his  place  before 
 the   altar,  robed   in  his  black  gown  of  broadcloth,  buttoned  in 
 
THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  105 
 
 front,  with  narrow  sleeves,  and  the  large  white  ruffle  round  his 
 neck.  Then  the  deacon  from  the  door  of  the  chancel  reads  a 
 short  introductory  Prayer  or  Collect,  followed  by  the  Lord's 
 Prayer,  the  minister  turning  to  the  altar,  the  congregation  bow- 
 ing and  covering  their  faces.  Then  an  introductory  Hymn  is 
 sung,  usually  an  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  During  this  time 
 the  minister  remains  standing,  turned  to  the  altar,  the  deacon  as- 
 .sisting  him,  in  putting  on  a  surplice  of  pure  white  linen  and  a 
 chasuble  of  purple  silk-velvet,  having  a  large  gold  cross  on  the 
 back.  At  the  end  of  the  hymn  the  minister  turns  to  the  congre- 
 gation chanting  or  intonating  the  Salutation, — -"The  Lord  be 
 with  3'ou,"  the  congregation  responding:  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
 The  minister  then  chants:  "Let  us  pray,"  and  turning  towards 
 the  altar  he  chants  the  Collect  for  the  day,  which  is  followed  by 
 an  "Amen,"  sung  by  the  choir  and  the  congregation.  The  min- 
 ister now  again  turns  to  the  congregation  and  announces  the 
 Epistle  for  the  day.  The  congregation  rises  and  the  minister 
 chants  the  Epistle.  After  the  Epistle  the  congregation  in  a  sit- 
 ting posture  sings  a  short  Hymn,  usually  only  one  stanza,  and  a 
 Hallelujah-verse  is,  for  this  purpose,  introduced  into  the  latest 
 Hymn-book.  While  that  is  being  sung,  the  minister  turns  his 
 face  to  the  altar,  but  at  the  end  of  it  he  turns  to  the  congrega- 
 tion and  announces  the  Gospel  for  the  day,  chanting.  This  is 
 followed  by  a  Responsorium  by  the  choir  and  congregation,  at  the 
 end  of  which  the  people  rise,  while  the  minister  chants  the  Gos- 
 pel, resuming  their  seats  again  at  the  end  of  it,  and  the  minister 
 turning  to  the  altar.  Then  the  congregation  sings  the  chief 
 Hymn  of  the  day's  Service,  usually  containing  the  chief  thought 
 of  the  Gospel  for  that  day.  While  the  last  stanzas  are  being 
 sung  the  deacon  removes  the  chasuble  and  the  surplice,  laying 
 both  neatly  folded  on  the  altar,  and  the  minister  in  his  black 
 gown  and  ruffle  proceeds  to  the  pulpit,  where  he  arranges  his 
 books  and  manuscript,  if  he  has  any,  and  offers  a  silent  prayer, 
 while  the  last  words  of  the  hymn  are  being  sung,  covering  his 
 face  with  his  hands.  He  then  pronounces  a  short  prayer,  giving 
 the  main  thoughts  of  his  sermon  prominence  and  thus  preparing 
 the  minds  of  the  people  for  what  is  to  follow.  He  then  an- 
 nounces his  text,  which  usually  is  the  Gospel  for  the  day.  Hav- 
 ing announced  his  text,  the  congregation  rises  and  remains 
 standing,  while  the  minister  reads  the  same,  resuming  their  seats 
 
106  MEMOIRS. 
 
 again  when  it  is  ended.  He  then  pronounce.^  the  Kanzel-grnss, 
 addresses  the  congregation  and  commences  his  sermon.  In  Ice- 
 land it  is  customary  for  the  minister  to  use  a  manuscript,  and 
 the  delivery  of  a  sermon  generally  takes  about  half  an  hour. 
 The  sermon  being  brought  to  a  close,  the  minister  pronounces  the 
 Gloria  Patri,  introductory  to  the  General  Prayer  which  is  very 
 short,  concluding  witii  the  Lord's  Pr.iyer.  He  announces  the 
 Benediction,  the  congregation  rises  and  the  Aaronic  Benediction 
 is  ])ronounced,  whereupon  the  congregation  is  seated  again  and 
 the  minister  descends  from  the  pulpit,  taking  his  place  before  tiie 
 altar.  If  Baptism  is  to  be  administered,  a  Hymn  introducing  that 
 holy  act  is  sung  by  the  congregation  and  the  Baptism  takes  place, 
 a  lady  holding  the  child,  and  two  male  sponsors  proceeding  to  the 
 baptismal  font.  The  baptismal  formula  commences  with  a  bibli- 
 cal exposition  of  Baptism  in  general,  translated  from  the  German. 
 The  sign  of  the  cross  is  made  both  on  the  forehead  an  \  the  chest 
 of  the  child,  followed  \>y  a  prayer,  thit  the  child  may  be  received 
 into  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  and  enjoy  the  blessing  of  Bapti-m. 
 Then  follows  the  usual  Gospel  selection  with  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
 the  minister  laying  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  child  while  pro- 
 nouncing it.  The  questions  are  indirect,  not  directly  addressed 
 to  the  child  as  the  ca.se  used  to  be  before  the  present  form  was 
 adopted.  The  Apostolic  Confession  is  preceded  b\-  the  Renunci- 
 ation. The  whole  is  summed  up  in  one  question,  directed  to  the 
 child,  and  answered  by  the  sponsors,  the  pastor  pronounces  the 
 name  of  the  child  and  baptizes  by  aspersion  of  water  on  the  head 
 in  the  name  of  the  triune  God.  Then  follows  the  admonition  to 
 the  spon.sors  concerning  the  education  of  the  child  in  the  Chris- 
 tian religion. 
 
 If  there  be  a  Communion,  the  communicants  must  present 
 themselves  in  church  before  the  regular  Service  connnences,  a 
 .short  preparatory  service  then  taking  place,  a  hymn  being  sung 
 and  the  communicants,  gathering  about  the  altar-railing,  listen 
 to  a  short  address  by  the  pastor  on  human  sin  and  Divine  grace, 
 at  the  conclusion  of  which  the  Ab.solution  is  ])ronounced,  en 
 masse,  and  not  severally.  But  the  act  of  Connnunion  itself  takes 
 place  after  the  administration  of  Bajitisni,  if  there  has  been  any, 
 preceded  by  a  Conununion-hymn,  sometimes  \\\q.  Agnus  Dei,  dur- 
 ing the  .singing  of  which  the  minister  has  again  put  on  the  sur- 
 plice and  the  chasuble  with  the  as^istance  of  the  deacon.     The 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   ICELANDIC    CHURCH.  107 
 
 minister  then  turns  to  the  congregation  and  the  communicants 
 assemble  around  the  altar-railing.  He  then  addresses  Luther's 
 Exhortation  to  them  at  the  end  of  which  he  turns  towards  the 
 altar,  the  communicants  kneeling  down  at  the  same  time  on  a 
 cushion  at  the  base  of  the  railing.  The  minister  now  chants  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  and  the  congregation  responds  with  Amen.  Hold- 
 ing the  plate  containing  the  Communion  wafers  in  his  hands  and 
 raising  it  slightly  above  the  altar-table,  he  pronounces  the  first 
 part  of  the  Words  of  Institution.  He  then  takes  the  chalice, 
 filled  with  wine,  in  his  hands,  lifts  it  up  and  pronounces  the  last 
 part  of  the  Words  of  Institution,  also  passing  his  hands  over 
 other  vessels  on  the  altar,  containing  Communion  wine  to  be  used 
 that  day.  The  congregation  then  sings  the  Jiibilum  S.  Bern- 
 hardi.Jesii  dulcis  7nemoria,  and  the  minister,  turning  to  the  peo- 
 ple, commences  the  distribution  of  the  elements.  To  each  com- 
 municant he  says:  "This  is  the  true  Body  of  Jesus,"  and  "This 
 i.i  the  true  Blood  of  Jesus."  The  distribution  ended,  each  round 
 of  communicants  is  dismissed  with  the  Pax.  A  short  hymn  is 
 sung,  after  which  the  minister  turns  to  the  congregation,  chant- 
 ing the  Salutation,  followed  by  the  Response  and  the  Orcmns. 
 Turning  to  the  altar  he  chants  a  Collect  for  the  Communion. 
 But  if  there  be  no  Communion,  he  uses  another  Collect  for  the 
 Word,  or  during  Lent  he  uses  still  another  Collect  for  the  Pas- 
 sion, the  congregation  responding  with  an  Amen.  He  then  again 
 turns  to  the  congregation  and  chants  the  Salutation,  responded 
 to  by  the  congregation  as  before.  He  then  raises  his  hands,  the 
 congregation  rises  and  from  the  altar  he  chants  the  Aaronic  Ben- 
 ediction, which  is  followed  by  a  thrice  repeated  Amen,  sung  by 
 the  congregation.  The  Service  is  now  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
 singing  of  a  Hymn  by  the  congregation,  during  which  the  dea- 
 con relieves  the  minister  of  the  chasuble  and  the  surplice.  The 
 closing  Hymn  being  sung  to  the  end,  the  pastor  in  the  same  po- 
 sition with  his  face  turned  to  the  altar,  the  deacon  pronounces 
 a  short  concluding  prayer,  corresponding  to  the  one  introducing 
 the  Service,  followed  by  the  Lord's  Prayer. — It  will  be  seen  that 
 the  minister  remains  standing  during  the  whole  Service  from  be- 
 ginning to  end. 
 
 VI.      THE   FUTURE   SERVICE. 
 
 The  above  Order  of  Service  has  retained  the  main  character- 
 istics of  the  Reformation  Service  and  has  a  simplicity  and  a  dignity 
 
108  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  its  own.  It  has,  however,  suffered  to  a  verj-  large  extent  from 
 the  bHght  of  eighteenth  century  ilhiniination.  The  original, 
 beautiful  Liturgy  is  cut  down  to  a  minimum  and  the  Service  has 
 become  somewhat  barren,  too  much  prominence  being  given  to 
 the  pulpit -service  and  the  Communion  ServMce  put  in  a  rather 
 loose  and  inorganic  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  Service.  The 
 beautiful  liturgical  parts,  Introitus,  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Pro'fatio, 
 Sanctiis,  Agmts  Dei  have  disappeared.  The  General  Prayer  has 
 become  short  and  .shriveled,  both  in  quantity  and  quality.  The 
 Aaronic  Benediction  is  used  twice,  both  from  the  pulpit  and  the 
 altar,  instead  of  using  the  Apostolic  Benediction  (2  Cor.  13:  13) 
 from  the  pulpit  to  avoid  the  repetition.  The  too  frequent  use  of 
 the  Lord's  Prayer  is  not  in  good  liturgical  taste  as  it  may  occur 
 at  least  five  times  during  the  same  Service,  if  Baptism  and  Com- 
 munion take  place. 
 
 Until  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  tlie  Icelandic 
 Service  had  preserved  the  Gregorian  Collects,  the  common  inher- 
 itance of  the  w^hole  Christian  Church.  But  in  1S69  a  new  revis- 
 ion of  the  Ma7iual  was  published,  containing  a  great  many 
 alterations,  introduced  with  the  laudable  intention  to  purify  the 
 language  and  make  the  Service  more  acceptable  to  the  demands 
 of  the  younger  generation,  bringing  it  at  the  same  time  into  a 
 still  more  perfect  harmony  with  the  Danish  Service.  The  result 
 of  this  may  in  some  respects  have  proved  beneficial,  but  in  others 
 detrimental.  One  of  the  innovations  consisted  in  discarding  the 
 old  Collects  and  introducing  the  German  Collects,  adopted  in  the 
 Dani.sh  countries,  Denmark  and  Norway,  but  never  in  Germany. 
 It  was  found,  however,  that  the  popular  taste  in  Iceland  would 
 not  tolerate  a  literal  translation  of  these,  .so  they  were  shortened 
 and  softened  down  in  a  considerable  degree,  many  of  their  most 
 characteristic  expressions  being  entirely  left  out.  They  have 
 therefore  lost  a  great  deal  of  their  force,  and  have  neither  the 
 sober  Catholic  spirit  of  the  old  Collects,  nor  the  fervent  and 
 almost  defiant  spirit  of  the  original.  The  change  was  a  mistake, 
 done  in  perfectly  good  faith,  but  rather  a  loss  than  a  gain  from 
 a  liturgical  point  of  view. 
 
 To  remedy  all  these  defects  will  be  the  duty  of  the  future 
 Service.  The  same  movenuiit  will  have  to  be  inaugurated  in 
 Iceland  as  elsewhere  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  to  recover  the  lost 
 liturgical  treasures  and  reinstate  them  into  their  original  place  in 
 
THK   LITURGY  OF  THE   ICELANDIC   CHURCH.  109 
 
 the  Service.  Sweden  has  its  Liturgy  in  almost  ideal  form.  The 
 Norwegian  Church  now  possesses  a  revised  and  extended  Litur- 
 gy, which  is  a  great  improvement  of  lasting  merit,  although  it 
 may  be  perfected  still  more  and  undoubtedly  will.  In  Denmark 
 the  good  work  proceeds  very  slowly,  other  matters  of  vital  im- 
 portance engaging  the  attention  of  the  Danish  Church.  But  a 
 good  deal  of  work  has  been  done  and  is  now  taking  shape.  In 
 Iceland  interest  in  these  matters  is  awakening  and  a  committee 
 has  the  work  of  revision  in  hand.  The  Icelandic  Synod  in  this 
 country  has  already  introduced  again  some  of  the  essential  parts 
 which  originally  belonged  to  the  Service,  such  as  the  Gloria  in 
 Excelsis,  Gloria  Patri,  Kyrie,  Hallelujah,  Pro  Offertorio.  And  it 
 is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  future  Service  will  also  contain 
 the  Confession  of  Sins,  the  Absolution,  the  Creed  and  a  full  Gen- 
 eral Prayer  from  the  altar,  and  not  from  the  pulpit,  as  now  is  the 
 case,  and  that  it  will  reinstate  the  Gregorian  Collects. 
 
 F.  J.  Bergmann. 
 Winnipeg ,  Manitoba,    Canada. 
 
Vol.   V. 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY 
 THE  GREAT. 
 
 Gregory  the  Great  stands  unique  in  his  work  on  the  Roman 
 Mass  and  Hturgical  development  in  general.  It  would  be  a  mis- 
 take to  regard  him  as  the  author  of  the  Mass  or  even  any  large 
 portion  of  it.  A  rich  and  varied  material  had  accumulated  prior 
 to  his  time.  He  took  the  liturgical  material  of  his  age  and  with 
 a  masterly  skill  recast  it,  giving  it  a  fulness  and  stability  which 
 it  has  not  lost  unto  this  day.  In  order  to  estimate  correctly  his 
 influence  in  the  liturgical  development,  two  facts  must  be  born 
 in  mind;  first,  the  stage  to  which  Liturgies  had  developed  at  about 
 the  time  that  he  was  elected  Pope,  (590);  and  the  development 
 subsequent  to  his  death  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries 
 until  we  come  into  possession  of  the  earliest  MSS  of  his  Sacra- 
 mentary  and  a  century  later  until  we  find  his  Antiphonary. 
 
 There  are  extant  three  depositories,  Sacramentaries,  of  the 
 purely  Roman  Liturgy;  the  Leonine,  (440-461);  Gelasian,  (496); 
 Gregorian,  (590-604).  Pope  Gelasius  edited  the  Leonine  Sacra- 
 mentary  and  this  suffered  minor  changes  under  the  influence  of 
 the  old  Gallic  Liturgy  in  France  and  Spain.  Gregory  took  again 
 the  material  of  the  Leonine  and  reduced  the  confusion  of  the 
 variable  formulae  to  a  small  and  invariable  number,  as  well  as 
 transposing,  and  adding  material.  We  do  not  have  the  exact  form 
 in  which  it  came  from  Gregory's  hand.  The  oldest  MSS  date 
 only  from  the  eighth  century  and  hail  not  from  Italian  but  from 
 Western  territory.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  troublesome 
 times  in  Italy  during  this  period.  The  interval  from  Gregory's 
 death  to  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  was  fertile  in  liturgical 
 development  especially  in  the  completion  of  the  Church  Year. 
 There  is  a  strong  presumption  that  certain  changes  and  modifica- 
 tions under  Western  influences,  found  their  way  into  the  Gregori- 
 an Sacramentary  during  this  plastic  stage.     There  are  now  five 
 
2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 MSS  of  this  Sacramentarj'  extant  dating  from  the  eighth  to  the 
 eleventh  century  edited  by  Pamel.  Rocca,  Menard,  Gerbert  and 
 Mnratori.  These  MSS  agree  in  the  main  parts  but  differ  in 
 minor  points  as  might  be  supposed  allowing  for  the  interval  of 
 time  and  the  still  present  leaven  of  development.  It  is  supposed 
 that  the  oldest  of  these  MSS  is  that  published  by  Muratori  and 
 it  is  assigned  to  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century.  The  Sac- 
 ramentary  as  first  published  by  Gregory  contained  no  rubrics, 
 only  the  prayers  and  the  sequences  of  the  Mass;  no  lessons,  no 
 antiphons.  The  editor  of  the  Muratori  MS  ac'ded  a  breviary  to 
 the  canon  of  the  Mass  by  the  aid  of  which  we  can  have  a  correct 
 knowledge  of  how  the  parts  were  rendered,  at  least  at  thnt  time. 
 
 The  forty  homilie^  published  by  Gregory  the  Great  give  con - 
 .siderable  information  on  the  liturgical  development  of  his  age. 
 The  Church  Year  was  then  not  yet  developed,  especially  the 
 second  half,  the  period  without  festivals.  A  curious  circum- 
 stance comes  to  light  in  the  superscription  of  these  homilies  as- 
 signing them  to  those  Sundays  which  in  subsequent  times  had 
 the  lesson  which  the  homily  treated  as  its  text.  These  super- 
 scriptions are  the  work  of  a  later  editor  who  failed  to  inform 
 himself  of  the  contents  of  the  homily.  Thus  the  nineteenth 
 homily  is  assigned  to  Septuagesima  Sunday  as  it  treats  the  text 
 Matt.  20:  1-16.  In  point  of  fact  this  Sunday  was  not  yet  as- 
 signed in  the  Church  Year  in  the  time  of  Gregory.  These  homi- 
 lies are,  however,  valuable  in  determining  the  Church  Year  as 
 many  of  them  mention  in  the  text  the  time  when  they  were 
 preached.  These  lessons  of  Gregorj'  are  among  the  earliest  that 
 have  come  to  us  from  this  period. 
 
 The  Antiphonary  of  Gregory  contained  the  invitatories,  re- 
 sponses, collects,  all  that  was  said  or  sung  by  the  choir.  But 
 here  again  our  earliest  MS  dates  only  from  the  ninth  century. 
 The  Antiphonar}^  comes  to  us  a  completed  work.  \Ve  have  no 
 means  of  tracing  its  development  during  its  constructive  stages 
 such  as  we  possess  for  the  Sacramentary  covering  a  period  from 
 the  fifth  to  the  ninth  century.  The  Church  Year  is  now  com- 
 pleted. The  Sundays  after  Epiphany  and  Whitsunday  all  have 
 their  appointments.  Just  how  nuich  of  the  Antiphonary  is  orig- 
 iiml  with  Gregory  is  hard  to  determine.  That  there  was  singing 
 in  the  Mass  before  his  time  is  .self-evident;  what  was  added  after 
 his  time  and  ascribed  to  him  we  cannot  determine.     Berno  Augi- 
 
THE   I.ITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY  THE   GREAT.       6 
 
 ensis,  (1045),  calls  Gregory  the  Great  the  ordinator  libri  Sacra- 
 mentarmm  et  A7itiphonarium.  His  biographer  John  calls  him 
 "wiser  than  Solomon  because  of  his  antiphons."  Gregory  is 
 particularly  known  for  his  service  in  developing  Plain  Song  {^can- 
 his  firnucs,  choralis,)  or  the  so-called  Gregorian  Chant.  The 
 singing  that  prevailed  in  the  Church  in  his  day  was  the  Am- 
 brosian  Song,  consisting  of  Greek  melodies  and  ancient  psalmody. 
 In  course  of  time  the  emotional  element  in  the  Greek  melody  de- 
 veloped into  unsanctified  worldly  sentimentality.  To  counteract 
 this  tendency,  Gregory  introduced  what  is  known  as  Plain  Song. 
 The  characteristics  of  this  "Gregorian  Music"  are  such  as  to 
 adapt  it  most  fittingly  to  sacred  purposes.  It  held  its  place  all 
 through  the  Middle  Ages,  was  preserved  in  the  Lutheran  Service, 
 and  is  now  again  becoming  more  and  more  popular  in  the  Church. 
 Gregory's  service  to  the  cause  of  Church  Music  was  commemo- 
 rated during  the  Middle  Ages  by  singing  a  hymn  of  praise  in  his 
 honor  before  Mass  on  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent.  Gregory  es- 
 tablished a  singing  school  in  Rome  and  this  became  a  centre  for 
 antiphonal  singing.  The  choir  composed  largely  of  clerical  mem- 
 bers became  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  rendition  of  the  Mass. 
 It  was  arranged  in  two  parts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  altar.  One 
 side  under  the  direction  of  a  leader  intoned  while  the  other  side 
 sang  the  response. 
 
 Upon  an  examination  of  the  Sacramentary  of  Gregory,  we 
 find  that  the  old  threefold  division  of  the  Mass  with  respect  to 
 the  attendants  is  abolished.  But  the  Mass  divides  itself  into 
 three  separate  acts.  First,  the  acts  of  the  Lessons;  second,  the 
 Offertory;  and  third,  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  proper.  The  ser- 
 mon is  no  longer  an  integral  part  of  the  Mass.  The  General 
 Prayer  following  the  sermon  in  the  Apostolic  Constitution  is 
 either  lost  or  as  some  think  finds  expression  in  the  Kyrie.  There 
 are  only  two  Lessons,  the  Gospel  and  Epistle,  and  one  Collect. 
 The  Ite,  missa  est,  formerly  at  the  close  of  the  homiletical  service 
 is  now  transposed  as  the  closing  formula  at  the  end  of  the  Mass. 
 With  these  general  remarks  we  will  now  examine  the  several 
 parts  of  the  Mass. 
 
 The  Mass  began  with  the  Introit,  which  set  forth  a  particu- 
 lar grace  for  the  Season.  The  Introit  was  followed  by  the  Kyrie 
 which  was  sung  nine  times,  after  which  followed  the  Gloria  in 
 Excelsis,  intoned  by  the  priest  and  responded  to  by  the  choir  from 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 et  in  terra.  This  introductory  Service  is  of  special  interest  as  it 
 is  of  purely  Roman  origin.  We  have  no  Antiphonary  which 
 gives  us  the  text  of  the  Introits  of  this  period.  The  position 
 which  the  Kyrie  occupies  and  its  interchange  with  the  Litany  i- 
 worthy  of  note.  The  k'yrie  Elcisou  was  the  response  which  the 
 people  made  to  the  intercessory  petitions  in  the  Litany.  Kliefoth 
 advances  the  theory  (III,  226; ,  that  the  Litany  was  the  later 
 form  of  the  General  Prayer  in  the  Apostolic  Constitution  follow- 
 ing the  sermon.  During  the  sixth  century  the  Litany  was  trans- 
 posed to  follow  the  singing  of  the  Psalm  in  the  Introit.  It  was, 
 however,  contrary  to  the  proper  liturgical  conception  to  have  a 
 General  Prayer  at  this  place.  Gregor}'  took  out  of  the  Litany 
 the  Kyrie  Eleison  responses  and  assigned  them  to  their  present 
 place  in  the  Introit.  This  seems  plau.sible,  for  on  fast  and  vigil 
 days  the  Litany  is  appointed  instead  of  the  Kyrie,  when  this  and 
 the  Gloria  in  Exec/sis  are  to  be  omitted.  The  Kyrie  was  intoned  by 
 the  choir  and  the  congregation  responded  with  the  Eleison.  The 
 Kyrie  was  repeated  nine  times.  In  the  Apostolic  Constitution 
 and  in  the  Greek  Church  the  two  words  go  together  and  arc- 
 both  spoken  by  the  congregation.  Gregorj^  calls  the  Kyrie  \'o.\ 
 deprecaiionis .  He  says  after  the  congregation  heard  the  word 
 of  grace  announced  in  the  Introit,  the  people  cry  for  mercy. 
 Upon  this  follows  the  Gloria  in  Exeelsis,  the  hymn  of  praise  of 
 the  angels.  Before  the  time  of  Gregory  it  was  not  in  common 
 use.  He  appointed  it  for  all  Sunday  and  festival  day  masses 
 when  the  bishop  was  celebrant  and  allowed  it  for  the  priests  on 
 Easter  and  the  day  of  their  consecration.  When  the  Litany  was 
 used  then  the  Gloria  in  Exeelsis  was  to  be  omitted.  Other  hynms 
 are  not  found  in  the  Mass;  these  find  their  place  in  the  Horu-. 
 Nine  hymns  are  ascribed  to  Gregory.  The  best  known  among 
 these  is  Rex  Christe,  faetor  onniiian.  After  this  introductory 
 part  follow  the  Act  of  the  Lessons,  the  Offertory  and  the  Canon 
 of  the  Mass  in  the  narrower  sense.  In  the  conclusion  of  the 
 Canon  of  the  Mass,  the  priest  is  directed  to  put  a  little  of  the 
 bread  in  the  chalice  and  then  to  slightly  elevate  it.  This  marks 
 the  beginning  of  the  elevation  of  the  chalice.  The  consecrated 
 bread  is  broken  before  distribution  in  order  to  deal  with  the  sac- 
 rifice of  the  Mass  in  imitation  of  a  Lamb  that  was  slain. 
 
 Although  Gregory  encouraged  the  practice  of  preaching,  >et 
 in  his  Sacramentary  the  sermon  is  not  an   integral  ]>art  of  the 
 
THE   LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE   OF   GREGORY   THE   GREAT.       5 
 
 Mass.  The  I^essons  have  no  longer  a  purpose  and  object  of 
 their  own.  The  Word  is  offered  to  God  in  prayer  and  He 
 is  thanked  for  it,  but  the  congregation  no  longer  receives  the 
 Word  and  its  explanation  in  the  sermon.  A  similar  displacement 
 of  the  significance  of  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper  has  taken 
 place.  The  early  Christian  Church  regarded  the  distribution  and 
 the  reception  of  the  elements  as  the  chief  thing  in  the  sacrament. 
 All  the  other  acts  were  really  only  preparatory  to  the  reception. 
 Gregory's  sacrificial  theory  of  the  Mass  placed  the  chief  impor- 
 tance upon  the  offering  up  unto  God  the  Body  of  Christ.  It  was 
 immaterial  whether  there  were  communicants  present  to  partake 
 of  the  Body  thus  offered. 
 
 Gregory  clearly  teaches  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 
 He  says:  Bonus  pastor  pro  ovibjis  suis  anhnam  siia^n  postiit, 
 ut  in  Sacramento  nostro  corpus  suiivi  ct  sanguincvi  vertcret  et 
 oves,  qnas  redemerat,  carnis  sues  alimento  satiaret^^  "The  Good 
 Shepherd  offered  His  life  for  the  sheep,  that  He  might  change 
 His  Body  and  Blood  in  our  sacrament  and  might  satisfy  the  sheep 
 whom  He  had  redeemed,  with  the  food  of  His  flesh." — The  offer- 
 ings brought  by  the  congregation  were  changed  through  the  op- 
 eration of  the  Mass  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  Another 
 passage:  Debetmcs  quotidianas  carnis  et  sanguinis  hostias  imviolare. 
 Hacc  namque  illam  nobis  mortem  unigeniti  per  mysterium  reparat, 
 qui  pro  nobis  iterum  i7i  hoc  mysterio  sacra-  oblationis  imviolatur:\ — 
 "We  ought  to  offer  the  daily  sacrifice  of  His  flesh  and  blood. 
 This  sacrifice  indeed  alone  saves  the  soul  from  eternal  destruction 
 which  procures  for  us  that  death  of  the  Only-begotten  through 
 the  divine  mystery  who  is  offered  for  us  anew  {itenmi)  in  this 
 mystery  of  the  sacred  oblations." 
 
 Gregory's  doctrine  of  Purgatory  found  a  practical  sup- 
 port and  mighty  instrument  in  his  theory  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
 per. He  says:  Si  culpa- post  mortem  insolubiles  non  sunt,  multum 
 solet  animas  etiafn  post  mortem  sacra  oblatio  hostice  saliitaris 
 adjuvare,  ita  ut  hanc  nonnumquam  ipsce  defujictorum  animcE  ex- 
 peiere  videantzir.'X  "If  sins  are  not  atoned  for  after  death 
 it  is  wont  that  souls  are  greatly  profited,  even  after  death  by 
 the  sacred  oblations  of  the  saving  sacrifice  so  that  these  souls 
 
 *  Kliefoth  III,  195. 
 t  Ibid.  Ill,  196. 
 X  Ibid.   Ill,  196. 
 
b  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  dead  sometimes  appear  to  beg  for  this  sacrifice."  Gregory 
 had  much  to  say  of  the  miraculous  power  of  the  consecrated 
 bread  and  even  recounted  cases  where  the  dead  appeared  as  phan- 
 toms begging  that  Mass  might  be  said  for  the  repose  of  their 
 souls. 
 
 Assuming  the  figment  of  jnirgatory  and  forcing  the  doc- 
 trine of  the  Lord's  Suj^per  to  suit  its  exigencies,  Gregory  laid 
 the  foundation  of  one  of  the  most  gigantic  errors  with  which 
 mankind  has  ever  been  burdened.  The  steps  in  this  ruinous  sys- 
 tem are  easily  taken.  The  chief  importance  in  the  Mass  is  its 
 "imitation  of  a  Lamb  that  was  slain,"  i.  e.  being  offered  up.  If 
 the  reception  is  not  essential  then  the  presence  of  the  congrega- 
 tion or  the  individuals  for  whom  it  is  offered  is  not  necessary. 
 This  was  so  advocated.  This  then  made  the  third  step  possible, — 
 the  Mass  is  efficacious  for  the  absent  ones  whether  living  or  dead. 
 All  this  was  in  accord  with  the  hierarchical  tendenc}-  rapidly  de- 
 veloping under  the  master  exponent  of  that  system,  Gregory  the 
 Great. 
 
 The  immediate  elTect  of  the.se  principles  of  wor.ship  was 
 the  withdrawal  of  the  congregation  from  the  active  ]^art  of  the 
 responses  which  had  become  more  difficult  under  the  new  s}-stem 
 of  antiphonal  rendering.  The  choir  supplanted  the  congregation. 
 The  Latin  language  was  the  universal  language  for  the  Mass  but 
 the  Germanic  people  did  not  understand  this  foreign  tongue 
 and  in  course  of  time  this  became  a  dead  language  even  in  Rome, 
 but  still  there  was  no  change,  nor  was  the  need  for  one  felt,  be- 
 cause the  congregation  had  reall\'  no  share  or  part  in  its  render- 
 ing. The  Word  of  God  had  lost  its  intrinsic  value  in  the  esteem 
 of  the  hierarchical  system,  it  was  now  only  of  value  as  a  contrib- 
 uting element  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
 
 The  age  of  Gregory  was  particular!}'  propitious  for  the  de- 
 velopment of  Saints'  days,  and  the  ova  pro  Jiobis  among  the  peo- 
 ple. Processions  ( Litanies)  were  common  in  the  time  of  Gregory. 
 April  the  25th,  St.  Mark's  Day  was  called  IJfania  Major.  On 
 this  day  processions  were  made  out  into  the  fields.  After 
 Gregory  was  elected  Pope,  a  pestilence  broke  out  in  Rome.  He 
 preached  a  sermon  on  the  theme  df  morialitate,  at  the  conclusion 
 of  which  he  called  the  people  to  form  in  a  sevenfold  procession, 
 clas.sified  according  to  their  station  in  life. 
 
 The  influence  of  Gregory  has  been  that  of  a  strong  deter- 
 
THK   LITURGICAL   INFLUENCE    OF    GREGORY    THE   GREAT.       7 
 
 mined  personality.  He  certainly  did  a  remarkable  work  in  ed- 
 iting and  establishing  the  Roman  Mass.  He  manifested  in  many 
 parts  good  liturgical  taste  and  judgment,  but  no  doubt  has  done 
 an  irreparable  injury  to  the  cause  of  pure  doctrine  of  the  Word 
 of  God  by  distorting  sacred  truths  from  their  foundation  for  the 
 selfish  purpose  of  building  up  the  hierarchical  power  of  the  Ro- 
 man Bishop. 
 
 A.  L.  Ramer. 
 Scranton,   Pa. 
 
.    THE    FUNCTION 
 OF  THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP. 
 
 Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  gift  is  from  above,  and  com- 
 eth  down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with  Whom  is  no  variable- 
 ness, neither  shadow  of  turning.  (James  i:  17).  According  to 
 this  text  we  are  indebted  for  every  blessing,  material  and  spiritu- 
 al, to  the  grace  of  God.  However,  God  does  not  directly  and 
 immediately  minister  unto  us  His  bounties;  but,  indirectly  and 
 mediately  through  means  and  instruments.  The  refreshment 
 and  the  energy  which  we  secure  through  the  medium  of  bread 
 might  in  the  exercise  of  the  Divine  power,  have  been  transmitted 
 directly  to  our  bodies  without  means  of  bread,  but  this  is  not 
 God's  ordained  method.  Doubtless  if  He  saw  fit.  He  might  im- 
 mediately and  directly  bring  to  our  souls  the  higher  blessings  we 
 enjoy  in  the  Bread  of  Life;  however.  He  in  His  Wisdom  has  seen 
 fit  to  connect  them  with  the  Means  of  Grace — the  Word  and  the 
 Sacraments.  These  Means  are  simply  Means  of  Grace,  and  can 
 not  administer  themselves,  in  like  manner  as  a  piece  of  the  finest 
 and  most  skillful  mechanism  can  not  run  of  itself  without  the  in- 
 tervention of  a  human  agent.  For  the  administration  of  these 
 Means  of  Grace,  whereby  God  communicates  His  blessings  to 
 His  people,  He  has  called  a  ministry.  God's  Word  is  always 
 eflficacious  and  powerful,  sharper  than  any  two-edged  sword, 
 whether  meditated  upon,  or  read;  yet  its  solemn  and  authorita- 
 tive use  is  associated  with  public  worship,  and  its  proper  admin- 
 istration in  such  a  service  demands  the  services  of  a  minister. 
 Baptism  can  not  ordinarily  be  administered  without  the  interven- 
 tion of  a  minister,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  always  demands  the 
 presence  of  the  administering  agent.  A  proper  conception  of  the 
 Means  of   Grace   involves  the  recognition  of   the  necessity  of 
 
 (ix) 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 public  worship  and  of  a  ministry,  even  if  this  necessity  were  not 
 plainly  taught  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 
 
 It  is  evident  that  in  Divine  worship  there  are  three  elements, 
 or  factors: — God's  people,  who  are  to  be  fed  with  Heavenly  bless- 
 ings in  Christ;  the  minister,  who  is  to  administer  these  blessings 
 in  God's  appointed  way;  and  the  Means  of  Grace  through  and  by 
 which  these  blessings  are  brought  near  to  the  people  and  appro- 
 priated by  them  by  faith.  The  function  of  the  minister,  then,  is 
 a  very  important  and  essential  one,  and  worthy  of  our  reverent 
 consideration.  Christ  says: — (John  6:  44)  Xo  man  can  come  to 
 Me,  except  the  Father  Which  hath  sent  Me  draw  him:  and  I  will 
 raise  him  up  at  the  last  day.  By  means  of  the  Sacrament  of 
 Baptism,  administered  ordinarily  by  the  Pastor,  and  by  the 
 preaching  of  the  Word,  the  worshiping  congregation  has  been 
 called  into  being  and  been  made  possible  by  the  drawing  power 
 of  the  Holy  Spirit  exerted  through  the  Means  of  Grace.  In  the 
 Sacrament  of  the  Altar  Christ,  through  the  agency  of  the  minis- 
 ter, comes  to  every  communicant  and  imparts  to  him  His  Body 
 and  Blood — a  savor  of  life  unto  life  to  them  that  believe,  but  a 
 savor  of  death  unto  death  to  the  unbelieving  and  the  impenitent. 
 Through  the  Word  of  the  minister,  which  is  God's  Word,  the 
 precious  blessing  of  Absolution  is  secured  as  surely  as  if  God 
 Himself  spake  it  from  Heaven.  In  the  reading  of  the  Word, 
 God's  Will  and  Grace  are  authoritativel}'  declared  through  the 
 mouth  of  the  minister,  and  in  the  sermon  the  Gospel  is  applied  to 
 the  present  needs  and  wants  of  God's  people. 
 
 This  is,  however,  only  one  side  of  the  minister's  function. 
 God  gives  in  the  Means  of  Grace,  and  He  gives  through  the 
 agency  and  mediation  of  the  minister,  as  shown  above.  How- 
 ever, where  God's  grace  is  imparted,  there  a  response  always 
 manifests  itself.  When  God  in  the  spring  of  the  year  gently 
 caresses  the  seemingly  dead  earth  with  His  zephyrs  and  softens 
 it  with  His  showers,  it  forthwith  responds  in  a  carpet  of  green 
 and  in  a  glory  of  bloom  on  shrub  and  tree.  Likewise  when  God 
 by  His  Means  wakens  a  dead  soul  into  life  and  makes  it  the  re- 
 cipient of  Heavenly  bounty,  there  naturally  and  necessarily  fol- 
 lows a  response  in  a  service  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving. 
 These  two  elements,  then,  are  found  in  every  properly  ordered 
 Service.  In  certain  parts  of  the  Service  God  gives  and  bestows 
 through  the  Means  of  Grace  mediated  by  the  minister.     At  these 
 
THE    FUNCTION    OF    THE    MINISTER    IN   DIVINE    WORSHIP.      11 
 
 times  the  believing  congregation  is  devoutly  silent  and  receptive. 
 Here  the  minister,  as  God's  agent  and  ambassador,  speaks  in  the 
 name  of  God  and  addresses  the  congregation.  At  other  times  in 
 the  Service,  again,  he  is  the  representative  and  the  mouth-piece 
 of  the  congregation  and  directs  his  addresses  not  to  the  congre- 
 gation, but  to  God.  Here  he  in  a  measure  fulfills  the  function 
 of  the  Sheliach  Tsibbur  of  the  ancient  synagogue  service.  We 
 see,  then,  that  the  minister  in  attending  to  his  specific  functions 
 in  the  worship  of  the  Church  stands  in  a  representative  capaci- 
 ty:— he  is  either  the  representative  of  God,  speaking  to  His  peo- 
 ple, or  the  representative  of  the  people  speaking  for  them  and  in 
 their  name  to  God.  In  the  singing  of  hymns  he  properly  joins 
 in  the  worship  of  the  congregation  as  a  member  thereof.  These 
 two  essential  parts  of  the  Service,  called  the  sacramental  and  the 
 sacrificial,  dare  not  follow  abruptly  one  after  the  other,  but  the 
 good  taste  of  the  early  Church  has  supplied  us  with  chaste  and 
 Scriptural  transitional  passages  by  means  of  which  there  is  an 
 easy  and  natural  progression  from  one  part  of  the  Service  to  the 
 other.  Naturally  the  minister,  as  the  leader  of  the  worship  of 
 the  congregation,  accords  these  parts  of  the  Service  their  proper 
 use,  so  that,  like  in  nature,  there  may  be  no  startling  breaks  in 
 the  worship  of  the  Most  High ;  but  that  there  may  be  an  agreea- 
 ble and  natural  progression  from  the  beginning  of  the  Divine 
 Service  to  its  end. 
 
 With  this  statement  of  the  function  of  the  minister  in  public 
 worship,  this  paper  might  end;  yet  we  would  all  feel  that  a  very 
 important  part  of  the  discussion  of  this  subject  had  been  omitted. 
 Just  as  in  taking  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies  the  astrono- 
 mer is  compelled  to  take  account  of  the  "personal  equation,"  so 
 in  the  consideration  of  the  minister's  function  in  public  worship, 
 the  bearing  and  the  deportment  of  the  minister  demand  a  consid- 
 eration, calling  for  more  time  than  a  positive  statement  of  his 
 function  in  Divine  Service.  Christ  teaches  us  (Matt.  23:  2): — 
 The  scribes  and  Pharisees  sit  in  Moses'  seat:  all  therefore  what- 
 soever they  bid  you  observe,  that  observe  and  do.  We  are  not 
 held  by  any  Donatistic  views  of  the  ministry,  and  we  have  learned 
 long  ago  that  God's  Means  of  Grace  are  always  efiicacious. 
 Water  is  water,  and  refreshes,  whether  it  comes  through  a  pipe 
 of  lead  or  of  gold.  God's  Word,  even  if  preached  without  any 
 accompaniment  of  rhetorical  grace,  or  to  the  detriment  of  the 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 King's  English,  is  efficacious  and  powerful;  yet  who  would  not 
 prefer  to  have  the  grace  of  the  Gospel  come  to  him  with  the  em- 
 bellishments of  the  graces  of  polite  speech?  The  Sacrament  of 
 the  Altar  rightlj'  administered  is  valid  and  efficacious,  even  if  the 
 nails  of  the  administrator  are  in  mourning  and  the  proximity  of 
 his  hands  in  presenting  the  sacred  wafer  brings  unmistakable 
 suggestions  of  the  reeking  atmosphere  of  the  tobacconist's  shop 
 or  the  environment  of  the  livery-stable,  as  has  been  the  experi- 
 ence of  more  than  one  patient  sufferer;  yet  who  would  not  rather 
 have  the  Means  of  Grace  administered  to  him  by  one  who  does 
 not  shock  refined  sensibilities  and  who  does  not  accompany  the 
 presentation  of  the  pure  Word  of  God  with  the  exhibition  of  an 
 utter  lack  of  good  taste?  The  minister's  bearing  and  deportment, 
 his  "personal  equation,"  if  you  please,  in  every  part  of  the  Ser- 
 vice may  be  so  offensive  as  to  detract  from  the  usefulness  of  his 
 functions  in  worship  and  demands  a  more  detailed  consideration. 
 
 It  must  be  acknowledged  that  it  is  rather  a  delicate  task  to 
 present  this  phase  of  the  subject.  To  a  person  who  does  not 
 possess  the  genuine  liturgical  spirit,  some  of  the  things  that 
 must  be  said  in  this  connection  would  seem  trifling  and  perhaps 
 ridiculous.  It  were  folly  to  discuss  colors  with  one  born  blind, 
 or  to  risk  incurring  the  enmity  of  the  deaf  by  entering  upon  a 
 controversy  with  them  upon  the  merits  of  a  musical  opus  by  one 
 of  the  masters.  Being  sure,  however,  of  a  S3-mpathetic  hearer, 
 and  in  the  conviction  that  I  am  addressing  only  those  of  refined 
 liturgical  taste,  I  address  myself  to  the  congenial  task  of  deline-  J 
 ating,  in  as  practical  a  way  as  possible,  the  manner  in  which  a  i 
 minister's  deportment  and  bearing  in  the  conduct  of  Divine  Ser- 
 vice maj^  detrimentally  aflPect  its  usefulness,  and  the  pleasure  and 
 profit  derived  from  it,  ^ 
 
 The  minister  who  is  desirous  of  making  the  highest  possible 
 use  of  the  Service  of  the  Church  for  his  people,  must  see  to  it 
 that  a  number  of  things  are  attended  to  before  he  steps  into  the 
 chancel  to  begin  the  sacred  offices.  The  lessons  must  be  hunted 
 and  clearly  marked  in  the  Bible  on  the  Lecteni  so  that  there  may 
 be  no  awkward  pause  during  the  Service  while  the  Pastor  is 
 searching  for  the  place  of  the  Lections.  The  pulpit  Bible  should 
 be  open  at  the  proper  place  and  all  manuscripts  and  notes  con- 
 veniently arranged.  The  service  books,  and  everything  else  re-  * 
 quired  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  at  hand  when  needed.     To 
 
THE    FUNCTION   OF   THF   MINISTER    IN   DIVINE  WORSHIP.      13 
 
 defer  this  work  until  after  the  minister  has  come  before  his  peo- 
 ple to  begin  the  Service,  leaves  the  impression  that  he  is  not  pos- 
 sessed with  a  sense  of  the  importance  of  the  Services  of  the 
 House  of  God.  To  see  a  minister  rush  precipitately  from  one 
 side  of  the  chancel  to  the  other,  to  be  subjected  to  the  ordeal  of 
 seeing  him  handle  nervously  the  pages  of  Sacred  Scripture  in 
 hunting  the  Sections,  we  know  by  frequent  experience,  is  not 
 edifying. 
 
 Not  only  need  the  attention  of  the  officiating  minister  be  di- 
 rected to  the  chancel  and  what  he  needs  in  the  sacred  ministra- 
 tions, but  to  his  personal  appearance  as  well.  Anything  striking 
 and  diverting  in  his  appearance  must  be  studiously  avoided.  We 
 all  know  that  a  distinctive  robe  for  the  minister  is  adiaphoristic, 
 as  a  liturgy  itself,  in  fact,  yet  we  are  all  agreed  that  a  chaste 
 liturgical  taste  demands  a  distinctive  badge  of  office.  This  fact 
 is  recognized  even  in  the  practice  of  congregations  of  culture  and 
 refinement  in  unliturgical  denominations.  It  is  not  the  province 
 of  this  paper  to  define  what  are  the  strictly  L^utheran  vestments. 
 Practices  differ  in  different  places,  and  we  cheerfully  accord  to 
 each  one  what  he  prefers.  But  having  chosen  a  vestment,  let 
 him  see  that  it  is  properly  put  on,  and  secured  so  as  to  run  no 
 risk  of  falling  off,  as  has  happened  in  more  than  one  instance. 
 Regard  must  also  be  had  to  proper  fit.  In  a  church  near  Phila- 
 delphia not  many  years  ago  a  clergyman,  approximating  the 
 stature  of  the  son  of  Kish,  preached  a  trial  sermon  in  a  robe,  the 
 property  of  the  congregation,  which  had  been  made  to  fit  the  pro- 
 portions of  their  former  pastor  who  in  size  suggested  Zacchaeus 
 the  pulican.  The  effect  was  too  ludicrous  for  even  that  devout 
 congregation,  a  good  sermon  made  no  impression  and  an  estima- 
 ble man  waited  in  vain  for  a  call  to  a  desirable  congregation. 
 
 L,et  us  suppose,  then,  that  all  necessary  arrangements  have 
 been  made,  and  the  minister  is  ready  to  begin  the  Service.  Pre- 
 cisely at  the  time  appointed  let  him  enter  the  chancel.  His  way 
 of  entering  into  the  presence  of  the  congregation  and  the  manner 
 in  which  he  moves  from  place  to  place  in  the  chancel,  are  not 
 without  their  effect  upon  the  Service,  and  demand  some  consider- 
 ation. Two  extremes  must  be  guarded  against.  He  will  not  en- 
 ter the  chancel  with  swinging  arms  and  in  a  rapid  stride,  nor  will 
 he  make  a  cross-cut,  and  approach  the  altar  from  the  side.  On 
 the  other  hand  he  will  not  by  the  painful  slowness  of  his  move- 
 
14  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ments  and  his  precise  posturings  give  the  suggestion  of  an  autom- 
 aton. Good  taste  demands  a  devout  and  reverent  bearing  in 
 keeping  with  the  character  of  the  place.  Any  suggestion  of  af- 
 fectation on  the  one  hand  or  of  levity  on  the  other  is  detrimental. 
 
 The  consideration  of  the  minister's  walk  naturally  suggests 
 other  bodily  movements  which  must  not  be  passed  over.  Invol- 
 untary movements,  which  betoken  nervousness,  and  are  a  waste 
 of  vitality,  like  fidgeting,  are  extremely  exasperating  to  a  person 
 of  refined  sensibilities,  and  produce  a  detrimental  effect  upon  even 
 the  uncultured,  although  they  may  not  be  able  to  tell  the  cause 
 of  their  unfavorable  impressions.  Such  movements  plainly  show 
 a  lack  of  self-control,  and  are  fatal  to  personal  magnetism.  He 
 who  can  not  control  himself  cuts  a  sorry  figure  in  trying  to  hold 
 and  influence  a  congregation  in  public  discourse.  Among  such 
 vicious  involuntary  movements  we  would  enumerate  thrashing 
 the  handkerchief,  playing  with  the  mustache,  with  a  button,  or  a 
 watch-charm,  or  walking  up  and  down  during  the  .sermon.  We 
 have  read  the  praises  of  peripatetic  philosophers,  but  we  can  give 
 our  testimony  as  the  result  of  more  than  one  painful  experience 
 as  a  victim,  that  we  never  saw  anything  to  recommend  in 'a  peri- 
 patetic minister. 
 
 Here,  too,  we  must  record  our  conviction  that  it  is  offensive 
 to  correct  liturgical  ta.ste  and  conducive  to  the  marring  of  a  Ser- 
 vice to  have  the  minister  move  about  in  the  chancel  when  the 
 congregation  is  worshiping.  When  he  is  not  addressing  the  con- 
 gregation in  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Services,  or  speaking  to 
 God  in  the  sacrificial  acts,  let  him  join  in  the  worship  with  the 
 congregation  of  which  he  is  a  part.  We  have  frequently  seen 
 ministers  move  from  the  center  of  the  chancel  to  the  Lectern 
 while  the  congregation  was  singing  the  Amen  after  the  Collect. 
 It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  a  minister  use  the  time  during  which 
 the  congregation  sings  the  clo.sing  stanzas  of  the  hymn  before  the 
 sermon,  in  going  into  the  pulpit  and  in  getting  into  adjustment 
 for  the  sermon.  Let  the  minister  retain  his  seat  and  let  him 
 worship  to  the  end  of  the  hymn  and  then  let  him  deliberately 
 proceed  to  the  pulpit.  If  he  needs  private  prayer  before  the  ser- 
 mon, let  him  teach  his  people  that  they  need  prayer  as  well  to 
 receive  it  properly. 
 
 Here,  too,  is  the  place  to  pillorize  the  trousers-pocket  bri- 
 gade.    It  is  a  sad  commentary  upon  the  condition  of  the  litur- 
 
THE   FUNCTION   OF  THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP.      15 
 
 gical  taste  in  our  English  Church  to  be  compelled  to  treat  a  sub- 
 ject like  this  in  a  paper  of  this  character.  We  should  have 
 spared  you  this  if  a  Service  had  not  been  spoiled  for  us  not  many- 
 months  ago  by  a  performance  of  this  character.  One  naturally 
 associates  the  trousers-pocket  gesture  with  the  racy  anec^lotes  of 
 the  mountebank  and  the  hawker  of  cheap  jewelry.  When  this 
 attitude  is  assumed  by  a  minister  in  Divine  Worship,  the  effect  is 
 worse  than  that  of  the  proverbial  fly  in  the  ointment.  The  only 
 way  to  be  sure  that  one's  hand  will  not  furtively  glide  to  its  fa- 
 vorite repose  in  the  trousers- pocket  when  mininistering  in  the 
 chancel,  is  never  to  let  it  rest  there  outside  of  that  sacred  place. 
 
 A  vicious  fault  on  the  part  of  the  ministering  clergyman  is 
 the  practice  of  looking  over  the  congregation  during  the  singing 
 of  the  hymns  and  at  other  times  when  the  minister  is  not  speak- 
 ing. It  always  makes  the  impression  upon  us  that  the  pastor  is 
 taking  a  mental  note  of  absentees  or  trying  to  feed  his  vanity  in 
 endeavoring  to  estimate  the  number  of  people  to  whom  he  is 
 ministering.  If  he  must  ascertain  who  is  present,  and  cannot  do 
 so  unconsciously  during  the  sermon,  when  he  ought  to  look  his 
 people  in  the  eyes;  or  if  he  must  count  noses,  let  him  delegate 
 this  unbecoming  work  to  some  one  else.  Only  let  him  bear  in 
 mind  the  disastrous  experience  of  a  greater  than  he  who  indulged 
 a  penchant  for  numbering  the  people.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
 progress  of  sound  liturgical  teaching  will  soon  bring  it  to  pass 
 that  our  cultured  congregations  at  least  will  insist  that  they  see 
 the  pastor's  face  only  when  he  is  addressing  them. 
 
 Having  passed  in  review  some  of  the  more  flagrant  faults  of 
 the  officiating  minister  as  far  as  they  concern  his  bodily  move- 
 ments which  always  mar  a  Service  more  or  less,  let  us  pass  to  a 
 consideration  of  the  utterances  of  his  mouth.  In  passing  let  us 
 emphasize  the  fact  for  the  purpose  of  vindicating  the  use  of  so 
 much  space  in  discussing  this  phase  of  the  subject  that  what  a 
 person  says  with  his  body  may  cry  out  so  loud  that  what  he 
 says  with  his  lips  may  make  no  impression. 
 
 One  of  the  most  common  faults  of  the  minister  in  performing 
 his  functions  in  the  chancel  is  the  injection  of  the  dramatic  ele- 
 ment, and  the  bringing  in  of  the  thread-bare  devices  of  the  cheap 
 teacher  of  dramatic  and  elocutionary  reading.  Scripture  is  to  be 
 read  intelligibly  and  with  proper  decorum  and  reverence.  The 
 fact  must  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  it  is  God's  Word,  and  that 
 
16  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  oflficiating  minister  is  simply  the  agent  through  whom  this 
 Word  is  mediated  to  the  people.  He  is  not  to  read  it  in  such  a 
 way  as  to  show  off  obtrusively  his  elocutionary  skill.  The  high- 
 est art  is  to  conceal  art.  It  is  not  considered  good  liturgical 
 taste  to  look  up  from  the  page  in  reading  Scripture.  Let  the 
 Book  be  so  adjusted  as  to  afford  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  face 
 of  the  reader,  and  let  him  read  reverently  and  devoutly,  with 
 proper  emphasis  to  bring  out  the  meaning.  Let  him  not  fall  into 
 the  unliturgical  practice  of  commenting  while  he  is  reading 
 Scripture.  Let  nothing  but  God's  Word  be  heard  at  this  time, 
 and  let  not  man's  word  and  God's  be  indiscriminately  mixed  up 
 in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  to  an  unpleasant  perplexity  on  the  part 
 of  the  hearer  as  to  what  Scripture  says  or  what  is  the  extempore 
 effusion  of  the  reader.  All  explanation  of  Scripture  comes  prop- 
 erly in  the  sermon.  Here  a  minister  may  comment  to  his  heart's 
 content,  if  he  has  the  ability  to  do  it  well;  if  not,  the  less  the 
 better. 
 
 Many  of  our  ministers  in  reading  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the 
 Service  have  the  ghastly  habit  of  turning  up  their  eyes  toward 
 the  ceiling,  doubtless  to  indicate  to  the  people  that  what  is  said 
 is  intended  for  Him  Who  inhabiteth  the  Heavens.  This  trick 
 we  are  justified  in  qualifying  as  ghastly,  for  we  all  know  by  ex- 
 perience that  the  spectacle  of  a  person  exposing  the  whites  of  his 
 eyes  is  not  a  pleasing  one.  Since  there  is  a  desire  manifested  in 
 this  disagreeable  practice  to  indicate  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the 
 Service,  when  God  and  not  the  people  are  addressed,  why  not  in 
 accordance  with  the  pure  practice  of  our  Church  where  she  has 
 not  been  adversely  influenced  by  coming  in  contact  with  other 
 denominations,  reintroduce  the  practice  of  indicating  the  sacri- 
 ficial part  of  the  Service  by  the  minister's  attitude  with  reference 
 to  the  altar,  the  center  of  the  church?  During  prayer,  the  people 
 face  the  altar.  The  minister  is  a  member  of  the  congregation  as 
 well  as  its  minister.  He  is  not  praying  at  them,  but  they  are 
 praying  through  him  as  their  mouth-piece  and  spokesman.  He 
 is  not  praying  his  private  prayers,  which  are  properly  reserved 
 for  the  privacy  of  his  own  room,  but  he  is  making  audible  their 
 petitions  at  the  throne  of  grace.  His  posture  ought  to  empha- 
 size this  fact  in  a  liturgical  Service  conducted  with  due  regard  to 
 ta.ste  and  the  eternal  fitness  of  things.  True,  there  are  but  few 
 of  our  English  congregations  far  enough  advanced  in  their  ap- 
 
THE   FUNCTION   OF  THE   MINISTER   IN   DIVINE   WORSHIP.      17 
 
 preciation  of  correct  liturgical  principles  to  adopt  this  eminently 
 beautiful  practice  with  edification.  Then,  too,  it  is  reprehensible 
 to  disturb  the  peace  of  a  congregation,  and  perhaps  do  violence 
 to  the  welfare  of  immortal  souls  by  throwing  a  stumbling-block 
 in  their  way  in  the  reintroduction  of  a  practice,  right  and  good 
 in  itself,  but  naturally  regarded  as  strange  and  foreign  to  the 
 genius  of  the  Church  by  one  whose  horizon  is  bounded  by  the 
 limits  of  the  parish.  Our  people  must  be  patiently  taught  to  ap- 
 preciate correct  practices,  and  then  they  will  demand  their  ob- 
 servance. To  introduce  them  before  they  are  ready  to  appreciate 
 and  enjoy  them  is  not  wise.  A  pastor  stultifies  himself  by  un- 
 necessarily creating  a  disturbance  by  the  introduction  of  an 
 adiaphoron.  Here  as  elsewhere  patience  must  do  her  perfect 
 work.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  eminently  beautiful  and 
 churchly  practice  of  intoning  the  Service.  There  is  no  more  rea- 
 son for  a  congregation  to  sing  its  responses  than  for  a  pastor  to 
 sing  his  parts  of  the  Service.  It  seems  one-sided  and  unnatural 
 for  the  minister  to  speak  and  the  congregation  to  sing.  Let  both 
 either  speak  or  sing,  but  let  each  do  the  same  thing.  Only  let  it 
 be  done  well.  Only  the  best  dare  be  tolerated  in  the  House  of 
 God.  Unless  a  minister  is  possessed  of  a  sweet  and  flexible  voice 
 and  understands  music,  let  him  not  attempt  the  intonations.  I 
 would  say  the  same  of  the  congregation .  If  they  are  not  willing 
 to  learn  to  sing  the  responses  well,  let  them  not  sing  them  at  all. 
 One  who  is  acquainted  with  the  condition  of  our  English  Church 
 knows  full  well  that  the  general  practice  of  intoning  is  impracti- 
 cable on  account  of  the  wretched  liturgical  taste  prevalent  among 
 us,  and  the  lack  of  musical  training  among  the  overwhelming 
 majority  of  our  clergymen.  The  reintroduction  into  our  church- 
 es of  the  beautiful  practice  of  intoning,  which  is  recommended 
 by  all  the  authorities  on  Liturgies  who  are  entitled  to  a  hearing, 
 would  solve  many  of  the  problems  suggested  in  a  consideration 
 of  the  use  by  the  minister  of  his  voice  in  the  Service  of  the 
 Church,  either  to  its  making  or  marring. 
 
 Again,  many  a  minister  sins  egregiously  against  good  litur- 
 gical taste  and  feeling  in  conducting  the  prayers  of  the  congrega- 
 tion. In  many  quarters  the  impression  of  many  pious  souls 
 seems  to  be  that  the  public  prayers  of  the  congregation  are  the 
 minister's  prayers;  and  they,  in  their  innocence  of  the  first  prin- 
 ciples of  congregational  prayer,  demand  that   the  minister  make 
 
18  MEMOIRS. 
 
 "his  own  prayers."  They  usually  are  his  own  prayers,  too — his 
 very,  very  own,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  grammar,  dic- 
 tion and  arrangement.  He  prays  at  the  people,  preaches  to  them 
 under  the  pretense  of  prayer,  sometimes  flatters  them,  interjects 
 "Ohs,"  and  "Would  thats"  ad  vmseavi,  often  transgresses  the 
 second  commandment  by  his  battological  repetitions  of  the  Name 
 of  God,  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  saying  something  while  he 
 is  thinking  of  something  else  to  say;  and  usually  makes  such  an 
 exhibition  of  wretched  taste  as  almost  to  turn  a  person  against 
 extempore  prayer.  Then  good,  pious  souls  whom  Satan  uses  to 
 flatter  their  dear  pastor,  assure  him  with  tears  in  their  eyes,  that 
 his  prayer  was  "so  touching,"  and  did  them  so  much  good.  We 
 believe  in  extempore  prayer  properly  conducted,  and  employed  it 
 when  in  the  active  ministry,  but  we  always  felt  like  turning  to 
 sack-cloth  and  ashes  when  assured  that  our  prayer  was  touching 
 and  did  good.  A  prayer  that  touches  the  people  and  treats  them 
 to  the  luxury  of  tears  is  no  prayer,  but  an  exhortation  masquer- 
 ading as  an  address  to  the  throne  of  grace.  It  is  a  sham  and  an 
 impertinence.  The  reason  why  there  is  so  little  genuine,  public 
 prayer  in  our  English  Churches,  is  because  in  the  first  place  our 
 people  do  not  more  generally  practice  private  prayer.  Private 
 communion  with  God  is  a  cojiditio  sine  qjia  no7i  of  public  prayer. 
 If  people  prayed  more  assiduously  in  private  they  w^ould  not  be 
 so  eager  to  hear  some  one  else  make  his  private  prayer  in  public, 
 but  they  would  come  together  to  offer  up  at  the  throne  of  grace 
 their  common  supplications,  prayers,  intercessions  and  thanks- 
 givings. In  order  to  do  this  in  accordance  with  the  proprieties 
 which  ought  to  obtain  recognition  in  the  House  of  God,  they 
 would  make  themselves  familiar  w4th  the  chaste  and  Scriptural 
 forms  of  public  prayer  which  have  come  down  to  us,  hallowed 
 and  redolent  with  the  worship  of  the  saints  of  all  ages.  WTien 
 there  is  occasion  for  extempore  prayer  their  good  taste  and  devo- 
 tion would  absolutely  refu.se  to  tolerate  the  crudity,  the  individu- 
 alism, the  gush,  which  characterize  so  much  of  what  is  called 
 public  prayer  and  di.sgrace  our  worship.  They  would  demand 
 that  they  be  informed  beforehand  what  is  to  be  prayed  for,  and 
 then  they  would  insist  that  the  petitions  be  formed  in  accord- 
 ance with  that  which  characterizes  the  pure  prayers  of  the 
 Church.  They  w^ould  demand  what  Schoeberlein  loves  to  call 
 the  "lapidarstyl." 
 
THE   FUNCTION   OF   THE   MINISTER   IN  DIVINE   WORSHIP.      19 
 
 The  last  fault  of  the  minister  in  public  Service  upon  which 
 we  desire  to  dwell  for  a  moment  is  the  practice  of  changing  arbi- 
 trarily the  hallowed  responses  and  formularies  which  have  come 
 down  to  us  with  so  many  precious  associations,  that  the  slightest 
 change  in  their  wording  startles  one,  and  mars  the  enjoyment 
 and  the  profit  which  might  otherwise  be  gotten  out  of  the  Ser- 
 vice. A  pertinent  illustration  is  the  unwarranted  dilution  of  the 
 Apostolic  benediction  from  the  simple  and  chaste  form  as  it  oc- 
 curs on  the  sacred  pages  to  something  like  the  following:  "The 
 grace  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ,  the  infinite  love  of 
 God,  our  Heavenly  Father,  and  the  communion  and  fellowship 
 of  the  Holy  Ghost  be  with  you  all  now  and  forevermore." 
 When  a  man  quotes  Scripture,  he  ought,  in  due  respect  to  the 
 inspired  Word,  quote  it  correctly.  Such  arbitrary  conduct  which 
 characterizes  much  of  the  Service  as  administered  by  some  min- 
 isters is  inexplicable.  We  have  heard  the  simple,  direct,  Scriptur- 
 al sentences  provided  for  the  administration  of  the  elements  and 
 the  dismissal  of  the  communicants  distorted  beyond  recognition. 
 A  man  is  not  compelled  to  use  the  Service  in  its  entirety,  nor  in- 
 deed any  part  of  it.  In  fact,  in  some  places,  we  would  deem  it 
 advisable  not  to  use  any  liturgy  at  all  until  the  people  had  learned 
 to  appreciate  the  use  of  a  common  Service  over  against  an  indi- 
 vidualistic one.  However,  what  is  used,  let  it  be  used  as  given 
 in  our  formularies,  or  do  not  use  it  at  all.  A  garbled  use  of  a 
 formula  or  of  a  Service  is  apt  to  be  exasperating. 
 
 What  surprises  us  still  more  is  the  fact  that  these  brethren 
 who  habitually  change  these  formulas,  to  change  which  lays  one 
 open  to  the  charge  of  vandalism,  are  often  vehemently  vociferous 
 in  their  insistence  not  to  make  the  slightest  change  in  the  rubrics, 
 which  have  by  no  means  the  authority  of  the  text  of  the  Service 
 itself,  not  having  been  agreed  upon  by  the  Joint  Committee  en- 
 trusted with  the  preparation  of  the  Service  itself,  and  some  of 
 which,  we  fear,  received  their  present  form  about  thirty-five  years 
 ago  in  the  attempt  to  adapt  a  liturgical  form  of  Service  to  litur- 
 gical conditions  existing  at  that  time  in  certain  parts  of  the 
 Church. 
 
 In  conclusion,  what  must  be  done  to  bring  about  such  a  con- 
 dition of  things  in  our  English  Churches,  with  which  alone  the 
 writer  claims  an  intimate  acquaintance,  and  of  the  liturgical  con- 
 dition of  which  he  is  not  in  any  ways  proud,  in  order  that  our 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ministers  may  perform  their  functions  in  such  a  way  as  to  con- 
 tribute to  the  edification  of  our  people?  Our  people  love  beauti- 
 ful things  and  can  be  led  to  an  appreciation  of  beautiful  art-foims 
 in  worship  as  well  as  elsewhere.  Our  congregations  are  to  be 
 congratulated  upon  the  patient  endurance  of  much  that  is  posi- 
 tively ugly  and  repulsive  in  worship.  Where  the  ministry  has 
 no  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  worship,  there  you  look  in  vain 
 for  an  appreciation  of  beautiful  art-forms  among  the  people. 
 Like  priest,  like  people.  Water  cannot  rise  above  its  source. 
 It  rests  with  our  theological  seminaries  to  furnish  the  answer  to 
 this  question.  The  principles  of  pure  Liturgies  must  be  thor- 
 oughly taught.  But  this  is  not  all  that  is  required.  We  learn 
 far  more  through  the  eye  than  through  the  ear.  The  theoretical 
 teaching  of  a  Seminary  upon  the  subject  of  Liturgies  may  be  above 
 the  suspicion  of  a  reproach,  but  if  the  daily  Ser\'ices  of  the  stu- 
 dents and  the  example  of  their  professors  constantly  transgress 
 these  principles,  nothing  but  disappointment  can  result.  There 
 must  be  here  as  elsewhere  a  beautiful  and  consistent  union  of 
 theory  and  practice.  Let  it  be  our  part,  whether  as  teachers  and 
 pastors,  or  churchmen  in  the  pew,  to  study  that  in  all  our  minis- 
 trations and  Services  we  so  conduct  ourselves  that  the  injunction 
 of  the  Apostle  be  honored: — (i  Cor.  14:  40).  Xlavra  Se  £vo-;^7;/xdva>? 
 Kttt  Kara  To^iv  yivecrdu)- 
 
 Elmer  F.  Krauss. 
 Chicago,  III. 
 
A  I.AITY   I.ITURGICALI.Y  WEI.Iv-INFORMED. 
 
 The  primary  object  of  a  Christian  congregation,  from  the  human 
 side,  is  the  worship  of  God  and  the  edification  and  salvation  of 
 souls.  Everything  that  pertains  to  and  can  assist  in  this  object 
 is  relatively  important.  It  is  well  that  we  have  the  most  ex- 
 pressive form  of  architecture  in  church  building,  the  most  sug- 
 gestive arrangement  of  nave  and  chancel,  the  most  helpful  fix- 
 tures for  Sunday  School  work,  and  strive  after  the  best  style  of 
 Church  Music  and  the  most  devout  utterance  of  our  public  de- 
 votions. 
 
 There  is,  no  doubt,  a  great  awakening  along  this  line  in  the 
 Christian  Church  in  general.  This  is  especially  true  of  our  Evan- 
 gelical IvUtheran  Church.  Our  ministers  and  pastors  have  taken 
 up  with  loving  hearts  and  devout  souls  the  study  of  matters  per- 
 taining to  the  best  expression  of  the  devotions  of  the  Church  to- 
 ward God  and  have  given  us  many  learned  writings  on  the  sub- 
 ject. We  are  grateful.  But  what  benefit  to  our  congregations 
 if  our  pastors  can  learnedly  discuss  the  influence  of  Gregory  the 
 Great  on  the  ancient  Liturgy,  or  tell  what  the  Margrave  of 
 Brandenburg  had  to  do  with  the  placing  of  the  Confession  of  Sin 
 in  our  Lutheran  Liturgies,  unless  there  is  some  way  of  sharing 
 both  the  enthusiasm  and  information  with  our  congregations. 
 "What  we  need  now,  is  not  less  information  for  our  Pastors,  but 
 more  enlightenment  for  our  Laity.  The  present  paper  is  written 
 partly  as  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  writer  or  of  other 
 pastors  and  partly  on  the  basis  of  all  pedagogical  principles. 
 
 I.       METHODS   OP    INSTRUCTION. 
 
 There  are  two  main  methods  of  instruction — the  abstract 
 and  the  concrete. 
 
 The  abstract  is  that  in  which  the  theory  precedes  the  prac- 
 tice.    This  method,  as  applied  to  Liturgies,  would  first  explain 
 
 (xxi) 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  beauty,  propriety,  Scripturalness,  and  all  the  qualities  and 
 history  of  the  purest  and  best  forms  of  worship.  It  would  show 
 that  all  these  things  are  to  be  found  in  our  Common  Service  for 
 Evangelical  Lutheran  congregations.  Then  should  follow  the 
 practice.  This  is  certainly  the  ideal  method.  Know  a  thing — 
 then  do  it.  While  this  method  may  be  very  applicable  to  younger 
 pupils  in  school,  where  mind  is  still  plastic  and  open  to  new  im- 
 pressions it  has  rarely  been  found  best  for  older  persons  whose 
 opinions  are  .set  like  the  cast  steel  in  its  mold  and  whose  practice 
 is  in  a  rut  as  deep  as  the  valleys  of  a  river.  A  person  may  be 
 informed  but  not  enlightened.  A  que.stiouer  may  be  silenced  yet 
 not  convinced.  The  abstract  method  seldom  enlightens  and  con- 
 vinces a  congregation. 
 
 The  concrete  method  is  that  in  which  practice  precedes  the- 
 ory. This  method  would  introduce,  use,  enjoy  that  which  is 
 best  and  when  it  has  been  tasted  then  to  bring  the  explanation  and 
 theory  and  all  the  history  of  the  Liturgy  in  order  that  the  users 
 may  be  read}'  always  to  give  a  reason  for  the  practice  in  which 
 they  engage  as  well  as  for  the  faith  which  is  in  them.  This 
 is  perhaps  the  easier,  and  for  the  many,  the  more  usual  method. 
 More  things  are  learned  and  done  by  imitation  and  example  than 
 as  the  result  of  ratiocination.  To  be  sure  we  meet  here  also  the 
 inertia  of  old  practice,  but  we  need  not  immediately  answer  the 
 prejudices  of  a  mistaken  or  ignorant  mind.  Wisely  used,  for 
 young  and  for  old  this  method  would  be  the  more  likely  to  suc- 
 ceed in  enlightening  a  congregation  as  to  the  best  in  worship. 
 
 The  ideal  method  would  be  that  in  which  the  abstract  and 
 concrete,  theory  and  practice,  go  hand  in  hand.  That  would 
 require  the  ideal  congregation,  as  well  as  the  ideal  pastor.  Per- 
 haps there  are  but  few  such.  We  must  then  endeavor  to  see 
 how  we  may  best  enlighten  our  people  as  we  find  them. 
 
 II.   THE  PURPOSE  OF  SUCH  AN  EFFORT. 
 
 The  purpose  of  enlightening  our  laity  on  liturgical  matters 
 is  a  very  important  and  practical  one.  Ignorance  is  not  the 
 mother  of  devotion.  Ignorance  has  quite  another  brood  follow- 
 ing her  chief  among  which  is  prejudice.  If  our  Lutheran  Church 
 and  people  are  ever  to  occupy  the  position  whicli  God  seems  to 
 indicate  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  we  cultivate  a  laity  well- 
 informed  on  all  matters  concerning  the  Church. 
 
A   LAITY   LITURGICALLY  WELL-INFORMED.  23 
 
 Worship  originates  indeed  as  a  wholly  spiritual  act.  But  to 
 express  itself  it  must  use  sight,  sound,  gesture,  which  are  present- 
 ed in  words  and  music,  building  and  furniture,  posture  and  actions. 
 This  brings  us  immediately  into  the  province  of  art,  for  art  is  the 
 expression  of  spirit  or  principles.  Now  if  worship  is  worth  ex- 
 pression it  is  worthy  of  the  best  expression,  i.  e.,  of  the  most  ar- 
 tistic. What  is  the  best  and  truest  expression,  i.  e.,  the  most 
 artistic,  of  the  worshipful  idea?  What  is  true  and  what  is  false 
 expression  or  art  in  worship?  The  question  here  is  not  the  ques- 
 tion of  worship  or  no  worship,  but  the  liturgical  question  is  alto- 
 gether a  question  of  the  expression  or  art-form  of  public  worship. 
 That  expression  is  not  confined  to  what  is  called  Liturgy  in  the 
 narrower  sense,  as  the  form  of  an  Order  of  Worship,  but  it  em- 
 braces everything  which  conduces  to  the  expression  of  the  spirit 
 of  a  Church,  as  architecture,  music,  methods  of  working  and 
 propagating  itself,  in  short  the  whole  method  of  realizing  its 
 Hfe. 
 
 There  may  be  three  ways  of  arriving  at  the  expression  of 
 congregational  worship.  There  are  three  clear  types  of  worship, 
 which  have  each  had  their  time  and  place  in  our  land  and  our 
 Lutheran  churches  as  there  have  been  three  distinct  types  of 
 church  buildings  expressive  of  the  forms  of  liturgical  worship. 
 Each  of  these  may  still  be  seen,  especially  in  the  eastern  part  of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 The  first  way  we  might  designate  as  the  congregational 
 style.  Each  congregation  is  a  law  and  a  judge  unto  itself. 
 When  the  minister  comes  the  word  is  "we  are  accustomed  to  have 
 our  services  conducted  in  such  a  way."  The  people  that  can  de- 
 termine such  a  matter  must  necessarily  be  well-taught.  They 
 must  know  much  of  the  mind  of  Christ,  of  biblical  practice,  of 
 Church  History  and  the  most  perfect  expressions  of  art.  Of  all 
 congregations  such  an  one  should  be  the  most  willing  to  receive 
 the  fullest  instruction  on  worship.  They  are  generally  the  least 
 willing.  To  this  class  belongs  the  first  style  of  our  church 
 buildings,  the  high  pulpit  on  its  slender  pillar,  the  altar  almost 
 in  the  middle  of  the  church,  with  the  pews  arranged  on  three  sides 
 and  often  the  high  galleries.  The  minister  stands  behind  the  al- 
 tar, speaking  over  the  altar,  the  sacramental  part  very  prominent. 
 
 Then  follows  the  way  of  the  "other  denominations"  and 
 "sister  churches."     The  minister  officiating  for  the  day  is  the 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 sole  judge  of  what  shall  be  the  expression  of  the  worshipping 
 congregation.  His  feeling  or  indisposition  shall,  or  in  fact  must, 
 condition  the  whole  form  and  matter  of  worship.  The  minister 
 that  is  willing  to  do  that  must  needs  have  great  confidence  in  his 
 own  ability  and  the  congregation  much  more.  He  must  have 
 exceeding  personal  information  and  ability  always  at  the  moment 
 to  be  able  to  find  both  the  most  Scriptural  and  the  most  suitable 
 art-form  for  the  occasion,  and  the  congregation  should  have  even 
 more,  under  such  circumstances,  that  they  may  know  that  they 
 are  not  misled.  This  form  of  liturgical  worship  exalts  the  per- 
 sonal and  individualistic  over  the  public  and  congregational.  It 
 has  its  architectural  expression  in  the  second  style  of  church 
 building  found  in  our  churches.  The  pulpit  remains,  but  the  al- 
 tar is  gone.  A  table  takes  its  place.  Or  if  something  represent- 
 ing an  altar  remains,  it  is  given  the  only  space  left  for  it, — the 
 space  immediately  below  and  against  the  pulpit.  The  congrega- 
 tion has  lost  the  sacramental  in  the  exaltation  of  the  sacrificial. 
 
 A  third  way  is  this,  that  the  pastors  and  Church  leaders  who 
 have  both  the  ability  to  judge  and  the  learning  to  comprehend  as 
 well  as  the  sensibility  to  appreciate  what  should  be  the  most 
 Scriptural,  most  churchly  and  most  artistic  expression  of  public 
 worship  should  present  the  same  to  the  Church  and  its  congrega- 
 tions. This  from  every  point  of  view  would  be  the  most  practi- 
 cal and  common  sense  method  of  procedure.  And  that  is  exact- 
 ly what  our  Lutheran  Church  has  always  done,  from  the  first 
 book  of  Luther  down  to  the  Common  Service  adopted  by  three  of 
 the  general  bodies  in  the  United  States.  Such  a  method  brings 
 into  co-ordination  all  the  elements  of  the  Church,  the  wisdom  of 
 the  general  bodies  in  preparing,  the  practical  leadership  of  the 
 pastor  in  introducing,  and  the  intelligent  participation  of  the  con- 
 gregation in  using,  the  best  possible  form  of  worship.  This  re- 
 stores again  the  two  necessarily  essential  parts  of  every  public 
 worship,  to  wit,  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial.  This  re- 
 stored congregational  worship  has  also  again  brought  back  a 
 churchly,  in  many  things  also  a  restored,  architecture.  It  is 
 generally  gothic.  On  entering  the  eye  falls  on,  and  the  nn'nd 
 gratefully  recognizes  both  a  pulpit  and  an  altar,  a  Church  both 
 of  Word  and  Sacrament,  in  which  both  the  subjectiv^e  and  object- 
 ive have  their  place. 
 
 Such  a  history  of  our  Church  shows  both  what  losses  and  ills 
 
I  A  I,AITY   I^ITURGICALLY  WEl<I.-INFORMED.  25 
 
 came  upon  us  because  of  a  want  of  proper  information,  and  again 
 what  advancement  will  follow  when  both  clergy  and  laity  are  en- 
 lightened liturgically. 
 
 But  we  plead  for  a  laity  liturgically  well-informed  for  the 
 continued  defense  and  upbuilding  of  our  Church,  If  it  was 
 needed  in  years  gone  by  and  we  suffered  because  we  had  it  not, 
 
 j  let  us  remember  that  in  these  intense  and  strenuous  times  we 
 need  it  much  more  if  we  even  expect  to  hold  our  own,  and  if  we 
 hope  to  advance,  it  is  one  of  the  absolute  imperatives. 
 
 I  '■  On  what  ground  do  we  gather  in  and  hold  the  allegiance  of 
 our  members? 
 
 Once  the  chief  argument  and  reason  was  "the  Church  of  our 
 fathers."     With  most  of  us  the  reason  we  came  into  the  Church 
 
 !  is,  we  were  born  into  it  by  our  natural  as  well  as  by  our  spiritual 
 birth.  With  many  the  only  reason  why  they  remain  members  is 
 because  their  parents  were  such.  There  may  come  a  time  when 
 some  will  forget  the  "fathers"  or  indeed  become  ashamed  of 
 them.  Then  the  result  will  be  they  will  forget  and  be  ashamed 
 of  the  "fathers'  "  Church.  Of  course  on  such  a  ground  no 
 Church  could  ever  hope  to  become  a  missionary  Church  or  expect 
 to  exert  any  influence  beyond  its  own  borders.  ,  Such  are  the  ar- 
 guments which  are  still  being  used  in  great  measure  when  we  ask 
 an  offering  for  Home  Missions  to  gather  in  the  thousands  of  "lyU- 
 therans"  instead  of  the  millions  of  "sinners."     Such  are  the  rea- 
 
 I  sons  given  when  there  is  a  question  as  to  the  Order  of  Services. 
 What  wonder  that  such  arguments  and  reasons  convinced  no  one 
 except  the  person  that  used  them,  and  that  under  them  the 
 Church  continually  declined.     The  lack  was  information. 
 
 Then  the  ground  on  which  Church-allegiance  was  asked  ad- 
 vanced a  large  measure.  It  was  then  the  "Church  of  the  pure 
 doctrine."     This  claim  was  also  preeminently  true.     Only,  too 
 
 '  often  the  true  doctrine  was  buried  too  deep  in  the  heart.  It  nev- 
 er came  forth.  The  world  never  saw  it  or  heard  it.  Why  it  was 
 true  or  how,  could  be  shown  by  but  few.  Many  never  even  knew 
 the  doctrine  which  they  claimed  to  be  true.  Naturally  came  the 
 conclusion  that  there  is  "no  difference,"  that  we  are   "all  the 
 
 j  same."  Such  a  conclusion  could  only  result  from  a  want  of  in- 
 formation. But  on  these  questions  there  was  often  no  means  of 
 information  to  the  laity,  and  when  there  was,  the  questions 
 seemed  too  abstract  to  interest  them  very  much.     There  was  no 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 concrete  point  on  which  our  members  could  lay  hold.  The  Baptists 
 could  rally  around  the  fact  of  immersion,  the  Methodists  around  a 
 mode  of  conversion,  and  all  their  members  could  grasp  the  practical 
 point  and  give  their  reasons  for  it;  but  the  Lutherans  could  only 
 claim  the  abstract  of  "pure  doctrine"  without,  as  far  as  the  laity 
 was  concerned,  being  able  to  give  example  or  proof  of  their  claim. 
 
 There  is,  however,  one  all-pervading,  ever-obvious  activity 
 of  the  Church, — that  is,  its  worship,  its  modes  of  working,  its 
 form  of  life.  The  very  building  in  which  it  meets  preaches. 
 The  manner  of  working  declares  a  difference.  The  Order  of  Ser- 
 vices bears  constant  testimony  of  our  faith.  Why  such  a  style 
 of  church-building,  why  a  chancel,  why  a  pulpit,  altar,  lectern, 
 baptismal  font,  why  a  clerical  gown  and  liturgy,  why  infant  bap- 
 tism, catechetical  instruction,  confirmation?  These  are  all  ques- 
 tions that  belong  to  the  liturgical  disciplines.  They  are  practical, 
 concrete  questions.  This  includes  the  "fathers"  and  is  based  on 
 "pure  doctrine." 
 
 It  is  along  this  line  that  we  must  seek  to  bring  to  our  people 
 the  most  permanent  and  all-pervasive  instruction.  When  they 
 shall  have  and  use  the  best  that  Scripture,  history  and  a  conse- 
 crated art  can  give  and  when  they  can  give  the  reason  for  such 
 faith  and  use,  then  may  we  indeed  expect  to  have  our  beloved 
 Church  enter  upon  her  heritage  and  exert  her  influence  far 
 beyond  her  own  borders. 
 
 III.       WHAT   THE    PASTOR    MAY    DO. 
 
 The  task  and  duty  of  informing  the  members  of  our  congre- 
 gations in  this,  as  in  most  other  Church  affairs,  devolves  on  the 
 Pastor.  Our  people  have  often  neither  the  time,  nor  the  inclina- 
 tion, nor  even  the  opportunity  to  inform  themselves.  The  work 
 is  one  which  should  be  undertaken  with  zeal  and  in  which  there 
 must  be  constant  perseverance,  for  it  can  never  be  completed. 
 
 Permit  the  writer  to  indicate  a  few  lines  along  which  he  has 
 endeavored  to  work. 
 
 There  is  no  more  fruitful  field  for  liturgical  work  in  most 
 congregations  than  that  of  Church  nuisic.  The  best  place  to  be- 
 gin is  with  the  children  of  the  Sunday  School.  It  does  very  little 
 good  simply  to  declaim  against  the  modern  abomination  of  jingle- 
 music  for  Church  and  Sunday  School.  Then  again  how  often  we 
 are  pained  by  the  choir-music  which  is  introduced  simply  and  on- 
 
A   LAITY   LITURGICALLY  WEI.I.-INFORMED.  27 
 
 ly  for  the  sake  of  entertaining  and  pleasing.  Both  Methodist 
 layman  and  Papal  head  of  the  Roman  Church  declaim  against  the 
 abuse  of  music  in  the  sanctuary.  The  first  writes  in  the  New 
 York  Independe7it,  "The  greatest  handicap  of  the  Church  is  the 
 false  and  harmful  conceptions  of  the  function  of  music  in  public 
 worship.  Music  is  appropriate  and  helpful  in  a  service  in  so  far 
 as  it  is  used  by  the  members  of  the  congregation  to  express  their 
 
 religious  emotions As  a  means  of  entertainment  it  has  no 
 
 place  at  all  in  the  distinctly  religious  meetings  of  the  Church.  .  , 
 The  concert  room  and  the  Christian  sanctuary  cannot  be  success- 
 fully combined  under  one  management." 
 
 The  Pope  of  Rome  has  undertaken  lately  to  inaugurate 
 certain  reforms  in  ecclesiastical  music  in  France  by  prohib- 
 iting exactly  the  same  class  of  music,  namely,  the  senti- 
 mental and  operatic,  of  which  the  Methodist  layman  com- 
 plains. Experience  has  shown  that  the  only  way  to  drive  out 
 the  worse  is  to  use  the  better.  A  child,  and  a  person  of  un- 
 vitiated  taste,  will  just  as  readily  learn  and  sing  a  chorale  as  a 
 waltz  or  two-step  time,  except  that  the  latter,  being  the  flippant 
 repetition  of  a  few-note  theme  and  often  of  meaningless  words, 
 will  not  require  as  much  mind  or  soul.  Learn  the  worthy  and 
 noble  and  there  will  not  be  so  much  danger  of  the  unworthy. 
 The  theoretical  and  practical  may  well  be  united  for  the  congre- 
 gation by  the  Pastor  taking  an  augmented  choir  and  using  five  or 
 six  hymns  for  a  Vesper  Choral  Service.  Let  him  precede  the 
 singing  of  each  hymn  and  tune  with  a  brief  history  and  a  few  in- 
 cidents and  he  will  find  that  a  new  interest  is  connected  with  such 
 a  hymn.  Four  or  five  such  services  a  year  may  very  profitably 
 be  continued  for  years  and  afford  the  opportunity  of  saying  many 
 necessary  things.  The  first  and  great  commandment  is  to  love 
 God,  so  the  highest  object  of  Church  music  is  to  praise  God. 
 Dr.  Stainer,  who  himself  wrote  much  excellent  Church  music, 
 says,  "After  all,  the  best  tunes,  and  the  ones  we  learn  to  love  the 
 most,  are  the  ones  our  grandmothers  loved." 
 
 In  the  matter  of  congregational  liturgical  worship  we  come 
 to  the  very  heart  of  the  subject  before  us.  The  writer  believes 
 that  ordinarily,  the  practical  use  of  the  Liturgy  must  precede  any 
 extended  theoretical  instruction.  The  congregation  must  use, 
 and  use  well,  before  it  is  in  a  condition  to  judge.  Not  knowing 
 the  better  how  is  it  in  a  condition  to  decide  anything  in  regard  to 
 
28  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it?  Here  lies  the  difficulty.  The  congregation  cannot  judge 
 rightly  until  it  has  used,  and  the  Pastor  cannot  introduce  a  bet- 
 ter Service  until  the  congregation  knows.  Here  again  the  Sun- 
 day School  as  the  more  malleable  material  is  the  better  element 
 to  begin  with.  At  the  many  and  beloved  festival  seasons  of  our 
 Church,  the  Sunday  School  can  give  the  congregation  a  taste  of  a 
 well-rendered  liturgical  Service.  Often  a  temporary  use  may  cre- 
 ate a  permanent  love.  As  in  one  ca.se  the  writer  suggested  that 
 in  a  series  of  special  sermons  where  sermon  outlines  and  the  Ves- 
 per Services  were  printed  on  the  same  sheet  the  congregation  try 
 the  Vesper  Service  for  three  months  and  then  if  not  satisfactory 
 it  would  be  possible  to  go  back  to  the  old  (no)  order.  But  when 
 the  three  months  were  past,  every  one  having  found  it  possible  to 
 unite  in  the  Service  from  the  printed  services,  no  one  was  willing 
 to  go  back  to  the  old.  At  the  same  place  the  Sunday  School  has 
 been  using  for  the  last  two  years  the  music  of  the  Gregorian  Plain 
 Song,  and  rendered  it  before  the  congregation  at  every  festival 
 occasion.  It  would  be  entirely  feasible,  if  it  were  desirable,  to  in- 
 troduce its  use  to  the  congregation. 
 
 Undoubtedly  the  introduction  of  liturgical  worship  should, 
 when  the  congregation  is  fully  settled  in  the  use  of  it,  and  it  is  no 
 longer  a  matter  of  dispute,  be  followed  by  full  information  on  the 
 principles,  reasons,  Scripturalness,  etc.,  of  such  a  Service.  They 
 should  know  the  why  and  wherefore,  not  that  they  may  necessa- 
 rily enjoy  it  any  more  themselves,  but  that  they  may  be  able  to 
 give  such  reasons  and  arguments  to  others.  Such  information  can 
 only  be  given  b}^  the  Pastor,  either  in  his  pastoral  visitations  or 
 publicly  in  sermons,  for  it  would  seem  almost  impossible  to  reach 
 the  heart  of  the  congregation  through  the  printed  page.  He  also 
 is  most  interested  in  doing  so.  We  may  all  feel  the  beauty  of  mel- 
 ody as  it  is  carried  by  a  single  voice,  touching  our  heart,  but 
 there  is  something  in  a  harmonized  chord  that  we  can  never  get 
 from  a  succession  of  notes,  a  melody.  There  is  beauty,  grace, 
 blessing,  in  private  devotion  and  prayer.  In  the  worship  of  the 
 congregation,  where  all  states  and  conditions  of  men  join  there 
 is  not  only  an  intensification  of  the  individual's  devotion.  It 
 has  a  new  quality.     It  has  become  the  Communion  of  Saints. 
 
 In  the  matter  of  Church  Architecture  theory  must  precede 
 practice;  for  wdien  once  a  thought  is  put  in  stone  and  iron  it  is 
 more  apt  to  be  permanent  for  at  least  fifty  years.     As  we  have 
 
A   LAITY   LITURGICALLY  WELI.- INFORMED.  29 
 
 already  indicated,  the  doctrinal  and  liturgical  history  of  our 
 Church  in  America  may  be  read  in  the  three  eras  or  general 
 styles  of  church  buildings.  If  Ruskin  has  defined  architecture  as 
 frozen  music,  we  may  certainly  be  right  when  we  say  that  Church 
 Architecture  is  faith  and  life  done  in  stone.  Every  church 
 building  expresses  something.  Some  time  ago  in  going  through 
 a  church  that  cost  almost  a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  built  in  the 
 Byzantine  style  of  the  round  arch,  after  going  through  ladies' 
 parlor  and  gentlemen's  parlor,  and  kitchen  and  dining  room  and 
 stage  with  curtains,  coming  at  last  to  the  amphitheater  "audito- 
 rium" the  long-suffering  visitor  exclaimed,  "O,  Church  of  the 
 Holy  Bake-oven!"  And  it  was  no  slander.  The  writer  knows 
 of  a  congregation  which  put  a  twenty  thousand  dollar  addition  to 
 its  old  church  building.  A  true  churchly  floor-plan  was  sug- 
 gested by  the  Pastor  and  adopted  by  the  congregation.  Then 
 that  the  prejudices  of  certain  parties  might  be  carried  out  the 
 Pastor  was  excluded  from  the  building  committee  and  a  commit- 
 tee appointed  of  which  at  least  three  members  confessed  that 
 they  had  never  been  inside  of  any  other  Lutheran  Church  than 
 their  own  old  one.  Those  who  know  better  have  been  compelled 
 to  apologize  for  conditions  ever  since.  How  can  we  expect  our 
 Church  to  have  its  proper  influence  until  our  members  know  what 
 style  of  architecture  is  expressive  of  our  faith  and  worship  and 
 why  it  is  so?  Why  and  where  do  we  have  an  altar?  Why  we 
 place  baptismal  fonts  in  our  churches?  What  is  the  proper  order 
 of  font,  pulpit  and  altar,  and  why?  These  are  the  simplest  and 
 most  fundamental  questions,  yet  to  many  of  our  members  are 
 unsolvable  enigmas. 
 
 How  much  there  is  to  learn  by  our  laity  concerning  our 
 methods  of  working?  How  many  or  rather,  how  few,  can  give 
 the  reasons  why  we  do  not,  and  cannot  join  the  denominations  in 
 their  methods  and  ways  of  working?  Is  it  only  narrowness,  big- 
 otry and  arbitrary  selfishness  which  moves  our  Pastors  to  occupy 
 the  position  which  they  assume?  If  there  is  no  reason,  or  if  the 
 reason  is  not  known,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing  for  the 
 ignorant,  then  it  must  be  all  that  it  seems.  Pastors  have  good 
 reasons  for  what  they  do.  The  people  must  know  them  if  Pastors 
 expect  to  hold  them.  How  are  our  people  to  learn  that  the 
 whole  method  and  spirit  of  the  popular  revival  meeting  and  sys- 
 tem is  foreign  to  our  Lutheran  Church?     By  pointing  out  that 
 
30  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  revival  system  is  based  on  an  altogether  different  view  from 
 the  Church  system.  The  revival  system  at  least  belittles,  if  it 
 does  not  directly  contradict,  the  grace  which  the  child  receives 
 in  baptism,  the  ordinary  blessings  of  God's  Word,  the  regular 
 and  orderly  worship  of  God's  House,  the  sufficiency  of  the  regu- 
 larly called  pastorate.  In  short,  it  is  the  direct  opposite,  not  on- 
 ly in  practice  but  much  more  in  spirit,  of  our  Lutheran  faith  and 
 worship  and  the  Lutheran  pastor  or  layman  who  would  take  part 
 in  them  thereby  denies  everything  he  once  confessed.  What 
 member  of  the  Church  that  is  well-informed  can  fail  to  see  that 
 the  whole  Y.  M.  C.  A.  movement  with  its  disparagement  of  sac- 
 rament and  ministry  is  a  movement  on  the  same  principles  and 
 lines  as  the  monasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  will  surely  at 
 last  undermine  the  Church  and  teachings  of  Christ. 
 
 Nor  can  w^e  forget  that  the  demand  for  special  weeks  of 
 prayer  and  the  numerous  requests  for  sermons  on  special  subjects 
 are  all  directly  opposed  to  the  Church  Year  which  lies  at  the  very 
 center  of  our  worship.  All  these  things  lead  directly  away  from 
 the  Church  with  its  pure  faith  and  holy  practice.  And  our  peo- 
 ple instead  of  standing  in  the  attitude  of  apology  should  know 
 how  to  propose  something  better.  Until  they  do  we  shall  not  be 
 able  to  occupy  our  rightful  position.  We  cannot  unite  with  other 
 bodies,  but  if  we  had  knowledge  enough  of  our  own  position,  our 
 faith,  our  practice  we  might  easily  be  leaders.  We  need  above 
 all  things  intelligence,  clear  perceptions  along  these  lines.  There 
 are  individuals  and  congregations  who  are  in  the  clear  in  regard 
 to  these  things.  They  are  to  be  congratulated.  They  are  our 
 leaders.  But  there  are  many  who  are  yet  only  moving  toward 
 the  light.     Let  us  help  them  all  we  can. 
 
 The  ideal  Church  or  congregation  is  that  in  which  God  is 
 worshipped  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  which  expresses  that  spirit  and 
 truth  in  the  purest  art  forms,  and  which  does  it  intelligently. 
 
 A.  B.  Marklev 
 IVarreft,  Pa. 
 
THE  SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOLISM   AND   ITS 
 EMPI.OYMENT  IN  THE  SERVICE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
 
 "The  invisible  things  of  Him  from  the  creation  of  the  world  are 
 clearly  seen  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made." 
 This  is  symbolism.  A  symbol  is  something  that,  not  being  a 
 portrait,  stands  for  something  else  and  serves  either  to  represent 
 it  or  to  bring  to  mind  one  or  more  of  its  qualities;  especially 
 something  so  used  to  represent  or  suggest  that  which  is  not  ca- 
 pable of  portraiture;  as  an  idea,  state,  quality  or  action.  The 
 oak  is  the  symbol  of  strength,  the  sword  of  slaughter,  the  trident 
 of  Neptune,  white  of  purity. 
 
 That  symbolism  is  very  beautiful,  useful  and  scriptural  is 
 freely  admitted  by  most  scholars.  This  subject,  therefore,  needs 
 neither  formal  introduction  nor  any  apology.  It  is  in  the  front 
 among  present-day  questions  of  churchliness  and  artistic  beauty. 
 It  must  be  considered.  A  new  conscience  concerning  the  ar- 
 rangement and  ornamentation  of  churches  is  making  its  voice 
 heard  among  thoughtful  Christians.  There  is  also  a  manifest 
 awakening  on  the  subject  of  the  relation  of  Art,  in  its  diversified 
 forms,  to  the  Church  and  her  Services.  This  is  a  very  signifi- 
 cant tendency  and  should  be  encouraged  by  every  lover  of  devout 
 worship  and  true  Art. 
 
 Symbolism  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  As  an  historical 
 science,  it  has  a  special  field  for  investigation,  which  field  has 
 been  indicated  in  the  definition  of  the  term,  symbol.  As  an  art, 
 its  province  is  to  make  practical  application  of  these  historical 
 facts  and  principles  to  the  Service  and  life  of  the  Church.  The 
 origin  of  symbolism  is  very  remote.  Evidences  of  its  existence 
 are  found  in  the  earliest  records  of  India  and  China,  of  Chaldaea, 
 Assyria  and  Babylonia.  In  these  ancient  nations  symbolism  was 
 always  associated  with  the  religious  life  of  the  people.     We  also 
 
 (xxxi) 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 find  that  symbolism  was  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the 
 Jewish  religion.  The  Passover,  The  Cleansing  of  the  Temple, 
 The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  The  Morning  and  Evening  Sacrifice, 
 The  Sabbatical  Year,  The  Jubilee  were,  all,  in  the  highest  de- 
 gree, figurative.  The  stones  in  the  breastplate  of  the  high  priest 
 have  each  a  special  signification.  And  thou  shalt  set  in  it  set- 
 tings of  stones,  even  four  rows  of  stones:  the  first  row  shall  be  a 
 sardius,  a  topaz,  and  a  carbuncle:  this  shall  be  the  first  row. 
 And  the  second  row  shall  be  an  emerald,  a  sapphire,  and  a  dia- 
 mond. And  the  third  row  a  ligure,  an  agate,  and  an  amethyst. 
 And  the  fourth  row  a  beryl,  and  an  onyx,  and  a  jasper:  they 
 shall  be  set  in  gold  in  their  inclosings.  And  the  stones  shall  be 
 with  the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel,  twelve,  according  to 
 their  names,  like  the  engravings  of  a  signet;  every  one  with  his 
 name  shall  they  be  according  to  the  twelve  tribes.  (Exodus  28: 
 17-21.)  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Moses,  Joshua  and  Da- 
 vid are  most  remarkable  types  of  Christ. 
 
 In  like  manner  do  we  find  in  the  New  Testament  authority 
 for  the  principle  and  for  the  practice  of  symbolism.  From  the 
 begiiming  the  chief  doctrines  of  Christianity  w-ere  set  forth  in 
 type  and  symbol.  The  Flood  is  used  to  typify  Regeneration. 
 The  Ark  is  a  type  of  the  Church.  The  Manna  and  the  Smitten 
 Rock  are  emblematic  of  the  Bread  and  the  Wine  in  the  Holy 
 Eucharist.  St.  Paul  symbolizes  the  enactments  of  the  Law  by 
 the  ox  forbidden,  while  treading  out  the  corn,  to  be  muzzled. 
 The  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is  one  long-continued  sym- 
 bolic poem  of  marvellous  beauty  and  impressiveness. 
 
 But  the  strongest  argument  in  behalf  of  the  principle  and 
 practice  contended  for  in  this  paper  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
 Christ  Himself  employed  the  sj-mbolic  method  in  teaching  the 
 great  truths  concerning  His  spiritual  kingdom.  The  phenomena 
 of  nature  was  the  fruitful  source  from  which  He  drew  the  most 
 striking  spiritual  likenesses.  When  He  said,  "I  am  the  Door," 
 "I  am  the  Vine,"  "I  am  the  Way"  He  used  the  purest  symbol- 
 ism and  thus  is  involved  the  well-known  principle  of  pedagogic 
 science,  yVc^w  the  knozv7i  to  the  Miknown.  It  is  to  be  noted  also, 
 that  the  train  of  thought,  the  every-day  observances,  and,  above 
 all,  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  early  Christians  w^ere  highly 
 figurative.  Almost  every  great  doctrine  of  the  Christian  system 
 had  been  symbolized  at  a  very  early  period.     The  Resurrection 
 
SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOLISM.  33 
 
 was  set  forth  by  the  Phoenix  rising  renewed  and  purified  from 
 its  ashes.  The  meritorious  Passion  of  our  Saviour  was  typified 
 by  the  Pelican  piercing  her  breast  and  feeding  her  young  with 
 her  own  Hfe-blood.  The  blessed  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
 was  beautifully  symbolized  by  the  Grapes  and  the  Wheatears. 
 The  Dove  was  the  emblem  of  puritj^  and  innocence.  The  Hand 
 was  the  symbol  of  the  First  Person  of  the  Trinity.  But  the 
 most  favored  of  all  symbols,  the  one  best-understood  and  most- 
 beloved  was  the  Cross,  the  symbol  of  Christ,  while  the  triangle 
 and  the  trefoil  were  emblematic  of  the  Godhead.  The  four 
 Evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and  John  were  represented 
 respectively  by  a  human  figure,  a  lion,  an  ox  and  an  eagle. 
 
 This  symbolic  material  was  introduced  into  the  early  patris- 
 tic literature  and  it  passed  very  rapidly  from  rhetorical  decoration 
 in  Christian  homilies  to  artistic  decoration  in  architecture  and 
 painting.  As  a  result  we  have  in  use  to-day  many  beautiful  and 
 helpful  symbols  that  were  found  originally  in  early  Christian  ed- 
 ifices and  places  of  worship,  and,  though  the  originals  lack  accu- 
 racy of  drawing  and  artistic  proportion  when  measured  by  present 
 day  standards,  they  set  forth  divine  truth  in  a  clear  and  impress- 
 ive manner. 
 
 The  Bible  is  an  explicit  revelation  of  God.  There  is  also  an 
 implicit  revelation  of  Him.  It  is  found  in  Nature.  "To  him 
 who  in  love  of  Nature  holds  communion  with  her  visible  forms. 
 She  speaks  a  various  language."  There  is  a  symbolism  in  Nature. 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  is  powerfully  set  forth  by  the 
 season  of  Spring.  Winter  and  night  typify  sin  and  death. 
 Among  the  flowers  named  from  some  extraordinary  property  or 
 peculiarity  of  form  which  they  possess  we  find  the  Herb  Trinity, 
 the  Passion  Flower,  and  the  Lacrima  Christi,  while  the  phrases, 
 Lily  of  the  Valley  and  the  Rose  of  Sharon,  are  suggestive  rather 
 of  "Him  Who  was  altogether  lovely"  than  of  particular  species 
 of  flowers. 
 
 The  Holy  Sacraments  are  examples,  in  the  highest  degree, 
 of  this  principle  of  symbolic  teaching.  Whilst  it  is  true  that  di- 
 vine grace  is  imparted  with  the  earthly  elements  yet  these  ele- 
 ments are  the  visible  symbols  of  that  very  precious  spiritual  gift. 
 It  is  not  to  be  concluded  from  these  facts  that  Christianity  and 
 the  Church  are  any  the  less  real,  visible  and  practical  but  rather 
 that  they  are  the  more  real  and  practical  because  their  teachings 
 
34  MEMOIRS. 
 
 are  not  merely  objective  and  material  but  subjective  and  antici- 
 pative  of  that  which  is  eternal. 
 
 Three  great  doctrines  of  the  Christian  system,  namely,  The 
 Holy  Trinity,  Regeneration  and  The  Atonement,  have  been  sym- 
 bolized in  a  most  effective  way.  The  first,  by  the  architectural 
 design  and  interior  arrangement  of  churches  as  seen  in  the  triple 
 tower,  triplicate  windows,  three-fold  arches  and  the  three-part 
 arrangement  and  furnishing  of  the  chancel.  The  doctrine  of 
 Regeneration  is  typified  particularly  by  the  octagonal  form  of  the 
 baptismal  font  for  the  reason  given  by  Ambrose,  namel3%  "as  the 
 old  creation  was  completed  in  seven  days,  so  the  number  next  en- 
 suing may  well  be  significative  of  the  new.''  On  some  of  the 
 fonts  of  the  early  churches  are  sculptured  three  fishes  intertwined 
 in  an  equilateral  triangle,  typifying  our  regeneration  in  the  three 
 persons  of  the  adorable  Trinity.  The  fish  is  the  emblem  of  the 
 Christian  from  the  fact  that  the  letters  of  the  Greek  form  of  the 
 name  I-X-0-Y-:S  are  interpreted  "Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  the 
 Saviour." 
 
 The  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  by  Christ  is  symbolized  by 
 the  cruciform  plan  of  churches  as  found  even  in  the  early  Roman- 
 esque period  and  reaching  its  clearest  expression  in  the  glorious 
 Gothic  cathedrals.  Thus  in  the  v^ery  ground-plan  of  the  build- 
 ings consecrated  to  Divine  worship,  "Christ  and  Him  crucified" 
 is  preached  to  every  thoughtful  beholder.  That  which  was  once 
 the  by-word  of  pagans,  the  instrument  of  scorn  and  suffering, 
 has  become  the  symbol  of  hope,  of  glorj^,  of  joy  and  of  eternal 
 felicity  for  all  who  were  embraced  by  the  Saviour's  outstretched 
 arms  upon  it. 
 
 It  is  not  only  Christianity  that  is  .symbolized,  every  religion 
 is.  Symbolism  is  thus  shown  to  be  an  expres.sion  of  a  natural 
 impulse  in  man,  quite  as  innate  as  the  religious  idea  itself.  The 
 religion  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  though  pagan  and  false,  was 
 symbolic.  The  philosophers  of  the  time  of  these  nations'  highest 
 intellectual  development  introduced  symbolism  into  their  philo- 
 sophic systems  in  order  to  increase  their  efficiency.  The  Hindu 
 religion  is  full  of  symbolism  and  man)'  of  the  Hindu  religious 
 fables,  derived  from  whatever  .source — whether  from  unwritten 
 tradition  or  from  contact  with  the  Jews — possess  this  feature  in 
 large  measure.  One  example  will  suffice,  viz.,  Krishna  suffering 
 — Krishna  triumphant.     This  divinity  is  represented  by  a  human 
 
SIGNIFICANCE  OF  SYMBOI.ISM.  35 
 
 figure  bound  in  the  coils  of  a  venomous  serpent  which  fastened 
 its  teeth  in  its  victim's  heel.  The  representation  of  Krishna 
 triumphant  shows  the  same  figure  crushing  with  his  heel  the 
 head  of  the  monster.  Though  the  doctrine  here  symbolized  has 
 long  been  forgotten  by  those  among  whom  the  legend  is  sacred, 
 it  is  founded,  very  evidently,  upon  the  promise  concerning  the 
 Seed  of  the  woman  and  the  serpent's  head.  This  is  a  striking 
 instance  of  the  fact  that  truth  will  live  in  symbols  long  after  it 
 has  perished  in  other  and  more  generally  used  forms.  When  the 
 time  shall  have  come  for  the  conversion  of  all  India  to  Christian- 
 ity thousands  will  receive  the  truth  the  more  willingly  because 
 they  have  had  a  representation  of  it,  distorted,  it  is  true,  set  be- 
 fore their  eyes  for  so  many  centuries. 
 
 Symbolism  is  thus  the  true  sign  of  the  cross,  hallowing  the 
 unholy.  It  is  a  good  salt  which,  cast  in,  purifies  the  spring, 
 Origen  recognized  in  the  Scriptures  a  three-fold  sense, — the  liter- 
 al, the  moral,  the  mystical  and  to  this  latter  sense  symbolism  is 
 closely  related. 
 
 Among  the  many  symbolic  passages  of  Old  Testament  and 
 of  New  Testament  Scriptures  the  following  are  notable: 
 
 Isaiah  ^^:  12,  And  I  will  make  thy  windows  of  agates,  and 
 thy  gates  of  carbuncles,  and  all  thy  borders  of  pleasant  stones. 
 
 Psalm  2j:  i,  The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd.  He  niaketh  me  to 
 lie  down  in  green  pastures,  He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 
 
 Jo/m  10:  II,  I  am  the  Good  Shepherd:  the  Good  Shepherd 
 giveth  His  life  for  the  sheep. 
 
 Matthew  26:  jp,  O  My  Father,  if  it  be  possible,  let  this  cup 
 pass  from  Me. 
 
 The  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine  is  rich  in 
 symbolism  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  scarcely  a  single  sym- 
 bol is  new.  The  figurative  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament  are  bor- 
 rowed and  transfigured.  They  are  intensified,  massed  and  asso- 
 ciated with  new  applications.  The  writer  of  this  Apocalypse 
 seems  to  feel  that  no  symbol  can  be  sacred  enough  for  his  use 
 unless  it  has  been  hallowed  by  associations  with  the  ancient 
 prophecies.  Here  is  a  seven-fold  vision,  made  up  of  visible  em- 
 blems which  are  echoes  from  the  prophecies  of  the  past.  There 
 is  reference  here  to  the  golden  candlestick,  seen  by  Zechariah;  to 
 the  wheel  within  wheel,  seen  by  Kzekiel;  to  the  Slain  lyamb,  seen 
 by  Isaiah;  to  the  burning  mountain,   seen  by  Jeremiah;  to  the 
 
3G  MEMOIRS. 
 
 sickle,  seen  by  Joel.  There  is  in  this  Revelation  frequent  use  of 
 the  symbolism  of  numbers.  While  we  must  be  careful  not  to 
 read  meanings  where  they  were  never  meant  the  significance  of 
 the  number  seven  is  clearly  indicated  in  many  parts  of  the  Bible, 
 particularly  in  the  last  book  of  the  New  Testament,  e.  g.,  the 
 seven  golden  candlesticks,  the  seven  seals,  the  seven  churches, 
 the  seven  apocalyptic  angels,  the  seven  stars,  the  seven  trumpets 
 and  the  seven  spirits  before  the  throne  of  God. 
 
 Further  reference  to  the  symbolism  of  number  will  be  made 
 at  the  close  of  this  paper. 
 
 With  .symbolic  writings,  enactments,  events,  personages,  ob- 
 ser\^ances,  buildings,  and  vestments  for  her  guidance,  how  can  the 
 Church  of  to-day  be  true  to  her  history  and  to  her  evident  in- 
 structions if  .she  fail  to  adopt  and  follow  symbolism  as  a  divine 
 and  an  historical  principle?  Symbolism  uses  real  personages, 
 real  actions  and  real  things  as  emblems  of  the  truth.  The  only 
 real  objection  that  can  be  urged  against  it  is  that  there  is  danger 
 of  giving  reverence  to  the  symbol  rather  than  to  the  truth  sym- 
 bolized, and  the  same  objection  may  be  made  against  Art  in  every 
 form — against  architecture,  music,  painting  and  poetry — but  that 
 is  the  viisuse  and  not  the  right  use  of  that  which  in  itself  is  alto- 
 gether good.  It  is  one  thing  to  adore  a  picture  and  it  is  quite 
 another  thing,  by  means  of  a  picture,  historically  to  learn  what 
 should  be  adored.  Rightly  understood  and  used  symbolism  is  a 
 powerful  aid  to  devotion.  It  may  require  courage  and  a  venture 
 of  faith  in  ministers  and  churches  to  break  away  from  the  popu- 
 lar and  puritanic  system  in  Art  and  forms  of  worship  and  accept 
 a  system  without  the  prestige  of  present  and  local  popularity, 
 but  if  the  new  is  in  the  way  of  historic  Christianity  it  ought  to 
 be  accepted  at  once. 
 
 The  mind  clings  tenaciously  to  ideas  made  familiar  by  the 
 usages  of  a  life  time  or  of  generations.  We  look  at  truth  through 
 surrounding  conditions.  Our  prejudices  are  often  mistaken  for 
 principles,  but  we  must  come  up  to  the  level  of  our  religion  or 
 we  shall  bring  our  religion  down  to  a  level  with  ourselves. 
 
 "The  invisible  things  of  Him,  from  the  creation  of  the  world, 
 are  clearly  seen,  being  understood  by  the  things  that  are  made." 
 
 The  use  of  symbolism,  1iy  the  churchly  communions,  for  the 
 purpose  of  teaching  Christian  history  and  impressing  Christian 
 truth,  is  but  a  practical  application  to  the  life  of    the  Church  of 
 
SIGNIFICANCE   OF   SYMBOI.ISM.  37 
 
 one  phase  of  Christian  Art.  It  is  but  the  adaptation  of  an  effi- 
 cient means  to  an  end  not  otherwise  attainable.  But  the  purpose 
 and  the  possibilities  of  symbolism  in  the  Service  of  the  Church 
 cannot  be  attained  without  an  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
 the  historic  symbols  themselves.  It  is  earnestly  hoped  the  fol- 
 lowing list  of  most  frequently  used  symbols  may  prove  interest- 
 ing and  useful  to  many  readers. 
 
 SYMBOLS  AND   THEIR   SIGNIFICATION. 
 
 Symbols  of  God  the  Father. 
 
 1.  The  Hand  Issuing  from  the  Clouds, — Omnipotence. 
 
 2.  The  Eye, — Omniscience. 
 
 3.  The  Flood  of  I^ight,  Ezekiel  8:  2, — Omnipresence. 
 
 Symbols  of  God  the  Son, 
 
 1.  The  Fish,— I-X-0-Y-2. 
 
 2.  The  Cross, — Christ's  Suffering — His  Humanity. 
 
 3.  The  Lion. 
 
 4.  The  Lamb. 
 
 5.  The  Vine. 
 
 Symbols  of  God  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
 1.  The  Dove. 
 
 2.  The  Tongue  of  Flame. 
 
 Symbols  of  the  Trinity. 
 
 1 .  The  Triangle,  sometimes  within  the  Circle,  the  symbol 
 j  of  Eternity. 
 
 2.  The  Three  Triangles,  interlaced. 
 
 3.  The  Three  Circles,  interlaced. 
 
 4.  The  Three  Fishes. 
 
 5.  The  Two  Human  Figures  with  a  Dove  between  them. 
 
 6.  The  Father  holding  by  its  cross-beam,  a  Cross  with  the 
 Figure  of  Christ  upon  it,  and  a  Dove  proceeding  downward  from 
 the  Lips  of  the  Father. 
 
 Symbols  of  the  Passion  and  Crucifixion  of  Christ. 
 
 1.  The  Cock. 
 
 2.  The  Purse. 
 
 3.  The  Sword  (of  Peter). 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 4.  The  Ear  (of  Malchus). 
 
 5.  The  Scourge. 
 
 6.  The  Spear. 
 
 7.  The  Nails. 
 
 8.  The  Sponge. 
 
 9.  The  Crown  of  Thorns. 
 
 10.  The  Heart,  the  Hands  and  the  Feet,  each  pierced. 
 
 General  Symbols. 
 
 1.  The  Cross,  in  general, — Christianity. 
 
 In  particular, — The  Sufferings  of  Christ. 
 The  Cross  is  sometimes  shown  with  precious  stones  at 
 the  extremities  and  at  the  intersection,  typifying  the  five  wounds 
 in  the  body  of  the  crucified  Christ.  There  are  various  forms  of 
 the  Cross:  the  Roman,  most  used;  the  Greek,  four  arms  of  equal 
 length;  St.  Andrews,  like  the  letter  X;  St.  Anthony's,  like  the 
 letter  T;  the  Labarum,  i.  e.,  the  Roman  Cross  with  X  P  (Chi 
 Rho)  interlaced. 
 
 2.  The  Lamb — Christ  our  Sacrifice. 
 
 3.  The  Lion— Christ  the  Lion  of  the  Tribe  of  Judah. 
 
 4.  The  Pelican — Christ  shedding  His  Blood  for  the  Life 
 of  His  People. 
 
 5.  The  Serpent,  trampled  under  foot,  or  twined  around  a 
 globe — Sin. 
 
 6.  The  Hart,  (Psalm  42:  i) — Religious  Aspiration, 
 
 7.  The  Olive  Branch — Peace. 
 
 8.  The  Palm  Branch,  (Revelation  7:  9) — Martyrdom. 
 The  Sword,  Flame,  Arrows,  Cauldrons,  Wheels,  Pon- 
 iards,— Martyrdom. 
 
 9.  The  Lily— Purity. 
 
 10.  The  Apple — Original  Sin. 
 
 1 1 .  A  Lamp,  Taper,  Book — The  Holy  Scriptures. 
 
 12.  The  Crown  and  Banner — Victory  over  Sin  and  Death. 
 
 13.  Wheat  Ears,    Grapes,    Wafer   and   Cup— The   Lord's 
 Supper. 
 
 14.  The  Ark— The  Church. 
 
 The  Symbolism  of  Numbers. 
 One — The  Unity  of  the  Godhead. 
 Two — The  Dual  Nature  of  Christ. 
 Three— The  Holy  Trinity. 
 
SIGNIFICANCE   OF  SYMBOLISM.  39 
 
 Four — The  Evangelists:  Sts.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke   and 
 
 John. 
 
 Six — The  Attributes  of  Deity — power,  majesty,  love,  wis- 
 dom, mercy,  justice. 
 
 Seven — Perfection . 
 
 It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  often  this  idea  is  involved  in 
 its  use,  e.  g., — 
 
 Balaam  built  seven  altars  and  prepared  seven  oxen  and  seven 
 rams  for  sacrifice  to  test  the  will  of  God. 
 
 Job  referring  to  the  effectual  protection  of  Providence,  says, 
 "In  seven  troubles  there  shall  no  evil  touch  thee,"  and  again, 
 "Wisdom  hath  hewn  her  seven  pillars." 
 
 As  a  sign  of  perfect  submission  Jacob  bowed  himself  seven 
 times  before  his  brother. 
 
 Jericho  was  circled  seven  times  before  it  fell. 
 Naaman  was  commanded  to  bathe  seven  times  in  the  Jordan. 
 Samson  was  bound  with  seven  bonds. 
 
 The  Jewish  Church  has  seven  great  holy  days  in  each  year. 
 The  first  board  of  Deacons  in  the  early  Church  consisted  of 
 seven  men  of  honest  report. 
 
 "How  oft  shall  my  brother  sin  against  me  and  I  forgive 
 him.     Till  seven  times?" 
 
 The  seventh  year  was  to  be  observed  as  a  Sabbath  and  at 
 the  end  of  the  seven  times  seven  came  the  great  year  of  Jubilee. 
 The  seventh  period  marks  the  completion  of  God's  creative 
 acts. 
 
 There  are  seven  penitential  Psalms,  viz.,  vi,  xxxii,  xxxviii, 
 li,  cii,  cxxx,  cxliii.     Many  other  examples  of  the  significant  use 
 of  the  number  seven  might  be  cited. 
 Eight — Regeneration. 
 Forty — The  Period  of  Probation  or  Trial. 
 The  Israelites  wandered  forty  years  in  the  wilderness. 
 They  were  forty  years  in  bondage  under  the  Philistines. 
 Moses  was  forty  days  on  Mount  Sinai. 
 Elijah  was  in  hiding  forty  days. 
 
 The  rain  descended  for  forty  days  when  the  earth  was  de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 The  Ninevites  had  Jonah's  warnings  for  forty  days. 
 Our  Master  fasted  in  the  wilderness  forty  days. 
 
40  iMEMOIRS. 
 
 Symbolism  of  Color. 
 
 White — Innocence,  Purity,  Holiness. 
 Red — Ardent  Love  and  Burning  Zeal,  Divine  Love. 
 Green — Life,  Hope,  Fruitfulne.ss,  Viclory. 
 Purple — Royal  Majesty,  Imperial  Power,  won  by  Humili- 
 ation and  Suffering. 
 
 Black— Deep  Grief,  "The  Wages  of  Sin." 
 
 Blue — Heaven,  Truth,  Constancy. 
 
 Yellow — Goodness  of  God,  Richness  of  God's  Mercy. 
 
 George  J.  Gongaware. 
 Greensbu rg,    Pa. 
 
THE   COIvIvECTS. 
 
 Probably  there  is  no  other  subject  in  the  whole  liturgical  do- 
 main so  fascinating  and  so  richly  capable  of  repaying  study  as 
 the  Collects.  In  the  pericopes  we  have  parts  of  the  Word  of 
 God  used  from  of  old  by  the  Church  to  give  expression  to  the 
 central  truths  of  Christ's  redemptive  work  and  its  application  to 
 the  life  of  the  Church.  In  the  Introits,  the  Psalter,  the  Anti- 
 phons,  the  Invitatories,  the  Responsories,  the  Canticles,  with  a 
 few  exceptions,  and  almost  every  other  part  of  the  Service  we 
 have  the  choicest  outbursts  of  saintly  devotion  transferred  from 
 the  written  Word  to  the  Church's  Liturgy.  To  the  writer  one 
 of  the  greatest  charms  as  well  as  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  help- 
 fulness of  the  beautiful  Lutheran  Services  has  always  been  its 
 large  infusion  of  the  very  words  of  Holy  Scripture  resulting  in  a 
 quickened  zeal  for  the  closer  study  of  God's  Word  and  a  height- 
 ened appreciation  of  its  inestimable  treasures.  In  the  reverent 
 use  of  our  Service  we  are  indeed  translating  God's  revealed  truth 
 into  terms  of  our  own  devotion  and  so  making  it  part  of  our 
 Christian  experience.  The  sacramental  element  predominates  in 
 the  Lutheran  Service  because  the  Lutheran  Church  always  mag- 
 nifies the  gifts  of  God's  grace,  especially  the  gift  of  His  love  in 
 the  Incarnation.  Therefore,  as  her  theology  is  Christocentric, 
 her  Service  ever  keeps  close  to  the  cardinal  truths  of  God's  com- 
 ing to  man  to  save  him  and  God's  working  in  man  to  will  and  to 
 do  of  His  own  good  pleasure.  No  other  liturgy  makes  so  much 
 of  the  Divine  element  in  worship  as  in  life.  None  other  so  ex- 
 alts our  God  and  His  Christ.  We  cannot  do  otherwise  without 
 losing  our  heritage  of  truth  and  betraying  the  Lord  of  our  lives. 
 Our  Service  stands  first  and  supremely  for  the  declaration  of 
 God's  will  and  God's  love,  for  the  impartation  of  God's  life  to 
 human  needs,  for  the  promotion  of  God's  Kingdom  and  the  doing 
 
 (xli) 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  His  will  among  men  according  to  the  divinely-revealed  stand- 
 ard, for  the  praise  of  the  glory  of  His  grace.  Whether  the  act 
 be  liturgically  classified  as  sacramental  or  sacrificial,  the  words, 
 as  far  as  possible,  are  the  words  of  the  record  of  revelation,  the 
 words  of  the  Holy  Spirit  penned  by  prophet  and  psalmist  and 
 evangelist  and  apostle.  The  lover  of  the  Word  cannot  help  ad- 
 miring the  lyUtheran  Service  reverently  rendered.  The  devoted 
 Lutheran  worshipper  must  become  a  student  of  the  Word  whose 
 atmosphere  he  breathes  throughout  the  Service.  This  is  the 
 glory  of  our  Service,  that  we  seek  to  give  Christ  His  rightful 
 place  and  to  hear  the  Holy  Spirit  speak  in  Word  and  Sacrament, 
 that  we  cultivate  therein  the  fellowship  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 
 
 Not  that  the  human  element  is  either  crowded  out  or  crowd- 
 ed into  a  corner  in  the  Service.  Taught  by  the  Spirit  Himself 
 to  speak  the  language  of  God,  the  believer  is  trained  in  Christ's 
 school  of  prayer  to  respond  to  His  overtures  of  grace  and  to  ac- 
 cept His  gifts  of  mercy.  In  confession  and  creed,  in  hymn  and 
 prayer,  we  approach  God  with  our  own  words  as  we  offer  to  Him 
 those  sacrifices  which  it  becomes  His  spiritual  priests  to  render. 
 And  yet  not  really  with  our  own  poor,  feeble,  lifele.ss  words 
 but  rather  with  His  own  rich,  life-giving  words  which  we  have 
 translated  into  the  language  of  our  desires  and  our  praises. 
 Prayer  is  pleading  God's  promises  with  God  or  since  all  the  Di- 
 vine promises  to  man  are  fulfilled  in  Jesus  Christ,  it  is  pleading 
 Christ's  merits  with  our  reconciled  Father.  Keeping  this  truth 
 in  mind,  we  can  never  go  very  far  from  God's  Word  in  our 
 prayer  life  and  yet  keep  very  close  to  our  God.  If  we  have  been 
 with  Jesus,  we  must  reflect  Him  to  the  world  and  if  we  have 
 been  students  of  God's  truth,  we  must  show  the  results  of  our 
 study  when  entering  the  presence  of  the  Divine  Teacher.  To 
 examine  ourselves  whether  we  be  in  the  faith  is  to  test  ourselves 
 by  God's  Word  and  to  enjoy  the  blessings  of  the  life  of  fellowship 
 we  must  pray  as  did  the  disciples,  "Lord,  teach  us  to  pray." 
 The  Divine  standard  cannot  be  lowered.  As  Moses  was  com- 
 manded to  build  the  tabernacle  according  to  the  plan  showed 
 him  in  the  holy  mount,  so  must  our  prayers  and  our  praises  be 
 the  personal,  believing,  loving,  hopeful  appropriation  of  God's 
 truth  in  Jesus  Christ. 
 
 The  lover  of  the  liturgy  must  be  an  apologist.  The  Lu- 
 theran teaching  concerning  Church  Services  and  ceremonies  is  so 
 
THE   COLLECTS.  43 
 
 catholic  and  so  harmonious  with  the  spiritual  worship  of  the  God 
 Who  is  spirit  that  great  care  must  always  be  taken  not  to  offend 
 weak  brethren  nor  to  cause  a  schism  among  the  members  of  the 
 Body  of  Christ  by  even  unduly  urging  the  preeminent  claims  of 
 our  wondrously  beautiful  Service.  Our  own  people  uninstructed 
 and  often  prejudiced  against  what  is  churchly  because  of  outside 
 influences  are  often  found  speaking  of  "our  denomination"  and 
 so  really  losing  sight  of  the  fact  that  ours  is  the  Catholic  and 
 Apostolic  Church  continued  in  unbroken  succession  from  the 
 earliest  times  even  to  the  present.  Let  the  pastor  teach  his  cate- 
 chumens that  they  are  in  the  Church  of  Christ  by  virtue  of  their 
 Baptism  and  are  to  receive  His  Body  and  Blood  in  His  Church. 
 We  need  not  be  rude  nor  uncharitable  to  our  neighbors  but  we 
 ought  to  realize  that,  as  Dr.  Philip  Schaff  said  of  the  Augsburg 
 Confession,  so  may  we  say  of  our  Service,  "It  is  the  most  Chris- 
 tian, the  most  catholic,  the  most  conservative  in  Christen- 
 dom." 
 
 Particularly  in  reference  to  our  set  forms  of  prayer,  forms  of 
 sound  words,  are  we  assailed  by  many  within  our  own  Commun- 
 ion. Formal,  mechanical,  cold,  lifeless,  perfunctory,  our  prayers 
 are  said  to  be.  Often,  perhaps,  justly  so  characterized  because 
 of  the  slipshod,  slovenly  manner  in  which  they  are  read.  Often 
 likewise  so  described  simply  because  the  book  is  used  and  the 
 minister's  own  words  are  considered  superior  to  the  words  which 
 have  helped  and  comforted  saintly  souls  for  many  ages.  To  ex- 
 ercise the  wisdom  of  serpents  with  the  harmlessness  of  doves  is 
 necessary  here  as  elsewhere.  We  may  use  free  prayers  in  our 
 Services  but  if  substituted  for  the  set  Collects  de  tempore  which 
 is  hardly  conceivable  where  there  is  any  Lutheran  consciousness 
 whatsoever,  or  for  the  General  Prayer  after  the  sermon  which  is 
 quite  frequent,  we  must  be  careful  to  let  the  prayers  not  be  the 
 expression  of  individual  but  of  congregational  needs,  of  the  needs 
 of  Christ's  universal  Church.  The  free  prayer,  according  to  Lu- 
 theran usage,  is  properly  used  in  connection  with  the  sermon. 
 Correct  teaching  concerning  the  nature  of  prayer  and  the  differ- 
 ence between  Church  prayers  and  private  prayers  will  help  to  do 
 away  with  the  complaints  often  made  of  the  cold  and  prayerless 
 life  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  Never  was  the  Church  of  Christ 
 so  richly  fitted  for  an  ardent  devotional  life  as  when  with  purified 
 teachings,  her  Services  were  likewise  purified.     God  help  us  to 
 
44  MEMOIRS. 
 
 realize  the  wealth  of  blessings  left  to  us  in  the  Collects  and  to  use 
 them  to  His  glory. 
 
 The  prayers  of  the  Lutheran  Liturgy  properly  consist  of  the 
 Litany  which  stands  by  itself,  the  General  Prayers  and  the  Col- 
 lects. The  Lord's  Prayer  of  course  occupies  a  unique  position. 
 The  value  of  the  Litany  only  those  will  learn  to  know  who  use  it 
 all  the  year  round  and  not  only  in  Lent.  Responsive  prayer  is 
 surely  as  helpful  as  the  antiphonal  use  of  the  Psalter.  The  Gen- 
 eral Prayer  is  really  a  series  of  amplified  Collects.  The  Collect 
 usually  has  one  central  thought  while  the  short  prayers,  which 
 joined  together  constitute  the  General  Prayer,  elaborate  the  main 
 petition  and,  like  the  Litany,  enumerate  those  for  whom  we  pray. 
 It  would  perhaps  be  a  good  thing  were  our  General  Prayer  to  be 
 so  arranged  with  the  proper  invocations  and  conclusions  that  the 
 people  might  respond  Amen.  Its  real  structure  would  then  be 
 more  easily  apparent. 
 
 The  meaning  of  the  word  Collect  is  surrounded  by  consider- 
 able doubt.  Various  significations  are  suggested  according  to 
 the  varying  points  of  view  which  are  taken.  "The  Latin  word 
 is  Collccla,  which  may  mean  a  gathering  of  any  sort — of  money, 
 as  at  a  collection  in  church  for  some  charitable  object;  or  of  peo- 
 ple, as  when  two  or  three  are  'gathered  together'  for  common 
 prayer;  or  of  subjects  of  thought  or  study,  as  when  an  author  at 
 the  end  of  a  chapter  gathers  up  in  a  short  summary  or  recapitu- 
 lates what  he  has  said."*  The  idea  of  a  gathering  is  contained 
 in  the  word.  What  is  gathered  together  in  this  prayer?  Is  it 
 the  prayers  of  the  people  which  the  minister,  in  using  the  Collect, 
 presents  in  the  briefest  possible  collected  form  before  God?  Is 
 it  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Epistle  for  the  day,  whose 
 central  truth  and  promise  become  the  basis  of  our  plea  before 
 God?  Is  it  that  collectedness  of  mind  required  in  all  true  wor- 
 ship, and  without  doubt  so  admirably  expressed  by  the  Collects? 
 Or  did  the  word  originally  mean  only  a  gathering  of  people  in 
 the  church  and  was  it  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  fuller  expres- 
 sion, oratio  ad  collcdam,  a  prayer  to  be  used  at  an  assemblage  for 
 Divine  worship?  iCach  of  these  meanings  is  .suggestive  and  each 
 may  be  applied  to  the  Collects  as  we  have  them.  Beginning  with 
 the  last,  we  may  say  that  the  Collect  is  a  puplic  rather  than  a 
 
 •  7'hc  Collects  of  the  Day  by  Edward  Moyrick  C.oulburn,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 
 sometime  Dean  of  Norwich,  Vol.  I,  p.  Ii. 
 
THB   COLIwECTS.  45 
 
 private  prayer,  intended  for  the  Service  of  God's  house  though 
 not  inappropriate  to  the  privacy  of  individual  prayer.  It  does 
 denote  the  concentration  of  mind  and  singleness  of  purpose  which 
 ought  to  characterize  true  worship  in  that  its  very  brevity  re- 
 quires careful  attention  and  thought  to  be  helpfully  appropriated. 
 It  is  always  in  harmony  with  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  and  often 
 throws  much  light  upon  their  central  teachings.  And  without 
 doubt  the  testimony  of  our  own  experience  in  the  use  of  the  Col- 
 lects leads  us  to  acknowledge  that  they  gather  up  the  throbs  and 
 the  desires  of  man}-  hearts  and  present  them  in  one  overwhelming 
 desire,  resting  upon  a  Divine  promise  before  the  mercy-seat. 
 The  Collect  then  is  a  brief  congregational  prayer  resting  upon  a 
 particular  promise  of  God's  Word  and  uttering  the  need  of  the 
 Church  in  her  weakness  and  sorrow.  Note  its  marks.  It  is 
 brief  and  concise  in  form,  Scriptural  in  content,  pleading  God's 
 promises,  congregational  in  use  and  application,  voicing  human 
 needs  and  specially  the  needs  of  God's  Kingdom  among  men. 
 
 The  structure  of  the  Collect  is  very  interesting.  In  its  full 
 form  it  has  five  parts  thus  stated  by  Neale: — I.  The  Invocation. 
 II.  The  Antecedent  Reason.  III.  The  Petition.  IV.  The  Ben- 
 efit Desired.  V.  The  Conclusion.  The  Collects  are  usually  ad- 
 dressed to  the  Father,  sometimes  to  the  Son,  occasionally  to  the 
 Holy  Spirit.  The  antecedent  reason  deals  with  some  attribute  of 
 God  which  is  made  the  basis  of  the  special  petition  offered,  or 
 lays  hold  upon  a  special  promise  which  faith  desires  to  realize. 
 The  petition  proper  is  contained  in  a  single  sentence.  The  ben- 
 efit or  blessing  to  be  obtained  from  this  petition  is  then  stated. 
 The  conclusions  are  uniform  even  when  not  so  designated.  If 
 the  Collect  be  addressed  to  the  Father,  the  words  are:  '^ Per  Dom- 
 inurn  nostrum  Jesuvi  Christuvi,  Filium  Tuutn,  qui  Tecum  vivit  et 
 regnatin  unitate  Spiritus  Sa7icti,  Deus  per  oviyiia  scecula  saculorum. 
 Amen."  If  to  the  Son:  ''Qui  vivis  et  regnas  cum  Deo  Patre  hi 
 unitate  Spiritus  Sancti,  Deus  per  omnia  scscula  sesadorum,.     Amen. ' ' 
 
 To  show  these  five  parts  take  for  example  that  incomparably 
 beautiful  Collect,  the  Collect  for  Purity  (No.  66  of  the  Collects 
 and  Prayers  in  the  lyiturgy)  which  is  called  the  Constant  Collect 
 in  the  Communion  Office  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The 
 I^atin  and  its  English  rendition  are  here  presented  side  by  side: 
 
 Deus ^cuiomne  cor patet  et  om-     O  God,  unto  Whom  all  hearts 
 nis  voluntas  loquitur  et  quern  7iul-     are  open,  all  desires  known  and 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 lum  latet  sccretnm;  p7irifica  per    from  Whom  no  secrets  are  hid; 
 infiisioiicvi  Sancti  Spirihis  cogi-     cleanse    the    thoughts    of    our   , 
 tatioiiis  cordis  nostri;  nt  Tc  per-     hearts  by  the  inspiration  of  Thy   I 
 fecte    diligere    et  dig7ie  laiidarc     Holy  Spirit,  that  we  may  per- 
 mereamur.^     Per  Jesttm   Chris-     fcctly  love  Thee,  and  worthily    : 
 timi  Doviimc7n  nostrtim .     Amen,     magnify     Thy     holy     Name;    | 
 
 through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 
 
 Amen, 
 
 I.  The  Invocation:     "O  God." 
 
 II.  The  Antecedent  Reason:  "Unto  Whom  all  hearts 
 are  open,  all  desires  are  known  and  from  Whom  no  secrets  are 
 hid."  All  things  are  open  unto  the  eyes  of  Him  with  Whom  we 
 have  to  do.  He  reads  the  human  heart  like  an  open  book.  Ev- 
 ery desire  finds  a  voice  when  it  wings  itself  to  the  throne  of 
 grace.  Nothing  lies  hidden  from  Him.  Compare  these  words 
 with  Psalm  139. 
 
 III.  The  Petition  Proper:     "Clean.se  the  thoughts  of  our  ; 
 hearts  by  the  inspiration  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit."     ' 'As  a  man  think-  | 
 eth  in  his  heart,  so  is  he,"  said  the  wise  man,  and  a  wiser  than  j 
 Solomon  said,  "Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart:  for  they  shall  see 
 God."     The  prayer  of  the  .(^/M<:r<:r<?  recurs  to  our  minds:  "Create 
 in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  God,  and  renew  a  right  spirit  within  me. 
 Cast  me  not  away  from  Thy  presence  and  take  not  Thy  Holy 
 Spirit  from  me."     The  Holy  Spirit  must  lead  us  to  think  God's 
 thoughts  after  Him  that  we  may  attain  the  blessing. 
 
 IV.  The  Benefit  to  Be  Obtained:     "That  we  may  per- 
 fectly love  Thee  and  worthily  magnify  Thy  holy  Name."     Per- 
 fect love  toward  God  and  perfect  praise  of  His  Name  can  result 
 only  from  perfect  heart  harmony  with  His  blessed  will,   from  i 
 purified  thoughts  inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  I 
 
 V.  The  Conclusion:  "Through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 
 In  this  exquisite  Collect  the  fatherly  care  and  providence  of  God, 
 the  sanctifying  work  of  the  Spirit  and  the  mediation  of  Christ 
 are  beautifully  recognized.  It  has  been  thus  fully  treated  sim- 
 ply to  show  the  wonderful  mines  of  hidden  spiritual  treasures  in 
 the  Collects  of  the  Church. 
 
 •  Mereor  in  mediaeval  Latin  is  used  in  a  lower  than  its  original  sense,  to  de- 
 serve. Even  in  classical  Latin  the  verb  mt-no  has  hardly  any  thought  of  merit  con- 
 nected with  it,  meaning  simply  to  win,  gain,  attain  unto.  Mr.  Maitland  in  his  Dark 
 Aiies,  p.  387,  Note  4,  thinks  there  is  very  little  of  the  popish  doctrine  of  merit  in 
 this  word  in  ecclesiastical  Latin. 
 
THK  COLLECTS.  47 
 
 Though  the  writer  desires  to  make  this  paper  appreciative 
 rather  than  historical,  realizing  that  volumes  have  already  been 
 written  on  the  subject  of  the  Collects,  yet  it  is  necessary  here 
 briefly  to  refer  to  the  origin  of  these  admirable  prayers. 
 
 The  Collects  for  the  Sundays  and  chief  festivals  are  almost 
 entirely  of  pre-Reformation  origin.  They  are  taken  from  the 
 I^eonine,  the  Gelasian  and  the  Gregorian  Sacramentaries.  A 
 Sacramentary  was  a  book  containing  the  Collects  and  the  un- 
 changeable part  of  the  Service  called  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  just 
 as  the  Lectionary  contained  the  Epistles,  the  Evangelistary  the 
 Gospels,  and  the  Antiphonary  the  Anthems.  The  earliest  in  date 
 of  the  Sacramentaries  is  known  by  the  name  of  I^eo  I,  Bishop  of 
 Rome,  A.  D.,  440  to  A.  D.  461.  The  following  Collects*  in  our 
 Service  are  Eeonine,  i.  e.,  assignable  to  that  Sacramentary  but  in 
 use  probably  very  much  earlier:  III  Sunday  after  Easter  (Jubi- 
 late), the  IV,  the  XII  and  the  XIII  after  Trinity.  They  are 
 here  appended  in  order  to  show  that  they  were  prayers  that 
 Christ's  people  might  be  kept  faithful  in  that  period  of  storm  and 
 stress. 
 
 III  Easter:  "Almighty  God,  Who  showest  to  them  that  be 
 in  error  the  light  of  Thy  truth  to  the  intent  that  they  may  return 
 into  the  way  of  righteousness:  Grant  unto  all  them  that  are  ad- 
 mitted into  the  fellowship  of  Christ's  religion  that  they  may  es- 
 chew those  things  that  are  contrary  to  their  profession  and  follow 
 all  such  things  as  are  agreeable  to  the  same;  through  our  Lord 
 Jesus  Christ." 
 
 IV  Trinity:  "Grant,  O  I^ord,  we  beseech  Thee,  that  the 
 course  of  this  world  may  be  so  peaceably  ordered  by  Thy  govern- 
 ance that  Thy  Church  may  joyfully  serve  Thee  in  all  godly  qui- 
 etness; through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  I,ord." 
 
 XII  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  merciful  God,  of  Whose  only 
 gift  it  Cometh  that  Thy  faithful  people  do  unto  Thee  true  and 
 laudable  service:  Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  that  we  may  so  faith- 
 fully serve  Thee  in  this  life  that  we  fail  not  finally  to  attain  Thy 
 Heavenly  promises;  through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 
 
 XIII  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  everlasting  God,  Give  unto 
 us  the  increase  of  faith,  hope  and  charity;  and  that  we  may  obtain 
 that  which  Thou  dost  promise,   make  us   to   love   that   which 
 
 *  Taken  from  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England  hy  the  Rev.  H.  E.  Jacobs, 
 D.  D.,  p.  297. 
 
48  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Thou  dost  command;  tlirou<(h  Jesiis  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our 
 Lord." 
 
 In  writing  of  the  Collect  for  IV  Trinity  Goulburn  beautifully 
 says:  "When  the  Goths,  the  Huns  and  the  Vandals  were  hover- 
 ing over  the  moril^und  Roman  Empire  like  a  flight  of  vultures 
 preparing  to  poiuice  upon  a  dying  camel  in  the  desert  as  soon  as 
 the  breath  is  out  of  his  body,  there  was  certainly  some  point  and 
 there  was  likely  to  be  some  sincerity  in  such  a  prayer."  And 
 to-day  when  Mormonism  is  rampant  and  Dowieism  about  to  swoop 
 down  upon  New  York  with  thousands  of  its  fanatical  followers 
 and  Christian  Science  spreading  among  cultured  people  because  of 
 its  attractive  way  of  putting  away  sin  and  promising  rest,  surely 
 Christ's  people  need  to  eschew  those  things  that  are  contrary  to 
 their  profession  and  to  follow  all  such  things  as  are  agreeable  to 
 the  same.  With  the  Goths  and  Vandals  of  destructive  criticism 
 and  iconoclasm  and  moral  laxity  due,  to  a  great  extent,  to  relig- 
 ious indiflference  threathening  us  on  every  side,  we  need  to  purify 
 our  prayer  life  and  pray  earnestly  that  Christ's  Church  may  joy- 
 fully serve  Him  in  all  godly  quietness.  There  is,  indeed,  food 
 for  thought  in  these  beautiful  prayers. 
 
 Gelasius  was  raised  to  the  Bishopric  of  Rome  A.  D.  492. 
 In  the  very  next  year  Theodoric,  the  Ostrogoth,  at  the  head  of 
 his  army  of  barbarians,  assassinated  Odoacer  and  succeeded  him 
 as  king  of  Italy.  Rome  was  no  longer  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
 government.  The  emperors  had  withdrawn  to  Ravenna,  a  great 
 naval  and  military  station  on  the  Adriatic,  and  the  barbarian 
 kings  who  succeeded  them  made  Ravenna  their  capital.  The 
 power  of  the  popes  was  rapidly  increasing  and  political  changes 
 and  religious  controversies  made  the  time  one  of  great  unrest. 
 The  Collects  of  this  period  bear  unmistakable  traces  of  the  pre- 
 vailing unquietness.  To-day  of  course  we  give  a  spiritual  inter- 
 pretation to  these  frequently-repeated  petitions  for  peace  and 
 quietness,  but  it  is  very  interesting  to  note  the  times  which  gave 
 rise  to  prayers  such  as  these.  And  amid  our  distress  and  in  the 
 restlessness  of  modern  life  we  find  these  Collects  wonderfully 
 helpful.  The  following  Collects  are  traceable  to  the  Gelasian 
 Sacramentary:  II,  III,  IV  Advent,  Christmas  Eve,  Christmas, 
 the  First  of  the  Other  Collects  for  Advent,  Palmarum,  Easter 
 Eve,  Easter  Day,  II,  IV,  V  Sundays  after  Easter,  the  Sunday 
 after  Ascension,  I,  III,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX,  X,  XI,  XIV, 
 
THE  COLLECTS.  49 
 
 XV,  XVII,  XVIII,  XIX,  XX  after  Trinity.*  A  few  of  these 
 Collects  are  here  given. 
 
 For  Advent:  "Mercifully  hear,  O  Lord,  the  prayers  of  Thy 
 people;  that  as  they  rejoice  in  the  Advent  of  Thine  Only-Begot- 
 ten Son  according  to  the  flesh,  so  when  He  cometh  a  second  time 
 in  His  Majesty  they  may  receive  the  reward  of  eternal  life." 
 
 For  Christmas  Night:  "O  God,  Who  hast  made  this  most 
 holy  night  to  shine  with  the  brightness  of  the  true  Light:  Grant, 
 we  beseech  Thee,  that  as  we  have  known  on  earth  the  mysteries 
 of  that  Light,  we  may  also  come  to  the  fulness  of  its  joys  in 
 Heaven." 
 
 For  Christmas  Day:  "Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  Almighty 
 God,  that  the  new  birth  of  Thine  Only-Begotten  Son  in  the  flesh 
 may  set  us  free  who  are  held  in  the  old  bondage  under  the  yoke 
 of  sin." 
 
 Palmarum :  '  'Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  Who  hast  sent 
 Thy  Son,  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  to  take  upon  Him  our  flesh, 
 and  to  suffer  death  upon  the  cross,  that  all  mankind  should  fol- 
 low the  example  of  His  great  humility:  Mercifully  grant  that  we 
 may  both  follow  the  example  of  His  patience  and  also  be  made 
 partakers  of  His  Resurrection." 
 
 Easter  Eve:  "O  God,  Who  didst  enlighten  this  most  holy 
 night  with  the  glory  of  the  Lord's  Resurrection:  Preserve  in  all 
 Thy  people  the  Spirit  of  adoption  which  Thou  hast  given,  so  that 
 renewed  in  body  and  soul  they  may  perform  unto  Thee  a  pure 
 service." 
 
 Easter  Day:  "Almighty  God,  Who  through  Thine  Only- 
 Begotten  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  hast  overcome  death  and  opened  unto 
 us  the  gate  of  everlasting  life:t  We  humbly  beseech  Thee,  that, 
 as  Thou  dost  put  into  our  minds  good  desires,  so  by  Thy  contin- 
 ual help  we  may  bring  the  same  to  good  effect." 
 
 IV  Easter  (Cantate):  "O  God,  Who  makest  the  minds  of 
 the  faithful  to  be  of  one  will:  Grant  unto  Thy  people  that  they 
 may  love  what  Thou  commandest  and  desire  what  Thou  dost 
 promise;  that,  among  the  manifold  changes  of  this  world,  our 
 hearts  may  there  be  fixed  where  true  joys  are  to  be  found." 
 
 HI  Trinity:     "O   God,  the  Protector  of  all  that  trust  in 
 
 *  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  p.  298,  taken   from  Gerbert's  Monu- 
 menta  veteris  Liturgice  Alemannicce,  supplemented  by  Muratori's  Lilurgia  Romana. 
 t  The  following  part  of  the  Collect  is  Gregorian. 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Thee,  without  Whom  nothing  is  strong,  nothing  is  holy:  Increase 
 and  multiply  upon  us  Thy  mercy;  that  Thou  being  our  Ruler  and 
 Guide,  we  may  so  pass  through  things  temporal  that  we  finally 
 lose  not  the  things  eternal." 
 
 V  Trinity:  "O  God,  Who  hast  prepared  for  them  that  love 
 Thee  such  good  things  as  pass  man's  understanding;  Pour  into 
 our  hearts  such  love  toward  Thee,  that  we,  loving  Thee  above  all 
 things,  may  obtain  Thy  promises  which  exceed  all  that  we  can 
 desire." 
 
 VI  Trinity:  "Lord  of  all  power  and  might,  Who  art  the 
 Author  and  Giver  of  all  good  things:  Graft  in  our  hearts  the  love 
 of  Thy  Name,  increase  in  us  true  religion,  nourish  us  with  all 
 goodness,  and  of  Thy  great  mercy  keep  us  in  the  same." 
 
 XI  Trinity:  "Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  Who  art  al- 
 ways more  ready  to  hear  than  we  to  pray  and  art  wont  to  give 
 more  than  either  we  desire  or  deserve:  Pour  down  upon  us  the 
 abundance  of  Thy  mercy,  forgiving  us  those  things  whereof  our 
 conscience  is  afraid,  and  giving  us  those  good  things  which  we 
 are  not  worthy  to  ask  but  through  the  merits  and  mediation  of 
 Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 
 
 XX  Trinity:  "Grant,  we  beseech  Thee,  merciful  Lord,  to 
 Thy  faithful  people  pardon  and  peace,  that  they  may  be  cleansed 
 from  all  their  sins  and  serve  Thee  with  a  quiet  mind." 
 
 But  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  as  it  is  probably  the  best 
 known  of  the  Gelasian  Collects  is  the  Collect  for  Peace  printed 
 three  times  in  our  Liturgy,  as  the  fixed  Collect  for  Vespers,  at 
 the  close  of  the  Litany  and  at  the  close  of  the  Suffrages.  "0 
 God,  from  Whom  all  holy  desires,  all  good  counsels  and  all  just 
 works  do  proceed:  Give  unto  Thy  servants  that  peace  which  the 
 world  cannot  give;  that  our  hearts  may  be  set  to  obey  Thy  com- 
 mandments, and  also  that  by  Thee,  we,  being  defended  from  the 
 fear  of  our  enemies,  may  pass  our  time  in  rest  and  quietness: 
 through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour." 
 
 "One  has  seen  at  the  root  of  a  decaying  tree  tufts  of  wild 
 hyacinths  or  primroses,  the  seeds  of  which,  wafted  by  winds  or 
 carried  by  birds  or  in.sects,  have  found  in  this  friable,  corrupting 
 soil  a  congenial  habitat.  And  there  are  corresixDudences  in  the 
 moral  world  with  this  natural  phenomenon.  When  the  old  Ro 
 man  Empire  was  in  its  last  stage  of  decay,  when  all  old  landmarks 
 were  being  removed  and  old  institutions  were  going  to  pieces, 
 
THE   COLLECTS.  5l 
 
 then  appeared  for  the  first  time  these  bunches  of  fragrant  beau- 
 tiful prayers,  giving  token  of  a  spiritual  vitality  below  the  sur- 
 face of  society,  a  sure  evidence  that  all  was  not  corrupt,  that  the 
 antiseptic  salt  of  God's  grace  in  the  hearts  of  His  elect  still  en- 
 dured and  had  not  lost  its  savor. ' '  * 
 
 Gregory  the  Great  became  Bishop  of  Rome  A.  D.  590.  The 
 following  Collects  are  taken  from  his  Sacramentary:  I  Advent, 
 Sunday  after  Christmas,  II  Other  Collect  for  Advent,  Epiphany, 
 I,  II,  III,  IV,  V  after  Epiphany,  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima, 
 Quinquagesima,  II,  III,  IV,  V  Sundays  in  Lent,  Monday,  Tues- 
 day and  Wednesday  in  Holy  Week,  Other  Easter  Collects,  I  after 
 Easter,  I  for  Ascension,  Whitsunday,  Monday  in  Whitsun-Week, 
 XVI,  XXI,  XXII,  XXIII,  XXIV  after  Trinity.  "In  compar- 
 ing them  with  the  Anglican  Collects  we  must  remember  that, 
 after  the  Third  Sunday  after  Trinity ,  the  Anglican  Collects  fall 
 one  Sunday  behind,  and  that  elsewhere,  as  in  the  first  three  Sun- 
 days in  Advent,  the  Anglicans  have  composed  new  Collects  while 
 we  retain  the  ancient  Collects. ' '  f 
 
 Besides  the  Collects  de  tempore  our  Book  contains  a  number 
 of  beautiful  Collects  and  Prayers  classified  as  follows:  For  the 
 Holy  Spirit,  For  the  Church,  For  the  Civil  Authorities,  In  Time 
 of  Affliction  and  Distress,  Thanksgiving,  For  Special  Gifts  and 
 Graces,  For  Answer  to  Prayer,  and  Eitany  Collects.  All  of  these 
 would  well  repay  special  study  but  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of 
 this  paper  to  take  them  up  in  detail.  We  are  immeasurably  in- 
 debted to  the  compilers  of  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
 for  the  beautiful  versions  of  the  Collects  which  we  use  in  com- 
 mon with  that  branch  of  the  Church.  One  of  the  four  variable 
 parts  of  the  Service,  like  the  Introits,  the  Gospels  and  the  Epis- 
 tles, the  Collects,  always  tell  us  of  the  great  fact  and  truth 
 commemorated  by  the  Church.  They  are  our  response  to  the 
 Heavenly  gifts  of  life  and  godliness. 
 
 Brief  but  comprehensive,  Churchly,  catholic.  Scriptural,  the 
 Collects,  like  the  hymns  unite  us  with  the  Church  of  Christ  in 
 every  age  and  in  every  land.  As  a  common  confession  of  faith 
 is  made,  as  common  praises  ascend  from  many  sanctuaries,  so  in 
 the  Collects  do  we  have  real  common  prayer.  Eet  us  study 
 them  ourselves  and  teach  them  to  our  people.     As  the  Salutation 
 
 *   The  Collects,  Goulburn,  Vol.  I,  p.  38. 
 
 t   The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  p.  298. 
 
62  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  the  Oremus  always  precede  the  Collects,  they  should  indeed 
 be  made  the  prayers  of  the  worshipping  congregation.  They 
 are  congregational  prayers,  fit  offerings  for  the  priesthood  of 
 believers.  God  help  our  people  to  learn  more  of  this  precious 
 manual  of  prayer  and  to  u.se  these  glorious  petitions  to  His  glory 
 and  our  eternal  welfare. 
 
 Samuel  A.  Bridges  Stopp. 
 
 Doylestown,  Pa. 
 
THE    FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF 
 DIVINE  SERVICE. 
 
 I.  DEFINITION. 
 
 Divine  Service  or,  which  is  the  same,  Public  Worship,  consists 
 in  the  drawing  near  to  God  of  His  people  with  the  offerings  of 
 humble,  contrite  and  thankful  hearts,  prayer,  praise  and  thanks- 
 giving, that  God  may  also  draw  near  to  them  to  impart  His 
 grace. 
 
 II.  ITS    ORIGIN. 
 
 Before  the  Exodus  the  worship  of  God  was  patriarchal,  each 
 head  of  a  family  conducting  the  same  when,  where  and  as  he  saw 
 fit.  But  after  the  people  had  been  united  into  a  congregation, 
 God  Himself  laid  the  foundation  of  Divine  Service  in  the  com- 
 mand and  promise:  (Ex.  20:  24)  "An  altar  of  earth  thou  shalt 
 make  unto  Me,  and  shalt  sacrifice  thereon  thy  burnt  offerings, 
 and  thy  peace  offerings,  thy  sheep  and  thine  oxen.  In  all  places 
 where  I  record  My  name  I  will  come  unto  thee  and  I  will  bless 
 thee." 
 
 For  the  execution  of  the  principle  here  laid  down  the  taber- 
 nacle, and  afterwards  the  Temple,  was  constructed  from  God-giv- 
 en plans,  and  an  order  of  Service  was  established  by  Divine  law. 
 In  this  order  the  people  approached  God  and  He  approached 
 them;  but,  as  redemption  was  not  yet  accomplished,  it  could  be 
 conducted  only  through  the  mediation  of  a  special  priesthood. — 
 Through  the  priest  the  people  drew  near  to  God  and  through  the 
 priest  God  also  drew  near  to  them.  He  did  not  dwell  in  the 
 court  among  the  people  nor  yet  in  the  Holy  Place  among  the 
 priests,  but  in  thick  darkness,  on  the  mercy  seat  between  the 
 cherubim  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  which  was  separated  from  the 
 priests'  and   the  people's  place  by  a  thick  vail.     Only  the  High 
 
 (liii) 
 
54  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Priest,  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  incense  and  with  the  blood  of  the 
 atoning  sacrifice,  might  go  behind  the  vail,  and  that  only  once  a 
 year.  Whatever  the  people  offered  to  God  must  be  presented 
 through  the  priest  and  whatever  grace  God  bestowed  upon  them 
 was  conveyed  to  them  by  the  priest. — The  offerings  were  largely 
 propitiatory,  symbolizing  the  one  sacrifice  yet  to  be  offered  once 
 for  all  sin  by  the  Great  High  Priest. — For  the  time  being  God 
 agreed  to  accept  the  symbolic  sacrifice, — but,  as  it  only  foreshad- 
 owed the  atonement,  it  had  to  be  repeated  year  by  year.  This 
 worship,  consisting  in  types  and  shadows  of  good  things  to  come, 
 was  only  "a  figure  for  the  time  then  present."  "The  way  into 
 the  Holiest  was  not  yet  made  manifest."  (Heb.  9:  8).  "But 
 Christ  being  come  a  High  Priest  of  good  things  to  come  .... 
 entered  once  into  the  Holy  Place,  having  obtained  eternal  re- 
 demption for  us."  He  fully  accomplished,  by  the  sacrifice  of 
 Himself,  all  that  was  symbolized  by  the  Aaronic  priesthood. 
 Through  the  rending  of  His  body  the  vail  of  separation  was  rent 
 asunder,  and  the  way  to  God  was  fully  opened  and  made  mani- 
 fest. He  no  longer  dwells  in  thick  darkness  behind  the  vail,  but 
 in  the  midst  of  His  people.  Hence  in  Christ  the  fundamental 
 principles  of  Divine  Service,  as  expressed  in  founding  the  Old 
 Testament  worship,  are  fully  realized.  From  this  the  Apostle 
 draws  the  conclusion:  (Heb.  10:  19-22)  "Having  therefore  bold- 
 ness to  enter  into  the  Holiest  by  the  blood  of  Jesus,  by  a  new  and 
 living  way,  which  He  hath  consecrated  for  us,  through  the  vail, 
 that  is  to  say  His  flesh,  and  having  a  High  Priest  over  the  house 
 of  God,  let  us  draw  near  with  a  true  heart  in  full  assurance  of 
 faith  having  our  hearts  sprinkled  from  an  evil  conscience  and  our 
 bodies  washed  wnth  pure  water." 
 
 Thus  the  symbolic  worship  of  the  Old  Testament  has  had  its 
 fulfilment  in  Christ,  in  Whom  God's  "covenant  of  peace"  is  es- 
 tablished with  us,  and  "His  tabernacle  is  with  us,"  so  that  what 
 was  only  foreshadowed  in  the  Temple  Service  has  become  a  real- 
 ity. The  Word  has  become  fle.sh,  and  dwells,  not  at  a  distance 
 from  us,  but  among  us. 
 
 The  hour  has  come,  when,  not  only  in  Jerusalem,  but  in  all 
 places,  where  believers  meet  in  His  name,  they  may  worship  Him 
 in  spirit  and  in  truth.  The  Temple  Service,  with  its  priesthood, 
 has  pa.s.sed  away,  but  the  principles  upon  which  it  was  based,  re- 
 alized in  Christian  worship,  abide  forever.     Jesus  Himself  made 
 
THE    FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.        55 
 
 them  the  foundation  principle  of  the  Divine  Service  of  His 
 Church,  when  He  said:  (Matt.  i8:  20)  "Where  two  or  three  are 
 gathered  together  in  My  name  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them." 
 (See  also  Matt.  28:  19-20).  The  conditions  for  the  fulfilment  of 
 this  promise  were  present  for  the  first  time  on  Easter  Sunday 
 evening,  when  ten  disciples  of  Christ  and  the  two  Emmaus  be- 
 lievers were  assembled  in  Jerusalem.  Then  He  stood  in  their 
 midst,  imparted  peace  to  them,  communicated  the  Holy  Spirit, 
 confirmed  their  faith  and  filled  them  with  gladness.  This  as- 
 sembly may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  all  future  assemblies  for  Di- 
 vine Service. 
 
 It  demonstrates  the  truth  that  the  principle  underlying  the 
 public  worship  of  God  in  both  Testaments  is  the  same,  viz.,  That 
 God  has  a  Church,  a  congregation  of  believers,  which  draws  near 
 to  Him  to  seek  His  grace  and  present  its  offerings,  and  to  which 
 He  also  draws  near  to  impart  His  grace.  Hence  in  the  taberna- 
 cle there  were  certain  symbolic  representations,  appearing  to  the 
 eye.  The  images  of  the  cherubim,  always  connected  with  God's 
 throne,  on  the  vail  in  front  of  the  Hol)^  of  Holies,  reminded  of 
 God's  presence  to  bless  His  people;  and  the  altar  of  burnt  offer- 
 ing in  the  outer  court  and  the  altar  of  incense  in  the  Holy  Place 
 reminded  the  people  that  they  must  also  bring  something  to  Him, 
 i.  e.,  their  offerings.  By  the  death  of  Christ  the  outer  court 
 with  its  altar  for  propitiatory  sacrifices  was  abolished  and  the 
 Holy  of  Holies  was  united  with  the  Holy  Place,  to  which,  with 
 its  altar  of  incense  representing  the  pra3-ers  of  the  people,  all  be- 
 lievers, now  l^ecome  a  royal  priesthood  in  Christ,  were  advanced. 
 The  three  parts  of  the  tabernacle  have  now  become  one,  in  which 
 God  dwells  in  the  midst  of  a  congregation  of  priests.  The  fun- 
 damental principle  of  the  worship  in  this  tabernacle  is  this:  The 
 people  assemble  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  He,  in  Whom  the  ful- 
 ness of  the  Godhead  dwells  bodily,  is  in  their  midst.  They  are 
 here  to  worship  Him  with  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving;  He 
 is  here  to  accept  their  offerings  and  to  bestow  His  grace. 
 
 III.      TWO    KINDS    OF   ACTS. 
 
 From  the  above  it  must  be  evident  that  true  worship  consists 
 in  two  kinds  of  acts,  sacramental  acts  and  sacrificial  acts — acts  of 
 God  and  acts  of  believers. 
 
 By  sacramental  acts  we  mean  those  acts  of  God,  by  which  He 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 imparts  His  grace.  For  this  purpose  He  draws  near  to  the 
 congregation:  "There  will  I  come  unto  thee  and  I  will  bless 
 thee."  The.se  acts  of  God  are  represented  to  the  eye  in  the 
 house  of  God  by  the  pulpit,  the  font  and  the  altar.  God  bestow^ 
 His  grace  by  the  Holy  Sjnrit  through  the  Word  and  the  Sacra- 
 ments. The  preaching  of  the  Word  and  the  administration  of 
 Baptism  and  the  Holy  Supper  are  all  sacramental  acts,  wrought 
 by  Almighty  God,  through  the  minister  as  His  instrument.  B> 
 these  acts  He  imparts  the  grace  .sought  by  His  jjeople.  There 
 can  be  no  true  worship  without  them.  The  people  cannot  draw 
 near  to  God,  unless  He  first  draws  near  to  them;  nor  can  they 
 give  anything  to  Him,  unless  He  has  first  given  to  them,  as  Paul 
 writes  to  the  Romans:  (Rom.  ii:  35)  "Who  hath  first  given  to 
 Him  and  it  shall  be  recompensed  unto  him  again?  For  of  Him  and 
 through  Him  and  to  Him  are  all  things."  Therefore  these  sac- 
 ramental acts  are  not  only  an  essential  part  of  Divine  Ser\'ice. 
 they  are  its  most  prominent  parts,  yea,  without  them  the  other 
 parts  are  not  conceivable.  Yet  they  alone  are  not  public  wor- 
 ship; the  sacrificial  acts  must  be  conjoined  with  them. 
 
 By  sacrificial  acts  we  mean  the  acts  of  the  people, — what  they 
 bring  to  God.  He  has  given  something  to  them;  they  must  also 
 give  something  to  Him.  This  part  of  the  Service  is  represented 
 by  the  altar.  Whatever  is  given  to  God  is  called  a  sacrifice,  and 
 its  presentation  is  called  an  offering.  But  this  is  a  priestly  act, 
 and  it  implies  that  those  who  perform  it  are  priests,  who  have 
 the  right  and  duty  of  ministering  at  the  altar. 
 
 The  Church  of  Rome  has  a  sacerdotal  order,  to  which  alone 
 she  accords  public  priestly  functions.  Hence  she  fences  the  al- 
 tar off  from  the  people;  and  they  have  no  access  to  it  except 
 through  the  priest.  But  this  does  not  accord  with  the  teachin.u 
 of  the  Divine  Word.  It  does  not  warrant  the  distinction  between 
 priest  and  laymen.  Christ  instituted  a  ministry  but  no  special 
 priesthood;  and  the  functions  of  the  ministry  are  sacramental, 
 not  sacrificial.  As  our  High  Priest  He  has  offered  Himself  once 
 for  all  sin,  and  has  obtained  eternal  redemption  for  us.  Not  even 
 He  can  repeat  that  offering.  But  as  our  High  Priest  He  still 
 prays  for  us  and  with  us.  He  is  the  Head  of  the  only  priesthood 
 recognized  by  the  New  Testament.  He  dwells  in  the  hearts  of 
 believers  by  faith;  and  they  are  all  equally  priests  in  Him. 
 Hence  Peter  writes:   (I  Pet.  2:9)  "But  ye  are  a  royal  priesthood 
 
THE    FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES   OF    DIVINE   SERVICE.       57 
 
 ,  that  ye  should  show  forth  the  praises  of  Him,  Who  hath 
 called  you  out  of  darkness  into  His  marvellous  light."  This  be- 
 ing true,  the  functions  of  each  and  every  believer  in  the  house  of 
 God  are  priestly,  i.  e.,  to  offer  sacrifices.  What  kind  of  sacri- 
 fices? Surely  not  of  a  propitiatory  sort,  such  as  the  Jewish 
 priests  very  properly  offered  as  types  of  the  one  sacrifice  offered 
 on  Golgotha,  much  less  of  the  Romish  sort,  to  make  satisfaction 
 for  the  sins  of  the  living  and  the  dead,  by  the  bloodless  repetition 
 of  the  offering  on  Calvary. 
 
 The  altar  of  burnt  offering  no  longer  stands,  but  the  altar  of 
 incense,  i.  e.,  of  prayer  does.  The  New  Testament  requires  that 
 here  all  believers  shall  offer  eucharistic  sacrifices,  i.  e.,  thank-of- 
 ferings, first  of  themselves,  as  Paul  writes  (Rom.  12:  i)  "I  be- 
 seech you  therefore  by  the  mercies  of  God,  that  ye  present  your 
 bodies  a  living  sacrifice,  holy  and  acceptable  unto  God,  which  is 
 your  reasonable  service."  To  this  must  be  added  prayer,  praise, 
 thanksgiving  and  of  our  substance, — the  offerings  of  humble,  con- 
 trite and  grateful  hearts.  These  sacrificial  acts  were  so  promi- 
 nent in  connection  with  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  in  the  early 
 Church,  that  the  latter  was  called  the  Eucharist.  Here  we  have 
 the  most  intimate  communion  with  God:  He  gives  Himself  to  us 
 and  we  give  ourselves,  with  all  that  we  have  and  are,  to  Him. 
 
 It  is  the  privilege  and  duty  of  every  believer  to  engage  in  all 
 these  sacrificial  acts,  with  heart  and  voice  and  hand.  They  must 
 not  be  idle  spectators,  or  a  mere  audience,  to  witness  what  is  said 
 and  done  in  the  house  of  God,  but  active  worshippers.  In  this 
 sense  also  they  must  be  "doers  of  the  Word."  Each  and  every 
 one  of  them  must  bring  something  to  God  as  well  as  receive 
 something  from  Him.  To  obtain  the  blessing  of  God's  sacra- 
 mental acts,  we  must  draw  near  to  Him  with  sacrificial  acts. 
 
 IV.      THE   OBJECT. 
 
 The  object  of  this  Service,  or  worship,  is  to  secure  the  growth 
 in  grace  and  the  spiritual  development  of  all  who  participate 
 therein.  Hence  our  fathers  called  it  the  cultus,  from  the  Latin 
 colo,  to  cultivate.  The  Church  is  a  vineyard,  planted  with  pre- 
 cious vines,  each  one  of  which  should  grow  continually  and  bring 
 forth  fruit.  This  end  is  accomplished  in  a  natural  vineyard  when 
 the  vines  are  pruned,  watered  and  nurtured,  when  the  husband- 
 man does  his  part  and  the  vines  render  the  befitting  response. 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  sunshine  and  the  rains  descend  upon  the  plant,  then  in  re- 
 sponse it  lifts  up  its  head  towards  its  benefactor,  buds,  blooms 
 and  brings  forth  fruit.  This  is  successful  culture.  So  in  the 
 Church  the  object  of  the  cultus  is  attained  when  God  bestows 
 His  grace  through  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments  and  the  believ- 
 ing people  respond  to  this  grace  and  render  the  r\y>Q  fruits  thereof 
 to  its  Author  in  the  sacrifices  that  proceed  from  humble,  contrite 
 and  thankful  hearts. 
 
 That  the  above  purpose  may  be  accomplished, 
 
 V.      AN   ORDER   OV    DIVINE  SERVICE, 
 
 that  makes  provision  for  all  of  these  twofold  acts,  sacramental 
 and  sacrificial,  is  necessary.  Where  a  number  of  people  are  to 
 unite  in  doing  the  same  thing — as  in  "glorifying  God  with  one 
 mind  and  one  mouth" — there  must  be  a  place,  time  and  manner 
 of  doing  it,  which  all  understand  and  approve.  Private  worship 
 may  be  rendered  by  the  individual  at  any  place  and  time  and  in 
 any  manner  that  he  may  choose.  It  concerns  only  himself  and 
 his  God.  But  to  worship  God  collectively  as  a  congregation,  we 
 must  first  have  a  suitable  place.  This  should  be  a  house  of  God, 
 constructed  in  such  style  and  furnished  in  such  manner  as  to  be- 
 speak its  purpose.  God  instructs  us  through  the  eye  as  well  as 
 the  ear;  and  every  thing  that  strikes  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear 
 should  be  of  such  character  as  to  direct  our  thoughts  Heaven- 
 ward and  to-God-ward.  Not  only  should  there  be  a  pulpit  to 
 represent  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  by  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
 works  faith,  a  font  to  remind  us  of  Baptism  and  our  covenant  re- 
 lations with  God,  and  an  altar  to  set  forth  our  priestly  fiuictions 
 and  the  Holy  Supper,  in  which  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial 
 are  beautifully  combined  and  which  establishes  our  most  intimate 
 Communion  with  God  and  each  other, — God  bestowing  the  living 
 meat  and  drink  and  believers  responding  with  heartfelt  thanks- 
 giving. But,  in  addition  to  this,  works  of  sacred  art,  that  sug- 
 gest devout  thoughts,  are  very  useful  and  much  more  helpful 
 than  blank  walls.  The  decorations  of  the  Temple,  planned  by 
 God  Himself,  teach  us  that  such  works  are  pleasing  to  Him. 
 
 But  the  most  suitable  places  of  worship  would  fail  of  their 
 purpose  without  fixed  seasons  and  times  for  the  assembly  of  tlie 
 congregation.  Under  the  Old  Testament  both  place  and  time 
 were  fixed  by  law. 
 
THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  OF   DIVINE  SERVICE,       59 
 
 The  Temple  was  ordinarily  the  place,  and  the  Sacred  Year 
 provided  the  seasons  and  the  days  of  public  worship.  From  this 
 we  observe  that  it  is  the  mind  of  God  that  there  should  be  such 
 fixed  seasons  and  times.  But  under  the  New  Testament  it  is  left 
 to  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  ar- 
 range all  such  matters.  In  the  exercise  of  this  liberty,  in  the 
 light  of  the  revelation  of  the  mind  of  God,  the  Church  very  early 
 ordained  the  Christian  Year,  with  its  seasons  and  holy  days,  for 
 the  systematic  "learning"  of  God's  Word. 
 
 On  the  same  principle  the  Church  has  also  developed  an  Or- 
 der of  Service,  which  provides  for  the  practical  application  of  the 
 New  Testament  principles  of  Divine  worship.  The  I/Drd  Him- 
 self pointed  and  led  the  way  to  such  an  order.  In  His  public  life 
 He  conformed  strictly  to  the  forms  in  use  under  the  Old  Testa- 
 ment dispensation.  The  sectarian  idea  of  spirit  without  form  has 
 no  place  in  either  His  teaching  or  His  example.  The  Psalms, 
 the  inspired  pra5-er  book  of  the  Hebrews,  were  very  dear  to  His 
 heart,  and  He  pra}'ed  from  them  even  when  He  was  dying  on  the 
 cross.  His  "My  God,  My  God,  why  hast  Thou  forsaken  Me," 
 was  from  a  written  prayer,  the  twenty-second  Psalm;  and  His 
 last  prayer,  "into  Thy  hands  I  commend  My  spirit,"  was  from 
 the  thirty-first  Psalm.  With  this  practice  accords  His  teaching. 
 When  Pie  taught  the  individual  how  to  pray  alone  He  gave  no 
 form,  but  said,  "When  Thou  prayest,  enter  into  thy  closet,  and, 
 when  thou  hast  shut  thy  door,  pray  to  thy  Father  Which  is  in 
 secret."  But  when  He  taught  the  disciples  how  to  pray  collect- 
 ively, as  a  congregation.  He  inculcated  both  the  spirit  and  the 
 form,  or  "manner,"  saying:  "After  this  manner  therefore  pray 
 ye:  "Our  Father,"  etc.  Thus  we  have  it  from  Him  that  the 
 spirit  of  Divine  Service  should  be  clothed  in  an  appropriate  form. 
 
 VI.      LITURGICAL   FORMS. 
 
 Of  all  existing  liturgical  forms,  i.  e.,  forms  for  the  people's 
 worship,  the  Order  of  Service  of  the  Evangelical  l^utheran 
 Church,  as  contained  in  the  "Common  Service,"  most  fully  em- 
 bodies all  the  fundamental  principles  of  Divine  Service. 
 
 The  Church  of  Rome  pushes  aside  and  obscures  the  sacra- 
 mental acts  by  the  sacrificial,  leaving  little  or  nothing  for  God  to 
 do.  With  her  the  arrangement  of  the  Jewish  Temple  still  seems 
 to  stand, — God  is  still  removed  from  His  people,  behind  the  vail, 
 
GO  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  the  people  are  still  in  the  outer  court,  with  no  way  of  com- 
 munication with  Him,  except  through  a  spurious  priesthood, 
 which  usurps  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  "royal  priesthood," 
 which,  with  Christ's  high  priesthood  and  based  upon  it,  is  the 
 only  priestly  order  known  to  the  New  Testament.  The  Sacra- 
 ment of  the  Altar  is  perverted  into  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of- 
 fered by  the  priest  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  so  that,  to  be  ben- 
 efited by  it,  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  present  at  its  celebration. 
 The  beneficiary  may  not  even  be  upon  earth;  he  may  be  in  "pur- 
 gatory." Altars,  dedicated  to  the  saints,  supposed  mediators 
 between  God  and  men,  are  multiplied;  the  pulpit  is  made  subor- 
 dinate and  placed  in  an  obscure  position;  the  preached  Word  be- 
 comes a  matter  of  indifference;  and  the  direct  application  of  the 
 Word  to  the  individual  in  the  absolution  is  made  nugatory  by  the 
 penances  upon  which  it  is  conditioned.  It  is  therefore  not  a  mat- 
 ter of  surprise  that  the  worship  is  conducted  in  an  unknown 
 tongue  and  that  the  active  participation  of  the  people  in  the  Ser- 
 vice is  not  encouraged.  The  priest  and  the  choir  can  do  all  that 
 is  to  be  done,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  those,  for  whose  benefit 
 the  Service  is  rendered,  should  witness  it,  much  less  participate 
 in  it.  The  worship  consists  principally  in  what  the  priest  offers 
 to  God  for  the  people,  and  there  is  little  place  for  God  in  the  en- 
 tire Service.  It  makes  the  impression  that  the  vail  in  the  Temple 
 is  still  unbroken  and  the  way  to  God  still  closed;  that  He  is  still 
 unreconciled  to  His  people;  that  He  has  no  Gospel  for  them, 
 nothing  but  law,  the  threatenings  of  which  must  be  silenced  by 
 the  propitiatory  sacrifice  offered  by  the  priest  and  the  intercession 
 of  the  saints. 
 
 The  Reformed  Churches  and  the  sects  have  fallen  into  the 
 same  error,  although  from  a  different  standpoint.  Wliilst  they 
 have  banished  the  altar,  which  represents  the  sacrificial  part  of 
 the  Service,  they  make  nearly  the  whole  worship  sacrificial,  and 
 retain  very  little  that  is  sacramental.  Dr.  Kliefoth,  quoted  by 
 Dr.  Jacobs,  has  well  said:  "Antagonizing  the  Romish  propitiatory 
 sacrifice,  they  make  the  Service  almost  entirely  eucharistic  sacri- 
 ficial. In  the  Lord's  Supper  He  really  gives  nothing  to  them, 
 but  they  memorialize  His  death.  The  application  of  grace  is 
 conceived  as  occurring  immediately,  from  spirit  to  spirit.  The 
 constant  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with  the  Word  and  Sacra- 
 ment is  denied.     All  liturgical  acts  are  expressions  of  faith  al- 
 
THE   FUNDAMKNTAL    PRINCIPLES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       61 
 
 ready  wrought.  The  sacraments  offer  nothing  from  the  L,ord.  .  . 
 The  Word  does  not  bring  the  Spirit  but  the  Spirit  brings  the 
 Word.  Through  the  exposition  of  the  Word  the  preacher  simply 
 gives  testimony  to  his  faith.  Believers  come  together  chiefly  for 
 common  prayers,  confession,  praise,  thanksgiving,  etc.,  to  exer- 
 cise their  faith."  Thus  it  will  be  .seen  that  the  Order  of  Service 
 of  the  Reformed  Church  and  the  sects  fails  to  combine  properly 
 and  to  harmonize  the  two  fundamental  principles  of  Christian 
 worship.  It  is  only  in  the  IvUtheran  Church  that  the  two  essen- 
 tial elements  of  a  complete  Christian  cultus  are  accorded  their  rel- 
 ative importance  and  their  proper  place.  This  will  become  ap- 
 parent when  we  notice  briefly 
 
 VII.       HOW   THESE    FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES    FIND 
 EXPRESSION   IN  THE  "COMMON  SERVICE." 
 
 Here  we  have: 
 
 a.  A  Preparation  for  the  Service,  which  consists  in  the 
 solemn  announcement  by  the  pastor,  sealed  by  the  "Amen"  of 
 the  people,  that  we  are  assembled  in  the  Name  of  the  Triune 
 God,  and  that  in  this  Name  we  begin,  continue  and  end  the  wor- 
 ship. This  reminds  us  of  the  promise  (Matt.  i8:  20)  upon  which 
 the  Christian  assembly  is  based,  and  we  are  here  to  claim  its  ful- 
 filment. We  are  gathered  around  the  lyord,  Who  is  present  to 
 impart  the  blessing,  which  we  seek.  This  is  a  holy  presence; 
 and  the  first  thing  we  ought  to  do  is  to  put  away  our  sins. 
 What  God  commanded  Moses  to  do  in  a  symbolical  manner  (Ex. 
 3:  5)  we  are  to  do  in  reality:  "Put  off  thy  shoes  from  off  thy  feet, 
 for  the  place  whereon  thou  standest  is  holy  ground," 
 
 This  is  done  in  the  co7ifiteor  and  the  Declaration  of  Grace  that 
 follows  it,  to  which  we  are  invited  by  the  minister;  and  the  source 
 of  the  ability  and  the  manner  of  so  doing  is  expressed  in  the 
 words:  "Our  help  is  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord,  Who  made  Heaven 
 and  earth."  "I  said  I  will  confess  my  transgressions  unto  the 
 Lord;  and  Thou  forgavest  the  iniquity  of  my  sin."  The  confes- 
 sion of  sins,  original  and  actual  follows,  as  also  the  cry  for  "mer- 
 cy" and  "forgiveness"  and  the  "increase"  in  us  of  the  "true 
 knowledge  of  God"  and  His  will  and  "true  obedience"  to  His 
 Word  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  indicating  the  purpose  for  which  we 
 draw  near  to  God.     Then  comes  the  Declaration  of  Divine  Grace, 
 
02  MEMOIRS. 
 
 pledged  to  us  in  Baptism  and  aljout  to  be  communicated  to  us 
 more  fully  by  the  Word  and  Sacrament. 
 
 This  preparation  having  been  made,  the  Service  proper  for 
 the  day  begins  with 
 
 b.  The  Introit,  a  sacramental  act,  in  which  God  express- 
 es the  leading  thought  for  the  day, — a  communication  of  the 
 Word. 
 
 The  names  of  the  Sundays  are  largely  derived  from  the  In- 
 troit. It  is  usually  taken  from  the  Psalms,  consisting  of  an 
 Antiphon  and  a  Psalm.  The  Gloria  Patri,  (sacrificial)  which 
 follows,  is  the  believer's  joyful  response  to  the  Antiphon.  Then 
 follows: 
 
 c.  T/ic  Kyrie.  God  is  present,  according  to  His  promise, 
 and  He  has  spoken  in  the  Declaration  of  Grace  and  in  the  Introit. 
 Hence  the  people,  feeling  the  misery  that  has  come  of  sin  and 
 realizing  that  the  Healer  is  in  their  midst,  cry  to  Him  for  mercy 
 which  heals,  as  grace  pardons.  The  Kyrie  is  not  a  confession  of 
 sin,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  blind  Bartimseus,  a  plea  for  the  removal 
 of  the  misery  and  suffering  that  remains  as  a  consequence  of  sin, 
 as  spiritual  blindness  or  weakness  or  any  kind  of  spiritual  or 
 bodily  want  or  wretchedness.     Then  follows 
 
 d.  The  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  in  which  the  minister  calls  up- 
 on the  congregation  to  unite,  as  it  assures  them  that  grace  and 
 mercy  have  fully  come  in  the  Person,  Whose  presence  God  an- 
 nounces through  the  angels.  This,  their  .song  over  Bethlehem's 
 manger,  has  this  purpose:  "That  faith  is  aroused  and  takes  the 
 Word  from  God's  lips."  (Jacobs).  Faith  being  thus  enkindled 
 and  awakened,  we  prepare  to  enter  more  fully  upon  the  sacrificial 
 parts  of  the  Service,  viz. , 
 
 e.  The  Salutation  and  Collect.  In  the  Salutation,  "The 
 L,ord  be  with  3^ou,"  the  minister  prays  for  the  people,  imploring, 
 not  the  general  presence  of  God,  according  to  which  He  is  pres- 
 ent everywhere  by  His  omnipotence,  but  His  special,  gracious 
 presence,  to  impart  His  blessing  through  the  means  of  grace. 
 The  people  also,  in  the  same  spirit  comfort  and  pray  for  the  pas^ 
 tor  in  the  response,  "And  with  thy  spirit." 
 
 Having  praj'ed  thus  separately  for  each  other  the  pastor  now 
 invites  the  people  to  pray  with  him  unitedly  (collectively)  for 
 the  special  grace  to  be  sought  this  day.  This  is  done  in  the  Col- 
 lect,  spoken   by   the   pastor   and   approved    and   .sealed  by   the 
 
THE   FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  OF   DIVINE  SERVICE.       63 
 
 Amen  of  the  people.  It  consists  in  an  address  to  God,  usually 
 the  Father,  a  ground  of  expectation  and  a  petition  based  upon  it, 
 and  a  doxology,  or  ascription  of  praise  to  the  Trinity.  This 
 prayer  God  now  answers  in 
 
 f.  The  Scripture  Lessons.  First  an  Epistle  is  announced 
 and  read,  usually,  but  not  always,  from  the  New  Testament. 
 This  corresponds  with  the  reading  of  the  Law  in  the  Synagogue 
 Service.  The  Epistles  are  the  New  Testament  L,aw,  now  a  de- 
 light to  Christians,  because  it  has  been  fulfilled  by  Christ,  and  is 
 written,  as  a  rule  of  life,  in  their  hearts.  Hence  they  joyfully 
 respond  to  it  by  singing  the  "Hallelujah!"  which  proclaims  the 
 Lamb  victorious  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  Law,  according  to  Psalm 
 ii8. 
 
 Then  the  Lamb  draws  nearer  to  them  in  the  announcement 
 of  the  Gospel,  by  which  He  speaks  to  them  more  directly.  At 
 this  the  congregation,  realizing  more  fully  that  He  stands  in  their 
 midst  and  is  about  to  speak  to  them  in  His  own  words,  joyfully 
 greets  Him  with  the  words:  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord!"  Then 
 rising  in  profound  reverence  for  His  gracious  presence  and  for 
 the  truth  He  is  about  to  utter,  the  people  devoutly  hear  Him, 
 standing  upon  their  feet  as  good  soldiers  of  the  Cross,  ready  to 
 execute  His  will.  The  precious  Gospel  of  peace  having  been 
 heard,  what  could  more  suitably  follow  than  the  response,  sung 
 with  heart  and  voice,  "Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ!"?  The  Lord 
 having  now  spoken  in  both  forms  of  His  Word,  and  that  having 
 been  thankfully  acknowledged,  they,  that  believe  with  their 
 hearts  "unto  righteousness,"  also  confess  their  faith  "with  the 
 mouth"  "unto  salvation,"  by  the  use  of 
 
 g.  The  Creed.  Here,  not  the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  is 
 the  confession  at  baptismal  Services,  but  the  Nicene,  which  is  the 
 creed  of  the  Communion,  is  used.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  it  is 
 not  hurried  over,  as  if  it  were  a  mere  form  or  a  task  to  be  ended 
 as  quickly  as  possible,  but  spoken  distinctly,  with  a  loud  voice 
 earnestly,  it  being  a  precious  privilege  to  confess  our  faith  in  the 
 Triune  God,  Who  created,  redeemed  and  sanctified  us.  Then 
 after  a  hymn  follows 
 
 h.  The  Sermon,  the  explanation  and  application  of  the 
 precious  message,  which  the  Lord  has  delivered  to  us  in  the  Gos- 
 pel, which  is  intended  to  impart  the  special  grace  announced  in 
 the  Introit  and  asked  in  the  Collect.     The  selection  of  themes 
 
G4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 not  contained  in  the  Gosix.-!  mars  the  Service  and  measurably  de- 
 feats the  purpose  of  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  Lessons 
 for  the  Church  Year:  that  the  people  may  receive  "grace  for 
 grace,"  each  grace  in  its  proper  season  and  in  the  right  relation 
 to  all  others.  The  .sermon  closed,  with  "the  peace  of  God," 
 which  the  Gospel  conveys,  pronounced  upon  the  congregation,  it 
 is  followed  by 
 
 i.  The  Offertory  and  General  Prayer.  God  having  richly 
 bestowed  His  grace  through  the  sacramental  act  of  the  Word, 
 there  should  be  some  sacrificial  return  for  His  goodness.  This 
 is  devoutly  and  thankfully  acknowledged  in  the  Offertory,  which 
 tells  whence  the  sacrifice  should  proceed,  from  "a  broken  and  a 
 contrite  heart,"  and  looks  to  God  to  cleanse  its  source — "a  clean 
 heart."  The  General  Prayer  immediately  follows,  in  which 
 thanksgivings  and  prai.ses  are  offered  and  all  sorts  and  conditions 
 of  men  are  remembered  before  the  throne  of  grace  and  all  the 
 wants  of  all  mankind,  especially  of  the  sick  and  suffering,  widows 
 and  orphans  and  of  all  in  authority,  are  laid  before  God.  It  ends 
 with  the  Lord's  Praj-er,  spoken  by  all  the  people,  the  best  and 
 highest  of  all  prayers,  certain  to  be  acceptable  to  God  and  heard 
 of  Him,  because  Jesus,  Who  prays  with  us,  has  commanded  us 
 to  say  these  words  and  promised  that  the  Father  will  surely  grant 
 our  petitions  offered  in  His  Name,  as  God's  dear  children. 
 
 The  prayer  ended,  thank-offerings,  gifts  of  our  substance, — 
 alms,  are  laid  upon  the  altar,  the  place  for  everything  sacrificial. 
 
 Then  follows  the  culmination  of  the  cultus: 
 
 The  Holy  Communion. 
 
 Here  we  have  the  most  profound  mystery  and,  at  the  same 
 time,  the  highest  privilege  of  Christian  worship:  a  fore  pledge  of 
 the  final  consummation,  when  the  saints  shall  be  the  table  guests 
 of  the  Lord  in  glory;  here  we  enter  the  sanctuary  of  the  sanctu- 
 ary, beyond  which  there  is  nothing  but  Heaven  itself,  the  sum- 
 mit of  our  liturgical  cultus.  Hence  all  parts  thereof  are  so  ar- 
 ranged as  to  enable  the  believer  to  realize  a  repetition  of  the  act 
 of  the  night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal  in  breaking  the  bread  and 
 blessing  the  cup,  and  imparting  His  own  broken  Body  and  His 
 shed  Blood  to  each  of  His  guests.     It  has  these  several  parts: 
 
 I.  The  Introduction.  This  part  of  the  Service,  which  is 
 partly  eucharistic  sacrificial  antl  partly  sacramental,  begins  with 
 
THE   FUNDAMENTAI,    PRINCIPLES   OF   DIVINE   SERVICE.       65 
 
 1.  The  Salutation.  Here,  as  before  the  Collect  and  in- 
 troductory to  the  sacramental  act  of  God  in  imparting  the  grace 
 of  His  Word,  the  pastor  prays  for  the  special  presence  with  the 
 people  of  the  WORD  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  as  the  Host  communi- 
 cating the  Sacrament  and  also  as  the  "Passover  sacrificed  for  us." 
 But  there  the  reference  is  to  His  presence  through  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  His  representative,  as  our  Prophet,  about  to  speak  to  us 
 through  the  Word;  here,  however,  it  is  His  presence  as  our 
 Priest  and  King,  in  a  glori&ed,  personal  and  bodily  manner,  "so 
 that  we  may,  in  this  transaction,  call  the  Lord  Himself  to  us  in 
 a  peculiar  manner  of  personal  presence,  such  as  is  accorded  alone 
 in  the  institutional  promise."  (Zeschwitz).  In  the  same  man- 
 ner the  people  also  comfort  the  pastor,  as  the  instrument  of  the 
 Lord,  in  the  response:  "And  with  thy  spirit."     Then  comes 
 
 2.  The  Sursiim  Corda:  "Lift  up  your  hearts,"  i.  e. , 
 raise  them  from  all  things  earthly,  above  the  desires,  cares,  am- 
 bitions and  treasures  of  the  world; — this  because  they  now  stand 
 at  the  very  vestibule  of  Heaven.  Realizing  the  solemnity  of  the 
 Service  upon  which  they  are  entering,  the  people  reply:  "We  lift 
 them  up  unto  the  Lord."  Raising  their  hearts  to  Him,  what  are 
 they  now  to  do?     The  minister  answers  with 
 
 3.  The  Gratias:  "Let  us  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord," 
 which  St.  Augustine  thus  explains:  "That  we  lift  up  our  hearts 
 to  the  Lord  is  God's  gift,  for  which  then  we  are  bidden  to  give 
 thanks  to  our  Lord  God."  (Dr.  Jacobs).  And  the  people  de- 
 voutly answer  with 
 
 4.  The  Digman:  "It  is  meet  and  right  so  to  do."  Then 
 the  minister,  taking  this  acknowledgment  out  of  the  mouth  of  the 
 people,  raises  it  to  Heaven  in  the  words:  "It  is  truly  meet  (be- 
 cause He  has  redeemed  us),  right  and  salutary  (because  He  is 
 about  to  seal  His  grace  to  us),  that  we  should  give  thanks  to 
 Thee,  O  Lord,  Holy  Father,  Almiglit}^  Everlasting  God." 
 
 Then  having  acknowledged  the  special  grace  of  the  season 
 or  day,  as  imparted  through  the  Gospel,  in  the  "Proper  Preface," 
 the  pastor  and  people,  realizing  the  sacramental  presence  of  the 
 Lord  and  the  fellowship  of  the  Heavenly  spirits,  unite  in  the  se- 
 raphic song,  (Isa.  6)  "Holy,  hol}^  holy,  Lord  God  of  Sabaoth, 
 Heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  Thy  glory."  Thus  God  is  praised 
 by  the  Church  on  earth  and  in  Heaven  for  the  Lord's  sacrament- 
 al presence.     Then  realizing  that  He  is  drawing  near  to  us  as 
 
GG  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  Lamb  that  was  slain  for  us,  to  impart  Himself  to  us  as  our 
 Passover,  we  greet  His  approach  with  the  great  Passover  Halle- 
 lujah (Psalm  ii8),  which  was  sung  at  His  entrance  into  Jerusa- 
 lem as  the  Chosen  Lamb  and  again  at  the  Last  Supper:  "Blessed 
 is  He  that  cometh  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord.  Hosanna  in  the 
 highest."  The  people  now  consecrate  themselves  to  the  Lamb 
 by  saying  the  prayer  He  taught  them  to  say:  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
 and  He  proceeds  to  answer  their  prayer,  first  in 
 
 n.  The  Consecration.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  now  takes 
 the  bread  and  the  cup,  through  the  hands  of  Plis  servant,  and, 
 by  his  mouth,  He  speaks  the  consecrating  words: 
 
 1.  The  Words  of  the  Insiiiuiio7i.  He  makes  the  Sacra- 
 ment by  adding  His  Word  to  the  element.  The  people,  now  Ix;- 
 lieving  that  He  is  present  at  His  table,  humbly  cry,  not  to  the 
 bread,  but  to  Him,  in  the  words  of  the 
 
 2.  Ag7ms  Dei,  first  for  His  mercy,  to  remove  their  mis- 
 ery, and  then  for  His  peace, — the  crowning  grace,  that  flows 
 from  the  complete  pardon  of  sin.  This  is  what  He  promised  His 
 people:  "My  peace  I  give  you."     He  answers  their  prayer  with 
 
 3.  The  Pax,  spoken  through  the  minister:  "The  Peace 
 of  the  Lord  be  with  you,"  a  pledge  that  the  peace  prayed  for  in 
 the  Ag7ins  Dei  is  about  to  be  imparted.  The  people  accept  this 
 pledge  with  a  trusting  "Amen."  Then  He  proceeds  to  impart 
 this  peace  in 
 
 IIL  The  Administration.  Here  He  approaches  and 
 deals  with  each  individual,  saying  to  every  communicant:  "Take 
 and  eat,  this  is  the  Body  of  Christ,  which  is  given  for  thee." 
 "Take  and  drink,  this  is  the  Blood  of  the  New  Testament,  shed  for 
 thy  sins."  Then,  assuming  that  the  communicants  have  believed 
 these  sacramental  words,  they  are  dismissed  with  the  blessing: 
 "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  His  precious  Blood 
 strengthen  and  preserve  you  in  true  faith  unto  everlasting  life." 
 Having  now  reached  the  summit  of  Divine  Service,  beyond 
 which  there  is  nothing  but  Heaven,  there  is  nothing  left  but 
 
 IV.  The  Post  Communion,  which  must  needs  be  brief, 
 and  consists  almost  exclusively  in  devout  thanksgiving,  Christ 
 having  imparted  to  us  forgiveness  of  sins  and,  therefore,  life  and 
 salvation;  the  peace  prayed  for  in  the  Ag7ms  Dei  and  proclaimed 
 in  the  Pax,  has  been  communicated  by  the  Sacrament.  We  need 
 nothing  more.     The  Lord  has  nothing  more  to  give  us.     There- 
 
THE   FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES   OF    DIVINE   SERVICE.        67 
 
 fore  we  sing  with  Simeon,  whose  most  devout  longing  had  been 
 satisfied: 
 
 V.  The  Nunc  Dimittis:  "Lord,  now  lettest  Thou  Thy 
 servant  depart  in  peace,"  etc.  Then  calling  upon  each  other  "to 
 give  thanks  unto  the  Lord,"  we  repeat  the  Thanksgiving  Collect. 
 Pastor  and  people  once  more  comfortingly  salute  each  other, 
 blessing  and  thanking  the  Lord;  and  the  whole  Service  is  closed 
 with  the  Benediction,  which  consists  in  a  threefold  putting  of  the 
 Name  of  the  Lord  upon  His  people  for  their  blessing,  keeping 
 and  their  peace.  How  otherwise  should  this  last  sacramental 
 act  be  received  than  with  the  threefold  "Amen?" 
 
 It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  the  Lutheran  Order  of  Service  most 
 perfectly  embodies  and  applies  all  the  fundamental  principles  per- 
 taining to  Divine  Service  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
 that  each  part  is  in  its  proper  place.  And  whoever  intelligently 
 and  devoutly  joins  in  every  part  of  this  Service  will  experience 
 that  it  contains  everything  necessary  to  our  edification  and 
 growth  in  grace.  Any  man  that  cannot  profitably  unite  in  such 
 worship  must  be  sadly  wanting  either  in  Christian  intelligence  or 
 devotion,  or  both.  By  its  diligent  and  faithful  use  all  may 
 "come  to  the  fullness  of  the  stature  of  new  men  in  Christ  Jesus." 
 
 G.  W.  Mechling, 
 Lancaster,    Ohio. 
 
REGUI.ATIONS   AND   CUSTOMS    PERTAINING   TO 
 THE    USE   OF  THE   SACRAMENTS. 
 
 It  is  well  known  that  the  Protestant  denominations,  generally, 
 recognize  two  Sacraments — Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper, — 
 whereas  the  Roman  and  Greek  Catholic  Churches  recognize  sev- 
 en. It  might  be  supposed  that  where  there  are  only  the  two 
 Sacraments,  the  Protestant  wing  of  the  Church  would  be  able  to 
 agree  on  those  two  in  the  matter  of  doctrine  and  practice;  but 
 whether  possible  or  impossible,  the  fact  is  they  do  not.  Each 
 has  some  distinctive  practice  respecting  the  divergences  on  the 
 doctrinal  acceptation. 
 
 It  is  almost  a  truism  in  the  Lutheran  Church  that  the  prac- 
 tices grow  out  of  the  doctrine;  and  hence,  the  practices  conform 
 to  the  essentials  of  the  doctrine  in  such  a  way  that  the  didactic 
 result  of  the  practice  ought  not,  and  should  not,  vitiate  the  doc- 
 trinal position  of  the  Church.  We  are  well  aware  that  the 
 Church  is  careful  to  define  her  doctrines  with  exactness  and 
 clearness  of  language;  so  too,  it  is,  that  the  practices  are  express- 
 ive of  the  content  of  the  doctrine. — One  might  almost  say  that 
 the  practices  are  to  the  content  of  the  doctrine,  as  the  adjectives 
 and  adverbs  are  to  the  definition  of  the  doctrine. 
 
 When  it  happens,  and  it  does  happen,  that  a  doctrine  is  ill- 
 defined  according  to  Scripture,  or  that  the  content  of  the  word  is 
 minified  or  magnified,  we  may  see  this  reflected  in  the  rubrics 
 and  regulations  of  the  Church  or  Christian  body.  Take  for  in- 
 stance the  doctrine  of  the  Word,  as  held  by  the  Friends,  respect- 
 ing the  Sacraments.  Here  we  see  a  low  conception  of  the  Word. 
 Its  authority,  per  se,  is  very  limited,  when  compared  with  the 
 authority  of  the  Spirit.  As  a  consequence  the  Sacraments  are 
 set  aside.  Such  a  doctrine  practically  gives  us  a  Spiritless  Word, 
 and  a  Wordless  Spirit;  and  supersedes  Christ  by  the  Spirit. 
 
 (Ixix) 
 
70  MEMOIRS. 
 
 A  somewhat  diiTcrent  phase  is  suggested  by  the  combination 
 of  necessary  immersion  with  the  absolute  requirement  of  definite 
 and  personal  faith,  in  order  to  constitute  Baptism.  This  insist- 
 ence accords  to  Christ  scarcely  more  than  the  establishment  of 
 the  Sacrament;  while  the  essence  of  it,  if  there  is  an  essence, 
 comes  from  human  faith,  judging  by  the  practice.  It  involves  a 
 confusion  between  the  essence  and  the  benefits  of  the  rite.  An- 
 other phase  may  be  seen  in  the  Reformed  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper,  compared  with  the  Lutheran,  as  a  type  or  system.  Here 
 is  seen  a  species  of  emptying  the  Word  of  its  content  and  laying 
 the  .stress  upon  the  Spirit  beyond  the  Word,  upon  human  faith, 
 and  the  spiritual  participation  of  the  communicant,  in  the  Com- 
 nuniion.  This  not  only  eliminates  Christ  from  the  Sacrament, 
 and  goes  entirely  outside  the  rite;  but  makes  the  Sacrament  de- 
 pend upon  a  human  condition,  and  in  fact  makes  the  Sacrament 
 little  more  than  a  pious  action  on  the  part  of  the  participant. 
 
 Take  this  instance: — *The  di.stribution  is  to  be  made  with 
 these  words — "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was 
 given  for  thee,  preserve  thy  soul  and  body  unto  everlasting  life. 
 Take  and  eat  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thcc,  and 
 feed  on  Him  in  thy  heart  by  faith  with  thanksgiving."  "The 
 Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  which  was  .shed  for  thee,  preserve 
 thy  said  and  body  unto  everlasting  life.  Drink  this  in  remem- 
 brance that  Christ's  Blood  was  shed  for  thcc,  and  be  thankful." 
 Italics  in  the  text. 
 
 We  find  something  very  similar  to  this  conception  concern- 
 ing the  commemoration  and  the  human  faith  in  the  Westminster 
 Confession!  and  Common  Prayer. | 
 
 Jesus  says,  "Take,  eat;  This  is;"  but  these  forms  virtually 
 say,  "This  was,"  for  a  remembrance  has  to  do  with  that  which 
 is  past-  and  it  is  specifically  stated  "Which  was  given  for  thee" 
 and  "Drink  this  in  remembrance  that  Christ's  Blood  was  shed 
 for  thee."  The  practice  in  the  distribution  is  all  the  more 
 strangely  contrasted  by  the  practice  in  the  consecration,  which 
 uses  these  words  §  "  .    .    .  According  to  Thy  Son  our  Saviour 
 
 *  The  Doctrines  and  Disdpline  of  the  iMetlunlist  Episcopal  Cktirch,  l88o,  New 
 York,  p.  291. 
 
 t    Westminster  Confession  of  J'aith,   rrcsbytcrinn,  Phila.,  1896,  pp.  150-153. 
 
 X  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  Episcop.al,  1 89 1,  p.  244. 
 
 §    77/f  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church,  1880,  N.  Y.,  p.  290. 
 
CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO .  USE   OF   THE  SACRAMENTS.        71 
 
 Jesus  Christ's  holy  institution,  in  remembrance  of  His  death  and 
 passion,  may  be  partakers  of  His  most  blessed  Body  and  Blood; 
 Who,  in  the  same  night  that  He  was  betrayed,  took  bread;  and 
 when  He  had  given  thanks,  He  broke  it,  and  gave  to  His  disci- 
 ples, saying.  Take,  eat;  this  is  My  Body  which  is  given  for  you; 
 do  this  in  remembrance  of  Me.  L^ikewise  after  supper  He  took 
 the  cup;  and  when  He  had  given  thanks,  He  gave  it  to  them, 
 saying.  Drink  ye  all  of  this;  for  this  is  My  Blood  of  the  New 
 Testament,  which  is  shed  for  you,  and  for  many,  for  the  remis- 
 sion of  sins;  do  this,  as  oft  as  ye  shall  drink  it,  in  remembrance 
 of  Me."  The  administration  is  made  to  ministers  first  if  present, 
 then  to  the  congregation,  kneeling,  being  given  into  the  uncov- 
 ered hands. 
 
 Why  the  consecration  should  be  in  the  present  tense  while 
 the  distribution  is  in  the  past,  wc  understand  from  the  doctrine: 
 but  why  they  ought  so  to  be,  we  cannot  understand  as  a  matter 
 of  truth.  Nor  do  we  understand  why  the  participants  in  the 
 consccratory  prayer  have  a  present  Christ,  and  in  the  distribution 
 a  few  moments  afterward  have  to  make  a  memory  leap  over  1800 
 years,  a  feat  which  is  impossible  to  any  present  living  individual, 
 except  historically. 
 
 According  to  Scripture,  the  memory  leap  which  one  class  of 
 people  has  to  make  is  not  much  greater  than  the  mental  leap 
 which  another  class  has  to  make  in  order  to  compass  transubstan- 
 tiation,  as  set  forth  in  practice.  The  more  so  when  the  transub- 
 stantiation  is  so  applied  that  one  element  comprises  the  two.  It 
 would  seem  that  sacerdotal  transubstantiation  of  the  elements  al- 
 most requires  the  transubstp-ntiation  of  the  priest  into  Christ.* 
 We  find  the  priest  is  the  deputy  of  Christ  and  through  this  depu- 
 ty, in  the  Mass,  to  the  Catholic  believer  there  is  given  "to  each 
 of  us  in  particular:  ist.  To  join  our  lyord  and  Priest  in  offering 
 the  Divine  Victim  of  Calvary,  present  on  our  altars,  to  the  Eter- 
 nal Father." 
 
 But  concerning  the  ceremonies  etc.,  of  the  Catholic  Church 
 several  quotations  from   Dr.  Bruno  may  speak  for  themselves. 
 
 f'Ceremonies  do  not  form  an  essential  part  of  the  institution 
 of  Christ,  most  of  them  having  been  added  by  the  Church  in  the 
 time  of  the  Apostles  or  in  subsequent  ages.     Consequently  they 
 
 *  Catholic  Belief,  Joseph  Faa  di  Bruno,  D.  D.,  Benziger  Bros.,  N.  Y.,  p.  104. 
 t  Ibid.     p.  105. 
 
72  MEMOIRS. 
 
 may,  by  the  direction  of  authority,  be  changed  or  omitted  (as  in 
 fact  in  cases  of  necessity  they  are  omitted),  without  affecting  the 
 validity  of  the  Sacrament.  But  as  they  are  prescribed  by  the 
 Church,  acting  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  order 
 the  better  to  show  forth  the  dignity  and  the  effects  of  the  Sacra- 
 ments, and  to  dispose  us  to  receive  them  in  a  more  devout  man- 
 ner, it  would  be  wrong  to  omit  them,  except  in  case  of  necessity." 
 *"If  solemn  ceremonies  were  not  used  in  the  celebration  of  the 
 Mass,  Catholic  belief  in  the  real  presence  of  Christ  upon  our  al- 
 tars would  not  be  fitly  expressed.  If  the  faithful  saw  the  altar 
 stripped  of  ornaments,  and  the  officiating  priests  without  dis- 
 tinctive vestments,  not  bending  the  knee,  and  not  giving  any 
 outward  token  of  worship  before  the  consecrated  elements,  their 
 Catholic  instinct  would  be  shocked.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
 they  see  the  great  pains  taken  and  the  great  cost  often  incurred 
 for  the  becoming  adornment  of  the  house  of  God,  for  making  the 
 Altar,  the  Tabernacle,  and  the  Throne  gleam  with  rich  ornaments; 
 when  they  see  that  the  priests  and  their  assistants  are  robed  with 
 distinctive  emblematic  vestments,  and  especially  when  they  see 
 them  bend  their  knees  in  humble  adoration  before  the  consecrated 
 Host  and  the  consecrated  Chalice,  their  faith  and  devotion  are 
 strengthened,  and  the  practical  lesson  they  receive  is  likely  to  do 
 them  more  good  than  any  sermon  on  the  subject." 
 
 Concerning  the  Ma.ss  the  Doctor  says:  f  "Let  us  consider 
 these  externals,  first,  with  regard  to  the  officiating  priest,  and 
 afterwards  with  respect  to  the  people."  .  .  "The  Mass  ordinarily 
 consists  of  the  following  things:— The  Forty-second  Psalm,  be- 
 ginning, Judica  mc  Dais,  the  Co7ifitcor,  the  Introit,  Kyric  Eleison, 
 repeated  nine  times,  Gloria  i?i  Exaisis,  Collect,  the  Epistle  for 
 the  Day,  the  Prayer,  Munda  cor  vieuvi,  the  Gospel  for  the  Day, 
 the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Offertory,  part  of  the  Twenty-fifth  Psalm, 
 Oblation  Prayer,  the  Prayer  called  Secret,  the  Preface,  the 
 Sandus,  the  Canon,  or  prayers  according  to  solemn,  unvarying 
 rule,  the  Consecration  of  the  Host,  the  Consecration  of  the  Wine, 
 Prayers  after  Consecration,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Agnus  Dei,  three 
 prayers  before  Communion,  Communion  of  the  Priests,  Prayers 
 after  Communion,  the  Blessing  of  the  People,  the  last  Gospel, 
 most  frequently  from  the  first  chapter  of  St.  John." 
 
 ♦    Catholic  Belief,  Dk.  Bruno,  p.  io6. 
 t  Il'id.     p.    107. 
 
CUSTOMS   PERTAINING  TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        73 
 
 *Continuing  he  says: — "Now,  it  appears  that  all  this  is 
 thoroughly  spiritual,  and  without  any  ceremonial  formality,  es- 
 pecially when  we  consider  that  the  greatest  part  of  this  is  said  or 
 done  by  the  priest  in  secret,  that  is,  in  a  low  tone  of  voice." 
 "What  is  less  important  in  the  Mass,  and  what  may  strictly  be 
 called  ceremonial,  consists  in  the  priest  changing  his  position;  in 
 his  reverently  bowing  the  head  and  kneeling;  in  kissing  the  altar 
 and  paten;  in  joining  or  raising  his  hands;  in  looking  up  towards 
 Heaven,  or  to  the  crucifix  on  the  altar;  in  making  repeatedly  the 
 sign  of  the  Cross;  and  in  turning  towards  the  people  when  ad- 
 dressing them,  as  when  he  says,  Domimis  vobiscum  and  Orate 
 fr aires. ' ' 
 
 *"Men  are  struck  at  the  reflection  that  many  of  these  things 
 Jesus  did,  and  that,  therefore,  they  cannot  be  called  valueless 
 formalities,  unless  indeed  we  were  to  say  that  the  priest  does 
 these  things  without  the  proper  interior  spirit,  which  would  be 
 an  accusation  our  Lord  forbids  us  to  make  under  pain  of  sin: 
 "Judge  not,  that  you  may  not  be  judged." 
 
 "In  the  Mass  there  is  no  set  form  of  prayers  required  to  be 
 repeated  after  the  priest  in  a  formal  way  by  the  people,  as  there 
 invariably  is  in  Protestant  churches  and  chapels,  but  the  people 
 are  left  free  to  follow  the  Mass  in  spirit,  either  meditating  on  the 
 Passion  of  our  Lord,  or  making  some  acts  of  repentance,  love, 
 praise,  adoration,  and  other  acts  of  devotion;  or  reciting  prayers, 
 each  in  his  own  way,  in  keeping  with  each  one's  capacity,  needs 
 and  desires;  or  following  the  Mass  according  to  the  direction  of 
 the  book  of  devotion  which  each  worshipper  may  have  chosen 
 for  his  own  use." 
 
 There  may  not  be  very  much  formality  about  this  outline  of 
 worship  and  ceremonial  principles  as  stated  by  Dr.  Bruno;  but 
 there  is  undoubtedly  a  goodly  quantity  of  fixity  in  their  use. 
 Here  is  regulation  in  detail,  and  a  little  margin  for  personal  lib- 
 erty. The  principle  might  be  stated: — That  formality  is  to  be 
 used  which  the  Church  prescribes,  subject  to  cases  of  necessity. — 
 The  Church  here  practically  becomes  the  priesthood,  inasmuch 
 as  the  highest  act  of  worship,  the  Mass,  can  be  and  is  conducted 
 while  the  people  are  absent,  as  shown  by  the  "Benediction  of  the 
 Blessed  Sacrament, "t  and  the  way  the  people  who  are  present 
 participate,  as  quoted  previously. 
 
 *   Catholic  Belief ,  Dr.  BrunO,  p.  Io8.  t  Ibid.  p.  115. 
 
74  MEMOIRS. 
 
 In  comparison  with  this  ceremonial  fixity  and  regulation  we 
 may  cite  Dr.  Jacobs,  for  the  Lutheran  Church,  as  to  the  funda- 
 mental basis  of  Lutheran  doctrine — the  doctrine  involves  the 
 Word  and  the  minister  must  subscribe  to  it:*  "It  is  well  to  notice 
 that  it  is  not  the  acceptance  of  the  Aug.sburg  Confession,  but  the 
 acceptance  of  its  doctrines  which  determines  the  Lutheran  char- 
 acter of  a  teacher  or  Church  body."  This  subscription  to  the 
 doctrine  underlies  the  whole  regulative  portion  of  the  Lutheran 
 practice,  and  carries  with  it  the  weight  of  consentient  opinion  in 
 regard  to  the  uniformity  which  the  Church  general  deems  desir- 
 able in  her  forms  of  wor.ship;  such  opinion  being  set  forth  in  her 
 authorized  Liturgy,  subject  to  a  certain  liberty  in  things  unes- 
 sential, as  circumstances  may  dictate. 
 
 With  Lutherans,  therefore,  regulation  is  according  to  doc- 
 trine, and  it  is  so  far  the  practical  expression  of  the  Church's 
 life,  working  out  the  requirements  of  doctrine. 
 
 Custom  may  be  called  the  unregulated  portion  of  practice, 
 that  is,  unregulated  by  doctrinal  necessity;  and  it  derives  its 
 privilege  from  the  doctrinally  unessential  features  of  the  Church's 
 life,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion  or  age,  according  to  the 
 principle  that  "What  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word  of  Cod  may  be 
 accepted."  Under  this  principle,  which  at  once  affirms  Gosjx;! 
 liberty  and  excludes  legalism,  iconoclasm  and  fanaticism,  various 
 adiaphoristic  customs  are  permissible,  which  the  Reformed  dic- 
 tum, that  whatever  is  not  expressed  in  the  Word  of  God  is  for- 
 bidden, affords  no  place.  The  Lutheran  spirit  does  not  foster 
 anarchy  in  practice,  nor  can  it  countenance  "authority"  not  al- 
 lowed in  the  Word  of  God. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church  does  not  reside  in  the  priesthood,  but 
 is  found  in  the  "communion  of  .saints;"  and  the  authority  of  the 
 Church  resides  in  that  communion,  that  is,  the  primary  and  re- 
 siduary source  of  Lutheran  authority  is  the  congregation,  the 
 earthly  side  of  the  comnuniion  of  saints. f  "The  true  Lutheran 
 principle  of  congregational  right  and  authority  demands  the  co- 
 operation of  the  congregation  in  the  Service;"  and  Dr.  Jacobs,! 
 "The  congregations  are  the  primary  bodies  through  which  thi 
 power  (of  Christ)  is  normally  exercised."     This  cooperation  is 
 
 *~^The  Doctrines  and  Usages  of  Ihc  I. nth  era  n  Churdi.     \i.  96. 
 
 t  Lectures  on  I.ituri^cs,  Dk.  Spaeth. 
 
 X    The  Doctrines  and  ['sages  0/ the  I.ulheran  Church,  p.  106. 
 
CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        75 
 
 seen  in  the  representative  production  called  "The  Order  of  Ser- 
 vice" in  our  Church  Book,  wherein,  notwithstanding  Dr.  Bruno's 
 restriction,  the  congregation  has  its  place.  If  Lutheran  doctrines 
 are  measurably  correct,  Lutheran  members  cannot  be  excluded. 
 Nevertheless  the  Church  is  not  made  up  of  externals  alone,  either 
 in  practice  or  organization;  but  is  the  compact,  consentient  body 
 of  believers.  Forms  are  made  for  man  and  not  man  for  the 
 forms. 
 
 In  order  to  simplify  the  further  consideration  of  this  topic, 
 and  to  eliminate  some  items  which  will  need  no  extended  refer- 
 ence, it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  concensus  of  opinion  of  the 
 fathers  of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  that  neither  the  time  nor  the 
 place  of  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  nor  the  quantity 
 and  quality  of  the  elements*  with  exceptions  to  be  noted  later, 
 nor  the  personal  character  of  the  ministerf  affect  the  validity  of 
 the  Sacrament.  The  prayers,  the  exhortations,  the  general 
 Scripture  lessons,  the  laying  on  of  hands,  the  exorcisms,  signs  of 
 the  cross,  standing,  kneeling,  etc.,  are  not  essentials.  The  pas- 
 tor is  the  organ  of  the  congregation,  of  which  himself  is  a  part, 
 so  that  his  character  and  his  intention  are  not  elements  of  validi- 
 ty. Of  course,  the  character  of  the  minister  as  a  moral  example 
 and  shining  light  are  of  consequence  to  the  life  of  the  Church, 
 and  should  be  above  reproach.  So  too,  the  prayers,  Scripture 
 lessons,  the  laying  on  of  hands  are  edifying,  and  fitting  for  thfe 
 instruction  of  the  congregation,  calling  to  mind  the  vows  which 
 have  been  made  by  the  members;  and  are  helpful  in  preserving 
 and  impressing  upon  the  candidate  and  congregation  the  serious 
 importance  of  the  Christian  life  and  duty.  They  are  not,  howev- 
 er, essentials,  though  they  are  not  to  be  trifled  with  to  suit  the 
 whim  of  the  person. 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 In  regard  to  baptism,  there  are  three  instances  of  adminis- 
 tration to  be  noted,  viz: — Infant,  adult  and  emergency  baptism, 
 or  Noth  Taufe.  In  each  instance  the  Sacrament  is  the  same.  It 
 never  varies,  as  the  human  portions  or  practices  may.  That  is, 
 the  essentials  of  the  Sacrament  never  change,  however  much  the 
 circumstances  accompanying  the  administration  may. 
 
 *  Baptist  System  Examined,  Seiss,   p.  185  sq. 
 
 t  Schmidt's  Doctrinal  Theology  of  the  Ev,  Lutheran  Church,  ed.  1876,  pp. 
 562-5.     Catholic  Belief,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  108  supra,  intention. 
 
7G  memoirs. 
 
 The  primary  regulation,  effective  both  for  pastor  and  con- 
 gregation, is  to  see  to  the  validity  of  the  rite. 
 
 Validity.  The  insistence  upon  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament 
 is  absolutely  fundamental,  for  without  this  the  administration  is 
 useless,  if  not  culpable  contempt  of  the  Lord's  command.* 
 
 Without  going  into  the  doctrinal  side  of  the  Sacrament,  it  is 
 to  be  observed  that  the  Sacrament  is  the  institution  of  Jesus 
 Christ,  and  as  such,  comes  to  us  with  all  the  power  and  authority 
 of  His  Divine  personality.  No  man  has  the  self-assumed  privi- 
 lege of  doing  or  refraining  from  doing  what  He  has  commanded. 
 
 However,  it  is  not  appointed  in  every  case  what  details  shall 
 be  fulfilled.  In  such  case  it  falls  to  the  duty  of  the  Church  gen- 
 eral to  appoint  such  undetermined  portions,  so  far  as  occasion 
 and  circumstances  warrant;  and  also  to  see  that  such  appoint- 
 ments are  respected.  God  is  not  the  God  of  anarchy  but  of  or- 
 der; and  His  Church  should  be  likeminded. 
 
 The  validity  of  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  rests  upon  three 
 points,  none  of  which  are  subject  to  personal  human  liberty. 
 
 One  essential  for  validity  is  that  there  shall  be  an  earthly  el- 
 ement used.  This  element,  according  to  Scripture,  is  water.f 
 It  may  be  noted  that  some  persons,  in  cases  of  necessity,  do  not 
 consider  water  to  be  the  sole  possible  element,  where  water  is  not 
 obtainable;  but  this  is  not  allowed  by  others,!  and  so  far  as  we 
 are  concerned,  water  would  seem  to  be  the  only  element.  The 
 real  question  to  be  decided  is  whether  the  element  is  superior  to 
 the  Sacrament  as  commanded;  or  whether,  without  water  there 
 can  be  a  Sacrament. 
 
 As  before  mentioned,  the  quality  of  the  water  is  not  essen- 
 tial; but  decency  would  insist  that  it  be  clean,  as  well  as  the  ves- 
 sel and  the  minister. 
 
 While  the  Lutheran  Church  does  not  deny  that  immersion  is 
 baptism,  providing  other  essentials  are  present,  yet  the  practice 
 is  sprinkling  or  pouring. § 
 
 *  ScHMUiT's  Doct.  Thiol,  of  (he  Ev.  LuUi.  Church,  ed.  1876.  pp.  540-4,  554  sq. 
 
 t  Ibid.  pp.  543-6.     Book  of  Concord,  JacoHS,  p.  468. 
 
 X  Dr.  Si'aeth's  Lectures  on  Catcchelics.  Book  of  Concord,  Jacobs,  p.  82. 
 The  Catholic  Christian  Instructed,  Dr.  Chall<iner,  N.  Y.,  p.  24.  Westminster 
 Conf.  of  Faith,  Thila.,  1896,  p.  146.  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church, 
 1880,  N.  Y.,  p.  265.  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  1S91,  pp.  261,  247.  Conservative 
 Reformation,  KuAUTH,  p.  519.      Church  Book,  p.  347. 
 
 §  Elements  of  Religion,  Dr.  Jacobs,  p.  173.  Bap.  Sys.E.vam.,  Siiiss,  p.  189. 
 Bk.  of  Com.  Prayer,  Episcopal,  1891,  p.  257.  Conservative  Kef,  Krauth,  p.  519. 
 Schmidt's  Doct.   Theol.  of  tJie  Ev.  Luth.  Church,  cd.  1876,  p.  560. 
 
CUSTOMS  PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE  SACRAMENTS.         77 
 
 The  second  essential  to  the  validity  of  baptism  is  to  use  the 
 words  of  institution,  viz: — "In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of 
 the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  in  other  words,  the  trinitarian 
 formula.  The  minister  has  not  the  privilege  of  making  a  formu- 
 la to  suit  himself,  for  it  is  Christ's  institution. 
 
 The  third  essential  of  validity  is  that  the  element  shall  be 
 applied  to  the  person  (or  head)  of  the  candidate;  preferably  at 
 the  pronunciation  of  the  personal  names  of  the  Trinity.* 
 
 A  distinction  is  made  between  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament 
 and  the  benefits  derived  therefrom.  The  validity  depends  upon 
 the  intention  ai'id  purpose  of  Christ,  and  the  act  of  the  congrega- 
 tion, administered  through  the  administrator,  according  to 
 Christ's  Word,  and  not  the  intent  of  the  administrator,  as  set 
 forth  by  the  Catholic  Church, f  but  the  benefits  depend  upon  the 
 faith  or  state  of  the  recipient. 
 
 The  general  rule  for  baptism  is  that  it  should  be  administered 
 in  the  presence  of  the  congregation,  in  church,  except  cases  of 
 necessity,  and  by  the  pastor,  or  ordained  minister.  The  West- 
 minster Confession  (p.  145)  allows  only  the  minister. 
 
 Infant  Baptism.  It  may  not  be  admitted  that  infant  baptism 
 is  a  regulation;  but  it  is  the  purpose  just  now  to  take  it  in  that 
 sense.  Among  Lutherans  there  is  no  question  that  infants  are  to 
 be  baptized;  but  the  practices  going  on  around  us  in  other  denom- 
 inations, or  the  failure  to  practice,  is  very  prevalent.  Not  only 
 so,  but  some  are  hostile  to  the  rite,  and  we  feel  the  reflex  of  the 
 hostility  in  a  tendency  to  let  such  matters  pass  without  concern. 
 It  is  well  known  that  the  Catholic  Church  demands  infant  bap- 
 tism as  "absolutely  necessary"  J  while  the  Lutheran  Church 
 demands  it  as  necessary,  or  rather  the  Word  of  Christ  and  His 
 provision  demand  it.  It  has  been  a  struggle  ever  since  the  Refor- 
 mation to  keep  this  truth  before  the  Church,  because  the  lax  sac- 
 ramental views  of  many,  and  the  hostile  views  of  others  lead  into 
 carelessness  and  denial. § 
 
 *    The  Lutheran  Cyclopedia, 
 
 t  ScHiMiDT's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  pp.  472,  550,  546.  The 
 Cath.  Chris.  Instr.,  Dr.  Challoner,  N.  Y.,  p.  24,     Cath.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  82. 
 
 X  Cath.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  p.  81.  Conservative  Ref.,  Krauth,  pp.  430,  444. 
 Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  p.  554-3.  Book  of  Concord, 
 Jacobs,  p.  471. 
 
 §  Westminster  Conf.  of  Faith,  p.  185.  Book  of  Concord,  Jacobs,  p.  174. 
 Conservative  Ref.,  Krauth,  pp.  430,  574. 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church  holds  tliat  the  infant  is  planted  into 
 Christ,  and  is  made  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Christ  by  Bap- 
 tism.* The  indilTerence  and  hostility  of  others  persistently  resist 
 the  manifest  intention  of  Christ;  and  by  so  doin^,  they  virtually 
 cast  off  the  babes  like  waifs  on  the  street.  They,  indeed,  believe, 
 in  a  way,. that  the  adult  is  made  an  heir  of  Christ  and  His  merits 
 by  adoption,  through  baptism  outwardly,  and  faith  inwardly; 
 but  their  babes  are  made  spiritual  orphans  and  foundlings.  Par- 
 ents are  the  natural  guardians  of  their  own  children,  they  have 
 brought  them  into  the  world  through  no  Divine  necessity,  but  of 
 their  own  action;  yet  they  ignore  their  spiritual  responsibility  to 
 the  spiritual  nature  of  their  child,  which  is  just  as  real  as  the 
 phy.sical.  They  affect  to  cast  the  helpless  little  one  upon  the  all- 
 embracing  love  of  God,  and  thus  evade  their  responsibility  to 
 the  whole  nature  of  their  offspring.  Christian  parents  esteem 
 fellowship  in  the  Church;  but  practically  exclude  their  little  ones 
 from  the  same  privilege.! 
 
 We  do  not  say  that  the  Lord  will  not  take  up  the  children 
 of  those  who  forsake  them,  but  we  do  say  they  forsake  them  and 
 throw  off  on  God  their  own  responsibility,  which  should  be  as 
 inalienable  as  physical  or  moral  care.  J 
 
 Of  course,  there  is  a  doctrine  at  the  root  of  the  irresponsibil- 
 ity, but  the  doctrine  is  man-made,  while  the  responsibility  is  God- 
 made.  The  Lord  gave  the  Sacrament,  and  the  Lord  gave  the 
 child,  and  the  Lord  gave  to  us  the  duty  to  obey.  It  is  not  a 
 wild  guess  that  the  Lord  will  also  adjust  the  Sacrament  to  the 
 child  if  any  adjustment  is  called  for. 
 
 It  is  a  Lutheran  principle  that  the  adiaphoron  becomes  fun- 
 damental under  certain  conditions,  much  more  then,  in  this  age 
 of  biased  interpretation,  devitalized  sacraments  and  creed  discred- 
 iting, infant  baptism  becomes  a  regulation. 
 
 Instruction.  With  this  regulation  goes  another,  scarcely  less 
 important,  and  scarcely  less  ignored.  This  is  instruction  in  the 
 catechi.sm. 
 
 The  child  is  in  profound  need  of  knowing  the  will  of  God, 
 so  that  he  may  do  it.  It  is  also  a  profound  need  that  the  child 
 know  what  to  believe,  not  alone  for  the  knowledge  sake,  but  for 
 
 *  El.  of  Relig.^  Jacobs,  pp.  165,  179.    Biblical  Psychology ,  Delitzsch,  p.  413. 
 t  Bap.  Sys.  Exam.,  Seiss,  pp.  322,  36S. 
 %   Conservative  Re/.,  Krauth,  p.  438. 
 
CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        79 
 
 his  soul's  sake,  that  he  may  apprehend  Christ  aright,  make  a 
 good  confession,  and  be  thoroughly  furnished  unto  all  good 
 works. 
 
 Communion  through  prayer,  comfort  in  trial,  strength  in 
 adversity  are  certain  needs,  which  are  provided  for  in  wise  in- 
 struction; to  say  nothing  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his 
 own  adult  life  which  need  a  solid  foundation,  and  a  vital  realiza- 
 tion. 
 
 Sponsors.  Dependent  upon  infant  baptism,  is  the  custom  of 
 having  sponsors  to  stand  for  and  with  the  infant;  to  take  vows 
 in  its  behalf  assuring  its  proper  up-bringing  and  training  in 
 Christian  truth,  until  the  child  assumes  responsibility  for  itself. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church,  as  do  the  Catholic  and  Episcopal, 
 recognizes  this  institution;  and  endeavors  to  have  sponsors  fulfil 
 their  whole  duty  under  the  serious  import  of  the  assumed  vows. 
 But  it  is  not  to  be  supposed,  that  the  Christian  parents  lessen 
 their  obligations  thereby.  They  are  the  natural  sponsors  always, 
 and  without  choice;  but  other  persons  whether  relatives  or  friends 
 are  also  admitted  to  the  function,  by  their  voluntary  assumption 
 of  the  required  vows. 
 
 Sponsors  must  be  believers,  in  good  standing  in  the  Church, 
 preferably  members  of  the  Church  in  which  baptism  occurs 
 (Catholic  Church  admits  only  Catholics,  and  sponsorship  is  an 
 impediment  to  marriage;*  Episcopal  Church  asks  two  male  and 
 one  female  sponsor  for  a  male  child,  two  female  and  one  male  for 
 a  female  childf).  The  sponsorial  vows  are  such  that  a  member 
 of  another  denomination  could  not  very  consistently  take  them, 
 and  really  ought  not,  unless  their  own  belief  accords  sufficiently 
 with  the  baptizing  Church  so  as  to  permit  such  care  as  is  in- 
 volved.    Honor  dictates  that  the  vows  be  kept  inviolate. 
 
 Persons  unbaptized,  persons  not  in  good  standing,  and  those 
 who  have  made  a  breach  of  wedlock,  whether  parents  or  others, 
 members  or  not,  are  not  fit  subjects  for  sponsorship.  Sin  lieth 
 at  the  door. 
 
 Personally,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  if  this  custom  were  to 
 go  the  way  of  all  the  world.  For — If  the  Church  is  the  earthly 
 source  of  authority,  it  ought  also  to  be  spiritually  responsible  for 
 its  own,  as  the  parents  are  naturally  and  spiritually.     2.   If  the 
 
 *    The  Cath.  Chris.  Irish-.,  Dk.  Challoner,  p.  29. 
 t  Book  of  Common  Prayer^  1891,  p.  247. 
 
80  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Church  prays  for  them  at  baptism,  she  ought  to  work  for  them 
 afterward.  3.  The  shifting  of  the  population  at  this  day  is  in- 
 imical to  care.  "Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind."  4.  In  the  event  of 
 the  parents'  death,  the  laws  of  the  land  give  the  control  of  mi- 
 nors into  the  hands  of  guardians,  which  does  not  legally  call  for 
 spiritual  oversight,  and  may  indeed  install  a  guardian  hostile  to 
 all  religion.  5.  Christenings,  which  are  misnomers  to-day, 
 thanks  to  laxity,  may  often  be  spelled  carousals;  but  even  when 
 they  are  not  so  spelled,  the  parents  of  the  child  often  have  spon- 
 sors more  for  the  sake  of  the  possible  temporal  advantage  to  the 
 child  than  anything  else. 
 
 Here  it  is  well  to  note  that  infant  baptism  is  not  to  be  re- 
 peated, if  reasonable  assurance  is  given  of  a  former  correct  bap- 
 tism, baptismal  hallucinations,  notwithstanding.  This  is  not 
 because  of  a  ''character  indclibilis'''^  but  because  of  the  Divine  or- 
 igin of  the  Sacrament. t 
 
 Adult  Baptism.  Adult  baptism  differs  from  infant  baptism 
 in  respect  to  the  candidate,  and  not  in  respect  to  the  Sacrament. 
 The  latter  is  fixed  by  the  Word.  In  respect  to  the  person  the 
 difference  is  in  age,  and  the  requirement  is  that  he  have  faith, 
 personal  and  publicly  confessed.  In  order  that  he  may  be  able 
 to  give  a  reason  for  the  hope  that  is  in  him,  he  is  to  be  instructed 
 before  baptism,  in  like  maimer  as  the  one  baptized  in  infancy  is 
 instructed  for  confirmation.  He  has  no  sponsors,  for  he  is  self- 
 responsible.  J 
 
 He  is  baptized  upon  the  confession  of  the  Lutheran  faith 
 whereas  the  infant  is  baptized  upon  the  general  faith,  or  Apos- 
 tle's Creed. 
 
 By  baptism,  the  adult  is  made  a  member  of  the  Church,  all 
 the  prerequisites  being  present.  Confirmation  of  the  adult  is  a 
 subdivision  of  adult  baptism,  but  is  not  the  actual  admissionary 
 rite.  Where  congregational  charters  require  confirmation,  that 
 is  legal,  and  belongs  to  Caesar;  but  confirmation  is  purely  human, 
 though  desirable  for  the  adult.  Nevertheless,  it  is  scarcely  con- 
 sistent to  debar  from  the  Lord's  Supper  because  the  Bishop  has 
 
 ♦   Cath.  Bel.,  Dk.  Bruno,  p.  82. 
 
 t  Book  of  Concord ,  Jacobs,  p.  472.     Schmidt's /5(W.   Theol.  of  I. nth.  Chunk, 
 ed.  1876,  pp.  569-13.      Westminster  Con/,  of  Faiths  Phila.,  1S96,  p    149. 
 
 t  Schmidt's  Z>(3r/.  Theol.  of  Litth.  Ch.,  pp.  564-9.     Bap.  Sys.  Z;>rtw.,  Skiss, 
 p.  321.     Dr.  Fry's  Seminary  Dictation  on  Pastoral  Theology. 
 
CUSTOMS  PERTAINING   TO    USE    OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.         81 
 
 not  laid  his  hands  upon  the  baptized  adult,*  for  that  supersedes 
 the  Divine  institution  by  a  human  one.  The  Episcopal  Church 
 excludes  from  the  L,ord's  Supper  until  confirmation.  A  similar 
 objection  lies  against  the  probationary  system,  which  follows  up- 
 on adult  baptism;!  besides  this,  there  is  suggested  the  tacit  fear 
 of  defection,  the  tacit  questioning  of  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spir- 
 it to  keep  one,  and  the  virtual  separation  of  the  visible  from  the 
 invisible  Church. 
 
 However,  stringency  upon  adult  baptism  is  necessary,  be- 
 cause the  candidate  thus  enters  the  very  life  of  the  Church,  as 
 well  as  its  activity  in  and  before  the  world.  All  the  privileges  of 
 Church  membership  are  his  when  once  he  becomes  a  member, 
 and  he  cannot  be  deprived  of  them  for  insufficient  causes;  and 
 more  than  this  the  male  candidate,  or  member,  is  a  potential  of- 
 ficer of  the  congregation,  with  full  power  to  influence  and  affect 
 the  Church's  life  to  the  extent  of  his  capacity;!  wherefore  care  is 
 necessary.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  that  adult  baptism 
 should  occur  in  the  presence  of  the  congregation,  at  a  regular 
 Service,  and  be  administered  by  the  minister. 
 
 Emergeyicy  Baptism.  In  this  instance,  as  in  the  preceding 
 instances,  there  is  no  difference  in  the  Sacrament,  per  se.  The 
 variations  are  due  to  circum.stances,  and  are  in  unessentials. 
 
 Whether  the  candidate  be  infant  or  adult  the  degree  of  ne- 
 cessity, the  immanence  of  death,  for  it  is  only  in  such  cases  we 
 have  emergency  baptism,  controls  the  externals.  The  esentials 
 are  reducible  to  a  few  moments  of  time,  being  the  element,  the 
 application  and  the  use  of  the  institutional  words.  Upon  the  oc- 
 casion of  less  seriousness  more  of  the  prescribed  forms  are  to  be 
 used.     This  applies  to  infants  only,  however. 
 
 Upon  very  pressing  circumstances,  the  pastor  should  offici- 
 ate, but,  if  he  cannot  be  gotten  promptly  enough,  then  a  Chris- 
 tian, or  failing  a  Christian,  another  person  may  administer,  but 
 always  in  the  proper  manner.  The  baptism  should  then  be  re- 
 ported to  the  pastor,  with  the  evidence  of  proper  baptism,  and  he 
 shall  make  proper  record  and  public  statement  in  confirmation  of 
 the  act.  If  the  person  lives  and  the  baptism  be  valid,  it  shall 
 not  be  repeated;  if  of  doubtful  validity,  it  should  be  properly  ad- 
 ministered^^ 
 
 *   Book  of  Common  Prayer,  1891,  p.  257. 
 
 t   The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  0/ AT.  E.  Church,    1880,  N.  Y.,   pp.   272-279. 
 
 X  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  1876,  pp.  552-14,  555. 
 
82  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  adult  person,  near  to  death,  may  be  baptized  if  he  is 
 sufficiently  conscious  to  luiderstand  the  act,  and  to  make  true  and 
 proper  confession,  however  abbreviated  it  may  be.  This  virtual- 
 ly requires  the  pastor  to  officiate. 
 
 Dr.  Fry*  would  withhold  baptism  from  a  candidate  who  re- 
 fused to  receive  the  Lord's  Supper,  on  the  ground  that  he  does 
 not  apprehend  the  purpose  of  the  Sacrament;  in-as-nuich  as  the 
 Lord's  Supper  should  follow  adult  baptism. 
 
 The  Catholic  Church  admits  the  baptism  of  blood,  for  those 
 martyred,  and  the  baptism  of  desire,  or  by  desire,  when  the  exi- 
 gencies of  the  occasion  prevent  formal  baptism,  and  the  jx^r.^on 
 desire  it;t  it  is  possible  in  this  Church  to  receive  three  indelible 
 characters,  through  baptism,  confirmation  and  ordination. 
 
 THE   lord's   supper. 
 
 As  with  baptism,  so  with  the  Lord's  Supper,  there  are  es- 
 sentials and  unessentials.  The  essentials  are  not  subject  to 
 Christian  liberty,  but  the  unessentials  may  be  so.  There  are  al- 
 so some  practices  which  for  the  sake  of  truth  and  doctrine  are  to 
 be  rejected. 
 
 Among  the  rejected  items  we  place  that  practice,  which  de- 
 pends upon  the  purely  memorial  conception,  and  makes  a  distinc- 
 tion between  the  consecration  and  distribution,  previously  men- 
 tioned. The  practice  which  withholds  one  element,  which  carries 
 the  Host  around,!  the  practice  which  considers  one  consecration 
 a  permanent  one,§  that  offers  the  Sacrament  for  the  dead,  or 
 during  the  absence  of  the  worshippers,  or  if  present  not  distribu- 
 ting to  them;  also  that  the  priest  makes  the  Sacrament. 
 
 It  is  not  a  sacrifice  which  the  priest  offers  up;  it  is  not  medic- 
 inal ;||  it  is  not  magical;**  it  is  not  to  be  used  to  cure  diseases,  it 
 cannot  be  partaken  spiritually  while  the  Host  is  offered  up.ff 
 
 Among  the  non-essentials  are  the  language,  Lnglish,  Ger- 
 man; the  kind  of  grain,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  rice  flour;  the  .shape 
 of  the  loaf,  wafer  or  loaf,  round  or  square;  leavened  or  unleav- 
 ened; broken  or  unbroken;  how  much  is  received;  genuflection> 
 at  reception;  as  to  the  wine,  whether  red  or  white,  mixed  with 
 water  or  not;  if  the  bread  may  be  leavened  or  unleavened,  wine 
 
 •  Sem.  Dirt,  on  Pastoral  Theol. 
 
 t  Calk.  Bd.,  Bruno,  p.  82.     X  If'i^i-  117.     §  /<'"'/.  115.  n6.     tt  Ibid.  122. 
 
 X  SciiMinx's /W/.   Theol.  of  Luth.  Ch.,  547,  591.     II  Had.  594.     **  Ibid.  547. 
 
 II  'J'hc  Calk.  Chris,  fin/r.,  Chai.I.GNKK,  p.  76. 
 
CUSTOMS   PERTAINING   TO   USE   OF   THE   SACRAMENTS.        83 
 
 may  be  fermented  or  unfermented.*  But  each  element  should 
 be  genuine.  Whether  the  reception  be  in  the  hand  or  directly  in 
 the  mouth  is  not  essential;  but  the  mouth  is  to  actually  receive  it 
 one  way  or  the  other. f  Standing  or  kneeling  is  immaterial; 
 though  standing  seems  to  imply  a  feast  rather  than  a  fast.| 
 
 In  cases  of  private  or  sick  communion,  the  Ser\nce  maj^  be 
 abbreviated  to  the  confession,  which  also  may  be  abbreviated, 
 and  the  essentials. § 
 
 A  rule  is  given  that  only  the  minister  may  administer  this 
 Sacrament;||  but  some  take  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  charac- 
 ter or  intention  of  the  administrator  is  not  an  impediment  to  va- 
 lidity;** but  of  course  this  does  not  mean  that  the  minister  may 
 be  anything  he  pleases. 
 
 It  is  a  standing  rule  that  preparatory  or  confessional  Services 
 shall  precede  the  Communion, ff  so  that  members,  by  proper 
 meditation  and  preparation  may  approach  the  table  worthily.  JJ 
 
 This  Service  gives  opportunity  for  self-examination  and  also 
 for  the  Church  examination  through  the  Council,  where  this  fol- 
 lowed, of  those  who  purpose  to  commune.  Gerhard  would  ex- 
 clude those  who  do  not  examine  themselves,  those  who  cannot, 
 or  do  not  discern  the  Lord's  body,  among  which  are  those  uncon- 
 scious, those  who  do  not  show  forth  the  Lord's  death,  persistent 
 heretics,  notorious  sinners,  the  excommunicated,  the  possessed, 
 maniacs,  demented  and  infamous  persons. §§ 
 
 The  Westminster  Confession  (p.  152)  says  that  after  the 
 consecration  the  minister  is  to  "take  and  brake  the  bread,  to  take 
 the  cup,  and  ....  to  give  both  to  the  communicants;  but  to 
 none  who  are  not  then  present  in  the  congregation."  Also  (p. 
 154)  "Wherefore  all  ignorant  and  ungodly  persons,  as  they  are 
 unfit  to  enjoy  Communion  with  Him  (the  Lord),  so  they  are  un- 
 
 *  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  AI.  E.  Church,  1880,  N.  Y.,  p.  284.  prescribes 
 unfermented.  t  Ibid.   p.  291. 
 
 t  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  Luth.  Church,  ed.  1876,  p.  582.  ||  Ibid.  pp. 
 
 548,  593.  594-  **  Ibid.  pp.  548-10.  §§  Ibid.  p.  592. 
 
 X  Dr.  Fry's  Sent.  Diet,  on  Pastoral  Theol. 
 
 %  In  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Ch.,  p.  295,  the  Elder  may  omit 
 all  but  the  consecratory  prayer,  the  invitation  and  the  confession,  when  time  is  short. 
 II  liturgies,  Horn,  p.  41. 
 
 **  Book  of  Concord,  Jacobs,  p.  477.  §§  Ibid.  p.  614. 
 
 tt  Church  Book. 
 
 XX  In  I'he  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  M.  E.  Church,  p.  287,  the  pastor  con- 
 fesses for  the  people. 
 
84  MEMOIRS. 
 
 worthy  of  the  Lord's  Table,  and  cannot,  without  great  sin  against 
 Christ,  while  they  remain  such,  partake  of  these  holy  mysteries, 
 or  be  admitted  thereto."  The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  the 
 M.  H.  Church,  (j).  2<S7)  admits  those  who  are  penitent,  are  char- 
 itable and  in  love  with  neighbors,  and  purpose  to  live  a  new  life, 
 following  the  commandments  of  God. 
 
 The  faith  of  the  recipient  does  not  constitute  the  Sacrament 
 but  affects  his  benefits,*  nor  does  it  invalidate  it. 
 
 The  validity  of  the  Communion  rests  upon  the  two  elements 
 of  bread  and  wine  being  present  and  being  distributed  and  re- 
 ceived by  the  participant  and  the  use  of  the  words  of  institution 
 as  given  by  Christ,  f 
 
 It  follows,  then,  that  only  baptized  and  confirmed  or  received 
 members,  and  those  in  good  standing,  those  who  have  the  mind 
 of  Christ  respecting  the  Sacrament,  and  the  worthy,  are  eligible 
 to  it. 
 
 The  appointed  place  is  the  church,  the  appointed  time  is  a 
 regular  meeting,  without  a  general  invitation,  the  preparatory 
 Service  is  the  occasion  to  settle  such  matters;  and  the  appointed 
 recipients  are  those  who  are  worthily  prepared.! 
 
 The  act  of  consecration  seems  to  lie  in  the  distribution  and 
 reception  of  the  elements  in  connection  with  the  words  of  insti- 
 tution.§  The  Methodist  Episcopal  consecration  would  api)ear  to 
 be  found  in  the  consecratory  prayer;||  the  Westminster  Confession 
 gives  no  formula  direct.** 
 
 Ik  A   M.  Wallace. 
 
 Morganiotvn,    W.    Va. 
 
 *  Schmidt's  Doct.  Theol.  of  tiu  Ev.  I.uth.  Church,  td.  1S76,  p.  549.  +  IM. 
 I'P-  547-8,  587-11.  §  Ibid.  pp.  547-8. 
 
 t  Biblical  Psycholoi^',  Dbutzsch,  p.  412.  The  Cath.  Chris,  histr.,  I)K. 
 CnALLoNKK,  N.  v.,  p.  87.     Calh.  Bel.,  Dr.  Bruno,  pp.  100-105.     §  fbitl.  p.  116. 
 
 %  /.i/uripcs.  Morn,  p.  1 18.  t  /bit/,  pp.  41-44,  llS. 
 
 §  i^7fw<r«/5  0/ AV/i>7'o«,  Dr.  Jacobs,  p.  171.  t  tbiii.  p.  166. 
 
 II    The  Doctrines  ami  Discipline  of  M,  E.  Church,  p.  289. 
 
 ••    IVestminster  Conf.  of  Eaith,  p.  152. 
 
LITURGICAI.  ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY. 
 
 Before  treating  of  our  theme  itself  it  will  be  profitable,  if  indeed 
 not  absolutely  necessary,  to  consider  a  few  questions  which  cer- 
 tainly are  germane  to  it,  and  though  the  ground  suggested  by 
 these  questions  has  already  been  covered  by  previous  papers  pub- 
 lished in  the  Memoirs  of  this  Association  certain  phases  which 
 have  to  do  directly  with  the  subject  in  hand  must  be,  if  only 
 briefly,  touched  on. 
 
 I.       WHY   WE    have    a    liturgy. 
 
 The  question  why  we  have  a  Liturgy  is  not  now  nearly  so 
 pressing  as  it  was  a  generation  ago;  for  this  we  are  profoundly 
 thankful.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  a  liturgical  Church.  To 
 quote  the  striking  and  eloquent  words  of  one  of  her  sons:  "During 
 the  last  fifty  years  the  Lutheran  Chu^h  of  this  country  may  be 
 said  to  have  been  in  a  steady  process  of  recovery,  finding  herself 
 again  with  all  the  treasures  that  had  been  her  inheritance  since 
 the  days  of  the  great  Reformation.  She  had,  indeed,  wandered 
 away  from  her  Father's  house  where  there  was  bread  enough  and 
 to  spare.  She  was  begging  for  bread  at  the  door  of  strangers, 
 and  perishing  with  hunger.  But  at  last  the  time  came  when  she 
 said:  'I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  Father, — to  the  Rock  from  which 
 I  was  hewn.'  And  so  she  returned  to  the  same  experience  which 
 the  reckless  and  deluded  son  in  the  parable  made  when  he  came 
 home  to  the  fatted  calf,  the  best  robe,  the  ring  and  the  shoes,  the 
 feast  and  the  music.  Thus  our  dear  Church,  in  the  time  of  her 
 gracious  revival,  returned  to  the  sound,  substantial  Gospel  doc- 
 trine of  the  fathers  and  to  the  beautiful  robe  of  her  glorious  Ser- 
 vice." It  is  true  there  are  still  a  few  prodigals  who  claim  their 
 right  to  do  with  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth  to  them  as  they 
 please,  who  have  no  Liturgy  or  their  own  substitute  for  a  Litur- 
 gy, or  a  crippled  and  stunted  Liturgy,  but  their  number  is  .surely 
 
 (Ixxxv) 
 
86  MEMOIRS. 
 
 growing  less,  and  even  aliens  no  longer  class  the  Lutheran  Church 
 with  the  non-liturgical  denominations. 
 
 The  practical  unanimity  with  which,  at  least  the  English 
 portion  of  our  Church,  has  accepted  the  Common  Service,  is  the 
 strongest  argument  for  the  use  of  a  Liturgy  in  congregational 
 worship.  Much  more  than  in  the  Anglican  denomination  our 
 use  of  a  common  form  of  Divine  Worship  is  a  proof  of  the  fact 
 that  our  congregations  themselves  need  and  want  a  Liturgy,  for 
 the  Episcopalian  must  have  his  Liturgy  because  his  Church  pro- 
 claims its  universal  use  as  one  of  her  fundamental  and  irrefraga- 
 ble laws,  while  the  Lutheran  must  have  his  Liturgy  only  because 
 his  heart  cries  out  for  it;  with  him  it  is  a  matter  of  personal  con- 
 viction more  than  Church-loyalty. 
 
 At  least  this  should  be  so.  And  yet  we  can  hardly  ignore 
 the  fact  that  in  some  of  our  congregations  the  Liturgy  owes  its 
 place  and  use  more  to  the  sense  of  loyalty  to  the  Church  which 
 has  provided  it  and  urges  its  use  than  to  a  real  desire  and  love 
 for  it  on  the  part  of  the  congregation.  Here  then  the  question 
 "Why  have  a  Liturgy?"  is  still  important  and  an  answer  very  nec- 
 essary, and  we  venture  to  give  an  answer  though  the  answer  ha.s 
 been  given,  one  would  think,  often  enough. 
 
 1 .  We  need  and  have  a  Liturgy  because  we  need  and  must 
 have  congregational  worship.  "The  authority  of  Christ  as  dis-' 
 tinctly  requires  common  prayer  as  it  requires  prayer  in  secret. 
 If  He  said:  'Thou,  when  thou  prayest,  enter  into  thy  closet,'  He 
 also  said:  'After  this  manner  pray  ye,  Our  Father  Who  art  in 
 Heaven.'  The  last  as  clearly  implies  a  social  act  as  the  first  im- 
 plies a  solitary  act;  and,  in  enjoining  the  duty,  He  also  gave  the 
 form  of  words  to  be  made  use  of .  .  .  .  The  first  devotional  ut- 
 terance, therefore,  of  the  disciples,  was  common  pra3'er."  It 
 should  be  clear  to  every  one  that  there  can  be  no  true  congrega- 
 tional worship  without  words  and  forms  which  express  not  pri- 
 vate and  personal  but  public  and  universal  needs,  which  convey 
 universal  gifts. 
 
 2.  We  need  and  have  this  particular  Liturgy,  because  it  is 
 rooted  in  the  fundamentals  of  congregational  worship  found  in 
 the  true  Church  of  Christ  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles  and  is 
 an  expression  of  faith  as  well  as  of  devotion,  an  assurance  of  Di- 
 vine blessing  (reception  of  Divine  gifts)  as  well  as  an  offering  of 
 Divine  honor  in  words  of  praise,  prayer  and  confession. 
 
LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY.  87 
 
 In  a  series  of  lectures  on  "The  Prayer  Book  and  the  Chris- 
 tian lyife"  Archdeacon  Tiffany  says:  [In  it]  "the  worshipper 
 voices  his  prayers  and  praises  in  the  language  of  other  men  and 
 other  times.  No  objection  need  lie  against  such  worship  as  ar- 
 chaic and  artificial,  as  a  crass  conservatism  which  cramps  worship 
 by  restricting  its  expression  to  an  ancient  formula,  and  by  depre- 
 ciating the  utterance  of  present  wants  in  the  language  of  the 
 present  hour,  for  the  fundamental  wants  of  human  nature  and 
 the  essential  adoration  of  the  heart  are  the  same  in  all  ages. 
 What  has  once  expressed  them  well  has  capacity  still  to  utter 
 them.  Common  worship  can  only  voice  the  fundamental  and, 
 because  fundamental,  the  common  wants  of  men.  The  special 
 exigency  of  each  individual  must  find  its  expression  in  the  closet. 
 'The  heart  knoweth  its  own  bitterness,  and  the  stranger  inter- 
 meddleth  not  with  its  joy.'  In  the  congregation  we  must  express 
 what  we  share  in  common,  one  with  another.  If  ours  is  to  be 
 common  worship,  not  individualistic,  a  common  form  must  fash- 
 ion it.  It  cannot  depend  upon  any  man's  mood,  nor  express 
 itself  through  any  one  man's  interpretation.  The  demand  of 
 common  worship  is  for  common  utterance.  Now  what  common 
 utterance  can  promise  so  much  completeness  as  that  which  is 
 common,  not  merely  to  one  community  or  to  one  age,  but  which 
 is  replete  with  the  aspiration  and  supplication  of  all  the  ages; 
 which  is  not  a  modern  manufacture  but  an  ancient  growth;  which 
 condenses  into  itself  the  sighing  and  singing  of  hearts  long  since 
 at  rest,  together  with  the  exaltations  and  the  plaints  of  those  still 
 compassed  about  with  the  trials  and  the  joys  of  this  present 
 time? 
 
 "There  was  temptation  enough  at  the  time  of  its  [the  Prayer 
 Book's]  formation  to  cut  off  altogether  from  past  usages  which 
 had  been  so  overladen  with  abuse.  But  the  liturgical  instinct 
 was  keen  and  subtle  enough  to  re.spond  to  the  vibrant  touch  and 
 living  association  of  the  old  forms  of  devotion.  The  Reformers 
 did  not  think  they  were  cutting  themselves  off  from  the  true  life 
 of  the  past.  They  were  reaffirming  it  rather  by  their  excision  of 
 so  much  cumbrous  and  illegitimate  overgrowth,  which  hid  the 
 form  and  perverted  the  spirit  of  that  past.  They  felt  the  more 
 drawn  to  the  heroes  of  the  age  of  primitive  simplicit)^  in  that 
 they  were  striving  to  restore  that  primitive  simplicity.  They 
 would  not  make  or  declare  themselves  ecclesiastical  orphans  by 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 rejection  of  the  fathers.  The  fires  of  devotion  which  burned 
 anew  in  tlieni  leaped  in  response  to  the  enkindling  devotions  of 
 the  olden  time.  Thus  out  of  that  past  they  drew  those  matchless 
 forms  and  set  them  to  our  lips,  so  that,  with  hearts  attuned  to 
 the  same  sanctity  of  desire,  the  mouth  might  speak  with  the 
 same  melody  of  utterance." 
 
 The  closing  paragraph  of  this  eloquent  defense  of  and  tribute 
 to  the  Liturgy  leads  us  directly  to  the  third  point  we  wish  to 
 make  and  this  is  really  the  point  of  our  whole  subject: 
 
 3.  We  need  and  have  our  Liturgy  because  its  proper  use  i- 
 the  surest  method  of  begetting  and  developing  a  deep  .spirituality 
 in  the  congregation. 
 
 If  this  cannot  be  demon.strated  then  every  use  of  liturgical 
 forms,  whether  accurate  or  inaccurate,  is  vain.  It  will  not  help 
 the  Liturgy  to  prove  that  it  satisfies  the  aesthetic  sense,  that  it  is 
 art,  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever.  Some  men  have  no 
 aesthetic  sense  and  even  its  perfect  gratification  may  leave  the 
 soul  empty  and  starving.  Nor  are  men  sav«d  by  art.  True  wt 
 are  bidden  to  w^orship  the  Lord  in  the  beauty  of  holiness;  but  it 
 is  the  beauty  of  Holiness.  Holiness  is  the  one  supreme  dcsidcr- 
 atum  of  worship.  It  is  the  one  great  object  of  God's  work  for 
 man,  of  God's  revelation  to  man.  The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  is 
 the  Holy  Christian  Church,  its  members  are  the  Communion  of 
 Saiiih.  To  save  men  not  merely  from  final  destruction,  from 
 eternal  doom,  from  hell-fire,  but  to  save  men  from  present  de- 
 struction, from  the  world  and  the  flesh  and  the  devil,  from  the 
 bondage  of  sin  and  the  service  of  Satan,  to  convert  and  regenerate 
 and  sanctify  them,  for  this  Christ  gave  His  life,  for  this  the  Holy 
 Ghost  now  works  in  His  Church  with  Word  and  Sacraments. 
 Only  the  true  faith  can  make  truly  holy,  but  only  true  holiness 
 proves  the  faith  true.  "Sanctify  them  in  Thy  Truth" — the 
 Truth  must  everywhere  and  always  sanctify.  Where  prayer  and 
 I)reaching  and  sacraments  do  not  make  for  holiness  there  they 
 are  perfectly  useless,  nay  even  harmful,  giving  souls  a  false  se- 
 curity as  though  salvation  came  ex  opcrc  opcratiwi. 
 
 Now  this  is  precisely  the  charge  which  the  opponents  of  a 
 liturgical  form  of  worship  have  ever  made  against  it.  They  were 
 satisfied  that  it  hampered  the  Christian  life,  they  were  sure  that 
 it  made  of  human  hearts  the  dry,  down-trodden  ground  by  the 
 way-side  into  which  no  seed  could  fall  where  the  fragrant  flowers 
 
1,ITURGICAI,    ACCURACY    AND   SPIRITUAI^ITY.  89 
 
 and  precious  fruits  of  the  Spirit  could  not  possibly  grow.  To 
 them  every  form,  every  set  order,  was  a  spirit  of  darkness,  to  be- 
 o-iiile  human  souls  and  build  up  a  wall  between  them  and  their 
 God.  And  even  among  those  who  whether  merely  for  the  sake 
 of  conformity  and  loyalty  or  because  they  really  desire  some  form 
 of  worship  are  using  the  prescribed  order  of  the  Common  Service, 
 there  are  not  wanting  critics  who  now  and  again  raise  a  cry  of 
 warning  against  the  tendenc}."  to  emphasize  the  lyiturgy  and  es- 
 pecially liturgical  accuracy  in  our  congregations.  Some  go  so 
 far  as  to  see  a  positive  danger  to  the  pure  doctrine  of  our  Church 
 in  this  liturgical  revival,  while  others  deplore  the  fact  that  so 
 much  zeal  and  energy,  so  many  words  and  such  a  vast  quantity 
 of  printer's  ink  should  be  wasted  on  a  matter  which  seems  to 
 them  so  insignificant.  There  might  be  some  truth  in  this  criti- 
 cism could  it  be  proved  that  the  pure  faith  once  delivered  to  the 
 saints  had  ever  suffered  in  a  period  of  liturgical  revival  and  ref- 
 ormation, or  that  faithful  study  of  and  accurate  use  of  true  forms 
 of  worship  had  ever  produced  indifference  to  the  commandments 
 of  God,  had  ever  quenched  the  fire  of  personal  love  of  and  devo- 
 tion to  the  Master.  But  both  history  and  personal  experience 
 prove  the  very  opposite.  The  faithful  use  of  a  pure  and  catholic 
 IJturgy  in  the  Church  has  ever  been  the  sign  of  her  adherence  to 
 the  pure  and  catholic  faith,  and  when  her  faith  was  pure  her  life 
 was  pure  and  the  liturgical  age  was  the  age  of  spiritual  experience 
 and  spiritual  growth.  In  whatever  manner  we  test  this  state- 
 ment we  will  find  it  true.  The  departure  from  pure.  Scriptural, 
 Apostolic  and  catholic  forms  of  worship,  the  introduction  into  the 
 Church's  L,iturgy  of  impure  elements,  marked  the  age  of  doc- 
 trinal error  and  spiritual  decay,  while  the  total  abandonment  of 
 all  litnrgiccd  forms  marked  the  age  of  rationalism.  A  pure  lyitur- 
 gy could  not  live  in  the  atmosphere  of  superstition,  nor  could  it 
 live  in  the  atmosphere  of  rationalism.  These  facts  are  significant. 
 If  we  make  much  of  our  Liturgy,  if  we  form  associations  for  li- 
 turgical study  and  for  the  propagation  of  right  knowledge  in 
 matters  liturgical  we  do  it  because  we  know  that  "thereby  the 
 Church  universal,  with  all  its  pastors  and  ministers  and  members, 
 will  be  preserved  in  the  pure  doctrine  of  God's  saving  Word, 
 that  thereby  faith  toward  God  will  be  strengthened,  and  charity 
 increased  in  us  toward  all  mankind."  To  us  the  Liturgy  is  any- 
 thing but  an  end  in  itself,  anything  but  an  opus  operatum,  it  is 
 
90  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  must  ever  be  a  means,  though  withal  a  holy  and  might}'  one, 
 to  the  one  end  we  all  desire,  a  firmer  hold  on  the  faith  once  de- 
 livered to  the  saints,  life  more  abounding  in  the  beautiful  fruits 
 of  the  Spirit. 
 
 II.       WHY    INSIST    ON    LITURGICAL    ACCURACY? 
 
 Of  course  the  mere  arrangement  of  a  Service  in  the  form  of 
 responses  by  pastor  and  people  will  not  produce  these  great  ef- 
 fects. Where  liturgical  forms  have  no  meaning,  or  where  their 
 meaning  is  not  intelligible  there  we  have  no  right  to  expect  spir- 
 itual results.  St.  Paul  rightly  insists  that  prayer  should  be  made 
 "with  the  understanding."  It  were  indeed  far  better  to  have  no 
 forms  at  all  than  mere  formality,  since  the  letter  killeth  while 
 the  spirit  alone  giveth  life.  Surely  it  ought  not  to  be  necessary  at 
 this  time  to  enter  again  on  an  exhaustive  explanation  of  the  plan 
 and  meaning  of  our  Liturgy,  of  the  two  fundamental  ideas  of  all 
 true  worship,  the  sacrificial  and  the  sacramental  which  it  so 
 beautifully  combines.  Yet  when  one  considers  the  barbarous 
 manner  in  which  the  Liturgy  is  still  treated  in  many  quarters, 
 when  one  witnesses  the  emasculation  it  frequently  suffers,  the 
 way  in  which  its  veins  are  opened  and  its  blood  is  let  and  its 
 limbs  are  amputated,  a  protest  in  behalf  of  a  perfect  Liturgy,  a 
 plea  for  liturgical  accuracy  is  surely  not  out  of  place. 
 
 I .  Liturgical  accuracy  is  necessary  because  without  it  litur- 
 gical worship  is  irrational. 
 
 That  the  form  of  worship  embraced  in  our  Liturgy  has  lit- 
 tle or  no  meaning  to  many  who  hear  it  and  participate  in  it  even 
 where  it  is  perfectly  and  accurately  used  is  no  doubt  true.  We 
 will  refer  to  the  remedy  necessary  here  later  on.  But  where  in- 
 excusable ignorance,  let  us  say,  of  the  officiating  minister,  per- 
 petrates such  outrages  on  the  Liturgy  as  those  hinted  at  above, 
 it  is  no  wonder  that  the  Liturgy  has  lost  all  its  meaning  and  is 
 looked  upon  by  the  average  worshipper  as  an  unmitigated  evil, 
 for  some  reason,  inexplicable  to  his  lay-mind,  necessary,  to  be 
 endured  as  patiently  as  possible,  to  be  gotten  over  as  quickly  as 
 possible,  to  be  heartily  hated  were  the  truth  known.  In  such  a 
 case  forms  of  worship  not  only  are  powerless  to  touch  the  heart 
 and  sanctify  the  will  but  they  are  dangerously  powerful  in  pro- 
 ducing just  the  opposite — they  invite  and  encourage  inattention 
 and  irreverence,  they  help  to  chill  and  harden  the  heart — they 
 
UTURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND    SPIRITUAUTY.  91 
 
 simply  kill  the  spirit  of  devotion.  But  how  different  the  effect 
 when  the  perfect  Liturgy  is  perfectly  used  and  where  its  plan 
 and  purpose  is  perfectly  understood.  There  the  worshipper  has 
 an  experience  of  God's  love,  an  assurance  of  his  salvation  in 
 Christ  Jesus.  He  comes  with  a  heart  oppressed  by  the  sense  of 
 guilt.  He  confes.ses  his  transgressions  to  Him  Who  alone  can 
 forgive  and  Who  has  solemnlj'  promised  to  forgive  sin.  He  hears 
 God's  own  declaration  of  forgiveness  pronounced  by  God's  own 
 representative,  His  minister  of  whom  God  says:  He  that  heareth 
 you  heareth  Me.  Now  he  can  praise  God  in  the  beautiful  old 
 songs  of  the  Church,  now  he  can  ask  God  for  the  particular  bless- 
 ing of  this  particular  Service  in  the  Collect  for  the  Day,  now  he 
 can  listen  to  God's  Word  read  and  preached,  confess  the  faith 
 that  is  in  him,  join  in  the  petitions  of  the  General  Prayer  for  all 
 sorts  and  conditions  of  men,  now  he  can  gladly  offer  his  gifts, 
 now,  above  all,  he  is  ready  to  enter  the  holy  of  holies  and  come 
 to  the  altar  to  receive  the  personal  pledge  of  God's  love  and  mer- 
 cy to  him  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  It 
 is  surely  now  no  idle  song,  that  grateful  Nunc  Dimittis,  he  has 
 indeed  seen  God's  Salvation  and  can  depart  in  peace  with  the 
 blessing  of  the  Triune  God.  Is  he  not  a  better  man  than  when 
 he  came?  Has  his  spiritual  life  not  been  quickened?  Was  it  the 
 sermon  only  which  did  it?  Was  it  the  Sacrament?  Was  it  the 
 music,  heard  and  sung?  Was  it  not  the  entire  perfect  and  beau- 
 tiful Service,  his  petitions  and  God's  gracious  gifts,  his  praise 
 and  God's  loving  benediction  which  contributed  to  this  great  re- 
 sult? Truly  the  very  accuracy  with  which  every  provision  of  the 
 Liturgy  was  carried  out  was  necessary  in  its  achievement. 
 
 2.  Liturgical  accuracy  demands  liturgical  knowledge.  Not 
 merely  knowledge  of  the  right  forms  of  a  truly  liturgical  Service, 
 but  knowledge  of  their  history  and  knowledge  of  their  meaning. 
 One  of  the  most  suggestive  titles  of  the  papers  published  by  this 
 Association  is  "A  Laity  Liturgically  Well-informed."  Where 
 the  Liturgy  is  not  understood  we  doubt  if  there  will  be  any 
 strong  inclination  for  its  accurate  use,  and  even  if  there  were,  its 
 value  must  certainly  be  greatly  impaired,  if  not  altogether  lost. 
 
 We  cannot  blame  our  people  for  their  lack  of  interest  in  the 
 Service,  for  their  listless  participation  in  it  when  they  have  but 
 the  vaguest  idea  what  it  all  means.  The  treasurer  of  Queen 
 Candace  was  indeed  reading  the  Scriptures,  perhaps  merely  from 
 
92  MEMOIRS. 
 
 a  sense  of  loyalty,  perhaps  also  because  he  admired  their  literary 
 style  and  poetic  finish,  but  he  received  very  little,  if  any  spiritual 
 benefit  from  that  occupation,  until  Philip  came  and  explained 
 that  wonderful  revelation  to  him,  and  he  was  very  glad  too  to 
 receive  that  instruction;  he  was  very  frank  in  the  confession  of 
 his  ignorance.  "Understandest  thou  what  thou  rcadest?"  said 
 Philip.  "How  can  I,  exce])t  some  man  should  guide  me?"  said 
 the  honest  eunuch.  We  have  no  right  to  blame  our  congrega- 
 tions for  their  apathy  in  matters  liturgical  when  we  have  never 
 taken  the  least  pains  to  guide  them  into  their  meaning  and  show 
 them  their  spiritual  significance.  There  is  a  text  in  the  Old 
 Testament  on  which  any  of  our  congregations  might  have  a  ser- 
 mon or  a  series  of  sermons  with  great  profit  and  it  is  this  "What 
 mean  ye  by  this  Service?"  The  Service  has  a  meaning;  this 
 meaning  is  lost  when  the  Service  is  not  used  accurately,  but  even 
 liturgical  accuracy  must  be  supplemented  by  liturgical  instruction, 
 and  if  we  expect  spiritual  results  from  our  liturgical  worship  we 
 must  see  to  it  that  this  instruction  be  given.  This  is  our  reason- 
 able Service. 
 
 III.      WHAT   DO   WE    MEAN   BY   LITURGIC.\L   ACCURACY? 
 
 Perhaps  this  question  ought  to  have  been  met  and  answered 
 first  of  all.  Though  it  may  seem  to  answer  itself  yet  the  answer 
 is  after  all  not  so  .simple.  Opinions  may  indeed  differ  widely  on 
 this  very  point.  One  thing  of  course  is  plain:  liturgical  accuracy 
 demands  a  perfect  and  consistent  following  of  the  rubrics.  Of 
 this  we  have  already  spoken.  But  are  the  rubrics  always  so  clear 
 that  he  who  runs  may  read?  Is  not  the  spirit  and  soul  of  the 
 Service  frequently  rather  quenched  than  made  to  live  and  glow 
 by  a  mere  formal  use  of  the  rubrics?  Do  the  rubrics  indeed  give 
 that  complete  information  which  will  insure  perfect  liturgical  ac- 
 curacy? I  open  my  Church  Book  and  find  the  following  instruc- 
 tion given  for  the  beginning  of  the  Main  Service:  "The  Minister, 
 standing  before  the  Altar,  shall  begin  the  Service  as  here  follow- 
 eth,  the  Congregation  all  standing."  The  rubric  of  the  German 
 Book  is  a  little  more  explicit;  it  says:  "Zu  Aufang  des  Gottesdi- 
 enstes  kann  die  Gemeinde:  'O  heilger  Geist  kehr  bei  uns  ein,' 
 oder  ein  ahnliches  lied  singen.  Darauf  tritt  der  Pfarrer  vor  den 
 Altar.  Die  Gemeinde  erhcl:)t  sich  und  blcilit  bis  zum  Schluss  der 
 Collecte  stehen."     But  how  is  the  minister  to  get  to  the  Altar? 
 
LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY.  93 
 
 Shall  he  enter  the  chancel  during  an  organ  prelude  or  choir  an- 
 them? Shall  he  enter  alone  or  with  the  choir?  Shall  he  an- 
 nounce the  hymn  which  the  German  rubric  says  may  be  sung,  or 
 shall  it  be  announced  simply  by  the  hymn-board?  These  may 
 seem  small  matters,  insignificant  details.  We  would  not  unduly 
 exalt  them,  yet  if  liturgical  accuracy  is  important,  these  things 
 too  have  a  certain  importance.  Again,  what  shall  be  the  posture 
 of  the  minister  in  the  purely  sacrificial  parts  of  the  Service?  The 
 rubric  states  that  he  shall  be  at  the  altar,  but  shall  he  face  the 
 congregation  or  shall  he  face  the  altar?  Is  there  any  law  which 
 settles  this  question  which  has,  as  it  seems  to  us,  quite  needlessly 
 agitated  the  minds  and  hearts  of  many  of  us  in  these  days?  Cer- 
 tainly there  cannot  well  be  two  sorts  of  accuracy.  If  our  method 
 is  accurate  any  other  method  that  differs  from  it  in  any  way  is 
 by  reason  of  that  very  difference  in  the  point  wherein  it  differs 
 inaccurate.  Now  we  hold  that  a  careful  and  intelligent  study  of 
 the  Liturgy,  even  where  the  rubrics  are  not  as  clear  as  they 
 might  be,  will  result  in  a  uniform  practice,  in  the  one  form  of 
 liturgical  accuracy.  As  the  rubrics  say  nothing  of  the  opening 
 hymn  and  the  manner  in  which  the  minister  is  to  enter  the  chan- 
 cel we  must  concede  perfect  liberty  in  this  point.  The  Service 
 may  begin  without  a  hynm,  simply  with  the  Invocation.  And 
 yet  experience  has  proved  that  an  opening  hymn  is  of  great  val- 
 ue in  tuning  the  hearts  of  the  congregation  to  one  melodious 
 harmony,  in  joining  the  various  individuals  of  which  it  is  com- 
 posed into  one  harmonious  whole.  Again  the  solemn  entrance 
 of  pastor  and  choir  while  this  hymn  is  being  sung,  suggesting  as 
 it  does  the  onward  march  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  has  a  symbol- 
 ical significance  which,  if  properly  understood,  must  prove  to  be 
 spiritually  uplifting.  When  Christ  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph 
 there  was  a  processional  and  a  recessional.  There  were  the  peo- 
 ple who  went  before  and  the  people  who  followed  after,  and  as 
 they  went,  before  and  after,  Christ  went  with  them;  He  was  the 
 center  of  their  songs  of  prayer  and  praise.  No  criticism  can  be 
 properly  made,  from  the  liturgical  point  of  view,  against  this 
 beautiful  and  salutary  practice.  It  has  been  weighed  in  the  bal- 
 ance and  not  found  wanting.  It  is  not  forbidden  by  the  rubric, 
 it  is  moreover  in  entire  harmony  with  the  heart  and  soul  of  the 
 Iviturgy,  it  has  worked  and  is  working  a  deepening  of  the  spirit- 
 ual experience  of  v>^orsliippers. 
 
94  MEMOIRS. 
 
 But  while  this  particular  form  of  openinr;  and  closing  the 
 Service  is  one  of  those  things  of  which  St.  Paul  says  they  must 
 be  proved  and  held  fast  only  if  they  are  good,  we  cannot  so  judge 
 of  the  posture  of  the  minister  during  the  Service.  It  ought  to 
 be  evident  that  the  very  form  of  the  Liturgy  has  decided  that 
 question.  Liturgical  accuracy  demands  that  the  minister  should 
 distinguish  by  his  very  posture  between  the  sacrificial  and  the 
 sacramental  parts  of  the  Service.  "Does  the  rubric  say  so?" 
 cries  one.  "Is  it  so  nominated  in  the  bond?  I  desire  above  all 
 to  be  liturgically  accurate,  but  I  must  have  a  plain  command  to 
 do  this  thing,  else  I  will  never  do  it."  The  rubric  does  clearly 
 intimate  that  this  is  the  proper  and  liturgically  accurate  posture. 
 What  does  it  say?  Before  the  Versicles  which  introduce  the 
 confession  of  sins  it  says:  "Then,  all  kneeling  or  standing,  shall 
 be  sung  or  said."  Very  few  of  our  churches  make  u.se  of  the 
 first  form  prescribed  here;  we  do  not  kneel  during  confession. 
 But  if  we  did,  and  the  rubric  says  we  may,  how  would  the  min- 
 ister kneel? — for  they  must  all  kneel.  Evidently  if  the  minister 
 at  this  part  of  the  Service  is  to  kneel  at  the  altar,  he  can  only 
 kneel  facing  the  altar.  Any  other  jxjsture  would  not  merely  be 
 preposterous,  but  almost  if  not  quite  impo.ssible.  Now  if  the 
 minister,  when  he  kneels  in  confession,  must  turn  to  the  Altar, 
 we  conclude  that  the  same  is  meant  when  he  stands.  Not  only 
 do  the  very  words  of  the  Liturgy  here  demand  it,  but  the  rubric 
 takes  it  as  a  matter  of  course.  This,  if  not  a  direct  command,  is 
 at  least  a  broad  hint,  as  to  accuracy  in  posture,  which  the  rubrics 
 give,  for  every  part  of  the  Service,  and  we  claim  that  the  most 
 intelligent  use  of  the  Liturgy  demands  this  form,  and  that  spirit- 
 ual results  will  follow  where  it  is  devoutly  and  intelligently  so  used. 
 
 It  is  not  our  purpose  to  elaborate  here  on  this  question.  It 
 has  been  exhaustively  treated  before,  all  objections  to  the  posture 
 here  advocated  as  demanded  by  the  Liturgy  have  been  met  and 
 answered.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  no  spiritual  good  can 
 follow  where  this  plain  purpose  of  the  Liturgy  is  ignored,  but  we 
 must  declare  that  the  greatest  spiritual  good  does  here  attend 
 perfect  liturgical  accuracy.  The  writer  cannot  speak  for  all,  but 
 he  can  and  will  speak  for  himself.  He  must  declare  that  the 
 Liturgy  has  meant  infinitely  more  to  him,  that  he  has  received 
 far  greater  spiritual  uplifting  since  he  understood  how  it  was  to 
 be  used  and  used  it  in  that  manner.     What  a  comfort  it  is  to  the 
 
LITURGICAL    ACCURACY    AND   SPIRITUALITY.  95 
 
 minister  that  he  maj'  become  part  of  the  congregation,  identified 
 with  them  during  the  sacrificial  part  of  the  Service.  How  thank- 
 ful is  he  that  he  may  turn  his  eyes  for  a  moment  away  from  the 
 many  e3'es  that  are  always  watching  him  and  look  to  Christ  and 
 to  His  Cross.  If  there  is  one  individual  who  needs  to  confess  his 
 sins,  surely  it  is  the  minister.  If  there  is  one  who  needs  pardon 
 and  peace  and  strength  he  is  the  one.  And  it  is  an  unspeakably 
 precious  time  to  him  when  he  may  shut  out  the  world,  shut  out 
 the  sight  even  of  his  congregation  with  all  its  distractions  and  be 
 for  a  moment  the  humblest  of  sinners  who  dares  not  even  lift  up 
 his  eyes  but  smites  upon  his  breast  with  the  confession:  lyord 
 have  mercy  upon  me.  If  the  posture  of  the  minister  at  the  Altar 
 shall  never  help  the  spirit  of  devotion  in  the  congregation,  yet  is 
 it  of  very  great  spiritual  benefit  to  their  minister.  It  is  the  one 
 time  in  all  the  Service  when  he  also  truly  worships.  Let  him 
 make  the  most  of  it.  Quench  not  that  fountain  whence  he  turns 
 to  lave  his  guilty  soul  and  slack  his  spirit's  thirst. 
 
 It  should  not  be  necessary  to  state  that  liturgical  accuracy 
 demands  the  most  precise  and  exact  fidelity  to  the  very  words  of 
 the  Service.  And  yet  even  in  so  simple  a  matter  the  Liturgy  is 
 sinned  against,  and  the  sin  is  most  frequently  committed  where 
 one  would  least  expect  to  find  it,  in  that  golden  crown  of  the 
 Liturgy,  the  Communion  Service.  Here  especially  is  liturgical 
 accuracy  necessary,  because  the  validity  of  the  Sacrament  de- 
 pends on  its  accurate  administration.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  but 
 here  above  all,  the  Liturgy  has  a  great  doctrinal  significance,  and 
 liturgical  accuracy  here  means  doctrinal  accuracy.  What  right 
 or  excuse  has  any  one  to  use  his  own  form  of  consecrating  the 
 elements,  or  varicE  lediones,  in  administering  the  Communion? 
 Yet  men  who  are  accurate  liturgists  in  every  other  place  are  fre- 
 quently most  inaccurate  here.  The  only  explanation  of  this 
 glaring  inconsistency  seems  to  be  the  fact  that  in  certain  parts  of 
 the  Communion  Service  it  is  difficult,  if  indeed  not  impossible  to 
 hold  in  hand  and  read  from  the  Order  of  Service  the  very  words 
 presented.  Would  it  be  taxing  the  brains  of  some  of  us  too  much 
 to  spend  a  half  hour  in  committing  to  memory  those  portions  of 
 the  Service?  Liturgical  inaccuracy  here  has  indeed  no  excuse; 
 it  is  an  act  of  disloyalty  to  the  Church;  it  always  disturbs  some 
 one's  devotion;  it  may  inadvertently  lead  to  the  commission  of 
 doctrinal  error. 
 
96  MEMOIRS. 
 
 But  the  Service  of  our  Church  is  a  Service  of  song;  the  Lit- 
 urgy is  set  to  music.  Can  any  one  doubt  that  the  benefits  of 
 the  Liturgy  are  affected  by  the  music  in  which  it  is  rendered? 
 Surely  liturgical  accuracy  to  produce  deep  and  lasting  spiritual 
 results  must  be  musically  accurate.  Again  and  again  the  whole 
 effect  of  our  Liturgy  has  been  spoilt  because  though  the  words 
 were  accurate  enough  the  music  to  which  they  were  sung  was 
 most  lamentably  inaccurate.  We  have  neither  the  time,  nor  the 
 space,  nor  the  ability  to  discuss  here  the  spiritual  power  that  God 
 has  put  into  music.  No  one  will  deny  that  there  is  such  a  pow- 
 er. Music  is  the  atmosphere  of  the  spirit- world,  and  song  the 
 language  of  Heaven.  When  the  Triune  God  established  the 
 foundations  of  the  world,  and  laid  the  cornerstone  thereof,  the 
 morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the  sons  of  God  shouted  for 
 joy,  and  when  John  saw  the  New  Jerusalem  he  heard  one  constant 
 strain  of  Heavenly  music,  the  song  of  Heaven,  as  the  voice  of 
 many  waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  great  thunder,  and  as  the  voice 
 of  harpers  harping  with  their  harps,  and  as  the  voice  of  millions 
 of  angels  and  redeemed,  singing  the  song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb, 
 swelling  the  great  chorus  of  triumph  in  praise  of  Christ,  King  of 
 kings  and  Lord  of  lords.  The  Liturgy  of  Heaven  is  set  to  Heav- 
 en's own  music  and  of  course  it  must  be  perfect.  Perfect  our 
 mu.sic  on  earth  can  never  be,  but  shall  it  not  be  worthy  of  Him 
 W'hose  mercy  we  implore.  Whose  pardon  we  receive,  Whose 
 praise  we  utter  in  our  Church  Service?  The  music  must  fit  the 
 Service  else  it  kills  all  devotion.  Not  what  some  godless  organ- 
 ist or  unspiritual  chorister  may  deem  the  most  fetching  musical 
 setting  for  the  Ser\'ice,  but  what  devout  souls  with  the  gift  of 
 David  have  composed  and  set  to  these  great  words  is  their  proper 
 musical  garb.  May  God  speed  the  time  when  we  shall  all  have 
 the  same  Church  Service  with  music,  as  we  all  have  the  same 
 Church  Service  without  music  now.  Perhaps  in  nothing  is  litur- 
 gical knowledge  and  accuracy  more  needed  than  in  the  sphere  of 
 music.  If  we  have  no  gift  of  music,  not  even  an  ear  for  music, 
 let  us  all  the  more  loyally  accept  from  those  who  have,  their 
 judgment,  the  results  of  their  efforts,  and  have  and  worship  with 
 a  Liturgy  as  accurate  in  its  devotional  music,  as  it  is  in  its  de- 
 votional thoughts  and  words. 
 
 We  have  tried  to  show  the  spiritual  power  of  a  Liturgy  right- 
 ly used.     We  firmly  believe  that  every  minister  and  every  con- 
 
LITURGICAL   ACCURACY   AND   SPIRITUALITY.  97 
 
 gregation  who  strives  for  liturgical  accuracy  is  thereby  striving 
 for  and  attaining  a  deeper  spiritual  experience.  The  Holy  Spir- 
 it, in  this  too,  is  guiding  them  into  all  truth,  teaching  them  how 
 to  pray,  blessing  them  with  answer  to  the  prayers  He  has  put 
 into  their  hearts  and  upon  their  lips;  thus  are  they  made  "lively 
 stones,  built  up  into  a  spiritual  house,  an  hoh'  priesthood,  to  of- 
 fer up  spiritual  sacrifices,  acceptable  to  God  by  Jesus  Christ,  a 
 chosen  generation,  a  royal  priesthood,  an  holy  nation,  a  peculiar 
 people,  that  show  forth  the  praise  of  Him  Who  hath  called  them 
 out  of  darkness  into  His  marvellous  light." 
 
 H.  Douglas  Spaeth. 
 Albany,   N.    Y. 
 
Vol.  VI. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN 
 THE  HISTORY  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EITURGY. 
 
 Any  attempt  to  trace  in  a  brief  paper  the  influences  which  have 
 contributed  to  the  formation  of  our  Common  Service,  and  which 
 have  left  their  mark  upon  it,  must  of  necessity  be  imperfect. 
 Influences  are  extremely  subtle  and  might  be  discovered  where 
 least  expected,  perhaps  in  an  innocent  rubric.  Then  too  the  in- 
 fluences are  so  varied  in  character  that  it  becomes  difiicult  to 
 classify  them:  some  belong  to  a  school,  some  to  an  age,  some  to 
 a  person;  some  arise  from  doctrinal  questions,  others  from  prac- 
 tical or  purely  aesthetic  needs.  A  further  difficulty  is  met  in  the 
 possibility  that  what  might  seem  to  be  the  working-out  of  an  old 
 influence  may  be  an  independent  return  to  an  old  form. 
 
 Imperfect  as  the  attempt  may  be,  it  may  yet  be  of  interest, 
 and  perhaps  not  without  value.  Our  Common  Service,  it  need 
 hardly  be  mentioned  here,  is  not  a  modern  invention,  but  the 
 result  of  a  historic  development.  Into  this  development  have 
 entered  many  elements  from  the  days  of  the  Apostles — or  even 
 earlier — until  the  present  day.  Even  now  modifications  in  ru- 
 brics and  rendering,  if  not  in  text,  are  suggested  and  made,  the 
 tracing  of  which  to  their  sources  is  most  interesting.  In  such  a 
 long  period  of  development  we  cannot  expect  to  find  one  direct 
 line  of  evolution.  In  a  certain  sense  of  course  the  line  is  easily 
 traced  from  the  Eiturgy  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  through 
 the  Roman  Mass,  Euther's  Formtda  Misses  and  Deutsche  Messe, 
 the  Kirchenordnungen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  the  Common 
 Service.  But  a  glance  at  comparative  tables  such  as  are  given  in 
 Kostlin's  Geschichte  des  christlichen  Gottesdienstes  will  convince 
 any  one  that  these  have  not  evolved  one  from  the  other  without 
 undergoing  many  modifications  due  to  local,  doctrinal  or  practi- 
 cal influences.  Yet  since  there  is  a  development  of  one  from  the 
 other  it  would  be  marvellous  indeed  if  traces  were  not  left  of  the 
 
2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 older  as  well  as  of  the  more  recent  influences.  These  traces  are 
 of  interest  as  showing  the  connection  of  the  most  modern  Service 
 with  the  whole  history  of  the  Church:  they  are  like  the  scars  of 
 battle  and  of  age  upon  some  historic  building.  They  are  also  of 
 value:  by  them  we  can  estimate  the  meaning  and  importance  of 
 those  features  of  the  Service  marked  by  them,  their  permanent 
 value  or  relative  indifference. 
 
 Like  Christianity  itself,  Christian  worship  had  two  lines  of 
 preparation  for  itself  in  the  ancient  world,  so  that  we  must  reck- 
 on with  two  pre-Christian  influences,  the  Jewish  and  the  Gentile. 
 Of  these  the  Jewish  is  naturally  the  more  direct;  yet  in  many 
 points  the  two  coincide  so  nearly  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  alto- 
 gether impossible,  to  distinguish  them.  In  modern  times  there 
 has  been  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  both,  in  connection  with  the 
 wider  attempt  to  reduce  Christianity  either  to  a  Jewish  sect  or  to 
 a  Greek  philosophy. 
 
 JEWISH   INFLUENCES. 
 
 The  Jewish  influences  may  be  distributed  into  two  classes, 
 those  directly  derived  from  the  old  Testament  Scriptures,  and 
 those  due  to  the  later  Synagogue  and  Temple  worship.  To  dis- 
 tinguish these  is  not  an  easy  matter,  for  many  features  have  been 
 modified  in  passing  through  the  Synagogue,  yet  are  purely  Old 
 Testament  contributions. 
 
 From  the  Old  Testament  comes  first  of  all  a  group  of  words 
 retained  in  their  Hebrew  form:  Amen,  Hallelujah,  Hosanna. 
 
 The  Amen  has  its  liturgical  use  in  the  O.  T.,  but  entered  the 
 Christian  Church  from  the  Synagogue.  "From  I  Cor.  14:  16  it 
 is  seen  that  the  use  of  the  Amen  as  a  response  in  benedictions 
 came  into  the  Christian  congregation  from  the  Synagogue,  as  al.so 
 that  the  adoption  of  the  word  into  Christian  usage  is  connected 
 with  this."*  For  Jew  and  Christian  the  Amen  is  the  confirma- 
 tion and  appropriation  of  the  prayer,  expressing  "the  confidence 
 of  the  hearers  that  the  prayer  will  be  heard. "f  Of  the  Amen 
 Ainsworth  says:  "The  Hebrew  word  is  used  in  the  Greek,  En- 
 glish and  all  other  languages,  to  betoken  unity  of  faith  and 
 spirit." 
 
 *  Cremer,    Woerterbuch. 
 t  Meyer,  on  /  Cor.  14:  16. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE   I^ITURGY.  6 
 
 The  Hallelujah  also  has  its  liturgical  origin  in  the  O.  T.  evi- 
 denced by  the  retention  of  the  Hebrew  form  in  the  lyXX,  and  its 
 occurrence  in  Rev.  ig:  i,  6.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Christian 
 liturgies  in  the  Lit.  Basil  and  Chrysost.* 
 
 ^\i^  Hosanna  is  usually  derived  from  Ps.  ii8:  2^.\  Hence 
 Luther  gives  the  form  Hosiamia  which  is  found  in  the  Kirchen- 
 buch.  The  difficulty  of  deriving  the  shorter  form  from  the  long- 
 er, and  the  change  of  meaning  from  the  "Save  now"  of  the 
 Psalm  to  the  "Hail"  of  the  N.  T.,  has  led  Thayer  to  make  the 
 strange  suggestion  that  the  Hosanna  was  not  consciously  bor- 
 rowed from  the  Psalm,  but  is  an  independent  form. J  Drews 
 however  connects  the  liturgical  use  of  the  Hosanna  with  the  sing- 
 ing of  Psalm  ii8:  25  £f  after  the  paschal  meal  of  the  Jews.§ 
 
 To  the  O.  T.  we  further  owe  the  Psalms,  which  appear  in 
 various  forms  in  the  Service:  Versicles,  Introits  and  entire  Psalms. 
 The  liturgical  use  of  the  Psalms  is  derived  from  the  Temple  and 
 Synagogue  Services,  although  "there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
 entire  Psalter  was  used  in  the  public  worship  of  the  Jewish 
 Church." II  As  some  of  the  Psalms  are  evidently  written  for  re- 
 sponsive use  we  may  trace  a  responsive  Service  to  the  O.  T.,  (it 
 certainly  is  found  in  the  later  Jewish  Services),  as  also  the  par- 
 ticipation of  the  laity  in  the  Service  can  be  traced  at  least  to  the 
 Synagogue,  in  which  the  lessons  were  read  by  members  of  the 
 congregation  and  the  sermon  could  be  preached  b}'  any  one  capa- 
 ble of  edifying  the  people. 
 
 The  Sa7ictus  we  owe  to  Isaiah  6:  3  and  Psalm  118:  26,  but  its 
 liturgical  use  comes  not  from  the  Jews,  but  from  the  Greek 
 Christians,  The  Sursvm  corda  is  referred  by  Brightman  to  Lam. 
 3:  41,  and  the  "Let  us  give  thanks  to  the  Lord  our  God"  "re- 
 minds us  of  the  prayer  used  by  the  Jews  at  meals,  also  at  the 
 Sabbath  meals. "^ 
 
 The  Benediction  (Num.  6:  24-26)  comes  directly  from  the 
 O.  T.,  although  it  was  used  also  in  the  Synagogue,  even  with  the 
 added  peculiarity  that  "in  the  absence  of  a  priest  in  the  congre- 
 
 *    RiETSCHEL,  366. 
 
 t  So  also  RiETSCHEL,  379  and  Drews,  PRE    11:  552. 
 
 X  Hastings,  BD,  II:  418  f. 
 
 §  PRE'  11:  552. 
 
 II   KiRKPATRiCK,  Psalms,  XCIX. 
 
 %    RiETSCHEL,  379  Cf.  251  ff. 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 gation,  the  Benediction  was  not  bestowed,  but  implored  by  a 
 member  of  the  con  gr  eg  at  ion."  ~'^' 
 
 Some  additional  details  might  be  referred  to  Jewish  influ- 
 ence. For  example,  the  leader  in  prayer  turns  toward  the  sanctu- 
 ary, his  back  to  the  people,  but  in  blessing  the  priest  faces  the 
 people;  the  attitude  of  prayer  is  standing. f 
 
 One  important  point  is  open  to  much  discussion:  whether  the 
 institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  connected  with  the  "Cup  of 
 Blessing"  of  the  Passover,  and  so  the  Jewish  influence  be  seen  in 
 that  central  feature  of  our  Service.  Kostlin  so  maintains  with 
 Keim  and  Seyerlein  against  Heinrici.:{:  Bickell  and  Skene  have 
 even  gone  so  far  as  to  deriv^e  the  entire  liturgy  of  the  later 
 Eucharist  from  the  Passover  rite,  an  attempt  characterized  by 
 Rietschel  as  "an  artificial  construction  without  everj-  historical 
 basis.  "§ 
 
 GREEK   INFLUENCE. 
 
 Christianity  had  its  origin  among  the  Jews,  hence  we  expect 
 a  long  list  of  traces  of  Jewish  influence  in  its  worship.  Both  Jews 
 and  Christians  were  opposed  to  Heathenism  and  would  not  will- 
 ingly adopt  its  forms.  We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to 
 find  fewer  traces  of  Greek  influence,  nor  wonder  that  some  of 
 these  are  debated.  But  inasmuch  as  Christianity  soon  gained  a 
 foothold  among  Gentiles  who  were  unacquainted  with  Jewish 
 forms,  and  j^et  found  among  Gentile  Christians  expression  of  its 
 life  in  similar  forms,  we  ma}^  grant  at  least  the  possibilit}-  that  in 
 spite  of  the  similarity  the  forms  may  have  an  independent  origin. 
 
 To  the  Greek  language,  although  it  is  the  Greek  of  the  N. 
 T.,  we  owe  at  least  one  expression  which,  retained  in  the  Kirch- 
 enbuch,  has  fallen  out  of  the  Church  Book, — the  Kyric. 
 
 Edwin  Hatch,  making  perhaps  a  one-sided  study  of  the  in- 
 fluences of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon  the  Christian  Church, || 
 says  that  Greek  Rhetoric  "created  the  Christian  sermon."  He 
 refers,  however,  to  the  character  of  the  sermon  as  an  oration. 
 
 *    SCHUERIR,   CcSchicftU\    II,  3S2. 
 
 t  For  the  Jewish  Service,  cf.  Sciii'ekrr,  CfSihithU,  27,  niid  1J)Eksheim,  Life 
 of  Jesus,  I,  439  ff. 
 +    GeschichU,    12, 
 §   I.iturgik,  234. 
 II    lIlRKERT  Lcc'ioes,    188S,  p.  113. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE   LITURGY.  O 
 
 which  has  its  pro  to-type  as  well  in  the  methurgeman's  sermon  of 
 the  Synagogue.* 
 
 Most  of  the  Greek  influences,  those  due  to  the  Mysteries 
 and  Religious  Associations,  have  been  lost  in  our  Service.  Hatch 
 finds  a  survival  of  them:  "In  the  splendid  ceremonial  of  Eastern 
 and  Western  worship,  in  the  blaze  of  lights,  in  the  separation  of 
 the  central  point  of  the  rite  from  common  view,  in  the  procession 
 of  torch-bearers  chanting  their  sacred  hymns,"  but  rightly  says: 
 "The  tendency  to  an  elaborate  ceremonial  which  had  produced 
 the  magnificence  of  those  mysteries  and  cults,  and  which  had 
 combined  with  the  love  of  a  purer  faith  and  the  tendency  towards 
 fellowship,  was  based  upon  a  tendency  of  human  nature  which 
 was  not  crushed  by  Christianity"  (p.  309).  In  the  revival  of 
 such  tendencies  we  need  not  see  the  influence  of  Greek  Heathen- 
 ism, human  nature  will  explain  them  far  better.  We  may  say 
 this  also  of  the  one  trace  left  of  the  arcana  disciplina,  especially 
 in  German  and  Church  of  England  Churches,  the  withdrawal  of 
 non-communicants  before  the  Communion  Service. 
 
 NEW   TESTAMENT   INFLUENCE. 
 
 The  New  Testament  is  by  far  the  most  important  influence 
 pervading  the  whole  Service  and  modifying  the  elements  received 
 from  earlier  sources.  It  furnishes  first  of  all  the  principles  of 
 w^orship,  requiring  that  it  be  a  worship  in   spirit   and  in   truth. 
 
 From  the  N.  T.  we  therefore  derive  that  protest  against 
 formalism  and  lip-service  which  is  constantly  renewed  and  needs 
 to  be  persistently  emphasized  in  connection  with  even  the  most 
 perfect  liturgy.  It  may  be  worthy  of  note  that  the  N.  T.  as- 
 cribes worship  to  a  charism,  so  that  it  was  directly  a  gift  of  God; 
 and  while  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  look  for  a  renewal  of  the 
 N.  T.  charisms  in  the  N.  T.  form,  it  is  most  reasonable  to  expect 
 for  all  times  that  those  who  are  set  apart  to  lead  the  worship 
 should  be  not  only  specially  prepared,  but  specially  gifted  as  well. 
 
 The  N.  T.  has  provided  the  principles,  and  also  the  chief 
 elements  of  the  Service.  The  reading  of  Scripture, — of  the  use 
 of  the  N.  T.  writings  there  is  a  trace — the  singing  of  Psalms  and 
 spiritual  songs,  the  sermon  as  a  living  message  to  men,  above  all 
 the  Lord's  Supper  and  Baptism  as  sacraments,  the  former  espe- 
 ciall}^  as  a  part  of  the  worship,  are  directly  to  be  attributed  to  the 
 
 *  Cf.  Edersheim. 
 
6  MEMOIRS. 
 
 N.  T.  The  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ninic  Dimiiiis,  the  Apostolic 
 Benediction,  the  A^i''7V,  the  Hosanna,  the  Hallelujah,  the  Lessons, 
 the  Words  of  Institution,  the  Agnus  Dei,  are  all  directly  taken 
 from  the  N.  T.,  while  some  of  the  Introits,  Responses  and  Sen- 
 tences are  at  least  in  part  so  derived,  and  the  Collects,  the  Decla- 
 ration of  Grace,  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  the 
 Creed,  and  even  the  General  Prayer,  are  based  upon  N.  T.  prom- 
 ises and  expressions.  So  extensive  is  the  influence  of  the  N.  T. 
 that  it  can  hardly  be  classed  among  contributive  influences — it  is 
 practically  the  source  of  our  Common  Service. 
 
 GENTILE  CHRISTIANS. 
 
 To  the  influence  of  Gentile  Christians  may  be  traced  especial- 
 ly the  time  for  w'orship — the  Sunday,  which  among  the  Jewish 
 Christians  was  celebrated  alongside  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  but 
 among  Gentile  Christians  was  set  in  contrast  to  the  Sabbath. 
 
 ANCIENT   CHURCH. 
 
 The  Church  before  the  Middle  Ages,  known  as  the  old  Cath- 
 olic Church,  presents  a  transition  period,  from  the  simplicity  of 
 the  Apostolic  Age  to  the  ceremonial  richness  of  the  later  Catholic 
 Church.  It  is  marked  by  a  growing  emphasis  upon  the  ofiice  of 
 the  minister,  due  to  the  claims  of  Montanism  of  a  revived  proph- 
 ecy. The  Bishop  becomes  a  priest,  the  bearer  of  an  Apostolic 
 grace,  the  Service  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  sacrifice,  and  the 
 Service  of  the  Word  is  simply  introductory  to  the  Ser\'ice  of  the 
 Sacrament.  In  the  mention  of  these  points  we  note  influences 
 revived  in  modern  liturgical  movements.  The  restriction  of  ab- 
 solution and  benediction  to  the  ordained  minister,  the  insistence 
 of  some  that  the  Service  is  incomplete  without  the  Communion, 
 the  emphasis  sometimes  laid  on  the  ofiice  and  acts  of  the  minis- 
 ter, point  back  to  the  Old  Catholic  Church,  or  may  flow  from 
 similar  opposition  to  modern  Montanistic  conceptions  of  a  revived 
 prophecy  independent  of  the  organized  Church. 
 
 Among  the  elements  of  the  Service  derived  from  the  Old 
 Catholic  Church  we  note  the  Preface  to  the  Communion  Service,* 
 the  Response,  "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  "And  with  thy  spirit," 
 the  Apostolic  Benediction  in  connection  with  the  sennon,  the 
 Sandus,  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and  Hosanna,  the  latter  two  as  saluta- 
 
 *  Found  in  the  Ethiopian  Lit.  and  Apost.  Cotist.  VIII, 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE   LITURGY.  7 
 
 tion  of  the  invisibly  present  lyord,  the  sentence  as  the  form  of 
 closing  the  Service,  "Depart  in  peace,"*  the  General  Prayer. f 
 
 To  the  early  Church  can  also  be  traced  the  custom  of  stand- 
 ing during  the  reading  of  the  Gospel,]:  the  Response  Deo  Gratias 
 after  the  Lesson, §  the  responsive  use  of  the  Psalms  between  the 
 Lessons;  1 1  the  custom  of  lighting  lamps  or  candles  during  the 
 reading  of  the  Gospel, '^l  and  the  Bidding  Prayer.**  In  connec- 
 tion with  this  Bidding  Prayer  occurs  the  interjectional  use  of  the 
 Kyrie  by  the  congregation,  wdiich  has  its  parallel  in  the  "Erhore 
 uns,  lieber  Herre  Gott"  of  the  Kirchenbuch. 
 
 THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 
 
 In  attempting  to  trace  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  Church 
 we  meet  with  many  complications.  We  must  note  first  of  all  the 
 general  influence  of  Catholicism,  then  the  particular  influences, 
 if  such  can  be  traced,  of  Greek  and  of  Roman  Catholicism;  but 
 each  of  these  has  again  been  influenced  by  mediaeval  extra-eccle- 
 siastical affairs  and  by  heresies.  The  last  would  be  of  special  in- 
 terest, could  the  influences  of  heresies  be  traced  in  detail:  we 
 have  already  seen  that  the  growth  of  the  priestly  and  sacrificial 
 view  of  worship  was  influenced  by  the  Montanist  revival  of 
 prophecy;  later  extravagances  and  errors  left  similar  impress  up- 
 on the  Church. 
 
 It  may  be  well  first  to  note  the  general  distinctive  character- 
 istic of  Catholic  w^orship,  and  look  for  traces  of  its  influence  in 
 our  modern  Service.  The  specifically  Catholic  element  is  the 
 "high  and  excessive  estimation  of  the  act  of  worship  itself  as 
 such,  the  conception  of  the  cultus  as  a  service  ordained  in  fixed, 
 objective  form  by  God,  and  therefore  in  an  objective  sense  ho- 
 ly."ft  Wherever  we  find  a  tendency  to  legalism  in  the  Liturgy 
 or  its  use,  or  to  the  opus  oper'ahim  idea  of  a  service  not  in  spirit 
 and  in  truth,  we  have  an  out-cropping  of  the  Catholic  influence, 
 
 *  Ethiopian  Lit. 
 
 t  See  the  parallel  with  the   General   Prayer  of  the   Morning  Service  in  R.   M. 
 Smith,  Sources^  in  Memoirs  of  the  Lit.  Assoc,  I,  p.  53. 
 X  Apost.  Const.,  II,  57. 
 §  Augustine,  Scrmo,  60.     Rietschel,  299. 
 
 II   Found  in  Tertullian,  Apost.  Const.,  II;  AuGUSTiNE;  RiETSCHEL,  366. 
 H  Fourth  Cent.,  Jerome,  Rietschel,  139. 
 **  Apost.  Const.,  VIII. 
 tt  KOESTLIN,  58. 
 
8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 unless  we  prefer  to  lead  this  also  back  to  its  source  in  lutnian 
 nature.  In  our  Liturgy  such  worship  without  the  heart  is  well 
 provided  against,  but  in  practice  it  will  always  break  through, 
 and  needs  special  attention,  especially  because  some  perfectly 
 correct  and  proper  forms,  e.  g. ,  the  Baptismal  Service,  are  in 
 themselves  liable  to  such  misinterpretation. 
 
 To  Catholicism  is  due  the  tendency  to  excessive  symbolism, 
 carried  out  with  thoroughness  in  the  Greek  Church  and  connected 
 with  the  separation  of  the  active  worship  from  the  congregation. 
 Connected  with  the  opus  operatum  idea  this  finds  its  modern  re- 
 sult in  opposition  to  the  Liturgy,  a  timidity  of  the  people  to  take 
 part  in  the  worship,  a  tendency  to  see  in  worship  the  work  of  the 
 minister,  which  has  a  meaning,  but  a  meaning  often  but  dimly 
 understood.  On  the  other  hand  it  maj'  produce  services  so  elab- 
 orate and  ceremonials  so  symbolic  that  the  congregation  cannot 
 take  part  or  is  unable  to  appreciate  the  symbolism.  The  sacri- 
 ficial view  of  worship,  though  not  in  the  gross  form  of  a  blood- 
 less sacrifice,  but  rather  in  the  form  of  a  meritorious  value  as- 
 cribed to  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving,  has 
 found  large  foothold  in  Protestantism.  Even  the  silence  of  the 
 Word  of  God  is  only  partly  overcome,  for  Protestant  Churches 
 have  to  some  extent,  by  substituting  orations  and  lectures  for  the 
 preaching  of  the  Word,  fallen  back  into  a  new  kind  of  Catholi- 
 cism. 
 
 The  distinction  between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
 worship  may  be  stated  thus:  The  Greek  Church  sees  in  its  wor- 
 ship a  symbolic  drama,  which  is  meaningless  without  a  congrega- 
 tion as  spectators,  although  because  of  its  intricacy  meaningless 
 also  to  the  congregation:  the  Roman  Church  has  in  its  worship  a 
 real  drama,  which  needs  no  spectators.*  Protestants  are  not  apt 
 to  be  tempted  to  return  to  the  Roman  real  sacrifice  without  a 
 congregation,  but  there  is  a  growing  temptation  to  multiply 
 forms  and  symbols  in  the  fashion  of  Greek  Catholicism. 
 
 GREEK   CHURCH. 
 
 To  the  Greek  Church  we  owe  the  use  of  the  Creed  in  the 
 
 regular  Service,  introduced  by  Petrus  Fullo,  Bishop  of  Antioch 
 
 (about  471)  to  combat  Eutychianism,  by  Bishop  Timotheus  in 
 
 Constantinople  in  511.     Again  we  note  the  influence  of  heresy. 
 
 *  See  KoESTLiN,  61  ff. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE  LITURGY.  ^ 
 
 A  similar  influence  is  seen  in  the  modification  of  the  Gloria  from 
 the  original  "Glory  to  the  Father  in  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spir- 
 it" to  "Glory  to  the  Father  and  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit," 
 and  the  addition  "As  it  was  in  the  beginning"  etc.,  in  the  con- 
 flict with  Arianism.* 
 
 To  the  Greek  Church  we  owe  the  development  of  Church 
 music.  "It  was  especially  the  Antiochene  Church  that  exerted 
 a  decisive  influence  upon  the  development  of  liturgical  song. 
 Here  it  is  said  that  Ignatius  (tii6)  already  introduced  responsive 
 choirs,  that  form  of  holy  song  which  Ambrose  transplanted  to  the 
 Occident. "t  But  antiphonal  singing  "existed  already  among 
 the  heathen  in  the  arrangements  of  the  Greek  chorus.  It  was 
 practiced  with  much  elaboration  of  detail  in  the  Psalmody  of  the 
 Jews,  as  appears  from  the  account  which  is  given  of  the  Egyptian 
 Therapeuts.  Its  introduction  into  the  Christian  Church,  there- 
 fore, was  a  matter  of  course  almost  from  the  beginning. "J 
 
 ROMAN    CHURCH. 
 
 The  strongest  pre- Reformation  influence  traceable  in  the 
 history  of  the  lyiturgy  is  that  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  natural- 
 ly so,  for  the  Reformation  giew  up  within  the  Roman  Church, 
 and  inherited  its  Service  as  far  as  it  could  be  used;  and  that  Ro- 
 man service  was  the  ripe  fruit  of  a  liturgical  development  which 
 had  absorbed  much  from  the  provincial  liturgies  it  had  superced- 
 ed. Some  of  these  provincial  influences  can  still  be  traced,  but 
 many  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  uniformity  of  the  Roman  Church 
 and  can  now  be  traced  only  to  Rome. 
 
 Among  the  peculiarities  of  the  Gallican  Liturgy  which  have 
 modern  parallels,  we  may  mention  the  self-communion  of  the 
 priest  (approved  by  Luther  in  the  Formula  Misses,  else  where 
 disapproved  by  him),§  and  the  reception  of  the  bread  into  the 
 hand — which  is  found  already  in  Cyrill  of  Jerusalem. ||  Special 
 mention  is  made  of  the  single  cup,  in  distinction  from  the  Arian 
 usage  which  allowed  the  king  a  separate  chalice.^  "In  Rome 
 the  receiving  of  the  host  with  the  hand  was  done  away  already 
 
 *    RiETSCHEL,  355. 
 t   KOESTLIN,  89. 
 
 +  LiGHTFOOT,  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  p.  31. 
 §  Cf.  Daniel,  Cod.  Lit.,  II,  88  n. 
 
 II    RiETSCHEL,   287. 
 
 ir  Ibid.  315  f. 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  .  .  .  The  change  in  distribu- 
 tion was  very  probably  influenced  by  the  fear  of  the  easier  profa- 
 nation of  the  elements."* 
 
 Roman  influence  is  to  be  noted  not  only  in  various  features 
 derived  from  the  Mass,  but  in  the  structure  of  the  Liturgy  itself. 
 The  threefold  distinction  of  an  introductory  confessional  Service, 
 a  Service  centering  in  the  Word,  and  a  Service  centering  in  the 
 Sacrament,  is  clearly  derived  from  the  Ma.ss,  although  each  of 
 these  parts  has  undergone  great  modifications:  the  introductory 
 Service  is  now  congregational,  in  the  Mass  it  belongs  to  the 
 Priest;  the  Word  Service  reaches  its  climax  not  in  the  Gospel, 
 but  in  the  sermon.  This  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  "Sermon  is 
 the  application  of  the  Word  that  is  read/'f  and  that  "a  number 
 of  our  Orders  provide  for  this  (the  sermon)  under  the  direction: 
 'Explanation  of  the  Gospel.'  "X  In  theory'  the  Word  of  the 
 Gospel  is  still  the  climax,  in  practice  the  Sermon  is  that  climax. 
 Daniel  §  referring  to  Luther's  suggestion  that  the  Sermon  pre- 
 cede the  Mass,  says:  "It  can  rightly  be  said  that  the  entire  wor- 
 ship of  our  Church  would  have  entered  an  entirely  different  way 
 if  this  opinion  of  Luther  had  always  and  in  all  places  been  ap- 
 proved among  all.  For  we  should  not  have  been  entangled  in 
 that  pernicious  error  according  to  which  the  Sermon  forms  not 
 only  the  chief  part  of  worship,  but,  that  I  may  so  say,  the  only." 
 The  Sacrament  is  no  longer  an  objective  sacrifice,  but  a  Com- 
 munion. 
 
 The  following  elements  of  the  Common  Service  are  taken 
 from  the  Roman  Mass: 
 
 The  Invocation,  the  Versicle  (Ps.  121:  2),  the  Conjiteor 
 (much  modified),  the  Introit,  the  Gloria  Patri  in  its  use  as  a  N. 
 T.  crown  to  the  Psalms,  the  Kyrie  as  a  separate  prayer,  the  Col- 
 lects, the  Pericopes  (with  numerous  changes),  the  Responses: 
 Glory  be  to  Thee  and  Praise  be  to  Thee  in  connection  with  the 
 Gospel.  It  is  note-worthy  that  in  the  Communion  Service  proper 
 the  Common  Service  has  retirmed  back  of  the  Mass  and  used 
 forms  long  and  widely  used  in  the  Christian  Church  or  added 
 newer  forms  grounded  in  or  taken  from  Scripture.     The  Agnta 
 
 *  RiETSCHEL,  39 1  ff. 
 
 t  Du.  Jacobs,  "The  Lutheran  Liiurjjie-;"'  in  Chrislian  Worship,  p.  167. 
 
 X  Dr.  Jacobs,  Lutheran  Movement,  p.  302. 
 
 §  Cod.  Lit.,  p.  85  n. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES   NOTED   IN   THE  LITURGY.       11 
 
 Dei  is  found  already  in  the  lyiturgy  of  St.  James  in  connection 
 with  the  breaking  of  the  bread,  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  the 
 Mass  by  Pope  Sergius  (fjoi);  the  three-fold  repetition  can  be 
 traced  to  the  twelfth  century,  with  the  miserere  nobis  also  the 
 third  time;  the  dona  nobis pacem,  according  to  Innocent  III  was 
 added  to  the  third  member  of  the  Agnus  in  time  of  great  tribula- 
 tion, but  may  be  connected  with  the  older  rite,  in  which  the  kiss 
 of  peace  followed  the  Agnus  Dei.^ 
 
 THE   REFORMATION. 
 
 The  Reformation  influence  is  seen  primarily  in  a  return  to 
 N.  T.  principles,  and  the  rejection  of  the  Catholic  conception  of 
 an  ex  opere  operato  worship.  Hence  followed  a  recasting  of  the 
 Liturgy  into  the  older  form  of  a  congregational  Service,  its  trans- 
 lation into  the  language  of  the  people,  and  a  modification  of  the 
 various  elements  into  conformity  with  Scripture.  As  the  refor- 
 mation of  the  lyiturgy  also  fell  to  Luther,  there  are  a  few  features 
 traceable  to  his  influence. 
 
 LUTHER. 
 
 Chief  among  these  is  the  use  of  the  Aaronitic  Benediction, 
 (Num.  6:  24  ff),  which  "until  then  had  never  been  in  ecclesiasti- 
 cal use  except  in  a  peculiar  manner  in  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  "f 
 Daniel  calls  it:  '  'Fulcrum  sane  ecclesice  LutherancB peculium  et  verunt 
 cultus  divini  incrementuniyX  Of  great  importance  also  are  the 
 addition  of  the  Church  Hymn  and  the  revival  of  the  Sermon. 
 The  Hymn  has  its  liturgical  position  in  the  Deutsche  Messe  as  an 
 opening  Hymn.  The  Creed  as  a  confession  of  the  people  and  the 
 singing  of  a  Hymn  in  the  intervals  of  the  Distribution  also  come 
 from  Luther,  while  the  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving  after  the  Com- 
 munion is  his  composition.  Beyond  this  Luther's  influence  was 
 far-reaching,  since  his  liturgical  writings  developed  principles 
 rather  than  formulated  liturgies,  and  these  principles  affected  the 
 form  of  other  liturgies. 
 
 LUTHERAN  CHURCH  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 
 
 In  the  Preface  to  our  Common  Service  we  have  this  state- 
 ment: "The  Rule  prescribed  by  the  three  General  Bodies  afore- 
 
 *  RiETSCHEL,  388.  t  Ibid.  402. 
 
 %   Cod.  Lit.,  II,  89,  n.  5. 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 said,  according  to  which  those  charged  with  the  preparation  of 
 this  Ser\'ice  were  to  be  guided,  and  by  which  all  questions  arising 
 were  to  be  decided,  was:  'The  Common  Consent  of  the  pure 
 Lutheran  Liturgies  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  and,  where  there 
 is  not  an  entire  agreement,  the  Consent  of  the  largest  number  of 
 those  of  greatest  weight.'  "  The  consensus  of  the  Sixteenth 
 Century  Liturgies  is  therefore  the  decisive  or  normative  influence 
 in  the  formation  of  our  Common  Service,  through  which  all  the 
 older  elements  have  been  transmitted.  But  new  elements  have 
 also  been  added  by  these  Liturgies.  For  example,  the  rubric 
 requiring  the  consecration  of  additional  elements  should  they  be 
 required,  the  formula  of  distribution,  the  Nunc  Dimittis  after  the 
 distribution,  (which  does  not  belong  to  the  consensus,  however), 
 etc. 
 
 The  use  of  the  Words  of  Institution  as  the  means  of  conse- 
 cration present  an  interesting  history.  The  indispensableness  of 
 the  Words  of  Institution  Luther  bases  on  Augustine's  saying: 
 ^^ accedit  verbu7n  ad  elcmcntiini  ct  Jit  sacramc^ihan'''  which  Augus- 
 tine applied  to  Baptism,  and  there  not  to  the  Words  of  Institu- 
 tion, but  to  the  Gospel  in  general.*  Luther's  first  conception 
 was  that  these  words  were  a  declaration  to  the  congregation,  a 
 conception  found  in  a  number  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  Liturgies, 
 in  the  Form.  Concord.,  Chemnitz  and  Gerhard. f  But  in  the 
 Form.  Missce,  1523,  and  later,  Luther  conceives  of  the  Words  as 
 a  benediction  or  consecration,  and  as  sUch  they  have  come  into 
 the  Common  Service,  just  as  they  are  in  the  Roman  Mass.  This 
 has  necessitated  the  rubric  above  mentioned,  which  the  Roman 
 Church,  having  no  danger  of  exhausting  the  elements,  did  not 
 need. 
 
 REFORMED   CHURCH. 
 
 The  influence  of  the  Reformed  Church  has  been  felt  in  two 
 ways.  It  is  still  in  many  places  very  evident  in  the  lack  of  all 
 liturgy,  and  an  opposition  to  liturgical  forms  as  savoring  of  Ro- 
 manism. But  the  Reformed  influence  very  early  exerted  itself 
 upon  the  Liturgy  itself.  The  Apostles'  Creed  was  substituted 
 for  the  Nicene  first  by  the  Reformed  Churches  %  and  came  into 
 
 *  Drkavs,  pre  5:  411,  quoted  in  Riktsciiel,  301. 
 
 t   RiETSCHEL,  433. 
 
 X  ZwiNGLi,  1525,  but  also  in  Dokber's  MissorJnuiig  o\  the  same  year. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFI^UENCES   NOTED   IN   THS  I.ITURGY.       13 
 
 modern  liturgies  as  late  as  1821.*  "The  reading  of  the  Service 
 in  a  colloquial  tone  was  a  species  of  mutilation  and  iconoclasm 
 introduced  by  the  Reformed  type  of  theology,  and  quite  on  a  par 
 with  its  other  vicious  attacks  upon  Ecclesiastical  Art."t 
 
 To  Reformed  influence  some  might  be  tempted  to  ascribe  the 
 interpretation  of  the  so-called  Declaration  of  Grace  as  an  Absolu- 
 tion, and  the  use  of  the  General  Absolution.  But  in  view  of  the 
 fact  that  the  Declaration  confessedly  has  the  form  of  an  Absolu- 
 tion, and  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  Liturgies  is  called  an  Absolu- 
 tion, and  is  retained  as  such  in  Niirnberg,  1533  by  Osiander  who 
 there  rejects  the  "Offne  Schuld"  after  the  Sermon,  there  seems 
 good  reason  to  reconsider  the  matter.  Osiander  rejects  the 
 "Offne  Schuld"  on  the  ground  that  coming  immediately  after  the 
 Sermon  it  obscures  the  absolving  character  of  the  preached  Gos- 
 pel. The  same  objection  will  not  hold  against  the  Absolution  at 
 the  opening  of  the  Service  nor  against  the  General  Absolution  in 
 a  special  Confessional  Service.  Or,  if  the  objection  be  supposed 
 valid,  then  equal  objection  could  be  raised  against  various  repeti- 
 tions in  the  Liturgy,  in  which  the  same  blessing  is  repeated  or 
 the  same  confession  made,  as  if  the  first  were  not  valid.  On  the 
 other  hand  if  the  objection  to  the  General  Absolution  as  such 
 holds  in  one  place  it  holds  in  all,  and  the  Lutheran  Church, 
 which  retains  the  Confession  for  the  sake  of  the  Absolution,  has 
 no  Absolution  in  connection  with  the  Confession. 
 
 CHURCH    OP    ENGLAND. 
 
 It  would  seem  most  natural  that  a  German  people  in  trans- 
 ferring their  Liturgy  to  the  English  Language  would  be  strongly 
 influenced  by  a  Church,  once  considered  the  English  Lutheran 
 Church,  which  has  a  Liturgy  somewhat  similar,  and,  as  Dr.  Jacobs 
 has  shown,  largely  derived  from  Lutheran  sources.  It  is  some- 
 what surprising  therefore  to  find  how  limited  is  the  influence  of 
 the  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  being  limited  virtually  to 
 the  beautiful  translations  of  the  Collects,  (where  the  same  Col- 
 lects occur),  and  some  Collects  of  English  origin. 
 
 A  question  of  considerable  obscurity  will  always  be  the 
 determination  of  the  extent  to  which  the  liturgically  developed 
 
 *   Prussian  Agende. 
 
 t  Archbr  and  Reed,  The  Choral  Service  Book,  p.  xix. 
 
14  MEMOIRS. 
 
 worship  of  the  Episcopalian  Church  has  influenced  the  revival  of 
 liturgical  taste  and  customs  in  the  American  Lutheran   Church. 
 
 PIETISM. 
 
 To  the  Pietism  of  vSpener's  time  may  be  ascribed  the  end  of 
 Private  Absolution,  although  this  might  with  equal  correctness 
 be  ascribed  to  corrupt  practices  connected  with  the  Private  Abso- 
 lution itself.  With  the  cessation  of  Private  Absolution  the  intro- 
 duction of  General  Absolution  became  necessary.  If  the  form 
 adopted  can  be  traced  to  Reformed  sources,  the  idea,  as  we  have 
 seen,  was  found  early  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  extends  be- 
 yond it  to  the  Middle  Ages. 
 
 To  Pietism  may  also  be  traced  the  large  development  of  Free 
 Prayer,  substituted  for  the  General  Prayer,  for  which  room  is 
 left  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Common  Service  only  under  the  heading 
 of  "any  other  suitable  Prayer,"  which  would  rule  out  many 
 "free  Prayers."  If  Luther  thought  it  wise  to  prescribe  the 
 "Postille"  for  the  preacher  in  the  Deutsche  Messe  of  1526,  "weil 
 der  geistreichen  Prediger  wenig  sind,"  we  may  certainly  approve 
 of  the  prescribed  General  Prayer  on  the  ground  that  there  are 
 few  "geistreiche  Beter." 
 
 RATIONALISM. 
 
 While  there  may  be  evidences  of  some  influences  of  Ration- 
 alism left  in  our  Liturgy,  they  must  be  so  minute  as  to  have  es- 
 caped notice.  The  custom  of  singing  a  "Hauptlied"  with  direct 
 bearing  on  the  sermon — Predigtlied — dates  from  the  Eighteenth 
 Century,  and  may  possibly  have  come  from  such  influence.  Ex- 
 cept in  a  purely  formal  rendering  of  the  Ser\-ice,  the  only  loop- 
 hole for  rationalistic  influence  now  lies  in  the  sermon, — and  then 
 it  must  be  a  sermon  out  of  all  harmony  with  its  setting  if  it  can 
 be  rationalistic. 
 
 AMERICAN   LUTHERAN    CHURCH. 
 
 To  the  American  Lutheran  Church  as  represented  in  the 
 three  General  Bodies  must  be  ascribed  the  production  of  our 
 Common  Service  in  the  English  Language.  But  in  preparing  the 
 Service  no  mere  translation;  nor  even  a  compilation  of  Sixteenth 
 Century  Liturgies  sufiiced.  There  are  elements  which  appear  in 
 none  of  the  latter.     The  Offertory  (from  Ps.   51:    17-19  and  Ps. 
 
CONTRIBUTIVE   INFLUENCES  NOTED   IN   THE  I.ITURGY.       15 
 
 51:  10-12)  is  new,  the  suggestion  being  found  in  Schoberlein.* 
 The  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  Service  might  also  reveal 
 independent  work  on  the  part  of  the  Committee,  which  could  be 
 discovered  only  by  a  detailed  comparison  with  all  the  materials. 
 The  Common  Service  as  a  whole,  especially  in  its  English  form, 
 is  due  to  an  American  influence,  differing  as  it  does  from  all 
 German  Liturgies,  especially  in  the  removal  of  local  peculiarities: 
 in  its  German  form  it  bears  as  distinctive  an  American  influence, 
 extending  even  to  the  new  translation  of  the  Collects,  made  with 
 special  reference  to  their  probable  use  with  music. 
 
 PRESENT    DAY    INFLUENCES. 
 
 Looking  at  the  liturgical  work  of  to-day  we  may  roughly 
 sum  up  the  influences  as  follows:  There  are  two  forms  of  critical 
 influence,  one  of  which  criticises  to  reject,  the  other  to  reform. 
 A  third  tendency  occupies  itself  with  developing  the  Liturgy  as 
 it  is  by  archaeological  and  historical  study  of  it,  and  a  revival  of 
 its  musical  and  aesthetic  rendering. 
 
 *  R.  M.  Smith,  Sources,  p.  52. 
 
 W.  A.  Lambert. 
 Saltsburg,  Pa. 
 
REMARKS  ON  SOME  OF  OUR  IvlTURGICAI.  CI.ASSICS. 
 
 Recent  studies  and  discoveries  have  thrown  light  on  the  history 
 of  the  Lutheran  Service.  Luther's  Formula  Misses  of  1523,  fol- 
 lowing his  treatises  of  1516-1523,  was  evoked  by  a  demand  for  a 
 revision  of  the  Service.  His  criticisms  on  the  Mass  had  been 
 eagerly  and  widely  accepted.  In  accordance  with  his  teaching 
 the  idea  that  it  was  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  was  rejected,  and  the 
 demand  for  a  Service  in  the  language  of  the  people,  in  which 
 fuller  instruction  in  the  Word  of  God  should  be  given,  was 
 continually  growing.  Many  had  attempted  translations  of  the 
 prayers  and  offices  of  the  Church,  and  among  these  have  been 
 preserved  "Orders"  for  the  use  of  those  who  felt  themselves,  or 
 actually  were,  shut  out  from  the  Communion  but  desired  to  par- 
 ticipate in  it.  Carlstadt  had  tried  to  put  Luther's  principles  into 
 practice  in  1521.  Thomas  Muenzer  at  Alstedt  celebrated  a  Ger- 
 man Mass  and  afterwards  published  it.  Kantz  at  Nordlingen 
 published  the  first  "Evangelical  Mass."  Almost  of  the  same 
 date  as  the  Formula  Missce  is  Nigri's  German  Mass  at  Strassburg, 
 the  startingpoint  of  the  Strassburg  type  of  Service.  The  princi- 
 ples of  the  Formula  Miss^B  were  soon  combined  with  Kantz's 
 work,  as  in  the  Pseudo-Bugenhagen  of  1524,  and  Kantz's  with 
 Nigri's,  and  these  again  with  the  Formula  Misses,  at  Nuremberg. 
 All  this  is  evidence  of  the  widespread  and  insistent  demand  for  a 
 reformation  of  the  Service  and  the  provision  of  a  German  Mass. 
 Luther's  Formula  Missce  is  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  a  compli- 
 ance with  this  demand.  When  it  was  published,  Kantz's  and 
 Nigri's  Masses  were  in  existence.  It  professes  to  tell  how  the 
 Service  was  at  that  time  performed  at  Wittenberg.  Nigri's  and 
 Bucer's  principles  were  cotemporary  with  it.  It  is  to  be  regard- 
 ed then  as  in  some  sense  a  critique  on  what  had  already  been  un- 
 dertaken, as  well  as  on  the  old  Mass;  and  reasons  must  be  found 
 
 (xvii) 
 
18  MEMOIRS. 
 
 why  Luther  did  not  accept  and  applaud  the  work  already  done. 
 On  the  other  hand,  he  ignored  or  rejected  it. 
 
 We  are  not  ready  to  admit  Smend's  suggestion  that  Luther 
 did  not  accept  these  attempts  at  reformation  for  something  like 
 vanity,  or  the  desire  to  arrogate  to  himself  a  sole  leadership. 
 Smend  himself  shows  that  the  Strassburg  Orders  ran  a  course  of 
 their  own  in  spite  of  a  subsequent  influence  of  the  Formula  Misses. 
 He  is  able  to  detect  that  influence  in  several  easily  distinguisha- 
 ble parts.  The  Nuremberg  Service  derived  from  them  certain 
 divergencies  from  the  Strassburg  type.  This  is  enough  to  show 
 that  Luther  was  not  wrong  in  scenting  another  spirit. 
 
 On  one  point  Luther's  motive  was  clear.  While  he  wished 
 for  a  German  Mass,  he  was  afraid  that  his  disciples  would  go  too 
 fast.  He  wished  to  retain  as  much  of  the  old  Service  as  he  could 
 in  accordance  with  evangelical  principles.  He  even  did  not  wish 
 to  give  up  the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue  altogether,  so  far  as  it 
 might  be  retained  to  edification.  Bugenhagen  shows  some  an- 
 noyance in  the  letter  he  wrote  complaining  of  the  Kantzian  Mass 
 that  had  been  published  under  his  name,  because  adherents  of 
 the  forward  movement  called  the  Latin  Service  retained  at  Wit- 
 tenberg with  German  Lections  and  Sermon  no  German  Mass  at 
 all.  Luther  put  a  high  value  on  the  traditional  music  of  the 
 Service  and  could  not  think  it  possible  to  use  it  to  literal  prose 
 translations.  I  do  not  think  this  ever  has  been  done  successfully 
 in  the  German  Churches.  To  translate  a  Service  of  Worship  it 
 is  not  enough  to  set  down  the  meaning  of  sentences  so  that  they 
 shall  be  clear  to  an  attentive  mind.  This  is  the  fault  of  the  ma- 
 jority of  the  versions  of  German  Hymns  which  have  been  incor- 
 porated into  our  Church  Book.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Dr. 
 Beale  Schniucker  felt  the  same  hesitation  in  regard  to  the  Matin 
 and  Vesper  Services:  he  doubted  whether  they  were  possible 
 without  the  traditional  music  and  whether  the  traditional  music 
 could  be  set  to  any  available  translation.  Every  language  has  a 
 genius  of  its  own;  and  the  genius  of  a  language  is  the  genius  of 
 the  people  whose  utterance  it  is.  It  is  not  enough  even  to  trans- 
 fuse the  thoughts  into  German  words  and  idioms.  No,  the 
 Word  of  God  must  be  wrought  into  the  Gennan  people  and 
 evoked  from  them  again.  And  the  new  texts  thus  born,  repro- 
 ducing the  substance  of  the  old,  but  in  a  form  as  unlike  the  old 
 Latin  forms  as  the  German  worshipper  is  unlike  the  Latin,  as 
 
REMARKS   ON   SOME   OP   OUR    LITURGICAL   CLASSICS.  19 
 
 Luther  was  unlike  ^iieas  Sylvius,  as  the  lyatin  forms  were  un- 
 like the  Greek,  must  have  a  musical  setting  of  their  own.  What 
 would  we  Americans  have  done  with  the  Lutheran  Service  if  it 
 had  not  been  Englished  for  us  by  centuries  of  use?  And  Luther 
 was  not  far  wrong  when  he  put  the  sacred  texts  into  German 
 rhymes  as  freely  as  the  forty-sixth  Psalm  was  rendered  in  Ein' 
 Feste  Burg.  Of  course  he  missed  the  mark  sometimes,  as  in 
 Jesaia  dem  Propheten  das  geschah;  but  not  often.  His  translations 
 of  the  Collects  show  that  he  alone  of  the  Germans  can  be  ranked 
 with  Cranmer  for  liturgical  sensitiveness  and  command  of  the 
 language  of  devotion.  Luther  revolted  from  the  harsh,  inartistic 
 wooden,  impossible  versions  of  the  first  attempts  at  a  German 
 Mass.  Of  some  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  put  the  material  of 
 worship  into  German  Smend  says,  "The  prayers  breathe  a  glow- 
 ing mysticism  and  a  deep  tremulous  longing  utters  itself  in  the 
 meditations.  Nor  is  it  seldom  we  perceive  a  play  upon  words 
 and  notions  such  as  marks  a  very  leisurely  worshipper  and  is  far 
 from  simplicity."  They  speak  of  \}ii^  Zarten  Fronleuhnam  und 
 Edlest  Bhd,  of  the  Rosinfarbes  Blut,  of  Christ.  It  is  interesting 
 to  compare  their  prose  versions  of  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  which 
 never  found  a  place  in  German  worship,  and  perhaps  occasioned 
 the  readiness  with  which  Luther  adapted  himself  to  the  tradition- 
 al permission  to  use  or  omit  the  Gloria  iji  Excelsis  at  the  will  of 
 the  minister.  Luther  and  Bugenhagen  were  impatient  of  the 
 notion  that  it  was  wrong  to  have  the  Service  in  Latin.  They 
 were  not  willing  to  force  upon  the  people  a  change  that  would  be 
 felt  by  every  one,  and  would  be  offensive  to  sober  people  of  good 
 taste  as  well  as  to  those  attached  to  the  old  Order.  At  the  centre, 
 they  also  felt  all  the  difl&culties  besetting  their  work  more  than 
 their  eager  imitators  could.  Luther  therefore  would  have  "put 
 the  brakes"  on  the  reform.  But  he  was  driven  by  it.  And, 
 finally,  the  German  Mass  showed  the  utmost  he  was  able  to  ac- 
 complish in  that  time  and  the  way  he  thought  it  ought  to  be 
 done. 
 
 Another  reason  for  the  rejection  of  these  immature  essays  at 
 liturgical  construction  lay  in  a  well-grounded  distrust  of  their 
 principles.  Our  first  impulse  on  reading  the  Masses  of  Muenzer 
 is  to  admire  the  courage  and  taste  shown  and  their  evident  re- 
 spect for  the  ancient  form.  He  was  a  respectable  hymnist.  We 
 are  told  that  the  musical  setting  of  the  parts  is  not  without  mer- 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it.  He  shows  considerable  liturgical  knowledge.  Yet  Luther  is 
 certainly  to  be  pardoned  for  suspecting  anything  from  Carlstadt's 
 or  Muenzer's  hand.  We  do  not  know  whether  he  ever  gave  to 
 these  concepts  any  attention.  But  lest  we  may  condemn  the 
 great  reformer  for  rejecting  the  work  other  men  were  doing,  who 
 were  eager  to  work  out  principles  for  which  he  had  contended, 
 let  us  look  at  Muenzer's  Masses  more  closely. 
 
 Here  we  find  traces  of  a  pantheistic  mysticism.  For  in- 
 stance, in  comment  on  the  Sa7iclus  Muenzer  says:  "We  sing  the 
 Sancius  that  we  may  know  how  a  man  should  be  prepared  in  or- 
 der to  receive  the  Supper  without  injury  to  his  soul.  He  should 
 and  must  know  that  God  is  in  him;  he  must  not  imagine  that  He 
 is  a  thousand  miles  away  from  him;  but  as  Heaven  and  earth  is 
 full,  full,  of  God,  and  as  the  Father  continually  begets  the  Son 
 in  us,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  does  nothing  else  than  glorify  the 
 Crucified  in  us."  .  .  .  .  He  seems  to  make  the  validity  of  the 
 Sacrament  depend  on  the  faith  of  the  participants.  ...  In  one 
 place  he  says  that  only  patient  men  are  worthy  of  the  Saviour  of 
 life.  .  .  .  Muenzer  exhibited  his  liturgical  knowledge  in  a  free 
 combination  of  materials  from  man)^  Masses.  He  practically  re- 
 jected all  the  Services  for  the  days  of  the  saints. 
 
 The  Project  of  Kantz  has  many  points  of  divergence  from 
 the  Order  suggested  in  the  Formula  Misses.  The  latter  begins 
 with  the  Introit.  The  former  (and  indeed  all  these  early  forms) 
 has  a  Confession  of  Sins  and  an  Absolution,  answering  to  the 
 Confiteor  of  the  Mass.  It  has  been  discovered  that  the  pre-Refor- 
 mation  Service  at  Wittenberg  had  a  Confiteor.  Luther's  omission 
 of  this,  in  spite  of  these  apparently  unobjectionable  forms,  must 
 have  been  due  to  an  unwillingness  to  admit  an3^thing  that  sa- 
 voured of  the  old  distinction  between  the  priest  and  the  other 
 worshippers.  Kantz  does  not  retain  much  of  the  old  Order, 
 while  the  Formula  Misses  evidently  aims  to  keep  all  it  can.  But 
 in  one  point  Kantz  goes  further  in  this  direction  than  Luther 
 would  allow.  Here  we  find  after  the  Sandus  this  prayer  of  Con- 
 secration: "O  most  Merciful  Father,  help  that  this  bread  and  this 
 wine  may  become  and  be  to  us  the  true  Body  and  the  innocent 
 Blood  of  Thy  dear  Son  Jesus  Christ,  Who  on  the  day  before  His 
 Passion,  etc."  After  the  Agnus  Dei  is  said,  "O  Lord  Jesus, 
 Thou  eternal  Son  of  the  Father,  Thou  Saviour  of  the  world. 
 Thou  true  and  living  God  and  Man,  redeem  us  through  this  Thy 
 
REMARKS   ON   SOME   OF    OUR    LITURGICAI,    CI.ASSICS.  21 
 
 holy  Body  and  rosy  (in  other  editions,  precious)  Blood  from  all 
 sins."  After  the  Priest  receives  the  Sacrament,  he  takes  a  Host 
 in  his  hand  and  shows  it  to  the  communicants,  saying,  "See,  Be- 
 loved, this  is  indeed  the  holy  Body  of  our  L,ord  Jesus  Christ, 
 Who  suffered  bitter  death  for  you.  Receive  and  eat  it  that  it 
 may  feed  and  nourish  and  keep  you  unto  eternal  life."  .  .  With 
 the  Cup  he  says,  "See,  this  is  indeed  the  precious  treasure  of  the 
 costly  Blood  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  wherewith  ye  are  re- 
 deemed. Receive  it  and  divide  it  among  yourselves  to  the  wash- 
 ing away  of  your  sins."  The  Nzinc  Dimittis  is  added,  to  be  said 
 on  bended  knee. 
 
 It  is  easy  to  detect  the  doctrinal  elements  which  render  this 
 immature  performance  objectionable. 
 
 When  we  come  to  the  Strassburg  Masses,  we  find  many 
 questionable  features.  Nigri's  form,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
 pected, is  little  more  than  a  translation  of  the  Missal  in  use  in 
 the  Latin  Service.  There  is  here  also  an  insistence  on  the  idea 
 of  our  own  Offering  of  our  bodies  as  a  living  sacrifice.  The  tra- 
 ditional pericopes  are  discarded,  and  hand  in  hand  with  this  is  a 
 gradual  abandonment  of  the  Church  Year.  The  disuse  of  the 
 traditional  pericopes  was  advised  by  Muenzer  also.  An  early 
 project  of  a  German  Mass  ascribed  to  Oecolampadius  chooses 
 lections  intended  to  make  the  Lord's  Supper  no  more  than  a 
 commemoration  of  the  Death  of  Christ.  When  he  wrote  the 
 Formula  Missce  Luther  was  not  averse  to  the  change  from  the 
 traditional  pericopes  but  was  not  prepared  to  take  the  step;  but 
 in  the  interval  between  then  and  the  composition  of  the  German 
 Mass  (1525),  he  had  decided  to  stand  by  the  old  Order.  He  was 
 also  unwilling  to  give  up  the  celebration  of  the  Feasts  of  our 
 Lord.  As  the  Strassburg  reform  proceeded,  the  Holy  Supper 
 was  more  and  more  relegated  to  a  second  place  in  the  worship  of 
 the  Congregation,  and  everything  was  made  secondary  to  in- 
 struction in  the  Word  of  God.  Luther  in  his  German  Mass 
 seems  to  intimate  that  those  who  always  are  seeking  some  new 
 thing,  are  already  getting  tired  of  the  new  Service,  and  expresses 
 a  dread  of  the  use  enthusiasts  may  make  of  the  liberty  of  teach- 
 ing it  grants  them. 
 
 The  Strassburg  scheme  had  no  influence  at  Wittenberg. 
 But  at  Nuremberg  it  had.  It  came  to  Nuremberg  combined  with 
 the  proposition  of  Kantz.     It  has  been  said  that  the  Nuremberg 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 reform  of  the  Service  belongs  to  the  Strassburg  type.  Its  diver- 
 gence from  the  Wittenberg  Order  was  recognized.  The  Witten- 
 berg Reformers  declined  a  proposition  to  consult  with  reference 
 to  a  uniform  Service.  It  did  not  seem  to  them  desirable  that 
 Christian  liberty  in  such  matters  should  be  covered  up  by  uni- 
 formity in  worship.  The  separate  development  at  Nuremberg 
 finally  made  itself  felt  in  the  Saxon  series  of  Orders  through  the 
 Mecklenberg  Order  of  1552,  the  Mecklenberg  Order  of  1540  hav- 
 ing been  based  on  Braiidcnburg-Niiremberg  1553.  To  the  earli- 
 est Nuremberg  Order  we  owe  the  Exhortation  in  the  Communion 
 Service,  probably  the  composition  of  Osiander,  and  to  the  Orders 
 of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  coming  to  Nuremberg  by  way 
 of  Strassburg,  our  Confession  of  Sins  and  Declaration  of  Grace,  and 
 the  Nunc  Dimittis. 
 
 It  would  not  be  just  to  say  that  the  German  Mass  of  1526 
 represents  Luther's  final  conclusion  on  the  Service.  The  Witten- 
 berg Order  of  1533  is  far  more  ornate,  and  the  Saxon  of  1539  is 
 more  characteristic  of  the  Normal  Lutheran  Liturgy. 
 
 Edward  T.  Horn. 
 
 Reading,  Pa. 
 
PREACHING   AND  THE   DAY. 
 
 Does  the  Day  influence  the  Sermon,  or  is  the  Sermon  independ- 
 ent of  the  Day?  Is  the  Sermon  something  distinct  from  the  rest 
 of  the  Service  or  an  integral  part,  and  as  such  influencing  or  in- 
 fluenced by  the  other  parts?  Is  our  Worship  an  harmonious 
 whole  or  made  up  of  indiscriminate  acts  having  no  inter-relation 
 or  bearing  no  effect  upon  each  other?  Is  this  Worship  which  is 
 such  a  great  part  of  the  Church's  life,  based  on  a  distinct  plan 
 with  a  definite  object  in  view  or  simply  an  outpouring  of  the  mo- 
 mentary emotion,  or  an  expression  of  personal  thought,  will  or 
 experience?  If  based  on  a  distinct  plan  does  this  leave  any  im- 
 print on  the  structure  of  the  Service  and  does  this  seek  and  de- 
 mand expression? 
 
 IvCt  us  keep  these  questions  in  view  and  let  them  guide  the 
 consideration  of  the  subject. 
 
 There  is  such  a  thing  as  a  Lutheran  Cultus.  The  Lutheran 
 Church  observes  the  Ecclesiastical  Year.  It  is  the  Ecclesiastical 
 Year  in  which  the  Cultus  thrives.  But  neither  the  Cultus  nor 
 the  Church  Year  are  of  distinctly  Lutheran  manufacture;  nor  do 
 they  date  simply  from  the  Reformation  era.  While  there  are 
 many  things  that  may  be  brought  forward  as  marks  of  the  Re- 
 formers, as  results  of  their  thought  and  touch,  still  there  is  noth- 
 ing that  has  not  come  from  a  former  age,  that  does  not  trace  its 
 foundation  to  earliest  times  and  date  from  the  days  of  the  pure 
 and  unadulterated  orthodox  practice.  However  there  is  such  a 
 thing  as  a  Lutheran  standard  from  which  we  must  consider  all 
 matters  and  a  Lutheran  point-of-view;  but  these  are  nothing 
 more  than  the  standard  and  view-point  of  the  Early  Church. 
 Lutheran  Cultus  means  Christian  Cultus.  Lutheran  practice 
 means  Christian  practice, — Apostolic,  post-ApostoHc,  Greek  or 
 Latin,  early  or  later  Roman,  or  what  you  will.     Therefore  any 
 
 (xxiii) 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 (luestioii  which  we  consider,  based  on  our  Cultus  or  Church  Life 
 of  the  present  day,  must  also  consider  the  pure  antecedents  from 
 which  it  sprang  and  which  it  acknowledges  as  source  and  stand- 
 ard. The  Lutheran  Church  is  in  the  hereditary  line  of  the  Ages, 
 and  whatever  they  brought  forth  that  is  not  contrary  to  the  Word 
 of  God  and  pure  practice,  is  hers  by  hereditary  right. 
 
 Christian  Worship  or  the  Cultus,  from  the  earliest  times, 
 whether  expressed  in  simplest  form  or  grandest  ceremonial,  has 
 always  expressed  itself  harmonioxisly ,  as  a  dignified,  unified,  log- 
 ically progressing  act.  The  various  parts  which  contributed  to 
 the  structure,  were  so  arranged  that  they  would  either  eloquently 
 and  pointedly  express  their  messages  to,  or  act  as  guides  for,  the 
 people.  One  step  followed  the  other  preparing  for,  and  leading 
 to,  the  climax,  and  therein  the  Oflfice  ended.  The  Apostolic  ad- 
 monition: "Let  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order"  (I  Cor. 
 14:  16),  as  well  as  the  Apostolic  examples  were  faithfully 
 followed;*  and  this  admonition  is  the  essence  of  all  liturgical, 
 structural  law  and  necessarily  means  harmony.  This  is  borne 
 out  by  the  remains  of  the  earliest  traces  of  a  Christian  Liturgyf 
 and  has  never  been  forsaken  by  the  Church  through  all  her  cen- 
 turies of  growth  even  amid  innovations  and  false  doctrines. 
 
 Christian  Church  Life  was,  first  of  all,  a  simple  outpouring  of 
 the  momentary  emotion,  but  this  very  thing  was  the  basis  of  the 
 structure  of  the  Christian  Year,  By  "momentary  emotion"  noth- 
 ing is  meant  that  might  convey  the  slightest  suggestion  of  cer- 
 tain practices  of  the  present  day.  The  expression  of  the  Worship 
 was  limited  to  the  one  plain,  pre-eminent  Fact.  It  was  simply  the 
 Day  and  its  memory  that  engaged  their  thought;  and  these  da3's 
 were  limited  to  a  weekly  cycle;  and  that  was  their  atmosphere. 
 Kvery  Lord's  Day  brought  to  them  the  memorial  of  the  Day  of 
 
 •  Neale  while  granting  the  non-Apostolic  authorship  of  the  Early  Greek  Litur- 
 gies, nevertheless  claims  that  they  are  based  on  Apostolic  forms.  "These  liturgies," 
 he  says,  "though  not  composed  by  the  Apostles  whose  uames  they  boar,  were  the 
 legitimate  development  of  their  unwritten  tradition  respecting  the  Christian  Sacrifice, 
 the  words  probably,  in  the  most  important  parts,  the  general  tenor  in  all  portions, 
 descending  unchanged  from  the  Apostolic  authors."  The  General  Introduction  to 
 the  History  of  the  Jloly  Eastern  Church,     p  319. 
 
 t  See  Greek  Liturgies. — Renaudot,  Liturgiarum  Orientaliutn.  2  ed.  1847. 
 Daniel,  Codex  Litujgicus.  Vol.  IV.  Nkale  and  Littledale,  The  Lits.  of  St. 
 J\/k.f  St.  yas.,  etc.  3  ed.  '75.  Englished  also  by  Nkalk  and  Littledale  and 
 in  Ante  Nicene  Fathers.     \ol.   VIL 
 
PREACHING    AND    THK    DAY.  25 
 
 Resurrection;  and  soon  with  that,  the  fourth  and  sixth  days  (dis- 
 tinguished as  feria)  assumed  the  character  of  memorials  of  the 
 Suffering,  and  the  Crucifixion  and  Death  of  Christ,  making  in 
 itself  a  harmony  and  following  a  distinct  purpose.*  Starting 
 from  this,  but  never  forgetting  or  forsaking  it,  the  yearly  recur- 
 rence and  remembrance  of  the  Great  Days  and  their  Facts  grad- 
 ually grew  into  a  set  celebration.  And  as  the  Lord's  Day  was 
 the  first  day  observed,  weekly,  so  that  Day  which  celebrated 
 that  Fact  was  the  first  festival  to  be  celebrated  annually ;  but  it 
 does  not  stand  alone,  any  more  than  did  the  Lord's  Day.  The 
 events  closely  related  to  it  appear  with  it,  making  a  season  of 
 preparation  for,  and  following  it  with  a  season  wherein  its  partic- 
 ular spirit  was  brought  home  and  applied.  Then  soon  another 
 Day  and  its  groups  of  lesser  dependent  feasts  (a  distinction  which 
 was  made  even  in  earliest  times)  arises,  until  after  but  a  few  cen- 
 turies of  Church  life,  we  find  the  Christian  Year  celebrating  the 
 great  central  Days  with  their  pre-  and  post-,  seasons,  observed 
 throughout  the  Church  with  greater  or  less  fidelity.  This  is  a 
 matter  of  simple  ecclesiastical  history. 
 
 The  one  had  its  effect  upon  the  other.  True,  it  was  but 
 gradual,  but  nevertheless  it  was  powerful.  Hymns  f  are  found 
 celebrating  the  facts  of  the  Great  Days;  Homilies  by  the  Early 
 Fathers,  setting  forth  Christian  life  in  the  light  of  these  Events; 
 these  even  before  we  have  any  remains  of  a  complete  Liturgy.  I 
 The  earliest  Service-book  that  has  come  down  to  us,  the  Roman 
 Sacramentary  known  as  the  Leonianuin,%  points  very  plainly  to 
 an  harmonious  structure  and  makes  ample  provision  for  the 
 changing  spirit  of  the  great  Seasons,  of  course  in  no  wise  as  fully 
 and  completely  as  later  Sacramentaries.  Yet  it  is  interesting  to 
 note  that  this,  the  oldest  of  Roman  liturgical  antiquities,  does  not 
 
 *  RiETSCHEL,  Lehrbuch  d.  Liturgik,  p.  i66  §  1 8. 
 
 t  On  Early  Hymns  cf.  Bennett,  Christian  Archaology,  c.  8,  p  272  seq. ; 
 AuGUSTi,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  V,  234;     Alt,    Christ.  Cultus,  I,  421. 
 
 X  We  speak  of  the  Western  Section  of  the  Church,  since  it  is  the  Roman  an- 
 tiquities more  particularly,  that  are  to  be  considered  as  antecedents  to  our  use. 
 
 §  Muratori,  Litia-gia  Romana,  Vol.  I;  published  separately  by  Feltoe,  Sac- 
 ramentarium  Leonianum.  Cambridge  Press.  '96.  Probst,  Die  aeltesten  roetn, 
 Sacramentarien  und  Ordines  erklaert,  for  criticism.  The  Gelasianum  is  pub- 
 lished by  Wilson.  Oxford  Press.  '94.  And  with  the  Gregorian  may  also  be  found 
 in  Muratori,  which  also  compares  and  gives  the  others  mentioned.  The  Mozarabic 
 is  published  by  Migne.     Paris.     1850. 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 limit  its  variables  to  one  set  for  a  particular  Day  or  occasion;  but 
 frequently  provides  two  and  even  more  sets,  all  of  which  bear 
 upon  the  one  fact  of  the  Da}'. 
 
 A  little  later  we  come  upon  a  group  of  Sacramentaries,  An- 
 tiphonaries  and  Lectionaries,  out  of  which  we  can  construct  a 
 complete  and  detailed  structure  in  which  not  only  the  great  Days 
 are  illuminated  by  special  observances  and  appointments,  but  the 
 feria,  the  passage  from  Lord's  Day  to  Lord's  Day,  are  empha- 
 sized and  provided  for  in  much  the  same  manner.  We  speak  of 
 the  Sacramentaries  of  Gelasius  and  Gregory;  the  Ambrosian, 
 Mozarabic  and  Gallican  Office-books;  the  Antiphonary  ascribed 
 to  Gregory*  in  various  forms  and  othersf  and  various  manuscript 
 Lectionaries.  t  The  oldest  of  these  MSS  goes  back  as  far  as  the 
 year  700;  Probst  §  would  give  the  Ge/a  si  a??  7(m  an  even  greater 
 age;  and  since  most  of  these  MSS  are  not  much  younger,  (the  9th 
 Centur>'  at  latest),  we  have  a  rather  high  age  for  a  completed 
 fabric.  1 1  We  said  these  MSS  contribute  a  complete  and  detailed 
 structure.  How  is  this  shown?  In  the  Prop7ia%  and  other  vari- 
 ables; and  the  richness  and  variety  as  well  as  aptness,  of  Introits, 
 Collects,  Lections,  Antiphons,  Graduals,  Responsories,  Offer- 
 tories, Collects  ayite-,  and  post-,  nombia,  Prefaces,  Post-commun- 
 ions, Hymns,  etc. ,  are  abundant  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  Chris- 
 tian Year  did  have  an  effect,  and  that  not  a  weak  one,  upon  the 
 expression  of  the  Worship,  and  that  those  who  composed  the 
 variables  and  appointed  them  did  so  under  this  influence.  What 
 more  natural,  than  that  Feast  and  Fast  centered   in  the  life  of 
 
 ♦  Berno  Augiensis,  (tl045)  says  in  his  (/.?  rebus  ad  miss,  pert.,  c.  i:  that 
 Gregory  was  the  *'ordinator  libri  Sacramentarum  et  Aniiphonarum." 
 
 t  Rancke,  Das  Kirchliche  Pericopensystem.     p   116  seqq. 
 
 X  Ibid,  p   126   seqq. 
 
 §  Probst,  D.  aelt.  Roem.  Sac,  etc.     p   156  §  34. 
 
 Ij  Rancke  recognizes  it  as  a  complete  system  by  9th  Century.  Pericopensystem. 
 p.  406.     Thesis   14. 
 
 H  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  completeness  of  the  Propria  etc.  in  these  earliest 
 liturgical  remains  presupposes  their  use  in  an  earlier  period.  In  other  words,  if  a 
 Sacramentary,  coming  to  us  from  the  early  part  of  the  Slh  Cent,  contains  full  Pro- 
 pria, it  is  not  presumptuous  to  suppose  that  they  were  in  use  the  latter  part  of  the 
 7th  Cent,  or  earlier.  They  would  not  necessarily  come  into  use  for  the  first  time 
 with,  and  be  a  complete  and  personal  work,  as  a  whole,  of  the  one  editing  the 
 Sacramentary.  He,  no  doubt,  drew  from  older  sources.  Then  it  follows  that  some 
 earlier  minds  embraced  the  idea  of  an  harmony  in  structure,  at  least,  and  so  ex- 
 pressed it  in  the  dress  of  the  Service. 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  27 
 
 Christ  and  His  teaching,  should  influence  and  express  itself  in 
 the  worship  of  that  Christ  and  about  His  gift  to  His  Church,  the 
 Sacrament. 
 
 The  structure  of  the  Service  proper  has  undergone  many- 
 changes.  There  seem  to  have  been  two  Services  or  a  twofold 
 Service  in  Apostolic  times.  One  a  purely  preaching  Service, 
 missionary  and  catechetical  in  its  character, — simple  yet  unified; 
 the  other  celebrating  the  Supper.  This  custom  was  followed  in 
 the  early  post- Apostolic  period;  but  gradually  the  two  were  weld- 
 ed into  one,  till  we  find  the  Chief  Service  embracing  both,  the 
 I^iturgy  of  the  Mass  resulting.  Yet  while  they  had  become  one, 
 the  distinction  was  not  lost.  There  were  other,  lesser  Services, 
 as  well  on  week-days  which  had  as  their  purpose  instruction  in 
 the  Word;  and  for  the  clergy — though  attendance  on  the  part  of 
 the  laity  was  urged  as  well — there  was  the  arrangement  of  the 
 day — the  Canonical  Hours;*  and  these  again  were  appointed  with 
 reason. t 
 
 The  earliest  liturgical  remains  while  uniting  the  two,  still 
 mark  the  distinction  by  dividing  the  Service  into  the  7nissa  cate- 
 chumejwrum  and  the  missafidelium;  but  the  structure  is  such  that 
 the  progress  from  the  one  part  to  the  other  is  not  attended  with 
 a  distinct  break  but  leads  up  to  the  Celebration  as  the  final  and 
 climacteric  act.  The  first  part  is  the  Service  of  the  Word  in 
 which  the  reading  of  the  Word  and  the  preachingj  by  the  Bishop 
 or  Presbyter  appointed  by  him,  is  the  height  reached;  the  second, 
 the  Celebration  not  separate  but  as  a  logical  advance.  In  the 
 first  the  Word  is  declared  generally;  in  the  second  applied  indi- 
 
 »  RiETSCHEL,  Lehrbuch.  p  169.  Battifol,  History  of  the  Rom.  Breviary. 
 c.   I — "The  Genesis  of  the  Can.  Hours." 
 
 t  "Ofter  up  your  prayers  in  the  morning,  at  the  third  hour,  the  sixth,  the  ninth, 
 the  evening  and  at  cock-crowing:  in  the  morning,  returning  thanks  that  the  Lord 
 has  sent  you  Hght,  that  He  has  brought  you  past  the  night  and  brought  on  the  day; 
 at  the  third  hour,  because  at  that  hour  the  Lord  received  the  sentence  of  condemna- 
 tion from  Pilate;  at  the  sixth,  because  at  that  hour  He  was  crucified;  at  the  ninth, 
 because  all  things  were  in  commotion  at  the  crucifixion  of  the  Lord,  as  trembling  at 
 the  bold  attempt  of  the  impious  Jews,  and  not  bearing  the  injury  offered  to  their 
 Lord;  in  the  evening,  giving  thanks  that  He  has  given  you  the  night  to  rest  from 
 the  daily  labors;  at  cock-crowing,  because  that  hour  brings  the  good  news  of  the 
 coming  on  of  the  day  for  the  work  proper  for  the  light."      Co7is.  Apos.     Bk.  VHI, 
 
 c.  34- 
 
 t  Various  passages  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the  lection  contributed  to  the  text  of 
 the  sermon. 
 
28  MEMOIRS. 
 
 vidually.  The  first  part  did  not  suffer  for  lack  of  attention  or 
 honor,  nor  did  they  fail  to  appreciate  its  true  and  great  value. 
 The  rich  remains  of  homilies  by  the  Fathers  of  those  days  show 
 us  how  active  they  were  in  the  preaching  of  the  Word  and  how 
 they  looked  upon  this  as  one  of  the  highest  acts  of  worship. 
 
 With  the  growth  and  introduction  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
 "Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,"  the  Service  is  made  to  feel  its  effect.  It 
 changed  the  view-point,  brought  a  foreign  spirit  into  the  wor- 
 ship, which  evinces  itself  in  the  ideas  of  "propitiation"  and 
 "merit";  and  the  edifying  of  the  people  is  sadly  neglected.  Yet 
 the  structure  remains  unchanged,  becoming  more  and  more  set- 
 tled on  the  outlines  of  the  past,  until  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the 
 Great,  it  reaches  its  own  climax. 
 
 It  was  Gregory  who  filled  out  the  earlier  structure  which 
 had  already  been  enriched  by  Leo  and  Gelasius,*  providing  a 
 complete  set  of  Propria,  by  adding  to  the  treasure  of  the  past. 
 He  is  the  acknowledged  father  of  the  present  system.  In  his 
 work  the  influence  of  the  Church  Year  is  very  apparent.  It  was 
 strong  in  Gelasian  times.  It  was  evident  in  Leonine  times.  It 
 shows  itself  far  earlier  in  no  indistinct  manner. 
 
 What  is  there  to  show  for  this? 
 
 To  go  back  all  the  way — there  are  a  number  of  passages  in 
 the  New  Testament  which  speak  of  the  "First  Day  of  the  week" — 
 "the  Lord's  Day" — in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  supposition 
 that  it  was  observed  as  a  day  of  special  worship,  f  Following 
 this,  in  post-Apostolic  times,  this  observance  can  be  recognized 
 as  a  settled  institution,  |  and  a  stated  time  for  the  assembling  of 
 the  people  for  worship.  In  these  evidences  the  character  of  the 
 Day  is  also  made  evident.  Almost  as  old  is  the  observance  of  the 
 week,  in  particular  the  Stational  Days,§  reasons  being  given  for 
 this  custom  as  well.     As  early  is  the  growth  of  the  daily  hours 
 
 ♦  Walafrid  Strabo,  De  Rebu^  Eccl.  c.  22.  M.  S.  L.  114,  p  946,  quoted 
 at  length  in  Probst,  De  aelt.  Roem.  Sac.  p  148,  note  2.  John  the  Deacon, 
 Life  of  Gregory,  II,  17,  for  which  see  Duchesne,  Christian  Worship,  p  126,  n.  5. 
 For  a  criticism  of  these  pp  see  Probst,  p  148  seq.  and  301  seq. 
 
 t  Acts  20:  7;    I  Cor.  16:  2. 
 
 X  Justin  Martyr,  (ti66),  Apol.  c,  67.  For  text  see  Hering,  Huelfshuch 
 zur  Einfuehrung  in  d.  Lit.  Studium.  p.  7.  (Tertullian,  de  cor.  mil.  3.  Ante 
 N.  F.  Ill,  94,  de  fuga.  A.  N.  F.  IV,  125.)  Pliny's  Letter  (111-113).  Hering, 
 p  3.     Rietschel,  154  §  17.     Bingham,  Bk.  XIII,  c,  9,  §  i  seq. 
 
 §  Rietschel  and  BrmiHAM  as  above. 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  29- 
 
 for  prayer,  tracing  the  inception  of  their  observance  to  Apostolic 
 times*  and  very  early  accompanied  with  the  reason  for  their  use. 
 
 The  Festivals  followed;  and  again  we  note  that  the  oldest 
 and — almost  from  the  earliest  times — the  most  widely  observed  is 
 that  which  celebrates  the  Fact  which  marked  the  observance  of 
 the  First  Day,  the  Pascha.  There  appear  to  be  evidences  of  it  in 
 Apostolic  times.  In  a  few  years  it  is  found  all  over  the  Church. 
 Soon  differences  arise  over  its  proper  date — as  early  as  i6o  A.  D. 
 between  Polycarp  of  Smyrna  and  Anicetus  of  Rome.  Pentecost 
 and  the  festival  season  of  the  inter  fifty  days  come  into  being  soon 
 after.  The  Feast  of  the  Ascension  appears  in  the  4th  Century; 
 that  of  the  Epiphany  is  found  in  the  Eastern  Section  at  the  end 
 of  the  3rd.  The  Nativity  in  the  East  is  observed  earlier  still,  in 
 the  West  it  is  authorized  by  Julius  of  Rome  (337-352). f  And 
 these  are  mentioned  as  Festival  groups. 
 
 In  the  meantime  the  Service  is  developing,  becoming  a  digni- 
 fied and  expressive  Ceremonial.  Prominent  in  it  is  the  place  the 
 reading  of  the  Word  assumes.  At  first  the  number  of  Lections 
 varied,  embracing  the  "lyaw  and  the  Prophets"  with  the  writings 
 of  Evangelists  and  Apostles;  +  then  Old  Testament,  Epistle  and 
 Gospel, §  and  then  confined  to  two]] — Epistle  and  Gospel.  And 
 although  at  first  the  choice  of  these  lections  is  dependent  upon 
 the  will  of  the  Bishop,^  yet  from  the  earliest  times  the  Festivals 
 and  Lessons  exerted  an  influence  in  this  direction  which  was  not 
 resisted.  Set  Lessons  are  placed  on  these  Days.  There  is  an  ap- 
 pointment in  Origen  **  for  the  Passiontide,  another  by  Am- 
 brose, ff  In  Augustine  we  note  the  very  marked  passage  where- 
 in he  tells  of  how  the  congregation  in  one  of  the  Churches  evinced 
 its  displeasure  when  the  Passion  was  read  according  to  St.  John 
 instead  of  that  customary  according  to  St.  Matthew;  J  J  and  that 
 
 *  Acts  3:  i;  2:  46.  Bingham,  XIII,  9,  sec.  8.  Rietschel,  149.  Batti- 
 FOL  as  above. 
 
 t  For  the  Festivals  see  Rietschel,  172,  19  seq. 
 
 X  Const.  Apos.  VIII,  5.   Tert.,  de  prase,  hereto  36.  For  text,  Rietschel,  224. 
 
 §    Const.  Apos.  II,  57. 
 
 II  Augustine,  Ser.  de  Verb.  Apos.  176.  *'Apostoluin  audivimus,  .  .  evangel- 
 iuin  audivimus.''^ 
 
 H  AUGUSTI,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  VI,  106.     Cf.  V,  239,  240. 
 
 **  Origen,  In  Jobum,  lib.  I.     Cf.  Augusti,  VI,  iii. 
 
 +t  Ambrose,  Ap.  33.    Cf.  Augusti,  VI,  iii. 
 
 ++  See  Nebe,  Evang.  Perikopen.     I,  6. 
 
30  MEMOIRS, 
 
 there  were  lections  that  were  customary  is  adduced  from  a  num- 
 ber of  passages  from  the  writings  of  the  same  Father.-^  Basilf 
 in  one  of  his  homihes  on  Baptism  in  Lent,  notices  the  lessons 
 which  were  read  that  day  and  mentions  them.  Maximus  Tauri- 
 ensis  in  one  of  his  Epiphany  homilies  mentions  the  appointments 
 for  that  Festival,  t  From  the  writings  of  Chrysostom,  we  gather 
 that  the  people  knew  what  the  Lections  would  be,  since  he  urges 
 them  to  read  them  beforehand. §  And  Augustine  tells  us  that 
 "some  lessons  were  so  fixed  and  appropriated  to  certain  times  and 
 seasons  that  no  others  might  be  read  in  their  stead;" ||  and  men- 
 tions in  particular,  in  referring  to  the  Festival  of  Easter,  when 
 for  four  days  successively  the  Resurrection  Histor>-  is  read  ac- 
 cording to  the  four  Evangelists. ^[  On  the  day  of  the  Lord's 
 Passion,  the  history  of  His  sufferings  was  read  according  to  St. 
 Matthew;-'"-'-  and  for  the  fifty  days  between  Easter  and  Pentecost, 
 the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  appointed,  ff 
 
 Still  more  to  the  point,  these  Lections  were  preached  upon; 
 and  we  possess  homilies  from  various  sections  of  the  Church  on 
 the  same  texts,  which  were  read  for  like  occasions.  Of  these 
 Lections  not  a  few  remain  in  use  to-day.  For  example:  An  homi- 
 ly by  Athanasius  is  based  on  the  Gospel  for  the  Nativity  (Lk.II;) 
 one  also  by  Chrysostom,  wherein  he  mentions  that  the  celebration 
 of  this  Festival,  though  but  lately  introduced  in  their  midst,  had 
 "long  been  celebrated  from  Thrace  to  Spain."]:]:  There  are  also 
 five  by  Ambrose  on  the  same  Text.  On  the  Gospel  for  the 
 Epiphany  (Matt.  2:  1-12)  there  is  one  by  Basil  in  which  he  de- 
 scribes the  history,  and  four  by  Ambrose  on  the  two  texts  (Matt. 
 3:  13-17  and  John  2:  i-ii — the  account  of  the  baptism  of  Christ 
 and  the  first  miracle)  used  together.     On  the  Palm  Sunday  Gos- 
 
 *  AuGUSTi,  VI,   108  seq.     Nebe,  I,  6. 
 
 t  Basil,  Horn.  13  de  Bap.  and  in  Horn.  21  in  Lacizis.  Bingham,  Bk.  XIV,  3. 
 
 X  Bingham,  XIV,  3.  Maximus  Tauriensis,  Horn.  4  in  Epiph.  The  les- 
 sons are:   Isa.  60;   Matt.  2;   John   i, 
 
 §  Chrysostom,  in  John  11,  also  58.     M,  S.  L.  59. 
 
 II  Augustine,  Expos,  in  I  Joan,  in  Pnc/at.  See  AUGUSTi,  VI,  108-9  ^or 
 text. 
 
 H  Text  given  AuGUSTi,  VI,  109.  AUGUSTINE,  Ser.  de  Tempore,  139,  140, 
 141,  144,  148. 
 
 **  Nkbk,    Evang.  Perikopen,   I,  6. 
 
 tt  Augustine,  Text,  Tract  VI  in  Joan,  in  Augusti,  VI,  109. 
 
 XX  This  with  the  fact  that  the  Gospel  used  was  Lk.  ii.  might  allow  us  to  deduce 
 that  this  was  the  Lection  as  widely  used. 
 
PREACHING    AND   THE    BAY.  31 
 
 pel,  one  by  Epiphanius  who  also  has  one  on  the  Epistle  for  the 
 Ascension  (Acts  i:  i-ii).  For  Pentecost,  there  is  one  by  Greg- 
 ory Naz.  on  Acts  2:  1-13,  used  in  such  a  manner  that  there  can 
 be  no  doubt  as  to  its  use  as  the  Festival  I^ection.* 
 
 Is  it  possible  to  show  whether  the  various  I^essons  had  any 
 relation  to  each  other,  or  to  the  Day  or  Season? 
 
 Augustine  says  in  Ser.  163  de  Verb.  Apos.:  "We  have  heard 
 the  Apostle,  we  have  heard  the  Psalm,  we  have  heard  the  Gos- 
 pel,— all  the  Divine  lessons  agree' ^\  {consonant).  Again  he  uses 
 the  lessons  together:  "We  have  heard  the  first  lesson  from  the 
 Apostle,— then  we  have  sung  a  Psalm, — after  this  came  the  les- 
 son from  the  Gospel,  we  will  discourse  upon  these  three  lessons, 
 as  far  as  time  permits. "t  Chrysostom  devotes  an  entire  homily 
 to  the  reason  for  the  use  of  Acts  between  Easter  and  Pentecost.§ 
 
 We  do  not  adduce  these  evidences  as  proof  of  the  existence 
 of  a  set  Lectionary  arranged  thematically,  but  we  believe  there  is 
 sufl&cient  evidence  here  for  us  to  recognize,  ist,  that  the  idea  of 
 harmony  between  Day  and  Lesson,  or  Season  and  I,esson— wider 
 still — the  Service,  was  strong;  and  2nd,  the  beginning,  in  these 
 appointments,  of  what  very  soon  after  takes  the  form  of  the  Sys- 
 tem of  Pericopes. 
 
 The  earliest  Lection ary  remains  bring  this  very  important 
 part  of  the  Service  to  us  in  a  system  of  Epistle  and  Gospel  ap- 
 pointments for  the  entire  year,  and  these  are  known  as  Pericopes. 
 A  Pericope  is  a  particular  portion  of  Holy  Scripture  chosen  for 
 an  especial  purpose,  considered  complete  in  itself  and  used  as  a 
 Service  Lection.  |] 
 
 The  most  interesting  of  the  antiquities  is  the  so-called 
 ^^ Comes"  of  Jerome  (1384),  known  to  us  however,  in  a  number 
 of  recensions  only.     In  other  branches  of  the   Church   traces  of 
 
 *  Many  ancient  homilies  are  given  in  Augusti,  Vols.  I-III. 
 
 t  Apostolum  aiidivinius,  Psabnum  audivimus,  evangelium  andivimus,  conso- 
 nant omms  divines  lecdoues,  quoted  from  PALMER,  Origines  Lit.  Vol.  II,  47,  note 
 "o."     Ser.  i6j  de  Verb.  Apos.     Benedic.  ed.  V,  796. 
 
 +  Primam  leclionem  audivimus  Apostoli — Deinde  contavimus  Psalmum — post 
 haec  evangelica  lectio.  Has  tres  lectiones,  quantu77t  pro  tempore  possumus,  per tracte- 
 mus.     Ser.  776  de  Verb.  Apos.  V,  839. 
 
 §  Chrysostom,  Horn.  63,  Cur  in  Pente,  Ada  legantur.  See  Bingham,  Bk. 
 XIV,  3,  where  a  resitme  of  the  homily  is  given. 
 
 II  Augusti,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  VI,   197. 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Other  and  independent  Lectionaries  are  found.  Claudianus  Mam- 
 ercus  (C450)  prepared  one  for  the  Church  at  Vienna. =^  Gennadi- 
 usf  tells  of  another  prepared  by  Musacus  of  Mar^feille.s  (0458) 
 and  the  passage  referring  to  it  is  of  extreme  interest  because  it 
 shows  that  the  opinion  then  prevalent  was  that  the  Lection  was 
 not  an  independent  part  of  the  Service  but  something  demanded, 
 and  depended  upon,  by  the  entire  Office.  One  idea  permeated  the 
 Service.  It  was  an  harmonious,  united  whole.  It  further  shows 
 the.se  Lections  to  be  the  appointed  texts  for  preaching. 
 
 Walafrid  StraboJ  (9th  Century)  believed  the  Pericopes  to 
 have  been  in  use  in  Apostolic  times,  but  this  is  chimerical.  Bin- 
 terim§  carries  them  back  to  the  3rd  Century  and  agrees  with 
 Bona||  that  the  system  was  completed  by  Jerome. 
 
 As  proof  for  this,  there  exists  a  "prologue"  reputed  to  have 
 come  from  the  hand  of  Jerome,^  which  is  generally  accepted  as 
 genuine,  and  which  deals  with  the  subject  of  the  Pericopes. 
 Further,  the  recensions  of  the  Comes,  which  are  all  second-hand 
 
 or  more 
 
 ** 
 
 Jerome  gives  two  reasons  in  his  prologue  for  calling  the  work 
 the  Cotnes.  First  it  carries  this  name  for  the  clerus  because  it  is 
 the  companion  and  viandiicator  through  the  year's  Offices.  Sec- 
 ond, it  is  to  be  the  guide  and  adviser  for  every  Service,  and  since 
 the  work  (as  it  is  believed)  consisted  simply  of  Epistle  and  Gos- 
 pel appointments  for  the  various  Days,  it  is  easy  to  see  what  is 
 meant.  He  adds  still  more  pointedly:  it  is  to  have  caput  causam- 
 que  ratio7iabileni,'\^  in  mentioning  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
 his  Lections;  and  instead  of  beginning  with  Septuagesima  or  the 
 Passion,  it  seemed  more  logical  to  begin  at  the  beginning.  So  he 
 breaks  with  custom  and  begins  with  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativity — 
 the  first  definite  recognition  of  an  order  or  sequence  in  the  Church 
 Year.  This  might  be  the  caput!  Now  the  causa  rationabilis — no 
 Pericope  was  to  be  loosely  connected  with  the  other.  They  were 
 to  be  as  members  of  each  other,  a  living  organism,  and  comprise 
 a  rounded-out  and   harmonious  system.     Further,    everywhere 
 
 *   AUGUSTI,  VI,    143.  t  Ibid.     Also  Nebk,   I,    II. 
 
 X  De  reb.  eccl.     c,  22.     For  text  see  AuGUSTi,  VI,  199. 
 
 §  BiNTERiM,  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  IV,  i,  228-230;  2,  323. 
 
 II  Bona,  de  reb.  Hi.  Ill,  c.  6,  p  624.     Augusti,  VI,  200. 
 
 IT  Kasckk,  Pcricopensystcm.  Appendix,  I,  cf.  p  259.         **  Ibid,  p  126  seqq. 
 
 tt  On  this  compare  Nebe,  I,  8  and  Rancke,  260  seq.    Nebe's  is  the  later  work. 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  33 
 
 there  was  to  appear  a  reasonable  basis  for  the  choice,  why  this 
 certain  Peri  cope  and  not  another  was  used.  He  observes  with 
 great  care,  the  ecclesiastical  Season.  He  tells  us  he  sought: 
 ^'si7ig2ilis  festivitatibus,  quod  aptum  vel  cornpetens  esset,  .  .  qucB  lec- 
 iis  prcesenti festivitati  coiigruaty  The  rule  he  laid  down  for  him- 
 self seems  to  have  been:  ''Omnia  secundum  tempus  esse  legenda.^' 
 
 This  is  all  the  more  of  interest  to  us,  if  the  recensions  of  the 
 Pericopes  are  connected  with  Jerome,  since  these  recensions  em- 
 body our  present  system  to  a  great  degree.* 
 
 We  have  quoted  these  simply  to  show  that  the  Ecclesiastical 
 Year  influenced  a  very  important  part  of  the  liturgical  Structure 
 to  no  slight  degree;  but  now  is  this  influence  felt  in  other  parts 
 of  the  Ofiice,  or  have  the  Pericopes  any  effect  on  the  remainder 
 of  the  Liturgy? 
 
 We  have  a  very  ancient  use  in  the  Lections  and  the  Lection- 
 ary,  and  a  central  and  weighty  point  of  the  Office  affected  by 
 them.  It  is  the  reading  of  God's  Word  to  His  Church.  It  is 
 put  upon  the  highest  plain  and  observed  orderly  and  systematic- 
 ally and  with  imposing  ceremonial.  We  have  the  evidences  of 
 their  influence  as  well.  The  Office  of  the  Word  is  no  weak,  un- 
 clothed, senseless  act.  From  the  Word  read  as  centre,  in  the 
 spirit  of  the  Day  or  Season,  the  Service  was  filled  out  and 
 equipped  with  its  other  variables.  Entroit  precedes  it;  Collect, 
 Gradual,  Responsories,  Sequences,  Tractates  surround  it;  other 
 variables  follow  it;  and  their  rich  and  apt  relation  are  not  only 
 proof  of  the  influence  but  of  the  harmon)'  in  the  Structure. 
 
 The  use  of  tl:e  Introit  is  carried  back  to  Pope  Coelestin 
 (422-432), f  who  is  supposed  to  have  appointed  the  one  hundred 
 and  fifty  Psalms  to  be  sung  on  the  various  days,  and  from  this 
 time  forward  they  assume  special  reference  to  the  Day.  Leo,  the 
 Great  (440),  adds  to  and  arranges  the  Psalmody.  In  583  Pope 
 Vigilius  writing  to  Bishop  Profuturus,  sending  the  Ordinary  of 
 the  Mass,  notifies  him  that  it  was  customary  to  add  to  it  in  vari- 
 ous -^X^Q^s  formularies  peculiar  to  the  solemnities  of  the  Day.X 
 
 With  reference  to  the  Collects  many  of  which  are  of  great 
 
 *  The  recensions  are  given  with  other  ledionary  antiquities  in  the  Appendices 
 to  Rancke's  Pericofensystevi.  See  also  Tables  in  Nebe,  I,  102  ond  cf.  WiEGAND, 
 Das  Homiliaritim  Karh  des  Grossen.      1897.     p   17  seq.  also  75. 
 
 t  Duchesne,  Christian  Wurskip,  p.  115.  Lib.  Pontif.  i,  230,  231. 
 RiETSCHEL,    357.  :J:  Duchesne,  p  97. 
 
S4  MEMOIRS, 
 
 antiquity,*  their  contents  is  the  greatest  proof  of  their  aptness  of 
 appointment.  Among  other  reasons  given  for  the  use  of  the 
 term  "Collect"  is  that  of  Pseudo-alcuin  who  gives  this:  ''colleda 
 didam  est  a  calledione,  eo  quod  ex  audoritate  Divinanini  Scriptiir- 
 arwn  sii  colleda  qiice  in  ccdesia  Icgantiir,'"  and  Daniel  agrees  with 
 this.f  They  are  variously  described  as  being  "composed  gener- 
 ally out  of  Epistle  and  Gospel  taken  together  or  with  some  refer- 
 ence to  them;"  as  "the  ver>'  quintessence  of  the  Gospel;"  as 
 "reflecting  the  spirit  of  Epistle  and  Gospel;"  and  the  weekly 
 Collect  is  looked  upon  as  "the  means  by  which  the  ordinary  Of- 
 fice is  continually  linked  to  the  Eucharistic."J 
 
 From  the  earliest  times  the  Lections  are  accompanied  by  the 
 singing  of  Psalms  and  verses. §  We  find  the  Hallelujah  and 
 Gradual  variously  applied;  sung  only  in  seasons  of  joy,  and  dis- 
 placed in  Advent  and  Lent  by  other  selections  (Tractates,  etc.). 
 Rupert  Tuitensis  speaking  of  the  Psalms  as  Respofisorii  says  they 
 derived  this  name  from  this:  "that  they  answered  to  the  Lessons, 
 being  sung  immediately  after  theni."|| 
 
 Then  with  Oflfertories,  Prefaces,  Post-Communions,  Benedic- 
 tions, all  varying  with  the  occasion,  there  is  an  abundance  of  ev- 
 idence of  an  influence  and  the  Service  made  to  express  it. 
 
 We  have  seen  that  many  homilies  remain,  based  on  the  lec- 
 tions, dating  from  the  early  centuries.  Leo  the  Great  leaves 
 many  more;  a  still  richer  supply  descends  from  Gregory;  and  we 
 cannot  refrain  from  mentioning  the  so-called  Augustinian  ''Ser- 
 moncs  de  Tempore,^ ^  many  of  which  are  not  Augustinian  but  of 
 later  date — (by  some  attributed  to  Cassarius  of  Aries);  but  who- 
 ever wrote  them  used  many  of  these  lessons  and  did  not  fail  at 
 times  to  bring  out  a  very  pointed  reference  as  to  their  connection 
 with  the  Day.  And  we  find  that  these  Pericopes  are  not  cast  off 
 with  the  passing  of  the  years,  but  on  the  other  hand  are  more 
 and  more  widely  adopted;  and  when  the  sermon  is  conspicuous 
 only  by  its  absence,  what  is  left  to  do  the  preaching  but  these 
 Propria  and  their  aptly  chosen  companions! 
 
 ♦  Probst,  Lit.  des  4/cn  Jahrh,  459,  carrying  some  of  the  prayers  of  the  Le- 
 onianum  back  to  the  time  of  Pope  Damasus  (366;. 
 t   Cod.  Lit.  I,   26. 
 
 X  Freeman,  Principles  of  Divine  Service^  i,  144-5;    1,367, 
 §  Cf.  the  Lit.  of  Chrys^  in  this  connection. 
 II  De  div.  off.  I,   15. 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  35 
 
 In  the  time  of  Charles,  the  Great,  we  enter  a  period  and 
 section  of  the  Church  that  brings  the  matter  closer  home  to  our- 
 selves. It  is  well  known  how  his  father  Pipin  and  he  dispos- 
 sessed the  old  Gallican  Order  and  introduced  the  Roman  through- 
 out their  domain,  and  showed  his  deep  interest  in  the  advancement 
 of  all  matters  relating  to  learning  and  the  Church.  He  orders 
 in  his  ''Capitulare  Aquisgranense"  c.  4,  in  the  year  801,  "?//  om- 
 nibus festis  et  diebus  dominicis  unus  quisque  sacerdos  evangeliuvt 
 Christe  pmdicet;"^  and  that  there  should  be  no  excuse  or  failure 
 to  comply  with  this  law,  he  provides  for  the  issuing  of  an 
 ^'Homiliar''-\  in  which  every  Pericope  is  covered  by  an  homily 
 from  one  of  the  Fathers;  and  later,  orders  them  translated  that 
 they  may  be  preached  in  the  linguam  riisticani  and  understood  by 
 the  people;  and  we  note  in  this  that  it  is  not  the  Section  that  is 
 chosen  but  the  homily  for  the  existing  I^ection,  and  that  again  in 
 many  cases  they  contain  special  reference  to  the  spirit  of  the  Day. 
 Allowing  this,  is  to  suppose  that  a  consideration  of  such  matters 
 guided  the  compiler,  Paul  the  Deacon;  nor  would  the  spurious- 
 ness  of  such  passages  militate  against  this,  since  it  would  show 
 that,  no  matter  whose  hand  had  written  them,  the  Day  was  con- 
 sidered. 
 
 From  our  own  liturgical  antiquities  we  know  that  the  Lections 
 ol  the  Hojniliar  oi  Charles  the  Great,  as  published  in  I^uther's 
 timet  is  the  basis  of  his  Kirchen  Pastille,  and  that  he  followed 
 their  Order  which  varied  in  some  respects  from  the  Roman;  which 
 fact  accounts  for  the  variations  in  the  two  systems  at  the  present 
 day.  However  there  is  a  strong  word  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the 
 Homiliar  in  this,  that  one  of  the  recensions  of  the  Comes,  that 
 known  as  the  Pamelian ,  hz.s^A  on  an  Sth-gth  Century  MS.  agrees 
 with  it  in  many  places;  and  this  recension  is  valued  very  highly 
 by  critics. 
 
 To  come  to  the  Reformation  Period.  Luther  retains  the  old 
 Lections  and  though  at  times,  he  expresses  himself  very  forcibly 
 against  certain  appointments,  never  makes  any  change.  We  also 
 read  very  frequently  in  the  introductions  to  his  Pastilles,  his  opin- 
 
 *  Quoted  by  Nebe,  I,    18. 
 
 t  Cf.  Ibid.  I,    19  seq. ;   and  x'o.  particular,  WiEGAND,  Das.  Horn.  K.  d  Gross. 
 
 t  Rancke,  132.  The  comparison  between  the  editions  of  the  Horn,  of  Lu- 
 ther's period  and  the  earliest  MSS.  is  made  by  Wiegand,  p  75,  showing  a  number 
 of  divergences. 
 
36  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ion  as  to  the  purpose  or  clioice  of  the  Lesson  for  the  particular 
 Day. 
 
 In  Vo7i  Ord.  Gottcsdienst  hi  d.  Gemeyne  (1523)*  he  writes: 
 "Des  Sonntags  aber  soil  solch  versamlung  fiir  die  gantzen  ge- 
 meine  geschen  .  .  .  und  da  selbst  wie  biss  her  gewonet  Messz 
 und  Vesper  singen,  als  dass  man  zu  beider  tzeytt  predige  der 
 gantzen  gemeine,  des  Morgens  d^zs  gewolich  evangelium,  des  Abents 
 die  Epistel."  The  Reformation  KOO  that  do  not  appoint  the 
 Gospel  for  Mess  Predigten  are  the  exceptions.  Kliefoth  gives 
 resumes  of  the  schedules  of  many  of  the  Orders,  and  this  is  the 
 case,  Gospel  always  appointed. f 
 
 Gerber's  History  of  Ceremonies  in  Saxony  (in  many  respects 
 a  very  remarkable  book  though  instructive)  states  "die  Texte  zu 
 unsern  Predigten  sind  die  verordneten   Evangelia  et  Episteln, 
 
 etc."t 
 
 Later  Orders  reconstructed  or  newly  composed,  while  leaving 
 the  matter  more  to  the  choice  of  the  clergy,  nevertheless  empha- 
 sized the  old  custom,  and  that  this  was  no  slight  influence,  the 
 many  works  and  Postilles  on  the  old  Epistles  and  Gospels  wit- 
 ness. 
 
 We  have  digressed,  but  with  the  desire  to  find,  if  possible, 
 some  evidence  of  the  appoifiUneyit  of  the  Gospel  as  preaching 
 text  for  the  Chief  Service,  before  we  endeavored  to  touch  upon 
 our  other  question:  "Is  there  any  influence  exerted  by  the  Gos- 
 pel: is  it  the  centre  of  any  harmony?" 
 
 A  quotation  from  Rupert  Tuitensis  is  pointed  here:  ''Sanc- 
 tum evajigelium  principale  est  onviium,  quce  dicuntur  ad  misses 
 officium,  sieut  enim  cafnit  preefninent  corpori  et  illi  cetera  7nembra 
 subserviunt,  sic  evangelium.  toti  officio  pramiyict  ut  omnia,  qucc  ibi 
 leguntur  vel  cammtur,  iyitellectuali  ratio7ie  illi  consentiunt. ' ' §  With 
 this  another  from  Nebe:  "Wie  kein  Puukt  unseres  Lebens  ein 
 Atom  ist  und  am  allerwenigsten  in  dem  inneren  Leben  des  Geistes 
 irgend  ein  Atomismus  angenommen  werden  darf ,  so  miissen  auch 
 die  Gottesdieuste,  in  welchen  das  geistliche  Leben  seine  Hohe- 
 punkte  erreicht,  ein  ander  die  Hand  bieten  und  ein  lebendiges 
 Ganze  bilden  Die  rothe  Faden,  welcher  alle  Gottcsdienst  Durch- 
 
 ♦  Daniel,  Cod.  Lit.  II,  79. 
 
 t  Kliefoth,  Lit.  Abhandlungen,  4,  (7)  475. 
 
 X  Gerber,  Kirchen   Ceremonien  in  Stuhsc-it.   (1732)  p  406,   §  9. 
 
 §   De  div.  off.  I,  37. 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE)    DAY.  37 
 
 lauft  und  dadurch  die  einzelnen  Perikopen  zu  einem  Systeme  an 
 eniander  reiht  mid  die  heiligen  Feiertage  zu  einen  heiligen  Cy- 
 klus  vereinight,  ist  die  Idee  des  Kirchenjahres.  Die  Idee  is  der 
 regulative  Faktor  der  Perikopen;' '''^^  and  if  so  and  the  sermons 
 are  based  on  them,  the  least  that  could  be  expected  would  be, 
 that  they  should  show  some  little  of  the  spirit  of  the  Day. 
 
 For  such  a  conception  of  the  Year  and  its  Lessons  we  need 
 not  come  to  modern  times.  Such  commentators  on  the  Mass  as 
 Sicard  of  Cremona,  Amalarius,  the  Pseudo-alcuin,  Berno  v. 
 Reichenau,  Micrologus  and  Durandus  all  claim  it  and  in  connec- 
 tion with  various  Days  and  Seasons  show  it,t  and  draw  on  all  the 
 Propria^  especially  the  Collect,  for  this  purpose.  Rancke,  to  sat- 
 isfy himself  as  to  the  truth  or  falseness  of  the  idea  of  an  harmony 
 in  the  Propria,  in  the  third  Part  of  his  work  on  the  Pericopensys- 
 iem  (p  264  seq.)  takes  up  one  Day  after  another  examining  the 
 Propria  in  detail,  comparing  Introits,  Antiphons  and  Verses  with 
 Collect  and  Lections  and  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  in  many 
 cases  a  very  strong  harmony  exists  and  that  the  Propria  and  va- 
 riables were  chosen  to  this  end.  The  Lenten  Season  lends  itself 
 to  this  very  readily  (p  332  seq.)  as  do  all  Festival  Periods;  but  in 
 the  long  Trinity  Season  (with  but  few  exceptions  when  an  im- 
 portant Saint's  Day  is  met  or  at  the  Embers)  he  finds  very  faint 
 traces.  Schoberlein  however  finds  this  latter  cycle  very  pointed 
 and  complete,;};  and  covers  the  entire  Year  in  this  manner. 
 
 Other  moderns  have  applied  the  expression  of  this  directly 
 to  the  work  of  the  Sermon.  Among  them  are  Lisco,  Strauss, 
 Alt,  Matthaus,  Werner,  Nebe,  Schoner.§  There  are  a  number 
 of  works  in  Knglish,  though  not  of  our  Church,  which,  while  not 
 
 *  Nebe,  I,  31. 
 
 t  Sicard  of  Cremona,  Miiralf,  IV.  M.  S.  L.  213,  191.  Text  in  Rietschel, 
 217,  Amalarius,  in  connection  with  Advent  and  the  Nativity,  de  ord.  antiph.  c  76. 
 M.  S.  L.  105,  1312.  Rietschel,  214,  in  his  de  off.  ecd.  I,  37,  speaking  of  the 
 Lilaneia  Motor  Amalarius  gives  the  reasons  for  its  celebration  and  bases  them  up- 
 on the  Lections  and  Prayers  of  the  Mass.  On  the  Sabbat,  vacat.  I,  9.  Alcuin,  on 
 Septuagesima,  de  div.  off',  c  9;  also  Amalarius,  de  eccl.  off.  I,  i.  Ven.  Bedb 
 sees  a  deep  purpose  underlying  the  number  and  choice  of  the  Lections  for  the 
 Ember  Days,  quoted  by  Rancke  at  length,  p  273,  notes.  Amalarius,  de  eccl.  off. 
 II,  3,  also.  Rancke,  274,  n.  3.  Dukandus,  J\aiionale,  IV,  follows  Sicard  of 
 Cremona. 
 
 X  Schoeberlein,   Lit.  Aitsbau.  295  seq. 
 
 §  Lisco,  Kircheujahr.  Strauss,  D.  Evan.  Kirchenjahr.  Alt,  Chrhtlicken 
 Cult  us,  V.   II.     Matthaeus,  D.  Evan.  Perikopen  d.  Christlichen  Kirchjs.     Wer- 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 treating  the  Church  Year  thematically,  consider  the  Lections  and 
 Collect  in  the  light  of  their  harmony.* 
 
 We  have  tried  to  show  through  the  citation  of  these  various 
 antiquities,  that  the  development  of  the  Christian  Cultus  tends  to 
 an  united  and  harmonious  whole,  the  mode  adopted  to  express 
 the  Church's  worship.  Then,  that  this  Church  in  her  life  en- 
 deavored to  live  so  that  in  her  Year  she  would  set  before  the  eyes 
 of  her  children,  all  the  Facts  and  Events  in  the  Work  of  Salva- 
 tion; not  in  the  fonn  of  a  dramatic  Service,  as  that  of  the  Greek 
 Church,  but  in  detail  living  close  to  the  Days  and  their  memor>-; 
 and  gathering  therefrom  their  import,  their  lessons,  anew.  Then 
 the  endeavor  was  to  show  the  influence  of  one  on  the  other,  and 
 how  it  seemed  to  centralize  and  crystallize  itself  in  the  Lections; 
 the  Lections  marking  the  Day  and  the  Days  forming  the  structure 
 of  the  Year,  the  Year  that  brings  out  the  Facts  of  the  Lord's 
 work  for  the  Church  and  the  Church's  life  in  the  Lord;  then  the 
 Lessons  would  be  the  connection  between  the  Service  and  the  Year, 
 and  with  the  other  variables  dependent  upon  the  Lessons  for  their 
 choice  or  composition,  we  have  a  definite,  purposeful  relation  es- 
 tablished. Now  if  these  Lections  are  what  they  seem  to  be,  not 
 weak  but  of  such  tremendous  import;  if  they  have  a  purpose  in 
 view  and  are  not  placed  there  simply  because  Scripture  must  be 
 read  and  these  passages  seem  as  good  as  others,  but  are  the  litur- 
 gical lessons;  is  the  Church  faithful  that  does  not  attempt  to  re- 
 produce this  experience  and  gain  the  riches  they  hold,  and  live 
 her  life  in  their  light,  not  an  emptj'  and  weak  one,  but  one  in- 
 spired by  a  Year's  harmony  and  fullness  of  God  and  His  work 
 and  our  salvation?  And  of  the  many  places  where  this  may  be, 
 and  is,  shown;  what  is  better  adapted  to  express  this  than  the 
 Sermon,  where  the  entire  harmony  may  be  brought  out?  Here  is 
 the  liturgical  Gospel,  set  on  such  a  Day  of  such  a  Season.  Sure- 
 ly that  Day  or  Season  brings  its  emotions.     We  do  not  experience 
 
 NER,  D.  Logik.  d.  Christlichen  Kirchjs.  ScHOBNER,  Das.  Evan,  Kirchenjahr. 
 Cf.  Agenda  fuer  d.  Evan.  Luth.  Gemeinden  in  russicken  Reiche,  (1898)  p.  60,  for 
 "group  Introits"  arranged  thematically  for  Trinity  Season.  Cf.  Nebe,  Introduction 
 to  Ev.  reri. 
 
 *  DOANE,  Mosaics  or  Harmony  of  Col.  Ep.  and  Cos.  Kyle,  The  Collects, 
 where  in  the  introduction  to  each  he  shows  the  thought  running  through  the  Propria. 
 CoxE  AND  Whitehead,  Thoughts  on  the  Service.  Also  commentators  on  the  Book 
 cf  Common  Prayer,  eg.  Proctor;  Evan.  Daniell,  cf.  the  sections  on  "Col- 
 lects," "Epistles  and  Gospels." 
 
PREACHING    AND    THE    DAY.  39 
 
 the  joy  of  the  Nativity  in  the  Passion  Season;  and  how  quickly 
 the  deep  thoughts  and  feelings  of  that  Period  give  place  to  the 
 Easter  spirit.  In  such  atmosphere  that  Lesson  stands,  and  about 
 it,  its  Introit  with  its  announcement  and  answer,  its  Collect  with 
 its  crystallized  petition,  its  Responses,  its  Hymns,  etc.,  all  of 
 which  depend  tipon  it.  Then  should  the  Sermon  be  a  stranger 
 to  it?  What  better  announcement  of  the  Fact  than  the  Divine 
 Word?  What  better  comment  upon  it  than  Word  illuminating 
 Word  (Introit);  than  Word  echoing  Word  (Verses,  etc.)?  What 
 better  application  of  it  than  in  the  use  of  the  Prayer?  The  Ser- 
 mon is  not  an  independent  part  of  the  Service,  but  has  its  logical 
 place;  and  the  unfolding  of  the  Service  demands  its  presence.  It 
 is  part  and  parcel  of  the  Structure,  part  of  its  harmony,  which 
 would  be  no  more  unbroken  without  it  than  with  it,  treating 
 something  at  odds  with  the  rest  of  the  Service. 
 
 If  the  Church  would  live  her  Year,  bring  it  home  to  her 
 children,  there  is  no  half-way  position,  she  must  live  it  to  the 
 full.  She  must  live  it  as  she  has  it  with  everything  capable  of 
 expressing  it  in  active  service. 
 
 Preaching  and  the  Day?  Preach  the  Day  and  all  that  illu- 
 minates it,  and  Christ  will  be  preached  for  He  is  Centre  of  it  all. 
 The  Fathers  did  not  neglect  Him  when  the  Service  was  founded, 
 nor  when  the  Lections  were  chosen,  nor  fail  to  show  His  Church 
 daily,  that  "of  Him  and  through  Him  and  unto  Him  are  all 
 things. "      "  To  Him  be  the  glory  forever !     Amen ! ' ' 
 
 Paul  Zeller  Strodach. 
 
 Easion,  Pa. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE  APOSTOLIC   AGE. 
 
 The  endeavor  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  worship  of  the  first 
 Christians  is  one  which  has  often  been  made,  with  but  indifferent 
 success,  for  all  the  difiiculties  which  beset  the  path  of  the  histo- 
 rian of  the  Apostolic  Age  show  themselves  in  double  measure 
 when  we  come  to  the  study  of  one  of  the  small  problems  that  are 
 bound  up  with  the  larger  ones.  Not  the  smallest  of  these  diffi- 
 culties is  the  inability  of  the  investigator  to  divorce  himself  from 
 preconceived  ideas  of  what  Christian  worship  in  the  Apostolic 
 Age  ought  to  have  been.  When  we  find  that  our  sources  are  of 
 the  scantiest,  that  the  author  of  the  book  of  Acts  is  more  intent 
 upon  preserving  the  facts  which  connect  with  the  growth  of  the 
 Church  and  the  means  by  which  that  growth  was  brought  about, 
 than  with  the  details  of  the  life  within  the  communities  that  arose 
 in  the  Roman  Empire  as  a  result  of  the  preaching  of  the  new 
 faith;  that  St.  Paul  was  more  concerned  in  preventing  the  inroads 
 of  false  doctrine  and  false  moral  ideas  among  his  converts  than 
 with  the  determination  of  the  forms  of  their  congregational  life; 
 and  that  for  all  information  on  such  subjects  as  that  which  is  the 
 subject  of  the  present  investigation  we  are  dependent  upon  occa- 
 sional, often  indirect,  and  seldom  more  than  casual  allusions  in 
 the  New  Testament,  it  becomes  evident  at  once  that  the  tendency 
 of  the  writer  to  find  one  form  of  worship  or  another  in  these 
 earliest  days  will  have  the  widest  scope,  and  that  the  most  diver- 
 gent conclusions  can  be  given  at  least  a  semblance  of  probability. 
 We  need  not  bring  forward  as  examples  the  contrast  between  the 
 Roman  Catholic  and  Anglican  authorities,  who  seek  in  every- 
 thing to  justify  later  practices  by  Apostolic  usage,  and  the  evan- 
 gelical school,  whose  attempt  is  to  prove  that  the  Services  of  the 
 Reformation  time  in  their  own  Churches  conformed  to  Apostolic 
 precedent,  nor  between  both  of  these  and  the  modern  destructive 
 
 (xH) 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 critics  who  would  relegate  not  Christian  worship  itself,  but  every 
 fonn  of  Christian  worship  to  a  period  subsequent  to  the  Apostolic 
 Age;  for  the  same  kind  of  a  contrast  is  observable  even  between 
 men  who  occupy  essentially  the  same  dogmatical  ground,  like 
 Th.  Harnack*  and  Kliefoth.f  To  criticise  the  results  of  these 
 researches  is,  however,  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper,  except  in 
 so  far  as  it  may  be  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject 
 ■which  is  before  us. 
 
 The  sources  with  which  we  have  here  to  deal  are,  in  the 
 main,  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  though  illustrative 
 matter  and  corroborative  evidence  for  some  of  the  results  obtained 
 therefrom  may  legitimately  be  drawn  from  the  earliest  writing  of 
 the  post-Apostolic  period.  The  congregations  concerning  which 
 we  have  the  fullest  accounts  in  the  New  Testament  are  those  at 
 Jerusalem  prior  to  the  death  of  James,  and  that  at  Corinth  about 
 twenty  years  later. |  Our  information  concerning  the  first  of 
 these  Churches  is  derived  from  the  early  chapters  of  the  book  of 
 Acts;  concerning  the  second,  from  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 
 In  both  we  find  definite  references  to  the  congregational  worship, 
 which  seems  in  the  two  congregations  to  bear  a  very  different 
 character.  The  question  therefore  arises  at  once — Are  we  to  re- 
 gard the  procedure  in  these  two  instances  as  tj'pes,  the  one  of  the 
 Jewish-Christian,  the  other  of  the  Gentile-Christian  worship,  and 
 collate  with  the  first  the  cultic  ideas  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
 brews and  the  Epistle  of  James,  with  the  other  the  traces  of  litur- 
 gical usage  which  we  find  here  and  there  in  other  Pauline  letters, 
 or  are  we  to  consider  their  relationship  as  one  of  antecedent  and 
 consequent  and  conceive  them  as  diftering  as  earlier  and  later 
 forms  of  the  same  services?  The  former  is  the  opinion  of  Th. 
 Harnack,  the  latter  that  of  Kliefoth.  The  present  writer  would 
 endorse  neither  view  wholly.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
 service  of  which  we  can  form  a  fairly  consistent  picture  from 
 I  Cor.  xi-xiv,  was  typical  for  the  Pauline  congregations  and 
 eventually  for  the   Church   in  the   Roman   Empire;   the  setting 
 
 *  Th.  Harnack,  Det-  Gemrindegottesdien!.t  im  apostolischen  uiui  nachnposto- 
 lischen  Zeitalter,     Dorpat.      1854- 
 
 t  Kliefoth,  Ursprunglic/ie  Gotltsdienslordnuug.  Schwerin,  1S5S.  {I.ititr' 
 gische  Abhandl.    i  -5 . ) 
 
 X  For  an  admirable  presentation  of  conditions  in  the  latter  congregation,  v. 
 DOBSCHUETZ,  Die  Urchristlichen  Gemeinden.      Leipzig.      1 902.     pp.    1 7-64. 
 
CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    APOSTOLIC    AGE.  43 
 
 which  it  gives  us  for  such  passages  as  Eph.  iii,  i6  and  Col.  iii, 
 1 6,  as  well  as  the  correspondeuce  of  its  elements  with  what  we 
 find  in  the  Didache  and  the  epistle  of  Pliny,  would  seem  to  es- 
 tablish this  fact  beyond  dispute.  Neither  can  it  be  denied  that 
 the  service  in  Corinth  must  have  had  some  things  in  common 
 with  the  service  in  Jerusalem,  or  that  Jewish  usages  were  influ- 
 ential in  the  forms  of  each.  On  the  other  hand  the  worship  of 
 the  Corinthian  Church  contains  elements  that  could  not  have  ex- 
 isted in  Jerusalem  and  other  elements  which  rest  upon  conceptions 
 Pauline  in  their  origin  and  never,  so  far  as  we  know,  current  in 
 the  congregation  there.  It  is  therefore  fair  to  treat  these  two 
 forms  of  Christian  worship  as  types  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
 tian congregations,  if  we  also  bear  in  mind  that  the  terms  Jewish 
 and  Gentile  Christian  stand  simply  for  phases  of  development, 
 and  are  mutually  exclusive  only  in  their  extreme  expressions — in 
 Ebionism  and  Gnosticism. 
 
 Coming  more  directly  to  the  subject  in  hand  it  is  necessary, 
 first  of  all  to  determine  what  it  was  that  transpired  in  the  Ser- 
 vices at  Jerusalem  and  at  Corinth.  We  begin  naturally  with  the 
 Services  in  Jerusalem. 
 
 A.      THE   CHURCH   IN  JERUSALEM. 
 
 In  Acts  ii,  46  we  have  our  first  clear  reference  to  stated  as- 
 semblies of  Christians  and  that  verse  forms  the  starting-point  for 
 a  discussion  of  the  worship  of  this  congregation.  It  reads  as  fol- 
 lows:— *"And  day  by  day,  continuing  stedfastly  with  one  accord 
 in  the  Temple,  and  breaking  bread  at  home,  they  did  take  their 
 food  with  gladness  and  singleness  of  heart."  From  this  it  is 
 claimed  that  there  were  in  Jerusalem  two  distinct  assemblies  for 
 worship,  and  that  these  assemblies  were  held  daily. f  The  first 
 of  them  was  in  the  Temple,  where  they  took  part  in  the  service, 
 attending  especially  on  the  Scripture  readings  and  prayers,  but 
 not  on  the  sacrifices,  which  they  conceived  to  be  done  away  in 
 Christ.  The  other  was  held  at  the  house  of  one  or  another  of 
 the  disciples.     At  this  first  service  they  were  present  in  a  body 
 
 *  Quotations  are  from  the  Revised  English  Version. 
 
 t  Kliefoth,  op.  cit.  p.  237  ff  adduces  grounds  for  the  belief  that  of  these  as- 
 semblies only  one  was  held  daily,  the  other  once  a  week,  on  Sunday,  but  his  posi- 
 tion seems  to  be  untenable.  The  theory  advanced  by  Drews,  PRE  V,  560  ff  and 
 RiETSCHEL,  Liturgik,  I,  p.  232,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  was  instituted  not  as  a 
 Passover  meal,  but  a  Sabbath  meal  would  lend  support  to  this  view. 
 
44  MEMOIRS. 
 
 (ofxoOvfiaSov)  and  must  have  distinguished  themselves  from  the 
 other  attendants  on  the  service  by  some  pecuHarities  of  worship. 
 Moreover  we  are  told  expressly  (Acts  v,  42,  comp.  v,  20  and  iii, 
 II  ff)  that  "every  day  in  the  Temple  and  at  home,  they  ceased 
 not  to  preach  and  to  teach  Jesus  as  the  Christ."  The  question 
 now  is: — Were  these  gatherings  in  the  Temple  really  Christian 
 services  or  were  they  something  else,  the  evidence  perhaps  that 
 the  first  Christians  regarded  themselves  still  as  Jews?  Harnack 
 and  Kliefoth  have  expressed  the  former  opinion,  and  of  the  two 
 Harnack  is  the  more  decided.  He  maintains  that  they  were  pub- 
 lic missionary  services,  concerned  with  prayer  and  the  teaching 
 of  the  Word.  If  the  claim  could  be  substantiated  it  would  give 
 us  an  early  and  interesting  analogy  to  the  "service  for  edifica- 
 tion" in  Corinth,  the  precursor  of  the  later  Mi ssa  Catechumeiior- 
 uniy  but  unfortunately  this  very  fact  seems  to  have  led  the  histo- 
 rian astray.  The  o/xo^uynaSdv  alone  proves  nothing,  and  though 
 the  passages  quoted  make  it  clear  that  the  Christians  did  frequent 
 the  Temple,  and  used  it,  as  Christ  had  used  it,  for  a  place  of  in- 
 struction, thus  making  it  a  kind  of  missionary  center,  that  fact 
 dare  not  be  pressed  so  far,  in  the  absence  of  all  definite  proof,  as 
 to  make  of  the  devotions  of  those  faithful  Jews,  who  now  believed 
 that  the  Messiah  was  really  come,  a  distinctly'  Christian  service. 
 It  is,  on  the  contrary  to  the  other  assembly,  that  which  met 
 "from  house  to  house"  that  we  must  look  for  the  distinctly 
 Christian  practices. 
 
 "They  broke  bread  at  home."  This  was  the  assembly  at 
 which  presumably  none  but  Christians  were  present,  in  which  the 
 idea  of  the  community  (Kotvwvia)  of  the  brethren  found  its  highest 
 expression.  The  Greek  does  not  suggest  that  this  meeting  was 
 always  held  in  one  house,  or  that  all  the  members  were  present 
 together,  or  that  each  Christian  family  had  its  own  daily  assem- 
 bly for  the  breaking  of  bread.  It  is  to  be  understood  as  meaning 
 that  the  members  of  the  Church  assembled  in  as  many  private 
 houses  as  were  necessary  to  accommodate  them  and  there  partook 
 together  of  a  common  meal.  As  to  the  procedure  which  was  fol- 
 lowed in  these  assemblages  we  are  left  practically  in  ignorance. 
 It  is  true  that  most  historians'^^  see  in  the  passage  Acts  ii,  42,  an 
 
 *  Among  others  Harnack,  /.  c ;  Kliefoth,  op.  cit.\  Lechler,  ApostoUslus 
 Zeitalter,  pp.  284 ff.  Cf.  also  Karl  Weizsaecker,  Apost.  Age^  (Eng.  Trans.)  II, 
 p.  247. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE  APOSTOIvIC   AGE.  45 
 
 indication  of  what  transpired  there.  The  verse  reads  thus: — 
 "And  they  continued  stedfastly  in  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles 
 and  in  fellowship  and  in  the  breaking  of  bread  and  in  the 
 prayers."  Here  some  earlier  writers  of  the  last  century  like 
 Mosheim  and  Olshausen  would  find  a  complete  liturgical  order. 
 The  "teaching  of  the  Apostles"  was  the  preaching  of  the  Word, 
 and  included  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  es- 
 pecially the  prophets;  the  /cotvwvta  refers  to  the  offerings  later 
 known  as  "collections"  (i  Cor.  xvi,  i,  2),*  or  still  later  as 
 "oblations;"  the  "breaking  of  bread"  was  the  celebration  of  the 
 I^ord's  Supper,  and  the  whole  procedure  was  accompanied  and 
 closed  with  prayer.  It  is  needless  to  point  out  that  such  an  in- 
 terpretation does  violence  to  the  whole  context  in  which  the  pas- 
 sage stands.  What  the  writer  is  describing — and  the  description 
 is  highly  graphic — is  the  spirit  that  pervaded  this  first  congrega- 
 tion of  Christian  believers  and  the  way  in  which  that  spirit  found 
 expression.  That  one  form  of  that  expression  would  inevitably 
 be  "liturgical,"  i.  e.,  would  connect  with  the  worship  in  which 
 all  the  believers  participated,  is  undeniable,  but  the  terms  here 
 used  are  of  the  widest  interpretation  and  only  two  of  them — 
 breaking  of  bread  and  prayers — can  apply  directly  to  the  worship 
 of  the  Church.  Nor  are  we  justified  in  confining  the  meaning  of 
 the  /cAacris  Tov  aprov  to  the  formal  celebration  of  the  I,ord's  Supper. 
 To  be  sure  it  has  that  meaning  in  the  Pauline  Epistles  (i  Cor.  x, 
 16;  xi,  24),  but  even  then  and  until  the  first  quarter  of  the  II 
 Century  the  Lord's  Supper  was  invariably  connected  with  a  com- 
 mon meal  of  the  congregation, f  and  we  cannot  go  far  astray  in 
 regarding  the  breaking  of  bread  here  mentioned  as  standing  for 
 the  whole  of  the  common  meal.  The  idea  of  the  community  of 
 the  brethren  was  overwhelmingly  strong  in  these  first  Christians, 
 and  the  common  meal  was  the  symbol  and  assertion  of  that  idea. 
 No  less  strong  was  their  conviction  that  in  this  intimate  fellow- 
 ship with  one  another  they  were  in  the  enjoyment  of  an  equally 
 intimate  fellowship  with  their  risen  Lord.  Jesus  had  associated 
 with  them  as  one  family.  He  had  compared  the  blessings  of  the 
 Kingdom  of  Heaven  with  the  familiar  intercourse  of  a  family 
 meal,  more  than  once  after  His  Resurrection  He  had  made  Him- 
 self known  to  them  as  the}'^  sat  at  meat,  and  had  they  not  His 
 
 *  So  also  Ki.iEFOTH,  0/'.  cii, 
 t  The  Agape— n^xaft  first  found  in  Jude  12. 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 promise: — "Where  two  or  three  are  gathered  together  in  My 
 Name,  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them?"  Even  without  the  in- 
 stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper  they  would  have  had  sufficient 
 motive  for  asseml)ling  to  the  Vjreaking  of  bread.  But  that  the 
 Lord's  Supper  was  actually  celebrated  iu  these  assemblies  there 
 can  be  no  doubt,  though  we  cannot  be  sure  just  how  it  was  re- 
 garded. In  his  Gotksdiaist  im  ap.  Zciia/ier,  Th.  Harnack  main- 
 tains that  the  Christian  community  saw  in  it  "a  new  common 
 service  of  sacrifice  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  for  it  consisted  essen- 
 tially in  the  daily  repeated,  sacramental  celebration  of  the  single 
 complete  and  eternally  valid  sacrificial  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
 Crucified,  and  Risen  One,  by  which  every  expiatory  sacrifice  is 
 abolished;  and  at  the  same  time  a  spiritual  sacrifice  of  faith  and 
 confession,  a  sacrifice  of  prayer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving  on  the 
 part  of  the  congregation."  To  sustain  this  view  he  quotes  the 
 Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  call  atten- 
 tion to  the  fundamental  fallac}^  of  an  appeal  to  a  writing  so  much 
 later  in  date  than  the  primitive  Church  whose  views  he  is  attempt- 
 ing to  describe,  and  to  point  out  the  fact  that  for  such  a  concep- 
 tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  there  is,  in  the  only  source  we  have  for 
 this  period,  not  a  shred  of  evidence.*  On  the  contrary  all  the 
 evidence  seems  to  contradict  the  idea  that  the  death  of  Christ  was 
 at  this  time  regarded  as  a  sacrifice  at  all,  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
 could,  therefore,  be  neither  a  repetition  of  that  sacrifice  nor  a 
 substitute  for  the  Temple  sacrifices.  When  Peter  and  Stephen 
 refer  to  the  death  of  Christ  (Acts  ii,  23;  iii,  13  ff;  vii,  52)  they 
 use  it  only  as  an  argument  to  show  the  guilt  of  the  Jews  in  the 
 crucifixion  of  Him  in  Whom  prophecy  was  fulfilled,  and  the  res- 
 urrection was  to  them  chiefly  a  vindication  of  Christ's  Messianic 
 claims.  When  Stephen  first  raised  the  question  of  the  necessity 
 of  the  Temple  to  the  life  of  true  religion  his  words  were  the  sig- 
 nal for  the  beginning  of  a  persecution  that  was  the  real  starting- 
 point  for  the  sharp  distinction  between  Christian  and  Jew.  His 
 opinions  were  the  first-fruits  of  reflection  upon  the  meaning  of 
 the  life  of  Christ.  Further  reflection,  under  the  guidance  of 
 Christ's  Spirit,  led  to  the  conviction  that  the  Old  Covenant  had 
 
 •  The  analogy  of  the  death  of  Christ  to  the  O.  T.  sacrifices  found  in  Hebrews 
 is  the  application  of  the  Pauline  idea  of  the  Atonement.  The  view  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  as  a  repetition  of  that  sacrifice  is  the  root  of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the  Mass, 
 and  has  no  Scriptural  warrant. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN   THS   APOSTOLIC    AGE.  47 
 
 passed  away,  but  in  these  earliest  days,  when  men  were  still  un- 
 der the  influence  of  vivid  impressions  of  great  events,  the  full 
 meaning  of  those  events  had  not  dawned  upon  them,  was  not  ful- 
 ly to  dawn  until  Paul  should  carry  his  premises  to  their  conclu- 
 sion, and  even  then  they  involved  him  in  the  charge  of  preaching 
 false  doctrine.  The  most  that  we  can  say  therefore  concerning 
 the  meaning  that  attached  to  the  breaking  of  bread  is  that  it  was 
 I,  an  expression  of  the  community  {kolvwvul)  of  the  believers;  2, 
 a  religious  act  in  which  those  who  participated  entered  into  a 
 real  communion  with  the  Risen  Saviour;  3,  the  Lord's  Supper, 
 which  formed  its  culmination,  was  a  memorial  of  the  death  of 
 Christ,  observed  according  to  His  command,  "This  do  in  remem- 
 brance of  Me."* 
 
 The  fact  that  our  sources  give  us  no  hint  of  what  transpired 
 at  these  meetings  for  the  breaking  of  bread  would  seem  further 
 to  indicate  that  no  great  importance  attached  to  the  following  of 
 any  prescribed  order,  though  the  daily  repetition  of  the  common 
 meal  would  naturally  fix  an  order  of  some  kind  at  a  very  early 
 period.  The  elements  of  the  service  must  have  been,  however, 
 prayer,  the  singing  of  one  or  more  hymns  or  Psalms,  and,  for  the 
 lyord's  Supper,  the  repetition  of  some  one  of  the  forms  of  the 
 Words  of  Institution.!  To  these  Kliefoth  adds,  on  the  basis  of 
 Acts  V,  42,  with  which  compare  Acts  vi,  2-4,  preaching  by  the 
 Apostles,  and  the  bringing  of  offerings  for  the  poor  (Acts  iv,  32- 
 v,  6).  We  have  no  evidence  to  show  when  these  meetings  were 
 held  nor  is  there  a  trace  of  any  special  observance  of  Sunday 
 though  it  would  naturally  have  arisen  in  this  time. 
 
 There  remain  three  other  passages  to  be  noticed  before  we 
 go  on  to  the  discussion  of  the  service  as  we  find  it  in  Corinth, 
 They  are  Acts  i,  15;  ii,  1-4;  iv,  23 ff.  The  first  refers  to  the  as- 
 sembly in  which  Matthias  was  chosen  to  fill  up  the  number  of  the 
 Twelve,  the  second  to  the  gathering  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  the 
 third  to  the  company  to  which  Peter  and  John  returned  after 
 their  examination  before  the  rulers.  Thej^  have  sometimes  been 
 taken  to  be  assemblies  for  purposes  of  prayer;  we  would  rather 
 regard  them  as  the  ordinary  private  meetings  of  the  congregation. 
 For  the  purposes  of  our  investigation  the  third  of  them,  that  of 
 Acts  iv,  23  ff,  is  of  special  interest  because  of  the  prayer  of  the 
 
 *  See  Explanatory  Note  at  the  end  of  this  article, 
 t  On  this  point,  however,  see  below  p.  62. 
 
48  MEMOIRS. 
 
 congregation  wliich  has  been  there  preserved.  We  are  told  that 
 on  the  return  of  Peter  and  John  "they  lifted  up  their  voice  with 
 one  accord  to  God"  in  the  prayer  that  then  follows.  Commenta- 
 tors agree  that  this  prayer  came  to  Luke  from  one  of  the  earliest 
 sources  which  he  used.  Even  if  we  admit,  however,  with  Von 
 der  Goltz,  that  this  prayer  is  a  literary  composition  of  Luke  him- 
 self, it  would  still  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  us  as  a  type  of  the 
 earliest  prayers  of  the  Church.  It  is  remarkable  rather  for  its 
 form  than  its  content.  The  latter  is  what  we  might  expect  from 
 the  circumstances  in  which  it  was  offered,  the  former  is  that  of 
 the  earliest  liturgical  prayers  that  have  come  down  to  us  from 
 the  beginning  of  the  post-Apostolic  age.  It  begins  with  an  ad- 
 dress to  God  under  the  name  Sto-Trorr^s,''^  used  of  God  only  in  this 
 place,  in  Luke  ii,  29  and  Rev.  vi,  10;  in  the  first  instance  clearly 
 a  liturgical  use,  in  the  second  possibly  so.  The  address  is  then 
 enlarged  by  an  ascription  of  power  and  the  citation  of  a  Psalm 
 which  applies  to  the  special  circumstances  in  which  the  congre- 
 gation now  finds  itself.  This  is  followed  by  a  brief  petition,  and 
 the  prayer  then  ends  abruptly  without  doxology.  The  form,  ex- 
 cept for  the  absence  of  the  doxology,  is  almost  identical  with  the 
 Collect  of  the  Catholic  period.  If  the  words  "they  lifted  up  their 
 voice  with  one  accord"  are  to  be  taken  literally  we  should  be 
 forced  to  one  of  two  conclusions.  Either  the  congregation  was 
 moved  by  a  special  inspiration  to  use  the  same  words  at  the  same 
 time,  or,  the  more  natural  supposition,  this  was  a  fixed  prayer, 
 known  to  the  whole  congregation  and  used  regularly  in  its  stated 
 assemblies,  which  they  now  repeat  in  unison  from  memory.  The 
 present  writer  is  not  inclined  to  push  the  literal  interpretation 
 quite  so  far,  and  prefers  to  see  in  this  prayer  the  free  utterance 
 of  one  of  the  members,  praying  in  the  name  of  the  congregation; 
 but  even  so  the  passage  is  highly  significant,  for  it  furnishes  us 
 with  an  example  of  the  earliest  form  which  the  commom  prayer 
 of  the  Church  assumed,  derived,  possibly,  from  the  Jewish  syna- 
 gogal  prayer,  t  and  which  has  come  down  to  us  as  a  type  in  the 
 Collects  of  the  Church. 
 
 Our  survey  of  the  sources  has,  therefore,  brought  us  only 
 the  following  positive  results,     i .     There  was  a  daily  assembly 
 
 *  The  regular  address  in  the  early  Greek  Liturgies. 
 
 t  A  comparison  with  the  Shemonch  Esrdi  (for  which  see  SCHUERKR,  Hist,  of 
 the  Jews,  Eng.  Trans.  Div.  II,  Vol.  II,  p.  85  f )  is  instructive. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE  APOSTOLIC   AGE.  49 
 
 of  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem.  2.  This  assembly  was  held  pri- 
 vately. 3.  It  was  the  occasion  of  a  common  meal.  4.  The 
 meal  was  accompanied  by  prayer,  hymns,  preaching  or  teaching 
 and  the  celebration,  in  some  form,  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  5.  It 
 was  probably  the  time  when  the  offerings  for  the  poor  were  made. 
 6.  We  have  also  found  a  common  prayer  of  the  congregation 
 dating  from  this  time. 
 
 B.      THE   LATER   DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  GENTILE  CHURCHES. 
 
 It  is  to  the  Pauline  Epistles  that  we  are  indebted  for  our  first 
 tolerably  clear  idea  of  a  Christian  service,  and  our  chief  source  of 
 information  is  I  Cor.  xi,  i;  xiv,  40.  Other  passages  in  the  New 
 Testament  books,  especially  in  the  Revelation,  as  well  as  in  the 
 Didache  and  other  post- Apostolic  writings  may  be  used  to  com- 
 plete the  picture. 
 
 I,  The  day  of  assembly  is  no  longer  every  day,  as  in  Jeru- 
 salem, but  Sunday.  Doubtless  there  were  congregations  in  which 
 the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and  perhaps  other  Jewish  festivals  were  ob- 
 served,* but  their  observance  was  regarded  as  essential  only  by 
 the  Judaizing  opponents  of  Paul.  Definite  statements  as  to  the 
 observance  of  Sunday  are  infrequent  until  a  comparatively  late 
 time,  but  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  custom  was 
 not  only  very  old  but  very  general. f  In  I  Cor.  xvi,  i,  2  Paul 
 charges  the  Corinthians  to  lay  by  their  offerings  *  'on  the  first  day 
 of  the  week,"  as  has  been  ordered  also  in  Galatia;  we  learn  from 
 Acts  XX,  17  that  the  Christians  in  Troas  gathered  together  to 
 break  bread  also  "on  the  first  day  of  the  week;"  the  day  of  the 
 vision  (Rev.  i,  10)  is  "the  lyord's  Day,"  and  evidently  the  regular 
 day  of  worship;  while  the  Gospel  of  John  (ch,  xx,  26)  would 
 seem  to  point  to  a  still  earlier  beginning,  though  it  may  have 
 been  only  one  of  the  daily  meetings  of  the  Twelve  at  which 
 Christ  appeared.  These  are  however  the  only  references  in  the 
 New  Testament  to  any  special  observance  of  the  day.  The  direct 
 testimony  of  the  earliest  post- Apostolic  period,  while  sufficiently 
 definite,  is  also  scanty.  The  Didache  prescribes  "the  lord's  Day 
 of  the  Lord' '  as  the  day  for  coming  together;  Barnabas  testifies 
 (ch.  xv),  "Wherefore,  also,  we  keep  the  eighth  day;"  Ignatius 
 
 *  See  Lechler,  op.  cit.  p.  350. 
 
 t  On  the  whole  subject  see  Zahn,  Skizzen  atis  dem  Leben  der  alien  Kirche. 
 160  ff. 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 i^ad  Magii.  ix)  speaks  of  "living  in  the  observance  of  the  Lord's 
 Day;"  and  Justin  Martyr  {Ap.  I,  ch.  67)  describes  the  service 
 held  "on  the  day  called  Sunday."  This  completes  the  list  of  our 
 sources,  for  the  reference  of  Pliny  {ep.  x,  96  to  Trajan;  usually 
 quoted  in  this  connection,  is  only  to  "a  (or  the)  stated  day"  on 
 which  the  Christians  are  wont  to  meet.  That  the  Day  of  Resur- 
 rection determined  the  choice  of  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  a 
 special  observance  is  testified  by  Barnabas,  Ignatius  and  Justin 
 Martyr  (cf.  also  John  xx,  26), 
 
 II.  Assuming,  then,  that  Sunday  was  the  day  of  meeting, 
 we  find  that  in  the  period  we  are  discussing  there  were  two  ser- 
 vices or  assemblies  held  on  that  day.  Pliny,  writing  about  112 
 A.  D.,  declares  this  expressly,  and  though  by  the  time  of  Justin 
 Martyr  the  two  have  evidently  been  united,  traces  of  the  older 
 custom  are  to  be  found  in  the  distinction  between  the  yyiissa  catc- 
 chumetioruvi  and  the  ?nissa  fideliurn  which  first  appears  with 
 Irenaeus  and  Tertullian.  With  such  a  definite  statement*  to 
 guide  us,  we  find  in  I  Cor.  xi-xiv  not  one,  but  two  assemblies 
 described.  The  one  is  «s  to  ^ayov — "for  eating" — the  other  is 
 for  edification.  At  the  former  of  these  services  none  but  Chris- 
 tians, members  of  the  congregation,  were  present;  to  the  second 
 were  admitted  not  only  idiotai,\  but  even  unbelievers  (I  Cor. 
 xiv,  16,  19).  The  custom  of  holding  both  meetings  on  the  same 
 day  may  well  have  been  Apostolic  usage.  % 
 
 III.  We  turn  our  attention,  therefore,  first  to  the  service 
 for  edification.  In  I  Cor.  xiv  we  have  the  rules  which  Paul  laid 
 down  for  the  avoidance  of  abuses  in  this  public  servace,  and  from 
 the  .abuses  which  he  corrects  and  his  manner  of  correcting  them 
 we  can  form  a  fairly  complete  idea  of  the  elements  that  entered 
 into  it. 
 
 Before  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  these  elements  in  detail 
 it  is  first  necessary  that  we  should  get  a  conception  of  the  mean- 
 ing and  aim  of  the  service  as  a  whole.  At  the  very  outset  we 
 notice  that  there  is  no  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Apostle  to  limit 
 
 *  It  maybe  well  to  quote  Pliny's  statement.  Christians  whom  he  has  caused 
 to  be  arrested  and  examined  have  confessed:  ^^tjuod  essent  soliti  stato  die  ante  lucetn 
 convenire,  canutnijue  Christo  (juasi  deo  dicere  secum  invicem — quibiis peractis  mor- 
 eni  sibi  discedendi  J'uissc,  riirsusque  ca'undi  ad  capiendwii  cibum, promiscutim  tatnen 
 atque  innoxium."  The  full  text  of  the  letter  is  given  in  MiRBT's  Quellen.  2nd  ed. 
 No.  12. 
 
 t  In  the  Greek  mysteries  the  idiolai  were  the  uninitiated. 
 
 X  See  Harnack,  Lechler  and  especially  Weizsaecker,  II.  p.  249  ff. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP    IN   THB   APOSTOLIC    AGE.  51 
 
 active  participation  in  it  to  any  special  individuals,  or  office-bear- 
 ers. The  women  alone  are  prohibited  from  taking  more  than  a 
 passive  part  (I  Cor.  xiv,  34,  of.  I  Tim.  ii,  12).  With  this  excep- 
 tion the  right  to  share  in  the  proceedings  is  open  to  every  one. 
 One  limitation  is  recognized,  however,  by  all,  and  that  is  the  pos- 
 session of  a  proper  gift  or  charisma.  We  are  too  liable  to  forget 
 how  fundamental  to  the  whole  life  of  the  early  Church  the  idea 
 of  charismatic  endowment  really  was.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there 
 is  not  a  single  institution  of  the  first  Century  that  can  be  thor- 
 oughly understood  without  reference  to  this  idea.*  In  the  pas- 
 sages, Rom.  xii,  5-8  and  I  Cor.  xii,  28-31  Paul  gives  us  a  sort  of 
 catalogue  of  these  charismata  with  an  estimate  of  their  compara- 
 tive value.  We  learn  that  he  classes  as  most  desirable  those 
 which  are  calculated  to  make  their  possessor  most  useful  to  the 
 Church.  They  are  first  Apostles — i.  e.  missionaries — then  proph- 
 ets and  teachers;  then  come  the  more  practical  gifts,  which  ena- 
 ble their  possessors  to  work  miracles  and  to  heal  the  sick,  then 
 the  "helps;"  lastly,  speaking  with  tongues  and  the  interpretation 
 of  tongues.  Those  who  had  these  gifts  were  "spiritual"  (I  Cor. 
 xii,  37),  but  the  idea  that  any  Christian  could  be  totally  ungifted 
 was  wholly  foreign  to  Apostolic  thought. 
 
 Bearing  this  in  mind  we  understand  that  the  whole  public 
 service  was  the  free  expression  of  the  powers  which  the  Spirit 
 had  bestowed  by  the  way  of  charisma  on  the  members  of  the  con- 
 gregation. As  respects  form  and  content  it  was  a  "free  service," 
 led  by  the  "gifted,"  in  which  those  whose  gifts  did  not  fit  them 
 for  active  participation  were  auditors,  or  responded  with  the 
 Amen  (xiv,  i6).  The  first  limitation  was,  therefore,  charismat- 
 ic, set  by  the  Spirit  Himself. 
 
 Owing  to  the  very  natural  but  very  false  idea  current  in  the 
 Corinthian  Church,  that  the  greatest  gifts  were  those  that  were, 
 or  seemed  to  be,  the  most  miraculous — a  misconception  to  which 
 we  shall  return  later — Paul  found  it  necessary  to  set  a  second 
 limitation.  It  lies  in  the  very  purpose  for  which  the  service  is 
 held.  "Let  all  things,"  he  says,  "be  done  unto  edifying."  The 
 aim  of  the  service  is  therefore  not  the  making  of  converts,  though 
 
 *  In  his  Kirchenrecht,  I,  Leipzig,  1894,  Sohm  would  base  the  whole  organiza- 
 tion of  the  early  Church  upon  this  charismatic  idea  alone.  Though  we  cannot  agree 
 with  him  fully,  a  mere  cursory  reading  of  the  book  is  enough  to  convince  the  reader 
 that  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  has  been  too  much  neglected. 
 
52  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it  might  result  in  that  if  an  unbeliever  should  happen  to  be  pres- 
 ent (xiv,  24  fj,  but  primarily  the  building  up  of  the  faith  of  those 
 who  were  already  Christians.  The  carrying  out  of  this  idea  ren- 
 ders it  necessary  that  "all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order" 
 (xiv,  36),  that  certain  gifts  be  subordinated  to  others  which  are 
 better  calculated  to  edify  the  congregation,  and  that  restrictions 
 be  put  upon  the  number  of  those  who  take  part  in  any  given  as- 
 sembly. 
 
 It  remains  for  us  therefore,  to  take  up  the  elements  given  us 
 in  ch.  xiv,  26  and  determine  the  meaning  of  the  tenns  there  used. 
 The  verse  reads  as  follows: — "When  ye  come  together  each  one 
 hath  a  psalm,  hath  a  teaching,  hath  a  revelation,  hath  a  tongue, 
 hath  an  interpretation,"  The  elements  are  therefore,  i)  Psalm, 
 2)  Teaching,  3)  Prophecy,  4)  Tongues  and  their  Interpretation, 
 and  in  the  absence  of  any  more  definite  information  we  may  fair- 
 ly assume  that  the  order  would  be  that  here  indicated,  especially 
 since  a  comparison  with  the  context  shows  that  this  order  is  not 
 that  of  their  relative  importance.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  take 
 them  up  in  detail. 
 
 i).  The  Psalm.  This  term  is  not  to  be  understood  as  ap- 
 plying in  this  passage  exclusively,  or  even  primarily,  to  the  ca- 
 nonical Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament.  That  many  of  the  latter 
 were  used  in  the  service  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  as  it  was  only 
 the  gifted  who  had  the  right  to  bring  a  Psalm  to  the  assembly, 
 that  which  he  chose  for  use  was  considered  as  chosen  and  used 
 under  the  direct  influence  of  the  Spirit.  It  might  be  a  Psalm  of 
 David,  or  one  of  the  so-called  Psalms  of  Solomon,  evident  traces 
 of  which  are  not  uncommon  in  the  early  literature,  or  it  might 
 be — and  that  is  what  is  evidently  contemplated  here — a  free  com- 
 position of  him  who  used  it,  in  other  words  a  Christian  hymn. 
 But  the  Psalm  was  from  the  very  beginning  closely  connected 
 with  Christian  prayer,  so  closely  that  we  may  regard  it  almost  as 
 a  constitutive  part  of  the  prayer  itself  (cf.  Acts  iv,  23  ff),  and 
 this  was  merely  the  Christian  adaptation  of  a  custom  already 
 prevalent  in  the  Jewish  synagogue.  We  may  therefore  assume 
 that  in  the  verse  before  us  the  "Psalm"  included  also  the  ele- 
 ment of  prayer.*  It  was  the  prayer  with  which  the  service  be- 
 gan; it  was  also  the  Hymn  of  the  Church. 
 
 *  The  connection   of  i/'oAAei'v  with  irpo<T€v)(€(T6ai  (public  prayer)  in  I  Cor. 
 xiv,  15,  strengthens  the  hypothesis. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN  THE  APOSTOIvIC   AGE.  53 
 
 a).  The  Prayer.  In  I  Cor.  xiv,  14  ff  there  is  a  clear  in- 
 dication of  the  mode  of  prayer  in  the  congregation.  One  member 
 offered  it,  in  the  words  which  the  Spirit  put  into  his  mouth,  and 
 the  rest  responded  with  the  Amen  ( v.  1 6  ) .  So  little  was  this  prayer 
 bound  to  any  fixed  form  of  words  that  it  might  be  the  mere  ec- 
 static utterance  of  one  who  had  the  gift  of  tongues  and  wholly 
 unintelligible  to  those  who  heard  it,  hence  the  admonition  to  pray 
 not  only  with  the  spirit  but  with  the  understanding  also  (v.  15). 
 It  seems,  however,  to  have  contained  one  element  that  would 
 early  assume  a  fixed  form,  and  that  is  the  cvXoyui  (v.  17),  which 
 we  take  to  refer  to  the  doxology  with  which  the  prayer  began  or 
 ended,  and  which  was  followed  by  the  Amen  of  the  hearers. 
 Early  examples  of  such  doxologies  meet  us  in  such  passages  as 
 I  Tim.  vi,  16;  Rev.  i,  6;  iv,  8;  v,  13;  vii,  12;  xix,  i.  The  dox- 
 ologies, so  frequent  in  the  Pauline  writings  other  than  that  just 
 mentioned,  would  also  be  taken  up  very  early  into  the  prayers 
 of  the  assembly. 
 
 A  somewhat  more  developed  idea  of  the  common  prayer  of 
 the  Church  is  found  in  I  Tim.  ii,  1-3.  Here  we  find  the  various 
 kinds  of  prayers  differentiated  according  to  their  content,  but  all 
 prescribed  as  the  solemn  duty  of  the  congregation.  The  possi- 
 bility of  the  ecstatic,  unintelligible  prayer  is  not  contemplated  at 
 all,  and  yet  there  is  no  indication  that  the  Apostle  is  desirous  of 
 introducing  anything  that  is  new.  He  is  merely  insisting  upon 
 the  observance  of  an  already  established  custom.  Moreover  the 
 objects  of  the  prayers  are  defined.  It  is  to  be  prayer  "for  all 
 men,  for  kings  and  all  that  are  in  high  places." 
 
 It  is  quite  obvious  that  such  prayers  as  are  here  described 
 would  inevitably  assume  a  fixed  form,  or  at  least  develop  a 
 comparatively  constant  type.  The  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
 special  charismata  with  the  corresponding  tendency  to  delegate 
 the  spokesmanship  for  the  congregation  to  a  small  number  of 
 men,  the  ever-present  contrast  between  the  needs  of  the  entire 
 congregation  and  those  of  the  individual  worshipper,  the  relative 
 sameness  of  the  former  in  all  times  and  under  all  circumstances, — 
 all  these  things  would  tend  toward  a  fixation  of  the  prayer  in  re- 
 spect both  of  form  and  content,  and  we  should  be  justified  in  as- 
 suming that  such  a  fixation  actually  occurred  even  though  we 
 should  be  without  concrete  evidence  to  support  the  assumption. 
 Fortunately,  however,  we  are  not  left  to  mere  conjecture.     In  the 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 concluding  chapters  (59-61)  of  the  first  Epistle  of  Clement  we 
 have  an  example  of  such  a  prayer  dating  from  the  last  decade  of 
 the  first  Century  (A.  D.  96  circ.)  Whether  it  is  the  reproduc- 
 tion of  a  fixed  formula  used  in  the  Roman  (or  Corinthian) 
 Church,  or  an  original  composition  on  the  same  general  lines  as 
 the  free  prayers  in  use  in  those  churches,  or  one  of  them,  is  a 
 matter  of  controversy  which  will  probably  never  be  settled.*  It 
 is  at  most  a  matter  of  merely  secondary  importance.  We  gain 
 from  it  in  either  case  a  clear  idea  of  how  the  earliest  common 
 prayers  were  constructed  and  what  they  contained.  The  prayer 
 consists  of  i)  a  solemn  address  to  God,  with  ascriptions  of  holi- 
 ness, power  and  wisdom;  2)  petitions  for  help  in  tribulation  and 
 distress;  3)  for  forgiveness  of  sin  and  the  common  good;  4)  sup- 
 plication for  the  welfare  of  the  state  and  those  in  authority;  5)  a 
 doxology.  The  limits  of  this  article  unfortunately  prevent  the 
 insertion  of  the  prayer,  and  preclude  more  extended  discussion. 
 One  more  point  calls  for  our  attention,  however,  before  clos- 
 ing this  brief  and  sketchy  survey  of  the  public  prayer.  There  is 
 no  direct  evidence,  and  little  of  any  other  kind,  to  show  that  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  was  used  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  in  the 
 Apostolic  Age,  either  in  the  public  service  for  edification  or  the 
 private  assembly  for  Agape  and  Communion.  In  fact  the  whole 
 literature  of  the  ancient  Church  is  singularly  barren  of  clear  al- 
 lusions to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Von  der  Goltzf  finds  none  earlier 
 than  Polycarp.J  if  we  are  to  except  the  phrase,  "Abba,  Father," 
 in  Rom.  viii,  15;  Gal.  iv,  6.§  Despite  this  fact  we  may  be  sure 
 that  it  was  known  and  used  by  all  Christians  in  accordance  with 
 the  command  of  the  Lord,  Matt,  vi,  9;  Luke  xi,  2.  That  is  not 
 to  say,  however,  that  it  was  used  by  the  congregation.  We 
 would  naturally  expect  to  find  it  in  the  Eucharistic  ser\4ce,  but 
 the  first  post- Apostolic  Communion  order  that  we  have — that  of 
 the  Didache — makes  no  mention  of  it,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
 it  is  there  prescribed  as  the  form  for  the  private  devotions  of  the 
 
 •  For  arguments  on  the  one  side  see  Lightfoot,  Clement  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  ed, 
 2,  1890,  p.  382  f{;  on  the  other  see  Von  der  Goltz,  Das  Gebet  in  der  aeltesten 
 Christenheit,    Leipzig,   1901,  p.   192  ff.     Both  give  full  analyses  of  the  prayer  itself. 
 
 t  Op.  cit.  p.    189. 
 
 X  Ad  Phil.  vi.  6. 
 
 §  Chase's  list  of  N.  T.  references  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  The  Lord's  Prayer  in 
 the  Early  Church,  1891,  is  artificial  and  unconvincing. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN  THE  APOSTOLIC   AGE.  55 
 
 Christians,  by  whom  it  is  to  be  repeated  thrice  daily  (^Did.  viii). 
 This  fact  combined  with  the  absence  of  all  traces  of  the  prayer 
 in  the  Epistles  and  the  Revelation,  would  lead  to  the  conclusion 
 that  it  came  into  the  service  after  the  writing  of  the  Didache — 
 approximately  the  middle  of  the  second  Century.* 
 
 b).  The  Hymns.  In  Eph.  v,  19  and  Col.  iii,  10  "hymns 
 and  spiritual  songs"  are  mentioned  along  with  "psalms."  We 
 have  seen  that  the  singing  of  hymns  or  psalms  was  probably  a 
 part  of  the  private  worship  at  Jerusalem;  that  the  antiphonal 
 singing  of  hymns  was  customary  at  the  Christian  meetings  in  the 
 beginning  of  the  second  Century  is  witnessed  by  Pliny  (^carmen 
 Christo  .  .  .  sibi  itivicejn  dicere') .  As  in  the  case  of  the  prayers 
 these  hymns  might  be  the  free  utterances  of  the  "spiritual,"  and 
 might  even  be  "in  a  tongue,"  but  they  were  not  necessarily  so. 
 On  the  contrary  the  tendency  to  fixed  forms,  either  canonical 
 psalms  or  Christian  hymns,  fixed  by  tradition  and  familiar  to  the 
 whole  congregation,  would  be  even  stronger  than  in  the  case  of 
 the  prayers,  for  a  hymn,  to  be  a  hymn  of  the  congregation,  would 
 require  the  use  of  words  in  which  those  present  could  join,  and 
 the  passive  participation  by  the  response  of  Amen  would  not  long 
 be  deemed  sufficient. 
 
 Of  such  Christian  hymns  the  New  Testament  offers  us  a 
 number  of  examples.  The  Mag?ii/icat,  the  Benedidus  and  the 
 Nunc  Dimittis  are  typical,  and  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  (Euke  ii,  14) 
 was  doubtless  the  basis  of  later  hymns.  There  is  no  reason  for 
 dissenting  from  the  opinion  of  the  many  scholars  who  find  in 
 I  Tim.  iii,  16  a  fragment  of  a  very  ancient  hymn  to  Christ,  cur- 
 rent in  the  Church  when  that  Epistle  was  written,  and  the  book 
 of  Revelation  is  especially  rich  in  material  of  this  kind.f  The 
 "new  song"  of  Rev.  v,  is  one  of  our  best  examples.  If  we  as- 
 sume that  the  Heavenly  service  of  the  prophetic  vision  bore  at 
 least  some  resemblance  to  the  earthly  services  with  which  the 
 prophet  was  familiar,  it  gains  a  still  greater  significance  as  show- 
 ing the  manner  in  which  the  hymns  were  used  in  those  services. 
 We  will  run  the  risk  of  overstepping  our  limits  and  insert  the 
 hymn  in  full. 
 
 It  begins  with  the  song  of  the  elders  (ch.  iv,  11): — 
 
 *  The  antiquity  of  the  variant  readings  seem  to  be  the  only  argument  which 
 would  militate  against  this  view,  but  these  may  be  due  to  other  than  liturgical  causes. 
 t  Th.  Harnack  calls  it  the  "psalm-book  of  the  N.  T." 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Worthy  art  Thou,  our  Lord  and  our  God, 
 
 To  receive  the  glory  and  the  honor  and  the  power; 
 
 For  Thou  didst  create  all  things, 
 
 And  because  of  Thy  will  they  were,  and  were  created. 
 
 Next  the  four  cherubim  take  up  the  hymn,  singing  with  the 
 elders  (v,  9-10): — 
 
 Worthy  art  Thou  to  take  the  book 
 
 And  to  open  the  seals  thereof: 
 
 For  Thou  wast  slain,  and  didst  purchase  unto  God  with  Thy  blood 
 
 Of  every  tribe  and  tongue  and  people  and  nation, 
 
 And  madest  them  to  be  unto  our  God  a  kingdom  and  priests. 
 
 And  they  shall  reign  upon  the  earth. 
 
 To  which  those  in  Heav^en  respond  (v.  12): — 
 Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  hath  been  slain, 
 
 To  receive  the  power  and  riches  and  wisdom  and  might  and  honor 
 and  glory  and  blessing. 
 
 Then  all  God's  creatures  take  up  the  refrain  and  sing  (v.  13) : — 
 Unto  Him  that  sitteth  on  the  throne, 
 And  unto  the  Lamb, 
 
 The  blessing  and  the  honor  and  the  glory  and  the  dominion 
 Unto  the  ages  of  the  ages! 
 
 Similar  to  this  are  the  "song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb"  (ch. 
 XV.  3ff),  and  the  "nuptial  ode  of  the  I^amb"  (ch.  xix,  1-8). 
 
 It  is  unfortunate  that  so  few  examples  of  the  hymns  of  the 
 second  and  third  Centuries  have  come  down  to  us.  There  is  but 
 one  extant  (from  the  writings  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,)*  though 
 there  is  considerable  evidence  of  their  existence.  Those  to  which 
 we  have  referred  are  enough  to  show  what  the  nature  of  these 
 hymns  was.  In  their  structure  they  were  Hebraic  and  must 
 have  been  chanted,  not  sung  to  metrically  arranged  melodies; 
 that  the  rendering  was  antiphonal  is  indicated  by  the  letter  of 
 Pliny  already  quoted  and  the  hymn  just  given;  their  terminology 
 is  largely  drawn  from  Jewish  sources,  and  their  prevailing  tone 
 is  that  of  joyful  and  hopeful  thanksgiving. f 
 
 2).  The  Teaching.  After  prayer  and  hymn  follows  a  di- 
 dactic address  delivered  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  congrega- 
 tion who  was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  teaching.  It  was  a  ser- 
 mon for  the  edification  of  the  congregation  and  not  as  in  the  case 
 of  the  various  speeches  that  are  preserved  in  Acts,  a  missionary 
 
 ♦  Given  by  VoN  der  Goltz,  p.   138. 
 
 t  For  a  discussion  of  this  whole  subject  see  WaizSAKCKER,  II,  pp.  259  ff;  VON 
 DER  GOLTZ,    134  ff,    183  ff. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP    IN   THE    APOSTOLIC   AGE.  57 
 
 address,  and  it  included  both  the  "word  of  knowledge"  and  the 
 "word  of  wisdom"  (I  Cor.  xii,  8).* 
 
 The  instruction  was  probably,  after  the  analogy  of  the  ser- 
 mon in  the  synagogue,  preceded  by  the  reading  of  a  passage  of 
 Old  Testament  Scripture.  To  be  sure  we  find  in  the  New  Testa- 
 ment no  express  statement  to  that  effect.  There  is  a  reference  to 
 this  public  reading  in  I  Tim.  iv,  13,  where  we  find  dvayvwo-ts  en- 
 joined along  with  '  'exhortation  and  teaching. ' '  This  word  passed 
 later  into  the  liturgical  language  of  the  Church  as  the  regular 
 term  for  the  public  Scripture-reading.  It  occurs  in  two  other 
 places  in  the  New  Testament,  each  time  referring  to  the  reading 
 of  the  Law  in  the  Jewish  service  (II  Cor.  iii,  14;  Acts  xiii,  15). 
 Further  evidence  for  the  custom  is  furnished  by  the  extensive  use 
 that  Paul  makes  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Epistles  to  congrega- 
 tions that  must  have  been  composed  largely  of  Gentiles.  He 
 presupposes  a  knowledge  which  could  scarcely  have  been  theirs 
 unless  they  had  been  accustomed  to  hearing  the  Old  Testament 
 read  (e.  g.,  Gal.  iii,  6ff;  iv,  21  ff;  cf.  II  Cor.  7  ff ;  Rom.  iv). 
 
 It  was  no  doubt  in,  or  in  connection  with,  this  teaching  that 
 the  facts  of  Christ's  life  were  narrated  and  His  words  applied  to 
 the  lives  and  circumstances  of  the  hearers.  That  in  the  time  of 
 the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  these  narrations  were  already 
 based  upon  a  body  of  tradition  is  clear  from  I  Cor.  xi,  23;  xv,  3. 
 When  this  tradition  ceased  to  be  transmitted  orally  and  assumed 
 a  written  form  is  uncertain,  but  all  the  evidence  seems  to  point 
 to  a  time  earlier  than  the  writings  of  Paul,  The  time  when  the 
 written  Gospels  came  to  be  taken  up  in  the  public  service  for 
 regular  reading  alongside  the  Old  Testament  is  equally  uncertain. 
 
 The  reading  of  Apostolic  letters  in  the  congregations  to 
 which  they  were  addressed  (I  Thess.  v,  27;  II  Cor.  i,  13)  and  the 
 exchange  of  letters  among  congregations  (Col.  iv,  16),  was  the 
 origin  of  the  reading  of  the  Epistles  in  the  service.  That  they 
 were  regularly  read  at  the  stated  meetings  in  the  Apostolic  Age 
 is  improbable,  though  under  circumstances  that  rendered  it  ad- 
 visable to  remind  the  congregation  of  the  Apostolic  teaching  it 
 may  have  occurred.  The  emphasis  laid  upon  the  Apostolic  ori- 
 gin of  the  Church's  doctrines  in  the  fight  against  heresy,  that 
 began  with  the  closing  years  of  the  first  Century,  was  a  powerful 
 
 *  For  a  discussion  of  the  terms,  see  Weizsaecker,  II,  pp.  262  ff,  and  commen- 
 taries in  loc. 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 motive  for  the  regular  use  of  the  Epistles  in  the  services,  and  one 
 of  the  chief  causes  that  led  to  the  recognition  of  their  authority 
 as  Scripture.* 
 
 3).  The  Prophecy.  Upon  the  teaching  follows  now  the 
 "prophecy,"  the  exact  nature  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 
 Prophets  were  men  who  were  endowed  with  a  charisma  which 
 made  them  the  most  highly  honored  members  of  the  congrega- 
 tion. They  held  in  the  Church  the  second  place  after  the  apos- 
 tles who  were  not  properly  members  of  the  congregation  at  all, 
 but  wandering  missionaries  who  became  the  congregation's  guests 
 from  time  to  time.  In  Rev.  xviii,  20,  prophets  and  apostles  are 
 named  together  and  in  Eph.  ii,  20  they  are  spoken  of  as  forming 
 with  the  apostles  the  foundation  of  the  Church  of  which  Christ 
 is  the  chief  corner-stone.  In  I  Cor.  xiv,  i,  Paul  speaks  of  this 
 gift  as  the  one  which  the  Christian  should  desire  above  all  others. 
 The  words  of  the  prophet  came  to  him  by  "revelation."  This 
 does  not  mean  that  he  was  so  carried  away  by  a  religious  institu- 
 tion as  to  lose  control  of  his  intellect  and  become  the  mere  mouth- 
 piece of  the  Spirit.  On  the  contrary  he  spoke  with  all  his  facul- 
 ties under  full  control,  for  the  spirits  of  the  prophets  were  subject 
 to  the  prophets  (I  Cor.  xiv,  32).  The  content  of  the  prophecy 
 was,  under  normal  conditions,  "edification,  and  comfort  and  con- 
 solation" (I  Cor.  xiv,  3)  and  was  calculated  to  work  the  conver- 
 sion of  an  unbeliever  by  laying  bare  the  secrets  of  his  heart 
 (I  Cor.  xiv,  24).  It  may  therefore  be  described  as  the  subjective 
 side  of  the  "teaching"  above  mentioned.  That  was,  however, 
 only  one  manifestation  of  the  prophetic  gift.  It  might  express 
 itself  in  prayer,  in  fact  the  right  to  pray  "as  much  as  he  will"  is 
 reserved  to  the  prophet  even  as  late  as  the  Didache.  Again  the 
 prophecy  might  take  the  form  of  a  prediction  of  future  events 
 (Acts  xxi,  10,  cf.  ch.  XX,  23)  or  it  might  be  "apocalyptic"  in 
 character  dealing  with  the  last  things.  The  book  of  Revelation 
 is  an  example  of  this  last  kind  of  prophecy. 
 
 The  very  fact  that  the  prophet  spoke  under  the  direct  influ- 
 ence of  the  Spirit  inevitably  opened  the  door  for  the  entrance  of 
 many  abu.ses.  It  was  therefore  necessary  to  discriminate  among 
 the  alleged  prophetic  utterances  (I  The.ss.  v,   21,  cf.   I  Cor.  xiv, 
 
 *  The  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  to  the  hist(  ry  of  the  N.  T.  Canon. 
 For  literature  see  Hastings,  Liu, e  Did.  Vol.  Ill,  y.  542  f  .ind  FxE  Vol.  IV,  p. 
 768. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  59 
 
 29)  and  Paul  gave  a  general  rule  for  the  testing  of  a  prophecy  in 
 I  Cor.  xii,  3;  cf.  I  John  iv,  1-6.  In  \he.Didache  (ch.  xi,  7-12)  fur- 
 ther tests  are  prescribed  for  determining  the  genuineness  of  the 
 prophetic  calling  of  those  who  speak  "in  the  Spirit,"  and  the  nat- 
 ure of  the  tests  that  are  to  be  applied  shows  that  the  Church  had 
 had  unfortunate  experiences  with  men  who  professed  to  possess  the 
 gift.  Even  in  the  service  at  Corinth  abuses  connected  with  the 
 prophetic  speeches  had  sprung  up  and  Paul  found  it  necessary  to 
 limit  the  number  of  those  who  should  participate  in  any  one  ser- 
 vice to  two  or,  at  the  most,  three,  who  were  to  speak  in  the  order 
 in  which  the  Spirit  moved  them*  (I  Cor.  xiv,  29). 
 
 4),  Speaking  with  To?igues.  The  greatest  confusion  had 
 arisen  in  Corinth  because  of  the  over-estimate  that  the  Church  in 
 that  city  had  put  upon  the  possession  of  the  gift  of  tongues. 
 Among  all  the  charismata  this  was  the  one  that  had  the  greatest 
 appearance  of  supernatural  origin,  and,  naturally  enough  for  peo- 
 ple of  their  time,  still  under  the  influence  of  heathen  ideas,  it  was 
 the  most  coveted.  As  to  the  exact  nature  of  this,  in  many  ways 
 the  most  remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  there  has 
 been  much  dispute.  This  is  neither  the  time  nor  the  place  for  an 
 exhaustive  discussion  of  the  subject,  for  what  concerns  us  chiefly 
 is  the  part  which  the  speaking  with  tongues  had  in  the  public 
 service.  From  the  comments  and  directions  which  Paul  gives  in 
 I  Cor.  we  gather  that  it  consisted  in  the  ecstatic  utterance,  under 
 intense  religious  excitement,  of  broken  sentences,  or  parts  of  sen- 
 tences, unintelligible  or  half -intelligible,  which  needed  the  ser- 
 vices of  an  interpreter  to  make  their  sense  clear  to  those  who 
 heard  them.  This  fact  combined  with  the  loss  of  self-control 
 which  necessarily  accompanied  the  manifestations  of  this  gift, 
 made  them  worthless  for  purposes  of  edification  and  would  lead 
 an  unbeliever  to  the  conclusion  that  they  who  spoke  were  mad 
 (I  Cor.  xiv,  23  f).  Paul  regarded  this  ecstatic  speech  as  a  real 
 manifestation  of  the  power  of  the  Spirit  and  claimed  that  he  had 
 this  gift  himself  in  greater  measure  than  others  (I  Cor,  xiv,  13), 
 although  he  puts  it  last  in  his  list  of  charismata  (I  Cor.  xii,  28) 
 and  held  it  so  lightly  that  he  preferred  to  speak  five  words  with 
 his  understanding  rather  than  ten  thousand  words  in  a  tongue 
 (v.  19).     He  does  not  wish,  therefore,  to  banish  the  speaking  of 
 
 *  The  services  of  the  Society  of  Friends  suggest  themselves  as  a  possible  paral- 
 lel to  this  part  of  the  Apostolic  service. 
 
60  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tongues  from  the  assembly,  that  would  be  to  "quench  the  Spirit" 
 and  contrary  to  his  express  principle  (I  Thess.  v,  19),  but  to  make 
 them  subservient  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  assembly  is  held, 
 i.  e.,  to  edification.  With  this  end  in  view  he  limits  the  number 
 of  those  who  are  to  speak  to  two  or  at  most  three,  as  in  the  case 
 of  the  prophets,  but  with  the  additional  provision  that  they  are 
 only  to  speak  if  one  is  present  who  can  interpret  their  utterances, 
 and  thus  give  them  a  practical  value  (I  Cor.  xiv,  27-29).  On 
 this  condition  he  allows  it  to  retain  a  place  in  the  worship  of  the 
 Church. 
 
 5).  Conclusions.  Our  results  may  therefore  be  summed  up 
 as  follows:  We  have  found  two  services  held  on  Sundays.  The 
 first  of  them  is  a  servace  for  the  edification  of  the  congregation 
 and  comprises: — a)  Prayer;  b)  Hymns;  c)  Teaching,  combined 
 with  Scripture-reading;  d)  Prophecy,  probably  hortatory  or  ad- 
 monitory preaching;  e)  speaking  with  tongues  and  interpretation 
 of  tongues.  Of  these  elements  the  last,  belonging,  as  it  did,  to 
 the  first  enthusiastic  period  of  faith,  would  soon  fall  away  of  itself; 
 hi  fact  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  survive  within  the  Apostles' 
 limitations.  The  "prophecy"  would  eventually  combine  with 
 the  "teaching"  and  form  the  sermon,  and  the  reading  of  the 
 Scripture  would  soon  make  for  itself  an  independent  place. 
 
 IV.  The  Meeting  for  the  Lord's  Supper.  Rtirsiisquc  ca-unt 
 ad  capiendimi  cibiwi,  promiscimm  tamen  el  innoxiiu7i.  So  Pliny 
 briefly  describes  the  second  Sunday  meeting  of  the  Christians  in 
 Bythinia.  It  was  a  meeting  in  every  way  distinct  from  the  one 
 just  characterized,  and  held  later  in  the  day,  possibly  in  the  even- 
 ing, which  would  often  be  the  most  convenient  time  and  would 
 always  seem  the  most  appropriate,  for  it  commemorated  Christ's 
 last  evening-meal  with  the  Twelve.  For  information  concern- 
 ing the  procedure  at  this  meeting  in  the  Apostolic  Age  we  are 
 dependent  exclusively  on  the  notice  of  Paul  in  I  Cor.  x,  i6ff  and 
 xi,  17-34. 
 
 The  purpose  of  the  meeting  was  the  eating  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  (xi,  20)  and  with  this  object  in  view  the  whole  congrega- 
 tion (xi,  18)  came  together  and  partook  of  a  common  meal.  The 
 significance  of  the  common  meal  for  the  disciples  in  Jerusalem 
 has  already  been  indicated.  The  same  motives  would  explain  its 
 existence  in  Corinth,  but  here  we  find  a  new  conception  coming 
 into  prominence.     At  Jerusalem  the  Christians  mol  for  the  daily 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN  THE   APOSTOLIC   AGE.  61 
 
 satisfaction  of  daily  hunger;  in  Corinth  the  meal  was  not  an  ev- 
 ery-day  occurrence  and  bore  more  of  the  marks  of  a  special  act  of 
 worship  admitting  of  comparison,  or  contrast,  with  the  heathen 
 sacrificial  feasts  (x,  i6ff).  The  significance  of  the  latter  con- 
 sisted, however,  solely  in  the  fact  that  the  viands  there  consumed 
 had  first  been  offered  to  an  idol,  whereas  Paul  finds  it  necessary 
 to  insist  upon  the  sanctity  of  the  act  itself,  not  as  the  eating  and 
 drinking  of  consecrated  food,  but  as  the  communion  of  the  body 
 and  blood  of  the  Lord,  and  therefore  not  to  be  regarded  as  the 
 ordinary  partaking  of  nourishment  for  pleasure  or  for  the  suste- 
 nance of  life. 
 
 The  question  now  arises: — When  Paul  spoke  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  was  he  referring  to  the  whole  common  meal  or  is  his  term 
 to  be  understood  in  a  narrower  sense,  as  applying  only  to  a  part 
 of  what  transpired  at  this  meeting?  The  former  view  has  become 
 quite  prevalent  in  recent  years;*  the  latter  is  older  and  still  has 
 the  support  of  many  scholars. f  The  weightiest  arguments  in 
 support  of  the  former  opinion  would  seem  to  be  the  comparison 
 of  the  "table  of  the  Lord"  with  the  heathen  feasts  in  ch.  x,  and 
 the  abuse  mentioned  in  ch.  xi,  21  (cf.  v,  33),  where  each  is  said 
 to  "take  before  the  other  his  own  supper,"  thus  making  the 
 Lord's  Supper  impossible.  This  would  then  be  interpreted  to 
 mean  that  some  began  to  eat  before  the  blessing  of  the  food, 
 which  was  essential  to  the  celebration.  Without  entering  into  a 
 discussion  of  the  arguments  adduced,  it  must  here  suffice  to  say 
 that  they  are  not  convincing  and  that  the  older  view  still  seems 
 to  coincide  more  fully  with  the  scanty  facts  that  are  at  our  dis- 
 posal. 
 
 We  may  picture  the  proceedings  somewhat  as  follows.  At 
 the  appointed  time  the  Christians  assemble,  each  bringing  his 
 own  food.  Some  will  have  more,  some  less.  The  eating  and 
 drinking  begins  in  an  irregular  disorderly  way  and  even  if  the  at- 
 tempt is  made  to  have  all  share  alike,  it  is  unsuccessful.  One 
 man  goes  hungry,  his  neighbor  gorges  or  drinks  to ,  excess. 
 When  the  time  comes  for  the  act  which  is  most  sacred,  the  very 
 communion  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  they  are  not  in 
 physical  or  mental  condition  to  participate.     In  some  cases  it  is 
 
 *  It  is  advocated  by  Drews,  RE  Vol.  V,  pp  560  ff,  where  the  literature  is 
 indicated.     See  also  Rietschel,  Liturgik,  I,  p  240. 
 
 t  Among  them  A.  Harnack  and  Zahn.  Weizsaecker,  {^Apost.  Age^  II,  p. 
 283)  declares  it  "altogether  indisputable." 
 
62  MEMOIRS. 
 
 actually  impossible  to  have  the  Lord's  Supper  at  all,  and  even 
 where  the  abuse  has  not  gone  so  far,  many  partake  unworthily. 
 These  are  the  conditions  with  which  Paul  has  to  deal.  He  at- 
 tacks them  by  reminding  his  readers  of  the  solemnity  of  the  act 
 in  which  they  engage,  and  the  serious  consequences  to  themselves 
 that  result  from  unworthy  participation.  He  does  not  attempt  to 
 prescribe  any  new  mode  of  procedure,  but  his  emphatic  distinc- 
 tion between  the  Lord's  Supper  and  all  ordinary  eating  and  drink- 
 ing was  a  step  toward  the  total  separation  of  the  common  meal 
 from  the  Communion  which  occurred  almost  a  century  later.* 
 
 As  regards  the  rite  itself  it  consisted  apparently  in  two  sim- 
 ple acts, — the  consecration  of  bread  and  wine  and  the  reception 
 of  the  consecrated  elements.  The  consecration  consisted,  not  in 
 the  repetition  of  the  Words  of  Institution,  but  in  the  eucharistic 
 prayer  by  which  the  elements  were  blessed  {tvxapi(TTui  or  evXoyia) 
 and  set  apart  for  their  sacred  use.  So  Christ  had  consecrated 
 the  bread  and  wine  at  the  Institution  and  Paul  speaks  of  the 
 Communion  as  "the  cup  of  blessing  which  we  bless"  (ch.  x,  i6). 
 The  order  of  consecration  is  uncertain.  At  the  Institution  it  had 
 been,  first  the  bread  and  then  the  wine;  I  Cor.  x,  i6f,  seems  to 
 reverse  the  order  and  in  the  Didache  the  inverted  order  seems  to 
 be  prescribed.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  consecratory  prayer 
 was,  from  the  first,  extempore,  and  offered  by  a  prophet,  for  the 
 oldest  formal  prayers  that  we  have  for  this  service  are  those  of 
 the  Didache  (ch.  ix)  and  even  there  the  right  to  pray  "as  they 
 will"  is  still  reserved  to  the  prophets  (ch.  x,  7).  It  is  to  be 
 noted,  however,  that  these  prayers  of  the  Didache  are  the  oldest 
 prescribed  forms  of  prayer  which  the  Church  possesses.  Although 
 the  Words  of  Institution  were  not  essential  to  the  consecration, 
 and  although  we  cannot  prove  by  direct  evidence  that  the3'  were 
 even  used  before  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,!  we  are,  nevertheless, 
 perfectly  safe  in  assuming  that  they  had  a  place  in  the  service 
 and  probably  preceded  the  distribution.  In  fact  the  performance 
 of  an  act  which  derived  its  meaning  and  its  justification  from  the 
 words  of  Christ  would  be  quite  inconceivable  without  invariable 
 reference  to  the  event  which  it  commemorated  and  the  command 
 on  which  it  was  based. 
 
 •  See  Zahn,  RE*  Vol.  I,  pp.  234  ff. 
 
 t  The  contention  of  Drews  (1.  c. )  and  others  that  the  usage  cannot  be  proved 
 from  I  Cor.  xi,  23-25  is  correct. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   APOSTOI^IC   AGE.  63 
 
 This  practically  exhausts  our  information.  That  there  may 
 have  been  preaching  at  this  service,  at  least  in  the  form  of  proph- 
 ecy, is  possible;  that  hymns  were  sung  is  probable  from  Matt, 
 xxvi,  30  and  Mark  xiv,  27;  that  the  Kiss  of  Peace*  had  a  place 
 in  the  rite  is  pure  conjecture;  that  the  Maranatha  (I  Cor.  xvi,  22) 
 is  part  of  an  old  liturgical  formula  has  the  support  of  the  Didac/ie 
 (ch.  X,  6),  which  is  also  the  earliest  witness  to  the  custom  of 
 confession  of  sin  preceding  the  Communion  (ch.  xiv,  i). 
 
 This  ends  our  survey  of  the  customs  of  worship  in  the  Apos- 
 tolic Age.  We  have  found  that,  along  with  elements  that  be- 
 longed exclusively  to  that  first  period,  there  were  present  all 
 those  other  elements  which  we  regard  essential  to  Christian  wor- 
 ship. Forms  are  not  yet  regarded  as  of  any  great  importance, 
 for  it  is  the  age  of  the  c/mris?nata ,  but  here  and  there  we  find  in- 
 fluences at  work  that  are  sure  to  lead  to  formulation.  A  new 
 period  in  the  history  of  the  liturgy  was  to  come  in  with  the  sec- 
 ond quarter  of  the  second  Century.  Its  outward  signs  were  to 
 be  the  delegation  of  the  right  of  active  participation  to  the  office- 
 bearers, the  separation  of  the  Communion  from  the  common  meal, 
 and  the  consolidation  of  the  two  meetings  into  one.  Its  inner 
 meaning  was  to  lie  far  deeper,  in  the  new  idea  of  the  Church  to 
 v.'hich  the  second  Century  gave  birth. 
 
 Charles  M.  Jacobs. 
 
 Mt.  Airy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
 EXPLANATORY   NOTE. 
 
 When  the  statements  of  pages  45  ff  were  read  before  the  Liturgical 
 Association  they  gave  rise  to  considerable  discussion  and  the  question  was 
 raised  of  their  bearing  on  the  correctness  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the 
 Lord's  Supper.  The  points  at  issue  are  two,  viz.,  i).  Is  the  death  of  Christ 
 to  be  regarded  as  a  sacrifice?  2).  Is  the  Lord's  Supper  more  than  a  memori- 
 al celebration? 
 
 In  regard  to  the  first  point  the  testimony  of  Christ  Himself  as  to  the 
 sacrificial  value  of  His  death  is  clear,  and  would  be  clear  even  though  we 
 had  only  the  Words  of  Institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper.     That  Paul,  in  his 
 
 *  See  V.  ScHULTZE  in  RE^  Vol.  \  I,  p.  274. 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 references  to  the  atoning  death  of  Christ,  is  developing  and  explaining  the 
 Master's  own  ideas,  that  the  sacrificial  conceptions  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
 Hebrews,  and  the  Revelation  and  Epistles  of  St.  John  are  the  elaboration  of 
 fundamental  elements  of  the  teaching  of  Christ  Himself; — these  things  seem 
 to  the  present  writer  unquestionable.  The  only  question  which  he  desires 
 to  raise  concerns  the  view  that  was  held  of  Christ's  death  among  the  very 
 first  disciples  in  Jerusalem.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  references  to 
 Christ's  death  in  the  speeches  of  the  earliest  chapters  of  Acts  never  touch  on 
 its  sacrificial  aspect  and  Philip's  use  of  the  LIU  Chapter  of  Isaiah  points 
 primarily  to  the  Messianic  office  of  Jesus.  Moreover  the  fact  that  Jerusalem 
 remained  for  a  long  while  the  seat  of  the  party  which  insisted  on  the  circum- 
 cision of  converts  and  thereby  betrayed  its  belief  in  the  continued  validity 
 and  necessity  of  the  Old  Covenant,  points  to  a  lack  of  understanding  of  the 
 full  meaning  of  Christ's  atoning  death  at  a  time  when  Paul's  convictions  on 
 this  subject  had  become  perfectly  clear.  If  it  be  objected  that  the  Apostles 
 after  the  day  of  Pentecost  could  not  any  longer  have  failed  to  understand 
 these  things,  we  must  remember  that  when  Peter  and  Paul  were  together  in 
 Antioch  Peter  himself  had  not  yet  come  to  the  full  conviction  that  the  Old 
 Covenant  had  been  done  away. 
 
 As  regards  the  second  point,  there  can  be  no  question  that  Christ  in- 
 tended the  Lord's  Supper  to  be  something  more  than  a  memorial  meal. 
 Just  as  little  have  we  reason  to  doubt  that  Paul  thought  of  it  as  involving  a 
 real  presence  of  the  Risen  Saviour,  and  here  again  it  is  evident  that  Paul  was 
 the  correct  interpreter  of  Jesus.  But  the  meaning  of  the  Sacrament  is  so 
 closely  bound  up  with  the  meaning  of  the  death  of  Christ  that  the  one  must 
 in  every  case  be  explained  by  the  other.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the  earlier 
 view  contradicts  the  later,  on  the  contrary,  the  Pauline  views  of  the  Sacra- 
 ment and  of  the  Atonement  were  sure  to  develop  out  of  the  ante-Pauline 
 conception.  What  concerns  us  here  is  only  the  historical  fact  that  Paul  was 
 the  first,  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  respects,  to  arrive  at  the  correct  inter- 
 pretation of  Christ's  ideas.  It  is  significant  that  in  the  later  historj-  of  the 
 Church  the  Pauline  conception  of  Atonement  was  for  a  long  time  practically 
 lost  to  view,  though  Paul's  terminologj'  was  retained,  and  the  meaning  of 
 Christ's  life  made  to  depend  chiefly  upon  the  fact  of  the  Incarnation,  while 
 the  Pauline  idea  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  embodied  in  the  ritual  of  the  Church, 
 was  gradually  distorted  under  the  influence  of  new  ideas  of  the  Church  and 
 the  priestly  office,  into  the  belief  that  the  Eucharist  was  the  repetition  of 
 the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  and  made  the  basis  of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the 
 Mass,  to  which  the  Pauline  terminology,  and  especially  the  terminology  of 
 the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  then  applied,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
 crude  theory  suggested  by  IrentEus,  and  elaborated  by  Origen,  all  attempts 
 to  formulate  a  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  are  subsequent  to  the  time  of 
 Cyprian,  and  rest  upon  more  or  less  inadequate  interpretations  of  Paul. 
 
 C.  M.  J. 
 
THE  LITURGICAL 
 HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION. 
 
 According  to  the  declarations  of  all  of  our  ancient  Lutheran 
 Church  Orders,  Confession  consists  of  two  parts.  The  one  part 
 treats  of  the  deed  of  the  Confessor  who  complains  of  his  self-ac- 
 knowledged sins  and  desires  consolation  and  the  renewal  of  his 
 soul.  The  other  treats  of  the  work  of  God,  Who  through  the 
 Word,  laid  upon  the  lips  of  a  fellow  man,  absolves  and  frees  the 
 penitent  from  his  sins.  Absolution  is  nothing  else  than  the 
 promise  of  the  Gospel  of  God's  Grace,  and  the  forgiveness  of 
 sins,  through  faith,  according  to  the  will  of  Christ.  This  is  in- 
 deed the  essence  and  object  of  all  preaching,  although  one  point 
 of  difference  must  be  noted.  In  the  sermon  the  Gospel  promise 
 is  general  and  is  offered  and  appropriated  to  all  believers.  In  the 
 Absolution  the  same  promise  is  specific,  directly  and  personally 
 applied  to  him  who  through  and  with  the  Word  appeals  for  the 
 same. 
 
 Although  the  old  Orders  connect  this  service  with  the  Lord's 
 Supper,  as  a  preparation  to  a  worthy  reception  of  the  same  it  was 
 yet  treated  as  a  distinct  service  and  often  spoken  of  aside  of  the 
 Sacrament  of  the  Altar  and  Holy  Baptism.  In  modem  times  it 
 has  degenerated  to  a  simple  service  preparatory  to  the  Lord's 
 Supper  and  nothing  more.  This  undervaluing  of  so  important  a 
 service  is  a  direct  undervaluing  of  our  Lutheran  Reformation, 
 since  it  had  its  origin  in  the  very  cloister  cell  where  Luther  re- 
 ceived the  absolution  and  consolation  for  his  soul  from  the  aged 
 monk.  The  Reformation  was  really  a  restoration  of  Confession 
 and  Absolution  from  the  ashes  of  ever  sinking  degeneration. 
 
 The  form  which  the  Lutheran  Church  gives  to  Confession 
 and  Absolution  at  present  resembles  that  of  the  beginning  of  the 
 thirteenth  century  more  than  that  which  obtained   in  ancient 
 
 (Ixv) 
 
66  MEMOIRS. 
 
 times.  We  also  see  it  constantly  drawn,  more  and  more,  into 
 the  inner  life  of  the  Church,  especially  during  the  Pietistic  period 
 and  the  time  of  territorial  and  rationalistic  movements. 
 
 The  service  means  an  intensely  personal  transaction,  which 
 points  out  one  of  the  principal  faults  of  modern  liturgical  forms 
 and  practices.  We  are  apt  to  deal  with  a  cold  form  {Agende)  in- 
 stead of  one  person  with  another,  the  penitent  w^ith  the  minister. 
 The  liturgical  form  is  simply  a  guide  to  both,  so  that  nothing, 
 either  in  the  Confession  or  the  Absolution  be  omitted. 
 
 Kliefoth  divides  the  Historj'  of  Confession  and  Absolution 
 into  five  periods: 
 
 I.     The  Period  of  the  New  Testament. 
 II.     That  of  the  Ancient  Church  to  St.  Augustine. 
 
 III.  From  St.  Augustine  to  the  Reformation. 
 
 IV.  The  Period  of  the  Reformation. 
 
 V.     The  Modern  Period,  beginning  with  Spener. 
 
 Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic  theologians  agree  that  the  in- 
 stitution of  Confession  and  Absolution  did  not  occur  in  the  New 
 Testament  period.  It  was  not  instituted  by  the  Lord,  nor  His 
 Apostles,  but  was  a  later  development  of  the  Church.  But  these 
 theologians  are  also  agreed  that  the  essence  of  that  which  the 
 Church  developed  appears  in  the  New  Testament,  not  simply  as 
 Word  of  God,  Law  and  Gospel,  but  also  as  dealing  in  a  concrete 
 manner  with  the  individual  soul. 
 
 Jesus  does  not  simply  preach  forgiveness  at  the  repentant, 
 but  He  really  absolves  them  with  clear  and  distinct  words.  He 
 even  absolved  one  sick  of  the  palsy  without  a  formal  confession, 
 since  He  knew  what  was  in  the  man,  and  knew  his  thoughts. 
 Nor  does  the  forgiveness  of  sins  on  earth  cease  with  the  ascension 
 of  the  Son  of  Man,  but  whilst  the  Lord  commissioned  the  office 
 of  the  ministry  which  He  had  hitherto  fulfilled,  to  His  disciples 
 and  they  in  turn  to  their  successors.  He  also  conferred  upon  them 
 the  power  and  duty  to  bind  and  to  loose;  which  is  the  Office  of 
 the  Keys,  "As  My  Father  hath  sent  Me  so  send  I  you."  The 
 Divine  commission  confers  discriminating  authority  and  power  on 
 the  Apostles  who  are  cautioned  not  to  cast  pearls  before  swine, 
 etc. ,  and  assures  them  that  all  sins  can  be  forgiven  except  the 
 sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost. 
 
LITURGICAI.  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      67 
 
 The  congregation  shall  take  upon  itself  the  sins  of  those  for 
 whom  it  prays,  and  strive  for  their  release  by  prayer  and  fasting 
 as  though  they  were  its  own.  Open  sins  shall  be  openly  rebuked. 
 Heretics  shall  be  repeatedly  rebuked,  and  if  they  will  not  cease 
 they  shall  be  delivered  unto  Satan  and  the  Means  of  Grace  denied 
 them.  If  they  will  still  not  repent  Christians  shall  not  receive 
 them  into  their  houses.  If  however  they  repent  they  shall  be 
 received  and  prayers  made  for  them.  In  the  Church,  one  shall 
 confess  his  fault  to  another.  The  sick  shall  confess  to  the  pres- 
 byter and  he  shall  pray,  and  forgiveness  shall  follow. 
 
 II. 
 
 What  the  Apostolic  Church  taught  by  her  life  in  the  Word 
 of  God,  the  early  Church  developed  into  Dogmas.  Heresies  and 
 schisms  caused  much  bitterness  and  strife  wherefore  it  was  but 
 natural  that  the  matter  of  Confession  and  Absolution  played  the 
 first  and  most  important  role  in  liturgical  developments.  Many 
 who  had  strayed  in  bitter  moods  returned  again  and  sought  par- 
 don. 
 
 Since  it  worketh  forgiveness  of  sins  the  form  of  Baptism,  es- 
 pecially adult  Baptism,  presented  the  first  Order  of  Confession 
 and  Absolution.  The  Montanists  taught  the  heresy  that  a  bap- 
 tized person  can  not,  or  dare  not  sin.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermes 
 declared  that  it  is  possible  for  one  still  living  in  the  flesh  to  sin; 
 but  if  he  do  so  in  weakness  or  ignorance  he  can  receive  Absolu- 
 tion by  coming  to  God  through  the  Church,  and  by  seeking  rec- 
 onciliation through  an  honest  confession. 
 
 According  to  Tertullian  the  sermon  was  intended  to  bring 
 one's  sins  to  consciousness  whereupon  an  opportunity  was  given 
 all  repentant  ones  to  come  forward  to  confess  and  receive  the  Ab- 
 solution. He  reasoned  that  man  consists  of  body  and  soul  and 
 he  who  sins  sins  with  both.  The  body  must  share  the  sorrow  of 
 the  soul  and  so  submit  to  physical  punishment  which  led  to  the 
 practice  of  paying  penance  fines.  He  taught  that  sins  against 
 man  man  can  forgive,  but  those  against  God  only  God  can  for- 
 give. And  if  one  repents  all  his  life  he  can  not  be  fully  assured 
 of  forgiveness  until  he  enters  the  future  world.  Cyprian  insisted 
 that  a  man  must  stand  in  organic  connection  with  the  Church, 
 the  body  of  Christ,  before  he  can  expect  forgiveness  through 
 Him.     He  presents  the  following  form  of  Confession:  "lyord, 
 
68  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Thou  great,  strong  and  terrible  God,  Thou  that  keepest  Thy  cov- 
 enant, and  art  merciful  to  those  who  love  Thee  and  keep  Thy 
 comniandnients,  we  have  sinned,  we  have  done  evil,  we  have  been 
 Godless,  we  have  transgressed  Thy  law  and  forsaken  Thy  com- 
 mandments, we  have  not  given  audience  to  the  word  of  Thy  ser- 
 vants, the  prophets,  who  have  spoken  in  Thy  Name  to  our  kings 
 and  to  all  nations  and  to  the  whole  earth.  To  Thee  belongs  glo- 
 ry and  righteousness,  but  to  us  shame."  Now  the  bishop  laid 
 his  hand  upon  the  penitent,  absolved  him  and  admitted  him  to 
 the  Lord's  Table. 
 
 St.  Augustine  strenuously  opposed  the  Donatists  who  be- 
 lieved that  the  Church  held  and  exercised  arbitrary  authority  and 
 power  in  the  bestowal  of  the  Absolution.  St.  Andrew  supported 
 him  in  this  position.  Fasting  was  looked  upon  as  meritorious. 
 Some  taught  that  he  who  could  not  fast  sufficiently  in  this  life 
 could  supplement  it  in  an  intermediate  state  and  then  enter  the 
 Heavenly  rest.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  doctrine  of  Pur- 
 gatory, but  this  became  monstrous  when  it  was  held  that  he  who 
 had  not  received  the  Absolution  from  the  priest  at  death  could 
 never  be  released  from  purgatory. 
 
 III. 
 
 Some  Latin  priests  heard  private  confession  and  then  di- 
 vulged the  facts  to  the  public,  thus  exposing  many  shameful 
 things.  Pope  Leo  therefore  insisted  that  all  Confession  and  Ab- 
 solution be  private.  This  gave  the  priests  another  opportunity 
 to  insist  that  Absolution  can  come  solely  through  the  priest,  and 
 not  through  any  other  Means  of  Grace.  Leo  counselled  leniency 
 and  yet  permitted  the  priests  to  continue  in  their  impositions  on 
 the  people. 
 
 The  Council  of  Aries,  451,  forbade  marriage  and  all  matri- 
 monial alliances  to  the  penitent,  and  in  many  cases  forbade  hus- 
 bands or  wives  to  return  to  their  own.  Many  were  forced  into 
 Monasteries  or  Nunneries.  Gregory  the  Great  believed  one 
 could  retain  much  in  mind  and  so  need  not  expose  himself  to  the 
 above  punishment,  and  then  by  his  own  good  works  atone  for 
 many  of  his  sins.  This  supported  the  doctrine  of  the  semi- 
 Pelagians.  It  followed  that  if  a  man  did  works  of  super-eroga- 
 tion  (viz.,  more  than  was  required)  he  would  have  authority  over 
 many  below  him.     To  attain  to  this  the  Lord  Jesus  was  frequent- 
 
LITURGICAI^  HISTORY  OP  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOI.UTION.       69 
 
 ly  offered  in  the  Mass.     Mass  was  repeatedly  read  from  now  on. 
 
 Penitential  books  were  published  in  the  twelfth  Century  by 
 Wasserschleben,  based  on  the  material  or  Vinnians  of  Ireland, 
 450  A.  D. 
 
 According  to  a  number  of  the  Canons  (e.  g.,  34th,  35th  etc.) 
 a  penitent  could  merit  much  by  paying  vows,  fasting,  saying 
 prayers,  singing  Psalms,  and  especially  making  offerings  to  the 
 priests.  The  second  chapter  of  the  Canones  Hibernenses  says:  a 
 three  days'  penitence  can  be  concentrated  into  a  day  and  a  night 
 if  the  penitent  does  not  sleep,  nor  sit  down,  and  continues  chant- 
 ing Psalms,  bowing  the  knees  twelve  times  an  hour  and  extends 
 hands  in  prayer  to  Heaven. 
 
 The  practice  of  Excommunication  (every  penitent  was  ex- 
 communicated from  the  Church)  and  Redemption  now  arose. 
 The  principal  requirement  to  redemption  was  a  liberal  offering. 
 A  poor  man  could  have  a  friend  intercede  for  him.  If  he  died 
 before  he  could  be  redeemed  it  was  made  possible  for  friends  to 
 provide  for  prayers  for  his  soul  by  bringing  offerings  to  the  Al- 
 tar.    Thus  began  the  practice  of  praying  souls  out  of  Purgatory. 
 
 Every  trifle  was  made  a  pretext  to  compel  men  to  confess 
 and  pay. 
 
 Following  is  a  form  of  prayer  for  the  Bishop  about  to  hear 
 Confession:  Almighty  I^ord  and  God,  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner, 
 that  I  may  thank  Thee  worthily  that  Thou  in  Thy  mercy  hast 
 made  me  a  servant  of  Thy  priestly  office,  and  hast  set  me  up,  a 
 plain  and  humble  one,  as  intercessor,  in  order  that  I  might  plead 
 and  intercede  with  our  L,ord  Jesus  Christ  for  penitent  sinners. 
 And  therefore,  I^ord,  Thou  Who  wiliest  that  all  men  shall  come 
 to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth  and  be  blessed ;  Thou  Who  desirest 
 not  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but  that  he  repent  and  live,  receive  my 
 prayer  which  I  offer  in  the  presence  of  Thy  Grace,  in  behalf  of 
 Thy  servants  who  are  come  hither  to  repentance,  through  Jesus 
 Christ,  our  lyord.  Amen.  Confession  being  made  priest  and 
 penitent  go  to  the  Altar,  kneel,  read  Psalms  38,  103  and  51,  and 
 pray:  O  God,  before  whose  eyes  every  heart  heaves  and  every 
 conscience  trembles  be  merciful  to  the  sighings  of  all,  and  heal 
 the  wounds  of  all,  so  that  as  no  one  among  us  is  free  from  guilt, 
 none  shall  be  a  stranger  to  forgiveness,  through  Jesus  Christ,  etc. 
 Now  both  arise  and  the  Absolution  is  pronounced.  A  form  is 
 given:  Almighty,  eternal  God,  remit  this  Thy  confessing  servant 
 
70  MEMOIRS. 
 
 his  sins  according  to  Thy  goodness,  in  order  that  the  guilt  of 
 conscience,  as  punishment,  may  do  him  no  more  harm,  and  the 
 indulgence  of  Thy  goodness  is  valuable  to  his  pardon.  Through 
 Jesus  Christ,  etc.  The  form  of  Absolution  is  deprecative  not 
 declarative. 
 
 Wasserschleben  published  an  Order  of  the  ninth  Century 
 which  was  used  as  a  preparation  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Some 
 people  made  pilgrimages  to  Rome  to  be  absolved  by  the  Pope. 
 In  some  instances  people  were  lashed  for  their  sins  and  made  to 
 say  a  number  of  Pater  Nosters,  Ave  Marias  or  Kyries.  Large  of- 
 ferings were  made  for  a  Mass,  for  living  or  dead.  Deliverance 
 was  also  purchased  by  some  people.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
 Indulgence  sales. 
 
 Following  is  a  form  of  Confession  used  (tenth  to  twelfth 
 Century):  I  confess  to  God,  the  holy  Mary,  the  holy  archangel, 
 Michael,  the  Holy  Baptist  John,  the  holy  Apostles  Peter  and 
 Paul,  etc.,  and  to  you  father  (priest)  my  guilt,  my  guilt,  my 
 guilt.  I  have  sinned  through  vanity,  in  my  many  evil  and  bad 
 thoughts,  defilements,  temptations,  lusts,  endorsements  of  evil  in 
 word  and  deed,  perjury,  adultery,  defaming  holy  things,  murder, 
 theft,  false  witness.  I  have  sinned  with  my  five  senses.  I  im- 
 plore the  holy  Mary  and  all  the  saints,  named  and  otherwise  and 
 you,  father  (priest)  to  intercede  for  me  with  our  Lord,  Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 The  post- Carolinian  period  has  produced  no  new  forms  nor 
 any  improvement  of  conditions.  Public  Confession  is  altogether 
 abandoned.  The  priests  monopolized  all  authority.  The  Name 
 of  God  was  used  simply  as  a  suppression  of  the  penitent.  This 
 was  indeed  a  period  that  loudly  called  for  a  Reformation. 
 
 IV. 
 
 We  have  seen  before  that  the  Reformation  is  bom  of  the  true 
 spirit  of  repentance  and  Absolution.  This  accounts  for  Lutheran 
 theological  and  ecclesiastical  productions  being  essentially  soteri- 
 ological. 
 
 Confession  and  Absolution  in  the  Lutheran  Church  are  the 
 antitheses  to  the  Roman  Sacrament  of  Penitence.  The  practice 
 of  the  Sacramcntiim  Pcenitcyitia;  was  much  worse  than  the  doctrine. 
 Luther  declares  it  impossible  for  the  popes  to  present  the  proper 
 doctrine  on  Repentance  since  they  do  not  understand  sin.     They 
 
LITURGICAI,  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOI^UTION.      71 
 
 deny  original  sin  and  therefore  teach  that  a  man  may  free  himself 
 from  all  sin  by  his  own  penance.  They  know  not  that  sin  has 
 blinded  their  minds  so  that  they  can  not  even  reason  what  might 
 be  correct  penance.  God  alone  knows,  says  he,  and  must  be 
 heard  and  obeyed.  A  man  must  be  regenerated  (baptized)  and 
 after  that  constantly  renewed  through  God's  own  Means  of 
 Grace. 
 
 It  is  the  gift  and  grace  of  God  that  leads  a  man  to  attrition 
 and  then  contrition.  The  Holy  Ghost  operates  through  the  Word 
 of  God,  which  by  its  legal  force  produces  not  simply  a  formal 
 contrition,  but  a  real,  subjective  contrition,  and  then  also  offers  a 
 true  evangelical  balm  wherein  is  the  healing  and  forgiving  power 
 of  God,  offered  through  and  for  Jesus'  sake.  Herein  lies  the 
 second  element  of  Confession:  Faith  in  Jesus. 
 
 God  does  not  look  on  how  much  penance  one  has  done,  but 
 on  His  Word  and  how  faithfully  you  have  believed  it.  No  man 
 can  even  know  all  his  faults,  much  less  tell  them.  The  Lord 
 commands  the  Church  to  bring  forgiveness  to  men  and  not  to 
 punish  them.  This  does  not  prevent  a  man  from  unburdening 
 his  conscience  to  the  pastor  who  is  to  hear  and  comfort  him  with 
 the  Word  of  God.  In  a  private  colloquium  the  pastor  instructs 
 the  penitent  to  better  examine  himself,  as  St.  Paul  exhorts. 
 
 The  first  Order  noticed,  the  Lippish,  1538,  is  divided  into 
 three  parts,  i)  The  Divine,  because  confession  is  made  directly 
 to  God,  as  David  did,  Ps.  19,  23,  32,  51,  69,  etc.  2)  Confession 
 made  to  men,  into  which  enters  the  influence  of  the  Gospel  min- 
 istry, St.  Matthew  16,  18  and  St.  John  20.  3)  Fraternal:  a  man 
 confesses  to  his  brother,  and  in  turn  receives  fraternal  forgive- 
 ness, St.  Matthew  15,  17  and  St.  L,uke  17,  also  James  6. 
 
 In  1528  a  special  Order  was  directed  to  pastors  requiring 
 them  to  instruct  and  admonish  people  to  come  to  and  practice  an 
 intelligent  confession.  Preaching  confers  a  general  Absolution, 
 but  private  confession  is  also  Scriptural  and  should  be  urged  since 
 it  brings  a  more  direct  operation  of  the  Word  and  Grace  of  God 
 on  the  individual  soul. 
 
 The  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Order  of  1535  clearly  states 
 that  Christ  instituted  Baptism  for  those  who  wish  to  become 
 Christians;  the  Lord's  Supper  for  Christians  who  are  and  live  in 
 faith;  and  the  remission  of  sins,  or  Absolution,  for  the  fallen  who 
 are  unworthy  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ,  but  seek  through 
 
72  MEMOIRS. 
 
 confession  to  be  absolved  and  reunited  with  the  living  members  of 
 His  Body.  Thus  one  is  constantly  returned  to  the  innocence  of 
 his  baptized  estate.  The  Calenberg  Order  says  that  the  Absolu- 
 tion depends  entirely  upon  the  obedience  of  Jesus  Christ,  which 
 becomes  a  Divine  gift  to  penitent  and  believing  man. 
 
 The  Brandenburg-Niirnberg  Order  of  1533  says:  The  pastor 
 shall  move  the  people  with  the  greatest  diligence  to  seek  absolu- 
 tion from  their  sins,  before  they  come  to  the  Sacrament  of  the 
 Altar;  for  Christ  has  instituted  and  ordained  such  an  oflBce,  not 
 without  reason  when  He  said,  "Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 whosesoever  sins  ye  remit  they  are  remitted  unto  them,  etc." 
 He  knew  that  we  are  in  need  of  such  consolation,  even  though 
 we  ourselves  do  not  thus  comprehend  it. 
 
 The  lyiineburg  Order,  1645,  directs  that  no  one  shall  come 
 to  the  Lord's  Table  who  has  not  presented  himself  to  the  pastor, 
 confessed  his  sins  and  his  faith  and  has  received  the  Absolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Lutheran  Confession  does  not  simpl}^  mean  the  preaching  of 
 the  Word  but  also  the  personal  application  of  the  Word  upon  the 
 individual  soul.  It  is  not  only  a  part  of  the  Sacrament  of  Holy 
 Baptism,  nor  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  a  distinct  function  of  the 
 Word  of  God. 
 
 Bugenhagen  presents  the  following:  The  pastor  shall  say, 
 make  confession  with  me,  and  acknowledge  5'our  sins  to  God, 
 that  He  be  merciful  unto  us,  "God  be  merciful  to  me  a  poor  sin- 
 ner. My  faith  is  wanting.  I  do  not  love  the  Lord  with  my 
 whole  heart,  nor  put  all  my  trust  in  Him  in  my  temptations,  and 
 all  my  bodily  and  spiritual  wants.  I  ought  to  fear  God  alone, 
 and  keep  Him  before  my  eye  in  all  things,  but  now  I  fear  men. 
 I  am  afraid  I  might  lose  my  property,  honor,  friendship  and  my 
 body.  I  exercise  unchristian  concern  for  nourishment,  and  seek 
 in  all  things  mine  own  but  not  what  is  the  Lord's.  I  do  not 
 place  my  confidence  for  salvation  in  Jesus,  His  only  begotten 
 Son,  given  for  us.  Charity  is  also  wanting  in  me  so  that  I  do 
 not  love  my  neighbor  as  myself.  I  deal  with  my  neighbor  with 
 evil  suspicion,  evil  communication,  in  words  and  deeds;  and  can 
 not  bear  a  single  word  spoken  by  him  against  me.  And  I  can 
 not  heartily  forgive  him  in  anj'thing,  though  I  am  in  dut}'  bound 
 so  to  do.  My  conscience  is  especially  burdened  with  these  temp- 
 tations.    Therefore,  Almighty  God,  forgive  me  all  mj'  sins,  and 
 
I.ITURGICAL  HISTORY  OP  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOLUTION.      73 
 
 illumine  my  heart  with  Thy  truth,  that  I  may  own  Thee  as  my 
 merciful  Father  and  my  neighbor  as  my  brother  without  any  of- 
 fense, according  to  Thy  Word,  through  our  I^ord,  Jesus  Christ, 
 Amen.     Jesus  Christ  is  our  eternal  salvation.     Amen." 
 
 The  Kalenberg  Order,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
 Century,  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  to  that  found  in  our 
 Church  Book,  both  in  the  Confession,  the  Absolution,  and  the 
 Retention.  Many  other  Orders  contain  substantially  the  same 
 thing. 
 
 Lutheran  Orders  contend  faithfully  against  Reformed  influ- 
 ences which  hold  that  by  one's  faith  he  can  largely  free  himself 
 from  sin.  They  claim  that  faith  is  the  first  thing  damaged  by 
 sin.  If  the  true  faith  were  there  sin  could  not  come.  Therefore 
 one  must  first  hear  the  preaching  of  the  Word  which  restores  and 
 renews  faith  and  thus  God  frees  from  sin  and  not  man.  They 
 also  contend  against  Roman  influences  which  set  apart  special 
 days  and  seasons  as  Confession  and  Absolution  times,  making 
 special  mention  of  Communion  periods.  Confession  should  be 
 and  remain  a  distinct  service  and  should  be  open  to  burdened 
 souls  at  all  times.  In  practice  the  lyUtheran  Church  has  howev- 
 er yielded  to  some  influences  around  her  but  it  is  not  her  teach- 
 ing. 
 
 According  to  the  Lauenburg  Order  the  minister  must  assure 
 himself  that  the  penitent  i)  is  truly  sorry  for  his  sins,  believes 
 and  has  an  earnest  purpose  to  live  a  better  life;  2)  recognizes 
 God's  wrath  against  sin;  3)  apprehends  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  con- 
 cerning the  forgiveness  of  sins;  and  4)  fears  and  loves  God  and 
 will  strive  to  remain  in  faith  until  death.  He  must  keep  all 
 things  in  strict  confidence  so  that  the  penitent  may  not  hesitate 
 to  confess  freely.  He  must  also  instruct,  admonish,  and  exam- 
 ine, and  yet  not  so  as  to  drive  the  penitent  into  fear  and  de- 
 spair. 
 
 Most  of  the  Orders  of  Absolution  of  this  time  did  not  include 
 the  form  of  Retention.  The  minister  laid  his  hands  upon  the 
 penitent  and  thus  absolved  him  wherefore  the  retention  was  not 
 necessary,  since  he  did  not  lay  hands  on  any  one  whom  he  con- 
 sidered impenitent.  The  Absolution  was  declarative.  The  ab- 
 solved one  did  not  immediately  leave  the  church.  He  spent 
 some  time  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving  and  then  quietly  departed. 
 An  offering  was  always  made. 
 
74  MEMOIRS. 
 
 V. 
 
 The  thirty  years'  war  disrupted  the  churches  and  their  wor- 
 ship. People  grew  more  hardliearted  through  their  experiences, 
 and  therefore  more  indifferent  and  independent  toward  the  inner 
 life  of  the  Church.  Private  confession  was  looked  upon  as  an 
 imposition  and  a  burden,  and  even  some  ministers  called  it  a  mar- 
 tyrdom. It  was  made  a  public  service,  attached  to  the  Commun- 
 ion service  and  often  conducted  but  once  a  year.  A  low  state  of 
 morals  followed.  Some  authorities  endeavored  to  restore  the  old 
 Order  of  Excommunication  and  Restoration,  but  with  poor  success, 
 
 Theophilus  Grossgebauer,  1661,  complained  bitterly  against 
 this  state  of  affairs  in  a  book  called,  "  lVa/c/i??iefi's  Voices  from 
 Rubied  Zio7i.''  He  held  that  a  penitent  has  God's  forgiveness 
 whether  a  man  pronounces  the  Absolution  or  not;  and  that  when 
 a  confitent  returns  to  the  Church  Ite  must  be  received.  The  pas- 
 tor has  no  say  in  this  matter  at  all.  The  Church  as  a  body  reg- 
 ulates all  these  affairs.     The  result  was  strife  without  end. 
 
 Spener  regretted  these  conditions  very  much  and  insisted 
 that  confitents  should  come  to  private  confession  as  in  former 
 years.  But  many  people  refused  to  come.  They  went  over  to  the 
 Reformed  Church  which  ran  along  in  the  current  of  the  times, 
 and  did  not  require  private  confession,  and  indeed  very  little 
 public  confession. 
 
 The  lyUtheran  conception  of  Absolution  is  that  it  confers 
 grace  and  a  blessing  upon  the  penitent,  and  a  curse  upon  the  im- 
 penitent. As  the  unworthy  eat  and  drink  damnation  in  the 
 Lord's  Supper,  so  here.  And  therefore  a  minister  should  be  very 
 careful  in  the  matter  of  absolving  any  one.  Spener  disagreed 
 with  this  and  held  that  the  Absolution  upon  the  impenitent  nei- 
 ther benefited  nor  injured  him;  that  it  simply  remained  ineffect- 
 ive. This  was  another  addition  to  the  indifference  of  people  to 
 the  Church  and  her  authority. 
 
 Spener  also  denied  the  Divine  element  in  Confession  and  Ab- 
 solution. The  Diviiii  juris  he  called  Jnnnani  juris.  He  also 
 contended  against  the  form  of  confession  which  the  Church  had 
 adopted,  saying,  "every  man  may  confess  in  his  own  words,  and 
 in  whatever  form  he  pleases." 
 
 He  also  held  that  since  the  offering  displeased  so  many,  and 
 since  therefore  it  is  a  hindrance  to  devotion  and  often  a  burden  to 
 the  poor,  they  should  be  discontinued. 
 
I^ITURGICAI,  HISTORY  OF  CONFESSION  AND  ABSOI.UTION.      75 
 
 The  pietism  of  his  day  was  inclined  to  protest  against  private 
 Confession,  and  held  that  no  Absolution  is  potent  except  the 
 minister  has  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  often  considered  itself  too  good 
 to  become  a  confitent. 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  rationalism  considered  itself  far  above  and 
 beyond  Confession  and  Absolution,  and  so  trifled  over  and  neg- 
 lected it. 
 
 Thus  the  Church  passed  on  into  our  own  day.  There  are 
 constant  efforts  at  restoration,  revival  and  renewal,  but  the  many 
 worldly  and  material  tendencies  will  keep  progress  at  an  extreme- 
 ly slow  pace  if  there  can  be  much  hope  for  progress  at  all. 
 
 James  F.  IvAmbert. 
 Caiasauqua,  Pa. 
 
THE  SACRAMENTAL  IDEA  IN  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP. 
 
 The  Church  of  Christ  is  the  congregation  of  Saints  in  which  the 
 Gospel  is  rightly  taught,  and  the  Sacraments  rightly  adminis- 
 tered.* It  is,  in  its  historical  origin  as  well  as  in  its  constant 
 preservation,  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Who  calls,  gathers, 
 enlightens  and  sanctifies  all  Christendom  (die  ganze  Christen- 
 heit)  on  earth  and  preserves  it  in  union  with  Jesus  Christ  in  the 
 true  faith. t  What  makes  and  marks  the  true  Church  must  like- 
 wise make  and  mark  the  Service  of  the  true  Church.  Thus  we 
 find  it  in  the  Apostolic  Church  whose  Service  is  briefly,  but 
 comprehensively,  described  in  Acts  2,  42.  "They  continued 
 steadfastly  in  the  Apostles'  teaching  and  fellowship,  in  the  break- 
 ing of  bread  and  in  prayer. ' '  The  Christian  Service  is  simply 
 the  actualization  of  the  existing  communion  of  grace  and  faith 
 with  God  in  Christ.  In  it  the  edification  of  the  Church  and  the 
 glorification  of  God's  grace  in  Christ  are  identical,  as  the  princi- 
 pal aim  and  end  of  all  Christian  Cultus.  There  can  be  no  indi- 
 vidual Christian,  nor  a  congregation  of  Christians,  without  faith. 
 This  faith  is  the  gift  and  work  of  God  Himself  through  the 
 means  of  grace.  To  obtain  it  we  must  have  the  offer  of  Divine 
 grace  in  the  Gospel.  And  to  abide  steadfastly  in  this  faith  and, 
 through  it,  in  union  with  Jesus  Christ,  we  must  have  the  con- 
 stant offer  and  appropriation  of  Divine  grace  through  the  Word 
 and  Sacraments. 
 
 Since  the  fall  of  man  his  true  communion  with  God  presup- 
 poses reconciliation,  atonement.  All  human  efforts  to  establish 
 such  reconciliation  are  essentially  pagan  or  judaistic.  In  the 
 Christian  religion  alone  the  assurance  of  that  atonement  as  an 
 objective  accomplished  fact  is  the  foundation  of  all  true  worship. 
 The  message  of  atonement  is  the  Gospel,  proclaiming,  offering 
 
 *  Augsburg  Confession,  Art.  VII. 
 
 t  Small  Catechism,  Third  Article  of  the  Creed.  (Ixxvii) 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  conveying  all  that  God  has  done  and  is  doing  for  the  salva- 
 tion of  man.  It  presents  the  one  great  sacrifice  which  God  has 
 made  for  us  in  Christ,  the  fullest  exhibition  of  His  love  to  His 
 fallen  creatures,  by  which  they  are  redeemed  and  saved.  Over 
 against  this  offer  and  presentation  of  God  there  is  nothing  for  us 
 to  do  but  to  accept  it,  to  grasp  it  with  the  hand  of  faith  as  it  is 
 presented.  God  serves  us  by  His  grace,  we  serve  Him  in  our 
 faith. 
 
 The  communion  between  God  and  man  being  thus  estab- 
 lished by  the  free  and  sovereign  act  of  God's  grace,  there  results 
 from  it  a  constant  reciprocity  between  God  and  man.  God  giv'es, 
 man  receives;  and  having  received  the  blessing  of  God  man  gives 
 what  he  is  able  to  offer  to  his  reconciled  God  in  the  sacrifice  of  a 
 pure  and  reasonable  service.  But  this  latter  is  altogether  based 
 upon  the  former.  That  which  establishes  and  preserves  the 
 communion  between  God  and  man,  that  which  provides,  appro- 
 priates and  seals  our  salvation  is  altogether  the  gift  and  act  of 
 God,  the  ordinance  and  testament  of  God.  Now,  all  the  gifts  of 
 God,  and  all  His  acts  toward  our  salvation,  culminate  in  the 
 unspeakable  gift  of  His  Son.  And  the  gift  of  His  Son  culmi- 
 nates in  the  propitiatory  sacrifice  on  Calvary,  where  God  set 
 Him  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  through  faith  in  His  blood.  This 
 New  Testament  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  most  beauti- 
 fully and  perfectly  comprehended,  offered,  appropriated  and  en- 
 joyed in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  The  Lord's  Supper,  not  as 
 a  work  or  performance  of  man  but  as  the  very  heart  and  height 
 of  all  the  saving  gifts  and  acts  of  God,  is  the  real  centre  and  cul- 
 mination of  all  Christian  worship.  Everything  else  is  grouped 
 around  this  point  and  leads  up  to  it.  Thus  it  was  in  the  Apos- 
 tolic Church.  The  Service  of  those  early  Christians  consisted  in 
 the  reception  and  fruition  of  the  Divine  gifts,  in  the  Word  and 
 the  Sacrament,  (the  teaching  of  the  Apostles  and  the  breaking 
 of  the  bread)  and  in  the  offering  of  their  spiritual  sacrifices 
 (Prayer).  There  was  God's  own  Word  and  Sacrament  coming 
 to  man,  with  all  its  solemn  warning,  admonition,  rebuke,  threat- 
 ening, and  all  its  blessed  consolation,  speaking  peace  to  the 
 troubled  heart,  offering  and  conveying  forgiveness  of  sins,  life 
 and  salvation.  And  there  was  man's  word  addressed  to  God, 
 praising  Him,  blessing  Him,  worshipping  Him,  glorifying  Him, 
 giving  thanks  to  Him  for  His  grace  and  His  great  glory.     These 
 
THE  SACRAMENTAL  IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  79 
 
 two  sides  of  Christian  worship  have,  from  ancient  times,  been 
 distinguished  as  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial,  the  sacra- 
 menttim  including  God's  gifts  and  acts  in  the  Service,  the  sacrifi- 
 ciuvi  covering  all  human  acts  of  confession,  praise,  prayer  and 
 thanksgiving. 
 
 Unfortunately,  the  mediaeval  Church  did  not  preserve  this 
 pure  Scriptural  and  Apostolic  idea  of  the  Christian  Service 
 with  its  important  distinction  between  the  sacranientuni  and  the 
 sacrificium.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  already  we 
 discover  the  first  traces  of  a  marked  deviation  from  Apostolic 
 doctrine  and  practice  in  this  respect.  Two  factors  were  particu- 
 larly influential  in  bringing  about  a  gradual  deterioration.  In 
 the  conflicts  of  the  Church  against  strong  sectarian  tendencies 
 the  authority  and  dignity  of  the  office  of  the  ministry  was  more 
 and  more  exalted,  until  it  was  ultimately  represented  as  a  singu- 
 lar order  distinct  from  the  common  Christian  people,  ^priesthood 
 in  the  hierarchical  and  mediatorial  sense  of  the  word,  on  which 
 the  whole  communion  between  Christ  and  His  believing  people 
 depended.  And  the  idea  of  the  sacrijimim,  the  human  act  in  the 
 Service,  assumed  such  a  preponderance  that  even  the  Testament 
 of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  considered  merely  from  its  sacrificial 
 aspect,  a  service  done  to  God,  and  not  a  gift  of  God  bestowed 
 upon  His  people.  Tertullian  already,  in  speaking  of  the  Com- 
 munion Service  uses  the  term  "'Sacrificium  offertur'^  in  distinc- 
 tion from  the  preaching  of  the  Word,  '^Dei  sermo  administrahiry 
 Cyprian  describes  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  of  the 
 Altar  as  a  ''Celebrare  Sacrificium ^  Even  in  its  most  ideal  as- 
 pect this  conception  of  the  Service  was  a  retrograde  movement 
 toward  the  Old  Testament  with  its  priesthood  and  sacrifices, 
 judaizing,  legalistic;  over  against  the  Sacramentum  of  the  New 
 Testament,  as  a  purely  Divine  act  of  communicating  and  convey- 
 ing grace  upon  the  participant.  In  its  later  consistent  develop- 
 ment the  Romanism  of  the  Middle  Ages  turned  the  Service  of 
 the  Christian  Church  into  a  meritorious  performance  offered  to 
 God  by  the  priest  in  behalf  of  the  congregation  with  an  effect 
 that  was  essentially  magical,  not  ethical  or  spiritual.  The  cele- 
 bration of  the  Lord's  Supper  becomes  the  culmination  of  all 
 human  offerings  and  sacrificial  acts,  the  unbloody  sacrifice,  with 
 propitiatory  power  for  the  living  and  the  dead,  the  greatest  of  all 
 human  acts  and  performances  in  the  sphere  of  religion. 
 
80  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  distinct- 
 
 1}'  declared  that  it  is  not  necessary,  "that  human  traditions,  rites, 
 or  ceremonies  instituted  by  men,  should  be  everywhere  alike."* 
 But  while  thus  referring  all  matters  concerning  the  outward  form 
 of  the  Christian  Service  to  the  sphere  of  liberty  it  could  not 
 ignore  the  great  principles  underlying  the  ceremonies  of  the 
 mediaeval  Church  which  were,  indeed,  matters  "concerning  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Gospel  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments" 
 and  as  such  "necessary  to  the  true  unity  of  the  Church."  The 
 Reformation  is  essentially  the  restoration  of  the  Gospel  of  God's 
 free  and  sovereign  grace.  It  sets  forth  and  emphasizes  the 
 Divine  initiative  in  the  whole  plan  and  work  of  our  salvation. 
 It  ascribes  all  power  and  honor  exclusively  to  God's  grace,  over 
 against  any  work  of  man.  God  comes,  God  works,  God  gives; 
 His  are  also  the  means  and  methods  by  which  He  has  chosen  to 
 work  out  our  salvation,  the  means  of  grace  and  ordinances  which 
 are  objective  Divine  realities  to  offer  and  convey  God's  saving 
 grace  to  the  individual.  God  first  loves.  He  makes  known  His 
 love  to  man,  and,  being  assured  that  we  are  beloved,  we  believe, — 
 our  faith  itself  being  altogether  God's  own  work,  God's  gift. 
 From  this  point  of  view  the  spirit  of  the  mediaeval  Service  had 
 to  be  examined  and  judged  by  the  Reformers.  Consequently 
 Luther  in  his  treatise  on  "The  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the 
 Church,"  one  of  his  three  %x^z.\.  Reformatio7i-Pro7nuicia7nentos  oi 
 1520  attacks  the  very  centre  of  the  Roman  position  in  its  doc- 
 trine concerning  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  He  finds  in  it  the 
 greatest  of  all  offenses,  and  a  point  of  such  far  reaching  impor- 
 tance that  the  whole  nature  of  the  Church  and  her  Service  was 
 thereby  affected,  and  a  radical  change  was  made  necessary'.  In 
 the  same  year,  in  his  "Sermon  vom  Neuen  Testament,  d.  i.  von 
 der  Messe"t  ^^  enters  into  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  underlying 
 principles.  "In  all  the  dealings  of  man  with  God,"  he  says, 
 "the  proper  way  and  order  must  be  this:  Not  that  man  should 
 begin  and  lay  the  foundation,  but  that  God  alone,  w'ithout  any 
 effort  or  endeavor  on  the  part  of  man,  must  come  first  (zuvor- 
 kommen),  and  give  His  word  of  promise.  This  Word  of  God  is 
 the  first  thing,  the  foundation  and  rock  on  which  afterwards  all 
 words  and  thoughts  of  man  are  built.     This  word  must  be  thank- 
 
 •  Augsb.    Con/.     Art.    VII. 
 t  Erlangen  Edit.     Vol.  27. 
 
THE  SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  81 
 
 fully  received  by  man,  confidently  believing  the  Divine  promise, 
 not  doubting  that  it  is  and  will  be  done  even  as  He  promises. 
 Such  faith  is  the  beginning,  middle  and  end  of  every  work  and 
 righteousness  of  man.  For  inasmuch  as  man  giveth  the  honor 
 to  God,  taking  Him  and  confessing  Him  to  be  true,  he  thereby 
 finds  a  gracious  God  Who,  in  turn,  will  honor  him  and  confess 
 him.  It  is  therefore  impossible  that  man  by  his  own  reason  and 
 strength  should  ascend  into  Heaven  with  works  of  his  own,  and 
 prevent  God  and  move  Him  to  be  gracious, — but  God  must  come 
 before  all  works  and  thoughts  of  man,  and  must  give  a  clear  and 
 distinct  promise  of  His  word  which  man  is  to  grasp  and  to  hold 
 in  firm  faith"  .  .  .  After  a  brief  survey  of  the  Divine  promises 
 of  grace  and  salvation  in  the  Old  Testament,  Luther  comes  to  the 
 "Testament"  of  the  new  covenant,  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar, 
 in  which  he  sees  "a  brief  summary  of  all  the  miracles  and  graces 
 of  God,  as  fulfilled  in  Christ.  ...  A  testament  is  a  Befiejicium 
 datum.  It  bestows  a  benefit  upon  us,  it  does  not  receive  a  bene- 
 fit. Who  has  ever  heard  that  a  man  who  receives  a  testament  is 
 doing  a  good  work?  He  simply  takes  a  benefit  to  himself, — ap- 
 propriates it.  Thus  in  the  Mass  (Lord's  Supper)  we  do  not  give 
 anything  to  Christ,  we  only  take  from  Him.  Likewise  in  Bap- 
 tism, which  is  also  a  Divine  Testament  and  Sacrament,  no  one 
 gives  anything  to  God,  but  receives  from  Him;  so  also  in  the 
 preaching  of  the  Word.  There  is  no  work  of  man  in  all  this, 
 but  simply  the  exercise  of  faith  on  the  part  of  man.  There  is  no 
 Officium,  but  Beneficium,  no  work  or  service,  but  only  fruition 
 and  benefit." 
 
 Likewise  Melanchthon  in  his  Apology  of  1531  discusses  the 
 general  idea  of  the  Sacramentum  as  over  against  the  Sacrijicium, 
 in  the  relation  between  God  and  man,  and  their  dealings  with 
 each  other.  In  the  24th  Article  De  Missa  he  answers  the  ques- 
 tions: "Quid  sit  Sacrijicium  et  qua  sint  sacrijicii  species?  Quid 
 patres  de  sacrijicio  senserini?  De  usu  Sacram-enti  et  de  Sacrificio. 
 The  great  importance  of  the  distinction  between  Sacramentum 
 and  Sacrificium  is  emphasized.  Both  may  be  comprehended  un- 
 der the  generic  name  of  ceremonia,  holy  rites,  {Opus  Sacrum). 
 Sacramentum.  est  ceremonia  vet  opus  in  quo  Deus  nobis  exhibet  hoc 
 quod  offert  annexa  ceremonies  promissio,  ut  Baptismus  est  opus,  non 
 quod  nos  Deo  offerimtis,  sed  in  quo  nos  baptizat,  viz.,  minister  vice 
 Dei,  et  hie  offert  et  exhibet  Deus  remissionem  peccatorum,  juxta 
 
82  MEMOIRS. 
 
 pro77iissioncm  (Marc.  i6,  i6).  Econtra  sacrijiciiint  est  ceretnojiia 
 vcl  opus  quod  nos  Deo  rcddinnis  et  Bum  honore  afficiamus."  The 
 sacrament,  accordingly,  is  a  Divine  act,  exhibiting,  offering  and 
 conveying  Divine  grace.  On  the  other  hand  the  sacrificium  is  a 
 human  act  rendered  to  God  by  man  to  give  Him  His  due  honor. 
 Some  forcible  statements  of  Luther  on  this  point  may  be 
 added  from  his  treatise  "Vom  Anbeten  des  Sacraments  des  Heili- 
 gen  Leichnams  Christi"  (On  the  adoration  of  the  Sacrament  of 
 the  lyord's  Body)  addressed  to  the  Waldensian,  Bohemian  and 
 Moravian  Brethren  whose  doctrine  concerning  the  real  presence 
 appeared  somewhat  doubtful  and  unsatisfactory  to  Luther.* 
 "The  principal  thing  in  the  Sacrament  is  the  Word  of  Christ, 
 when  He  says.  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Body;  Take,  drink,  this  is 
 the  cup  of  the  New  Testament.  All  depends  on  these  words. 
 Every  Christian  must  know  them  and  guard  them  against  any 
 other  doctrine,  even  though  an  angel  from  Heaven  should  bring 
 it.  These  are  words  of  life  and  salvation,  and  whosoever  believes 
 in  them  has,  by  such  faith,  forgiveness  of  all  his  sins,  and  is  a 
 child  of  life,  having  overcome  hell  and  death.  It  is  unspeakable 
 how  great  and  powerful  these  words  are.  For  they  are,  indeed, 
 the  sum  of  the  whole  Gospel.  They  are  really  more  important 
 than  the  Sacrament  itself.  And  a  Christian  ought  to  accustom 
 himself  to  pay  more  attention  to  these  words  than  to  the  Sacra- 
 ment itself,  though  the  false  teachers  have  so  perverted  the  truth 
 that  these  words  have  been  slighted  and  even  hidden  before  the 
 people,  while  the  act  of  the  Sacrament  has  been  exclusively  em- 
 phasized. Thus  it  is  that  faith  has  come  to  nothing,  and  the 
 Sacrament  was  turned  into  a  purely  external  work  without 
 faith.  .  .  .  The  most  pernicioiis  error  and  heresy  introduced  by 
 the  Pope  is  this,  that  the  Sacrament  has  been  turned  into  a  sacri- 
 fice and  good  work.  .  .  .  To  guard  against  this  abominable  error 
 you  must  cling  to  the  words:  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Body,  etc., 
 which  words  contain  the  whole  Gospel.  You  can  clearly  see  and 
 apprehend  that  they  do  not  speak  of  a  sacrifice  or  work  but  of  a 
 gift,  offered  and  presented  by  Christ,  which  we  are  to  take,  to 
 grasp  and  keep  by  faith.  He  commands  you  to  take  and  to  keep, 
 and  you  want  to  give  and  to  sacrifice?  How  can  you  say  to  God: 
 I  give  Thee  Thy  Word? — instead  of  saying:  My  Lord,  as  Thou 
 sayest  that  Thou  art  giving  it  to  me,  I  take  it  cheerfully  with 
 *~Errangen  Edit.  Vol.  28,  p.  388-421. 
 
THE   SACRAMENTAL   IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  83 
 
 thanksgiving!  As  little  as  you  can  turn  the  Gospel  itself  into  a 
 sacrifice  or  work,  you  can  do  so  with  this  Sacrament;  for  this 
 Sacrament  is  the  Gospel.  ...  It  would  be  a  great  shame  to 
 ascribe  to  the  Sacrament  no  more  than  to  any  good  work  of  man, 
 inasmuch  as  no  good  work  can  ever  deliver  us  from  sin,  nor  give 
 us  grace,  life  and  salvation.  But  this  Sacrament  does  give  grace, 
 life  and  salvation,  for  it  is  the  very  fountain  of  life  and  salva- 
 tion." 
 
 On  the  basis  of  these  principles  the  reconstruction  of  the 
 Service  of  the  Church  of  the  Reformation  was  conceived  and  car- 
 ried out.  No  true  and  correct  Service  was  to  be  thought  of  with- 
 out the  administration  of  the  means  of  grace,  that  is  the  Word 
 and  Sacrament.  "Let  this  be  the  sum  and  substance  of  our  Ser- 
 vice that  the  Word  have  its  proper  place  in  it.  Everything  else 
 might  rather  be  omitted  but  the  Word.  And  nothing  better  can 
 be  handled  or  used  in  the  Service  than  the  Word.  For  it  is  an 
 everlasting  Word,  everything  else  must  perish."*  No  single 
 Service  ever  ought  to  consist  of  purely  sacrificial  acts,  but  it 
 must  always  contain  something  of  a  sacramental  character,  that 
 is,  something  belonging  to  the  ministration  of  the  Word  and 
 Sacrament.  And  these  indispensable  sacramental  features  must 
 always  hold  the  first  place,  as  to  dignity  and  importance,  in  the 
 Service  of  the  congregation,  while  the  Eucharistic  sacrifices  of 
 prayer,  confession,  thanksgiving  and  offerings,  compared  with 
 the  former,  have  a  secondary,  subordinate  position.  A  clear 
 distinction  between  the  two  sides,  and  their  respective  merits,  is 
 thus  insisted  upon.  But  this  distinction  does  not  mean  a  separa- 
 tion of  the  two.  They  are,  indeed,  combined  in  almost  every  act 
 of  the  Service.  The  reading  of  the  Word,  the  distribution  of  the 
 elements  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  and  the  Benediction 
 might  be  called  purely  and  exclusively  sacramental,  inasmuch  as 
 the  attitude  of  the  congregation  is  simply  receptive  in  those  acts. 
 And  on  the  other  hand,  the  prayer  of  the  congregation  might  be 
 called  a  purely  sacrificial  act.  But  otherwise  the  sacramental  and 
 the  sacrificial  are  constantly  blending  in  the  true  Christian  Ser- 
 vice. For  instance,  the  preaching  of  the  Word  by  the  minister 
 is  primarily  and  pre-eminently  sacramental,  as  the  exposition  and 
 application  of  the  Divine  Word,  spoken  for  the  salvation  of  our 
 souls.     But  there  is,  at  the  same  tiuie,  a  sacrificial  side  even  to 
 
 *   Luther,  in  Ordnung  des  Goitesdiensts  in  der  Ceineine.     Wittenberg.    1523. 
 
84  MEMOIRS. 
 
 the  sermon.  It  is  the  joyful,  solemn  testimony  of  the  congrega- 
 tion of  what  God  in  His  mercy  has  done  for  it,  proclaimed 
 through  its  official  mouth-piece,  the  pastor.  Again,  when  the 
 congregation  lifts  up  its  voice  to  sing  its  precious  hymns,  it  does, 
 indeed,  offer  its  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving, — 
 but,  at  the  same  time,  it  participates  in  the  sacramental  side  of 
 the  Service,  in  setting  forth  the  great  deeds  of  God  for  our  sal- 
 vation. The  songs  of  the  congregation  proclaim  the  Gospel  it- 
 self. This  is  particularly  true  of  those  objective  hymns  of  the 
 Church  which  embody  the  great  facts  of  Advent,  Christmas, 
 Epiphany,  Passion,  Resurrection,  Ascension  and  Pentecost.  Ev- 
 en in  one  and  the  same  hymn  the  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial 
 may  be  united,  the  presentation  of  the  Gospel  truth,  and  the 
 prayer  and  praise  for  this  precious  gift,  as  offered  by  the  congre- 
 gation. Even  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  the  Service 
 is  by  no  means  confined  to  sacramental  features.  These  are,  of 
 course,  the  fundamental  and  central  parts  of  this  Service,  in  the 
 Verda  Testanienti,  and  the  Distribution  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
 ments. But  the  very  act  of  participation  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
 municants, as  a  confession  of  their  crucified  and  risen  Lord,  is  of 
 a  sacrificial  character.  And  so  are  the  prayers  and  hymns  which 
 precede,  accompany  and  follow  the  administration  of  the  Sacra- 
 ment proper,  the  Preface,  Sanctus,  Agnus  Dei,  with  the  Thanks- 
 giving. 
 
 Thus  it  is  manifest  that  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Service 
 are  not  exclusively  confined  to  the  Minister,  nor  are  the  sacrificial 
 parts  exclusively  confined  to  the  congregation.  A  distinction 
 between  the  participation  of  pastor  and  people,  respectively,  in 
 the  Service,  on  this  basis  of  assigning  the  sacramental  parts  to 
 the  former  and  the  sacrificial  to  the  latter  is  inadmissible.  We 
 have  seen  that  the  congregation  engages  in  the  sacramental  parts 
 of  the  Service  in  proclaiming  the  saving  facts  of  the  Gospel  in 
 their  hymns;  and  we  know  that  the  pastor  takes  part  in  the  sac- 
 rificial acts  of  the  congregation  joining  with  them  and  leading 
 them  in  their  prayers.  A  significant  and  appropriate  expression 
 of  a  clear  distinction  between  the  two  sides  of  the  Service  the 
 sacramental  and  the  sacrificial,  is  the  change  of  position  on  the 
 part  of  the  officiating  minister  at  the  altar,  as  prescribed  in  many 
 of  our  old  Ageiida.  In  all  the  sacramental  parts  of  the  Service, 
 when  the  minister  has  to  deliver  a  Divine  message  to  the  congre- 
 
THE  SACRAMENTAI,  IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP.  85 
 
 gation,  he  faces  his  people.  In  all  the  sacrificial  parts,  when  he 
 speaks  with  and  in  behalf  of  the  congregation,  he  stands,  as  the 
 other  members  of  the  congregation,  facing  the  altar. 
 
 It  is  hardly  necessary  for  us  to  go  over  the  Service  of  our 
 Lutheran  Church,  as  presented  in  the  Church  Book,  {Communio, 
 Matins  and  Vespers)  and  to  point  out  in  detail  the  sacramental 
 features  in  their  distinction  from,  as  well  as  in  their  combination 
 with,  the  sacrificial  elements.  To  any  one  who  will  take  the 
 pains, — or  I  should  rather  say,  the  pleasure — of  entering  into  a 
 study  of  those  beautiful  Services,  the  relation  of  those  parts  must 
 be  perfectly  clear  in  every  case.  The  only  real  difficulty  that 
 may  possibly  present  itself  in  this  connection  is  in  the  considera- 
 tion of  the  Introit.  Its  structure  is  evidently  that  of  the  Psalm- 
 ody, with  Antiphon,  Psalm-Verse  and  Gloria  Patri.  As  such  we 
 would  naturally  take  it  to  be  one  of  the  sacrificial  elements  of  the 
 Service.  The  fact  that  under  the  regulations  of  the  Roman 
 Church  the  priest  had  to  face  the  altar  during  the  Introit  might 
 be  taken  as  an  additional  evidence  that  the  Introit  was  considered 
 as  a  prayer,  offered  to  God  in  behalf  of  the  congregation.  But 
 the  correct  view  seems  to  be  this,  that  in  the  Introit  also  we  have 
 a  combination  of  the  two  elements,  the  sacramental  and  the  sac- 
 rificial. The  Antiphon,  its  first  and  principal  part,  represents  an 
 objective  sacramental  word  which,  as  a  herald's  call,  sets  forth 
 the  main  fact  or  idea  of  the  respective  Sunday  or  Festival.  This 
 Divine  act  or  gift  calls  forth  the  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving 
 of  the  congregation  in  the  subsequent  Psalm- Verse  with  Gloria 
 Patri.  In  the  liturgical  rendering  of  the  Introit,  it  seems  to  us, 
 this  twofold  character  would  best  be  brought  out  if  it  were  as- 
 signed to  the  Choir.  Unfortunately,  the  rubric  in  our  Church 
 Book  makes  no  reference  whatever  to  this  most  appropriate  form 
 of  using  the  Introit.^ 
 
 In  defining  the  position  of  our  Lutheran  Church  concerning 
 the  sacramental  side  of  the  Service  we  have,  thus  far,  presented 
 it  chiefly  in  its  antithesis  to  the  Church  of  Rome  and  her  mani- 
 fest tendency  to  exalt  the  Sacrificiiim  above  the  Sacramenium, 
 the  human  work  or  performance  in  the  Service  over  against  the 
 Divine  act  and  gift  of  grace.  But  there  are  features  also  in  the 
 Protestant  denominations  around   us  which  indicate  that  with 
 
 *  Compare  on  this  whole  question  C.  Cracau,  The  Introit,  in  Siona  of  1879, 
 January  to  March. 
 
86  MEMOIRS. 
 
 them  also  the  proper  balance  between  the  sacrificial  and  sacra- 
 mental is  frequently  disturbed,  and  that  the  former  is  being 
 exalted  at  the  expense  of  the  latter.  The  sacraments  themselves 
 are  almost  entirely  stripped  of  their  proper  sacramental  character, 
 and  turned  again  into  sacrificial  acts  of  man.  They  are  chiefly 
 considered  as  human  acts  of  profession.  God  is  no  longer  seen 
 in  them  as  the  principal  actor  and  giver.  Man  is  acting,  pre- 
 senting himself,  making  a  profession  of  faith.  From  this  position 
 results  the  common  widespread  indifference  toward  Infant  Bap- 
 tism, even  among  those  Protestant  bodies  which  are  still  Pedo- 
 baptist  according  to  their  theological  standards.  Consistently 
 carried  out  this  view  leads  to  the  final  rejection  of  Infant  Bap- 
 tism altogether.  We  may  also  point,  in  this  connection,  to  the 
 modern  praj'er  meeting  in  which  prayer  itself  is  treated  as  a 
 means  of  grace,  a  kind  of  sacramental  power  is  ascribed  to  it, 
 while  in  its  innermost  nature  it  must  always  be  pre-eminently 
 sacrificial. 
 
 This  whole  tendency  results  from  the  failure  of  Reformed 
 Protestantism,  ever  since  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  to  appreciate  the 
 Word  and  Sacraments  of  God  as  real  objective  and  efficacious 
 means  of  grace,  by  which  and  through  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
 actually  offers,  conveys  and  appropriates  saving  grace  to  the 
 individual.  We  are  one  with  the  Reformed  in  denying  the  expi- 
 atory character  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  in  believing  that 
 Christians  have  no  other  sacrifices  to  bring  before  God  but  the 
 Eucharistic  offerings  of  their  prayers  and  good  works.  But 
 when  we  come  to  the  important  question:  How  does  the  Lord 
 communicate,  convey,  appropriate  and  seal  to  man  the  benefits 
 of  His  atoning  sacrifice?  our  ways  do  part.  On  this  point  Re- 
 formed Protestantism  fails  to  apprehend  that  the  true  character 
 of  the  Church's  Service  must  primarily  be  that  of  the  Sacramen- 
 ium,  that  is,  the  distribution  and  appropriation  of  God's  gifts  of 
 grace  through  the  Divinely  ordained  means  of  grace,  in  behalf  of 
 God,  and  as  an  act  of  God  Himself. 
 
 In  \\\s  Ratio  Fidei  (Reckoning  of  Faith),  submitted  to  the 
 Diet  in  Augsburg,  1530,  Zwingli  says:  "I  believe,  yea  I  know, 
 that  all  the  sacraments  are  so  far  from  conferring  grace  that  they 
 do  not  ev^en  convey  or  distribute  it.  .  .  .  For  as  grace  is  pro- 
 duced or  given  by  the  Divine  Spirit  so  this  gift  pertains  to  the 
 Spirit  aloue.     Moreover,  a  channel  or  vehicle  is  not  necessary  to 
 
THE  SACRAMENTAL  IDEA   IN   CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  87 
 
 the  Spirit,  for  He  Himself  is  the  virtue  and  energy  whereby  all 
 things  are  borne,  and  has  no  need  of  being  borne;  neither  do  we 
 read  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  that  perceptible  things,  as  are  the 
 sacraments,  bear  certainly  with  them  the  Spirit,  but  if  percepti- 
 ble things  have  ever  been  borne  with  the  Spirit,  it  has  been  the 
 
 Spirit,  and  not  perceptible  things,  that  has  borne  them 
 
 Therefore  the  Spirit  of  grace  is  conveyed  not  by  this  mersion, 
 not  by  this  draught,  not  by  this  anointing;  for  if  it  were  thus  it 
 would  be  known  how,  where,  whence  and  whither  the  Spirit  is 
 given.  For  if  the  presence  and  efficacy  of  grace  are  bound  to 
 the  sacraments,  they  work  where  these  are  conveyed;  and  where 
 these  are  not  applied  all  things  languish.  .  .  .  From  this  it  is 
 inferred,  .  .  .  that  the  sacraments  are  given  as  a  public  testi- 
 mony of  that  grace  which  is  previously  present  to  every  individ- 
 ual. ...  By  Baptism,  therefore,  the  Church  publicly  receives 
 one  who  had  previously  been  received  through  grace.  Baptism, 
 therefore,  does  not  bring  grace,  but  testifies  to  the  Church  that 
 grace  has  been  given  for  him  to  whom  it  is  administered.  I  be- 
 lieve, therefore,  that  a  sacrament  is  a  sign  of  a  sacred  thing — i.  e. 
 of  grace  that  has  been  given.  I  believe  that  it  is  a  visible  figure 
 or  form  of  invisible  grace — viz.,  which  has  been  provided  and 
 given  by  God's  bounty;  i.  e.,  a  visible  example  which  presents 
 an  analogy  to  something  done  by  the  Spirit.  I  believe  that  it  is 
 a  public  testimony.  "* 
 
 It  is  manifest  that  such  views  completely  destroy  the  idea  of 
 any  real,  objective  means  of  grace.  It  is  not  denied  that  there 
 are  real  treasures  of  Divine  grace  obtained  for  man  through 
 Christ's  mediatorial  work.  It  is  claimed  that  these  treasures  are 
 appropriated  to  and  by  individual  men.  But  it  is  denied  that 
 this  appropriation  is  effected  through  certain  means  which  the 
 Lord  Himself  has  appointed  and  ordained  for  His  Church,  and  to 
 which  He  has  bound  Himself  with  His  solemn  promise  that  thus 
 and  there  He  will  be  found  by  us.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
 tended that  the  appropriation  of  grace  is  effected  directly  from 
 God  to  man,  as  from  Spirit  to  Spirit,  in  some  mysterious  manner, 
 without  any  medium  or  instrumentality  whatever.  Those  that 
 are,  in  fact,  believers  in  consequence  of  some  inscrutable  Divine 
 operation  or  decree  have  nothing  left  to  them,  whenever  they 
 meet  for  worship,  but  to  demonstrate  this  their  faith  by  acts  of 
 *  See  Dr.  H.  E.  Jacobs,  The  Book  of  Concord,  etc.     Vol.  II,  pp.  i68ff. 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 public  profession.  Thus  every  feature  of  the  Service  becomes, 
 of  necessity,  simply  an  exhibition  .of  existing  faith.  When  the 
 Word  is  heard  and  the  Sacraments  are  partaken,  it  is  not  the 
 Lord  Who  is  thereby  carr>'ing  on  His  gracious  work,  but  it  is 
 the  assembly  of  believers  that  demonstrates  its  Christian  faith 
 and  life.  The  Sacramentum,  in  its  ovro.  true  sense,  has  no  place 
 in  this  Service.  It  is  all  Sacrificium.  On  the  other  hand  our 
 Lutheran  responsive  Service,  with  its  rich  liturgical  and  hymno- 
 logical  treasures,  requiring  the  active  and  whole-souled  partici- 
 pation of  the  congregation,  proves  that  the  emphasis  which  our 
 Church  lays  on  the  Sacramentum,  instead  of  overlooking  or 
 crowding  out  the  Sacrificiuvi,  rather  develops,  enriches  and 
 beautiJSes  the  sacrificial  parts  of  the  Service  to  an  extent  unknown 
 to  Reformed  Protestantism. 
 
 A.  Spaeth. 
 Mi.  Airy,   Philadelphia,  Pa. 
 
PARAMENTS   OF  THE  LORD'S   HOUSE. 
 
 Paraments  is  an  unusual  word  in  English.  It  is  defined  in  the 
 Standard  Dictionary,  "rich  and  ornamental  clothes  and  furni- 
 ture." Webster  cites  this  line  from  Chaucer  which  indicates  its 
 ancient  meaning:  "Lords  in  paraments  on  their  coursers."  It  is 
 derived  horn,  paro,  to  prepare,  through  the  later  Latin  paramen- 
 tum.  In  English  it  refers  usually  to  the  ornamental  hangings 
 and  furniture  of  state  apartments,  and  the  clothing  of  royal  and 
 other  exalted  personages.  In  German  the  word  has  an  ecclesi- 
 astical meaning.  Paramentics  is  the  art  of  church  decoration. 
 Narrow  use  confines  it  to  textile  fabrics.  Wider  use  applies  it  to 
 all  forms  of  church  decoration  and  furniture.  Among  Protestant 
 writers  on  the  subject  are  Meurer,*  Beck.f  Schaefer:[:  and  Buerk- 
 ner.§  The  sainted  Lohe,  amid  all  his  labors  for  the  sick  and  the 
 poor,  and  his  world-wide  missionary  work,  found  time  to  promote 
 its  study  and  development  in  the  churches.  In  England  and 
 Germany  a  knowledge  of  the  art  is  required  of  those  who  build 
 or  reconstruct  churches.  In  America  word  and  thing  were  until 
 recently  almost  unknown.  Hence  so  many  of  our  churches  look 
 more  like  drawing-rooms  or  theatres  than  houses  of  God, 
 
 The  subject  is  worthy  of  greater  attention  than  it  has  re- 
 ceived. Ministers  of  the  Lord's  House  should  know  something 
 of  its  furnishings,  and  intelligent  laymen  would  take  a  new  de- 
 light in  their  house  of  worship  if  they  understood  the  art  of  dec- 
 orating it  in  a  fitting  manner.     As  George  Herbert  quaintly  says: 
 
 *  Altarschmtick.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Paramentik  in  der  Evangelischen  Kirche 
 von  Lie.     MoRiTZ  Meurer.     Leipzig,    1867. 
 
 +  Soli  Deo!  Ein  Wort  zu  Nutz  und  Ehren  der  evattgelischen  Paramentik. 
 Von  Martin  Eugen  Beck.     Leipzig,    1885. 
 
 X  Ratgeber  fuer  Anschaffung  und  Erhaltung  von  Paramenten.     Berlin,   1897. 
 
 §  Kirchenschmuck  und  Kirchengeraet.  VoN  RICHARD  BuERKNER.  Gotha, 
 1892.  (Ixxxix) 
 
90  MEMOIRS, 
 
 "They  who  love  God's  house  will  like  His  household  stuff." 
 Luther,  with  all  his  hostility  to  the  mummeries  of  Romanism,  its 
 vestments,  its  caps  and  its  bells,  at  a  critical  time  in  his  career, 
 forsook  the  protection  of  the  Wartburg  in  order  that  he  might 
 put  a  stop  to  the  ravages  of  the  iconoclasts.  "I  do  not  believe," 
 said  he,  "that  art  is  to  be  overthrown  by  the  Gospel,  as  some  hy- 
 perspiritual  people  maintain,  but  I  should  like  to  see  all  the  arts 
 placed  in  the  service  of  Him  Who  made  them." 
 
 When  we  see  a  private  house  furnished  with  good  taste,  with 
 tapestries,  carvings  and  pictures,  and  when  we  accompany  the 
 family  to  its  place  of  worship  to  find  there  an  absence  of  art,  or 
 else  a  superfluity  of  decoration,  and  that  too  of  a  secular  charac- 
 ter, does  it  not  recall  the  words  with  which  David  reproached 
 himself:  "See  now,  I  dwell  in  an  house  of  cedar,  but  the  ark  of 
 God  dwelleth  within  curtains."  In  the  vision  of  the  epiphany, 
 as  given  in  the  sixtieth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  we  are  told  not  only  of 
 the  Gentiles  who  shall  come  to  His  light  and  kings  to  the  bright- 
 ness of  His  rising,  but  also  "The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  come 
 unto  Thee,  the  fir  tree,  the  pine  tree,  and  the  box  together,  to 
 beautify  the  place  of  My  sanctuary,  and  I  will  make  the  place  of 
 My  feet  glorious." 
 
 Whatever  the  style  of  architecture  may  be,  the  house  of 
 worship  should  bear  the  impress  of  the  purpose  to  which  it  is 
 dedicated.  It  should  distinctly  say  to  him  who  enters  "This  is 
 the  house  of  the  Lord."  The  earliest  style  of  buildings,  after 
 Christianity  emerged  from  the  obscurity  to  which  the  persecu- 
 tions of  the  first  three  centuries  condemned  it,  was  the  basilica. 
 The  name  expresses  the  conviction  of  the  Christian  conscience 
 that  the  house  of  the  Lord  must  be  a  royal  house,  a  house  of 
 beauty.* 
 
 Lohe,  in  his  plea  for  the  beautification  of  the  church,  shows 
 how  sin,  proceeding  from  man,  affected  all  created  things.  "The 
 whole  creation  groaneth."  But  since  God  has  begun  in  Christ 
 to  heal  humanity,  it  is  the  mission  of  sanctified  man  to  sanctify 
 
 •  Mr.  Ruskin  says  that  those  who  built  the  Gothic  churches  really  believed 
 they  were  building  dwelling-places  for  Christ,  and  they  wished  to  make  them  as 
 comfortable  and  beautiful  for  Him  as  they  could.  The  facade  of  Amiens  bears  out 
 this  idea,  for  the  central  figure  in  it  is  Christ,  called  "the  good  God  of  Amiens," 
 Who  welcomes  all  who  come  to  enter  its  portals  and  gives  them  His  benediction." 
 Larned's  Churches  and  Castles  of  Meiiii£val  France. 
 
PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  91 
 
 the  creature,  and  to  bring  it  back  again  to  holy  uses,  so  that  it 
 may  also  be  delivered  from  the  curse  and  restored  to  a  beauty 
 exceeding  even  that  of  the  primal  Paradise.  The  whole  earth 
 shall  be  full  of  His  glory.  In  the  meantime  the  Church  estab- 
 lishes stations  on  the  way,  habitations  of  peace,  wherein  we  may 
 be  reminded  how  fair  shall  be  that  Paradise  in  which  our  eyes 
 shall  see  the  King  in  His  beauty.  This  is  the  secret  purpose  of 
 the  Church  when  she  builds  and  adorns  her  sanctuaries.  From 
 an  inexhaustible  store  of  truth  she  finds  a  thousand  ways  of  con- 
 fessing her  faith,  not  only  in  the  spoken  word  and  the  harmonies 
 of  music  and  poetry,  but  also  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  in 
 painting  and  embroidery. 
 
 Architecture  does  not  belong  to  the  scope  of  this  paper.  For 
 it  no  apology  is  needed.  It  is  when  we  come  to  the  interior  of 
 many  modern  churches  that  our  hearts  grow  heavy.  Large  sums 
 of  money  are  wasted  for  decorations  that  are  incongruous  in  de- 
 sign and  secular  in  spirit,  and  therefore  convey  to  the  eye  and 
 heart  no  message  of  sanctity  and  religion.  Sometimes  it  is  an 
 ambitious  churchliness  which  constructs  altars  and  chancels  with 
 appurtenances  which  mean  nothing  to  the  Protestant  worship- 
 per. Again,  the  spirit  of  imitation  leads  many  congregations  to 
 sew  patches  of  ecclesiastical  decoration  on  the  garments  of  anti- 
 ritualistic  simplicitj^  without  regard  to  the  fitness  of  things. 
 There  may  be  a  wealth  of  display  in  the  carpets  and  windows 
 and  furniture,  but  if  the  decoration  is  not  in  harmony  with  the 
 place,  it  produces  an  atmosphere  that  is  foreign  to  the  spirit  of 
 devotion. 
 
 The  present  era  of  prosperity  is  marked  by  the  erection  of 
 many  new  houses  of  worship,  and  the  reconstruction  of  old  ones. 
 An  improved  churchly  taste  is  manifest.  This  is  gratifying. 
 But  unfortunately  the  only  available  models  of  churchliness  are 
 taken  from  a  denomination  whose  canons  differ  somewhat  from 
 those  of  our  Church,  and  it  is  humiliating  to  find  that  a  new  Lu- 
 theran church  is  nothing  but  a  second  edition  of  an  Episcopal 
 church,  not  revised  and  improved.  While  there  is  an  improve- 
 ment on  the  ungesthetic  simplicity  of  the  past  it  is  much  to  be 
 regretted  that  pains  are  not  taken  to  produce  a  more  truly  Lu- 
 theran style  of  church  decoration.  This  style  will  be  found  in 
 the  via  media  between  Roman  Catholicism  and  Reform.  Our 
 fathers  accepted  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  as  they  were,  only 
 
92  MEMOIRS. 
 
 removing  the  most  objectionable  features.  But  in  building  new 
 churches  we  should  not  merely  repristinate  with  moderate  criti- 
 cism, we  should  reconstruct  along  the  lines  of  our  liturgical  can- 
 ons.    These  canons  are: 
 
 I.  Historical  conservatism;  2.  Adaptation  to  modern  con- 
 ditions;    3.  Expression  of  Lutheran  principles  of  worship. 
 
 A  small  handbook  on  this  subject  would  prove  of  great  value 
 to  intending  builders  of  churches. 
 
 Articles  of  church  furniture  in  general  use  are  the  pulpit, 
 the  reading  desk,  the  table  and  the  font.  Some  churches  have 
 the  pulpit  only.  In  this  case  the  church  is  an  auditorium.  The 
 preacher  stands  in  the  focus  of  all  eyes.  He  is  the  chief  actor, 
 the  dominant  figure. 
 
 No  one  denies  the  paramount  importance  of  preaching. 
 Nevertheless  congregations  worshipping  in  an  auditorium  sufifer 
 a  distinct  loss.  There  is  a  dramatic  value  in  the  action  involved 
 in  the  use  of  the  lectern,  the  table  and  the  font.  From  the  read- 
 ing desk  the  minister  delivers  to  the  people  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
 the  inspired  Word  of  God.  From  the  pulpit  it  is  the  voice  of 
 the  herald  or  messenger.  From  the  table  and  font  are  distribu- 
 ted the  sacramental  gifts.  For  sacrificial  purposes  the  table  be- 
 comes an  altar  where  the  minister,  in  the  name  of  the  congrega- 
 tion, presents  the  sacrifices  of  prayer,  praise  and  thanksgiving. 
 These  are  valid  distinctions  in  acts  of  worship  and  their  v^alue 
 and  significance  are  worthy  of  consideration  on  the  part  of  the 
 advocates  of  extreme  simplicity. 
 
 The  earliest  Christian  altars  were  simple  tables  made  of 
 wood,  specimens  of  which  may  still  be  found  among  the  treasures 
 of  the  churches  in  Rome.  The  oldest  of  all,  at  which  the  Apos- 
 tle Peter  himself  is  said  to  have  ministered,  is  a  simple  slab 
 mounted  on  a  single  pedestal.  The  New  Testament  speaks  only 
 of  the  Table  of  the  Lord,  (I  Corinthians  10,  21),  although  the 
 symbolism  of  the  Supper  is  also  presented  in  this  passage. 
 
 The  change  in  the  form  of  the  altars  was  brought  about  by 
 the  dogmatic  delusion  which  transformed  the  Lord's  Supper  into 
 the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  still  more  by  the  relation  which  the 
 altar  was  made  to  take  to  the  graves  of  the  martyrs.  The  form 
 of  the  altars,  as  the  Reformation  found  them,  was  to  a  great  ex- 
 tent the  expression  of  a  doctrinal  system  which  Protestants  re- 
 pudiate. 
 
PARAMENTS    OF   THE    I^ORD'S    HOUSE.  93 
 
 Nevertheless  IvUther  proceeded  in  a  conservative  manner, 
 being  more  concerned  about  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  than 
 questions  of  ritual.  He  made  no  changes  that  were  not  absolute- 
 ly required.     "We  must  bide  our  time,"  he  said. 
 
 But  the  Renaissance,  a  secular  movement  running  parallel 
 with  the  Reformation,  produced  important  changes  in  the  struct- 
 ure of  the  altar,  and  its  work  was  for  the  worse.  With  no  re- 
 ligious principle  to  guide  it,  it  gave  free  play  to  its  aesthetic  im- 
 pulses in  designing  friezes  and  architraves  and  facades  of  colossal 
 dimensions.  Even  the  Romanists  were  outdone  in  obscuring  the 
 original  significance  of  the  lyord's  Table. 
 
 What  is  the  significance  of  the  altar?  The  altar  is  first  of 
 all  the  Table  of  the  lyord.  Any  other  view  of  it  is  alien  to  our 
 doctrine.  For  this  reason,  lyohe,  whom  some  regard  a  very  high 
 churchman,  says  "The  location  of  the  altar  is  higher  than  the 
 nave,  in  order  that  the  congregation  may  be  witnesses  of  all  that 
 takes  place  at  the  altar.  But  Protestants  have  no  interest  in 
 placing  the  altar  too  high,  because  they  repudiate  the  Sacrifice  of 
 the  Mass  and  the  worship  of  the  Host,  and  because  they  cannot 
 admit  that  there  is  a  line  of  separation  between  the  place  of  the 
 sacrament  and  the  priestly  congregation." 
 
 In  the  second  place  the  altar  is  the  place  of  prayer.  The 
 acts  of  prayer  which  the  minister  performed  in  the  name  of  the 
 congregation  were  formerly  intimately  connected  with  the  Com- 
 munion Service.  Hence  also  the  acts  of  the  benediction,  such  as 
 confirmation,  absolution,  marriage  and  ordination,  are  properly 
 performed  at  the  altar.  Here  too  may  be  presented  the  offerings, 
 as  "an  odor  of  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  well-pleasing  to  God." 
 (Phil.  4,  i8;  Heb.  13,  16). 
 
 In  a  figurative  sense  it  is  therefore  not  improper  to  speak  of 
 the  Table  of  the  Lord  as  an  altar,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that 
 Protestants  use  the  term. 
 
 The  chancel  rail  is  found  almost  everywhere  in  American 
 Lutheran  churches.  It  marks  a  separation  between  ministers 
 and  people  which  the  teaching  of  our  Church  does  not  recognize. 
 Take  it  away. 
 
 With  this  review  of  the  history  and  significance  of  the  altar, 
 to  which  neither  the  highchurchman  nor  the  most  radical  antirit- 
 ualist  can  justly  take  exception,  we  are  prepared  to  inquire  as  to 
 its  proper  place  in  the  arrangement  and  decoration  of  the  church. 
 
94  MEMOIRS. 
 
 On  the  one  hand  our  altar  will  not  be  the  high  structure  which 
 our  Episcopal  and  Lutheran  brethren  inherited  from  Rome  and 
 the  Renaissance.  Nor  will  it  on  the  other  hand  be  the  little 
 stand  in  front  of  the  pulpit,  resembling  a  piece  of  parlor  furni- 
 ture, serving  on  Communion  days  for  the  vessels  and  elements  of 
 the  Sacrament,  and  on  other  days  as  a  convenient  receptacle  for 
 the  hats  and  overcoats  of  the  brethren. 
 
 Whether  a  celebration  takes  place  or  not,  it  is  the  Lord's 
 Table  in  the  Lord's  House,  and  is  therefore  the  most  fitting  sym- 
 bol of  the  KOLvwvui,  the  fellowship  that  characterized  the  earliest 
 Church  and  that  still  binds  believers  together.  It  symbolizes 
 also  those  sacrificial  acts  which  are  an  essential  part  of  all  true 
 worship.  It  should  therefore  be  of  goodly  size,  made  of  substan- 
 tial material,  and  should  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  choir, 
 in  sight  of  the  whole  congregation.  It  should  be  covered  at  all 
 times,  that  is  at  every  Service,  with  a  white  linen  cloth.  If  the 
 Table  stands  free,  the  cloth  should  project  over  the  four  sides. 
 If  it  stands  against  the  wall,  the  cloth  should  project  over  the 
 front  the  width  of  a  span,  and  over  the  ends  a  greater  length. 
 
 As  to  the  decorations  which  may  be  placed  upon  the  altar, 
 there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  not  very  important  and  the 
 discussion  may  be  deferred.  It  is  a  question  whether  flower 
 vases  should  be  placed  upon  the  table,  but  artificial  flowers  are 
 unquestionably  forbidden.  In  some  churches  the  front  and  sides 
 of  the  altar  are  covered  with  a  costly  cloth,  suitably  embroidered, 
 known  as  the  antependinm.  If  the  altar  is  made  of  sculptured 
 stone,  this  is  not  necessary.  But  in  any  case  a  so-called  ante- 
 pendhim  strip  is  a  favorite  form  of  decoration.  It  is  made  of 
 wool  or  silk,  is  one- third  as  wide  as  the  table,  and  covers  the  en- 
 tire depth  of  the  table  and  hangs  for  a  considerable  distance  over 
 the  front.  Its  purpose  is  to  tell  in  color  and  design  the  story  of 
 the  particular  Season  in  the  Church  Year.* 
 
 *  The  limits  of  this  article  forbid,  or  we  might  speak  of  numerous  objects  re- 
 lated to  the  altar,  believing  that  many  reforms  are  needed  here  in  our  church  prac- 
 tice. One  is  the  substitution  of  \\\c  cihorium  for  \he  paten.  It  looks  better,  has 
 ancient  usage  to  warrant  it,  and  is  better  for  practical  reasons.  Another  is  the  ban- 
 ishment of  the  velum.  At  present  its  use  is  almost  universal  not  only  in  Lutheran 
 but  also  in  Reformed  Churches.  It  is  a  remnant  of  the  Romish  superstition  in  re- 
 gard to  the  rnyilerium  treinenduni,  and  illustrates  the  persistence  of  custom  even 
 where  the  dogmatic  foundation  has  long  ago  been  taken  away.  Some  writers  speak 
 of  the  symbolical  importance  of  the  corporal  and  the  palla,  but  these  are  superflui- 
 
PARAMENTS    OP    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  95 
 
 The  church  colors  ordinarily  used  in  Lutheran  churches  are 
 five  in  number:  white,  red,  green,  violet  and  black.  White,  ac- 
 cording to  lyUther,  "the  color  of  the  angels  and  the  saints,"  is 
 used  on  the  Festivals  of  Christ,  from  Christmas  eve  to  the  end  of 
 the  Epiphany,  and  from  Easter  to  Ascension  {Exaudi).  Red, 
 the  majestic  color  of  fire  and  blood,  is  the  color  of  the  Church. 
 In  garments  of  red  she  clothes  herself  on  Whitsunday,  the  anni- 
 versary of  her  baptism  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  also  on  all  Church 
 anniversaries  and  mission  festivals.  Violet  is  the  color  of  solemn 
 meditation  and  preparation  and  is  used  during  Advent  and  the 
 Passion  Season.  Black  is  used  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Cruci- 
 fixion. Green,  the  every-day  and  universal  color  of  nature  is 
 used  at  other  times. 
 
 As  for  the  pulpit,  its  location  is  more  important  than  its 
 decoration.  The  great  gulf  that  often  separates  the  preacher 
 from  the  people  ought  to  be  closed  up.  For  textile  fabrics  on  the 
 pulpit  there  is  little  need.  The  pounding  of  the  pulpit  cushion 
 is  an  unsanitary  proceeding.  But  for  wood  carving  or  for  metal 
 work  there  is  a  wide  field  for  the  artist.  The  draught  of  fishes 
 afforded  a  suggestive  subject  for  a  carving  on  an  oaken  pulpit. 
 
 The  lectern  is  sometimes  regarded  as  an  innovation  in  our 
 American  churches.  Few  German  churches  in  this  country  have 
 it,  and  it  looks  as  though  we  had  borrowed  it  from  the  Episcopa- 
 lians. But  such  is  not  the  case.  They  are  a  survival  of  the  an- 
 cient ambo,  and  at  least  in  Middle  Germany  are  to  be  found  in 
 many  of  our  churches.  Where  they  have  disappeared,  I  am  in- 
 clined to  think  it  the  result  of  carelessness  and  neglect.  Where 
 the  lectern  is  not  used  the  minister  uses  the  altar-table  instead,  a 
 practice  which  is  undesirable  but  not  altogether  indefensible. 
 
 Lecterns  should  be  graceful  in  form  and  not  so  high  as  to 
 hide  the  reader's  head.  The  "eagle"  is  only  one  of  many  forms 
 that  may  be  used.  As  in  the  case  of  the  pulpit,  it  is  not  necessa- 
 ry to  deck  it  with  textile  fabrics,  nor  does  the  rule  of  color  apply 
 to  the  decoration  of  the  lectern  or  pulpit. 
 
 The  font  is  an  object  which  has  not  yet  received  a  settled 
 home  in  our  Lutheran  churches.  The  liturgists  have  not  yet 
 reached  an  agreement  upon  its   proper  location.      The  weight 
 
 ties  with  which  we  can  easily  dispense.  The  lavabo  cloth  is  seldom  seen,  and  yet 
 this  has  hygienic  and  aesthetic  value.  Its  general  use  might  forestall  the  introduction 
 of  the  individual  Communion  cup. 
 
96  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  authority  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  the  administration  of  bap- 
 tism in  the  presence  of  the  whole  congregation,  and  hence  the 
 font  should  be  placed  outside  of  the  choir,  at  the  head  of  the 
 middle  alley  of  the  church  so  that  the  oflBciating  minister  may  be 
 seen  and  heard  by  all. 
 
 Space  will  not  permit  me  to  enter  into  details  or  to  speak  of 
 the  numerous  minor  objects  of  the  church  edifice.  I  shall  sim- 
 ply allude  to  the  walls,  the  windows  and  the  floors.  Each  of 
 these  is  worthy  of  careful  study.  We  should  reject  the  eccentric, 
 the  unsesthetic,  the  gross,  and  should  endeavor  to  treat  these 
 objects  in  harmony  with  the  sacred  uses  of  the  house  which  they 
 are  to  serve.  These  may  seem  to  be  unimportant  things  for  a 
 minister,  but  is  it  unreasonable  to  believe  that  He  Who  made 
 this  beautiful  world  and  Who  is  Himself  the  author  and  source 
 of  beauty,  should  be  unable  to  speak  to  us  through  the  eye  as 
 well  as  the  ear.  As  Gregory  of  Nyssa  said:  "It  is  not  enough  to 
 be  led  to  the  knowledge  of  God  by  hearing  only,  the  sight  must 
 also  be  a  teacher  of  exalted  ideas." 
 
 Mosaics,  frescoes,  sculpture  and  wood  carving  are  possible 
 only  for  the  richer  churches.  But  where  the  price  can  be  paid, 
 these  are  desirable  forms  of  church  decoration.  We  need  only 
 recall  the  frescoes  of  Kaulbach  in  Berlin  to  appreciate  the  value 
 of  mural  painting.  Examples  of  fine  wood  carving  are  to  be 
 found  both  in  the  ancient  and  modern  churches  of  Europe. 
 
 The  art  of  embroidery  deserves  mention,  because  in  it  the 
 deft  hands  of  the  women  of  the  congregation  may  be  employed 
 to  such  great  advantage.  In  the  Christian  era,  the  art  of  em- 
 broidery as  applied  to  church  decoration,  is  traced  to  Helen,  the 
 mother  of  the  first  Christian  emperor.  But  eighteen  centuries 
 earlier,  when  Moses  erected  the  tabernacle,  "all  the  women  that 
 were  wise-hearted  did  spin  with  their  hands,  and  brought  that 
 which  they  had  spun,  the  blue  and  the  purple,  the  scarlet  and 
 the  fine  linen."  There  were  men  also  "whom  God  filled  with 
 wisdom  of  heart,  to  work  all  manner  of  work  of  the  engraver  and 
 of  the  cunning  workman  and  of  the  embroiderer."     (Exodus  35). 
 
 The  progress  of  the  art  of  embroidery  in  Christian  history 
 can  only  be  briefly  indicated.  In  the  seventh  century  it  was  cul- 
 tivated in  the  British  Isles  with  such  success  that  ''opics  Aitgli- 
 cum"  became  proverbial.  And  if  to-day  the  merchants  of  the 
 world  have  to  send  to  St.  Gallen  for  their  finest  embroideries,  it 
 
PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  97 
 
 is  because  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago  the  clerics  of  that  lit- 
 tle town  in  Eastern  Switzerland  cultivated  this  art  as  they  did 
 other  arts  to  the  glory  of  God. 
 
 The  Crusades  brought  back  to  Europe  not  only  a  wealth  of 
 new  material,  but  also  of  new  designs,  against  some  of  which 
 Bernard  of  Clairvaux  protested  with  ascetic  earnestness.  The 
 climax  of  excellence  was  reached  in  the  fifteenth  century,  not  in 
 Italy,  but  in  the  Lowlands  of  Germany  and  along  the  Rhine, 
 and  even  in  Scandinavia.  The  Reformation  greatly  reduced  the 
 sphere  of  the  art  while  the  Renaissance  corrupted  its  spirit,  sub- 
 stituting the  classic  forms  of  heathendom  for  the  sacred  symbols 
 of  Christianity.  The  closing  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
 have  witnessed  a  revival  of  the  earlier  and  purer  art. 
 
 The  antependium  affords  a  fitting  place  for  the  embroiderer's 
 designs.  The  simple  Chi  Rho,  XP,  the  monogram  of  Christ,  or 
 the  common  Alpha  and  Omega,  A  O,  tell  of  Him  Who  is  the  first 
 and  the  last  in  Heaven  and  on  earth.  The  flowers  and  leaves  of 
 the  thistle  wound  around  the  cross  tell  how  Christ  suffered  for  a 
 guilt  that  was  not  His  own.  If  roses  are  used,  they  tell  of  the 
 Divine  love  that  brought  Him  to  earth.  Five  in  number,  they 
 remind  us  of  the  wounds  in  His  hands  and  His  feet  and  His  side. 
 The  ears  of  grain  and  the  clusters  of  grapes  speak  of  Him  Who 
 is  the  Bread  from  Heaven  and  the  life  of  the  world.  That  pri- 
 meval innocence  has  been  restored  by  the  death  of  the  sinless 
 God-man  is  indicated  by  the  lily,  while  the  cross  and  the  palm 
 leaves  proclaim  the  final  triumph  of  the  Crucified  One. 
 
 Pictures,  emblems  and  symbols  have  from  the  earliest  times 
 been  favorite  forms  of  expression,  although  the  Puritans  and  all 
 the  Reformed  Churches  repudiated  them.  The  justification  of 
 pictures  and  emblems  is  found  in  the  fact  that  religion,  occupy- 
 ing the  field  of  the  supernatural,  must  find  means  of  expressing 
 unseen  realities  by  means  of  visible  things,  Goethe  said:  "All 
 things  transitory  are  but  parables. ' ' 
 
 Among  the  commonest  emblems  are  the  hart,  the  serpent, 
 the  anchor,  the  lamp,  the  ark,  the  sickle,  the  fish,  the  pelican, 
 the  rainbow  and  the  rose.  Types  are  often  an  effective  method 
 of  illustration.  Thus  in  a  church  in  Freudenstadt  the  wood 
 carvings  on  the  gallery  panels  represent  Creation  and  the  Nativ- 
 ity, Jonah  and  the  Resurrection,  Manna  and  the  Supper,  Sodom 
 and  the  Judgment,     Types  form  an  important  part  of  the  Passion 
 
98  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Play  of  Oberamraergau.  They  should  be  used  in  moderation 
 and  should  come  within  the  ready  comprehension  of  the  congre- 
 gation. 
 
 Do  you  object  to  these  pictures  in  church?  Luther  himself 
 was  a  smasher  of  idols.  But  when  Carlstadt  quoted  to  him 
 "Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,"  Luther  re- 
 torted at  once  "Thou  shalt  not  bow  down  thyself  unto  them,  nor 
 serve  them."  "You  cannot  help  making  images,"  said  he,  "if 
 not  with  your  hands,  then  with  your  imagination,  in  your  mind 
 and  heart." 
 
 But  for  those  who  object  to  pictures,  there  is  still  left  a  wide 
 field  for  edifying  decoration  in  the  use  of  Scripture  texts. 
 
 Art  cannot  take  the  place  of  religion.  If  art  is  in  the  church 
 for  its  own  sake,  whether  in  preaching,  or  in  the  singing  of  the 
 quartet  choir  or  in  church  decoration,  it  is  not  an  aid  but  an  ob- 
 stacle to  religion.  The  work  of  decoration  must  follow  the  re- 
 ligious life.  We  decorate  not  for  its  aesthetic  value,  but  because 
 our  faith  therein  finds  expression.  Where  religion  precedes,  art 
 may  follow  and  by  its  aid  expression  may  be  given  to  spiritual 
 truth  in  a  multitude  of  subtle  and  suggestive  forms.  As  Michel 
 Angelo  said  "True  decoration  is  the  shadow  of  the  hand  with 
 which  God  decorates." 
 
 But  paramentics  has  its  limits,  and  there  is  another  point  of 
 view  which  we  cannot  but  respect.  The  iconoclasts  of  the  eighth 
 and  ninth  centuries  made  legitimate  protest  against  perverted 
 forms  in  which  the  idol  had  taken  the  place  of  God.  And  we 
 cannot  ignore  the  spiritual  earnestness  of  their  followers  in  the 
 sixteenth  century,  the  Reformed  Churches  of  Switzerland,  Hol- 
 land and  Scotland,  who  saw  in  these  things  the  trappings  of  the 
 great  whore,  and  therefore  banished  them  from  their  services. 
 These  protests  must  not  be  overlooked.  History  warns  us  of 
 perils.  There  were  periods  in  the  Church  when  religion  declined 
 as  ritual  advanced.  In  our  day  we  have  a  striking  example  in 
 the  Greek  Church  of  a  perfected  system  of  symbolism  and  ritual, 
 along  with  what  seems  like  the  absence  of  a  spiritual  religion. 
 Such,  at  least,  is  the  verdict  of  Harnack  in  his  graphic  picture  of 
 the  Greek  Church  in  IVescn  des  Christattiims. 
 
 In  view  of  such  facts  it  behooves  us  to  inquire  whether  art 
 really  is  the  handmaiden  of  religion.  The  Saviour  teaches  us 
 that  the  characteristic  of  true  worship  is  spirituality.     Forms  of 
 
PARAMENTS    OF    THE    LORD'S    HOUSE.  99 
 
 worship  are  admissible  only  in  so  far  as  they  conduce  to  edifica- 
 tion. If  art  has  any  relation  to  true  worship,  it  must  be  in  har- 
 mony with  these  truths.  It  is  not  enough  to  show  that  there  has 
 been  a  historical  connection,  we  must  prove  that  there  is  no  real 
 antagonism  between  them. 
 
 The  oft-quoted  apothegm  of  Goethe  throws  some  light  on 
 the  subject.  He  calls  art  "a  preliminary  redemption,  a  Gospel 
 of  the  natural  man,  a  human  introduction  to  the  Gospel  of  grace. 
 It  is  the  province  of  art  to  separate  the  spiritual,  the  permanent 
 and  the  real  from  that  which  is  material  and  transitory."  It  is 
 this  faculty  that  distinguishes  the  painter  from  the  photographer. 
 Another  consideration  is  the  fact  that  as  soon  as  religion  finds 
 expression  in  worship,  there  is  not  only  a  field  for  art  but  also  a 
 necessity  for  it.  Hence  we  conclude  that  St.  Paul's  injunction 
 as  to  "whatsoever  things  are  lovely"  is  not  to  be  ignored  in  our 
 treatment  of  the  House  of  the  Lord. 
 
 In  the  church  of  St.  Sebald  in  Niirnberg,  there  is  a  famous 
 sacramentary,  towering  sixty  feet  from  the  floor.  While  the 
 sculptor  was  finishing  with  scrupulous  care  some  ornament  near 
 the  top,  he  was  asked  why  he  was  so  careful,  no  one  would  see 
 it.  He  replied,  "God  will  see  it."  Of  the  neighboring  church 
 of  St.  lyorenz  Luthardt  says:  "I  heard  there  many  a  sermon 
 which  I  have  forgotten,  but  there  is  one  sermon  which  I  could 
 never  forget,  the  "sermon  in  stones,"  which  the  edifice  itself 
 preached  to  all  that  worshipped  there.  The  spirit  of  piety  which 
 made  these  buildings  so  beautiful  has  made  them  permanent  wit- 
 nesses of  religion.  And  yet  the  simplest  interior,  even  though  it 
 may  be  only  a  hired  hall  in  the  city  street,  or  a  sod  church  on 
 the  prairie  may  reflect  a  spiritual  message  as  truly  as  the  Gothic 
 arches  of  St,  Sebald  and  St.  lyorenz. 
 
 G.  U.  Wenner. 
 
 New   York. 
 
Vol.  VII. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS. 
 
 The  liturgical  colors  are  those  which  the  Church  employs  in  her 
 Cultus.  There  are  liturgical  colors  in  a  wide  and  narrow  sense. 
 Those  in  the  former  are  such  as  are  prescribed  for  any  artistic 
 embellishment  to  Sanctuary  or  Church,  in  the  dress  of  statuary, 
 paintings,  hangings,  banners,  carpets,  even  to  the  minutest  de- 
 tail in  decorative  color  schemes.*  In  the  narrow  sense,  with 
 which  we  deal  in  this  paper,  the  liturgical  colors  are  those  which 
 the  Church  uses  in  the  vestments  for  altar  and  priest  in  her  vari- 
 ous Offices.  In  both  connections  the  colors  are  looked  upon  as 
 being  symbolic,  and  in  their  application,  this  symbolism  is  called 
 upon  to  play  an  important  part  in  conveying  to  the  beholder  par- 
 ticular attributes  and  ideas.  In  the  latter  case,  in  addition  to 
 their  symbolism,  the  colors  are  so  employed  or  scheduled,  that 
 their  use  may  indicate  the  various  Events  and  Seasons  which 
 make  up  the  Church's  Year.  They  are  doubly-symbolic  then, 
 as  a  service-use,  as  well  as  a  festival-  or  season- use.  Their  sym- 
 bolism however  is  entirely  the  result  of  their  religious  use.  The 
 colors  in  use  to-day  in  the  Roman,  Lutheran  and  Anglican  Com- 
 munions are,  white,  red,  green,  purple  and  black.  These  are  the 
 "Liturgical  Colors." 
 
 The  use  of  colors  in  the  worship  of  the  Church  is  not  of 
 Christian  origin.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  this  as  in  many 
 other  things,  the  Church  of  the  New  Covenant  has  adapted  to 
 her  use  that  which  existed  for  centuries  in  the  Church  of  the  Old 
 Covenant.  In  addition  to  this  she  may  have  been  influenced  by 
 the  heathen  systems  with  which  she  came  in  contact  in  so  far  as 
 *  This  is  the  case  in  the  Greek  Church. 
 
Z  MEMOIRS. 
 
 she  noticed  the  use  of  certain  colors  for  priestly  dress  and  in 
 their  sacrificial  rites.*  However  the  direct  line  seems  to  be  that 
 which  leads  back  to  the  O.  T.  Church. r  The  colors  which  form 
 the  two  groups  are,  in  three  out  of  five  cases,  the  same;  their 
 symbolism  is  but  slightly  different,  (due  allowance  being  made 
 for  the  difference  between  the  two  Churches,  and  the  develop- 
 ment of  the  Church  of  the  N.  T.);+  the  uses  are  the  same: 
 priest's  dress  and  the  important  hangings  and  cloths  in  the 
 Sanctuary. 
 
 The  use  of  colors  in  the  Old  Testament  Church  is  not  the 
 result  of  man's  artistic  choice,  nor  is  it  a  mere  adaptation  from 
 another  religion. §  It  has  the  highest  possible  authorization. 
 It  is  of  Divine  origin.  It  comes  into  existence  in  and  with  the 
 Law,  in  Divine  revelation.  The  colors  so  authorized  are  enu- 
 merated in  Exodus  28,  5.  They  are:  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarleU 
 and  white  (fine  linen).  The  application  of  these  colors  as  pre- 
 scribed for  general  liturgical  use,  through  the  various  chapters 
 of  Exodus  and  the  other  books  of  the  Law,  is  as  follows: ||  The 
 textures  used  for  the  hangings  of  the  Tabernacle,  and  its  inner 
 
 *  This  is  not  to  be  taken  as  an  unqualified  statement  that  such  an  influence  l»nre 
 direct  results.  The  heathen  systems  employed  an  official  priestly  dress,  as  well  as 
 colors,  in  this  and  jitual.  These  were  used  symbolically.  Cf.  Portal:  Les  Cotil- 
 eurs  Symboliques,  Paris,   1857,  under  the  various  colors. 
 
 t  This  cannot  be  absolutely  proven  simply  because  the  color  system  of  the 
 Church  is  not  found  completely  developed  and  in  use  till  comparatively  late.  (In 
 the  12  Cent.  Innocent  III)  and  the  centuries  to  be  bridged  over  give  but  scant 
 traces  of  anything  that  might  be  considered  as  evidences  of  such  a  development. 
 However  those  that  do  appear  and  can  be  accepted  as  genuine  and  accurate  are  fair 
 ground  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  claim.  These  will  be  referred  to  in  the 
 sequel, 
 
 X  For  example,  where  in  O.  T.  times  a  color  is  looked  upon  as  symbolic  of  an 
 attribute  of  God,  in  the  new  this  will  be  developed  to  the  fuller  symbolism,  applied 
 to  One  of  the  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
 
 §  A  negative  critic  might  very  readily  try  to  prove  that  such  a  system  is  found- 
 ed on  Egyptian  usage.  That  the  Egyptian  theology  contained  syml)olic  colors  may 
 be  gathered  from  a  number  of  writers,  among  them  Portal  as  above;  but  the  colors 
 and  symbols  are  so  widely  different  that  it  will  admit  of  no  comparison  whatever. 
 
 II   Cf.    F.  Delitzsch  (Lotz):  Farben  in  Jcr  BiM,  in  P.  R.  E.  3  Ed.  V,  759  ft. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS. 
 
 roofing,  and  those  for  the  sacred  vestments  of  the  priests,  were 
 of  four  colors,  blue,  purple,  scarlet  and  white.  These  four  com- 
 bined were  used  in  the  outer  curtains;  the  veil,  the  entrance 
 curtain;*  and  the  curtain  for  the  gate  of  the  court. f  They  were 
 also  used  in  the  ephod,  girdle  and  breast- plate  of  the  High 
 Priest. t  Purple,  blue  and  scarlet  were  used  in  the  pomegranates 
 about  the  4iem  of  the  High  Priest's  ephod. §  The  robe  of  the 
 High  Priest's  ephod,  the  lace  of  his  breast-plate  and  the  lace  of 
 his  mitre,  were  exclusively  of  blue;||  as  well  the  fifty  loops  of  the 
 ten  inner  curtains. ^[  The  coats,  mitres,  bonnets  and  breeches  of 
 the  priests  were  all  of  one  color,  white.**  The  hangings  for  the 
 court  were  also  of  white. ff  Cloths  in  which  the  sacred  utensils 
 were  to  be  wrapped  during  the  Pilgrimage  were  either  of  blue,J| 
 scarlet, §§  or  purple. ||||  Colors  may  also  be  found  in  use  in  some 
 of  the  sacrificial  rites,  e.  g.,  the  scarlet  thread  in  the  cleansing  of 
 lepers. ^^  The  "gold"  is  enumerated  with  the  four  colors  men- 
 tioned above,  in  Ex.  28:  5,  and  used  in  combination  with  them 
 in  various  articles  of  the  High  Priest's  dress,  it  is  not  looked  up- 
 on as  a  color  in  the  sense  in  which  the  others  are  considered,  but 
 is  used  for  its  appearance  of  splendor  and  brilliancy.*** 
 
 The  exact  and  comprehensive  manner  in  which  every  Ser- 
 
 *  Ex.  26:  I,  31,  36. 
 
 §  Ex.  28:  33. 
 
 **  Ex.  39:  27,  28. 
 
 §§  Num.  4:  8. 
 
 t  Ex.  27:  16. 
 II  Ex.  28:  28,  31,  37. 
 tt  Ex.  27:  9;  38:  9. 
 nil  Num.  4:  13. 
 
 X  Ex.  28:   5,  6,  8,  15. 
 II  Ex.  26:  4,  5. 
 XX  Num.  4:  6. 
 HH   Lev.   14:  4,  6,  51. 
 
 ***  These  colors  and    their   use   in   the    vestments    have    been   tabulated   by 
 RoLFE:      The  Ancient  Use  of  Liturgical  Colors,   London,    1879,   p.  10,  as  follows: 
 
 VESTMENTS 
 
 WORN    BY 
 
 COLOR 
 
 The  Ephod    - 
 
 High  Priest 
 
 gold,  blue 
 
 purple,  scarlet,  white 
 
 The  Girdle 
 
 u              tt 
 
 It         tt 
 
 t<           (<           ft 
 
 The  Breast- plate     - 
 
 " 
 
 <(         tt 
 
 <(           ft           ff 
 
 The  Robe  of  the  Ephod 
 
 tt       tt 
 
 (( 
 
 The  Broidered  Coat    - 
 
 tt       tt 
 
 - 
 
 «« 
 
 The  Mitre      - 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 << 
 
 Holy  Crown 
 
 "       " 
 
 It         tt 
 
 The  Coats      - 
 
 The  Priests 
 
 - 
 
 «' 
 
 The  Girdles 
 
 "          " 
 
 tt 
 
 ff           <(           ft 
 
 The  Bonnets 
 
 "          " 
 
 - 
 
 « 
 
4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 vice-need,  everj'  object  in  and  about  the  Tabernacle,  every  vest- 
 ment for  High  Priest  and  his  assistants,  is  described  in  the  Law, 
 is  not  only  a  positive  proof  of  the  definiteness  and  orderliness  of 
 the  worship  of  Jehovah;  but  when  attached  to  this  all  is  its 
 Divine  origin  and  the  Divine  command  authorizing  this  as  the 
 manner  in  which  God  is  pleased  to  be  worshiped,  there  is  given 
 to  it  all  a  weight  which  compels  observ^ance,  and  places  it  above 
 the  sphere  of  human  choice  or  pleasure.  And  as  the  accessories 
 are  developed  y^?/-  man,  so  is  the  entire  Cultus,  coming  directly 
 from  Jehovah,  man's  mind  having  no  share  in  plan  or  ordering. 
 It  is  revealed  in  complete  form  for  man  to  obey  and  use;  not  a 
 disconnected  mass  of  indiscriminate  rites,  but  a  whole  harmoni- 
 ous in  all  its  parts.  It  is  so  developed  and  ordered  that  it  juust 
 stand  as  one  great  symbol  of  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel, 
 and  everything  that  develops  out  of  that  relation.  There  can  be 
 nothing  then  that  is  superfluous,  nor  that  does  not  contribute  its 
 quota  of  meaning  to  that  of  the  rest  to  make  up  the  whole. 
 
 The  fact  then  that  the  vestments  of  the  High  Priest  and  his 
 assistants  and  the  various  curtains  and  coverings  are  so  carefully 
 described  in  every  detail,  is  one  whose  importance  to  the  system 
 cannot  be  denied.*  That  they  were  to  be  of  certain  color,  or 
 combinations  of  color,  or  decorated  with  certain  colors — all  defi- 
 nitely ordered — is  as  important.  This  led  manj^  to  believe  that 
 a  distinct  purpose  was  meant  to  be  expressed  thereby.  This  is 
 called  their  "symbolism;"  and  writers  both  ancientf  and  modern;J: 
 have  attempted  to  develop  it. 
 
 *  In  addition  it  may  be  noted  that  God  forbids  priests  to  appear  in  other  garb 
 when  ministering  before  Him. 
 
 t  Among  the  ancients,  Philo,  0pp.  /and  Josephus:  Atit.  Bk.  Ill,  c.  vii,  §  7, 
 p.  84.     Whiston  and  Burden  Ed,     Also  Ancient  Jewish  Commentators. 
 
 X  Moderns:  Calvoer:  Kit.  Eccl.  Jena,  1705.  II,  Sec.  Ill,  c.  23.  Krause: 
 De  Colore  Sacro.  Lit.  1707.  CreuzeR:  Sym/>o/ii\l.  125  sq.  Bahr:  Syml'olik, 
 I-  3.15-  Friederich:  Sym.  d.  Mos.  Stijtshuette.  Lpz.  1841.  Studien  und 
 Kritiken.  1844.  II.  315.  Dklitzsch:  Farbenstudien  tind  Blumenstuccke.  Lpz. 
 1888.  Rolke:  as  above.  Legc:  The  Anc't  Use  of  Lit.  Colors.  London.  1882. 
 Delitzsch  (Lotz)  article  as  above. 
 
LITURGICAL    COLORS.  O 
 
 Philo  adapts  his  to  the  current  Gentile  philosophy  and  is  of 
 little  service  to  our  purpose;  but  Josephus,  though  he  follows 
 Philo's  thought  to  some  extent,  produces  a  symbolism  that  is 
 very  interesting.  He  says:*  "The  veils  which  were  composed  of 
 four  colors  declared  the  four  elements;  for  the  linen  was  proper 
 to  signify  the  earth,  because  the  flax  grows  out  of  it;  the  purple, 
 the  sea,  because  that  color  is  dyed  by  the  blood  of  a  shell-fish; 
 the  blue  is  fit  to  signify  the  air,  and  the  scarlet  will  be  an  indica- 
 tion of  fire The  vestments  of  the   High   Priest,   being 
 
 made  of  linen,  signified  the  earth;  the  blue  denoted  the  sky  being 
 like  lightning  in  its  pomegranates  and  resembling  thunder  in  the 
 noise  of  its  bells;  and  the  ephod  showed  that  God  had  made  the 
 universe  of  four  elements;  and  as  for  the  gold  interwoven,  I  sup- 
 pose it  related  to  the  splendor  by  which  all  things  are  enlight- 
 ened. He  also  appointed  the  breast-plate  to  be  placed  in  the 
 middle  of  the  ephod  to  resemble  the  earth  for  that  has  the  very 
 middle  place  in  the  world;  and  the  girdle  which  encompassed  the 
 High  Priest  round,  signified  the  ocean  which  goes  round  about 
 
 and  includes  the  universe The   mitre  which  was  of  the 
 
 color  of  blue  seems  to  me  to  denote  Heaven,  for  how  otherwise 
 could  the  Name  of  God  be  inscribed  upon  it?  It  was  also  illus- 
 trated with  a  crown  of  gold  because  of  that  splendor  with  which 
 God  is  pleased." 
 
 This,  of  course,  is  no  symbolism  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
 term  nor  worthy  of  the  use  of  the  colors  in  which  they  are  found. 
 These  colors  may  have  a  natural  symbolism,!  but  they  are  not 
 symbolic  in  themselves.  They  only  become  symbolic  in  that  the 
 representation  of  particular  subjects  and  ideas,  is  combined  with 
 them.      Bearing  this    in   mind,   let   us  attempt    to  develop   the 
 
 *  Antiquities.  IIL  vii.  7.  Latin  in  Calvoer:  Kit  Eccl.  Pt.  II,  Sec.  vii.  c. 
 xxiii.    p.  485. 
 
 t  For  example:  Green  is  looked  upon  as  the  color  symholic  of  hope,  because 
 one  thinks  of  the  green  of  the  plant  which  in  Winter  dies  away,  but  in  Spring  re- 
 vives again;  or  blue,  as  the  symbol  of  faithfulness,  reminding  one  of  the  Heavens 
 whose  blueneis  though  for  a  time  o'ercast,  always  breaks  through  again. 
 
b  MEMOIRS. 
 
 symbolism   of   these  colors  as  used   in  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
 
 Examining  the  table  given  above,  one  cannot  help  noticing 
 the  preeminence  of  the  use  of  the  "fair-linen,"  (Byssus),  the 
 white.  It  appears  to  be  the  liturgical  color  and  rightly  so.  It 
 cannot  be  spoken  of  as  a  color  in  the  exact  sense  of  the  term,  yet 
 it  is.  It  is  the  simplest,  purest, — primary  and  is  the  foundation 
 for  all  the  others.  White  is  that  wherein  the  light  of  the  sun  is 
 reflected  unhindered.  Light  is  white  and  white  is  the  li(^ht 
 "color."  In  contrast  to  it  is  black  (which  note  is  never  author- 
 ized as  a  vestment  or  Tabernacle  use)  which  absorbs  all  colors 
 and  does  not  reflect  the  light  of  the  sun.  The  light  in  it  is  sub- 
 dued, the  colors  buried.  These  two  present  the  contrasts  with 
 which  we  must  start:  Life,  light,  joy,  holiness,  activity  on  the 
 one  side;  over  against  them,  death,  darkness,  sadness,  wicked- 
 ness, inactivity.  These  are  the  Biblical  contrasts  in  which  these 
 colors  figure.  Alone,  white  in  the  Scriptures  is  the  mark  of 
 purity  and  victory.  It  is  that  which  is  the  particular  color  sym- 
 bol of  the  Deity*  and  hence  of  those  in  Kis  immediate  Presence, f 
 and  those  directly  ministering  to  Him.  This  then  in  the  dress 
 of  the  priests,  used  so  thoroughly  would  mark  the  fact  of  their 
 official  ministry,  the  representatives  of  the  Holy  One  and  servants 
 in  His  worship.  In  the  garb  of  purity,  serving  Him  the  Pure 
 and  Holy  One,  they  stand  before  the  people  clothed  in  that  rai- 
 ment which  to  them  is  the  symbol  of  that  in  which  they  must 
 come  before  their  Lord,  to  offer  to  Him  their  sacrifices  with  clean 
 hands  and  pure  hearts.  White  is  the  color  common  to  all  priests. 
 It  is  over  this  that  the  High  Priest  wears  the  "golden  vestments" 
 in  which  all  the  colors  appear. 
 
 The  purple  has  been  the  color  of  kingly  garb  from  oldest 
 time, I  and  always  a  mark  of  those  in  authority.  In  the  garb  of 
 the  High  Priest  it  would  mean  that  he  is  the  servant  of  Him 
 
 *  The  Ancient  of  Days,  the  Eternal  in  Dan.   7:  9  in  snow-white  robe.     The 
 Transfiguration  of  Christ. 
 
 t  The  Angels  and  Spirits.     Elders  and  souls  washed  ck-an.     Rev.  of  S.  John. 
 X  Judges  8:  26. 
 
LITURGICAL    COLORS.  7 
 
 Who  is  spoken  of  as  the  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords.  Pur- 
 ple and  bhie  being  co-related  as  colors  would  be  indicative,  when 
 used  together  in  these  vestments,  of  a  two  fold  activity  of  the 
 Heavenlj'  King. 
 
 Purple  points  to  the  Majesty  of  God  in  His  sublimity  and 
 Blue  to  the  Majesty  of  God  in  His  condescension.  In  connection 
 with  this  latter  note  the  color  which  is  so  prominent  at  the  giv- 
 ing of  the  Law — beneath  the  Presence  the  purest  blue — (sap- 
 phire)— It  would  follow  from  this  that  blue  would  always  remind 
 them  of  their  Mighty  God,  the  Law-Giver.  Purple  and  blue 
 then  in  the  High  Priest's  vestments  would  mean  that  he  is  the 
 servant  of  that  Majesty,  Who  is  sufficient  unto  Himself  and  yet 
 condescends  to  covenant  with  man  and  is  faithful  in  His  cove- 
 nant. 
 
 Scarlet  is  the  color  of  fire,  symbolic  of  destruction.  Sins  are 
 spoken  of  as  being  "as  scarlet"  therefore  deserving  of  wrath — 
 punishment.  It  is  scarlet  which  is  found  in  cleansing  and  sacri- 
 ficial rites.  It  may  then  be  looked  upon  as  a  symbol  of  man's 
 sinfulness  and  hence  his  guilt  for  which  he  must  be  punished  un- 
 less he  atone  and  obtain  pardon.  Scarlet  then  in  the  High 
 Priest's  vestments,  with  the  white,  would  mean  that  he  is  the 
 servant  of  the  Hol}^  God  not  only  in  His  love  but  also  in  His 
 wrath. 
 
 This  is  the  liturgical  use  of  colors  in  the  O.  T.  Church.  It 
 has  the  Divine  authority,  but  there  is  none  for  its  symbolism. 
 Yet  we  think  there  is  one  there  and  rightly  so,  whether  that  at- 
 tempted is  fitting  or  not.  The  use  of  the  colors  mentioned  to 
 the  exclusion  of  all  others,  their  definite  appointment,  cannot  be 
 considered  as  other  than  pointed  and  full  of  meaning.  God 
 authorizes,  and  man  does  no  wrong  to  seek  His  purpose  therein, 
 if  that  purpose  is  to  illuminate  the  use  and  aid  in  the  under- 
 standing thereof. 
 
 The  present  use  has  much  in  common  with  the  old.     To  say 
 
8  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it  IS  traced  back  to  the  old  and  to  trace  it  are  two  very  different 
 matters.  Some  writers  say  unqualifiedly  that  it  conies  direct 
 and  that  there  is  excellent  authority  for  it.  Tliese  are  in  almost 
 every  case,  Romanists  and  the  authority,  "Tradition."  Others 
 claim  that  with  the  development  of  some  of  the  Church's  dog- 
 mas, primarily  those  of  the  ''Priesthood''  and  the  ''  Sacrijice  of  the 
 Mass"  the  entire  Cultus  had  to  be  developed  in  conformity  with 
 it.  This  latter  is  the  better  position  and  more  can  be  said  in 
 support  of  it.  For  when  he  who  ministers  becomes  priest,  then 
 Sacrament  becomes  Sacrifice.  How  quickly  then  would  a  priest- 
 h'  dress  arise,  and  where  would  one  look  for  it  more  readily  than 
 to  the  example  of  the  O.  T.  dress.*  This,  adapted  to  their  need 
 but  feeling  the  effects  of  the  customs  in  their  time,  with  the  ad- 
 ditions necessary  to  the  doctrine  of  the  N.  T.  Sacrifice,  would 
 appeal  the  strongest.  Had  it  not  Divine  authority?  Was  it  not 
 used  in  His  worship? 
 
 Let  us  consider  first  what  may  be  said  for  the  former  view 
 mentioned  above  in  the  light  of  this  development  in  the  Church, 
 and  see  to  what  it  leads  us. 
 
 The  tradition  is  that  .some  of  the  Apostles  wore  parts  of  the 
 High  Priest's  dress.  Eusebiusf  quotes  a  tradition  which  says 
 St.  John  wore  "the  golden  mitre."  Epiphaniust  bears  the  same 
 testimony  for  St.  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord.  A'alesius,  Bar- 
 onius,§  Bona||  and  other  Romanists  accept  this  as  sufficient 
 ground  for  their  conclusion.  The  Council  of  Trent*}  adds  to  it 
 its  authority.  There  are  many  excellent  evidences  that  the 
 priests  wore  a  white  vestment*"^  in  secret  during  the  Persecutions, 
 
 *  Modern  scholars  do  not  consider  this;  but  this  use  is  the  legitimate  example, 
 and  we  believe  was  considered,  even  though  the  fashion  of  the  day  made  itself 
 directly  felt  in  the  form  the  garments  took. 
 
 t  //ist.  Eccl.   Ill,  31. 
 
 X  Epiphanius:   Ilaer.   LXXVII,  14. 
 
 §  Analecta,  c.  34,    n.  39. 
 
 II   Rerum  Liturgicarum.     Lib.  I,  c.  xxiv.  H  Session  22.    c.  v. 
 
 **  AuGUSTi :  Denkwuerdigkeiten,  XI,  309,  where  references  ni.ny  be  found  to 
 Gregory  Naz. ,  Athanasius,  Chrysostom,  Sozomen,  Jerome,  Gregory  of  Tours. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS.  V 
 
 but  this  is  onl}'  hinted  at,  due  to  the  "Secret  Discipline"* — and 
 openly  as  soon  as  the  Church  was  left  in  peace.  It  is  said  of 
 Constantine,  that  he  presented  "glorious"  vestments  to  various 
 churches  for  use  at  the  Sacraments,  as  a  thank-offering.  A  ru- 
 bric in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Clementf  bids  the  Bishop  to  put  on  the 
 "glorious  vestment"  at  the  Amc^o/aa.  There  are  a  few  other 
 scattering  references  to  priestly  dress  during  the  next  few  cen- 
 turies,! enough  to  lead  to  the  time  when  they  are  found  in  wide 
 use  and  almost  completely  developed. 
 
 There  is  sufficient  evidence  here  to  maintain  without  ques- 
 tion that  there  was  a  distinct  priestly  official  dress,  and  that  it 
 was  white;  but  that  other  colors  were  employed,  or  that  a  com- 
 plete symbolism  was  connected  with  it,  cannot  be  shown. 
 
 Through  these  centuries  comes  the  development  of  the  doc- 
 trine of  Sacrifice,  and  as  it  develops  it  brings  many  things  with 
 it.  The  Service — "the  Mass" — develops  with  it.  The  Church 
 Year  side  by  side — until  the  Church  stands  forth  outfitted  with 
 a  complete  system,  a  veritable  "machinery  of  worship."  The 
 church  buildings,  their  furnishings,  those  of  the  Sanctuary  and 
 of  those  that  minister  there,  all  grow  with  and  are  added  for  its 
 sake.  It  is  then,  late  in  this  period  that  the  Mass  vestments  ap- 
 pear in  almost  their  present  form,  suddenly  complete,  and  imme- 
 diately considered  symbolic.      T/iese  vestments  are  colored. 
 
 The  Pseudo-Alcuin  is  the  first  to  mention  five  liturgical  col- 
 ors; and  note  their  appointments. §  The  first  authorization  is 
 found    with    Innocent    III    ( i  i98-i2i6).||      He   mentions   four: 
 
 *  AuGUSTl:    Denk.   VIII,   2o8. 
 
 +  Neale  and  Littleuale:  The  Lits.  of  St.  Mk.,  St.  Jas.,  etc.  3  ed.  '75. 
 Daniel:   Codex  /.it.     Vol.   IV.     A.  A^.  F.     Vol.  VII. 
 
 X  A.  Krazer:  iie  I.itnrg.  1786,  p.  278  sqq.  and  in  MSS  illuminated  by 
 monks,  wherein  the  coloring  of  vestments  may  be  looked  upon  as  evidence,  as  well 
 as  ancient  mosaics. 
 
 §  Bintekim:  Denkwiierdigkeiten.  IV,  I.  p.  197.  Alcuin:  de  offic.  eccl. 
 c.   de  vestihus  uicris. 
 
 II  Innocent  III:  de  sacr.  Miss.  Lib.  I.  c.  65.  de  quatuor  coloribus  prin- 
 iipalibus,  qidbus  sctundnin  proprietatcs  dicriiin  vestes  sunt  distingue nda.     M.  S.  L, 
 
10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 white,  scarlet,  black  and  green;  and  bases  the  use  on  Exodus  28: 
 5  ff.  His  appointment  follows:  Color  albus  tanquayn  syuibolum 
 candaris  vita  et  castitatis — for  Feasts  of  Confessors  and  Virgins; 
 eolor  rubeus — for  Feasts  of  Apostles  and  Martyrs;  color  viridis — 
 for  Dominicales  and  Feast  Daj's;  color  niger — for  Fast  Days  and 
 Masses  for  the  Dead.  Added  to  the'^e  is  the  color  littirgicus  quin- 
 tus:  I'lolaceus,  which  at  his  time  was  used  only  twice  in  the  year 
 at  Rome:  Domiuica  Latare  and  Festo  Imioce7itium.  This  use  is 
 limited  to  Rome  and  the  sections  of  the  Church  where  her  direct 
 influence  was  felt.  In  other  sections  while  there  is  a  use  the 
 differences  are  marked.*  But  this  coming  from  the  Pope  served 
 to  introduce  it  more  widely  and  make  the  use  approach  uniform- 
 ity. The  next  century  finds  this  the  common  use,t  and  as  it  is 
 found  developed  in  Durandus,  with  but  few  exceptions  it  is  found 
 authorized  by  Pius  V  (1566-1572)  in  the  General  Rubrics  of  the 
 Missale  Romaynun .% 
 
 The  appointment  of  these  colors  and  their  symbolism  as 
 found  in  Durandus  is  as  follows: 
 
 The  four  principal  colors  are  white,  red,  black  and  green. 
 
 White  is  used  on  the  Festivals  of  Virgins  who  are  not  mar- 
 tyrs; and  of  angels;  on  all  the  Feasts  of  the  Virgin;  and  on  the 
 Feast  of  All  Saints  (though  some  use  red  on  this  day).  White 
 is  here  the  symbol  of  purity. 
 
 On  the  Festivals  of  S.  John,  the  Evangelist;  of  the  Conver- 
 sion of  Paul;  and  of  the  "Throne  of  Peter"  (reason  to  be  given 
 later);  also  from  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativity  to  the  Octave  of  the 
 
 217  p.  799.  The  other  Rom.  references  may  be  added  in  this  connection.  Ri;- 
 PERTUS:  de  div.  off.  Lib.  I.  Bonaventura:  de  explic.  Missw.  Walf.  Strabo: 
 de  reb.  eccl.  c,  24.  Hugo  de  S.  Victore:  de  Sacram.  Lib.  IL  Parle  IV 
 Rabanus  Mai/rus:  dt  inslitut.  (lericoruin,  \.  Sicard  ok  Cremona:  Mil.  IL 
 c.  5.     M.  S.  L.    21J.     p.  77. 
 
 •   In  Gall,  Milan,  England.     Cf.  first  Table  in  RoLKE  as  above. 
 
 t  \Vm.  Durandus:  Ralionale  div.  off.  Venice.  1589.  Lib.  III.  c.  xviii. 
 De  i/uiUuor  coloriims,  (/utl>us  ecciesia  in  ectlesiastiiis  utititr  indumentis.  p.  54  ff. 
 The  "use"  hereafter  includes  the  other  paramenis  as  well. 
 
 X  c.   xviii.      p.   xxxix.      Ed.  Miclilinii.c.      1880. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS.  11 
 
 Epiphany  inclusive,  intervening  Martyrs'  Days  excepted.  Rea- 
 son: because  of  the  splendor  of  the  Star. 
 
 At  the  Nativity  of  the  Saviour,  and  of  John  the  Baptist 
 since  both  were  born  without  sin,  for  John  was  sanctified  in  the 
 womb.      (!) 
 
 On  the  Festival  Coena  Domini  because  of  the  consecration  of 
 the  chrism  for  the  purification  of  the  soul. 
 
 On  Dominicales  at  the  office  of  the  Mass  until  the  Octave  of 
 the  Ascension  inclusive,  whenever  the  office  is  celebrated  de  te^n- 
 pore,  except  on  Rogation  or  Martyrs'  Days. 
 
 At  Easter  because  of  the  white  raiment  of  the  angel,  and  the 
 white  robes  of  those  who  are  then  baptized. 
 
 At  the  Ascension  because  of  the  whiteness  of  the  cloud 
 which  received  Christ  and  the  white  apparel  of  the  angel. 
 
 At  the  Consecration  of  a  Church,  on  whatever  day  it  comes, 
 for  the  Church  is  the  Bride  of  Christ. 
 
 Red  (scarlet)  is  to  be  used  on  the  Feasts  of  Apostles, 
 Evangelists  and  Martyrs,  because  of  the  blood  which  they  shed. 
 
 On  the  Feast  of  the  Invention  of  the  Cross,  in  memory  of 
 the  Blood  of  Christ;  some  however,  prefer  to  use  white  on  this 
 day. 
 
 From  the  Vigils  of  Pentecost  to  the  following  Saturday  in- 
 clusive, in  memory  of  the  fire  which  descended  on  the  Apostles. 
 
 The  death  of  John  the  Baptist  is  celebrated  with  red. 
 
 All  Saints'  Day  is  celebrated  with  red  as  it  was  instituted  in 
 honor  of  the  Martyrs;  but  the  Roman  use  is  white  ("they  shall 
 stand  clad  in  white  raiment"),  moreover.  Virgins  and  Confessors 
 who  are  not  Martyrs  are  included  in  that  celebration. 
 
 Black  is  to  be  used  on  Good  Vriddiy^feria  sexta  in  paras- 
 ceve;  on  days  of  affliction  and  abstinence  on  account  of  sin;  and 
 on  Rogation  Days;  at  penitential  processions  and  Masses  for  the 
 Dead. 
 
 From  Advent  to  the  Vigils  of  the  Nativity  and  from  Septiia- 
 gesima  to  the  Sabbato  magna. 
 
12  MEMOIRS. 
 
 On  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  though  some  prefer 
 red. 
 
 Black  is  the  symbol  of  afTliction  for  sin,  of  adversity,  of  sor- 
 row and  death,  and  marks  deep  penitence. 
 
 Gkken  is  to  be  used  o\\  feria  and  common  days  and  especial- 
 ly between  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany  and  Septuagesima  and 
 between  Pentecost  and  Advent.  "For  green  is  between  white- 
 ness and  blackness  and  redness." 
 
 To  these  four  colors  others  are  related  as  violet  to  black. 
 To  use  violet  on  days  when  black  is  to  be  used  is  not  improper. 
 Hence  the  Roman  Church  uses  violet  from  I  Advent  to  the  \'ig- 
 ils  of  the  Nativity  and  from  Septuagesima  to  the  Vigils  of  Easter 
 (exclusive),  excepting  feria  qiiinia  Cama  Domini  (white)  and 
 feria  sexta  in  parasceve  (black). 
 
 Another  Roman  use*  is  three  colors  on  the  altar  at  Easter. 
 First,  black — removed  after  the  First  Lesson,  signifying  the  time 
 before  the  Law;  second,  whitish  (^S2cb  alhis),  removed  after  the 
 Second  Lesson,  typic  of  the  time  under  the  Law;  third,  red,  re- 
 moved after  the  Third  Lesson,  stands  for  the  reign  of  grace 
 through  the  Blood  of  Christ. 
 
 The  above  includes  the  main  Roman  appointments  and  a 
 symbolism  of  the  u.se  widely  accepted.  In  many  respects  it  is 
 pointed  and  very  beautiful,  and  serves  its  purpose  in  lending  its 
 share  to  the  complete  harmony  of  Office  and  Season  or  Feast. 
 But  the  color  symbolism  does  not  stop  there.  It  is  pushed  into 
 an  artificial  use  which  makes  it  well-nigh  valueless.  The  vest- 
 ments and  other  paramentsf  have  their  own  peculiar  symbolism, 
 
 *  DuRANDis:  Juit.  I.    c.  3     p.  13. 
 
 t  Bona:  7'ratt  .Isft/hus  tie  .^/issa.  c.  V.  §  II.  p.  121.  .Also  his  AVr. 
 Lit.  Lib.  I,  cxxiv.  p.  280  H.  opp.  Antwerp.  1694.  Cf.  Collects  to  be  said 
 when  vestments,  etc.  nre  assumed,  ^/iss.  Koiii.  Ixxvi  ff.  Bona  concludes  his 
 chapter  De  sacris  vestis  t-t  tarum  siptifnatione  thus:  Sicut  autem  castila  in  duos 
 partes  dividitur,  ita  <haritas  dn/>iix  est,  ergti  Detim  et  proximum:  et  sicut  ilia  vnri- 
 as  exigit  colores,  juxta  teviporis  out  festivitatis  diversitatem ,  ita  haee  varias  affectus, 
 nunc  latitia:  oh  Dei  niagnalia,  nunc gratitudinis  oh  ejus  heneficia,  nunc  fortitudinii 
 in  advirsis,  nunc  tristiliii  oh  propria  et  aliena  peccata"     opp.     p.     t2l. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS.  13 
 
 some  very  beautiful,  some  very  artificial;  and  then  the  colored 
 vestment,  etc.  is  provided  with  one  as  well.  It  is  in  such  a  com- 
 plexity* that  all  the  beauty  of  the  simple  symbolism  is  lost  and 
 the  result  proves  its  uselessness  to  the  original  purpose.  That, 
 we  take  it,  was  to  aid  both  priest  and  worshiper  to  gain  the  most 
 good  out  of  the  great  harmonious,  beautiful  Office.  Through 
 the  Church  Year  trying  to  make  vivid  the  Great  Things  in  her 
 history,  of  Christ  and  His  work,  and  to  aid,  appointing  a  color 
 which  with  its  simple  and  effective  meaning,  would  always  bring 
 home  through  eye  and  thought  some  event  or  teaching;  through 
 the  Church  Year  reflected  in  every  OflBce,  and  the  Office  itself 
 lending  its  share,  in  ministrant  garbed  in  vestment  of  the  Season 
 — or  Feast — color,  serving  before  the  altar  whereon  or  about 
 which  it  showed  again — could  one  help  but  see  the  purpose? 
 
 The  simple  use  is  the  proper  and  legitimate  use,  nothing  can 
 be  said  against  it.  Years  of  use  have  given  it  sanction  sufiicient 
 to  remain  untouched  to-day.  Nor  is  there  need  to  prove  its 
 growth  from  pre-Christian  times  to  make  it  valid.  If  it  sub- 
 serves a  good  purpose  and  is  in  harmony  with  the  Church's  faith 
 and  doctrine,  then  let  it  be  used. 
 
 Much  is  urged  against  the  use  of  these  colors  in  the  Luther- 
 an Church;  some  would  keep  but  one  or  two.  Their  scheme  is 
 "foreign."  Their  purpose  of  "little  value."  Their  use  "over- 
 drawn." "We  have  no  scheme  of  priestly  garb."  But  the  garb 
 and  the  colors  are  ours  as  much  as  the  Liturgy  and  the  altar  and 
 the  antependia  which  hang  before  it!  One  could  make  an  excel- 
 lent plea  merely  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  but  a  stronger  ar- 
 gument the  Church  lives  every  year.  It  is  her  Church  Year. 
 There  is  nothing  that  lends  itself  to  marking  the  various  Seasons 
 and  Feasts  in  the  Year  so  vividly  as  the  changing  colors.  The 
 spirit  of  the  Day  or  Time  may  make  itself  felt  in  the  Variables 
 
 *  During  the  Middle  Ages  "symbolism"  runs  riot  in  the  Church,  in  every 
 sphere.  Cf.  Jos.  Sauek:  Symbolik  d.  Kirchengebaiides  und  seiner  Aitsstattiing  in 
 der  Auffassung  des  Mitietallers.     Freiburg.      1 902. 
 
14  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  other  parts  of  the  Service;  but  there  is  the  Day's  and  Sea- 
 son's color  ivilh  its  meaning.  The  eye  beholds  and  instantly  the 
 mind  is  working.     What  is  the  result?     Is  it  helpful  or  valueless? 
 
 From  an  evangelical  standpoint,  this  meaning  has  been  sum- 
 marized by  Meurer  very  pointedly.  He  writes:"^-  "White,  the 
 pure  brilliant  white,  'the  unbroken  light,'  'the  color  of  angels 
 and  saints'  as  Luther  calls  it,  is  certainly  the  chief  Festival  Col- 
 or, if  one  dare  name  it  color. 
 
 "In  Red,  that  majestic  color,  the  color  of  fire  and  blood,  the 
 Bride  of  Christ,  the  Church — which  was  founded  through  the 
 Baptism  of  Fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  preserves  the  testimony 
 of  so  many  precious  blood-witnesses  and  followers  of  the  Lamb 
 Who  was  slain — clothes  herself  rightly  on  her  highest  Feast 
 Days. 
 
 "Green  is  the  most  common  and  widely  diffused  color,  the 
 every  day  garb  of  the  earth,  the  color  which  the  eye  is  able  to 
 stand  in  great  masses  without  being  tired  or  blinded  thereby  and 
 which  always  has  something  fresh  about  it.  It  will  therefore 
 lend  itself — as  a  complete  contrast  to  the  red, — as  the  best  color 
 for  the  Church's  common  Seasons. 
 
 "Violet  is  a  solemn  earnest  color  and  is  especially  appro- 
 priate for  the  times  of  preparation. 
 
 Concerning  Black  there  is  need  for  little  comment.  It  is 
 the  negative  to  light,  the  other  pole  of  the  color  scale.  It  is  ac- 
 cepted as  the  universal  symbol  of  the  deepest  sorrow  and  humil- 
 ity." 
 
 The  appointments  proper  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
 
 White: — Festival  of  the  Nativity  and  throughout  the 
 Christmas  Cycle  to  and  inclusive  of  the  Festival 
 of  the  Epiphany,  and  the  Sunday  which  falls  in 
 its  Octave. 
 
 Festival  of  Easter,  its  Octave,  Quasimodogeniti 
 
 Meurer:  Aliarschinuck.     p.  52. 
 
LITURGICAL    COLORS.  16 
 
 and  the  Easter  Cycle  inclusive  of  the  Feast  of 
 the  Ascension    and    the   Sunday   after,   Exatidi. 
 
 All  Festivals  of  the  Virgin  which  are  retained. 
 Red  (Scarlet): — Feast   of   Pentecost,   and    its  Octave, 
 Feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
 
 Festival  of  the  Reformation. 
 
 Festivals  of  Apostles,  St.  Michael's  Day,  Feast 
 of  All  Saints.* 
 
 At  the  Dedication  of  a  Church. 
 
 A  Day  of  General  Thanksgiving,  and  Festival 
 of  Harvest. 
 Green: — The  Epiphany  Season  exclusive  of  the  Festival 
 and  its  Octave,  and  the  Trinity  Season  exclusive 
 of    the   Festival  of   the   Holy   Trinity,    and  any 
 Apostles'  or  other  Days  otherwise  appointed. 
 Purple: — The  lempora  datisa,  Advent  and  the  Passion- 
 tide  beginning  with  Septuagesinia  and  continuing 
 through  the  Saturday  in  Holy  Week,  excepting 
 Holy  Friday. 
 Black: — Holy  Friday. f     Days  of  Humiliation  and  Prayer; 
 and  the  "Festival  of  the  Commemoration  of  the 
 Dead"  (Todtenfest)  if  observed.  J 
 
 .  K  complete  "Table  of  Appointments"  is  hard  to  find.  The 
 writer  has  compared  some  which  are  quite  full  but  which  do  not 
 agree  in  all  respects  with  each  other,  nor  with  the  above.  This 
 is  based  upon  those  existing  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  If 
 a  use  was  found  to  be  pure  it  was  retained,  if  not  the  attempt 
 was  made  to  make  it  so. 
 
 As  the  Centre  of  all  the  Church's  Life  is  Christ,  so  is  the 
 
 *  White  would  not  be  an  inappropriate  use;  for  reason  see  above  under 
 *'white,"  p.  6  and  note  "t". 
 
 t  Some  appoint  this  for  the  entire  Holy  Week. — Meurer. 
 
 X  This  "Festival"  is  of  German  origin  and  wridely  observed  in  the  German 
 Churches, 
 
16  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Centre  of  the  Church's  Year.  His  Life  and  Work,  and  That  in 
 Its  humility  and  exaltation  is  reflected  in  her  days.  For  the 
 humility,  she  takes  the  color  of  royalty  to  express  the  majestic 
 lowliness  of  That  Life  for  It  is  not  a  common  life  of  humility 
 and  martyrdom,  but  That  of  the  Royal  Son  of  God;  and  when 
 the  deepest  hour  is  reached  and  the  Cross  is  raised,  as  the  earth- 
 ly sun  is  darkened  and  awe  and  fear  reign  when  He  gives  up  the 
 ghost,  so  too  she  takes  that  color  for  her  symbol.  It  shrouds  the 
 Church,  it  shrouds  the  heart  in  memory  of  that  awful  Day.  It 
 is  pointed  that  she  uses  this  color  but  one  day  in  all  her  Year; 
 and  as  it  passes  quickly  from  the  eye  to  give  place  to  its  opposite, 
 so  too  that  awful  thought  is  lost  in  the  wonder  and  glory  of  the 
 Resurrection. 
 
 For  the  days  that  tell  of  herself  and  her  own  faithful  and 
 martyred  ones,  she  takes  the  color  symbol,  of  her  birth,  of  her 
 ardent  service,  of  the  blood-giving  of  her  children. 
 
 For  her  quiet  days  she  takes  the  green — ever  fresh,  ever 
 bright,  to  pass  through  her  long  Seasons  as  she  giv^es  the  Word 
 though  so  often  heard,  but  always  holding  something  new  for 
 those  who  journey  with  her,  through  the  quiet,  refreshing,  ever 
 green  pastures  of  the  Word. 
 
 There  is  no  complete  satisfactory  treatment  of  the  subject  of 
 Littirgical  Colors,  their  history,  use  and  symbolism,  to  the  wri- 
 ter's knowledge;  and  the  working  out  of  this  paper  has  been  a 
 matter  of  going  through  many  things,  in  many  cases  in  vain, 
 hunting  for  threads  of  testimony  with  the  purpose,  to  gather  the 
 accurate  and  let  them  speak  for  themselves.  The  treatment  is 
 far  from  thorough  and  complete;  but  if  some  hints  have  been 
 contributed  which  will  show  the  value,  beauty  and  usefulness  of 
 the  Use,  then  the  purpose  will  be  accomplished. 
 
 Liturgical  colors — and  one  canuot  speak  of  colors  as  "litur- 
 gical' '  without  meaning  they  are  symbolic^^^ — are  and  always  will 
 •  They  never  were  simply  a  scheme  of  colors. 
 
LITURGICAL   COLORS.  17 
 
 be  classed  as  adiaphora.  But  as  we  have  sought  and  claim  to 
 have  the  pure  and  true  in  the  Essentials,  and  seek  to  make  them 
 what  the  Church  has  always  thought  them,  a  grand  harmony 
 illuminated  by  its  every  part;  then  we  dare  not  neglect  a  part 
 which  adds  its  share  thereto.  We  would  say  unhesitatingly  if 
 Liturgical  Colors  could  be  shown  to  be  useless  to,  and  of  no 
 value  in,  the  Church's  Cultus,  that  the)'  should  not  have  a  mo- 
 ment's thought.  On  the  other  hand  if  they  are  of  value  should 
 they  be  slightingly  passed  over  or  altogether  ignored? 
 
 How  helpful  to  the  worshiper  when,  on  entering  the  Church, 
 say  on  S.  Paul's  Day,  he  sees  Altar  and  Pulpit  decked  with  the 
 scarlet  hangings  embroidered  with  the  ancient  symbols  of  the 
 Deity.  They  draw  and  hold  his  eye  and  soon  he  thinks  of  S. 
 Paul,  Apostle — Martyr — Apostle  working  with  never  wavering 
 love  and  devotion  for  the  L,ord  Whom  he  had  been  granted  to 
 know;  and  Martyr  finally  bearing  last  witness  for  His  cause  and 
 to  his  fervent  love  for  it  in  giving  his  blood.  There  hangs  the 
 color  that  wakens  that  thought — the  color  of  fire,  the  glowing 
 tongues  of  the  Spirit,  through  Whose  coming  the  soul  is  wak- 
 ened— the  color  of  love,  which  is  shown  in  the  consecrated  ser- 
 vice— the  color  of  blood  with  which  that  service  is  sealed.  And 
 should  there  be  a  "Cross  and  Crown"  embroidered  upon  the 
 Frontal,  would  it  be  useless  or  add  another  word?  Rather  the 
 latter — for  there  is  shown  the  life  of  loving  service  accomplished 
 only  'mid  trial  and  temptation^  finally  receiving  the  reward  the 
 crown  that  fadeth  not  away.  Does  it  all  not  make  us  think  of 
 these  great  Examples  and  serve  to  urge  us,  mutely,  to  make  our 
 love  and  service  as  glowing  and  faithful? 
 
 Or  let  it  be  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity;  and  white  is  every- 
 where. White  the  peculiar  color  of  the  Deity,  white  the  symbol 
 of  light  and  glory  and  victory.  We  hear  a  Babe  is  born  in  such 
 lowly  surroundings.  We  hear  the  Prophecies.  We  hear  the 
 Angel  speak  to  Mary.     But  here  we  see  a  Little  One  like  all  oth- 
 
18  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ers:  but  wliile  we  look  we  hear  the  Angels  of  God  singing  their 
 message,  and  we  know  Who  has  come  and  why.  There  then 
 everywhere  before  us  is  the  color  of  ]nirest  joy,  of  victory  fore- 
 shadowed, of  the  Blessed  God  and  His  light  and  glory  revealed 
 in  That  Babe,  mutely  urging  us  to  make  our  hearts  pure  and 
 true  for,  and  fill  ourselves  with  this  jo\-  in,  the  coming  of  the 
 Holy  One. 
 
 Paul  Zeller  Stkodach. 
 
 Easton,  Pa. 
 
 In  addition  to  the  works  referred  to  in  the  Notes  the  subject 
 may  be  found  dealt  with  in  the  following:  — 
 
 (With  those  marked  *  the  writer  is  not  acquainted): 
 
 RiETSCHEL:  Lehrbnch  d.  Litiirgik.     I.      150  fT. 
 
 Jakob:  D.  Kiuis't  im  Dicnst  d   Kirche.     p.  348  flF. 
 
 BueRKNER:  Kirche  n  sell  muck  11.  Kirehengeraet.     p.  81. 
 
 Braun:  Znr  Symbolik  d.  Lit.  Far  ben. '^'^ 
 
 Marriott:    I'est.  Christianonem.     p.  175-186. 
 
 Walcott:  Sacred  Archccology.'^ 
 
 Rohault  de  Fleury:  La  Messe.     \'ni.     25  'S..^ 
 
 Otte:  Handbiieh  d.  Kirche.  Kunstarchceologie  d.  deuisch. 
 Miitelalters.      I.      272  ff.* 
 
 Thalhofer:  Haudbuch  d.  Katli.  Lit.      I.     911  flF. 
 
 Flick:  Kath.  Lit. 
 
 Portions  of  Durandus'  Rationale  are  found  in  English  trans- 
 lated by: 
 
 Xe.\LE  and  Webb:  The  Symbolism  of  Churches  and  Church 
 Ornaments  which  is  a  translation  of  Book  I. 
 
 Passmore:  Sacred  Vestments.      (Bk.  HI.) 
 
 Articles  in  Smith  and  Chkethams:  Diet.  Christian  .In- 
 ti  qui  ties. 
 
CONSECRATION. 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church  occupies  a  peculiar  position  on  ecclesio- 
 logical  questions.  On  the  one  hand  she  retains  many  of  the  cus- 
 toms of  the  past  and  is  altogether  favorable  to  the  historical  and 
 aesthetic  point  of  view.  On  the  other  hand  she  sets  her  face 
 against  every  custom  that  is  doctrinally  questionable. 
 
 I  have  been  led  to  this  remark  by  observing  the  frequent  re- 
 currence of  the  word  Consecration  in  our  ecclesiastical  vocabula- 
 ry. We  read  of  the  consecration  of  churches,  the  consecration 
 of  bells  and  even  of  the  consecration  of  deaconesses.  In  the  case 
 of  deaconesses  it  follows  that  if  they  are  consecrated,  the  rest  of 
 the  women  in  the  Church  are  not  consecrated.  Or,  as  the  Ro- 
 manists put  it,  some  are  religious  and  the  rest  are  secular.  The 
 act  of  "consecration"  lifts  the  former  into  a  different  class.  If 
 it  does  not,  the  word  is  a  misnomer.  I  have  not  yet  heard  the 
 term  used  with  us  in  connection  with  the  appointment  of  men  to 
 the  office  of  the  ministry,  but  there  is  no  telling  when  we  shall 
 read  that  so  and  so  many  men  have  been  "consecrated." 
 
 Has  the  word  a  legitimate  place  in  the  Lutheran  Liturgy? 
 I  hesitate  to  make  a  dogmatic  assertion.  I  would  rather  invite  a 
 discussion  of  the  question  and  thus  bring  out  the  reasons  in  favor 
 of  its  use.  Perhaps  as  an  advocatus  diaboli,  I  may  provoke  the 
 friends  of  the  term  to  defend  the  usage.  In  the  imperfection  of 
 language  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  find  the  right  word  for  an 
 idea,  and  words  have  often  lost  their  first  meaning.  But,  on  the 
 other  hand,  words  are  things  and  help  to  make  ideas.  It  has 
 happened  before  this  that  one  generation  played  with  an  expres- 
 
 (xix) 
 
20  MEMOIRS. 
 
 sioii  which  a  subsequent  generation  changed  into  a  dogma.  His- 
 tory makes  words,  l)Ut  words  also  make  liistory. 
 
 Etymology  is  sometimes  helpful  in  a  search  of  this  kind,  but 
 in  the  present  investigation  it  has  proved  of  only  secondary  val- 
 ue. The  word,  being  such  a  good  one,  was  early  applied  to  ille- 
 gitimate uses,  and  was  frequently  confounded  with  other  words 
 of  similar  import. 
 
 According  to  Harper's  Latin  Dictionary,  consccrare,  some- 
 times written  consacrare,  in  classic  usage  meant  to  devote  some- 
 thing as  sacred  to  a  deity.  Used  in  connection  with  persons  it 
 meant  "to  elevate  to  the  rank  of  deity,  to  place  among  the  gods." 
 But  when  we  turn  to  dedicare  we  find  it  has  practically  the  same 
 meaning,  "to  set  apart  a  thing  to  a  deity."  Temples  and  places 
 were  dedicated.  But  there  is  still  another  word  that  must  be 
 reckoned  with,  bcnedicere,  which  meant  to  consecrate  or  hallow. 
 In  the  Vulgate,  kadash,  Genesis  2,  3  is  translated  bencdixit. 
 
 In  ecclesiastical  usage  the  words  consccrare,  dedicare,  benedic- 
 ere  come  into  frequent  contact,  but  the  distinctions  are  not  always 
 sharp  or  permanent.  DuFresne's  Glossary^  gives  the  following 
 definitions: 
 
 A  bishop  dedicates  a  hall,  temple,  altar.  That  is  he  presents 
 the  place  to  God,  blesses  and  sanctifies  it. 
 
 A  bishop  cotisecrates  the  vessels  of  the  church,  the  chrism, 
 oil,  incense,  etc.  He  consecrates  those  things  which  are  thus 
 separated  from  a  common  to  a  sacred  use. 
 
 When  the  grace  of  God  is  invoked  on  persons  and  on  a  re- 
 ligious use  of  things,  the  benediction  is  pronounced.  It  is  per- 
 formed with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
 imposition  of  hands,  ointment,  holy  water,  incense,  etc.,  with  the 
 use  of  the  prescribed  forms  contained  in  the  Benedictionals  of  the 
 Roman  Church.  Some  of  these  benedictions  are  pronounced  by 
 bishops  only,  others  by  any  ordinary  minister.! 
 
 *  Cf.  Herzog's  Real  Encyclopivdie.      2d   Ed.     s.   v.      Bcncdikliouen. 
 
 t  AUGUSTI,  Denkwuer(UgktiU'n,   Vol.   \,   p.    170,   refers  to   J.    H.    Hokhmek, 
 
CONSECRATION,  21 
 
 These  definitions  indicate  the  chief  differences,  but  they  are 
 not  beyond  question  and  are  sometimes  confounded.  One  cannot 
 help  noticing  however  that  the  tendency  among  modern  rituaUsts 
 is  to  make  Consecrations  of  many  acts  that  were  formerly  Bene- 
 dictions. 
 
 A  better  source  of  information  than  Etymology  is  Church 
 History  and  History  of  Doctrines.  In  the  Old  Testament  both 
 men  and  things  were  consecrated  or  dedicated,  that  is,  set  apart 
 for  the  service  of  God.  In  the  New  Testament  all  Christians  are 
 dedicated  to  God's  service.  "Ye  are  a  holy  priesthood,  a  pecul- 
 iar people."  As  to  persons,  when  a  man  becomes  a  minister  he 
 enters  an  office,  but  is  not  thereby  lifted  into  a  new  order.  The 
 conceptions  of  sacerdotalism  are  a  later  development.  Likewise 
 of  later  origin  was  the  practice  of  consecrating  things  such  as 
 churches,  cemeteries  or  vasa  sacra.  It  seems  to  have  been  sug- 
 gested by  the  Manichaean  doctrine  of  evil.  But  in  the  New  Tes- 
 tament things  in  themselves  are  not  evil.  According  to  i  Timo- 
 th)^  4,  "Every  creature  of  God  is  good,"  but  our  use  of  it  may 
 be  evil.  Hence  it  is  a  Christian  duty  to  make  a  right  use  of 
 things,  which  is  possible  through  the  Word  of  God  and  prayer. 
 When  a  blessing  is  asked  at  table,  the  food  is  not  consecrated  or 
 made  any  better,  but  our  use  of  the  food  is  consecrated. 
 
 The  necessity  of  consecrating  men  and  things  seems  to  have 
 been  suggested  still  further  by  the  teaching  which  prevailed  in 
 regard  to  the  Mass.  At  first  the  Lord's  Supper  was  the  Com- 
 mon Service.  But  in  the  days  of  Cyprian,  the  Common  Service 
 began  to  give  place  to  the  Sacrifice  offered  by  the  minister  for  the 
 purpose  of  securing  the  grace  and  favor  of  God.  It  was  about 
 this  time  that  men  began  to  speak  about  the  consecration  of  the 
 elements,  bread  and  wine.  In  the  East  the  moment  of  conse- 
 cration or  transubstantiation  was  in  the  so-called  Epiclesis  or 
 invocation    of    the    Holy   Ghost.     In    the   Western  Church    the 
 
 yus  eccles.  Protest.,  as  giving  a  definition  of  these  three  words.      Who  can  find  this 
 book? 
 
22  MEMOIRS. 
 
 change  was  regarded   as  taking   place  in  the   use  of    the  verba. 
 
 When  once  the  idea  of  the  consecration  of  the  elements  was 
 thoroughly  fixed  in  the  mind,  it  became  easy  to  transfer  the 
 thought  of  consecration  to  other  objects.  Benediction  and  con- 
 secration came  to  mean  the  same  thing  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
 ple. By  parity  of  reasoning  it  was  held  that  what  consecration 
 did  for  the  elements  of  the  Mass,  benediction  or  dedication  or 
 consecration,  for  these  terms  began  to  be  loosely  defined,  would 
 do  for  persons  and  things.  Miraculous  powers  were  conferred 
 by  this  act.  Consecrations  were  multiplied.  At  first  only  bish- 
 ops were  consecrated.  Then  everybody  and  everything.  Our 
 modern  consecrators  seem  to  have  caught  the  spirit  of  the  third 
 century. 
 
 Where  the  doctrine  of  the  consecration  of  persons  is  held, 
 there  follows  easily  the  doctrine  of  Apostolical  Succession.  Min- 
 isterial authority  is  conferred  by  tactual  transmission.  The 
 bishop,  by  manual  imposition,  transmits  to  the  candidate  a  char- 
 acter i?idelebilts.  The  Anglicans  accepted  this  doctrine,  and  it  is 
 one  of  the  chief  grounds  for  their  ecclesiastical  claims,  and  for 
 spelling  their  church  with  a  capital  C.  Their  Prayer  Book  has  a 
 form  for  the  Consecration  of  Bishops. 
 
 The  Methodists,  as  children  of  the  Anglicans,  inherited  the 
 verbiage  and  forms  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  they  too  have  a  form 
 for  the  Consecration  of  Bishops,  although  when  they  make  mere 
 minor  ministers  they  use  another  word. 
 
 The  Lutheran  teaching  on  Ordination  does  not  endorse  this 
 position,  although  the  ideas  which  underly  this  development  are 
 widely  spread,  and  it  is  difficult  to  purge  out  the  old  Roman 
 leaven.  Even  among  us  the  idea  prevails  "once  a  minister,  al- 
 ways a  minister,"  and  men  who  have  long  since  demitted  the 
 tninistry  and  entered  into  other  employments  are  still  looked  up- 
 on as  members  of  the  sacred  order. 
 
 CONSECRATION    OF    CHURCHES. 
 
 The  earliest  account  of  a  church  dedication  is  given  by  Sozo- 
 
CONSECRATION.  23 
 
 menus.*  In  the  year  335  Constantine  caused  the  Church  of  the 
 Martyrs  to  be  built  at  Jerusalem.  A  Synod  being  in  session  at 
 Tyre,  he  invited  all  the  bishops  to  come  over  to  Jerusalem,  and 
 the  church  was  dedicated  with  great  pomp.  The  Church  contin- 
 ued to  celebrate  the  anniversaries  of  this  occasion.  This  was  the 
 origin  of  the  church-dedication  anniversaries  which  became  popu- 
 lar both  in  the  East  and  the  West.  Ambrose  made  much  of 
 church  dedications,  but  with  him  the  church  is  holy  because  it  is 
 the  place  where  the  Sacrifice  is  made.f 
 
 The  Rituale  Romayuini  places  the  dedication  of  churches  un- 
 der the  head  of  Benedictions.  The  Anglican  books  call  the  act  a 
 Consecration.     The  Methodists  call  it  a  Dedication. 
 
 Lutherans  repudiate  the  idea  of  a  special  sanctity  of  church- 
 es. They  deny  that  they  are  more  holy  than  any  other  space  on 
 earth.  They  deny  that  there  is  a  special  Divine  presence  in  the 
 consecrated  building,  revealing  itself  there  more  than  in  any  oth- 
 er place.  I 
 
 The  Roman  thought  of  the  consecration  of  a  church,  was 
 that  God  and  His  manifestations  were  in  a  special  manner  con- 
 nected with  the  church.  With  such  a  conception  the  Lutheran 
 Church  was  compelled  to  take  issue  and  did  so  in  the  last  of  the 
 Smalcald  Articles. §  "There  remain  the  papal  juggleries  connect- 
 ed with  such  foolish  and  puerile  things  as  church  dedications. 
 
 ♦  Cf.  Kliefoth,  Lit.  Abli.,  2,  Vol.  II,  p.   116. 
 
 t  Ibid.  p.   237. 
 
 +  It  is  not  an  easy  task  for  the  writer  to  say  these  words.  Our  people  are  not 
 in  special  need  of  them.  They  are  not  manifesting  too  great  a  spirit  of  reverence  in 
 their  churches.  The  way  in  which  many  of  them  enter  the  church,  and  the  way  in 
 which  many  of  them  conduct  themselves  in  the  church  does  not  indicate  a  pressing 
 necessity  for  this  doctrine.  Personally  I  wish  that  I  could  take  a  different  position, 
 and  impress  upon  ministers  and  young  people  a  doctrine  of  the  sanctity  of  the  Lord's 
 house  which  would  prepare  them  for  a  more  worthy  participation  in  the  Services  of 
 His  house.  But  it  is  better  to  tell  the  truth,  even  though  some  may  wrest  it  to  their 
 own  destruction.  It  is  a  duty  to  be  reverent  in  the  house  of  God,  but  the  duty  must 
 be  enforced  by  other  considerations  than  the  sanctity  of  the  building. 
 
 §  Cf.  K.  A.  4,   152. 
 
24  MEMOIRS. 
 
 baptism  of  bells,  etc."  (What  would  Luther  say  of  the  baptism 
 of  ships,  if  he  lived  \u  our  day?) 
 
 The  early  Lutheran  Agenda  therefore  contained  no  forms 
 for  church  dedications.  (Perhaps  also  because  there  were  no 
 churches  to  dedicate.)  But  in  the  year  1546  Luther  himself 
 dedicated  a  church.  He  commenced  the  Service  with  the  follow- 
 ing address: 
 
 "My  dear  friends,  we  are  now  about  to  bless  this  house  and 
 dedicate  it  to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  duty  devolves  not 
 onl}'  upon  me  but  you  also  are  to  take  hold  of  the  sprinkler  and 
 censer  so  that  this  house  may  be  consecrated,  to  the  end  that 
 nothing  else  may  take  place  here  than  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
 may  speak  in  it  through  His  holy  Word  and  we  on  the  other 
 hand  may  speak  with  Him  through  prayer  and  hymns  of  praise. 
 Therefore,  that  it  may  be  properly  blessed  and  consecrated  in  a 
 Christian  manner,  not  like  the  churches  of  the  papists  with  their 
 
 bishops'  chrism  and  incense, let  us  pray."     After  the 
 
 prayer  he  preached  a  sermon  from  Luke  14,  i-ii,  on  the  proper 
 celebration  of  the  Lord's  Day,  and  closed  with  these  words: 
 "Enough  has  now  been  said  from  the  Gospel  on  the  subject  of 
 the  dedication  of  this  house.  And  now  dear  friends,  since  you 
 have  helped  to  sprinkle  it  with  the  real  holy  water  of  God's 
 Word,  take  hold  of  the  censer,  that  is  prayer,  and  let  us  call  up- 
 on God  and  pray  first  for  His  Holy  Church,  that  He  may  con- 
 tinue to  us  His  Holy  Word  and  spread  it  abroad  everywhere,  and 
 that  this  house  which  has  now  been  dedicated  may  be  kept  pure 
 .  through  the  sanctification  of  God's  Word,  that  it  may  not  be 
 desecrated  by  the  devil  or  made  unclean  by  his  lies  and  false 
 teaching "     And  this  was  the  dedication. 
 
 Church  dedications  in  Saxony  at  the  beginning  of  the  iSth 
 century  are  thus  described  by  Gerber:  "The  procession  started 
 from  the  parsonage  or  from  the  old  church,  went  around  the  new 
 church  and  entered  it  with  the  singing  of  a  hymn.  The  school 
 children  walked  in  front  followed  by  the  ministers  carrying  the 
 
CONSECRATION.  25 
 
 vessels  and  the  books.  Then  came?  the  congregation  walking 
 two  and  two.  The  Service  in  the  church  was  held  in  the  usual 
 manner  with  Psalm  84,  Psalm  87,  Psalm  132:  8,  9,  or  other  suit- 
 able passages  as  lessons,  and  an  appropriate  sermon  and  prayers.* 
 
 With  reference  to  the  dedication  of  bells,  pulpits,  organs,  al- 
 tars, fonts  and  cemeteries,  the  same  principles  governed  the  Lu- 
 therans as  in  the  dedication  of  churches.  Whenever  such  objects 
 were  dedicated,  the  service  consisted  in  their  public  presentation 
 and  use,  and  in  supplicating  the  blessing  of  God  upon  their  use 
 and  upon  those  who  should  use  them.  This  was  a  very  different 
 thing  from  the  Roman  practice  of  consecrating  these  articles  in 
 the  Mass,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  to  them  some  .spirit- 
 ual efficacy. 
 
 But  Lutherans  were  not  content  with  simply  criticising  an- 
 cient usage.  They  maintained  the  positive  principle  which 
 should  govern  the  Christian  in  his  use  of  God's  creatures  as  laid 
 down  in  i  Timothy  4.  The  creature  did  not  need  any  sanctifica- 
 tion  to  accomplish  the  object  for  which  God  had  created  it.  But 
 men  needed  sanctification  and  this  could  be  attained  only  by  the 
 Word  of  God  and  by  prayer.  And  men  needed  it  not  only  for 
 some  things  but  for  the  whole  life.  Not  the  thing  but  the  use  of 
 the  thing  is  to  be  sanctified. f 
 
 Abraham  Lincoln  was  not  a  liturgist,  but  in  his  Gettysburg 
 speech  he  seems  to  have  come  very  close  to  the  Lutheran  concep- 
 tion of  consecration: 
 
 "We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field.  .  .  .  But 
 in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we 
 cannot  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead, 
 who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power 
 to  add  or  detract.  .    .    .  It  is  for  us  the  living  rather  to  be  dedi- 
 
 *  K.  A.  4,  153. 
 
 t  Discussions  of  the  Lutheran  position  on  this  subject  are  to  be  found  in  the 
 lirunswick  KO  of  1531,  Bugenhagen's,  and  in  the  Corpus  Doctiina:  of  the  Bruns- 
 wick-Woifenbuettel  KO  of  1569,  composed  by  Chemnitz. 
 
26  MEMOIRS. 
 
 cated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here 
 have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  here  to  be 
 dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us." 
 
 With  the  recognition  of  this  principle  that  it  is  not  the  thijig 
 which  is  to  be  consecrated  but  that  we  are  to  be  consecrated  and 
 that  our  use  of  the  thing  is  to  be  consecrated,  we  gladly  accept 
 every  service  in  which  persons  or  things  are  devoted  to  the  ser- 
 vice of  God.  But  our  consecration  will  be  larger  and  more  free. 
 We  shall  ask  a  blessing  over  a  good  book  as  well  as  over  a  meal. 
 The  humble  widow  who  in  the  fear  of  God  supports  her  family 
 at  the  wash-tub  is  as  truly  consecrated  as  the  sister  who  wears  a 
 garb,  and  the  "man  with  the  hoe"  stands  on  the  same  plane  as 
 the  consecrated  bishop. 
 
 I  would  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  desirous  of  doing  away 
 with  any  of  the  beautiful  services  in  which  the  Church  sets  apart 
 earthly  objects  for  sacred  use.  On  the  contrary,  I  would  gladly 
 see  them  multiplied.  But  such  a  service  is  not  a  consecration  in 
 the  historical  significance  and  in  the  popular  conception  of  the 
 term.  It  is  an  offering  to  God,  and  a  prayer  for  a  sanctified  use 
 of  that  which  has  been  offered.  I  would  therefore  venture  to 
 hope  that  some  other  word  might  be  substituted  for  consecration. 
 For  places  and  things,  would  dedication  be  better?  For  persons 
 I  am  not  prepared  to  suggest  a  substitute.  As  I  stated  in  the 
 beginning,  my  purpose  is  to  awaken  discussion  and  not  to  affirm 
 a  dogmatic  certainty. 
 
 George  U.  Wenner. 
 New   York. 
 
THE  LITURGICAI.  USE  OF  THE   CREEDS. 
 
 It  is,  perhaps,  a  mere  coincidence  that  the  Oecumenical  Creeds, 
 which  are  Trinitarian  in  character,  should  be  three  in  number, — 
 the  Nicene,  which  was  adopted  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  325  A. 
 D.;  the  Apostles',  whose  latest  clause  was  added  650  A.  D.;  and 
 the  Athanasiaii,  which  originated  in  its  earliest  form  about  the 
 middle  of  the  fifth  century  and  gained  its  present  form  about  the 
 middle  of  the  ninth  century. 
 
 In  the  Communion  Service,  the  Nicene  or  the  Apostles' 
 Creed  is  used  at  the  Morning  Service,  according  as  there  is  or  is 
 not  a  Communion.  No  Creed  is  recited  at  the  Vesper  and  Matin 
 Services.  The  Apostles'  Creed  is  found  in  several  of  the  Orders 
 for  Ministerial  Acts.  The  Athanasian  Creed  appears  at  some 
 place  in  the  Service- Book,  but  it  nowhere  forms  a  part  of  the 
 public  worship.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  public  worship 
 reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  Communion  Service  and  that  in 
 this  Service  the  Nicene  Creed  alone  is  employed,  it  will  be  seen 
 that  the  relative  value  set  upon  the  Creeds,  in  their  Liturgical 
 Use  corresponds  to  their  historical  order  (in  their  definitive 
 form) — the  Nicene,  the  Apostles' ,  and  the  Athanasian. 
 
 I.      THE   NICENE    CREED. 
 
 As  has  just  been  said,  this  Creed  is  the  Communion  Confes- 
 sion and  is  recited  whenever  the  Communion  is  administered. 
 Its  use  in  the  Service  began  at  an  early  date.  Already  in  488  A. 
 D.,  Peter  the  Fuller,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  directed  that  it  should 
 be  recited  at  every  gathering  of  a  congregation,  and  a  similar 
 
 (xxvii) 
 
28  MEMOIRS. 
 
 direction  was  given  by  Timotheus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
 511  A.  D.  From  the  East  this  use  gradually  spread  to  the  West, 
 entering  Europe  by  way  of  Spain,  589  A.  D.  "Thence  it  came, 
 with  the  addition  of  the  filioqzie  in  the  Third  Article,  to  France 
 and  Germany  under  Charlemagne.  .  .  .  Finally,  it  was  accepted 
 by  Rome  under  Benedict  \'III,  in  the  year  1014.  Luther  rightly 
 kept  it,  and  in  1524  gave  it  to  the  people  in  versified  form,  to  be 
 sung  by  them  after  the  minister  had  introduced  the  first  line."* 
 
 II.       THE   apostles'    CREED. 
 
 As  the  Nicene  properly  belongs  to  the  Communion  Service, 
 so  the  Apostles'  properly  belongs  to  the  Baptismal  Service  and 
 the  subordinate  weekly  and  daily  services,  the  two  Creeds  corre- 
 sponding to  the  two  Sacraments. t  In  this  use  is  preserved  its 
 historical  character,  for  this  Creed  is  founded  on  and  developed 
 from  the  Baptismal  Formula,  Matt.  28:  19.  The  Creed  itself  is 
 the  gradual  dev'elopment  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  required  of 
 the  Catechumens  in  the  early  Church.  Its  use,  however,  formed 
 no  part  of  the  public  worship,  "For  a  long  time  the  rule  of  faith 
 was  regarded  as  a  secret,  and  was  withheld  even  from  the  Cate- 
 chumens till  the  last  stage  of  instruction.  This  explains  the  fact 
 that  we  have  only  fragmentary  accounts  of  it  in  the  writings  of 
 the  sub-Apostolic  and  following  age.  Even  as  late  as  the  time 
 of  S.  Augustine  we  find  him  laying  it  down  as  a  fundamental 
 principle,  Syntbolum  nemo  scribii  lit  legi  potest,  'No  one  writes 
 down  the  Creed  that  it  may  be  read.'  "J  When,  where  and  by 
 whom  this  Creed  began  to  be  used  in  the  public  Offices  of  the 
 Church,  is  not  known  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
 
 III.       THE    ATHANASIAN    CREED. 
 
 This  Creed  does  not  enter  into  the  public  Service  of  the  Lu- 
 theran Church  at  the  present  time.     At  the  time  when  Luther's 
 
 ♦  Liturgies.     HOKN.     p.    56. 
 
 t  Jacobs'  Lutheran  Movement,     p.   302. 
 
 +  Macleak's  Introduction  to  the   Creeds,     p.    10. 
 
THE   LITURGICAL  USE   OP  THE   CREEDS.  29 
 
 metrical  v^ersion  of  the  Nicene  was  more  common  than  that  Creed 
 itself,  the  Athanasian  was  occasionally  used,  as  on  Trinity  Sun- 
 day and  at  Ordinations.  The  Te  Deum  was  also  used  at  times.* 
 It  is  interesting  to  note  that  two  of  the  old  names  of  this  Symbol 
 (tenth  and  eleventh  century,  respectively)  are,  Hymyius  S.  Atha- 
 nasii  de  Trinitate,  "a  Hymn  of  S.  Athanasius  concerning  the 
 Trinity,"  and,  Psalmus  Quicunque  Vult,  "the  Psalm  Quicunque 
 Vulty  In  a  printed  sermon  defending  the  use  of  the  Athanasi- 
 an Creed  in  the  Anglican  Service-Book,  Canon  Liddon  has  this 
 foot-note:  "To  refer  to  the  ^Quicunque'  as  a  Psalm  may  be  only 
 a  pedantic  crotchet.  But  if  it  is  intended  to  imply  that  as  a 
 Psalm  the  Quicunque  is  not  properly  a  Creed,  this  is  to  contra- 
 dict the  formal  language  of  the  Church  of  England  both  in  the 
 Articles  and  the  Prayer  Book."t  It  may  here  be  stated  that  in 
 the  Anglican  I^iturgy  the  use  of  the  Creeds  is  as  follows:  The 
 Nicene  is  said  in  the  Order  for  Holy  Communion.  In  the  Order 
 for  Evening  Prayer  only  the  Apostles'  is  used.  In  the  Order  for 
 Morning  Prayer  the  Apostles'  is  used,  "Except  only  such  days 
 as  the  Creed  of  S.  Athanasius  is  appointed  to  be  read."  There 
 are  twelve  of  these  Days,  including,  of  course.  Trinity  Sunday. 
 The  Athanasian  Creed  also  forms  part  of  the  Liturgy  of  the 
 Greek  Church.  The  Holy  Spirit  is  said  to  be  "of  the  Father." 
 The  words,  "and  of  the  Son,"  are  omitted. 
 
 THE   POSITION   OF   THE   CREED   IN   THE   SERVICE. 
 
 We  here  speak  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  Its  earliest  place  was 
 in  the  Missa  Fidelium  before  the  Preface,  the  place  which  it  still 
 holds  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Upon  its  introduction  into  the 
 Church  of  the  West,  it  was  recited  by  the  congregation  before 
 the  Lord's  Prayer.  It  was  in  France  and  Germany  that  it  was 
 placed  after  the  reading  of  the  Gospel.  J     In  the  Lutheran  Orders 
 
 *  Jacob's  Lutheran  Movement,     p.   302. 
 
 t  For  the  Sermon  advocating  the  retention  of  the  Creed,  see  University  Ser- 
 mons. Second  Series,     pp.  95-114. 
 X  Hokn's  Liturgies,     p.   56. 
 
30  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it  is  introductory  and  subordinate  to  the  Sermon.  "In  a  few 
 Orders,"  says  Dr.  Jacobs,*  "it  directly  follows;  but  in  most,  it 
 precedes.  In  the  latter  case,  its  Office  is  to  give  a  summary  of 
 the  faith  as  a  whole  before  the  minister  expands  the  part  con- 
 tained in  the  Gospel  for  the  Day.  The  whole  horizon  of  the 
 faith  sweeps  before  the  view,  and,  then,  the  hearers  are  prepared 
 to  enter  the  one  limited  part.  Where  it  follows  the  Sermon,  as 
 in  the  Reformation  of  Cologne,  it  is  the  affirmative  answer  to  the 
 Sermon.  Another  explanation  is  sometimes  given.  'The  Creed 
 is  recited  after  the  Gospel  that  while,  by  the  Holy  Gospel,  there 
 is  faith  unto  righteousness,  by  the  Creed,  there  may  be  confes- 
 sion with  the  mouth  unto  salvation.'  (Durandus).  'After  Christ 
 has  spoken  to  His  people,  it  is  proper  for  them  to  express  their 
 belief  the  more  ardently  and  intently,  as  it  is  written  in  the  Gos- 
 pel of  John  that  they  did,  who  had  heard  the  word  from  the 
 Samaritan  woman . '     (  Gerber t ) . ' ' 
 
 THE   PURPOSE   OF   THE   CREEDS   IN   THE   SERVICE. 
 
 The  Creeds  form  a  fixed  and  normal  part  of  the  Liturgy, 
 and  belong  to  the  Sacrificial  Acts  of  Christian  worship.  They 
 are  a  tribute  of  praise  rendered  by  the  worshipper  to  the  Triune 
 God  and  themselves  constitute  an  act  of  objective  worship. 
 They  honor  God  by  this  declaration  of  faith  in  Him  as  he  has 
 revealed  Himself  to  be,  and  they  honor  His  Holy  Word  b)-  this 
 acknowledgment  of  its  absolute  truth.  To  confess  before  God 
 our  faith  in  Him  is  to  describe  Him  as  He  is;  to  describe  Him  as 
 He  is,  is  to  worship  Him  with  praise, — as  we  do  when  we  declare 
 before  H  m  our  belief  in  "One  God,  the  Father  Almighty,  Maker 
 of  Heaven  and  earth.  And  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible. 
 And  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Only-begotten  Son  of  God, 
 Begotten  of  His  Father  before  all  worlds,  God  of  God,  Light  of 
 Light,  Very  God  of  Very  God,  Begotten,  not  made.  Being  of 
 one  substance  with  the  Father,  by  Whom  all  things  were  made. 
 
 •  Lutheran  Movement,     p.    301. 
 
THE   LITURGICAL  USE   OP  THE   CREEDS.  31 
 
 ....  And  I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of 
 Life,  Who  proceedeth  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  Who  with 
 the  Father  and  the  Son  together  is  worshipped  and  glorified, 
 Who  spake  by  the  Prophets."  Such  is  the  very  language  of  de- 
 votion and  adoration, — of  a  John  the  Baptist,  "I  have  seen,  and 
 have  borne  witness  that  this  is  the  Son  of  God;"  of  a  Nathanael, 
 "Rabbi,  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God,  Thou  art  the  King  of  Israel;" 
 of  a  Peter,  "We  have  believed  and  know  that  Thou  art  the  Holy 
 One  of  God;"  of  a  Martha,  "Yea,  Lord,  I  have  believed  that 
 Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God;"  of  a  Thomas,  "My  Lord 
 and  my  God;"  of  a  St.  Paul,  "There  is  one  God  the  Father,  of 
 Whom  are  all  things,  and  we  unto  Him.  And  one  Lord  Jesus 
 Christ,  through  Whom  are  all  things,  and  we  through  Him." 
 It  is,  we  repeat,  the  very  summit  of  adoring  worship  when  we 
 come  before  the  Triune  God  and  in  the  language  of  the  Creeds 
 make  confession  of  our  steadfast  faith  in  God  the  Father,  Who 
 has  created  us,  in  God  the  Son,  Who  has  redeemed  us,  and  in 
 God  the  Holy  Ghost,  Who  has  sanctified  us. 
 
 The  subjective  benefits  which  accrue  to  the  faithful  confessor 
 in  the  Liturgical  Use  of  the  Creeds  are  manifold.  For  one  thing, 
 as  Dr.  Liddon  has  pointed  out,*  they  prevent  religious  emotion 
 from  becoming  a  passing  sentiment,  destined  to  evaporate  and 
 disappear.  If  the  emotion  is  to  last,  it  must  not  be  separated 
 from  the  event  or  person  that  called  it  forth.  As  the  event  is  lost 
 from  mind,  as  the  person  fades  from  view,  the  impression  be- 
 comes dim  and  indistinct,  and  then  dies  away;  and  the  emotion 
 shares  its  fate.  "Here  is  the  value  of  the  Christian  Creeds:  they 
 fix  in  clear  outline  before  the  soul  of  the  believer  the  great  ob- 
 jects of  his  faith,  which  rouse  in  him  movements  of  love  and  awe: 
 they  resist  the  tendencies  of  unassisted  emotion  to  lose  itself  on 
 what  is  vague  and  indistinct:  they  place  before  him  God,  in  His 
 Essential  Threefold  Nature,  and  in  His  Redeeming  and  Sanctify- 
 ing work,  and  in  this  way  they  sustain  the  living  emotion  of  the 
 
 *  PassiontiJe  Sermons,     p.   205. 
 
32  MEMOIRS. 
 
 soul  directed  towards  God,  as  revealed  by  Himself.  The  Creeds 
 are  not  a  series  of  detached  propositions:  they  are  a  collection  of 
 statements  which  correspond  to  a  living  whole.  To  an  unbeliev- 
 er a  Creed  only  suggests  the  reflection:  How  many  propositions — 
 dogmas — for  a  man  to  believe!  To  a  believer,  before  whose  soul's 
 eye  the  Divine  Object  described  in  the  Creeds  is  livingly  present, 
 a  Creed  suggests  the  reflection:  How  impossible  to  omit  any  one 
 of  those  elements  of  a  description  which  the  Reality  demands." 
 From  Bishop  Westcott*  we  learn  several  further  uses  serv^ed 
 by  the  Creeds  in  general,  and  more  particularly  in  the  Serv'ice. 
 Such  a  confession  of  our  faith  gives  a  positive  distinctness  to  as- 
 piration and  offers  a  watchword  for  effort.  Having  found  the 
 truth  ourselves,  we  will  not  be  satisfied  merely  to  give  expression 
 to  it  in  a  verbal  formula;  but  because  this  truth  concerns  others 
 as  well,  we  will  be  constrained  to  impart  it  also  to  them.  Again, 
 a  formal  Creed  witnesses  to  the  universality  of  our  faith.  "Let 
 us  extend  our  thoughts,  and  remember  that  the  confession  which 
 we  make  is  made  practically  in  the  same  form  from  day  to  day 
 by  countless  congregations  in  Western  Christendom,  and  we  shall 
 know  that  that  which  we  have  in  common  with  all  who  bear 
 Christ's  Name  is  greater,  immeasurably  greater,  than  the  special 
 beliefs,  however  precious  to  ourselves,  however  perverse  and  wil- 
 ful and  unfounded  in  the  eyes  of  others,  which  keep,  and  must 
 keep  us  apart."  Again,  the  Creed  which  binds  us  all  together 
 now,  even  in  spite  of  ourselves,  binds  us  to  all  the  past.  "As 
 often  as  we  repeat  the  Creed  of  our  Baptism  we  repeat  the  words 
 by  which  Martyrs  have  lived  and  died,  the  words  under  which 
 nations  have  been  enrolled  as  soldiers  of  Christ's  army,  the  words 
 which  have  remained  through  every  vicissitude  the  standard  of 
 Christian  belief.  And  he  must  be  something  less  than  a  man 
 who  is  not  moved  by  the  power  of  this  unbroken  fellowship  with 
 the  past,  which  makes  us  heirs  of  every  victory  of  Faith."  Once 
 more,  the  Creed  which  unites  us  with  the  past,  preserves  for  us 
 
 ♦    TAe  Historic  Faith,     pp.    19-22. 
 
THE   LITURGICAL  USE   OF  THE   CREEDS.  33 
 
 in  complete  and  harmonious  outline  both  the  foundations  and  the 
 proportion  of  Faith.  "The  Creed  is  of  no  one  age.  As  often  as 
 we  repeat  it  we  are  guarded  from  forgetting  the  articles  which 
 our  circumstances  do  not  force  upon  our  notice.  All  the  facts 
 remain;  and  when  a  crisis  comes,  that  will  be  ready  to  our  hand 
 which  our  fathers  have  delivered  to  us.  We  want  nothing  new, 
 but  the  old  rekindled  by  a  fuller  light." 
 
 Such,  then,  is  the  Use  of  the  Creeds  in  the  Service.  There 
 are  other  incidental  offices  performed  by  such  Liturgical  Use,  but 
 the  principal  functions  have  at  least  been  alluded  to.  It  is  a  ne- 
 cessity arising  from  a  law  of  our  being  that  when  we  arrive  at  a 
 conviction  of  truth  we  do  give  expression  to  it.  We  have  such  a 
 conviction  of  religious  and  distinctively  Christian  truth,  and  we 
 feel  impelled  to  declare  in  words  our  heart's  belief.  The  words 
 which  express  this  belief  the  most  clearly  and  fully  are  furnished 
 to  us  in  the  three  General  Creeds.  We  adopt  their  language  not 
 because  the  Church  has  made  them  for  us  and  demands  of  us 
 such  adoption  and  confession,  but  spontaneously,  willingly,  glad- 
 ly, because  they  best  express  the  personal  convictions  which  we 
 have  derived  from  God's  pure  Word  alone.  The  God  Who  has 
 revealed  Himself  in  His  Holy  Word,  the  Triune  God,  Father, 
 Son  and  Holy  Spirit,  Creator,  Saviour  and  Sanctifier, — it  is  this 
 God  in  Whom  we  delight  to  confess  our  personal  belief.  While 
 we  confess  Him,  we  moreover  worship  and  adore  Him;  and  as  in- 
 dividuals and  as  a  congregation,  we  recognize  our  place  and  por- 
 tion and  blessed  privilege  in  the  Holy  Christian  Church,  the 
 Communion  of  Saints. 
 
 The  Service  opens  in  the  Name  of  the  Triune  God:  it  closes 
 with  a  Doxology  to  the  Triune  God.  In  the  middle  stands  the 
 Creed,  explaining  and  justifying  both  the  Name  and  the  Dox- 
 ology. 
 
 John  W.  Horine. 
 Charlesio7i,  S.   C. 
 
THE  LITURGY   OF  THE 
 NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 
 
 The  congregation  comes  to  church  to  glorify  God  and  to  upbuild 
 itself. — It  does  not  come  together  simply  to  serve  God  through 
 prayer,  confession,  thanksgiving  and  praise,  but  also  to  receive 
 the  peculiar  blessing  which  God  has  promised  it,  and  which  gives 
 ,  and  nourishes  a  new  spiritual  life. 
 
 God's  means  of  blessing  are  His  Word  and  the  Sacraments. 
 
 That  God  comes  to  His  people  through  these  means  of  grace, 
 and  that  they  can  serve  Him  in  the  manner  already  stated,  are 
 basic  principles  in  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  Service. 
 
 These  principles  were  fixed  by  Luther  and  the  '  'Augsburg 
 Confession." 
 
 Luther,  in  his  Formula  Missa  of  1523  followed  the  Roman 
 Catholic  Liturgy  as  closely  as  possible,  leaving  out  whatever  was 
 false.  And  in  Central  and  North  Germany  this  formula  was 
 made  the  basis  of  the  Order  of  Service,  while  in  Southwest  Ger- 
 many, where  the  Lutherans  came  into  touch  with  the  Catholics 
 and  the  Reformed,  his  Deutsche  Messe  was  used.  Even  this  latter 
 formula  has  had  an  influence  on  the  Norwegian  Liturgy,  in  that 
 it  has  been  followed  in  the  Order  of  Service  that  has  to  do  with 
 the  Sacraments,  as  the  Formula  Missce  has  been  followed  in  what 
 has  to  do  with  the  Word. 
 
 The  Order  in  the  Fonmila  Missa  is:  Introit,  hCyrie^  Gloria^ 
 Collect,  Epistle  together  with  Gradual  and  Hallelujah,  Gos' 
 pel,  Nicene  Creed,  Sermon,  Preface  in  Latin,  the  Words  of 
 the    Institution    in    German,    the    Sandus,    Benedictus,    Lord's 
 
 (xxxv) 
 
30  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Prayer  and  Pax,  and  the  singing  of  the  Ag)ius  Dei  during  the 
 Distribution,  and  finally  another  Collect  and  the  Aaronitic  bless- 
 ing. 
 
 The  Deutsche  Messe  is  more  radical,  that  is,  it  is  less  like  the 
 Roman  Catholic.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Service  there  remains 
 only  K'yrie,  Collect,  Epistle,  Gospel,  Creed  and  Sermon.  A  note- 
 worthy addition  were  the  hymns  sung  in  German.  Even  the 
 Creed  was  made  a  hymn — but  that  goes  too  far.  The  sacramen- 
 tal ceremonies  are  likewise  impoverished,  for  the  Preface  was 
 dropped,  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  paraphrased  as  a  part  of  the  Ex- 
 hortation, the  rich  expressions  about  the  death  of  Christ  and  the 
 remembrance  were  not  given  at  all. 
 
 The  more  strict  Lutherans  adopted  the  Formula  Missa  and 
 strove  hard  to  get  a  beautiful  Service.  They  began  to  use  the 
 Apostles'  Creed  instead  of  the  Nicene;  they  introduced  Confession 
 and  Absolution,  and  the  General  Prayer  after  the  Sermon;  they 
 established  the  Exhortation  to  the  communicants;  and  they  pro- 
 vided for  the  singing  of  the  Litany  if  there  was  no  Communion. 
 Their  Service  carries  out  the  basic  principles  of  the  Lutheran 
 Service  fully;  it  shows  a  harmonious  and  living  activity  by  both 
 minister  and  congregation;  it  balances  between  freedom  and  rule, 
 between  the  free  word  and  the  liturgical  parts. 
 
 At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  Norway  was  united  with 
 Denmark.  It  is  true  that  Norway  was  still  called  a  kingdom 
 and  retained  her  old  national  laws;  yet,  as  she  was  really  gov- 
 erned by  Copenhagen,  we  may  consider  her  little  else  than  a 
 Danish  province.  Therefore  when  the  Reformation  entered  Den- 
 mark, it  came  also  to  Norway. 
 
 The  transition  from  the  Roman  Catholic  to  an  Evangelical 
 faith  and  practice  was  naturally  slow;  and  during  these  many 
 years  there  was  an  uncertainty  in  the  forms  of  the  Church  Ser- 
 vice. When  the  authority  of  the  Pope  was  set  aside  in  1536  and 
 the  State  Church  of  Denmark  was  established,  King  Christian  III 
 was  obliged  to  write  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  to  "borrow"  Bu- 
 
THE    LITURGY    OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.     37 
 
 genhagen  and  Melanchthon  "for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  estab- 
 lishment of  a  Christian  Order."  Denmark  did  not  then  have 
 capable  men  for  this  work,  and  Germany  could  not  spare  those 
 asked  for. 
 
 Thereupon  King  Christian  appointed  a  committee  of  his  own 
 men  to  draw  up  an  Order  of  Service.  He  changed  it  somewhat 
 and  then  sent  it  to  Luther,  who,  together  with  the  theologians  at 
 Wittenberg,  approved  of  it.  At  the  same  time  that  Luther  made 
 his  reply,  Bugenhagen  came  to  Denmark.  The  King  and  he 
 went  through  the  Order  of  Service  again,  making  a  few  changes 
 in  it  and  adding  eight  appendices.  In  1537  the  "Ordinance" 
 went  into  force  and  in  1539  it  was  passed  by  the  Diet;  in  1542  it 
 was  published  in  Danish.  It  treats  of  Church  Government  as 
 well  as  the  Order  of  Service;  it  is  at  once  a  manual  of  Church 
 Law  and  Liturgy.  As  already  stated,  it  follows  both  the  Formula 
 Misses  and  the  Deutsche  Messe.  It  remained  in  force  until  1685, 
 when  it  was  superseded  by  the  "Ritual."  In  Norway  it  was 
 copied  in  all  its  essentials  by  the  "Ordinance"  of  1607. 
 
 During  this  transition  period  just  described  there  was  no 
 fixed  form  of  Service,  owing  to  the  fact  that  each  pastor  was 
 left  to  follow  his  own  judgment  in  the  matter.  But  even  after 
 the  "Ordinance"  of  1542  was  published,  there  was  consider- 
 able shifting,  because,  while  the  "Ordinance"  specified  the  Or- 
 der of  Service,  it  did  not  give  the  specific  form  of  each  part. 
 In  this  matter  it  simply  referred  to  other  handbooks,  of  which 
 there  was  already  a  number,  such  as,  Peder  Blades'  "En- 
 chiridion" of  1538,  and  Frantz  Vormordsen's  "Manual"  of  1539. 
 The  first  named  is  a  translation  of  Luther's  "Enchiridion"  and 
 his  book  on  Baptism  and  Marriage.  The  last  is  a  handbook 
 of  the  whole  Service,  giving  forms.  Collects,  references  to  the 
 speeches  that  belong  to  the  several  liturgical  parts,  etc.;  it  did 
 not  contain  the  texts,  but  only  the  references  to  them  in  the 
 Bible.  The  great  fault  with  these  and  other  handbooks  was, 
 that  they  did  not  contain  all  that  was  to  be  used  in  each  part 
 
38  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  Service;  another  was,  that  they  did  not  agree  in  all  parts. 
 
 The  "Ritual"  mentioned  above  was  the  "Ordinance"  with- 
 out the  parts  on  Church  Government.  Its  authorization  was 
 due  to  Bishop  Hans  Bagger,  Provost  Henrik  Bornemann,  Dr. 
 Hans  Leth  and  Bishop  Thomas  Kingo.  The  "Book  of  Service" 
 appeared  three  years  later  in  1688,  published  by  Bishop  Bagger, 
 — the  Ritual  which,  excepting  a  few  changes,  has  l)een  used  in 
 the  Norwegian  Church  to  the  present  day.  This  book  of  Bag- 
 ger's contained  also  a  good  deal  of  pastoral  advice,  some  of  it 
 very  curious  to  our  notions.  This  was  printed  in  the  Norwegian 
 editions  of  the  book  until  the  "New  Ritual"  came  out.  As  an 
 example  of  this  pastoral  advice,  I  quote  the  following  from  a 
 Norwegian  edition  of  1879:  "Whoever  wantonly  swears  and 
 curses,  and  thus  takes  the  Name  of  God  in  vain,  shall  be  consid- 
 ered as  one  who  does  not  deal  honestly If,  during  the 
 
 Service  at  church,  the  children  profane  it  by  play,  noise  or  any 
 other  misdemeanor  on  the  church  grounds,  then  the  authorities 
 shall  have  the  power  to  punish  the  younger  ones  with  whippings 
 and  the  older  ones  with  the  pillory,"  etc. 
 
 In  the  first  decades  after  the  Reformation  in  Denmark  there 
 were  made  two  important  changes  in  the  Service:  the  one,  that 
 the  Sermon  was  given  a  fixed  place;  the  other,  that  Danish 
 hymns  took  the  place  of  some  of  the  old  chants  sung  by  the 
 preacher  and  the  choir.  Both  of  these  changes  became  perma- 
 nent. 
 
 The  "Ordinance"  Service  began  with  silent  confession  by 
 the  minister,  during  which  he  knelt  at  the  altar,  and  after  which, 
 at  the  King's  desire,  he  offered  up  prayer  for  the  Word,  the 
 King  and  the  realm.  While  he  was  doing  this  the  congregation, 
 kneeling,  read  a  silent  confession.  In  place  of  this,  in  the  "Rit- 
 ual" there  was  an  opening  prayer  which  was  read  while  the  con- 
 gregation knelt.  Then,  in  the  "Ordinance,"  followed  the  Introit 
 and  Kyric  (sung  three  times  by  the  congregation),  but  in  the 
 "Ritual"    the   K'yrle    followed    the   opening    prayer.     The  next 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF  THE   NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.    39 
 
 part  was  the  angels'  antliem,  ''Gloria  in  Excelsis,'"  which  was 
 afterwards  made  a  hymn.  Then,  the  minister,  turning  to  the 
 congregation,  sang,  "The  Lord  be  with  you,"  to  which  the  con- 
 gregation, rising,  sang:  "And  with  thy  spirit."  The  next  was 
 the  Collect,  with  an  "Amen"  by  the  congregation;  and  then  the 
 Epistle,  followed  by  the  Hallelujah.  But  in  the  "Ritual"  a 
 hymn  bearing  on  the  Epistle  or  introducing  the  Gospel  was  sub- 
 stituted for  the  Hallelujah.  The  Gospel  was  thereupon  read  and 
 replied  to  by  the  congregation  in:  "God  be  praised  for  His  glad 
 tidings,"  or,  as  in  the  "Ritual,"  "Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ." 
 The  Creed  was  read  next,  later  replaced  by  a  hymn.  The  Ser- 
 vice from  the  pulpit  was  to  begin  with  prayer.  The  "Ritual" 
 required  the  minister  to  admonish  to  prayer  and  all  to  unite  in 
 the  Lord's  Prayer.  In  the  festival  season  of  the  year,  from 
 Christmas  to  Pentecost,  a  festival  verse  was  sung  before  the  read- 
 ing of  the  Gospel  text,  and  sung  three  times  on  the  great  Festi- 
 vals, while  the  minister  knelt  in  the  pulpit.  After  the  Sermon 
 followed  a  general  Confession  and  Absolution,  which,  however, 
 was  soon  dropped.  The  "Ordinance"  and  the  "Ritual"  pre- 
 scribed the  form  of  the  General  Prayer  after  the  Sermon,  leaving 
 the  contents  to  the  judgment  of  the  minister,  but  the  "Hand- 
 book" of  1539  gives  a  model.  Thereupon  came  the  Lord's 
 Prayer  and  (in  the  "Ritual"  only)  the  Aaronitic  blessing  and  a 
 hymn. 
 
 Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  next.  The  Exhorta- 
 tion before  Communion,  of  a  polemical-dogmatical  tone,  was  orig- 
 inally from  Melanchthon's  "Articles  of  Visitation",  though  here 
 from  Deutsche  Messe,  and  is  still  used.  It  was  followed  by  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Words  of  the  Institution  of  the  Sacrament 
 and  the  Consecration.  The  minister  gives  the  bread  and  wine  to 
 the  Communicants  sajnng  to  each  one:  "This  is  the  true  Body  of 
 Christ"  and  "This  is  the  true  Blood  of  Christ."  This  formula 
 was  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  Jesper  Brockmann,  in  1646, 
 the  word  "true"  being  against  the  Calvin  doctrine.     The  Agnus 
 
40  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Dei  was  sung  three  times  during  the  Distribution  according  to 
 the  "Ritual."'  A  Communion  blessing  and  a  hymn  of  thanks- 
 giving closed  the  Communion  ceremony,  and  the  Aaronitic  bless- 
 ing, with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  a  hymn  and  closing  prayer 
 end  the  Services. 
 
 In  the  comparison  given  above,  it  will  be  noted  that  the 
 Service  in  the  "Ritual"  is  a  little  more  meagre  than  in  the  "Or- 
 dinance," though  it  may  still  be  considered  Apostolic  to  the  core. 
 It  gave  the  Sermon  and  hymns  more  prominence  than  its  prede- 
 cessor. 
 
 Still  greater  changes  were  made  by  Pietism  and  Rationalism. 
 The  Service  became  meagre  indeed.  Pietism  cut  out  the  formal 
 prayers  and  limited  the  ceremonial  parts,  and  Rationalism  did  its 
 best  to  make  it  short.  Bastholm  published  in  1785  "An  Attempt 
 Towards  a  Better  Plan  in  the  Church  Service,"  which  aimed  to 
 make  the  Service  "short,  interesting  and  inspiring."  Its  char- 
 acter was  to  be  dramatic.  As  illustrating  this  maj-  be  mentioned: 
 During  prayer  the  congregation  knelt;  they  sang  the  Aniens;  the 
 chants,  Creed  and  Blessings  were  omitted;  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
 was  re-written  where  used.  A  new  so-called  "Evangelical  Chris- 
 tian" hymnal  was  introduced.  But  the  old  hymns,  which  it  con- 
 tained, had  been  so  hideously  distorted,  that  the  book  was  said 
 to  be  neither  evangelical  nor  Christian. 
 
 The  "Rescript"  of  1802  did  not  really  proceed  as  far  as  Bast- 
 holm.  The  new  hymnal  wi-^  adopted  and  the  following  changes 
 made  in  the  Service:  The  Kyrie  was  omitted;  the  Creed  and 
 Gloria  were  used  alternately  every  other  Sunday,  but  both  were 
 soon  omitted  in  practice;  the  Gospel  was  not  read  before  the  al- 
 tar; fewer  verses  of  the  hymns  were  sung;  the  Sermon  was  made 
 more  prominent.  In  short,  the  Service  had  become  very  inipov- 
 islied,  though  the  marks  of  glory  were  not  altogether  defaced. 
 
 And  this  was  the  Order  of  Service  and  its  character  at  the 
 time  of  the  first  Norwegian  emigration  to  America  and  even 
 down   to    1887.     This  was   the  Service  that  the  Norwegians  of 
 
THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.    41 
 
 America  brought  along  with  them.  Its  parts  were:  Opening 
 Pra5^er,  Hymn,  Collect,  Epistle,  Hymn,  Sermon,  General  Prayer, 
 Blessing,  Hymn,  Collect,  Hymn,  closing  Prayer.  The  Baptism 
 and  Communion  parts  retained  their  character. 
 
 In  the  meanwhile  great  changes  had  taken  place  in  Norway, 
 in  religion  and  Church  affairs  not  the  least.  A  deep,  spiritual, 
 religious  movement,  begun  in  about  1800  by  Hans  Nielson 
 Hauge,  a  layman,  grew  apace  on  every  side,  especially  among 
 the  common  people.  This  awakening  was  sound  and  Lutheran. 
 The  old  devotional  literature  and  hymns  were  again  in  high  hon- 
 or and  pious  use.  Though  the  rationalist  Order  of  Service  was 
 kept  at  the  regular  public  meetings,  other  forms  were  observed 
 at  the  special  devotional  meetings,  which  began  to  be  common. 
 At  first  the  ministry  was  very  hostile  to  the  movement,  but,  little 
 by  little,  it  weakened  as  the  new  life  seemed  to  course  through 
 the  veins  of  the  Church.  Minister  after  minister  became  its  de- 
 fenders; until  at  last,  about  1850,  the  theological  faculty  at 
 Christiania  also  were  of  this  new  mind.  Since  then  the  late  Pro- 
 fessor Gisle  Johnson  has  been  the  greatest  spiritual  leader  of 
 Norway. 
 
 The  Norwegian  people  were  almost  completely  regenerated 
 in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  18 14,  when  the 
 union  with  Denmark  was  dissolved,  they  awoke  to  a  new  sense 
 of  nationality  and  secured  a  Constitution,  which  made  them  as 
 free  as  any  people  in  the  world.  The  King  of  Sweden  is  at  the 
 same  time  King  of  Norway,  but  otherwise  she  is  independent  and 
 a  land  of  freedom.  At  the  same  time  that  her  people  pushed 
 forward  to  political  freedom,  did  they  extend  their  activities  in 
 other  ways.  Religion,  as  I  have  shown,  was  one  of  these;  it 
 quickened  these  other  endeavors  and  was  in  its  turn  quickened 
 by  them. 
 
 It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  inside  the  Church  were 
 heard  demands  for  reform.  The  pulpit  revived  the  pure  doctrine 
 and  breathed  a  new  spirit.     A  religious  press  came  on  the  field, 
 
42  MEMOIRS. 
 
 anxious  to  propose  questions  of  moment  and  to  discuss  them. 
 One  of  the  first  problems  was  as  to  a  hymnal.  Tht  Evangelical 
 Hymnal,  which  had  nev^er  been  popular,  had  already  been  super- 
 seded by  Guldberg's.  But  Guldberg's,  again,  was  not  satisfac- 
 tory either.  Here,  then,  was  a  great  problem.  And  there  arose 
 the  man  to  solve  it.  This  was  M.  B.  Landstad,  a  man  thorough- 
 ly in  sympathy  with  the  new  religious  spirit,  himself  a  poet, 
 completely  national,  and  thus  able  to  give  expression  to  the  re- 
 ligious emotions  of  the  Norwegian  heart.  By  his  side  we  may 
 place  the  musician  Ludvig  Lindeman,  likewise  possessed  of  the 
 new  religious  and  national  enthusiasm.  He  has  composed  many 
 hymn-tunes,  the  motives  of  many  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
 folk  ballads.  He  has  taught  his  people  how  to  sing  unto  the 
 Lord;  he  has  done  more  than  any  one  else  to  make  the  Norwe- 
 gian congregation  a  singing  congregation.  The  Landstad-Lin- 
 derman  hymnal,  which  was  prepared  to  meet  a  great  need,  has 
 proved  very  satisfactory,  and  deserves  all  the  admiration  it  has 
 awakened  in  all  who  know  it  well. 
 
 In  connection  with  the  new  spirit  of  preaching  came  a  de- 
 mand for  a  richer  content, — one  series  of  texts  was  felt  insuffi- 
 cient. This  problem  was  assigned  to  a  committee  to  work  out; 
 after  several  years  two  new  series  of  texts  from  the  Gospels  and 
 Epistles,  essentially  like  those  in  the  Swedish  Church,  were  pro- 
 posed. Since  1887  the  three  series  have  been  in  general  use  in 
 the  Norwegian  Church.  The  men  to  whom  we  are  most  indebt- 
 ed for  the  completion  of  this  work  are  Professors  Gisle  Johnson 
 and  A.  Bang  and  Rev.  Sven  Bruun. 
 
 Still  another  question  was  in  regard  to  the  Liturgy.  Revs. 
 Hesselberg  and  G.  Jensen,  whose  scholarship  on  this  point  was 
 the  greatest,  undertook  the  difficult  task  of  revising  the  Book  of 
 Service.  In  their  revision,  the  ministerial  acts  (Baptism,  Com- 
 munion, Marriage,  Burial,  etc.)  were  left  substantially  as  in  the 
 old  Book  of  Service,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Order  of  Service 
 was  entirely  reconstructed.     The  royal  decree  of  January  8,  1887, 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF   THE   NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.    43 
 
 which  authorized  this  new  Book  of  Service,  gave  preference  to 
 the  new  Order  of  Service,  although  the  congregations  were  per- 
 mitted to  use  the  old. 
 
 The  number  of  congregations,  both  in  Norway  and  America, 
 that  has  adopted  the  newer  and  richer  Order  of  Service  is  con- 
 stantly increasing. 
 
 This  new  Order  of  Service,  which  is  based  mainly  on  the 
 Liturgy  of  the  Bavarian  Church,  is  as  follows: 
 
 Opening  Prayer,  read  by  the  Assistant  (Precentor)  before 
 the  Chancel,  while  the  Minister  kneels  at  the  Altar.  "O  Lord, 
 we  have  come  into  this  Thy  holy  house  to  hear  what  Thou,  God 
 the  Father,  our  Creator,  Thou  Lord  Jesus,  our  Saviour,  Thou 
 Holy  Spirit,  our  Comforter  in  life  and  in  death,  wilt  say  unto  us. 
 By  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  and  for  Christ's  sake,  O  Lord,  so  open  our 
 hearts  that  we  may  learn  to  be  sorry  for  our  sins,  to  believe  in 
 life  and  in  death  on  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  to  make  daily  progress 
 in  holiness  of  life  and  conduct.  Hear  and  answer  us  for  Christ's 
 sake.     Amen." 
 
 Opening  Hymn,  contents  determined  by  the  Church  Year. 
 
 Confession  of  Sin.  Minister.  *'Let  us  bow  before  the  Lord 
 and  confess  our  sins."  (Kneeling  before  the  Altar)  "I,  a  poor 
 sinner,  confess  unto  Thee,  holy  and  almighty  God,  my  Creator 
 and  Redeemer,  not  only  that  I  have  sinned  against  Thee  in 
 thoughts,  words  and  deeds,  but  also  that  I  have  been  conceived 
 and  born  in  sin,  so  that  before  Thee,  O  righteous  God,  I  am  al- 
 together guilty  and  worthy  of  condemnation.  I  therefore  flee  for 
 refuge  to  Thine  infinite  mercy,  and  pray  Thee  for  Christ's  sake: 
 God  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner.  Amen."  Or:  "Holy  God, 
 Heavenly  Father:  Look  in  mercy  upon  me,  a  poor,  sinful  man. 
 I  have  provoked  Thee  by  thoughts,  words  and  deeds,  and  know 
 the  evil  desires  that  are  in  my  heart.  Have  patience  with  me. 
 Forgive  me  all  my  sins  and  grant  that  I  may  fear  and  love  Thee 
 alone.     Lord  have  mercy  upon  me.     Amen." 
 
 The  Kyrie,  or  a  Litany  Hymn, 
 
44  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Gloria.  Minister  (intones)  "Glory  to  God  in  the  high- 
 est." Congregation  (sings)  "And  on  earth  peace,  good  will 
 toward  men." 
 
 Sahitatioii  and  Collect  for  the  Day  (intoned). 
 
 The  Epistle.     Congregation  standing. 
 
 Short  Hymn,  corresponding  to  Epistle  or  a  Hymn  of  Praise. 
 
 The  Gospel.  Congregation  standing,  and  singing  after  the 
 Gospel  the  Response  "Praise  and  glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord,"  or 
 "Blessed  be  the  Lord  for  His  glad  tidings." 
 
 Apostles'  Creed  (Minister  facing  Altar). 
 
 Hymn. 
 
 Sermon,  preceded  by  a  Prayer  from  the  Pulpit  and  closed 
 with  the  Gloria  Patri. 
 
 The  General  Prayer,  for  which  two  forms  are  given,  closing 
 with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Apostolic  Benediction. 
 
 Hymn.  Here  may  follow  Baptism  of  children  or  Catechiza- 
 tion. 
 
 Hymn,  or 
 
 The  Pre/ace,  including  SalutatioJi,  Sursum  Corda,  Gratias 
 Agamus  and  Vere  Dignum  (all  intoned). 
 
 The  Sanctus. 
 
 The  Exhortation,  after  which  as  many  of  the  Communicants 
 as  can  do  so  kneel  before  the  Altar  and  all  others  stand  until  the 
 Distribution. 
 
 The  Lord's  Prayer  (intoned). 
 
 The  Words  of  Institution  (intoned). 
 
 The  Distribution,  with  the  Sentences,  "This  is  Christ's  true 
 Body,"  "This  is  Christ's  true  Blood,"  and  "Our  crucified  and 
 risen  Lord,  Jesus  Christ,  Who  now  hath  bestowed  upon  you  His 
 Holy  Body  and  Blood,  whereby  He  hath  made  full  satisfaction 
 for  all  your  sins,  strengthen  and  preserve  you  in  true  faith  unto 
 everlasting  life.     Peace  be  with  you.     Amen." 
 
 A  Hymn  of  Thanksgiving. 
 
 Thanksgiving  Collect.     Minister  faces  Congregation  and  in- 
 
THE    LITURGY   OF   THE    NORWEGIAN    LUTHERAN    CHURCH.    45 
 
 tones  "Let  us  give  thanks  and  pray"  and  facing  Altar  intones 
 "We  thank  Thee,  O  Lord,  Almighty  and  Everlasting  God,  that 
 Thou  hast  refreshed  us  with  these  Thy  salutary  gifts.  We  now 
 beseech  Thee,  of  Thy  mercy,  to  strengthen  us,  through  these 
 same  gifts  of  Thine,  in  faith  toward  Thee,  and  in  fervent  love 
 toward  one  another,  through  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  Son,  our  Lord." 
 
 Sabitation  and  Aaroiiic  Blessing  (intoned). 
 
 The  Closing  Hymn. 
 
 The  Closing  Prayer,  read  by  the  Assistant  (Precentor)  before 
 the  Chancel,  while  the  Minister  kneels  at  the  Altar.  "O  Lord, 
 with  all  our  heart  we  thank  Thee  that  Thou  hast  now  taught  us 
 what  Thou  wilt  that  we  shall  believe  and  do.  Help  us  now,  our 
 God,  by  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  for  Christ's  sake,  to  keep  Thy  Word 
 ill  a  pure  heart,  thereby  to  be  strengthened  in  faith,  perfected  in 
 holiness  of  conduct,  and  comforted  in  life  and  in  death.  Amen." 
 This  prayer  concludes  with  the  Lord's  Praj^er. 
 
 When  the  Holy  Communion  is  not  administered  the  Hymn 
 after  the  Sermon  is  followed  by  a  Collect  for  the  Word,  the  Ben- 
 ediction, Closing  Hymn  and  Closing  Prayer  as  above. 
 
 The  Minister  is  permitted  to  say  the  words  he  should  intone 
 "if  he  possess  little  or  no  ability  to  sing." 
 
 The  English  translation  of  the  "Alterbog"  here  given  is  the 
 Order  of  Service  officially  adopted  by  the  United  Norwegian  Lu- 
 theran Church  in  America. 
 
 We  might,  in  passing,  note  that  this  Service  Book  was  for- 
 tunately brought  forward  in  Norway  under  a  liberal  ministry,  of 
 which  the  famous  Jacob  Sverdrup  was  leader.  Under  him  it  was 
 sure  to  be  adopted  in  conformity  with  the  needs  of  the  Church. 
 It  was  adopted,  and  has  proved  peculiarly  satisfactory. 
 
 It  would  make  an  interesting  studj^  to  account  for  the  char- 
 acter and  form  of,  say,  Confession  and  Absolution  and  the  rea- 
 sons for  the  changes  made  in  these,  as  well  as  in  the  Order  of 
 Service  proper.  Here,  however,  I  will  let  it  rest  in  saying  that 
 every  part  of  the  Service  has  an  interesting  history. 
 
46  MEMOIRS. 
 
 But  to  mention  a  few  characteristics  of  the  new  Order  of 
 Service.  The  two  fold  principle  with  which  we  started — that 
 the  congregation  came  to  serve  God  and  to  receive  His  blessing — , 
 is  adhered  to  throughout.  The  pastor  appears  as  God's  spokes- 
 man; the  congregation  is  made  more  than  a  passive  recipient. 
 Note  that  the  congregation  takes  part  not  only  in  the  singing  of 
 hymns,  but  also  in  confession,  praise  and  creed.  Note  also  the 
 fulness  of  the  expression  of  faith — in  confession,  praise  and 
 creed.  It  is  true  that  in  spoken  prayer  the  congregation  is  not 
 allowed  to  take  part  other  than  through  the  precentor,  who 
 makes  the  opening  and  closing  prayers.  But  note  that  the  Gen- 
 eral Prayer  following  the  Sermon  has  been  given  a  permanent 
 form  and  contents  and  not  only  a  form  into  which  might  be  put 
 anything  as  in  the  case  of  the  "Ordinance"  prayer.  What  is 
 lacking  now  to  make  our  Services  more  ideal  is:  that  the  con- 
 gregation take  part  in  the  General  Prayer  in  some  way  and  that 
 there  be  an  Introit  and  Hymns  for  the  new  text  series. 
 
 A  rich  and  complete  Order  of  Service  is  a  good  thing.  One 
 who  does  not  understand  it  may  underestimate  its  value  and  even 
 despise  it.  Yet,  even  though  it  is  not  understood,  even  though 
 it  does  not  appeal  to  the  unbeliever,  it  is  a  great  help  in  preserv- 
 ing the  .spirit  and  order  among  the  believers;  in  fact,  it  is  often 
 as  inspiring  as  the  Word  itself.  There  have  been  times  when  the 
 Word  of  God  has  not  been  preached  from  the  pulpit;  such  times 
 may  come  again.  The  new  Rationalism  is  already  at  the  church 
 door  to  be  admitted  as  spokesman.  Now,  if  the  liturgic  part  of 
 the  Service  be  not  heavily  freighted  with  God's  truth,  and  if  the 
 dire  evil  should  come  to  pass  that  the  pulpit  again  become  ra- 
 tionalistic, what  should  we  say  about  the  plight  of  the  congrega- 
 tion? 
 
 On  the  other  hand,  if  the  congregation  shall  come  to  under- 
 stand and  prize  its  Liturgy,  it  can  get  nourishment  for  its  spirit- 
 ual existence  in  faith  through  the  Liturgy  when  the  Sermon  be- 
 comes spiritless  and  unsound.     And  as  the  congregation  is  kept 
 
THE   LITURGY   OF  THE   NORWEGIAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.    47 
 
 in  the  faith  by  the  Liturgy,  the  minister,  in  turn,  is  strengthened 
 in  his  purpose  to  be  true  to  his  faith  by  the  example  of  his  con- 
 gregation as  well  as  by  the  influence  of  the  Liturgy  itself. 
 
 The  new  Liturgy  is  as  beautiful  as  it  is  inspiring  when  it  is 
 properly  rendered.  The  hymns  contribute  somewhat  to  this  ef- 
 fect. Also  Lindeman's  revised  chants,  which  are  more  melodic 
 than  the  originals,  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  recitative. 
 Another  important  contribution  is  Professor  Rydning's  arrange- 
 ment of  the  communion  Liturgy  for  the  organ.  Professor  Ryd- 
 ning  has  been  a  pupil  of  Lindeman  and  possesses  a  considerable 
 knowledge  of  Church  Music;  he  is  the  instructor  in  music  at  the 
 United  Church  Seminary. 
 
 The  Norwegian  Church  has  a  beautiful  Order  of  Service. 
 The  fixed  forms  are  inspiring.  May  God  then  grant  us  the  in- 
 spired testimony  from  the  mouth  of  living  witnesses,  a  testimony 
 that  permits  Christ's  glory  to  shine  forth  enlightening  and  quick- 
 ening the  congregation,  while  it  reverently  listens  to  the  Word  of 
 the  Lord  and  takes  it  to  heart.  Then  the  Service  will  be  in 
 truth  pleasing  to  God,  a  glorifying  of  His  Name  and  an  inspira- 
 tion to  His  congregation. 
 
 E.  Kr.  Johnsen. 
 
 United  Norwegian   CJmrch  Seminary, 
 St.  Anthony  Park,   St.  Paul,  Minn. 
 
CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP 
 
 IN  THE    FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE. 
 
 (before  the  year  150.) 
 
 The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  present  in  brief  form  a  picture  of 
 the  worship  of  the  Christian  congregations,  so  far  as  we  are  able 
 to  trace  it,  in  the  time  between  the  close  of  the  Apostolic  Age 
 and  the  middle  of  the  second  Century.  No  attempt  will  be  made 
 to  construct  even  a  relatively  complete  Liturgy  in  this  period,  for 
 such  an  attempt  would  result  only  in  ignominious  failure  and  we 
 shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  simpler  task  of  setting  down  what 
 our  sources  give  us  and  accounting,  so  far  as  may  be,  for  what 
 we  find. 
 
 The  chief  danger  that  confronts  us  in  dealing  with  such  a 
 subject  is  that  of  reading  into  the  sources  ideas  which  they  do 
 not  actually  contain  and  of  assuming  that  customs  universally 
 prevalent  in  later  times  must  have  had  their  origin  in  the  period 
 under  discussion  if  not,  indeed,  in  one  still  earlier.  A  second 
 temptation,  scarcely  less  alluring,  and  equally  fatal  to  historical 
 truth,  lies  in  the  assumption  that  traces  of  liturgical  customs, 
 or  language  which  may  be  so  interpreted,  found  in  a  document  of 
 Syrian  or  of  Roman  origin  applies  to  any  other  part  of  the  Early 
 Church.  If  the  student  succeeds  in  avoiding  both  of  these 
 snares,  a  third  is  still  in  his  path,  in  the  form  of  faulty  editions 
 of  second  Century  documents  which  have  been  emended  by  later 
 hands,  and  few  of  the  sources  for  the  history  of  the  second  Cen- 
 tury have  come  down  to  us  in  their  unaltered  form.  Fortunately 
 the  labors  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  reduced  the  last  dan- 
 
 (xlix) 
 
50  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ger  to  a  minimum  and  we  may  feel  at  last  reasonably  safe  in  us- 
 ing any  of  the  good  modern  editions. 
 
 Before  approaching  the  proper  subject  of  this  paper,  it  may 
 be  well  to  take  account  of  certain  facts  which  bear  directly  or  in- 
 directly, upon  every  phase  of  life  of  the  Church  in  the  period 
 which  we  are  studying. 
 
 The  second  Century  was  not  an  age  of  forms.  It  was  on  the 
 contrary,  the  most  plastic  age  of  the  Church.  The  truth  as  it  is 
 in  Christ  Jesus  had  entered  the  life  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  a 
 great  force,  the  full  meaning  of  which  was  only  faintly  apprehend- 
 ed. It  had  to  work  upon  the  material  which  it  found,  and  the 
 results  could  not  be  uniform  when  the  preparation  had  been  so 
 various.  The  Jew,  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  were  bound  to  be  af- 
 fected in  different  ways  by  the  message  of  the  Gospel  which  came 
 to  all,  and,  centuries  were  to  pass  before  there  could  be  even  rel- 
 ative unanimity  of  opinion  concerning  the  great  central  truths 
 whose  possession  was  to  give  the  Church  its  power.  At  the  end 
 of  the  second  Century  Christian  doctrine  was  still  in  a  fluid  state, 
 and  Gnosticism,  the  earliest  of  the  heresies,  was  still  a  living 
 power.  Before  the  century  ended,  however,  the  power  which 
 was  eventually  to  define  the  Catholic  faith  and  extirpate  heresy 
 had  begun  to  show  itself.  That  power  was  the  so-called  mo- 
 narchical episcopate.  Each  Church  had  its  own  bishop  who  was 
 regarded  as  the  depositary  of  Apostolic  truth. 
 
 The  organization  of  the  Church  preceded,  and  had  to  pre- 
 cede, definition  of  doctrine,  but  it  was  not  alone  the  fight  with 
 heresy  which  made  the  organization  necessary.  The  second  Cen- 
 tury was  a  time  of  wonderful  missionary  activity.  This  was  the 
 special  work  of  the  "Apostles" — the  charismatically  endowed 
 preachers  of  the  Gospel  who  wandered  from  place  to  place — but 
 the  retention  of  converts  within  the  fold,  the  prevention  of  back- 
 sliding into  heathenism  and  of  "lapsing"  in  times  of  persecution 
 — these  things  demanded  compactly  organized  congregations.* 
 
 ♦  Cf.  HarNACK,  Mission  and  Atisbreitung  des  Christenthums,  pp.  256  ff,  316  ff. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    51 
 
 A  third  element  in  the  development  of  Church  organization 
 was  the  need  of  an  officer  to  preside  over  the  administration  of 
 the  finances  of  the  congregation  and  to  direct  its  charitable  work.* 
 But  upon  these  points  we  do  not  wish  to  dwell.  Enough  has 
 been  said  to  account  for  the  organization  which  meets  us  in  the 
 second  Century — an  organization  with  the  bishop  at  its  head  and 
 with  presbyters  and  deacons  under  him.  In  this  organization 
 the  congregation  found  its  unity,  upon  this  organization  it  was 
 at  a  later  time  to  base  its  claim  to  catholicity  and  apostolicity. 
 
 The  beginnings  of  this  organization  the  Church  of  the  sec- 
 ond Century  had  inherited  from  the  Apostolic  Age.f  It  had  also 
 inherited  certain  traditions  of  worship,  together  with  certain  ru- 
 dimentary forms  of  prayer,  and  it  had  inherited  the  two  Sacra- 
 ments of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  triple  inheritance 
 was  the  seed  from  which  the  Liturgy  was  to  spring. 
 
 The  first  liturgical  practice  to  be  definitely  fixed  was  the  ob- 
 servance of  Sunday  as  the  day  of  common  worship.  The  Church 
 in  Jerusalem  had  met  every  day. I  By  the  time  the  First  Epistle 
 to  the  Corinthians  was  written  Sunday  had  become  the  regular 
 day  of  meeting, §  and  in  the  second  Century  all  our  sources  agree 
 in  assigning  the  assembly  of  Christians  to  the  first  day  of  the 
 week.  Pliny  (Bp.  x.  96  (97)  to  Trajan)  says  simply  "on  a  fixed 
 day  (die  sfa/o)  they  are  accustomed  to  assemble."  The  Didache 
 (ch.  xiv)  says: — "on  the  Lord's  Day  of  the  Lord,  gather  your- 
 
 *  Hatch  in  The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,  and  The 
 Greek  Influence  in  the  Early  Church,  traces  the  episcopate  to  this  source. 
 
 t  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  organization  of  the  New  Testament 
 Churches.  Whatever  that  organization  may  have  been,  it  was  the  result  of  condi- 
 tions which  the  Church  had  to  face  and  was  not  of  Divine  institution.  The  present 
 writer  is  inclined  to  believe  with  those  who  see,  in  the  "angels"  of  the  Seven 
 Churches,  bishops  presiding  over  these  Churches.  The  functions  of  such  bishops, 
 however,  would  differ  widely  from  those  of  the  "monarchical"  bishop  whose  claims 
 are  asserted  in  the  Ignatian  letters  and  realized  in  the  second  and  third  centuries. 
 
 X  Cf.  the  present  writer's  "Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  Memoirs, 
 Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  p.  48. 
 
 §  1.  c.  p.  49- 
 
52  MEMOIRS. 
 
 selves  together  and  break  bread  and  give  thanks."  Ignatius, 
 {Ad.  Mag7i.  ix),  Barnabas  (ch.  xv),  and  Justin  Martyr  also  tes- 
 tify to  the  observance  of  the  Sunday  and  assign  reasons  for  the 
 selection  of  that  special  day.  Ignatius  says:  "Those  who  had 
 walked  in  ancient  practices  attained  unto  newness  of  hope;  no 
 longer  observing  Sabbaths,  but  fashioning  their  lives  after  the 
 Lord's  Da}',  on  which  our  life  also  arose  through  Him  and 
 through  His  death."  Barnabas  after  an  examination  of  Old  Tes- 
 tament passages  relating  to  the  Sabbath,  on  which  he  puts  a  fan- 
 ciful interpretation,  concludes: — "Ye  see  what  is  His  meaning;  it 
 is  not  your  present  Sabbaths  that  are  acceptable,  but  the  Sabbath 
 which  I  have  made,  in  the  which,  when  I  have  set  all  things  at 
 rest,  I  will  make  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  day,  which  is  the 
 beginning  of  another  world.  Wherefore  also  we  keep  the  eighth 
 day  for  rejoicing,  in  the  which  also  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  and 
 having  been  manifested,  ascended  into  the  Heavens."  Justin 
 Martyr  {Ap.  I,  Ixvii)  is  more  concise.  He  says:  "Sundaj"  is  the 
 day  on  which  we  all  hold  our  common  assembly,  because  it  is  the 
 first  day,  on  which  God,  having  wrought  a  change  in  the  dark- 
 ness and  matter,  made  the  world;  and  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour 
 on  the  same  day  rose  from  the  dead." 
 
 The  obvious  conclusion  from  these  passages — drawn  as 
 the}'  are  from  sources  of  the  most  various  local  origin — is  that 
 the  observance  of  Sunday  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  Cen- 
 tury was  universal,  and  that  the  observance  consisted  in  wor- 
 ship. In  the  second  place  we  notice  that  all  of  our  authors 
 regard  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  as  an  "ancient  practice" 
 which  has  passed  away.  The  Sunday  takes  the  place  among 
 the  Christians  that  the  Sabbath  held  among  the  Jews,  but  it  is 
 regarded  neither  as  a  continuation  of  the  old  institution  nor  as 
 a  substitute  for  it.  It  is  something  as  new  as  the  Gospel  itself. 
 It  commemorates  not  the  end  of  the  first  creation,  but  the  begin- 
 ning of  the  new  creation,  the  entering  into  the  world  of  the  new 
 life  brought  by  the  Resurrection  of  the  dead.     As  such  it  is  a 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    53 
 
 day  of  joy,  which  could  not  but  find  expression  in  the  Service.* 
 Three  other  seasons  which  were  destined  to  play  a  large  part 
 in  the  liturgical  history  of  the  Church  call  for  passing  comment 
 here.  The  first  of  these  is  Easter  Day.  That  it  was  observed  by 
 the  first  converts  from  Judaism  is  certain,  and  that  it  had  a  place 
 in  the  Gentile  congregations  founded  by  Paul  is  evident  from 
 I  Cor.  5:  6-8.  These  two  circumstances  combined  with  the  fact 
 that  Sunday  was  regarded  as  a  weekly  celebration  of  the  Resur- 
 rection, make  it  certain  that  the  observance  of  Easter  was  univer- 
 sal in  the  Church  from  the  beginning.  Even  in  our  period,  how- 
 ever, there  are  traces  of  the  differences  in  Easter  observance  that 
 were  afterwards  to  give  rise  to  the  Quarto-decimian  controversy, 
 for  according  to  Irenaeus  (quoted  by  Euseb.  H.  E.  V,  24)  Poly- 
 carp  (ti55)  and  Anicetus  of  Rome  (154-165)  had  disagreed 
 concerning  the  day  on  which  the  celebration  was  to  take  place. 
 Polycarp  claimed  to  follow  the  practice  of  S.  John  in  observing 
 the  14th  Nisan,  while  Anicetus  adhered  to  the  usage  of  the  Ro- 
 man Church  and  observed  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon.  The 
 controvers)' — which  was  to  result  in  the  first  victory  of  the  Ro- 
 man tradition  over  the  Asiatic — did  not  culminate  until  the  end 
 
 *  The  longer  Greek  recension  of  the  Ignatian  letters,  which  dates  probably 
 from  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  presents  an  inter- 
 esting amplification  of  Ad.  Magii.  ix,  already  quoted,  which  is  in  full  accord  with 
 the  spirit  of  the  shorter  and  genuine  version.     It  reads  as  follows:  — 
 
 "Let  us,  therefore,  no  longer  keep  the  Sabbath  after  the  Jewish  manner,  and 
 rejoice  in  days  of  idleness;  for  'he  that  does  not  work,  let  hini  not  eat.'  .  .  .  But 
 let  every  one  of  you  keep  the  Sabbath  after  a  spiritual  manner,  rejoicing  in  medita- 
 tion on  the  law,  not  in  relaxation  of  the  body,  admiring  the  workmanship  of  God, 
 and  not  eating  things  prepared  the  day  before,  nor  using  luke-warm  drinks  and 
 walking  within  a  prescribed  space  nor  finding  delight  in  dancing  and  senseless  ap- 
 plause. And  after  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  let  every  friend  of  Christ  keep  the 
 Lord's  Day  as  a  festival,  the  Resurrection-day,  the  queen  and  chief  of  all  the  days, 
 .  on  which  our  life  both  sprang  up  again  and  the  victory  over  death  was  ob- 
 tained in  Christ." 
 
 The  passage  testifies  convincingly  to  the  fact  that  the  Early  Church  not  only  did 
 not  regard  Sunday  as  a  substitute  for  the  Sabbath,  but  actually  in  some  localities  or 
 in  some  congregations,  observed  both  days,  yet  in  the  observance  abrogated  those 
 practices  which  according  to  Jewish  law  were  the  essential  things  in  the  hallowing 
 of  the  day. 
 
54  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  century,  but  the  differences  seem  to  have  existed  from  the 
 first. 
 
 When  the  dispute  finally  attained  serious  proportions,  how- 
 e^'er,  we  find  it  involving  another  question;  that,  namely,  of  Len- 
 ten observance.  It  was  customary  to  precede  the  Easter  celebra- 
 tion with  a  fast.  This  fast  seems  to  have  been  universal  but  its 
 duration  varied  in  different  Churches.  Irenaeus  (/.  c.)  tells  us: — 
 "Some  consider  themselves  bound  to  fast  one  day,  others  two 
 days,  others  still  more,  while  others  fast  for  forty."  In  this 
 passage  we  observe  the  beginnings  of  the  Church  Year  with  Eas- 
 ter as  its  center.  The  origin  of  the  observance  is  to  be  found  in 
 the  forty  hours'  fast  preceding  the  Easter  celebration,  typical  of 
 the  forty  hours'  rest  of  Jesus  in  the  grave,  which  was  the  usage 
 of  the  Roman  Church.  This  period  was  subsequently  extended, 
 probably  at  Rome,  to  forty  days,  the  period  of  our  Lord's  fasting 
 in  the  wilderness  and  the  Roman  use  became  universal  sometime 
 in  the  fourth  Century.* 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Station  Daj'sf  {dies  statioyiuni)  is  much  older 
 than  that  of  the  Lenten  fast.  The  Didache  (8:  i)  is  the  earliest 
 authority  for  the  observance  of  Wednesday  and  Friday  as  days 
 of  fasting  and  prayer.  We  read  there: — "Let  not  your  fastings 
 be  with  the  hypocrites,  for  they  fast  on  the  second  and  fifth  days 
 of  the  week;  but  do  ye  keep  your  fast  on  the  fourth  and  on  the 
 preparation  day."  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.  VII,  12)  re- 
 fers this  custom  to  the  commemoration  of  the  council  of  Christ's 
 enemies  (Mark  xiv:  i)  and  the  crucifixion. 
 
 This  custom  is  especially  noteworthy  as  showing  the  im- 
 portance which  the  Early  Church  attached  to  the  Christian 
 week,  before  the  development  of  the  Christian  year.  Each 
 week  was  a  repetition  of  the  week  of  our  Lord's  Passion,  cul- 
 minating in  the  Sunday  celebration  of  His  victory  over  death. 
 Even   after    the   Church    Year    had    reached   its   full   develop- 
 
 ♦  See  MoELLER,  Kg   I,  346  and  literature  there  cited. 
 +  So  named  first  in  Herm.  Sim.  V,  i. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP   IN  THE  FIRST   POST- APOSTOLIC   AGE.    55 
 
 ment*  the  cycle  of  the  Week  maintained  itself  and  has  remained 
 in  the  Roman  usage  to  the  present  day.f 
 
 Along  with  this  development  of  the  liturgical  seasons  we 
 find  another,  which  has  its  origin  in  our  period  and  which  was 
 destined  to  a  rapid  growth,  to  long  duration  and  to  serious  abuse. 
 In  the  letter  of  the  Smyrneans  (ch.  i8)  describing  the  death  of 
 Polycarp  (155  A.  D.)  we  find  the  following  passage: — "So  we 
 afterwards  took  up  his  bones  ....  and  laid  them  in  a  suitable 
 place  where  the  Lord  will  permit  us  to  gather  ourselves  together, 
 as  we  are  able,  in  gladness  and  joy,  and  to  celebrate  the  birthday 
 of  his  martyrdom  for  the  commemoration  of  those  that  have  al- 
 ready fought  in  the  contest  and  for  the  training  and  preparation 
 of  those  that  shall  do  so  hereafter."  In  this  celebration  of  the 
 "birthdays  of  the  martyrs"  (i.  e.  the  days  of  their  martyrdom) 
 we  find  the  origin  of  the  Saints'  Days  which  had  such  a  large 
 place  in  the  Catholic  period  of  the  Church's  history.  They  were 
 at  first  purely  local,  each  Church  commemorating  its  own  mar- 
 tyrs, and  down  to  the  time  of  Cyprian  we  have  no  evidence  to 
 show  that  they  were  observed  with  the  celebration  of  the  Eucha- 
 rist, but  the  outbreak  of  the  general  persecutions,  which  multi- 
 plied the  numbers  of  the  martyrs  and  placed  on  martyrdom  such 
 a  high  valuation,  made  the  observance  universal  and  opened  the 
 way  for  later  abuses. 
 
 *   Not  later  than  the  fifth  century.     See  Ap.  Const.  V,  13,  20. 
 
 t  In  an  interesting  passage  in  the  V  Similitude  Hermas  thus  describes  the 
 "acceptable  fast."  '"This,  then,  is  the  way  that  thou  shall  keep  the  fast.  First  of 
 all  keep  thyself  from  every  evil  word  and  every  evil  device,  and  purify  thy  heart 
 from  all  the  vanities  of  this  world.  If  thou  keep  these  things  thy  heart  shall  be  per- 
 fect for  thee.  And  thus  shalt  thou  do.  Having  fulfilled  what  is  written,  on  that 
 day  on  which  thou  fastest,  t}hou  shalt  taste  nothing  but  bread  and  water;  and  from 
 thy  meals  which  thou  wouldst  have  eaten,  thou  shalt  reckon  up  the  amount  of  that 
 day's  expenditure,  which  thou  wouldst  have  incurred,  and  shalt  give  it  to  a  widow 
 or  an  orphan,  or  to  one  in  want,  and  so  shalt  thou  humble  thy  soul,  that  he  that  re- 
 ceiveth  from  thy  humiliation  may  satisfy  his  own  soul,  and  may  pray  for  thee  to  the 
 Lord.  If,  then,  thou  shalt  so  accomplish  this  fast,  as  I  have  commanded  thee,  thy 
 sacrifice  shall  be  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God  and  this  fasting  shall  be  recorded; 
 and  the  service  so  performed  is  beautiful  and  joyous  and  acceptable  to  the  Lord." 
 (5i>«.  V,  3). 
 
56  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Our  survey  of  the  liturgical  seasons  has  carried  us  somewhat 
 far  afield.  Let  us  return  to  the  traditions  of  worship  which  the 
 Church  of  the  second  Century  inherited  from  the  Apostolic  Age. 
 
 The  New  Testament  offers  clear  testimony  to  the  custom 
 prevailing  in  the  Church  at  Corinth  and,  by  legitimate  inference, 
 in  many  other  of  the  Gentile  congregations,  of  holding  on  each 
 Sunday  two  assemblies  for  worship.  That  this  custom  was  still 
 followed  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  Century  is  evident  from 
 Pliny's  description  of  the  worship  of  the  Bythinian  Christians 
 about  III  or  113  A.  D.  (Pliny  Ep.  x.  96  (97)  to  Trajan).  One 
 of  these  Services  was  held  early  in  the  morning  {ante  hicem)  and 
 may  be  assumed  to  correspond  to  the  Service  for  edification  ex- 
 isting in  Corinth.  The  elements  of  this  Service  were  Prayer, 
 Scripture-reading,  Hymns  and  Preaching.  The  second  Service 
 was  held  later  in  the  day  and  was  devoted  to  the  common  meal 
 (known  later  as  the  Agape)  which  culminated  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
 per.* We  shall  see  that  the  two  Services  were  soon  combined 
 into  one  and  that  the  combination  of  the  two  is  the  starting  point 
 for  the  chief  Service  of  all  later  Liturgies,  but  for  the  present  we 
 are  concerned  chiefly  with  the  second,  or  evening  Service,  at 
 which  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered. 
 
 The  oldest  prescriptions  for  liturgical  worship  which  we  pos- 
 sess are  those  contained  in  the  section  of  the  Didache  which  deals 
 with  this  Service.  It  comprises  chapters  ix,  x  and  xiv,  and  reads 
 as  follows: — 
 
 14.  "And  on  the  Lord's  Day  of  the  Lord,  gather  yourselves 
 together  and  break  bread  and  give  thanks  (tvx^iptaTrja-are) ,  first 
 confessing  your  transgressions,  that  your  sacrifice  may  be  pure. 
 And  let  no  man  having  his  dispute  with  his  fellow  join  your  as- 
 sembly until  they  have  been  reconciled,  that  5'our  sacrifice  may 
 not  be  defiled;!  for  this  sacrifice  it  is  that  was  spoken  of  by  the 
 
 *  See  the  present  writer's  "Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age,"  Memoirs 
 Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  pp.  49  ff. 
 t  Cf.  Matt.  5:  23,  24. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    57 
 
 Lord;  In  every  place  and  at  every  time,  offer  Me  a  pure  sacrifice; 
 for  I  am  a  great  King,  saitJi  the  Lord,  and  My , Name  is  wonderful 
 among  the  nations y^ 
 
 9.  "But  as  touching  the  Kucharistic  thanksgiving  (eixapia- 
 tux),  give  ye  thanks  thus: 
 
 "First  as  regards  the  cup: 
 
 "We  give  Thee  thanks,  O  our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of 
 Thy  son  David,  which  Thou  madest  known  to  us  through  Thy 
 Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 
 
 "Then  as  regards  the  broken  bread: 
 
 "We  give  Thee  thanks,  O  our  Father,  for  the  life  and 
 knowledge  which  Thou  didst  make  known  unto  us  through  Thy 
 Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 
 
 "As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered  upon  the  mountains 
 and  being  gathered  together  became  one,  so  may  Thy  Church  be 
 gathered  together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  Kingdom; 
 for  Thine  is  the  glory  and  the  power  through  Jesus  Christ  for 
 ever  and  ever. 
 
 "But  let  no  one  eat  of  this  Eucharist  but  they  that  have  been 
 baptized  into  the  Name  of  the  Lord;  for  concerning  this  also  the 
 Lord  hath  said:      Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs.-\ 
 
 10.  "And  after  ye  are  filled  thus  shall  ye  give  thanks: 
 "W^e  give  Thee  thanks.  Holy  Father,  for  Thy  holy  Name 
 
 which  Thou  hast  made  to  tabernacle  in  our  hearts,  and  for  the 
 knowledge  and  faith  and  immortality  which  Thou  hast  made 
 known  unto  us  through  Thy  Son  Jesus;  Thine  is  the  glory  for 
 ever  and  ever. 
 
 "Thou,  Almighty  Master,  t  didst  create  all  things  for  Thy 
 Name's  sake,  and  didst  give  food  unto  men  for  enjoyment,  that 
 they  might  render  thanks  to  Thee;  but  didst  bestow  upon  us 
 spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eternal  life  through  Thy  Son.     Be- 
 
 *  Mai.  I :  II,  14. 
 
 t  Matt.  7:  6. 
 
 X  Seo-TTOTr^;  — the  regular  form  of  address  to  the  Father  in  the  Greek  Liturgies. 
 
58  MEMOIRS. 
 
 fore  all  things  we  give  Thee  thanks  that  Thou  art  powerful; 
 Thine  is  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever.  , 
 
 "Remember,  Lord,  Thy  Church  to  deliver  it  from  all  evil 
 and  to  perfect  it  in  Thy  love;  and  j^a//ier  it  ho; ether  from  the  four 
 winds^ — even  the  Church  which  has  been  sanctified — into  Thy 
 Kingdom  which  Thou  hast  prepared  for  it;  for  Thine  is  the  power 
 and  the  glory  for  ever  and  ever. 
 
 "May  grace  come  and  this  world  pass  away. 
 
 "Hosanna  to  the  God  of  David. 
 
 "If  any  man  is  holy  let  him  come;  if  any  man  is  not,  let  him 
 repent. 
 
 "Maranatha. 
 
 "Amen. 
 
 "But  permit  the  prophets  to  offer  thanks  as  much  as  they 
 will." 
 
 In  these  prayers  there  are  several  things  which  deserve 
 special  attention. 
 
 It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  first  of  all,  that  the  prayers  here 
 set  down  are  not  regarded  as  inflexible  forms  which  must  always 
 be  followed,  but  are  intended  to  provide  against  a  contingency 
 which  would  seldom  arise  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  Church  but 
 would  become  more  common  as  time  went  on.  This  contingency 
 is  indicated  in  the  last  sentence  quoted, — "Permit  the  prophets 
 to  offer  thanks  as  much  as  they  will." 
 
 The  proper  officiating  personage  is  "the  prophet,"  not  the 
 bishop  and  not  the  presbyter.  A  bishop  or  presbyter  might,  in- 
 deed, be  a  prophet  and  exercise  "prophetic"  functions,  but  his 
 "ordination"  and  the  official  position  in  the  congregation  which 
 it  conferred,  carried  with  it  no  right  to  preside  at  the  Agape  or  to 
 offer  the  Eucharistic  prayer.  That  was  the  prerogative  of  the 
 man  who  had  the  special  endownnent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  his 
 sole  right  to  perform  this  duty  rested  upon  his  possession  of  the 
 charisma.  Such  a  man  would  be  a  member  of  the  congregation 
 •  Matt.  24:  31. 
 
CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP  IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    59 
 
 and  is  entitled  to  congregational  support  {^Did.  xiii),  "For," 
 says  the  author  of  the  Didache  significant!}',  "they  are  your  chief- 
 priests."  The  prayer  of  a  prophet,  however,  like  all  his  other 
 utterances,  was  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  direct  inspiration  of 
 the  Spirit  and  could  not,  therefore,  be  confined  to  any  formula. 
 Accordingly  he  was  to  be  allowed  "to  offer  thanks"  (tvyapifTruv) 
 in  whatever  way  he  pleased,  i.  e.,  extemporaneously.  The  ex- 
 tempore character  of  the  Eucharistic  prayer  seems  to  have  main- 
 tained itself  for  a  considerable  time.  Justin  Martyr,  in  the  pas- 
 sages which  will  be  quoted  later,  says  that  the  president  '  'offers 
 thanks  at  considerable  length"  {ApoL  I,  Ixv)  or  "according  to 
 his  ability"  (ch.  Ixvii)  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Bk.  VII, 
 ch.  xxvi)  quote  the  words  of  the  Didache,  substituting  "presby- 
 ter" for  "prophet." 
 
 But  in  the  days  when  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  were  com- 
 posed the  charismatic  ministry  was  dying  out.  "Speaking  with 
 tongues"  (I  Cor.  xii  ff)  lasted  for  so  short  a  time  that  it  has 
 sometimes  been  supposed  to  have  existed  only  at  Corinth.  By 
 the  beginning  of  the  second  century  it  was  quite  possible  that  a 
 congregation  should  have  no  prophet  among  its  members  and  un- 
 der such  circumstances  there  could  be  no  inspired  prayer.  It 
 was  to  meet  such  a  contingency  that  the  prayers  above  quoted 
 were  composed.  As  the  prophetic  gift  became  more  rare  these 
 and  similar  set  forms  would  become  the  ordinary  usage  of  the 
 Church  and  extempore  prayer  would  become  less  and  less  fre- 
 quent until  eventually  it  would  entirely  disappear. 
 
 Meanwhile  the  question  must  have  arisen — "In  the  absence 
 of  a  prophet,  who  is  to  offer  these  prayers  and  preside  at  the  ad- 
 ministration?" The  Didache  does  not  answer  this  question  at  all, 
 and  Justin  Martyr  calls  this  functionary  simply  "the  president  of 
 the  brethren"  or  "that  one  of  the  brethren  who  presides,"  for 
 the  Greek  text  admits  of  either  translation.  We  may  assume, 
 however,  that  the  duty  would  naturally  devolve  first  upon  one  of 
 the  presbyters,  and  then,  as  the  single  bishop  gained  authority, 
 
no  MEMOIRS. 
 
 upon  him.  Just  when  this  transference  of  duties  began  it  is  im- 
 possible to  say.  The  charismatic  and  the  official  ministry  were 
 beginning  to  run  into  one  another  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
 Pastoral  Epistles  where  we  find  (I  Tim.  iii.  3)  "aptness  to  teach" 
 — a  distinctly  charismatic  trait  according  to  I  Cor.  xii.  28 — de- 
 manded of  the  candidate  for  the  bishop's  (or  presbyter's)  office. 
 The  Ignatian  letters  (110-117  circ.)  represent  the  first  clear 
 emergence  of  the  later  monarchical  bishop  from  among  his  preby- 
 ters.  They  form,  so  to  speak,  the  platform  of  the  episcopal  party 
 and  claim  for  the  bishop  a  position  which  he  had  not  by  any 
 means  attained  and  was  not  to  attain  for  many  years.  When, 
 therefore,  we  find  Ignatius  writing  to  the  Smyrneans  {^ad  Smyr. 
 viii): — "Let  that  be  held  a  valid  Eucharist  which  is  under  the 
 bishop  or  one  to  whom  he  shall  have  committed  it;"  and  again: — 
 "It  is  not  lawful  apart  from  the  bishop  either  to  baptize  or  to 
 hold  a  love-feast;"  we  are  not  to  conclude  that  this  was  the 
 universally  accepted  view  of  the  Church,  but  we  may  assume 
 that  the  episcopate,  in  its  development,  was  on  the  way  to 
 absorb  those  liturgical  functions  which  belonged  primarily  to  the 
 "prophets." 
 
 Turning  again  to  the  prayers  we  notice  in  the  second  place 
 that  we  are  still  in  the  time  when  the  Lord's  Supper  was  preced- 
 ed by  a  common  meal.  The  whole  procedure  was  regarded  as  a 
 religious  rite  and  was  icnown  as  the  Eucharist  or  breaking  of 
 bread,  while  the  prayers  that  introduce  the  two  parts  of  the  Ser- 
 vice show  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  conducted. 
 
 The  Service  was  preceded  by  a  public  confession  of  sins  and 
 no  man  having  a  quarrel  with  a  fellow-Christian  was  allowed 
 to  come  to  the  assembly  (ch.  xiv).  After  this  they  sat  down 
 to  the  meal  and  prayers  were  offered  in  consecration  of  the 
 bread  and  wine  that  were  set  before  them.  After  this  eating 
 and  drinking,  more  prayers  were  offered,  to  each  of  which, 
 as  to  each  of  the  preceding  prayers,  the  congregation  would 
 respond   with   the    "Amen."     Then,    with   the   sentences  given 
 
CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST- APOSTOLIC    AGB.    61 
 
 at    the   close  of  eh.   x,    the  solemn  administration  was  begun: 
 
 "May  grace  come  and  this  world  pass  away!"     Amen. 
 
 "Hosanna  to  the  God  of  David!"     Amen. 
 
 "If  any  man  is  holy  let  him  come;  if  any  man  is  not,  let  him 
 repent.     Maranatha!"     Amen. 
 
 The  Distribution  would  follow  and  the  congregation  would 
 be  dismissed. 
 
 We  could  wish  that  our  information  was  more  detailed. 
 There  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  things  were  customary  in 
 this  Service  which,  as  matters  of  well-known  observance,  are  not 
 here  set  down.  Still  we  may  believe  that  the  essentials  of  the 
 rite,  or  those  things  which  were  then  regarded  as  essential  are 
 given  us.  These  were  simply  the  elements,  the  Eucharistic 
 prayers,  and  the  communication,  and  even  the  nature  of  the 
 prayers  would  vary  when  a  prophet  was  present  (v.  supra). 
 
 It  remains  only  to  ask:  what  conception  of  the  Sacrament  is 
 here  expressed? 
 
 In  chapter  xiv  the  Service  is  spoken  of  as  a  "sacrifice."  It 
 is  true  that  this  word  was  used  in  a  wholly  figurative  sense  as  re- 
 ferring chiefly  to  the  prayers  of  the  communicants,  but  these 
 prayers  had  already  given  the  Service  a  new  name.  By  S.  Paul 
 and  by  numerous  writers  of  the  Early  Church  it  had  been  called 
 the  "breaking  of  bread,"  but  here  (ch.  ix)  and  in  the  Ignatian 
 letters  (e.  g.,  ad  Smyrn.  viii)  it  is  called  for  the  first  time  the 
 Eucharist,  and  this  title  was  eventually  to  become  universal. 
 We  may  say,  therefore,  that  while  there  was  as  yet  no  idea  of  a 
 repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  upon  the  Cross  connected  with 
 the  Ivord's  Supper,  the  Service  was  nevertheless  conceived  even 
 at  this  time  under  the  category  of  sacrifice  rather  than  under  that 
 of  sacrament.  It  was  a  Service,  a  spiritual  sacrifice  of  thanks- 
 giving offered  to  God. 
 
 We  are  not,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  sacramental  ele- 
 ment was  not  consciously  present.  The  idea  of  a  sacramental 
 gift  is  very  clear  in  the  second  of  the  prayers  given  in  ch.  x. 
 
C2  MEMOIRS. 
 
 That  gift,  however,  does  not  involve  the  doctrine  of  the  Real 
 Presence  in  any  way.  It  is  "spiritual  food  and  drink  and  eter- 
 nal life;"  it  is  the  "Holy  Name;"  "knowledge,  faith  and  immor- 
 tality." In  the  prayer  over  the  cup  (ch.  ix),  where  we  would 
 expect  to  find  a  reference  to  Christ's  atoning  death,  there  is  no 
 direct  allusion  to  the  communion  of  the  Saviour's  blood,  but  on- 
 ly thanks  "for  the  Holy  Vine  of  Thy  servant  David."  The 
 prayer  over  the  bread  (ch.  ix)  and  the  final  prayer  (ch.  x),  es- 
 pecially the  former,  allude  most  beautifully  to  the  body  of  Christ, 
 but  it  is  His  spiritual  body,  which  is  the  Church,  that  is  there 
 symbolized.  Such  is  the  interpretation  which  the  Early  Church, 
 or  a  part  of  it,  placed  upon  the  words  of  Paul: — "The  bread 
 which  we  break,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ,"' 
 
 We  need  not  wonder  that  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  had  been 
 thus  obscured.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  the  Church,  even  in  the 
 Apostolic  Age,  had  been  able  to  receive  the  Apostles'  teaching, 
 and  it  is  certain  that  the  atonement  had  a  smaller  place  in  the 
 theology  of  the  second  Century  than  it  had  in  the  theology  of 
 Paul.  The  Incarnation  was  regarded  as  the  one  fact  of  supreme 
 importance.  The  Resurrection  was  conceived  as  a  testimony  to 
 the  reality  of  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Parousia  (Trapotxrui)  as  the 
 completion  of  all  that  the  Incarnation  had  begun.  With  a  doc- 
 trine which  made  the  life  of  Jesus,  with  its  revelation  of  life, 
 light  and  immortality,  the  chief  things  in  the  Gospel  and  reduced 
 His  atoning  death  to  an  episode,  these  prayers  are  in  thorough 
 harmony.  That  they  were  not  in  accord  with  the  later  views  of 
 the  Church  is  shown  by  the  alterations  and  insertions  made  in 
 them  at  a  subsequent  period.* 
 
 The  question  may  be  asked,  if  the  connection  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper  with  Christ's  death  has  been  lost,  what  idea  has  been  sub- 
 stituted for  it?  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  was  no  substitution. 
 The  meaning  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  not  exhausted  by  the  refer- 
 ence to  the  sacrifice  on  Calvary,  and  the  obscuration  of  that  ref- 
 *  Comp.  Note  I  at  the  end  of  this  article. 
 
•CHRISTIAN  "WORSHIP   IN  THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    63 
 
 €rence  has  only  brought  two  other  ideas,  subordinate,  but  inher- 
 ent in  the  rite,  into  prominence.  The  first  of  these  is  the  unity 
 of  the  Church,  a  unity  amid  diversity,  here  on  earth  symbolized, 
 but  not  realized,  in  the  common  participation  of  the  consecrated 
 bread.  Seldom  has  that  idea  been  more  beautifully  or  more  rev- 
 erently expressed  than  by  the  unknown  author  of  this  prayer:— 
 ^'As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered  upon  the  mountains  and  be- 
 ing gathered  together  became  one,  so  may  Thy  Church  be  gath- 
 ered together  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  Kingdom." 
 *' Remember,  I,ord,  Thy  Church,  to  deliver  it  from  all  evil  and 
 perfect  it  in  Thy  love;  and  gather  it  together  from  the  four  winds 
 into  Thy  Kingdom  which  Thou  hast  prepared  for  it." 
 
 The  second  idea  is  that  of  the  prophetic  character  of  the  Sac- 
 rament. It  looks  forward  devoutly  to  the  second  coming  of  the 
 Lord  and  symbolizes  the  consummation,  when  the  Lord  Himself 
 shall  with  His  followers  "drink  anew  with  them  in  the  Kingdom 
 of  Heaven."  "May  grace  come  and  this  world  pass  away! 
 Maranatha  (the  Lord  cometh)"  is  the  formula  that  immediately 
 precedes  the  Distribution,  which  is  a  continual  reminder  of  the 
 Parousia,  that  vivid  hope  which  dwelt  so  deep  in  the  heart  of  the 
 Early  Church.  Of  the  Holy  Supper  Paul  had  written  (I  Cor.  xi. 
 26) : — "As  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread  and  drink  of  the  cup  ye  pro- 
 claim the  Lord's  death  till  He  come y  When  the  first  idea  was 
 obscured  the  second  came  into  greater  prominence.  The  Church 
 afterwards  changed  the  emphasis  and  laid  all  importance  to  the 
 first  idea,  with  the  natural  consequence  of  all  but  disregarding  the 
 second  thought — viz. ,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is,  and  should  be, 
 a  prophetic  symbol  as  well  as  the  memorial  of  an  accomplished 
 fact. 
 
 Leaving  the  Didache  we  turn  now  to  the  second  main  source 
 for  the  worship  of  the  Early  Church.  In  his  First  Apology,  ad- 
 dressed to  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  written  not  later  than 
 A.  D.  150,  and  perhaps  as  early  as  A.  D.  138  or  139,  Justin  Mar- 
 tyr gives  a  double  description  of  the  Eucharistic  Service.     Chap- 
 
64  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ter  Ixv  connects  directly  with  Ixi  in  which  the  rite  of  Baptism  has 
 been  described  and  discussed.     It  reads  as  follows: — 
 
 "But  we,  after  we  have  thus  washed  him  who  has  been  convinced  and 
 assented  to  our  teaching,  lead  him  to  the  place  where  those  who  are  called 
 brethren  are  assembled,  in  order  that  we  may  offer  hearty  prayers  in  com- 
 mon for  ourselves  and  for  him  who  has  been  illuminated  (i.  e.,  baptized, 
 cf.  chapt.  Ixv),  and  for  all  others  in  every  place,  that  we  may  be  counted 
 worthy,  now  that  we  have  learned  the  truth,  by  our  works  also  to  be  found 
 good  citizens  and  keepers  of  the  commandments,*  so  that  we  may  be  saved 
 with  an  everlasting  salvation. 
 
 "Having  ended  the  prayers,  we  salute  one  another  with  a  kiss. 
 
 "Bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  mingled  with  water  are  then  brought  to  the 
 president  of  the  brethren; 
 
 "And  he,  taking  them,  gives  praise  and  glory  to  the  Father  of  the  Uni- 
 verse, through  the  Name  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  offers 
 thanks  at  considerable  length,  for  our  being  counted  worthy  to  receive  these 
 things  at  His  hands. 
 
 "And  when  he  has  concluded  the  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  all  the 
 people  present  express  their  assent  by  saying  'Amen.'  This  word  Amen  an- 
 swers in  the  Hebrew  language  to  yevotro  (i.  e.,  So  be  it!). 
 
 "And  when  the  president  has  given  thanks  and  all  the  people  have  ex- 
 pressed their  assent,  those  who  are  called  by  us  deacons  give  each  of  those 
 present  the  bread  and  wine  mixed  with  water  over  which  the  thanksgiving 
 was  pronounced,  aud  they  carry  away  a  portion  to  those  who  are  not  pres- 
 ent." 
 
 The  opening  sentences  of  chapter  Ixvii  should  be  connected 
 with  the  close  of  chapter  Ixv.  They  complete  the  description  of 
 the  Eucharistic  Service. 
 
 "And  we  afterwards  continually  remind  each  other  of  these  things. 
 
 "Aud  the  wealthy  among  us  help  the  needy;  and  we  always  keep  to- 
 gether. 
 
 "And  for  all  the  things  wherewith  we  are  supplied  we  bless  the  Father 
 of  all  through  His  Son  Jesus  Christ  and  through  the  Holy  Ghost." 
 
 This  then  is  the  Service  which  follows  the  administration  of 
 Baptism.      Let  us  turn  to  the  same  author's  description  of  the 
 
 •  The  words  have  no  special  doctrinal  significance,  but  are  a  part  of  the  au- 
 thor's refutation  of  ihe  charge  of  lawlessness  so  commonly  brought  against  the 
 Christians. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST-APOSTOLIC   AGE.    65 
 
 regular  Sunday  worship.     It  takes  up  the  greater  part  of  chapter 
 
 Ixvii. 
 
 "And  on  the  day  that  is  called  Sunday  all  who  live  in  cities  or  in  the 
 country  gather  together  to  one  place,  and  the  memoirs  of  the  Apostles  (i.  e., 
 the  Gospels,  cf.  above  chap.  Ixvi)  or  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are  read, 
 as  long  as  time  permits: 
 
 "Then,  when  the  reader  has  ceased,  the  president  verbally  instructs  and 
 exhorts  to  the  imitation  of  these  good  things. 
 
 "Then  we  all  rise  together  and  pra)'; 
 
 "And,  as  we  before  said,  bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought,  and  the 
 president  in  like  manner  offers  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  according  to  his 
 ability  (or,  with  all  his  might),  and  the  people  assent,  saying  Amen;  and 
 there  is  a  distribution  to  each  and  a  participation  of  that  over  which  thanks 
 has  been  given  (or  of  the  Eucharistic  elements),  and  to  those  who  are  ab- 
 sent a  portion  is  sent  by  the  deacons.  "And  they  who  are  well-to-do  and 
 the  willing,  give  what  each  thinks  fit;  and  what  is  collected  is  deposited 
 with  the  president,  who  succors  the  orphans  and  widows  and  those  who 
 through  sickness  or  any  other  cause  are  in  want,  and  those  who  are  in  bonds 
 and  the  strangers  sojourning  among  us,  and  in  a  word  takes  care  of  all  who 
 are  in  need." 
 
 The  first  thing  that  we  notice  in  this  description  as  com- 
 pared with  the  condition  of  affairs  indicated  in  the  Didache  is  that 
 the  Agape  has  fallen  away  from  the  regular  Sunday  Service. 
 This  separation  must  have  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  Em- 
 pire at  different  times  and  was  doubtless  due  to  various  reasons. 
 We  have  seen*  that  the  custom  gave  rise  to  serious  abuses  even 
 in  the  Apostolic  Age  and  these  abuses  would  increase  rather  than 
 diminish  as  time  went  on.  Then,  too,  the  increasing  number  of 
 the  Christians  would  soon  render  it  impossible  for  the  whole  con- 
 gregation to  take  part  in  the  common  meal.  Finally  the  imperi- 
 al prohibition  against  secret  societies,  in  localities  where  it  was 
 strictly  enforced  would  have  exposed  the  Christians  to  the  danger 
 of  legal  suppression  if  not  of  persecution. 
 
 This  last  reason  seems  to  have  led  to  the  complete  abandon- 
 ment of  the  custom  in  Bythinia.     Pontus  as  early  as  112  A.  D.,t 
 
 *  Memoirs,  Vol.  VI,   No.  4,  pp.  61  f. 
 
 t  Pliny  writes  to  Trajan: — "But  even  from  this  they  had  desisted  after  my 
 
66  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  the  fact  tliat  Justin  nowhere  refers  to  the  love-feasts  would 
 seem  to  indicate  that  the  same  law  had  resulted  in  their  abandon- 
 ment in  Rome  before  the  year  140.  But  even  where  the  custom 
 was  still  maintained'^^  the  reasons  first  mentioned  seemed  earl}-  to 
 have  brought  about  its  entire  severance  from  the  sacramental 
 Service,  t 
 
 The  place  of  the  love-feast  in  the  Service  was  supplied,  how- 
 ever, by  the  consolidation  of  the  early  Service  for  edification+ 
 with  the  Service  of  the  Sacrament  and  this  is  the  Liturgy  the 
 main  features  of  which  are  described  in  the  long  passage  from 
 Justin  Martyr.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  distinc- 
 tion between  the  two  Services  is  by  no  means  lost  to  view.  On 
 days  when  a  baptism  was  performed  the  4)aptismal  Service  takes 
 the  place  of  the  Service  for  edification.  The  inissa  cateclmmcnor- 
 nm  of  a  later  day  was  essentially  the  original  early  Service  as 
 described  by  Paul  in  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  stripped 
 of  its  charismatic  features  and  expanded,  while  the  Morning 
 Prayer  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  weekly  Morning  Ser- 
 vice of  our  own  Liturgies  preserve  the  old  distinction. 
 
 Upon  closer  examination  of  the  description  of  the  Service 
 given  by  Justin  we  find  that  it  consists  of  the  following  elements. 
 
 I.  The  Reading  of  the  Scriptures,  here  specified  as  the 
 "memoirs  of  the  Apostles  (by  which  are  meant  the  Gospels,  cf. 
 ch.  Ixvi)  or  the  writings  of  the  Prophets."  The  Old  or  the  New 
 Testament  might  therefore  be  read,  and  the  rubric  would  say 
 "as  long  as  time  permits." 
 
 edict;  in  which,  in  pursuance  of  your  commands,  I  had  forbidden  the  existence  of 
 clubs  {sodali tales). 
 
 *  e.  g.,  in  Africa,  see  Tertullian,  Apol.  ch.  xxxix.  It  is  also  referred  to  in 
 Clement  Alex,  and  in  several  passages  in  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus. 
 
 t  The  letter  of  Ignatius  to  the  Smyrneans  (ch.  viii)  speaks  of  the  Eucharist 
 and  the  love-feast  in  such  a  way  as  to  imply  that  they  were  separately  observed. 
 For  argument  to  the  contrary  see,  however,  Lic.hti  OOT,  Apostolic  Fathers,  pt.  ii, 
 Vol.  II,  p.  312. 
 
 +  See  above  p.  56. 
 
CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP   IN   THE   FIRST   POST- APOSTOLIC   AGE.    67 
 
 2.  The  Sermon,  based  upon  the  text  just  read  and  deliv- 
 ered by  the  "president  of  the  brethren."  Originally  this  duty 
 had  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  "prophet,"  but  like  1:he  right  of  pre- 
 siding at  the  Eucharist,  it  had  passed  into  official  hands,  i.  e., 
 into  the  hands  of  the  bishop  or  of  one  of  his  presbyters,  for  there 
 can  be  no  doubt  that  by  this  time  presbyters  and  bishops  were 
 distinct.  An  interesting  example  of  this  early  preaching  has 
 come  down  to  us  from  this  period  in  the  so-called  Second  Epistle 
 of  Clement  which  is  a  fragment  of  an  ancient  homily. 
 
 3.  Prayer.  This  was  the  General  Prayer  for  all  sorts  and 
 conditions  of  men  to  which  reference  is  made  in  I  Tim.  ii.  i,  2. 
 That  this  prayer  while  still  the  function  of  the  man  with  the 
 charisma  was  extempore,  goes  without  saying.  That  it  would 
 soon  acquire  some  kind  of  a  fixed  form  when  it  was  offered  by 
 men  who  had  not  the  spiritual  gift  is  equally  certain,  and  the 
 common  consent  of  scholars  declare^  the  prayer  found  in  the  First 
 Epistle  of  Clement  (chs.  lix,  Ix,  Ixi)  to  be  a  part  of  the  Roman 
 Liturgy  or,  at  all  events,  a  good  specimen  of  congregational 
 prayer,  dating  from  the  close  of  the  first  or  beginning  of  the  Sec- 
 ond Century  (probably  about  96  A.  D.).* 
 
 A  fourth  element  was  the  Singing  of  Hymns,  not  mentioned 
 in  this  passage  probably  because  regarded  by  the  author  as  be- 
 longing to  the  non-essentials  of  worship,  but  referred  to  in  Ap.  I, 
 ch.  xiii.     We  "offer  thanks  by  invocations  and  hymns." 
 
 5.  The  Kiss  of  Peace  is  mentioned  by  Justin  in  connection 
 with  the  Baptismal  Service  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  ap- 
 pear a  part  of  that  Service  rather  than  of  the  Eucharistic  Service 
 which  follows.  In  speaking  of  the  ordinary  Sunday  worship  he 
 omits  all  reference  to  it,  but  it  will  be  noted  that  in  the  Baptismal 
 Order  it  follows  immediately  upon  the  General  Prayer,  from  which 
 the  congregation  passes  to  the  Eucharist.  In  the  Clementine 
 Liturgy — probably  the  oldest  that  we  possess — the  Kiss  is  given 
 at  that  point  in  the  Mass  of  the  faithful  where  the  doors  are 
 *  See  Memoirs,  Vol.  VI,  No.  4,  pp.  53  ff. 
 
68  MEMOIRS. 
 
 closed  and  the  solemn  celebration  properly  begins.*  From  this 
 and  the  New  Testament  passagesf  which  seem  to  imply  that  the 
 Kiss  of  Peace  was  even  then  a  liturgical  custom, J  we  infer  that 
 it  formed  the  first  part  of  the  Eucharistic  observance,  and  pre- 
 ceded the  bringing  in  of  the  elements. 
 
 6.  The  Consecratio7i  follows  upon  the  Kiss.  Bread  and 
 mingled  wine  are  brought  to  the  president  who  offers  the  Eucha- 
 ristic prayer  "at  considerable  length"  (ch.  Ixv),  "according  to 
 his  ability"  (ch.  Ixvii).  The  words  of  chapter  lxvi§  are  usually 
 understood  as  interpretative  of  this  Eucharistic  prayer,  and  are 
 commonly  quoted  as  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  prayer 
 of  consecration  included,  as  in  later  Liturgies,  a  repetition  of  the 
 Words  of  Institution,  but  of  this  we  cannot  be  certain.  It  seems 
 probable,  but  with  the  fact  in  mind  that  the  Didache  makes  no 
 reference  to  them,  our  assertions  must  be  guarded. || 
 
 As  to  the  further  content  of  this  Eucharistic  prayer  we  may 
 safely  say  that  the  forms  of  the  Didache  or  similar  forms  inde- 
 pendently derived — for  Justin  is  writing  at  Rome — would  proba- 
 bly be  followed. •[ 
 
 7.  The  Distribution  was  the  work  of  the  deacons,  (ch.  Ixv) 
 who  carried  the  elements  to  tlie  congregation  and  reserved  a  por- 
 tion to  be  sent  to  those  who  were  unavoidably  absent.  Justin 
 and  the  Didache  are  both  silent  concerning  any  post-Communion 
 usage. 
 
 8.  After  the  Eucharist  followed  the  Collection.  The  offer- 
 ings of  the  congregation  being  gathered  and  deposited  with  the 
 "president"  who  distributes  them  to  the  needy.  This  fact  alone 
 would  indicate  that  "president"   was  with  Justin  only  another 
 
 •  Ap.  Const.     Bk.  VIII,    ch.  xi. 
 
 t  Rom.  xvi,  16;    I  Cor.  xvi,  20;   II  Cor.  xiii,  12;   I  Thess.  v,  26;  I  Pet.  v,  14. 
 X  The  writer  withdraws  the  statement  made  in  Memoirs  VI,  No.  4,  p.  63. 
 §  See  below  Note  II. 
 
 II  Compare,  however.  Memoirs,  Vol.  VI,    No.  4,  p.  63. 
 
 H  For  a  very  interesting  hypothetical  analysis  of  those  prayers  see  Kliefoth, 
 Liturgische  Abhandlungen,  Bd.  IV,  pp.  302  ft. 
 
'CHRISTIAN   WORSHIP    IN   THE   FIRST    POST- APOSTOLIC    AGE.    69 
 
 name  for  "bishop."  The  administration  officer  of  the  congrega- 
 tion and  the  leitourgos  are  one  and  the  same  man  and  the  claims 
 of  Ignatius  are  in  a  fair  way  to  realization.* 
 
 With  Justin  Martyr  our  period  ends.  The  traditions  of  wor- 
 ship and  the  organization  which  the  Church  inherited  from  the 
 Apostolic  Age,  both  have  taken  on  new  forms,  but  both  are  rec- 
 ognizable for  both  bear  upon  them  the  marks  of  their  origin.  Of 
 greatest  significance,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  organization 
 in  its  development  has  displaced  the  old  charismatic  ministry  and 
 taken  the  worship  of  the  Church  into  its  own  hands.  When  the 
 new  conception  of  the  ministry,  the  germs  of  which  are  to  be 
 seen  in  the  Ignatian  letters,  has  taken  full  possession  of  the 
 Church's  thought,  when  the  "president"  of  Justin  Martyr  has 
 become  the  "priest"  of  Tertullian  a  new  era  will  open  up  in  the 
 history  of  the  Liturgy. 
 
 Note  I. 
 
 Later  Variations  in  the  Prayers  of  the  Didache. 
 
 In  the  Seventh  Book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  the  prayers 
 of  the  Didache  are  given  in  an  expanded  form  which  is  instructive 
 as  showing  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  view  of  the 
 Lord's  Supper,  and  the  new  emphasis  which  was  now  laid  upon 
 the  death  of  Christ.  The  variations  are  of  sufficient  importance 
 to  warrant  us  in  presenting  them  without  further  comment,  in 
 parallel  columns: 
 
 Didache. 
 
 Ch.  9.  We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 
 our  Father,  for  the  holy  vine  of  Thy 
 son  David,  which  Thou  madest 
 known  through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 
 
 We  give  Thee  thanks  O  our  Fath-  Ch.   25.     We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 
 
 er  for  the  life  and  knowledge  which       our  Father,  for  that  life  which  Thou 
 
 *  For  Justin  Martyr's  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  see  Note  II   at  the  end  of 
 this  article. 
 
 Ap.  Const.     Bk.  VII. 
 
70 
 
 MEMOIRS, 
 
 Thou     didst     make     known     to    us 
 through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 
 
 As  this  broken  bread  was  scattered 
 upon  the  mountains  and  being  gath- 
 ered together  became  one,  so  may 
 Thy  Church  be  gathered  together 
 from  the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Ch.  lo.  We  give  Thee  thanks, 
 Holy  Father,  for  Thy  holy  Name 
 which  Thou  hast  made  to  tabernacle 
 in  our  hearts,  and  for  the  knowledge, 
 and  faith,  and  immortality  which 
 Thou  hast  made  known  to  us  through 
 Thy  Son  Jesus. 
 
 Thou,  Almighty  Master,  didst  cre- 
 ate all  things  for  Thy  Name's  sake, 
 and  didst  give  food  unto  man  for  en- 
 joyment,   that    they    might    render 
 
 hast  made  known  to  us  through  Thy 
 Son  Jesus,  through  Whom  also  Thou 
 makest  all  things  and  takest  thought 
 for  the  whole  world;  Whom  too  Thou 
 didst  send  to  become  man  for  our 
 salvation,  and  didst  permit  Him  to 
 suffer  and  to  die,  Whom  Thou  didst 
 also  raise  up  and  wast  pleased  to 
 glorify  and  hast  seated  Him  on  Thy 
 right  hand;  through  Whom  also 
 Thou  hast  promised  us  the  Resurrec- 
 tion from  the  dead. 
 
 Do  Thou,  ()  Lord  Almighty,  eter- 
 nal God,  as  this  grain  was  once  scat- 
 tered and  afterwards  gathered  to- 
 gether so  as  to  form  one  loaf,  so 
 gather  Thy  Church  together  from 
 the  ends  of  the  earth  into  Thy  King- 
 dom. 
 
 Furthermore  we  thank  Thee,  O 
 our  Father,  for  the  precious  blood  of 
 Jesus  Christ,  which  was  shed  for  us, 
 and  for  His  precious  body,  whereof 
 we  celebrate  the  antitype.  He  Him- 
 self having  commanded  us  to  show 
 forth  His  death. 
 
 (The  Doxology  follows). 
 
 Ch.  26.  We  give  Thee  thanks,  O 
 God  and  Father  of  J^sus  our  Sav- 
 iour, for  that  holy  thing  which  Thou 
 hast  made  to  tabernacle  within  us, 
 and  for  the  knowledge,  and  faith, 
 and  love,  and  immortalit}',  which 
 Thou  hast  given  unto  us  through 
 Thy  Son  Jesus. 
 
 Thou,  O  Almighty  God,  the  God 
 of  the  universe,  didst  create  the 
 world  and  the  things  which  are 
 therein,  through  Him;  and  didst  im- 
 
CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP    IN   THE    FIRST    POST-APOSTOLIC    AGE.    71 
 
 thanks  to  Thee;  but  didst  bestow  up- 
 on us  spiritual  food  and  drink  and 
 eternal  life  through  Thy  Son  Jesus. 
 Before  all  things  we  give  Thee 
 thanks  that  Thou  art  powerful. 
 
 Remember,  Lord,  Thy  Church  to 
 deliver  it  from  all  evil  and  to  perfect 
 it  in  Thy  love;  and  gather  it  togeth- 
 er from  the  four  winds — even  the 
 Church  which  has  been  sanctified — 
 into  Thy  Kingdom  which  Thou  hast 
 prepared  for  it. 
 
 plant  a  law  in  our  souls,  and  didst 
 prepare  things  beforehand  for  their 
 reception  by  men.  O  God  of  our 
 holy  and  blameless  fathers,  Abra- 
 ham, Isaac  and  Jacob,  Thy  faithful 
 servants,  Thou  art  powerful  and 
 faithful  and  true  and  without  deceit 
 in  Thy  promises.  Thou  didst  send 
 upon  earth  Jesus  Thy  Christ,  to  con- 
 verse among  men  as  man  and  to  take 
 away  error  by  the  roots,  being  Him- 
 self both  God  the  Word  and  man. 
 
 Do  Thou,  even  now,  through  Him, 
 remember  this  holy  Church  which 
 Thou  hast  purchased  with  the  pre- 
 cious blood  of  Thy  Christ,  and  de- 
 liver it  from  all  evil,  and  perfect  it 
 in  Thy  love  and  Thy  truth  and  gath- 
 er us  all  together  into  Thy  Kingdom 
 which  Thou  hast  prepared. 
 
 Note  II. 
 
 Justin  Martyr's  Conception  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
 
 Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  view  of  the  Lord's 
 Slipper  contained  in  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  and  it  seems  ad- 
 visable to  add  a  word  touching  the  view  held  by  Justin.  The 
 reader  is  left  to  make  comparisons  and  deductions  for  himself. 
 
 In  the  midst  of  the  description  of  the  rite  already  quoted  we 
 find  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66)  the  following  passage: — 
 
 "And  this  food  is  called  among  us  Ev^^apicrTta,  of  which  no  one  is  al- 
 lowed to  partake  but  he  who  believes  that  the  things  which  we  teach  are 
 true,  and  who  has  been  washed  with  the  washing  that  is  for  the  remission 
 of  sins  and  unto  regeneration,  and  who  is  so  living  as  Christ  hath  enjoined. 
 For  not  as  common  bread  and  common  drink  do  we  receive  these,  but  in 
 like  manner  as  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,  having  been  made  flesh  by  the 
 Word  of  God,  had  both  flesh  and  blood  for  our  salvation,  so  likewise  have 
 
72  MEMOIRS. 
 
 we  been  taught  that  the  food  which  is  blessed  by  the  prayer  of  His  Word, 
 and  from  which  our  blood  and  flesh  by  transmutation  is  nourished,  is  the 
 flesh  and  blood  of  that  Jesus  Who  was  made  flesh.  For  the  Apostles  in  the 
 memoirs  composed  by  them,  which  are  called  Gospels,  have  thus  delivered 
 unto  us  what  was  enjoined  upon  them;  that  Jesus  took  bread  and,  when  He 
 had  given  thanks,  said:  'This  do  in  remembrance  of  Me;  this  is  Aly  body;' 
 and  that  after  the  same  manner  He  took  the  cuj)  and  gave  thanks  and  said; 
 •This  is  My  blood;'  and  gave  it  to  them  alone." 
 
 With  this  passage  we  may  now  compare  three  others,  which 
 occur  in  the  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  and  which  throw  some  light 
 upon  the  vexed  question  of  Justin's  meaning. 
 
 The  first  of  these  is  in  ch.  41: — 
 
 "And  the  offering  of  fine  flour  which  was  prescribed  to  be  presented  on 
 behalf  of  those  purified  from  leprosy,  was  a  type  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucha- 
 rist, which,  in  remembrance  of  His  suffering  which  He  suffered  in  behalf  of 
 those  men  who  are  purified  in  soul  from  all  evil,  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  pre- 
 scribed to  be  made,  in  order  that  we  may  at  the  same  time  thank  God  for 
 having  created  the  world,  with  all  things  therein,  for  the  sake  of  man,  and 
 for  delivering  us  from  the  evil  in  which  we  were,  and  for  utterly  overthrow- 
 ing principalities  and  powers  by  Him  Who  suffered  according  to  His  will." 
 
 Then,  quoting  Mai.  i,  10-12,  he  continues: — 
 "He  speaks,  then,  of  those  Gentiles,  namely  of  us,  who  in  every  place 
 offer  sacrifices  to  Him,  i.  e.,  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist  and  likewise  the  cup 
 of  the  Eucharist." 
 
 The  second  passage  is  in  the  same  writing  ch.  70: — 
 "Now  it  is  evident  that  in  this  prophecy  (Is.  xxxiii,  13-19)  [He  alludes] 
 to  the  bread,  which  our  Christ  commanded  us  to  eat*  in  remembrance  of  His 
 being  made  flesh  for  the  sake  of  those  who  believe  on  Him,  for  whose  sake 
 also  He  became  a  sufferer;  and  also  to  the  cup,  which  He  commanded  those 
 who  partake  in  the  Eucharist  to  drink*  in  remembrance  of  His  blood." 
 
 The  third  passage  is  that  of  ch.  116.  Quoting  again  Mai. 
 i,  10-12  Justin  comments: — 
 
 "God  says  that  He  is  pleased  with  the  prayers  of  that  nation  then  dis- 
 persed and  calls  their  prayers  sacrifices.  Now  that  prayers  and  thanksgiv- 
 ings, when  offered  by  worthy  men,  are  the  only  sacrifices  perfect  and  well- 
 pleasing  to  God,  I  also  admit.     For  these  alone  Christians  have  undertaken 
 
 *  Literally  "to  do"  ciprov  Trottiv,  TroxT/ptov  Troteiv  are  used  zs/nr/nini  Uchnici 
 in  speaking  of  ihe  Eucharist. 
 
CHRISTIAN    WORSHIP   IN    THE    FIRST    POST- APOSTOLIC   AGE.    73 
 
 to  offer,  and  that  in  the  remembrance  of  their  food,  solid  and  liquid,  in 
 which  also  the  suffering,  which  the  Son  of  God  endured  for  them,  is  brought 
 to  mind. 
 
 With  these  passages  before  us,  it  now  remains  to  ask.  What 
 view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  did  their  writer  hold?  Space  compels 
 us  to  sum  it  up  very  briefly. 
 
 1.  The  Eucharist  is  regarded  as  essentially  a  sacrifice.  The 
 idea  which  we  found  in  the  prayers  of  the  Didache  is  here  made 
 very  prominent. 
 
 2.  The  sacrifice  is,  however,  still  entirely  spiritual. 
 "Prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  the  only  sacrifices  perfect  and 
 well-pleasing  unto  God"  (Dial.  ii6).  Nevertheless  the  Eucha- 
 ristic  Service  culminates  in  the  prayer  over  the  bread  and  wine, 
 so  that  the  consecrated  elements,  not  the  bread  and  wine  before 
 the  consecration,  as  Kliefoth  maintains,  are  regarded  as  the  visi- 
 ble, tangible  expression  of  the  spiritual  sacrifice  and  are  them- 
 selves called  "sacrifice."      (Dial.  41). 
 
 3.  The  sacramental  idea  is  retained,  however,  in  the  Dis- 
 tribution. That  which  is  distributed  is  "the  flesh  and  blood  of 
 that  Jesus  Who  was  made  flesh"  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66).  This  single 
 statement  is  taken  by  many  writers  to  be  a  proof  that  Justin  held 
 the  doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence.  To  this  opinion  we  can  only 
 assent  with  an  important  qualification.  Verbally  he  did  hold 
 such  a  doctrine,  but  he  had  not  reflected  upon  it  and  it  is  out  of 
 harmon)^  with  the  main  trend  of  his  thought.  What  Justin  did 
 see  in  the  Lord's  Supper  was  primarily  a  memorial,  first  of  the 
 Incarnation  {Apol.  I,  ch.  66;  Dial.  ch.  70)  and  then  of  the  Pas- 
 sion (Dial.  ch.  41,  70,  116). 
 
 4.  The  sacramental  importance  of  the  Lord's  Supper  takes, 
 however,  in  the  mind  of  our  author  a  subordinate  place.  As  in 
 later  times,  when  the  Eucharist  was  conceived  as  the  repetition 
 of  what  transpired  on  Calvary,  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
 Sacrament,  and  Baptism  was  relegated  to  the  lower  place  of  the 
 
74  MEMOIRS. 
 
 ceremony  of  initiation,  so  in  Justin's  time  we  find  Baptism  in  the 
 first  place  and  the  Eucharist  thought  of  as  the  rite  in  which 
 "those  who  are  purified  in  soul  from  all  evil"  (Dial.  ch.  41)  of- 
 fer their  spiritual  sacrifice,  call  to  mind  the  Incarnation  and  the 
 Passion  of  their  Lord,  fulfill  His  command,  "This  do,"  and — it 
 seems  almost  like  an  afterthought — receive  the  Body  and  Blood 
 of  Christ. 
 
 Charles  M.  J.vcobs, 
 AUcntown,  Pa. 
 
THE  APPLICATION  OF   LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES 
 TO   THE   CHURCH   BUILDING. 
 
 Der  Kirchenbau  des  Protestantismus  von  der  Ref- 
 ormation BIS  ZUR  Gegenwart.  Herausgegeben  von  der  Ver- 
 einigung  Berliner  Architekten.  Mit  1041  Grundrissen,  Durch- 
 schnitten  und  Ansichten.     Berlin.     Toeche.      1893.* 
 
 Handbuch  des  Evangelisch-Christlichen  Kirchen- 
 BAUES,  von  Dr.  Phil.  Oskar  Mothes^  K.  S.  Baurath.  Mit  59  II- 
 lustrationen  im  Text.     Leipzig.     Tauchnitz.      1898. f 
 
 It  is  said  that  the  Lutheran  Churches  of  the  United  States  build 
 a  new  House  of  Worship  for  every  day  of  the  year.  Many  of 
 these  are  small  and  are  built  of  perishable  material.  They  are 
 intended  to  give  place  to  more  substantial  structures.  They  fol- 
 low the  styles  of  building  which  obtain  in  the  regions  in  which 
 they  are  built,  and  bear  curious  marks  of  the  untrained  taste  of 
 those  who  have  contributed  to  their  erection.  Even  if  pastor 
 and  committee  have  some  peculiarity  of  taste  or  a  little  knowl- 
 edge of  architecture,  their  means  are  limited;  they  must  borrow 
 and  must  hasten  to  pay;  and  there  are  so  many  incongruous  ends 
 to  be  served  by  the  building,  that  it  seems  vain  to  aim  at  unity 
 or  to  consider  symbolism,  or  any  of  the  rules  of  art.  If  the  edi- 
 fice, on  the  other  hand,  is  to  be  built  of  brick  or  stone,  and  is  in 
 any  sense  built  for  the  future,  as  well  as  the  present  generation, 
 
 *  Church- Building  of  Protestantism  from  the  Reformation  until  the  present 
 time.  Edited  by  the  Society  of  Architects  of  Berlin.  With  104 1  plans,  sec- 
 tional drawings  and  views.     Berlin.     Toeche.     1893. 
 
 t  Handbook  of  Evangelical- Christian  Church- Building,  by  Dr.  Phil.  OsKAR 
 MOTHES,  K.  S.  Baurath.  With  59  illustrations  in  the  Text.  Leipzig.  Tauchnitz. 
 1898.  (Ixxv) 
 
76  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it  is  recognized  to  be  wise  and  necessary  to  consult  an  architect; 
 but  not  one  architect  in  a  thousand  has  any  knowledge  of  Ger- 
 man Church  Architecture,  or  of  the  requisites  of  a  Lutheran 
 Church;  and  they  therefore  copy  either  Protestant  Episcopal 
 Churches,  whose  principles  are  altogether  different  from  ours,  or 
 Methodist  or  Zwinglian  Churches  whose  spirit  is  opposed  to  ours; 
 or,  if  a  well-schooled  German  architect  is  chosen,  his  work  does 
 not  find  the  sympathetic  cooperation  of  the  builders  or  the  ap- 
 proval of  the  community.  The  time  has  come,  I  think,  for  a 
 consideration  of  the  principles  of  Lutheran  Church  Architecture. 
 In  what  respect  do  these  differ  from  the  principles  of  Roman 
 Catholic  or  Reformed  architecture?  Is  there  a  history  of  Lu- 
 theran Church  Building?  Is  there  any  distinctively  Protestant 
 style  of  architecture;  any  distinctively  Lutheran?  What  peculiar 
 arrangement  or  style  is  demanded  by  the  genius  and  history  of 
 Lutheran  belief  and  worship? 
 
 The  books  whose  titles  accompany  this  article  dispose  of  the 
 notion  that  the  Protestant  Reformation  merely  adopted  the 
 church  buildings  that  had  been  in  use,  WMth  few  and  no  charac- 
 teristic modifications  of  their  interior,  and  that  there  has  been 
 little  church  building  in  Germany  until  the  recent  immense 
 growth  of  cities  required  the  formation  of  new  parishes  and  a 
 heavy  outlay  upon  new  places  of  worship.  Instead,  they  tell  us 
 of  hundreds  of  churches,  many  of  them  of  monumental  construc- 
 tion and  style,  of  all  varieties  of  architectural  style,  obedient  to 
 the  tastes  prevalent  in  different  eras,  in  some  cases  of  daring  ex- 
 periments undertaken  to  invent  new,  distinctive,  evangelical 
 styles  of  architecture,  and  beginning  in  the  age  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion and  sprinkled  through  all  the  years  that  have  elapsed  since. 
 Both  books  give  us  a  lively  scientific  criticism  of  these  attempts, 
 and  discuss  the  theories  of  architects;  while  the  Berlin  architects 
 give  us  pictures  and  plans  which  make  the  discussion  intelligi- 
 ble. They  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  there  is  no  postulate 
 which  has  not  been   considered   in   the   Fatherland,   no  novelty 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         77 
 
 which  has  not  been  tested.  They  also  show  us  that  German  ar- 
 chitecture is  peculiar.  At  another  time  I  may  attempt  a  compar- 
 ison of  English  Church  Architecture  with  the  same  art  in  Lu- 
 theran Germany,  a  subject  that  promises  the  utmost  interest  and 
 instruction.  They  demonstrate,  moreover,  that  Protestantism  is 
 not  wedded  to  an}^  particular  style  of  architecture  but  may  make 
 use  of  all  the  historical  styles.  While  Mothes  agrees  in  this,  he 
 evidently  prefers  the  Gothic  style  and  urges  that  it  is  native  to 
 the  German.  They  hold  that  certain  modifications  of  pre-Refor- 
 mation  architecture  are  required  by  the  principles  of  Evangelical 
 Protestantism;  but,  at  the  same  time,  that  these  modifications  are 
 a  return  to  the  usage  of  the  Church  in  the  ages  preceding  the 
 dominance  of  Roman  Catholicism. 
 
 Mothes  closes  his  suggestive  preface  with  these  words: 
 "Luther  did  not,  and  the  Evangelical  Church  neither  can 
 nor  will,  cast  to  one  side  the  tradition  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 but  they  would  cleanse  it  from  the  human  opinions  and  the 
 abuses  which  have  formed  upon  it  in  the  course  of  time;  and  they 
 demand  the  same  purification  of  ecclesiastical  art,  of  architecture. 
 "A  Handbook  for  this  art  therefore  should,  first  of  all,  give 
 a  veracious  description  of  the  development  of  ecclesiastical  art 
 before  the  Reformation,  based  on  careful  investigation,  and  show 
 how  this  followed  the  course  of  the  history  of  the  Church,  and 
 in  what  places,  within  what  limits,  and  in  what  way,  the  result- 
 ant tradition  can  be  used  by  the  Evangelical  Church  or  must  be 
 rejected  by  her.  It  must  show  what  has  been  done  for  Evangel- 
 ical ecclesiastical  art  since  the  Reformation,  its  achievements, 
 failures,  and  faults.  With  this  it  should  give  suggestions,  how 
 the  edifices  of  the  Evangelical  Church  should  be  shaped  and 
 completed  so  as  to  agree  in  their  ARRANGEMENT  with  the 
 ritual-liturgical  as  well  as  with  the  practical  requirements  of  our 
 Church:  in  their  CONSTRUCTION  with  the  modern  technical 
 standpoint  and  the  general  principles  now  acknowledged;  in  their 
 FORM  and  CHARACTER  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity  in  gen- 
 
78  MEMOIRS. 
 
 eral,  the  simplicity  and  inexhaustible  depth  of  the  nature  and 
 word  of  Jesus  given  in  the  Gospel,  with  the  I-^vangelical  Church 
 especially,  which  is  built  on  this  foundation;  and  with  the  un- 
 changeable laws  of  BEAUTY,  which  have  their  origin  in  the  will 
 of  God,  are  symbolized  to  us  in  Nature,  and  therefore  answer  to 
 that  spirit." 
 
 An  attempted  condensation  of  the  contents  of  these  books 
 would  be  tedious.  To  discuss  even  a  few  of  the  topics  they  sug- 
 gest, might  bewilder  the  reader  and  lead  his  attention  away  from 
 the  points  which  are  really  essential.  I  cainiot  pretend  to  the 
 knowledge  of  the  subject  which  would  give  value  to  any  opinion 
 I  may  express.  It  is  more  important  that  I  should  tell  what 
 those  who  are  of  authority  say.  Yet  it  is  a  duty  of  those  who 
 have  given  anxious  attention  to  the  matter,  and  see  the  errors 
 which  ought  to  be  corrected,  to  state  the  conclusions  to  which 
 those  of  authority  lead  them.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  lay  down 
 a  few  propositions  which  I  hope  may  become  a  basis  of  discus- 
 sion, and  to  add  to  them  in  the  form  of  Notes  material  drawn  for 
 the  most  part  from  these  books.  It  will  be  evident  from  my 
 omissions  what  I  consider  to  be  open  questions,  and  the  attentive 
 reader  will  discover  that  in  some  cases  I  am  not  convinced  by  the 
 books.  And  it  is  right  to  add  that  though'  I  think  that  these 
 principles  should  be  much  more  closely  observed  than  they  have 
 been,  I  do  not  think  that  they  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  law  and 
 that  every  reverend  old  church  ought  to  be  altered  to  accord  with 
 them.  The  truth  is,  that  we  may  learn  a  great  deal  from  the 
 ways  in  which  our  fathers,  who  certainly  were  not  without  the 
 "Lutheran  consciousness,"  endeavored  to  satisfy  what  they  knew 
 to  be  essential  to  their  faith  and  their  traditions. 
 
lutheran  principles  of  church  architecture.       tv 
 Propositions   for   Discussion, 
 
 I.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  bound  to  no  particular  style  of 
 Architecture.  The  style  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the 
 site  of  the  building,  its  surroundings,  and  its  purpose. 
 
 While  the  Gothic  style  may  seem  to  have  especial  claims,  on 
 the  other  hand  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Gothic  is  suited  to  the 
 small  structures  which  many  are  compelled  to  build.  A  large 
 Gothic  church  with  nave  and  aisles  is  not  favourable  to  a  Service 
 where  the  minister  must  be  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  Service  and 
 distinctly  heard. 
 
 II.  While  many  churches  which  had  been  built  before  the 
 Reformation  were  taken  over  and  in  some  respects  were  altered 
 to  adapt  them  to  their  new  use,  so  many  new  Lutheran  churches 
 have  been  built  in  all  periods  since  the  Reformation,  so  many  ex- 
 periments have  been  tried,  that  the  requirements  and  character 
 of  a  distinctivel)'^  Lutheran  church  building  are  fully  known. 
 
 III.  A  Lutheran  Church  differs  from  a  Roman  Catholic 
 Church 
 
 1.  in  having  but  one  Altar; 
 
 2.  in  making  due  provision  for  the  preaching  of  the 
 Word; 
 
 3.  in  providing  that  the  whole  congregation  may  intelli- 
 gently take  part  in  the  whole  Service  of  worship; 
 
 4.  in  not  making  a  separation  between  a  "clergy"  and  a 
 "laity;" 
 
 5.  in  providing  for  the  Communion  of  the  people,  instead 
 of  a  Celebration  of  the  Sacrament; 
 
 6.  in  arranging  for  a  Service  whose  reality  depends  on 
 the  presence  and  participation  of  the  Congregation.  On  the  oth- 
 er hand,  the  sanctity  of  a  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  guaranteed 
 by  the  supposed  Presence  of  Christ  upon  the  Altar,  and  the  Con- 
 secration of  the  church. 
 
80  MEMOIRS. 
 
 IV.  A  IvUtheran  Church  differs  from  a  Non-Lutlieran  Prot- 
 estant Church  because  in  the  former 
 
 1.  Christ  is  present  in  His  Word  and  Sacraments,  through 
 them  speaks  to  us,  and  through  them  imparts  Himself  to  us; 
 
 2,  and  the  Holy  Communion  is  not  merely  a  mark  of  the 
 confession  and  communion  of  the  people  of  God,  but  is  a  Sacra- 
 ment. 
 
 (The  word  "Reformed"  is  used  in  German  books  to  connote 
 what  we  have  attempted  to  express  by  "Non-Lutheran.  "  We 
 acknowledge  that  there  are  Churches  in  other  connnunions  than 
 the  Lutheran  which,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  accord  with  Lu- 
 theran principles.  By  "Non- Lutheran"  we  mean  the  whole  of 
 Protestantism  which  rejects  and  stands  opposed  to  the  positive 
 principles  confessed  by  the  Lutheran  Churches.) 
 
 V.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  a  place  must  be  accorded  the 
 Word  and  Sacraments  in  a  Lutheran  Church  separate  from  the 
 Congregation,  speaking  to  it  in  the  Name  of  God,  and  dominat- 
 ing the  whole  arrangement  of  the  church.  The  Altar  should  be 
 central,  at  the  end  of  the  main  axis  of  the  church,  because  it  is 
 the  place  of  direct  communion  with  God  in  the  Sacrament  and  in 
 prayer;  the  Pulpit  and  the  Lectern  should  be  in  organic  relation 
 to  it;  and  all  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  minister  at  the  Altar, 
 or  in  the  Pulpit  or  at  the  Lectern,  will  be  visible  and  his  voice 
 will  be  intelligible  from  every  seat  in  the  church. 
 
 VI.  No  place  of  worship  can  be  arranged  to  answer  the 
 purposes  of  both  a  Sunday  School  and  a  Church.  The  former  is 
 a  School,  the  latter  is  a  Church.  In  the  former  the  Altar  and 
 the  Pulpit  are  out  of  place,  in  the  latter  they  are  essential. 
 There  ought  to  be  but  one  Altar  of  the  congregation.  It  is  man- 
 ifestly unfitting  that  the  Altar  and  the  Altarspace  (Choir,  Chan- 
 cel) should  be  used  in  any  way  and  for  any  purpose  other  than 
 the  worship  of  the  congregation  conducted  by  the  Minister.     (We 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.    ^  81 
 
 use  the  word  Altarspace  as  well  as  Choir  for  the  German  Chor- 
 ramn,  instead  of  the  usual  term  "recessed  chancel."  The  Ger- 
 mans say  "Kanzel,"  where  we  say  Pulpit.) 
 
 VII.  The  Organ  and  the  Choir  of  Singers  should  be  placed 
 at  the  end  of  the  church  opposite  the  Altar. 
 
 The  Organ  should  not  be  placed  behind  the  Altar.  This 
 position  is  defended  by  those  who  hold  that  the  whole  Service 
 depends  on  the  Congregation,  and  deny  the  Real  Presence  in  the 
 Word  and  Sacraments;  and  by  those  who  declare  that,  the  Ser- 
 vice properly  consisting  of  responsive  interchange  between  Chris- 
 tian people,  it  is  part  of  the  function  of  the  Choir  to  preach  the 
 truth.  It  is  also  urged  that  in  this  position  the  organ  and  choir 
 lead  the  singing  of  the  congregation  more  efficiently.  This  is 
 not  the  case.  Their  leadership  lessens  in  power  with  the  length 
 of  the  church.  It  is  most  efficient  when  the  music  of  the  choir 
 and  organ  proceeds  in  the  same  direction  as  the  singing  of  the 
 people,  when  coming  from  behind  the  congregation  it  is  the  back- 
 ground, and  gathers  up  the  singing  and  holds  it  together.  Sing- 
 ing for  entertainment  or  display  is  out  of  place  in  the  church. 
 The  choir,  as  a  part  of  the  congregation,  confesses  the  truth  giv- 
 en by  God  through  His  Word.  It  does  not  dispense  the  Word. 
 The  Word,  the  division  of  the  Word,  the  Ministry  of  the  Word, 
 and  the  administration  of  the  Word  in  the  Holy  Sacrament,  must 
 be  distinguished  as  the  sole  source  of  the  congregation's  life  and 
 being. 
 
 Neither  should  the  Organ  and  the  Choir  be  in  the  Chancel 
 nor  to  the  side  of  it  in  view  of  the  congregation.  This  custom  is 
 derived  from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  which  teaches 
 that  there  is  a  distinction  between  Clergy  and  Laity,  and  does 
 not  hesitate  to  adopt  the  imitation  of  a  priestly  choir  and  to 
 throw  the  Choir  between  the  people  and  the  Means  of  Grace. 
 In  a  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  the  worshippers  may  consist  of 
 Clergy,  Choir,  and  People.     In  a  Lutheran  Church  only  the  Peo- 
 
82  MEMOIRS. 
 
 pie  are  in  the  presence  of  God;  the  Choir  is  a  part  of  the  Congre- 
 gation; the  Minister  exercises  the  Office  of  the  Word,  in  which 
 God  speaks.  There  are  the  same  practical  objections  to  this  po- 
 sition as  to  the  position  rejected  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
 
 A'lII.  An  open  space  should  be  preserved  before  the  seats 
 of  the  congregation  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  go  to  and 
 from  the  Table  of  the  Lord. 
 
 IX.  There  should  not  be  a  screen  or  closed  rail  between  the 
 Altar  and  the  people.  A  rail  is  needed  only  for  those  who  kneel 
 at  the  Altar.  It  is  most  accordant  with  Lutheran  principle  and 
 usage  to  erect  the  rail  at  each  side  of  the  Altar  and  not  in  front 
 of  it. 
 
 X.  The  Altarspace  should  be  raised  above  the  floor  of  the 
 church  to  render  all  that  goes  on  in  it  visible,  and  to  give  it  dig- 
 nity; but  for  the  convenience  of  the  minister  and  the  communi- 
 cants the  floor  of  the  Altarspace  should  not  be  raised  more  than 
 two  steps  above  the  floor  of  the  church. 
 
 XI.  The  Altar  itself  should  stand  upon  a  little  platform 
 raised  one  step  above  the  floor  of  the  Altarspace.  It  should 
 stand  free  from  the  wall,  at  least  so  far  from  it  that  the  commu- 
 nicants may  be  able  to  walk  around  it.  Its  size  and  shape  are 
 regulated  by  the  uses  made  of  it,  and  its  derivation  from  a  table, 
 from  the  grave  of  a  martyr,  and  from  its  character  as  the  altar- 
 hearth  of  the  congregation. 
 
 XII.  The  Pulpit  is  most  conveniently  placed  at  the  pillar 
 of  the  Chancel-arch.  Historically  it  should  be  on  the  "Epistle 
 Side,"  i.  e.,  to  the  South  side  of  the  church  when  the  Altar  is  in 
 its  historical  position  at  the  Eastern  end.  It  should  not  obstruct 
 the  view  of  the  Altar  from  any  part  of  the  church. 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         83 
 
 XIII.  The  Desk  from  which  the  Gospel  is  read  should 
 stand  in  a  corresponding  position  on  the  other  side. 
 
 XIV.  The  Font  should  have  a  place  of  its  own,  correspond- 
 ing to  the  ancient  baptisteries.  This  may  be  found  in  the  corner 
 of  the  nave  to  the  Gospel  side  of  the  Altarspace. 
 
 XV.  The  Altarspace  should  be  lighted  by  a  window  or 
 windows.  Windows  of  coloured  glass,  leaded,  often  interfere  se- 
 riously with  light  and  ventilation.  But  it  is  necessary  to  shut 
 out  the  sights  of  everyday. 
 
 XVI.  A  modern  prejudice  against  Galleries  is  not  justified. 
 They  are  necessary  in  a  large  church  where  Preaching  is  a  part 
 of  the  Service,  in  order  to  bring  as  many  as  possible  within  sound 
 of  the  preacher's  voice.  They  ought  to  be  built  in  harmony 
 with  the  general  style  of  the  church.  They  should  not  extend 
 into  the  Altarspace,  but  should  stop  at  such  a  distance  from  it 
 that  the  Altar  will  not  be  hidden  from  any  seat  in  them.  Where 
 there  are  transepts,  it  would  be  better  to  put  them  in  these. 
 Where  there  are  galleries,  there  should  be  two  rows  of  windows. 
 
 XVII.  In  the  decoration  of  the  church  and  of  the  windows 
 all  the  traditional  symbolism  of  the  church  (colours,  emblems, 
 etc.)  should  be  observed. 
 
 XVIII.  Every  detail  of  the  church  should  be  in  harmony 
 with  the  architectural  style  chosen. 
 
84  MEMOIRS. 
 
 Note  A. 
 
 THE    EISKXACn    REGULATIVE. 
 
 (Set  forth  June  s,  iS6i,  by  the  Conference  of  German  Authorities 
 
 in  Eisenach.') 
 
 The  notes  inserted  in  italics  are  critical  remarks  by  Mothes. 
 The  notes  marked  R  are  the  remarks  appended  to  the  Regulative 
 by  Rietschel  in  his  Litiirgik,  Vol.  I. 
 
 1.  Every  chnrch  should  be  orientated  according  to  ancient 
 custom,  i.  e.,  so  built  that  the  Altarspace  lies  towards  the  East. 
 {'The  custom  is  pro"- Catholic,  and  is  founded  OJi  the  breaking  of  the 
 da-ivn,  the  coming  of  the  light  of  faith.  The  fesuit  custom  of  turn- 
 ing to  the  West,  reminds  us  of  the  coming  of  darkness.  A  practical 
 reason  is  that  the  chief  Seri'ice  takes  place  in  the  early  part  of  the 
 day,  and  again,  that  it  is  uplifting  to  look  tozvards  the  East.) 
 
 Rietschel:  We  hold  the  question  of  Orientation  to  be  non- 
 essential. Where  possible,  the  old  custom  should  be  kept,  but  it 
 should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  suitability  of  the 
 building  for  its  purposes.  If  much  light  pours  in  through  the 
 altar  windowS;  it  will  be  necessary  to  curtain  them  through  the 
 whole  Service.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  Altar  be  towards  the 
 West,  windows  of  a  dark  colour  will  hardly  answer  their  purpose 
 on  dark  winter  days. 
 
 2.  The  ground  plan  of  a  church  which  best  answers  to  the 
 Evangelical  worship  is  an  oblong  right-angled  parallelogram. 
 
 (  This  is  rarely  found  except  in  the  often  abominable  and  inap- 
 propriate prayer  rooms  of  Ratio7ialism,  etc.). 
 
 The  external  height  including  the  main  gable  in  churches 
 with  a  single  nave  should  be  in  the  proportion  of  Y\  of  the 
 breadth,  while  the  acoustics  of  a  church  are  better  in  proportion 
 as  the  breadth  of  it  approaches  its  length. 
 
 {Here  two  sentences  are  jammed  together  both  of  -which  arc  un- 
 founded and  both  confounded.      .Many  a  church  with  only  a  nave  is 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         85 
 
 only  6m.  broad,  and  then  ought  the  roof  be  more  than  .^y^in.  high? 
 The  second  sentence  leads  to  the  paradox  that  the  square  is  acoustical- 
 ly the  best  parallelogram). 
 
 A  prolongation  to  the  East  for  the  Altarspace  (Apse,  Trib- 
 une, Choir),  and  on  the  Eastern  part  of  the  long  sides  for  a 
 Northern  and  a  Southern  Transept  iivhich  is  impossible  except  in 
 the  case  of  a  pretty  long  parallelogram)  gives  to  the  building  the 
 suggestive  form  of  the  Cross.  In  a  church  built  about  a  centre 
 vi^ithout  cross-arms,  the  octagon  is  acoustically  permissible,  but 
 for  the  same  reason  a  round  church  is  inadmissible.  (  This  dic- 
 tum cannot  be  established  either  from  theory  or  from  practice;  it  is 
 iinfortunate  because  not  supported  by  examples.  Polygons  and  ro- 
 tundas already  have  been  excluded  by  the  requirement  of  an  exten- 
 sion for  the  Altar). 
 
 R.  The  question  between  a  long  nave  or  a  "central"  build- 
 ing must  not  be  considered  essential.  For  smaller  churches  a 
 single  long  nave  will  answer,  while  for  churches  of  greater  size 
 the  "central"  arrangement  will  be  suitable,  because  it  permits  a 
 larger  number  of  seats  to  be  placed  not  far  from  the  pulpit  and 
 Altar.  As  to  the  size  of  the  building,  Luther's  advice  is  deci- 
 sive: "Peine  maessige  Kirchen  mit  niedrigen  Gewoelben  sind  die 
 geeignetsten  fuer  Prediger  und  Hoerer."  Monumental  churches, 
 in  so  far  as  they  no  longer  let  the  church  appear  as  a  house  in 
 which  the  congregation  assembles  around  the  preaching  of  the 
 Word,  in  whose  further  parts  the  human  voice  no  longer  is  intel- 
 ligible, can  never  again  be  regarded  as  suitable  for  Evangelical 
 churches. 
 
 3.  The  Dignity  (  This  7vord  is  not  well  chosen.  ''''Dignity  is 
 aimed  at  ifi  heathen  styles.  What  is  tneant  is  the  Christian  Char- 
 acter of  the  church)  demands  {for  the  present)  the  use  of  one  of 
 the  historically  developed  Christian  styles  of  architecture,  and 
 recommends  in  the  fundamental  form  of  a  long  parallelogram  be- 
 sides the  old  Christian  Basilica  {found  also  in  the  form  of  a  square, 
 shorter  than  its  breadth ,  and  made  to  appear  longer  by  the  arrange- 
 
86  MEMOIRS. 
 
 mcnt  of  the  7iave:  e.  g.,  ccUa  irichora,  oratoriiim  cruciforvic,  basilica 
 cntciformis)  and  tlie  so-called  Romanesque  (yt>rc- Gothic)  style  {this 
 word  scientific  xcriters  apply  rather  to  the  manner  of  construction  than 
 to  the  form)  especially  the  so-called  German  {Gothic)  style,  {/iut 
 the  German  A'enaissance,  Normayi,  Byzaiitine,  ought  not  to  be  sum- 
 marily ruled  out).  The  choice  of  the  system  of  architecture 
 (  What  is  nieant  here? — the  style  of  building  or  the  system  of  form  f^ 
 for  the  particular  case  should  follow  not  merely  the  artistic  taste 
 of  the  builder,  {Does  this  mean  the  one  luho  pays  the  cost,  or  the 
 designer?^  but  the  prevailing  character  of  the  architecture  of  the 
 locality.  {Afa7iy  a  region  has  no  such  character,  or  one  that  is  un- 
 dignified, or  Catholic,  or  the  like).  Remains  of  older  church  build- 
 ings that  can  be  used,  should  be  preserved  carefully  and  used  as 
 a  model.  {Here  is  no  warning  against  the  despotism  of  such  por- 
 tions of  old  buildings  belonging  to  differcJit  periods).  And  so  all 
 the  parts  of  the  building  in  its  inner  arrangement,  from  the  Altar 
 and  its  vessels  down  to  the  seats  and  furniture,  even  the  organ, 
 must  correspond  with  the  style  of  the  church. 
 
 R.  We  must  object  strenuously  to  the  rigid  insistence  on 
 one  of  the  old  styles.  We  must  regard  it  as  an  advance  of  mod- 
 ern development  that  the  question  concerning  the  specifically 
 church  style  has  fallen  more  and  more  into  the  background.  Of 
 course  voices  still  are  heard  urging  that  the  Gothic  or  the  Renais- 
 sance is  the  only  one  endorsed  by  history.  But,  if  we  see  aright, 
 the  newer  development  shows  an  increasing  emancipation  from  a 
 strict  imitation  of  any  historical  style  of  the  past,  that  no  partic- 
 ular style  is  urged,  and  that  according  to  the  needs  of  Evangel- 
 ical worship  and  with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  city  and 
 region,  the  manifold  motives  of  different  styles  come  to  harmoni- 
 ous but  free  employment.  Only  in  this  way  can  there  be  a  sound 
 evolution,  since  neither  in  a  simple  return  to  a  past  time,  nor  in 
 the  invention  of  a  new  style  {nezv  styles  are  not  iyivcnted  by  rejlex- 
 ion  but  are  the  fruit  of  an  organic  grozcth)  lies  the  calling  of  our 
 time. 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         87 
 
 A  simple  revival  of  the  Gothic  of  the  Middle  Ages  would 
 conflict  with  sound  Evangelical  feeling.  As  certainly  as  the 
 Evangelical  were  abl^  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  Gothic  church 
 buildings  of  the  Middle  Ages,  so  little  can  their  great  choirs, 
 which  place  the  Altar  out  of  sight  of  the  congregation  and  there- 
 fore make  a  side  Altar  necessary  for  the  liturgical  Altar  Service, 
 be  regarded  as  a  model  for  new  buildings.  Here  also  a  chief 
 principle  of  the  Gothic  is  violated.  A  Gothic  structure  with  its 
 columns  cutting  off  the  view  of  Altar  and  Pulpit  is  not  especially 
 suited  to  the  Evangelical  Service.  There  are  objections  to  the 
 dominion  of  the  Gothic  on  account  of  acoustics.  And  the  more 
 the  several  ornaments  of  the  Gothic  style  must  stand  in  inner 
 connexion  with  the  whole  organism  of  the  building,  the  more 
 objectionable  will  be  the  employment  of  the  various  motives  of 
 the  Gothic  separated  from  the  whole.  It  is  certain  also  that  a 
 simple  revival  of  the  Basilica  or  the  Romanesque  style,  with  its 
 high  choir  and  its  strong  columns,  will  not  answer  for  the  Evan- 
 gelical Church.  Yet  the  noble  and  simple  motives  of  the  Ro- 
 manesque have  found  fruitful  use  in  the  Evangelical  Church  in 
 recent  times. 
 
 4.  The  church  building  requires  durable  material  and  a 
 solid  construction,  without  any  deceptive  covering  or  wash. 
 (//  would  be  better  to  say,  A  church  builditig,  as  a  building  for  a 
 cojigregation  that  survives  for  ages,  should  be  and  appear  m.o?iutnent- 
 al;  and  therefore  should  be  of  durable  material  and  construction;  for 
 truth' s  sake  all  pretense  should  be  avoided,  and  everything  that  seems 
 perishable,  and  therefore  all  accommodatioti  to  the  passing  fashion. ) 
 If  wood  be  chosen  for  the  interior,  which  in  the  ceiling  is  espe- 
 cially favourable  to  acoustics,  it  must  not  be  made  to  represent 
 stone.  The  Altarspace  in  any  case  should  be  massively  vaulted. 
 {^^ Massively  is  un?iecessary.) 
 
 5.  The  chief  entrance  of  the  church  is  most  appropriately 
 in  the  middle  of  the  small  Western  end,  so  that  the  long  axis  of 
 the  church  extends  from  it  straight  to  the  Altar.     ( The  motive 
 
88  MEMOIRS. 
 
 should  be  stated:  c.  g.,  striviiig  forwards  to  the  light,  draicing  nigh 
 to  God,  the  .lltar  is  the  goal  of  the  arrangement  of  the  church,  the 
 Sacrament  is  the  culmination  of  the  Service,  etc.  ). 
 
 6.  There  should  always  be  a  tower,  if  the  means  permit  it; 
 and  if  these  are  wanting  at  the  time  of  building,  it  should  be 
 added  afterwards.  It  is  desirable  {No,  indispensable)  that  it 
 should  be  in  organic  connexion  with  the  church,  and  as  a  rule  it 
 should  be  over  the  Western  entrance.  ( This  is  not  e^urgetic 
 enough.  A  motive  is  not  given,  e.  g.,  to  summon ,  to  show  the  way). 
 Two  towers  may  either  stand  at  the  sides  of  the  choir  {first  in- 
 troduced bv  Odo  of  Cluny,  t942,  only  Catholic  and  Monkish)  or 
 close  the  West  front  of  the  church  {as  early  as  ^26  by  the  Arians, 
 therefore  not  Catholic,  and  therefore  permissible.) 
 
 7.  The  Altarspace  (Choir)  is  to  be  elevated  several  {better  at 
 least  two,  at  most  five)  steps  above  the  floor  of  the  nave.  It  is 
 large  enough  if  on  every  side  of  the  Altar  it  affords  the  room 
 that  is  needed.  No  other  seats  except  those  for  the  ministers 
 and  the  authorities  of  the  congregation,  and,  where  it  is  usual, 
 the  Confessional,  belong  in  it.  {No  seats  for  the  Bridal  Pair  and 
 zi'itnesses,  for  the  Commiinicants^  and  Confirma^its?)  Nor  should 
 any  rails  separate  the  Altarspace  from  the  nave.  (  \  \'ry  question- 
 able. The  argument  that  every  appearance  of  an  hierarchical  spirit 
 is  to  be  avoided,  has  no  force  against  a  rail  with  a  broad  ope7i  en- 
 trance. ) 
 
 R.  In  the  Wiesbaden  Program  it  is  desired  that  there  be 
 no  Choir,  because  with  the  removal  of  a  separate  priesthood 
 there  is  no  longer  use  for  a  place  for  the  priests.  But  the  sepa- 
 rate choir  in  the  Evangelical  sense  is  to  be  taken  not  as  a  room 
 for  the  clergy,  but  as  the  place  of  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
 Supper.  The  Lutheran  Church  will  not  give  up  the  Altar  and 
 the  Altarspace,  though  she  does  not  think  of  it  as  the  place  of 
 sacrifice  but  as  the  Table  of  the  Lord.  Whether  the  Altar  be 
 put  into  a  building  made  for  it  (not  too  deep  a  recess,  however), 
 or  if  it  be  found  in   the  church  building  proper,    it  will  always 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         89 
 
 have  its  own  separate  place.  Nor  may  it  be  placed  on  one  side. 
 In  this  the  Eisenach  Regulative  and  the  Wiesbaden  Program 
 agree.  If  now  the  significance  of  the  Altar  as  the  Table  of  the 
 Lord  requires  this,  its  position  is  fixed  in  the  chief  axis  of  the 
 church  by  the  fact  that  in  confirmation  and  marriage  the  con- 
 gregation within  the  church  gathers  closely  around  the  Altar. 
 The  Altar  requires  for  practical  uses  a  large  special  Altarspace 
 before  it,  which  could  not  be  given  it  in  a  side  position  with- 
 out destroying  the  symmetry  of  the  building.  This  necessity 
 is  as  great  in  a  Reformed  Church  as  in  a  Lutheran  Church. 
 But  for  aesthetic  reasons  also  a  separate  Altarspace  should  be 
 preserved.    , 
 
 That  the  Altarspace  is  raised  a  little  above  the  floor  of  the 
 nave  does  not  mean  that  it  is  considered  holier,  but  is  grounded 
 on  its  use  for  the  celebration  of  the  Supper  and  in  occasional  acts. 
 And  primarily  this  is  required  by  the  practical  purpose,  that  the 
 minister  officiating  at  the  Altar  may  be  seen  and  understood  the 
 better.  But  the  elevation  should  not  be  unreasonably  great. 
 The  Altar  itself  should  be  raised  one  or  (better)  two  steps,  be- 
 cause thus  at  confirmations,  marriages,  and  other  rites  it  is  ren- 
 dered possible  to  kneel,  and  because  it  is  easier  for  the  minister 
 to  give  the  Cup  to  Communicants  if  he  stands  higher  than  they. 
 
 8.  The  Altar  may  be  placed,  according  to  liturgical  and 
 acoustic  requirements,  to  the  rear  between  the  choir-arch  and  the 
 rear  wall  of  the  choir,  but  never  against  this  wall.  {^Here  should 
 be  given  the  minimuni  width  of  the  passage  behind  the  Altar,  and 
 with  reference  to  the  zvindows  of  the  choir  the  maximum').  One 
 step  above  the  floor  of  the  choir  {better  tivo)  it  must  have  rails 
 (NO,  the  platform  must  have  side  arms,  appodiatorien^ ,  and  pro- 
 vision for  the  kneeling  of  confirmants,  communicants  and  wed- 
 ding couples  {for  the  second  at  the  sides,  though  this  is  not  the 
 ctistom  everyivhere;  a^id  for  the  first  and  third  at  the  front).  The 
 Altar  is  marked  as  such  by  the  Crucifix;  and  if  over  the  Altar- 
 table  an  architectonic  addition  be  erected,  the  picture,   relief  or 
 
90  MEMOIRS. 
 
 image  upcm   it  must  represent   one  of  the  chief  elements  of  re- 
 demption. 
 
 9.  The  Font  can  stand  within  the  walls  of  the  church  in  the 
 vestibule  of  the  main  entrance  {iiot  a  very  dignified posif ion,  often 
 draughty,  and  obstructive) ,  or  in  a  chapel  erected  for  the  purpose 
 near  the  choir.  Where  Baptism  is  administered  in  the  presence 
 of  the  congregation,  the  best  place  for  the  Font  is  just  before 
 the  entrance  to  the  Altarspace.  {Here  it  obstructs  the  victc  of  the 
 Altar,  is  in  the  way,  and  is  likely  to  be  tised  for  profane  purposes. 
 For  the  07ie  Sacrament  as  well  as  for  the  other  only  one  position 
 should  be  assigned  )  It  may  not  be  replaced  by  a  portable  table. 
 (  Good;  but  neither  may  it  be  replaced  by  a  basin  set  on  the  Altar. ) 
 
 10.  The  Pulpit  may  stand  neither  before  nor  behind  nor 
 oV'Cr  the  Altar,  nor  in  the  choir.  Its  proper  place  is  where  choir 
 and  nave  meet,  on  a  column  of  the  choir-arch  towards  the  nave; 
 in  churches  having  several  aisles,  on  one  of  the  Eastern  columns 
 of  the  middle  aisle.  (  This  is  too  vague.  Better  to  keep  to  the  first 
 sentence. )  The  height  of  the  Pulpit  must  depend  on  that  of  the 
 galleries,  and  should  be  as  low  as  possible  (^not  under  2m.  from 
 
 floor  to  floor,  and  not  over  jy^m.)  so  that  the  preacher  may  be  seen 
 from  the  galleries  and  from  the  space  under  them.  ( The  height 
 of  the  galleries  also  may  be  adjusted  to  the  height  of  the  Pulpit.) 
 
 R.  If  it  be  conceded  that  the  Altar  for  theoretical,  aesthetic 
 and  practical  reasons  ought  to  be  kept  as  heretofore  in  the  chief 
 axis  of  the  church,  the  question  arises  whether  the  same  argu- 
 ment applies  to  the  Pulpit.  This  has  been  urged  in  recent  times 
 with  the  greatest  pertinacity.  It  can  be  effected  only  in  one  of 
 three  ways:  Pulpit  and  Altar  must  be  thoroughly  united  with 
 each  other;  or  the  Pulpit  must  stand  separate  behind  the  Altar; 
 or  it  must  be  placed  before  the  Altar. 
 
 The  first  way  has  often  been  adopted  in  the  Evangelical 
 Church,  the  Pulpit  being  made  to  spring  from  the  Altar  and 
 hang  over  the  altar-table.  It  is  extravagant  to  say  that  thus  the 
 Altar  is  trodden  underfoot,  or  is  desecrated.     In  the  Evangelical 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         91 
 
 Church  the  Altar  as  a  piece  of  furniture  has  no  especial  sanctity. 
 Only  while  it  is  in  use  has  it  a  meaning.  But  aesthetic  reasons 
 speak  against  this  arrangement,  and  among  more  recent  archi- 
 tects there  will  be  found  hardly  one  champion  of  this  form.  An 
 especial  objection  is,  that  in  this  case  the  preacher  is  separated 
 from  his  hearers  by  a  great  open  space,  which  must  be  kept  free 
 for  communicants,  confirmants,  or  a  wedding  party.  The  very 
 argument  urged  in  favor  of  this  arrangement,  that  a  preacher 
 ought  to  stand  in  the  midst  of  the  congregation,  is  thus  nullified. 
 He  becomes  a  pulpit  orator  who  speaks  to  an  assemblage  sepa- 
 rated from  him  by  an  open  space.  Sulze's  proposal,  to  unite 
 Pulpit,  Altar  and  Font,  so  that  the  table  by  the  addition  of  a  desk 
 becomes  a  pulpit,  cannot  make  the  open  space  unnecessary,  and 
 is  too  much  in  conflict  with  historical  usage  to  find  many  adher- 
 ents. Besides,  for  acoustic  reasons  the  preacher  ought  to  be 
 raised  above  the  hearers  in  the  nave  of  the  church. 
 
 75^sthetically  it  is  better  to  place  the  Pulpit  separate  from 
 the  Altar  behind  the  Altar.  This  arrangement  can  be  defended 
 from  the  custom  of  the  ancient  Church.  Yet  we  must  admit 
 that  this  suggests  a  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  the  laity. 
 There  is  also  the  practical  objection  that  the  separation  between  the 
 preacher  and  the  congregation  is  greater  than  in  the  former  case. 
 
 These  objections  are  obviated  by  placing  the  Pulpit  in  front 
 of  the  Altar.  But  if  a  separate  room  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
 Holy  Supper  is  not  provided,  the  concealment  of  the  Altar  by 
 the  Pulpit  will  always  be  offensive.  The  view  of  the  Pulpit  from 
 the  Altar  will  be  unpleasant  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  Pulpit 
 will  then  interrupt  the  view  of  the  nave  from  the  Altar  and  the 
 view  of  the  Altar  from  the  nave.  Such  an  arrangement  renders 
 a  second  altar  necessary  in  front  of  the  Pulpit  for  the  liturgical 
 Service,  and  thus  the  old  unevangelical  arrangement  of  an  High 
 Altar  and  a  lesser  altar  is  revived.  And  how  shall  the  sounding- 
 board  be  put  into  place  or  the  so-called  Schallpfeiler  to  which  it 
 must  be  affixed? 
 
92  MEMOIRS. 
 
 So  there  is  left  for  tlie  Pulpit  the  position  at  the  side,  which 
 has  been  umkiI  hitherto.  The  l)est  place  for  it  is  on  one  of  the 
 pill.irs  of  the  Chancel-arch.  This  position  is  often  opposed  on 
 practical  and  re>thetic  gronnds  and  said  to  be  abnormal  in  a  sym- 
 metrical church.  The  placing  of  the  Pulpit  in  the  axis  is  de- 
 manded as  an  unconditional  evangelical  postulate.  But  wrongly. 
 When  the  Pulpit  is  put  forward  into  the  nave  the  congregation 
 can  gather  immediately  around  the  preacher.  He  is  not  a  pulpit 
 orator  standing  before  them,  but  a  witness  standing  in  their 
 midst,  who,  inwardly  connected  with  them  utters  the  faith  which 
 binds  them  all  together.  The  Pulpit,  however,  should  not  be  too 
 high,  lest  the  minister  appear  like  one  standing  over  the  congre- 
 gation and  out  of  living  connexion  with  it.  As  to  the  alleged 
 offense  against  symmetry,  there  is  no  such  offense  if  the  Pulpit  is 
 recognized  as  a  necessary  member  of  the  building.  It  gives  life 
 to  the  building,  while  a  mechanical  symmetry  wotild  only  give  an 
 impression  of  stiffness.  The  transference  of  the  Pulpit  to  one  of 
 the  middle  pillars  of  the  nave  is  indeed  often  necessary  in  the 
 older  structures  from  the  Catholic  period,  but  should  be  avoided 
 in  new  buildings  because  it  occasions  great  diflSculty  and  dishar- 
 mony in  the  arrangement  of  the  seats. 
 
 1 1 .  The  Organ,  at  which  also  the  precentor  and  the  singing 
 choir  must  be  stationed,  finds  its  natural  position  opposite  the 
 Altar  at  the  West  end  of  the  church  upon  a  gallery  over  the 
 main  entrance,  but  its  view  of  nave  and  choir  must  not  be  ob- 
 structed by  the  beams  of  the  gallery. 
 
 R.  The  position  of  the  Organ  is  also  a  subject  of  debate  in 
 our  day.  The  champions  of  a  combination  of  Altar  and  Pulpit 
 in  the  middle  axis  hold,  in  contradiction  to  the  Eisenach  Regula- 
 tive, that  the  Organ  ought  to  be  in  view  of  the  congregation  at 
 the  East  end  of  the  church.  They  argue  that  in  listening  to  the 
 rendition  of  a  piece  of  music  one  naturally  turns  his  face  towards 
 the  musician.  The  fallacy  of  this  argument  lies  in  the  false  view 
 that  the  organ  and  the  singing  have  an  independent  aesthetical 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.         93 
 
 si.^nificance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  first  use  of  the  organ  and 
 the  choir  is  to  lead  the  singing  of  the  congregation.  The  Liturgy 
 with  its  responses  between  the  minister  and  the  congregation 
 makes  the  position  of  the  organ  opposite  the  Altar  the  most  suit- 
 able one  for  the  Organ.  Otherwise  the  minister  during  the  Lit- 
 urgy would  stand  between  the  choir  and  the  congregation,  which 
 properly  belong  together  and  are  to  respond  to  him.  The  parts 
 in  which  the  choir  and  organ  have  independent  action  are  quite 
 different  from  the  presentations  of  the  concert-room.  Another 
 external  reason  for  putting  the  organ  and  choir  in  the  rear  of  the 
 congregation  is,  that  sometimes  members  of  the  choir  must  move 
 about,  and  sometimes  there  is  difiiculty  in  maintaining  order, 
 which  would  greatly  disturb  a  congregation. 
 
 The  only  argument  in  favor  of  placing  the  organ  and  choir 
 in  the  Altarspace  in  view  of  the  congregation  which  is  worthy  of 
 consideration,  is  the  sound  thought  of  Spitta,  that  responsive 
 singing  between  the  choir  and  the  congregation  ought  to  be  in- 
 troduced. But  this  would  require  only  the  stationing  of  a  choir 
 in  view  of  the  congregation,  not  the  transference  of  organ  and 
 choir  to  the  Altarspace. 
 
 12.  Where  a  Confessional  or  a  Lefirsiiihl  is  used  it  belongs 
 in  the  Altarspace.      (  IVhyf     S/ial/  every  penitent  be  exposed  to  the 
 ■viezv  of  the  congregation?^     The  latter  should  be  before  the  Altar 
 or  on  one  of  the  steps  that  lead  from  the  nave  to  the  choir  {there- 
 fore very  near  the  Fo7it,  which  often  leads  to  pntting  the  desk  on  the 
 
 Font),  yet  so  that  the  view  of  the  Altar  be  not  hindered;  or  on  a 
 column  of  the  choir- arch,  in  order  that  it  may  be  turned  before 
 the  Altar  for  the  purpose  of  catechisation,  etc.  {It  should  be  a 
 special  desk.  The  Gospel  desk  shotild  not  be  movable,  Just  as  the 
 Gospel,  the  frn/  foundation  of  our  faith,  is  immovable.) 
 
 13.  Galleries,  if  they  cannot  be  avoided  {a  concession  to  their 
 enemies),  except  the  Western,  must  be  put  on  the  long  sides  of 
 the  church,  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  not  interfere  with  the 
 free  survey  of  the  church.     In  no  case  may  they  extend  into  the 
 
94  MEMOIRS. 
 
 choir.  The  breadth  of  these  galleries,  whose  seats  are  to  rise  in 
 rows  one  above  the  other,  unless  the  extension  of  the  transepts 
 allows  a  j^reater  depth,  may  not  exceed  one- fifth  of  the  whole 
 width  of  the  church,  and  their  height  above  the  floor  of  the 
 church  should  not  exceed  one-third  the  height  of  the  walls.  Of 
 several  galleries  one  above  the  other  no  mention  can  be  made. 
 In  planning  new  buildings  in  which  provision  must  be  made  for 
 galleries,  it  is  best  to  put  above  the  galleries  longer  windows 
 which  will  serve  to  light  the  church,  and  smaller  windows  to 
 light  the  space  beneath,  instead  of  long  windows  which  would  be 
 broken  by  the  galleries. 
 
 R.  For  the  sake  of  room  galleries  cannot  be  dispensed  with 
 in  many  new  edifices,  and  their  adv^antageousness  for  acoustics 
 must  be  considered.  But,  as  the  Regulative  says,  they  must  not 
 be  treated  as  arbitrary  additions,  but  must  be  organically  con- 
 nected with  the  church.  The  unfavorable  impression  made  by 
 many  galleries  is  due  to  a  wrong  execution  of  this  architectural 
 motive.  "It  may  not  be  overlooked  that  the  use  of  galleries  in 
 the  architecture  of  Protestantism,  as  Semper  emphasized,  has 
 been  justified  by  history,  and  that  by  giving  them  up  we  would 
 deprive  ourselves  of  the  most  essential  means  of  characterizing 
 the  Protestant  House  of  God." 
 
 14.  The  seats  for  the  congregation  are,  if  possible,  to  be  so 
 arranged  that  from  them  Altar  and  Pulpit  may  be  seen  through- 
 out the  Service.  Before  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  Altarspace  a 
 convenient  space  should  be  left  free  of  seats.  A  broad  aisle 
 should  run  through  the  middle  of  the  nave,  or  if  it  be  not  needed 
 then  two  aisles  of  proper  breadth  should  run  along  the  pillars  or 
 the  supports  of  the  galleries.  {This  often  is  less  necessary  than 
 aisles  along  the  walls,  where  the  heating  apparatus  may  be  placed.^ 
 The  bases  of  the  columns  are  not  to  be  taken  for  seats.  {All  re- 
 versible seats  should  be  avoided. ) 
 
 15.  The  church  needs  a  sacristy,  not  a  room  taken  from 
 the  interior  of  the  building  {i.  e.,   not  an  inorganic,  disturbing 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         95 
 
 thing')  but  an  adjoining  structure  (^often  more  disturbing'),  adja- 
 cent to  the  Altarspace,  roomy,  cheerful,  bright,  beatable,  and 
 that  may  be  arranged  and  furnished  in  churchly  style. 
 
 R.  The  so-called  grouped  church  buildings,  recommended 
 by  March,  in  which  all  sorts  of  rooms  for  various  purposes  are 
 added,  are  not  to  be  approved,  even  if  some  of  the  purposes  men- 
 tioned by  March  have  to  be  omitted,  as  parsonage,  apothecary, 
 Krippe,  rooms  for  sewing  and  housekeeping  classes,  little  dwell- 
 ings for  the  sick  and  aged,  rooms  for  the  Church  Council,  for 
 social  and  intellectual  entertainment  of  all  sorts,  reading  rooms, 
 libraries,  kitchens,  and  the  like.  The  church  as  the  place  of 
 worship  and  edification  must  be  separate  from  the  dissipation  of 
 everyday  life,  a  place  that  admonishes  to  self-recollection. 
 
 Note  B. 
 the  wiesbaden  program. 
 
 (/;z  general  accord  with   the  principles  of  Sulze  in  Dresden.     By 
 Pastor  Veesennieyer  in  Wiesbadeti.) 
 
 1.  A  church  should  bear  in  general  the  character  of  the 
 house  for  the  assembling  of  the  worshipping  congregation,  and 
 not  that  of  a  House  of  God  in  the  Catholic  sense. 
 
 2.  The  unity  of  the  room  should  give  expression  to  the 
 oneness  of  the  congregation  and  to  the  principle  of  the  priesthood 
 of  all  believers,  Therfore  it  should  not  be  separated  into  several 
 naves,  nor  should  there  be  a  division  between  nave  and  choir. 
 
 3.  The  celebration  of  the  Supper  should  not  take  place  in  a 
 room  separated  from  the  place  of  assembly,  but  in  the  midst  of 
 the  congregation.  The  Altar,  provided  with  a  passage  around 
 it,  therefore  should  have  a  place  at  least  symbolically  accordant 
 with  this  rule.     All  lines  of  view  should  converge  upon  it. 
 
96  MEMOIRS. 
 
 4.  The  Pulpit,  as  the  place  where  Christ  is  offered  to  the 
 congregation  as  their  spiritual  food,  is  to  be  treated  with  at  least 
 as  much  respect  as  the  Altar.  Its  place  should  be  behind  the 
 Altar,  and  it  should  be  organically  combined  with  the  organ  and 
 the  platform  for  the  singers,  in  full  view  of  the  congregation. 
 
 Note  C. 
 Quotation  from  Dcr  evangelische  Gottesdienst  of  Julius  Smend. 
 
 The  former  part  of  this  quotation  is  given  in  order  to  show 
 the  extreme  non- Lutheran  position  and  the  grounds  on  which  it 
 rests,  and  also  the  manner  in  which  it  meets  what  might  be  de- 
 scribed as  an  extreme  Lutheran  position.  The  latter  part  shows 
 the  rea.sons  Smend  gives  for  still  retaining  the  Choir. 
 
 Der  evangelische  Gottesdienst  is  a  most  readable  book,  and 
 will  help  a  Lutheran  to  a  clear  recognition  of  the  essential  princi- 
 ples which  accord  with  our  faith,  over  against  the  Roman  Church 
 or  modern  unchurchliness.  In  \he.  Mo7iatschrift  fuer  Gottesdienst 
 iind  Kirchliche  Kunst,  edited  by  Smend  and  Spitta,  there  has 
 been  much  debate  of  these  principles  and  their  application. 
 
 "Instead  of  seeking  the  light  on  this  subject,  manj^  wish  to 
 reduce  the  whole  difference  of  view^s  to  the  contrast  between  Re- 
 formed and  Lutheran.  Accordingly,  a  view  is  presented  as  the 
 Lutheran,  which  has  for  its  champion  neither  Luther  nor  the  Lu- 
 theran Confessions,  but  on  the  other  hand  seems  to  be  defended 
 by  Reformed  theologians,  as,  for  instance,  Achelis.  The  strife 
 has  finally  been  concentrated  upon  the  question  concerning  a 
 Choir  (yCIwrraum ,  or,  as  we  say,  a  C/ia?ice/),  especially  in  the 
 Monatschrift  fuer  Gottesdietist  iind  Kirchliche  Knnst.  W^e  may 
 take  the  following  (from  Bra  the)  as  the  classical  expression  of  a 
 widespread  and  still  dominant  view:  'The  church  building  is  in- 
 tended to  be  the  place  of  worship  of  the  Christian  comnuuiity. 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         97 
 
 In  this  there  is  an  actual  communion  between  God  and  the  con- 
 gregation. Both  are  active  in  it.  As  now  it  is  useful  to  have  a 
 room  for  the  congregation,  so  is  it  useful  to  have  one  for  the  ac- 
 tion of  the  Omnipresent  God,  Who  here  acts  within  time  and 
 space.  By  means  of  a  definite  second  room  adjoining  that  of  the 
 congregation,  having  as  its  middlepoint  the  Altar,  the  practical 
 need  is  supplied,  and  the  consciousness  is  awakened  that  besides 
 the  visible  congregation  the  Invisible  God  is  present  and  deals 
 with  His  people.'  That  these  thoughts  have  been  derived  from 
 thoroughly  Catholic  ideas,  is  clear.  Only  a  Tabernacle  over  the 
 Altar  is  needed  to  make  of  such  a  church  a  Mass-church.  The 
 visible  place  of  God  and  the  subordination  of  the  people  to  a  min- 
 istry operating  thence,  stand  in  intelligible  connexion.  'The  ac- 
 tion of  the  worshipping  congregation  is  receptive,  therefore  indeed 
 most  active,  though  not  spontaneous.'  {Achelis.)  The  Means  of 
 Grace  are  offered  it  as  immediate  gifts  of  God,  in  whose  origin, 
 mediation  and  administration  it  takes  no  part.  Of  course,  bridal 
 parties,  confirmands,  and  guests  at  the  Holy  Supper  may  occasion- 
 ally enter  the  place  of  God,  but  the  permanent  use  of  this  place  by 
 the  members  of  the  congregation,  would  be  improper.  {Brathe.') 
 '  'The  objection  that  our  people  are  not  in  sympathy  with  this 
 view,  has  not  much  weight.  On  the  contrary,  the  belief  in  the 
 sanctity  of  the  Altar  is  deeply  rooted  in  many  Evangelical  coun- 
 tries. But  this  does  not  change  the  case.  What  a  mixture  of 
 thoroughly  unevangelical  and  sub-christian  notions  are  at  home 
 in  the  masses  of  Protestant  people!  We  do  not  need  to  take  ac- 
 count of  such  outgrowths  of  popular  syncretism.  That  a  view 
 of  worship,  which  culminates  in  a  demand  for  a  Holy  of  Holies, 
 is  edifying  for  many  of  the  people,  cannot  be  denied.  But  it  ap- 
 pears objectionable  to  build  on  popular  sentimentalism,  because 
 it  has  some  worth  for  edification,  theoretical  constructions  which 
 demand  quite  a  different  foundation.  Luther's  words  in  the  Tor- 
 gau  Consecration  Sermon,  so  often  quoted,  that  in  the  worship 
 of  God  nothing  else  takes  place  than  that  'our  dear  Lord  speaks 
 
98  MEMOIRS. 
 
 to  us  through  His  Holy  Word,  and  we  in  reply  speak  to  Him  in 
 prayer  and  praise,'  are  thoroughly  intelligible  to  the  people  and 
 have  an  enduring  value.  But  homiletical  figures  like  these  do 
 not  afiford  a  basis  for  a  liturgical  theory,  a  doctrine  of  'two  sub- 
 jects dealing  with  each  other  in  the  Cultus. '  We  may  show 
 what  really  may  be  learned  from  this  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
 church.  But  for  the  moment  we  stand  on  the  ground  of  scien- 
 tific explanation.  The  requirement  of  two  spaces,  as  devotees  of 
 the  choir-apse  mean  it,  proceeds  upon  the  assumption  of  a  cul- 
 tus of  the  fellowship  of  believers  either  commanded  or  imparted, 
 a  cultus  which  founds  that  fellowship  and  calls  it  into  being, 
 which  was  there  without  its  contribution  and  before  it  began  to 
 be,  and  remains  on  the  whole  independent  of  its  cooperation. 
 Word  and  Sacrament  as  'the  constitutive  factors  in  worship'  are 
 held  to  be  of  purely  Divine  origin.  This  shows  their  value  over 
 against  that  which  the  Christian  Church  has  created,  over  prayer. 
 Church-song,  and  sermon.  In  these  God's  people  speaks;  but  in 
 those,  God.  What  is  more  natural  than  to  give  to  these  histor- 
 ically and  actually  so  unequal  utterances  spaces  in  the  House  of 
 God  of  different  dignity?  It  is  not  enough  to  make  a  difference 
 of  degree;  there  is  a  difference  of  kind.  Accordingly,  the  fourth 
 of  the  Eisenach  Counsels,  like  Sec.  4  of  the  Regulative,  requires 
 that  'the  Altarspace  in  every  case  be  massively  vaulted;'  and 
 the  seventh  Co2insel  proceeds  from  the  same  motive  to  say:  'The 
 greatest  care  is  to  be  given  to  the  ornamentation  of  the  Altar- 
 space.'  The  repeated  commandment  to  raise  the  floor  of  the  choir, 
 hardly  springs  from  the  practical  consideration  that  the  minister 
 during  the  Liturgy  must  be  seen  from  every  part  of  the  church. 
 "Now  it  is  evident  that  this  estimate  of  the  Word  and  Sacra- 
 ment is  not  historically  valid.  That  the  Christian  Church,  or 
 rather  its  hierarchical  representatives,  gave  the  Scriptures  of  the 
 New  Testament  to  itself  as  a  Canon,  and  put  the  collection  which 
 was  derived  /rom  the  Synagogue  by  its  side,  is  well  known.  For 
 the  contents  of    these  books   the   name  'God's  Word'    is,   apart 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.         90 
 
 from  its  religious  signification,  scientifically  inadmissible.  Our 
 Sacraments  were  not  ordained  by  Jesus,  and  in  their  present  form 
 it  is  doubtful  whether  they  were  the  creation  of  the  Church. 
 
 "If  for  religious  considerations  this  estimate  of  the  Word  and 
 Sacrament  is  rejected,  then  we  shall  be  compelled  to  acknowledge 
 that  sermon,  hymn  and  prayer  are  the  work  of  God,  and  there- 
 fore are  to  be  considered  only  from  a  purely  religious  standpoint. 
 God's  Word  teaches  us  to  pray,  to  sing,  to  bear  testimony;  the 
 churchly  sanction,  which  is  not  wanting  to  these  methods  of 
 utterance  in  worship,  is  of  later  date,  but  just  as  really  was  it 
 mediated  through  men  as  were  the  words  of  the  Bible  and  the 
 celebration  of  the  Sacrament. 
 
 "We  do  not  assail  the  judgment  of  faith  according  to  which 
 the  Holy  Scriptures  and  those  early  Christian  observances  are  held 
 much  higher  than  all  Agendas,  Hymnbooks  and  Postils  in  the 
 world.  We  merely  refuse  to  acknowledge  that  a  liturgical  theo- 
 ry based  on  that  estimate  has  any  claim  to  scientific  validity. 
 Judged  from  a  religious  standpoint,  everything  that  goes  on  in 
 our  worship  and  belongs  to  it,  has  been  given  by  God;  and  the 
 congregation  itself  is  God's  counsel  and  deed.  But  it  is  just  as 
 certain  that,  tried  by  the  Canons  of  scientific  investigation  the 
 whole  content  of  our  Cultus,  without  any  exception  whatever,  is 
 the  ordinance  and  expression  of  the  life  of  the  Christian  congre- 
 gation. 
 
 "And  therefore  the  requirement  of  a  separate  space  as  a  place 
 of  God,  separated  from  the  place  of  assembly  of  the  congregation, 
 is  groundless. 
 
 "A  thoroughly  sounder  thought  lives  however  in  the  wish  to 
 retain  or  recover  the  old  Basilica-apse.  It  has  been  repeated  oft- 
 en enough  in  these  pages  that  congregational  worship  in  order 
 to  be  inwardly  and  outwardly  living,  must  have  an  ordered  re- 
 sponsive Service.  Such  a  Service  is  impossible  or  at  least  diffi- 
 cult if  the  room  be  not  so  divided  that  in  the  place  of  the  litur- 
 
100  MEMOIRS. 
 
 gical  action  an  actual  and  immediate  exchange  can  go  on  between 
 tile  worshippers.  The  traditional  arrangement  of  our  churches 
 provides  for  this  by  having  the  minister  stand  facing  his  fellow- 
 worshippers  so  that  most  of  them  can  see  him  and  many  of  them 
 can  hear  him.  But  here  the  exchange  in  worship  is  limited  to 
 dialogue  between  the  minister  and  the  congregation,  or  perhaps 
 between  the  minister  and  the  choir.  Even  the  sermon  is  not  un- 
 derstood everywhere  to  be  an  exhortation  to  activity  in  worship. 
 If,  however,  the  minister  turns  his  back  to  all  the  people,  the 
 last  remnant  of  dialogue  is  taken  away,  on  which  the  livingness 
 of  the  action  depends. 
 
 "How  much  more  Evangelical  is  the  suggestion  of  Sithc,  to 
 take  the  room  of  the  congregation  as  the  extended  and  true  choir, 
 which  comprises  in  itself  all  that  in  the  old  Church  was  reserved 
 for  the  priests.  Yet  it  may  not  be  forgotten  that  this  united 
 fraternal  fellowship  in  order  to  worship  must  come  out  of  itself, 
 and  we  cannot  agree  with  the  same  theologian  that  a  separate 
 room,  not  visible  from  the  church-room  proper,  is  to  be  reserved 
 for  special  actions  in  a  smaller  circle,  such  as  Marriage,  Baptism 
 and  the  Holy  Supper.  It  is  true  that  the  view  that  our  churches 
 have  a  double  purpose  as  the  house  of  God  and  as  the  house  of 
 the  congregation,  has  a  justification  apart  from  all  practical 
 necessities,  if  only  two  points  be  kept  in  mind,  namely,  that  here 
 we  do  actually  offer,  experience  and  accept  the  revelation  of  God 
 and  in  response  confess  it;  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  one 
 as  well  as  the  other  takes  place  through  the  lips  of  the  congrega- 
 tion, and  it  is  perfectly  free  to  choose  whom  it  will  entrust  with 
 the  Word  of  God,  and  whom  with  the  word  of  confession. 
 
 "And  thence  it  follows  of  necessity  that  that  arrangement  of 
 the  space  in  the  church  is  most  rational,  /.  c,  the  best  adapted 
 to  the  case,  which  offers  the  best  facilities  to  such  responsive  in- 
 terchange. iCverything  that  is  done  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue, 
 requires  a  standing  face  to  face.  In  other  words,  what  the  con- 
 gregation would  have  offered  to  it  obviousl\-  must  be  offered  in 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.      101 
 
 face  of  it,  from  before  it.  And  for  this  purpose  the  former 
 priestly  choir-space,  provided  it  is  large  enough,  is  admirably 
 adapted.  To  unite  in  it  Pulpit,  Altar,  Organ  and  Choir  of  Sing- 
 ers in  one  group,  is  the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world,  and  is 
 well  known  to  be  no  new  thing,  though  this  good  Evangelical 
 arrangement  has  fallen  into  forgetfulness  in  many  places,  or  has 
 been  rejected  in  renovations  as  contrary  to  a  true  style.  Newer 
 examples  furnish  the  proof  that  this  arrangement  not  only  does 
 not  detract  from  edification  but  furthers  it,  and  that  the  aesthetic 
 objections  made  to  it  are  not  valid.  Whoever  frequently  takes 
 part  in  a  church  arranged  in  this  way  will  afterwards  have  to 
 overcome  a  great  deal  before  he  can  feel  at  home  again  in  a 
 church  arranged  according  to  the  Regulative y 
 
 Note  D. 
 MoTHEs'  List  of  Technical  Requirements  to  be 
 
 PROVIDED    for    in    MAKING    PLANS    FOR    A  ChURCH-BUILDING. 
 
 a.     technical  requirements. 
 
 I.  The  building  must  present  and  represent  an  organized 
 and  unified  group  of  spaces;  (a)  for  the  assembly  of  the  congre- 
 gation and  preaching  of  the  Word,  (b)  for  the  reception  of  the 
 gifts  of  Grace  in  the  Sacrament,  Benediction,  etc.,  and  separate 
 spaces  (c)  for  the  administration  and  the  life  of  the  congregation. 
 
 The  space  intended  for  the  assembly  of  the  congregation  to 
 hear  the  Word,  and  for  their  common  prayer,  thanksgiving  and 
 praise  (not  a  separate  room,  and  improperly  often  called  a  Pred- 
 igfkirche)  must  provide  for  the  number  of  persons  it  expects  to 
 accommodate  so  that  these  may  be  able  to  follow  the  sermons 
 with  undivided  attention  and  to  take  their  due  part  in  the  litur- 
 gical rites.      This   requires    bodily   comfort,   protection    against 
 
102  MEMOIRS. 
 
 noise  and  profane  sights,  and  the  satisfaction  of  all  requirements 
 connected  with  such  hearing  and  participation,  especially  a  good 
 view,  good  acoustics,  maintenance  of  necessary  quiet,  and  avoid- 
 ance of  all  motions  that  do  not  belong  to  the  Service  and  amelio- 
 ration of  those  that  do. 
 
 2.  The  room  must  therefore  be  large  enough  and  must  be 
 provided  with  the  necessary  number  of  comfortable  and  accessi- 
 ble fixed  seats,  which,  with  a  few  standing  places,  will  permit 
 the  eye  and  ear  to  follow  the  course  of  the  Service  without  effort 
 from  every  one  of  them.  They  are  to  be  so  arranged  that  from 
 every  one  of  them  a  person  can  easily  see  the  minister  at  the  Al- 
 tar, in  the  Pulpit,  or  wherever  he  may  have  to  officiate,  and  hear 
 all  that  he  says,  and  take  part  in  all  the  appropriate  rites;  and 
 therefore  should  be  provided  wath  arrangements  for  the  hymn- 
 books  and  for  kneeling.  No  special  seats  should  interfere  with 
 the  others.  In  every  place,  moreover,  the  print  of  the  hymn- 
 books  and  the  numbers  on  the  hymnboards  should  be  legible. 
 But  the  good  lighting  here  required  should  not  blind  or  distract. 
 The  windows  also  should  not  present  to  any  seat  a  distracting 
 view  of  profane  life.  Good  acoustic  arrangement  and  construc- 
 tion for  speech  and  music  require  that  there  should  be  insurance 
 against  outside  noise.  Doors,  passages  and  steps  should  be  pro- 
 vided in  sufficient  number,  and  so  arranged,  that  easily,  without 
 disturbance,  there  may  be  access  to  all  the  seats  at  the  beginning 
 of  the  assembly,  and  at  the  end  of  it,  or  if  there  be  danger  of  a 
 panic  there  may  be  an  exit  convenient  to  every  one.  The  ex- 
 clusion of  the  profane  may  be  secured  by  vestibules,  which  also 
 may  answer  as  storm  doors. 
 
 3.  In  order  to  provide  pure  air  for  several  hours  in  sufficient 
 volume,  dryness,  humidity  and  temperature,  there  are  needed 
 plentiful  and  well-arranged  means  for  ventilation  and  heating. 
 
 4.  In  the  main  room,  considered  as  a  place  for  preaching, 
 are  required  besides  the  hymnboards  a  pulpit  and  a  desk  for  the 
 Gospels.     Both  must  be  comfortable  and  convenient  to  the  minis- 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.      103 
 
 ter,  visible  to  all  present,  so  placed  that  all  may  hear  him,  and 
 constructed  on  good  acoustic  principles.  They  should  be  elevat- 
 ed; the  pulpit  on  a  higher  level  than  the  reading-desk,  but  not 
 so  high  as  to  make  the  preacher  dizzy  and  to  compel  his  hearers 
 to  look  straight  up  into  his  eyes.  It  should  not  be  overlooked 
 that  the  pulpit  has  developed  out  of  the  Epistle-ambon,  which 
 like  its  predecessor,  the  Trvpyos,  stood  on  the  Epistle  side,  a  little 
 farther  forward  than  the  Altar,  and  that  the  reading-desk  is  the 
 successor  of  the  Gospel-ambon.  We  may  keep  their  origin  in 
 mind  without  reference  to  the  use  of  both;  remembering  also  that 
 the  reading-desk,  because  of  the  comparatively  brief  use  made  of 
 it,  does  not  so  often  have  an  Ueberbau  or  Riieckivand  as  the  pul- 
 pit, and  that  the  former  is  used  for  the  most  part  only  in  early 
 Service,  while  the  latter  is  used  at  every  part  of  the  day.  When 
 the  sun  is  in  the  South,  or  in  the  Southwest,  it  strikes  more 
 upon  the  Gospel  column  than  upon  the  Epistle  column.  Both 
 should  cover  the  lower  body  and  legs  of  the  minister,  because 
 this  gives  to  the  majority  of  speakers  a  feeling  of  greater  securi- 
 ty. Both  are  not  pieces  of  furniture,  but  fixed  organic  parts,  for 
 the  Word  is  the  firm  refuge,  the  immutable  basis,  of  our  faith. 
 
 5.  Since  galleries  not  only  are  necessary  for  the  accommo- 
 dation of  a  greater  number  and  for  economical  reasons,  but  also 
 contribute  in  fairly  large  congregations  to  a  family-like  gathering 
 of  the  assembly  around  the  speaker,  in  contrast  with  other  audi- 
 toriums, and  therefore  are  almost  characteristic  of  Evangelical 
 architecture,  they  must  be  arranged  in  connection  with  the  pulpit 
 in  such  a  way  that  the  preacher  can  be  seen  and  heard  equally 
 well  by  those  in  the  galleries  and  those  under  them,  and  so  that 
 the  unity  of  the  room  is  presented.  Therefore  the  seats  in  the 
 gallery  must  be  so  arranged  that  no  straining  of  the  neck  will  be 
 needed  to  see  the  Altar,  and  so  that  those  sitting  in  them  will  not 
 have  their  attention  diverted,  and  that  those  on  the  rear  seats 
 will  not  have  the  heads  of  those  before  them  between  them  and 
 the  preacher. 
 
104  MEMOIRS. 
 
 6.  The  organ  is  intended  first  of  all,  alone  or  supported  by 
 a  choir  of  singers  or  by  other  instruments,  to  open,  accompany 
 and  close  the  Services  in  a  clear,  significant  but  not  obtrusive 
 way,  and  especially  to  complete  and  dignify,  lead  and  accompany 
 the  unison  singing  of  the  congregation.  A  further  employment 
 for  concerts,  etc.,  must  give  place  to  this  liturgical  purpose  and 
 function.  Therefore,  according  to  acoustic  principles,  its  tones 
 ought  to  go  forth  in  the  same  direction  as  the  song  of  the  congre- 
 gation, not  come  towards  it,  and  the  playing  of  it  and  the  person- 
 ality of  choir  and  soloists  should  neither  obtrude  upon  the  congre- 
 gation nor  seem  to  be  a  part  of  what  is  offered  to  the  congrega- 
 tion, but  rather  a  part  of  what  is  done  by  it.  The  proper  place 
 for  the  organ,  therefore,  is  in  the  rear  of  the  congregation.  The 
 organ-loft  should  be  built  at  such  a  height  that  the  tones  will 
 quickly  and  evenly  spread  through  the  whole  room,  even  its  low- 
 est parts;  and  the  size  of  the  organ  and  its  power  must  be  care- 
 fully adapted  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
 to  make  it  too  large.  The  organ  case  should  be  firm  enough, 
 should  protect  the  instrument  against  dust  and  other  disturbing 
 bodies,  against  sudden  and  excessive  variations  of  temperature, 
 should  provide  room  enough  within  for  repairs,  and  accessibility' 
 and  convenience  within  and  without,  and  also  protection  of  the 
 keyboard  and  the  performer  against  injury  and  crowding.  Be- 
 fore the  completion  of  the  building-plan  all  that  is  necessary  con- 
 cerning size,  accessibility,  position,  protection,  temperature,  etc., 
 for  instrument,  case,  the  mechanism  and  size  of  the  bellows,  bel- 
 lows-room, manner  of  blowing,  console,  the  organist's  view  of 
 the  minister,  of  the  congregation,  singers  and  musicians,  should 
 be  agreed  upon  between  builder,  architect,  contractor  or  musical 
 director,  organist  and  organ-builder.  The  latter  often  wish  to 
 build  too  large  organs,  and  yet  do  not  provide  for  large  enough 
 and  conv^enient  bellows-rooms.  This  warning  is  in  place  even 
 against  many  modern  architects. 
 
 b)      The  space  intended  for  the  administration  of  the  Saera- 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OP    CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       105 
 
 merits  and  other  gifts  of  grace,  to  the  parts  of  the  Liturgy  which  re- 
 fer to  the  self-offering  of  Christ  arid  the  thank-offering  therefor, 
 should  provide  room  enough  for  those  participating  and  for  the  neces- 
 sary furniture. 
 
 7.  The  Altarspace  especially  is  not  for  us  Lutherans  a  spe- 
 cially sacred  spot,  not  a  holy  of  holies,  or  hierarchically  enclosed 
 abaton,  adyton,  aphauston,  atheaton,  anaktoron,  but  the  place  of 
 those  distributions  and  liturgical  rites  in  which  not  the  whole 
 congregation  yet  a  certain  group  out  of  it  take  part,  those  rites 
 which  are  to  be  solemnly  celebrated  in  view  of  the  congregation. 
 Therefore  it  must  be  an  especial  space  adjoining  that  intended 
 for  the  assembly  of  the  congregation  and  distinguished  from  it, 
 yet  an  integral  part  of  it,  not  a  separate  room  (Altar-kirche),  but 
 rather  so  arranged  that  the  rites  performed  in  it  may  be  followed 
 by  the  whole  congregation  with  lively  sympathy,  may  be  seen 
 and  heard  by  all,  therefore  wide  open  in  front  and  somewhat 
 elevated,  yet  so  that  those  rites  may  not  be  hindered  by  those 
 who  are  not  taking  part  in  them. 
 
 The  Supper  is,  in  our  conception,  not  merely  a  memorial- 
 supper  of  believers  among  themselves,  nor  a  memorial  of  Christ's 
 Offering  and  a  thanksgiving  for  it;  but  a  Sacrament;  a  distribution 
 of  the  gracious  gift  of  the  inmost  union  with  the  Lord  in  the  new 
 covenant  sealed  by  that  Offering;  and  has  its  roots  not  in  what 
 we  do,  but  in  what  the  Lord  does  to  us.  Therefore  the  Altar  is 
 primarily  the  Table  of  the  Lord;  but  not  only  this,  but  also  the 
 place  of  this  inmost  communion,  of  the  thanksgiving,  of  the  un- 
 spoken vow  involved  in  such  a  communion  of  fidelity  to  this  cov- 
 enant, and  of  further  rites  of  initiation,  and  of  vows  of  confirmandi, 
 bridal  pairs,  ordinandi,  etc.,  of  benedictions,  blessings  for  those 
 who  offer,  celebrate,  and  vow;  for  the  whole  congregation  there- 
 fore, not  as  a  place  of  offering  in  a  heathen  sense.  Both  its  form 
 and  material  should  be  monumental,  if  possible  of  stone;  although, 
 because  it  is  a  table  and  is  developed  from  a  table,  a  solid  and 
 thorough  construction  of  wood  is  not  excluded.     It  should  be  of 
 
106  MEMOIRS. 
 
 a  table  form;  should  not  be  formed  like  a  grave  in  reference  to  the 
 Risen  One;  nor  like  a  hearth  as  the  heathen  and  Jewish  altars  for 
 burnt  offerings  were.  It  should  be  set  with  a  Crucifix.  It  should 
 be  large  enough  for  the  necessary  vessels,  lights,  etc.,  convenient, 
 broad  enough  for  all  who  may  have  to  officiate  at  it,  elevated  so 
 that  it  may  be  seen,  and  therefore  provided  with  a  Podest  in  front, 
 which  again  should  be  surrounded  by  a  kneeling-step.  Two 
 such,  that  is,  three  in  all,  might  be  inconvenient  to  the  officiant. 
 No  rails  around  it  are  needed,  but  two  supports  for  the  arms  at 
 the  sides  of  the  Podest.  It  does  not  stand  like  a  Catholic  grave- 
 altar  or  Mass- altar  or  lay-altar  or  cross-altar,  against  the  wall, 
 but — like  the  old  Christian  table-altar  and  the  high-altar  that 
 grew  out  of  this  and  afterwards  was  taken  from  the  laity — it 
 should  stand  free.  To  put  the  Altar  against  the  wall  is  a  return 
 to  Catholic  ways,  just  as  is  its  position  before  a  windowless  wall 
 in  a  dark  Chancel. 
 
 8.  The  Font  as  the  place  of  the  second  Sacrament  should  not 
 be  movable,  and  should  not  be  fashioned  like  a  piece  of  furniture. 
 It  should  be  so  placed  and  shaped  that  there  will  be  no  hin- 
 drance to  those  taking  part  in  a  Baptism,  that  a  fair  part  of  the 
 congregation  may  take  part  as  witnesses,  and  that  all  profana- 
 tion of  it  even  when  not  in  use  will  be  prevented.  Provision 
 should  be  made  for  necessary  attention  to  the  child,  and  the  pro- 
 tection of  its  health. 
 
 c)     Rooms  viiist  be  provided  for  the  various  offices  of  the  Church. 
 
 g.  Here  belong  the  necessary  stairways  and  passages,  ac- 
 cording to  the  size  of  the  congregation  and  other  circumstances, 
 one  or  more  sacristies  and  confessional  rooms,  a  room  for  con- 
 firmandi,  toilets,  chambers  for  paraments  and  furniture,  heating 
 apparatus,  cloak-chamber,  bell-room,  bellows-room,  wardrobes, 
 etc.  All  these  rooms  should  be  placed,  sized  and  arranged  ap- 
 propriately and  conveniently,  before  all  else  so  as  not  to  interfere 
 with  the  chief  rooms,  and  so  that  one  of  them  does  not  interfere 
 with  another,  especially  with  one  more  important.     Whether  all 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       107 
 
 of  these  rooms,  or  only  some  of  them,  how  many,  and  what  rooms 
 besides  these,  may  eventually  be  necessary,  what  space  and  ar- 
 rangement will  be  needed,  all  this  should  be  considered  in  the 
 program.      (Local  needs  should  be  considered.) 
 
 d)  The  building  belongs  to  the  Congregation  as  such,  therefore 
 to  no  one  mortal,  but  to  an  immortal  ow?ier,  who  ofte7t  comprises  a 
 whole  district.      This  7mist  find  expression  in  position  and  form. 
 
 ID.  The  spot  chosen  for  the  building  should  be  easy  of  ac- 
 cess to  all  parts  of  the  congregation,  and  generally  visible,  and 
 should  be  provided  with  entrances  enough  properly  distributed. 
 Bell  and  clock  and  dial  should  be  audible  and  visible  in  every  di- 
 rection. 
 
 11.  The  building  should  provide  for  all  these  things  and  for 
 their  security,  not  for  one  generation  only,  but  for  the  whole  life 
 of  the  congregation.  It  should  therefore  be  solid,  monumental, 
 without  being  strange  in  style  or  expensive.  All  that  can  be 
 known  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  the  nature  of  materials  and 
 of  technical  mastery  and  use  of  the  materials  should  be  devoted 
 to  this  end. 
 
 B.       DEMANDS    UPON    ART,    IN    REFERENCE   TO    FORM    AND 
 CHARACTER. 
 
 a)  The  building  should  also  aim  at  ideal  ends.  It  dare  not 
 bear  the  character  of  profane  places  of  assembly  or  auditoriums,  but 
 must  give  expressio7i  to  its  higher  purpose.  The  two  spaces  already 
 described,  without  dimimition  of  their  fitness  for  their  several  pur- 
 poses tnust  be  wrozight  out  to  a  higher  unity,  even  as  Goethe  says, 
 "  Unity  of  conception  and  living  organization  according  to  the  differ- 
 ence of  the  parts  must  characterize  every  work  of  art.'" 
 
 12.  Within  thi^  unity,  the  place  of  the  congregation  in  its 
 arrangement  must  contribute  to  devout  hearing  of  purely  spiritu- 
 al addresses,  to  active  participation  in  song,  prayer,  praise  and 
 adoration,  to  self-surrender  in  all  the  rites  of  worship;  it  must 
 even  excite  thereto,  and  therefore  it  should  be  solemn,  dignified. 
 
108  MEMOIRS. 
 
 elevated,  free  from  ever}'  suggestion  of  that  which  is  profane,  not 
 humble  or  disturbing,  and  not  strangely  uncomfortable,  exciting, 
 distracting;  but  it  should  raise  above  the  everyday  world,  clarify 
 and  collect,  and  before  all  things  make  one  feel  at  rest.  Its 
 form  and  arrangement  should  not  suggest  outside  tendencies,  nor 
 difference  of  rank,  etc.,  but  rather  in  recognition  that  all  are 
 alike  before  God  it  should  make  every  member  of  the  congrega- 
 tion feel  his  equal  rights,  so  far  as  official  station  in  the  congrega- 
 tion does  not  make  a  difference. 
 
 13.  The  Altarspace,  open  to  every  eye,  and  an  integral  part 
 of  the  whole,  should  serve  to  increase  this  feeling  of  exaltation 
 above  all  that  is  earthly.  It  should  appear  to  be  the  culmination 
 and  goal  and  completion  of  the  place  of  the  congregation  and  so 
 announce  that  it  is  the  place  for  communion  with  the  Lord.  If, 
 as  we  have  said,  there  should  be  no  Altar-screen,  this  does  not 
 forbid  the  low  rail  that  was  in  use  before  Leo  III,  with  a  broad 
 and  always  open  entrance.  There  may  be  fixed  seats  for  the 
 representatives  of  the  congregation;  never,  however;  behind  the 
 Altar. 
 
 14.  Every  part,  even  the  smallest,  should  not  only  be  in 
 perfect  unity  with  the  whole,  but  also  should  show  that  it 
 serves  a  nobler  and  more  abiding  purpose  than  like  things  do  in 
 profane  buildings — walls,  floors,  footstools  and  other  parts  must 
 be  monumental,  not  in  the  passing  fashion  nor  of  a  trivial  elegance. 
 They  must  suggest  the  super-earthly.  They  must  have  a  holy- 
 day,  not  a  holiday,  character.  The  perfection  of  workmanship 
 should  not  provoke  admiration  of  cunning  or  skill.  There  ought 
 to  be  a  quiet  feeling  rather  than  a  clear  consciousness  of  security 
 against  the  outer  world,  without  any  thought  of  the  means  which 
 have  produced  it.  The  inside  walls  should  not  be  carried  out 
 with  naked  bricks  for  instance,  but  if  hewn  stone  is  too  costly, 
 should  be  colored  with  something  like  the  style  of  a  tapestry. 
 (Smoothness  and  convenience  for  cleaning  are  the  rule  for  the 
 inside  walls;  solidity  and  firmness  for  the  outside.)     The  use  of 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       109 
 
 the  forms  of  plants  and  figures  depends  on  the  confessional  char- 
 acter; symbolical  representations  are  to  be  taken  only  from  the 
 circle  of  evangelical  symbolism.  Pictures  from  the  Bible,  or  of 
 angels,  require  great  premeditation;  the  representation  of  God  in 
 a  human  form  had  better  be  avoided,  at  least  in  active  intercourse 
 with  men.  Besides  Biblical  figures,  like  the  patriarchs,  prophets, 
 Apostles,  etc.,  reformers  and  persons  connected  v^^ith  the  lo- 
 cality of  the  congregation  can  be  represented,  but  only  in  histor- 
 ical scenes,  or  in  modest  portraits,  and  the  method  of  representa- 
 tion or  the  place  assigned  to  the  picture  should  never  incite  to 
 adoration,  or  to  any  transgression  beyond  a  mere  memorial  or 
 celebration  of  an  example.  As  to  texts  and  mottoes,  it  must  be 
 borne  in  mind  that  they  suggest  thoughts  which  may  interfere 
 with  attention  to  the  sermon. 
 
 15.  The  various  vessels  must  have  a  more  solid  character 
 than  the  same  sort  of  things  would  have  in  dwellings  and  the  like. 
 The  seats  must  differ  from  those  of  concert  halls,  schools  or  the- 
 atres, the  reading-desk  and  pulpit  from  a  teacher's  desk  or  a  mu- 
 sic stand  or  a  platform,  galleries  and  organ-loft  from  the  galleries 
 and  orchestra  iu  a  dancing-hall  or  theatre.  And  especially  should 
 the  Altar- table  not  be  at  all  like  a  dining-table,  or  the  buffet  in  a 
 palace. 
 
 16.  There  should  be  an  antechamber,  and  if  possible  a  IW- 
 platz,  whether  this  be  a  churchyard,  a  garden,  or  an  elaborate 
 court. 
 
 b)  The  character  of  the  Evangelical  Church  should  be  ex- 
 pressed by  the  exterior  as  ivell  as  i?i  the  interior  of  the  btdlding  ivhich 
 serves  it.  It  should  be  distinguished  from  buildings  for  profane  pur- 
 poses, and  also  from  the  temples  of  other  religions  or  other  co?ifes- 
 sions. 
 
 17.  The  chief  form  should  witness  that  the  building  serves 
 no  small  but  the  greatest  purpose,  no  passing  end  but  an  eternal, 
 no  material  use  but  an  ideal,  no  worldly  aim  but  a  spiritual,  no 
 lowly  purpose  but  the  very  highest;  that  it  belongs  to  no  person. 
 
110  MEMOIRS. 
 
 but  to  the  whole  congregation,  invites  the  whole  congregation  to 
 enter,  take  part  in  assembly,  prayer,  praise,  illumination  through 
 pure  doctrine,  in  short  to  the  adoration  of  God  and  exaltation  to 
 Him;  but  also  that  the  chief  principle  of  the  worship  celebrated 
 in  it  in  Evangelical  freedom  is  embraced  in  the  notions  of  congre- 
 gational assembly,  common  hearing  of  t)je  Word,  thanksgiving 
 for  Christ's  work  of  redemption,  reception  of  the  gifts  of  His 
 grace,  and  therefore  has  nothing  to  do  with  processions,  the  sac- 
 rifice of  the  Mass  and  other  mystical  ceremonies,  the  worship  of 
 the  saints,  etc.  For  such  a  witness  the  building  needs  primarily, 
 earnestness  and  dignity  of  appearance,  great  simple  masses,  even 
 with  modest  additions  and  wide  organization  of  members,  an 
 ideal  form,  aspiring  relations,  avoidance  of  forms  which  are  sub- 
 ject to  passing  fashion,  declaration  and  awakening  of  assurance 
 of  long  continuance  by  means  of  solidity,  external  signification  of 
 inner  sanctity  by  great  windows,  and  a  broad  entrance  under  a 
 tower  rising  up  towards  Heaven.  In  all,  in  every  particular,  in 
 every  part,  mass  and  form,  the  exterior  should  render  the  inner 
 purpose,  that  inner  organization  in  antechamber,  congregational 
 space  and  Altarspace,  and  their  unified  combination,  visible.  On 
 the  room  of  the  congregation  should  be  impressed  the  character 
 of  rest  and  quietness;  on  the  Altarspace  of  motion,  of  aspiration; 
 without  interfering  with  the  artistic  unity.  But  everything  that 
 might  remind  one  of  a  mystery,  of  the  advance  of  a  procession, 
 of  a  separation  of  the  priesthood  from  the  laity  in  contradiction 
 of  the  universal  priesthood  of  the  congregation,  or  of  adoration 
 of  the  saints,  is  to  be  strictly  avoided. 
 
 1 8.  The  separate  forms  are  also  to  bear  the  stamp  of  truth 
 and  clearness.  Necessary  side  rooms,  e.  g.,  the  sacristy,  confes- 
 sionals, toilets,  are  not  to  be  masked  under  forms  which  do  not 
 belong  to  Evangelical  Churches,  e.  g.,  chapels  for  saints,  great 
 windows  not  intended  to  give  light,  e.  g.,  behind  the  organ,  are 
 to  be  avoided,  great  doors  before  little  rooms,  and  every  other 
 pretense.     This  rule  also  forbids  the  concealment  of  necessary 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.      HI 
 
 constructions  behind  parts  thought  to  be  true  to  the  architectural 
 style,  and  superfluous  ornaments. 
 
 b)  If  then  the  progress  of  techniq^ie  is  not  to  be  concealed  by  a 
 mask  taken  from  antique  art,  if  the  talent  giveyi  to  us  is  not  to  be  hid 
 in  the  earth,  and  therefore  the  adoption  of  the  whole  outworn  system 
 of  construction  of  an  old  style  is  forbidden,  this  does'  not  forbid  the 
 employment  of  an  antique  style  as  if  the  Evangelical  Church  had 
 broken  with  the  older  Christian  tradition. 
 
 Rather,  because  Papism  pushed  the  traditional  development 
 off  from  its  true  course,  it  must  leave  the  false  way  then  taken, 
 resume  the  old,  true,  pre-Catholic  tradition,  and  carry  it  on  on 
 the  right  way. 
 
 19.  Purist  or  archaic  employment  of  a  style  is  not  desired 
 nor  defended,  but  a  conscientious  employment  of  one  style  only 
 in  all  parts  of  the  work  according  to  its  own  rules. 
 
 20.  Among  the  universal  Christian  but  not  Catholic  princi- 
 ples are  the  choice  or  the  artificial  creation  of  an  elevated  site  for 
 the  church-building,  which  in  olden  times  was  advised  and  even 
 prescribed,  and  its  orientation.  By  the  introduction  of  the  East- 
 ern position  of  the  Altar  in  420,  no  ritual  prescription  was  broken, 
 but  only  the  Jewish  and  heathen  custom  of  placing  the  doors  to 
 the  East.  This  was  for  the  sake  of  the  place  of  the  Crucifix  and 
 the  direction  in  prayer,  with  which  the  position  of  the  Priest  at 
 the  Altar  no  longer  corresponded.  Catholicism  fought  against 
 the  logical  removal  of  the  seats  of  bishops  and  priests  from  behind 
 the  Altar,  by  elevating  these  still  more;  and  giving  them  addi- 
 tional ornamentation;  and  against  the  logical  admission  of  the 
 sunlight  in  the  morning  directly  upon  the  Altar  (which  the  Ari- 
 ans  adopted)  by  having  the  apse  windowless,  on  account  of  tran- 
 substantiation  and  other  mysteries;  but  about  the  ninth  century 
 gave  up  the  fight,  and  built  upon  the  rear  of  the  Altar  a  retable 
 or  superf rental.  Out  of  this  was  developed  the  Altar  Bildschrein 
 (altar-screen,  reredos)  (first  mentioned  1240).  The  eastward 
 position  of  the  Altar  was  retained  by  Catholicism  on  account  of 
 
112  MEMOIRS. 
 
 its  symbolism  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  etc.  In  later  times  the 
 congregations  and  masons  succeeded  in  establishing  the  custom 
 of  having  East  windows,  but  shortly  after  the  Reformation,  in 
 the  Counter-reformation,  the  Jesuits  returned  to  the  Western 
 Altar,  to  the  region  of  darkness.  The  position  in  the  East  and 
 the  "htcida"  therefore  is  Evangelical  and  proper,  though  not  di- 
 rectly required.  The  traditional  old  Christian  way  of  burying 
 the  dead  agrees  with  it,  and  a  change  would,  as  Mciiscr  says,  dis- 
 turb. So  Hoclschcr  rightly  lays  stress  on  the  fact,  that  the  orien- 
 tated churches  of  old  cities  gives  the  picture  of  a  city  so  great 
 and  monumental  quietness.  And  as  much  is  to  be  said  for  the 
 traditional  West  portal  entrance  of  the  church,  facing  towards  the 
 Altar. 
 
 21.  The  Tower,  as  a  sign  and  summons,  stands  properly 
 over  the  chief  entrance,  at  the  West.  In  spite  of  all  attempts  to 
 find  a  proper  position,  as  early  as  the  Seventh  Century,  therefore 
 long  before  Leo  III,  that  over  the  West  portal  became  the  favor- 
 ite and  almost  the  rule.  The  few  exceptions  were  either  due  to 
 necessity  or  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  building,  or  like  the 
 double  towers  at  the  Choir,  which  were  derived  from  Cluny  and 
 were  of  monkish  origin.  Therefore  another  position  of  the  chief 
 tower  is  to  be  allowed  only  to  local  necessities. 
 
 2  2.  Where  the  form  of  the  Communion  requires  that  the 
 Communicants  pass  around  the  Altar  from  the  bread  side  to  the 
 cup  side,  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  and  the  distraction  of  the 
 minds  of  those  standing  before  the  Altar  a  rcredos  may  be  erect- 
 ed, which,  ornamented  with  a  representation  of  one  of  the  chief 
 events  of  our  redemption,  may  offer  to  the  eye  an  elevating  and 
 inspiring  point.  It  must  not  interfere  with  other  parts,  nor  with 
 the  light  from  the  windows. 
 
 23.  The  Pulpit  belongs  in  the  room  of  the  congregation  and 
 to  the  Epistle  side.  In  large  churches  it  cannot  be  put  behind 
 the  Altar  without  injury  to  the  acoustics.  This  was  perceived 
 1500  years  ago.      In  larger  churches  it  does  not  often  occur,  but 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE.       113 
 
 in  churches  of  a  moderate  size  it  often  occurs  that  there  is  an  evil 
 echo  if  the  pulpit  be  put  in  the  main  axis  of  the  church.  To 
 place  the  pulpit  in  the  middle  of  the  square  before  the  Altar, 
 spoils  the  acoustics  for  all  in  its  neighborhood  and  interferes  with 
 the  view  of  the  Altar.  Its  construction  zvith  the  Altar  or  behind 
 it  detracts  from  the  dignity  of  the  latter,  and  fuses  the  instruction 
 and  admonition  of  the  congregation  too  closely  with  the  distribu- 
 tion of  the  gifts  of  grace,  benediction,  etc.  The  position  advised 
 does  not  mean  that  the  pulpit  is  shoved  to  one  side.  As  the 
 weightiest  and  worthiest  part  of  the  room  of  the  congregation, 
 the  pulpit  should  be  monumental  in  form.  According  to  most 
 ancient  tradition  the  preacher  should  not  make  his  appearance 
 qiiam  deus  ex  machina;  therefore  the  steps  leading  to  the  pulpit 
 should  be  partially  visible.  The  wall  behind  it  and  the  sounding- 
 board  (^schalldeckel)  must  not  seem  to  be  provisional  or  transitory 
 or  be  movable. 
 
 24.  The  Lectern  for  the  Gospels  should  not  only  be  fixed 
 and  firm  but  should  appear  so.  Under  the  desk  there  should  be 
 space  to  have  ready  books,  notices,  etc.,  so  arranged  that  these 
 and  the  taking  up  and  laying  down  of  them  should  not  be  seen 
 by  the  congregation.  Therefore,  and  that  the  person  of  the  read- 
 er may  be  covered,  it  should  not  be  like  a  music-stand  and  it 
 should  be  free  at  the  back.  All  this  leads  to  such  a  position  and 
 form  as  is  indicated  by  the  development  from  the  Gospel  ambon. 
 
 25.  Galleries  often  will  reduce  the  cost  and  offer  the  advan- 
 tages mentioned  in  Sec.  5,  but  of  course  only  when  the  number 
 of  seats  they  furnish  stands  in  proper  relation  to  the  cost  of  their 
 erection  and  arrangement,  which  will  not  be  the  case  if  there  be 
 but  two  rows  of  seats,  nor  if  there  be  three;  and  when  their  form 
 is  such  that  they  do  not  look  like  a  temporary  scaffold  but  are 
 integral  monumental  members  of  the  building,  and  present  to  the 
 congregation  a  character  of  oneness  and  homelikeness.  Treated 
 in  such  a  way,  they  should  be  acknowledged  as  characteristic, 
 organic  constituents  of  Evangelical   church-architecture.      The 
 
114  MEMOIRS. 
 
 construction  of  several  galleries  one  above  the  other  detracts 
 from  unity  and  dignity  and  therefore  should  be  avoided.  At 
 the  utmost,  in  very  great  churches  two  such  stories  might  be 
 introduced,  but  they  must  not  interfere  with  the  clear  survey 
 and  total  impression  of  the  interior  and  degrade  the  character 
 of  the  place  of  assembly  to  that  of  a  theatre  or  an  auditorium. 
 Nor  may  they  extend  into  the  Altarspace,  to  a  line  with  the  Al- 
 tar; and  in  new  buildings  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  cut  the 
 windows.  The  introduction  of  galleries  into  small  churches  or 
 an  irregular  arrangement  of  them  can  be  excused  only  by  necessi- 
 ty. When  sufficiently  established  rights  require  that  special  seats 
 be  granted  to  any  in  the  galleries,  this  must  not  disturb  the  unity 
 of  the  building,  nor  may  they  be  made  prominent  by  ornament. 
 For  much  the  same  reason  boxes  in  the  Altarspace  belong  only 
 to  those  whose  position  in  the  congregation  justifies  it,  as  patrons, 
 officers  of  the  congregation,  representatives  of  the  Church  gov- 
 ernment, the  pastor's  family,  etc.,  and  are  admissible  in  front  of 
 the  line  of  the  Altar,  not  behind  it. 
 
 26.  The  Organ-loft,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  Choir-loft, 
 has  in  general  the  same  character  as  the  galleries,  but  has  more 
 to  support.  The  organ-case,  however,  should  not  be  shaped  as  a 
 member  of  the  building  dependent  on  the  other  constructions,  but 
 as  an  independent  instrument.  The  form  of  a  building  is  to  be 
 avoided,  and  the  ethereal  character  of  music  is  to  be  suggested 
 by  a  light  ornamental  style.  The  form  should  not  be  derived 
 from  the  forms  of  constructions  in  stone,  nor  should  it  point  to 
 arrangements  which  indicate  limitations  caused  by  the  necessi- 
 ties of  the  building;  but  it  should  have  a  complete  space,  ar- 
 ranged for  it  with  due  deliberation.  The  bellows- room  should 
 be  bright  and  free  from  draughts,  be  readil)'  accessible  to  the 
 player,  and  should  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  interior  of 
 the  church.  Only  in  extreme  necessity  should  it  be  placed  over 
 the  organ. 
 
 27.  The  Font  should  not  be  placed  anywhere  like  a  piece  of 
 
LUTHERAN   PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.      115 
 
 furniture,  but  should  have  its  own  special,  chosen  and  prepared 
 position.  The  position  in  the  entrance-vestibule,  while  apparent- 
 ly correct  because  of  the  symbolism,  takes  from  its  dignity,  and 
 sometimes  leads  to  its  profanation  as  a  mere  clothesrack,  makes 
 it  difficult  to  properly  heat  the  room  and  to  provide  for  the  chil- 
 dren to  be  baptized,  and  obstructs  the  passage;  and  the  position 
 in  the  choir  just  at  the  ascent  to  the  Altar  is  also  objectionable, 
 because  there  the  Font  is  in  the  way  of  those  that  come  and  go, 
 and  interferes  with  the  view  of  the  Altar.  The  position  recom- 
 mended by  Semper,  behind  the  Altar,  in  the  apse,  is  forbidden, 
 like  any  position  either  in  the  congregational  room  or  the  Altar- 
 space,  by  the  fact  that  the  person  brought  to  Baptism  is  not  yet  a 
 member  of  the  congregation,  and  on  the  other  hand  by  the  fact 
 that  the  place  of  administration  of  a  Sacrament  has  a  claim  to 
 monumental  position  and  form,  and  ought  not  seem  to  be  shoved 
 to  one  side. 
 
 d)  In  the  artistic  elaboration  of  the  details  of  all  these  parts, 
 the  style  chosen  for  the  building  itself  {of  course  with  the  exclusion  of 
 everything  not  Christia^i)  is  to  be  carried  out  with  the  same  conse- 
 quence as  is  indicated  in  Sec.  i<),  with  reference  to  the  material  and 
 ideal  purpose,  and*  ivith  fill  use  of  all  the  means  zvhich  advanced 
 technique  offers  to  secure  easier  mastery  ajid  cJnirchly  character,  es- 
 pecially without  concealment  arid  hypocrisy  in  m,aterial  and  construc- 
 tion, and  ivithout  pedantic  copying,  therefore  with  an  inner  compre- 
 hension of  the  true  style  and  its  lazvs. 
 
 28.  The  realms  from  which  such  aids  may  be  drawn  are, 
 (in  accordance  with  the  maxim,  "'All  things  are  yours;  prove  all 
 and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good),  especially  the  following:  plastic 
 work  in  stone,  brass,  wood,  terracotta,  etc.,  (not  plaster  of  Paris 
 and  lime),  decorative  and  figured  painting  on  wall,  tablets  and 
 glass,  molten  work  and  work  in  metals,  tectonic  and  ceramics, 
 etc.,  in  all  their  modern  perfection,  and  the  now  so  advanced 
 technique  in  lighting  and  heating.  All  that  runs  into  virtuosity, 
 the  employment  of  substitutes  and  unmonumental  materials,  con- 
 
116  MEMOIRS. 
 
 cealment  and  deceit,  all  artificialities  and  tricks,  unworthy  of  art 
 and  of  honest  construction,  must  be  forbidden. 
 
 29.  If  for  a  new  building  a  style  is  chosen,  or  if  a  church 
 which  is  to  be  restored  is  of  a  style,  in  whose  most  flourishing 
 period  some  of  the  technical  means  now  at  the  disposal  either 
 were  not  known  or  were  yet  undeveloped,  their  use  is  not  there- 
 fore forbidden;  but  the  shaping  of  the  parts  should  be  in  the  spir- 
 it of  the  chosen  style,  therefore  in  analogy  with  the  technical 
 means  that  belonged  to  the  style,  in  the  way  that  masters  of  that 
 period  would  have  developed  them  if  they  had  possessed  them. 
 This  of  course  requires  a  deep  understanding  of  the  inner  sub- 
 stance of  the  style. 
 
 e)  Partly  for  the  sake  of  better  preservation,  longer  use,  great- 
 er cleatilmess,  etc.,  partly  in  direct  service  of  the  Liturgy,  viea7is 
 tntist  be  found  for  proper  protection  and  for  e7iduring  and  periodical- 
 ly chatiging  ornamentation  in  other  arts  than  architecture ,  in  the 
 textile  arts  for  insta?ice,  and  this  ynust  accord  with  the  ge7ieral  priri- 
 ciples  already  laid  dozun. 
 
 30.  Here  belong  the  vestments  for  the  Altar,  Pulpit,  Lec- 
 tern, etc. 
 
 A .  Altarcloths.  These  were  considered  indispensable  in  old 
 Christian  times  and  must  be  recognized  as  such  by  both  Luther- 
 ans and  Reformed,  and  are  a  protection  against  the  dampness  of 
 the  stone.  This  protection  may  be  partially  secured  by  covering 
 the  stone  Altar-top  with  wood,  but  better  by  laying  on  it  a  chris- 
 malc,  that  is,  a  linen  cloth  stiffened  by  a  wax-bath,  of  the  size  of 
 the  Altar,  over  which  should  be  laid  a  cloth  of  unbleached  or  stiff 
 bleached  linen  of  the  same  size,  which  often  is  omitted  although 
 it  contributes  very  much  to  the  preservation  of  the  other  vest- 
 ments. In  the  oldest,  and  therefore  pre-Catholic  times,  a  third 
 covering  was  regarded  as  liturgically  necessary,  namely,  the  actu- 
 al Altarcloth  of  pure  white  linen.  This  should  extend  only  a 
 little  beyond  the  edge  of  the  Altar  and  needs  no  embroidery  be- 
 sides crosses  of  red  or  white   yarn  in  the  corners  and  perhaps  a 
 
LUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES   OF   CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       117 
 
 narrow  border  of  the  same  sort  at  their  junction;  but  it  may  be 
 provided  with  a  solid  linen  fringe.  Under  every  vessel  there  may 
 be  a  little  linen  cloth,  a  Corporalc,  and  upon  each  a  Pal/a.  The 
 custom  of  covering  all  the  vessels  upon  carrying  them  to  the  Al- 
 tar and  until  the  proper  beginning  of  the  sacramental  action  with 
 a  Veil  {velum')  is  still  followed  in  most  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
 Churches.  At  the  beginning  of  the  celebration  proper  this  is 
 taken  away,  folded  up  and  laid  with  the  candles,  in  order  to  be 
 put  over  the  vessels  by  the  minister  at  the  close  of  the  celebra- 
 tion, and  this  may  be  convenient  on  account  of  the  size  of  the 
 vessels.  It  would  be  well  to  have  uniformity  of  usage  in  this 
 matter.  Besides,  the  Altar  should  be  provided  with  small  cloths, 
 Purificatories,  with  which  to  wipe  the  cup,  especially  the  rim  of  it 
 at  every  filling,  and  also  the  Vorhaltetuecher,  still  in  use  in  many 
 regions,  which  are  of  a  breadth  of  30  to  40  cm,  and  as  long  as  the 
 armrests  on  each  side  of  the  Altar,  and  are  held  there  by  two 
 boys. 
 
 B.  Not  ritually  indispensable  but  yet  called  for  by  the  Lit- 
 urgy is  the  decorative  clothing  of  the  Altar.  This  may  have 
 been  added  to  the  linen  very  early  and  used  without  special 
 rules.  It  is  only  natural  that  special  feasts  should  be  distin- 
 guished thus  above  the  ordinary  Sunda3s.  Then  the  Altar  and 
 its  belongings  were  covered  for  fast  days  and  memorials,  and 
 decked  in  white  for  festivals  of  joy  (such  as  Christmas,  Epipha- 
 ny, Easter,  Ascension  Day).  With  the  multiplication  of  feasts 
 of  Martyrs  and  Saints,  the  need  grew  of  marking  the  gradually 
 ordered  seasons  of  the  Church  Year,  and  so  at  a  comparatively 
 late  period  the  designation  of  particular  colours  to  particular 
 seasons  arose.  Since  many  Saints'  Days  fell  into  disuse  at  the 
 Reformation,  and  the  Church  Year  (beginning  at  Christmas  and 
 ending  with  the  preparation  of  Advent)  became  more  prominent, 
 the  Evangelical  Church  can  adopt  this  significant  custom  of  the 
 liturgical  colours,  though  it  grew  up  in  Catholic  times,  and 
 could  hardly  put  anything  better  into  its  place.     According  to 
 
lis  MEMOIRS. 
 
 a  few  gradually  recognized  alterations  the  order  is  the  following: 
 
 White:  Though  many  deny  it  to  be  a  colour,  yet  the  posi- 
 tive pole  of  the  scale  of  colours,  the  colour  of  spotlessness,  of  the 
 candidates  for  Baptism,  etc.,  by  Luther  called  the  colour  of  the 
 angels  and  of  all  saints,  for  Christmas  and  its  cycle  until  Epipha- 
 ny, in  Saxony  for  the  Annunciation  also,  Easter,  and  the  First 
 Sunday  after  Easter  as  the  White  Sunday  of  the  newly  baptized, 
 (here  and  there  only)  until  Ascension,  Trinity,  and  St.  John 
 Baptist. 
 
 Red,  the  majestic  colour  of  dominion,  of  Joy,  of  light-giving 
 doctrine,  of  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  blood  and  of  martyr- 
 dom, for  Whitsunday,  its  octave,  and  the  feasts  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion and  church  dedication  which  are  a  result  of  Whitsunday,  and 
 where  white  is  wanting  to  take  its  place. 
 
 Green,  the  everyday  colour  of  the  earth,  the  restful  and  re- 
 freshing colour  of  hope,  of  peace  and  of  victory,  for  the  everyday 
 times  of  the  church,  i.  e.,  for  Epiphany  and  Trinity-tide. 
 
 Violet,  (not  purple  nor  lilac  nor  blue)  the  solemn  earnest 
 colour  of  modesty,  humility,  concentration,  penitent  concentra- 
 tion in  one's  self,  for  the  closed  times,  Advent,  Lent,  Passion. 
 
 Black  finally,  the  negative  pole  of  the  scale,  the  colour  of 
 sadness  and  humiliation,  for  Good  Friday,  days  of  penitence, 
 feasts  of  the  dead,  and  also  where  necessary  in  the  place  of 
 Violet. 
 
 On  the  other  hand  the  following  are  excluded: 
 
 Blue,  although  the  colour  of  Heaven,  of  truth  and  faithful- 
 ness, which  often  deserves  and  finds  its  place  in  ecclesiastical  art, 
 does  not  appear  nor  should  it  appear  as  the  representative  of  a 
 festival  or  a  particular  season,  and  only  in  dark  shade  in  a  pea- 
 cock blue  may  it  be  used  in  place  of  violet. 
 
 y'ellow,  which  in  Catholic  Art  sometimes  occurs  as  a  substi- 
 tute for  gold,  denoting  the  sun  and  the  goodness  of  God,  is  how- 
 ever, rather  the  colour  of  envy,  avarice  and  faithlessness.  The 
 mantle  of  Joseph  is  properly   bright  brown;   of   Peter,  orange. 
 
IvUTHERAN    PRINCIPLES    OF    CHURCH    ARCHITECTURE.       119 
 
 Yellow  is  assigned  to  Judas.  To  use  rose  colour  or  orange  in- 
 stead of  red;  instead  of  dark  green,  Maygreen,  applegreen,  olive 
 or  bronze  green;  instead  of  violet,  lilac;  in  general  instead  of  full 
 pure  colours,  dull  colours,  so  called  fashionable  colours,  is  to  be 
 positivel}-  advised  against,  as  also  to  let  ornaments,  etc.,  of  other 
 shades  of  the  same  hue  be  added  to  the  fonndation  colours  in 
 such  measure  as  to  take  from  the  foundation  colour  or  make  it 
 uncertain. 
 
 Silver  or  White  is  to  be  sparingly  used  in  black,  neutral 
 gray  only  in  little,  spaces;  and  in  greater  spaces  as  the  colours  of 
 the  mortification  of  the  flesh  it  is  not  advisable. 
 
 The  vestment  must  not  conceal  an  essential  part  of  the  form 
 or  decoration  of  that  which  it  covers,  e.  g.,  in  the  case  of  the 
 Altar  its  form  as  a  hearth  or  a  table,  of  the  pulpit  its  rail,  the 
 cupform  of  the  Font;  and  must  never  take  the  form  of  a  coat  or 
 fall  in  long  folds. 
 
 On  the  Altar  it  ought  to  cover  the  table  and  fall  over  the 
 edge  about  a  handbreadth.  Where  the  Altarcloth  is  used  only 
 at  the  Holy  Communion  the  form  is  a  matter  of  course.  But  in 
 the  majority  of  Lutheran  Churches  the  Altarcloth  is  always  in 
 use,  and  it  would  be  unnecessary  and  too  costly  to  put  the  litur- 
 gical colours  under  it  all  over  the  Altar. 
 
 An  Antependium  may  be  used  where  the  Altar  itself  is 
 not  artistically  finished.  Extending  over  the  whole  front  of 
 the  Altar,  it  presents  a  fine  opportunity  for  artistic  treatment. 
 If  the  Altar  is  artistically  treated,  then  the  Aiiteperidmvi  should 
 be  only  half  its  width.  The  Altarcloth  proper  should  be  laid 
 over  it.  Vestments  for  Pulpit  and  Lectern  belong  to  the  desk 
 only.  The  front  needs  no  covering  changing  with  the  sea- 
 sons. 
 
 31.  On  the  Altar  only  fresh  flowers  should  be  used,  not 
 artificial  nor  dried.  The  vases  should  be  of  monumental  ma- 
 terial, of  metal  or  firm  ceramic  material,  not  of  glass  or  the  like, 
 of  correct  style,  form  and  colour,  of  dignified  churchly  character, 
 
120  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  should  not  always  be  on  the  Altar;  and  still  less  should  they 
 be  of  one  piece  with  it. 
 
 32.  Nails,  etc.,  should  not  be  driven  for  purposes  of  deco- 
 ration. Provision  should  be  made  for  this  in  building.  The 
 same  can  be  said  of  wardrobes,  hatracks  and  the  like. 
 
 Edward   T.   Horn. 
 Readi7ig,   Pa. 
 
THE   BIDDING   PRAYER,   EITANY,  AND  SUFFRAGES. 
 
 The  historical  contiauity  of  the  Church  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
 sion with  the  Evangelical  Christianity  of  the  ages  has  long  been 
 one  of  her  boasts.  Her  right  to  this  distinction  was  obtained 
 through  the  conservative  principle  which  governed  the  Lutheran 
 Reformers,  i.  e.,  Things  which  are  not  forbidden  by  God's  Word 
 and  which  serve  as  aids  to  devotion  and  life  shall  not  be  rejected.* 
 The  proof  of  the  justice  of  our  claim  to  an  unbroken  stream  of 
 Christianity  is  seen  not  alone  in  the  doctrines  of  our  Church  but 
 as  well  in  her  life  as  expressed  in  practice,  worship  and  environ- 
 ment. 
 
 How  the  Order  of  Common  Service  now  recommended  to  our 
 Churches  in  America  and  used  so  largely  by  them  supports  the 
 contentions  of  the  preceding  statements  has  been  discussed  in 
 some  of  the  papers  which  form  part  of  the  Association's  Mem- 
 oirs. We  purpose  to  take  up  another  phase  of  the  subject  in  the 
 following  discussion,  viz.,  "The  Responsive  Church  Prayers." 
 Of  these  our  Eiturgy  possesses  great  ancient  treasures  in  the 
 Litany,  the  General  Suffrages,  the  Morning  and  Eventing  Suf- 
 frages, and  the  Bidding  Prayer.^ 
 
 Here  again  the  Lutheran  Church  demonstrates  her  ecumen- 
 ical Character.  The  Litany  in  its  specific  form  is  an  early  prod- 
 uct of  the  Western  Church;  her  Canonical  Hours  furnish  the 
 material  for  the  Suffrages;  while  the  Eastern  Church,  from  a  still 
 earlier  and  primitive  age,  supplies  the  Diaconal  Prayer. 
 
 *  Aug.  Conf.  Art.  VII  and  XV. 
 
 t   Church  Book,   pp.    132-149;    Book  of  Worship,   (G.  S.)   pp.  165-206;   Book 
 of  Worship,  (U.  S.  S.J  pp.  94-107.  (cxxi) 
 
122  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  question  arises  whether  our  pastors  know  sufficient  of 
 the  history  and  sources  of  these  prayers,  or  have  "Studied  their  in- 
 ner harmony,  beauty  and  power  closely  enough  to  have  a  desire 
 or  an  ability  to  recommend  and  encourage  their  use  in  the  public 
 Services  of  our  Churches.  To  know  and  use  these  Common 
 Prayers  wherein  pastor  and  people  unite  antiphonally  in  supplica- 
 tion before  the  Throne  of  Grace,  cannot  but  impress  upon  the 
 people  the  reality  of  the  common  Christian  life,  and  infuse  the. 
 spirit  of  largehearted  Christian  consciousness  and  sympathy.  It 
 emphasizes  also  the  evangelical  priesthood  of  all  believers  in  a 
 way  that  a  long,  unbroken,  personally  extemporized  string  of 
 petitions  on  the  part  of  the  pastor  can  never  do.  It  helps  to  keep 
 uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  members  the  fact  that  they  are 
 praying;  and  gives  a  personal  touch  and  sense  of  participation 
 otherwise  unobtainable.  As  our  people  take  part  in  the  other 
 divisions  of  the  Service  by  their  responses,  so  also  in  these 
 prayers. 
 
 We  take  them  up  in  what  is,  roughly  speaking,  their  chron- 
 ological order. 
 
 I.       THE    BIDDING,    OR    DIAGONAL    PRAYER. 
 
 The  immediate  source  of  the  Bidding  Prayer  in  our  own  Lit- 
 urgy is  the  Schwabisch-Hall  KO  (1526).  From  Horn's  Litur- 
 gies,'^^ we  infer  that  a  large  number  of  similar  formularies  of  an 
 admonitory  character  exist  in  Lutheran  Liturgies.  We  were, 
 however,  unable  to  procure  a  copy  of  Hofling's  L'rkundcnbuch  for 
 a  comparative  study  of  these  forms.  Lohef  has  the  heading, 
 "The  Bidding  or  Diaconal  Prayers  of  the  Lutheran  Church." 
 He  also  calls  it  a  "Union  of  Ivxhortation  and  Prayer."  After 
 treating  of  the  ancient  prayers  of  this  character,  he  continues, 
 "A  beautiful,  quickening  and  not  altogether  dissimilar  form  has 
 found  its  way  into  })ia)iy  Lutheran  Liturgies."     He  proceeds  to 
 
 *  P-  77i  q-  87-88. 
 
 t   Liturgy,  Iransl.  by  Longaker. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  123 
 
 give  two  forms:  one  especially  adapted  for  use  on  Good  Friday 
 (a  form  "used  for  many  years  in  Neuendettelsau"  )  and  the  other 
 "for  the  Lord's  Day."  The  former  parallels  our  own  Bidding 
 Prayer  up  to  the  fifth  Collect,  the  Collect  "for  all  in  authori- 
 ty" preceding  that  "for  our  catechumens."  Lohe's  form  then 
 contains  an  Exhortation  to  pray  for  schismatics,*  the  Collect  be- 
 ing the  one  numbered  nineteen  in  our  collection. f  The  next 
 Exhortation  deals  with  the  Jews*  with  the  use  of  Collect  twen- 
 ty-three;! and  the  following  admonition  mentions  the  heathen,* 
 using  Collect  twenty-fourf  with  some  slight  variations.  The 
 rubric  in  our  book  calls  attention  to  these  Collects  but  gives  no 
 bidding  form  for  the  several  estates  of  men  mentioned.  Through- 
 out the  prayer  the  bidding  sections  are  delegated  to  the  deacon, 
 then  the  minister  says,  "Eet  us  pray;"  the  deacon,  "Eet  us  hum- 
 bly kneel;"  and  then  the  minister  offers  the  prayer,  the  people 
 responding  "Amen."  The  direction,  however,  is  that  no  exhor- 
 tation to  kneel  be  given  before  the  Collect  for  the  Jews.  J  Wheth- 
 er the  people  stood  during  the  reading  of  each  exhortation  and 
 knelt  for  each  Collect  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Perhaps 
 the  "Let  us  humbly  kneel"  was  more  a  spiritual  than  a  physical 
 direction.  The  final  exhortation  is  given  by  the  minister  as  fol- 
 lows: "Finally  let  us  pray  for  all  those  things  for  which  our 
 Lord  would  have  us  ask,  saying:  'Our  Father,'  etc."  In  the 
 second  form:  "For  the  Lord's  Day"  both  exhortation  and  Col- 
 lect are  taken  by  the  minister.  There  is  also  an  introductory 
 exhortation.  The  order  is  as  follows:  (a)  For  the  whole  Church; 
 (b)  for  governments;  (c)  for  deliverance  from  error,  etc.;  (d)  for 
 peace;  (e)  for  enemies;  (f)  for  all  in  perils  of  child-birth;  (g)  for 
 the  fruits  of  the  earth;  (h)  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 
 From  this  we  can  see  that  the  form  now  printed  in  our  Litur- 
 gy is  a  combination  of    these  two,  one  Collect  being  omitted. 
 
 *  Liturgy,  transl.  by  Longaker. 
 
 t  Ch.  Bk.  p.  114,  p.  115  and  p.  116. 
 
 +  This  Collect  is  said  standing. 
 
]  21  MEMOIRS. 
 
 I>ut  our  contention  has  been  that  our  Church  had  preserved  in  its 
 Bidding  Prayer  an  ancient,  eastern  form  of  prayer  and  this  must 
 be  substantiated. 
 
 A  study  of  the  ancient  Liturgies  shows  us  that  the  begin- 
 nings of  this  form  of  prayer  are  found  in  the  earliest  orders  of 
 public  worshijx  It  was  the  custom  in  the  Early  Church  that  the 
 deacons  should  be  "monitors  and  directors  to  the  people  in  the 
 exercise  of  their  public  devotions  in  the  Church."*  To  accom- 
 plish this  they  had  certain  set  phrases  which  they  used  to  an- 
 nounce the  different  parts  of  the  Service,  to  notify  the  various 
 orders  of  worshippers  when  to  take  their  part  in  the  Service,  and 
 to  call  upon  each  order  to  pray,  directing  the  burden  of  their 
 prayers.  This  custom  it  has  seemed  to  me,  although  I  have  no 
 authority  to  quote,  must  have  been  necessitated  by  the  lack  of 
 printed  forms  by  means  of  which  the  people  could  follow  the 
 Service.  Successive  deliveries  of  the  call  to  prayer  were  ad- 
 dressed to  a)  the  catechumens,  b)  the  energumens,  c)  the  bap- 
 tized, d)  the  penitents,  and  e)  the  faithful,  and  were  styled  8ta 
 7r/3oo-<^ov€cr£os  (bidding  prayers) . 
 
 After  each  class  had  been  thus  exhorted  to  prayer  and  guided 
 in  devotion,  it  was  dismissed.  The  order  for  the  catechumens 
 will  serve  as  an  example rf 
 
 Deacon.  "Pray  3'e  catechumens."  "Let  all  the  faithful 
 pray  for  them  saying,  'Lord  have  mercy  upon  them.'  "  The 
 deacon  then  directs  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  in  a  series  of  thir- 
 teen or  fourteen  suggested  petitions.  To  each  of  these  the  peo- 
 ple, and  particularly  the  children  respond  as  above.  The  deacon 
 then  bids  the  catechumens  arise  and  bids  them  to  offer  several 
 petitions  for  themselves.  To  these  also  the  response  is  "Lord 
 have  mercy  upon  them."  Then  the  deacon  bids  them  bow  for 
 the  bishop's  benediction  w^hich  is  a  prayer  summing  up  briefly, 
 though  not  specifically,  the  petitions  concerning  which  the  above 
 
 *  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  tkc  Christian  Church. 
 +  A/>os.  Const.     Hk.  \III. 
 
THE   BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   StTFERAGES.         125 
 
 mentioned  exhortations  had  been  given.  After  this  the  deacon 
 says,  "Catechumens  depart  in  peace."  The  same  order  is  fol- 
 lowed in  shorter  or  longer  degree  in  the  case  of  each  class. 
 
 When  all  but  "the  faithful"  had  been  dismissed  the  Missa 
 Fidelhnn  began  with  a  long  Bidding  Prayer  based  upon  the  anal- 
 ogy of  the  Apostolical  injunction,  I  Tim.  i:  i,  2.*  The  rubrics 
 of  these  early  Liturgies  are  somewhat  confusing  but  it  can  be 
 safely  argued  that  in  this  Bidding  Prayer  for  the  Faithful,  each 
 petition  was  responded  to  by  a  Kyrie,  or  b}-  the  response,  "Save 
 them,  O  God,  and  lift  them  up  by  Thy  mercy."  The  Liturgy  of 
 St.  Chrysostom  which  is  practically  that  used  by  the  orthodox 
 Greek  Church  to-day  has  similar  prayers,  although  they  are 
 somewhat  shorter.  We  find  similar  forms,  some  longer  some 
 shorter,  "after  the  Divine  oblation,"  "after  the  participation," 
 and  in  the  morning  and  evening  Offices,  in  all  the  ancient  Eastern 
 Liturgies.  A  decree  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (4th  Cent.)  di- 
 rects in  the  igth  Canon  that  after  the  dismissal  of  the  catechu- 
 mens and  penitents,  "the  three  prayers  of  the  faithful  be  said  as 
 follows:  the  first  in  silence;  but  the  second  and  third  by  the  meth- 
 od of  prosphonesis."t  Thus  we  see  that  the  "bidding"  form  was 
 the  common  type  of  public  prayer  in  the  Eastern  Church,  and 
 that  it  has  so  remained  even  to  this  day. 
 
 To  what  extent  this  particular  class  of  prayer  passed  over 
 into  the  Western  Church  is  somewhat  hard  to  determine.  That 
 the  form  was  known  and  used  by  the  Western  Churches  is  proven 
 by  the  few  examples  to  be  found  in  ancient  Western  Liturgies^ 
 and  by  the  still  extant  perfect  specimen  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Of- 
 fice for  Good  Frida}'  afternoon.  This  it  will  be  seen  is  the  source 
 of  our  own  form,  and  it  may  also  be  noted  is  the  most  nearly 
 evangelical  of  all.  the  Romish  forms.     May  not  our  short  "Let 
 
 *   Apos.  Const.      Bk.  VIII. 
 
 t  Mansi,   Sad.  Concl.     Vol.   3. 
 
 X  Bingham,  Ant.  Christ.  Ch.  quotes  two:  one  from  Codex  Fulda  and  the  oth- 
 er from  the  Ambi-osian  Liturgy.  Freeman,  Principle's  of  Divine  Service  refers  to 
 a  collection  of  Bidding  Prayers  from  1349  downwards,  by  Parker. 
 
120  MEMOIRS. 
 
 US  pray"  before  the  Collect  dc  tempore  in  the  Common  Service,  in 
 the  Conimunion  Office  and  before  the  Collects  in  the  Matin  and 
 Vesper  Orders  be  a  condensed  survival  of  this  ancient  practice? 
 
 The  Lutheran  Church  seems  to  have  been  the  only  Protes- 
 tant connnunion  to  retain  the  old  Bidding  Prayer  form  in  approx- 
 imate purity  in  her  Liturgies.  However,  traces  of  it  are  to  be 
 found  in  the  Episcopalian  Liturgy.  Freeman  calls  attention  to 
 the  "Prayer  for  the  Church  Militant"  which  occurs  in  the  Com- 
 munion Office  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  after  the  alms 
 have  been  offered  and  before  the  exhortation.  He  identifies  it 
 both  with  the  prayer  "after  the  oblations"  in  the  ancient  Litur- 
 gies, and  also  with  the  Bidding  Prayer  "for  the  faithful"  which 
 as  we  hav^e  seen,  prefaced  the  A/i'ssa  Fideluim.'^'  He  also  asserts 
 its  relationship  to  the  Good  Friday  prayer  of  the  Romish  Liturgy. 
 He  finds  a  reason  for  the  use  of  this  "supplication  for  unity"  in 
 the  Eucharistic  Office,  in  its  analogy  to  the  great  high-priestly 
 prayer  of  Christf  on  the  "night  of  institution."  The  form  used 
 in  the  Episcopalian  Office  has  a  single  "bid:"  "Let  us  pray  for 
 the  whole  state  of  Christ's  Church  Militant."  Then  having  re- 
 cited the  Apostle's  injunction  (I  Tim,  2:  i)  the  prayer  suppli- 
 cates: a)  for  the  reception  of  the  oblations;  b)  for  the  unity  of 
 the  Church  Universal;  c)  for  the  preservation  of  the  Church's 
 members;  d)  for  Christian  rulers;  e)  for  the  local  congregation; 
 f )  for  the  sick  and  distressed;  g)  a  commendation  of  the  "faith- 
 ful departed."  Bluntt  gives  another  Bidding  Prayer  enjoined 
 by  the  55lh  Canon  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  is  the  only  ap- 
 proved form  to  be  used  in  the  Communion  Service  after  the  Creed 
 and  preceding  the  sermon  §     He  explains  that  this  is  a  modern- 
 
 ♦  Freeman,  Prifuiphs  of  Divine  Worship,  Vol.  II.  Smith  and  Ciieetham, 
 however,  Diet.  Chr.  Ant.,  seem  to  deny  the  identity,  taking  the  stand  that  the 
 Bidding  Prayers  of  the  Episcopal  Church  took  their  rise  in  a  distinctively  medianal 
 practice. 
 
 t  St.  John  17:  1-26. 
 
 X  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 
 §  Canon  55,   "Before  all  sermons,  lectures  and  homilies  the  preachers  and  min- 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         127 
 
 ized  form  of  the  ancient  "Bidding  of  the  Bedes."*  The  subjects 
 ■of  this  prayer  are:  a)  Christ's  Holy  Catholic  Church;  b)  King 
 James;  c)  Queen  Anne,  etc.;  d)  Ministers  of  God's  Holy  Word; 
 e)  Councils  and  Magistrates  of  the  realm;  f)  commons  of  the 
 realm;  g)  the  departed.  This  is  a  pure  bidding  form,  each  sub- 
 ject being  introduced  by  "ye  shall  also  pray;"  and  a  petition  is 
 suggested  in  each  case.  Local  Episcopalian  clergymen  have  as- 
 sured me  that  nothing  similar  to  this  prayer  or  practice  is  known 
 or  used  in  their  American  Churches. 
 
 In  the  Reformed  Churches  where  practically  all  liturgy  was 
 rejected,  and  where  the  difference  between  the  subjective- Chris- 
 tian prayer  and  the  common  prayer  of  Christ's  unified  Body  was 
 lost  sight  of,  we  naturally  find  no  trace  of  this  ancient  and  primal 
 form  of  the  "Church  Prayer." 
 
 It  seems  unfortunate  that  while  rubrics  are  attached  to  the 
 other  responsive  general  prayers,  the  Bidding  Prayer  was  left 
 without  any,  to  direct  where,  when  and  how  it  may  be  used, 
 Lohe  in  his  Agende  has  the  rubric,  "For  Sundays  when  there  is 
 no  Communion  and  especially  for  the  Afternoon  Service  on  Good 
 Frida5\'  t  This  recognizes  both  the  characteristic  ancient  uses 
 of  this  form  of  prayer:  ist,  as  the  general  prayer,  according  to 
 the  usage  of  the  Eastern  Church;  2nd,  as  the  special  embodiment 
 of  the  "unity"  idea  in  Christ's  last  intercessory  prayer,  and  hence 
 most  suitable  for  use  at  the  Good  Friday  memorial  Service,  ac- 
 cording to  the  long-established  custom  of  the  Western  Church. ;{] 
 When  we  consider,  however,  that  it  is  but  a  modernized  form  of 
 the  prayer  ahvays  used  by  the  Early  Church  in  the  Missa  Fidelium 
 what  objection  could  there  be  to  its  use  in  the  full  Communion 
 Office?      And   why   should  our  people  remain   ignorant  of  this 
 
 isters  shall  move  the  people  to  join  with  them  in  prayer  in  this  form,  or  to  this  effect, 
 as  briefly  as  conveniently  they  may:  "Ye  shall  pray  for,  etc." 
 
 *  For  a  discussion  of  this  subject  of.  Hooker,  Diet.  Chr.  Ant. 
 
 t  U.  S.  S.  alone  has  the  rubric,  "By  ancient  usage  this  prayer  was  specially  ap- 
 pointed for  Good  Friday." 
 
 X  MuRATORi,  Lit.  Koin.  and  Sala,  Note^  to  Bona. 
 
I'28  WEMOIKS. 
 
 treasure?  Says  Lohe,  "The  sweet  and  refreshing  character  of 
 this  form  of  pra\er  can  be  learned  only  by  use."  Variety  can  be 
 obtained  in  the  way  suggested  by  Lobe's  two  forms:  omitting  the 
 prayers  for  schismatics,  Jews,  and  heathen  on  ordinary  occasions, 
 and  using  them  on  Good  Friday  or  other  Special  Days.  This  is- 
 provided  for  by  the  one  rubric* 
 
 As  to  how  it  may  be  used,  Lohe,  who  has  been  our  guide  in 
 the  study  of  this  prayer,  has  the  following  to  say:  "The  minister 
 announces  the  things  for  which  prayer  is  to  be  ofTered,  reads  the 
 Collect  in  order,  and  the  people  conclude  each  with  Amen,  and 
 the  whole  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  //a  deacon  would  read  the  re- 
 curring exhortations i  the  7ninister  offer  the  prayers,  and  the  congre- 
 gation conclude  them  7vith  Amen  we  would  have  indeed  a  restora- 
 tion of  the  ancient  form  of  Bidding  Prayer. '' 
 
 Upon  the  vexed  question  of  kneeling  for  this  prayer  Lohe 
 throws  no  light  except  as  has  been  noted  already.  The  alternate 
 kneeling  and  rising  would  prove  not  only  irksome  but  even  would 
 Verge  upon  the  ridiculous  since  some  of  the  Collects  and  Exhorta- 
 tions are  very  brief.  We  have  suggested  the  probability  of  the 
 figurative  sense  of  the  original  "Let  us  kneel."  The  writer  has 
 been  in  the  habit  of  using  this  prayer  successively  with  the  Lita- 
 ny and  General  SufTrages  in  the  Chief  Service  during  the  Lenten 
 Season.  We  have  the  people  to  kneel  and  one  of  the  deacons, 
 standing  in  the  Chancelf  reads  the  Exhortations,  while  the  pastor 
 kneeling  at  the  Altar  reads  the  Collect,  the  people  responding 
 Amen;  and  all  unite  in  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
 
 We  will  not  examine  into  the  parallelism  between  the  origi- 
 nal form,  the  Romish,  the  Episcopalian,  and  our  own  but  will 
 leave  that  to  our  pastors  and  people.  But  we  do  express  the 
 hope  that,  despite  the  manifest  imperfections,  this  dissertation 
 may  be  of  service  to  our  Church  toward  the  renewed  and  extend- 
 
 *  "Here  may  be  offered,  etc."  Ch.  Bk.  p.  148. 
 
 t  Smith  and  Cheetham,    Did.    Christ.   Ant.,   "The  deacon  announced  the 
 prayers  from  the  Ambo." 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    I.ITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.  129 
 
 ed  use  of  this  beautiful  and  powerful  form  of  common  interces- 
 sion. 
 
 II.      THE    LITANY. 
 
 If  the  Bidding  Prayer  is  a  survival  of  the  earliest  form  of  the 
 Church  prayer  known  to  liturgiologists,  and  is  distinctly  a  prod- 
 uct of  the  Eastern  Church,  the  Litany  is  also  a  purified  survival 
 of  a  prayer  form,  which,  if  not  quite  so  ancient  as  the  Bidding 
 Prayer,  nevertheless  is  equally  as  closely  allied  with  the  life  of  the 
 Western  Church  as  the  former  is  with  the  Eastern. 
 
 It  seems  permissible  to  claim  that  while  the  term  litany  is 
 manifestly  of  Greek  extraction  (Atraveia  from  Atravei^w  or  from  Xn-t] 
 through  XCacroiiai)  yet  the  specific  form  of  prayer  to  which  present 
 usage  attaches  the  word  is  specifically  a  product  of  the  Western 
 Church.  The  use  of  the  word  litany  in  the  epistles,  homilies  and 
 decrees  of  the  Church  Fathers  is  such  that  much  confusion  re- 
 sults from  anything  but  a  thorough  study  of  the  various  passages. 
 Palmer*  and  Bluntf  both  refer  to  this  fact  and  seek  to  specify 
 and  classify  the  uses.  Drews;}:  also  has  a  clear  and  careful  classi- 
 fication. Bingham§  does  not  seem  so  clear  on  this  point.  The 
 treatment  by  all  the  authorities  consulted  points  undoubtedly  to 
 the  fact  that  the  word  has  come  to  have  a  specific  meaning  which 
 precludes  its  identification  with  many  of  the  former  uses. 
 
 Drews];  establishes  the  fact  that  in  the  Eastern  Church  the 
 word  had  a  general  usage  analogous  to  its  classic  signification,  i. 
 e.,  any  supplicatory  prayer.  When  processionals  began  to  be 
 performed  by  the  Church  they  came  through  force  of  circum- 
 stances to  contain  prayers  and  then  the  word  assumed  a  double 
 meaning:  a)  the  prayer  itself,  as  used  in  the  processional;  b)  the 
 procession.     He  quotes  largely  from  patristic  sources  in  support 
 
 *  Origines  Liturgicce. 
 
 +  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 
 X  Article  Litanei  in  Hauck-Herzog  Real-Encyclopedie. 
 
 §  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church, 
 
1  oO  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  these  conclusions.^  The  processions  in  the  Eastern  Church 
 evidentl)'  were  not  organized  originally  from  the  same  causes 
 which  led  to  their  institution  in  the  Western.  Neither  could  they 
 have  taken  their  rise  earlier  than  the  Fourth  Century  after  perse- 
 cutions had  ceased.  During  this  Century  the  Arian  heresy 
 troubled  the  Church  and  by  imperial  decree  Arians  were  restrained 
 from  holding  their  services  within  the  city.  They  seized  upon 
 this  restriction  as  an  opportunity  to  propagate  their  teachings. 
 Organizing  their  followers  into  processions  they  marched  through 
 the  city  to  the  gates,  singing  hymns  and  anthems  which  set  forth 
 their  peculiar  heresies.  Chrysostom  was  fearful  of  the  proselyt- 
 ing effect  this  might  have  upon  Christians;  and  so  by  the  aid  of 
 the  Empress  Eudoxia  who  supplied  silver  crosses  to  be  carried  in 
 procession,  he  organized  counter-demonstrations  of  great  magnif- 
 icence. It  would  seem  that  the  violent  earthquake  of  the  year 
 404  changed  the  character  of  these  processions;  they  became  more 
 supplicatory  and  penitential  in  aspect,  the  decree  going  forth  that 
 costly  clothes,  and  equipages  were  manifestly  out  of  place  and 
 therefore,  forbidden.  There  appears  to  be  no  reference  or  frag- 
 ment in  any  of  the  extant  writings — in  as  far  as  we  have  been 
 able  to  consult  authorities — to  give  any  idea  of  the  exact  nature 
 of  the  organization  of  these  Eastern  processionals. 
 
 Drews  cites  four  uses  of  the  word  in  the  Western  Church: 
 ist,  a  term  applied  to  the  Kyric  Elehon,  Christc  Eleison,  etc.; 
 2nd,  as  a  designation  of  the  Bidding  Prayer;!  3rd,  as  a  title  of 
 the  processions;  4th,  in  the  present  sense,  applied  to  "the  roga- 
 tion prayers  beginning  with  the  Kyric. ''  He  says  that  the  ap- 
 plication of  the  term  to  the  mere  repetition  of  the  Kyric,  as  done 
 by  the  Ordo  Romamts,  by  Strabo  and  others,  has  no  parallel  in 
 
 *  Lambing,  The  Sacramentals  of  the  Catholic  Church,  argues  that  "the  term 
 applies  rather  to  each  petition  than  to  the  form  of  prayer  as  a  whole,"  since  "ihe 
 word  is  always  in  the  plural  in  the  liturgical  language  of  the  Church." 
 
 t  "Litania  bedeutet  das  im  Gottesdienst  gebetete  prosphoqetische  Kirchenge- 
 bri,  die  griechische  Ekteine,  die  litania  diaconalis." 
 
THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    UTANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         131 
 
 the  East.  This  is  an  aid  in  tracing  the  independent  development 
 of  the  Litany  in  the  West. 
 
 Can  we  not  deduce  the  probable  development  of  the  form  of 
 the  Litany  in  these  different  uses?  Undoubtedly  the  word  found 
 its  way  into  the  West  from  the  East  and  naturally  would  attach 
 itself  first  of  all  to  the  form  of  prayer  which  it  originally  de- 
 scribed— the  Bidding  Prayer.  Now  one  of  the  features  of  this 
 prayer  was  the  recurring  response,  Kyrie  Eleison,  so  that  gradu- 
 ally and  naturally  the  term  designating  the  whole  would  come  to 
 be  applied  to  a  part,  the  Kyrie.  When  processions  took  their 
 rise  in  the  West  they  were  the  outcome  of  times  of  distress  and 
 terror  and  consequently  partook  of  an  intensely  penitential  and 
 supplicatory  character.  For  emphasizing  this  particular  feature 
 of  their  performance  nothing  could  be  better  fitted  than  of  re- 
 curring Ryries,-  and  thus  gradually  they  took  a  prominent  place 
 among  the  Psalms  and  hymns  chanted  during  such  processions. 
 These  prayers  or  ejaculations  would  naturally  take  the  name 
 '  'litanf '  and  in  course  of  time  the  order  would  be  reversed  and 
 once  more  the  whole  would  be  designated  by  the  term  for  a  part. 
 But  by  this  time  the  entire  character  and  arrangement  of  the 
 prayer  had  undergone  a  change  so  that  the  word  took  a  new 
 meaning  entirely  unapplicable  to  the  original. 
 
 Whether  the  pi-esent  form  of  the  Litany  is  an  amplification 
 of  the  Kyrie  or  whether  the  Kyrie  in  the  Service  is  a  condensed 
 survival  of  the  ancient  Church  prayer  is  a  mooted  question,  one 
 upon  which  we  are  not  qualified  to  venture  a  decisive  opinion. 
 For  it  is  a  fact  that  originally*  the  Kyrie  was  repeated  three, 
 nine,  twelve  or  an  unlimited  number  of  timesf  and  later  the 
 farced  (or  amplified)  Kyries  became  prevalent,  followed  closely  by 
 the  ''Kyrie  hymns" |  for  the  different  seasons.  It  should  be 
 noted  also  that  the  developed  form  of  the  Eitany  gradually  found 
 
 *    OrdoJiomanus,  etc. 
 
 t  ^'■Ad  arbilriu/n  celebranti.^' 
 
 X  Kirchenbuch:  Hymns  407-413.    Robinson,  "Music  in  the  Western  Church." 
 
132  MEMOIRS. 
 
 its  place  in  tlie  Mass  (taking  the  place  of  the  Gloria)  and  re- 
 mained there  until  the  Ninth  Century,*  It  still  occupies  the 
 same  position  in  the  Milan  Missal  on  Qiiadrai:;csima. 
 
 Just  where  and  when  and  how  the  Litany  form  of  prayer  took 
 its  rise,  and  grew  into  its  present  condition  not  even  Roman 
 Catholic  scholars  can  agree.  Lohef  acknowledges  the  relation- 
 ship between  the  Bidding  Prayer  of  the  East  and  the  Litany  of 
 the  West  but  dismisses  the  vexed  question  of  their  interdepend- 
 ence by  saying,  "There  is,  however,  some  difficulty  to  show  ex- 
 actly the  development  of  the  latter  {Liiany)  from  the  former  ( Bid- 
 difig  Prayer.)  Drews  divorces  them  almost  entirely  and  seeks  to 
 prove  an  independent  source  in  the  West — an  ancient  heathen 
 prayer  formula. 
 
 Another  question  shrouded  in  disputed  uncertainty  is  the 
 primary  date,  place  and  author  of  the  processionals  which  later 
 produced  the  specific  Litany  formula.  Bishop  Mamertus  of  Vi- 
 enne  in  the  j^ear  467-8  instituted  a  solemn  three-day  season  of 
 fasting,  procession,  and  prayer,  prior  to  Ascension  Day  of  that 
 year.  This  was  done  in  an  endeavor  to  gain  relief  from  a  series 
 of  particularly  destructive  and  demoralizing  earthquakes.  But 
 the  testimony  of  Sidonius:|;  goes  to  show  that  a  like  proceeding  on 
 similar  occasions  had  obtained  throughout  Gaul  during  the  Fifth 
 Century,  although  with  great  irregularities  and  lack  of  devotion. 
 Sidonius'  letters  and  the  writings  of  Avitus  show  us  that  "the 
 office  performed  in  these  rogations  instituted  by  Mamertus  appears 
 chiefly  to  have  consisted  in  psalmody  and  prayers"  together  with 
 "long  lessons  of  Scripture"  but  "the  services  during  procession 
 itself  consisted  of  psalmodj-."  Evidently  the  prayers  and  lessons 
 were  said  in  the  Church.  It  is  not  until  the  close  of  the  Sixth 
 Century,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  that  we  find  direct 
 mention  of  a  similar  custom  in   Rome  upon   the  25th  of  April 
 
 •    MURATORI,    /-//.  Row. 
 
 t  Ageiidf. 
 
 X  ^'Ep.  mi  MiiDitii'itm,''  (luoted  by  Blunt,  BiNGiiAM,  and  Drews. 
 
THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         133 
 
 (Feast  of  St.  Mark).  Gregory  undoubtedly  took  the  idea  from 
 the  common  practice  of  his  time.  The  particular  occasion  in 
 Rome  was  a  threatened  pestilence  and  to  avert  it  he  appointed  a 
 ^'letanm  septiformis,"  i.  e.,  processions  of  seven  different  classes 
 of  people  from  as  many  different  starting  points.  The  order  of 
 the  Office  seems  to  have  differed  somewhat  from  that  observed  in 
 Gaul. 
 
 We  know  that  when  Gregory  revised  the  Roman  Sacrament- 
 ary  he  introduced  the  Kyrie.  He  refers  to  the  Roman  use  as 
 unique.*  The  fact  that  he  introduced  the  Kyrie  into  the  Ser- 
 vices seems  to  Burbidgef  an  argument  that  he  was  encouraging 
 the  use  of  lyitanies  in  the  Service.  That  the  repetition  of  the 
 Kyrie  early  found  a  place  in  the  Offices  of  the  processions  is  evi- 
 dent from  an  extract  from  the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  In 
 describing  a  I,itany  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  he 
 says,  "A  choir  of  singers  came  to  the  church,  crying  through  the 
 streets  of  the  city  Kyrie  Eleisoti.''  That  Gaul  adopted  this  feat- 
 ure (repetition  of  Kyries)  from  Rome  and  did  not  originate  it  can 
 be  seen  from  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Vaison  (529),  which  com- 
 mends "the  agreeable  and  salutary  custom"  prevalent  in  Rome 
 and  Italy,  of  using  "a  frequent  repetition  of  the  Kyrie  Eleisori 
 with  great  earnestness  and  contrition;"  and  directs  its  introduc- 
 tion at  Matins  and  Vespers  as  well  as  at  Mass.  The  Ordo  Ro- 
 manus  "speaks  as  if  the  repetition  of  Kyries  formed  the  greater 
 part  of  the  {processional)  service. "J  It  says  "L,et  no  one  then 
 presume  to  ride  but  let  all  walk  with  bare  feet.  Let  no  women 
 lead  the  choirs  but  let  all  together  sing  Kyrie  Eleison  and  with 
 contrition  of  heart  implore  the  mercy  of  God  for  the  pardon  of 
 
 *  "We  have  not  been  accustomed,  neither  do  we  now  say  the  Kyrie  as  the 
 Greeks  do.  For  among  the  Greeks  all  say  it  together,  but  with  us  it  is  said  by  the 
 clergy  and  then  answer  is  made  by  the  people,  and  Christe  Eleison  is  said  by  us  the 
 same  number  of  times,  which  is  not  said  at  all  by  the  Greeks."  Epistle  to  John, 
 Bishop  of  Smyrna. 
 
 t  Liturgies  and  Offices  of  the  Church. 
 
 1  Palmer,  Orig.  Lit. 
 
134  MEMOIRS, 
 
 their  sins,  for  peace,  for  deliverance  from  plague,  for  preserving^ 
 the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  for  other  necessities."  Here  we  can 
 see  a  rough  outline  of  the  present  component  parts  of  the  Litany, 
 During  the  centuries  following  Litanies  multiplied  in  great 
 variet}-  and  number;  and  their  form  and  use  did  not  always  retain 
 an  evangelical  character.  However  the  character  of  the  prayer 
 took  a  great  hold  upon  the  esteem  of  the  people  and  so  gradually 
 from  the  original  use  outside  the  liturgical  Offices  they  found 
 their  way  in  greater  or  less  degree  into  almost  every  Service, 
 The  times,  crowded  as  they  were  with  droughts,  famines,  pesti- 
 lences, invasions,  and  with  confused  and  insecure  political  institu- 
 tions, tended  to  emphasize  and  multiply  the  necessities  for  these 
 "fastings  and  prayers."  The  echo  of  those  "days  which  tried 
 men's  souls"  is  still  heard  in  some  of  the  Supplications,  Versicles 
 and  Collects  of  our  Liturgy.  The  impress  of  those  evil  times  is 
 still  more  app)arent  in  the  older  forms,  had  we  time  to  examine 
 them.  Hooker  says,*  "Rogations  or  Litanies  were  then  the  very 
 strength,  stay  and  comfort  of  God's  Church."  "And  so,"  says 
 Blunt, t  "it  became  natural  to  adopt  a  form  of  prayer  which  took 
 so  firm  a  hold  on  men's  affections,  on  various  occasions  where 
 processions  were  not  used.  At  ordinations  or  at  consecrations,  at 
 the  conferring  of  monastic  habits,  at  coronation  of  Emperors,  at 
 dedication  of  churches,  etc. ,  it  became  common  for  the  school  or 
 choir,  the  subdeacon  or  the  deacon,  to  begin  the  Litany  starting 
 with  Kyrie  Eleison  or  Christe,  audi  nos.  A  Litany  never  came 
 amiss:  it  was  particularly  welcome  as  an  element  of  ofiices  for  the 
 sick  and  dying:  J  its  terseness,  energy,  pathos  seemed  to  gather  up 
 all  that  was  meant  by  being  instayit  in  prayer.''  The  Litany  be- 
 gan to  take  a  place  as  a  "Church  Prayer."  The  Councils  time 
 after  time  decreed  Rogation  observances  for  three  daj's  prior  to 
 Ascension  Day.     The  Gallican  custom  spread  year  by  j-ear  from 
 
 •  Did.  Chr.  Ant. 
 
 t  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 
 X  Cf.  our  own  Ch.  Bk.,  "Min.  Acts,"  pp.  383  and  404. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         135 
 
 'Country  to  country  but  was  not  established  in  Rome  until  8x6  by 
 Leo  III.  Spain,  adhering  to  the  ancient  idea  that  no  fasts  should 
 •occur  during  the  Easter  cycle,  appointed  its  Rogation  Days  in 
 Lent,  Whitsunweek,  and  Autumn.  We  have  the  survival  of 
 these  combined  seasons  in  the  "Ember  Days"  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  and  Anglican  Churches  appointed  for  the  Advent,  Lent, 
 Easter  (Ascension  Week),  and  Trinity  Seasons. 
 
 Gradually  the  invocation  of  saints  found  its  way  into  the 
 Litanies  and  became  the  principal  part  of  them.  This  is  another 
 peculiarity  differentiating  the  Western  Litany  from  the  Eastern 
 counterpart.  These  invocations  began  to  be  used  about  the 
 Eighth  Century  as  is  proven  not  alone  by  the  silence  in  respect 
 to  this  class  of  invocations  in  the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Tours, 
 Avitus,  Sidonius,  and  Gregory  the  Great,  but  as  well  by  the  act- 
 ual text  of  many  forms  of  earlier  Litanies,  still  extant.  One  such 
 is  found  in  the  Breviary  of  a  Bavarian  monastery,  another  in  the 
 form  still  used  in  the  Milan  Missal  on  Quadragesima,  and  several 
 shorter  ones  in  the  Mozarabic  Breviary  (6th  and  7th  Cent).  De- 
 spite these  evidences  Roman  Catholic  writers  claim  for  their  pres- 
 ent "Litany  of  the  Saints"  a  great  antiquity  antedating  even  the 
 time  of  Gregory  the  Great;  although  conservatives  attribute  it  to 
 him.  Lambing*  says,  "It  is  not  strange,  however,  that  this  Lit- 
 any should  be  attributed  to  St.  Gregory,  inasmuch  as  he  had  a 
 great  devotion  to  the  saints,  and  had  their  Litany  chanted  with 
 special  solemnity  in  the  processions  which  he  caused  to  be  made 
 through  the  streets  of  Rome  on  the  occasion  of  the  plague  that 
 raged  there  during  his  pontificate."  To  what  ludicrous  extent 
 these  invocations  were  multiplied  appears  from  the  notice  in 
 Blunt' s  '''Annotated  Book  of  Conimo?i  Prayer''  of  an  old  Tours 
 form  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick  wherein  the  list  of  saints  is 
 more  than  four  columns  in  length.  Others  mention  local  Litanies 
 with  as  high  as  two  and  three  hundred  saints'  names,  all  to  be 
 responded  to  in  dreary  monotony  by  ''ora  pro  nobis.''     When  we 
 
 *   '■'■  The  Sacramentah  of  the  Catholic  Church.'''' 
 
136  MEMOIRS, 
 
 learn  further  that  in  time  they  came  to  have  ''letania  septayia,'^ 
 "<]inna,"  or  "'tenia,'''  in  which  seven,  five  or  three  subdeaconSr 
 as  the  case  might  be,  each  repeated  every  snppHcation  and  re- 
 sponse in  order,  multiplying  the  original  manifoldly,  we  gain 
 another  view  of  the  religious  extravagances  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
 
 Gradually,  despite  their  multiplicity,  and  diversity  of  pur- 
 pose, a  uniform  outline  began  to  assert  itself  so  that  Blunt, — who 
 in  his  A)inotatcd  Book  of  Commmi  Prayer  must  examine  no  less- 
 than  thirty  separate  specimens — says,  "The  general  divisions  of 
 Mediaeval  Litanies  were:  i.  Kyrie  and  "Christ,  hear  us,"  etc. 
 2.  Entreaties  to  each  of  the  Divine  Persons  and  to  the  whole 
 Trinity.  3.  Invocation  of  Saints.  4.  Deprecations.  5.  Obse- 
 crations. 6.  Petitions.  7.  Agnus  Dei,  Kyrie,  Lord's  Prayer. 
 8.  Collects.  This  will  be  seen  to  correspond  in  part  with  the  ar- 
 rangement of  our  own  which  is  a  purified  form  of  the  Roman 
 Catholic  "Litany  of  the  Saints." 
 
 By  the  Fifteenth  Century  this  "Great  Litany"  had  become 
 fixed  in  its  form.  It  was  approved  in  1601  according  to  Drews.* 
 It  is  now  known  as  above,  having  sixty-three  invocations  of  saints. 
 It  is  the  especial  "liturgical  Litan}-"  and  is  used  at  the  bestowal 
 of  holy  orders,  at  the  blessing  of  the  font  on  Holy  Saturday  and 
 the  Eve  of  Pentecost  (in  a  shortened  form),  on  April  25th,  and 
 on  the  Rogation  Days.  On  these  occasions  it  is  always  used  in 
 Latin.  "It  is  known  in  liturgical  language  as  the  Greater,  and 
 Lesser  Litany.  The  former  is  chanted  in  the  solemn  processions 
 on  the  feast  of  St.  Mark,  and  the  latter  on  the  Rogation  Days."t 
 
 The  former  obligation  to  recite  this  Litany  on  all  Fridays 
 during  Lent  was  removed  by  Pius  V;  but  aside  from  the  above 
 public  recitals  those  who  are  bound  to  the  recitation  of  the  Divine 
 Office  are  also  bound  to  recite  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  on  St. 
 Mark's  Day  and  on  the  three  Rogation  Days.  There  is  no  in- 
 dulgence attached  to  the  recitation  of  this  Litany.     The  "Litany 
 
 ♦    Hauck-Herzog,   Real-Encyclopedie. 
 
 t    I.AMHING. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         137 
 
 of  the  Blessed  Virgin"  or  of  "Ouir  Lady  of  Loretto"  was  ap- 
 proved in  1587.*  Lambing  claims  for  this  an  antiquity  greater 
 than  the  "Litany  of  the  Saints."  He  quotes  Quarti's  opinion 
 that  it  was  "composed  by  the  Apostles  after  the  Assumption  of 
 the  Blessed  Virgin  into  Heaven."  Drews  says,  "However,  it 
 first  appears  at  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century;  the  oldest  im- 
 print hitherto  known  is  heard  of  in  1576."  The  recitation  of 
 this  Litany  once  a  day  gains  an  indulgence  of  two  hundred  days 
 by  the  grant  of  Sixtus  V  (1585)  and  Benedict  XIII  (1784).  For 
 every  recital,  by  the  clemency  of  Pius  VII  (1800),  the  faithful 
 gain  three  hundred  days  indulgence;  while  for  a  daily  recital  on 
 the  five  feasts  of  obligation  (Immaculate  Conception,  Nativity, 
 Annunciation,  Purification,  and  Assumption),  a  plenary  indul- 
 gence, "on  condition  of  confession,  communion,  visiting  a  church, 
 and  praying  according  to  the  intention  of  the  Holy  Father,  "f 
 The  third  approved  Litany:  that  of  "The  Holy  Name  of  Jesus" 
 was  approved  partially  in  1862  and  fully  in  1886.  It  is  not  so 
 old  as  the  other  two.+  There  is  an  indulgence  of  300  days  to  be 
 gained  through  its  recital  once  a  day  '  'by  all  the  faithful  of  the 
 Christian  world."  Other  Litanies  such  as  that  of  the  "Sacred 
 Heart,"  or  the  "Blessed  Sacrament,"  or  "For  the  Faithful  De- 
 parted" are  not  universally  approved  but  their  use  occurs  in  some 
 dioceses  by  clemency  of  the  Bishop. 
 
 In  the  Protestant  Church,  the  Lutheran,  Anglican,  and  Mo- 
 ravian divisions  have  retained  the  use  of  the  Litany  in  purified 
 forms.  We  will  glance  briefly  at  the  diiTerences  in  form  and  us- 
 age before  closing  our  discussion. 
 
 A.  In  the  Anglican  Chicrch.  It  seems  to  be  the  endeavor  of 
 the  Anglican  writers  to  prove  an  almost  independent  development 
 for  the  English  Litany  as  now  used  by  the  Church  of  England 
 and  the  Protestant  Episcopal   Church  in   the  United  States  of 
 
 *  Drews. 
 
 t  Lambing. 
 
 X  "Of  Jesuilical  Origin."     Horn,  Lilurgics. 
 
13f>  MEMOIRS. 
 
 America.  The  Briti.sh  Church  undoubtedly  was  one  of  the  first 
 to  adopt  the  custom  instituted  by  Mamertus,  for  when  St.  Augus- 
 tine went  to  the  island  on  his  mission  from  Rome  in  596  A.  D., 
 he  entered  Canterbury  chanting  an  anthem  which  was  part  of  the 
 Rogation  Tuesday  Service  in  the  Lyons  Office.  Copies  of  the 
 early  Litanies  used  in  P)nglish  Churches  are  numerous.  The 
 most  noted  are  the  so-called  "Anglo-Saxon  Litany,"  and  those 
 in  the  Sarum,  York  and  Hereford  rites;  these  are  in  Latin.  En- 
 glish Litanies  dating  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
 tury are  noted  by  Maskell;*  but  they  did  not  affect  the  final  form 
 in  the  Prayer  Book  to  any  extent.  In  its  present  form  the  Lit- 
 any is  practically  the  English  Litany  translated  and  arranged  by 
 Cramner  in  1544,  with  slight  revisions,  mainly  in  rubrics,  intro- 
 duced in  the  several  editions  of  the  Prayer  Book  (1548,  1552, 
 1559,  1662). 
 
 The  issuance  of  a  Litany  in  an  approved  English  form  was 
 the  greatest  step  toward  liturgical  reform  which  Henry  \'in 
 could  be  prevailed  upon  to  take.  Bishop  Cranmer,  according  to 
 a  letter  upon  this  subject  addressed  to  the  King,  says  he  "was 
 constrained  to  use  more  than  the  libert}^  of  a  translator;"  he  "al- 
 tered divers  words,"  "added  parts,"  took  away  parts,  dropped 
 others,  and  in  some  cases  added  whole  divisions.  He  most  likely 
 had  before  him  the  old  English  Litany  of  the  "Prymers,"  the 
 Sarum  Breviary  and  that  of  York,  the  Reformed  Breviarj'-  of  Car- 
 dinal Quignonez,  the  Reformed  Liturgy  of  Hermann,  Archbishop 
 of  Cologne,  and  very  likely  Luther's  Latin  or  German  Liturgy  of 
 1529.  Upon  Cranmer's  own  statement,  quoted  above  in  part,  we 
 see  that  all  these  contributed  to  the  form  which  he  compiled  and 
 doubtless  the  two  German  arrangements  (both  practically  Lu- 
 ther's) did  so  more  largely  than  the  rest  since  they  were  the  most 
 evangelical  in  tone.  Yet  Blunt  says,  "But  these  foreign  Reform- 
 ers had  scarcely  any  influence  beyond  a  few  clauses  in  the  Litany, 
 and  it  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  in  the  case  of  the  Litany 
 
 *   Mouiiiiuiilii  Kiliialia. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.  139 
 
 our  English  form  was  not  in  reality  the  original  of  that  in  Her- 
 man's book."*  Jacobs  in  his  '' LtUheran  Movement  in  Eiigland'' 
 has  shown  by  a  parallelling  of  I^uther's  Latin  Litany  (1529)  and 
 the  English  of  Marshall's  Primer  (1535),  and  by  a  careful  com- 
 parative study  of  the  component  parts  and  separate  expressions, 
 how  largely  the  German  Reformer's  liturgical  conservatism  in- 
 fluenced the  reformation  Litany  and  Liturgy  in  England.  Aside 
 from  Blunt  the  other  Anglican  authorities  which  we  have  exam- 
 ined seem  to  know  nothing  of  the  Lutheran  Litany.  The  Roman 
 form  appears  to  have  exerted  but  little  influence  upon  the  English 
 Church. 
 
 Although  the  old  Latin  Litanies  began  with  the  Kyrie  and 
 were  followed  in  that  respect  by  the  Litanies  of  the  Primers, 
 Cramner  rejected  it  and  opens  with  the  expanded  form,  "O  God, 
 the  Father,  etc.,"  which  follows  the  Kyrie  in  the  old  forms  and 
 in  those  at  present  used  in  the  Roman  and  Lutheran  Churches. 
 The  transposition  of  the  intercessions  for  temporal  rulers  to  a 
 place  preceding  that  for  the  spiritual  shows  the  influence  of  Hen- 
 ry Vnrs  pretentions  as  head  of  the  Church.  Even  in  Amer- 
 ica where  the  claim  is  of  course  invalid  the  inversion  stands  un- 
 changed. The  invocation  of  saints  was  rejected  most  naturally 
 as  being  one  of  the  "abuses"  which  the  Reformation  was  to  do 
 away.  Palmerf  gives  four  arguments  in  justification  of  this  act: 
 "First,  because  the  Litanies  of  all  Churches  were  devoid  of  them 
 for  seven  centuries;  secondly,  because  they  were  unnecessarj^; 
 thirdly,  because  they  were  imprudent;  and,  fourthly,  because 
 they  originated  and  promoted  the  danger  of  heresy  and  blasphe- 
 my." 
 
 Processionals  were  very  popular  in  England  but  the  abuses 
 connected  with  them  became  so  notorious  that  they  were  forbid- 
 den by  the  injunctions  of  Edward  VI  (1547),  which  ordered  that 
 "the  priests  with  other  of  the  choir"  were  to  kneel  in  the  midst 
 
 *  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
 t   Orirines  Liturnc<z. 
 
1-10  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  the  church  immediately  before  High  Mass  "to  sing  or  say  the 
 T.itany."  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549  the  Litany,  printed  after 
 the  Communion,  was  ordered  to  be  said  or  sung  on  Wednesdays 
 and  Fridays.  In  the  edition  of  1552  it  was  printed  after  the  of- 
 fice of  Evening  Prayer,  "to  be  used  on  Sundays,  Wednesdays, 
 I^ridays  and  at  other  times."  The  present  Anglican  Book  of 
 Common  Prayer  has  the  rubric,  "to  be  sung  or  said  after  Morn- 
 ing Prayer  upon  Sundays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  and  at  other 
 times  when  it  shall  be  commanded  by  the  Ordinarj-.*  ^he  rubric 
 in  the  American  Prayer  Book  reads,  "To  be  used  after  Morning 
 Service  on  Sundays,  Wednesdays  and  Fridays.  There  are  a  few 
 slight  changes  in  the  text  of  the  American  Book.  There  is  no 
 provision  for  the  use  of  the  Litany  as  a  Church  Prayer  in  the 
 Chief  Service.  In  fact  the  Anglican  arrangement  of  the  liturgic- 
 al offices  is  such  as  to  preclude  the  use  of  a  "general  prayer"  in 
 the  sense  known  to  the  Ancient  Church  and  to  us.  The  Litany 
 is  always  used  as  a  special  or  extra  Service. f 
 
 There  is  no  rubric  in  direct  connection  with  the  Litany  for 
 the  place  from  which  it  is  to  be  used,  but  in  the  Anglican  "Or- 
 der of  Coniniination"  the  rubric  before  the  Fiftj'-first  Psalm  says, 
 "Then  shall  they  all  kneel  upon  their  knees,  and  the  priests  and 
 clerks  kneeling  (in  the  place  where  they  are  accustomed  to  say 
 the  Litany)  shall  say  this  Psalm."  This  .seems  to  recognize  a 
 particular  place  for  the  use  of  the  Litanj-,  distinct  from  the  sta- 
 tion for  the  performance  of  the  ordinary  offices.  The  early  offices 
 prescribe  a  choir  of  seven  boys  to  chant  the  Litanj-  in  "the  midst 
 of  the  Church"  and  this  custom  appears  to  have  prevailed  until 
 the  present.  At  other  times  the  priest  or  deacon  leads  the  Litany 
 kneeling  in  the  nave  upon  a  prayer  desk,  known  as  a  faldstool. 
 This  practice  is  based  upon  Joel  2:  17.     The  Litany  is  generally 
 
 *  In  accord  with  the  use  observed  in  the  medi;vval  Churches,  the  .\ntjlican  Or- 
 ders retain  the  Litany  in  the  Offices  for  the  ordering  of  deacons,  of  priests,  and  con- 
 secration of  bishops,  immediately  after  the  caiuiidates  have  been  presented. 
 
 t  FkeeMaVN,  however,  'T/  i>ni/>/i-s  of  Di-'itic  Service,''''  si-'ems  to  appreciate  this 
 character  of  the  Litany.     Cf.  pp.  321-329  and  441. 
 
THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         141 
 
 ;s7i)ig  in  the  English  Church,  especially  in  the  Cathedrals.  The 
 American  Prayer  Book  has  no  rubric  on  place  and  the  invariable 
 custom  is  to  say  the  Litany. 
 
 There  is  a  great  wealth  of  musical  settings  to  the  Litany  in 
 the  Anglican  Church  but  they  nearly  all  retain  Plain  Song  char- 
 acteristics. The  settings  are  provided  only  for  the  "former  part 
 -of  the  Litany,"  i.  e.,  as  far  as  the  Kyrie.  The  second  section 
 beginning  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  known  to  Anglican  usage  as 
 ■"The  Suffrages."  The  popularity  of  the  Litanies,  and  their 
 early  passage  into  the  vernacular — even  before  the  Liturgy  itself 
 was  reformed — and  the  disposition  to  sing  them  on  all  occasions 
 accounts  for  the  preservation  of  the  Litany  chant  "in  a  more  en- 
 tire and  unmutilated  state  in  our  cathedrals  than  any  other  part 
 of  Plain  Song."*  Jebb  says  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of 
 various  settings, f  "For  three  hundred  years,  i.  e.,  ever  since  the 
 Reformation  (at  least),  it  has  been  the  established  and  uninter- 
 rupted custom  of  our  Church,  at  least  in  her  principal  choirs,  to 
 sing  all  the  Preces,  Responses,  and  the  former  part  of  the  Litany 
 to  harmonies,  accompanied  'by  the  organ,  on  the  great  Festivals  and 
 on  solemn  occasions."  He  gives  the  notation  of  Tallis,  in  five 
 different  harmonies,  together  with  one  notation  each  by  Bird, 
 Day,  King,  Wanliss,  and  Loosemore  (penitential).  Archer  and 
 Reed  I  refer  to  the  antiquity  of  the  "traditional  Litany  melody  of 
 the  Anglican  Church." 
 
 This  is  of  necessity  a  brief  and  imperfect  studj^  of  the  Angli- 
 can usage  of  the  Litany  but  it  will  sufiice,  let  it  be  hoped,  for 
 comparison. 
 
 B.  ///  the  Moravia)!  Church.  The  history  of  the  Litany  in 
 the  Church  of  the  Unitas  Fratriim,  known  to  us  as  the  Moravian, 
 is  interesting.  The  history  of  this  body  of  evangelical  Christians 
 begins  in  reality  before  the  Reformation,  belonging  to  the  results 
 
 *    RiMBAULT. 
 
 +   Choral  Respowies  and  Litany  of  the  United  Churches  of  Engl,  and  Ir, 
 ±  Preface  to  The  Choral  Service  Book. 
 
142  MEMOIRS, 
 
 of  the  work  of  Huss.  The  principles  of  reformation  upon  which 
 this  coininunity  was  founded  were  purely  evangelical  and  were 
 characterized  by  extreme  Biblical  simplicity.  Hence  they  were 
 led  to  discard  Church  forms  and*  their  cultus  for  a  long  time  was 
 extremely  plain.  The  use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  a  guide  in 
 everything;,  the  prominence  given  to  congregational  singing,  and 
 the  use  of  the  vernacular  in  all  services  prevented  the  establish- 
 ment of  a  Liturgy  for  the  first  hundred  years.  They  could  not 
 help,  however,  but  be  influenced  by  the  Reformation  of  the  Six- 
 teenth Century,  nor  are  the}'  averse  to  acknowledging  their  in- 
 debtedness to  the  Reformers  for  certain  things.  The  confession 
 of  the  "Ancient  Church  of  the  Brethren"  was  revised  many  times 
 and  two  editions^'-  had  an  introduction  by  Luther.  The  "Re- 
 newed Church"  has  no  officially  recognized  document  as  its  Con- 
 fession of  Truth  but  from  the  "Results  of  the  General  Synod  of 
 1899"  we  learn  that  it  adheres  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Apostles, 
 and  that  it  recognizes  "that  in  the  twenty-one  doctrinal  articles- 
 of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  as  being  the  first  and  most  general 
 confession  of  the  Evayigelical  (Protestant)  Church,  the  chief  doc- 
 trines of  the  Christian  faith  are  clearly  and  simply  set  forth." 
 Although  they  were  the  first  body  of  evangelical  Christians  to 
 publish  a  hymn-book  in  the  vernacular  for  congregational  sing- 
 ing, f  it  was  not  until  about  1566  that  a  Liturgy  began  to  develop. 
 In  a  large  hymnal  published  in  that  year  Luther's  German  Lit- 
 any of  1529  was  incorporated.  This  Litany,  practically  unal- 
 tered, appeared  again  in  the  first  hymnal  of  the  "Renewed 
 Church"  in  1735.  From  that  time  may  be  dated  the  independ- 
 ent development  of  their  Litany  until  in  its  accepted  form  to-day 
 it  partakes  more  of  the  character  of  an  Office  of  Worship  than  that 
 of  a  mere  prayer.  The  first  Moravian  Litany  was  compiled  in 
 1742.     It  reached  its  completed  and  fixed  form  in  1790,!  although 
 
 ♦  German,  1533;    Latin,  1538. 
 
 t   1501. 
 
 X  Die  grosse  Kirchenlitanie. 
 
THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND   SUFFRAGES.         143 
 
 the  hymnal  of  the  German  branch  published  in  1869  incorporated 
 an  abridged  form*  which  is  now  used  generally  through  Ger- 
 many. The  need  for  an  abridgment  was  necessitated  by  the 
 gradual  combination  of  the  Litany  with  the  "Predigt  Gottes- 
 dienst."  Formerly  it  had  been  a  separate  Service  held  at  nine 
 o'clock. 
 
 When  the  English  branch  of  the  Church  was  founded  in  1742 
 the  Herrnhut  Litany  was  translated  for  its  use.  This  translation 
 has  undergone  equallj'  as  many  emendations  as  the  German. 
 Some  of  the  changes  and  editions  embodied  were  suggested  by 
 the  Anglican  Bishop  of  London.  A  comparison  of  the  forms  of 
 the  two  Churches  should  serve  to  show  what  these  were.  The 
 English  form  has  "a  kind  of  Introit  before  the  ICyrie."  The 
 Moravian  Church  in  America  adopted  the  English  form  but  in 
 1870  revised  it  in  comparison  with  the  original.  The  American 
 Church  introduced  the  introductory  form  of  confession  and  abso- 
 lution and  inserted  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Gloria  Patri  before 
 the  invocations.  The  independent  features  of  the  Moravian  Lit- 
 any are  a)  the  forms  just  mentioned,  b)  the  multiplication  of  the 
 deprecations,  obsecrations,  and  intercessions,  c)  the  use  of  the 
 petitions  of  the  Lord''  s  Prayer  as  the  response  to  the  first  of  the 
 invocations,!  d)  the  introduction  of  a  praise  Versicle  between 
 two  groups  of  intercession,  e)  the  absence  of  any  concluding  Ver- 
 sicles  and  Collects,  and  f )  the  introduction  of  hymn  singing  be- 
 tween the  different  parts.  After  the  Absolution  and  before  the 
 Creed  the  last  four  verses  of  a  metrical  Te  Deiim  are  sung;  be- 
 tween the  invocations  and  the  deprecations  the  last  three  verses 
 of  the  second  stanza  of  "All  glory  to  God  on  high;"  after  the  ob-  . 
 secrations,  the  first  stanza  of  a  Litany  hymn  to  the  Saviour;  be- 
 
 *  Die  kleine  Kirchenlitanie. 
 
 t  Lord  God,  our  Father,  which  art  in  Heaven,     Hallowed  be  Thy  NaiiiCf  etc.. 
 Amen. 
 
 Lord  God,  Son,  Thou  Saviour  of  the  world,     Be  gracious  unto  tis. 
 Lord  God,  Holy  Ghost,     Abide  with  us  foi-ever. 
 
144  MEMcriRS. 
 
 fore  the  Agnus,  a  stanza  by  Gregor,  "Lord  for  Thy  coming  xxs 
 prepare."* 
 
 The  analysis  or  explanation  of  the  Litany  as  given  in  the 
 Moravian  Manual  will  show  us  how  the  elements  of  the  opening 
 part  of  our  Chief  Service  are  embodied  in  this  Litany. 
 
 "The  Kyrie  Eleison,  an  invocation  and  an  invitation  to  confession  are 
 f<jll<>\vecl  by  a  confes.sion  of  sins,  all  kneeling.  The  Absolution  leads  to  the 
 Creed,  a  Hymn  intervening.  Then  follows  the  Gloria  Patri  and  the  Lord's 
 Praj'er,  joined  with  brief  intercessions  to  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Af- 
 ter another  verse  is  sung  general  intercessions  are  made  with  reference  to 
 Providential  surroundings  and  spiritual  needs;  prayers  for  the  Church  uni- 
 versal, the  denomination  itself  and  its  congregations,  and  all  classes  therein 
 follow  another  Hymn.  Intercessions  on  behalf  of  temporal  requirements 
 and  the  discharge  of  social  duties,  prayers  for  missions  among  the  heathen, 
 the  Hebrews  and  Islam,  petitions  in  behalf  of  the  constituted  authorities  of 
 the  land  and  for  its  peace  and  prosperity,  for  travelers,  the  persecuted,  the 
 sick,  the  aged  and  the  dying — for  all  men  and  for  the  coming  of  Christ's 
 Kingdom,  finally,  after  another  Hymn,  lead  to  responsive  intercessions, 
 wherein  faith  in  the  atonement  and  a  benediction  of  peace  is  besought  with 
 this  as  its  sure  foundation." 
 
 This  Litany  is  prescribed  as  the  opening  order  for  the  rite  of 
 "Consecration  of  a  Bishop."  That  it  was  the  basis  upon  which 
 all  their  forms  of  Service  were  built  is  a  conclusion  deduced  from 
 the  presence  of  parts  of  it  in  almost  every  form  given  in  their 
 Liturgy.  The  phrase  "We  poor  sinners  pray,  hear  us  gracious 
 Lord  and  God,"  common  to  all  other  Litanies,  is  not  found  in 
 the  body  of  their  "Church  Litany"  but  it  occurs  in  the  "Easter 
 Morning  Litany"  and  in  the  "Office  for  the  Burial  of  the  Dead." 
 It  is  not  in  the  form  of  \'ersicle  and  Response  but  is  used  entire, 
 as  a  Response.  The  invocations  are  used  in  an  "Office  of  Wor- 
 ship for  Siuiday  Evening,"  in  one  for  the  Epiphany  Season,  and 
 also  in  that  for  Trinity  Sunday.  The  Kyrie  is  used  in  nearly  all 
 the  Offices,  while  parts  of  the  obsecrations  and  the  Agnus  occur 
 in  many  of  them.     The  "Easter  Litany"  referred  to  is  in  reality 
 
 *  Of.  Liturgy  and  Hymns  of  the  Aniirican  Province  of  the   I'nitas  Fralruin, 
 Bethlehem,  1903.      Morv.  I'ubl.  House. 
 
THE.  BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         145 
 
 a  form  of  Service  for  Easter  Morning  since  it  contains  scarcely 
 any  of  the  Litany  elements.  It  is  composed  of  the  Easter  greet- 
 ing, paraphrases  of  the  several  articles  of  the  Creed*  to  each  of 
 which  the  congregation  responds,  successively.  This  I  verily  be- 
 lieve,  This  I  jnost  certainly  believe,  This  I  assuredly  believe.  The 
 Lord's  Prayer  and  Scripture  passages  are  also  used,  all  the  parts 
 being  interspersed  with  stanzas  from  Easter  hymns.  This  Ser- 
 vice was  compiled  about  the  same  time  as  the  Church  Litany. 
 
 The  Office  for  the  Season  of  Lent  is  an  American  compilation 
 based  upon  the  second  Litany  of  the  German  Churchf  used  there 
 both  in  Advent  and  Lent.  It  opens  with  one  section  of  the  Ag- 
 nus, uses  passages  from  the  Epistles  and  Prophets  referring  to 
 Christ  and  His  mediatorial  work,  stanzas  of  hymns,  a  group  of 
 eight  deprecations,  one  of  seven  obsecrations  and  another  of  four, 
 and  two  obsecrations  with  separate  responses. 
 
 The  last  edition  of  the  Moravian  "Offices  of  Worship  and 
 HymnsX  gives  "chants  for  the  Litany." 
 
 There  are  intonations  for  the  "Minister  and  Choir,"  and  re- 
 sponse chants  for  "All."  These,  however,  cover  only  the  open- 
 ing Kyrie,  the  Gloria  after  the  Creed,  the  invocations  (only  for 
 the  Doxology  of  the  Lord's  Prayer),  the  praise  Versicle  and  Re- 
 sponse, the  Ag?ius,  and  the  final  Kyrie.  Evidently  the  remain- 
 ing portions  of  the  Litany  are  said.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in 
 all  the  chants  for  the  Services,  musical  provision  for  the  minis- 
 ter's part  is  always  made.  There  is  no  indication  of  the  identity 
 of  the  composer  of  the  Chants  but  there  is  a  uniformity  of  pro- 
 gression, tempo  and  harmonization  which  would  point  to  a  com- 
 mon composer  for  all  the  ofiice  music. 
 
 C.  In  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  Litany  as  the  Lutheran 
 Church  has  it  to-day  is  practically  of  Luther's  composition.  Lit- 
 anies in  their  various  mediaeval  forms  and  uses  were  equally  as 
 
 *  Based  upon  Luther's  exposition. 
 
 +  Litanei  von  Leben.  Leiden  unci  Sterben  yesu. 
 
 X  Bethlehem,  1902,  Morv.  Publ.  House. 
 
146  MEMOIRS. 
 
 poi)iilar  in  Cicrmaiiy  as  in  other  countries,  judging  from  the  ra- 
 pidity and  universality  with  which  Luther's  forms,  both  Latin 
 and  German,  were  adopted.  Jacobs*  refers  to  a  curious  Litany 
 for  the  Gcnnaiis  used  on  Ash  Wednesday,  "adapted  at  Witten- 
 burg  into  a  prayer  for  Luther's  cause."  The  responses  were, 
 "Have  mercy  on  the  Germans,"  "Help  the  Germans,"  "Protect 
 the  Germans,"  etc.  Even  the  Psalm  began,  "Make  haste,  O 
 God,  to  help  the  Germans."  ,In  the  early  days  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion processions  remained  in  vogue  and  the  old  Litanies  were  still 
 in  use,  but  by  1525  they  had  been  rejected.  Early  in  15291-  Lu- 
 ther published  a  purified  form  and  introduced  the  use  of  it  in  the 
 Church  at  Wittenburg.  It  was  received  with  great  delight  and 
 Luther  himself  considered  it  "a  precious  spoil"  and  according  to 
 Gerber  spoke  of  it  as  second  only  to  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Drews+ 
 says  that  the  spread  of  Luther's  Litany  was  accomplished  ist,  by 
 a  special  edition  of  the  text  issued  in  i529§;  2nd,  by  its  being  ap- 
 pended to  the  third  edition  of  the  Small  Catechism;  and  3rd,  by 
 its  incorporation  into  the  hymnbooks.  Edition  after  edition  of 
 the  various  "Gesangbiicher,"  so  popular  throughout  Germany, 
 were  printed.  Some  have  only  the  Latin  text  which  was  used 
 mostly  in  the  schools,  others,  the  German  text,  and  many  have 
 both  forms.  Its  introduction  into  the  KOO,  followed  quickly, 
 which  is  not  surprising.  South  and  Southwest  Germany  took 
 the  lead  in  this.  Brenz  and  Bucer  by  sermon  and  letter  recom- 
 mended its  adoption.  It  was  found  in  all  the  important  KOO  of 
 every  section  of  the  Fatherland  by  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
 tury. 
 
 When  we  examine  the  form  in  which  Luther  gave  to  the 
 Church  this  great  prayer  in  its  purification,  we  find  that  he  in- 
 corporated many  changes  from  the  Roman  form,  and  made  many 
 
 *  I. nth.  Mov.   in  Engl. 
 
 t  March  13. 
 
 X  Hauck-Herzog,   Real-Encyclopedie. 
 
 §  Wittenburg,  "Er  kostete  7  Pfge." 
 
THE    BIDDING   PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         147 
 
 additions.  Naturally  the  invocation  of  saints  dropped  out.  The 
 invocation,  ''Holy  Triiiity,  one  God''  was  dropped  and  a  few 
 changes  made  in  the  responses.  A  significant  deprecation,  "From 
 all  error"  was  adopted;  "From  Th)-  wrath"  disappeared.  Fur- 
 ther changes  in  the  deprecations  reduced  their  number  from  elev- 
 en to  ten.  Another  characteristic  omission  is  that  of  the  obsecra- 
 tion, "By  the  mystery  of  Thy  Holy  Sacrament."  The  order  of 
 the  obsecrations  underwent  some  change.  "Temptations,"  "Ag- 
 ony and  Bloody  Sweat"  were  added.  The  petitions  for  help  in 
 tribulation,  prosperity  and  the  hour  of  death  were  new.  Three 
 intercessions  ("That  Thou  spare  us,"  "pardon  us,"  and  "vouch- 
 safe to  grant  us  true  penance")  no  longer  were  used.  The  rest 
 of  the  intercessions  underwent  great  changes  because  they  were 
 infused  largely  with  errors  (for  the  Pope,  the  dead,  etc.)  Many 
 intercessions  were  added,  increasing  the  number  to  twenty-one. 
 The  responses  to  the  Agnus  were  altered  and  an  Amen  added  to 
 the  Kyrie.  The  Lord's  Prayer  was  said  aloud  by  all  the  people 
 instead  of  having  the  final  petition  as  a  response.  The  Roman 
 Litany  used  a  part  of  the  Sixty-ninth  Psalm.  This  Luther 
 dropped.  Instead  of  the  eleven  Versicles  and  Responses  he  pro- 
 vided two,  and  in  place  of  the  ten  Collects,  selected  five  from 
 other  sources.  There  seems  to  be  some  disagreement  as  to  the 
 number  of  Collects  and  Versicles.  Drews  credits  him  with  five 
 Versicles  and  three  Collects.  Having  had  access  alone  to  the 
 Latin  copy,  we  are  unable  to  say  whether  the  German  differed  in 
 this  respect.  One  of  the  two  Versicles  given*  in  the  Latin  is  not 
 found  in  our  English  version,  neither  in  the  German  of  the 
 Kirchenbuch.  The  five  Collects  now  in  the  English  are  in  the 
 Latin;  but  the  "Collect  for  Peace"  which  is  the  only  Collect  now 
 surviving  from  the  Roman  original  is  not  included. 
 
 As  we  had  no  access  to  the  archives  we  are  unable  to  account 
 for  the  difference  between  the  Latin  of  Luther  and  our  present 
 
 *  Peccavimus,    Doinine,   cum   Pcitribus    nostris:     Injuste   egimus    iniquitatem 
 fecimus. 
 
148  MEMOIRS. 
 
 form.  The  petition  for  travelers  was  inserted  by  the  Joint  Com- 
 mittee on  Liturgy.*  There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  change  in 
 tlie  jietitions  relating  to  civil  affairs  for  which  we  cannot  account. 
 The  "O  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  IVe  beseech  Thee  to  hear 
 7/s"  does  not  appear  in  the  Latin  text.  We  have  found  nothing 
 on  the  sources  of  the  Versicles  to  Collects  two,  four  and  five. 
 
 When  the  arrangement  into  groups  followed  by  a  single  re- 
 sponse arose  is  not  known  to  us.  It  cannot  be  the  result  of  the 
 translation  into  the  English,  ajid  the  consequent  influence  of  the 
 Anglican  Litany,  since  Lohe  knows  the  practice  and  condemns  it. 
 "The  arrangement  of  the  petitions  into  groups,  which  never 
 found  much  favor  ought  not  to  be  countenanced  at  all.  The 
 power  of  this  prayer,  internal  as  well  as  external,  lies  in  the  re- 
 frains which  follow  the  intonations  of  each  part  as  stroke  upon 
 stroke;  for  it  is  sung  or  said  either  by  minister  and  congregation 
 or  by  choir  and  congregation,  "f  I  This  grouping  of  the  parts 
 may  have  been  the  natural  result  of  the  orderly  arrangement  which 
 Luther  gave  to  the  petitions  in  their  several  classes,  and  as  well 
 of  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  people  to  shorten  its  rendition 
 during  the  time  when  it  gradually  passed  into  almost  total  disuse, 
 in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
 
 An  analysis  of  this  prayer  will  show  us  great  harmony,  beau- 
 ty, comprehensiveness  and  strength.  No  better  appreciation  of 
 the  prayer  can  be  given  than  that  of  Lohe.]; 
 
 "The  Litany  in  its  Lutheran  form  is  like  the  magnificent  cathedrals  of 
 the  Middle  Ages,  which' become  the  more  dear  and  precious  to  the  heart  the 
 more  the  beauty  of  symmetrical  form  and  plan  is  recognized.  With  humble 
 confession  of  sin,  and  knowing  no  way  of  deliverance  except  by  grace  and 
 mercy,  it  lifts  the  soul  in  this  way,  all  the  more  powerfully  to  the  reverent 
 worship  of  the  Triune  God.  Its  Kyrie  and  its  Elcison  point — the  one  to  the 
 loftiest  heights,  the  other  to  the  lowest  depths.     Between  these  heights  and 
 
 *  Cf.  Standard  MS  of  Common  Service. 
 
 t  Our  rubrics  give  the  choice  of  methods,  placing  the  ancient  first,  however. 
 
 X  Agende,  translated  by  Longaker. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         149 
 
 depths  mediates  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Who,  as  the  prayer  advances  appears 
 more  clearly  and  refreshingly  with  His  merit  and  satisfaction.  The  Litany 
 begins  with  an  act  of  humble  worship,  continues  with  confession  of  Christ 
 and  concludes  in  the  sweet  Agmis.  The  deeper  the  heart  sinks  itself  into 
 this  prayer,  the  stronger  its  cry,  and  the  more  will  its  worship  become  the 
 song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb — the  song  of  the  New  Covenant.  What  a  be- 
 ginning, continuation  and  ending  are  here,  how  thoroughly  evangelical; 
 how  absolutely  in  accord  with  the  doctrines  of  our  Church.  Between  the 
 three  high  towers  of  beginning,  continuation  and  end  are  two  courses  of 
 well-arranged  petitions. — First  in  order  are  the  deprecationes  inali,  supplica- 
 tions for  deliverance  from  evil;  then  follow  the  apprecationes  boni,  petitions 
 for  all  manner  of  good,  which  gradually  pass  over  into  interpellationes  or 
 intercessions;  and  finally  a  thankful  prostration  of  the  heart  at  the  feet  of 
 Jesus,  the  Lamb  of  God.  Here  then,  are  prayers,  supplications,  interces- 
 sions and  thanksgivings  unto  Him  Whose  will  it  is  to  be  a  Saviour  of  all 
 men,  especially  of  them  that  believe.  Everything  for  which  we  ought  to 
 pray  is  included  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  petitions. 
 
 In  the  use  of  such  a  form  there  is  no  room  for  weak  sentimentality  or 
 idle  talk;  nevertheless  it  allows  before  all  other  forms  the  pressing  of  specific 
 petitions,  for  its  spirit  is  as  elastic  as  its  form  is  rigid.  Here  is  room  for  ev- 
 ery sigh  of  the  heart  and  the  clear  classification  of  the  petitions  will  itself 
 show  the  earnest  worshipper  where  to  introduce  special  petitions,  supplica- 
 tions or  intercessions.  Likewise  it  is  easy  to  determine  where  to  say:  Good 
 Lord,  deliver  us,  or  JVe  beseech  Thee  lo  hear  us,  good  Lord. 
 
 To  the  indifferent  the  Litany  is  indeed  a  lengthy  and  formal  affair. 
 Sung  or  said  by  Christless  souls  it  is  certainly  only  a  shell,  a  lifeless  form. 
 But  when  used  by  the  earnest  Christian,  it  contains  power,  spirit  and  life. 
 No  one  who  has  never  used  it  should  pass  judgment  on  it,  for  if  there  is  a 
 spirit  to  pray,  prayer  is  certainly  possible  by  means  of  the  Litany.  But 
 where  there  is  no  spirit  of  prayer  there  can  also  be  no  prayer,  no  matter 
 whether  the  words  are  after  a  form  as  rigid  as  that  of  the  Litany  or  as  form- 
 less as  the  words  of  those  who  reject  all  forms  of  worship. 
 
 The  use  to  which  this  prayer  was  put  in  the  Reformation 
 Church  shows  certain  innovations.  Of  course  its  use  on  the  an- 
 cient dies  statiomim,  Wednesday  and  Friday,  was  continued. 
 Luther  appointed  it  for  Matins  on  Wednesdays  and  for  Vespers 
 on  Fridays.  Not  many  followed  this  order.  Many  KOO  leave 
 a  choice  between  the  two  days;  some  ordain  its  use  on  both  days 
 
150  MEMOIRS. 
 
 and  others  only  on  Friday.*  A  number  have  no  set  daj's  hut 
 leave  the  choice  of  days  to  the  l)est  convenience  of  the  people. 
 Very  soon  the  Litany  became  appointed  for  Vespers  on  Sundays 
 and  Feastdays,  and  even  on  Sundays  after  the  sermon — if  there 
 were  no  communicants. f  Lossius  fixed  the  singing  of  the  Litany 
 at  the  place  of  the  Church  Prayer,  Mechlenburg  has  the  unicjue 
 provision  for  its  use  either  "before  or  during  the  Communion," 
 possibly  in  the  latter  case  as  a  private  devotion.  Some  orders 
 give  it  a  place  after  the  Epistle.  It  was  especially  appointed  for 
 use  on  Reminiscere,  the  12th  Sunday  after  Trinity,  in  the  four 
 Ember-weeks,  when  sermons  upon  the  catechism  were  preached, 
 and  at  ordinations;};  by. various  orders.  The  Pfal/.-Neuburg, 
 (1543)  directs  its  use  on  St.  Mark's  Day  and  on  the  Rogation 
 Days  with  processions  "from  one  church  to  another."  Some  of 
 the  Southern  Orders  have  set  days  of  humiliation  on  which  the 
 Litany  is  to  be  said  after  (nach)  the  sermon,  and  confession. 
 Lohe  differs  from  this  somewhat;  "In  many  of  the  KOO  the  Ser- 
 vice of  Public  Confession  and  Absolution  is  preceded  by  the 
 Litany." 
 
 Our  own  rubrics  permit  of  its  use  at  "Matins  on  Sundays 
 when  there  is  no  Communion  and  at  Vespers  on  Sundays, 
 Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  and  on  Days  of  Humiliation  and 
 Prayer. §  According  to  our  rubric  for  the  General  Prayer  the 
 character  of  the  Litany  as  a  Church  Prayer  is  recognized  and  its 
 use  permitted.  Why  no  reference  to  that  use  is  made  in  the  ru- 
 bric on  page  132  is  not  clear.  We  have  two  other  Litanies  in  our 
 Church  Book:  in  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  and  in  the  Commenda- 
 
 *  Naumberg,  1538,  "Alle  Freitag  nachmittag  urn  zwoelf  hora  singet  man  tias 
 Tenebrae  und  haelt  die  Litanci  darauf." 
 
 t  Koenigsberg,  and  Saxon  Visitation  Articles. 
 
 t    BrAUNSCHVVEIC.ER,     1543,      HlI.DESHElMER,     1 544,     and      MeCHI  ENKURGER, 
 
 1532  appoint  its  use  at  ordination. 
 
 §  U,  S.  S.  and  G.  S. :  at  morning  Service  ivhen  there  is  no  Corntniinion. 
 Kirchenbuch :  IVenn  bcim  Morgcngottes  dienst  am  Sonnlag  das  Heilige  Abendmuhl 
 nicht gejiert  7vird,  ist  est />assend,  stall  des  Allgemeinen  Kirihengebet  zuhallen. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         351 
 
 tion  of  the  Dying. "^^  The  latter  is  almost  an  exact  translation  of 
 the  brief  Litany  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Ordo  Commoidationes 
 Aninuz,  the  saints's  names  being  omitted.  The  former  opens 
 with  the  invocations;  has  seven  deprecations  with  the  response, 
 Defend  {/lim),  Good  Lord;  four  obsecrations  and  seventeen  inter- 
 cessions, closing  with  the  Agnus.  The  character  of  the  interces- 
 sions is  worthy  of  study.  The  source  of  this  Litany  is  not  known 
 to  us.  In  the  way  of  devotional  Litanies  there  is  Lohe's  ''Lita7iy 
 io  the  Holy  Ghosf  in  his  Agende  and  in  Dr.  Seiss'  Goldeji  Altar, 
 there  are  the  Litany  to  the  Saviour  and  the  Litany  to  the  Holy 
 Ghost,  presumably  from  his  own  pen. 
 
 On  the  manner  of  reading  the  Litany  there  is  not  much  to 
 offer  historically .  In  the  original  customs,  according  to  the  prac- 
 tice noted  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions ,  the  children  were  used  in 
 the  praying  of  the  Litany.  The  school-boys,  or  some  of  the  cat- 
 echumensf  "kneeling  before  the  great  altar"  sang  the  Litany, 
 the  congregation  rendering  the  responses.  Another  plan  was  to 
 have  the  choir  sing  the  intonations  and  the  congregation  the  re- 
 sponses; or  where  there  were  two  choirs  the  second  led  the  con- 
 gregational responses.  In  the  absence  of  such  choirs  the  pastor 
 intoned  the  Litany  standing  or  kneeling  before  the  Altar.  For  a 
 long  time  the  Litany  was  sung  at  all  its  renditions  but  with  1598 
 the  Strasburg  KO  began  the  practice  of  saying  it.  Very  soon  the 
 custom  arose  to  have  the  pastor  say  the  entire  prayer  himself 
 without  any  response  at  all.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
 decline  of  its  popularity,  which  was  only  arrested  by  Schoberlein 
 and  Kliefoth.  Naturally  when  the  people  no  longer  took  part 
 they  lost  interest,  and  then  knowledge  of  the  prayer  disappeared 
 until  finally  they  failed  longer  to  seek  the  blessing  to  be  gained 
 by  its  fervent  and  intelligent  use.  Once  more  we  refer  to  Lohe. 
 "The  very  essence,  the  majesty  and  power  of  the  Litany  are  to 
 
 *   Ch.  Bk.,   pp.  383-4  and  p.  405. 
 
 t  Luther's  directions  were   for  from  two   to  five   "Knaben  niit  guten,  reinen 
 Stimmltin  oder  der  Liturg  im  altar." 
 
152  MEMOIRS, 
 
 be  found  in  the  recurring  responses  of  the  congregation.  Xo  one 
 with  any  liturgical  instinct,  therefore,  will  say  that  tlie  minister 
 alone  ought  to  read  it.  To  sing  it  or  say  it  antiphonally  is  the 
 proper  way  to  use  it.  If  sung,  it  is  usually,  though  not  always, 
 without  organ  accompaniment.*  .  .  ,  On  Sundays  it  is  more  ap- 
 propriate to  sing  it  on  account  of  the  festival  character  of  the 
 day;  Wednesday  and  Friday  it  should  be  said." 
 
 Luther's  arrangement  of  the  Choral  music  for  the  Intonations 
 and  Responses  was  such  that  when  the  first  choir  satig  "A'j'avV," 
 the  second  responded  "£7m<?«/"  when  the  first  sang  "C/zm//," 
 the  others,  '' ErJioerc  lais.''  He  used  the  Plain  Song  melody, 
 and  this,  according  to  Archer  and  Reed,t  has  remained  almost 
 the  universal  use  in  Germany  since  the  Reformation  period. 
 Other  melodies,  which  appeared  in  great  abundance  according  to 
 Kuemmerle,  had  but  a  brief  local  vogue.  Spangenburg's  arrange- 
 ment of  the  choral  melody  for'  the  Responses  was  given  to  the 
 American  Church  in  Mrs.  Harriet  Krauth  Spaeth's  Church  Book 
 with  Music.  The  full  Intonations  and  Responses  in  pure  Plain 
 Song  for  the  entire  Litany  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chcnal  Service 
 Book  by  Archer  and  Reed.  There  is  an  independent  setting  in 
 Dr.  Seiss'  Church  So7ig  but  the  name  of  the  composer  is  not  giv- 
 en. It  does  not  possess  the  simple  majesty  nor  breathe  the  inner 
 spirit  of  the  prayer  as  does  the  impressive  and  appealing  melody 
 of  the  Plain  Song  chant. 
 
 D.  Litany  Hymns.  The  full  development  of  the  subject  of 
 the  metrical  Litanies  or  Litany  Hymns  is  prevented  by  lack  of 
 time  and  space.  It  is  a  most  interesting  stud)'.  Julian+  says 
 that  the  metrical  Litany  is  of  comparative  modem  date.  The 
 references  in  the  authorities  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  other 
 sections  of  this  paper  would  lead  one  to  question  that  statement. 
 There  were  metrical  Litanies  in  the  different  coiuitries — especial- 
 
 •  Cf.  Jebb  on  Anglican  custom  as  quoted  above, 
 t  Preface  to  The  Choral  Service  Book. 
 X   Did.  Ilymnology. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         153 
 
 ly  in  England — before  the  Reformation,  and  they  were  sometimes 
 alternated  with  the  other  forms  during  the  more  elaborate  cele- 
 brations of  the  Rogations.  Soon  after  the  appearance  of  Luther's 
 Litany  it  was  published  in  "liederform"  in  North  German5\ 
 Johann  Feder  is  looked  upon  as  its  author  but  not  with  any  cer- 
 tainty. Nicolaus  Pueltz  in  Hesse  published  some  "Litaneilieder' ' 
 which  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  regular  version  during  the 
 decline.  The  Kyrie  Lieder  in  the  Kirchenbiicl0  are  most  inter- 
 esting as  being  the  metrical  versions  of  the  "farced  Kyries.'" 
 The  Kirchenhich  contains  quite  a  number  of  Litany  Hymns. 
 We  cannot  quote  them  exactly.  Our  own  Church  Book  contains 
 eight  hymns  of  this  character. f  Our  Su?iday  School  Book  has 
 five.  I  The  Episcopal  Hymnal  contains  about  nineteen  hymns 
 with  a  Kyrie  refrain  to  each  stanza.  Seven  of  these  are  especial- 
 ly designated  "Litany  Hymns."  They  are  entitled:  "Litany  of 
 the  Holy  Ghost,"  Litany  of  the  Church,"  "Litany  for  the  Chil- 
 dren," two,  "Litany  of  the  Incarnate  Life,"  Litany  of  Peni- 
 tence," "Litany  of  the  Words  on  the  Cross."  The  English  Lit- 
 any Hymns  all  date  from  the  Nineteenth  Century  and  in  that  far 
 Julian's  claim  is  supported.  There  are  a  number  of  beautiful 
 hymns  of  this  type  in  the  Moravian  Hymnal. 
 
 III.       THE   SUFFRAGES. 
 
 Our  Common  Liturgy  includes  among  the  "General  Prayers," 
 the  General  Suffrages  and  as  well  the  Morning  and  Evening  Stif- 
 frages.  The  forms  as  we  have  them  come  from  the  Roman 
 Breviary  which  contains  the  Services  of  the  Canonical  Hours. 
 Originally  these  consisted  of  but  the  Matins  and  Vespers  instead 
 of  the  eight  "hours"  which  developed  afterwards.  The  Matins 
 and  Vespers  of  the  Eastern  Church  always  had  prayers  of  the 
 bidding  variety  at  the  close  of  the  Service.     In  contents  these 
 
 *  Nos.  407-413. 
 
 t  Nos.  25,  172,  232,  263,  439,  490,  603,  649. 
 
 %  Nos.  112,  164,  181,  218,  219. 
 
lo4  MEMOIRS. 
 
 were  almost  identical  with  those  in  tlie  A/issa  but  after  the  dis- 
 missal of  all  but  "the  faithful,"  there  was  a  special  prayer  and 
 l)lessing.*  The  history  of  the  development  of  the  Canonical 
 Hour  Offices  in  the  West  is  a  complicated  but  interesting  subject. 
 As  in  all  Liturgies  the  tendency  of  the  development  was  toward 
 extremes.  Many  revisions  and  condensations  occurred  and  reoc- 
 curred  ere  the  Roman  Breviary  reached  its  present  form.  The 
 Reformation  Church  felt  the  need  of  the  educational  and  devo- 
 tional aid  of  the  auxiliary  servicesf  but  she  wanted  them  for  the 
 people  and  not  for  monks  and  nuns.  So  she  returned  to  the  sim- 
 ple and  more  practical  observance  of  but  two  hours  of  daily 
 prayer:  Matins  and  Vespers.  In  this  also  the  Reformation  re- 
 turned to  primitive  usages,  and  added  one  more  link  to  the  chain 
 uniting  her  with  all  the  Early  Church. 
 
 The  mere  outline  of  these  two  Services:  Psalmody,  Lessons, 
 Hymns,  Prayer,  made  but  "little  provision  by  supplications  and 
 intercession  except  w'hen  the  Litany  was  used.";}:  Hence  the 
 precrs  of  certain  hours  of  the  Breviary  were  transferred  for  the 
 devotional  enrichment  of  our  Offices.  The  more  elaborate  preces 
 used  at  Lands  (2nd  "hour")  and  Vespers  (7th  "hour")  supplied 
 the  General  Suffrages,  with  but  few  changes. §  The  shorter 
 preces  at  prime  (3rd  "hour")  furnished  the  Morning  Si ff rages. 
 Here  the  introductory  supplications,  "O  Christ,  Thou  Son  of  the 
 living  God,  have  mercy  upon  us,  etc.,"  are  omitted  as  is  also 
 "Confession  and  Absolution"  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  set 
 of  Versicles  and  Responses.  In  the  Sunday  preces  at  this  hour, 
 following  the  part  with  which  our  Suffrages  close,  there  is  a  com- 
 memoration of   the  dead,  another  set  of  Kyrie,  Lord's   Prayer, 
 
 *  Apos.  Const.     Bk.  VIII. 
 
 +  Nebengottesdienst. 
 
 %    LOEHE. 
 
 §  Change  in  the  \'ersicle  and  Response,  "Lord  save  the  King,  etc."  and  re- 
 jecting of  the  Versicle  and  Response,  "Let  us  pray  for  the  faithful  departed,  etc." 
 We  were  unable  to  locate  the  last  two  of  our  Versicles  and  Responses,  "give  peace, 
 etc.,"  in  the  Roman  Breviary. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         J  55 
 
 Versicles,  and  Collect.  The  ferial  office  oi  Prime  contains  anoth- 
 er set  oi'  preces  leading  up  to  the  Confession  and  Absolution. 
 Lohe  gives  both  these  forms  in  his  Agende.  The  Evening  St(f- 
 frages  are  the  preces  at  Compline  (8th  "hour")  without  any 
 changes.  The  closing  Collects  in  both  our  forms  are  from  other 
 sources  than  the  Breviary.  The  direct  Lutheran  source  from 
 which  these  prayers  were  transferred  to  our  Liturgy  was  the  ap- 
 pendix to  Luther's  Catechism. 
 
 It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  Roman  Offices  from  earliest  times 
 both  the  Pater  Noster  and  Credo  are  said  in  secreto  as  far  as  the 
 sixth  and  seventh  petitions  in  the  prayer,  and  the  two  final  claus- 
 es in  the  Third  Article.  These  parts  are  used  as  Versicle  and 
 Response.  In  the  General  Suffrages  the  original  use  in  the 
 prayer  was  followed  except  that  it  is  not  said  silently.  The  ad- 
 herence to  ancient  usage  is  seen  in  the  omission  of  the  doxology 
 of  the  prayer.  B}'  resolution  of  the  Joint  Committee  the  doxolo- 
 gy was  allowed;  but  none  of  the  three  Bodies  inserted  it.  In  the 
 shorter  Suffrages  the  prayer  and  Creed  are  said  by  all.  Lohe 
 preserves  the  ancient  use. 
 
 The  Anglican  and  American  Episcopal  Offices  of  Morning, 
 and  Evenifig  Prayer  have  a  mutilated  remnant  of  the  Suffrages 
 in  the  preces  there  included  as  in  invariable  part  of  the  Office. 
 The  American  Order  is  the  shorter,  containing  no  Kyrie  and  hav- 
 ing less  Versicles  and  Responses.  In  both  Orders  the  Creed  pre- 
 cedes the  beginning  of  the  preces.  While  the  English  preces 
 consists  of  six  Versicles  and  Responses,  and  six  Collects  in  each 
 Office,  the  American  has  only  two  Versicles  and  Responses  in  the 
 moxvixwg preces,  no  Lord's  Prayer,  and  seven  Collects;  and  in  the 
 evening,  six  Versicles  and  Responses,  and  seven  Collects.  The 
 Collects  vary  for  the  two  Offices.  There  is  no  Benedicamus  in 
 either  form.  Freeman,  Blunt  and  others  endeavor  to  show  a  par- 
 allelism between  the  consecutive  sets  of  Versicles  and  Responses 
 and  the  Collects  which  follow. 
 
 The  rubrics  of  our  own  books  are  worthy  of  consideration. 
 
loG  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  Genera/  Suffrages  have  the  rubric,  ''A/ay  be  used  at  A  fa  fins 
 or  Vespers  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Litany.'''  The  ciueslion 
 arises  whether  it  would  be  proper  to  use  this  prayer  in  place  of 
 the  Cicncral  Prayer  as  is  done  with  the  Bidding  Prayer  and  Lit- 
 any. The  rubric  in  the  Chief  Service  says,  "<?r  a  seleeti<m  from 
 the  Collects  and  Prayers,  or  any  other  suitable  prayer,  (See  pp.  132— 
 154)."*  This  would  seem  to  include  the  use  of  the  General 
 Suffrage  at  least.  The  other  form,  it  can  be  seen  readily,  does 
 not  contain  sufficient  of  the  elements  of  the  General  Prayer.  The 
 special  rubrics  for  the  shorter  forms  contain  a  fruitful  suggestion: 
 *'At  the  Morning  Prayers  of  the  household''  and  ''At  the  Evening 
 Prayers  of  the  household.'"  The  original  Matins  and  Vespers  were 
 held  in  private  houses — especially  after  the  persecutions  ceased, — 
 and  in  the  history  of  our  own  Church  these  Offices  have  been 
 used  principally  in  the  schools,  until  the  adoption  of  the  \'esper 
 Order  for  the  Sunday  Evening  Service  by  the  American  Church. 
 Might  not  our  pastors  find  in  these  prepared  forms  an  aid  to  their 
 efforts  to  re-establish  the  salutary  but  waning  custom  of  family 
 worship? 
 
 The  Suffrages  may  be  sung  or  said;  and  the  Lutheran  music- 
 al authorities  quoted  in  connection  with  the  Litany  will  be  found 
 to  have  provided  also  for  the  Suffrages.  The  observation  of  Lohe 
 as  to  singing  the  Litany  on  Sundays  and  saying  it  during  the 
 week  is  equally  applicable  to  the  Suffrages. 
 
 It  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  all  the  Versicles  and  Responses 
 are  taken  from  the  Psalms.  How  they  came  to  be  selected  and 
 how  they  gradually  took  form  we  are  unable  to  explain  but  they 
 seem  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  more  abundant  Psalmody  of  the  early 
 arrangements  of  the  Offices. 
 
 The  etymology  of  the  word  is  interesting.     It  comes  from 
 
 the  Latin  suffragor,   "to  support  with  one's  vote  or  interest;" 
 
 hence  a  suffrage  is  "a  vote  in  support  of  some  measure."     Thus 
 
 it  comes  to  mean  assent.     In  the  liturgical  sense  of  the  word  we 
 
 *  The  G.  S.  and  U.  S.  S.  have  the  rubric  but  do  not  specify  the  pages. 
 
THE    BIDDING    PRAYER,    LITANY,    AND    SUFFRAGES.         157 
 
 give  a  suffrage  whenever  we  assent  by  the  Amen  to  the  Collects, 
 Prayers,  Confessions  and  Hymns  of  our  Services.  In  this  par- 
 ticular form  of  prayer  we  give  assent  to  the  statement  of  each 
 Versicle  by  the  Response.  It  is  not  hard  to  understand  why 
 these  should  be  called  "General  Prayers"  nor  to  realize  how 
 their  use  tends  to  emphasize  not  only  the  universal  priesthood  of 
 all  believers  but  also  their  essential  unity  in  thought  and  aim  and 
 life. 
 
 We  can  now  appreciate  slightly  the  helpful  treasure  which 
 our  Church  offers  her  people  in  these  three  forms  of  responsive 
 prayer.  A  little  study,  a  little  interest,  a  little  thought,  a  little 
 explanation,  a  little  use  will  soon  reward  us  as  pastors  and  peo- 
 ple with  large  and  numerous  blessings.  Dare  any  one  charge  the 
 Lutheran  Church  with  rigid  formalism  and  deadening  similarity 
 of  Service  when  these  variables  in  prayer  joined  with  the  other 
 variables  of  our  Orders  offer  us  the  opportunity  of  an  almost 
 countless  variety  in  our  Sunday  and  Weekday  Services? 
 
 Charles  Krauth  Fegley. 
 
 Allegheny ,   Pa . 
 
THE   USE   OF  STAINED   GLASS  IN   ECCLESIASTICAL 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Windows  are  the  eyes  of  a  building.  As  the  eyes  determine  the 
 character  of  a  face  for  beauty  or  ugHness,  so  the  windows  are 
 dominating  factors  in  the  impression  which  the  structure  makes 
 upon  the  intelligent  onlooker.  There  is  nothing  more  aggressive 
 in  the  inanimate  world  than  light  and  light  modified  by  passing 
 through  glass.  On  entering  the  House  of  God,  the  light  by 
 which  it  is  pervaded,  by  its  impression  upon  our  senses,  speaks 
 to  us  the  first  word,  whether  we  are  conscious  of  it  or  not. 
 While  we  are  within  the  sacred  walls,  its  influence  is  continually 
 with  us;  and,  on  leaving  the  gates  of  beauty,  it  sends  after  us  the 
 last  message  we  carry  awaj'.  It  is  well  worth  the  while,  then,  of 
 those  who  are  interested  in  the  beautifying  of  the  sanctuary  and 
 in  the  embellishment  of  its  Services,  to  give  earnest  heed  and 
 sincere  attention  to  the  use  of  glass  in  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
 This  subject  may  be  viewed  from  a  number  of  standpoints. 
 The  study  of  its  history  is  intensely  interesting  and  profitable. 
 Many  valuable  books  have  been  devoted  to  this  branch  of  the 
 subject.  An  exhaustive  study  of  glass  in  the  decoration  of 
 churches  would  naturally  open  with  a  treatment  of  the  history 
 of  the  subject.  After  this  there  would  logically  follow  a  dis- 
 cussion of  the  technical  processes  involved  in  the  making  of  the 
 glass  and  its  composition  into  the  decorated  window.  It  is  not 
 the  design  of  this  paper  to  enter  upon  a  consideration  of  either 
 the  historical  or  the  technical  phase  of  the  subject,  but  sim- 
 ply to  define  the  more  important  principles  which  must  be  ob- 
 
 (clix) 
 
160  MEMOIRS. 
 
 served  in  the  use  of  decorative  glass  in  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
 The  first  principle  is  a  structural  one.  The  substance  of 
 which  the  window  is  composed,  like  every  other  material  sub- 
 stance, is  subject  to  the  pull  of  gravity,  and  must  be  securely 
 supported.  Consequently,  in  all  good  work  the  sheets  of  glass 
 are  adequately  supported  on  bars  which  cross  the  window  and 
 render  it  firm  and  solid,  and  secure  the  glass  in  place.  This  is  a 
 structural  necessity  of  which  no  true  artist  is  ashamed.  To  try 
 to  hide  or  minimize  these  bars  is  foolish  and  unworthy  of  the 
 truthfulness  and  honesty  of  all  pure  art.  The  sheets  of  glass  sus- 
 pended on  these  bars  are  mosaics  of  stained  glass.  These  must 
 be  held  together  by  means  of  what  are  technically  called  "leads." 
 These,  too,  are  a  structural  necessitj^  and  must  be  duly  honored 
 b)'  the  artist.  Properly  to  lead  a  window  takes  time  and  study, 
 and  is  expensive.  Such  windows  are  not  picked  up  at  the  bar- 
 gain-counter; and,  as  a  consequence,  the  makers  of  decorated 
 windows  in  modern  times  have  manifested  a  tendency  to  diminish 
 the  width  and  the  weight  of  the  leads  and  to  do  away  entirely 
 with  the  cross-bars  by  the  use  of  steel  frames  as  a  substitute. 
 As  a  result  of  such  wretched  work,  unworthy  of  the  name  art, 
 we  are  told  on  good  authority  that  "one-half  of  the  churches  of 
 New  York  Cit}^  are  double  glazed  with  outside  sash  of  plain  glass 
 to  protect  the  poor  leaded  work  of  the  windows  proper  from  leak- 
 ing or  being  blown  to  fragments  by  the  winds."  To  show  that 
 this  is  entirely  unnecessary  it  is  but  necessary  to  continue  to 
 quote  from  the  same  author: — "We  have  the  living  evidence  that 
 well- constructed  leaded  glass  will  last  seven  hundred  3'ears  and 
 more,  and  that  under  the  most  trying  conditions  of  war  and  neg- 
 lect: as  witness  the  Eleventh  Century  windows.  But  they  are 
 all  made  with  large,  expensive  leads  and  are  properly  barred;  in 
 many  cases  bars  having  been  added  from  time  to  time;  which 
 fact  accounts  not  a  little  for  much  of  the  richness  of  tone  of  the 
 old  glass,  the  contrast  of  their  blacks  giving  much  of  the  jeweled 
 brilliance  of  the   glass  showing  between  them."      We  are  told 
 
USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     161 
 
 furthermore: — "The  old  makers  well  understood  the  worth  and 
 added  beauty  which  were  derived  from  their  sustaining  bars. 
 They  often  made  them  heavier  than  structural  necessity  demand- 
 ed, or  ran  them  in  large  geometric  patterns  over  the  openings; 
 the  spaces  between  being  filled  with  leaded  glass  and  the  black 
 value  of  the  iron  being  frankly  used  in  the  play  of  values."  All 
 first-class  makers  of  decorative  glass,  of  which  there  are  but  few, 
 are  beginning  to  realize  the  necessity  of  observing  this  principle 
 of  structural  honesty  in  their  work,  and  they  make  as  deep  a 
 study  of  the  leads  as  they  do  of  the  glass  itself.  To  quote  from 
 another: — "It  is  not  an  expedient,  an  unfortunate  necessity,  to 
 be  reduced  to  the  smallest  size  and  quality;  it  is  of  equal  honor, 
 of  equal  importance,  with  the  glass.  To  the  glowing  colors  of 
 the  quarries  it  gives  the  strength  and  vigor  they  would  otherwise 
 lack.  The  treating  of  the  leads  as  a  misfortune  to  be  minimized 
 and  concealed  is  one  of  the  worst  offences  of  the  modern  makers 
 of  picture-windows,  and  vitiates  their  work  permanently."  The 
 lead-line,  as  already  stated,  is  a  structural  necessity  and  dare  not 
 be  ignored.  Art  always  rewards  him  who  honors  her  by  yielding 
 obedience  to  her  principles.  Thus  we  see  that  by  honoring  the 
 structural  necessity  of  the  lead-line  and  the  bars,  our  best  mod- 
 ern makers  of  decorated  windows  have  found  that  these  have  a 
 distinct  decorative  value.  As  the  rest  and  the  discord  have  their 
 value  in  music,  so  the  black  line  of  the  iron  and  the  wood  em- 
 phasize the  gem-like  colors  of  the  window  and  by  contrast  height- 
 en its  glory  of  light.  Just  as  we  are  told  that  the  pearl-oyster 
 on  finding  it  impossible  to  dislodge  the  grain  of  sand  which  has 
 found  entrance  into  its  shell,  covers  it  with  beauty  and  transforms 
 it  into  a  pearl  for  the  bosom  of  a  princess,  so  the  bars  and  leads 
 in  a  decorated  window,  ugly  in  themselves  but  absolutely  neces- 
 sary, when  properly  employed,  become  elements  of  strength  and 
 beauty.  This  is  the  foundation  principle  which  must  be  observed 
 in  the  production  of  the  decorated  window.  Just  as  he  in  Script- 
 ure is  designated   the  foolish   man  who  attempted  to  build  his 
 
162  MEMOIRS. 
 
 house  on  the  sands,  so  he  is  worthy  of  contempt  that  would  fly 
 in  the  face  of  the  laws  of  gravity  by  endeavoring  to  give  the  im- 
 pression that  he  is  suspending  the  substance  of  a  decorated  win- 
 dow on  air. 
 
 The  second  principle  is  determined  by  the  medium  employed 
 in  the  making  of  the  decorated  window.  This  is  what  is  tech- 
 nically called  "pot-metal"  or  "painted"  glass.  In  making  paint- 
 ed glass  the  color  is  put  upon  the  glass  and  burned  into  it.  In 
 "pot-metal"  the  color  is  mixed  in  with  the  "batch"  in  the  "pot." 
 In  "pot-metal"  the  color  is  /;/  the  glass,  in  painted  glass  it  is  on 
 it.  Paint  on  glass  more  or  less  interferes  with  its  transparency 
 and  does  not  yield  itself  so  readily  to  the  production  of  genuinely 
 artistic  effects.  Fortunately  the  best  American  makers  of  deco- 
 rated windows  use  no  paint  in  their  w^ork  except  light  touches  on 
 hands  and  faces.  Even  this  is  no  longer  necessary  since  the  glass 
 in  the  hands  and  faces  can  now  be  joined  by  means  of  fusing, 
 without  the  use  of  the  leads.  The  American  glass-makers  have 
 their  faults,  but  the  use  of  painted  glass  is  not  one  of  them.  Mr. 
 Ralph  Adams  Cram  in  his  excellent  work  on  Church  Building 
 says: — "If  sensationalism  in  the  use  of  modelled  and  opalescent 
 glass  is  the  killing  vice  of  American  work,  painted  glass  is  very 
 surely  an  equally  deadly  sin  in  English  work.  Both  violate  every 
 law  of  good  glass-making,  both  are  widely  popular,  and  both  are 
 quite  unendurable." 
 
 Translucent  glass,  then,  which  holds  its  color  in  suspension 
 is  our  medium  with  which  we  have  to  work.  Every  substance 
 legitimately  employed  in  the  service  of  art  has  its  excellencies 
 and  its  limitations.  In  the  use  of  his  materials  the  artist  aims  to 
 produce  the  best  results  which  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  the 
 medium  in  which  he  is  working.  When  in  the  use  of  a  substance 
 he  strains  after  effects  which  can  better  be  reached  by  the  em- 
 ployment of  another,  or  endeavors  by  servile  imitation  to  simulate 
 such  effects,  he  may  make  an  impression  of  smartness  and  may 
 excite  the  wonder  of  the  gaping  crowd,  but  he  really  wastes  his 
 
USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.      163 
 
 labor,  is  guilty  of  attempted  deception,  and  fails  to  make  a  con- 
 tribution to  genuine  art.  A  very  creditable  bust  of  Abraham 
 Lincoln,  a  copy  of  the  Venus  de  Milo,  or  an  exact  miniature  re- 
 production of  the  Capitol  at  Washington  may  be  wrought  out  in 
 butter.  A  castle  of  architectural  beauty  may  be  fashioned  in 
 blocks  of  ice,  but  ev^ery  one  knows  that  such  performances  are 
 not  art.  They  excite  in  the  onlooker,  who  has  a  sense  of  the 
 eternal  fitness  of  things,  pity  and  contempt  in  view  of  the  waste 
 of  good  material  and  the  prostitution  of  skilled  labor  in  the  pro- 
 duction of  such  freaks. 
 
 The  characteristic  qualities  of  glass  with  which  we  have  to 
 deal  in  the  decorated  window,  are  richness,  purity,  subtlety  of 
 color  and  translucence.  "Colored  glass  is  the  ideal  of  material- 
 ized color."  By  means  of  it  we  can  secure  a  glassy  glory  and  a 
 jewelled  brilliance  which  can  be  secured  through  no  other  medi- 
 ums. Properly  to  use  these  qualities  and  not  to  abuse  them  in 
 the  attempt  to  do  what  they  were  never  intended  to  accomplish, 
 must  be  the  aim  of  the  honest  worker  in  decorated  glass.  A 
 creditable  imitation  of  the  Apollo  Belvidere  might  possibly  be 
 perpetrated  in  stained  glass  and  doubtless  many  newspapers  and 
 the  unthinking  multitude  would  give  such  a  performance  unstint- 
 ed praise,  but  it  would  never  pass  for  genuine  art.  It  would  be 
 on  a  par  with  the  making  of  the  Capitol  in  butter.  The  proper 
 material  for  a  statue  is  marble  or  bronze  and  never  glass. 
 
 Some  of  our  good  people  in  the  innocent  simplicity  of  their 
 hearts  seem  to  think  it  the  proper  thing  to  turn  their  churches 
 into  the  suggestion  of  picture-galleries  by  making  the  windows 
 do  duty  as  canvas  upon  which  to  depict  Luther  and  other  Refor- 
 mation worthies.  We  have  seen  very  creditable  likenesses  in  this 
 line,  but  they  always  suggest  the  butter-maker's  skill  and  the 
 smartness  of  ice- architecture  referred  to  above.  Canvas  and  oth- 
 er opaque  surfaces  and  not  glass  are  the  proper  materials  upon 
 which  to  represent  realistic  scenes  and  likenesses.  If  you  employ 
 glass  to  do  the  work  of  canvas,  you  lose  its  effect  as  glass.     The 
 
164  MEMOIRS. 
 
 dark  colors  required  in  the  representation  of  clothing  make  j-our 
 window  too  dark  for  its  proper  uses  as  a  window.  If,  in  your 
 attempts  at  making  a  realistic  likeness  in  glass,  you  have  some 
 regard  for  the  peculiar  qualities  of  glass,  j-ou  give  your  picture 
 an  unreal  and  unearthly  glory  which  dare  be  associated  with  no 
 mere  man.  In  our  admiration  of  the  Great  Reformer  we  accord 
 him  the  place  next  to  the  Apostle  Paul  as  the  greatest  man  after 
 our  adorable  Saviour.  Nevertheless,  whenever  we  see  a  picture 
 of  the  rugged  Reformer  in  glass,  a  number  of  conflicting  emotions 
 are  aroused.  We  are  indignant  if  the  qualities  which  properly 
 belong  to  glass  have  been  given  their  true  expression,  since  then 
 he  shines  with  a  permanent  glory  that  is  blasphemous  in  its  sug- 
 gestion. We  read  of  Only  One  Whose  face  on  only  one  occasion 
 "did  shine  as  the  sun,  and  His  raiment  was  bright  as  the  light. "^ 
 We  are  filled  with  pity  and  contempt  if  more  emphasis  has  been 
 laid  in  the  perpetration  of  this  attempt  at  portraiture  upon  the  re- 
 alistic production  of  a  speaking  likeness,  since  a  good  window  has 
 been  spoiled  at  the  expense  of  several  hundred  hard-earned  dol- 
 lars, where  five  or  ten  dollars  invested  in  a  picture  of  the  Great 
 Reformer  on  canvas  would  have  given  far  better  satisfaction.  A 
 picture-window  is  properly  speaking  neither  a  picture  nor  a  win- 
 dow. By  virtue  of  the  limitations  existing  in  glass  it  cannot  be 
 both  at  the  same  time.  Let  it  be  understood  that  it  is  not  the 
 pictorial  character  to  which  objection  is  made,  but  the  unsuccess- 
 ful attempt  to  secure  results  in  glass  which  can  be  adequateh'  ac- 
 complished only  by  the  painter  on  canvas  or  some  other  opaque 
 surface.  Let  us  honestly  employ  glass  in  the  production  of  re- 
 sults for  which  its  character  and  qualities  manifestly  adapt  it. 
 Yet  the  sorry  work  of  abusing  this  decorative  feature  in  our 
 churches  is  steadily  going  on,  and  there  are  reputable  firms  to  be 
 found  in  all  our  large  cities  that  will  undertake  to  represent  in 
 glass  anything  under  the  sun.  We  quote  again  from  the  work 
 cited  above: — "Certain  manufacturers — a  great  majority  in  fact — 
 have  taken  to  copy  in  glass  the  works  of  the  old  masters;  and  the 
 
USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     165 
 
 •dull  wonder  that  these  triumphs  of  trickery  and  bad  art  have  cre- 
 ated has  given  them  a  singular  vogue.  The  whole  idea  is  so 
 wrong-headed,  so  perverse,  so  without  a  possibility  of  justifica- 
 tion, that  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  condemn  it  in  detail.  .... 
 It  is  bad,  thoroughly  and  hopelessly  bad,  and  that  is  all  one  can 
 say.  .  ,  .  To  show  the  false  position  the  art  of  glass-staining  oc- 
 cupies nowadays  let  me  speak  of  an  incredible  occurrence  I  know 
 ■of.  Certain  people  who  were  proposing  to  give  a  memorial  win- 
 dow, and  who  had  a  liking  for  the  painter  Millet,  asked  a  certain 
 firm  of  glass-painters  to  make  a  window  representing  ''The  Sow- 
 er," and,  instead  of  refusing  the  commission,  it  was  accepted 
 with  alacrity.  Now  no  one  subject  could  be  chosen  which  was 
 less  adaptable  in  stained  glass  than  this  particular  picture;  and 
 yet  the  work  was  cheerfully  undertaken,  without  the  least  regard 
 to  the  absurdity  of  the  idea.  Not  only  this,  but,  at  the  instiga- 
 tion of  the  donors,  the  glass-maker  copied  the  well-known  pict- 
 ure; and  because  the  man  in  whose  memory  the  window  was  to 
 be  erected  wore  a  beard,  they  showed  this  beard  in  Millet's  pict- 
 ure. Could  anything  be  more  preposterous  and  disheartening? 
 Yet  this  is  an  example  of  what  is  asked  for  and  gotten  at  this 
 time;  and  it  shows  how  totally  false  is  the  attitude  of  the  public 
 and  the  makers  of  glass  toward  this  most  noble  and  exalted  form 
 of  religious  art." 
 
 Let  us,  then,  in  closing  this  section  emphasize  strongly  this 
 important  principle  drawn  from  the  material  employed  in  the 
 making  of  the  decorated  window,  that  stained  glass  must  not  be 
 unnaturally  forced  to  represent  that  for  which  it  is  not  adapted. 
 Just  as  some  men  have  a  Divine  call  to  preach  and  others  are 
 clearly  marked  out  as  scientists,  painters  and  sculptors,  and  are 
 of  but  little  use  in  the  world  unless  they  exercise  themselves  in 
 these  callings;  in  like  manner  glass  has  certain  qualities  and 
 adaptabilities  which  manifestly  fit  it  for  positive  effects.  Study 
 these  carefully  and  use  them  to  secure  legitimate  results  and  the 
 reward  will  be  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever;  abuse  them 
 
166  MEMOIRS. 
 
 by  endeavoring  to  make  them  render  a  service  for  which  they 
 were  never  adapted,  and  the  result  will  be  disappointment  and 
 chagrin. 
 
 The  true  function  of  a  stained  glass  window  is  emphatically 
 not  pictorial  representation,  as  shown  above,  but  decoration. 
 This  principle  remains  true  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  "to  every 
 person  who  will  regard  a  window  as  the  decoration  of  a  wall- 
 space,  superb  above  all  other  forms  of  mural  decoration  by  reason 
 of  its  translucence,  there  is  an  indefinite  number  who  view  it  on- 
 ly as  a  picture."  Art  principles  are  not  fixed  by  the  counting  of 
 no.ses  in  estimating  majorities.  This  decorative  character  of  the 
 stained  glass  window  we  must  strongly  emphasize  in  a  considera- 
 tion like  this,  especially  so  on  account  of  the  perversity  and  the 
 persistence  with  which  the  majority  regards  a  stained  glass  win- 
 dow as  simply  a  picture  in  glass.  To  accord  the  window  its 
 proper  artistic  treatment,  we  must  understand  its  true  function. 
 The  decorated  window  is  simply  and  purely  the  decoration  of  a 
 wall-space  made  translucent  by  means  of  colored  glass.  It  is 
 simply  a  mural  decoration.  The  first  object  in  the  insertion  of 
 windows  is  to  keep  out  the  weather;  the  second  is  to  admit  light. 
 They  continue  the  wall-surface,  and  are  consequently  simply  a 
 part  of  the  wall  made  translucent.  The  art  of  the  decorator  ap- 
 plied to  this  part  of  the  wall-space  gives  us  the  decorated  win- 
 dow. 
 
 Since  the  function  of  the  stained  glass  window  is  simply  dec- 
 orative, it  must  extend  the  flat  surface  of  the  wall  without  any 
 attempt  at  perspective  or  modelling.  Any  device  or  art  by  which 
 the  impression  of  perspective  is  given  is  to  be  condemned  in  a 
 window.  To  endeavor  to  produce  the  impression  that  it  is  a  hole 
 in  the  wall,  which  it  is  not,  is  deception,  and  cannot  be  tolerated 
 by  the  true  artist.  Yet  who  has  not  seen  windows  which  give 
 representations  of  landscapes  with  mountains  and  clouds  in  the 
 back-ground,  and  with  lambs  skipping  on  green  meadows  inter- 
 vening between  the  foreground  and  the  mountains  in   the  rear? 
 
USE  OF  STAINED  GLASS  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  ARCHITECTURE.     167 
 
 This  is  not  decoration,  but  an  attempt  at  realistic  representation 
 to  which  glass  does  not  artistically  yield  itself  and  which  must 
 be  studiously  avoided  by  the  artist  when  working  in  this  medium. 
 
 Since  glass  may  be  used  legitimately  only  for  decorative  pur- 
 poses, the  designs  and  the  figures  on  decorated  windows  must  be 
 conventional  and  not  naturalistic.  "Now  the  law  of  ecclesiasti- 
 cal decoration  is  that  everything  should  be  both  decorative  and 
 symbolic.  Every  angel  and  archangel,  every  saint,  be  he  martyr 
 or  confessor,  every  prophet,  every  king,  has  his  proper  symbol- 
 ical vestment  and  his  special  attributes.  Our  Lord  Himself, 
 when  He  is  portrayed  in  glory  is  clothed  in  the  splendor  of  both 
 the  royal  and  the  priestly  vestments  that  show  forth  His  twofold 
 glory  of  Priest  and  King.  The  impulse  that  leads  to  rebellion 
 against  these  vestments,  these  attributes,  because  of  some  fancied 
 association  is  not  one  that  needs  to  be  considered;  for  even  the 
 Christian  style  of  architecture — nay,  even  all  art  itself — falls  un- 
 der the  same  condemnation," 
 
 The  window-spaces  are  necessarily  broken  up  by  the  mullions 
 and  the  tracery.  The  decorative  scheme  must  not  be  extended 
 over  and  beyond  these  natural  barriers.  These  are  essential  lim- 
 itations beyond  which  a  representation  dare  not  pass.  Who  has 
 not  already  seen  a  window,  divided  by  a  sash-bar  in  the  middle, 
 yet  wholly  covered  by  the  figure  of  an  angel,  or  saint,  or  other 
 worthy? 
 
 This  principle  of  limiting  the  figure  or  design  to  the  open 
 spaces  determined  by  the  mullions  and  the  tracery,  however,  is 
 not  violated  by  the  representation  in  a  double  or  triple  window 
 of  a  scene  which  demands  the  introduction  of  several  prominent 
 figures,  if  the  different  ones  are  confined  to  their  proper  limiting 
 spaces.  The  whole  may  be  appropriately  unified  by  a  homoge- 
 neous treatment  of  the  canopy-work  in  such  a  way  as  to  bind  the 
 whole  window  into  unity. 
 
 Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  stained 
 glass  are  especially  aggressive,  the  principle  of  subordination  and 
 
108  MEMOIRS. 
 
 restraint  is  often  neglected  in  using  this  form  of  decoration.  It 
 dare  not  assert  itself  in  such  a  way  as  to  distract  the  attention 
 from  everything  else.  It  must  naturally  hold  its  place  without 
 insolence  or  insistence.  It  is  simply  a  means  to  an  end,  a  small 
 part  of  a  great  whole.  The  otherwise  charming  effect  of  a  beau- 
 tiful church  may  be  spoiled  by  the  wrong  treatment  of  its  win- 
 dows. This  subordinate  part  of  the  architecture  may  insolentl)' 
 thrust  itself  forward  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  the  chief  place  in 
 our  consciousness  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  strong  voice 
 with  a  peculiar  timbre  in  an  untrained  choir.  There  is  an  archi- 
 tectural harmony  in  every  properly  constructed  church.  When 
 this  harmony  is  impaired  by  a  wrong  treatment  of  the  windows, 
 a  fundamental  principle  has  been  violated. 
 
 In  conclusion  let  us  remember  that  we  are  dealing  with  art 
 when  we  contemplate  the  principles  which  govern  the  use  of 
 stained  glass.  Art  ought  to  make  the  impression  of  beauty,  and 
 the  contemplation  of  art-forms  should  give  us  pleasurable  impres- 
 sions. Much  that  wrongl}-  passes  for  art  has  been  imposed  upon 
 the  Church.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  day  is  not  far  distant 
 when  the  true  principles  of  art  in  decoration  may  be  understood 
 by  the  many,  so  that  there  may  be  an  end  of  the  reign  of  what  is 
 cheap,  tawdry  and  positively  ugly;  and  that  our  sanctuaries,  with 
 the  growth  of  our  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  and  the  true  in 
 art,  may  grow  into  a  closer  correspondence  with  the  heavenly 
 beauties  of  the  spiritual  blessings  which  are  mediated  in  them 
 through  the  Means  of  Grace. 
 
 Elmer  F.  Krauss. 
 
 Chicago,  III. 
 
SACRED     MONOGRAMS— THE     CHRISMA     AND 
 THE     HOIvY     NAME. 
 
 The     Chrisma. 
 
 -F 
 
 From  the  glyptic  art  we  learn,  according  to  Chabouillet,*  that 
 the  earliest  forms  under  which  the  Christians  allowed  themselves 
 to  represent  the  Saviour  were  purely  emblematical — the  Good 
 Shepherd,  the  Dove,  and  the  Fish.  In  the  Second  Century 
 Clement  of  Alexandria  gives  Christians  some  advicef:  "Let  the 
 engraving  upon  your  ring  be  a  dove,  a  fish,  or  a  ship  running  be- 
 fore the  wind  ;  or  a  ship's  anchor,  which  Seleucus  had  cut  upon  his 
 signet.  If  the  device  represents  a  man  fishing,  the  wearer  will  be 
 put  in  mind  of  the  Apostles,  and  of  the  little  children  drawn  up 
 out  of  the  water.  For  we  must  not  engrave  upon  it  idols,  which 
 we  are  forbidden  even  to  look  upon  ;  nor  a  sword  or  bow,  for  we 
 are  followers  of  peace;  nor  a  drinking  cup,  for  we  are  sober  men." 
 The  earliest  manifestations  of  Christian  painting  X  frequently 
 exhibit  pagan  models  in  the  attempt  to  typify  the  Saviour.  Thus 
 he  is  represented  as  the  Orpheus§  of  the  new  faith,  charming  and 
 taming  ferocious  animals  by  the  sound  of  his  lute.  When  Chris- 
 tian art  first  dared  to  court  the  light  of  day  under  Constantine, 
 
 *  Antique   Gems  and  Rings,  by  C.   W.    King. 
 t  Pcedagogiis,  iii,    II. 
 
 X  Note  in  History  of  Minianire  Art,  by  J.   L.   Propest. 
 
 g  A  Greek  mythical  poet,  who  with  his  lyre  enchanted  everything  that  had  life. 
 Even  in  Hades  the  charm  of  his  music  caused  the  torments  to  cease. 
 
 (clxix) 
 
170  MEMOIRS. 
 
 it  felt  an  instinctive  repugnance  to  draw  its  inspiration  from  clas- 
 sical works,  produced  under  the  influence  of  what  in  a  Christian 
 sense  was  a  debased  and  immoral  creed.  In  the  pla(?c  of  "form" 
 was  established  a  school  of  "idea"  and  "symbol",  and  allegory 
 became  the  dominant  feature  of  the  early  Byzantines.  But  the 
 Council  of  Constantinople,  692  A.  D.  commanded  symbolism  to 
 cease,*  and  ordained  that  the  central  object  of  the  Christian  faith 
 should  be  depicted  as  in  the  flesh,  free  from  the  veil  hitherto  em- 
 ployed. Unfortunately  the  interference  of  the  Church  produced 
 an  inflexible  code  of  rules  which  for  centuries  prescribed  the  exact 
 forms,  attributes,  etc.,  to  be  observed  in  the  rendering  of  the 
 human  form.  Art  became  a  poor  form  of  tradition,  continued 
 without  enthusiasm  or  progress.     So  thinks  Propest. 
 
 The  two  sacred  monograms  universally  employed  in  Christian 
 art  are  the  ><;  and  the  |HS.  the  former  standing  for  the 
 name  Christ  and  the  latter  for  the  name  Jesus.  The  former  is  a 
 combination  of  the  Greek  X(  English,  CH)  and  p  (English,  R), 
 the  first  two  letters  in  the  Greek  name  XPICTOC  ( CHRIST). 
 The  latter  is  a  Latinized  variation  of  the  first  three  letters  of  the 
 Greek  name  IHCOYC  (JESUS).  Each  of  these  monograms 
 has  a  history,  and  if  all  were  told,  a  long  story  it  would  be. 
 
 GREEK    FORMS. 
 
 The  Chi  Rho,  also  called  the  Chrisyna,  is  perhaps  the  most 
 ancient  symbolical  representation  of  Christ.  In  popular  usage  it 
 long  antedates  the  IHS  which  was  seldom  seen  before  the  Ninth 
 Century,  but  from  the  Twelfth  Century  on  replaced  the  XP  al- 
 together. Just  why  the  monogram  of  the  name  Christ  should 
 come  into  vogue  before  that  developed  from  Jestis  is  not  easily  ex- 
 plained. It  may  have  been  because  the  Divine  name  of  the 
 Saviour  was  early  emphasized  ;  He  was  known  distinctively  as 
 "The  Christ."     Or  it  may   have  been  due   to   the  influence   of 
 
 *  For  example,  Canon  80  expressly  forbids  represenling  our  Lord  under  the  fig- 
 ure of  a  lamb. 
 
SACSED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME-  171 
 
 Constantine.  If  so,  whence  did  Constantine  derive  it?  He  cer- 
 tainly did  not  invent  it.  Or  Christians  may  have  adopted  it  from 
 another  source  and  adapted  it  to  their  own  needs,  and  this  per- 
 haps because  it  resembled  the  cross. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  Chrisma  is  commonly  ascribed  to  the  em- 
 peror Constantine,  the  story  running  thus  :  In  the  year  312  Con- 
 stantine marched  toward  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  in 
 battle  his  rival  Maxentius.  On  the  way  he  saw  in  the  sky  a  lum- 
 inous cross  surrounded  by  the  inscription  TOUTO  NIK  A* 
 "  BY  THIS  CONQUER."  On  the  eve  of  the  battle,  according 
 to  Lactantius,  f  preceptor  to  the  emperor's  son  Crispus,  'he  was 
 directed  in  a  dream  to  inscribe  on  his  soldiers'  shields  the  letter  X. 
 with  a  perpendicular  line  drawn  through  it,  and  turned  round  at 
 the  top  >^  being  the  cipher  of  Christ.  Having  this  sign  his 
 troops  draw  the  sword.'  The  next  day  after  entering  Rome,  he 
 summons  the  artists  and  commands  them  to  make  the  Labarum, 
 which  Eusebius  describes  thus  :  ;|:  "It  was  a  long  spear,  covered 
 with  gold,  and  having  a  transverse  bar  like  a  cross.  At  the  top 
 of  the  spear  was  a  wreath  of  gold  and  gems.  In  this  they  de- 
 signed the  sig7i  of  the  saving  name,  that  is  to  say  the  first  two  let- 
 ters of  the  name  of  Christ,  the  p  crossing  in  the  midst.  These 
 letters  the  emperor  was  accustomed  to  wear  on  his  helmet  .  .  , 
 The  Emperor  always  used  this  saving  sign  as  a  standard  against 
 his  enemies,  and  caused  ensigns  to  be  made  after  the  same  pattern 
 for  all  his  armies." 
 
 While  this  story  may  explain  how  the  Chi  Rho  came  to  be 
 commonly  used  as  a  Christian  symbol,  yet  it  hardly  points  out 
 
 *  The  popular  Latin  version  adopted  by  the  Knights  Templar  is  IN  HOC 
 SIGNO  VINCES.  But  a  medal  of  Constantius  II  (353-361)  shows  this  prince  as 
 holding  a  standard  on  which  is  inscribed  with  the  Chrisma,  HOC  SIGNO  VICTOR 
 ERIS.  It  seems  probable  that  the  Latin  is  the  original  version,  Constantine  being 
 a  Dalmatian.  Eusebius,  who  reports  the  vision  in  his  Life  of  Constantitie,  wrote  in 
 Greek 
 
 t  De  Mart.  Persec.     ch.   44. 
 
 %  Life  of  Cojistantine,    lib.    I,   c.   31. 
 
172  MEMOIRS. 
 
 tlie  origin  of  such  use.  The  sicjn  is  found  long  before  the  time 
 of  Constantinc.  King  says  *  that  _L  like  ^  was  not  invented 
 l)y  the  Christians.  In  fact  coins  of  the  Ptolemies  are  known  to 
 bear  the  monogram  ^.  Also  those  of  Herod  the  Great,  struck 
 forty  years  B.  C.  have  this  ^.  Similarl)'  the  monogram  formed 
 of  I  and  X  is  figured  on  the  denarius  of  L.  Lentulus,  flamen  or 
 priest  of  Mars,  with  the  portrait  of  Julius  Cccsar,  in  which  it  rep- 
 resents the  star  of  Venus,  Jidiiim  Sidus  >k  .  Another  of  the 
 same  kind  is  figured  on  some  medals  of  the  kings  of  the  Bosphorus, 
 for  instance  on  those  of  Sauromates  Rescuporis  etc.,  although  the 
 star  is  commonly  figured  like  the  Sigla  (monogram  on  a  seal )  -V- 
 which  among  the  Romans  served  to  indicate  the  denarius.  The 
 letter  X  traversed  by  a  vertical  bar  terminated  at  the  upper  end 
 by  a  circle  )^  or  by  a  small  dot  >^  may  be  compared  with  the 
 sigla  >|\,  which  denotes,  it  is  supposed,  the  commander  of  a 
 thousand  men —  XIAIAPK02  ;  and  which,  crossed  by  a  horizontal 
 bar  -V-,  makes  its  appearance  on  some  coins  of  the  Ptolemies. 
 
 But  from  the  unvarying  arrangement  of  the  lines  in  the 
 monogram  on  the  medals  of  the  period  of  Constantine,  the  bar 
 crossing  the  X  being  vertical,  we  may  reasonably  conclude  that 
 the  lines  are  so  disposed  intentionally ,  and  not  for  the  purpose  of 
 representing  stars  which  are  also  to  be  seen  on  coins  of  the  same 
 epoch.  And  yet  as  soon  as  we  admit  that  these  signs  are  tokens 
 of  Christianity,  it  follows  that  we  must  equally  recognize  as 
 crosses  and  monograms  of  Christ  the  same  symbols  when  they  ac- 
 company the  figures  of  Mars  Conservator  and  Sol  hiviciiis.  This 
 would  imply  that  Constantine  permitted  himself  to  be  styled  the 
 Sun  and  Light  of  the  world,  somewhat  like  the  Chinese  emperor. 
 Another  writer  suggests  that  ^  in  the  earlier  coins  may  have 
 stood  for  XPH2T05,  good,  genuine.  A  medallion  of  Trajan 
 Decius  (249-^51)  struck  at  Metonia  in  Lydia  has  an  inscription 
 in  which  occurs  the  word  "APXONTES  in  which  the  PX  form 
 a  monogram  exactly  like  the  Chrisma. 
 
 *  Early    Christian    Xuniisinatics,    by  C.   \V.   KlNC. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  173 
 
 That  the  Chrisma  was  used  as  a  Christian  symbol  before  the 
 time  of  Constantine,  may  be  regarded  as  certain  if  Bishop  Kip's 
 work  *  is  to  be  believed.  He  cites  among  other  inscriptions  in 
 those  subterranean  tombs  the  two  following  which  record  their 
 own  date:  "In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  Marius  a  young 
 military  officer,  who  had  lived  long  enough  when  with  his  blood 
 he  gave  up  his  life  for  CHO  (pro  CHRISTO)."  Beside  this 
 inscription,  rudely  drawn  is  >^.  Hadrian  reigned  117  to  138 
 A.  D.  That  this  monogram  in  the  catacombs  stands  for  Christ 
 is  assured  by  this  inscription:  "Vidorina  in  pace  et  m  >^.  " 
 Another  in  I^atin  runs  thus:  "Lannus  the  martyr  of  XPI 
 rests  here.  He  suffered  under  Diocletian."  That  is  between 
 303  and  305  A.  D.  On  a  gem  dating,  as  is  supposed,  f  about  the 
 year  300  A.  D.  on  either  side  of  a  young  man  bearing  a  sheep  on 
 his  shoulders,  illustrating  the  Good  Shepherd,  is  inscribed  ^"X'. 
 And  yet  some  writers  hold  that  the  earliest  examples  to  be  found 
 in  the  catacombs  date  no  farther  back  than  331  +.  Martigny  § 
 claims  the  earliest  (323  A.  D.)  under  a  pavement  in  the  Basilica 
 of  St.  Lawrence  in  agro  Verano.  For  the  love  of  the  curious 
 we  mention  that  Justin  Martyr  (i  10-165)  quotes  ||  Plato  as  saying 
 in  the  Timseus  that  God  placed  his  Son  in  the  universe  in  the 
 form  of  the  letter  X  (Chiasma).  But  Justin  refers  in  this  passage 
 to  the  cross. 
 
 It  is  barely  possible  that  the  earliest  representation  of  the 
 name  of  Christ  is  found  in  the  abbreviations  and  contractions 
 used  in  writing  that  name.  By  abbreviation  is  meant  the  short- 
 ening of  a  word  by  dropping  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end;  by 
 contraction,  the  shortening  of  a   word  by   omitting  some  of  the 
 
 *    The  Catacombs  of  Rome  as  Illustrating  the  Church  of  the  First  Three   Centu- 
 ries, by  the  Right  Rev.  Wm.  Ingraham  Kip. 
 
 t  Symbolism  in  Christian  Art,  by  F.  Edward  Hulme  F.  S.  A. 
 J  Northcote's  Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs. 
 §  Diet,  des  Ant.  Chret. 
 II  Apology,  ch.    LX. 
 
174  MEMOIRS. 
 
 letters  within  the  word.  Thus  Poma.  is  an  abbreviation  and  Pa.  a 
 contraction  of  the  word  Pennsylvania.  From  very  ancient  times 
 down  to  the  common  use  of  the  art  of  printing,  and  even  long 
 after,  it  was  the  universal  practice  to  abbreviate  and  contract 
 words.  The  object  was,  no  doubt,  to  save  time  and  labor,  as  all 
 writing  was  by  hand.  In  the  ancient  manuscripts  the  name  of 
 Jesus  Christ  is  invariably  abbreviated  or  contracted.  According 
 to  Grenfell  and  Hunt  *  this  usage  extends  far  back  into  the  Sec- 
 ond Century.  In  what  is  probably  the  oldest  Christian  fragmentf 
 yet  published — a  papyrus  of  late  Second  or  early  Third  Century — 
 are  found  the  contractions  0C  (0EOC,  GOD),  ThC,  and  XC. 
 The  line  above  is  the  sign  of  contraction.  Also  part  of  a  leaf 
 from  a  papyrus  book,  written  at  the  end  of  the  Fourth  or  begin- 
 ning of  the  Fifth  Century  containing  a  passage  from  I  John  4  ch. 
 shows  the  same  thing.  The  form  "fc  XC  is  found  in  all  Greek 
 uncial  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Fourth  Cen- 
 tury down.  It  is  on  a  medal  found  at  Urfa,  Syria,  of  the  Fourth 
 or  Fifth  Century ;  on  the  Stone  of  Cana,  t  late  Sixth  Century  ; 
 on  paintings  of  the  Ninth  Century  ;  on  a  coin  of  John  Zimisces 
 of  the  Tenth  Century  ;  on  a  painting  in  the  Convent  church.  Isle 
 of  Salamis,  Eighteenth  Century  ;  on  the  silver  seal  of  the  gov- 
 ernment of  Mt.  Athos  ;  and  on  the  sacramental  bread  of  the 
 Greek  Church  today.  It  is  of  course  to  be  expected  that  the 
 Greek  church  would  retain  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  of  Christ. 
 We  also  find  other  forms  of  contraction.  Thus  XPC  i"  Codex 
 BezEe  of  the  Fifth  Century  ;  in  the  Golden  Gospels  at  Stockholm, 
 Seventh  or  Eighth  Century  ;  and  in  a  book  of  the  Gospels  in  the 
 library  at  Munich,  Ninth  Century. 
 
 LATIN   FORMS. 
 
 So  much  for  the  Greeks.     How  did  the  Latins  contract  the 
 sacred  name?     Here,  as  might  be  expected,  the  Greek  influence 
 
 •  Publications  of  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund,    Grccco-Roman  Branch. 
 t  Recently  discovered  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt  near  Oxyrhynchus  in  Egypt, 
 X  HiLPRECHT,  Recent  Research  in  Bible  Lands. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  175 
 
 remains.  Indeed  the  Latins  frequently  wrote  the  purely  Greek 
 form  XPC-  Thus  the  Sermons  of  St.  Augustine,  written  in 
 Latin  uncials,  Sixth  Century  ;  in  a  Latin  Psalter  of  Eleventh 
 Century  ;  and  in  the  manuscript  sermons  of  the  Fourteenth  or 
 Fifteenth  Century,  in  my  possession.  More  frequently  however, 
 did  the  Latins  render  XPC  into  XPS)  substituting  the  Latin 
 S  for  the  Greek  Sigma.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  Codex  Bezae 
 in  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  versions  stand  in  parallel  columns. 
 The  latter  form  finds  examples  on  the  medal  of  Urfa,  Fifth  Cen- 
 tury ;  in  an  "Evangeliar"  made  for  Charlemagne,  Ninth  Century; 
 and  in  Missals  and  other  writings  of  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth 
 Centuries.  In  mediaeval  manuscripts  of  all  kinds  the  form 
 XPUd  ^s  also  used  In  an  old  Reliquary  of  the  Tenth  Century 
 is  seen  the  plain  form    X- 
 
 There  are  instances  in  which  individuals  have  had  the  tem- 
 erity to  use  the  sacred  contraction  in  writing  their  own  names. 
 One  is  that  of  a  Dutchman.  He  produced  a  picture  and  wrote 
 under  it  "Magister  Petriis  jfpj  me  fecit  anno  1449."  That  is, 
 "  Master  Peter  Christi  made  me  in  the  year  1449. 
 
 Let  us  now  return  to  the  time  of  Constantine.  Through  the 
 influence  of  that  Christian  emperor  the  use  of  the  Chrisma  be- 
 came popular  throughout  the  Roman  empire.  The  common 
 form  then  employed  was  ^  being  a  mere  combination  of  the 
 X  and  p.  This  is  found  on  the  coins  of  Constantine' s  succes- 
 sors down  to  Honorius  (395-423)  and  on  those  of  most  of  the 
 Eastern  emperors  to  Heraclius.  It  is  also  seen  on  a  Roman  pave- 
 ment in  Britain  of  the  Fourth  Century,  on  monuments  in  France 
 of  the  same  period,  on  sarcophagi,  mosaics,  lamps,  glass  vessels, 
 coins,  in  fact  throughout  the  whole  range  of  sacred  art. 
 
 The  form  _E  is  also  very  ancient,  being  found  in  the  Cata- 
 combs and  on  coins  of  Constantine.  It  was  no  doubt  regarded  as 
 more  suggestive  of  the  cross  and  became  very  common.  Accord- 
 ing to  J.  R.  Allen,  *  this   suggestiveness  explains  the  changes 
 
 *    Christian  Syt?ibolistn  in    Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
 
176  MEMOIRS. 
 
 which  took  place  in  the  shape  of  the  Chrisiiia.  An  interesting 
 correspondence  shows  how  widespread  was  the  use  of  this  style. 
 In  the  British  Museum  is  a  manuscript  written  in  England  in  the 
 Eighth  Century,  containing  passages  from  the  Gospels,  the 
 Lord's  Prayer  and  others,  letter  of  Christ  to  Abgar  etc.  On  many 
 of  the  pages  at  the  upper  left  corner  is  _E.  Recently  at  Oxy- 
 rhynchus  in  Egypt  were  unearthed  some  old  Coptic  ostraca  (pot- 
 tery and  stone  chips)  belong  to  Sixth  to  Eighth  Centuries.  On 
 these  ostraca  are  inscribed,  in  Greek  and  Coptic,  episcopal  edicts, 
 letters  to  bishops.  Biblical  and  liturgical  passages,  letter  of  Christ 
 to  Abgar,  etc.  With  few  exceptions  the  writing  begins  or  ends 
 with  the  same  sacred  symbol  _E.  Even  secular  documents  were 
 prefaced  with  the  Chrisma,  as  in  a  deed  of  Edgar,  961  A.  D.* 
 
 Besides  those  depicted  above,  the  Chrisma  developed  a  great 
 variety  of  forms  as  ma^-  be  seen  from  the  examples  given  below. 
 Allen  f  thinks  that  all  the  variations  can  be  traced  to  two  causes: 
 (i)  the  addition  of  a  horizontal  bar  to  the  original  form,  thus  ^ 
 as  written  on  one  of  the  Coptic  ostraca,  (2)  the  gradual  altera- 
 tion in  the  shape  of  the  loop  of  the  P  which  becomes  more  like 
 an  R,  and  falls  away  altogether.  Thus  if  from  the  last  shap)e 
 you  drop  X  the  result  will  be  _P.  The  cruciform  shapes,  con- 
 sisting either  of  |  and  ^  combined,  or  of  4- and  ^,  result  from 
 the  omission  of  the  loop  of  the  p.  Hence  according  to  Allen  the 
 development  of  the  Chrisma  runs  thus  : 
 
 X    P    ICTOC 
 
 yp'  .^  _I_  (  Head  from  top  downward,  and  from 
 
 ^^  'T^  ~  let t  10  right.) 
 
 >|i     ¥     + 
 
 •  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  in  this  connection,  that  copies  of  the  Bible  were 
 made  in  Alexandria  for  sale  in  Western  Europe,  and  that  all  our  oldest  manuscripts 
 show  their  origin  by  the  Egyptian  form  of  spelling  in  some  of  the  words.  History 
 of  F-'^'pt,  by  Rai-poport. 
 
 t  Christian  Symholism  in  Grcut  Britain  and  Ireland  by  J.  Ko.MILLV  .AllKN 
 F.  S.  A.,  Scotland. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  177 
 
 While  this  is  a  very  attractive  theory,  I  doubt  whether  he 
 can  prove  it  from  historic  facts.  He  recognizes  that  two  or  three 
 variations  often  occur  together  on  the  same  coin,  or  sarcophagus, 
 but  says  this  only  shows  that  there  was  a  great  deal  of  caprice 
 in  the  choice  of  forms,  and  that  no  special  one  was  adhered  to 
 rigidly.  The  above  formula  also  supports  the  theory  that  the 
 plain  cross  as  a  sign  was  evolved  from  the  Chrisma. 
 
 The  addition  of  the  letters  Alpha  and  Omega  took  place  as 
 early  as  A.  D.  347.*  Thus  f  a)K).  They  occur  on  coins  of 
 Constantius  and  are  seen  in  the  Catacombs.  Notice  particularly 
 that  the  Omega  is  drawn  in  the  ancient  uncial  style  (\j  I  have 
 not  seen  one  instance  of  ^  ) ,  as  modern  workers  in  ecclesiastical 
 art  depict  it.  There  is  a  unique  example  of  the  ^^  and  (Jl) 
 the  IH  ^iid  XPS  all  occurring  together  on  a  tombstone  in 
 *  Bresal '  now  preserved  in  St.  Kevin's  Kitchen  at  Glendalough 
 County  Wicklow,  Ireland. 
 
 The  origin  of  the  drc/t\  in  which  the  Chrisma  is  often  written, 
 is  either  ornamental  or  may  be  taken  from  the  wreath  or  crown 
 of  glory  which  also  frequently  surrounds  it.  The  idea  of 
 eternity  is  also  associated  with  the  circle,  as  is  seen  in  a  L,atin  in- 
 scription found  in  Scotland:  "This  circle  contains  the  name  of 
 the  Supreme  King  whom  you  see  to  be  without  beginning  and 
 without  end."  The  circle  of  the  monogram  survives  in  the  ring 
 which  joins  the  arms  of  the  Celtic  crosses. 
 
 In  another  interesting  study  Mr.  Allen  tries  to  show  how  the 
 Maltese  cross  was  developed  from  the  Chrisma.  He  finds  his 
 examples  on  stones  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  There  are  four 
 steps : 
 
 -P 
 
 *  NoRTHCOTK  gives  362  A.   D. 
 
 t  Paul  Lacroix  Military  and  Religioiis  Life  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
 
178  MEMOIRS. 
 
 The  process  of  development  here  is  twofold,  (i)  The  extremi- 
 ties gradually  widen.  (2)  The  loop  of  the  p  disappears.  The 
 last  is  a  common  shape  of  the  ancient  Celtic  cross.  The  third  is 
 on  the  face  of  a  stone  slab  near  Whitehorn,  Scotland,  and  is  re- 
 garded as  one  of  the  oldest  monuments  of  Christianity  in  that 
 section.  The  other  forms  are  well  known.  Concerning  that  pe- 
 culiar loop  of  the  P,  Quaritch  *  has  this  to  say :  "  In  early  Roman 
 writing  the  Greek  p  had  a  little  stroke  added  to  it  (  W  j  to  dis- 
 tinguish it  from  P  /"JJ^  ."  Perhaps  a  study  of  Paleography 
 might  throw  some  light  on  this  subject.  The  following  most 
 interesting  form  occurs  with  a  Latin  inscription  on  a  grave  stone 
 found  along  the  Rhine.  It  belongs  to  the  end  of  the  Sixth 
 Century. 
 
 •  Paleography^  by  Bernard  Quaritch. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  179 
 
 The  Holy  Name. 
 
 IHS 
 
 Who  has  not  sat  in  the  Sanctuary  and  allowed,  his  attention 
 to  wander  from  the  devotions  to  the  decorations  of  the  chancel? 
 While  thus  engaged  has  not  his  curiosity  been  aroused  to  know 
 the  meaning  of  those  mysterious  letters  |HS  carved  on  the  face 
 of  the  Altar  or  worked  on  its  antependuimf 
 
 The  Monogram  of  the  Holy  Name- — for  so  have  these  letters 
 been  termed,  probably  because  they  stand  for  a  name  Divinely 
 given  (Luke  i:  31) — came  into  common  use  much  later  than  the 
 Chrisma  (^Xi)  although  it  probably  originated  at  the  same 
 time.  Today  it  holds  the  chief  place  as  a  design  for  church  dec- 
 oration. The  letters  |HS  have  been  variously  explained,  as 
 our  readers  must  know.  The  writer  has  seen  the  following  in- 
 terpretations.    There  may  be  others. 
 
 11    Ibave  Sinned. 
 
 H    Ibave  Suffered. 
 
 Unspiration  {of  the)  Iboly  Spirit. 
 
 flu  1boc  Signo — referring  to  the  sign  >p;^  in  Constantine's 
 vision. 
 
 Ifn  1bac  {cruce)   Salus — "In  this  (cross  is)  salvation." 
 
 Ilesus  Ibumanitatis  Consolator — "Jesus  of  men  the  Conso- 
 ler,"  referring  to  the  Greek  |  HC- 
 
 Hesus  Ibominum  Salvator — "  Jesus  of  men  the  Saviour.  " 
 This  Ivatin  inscription,  Halliwell  says,  *  is  found  in  some  Euro- 
 pean churches.  It  is  the  interpretation  of  the  Jesuits  who  use  it, 
 in  its  fully  developed  historical  form  Ipj^,  as  their  badge  and 
 motto.  On  the  election  of  the  first  general  of  their  order,  in  1541, 
 which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Ignatius,  the  latter  had  headed  his 
 vote  with  IHS'  3^<^  the  sign  IDS  was  engraved  on  his  seal,   the 
 
 *A  Feiv  Hints  to  A'ovices  in  Manuscript  Literature. 
 
180  MEMOIRS. 
 
 same  witli  which  the  election  of  the  generals  since  Jacob  Laynez 
 lias  always  been  sealed.  * 
 
 The  last  opinion,  f  to  which  the  writer  of  this  paper  inclines, 
 is  that  these  letters  are  a  contraction  or  abbreviation  of  the  Greek 
 name  IHCOYC  lESOUS.  Jesus — pronouncing  the  |  as  f  in 
 j'c/,  the  E  as  in  /eie,  the  S  ^^  i"  ''''^''''• 
 
 GREEK    FORMS. 
 
 The  earliest  example  of  the  monogram  of  the  Holy  Name  is 
 found  on  a  fragment  of  papyrus  recently  discovered  at  Oxyrhyn- 
 cus  in  Egypt.  Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt  +  who  discovered  these 
 fragments  state  that  they  contain  some  theological  writing  em- 
 bodying a  quotation  from  the  New  Testament,  Matthew,  and 
 that  the  ordinary  contractions  such  as  ©C  for  ©EOC  GOD,  XC 
 forXPICTOC,  GHRIST,  and  IHC  for  IHCOYC,  JESUS,  occur 
 in  these  writings.  These  fragments  they  date  not  later  than  250 
 A.  D.  and  possibly  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  Second  Cen- 
 tury. Another  fragment,  which  they  place  late  in  the  Fourth 
 Century  or  early  in  the  Fifth  Century,  contains  part  of  I  John  4: 
 11-17.  Here  the  same  contractions  are  seen.  While  it  may 
 seem  like  towering  presumption  to  differ  with  such  masters  in 
 archaeology,  yet  upon  examining  the  fac-simile  of  the  Matthew 
 fragments,  it  appears  that  only  three  dots  and  the  contraction 
 sign  remain  of  what  they  restore  as  |HN.  the  contraction  of  the 
 accusative  IHCOYN.  the  bodj^  of  the  letters  being  erased. 
 Now  comparing  the  style  of  writing  on  the  papyrus  with  the 
 most  ancient  New  Testament  manuscripts,  we  find  that  both  are 
 
 *  y.  A.  Proeschel  in  McClintock  and  Strong.  A)so  HamUntch  der  Ku  - 
 lichen  KuustArchaotogie  des  Deutschen  Mittelalttrs  by  Heinkich  Ono. 
 
 t  This  opinion  is  espoused  by  the  Cambridge  Camden  Society  in  a  work  which 
 they  published  on  the  subject:  Argument  for  the  Greek  Origin  of  the  Monogram 
 ins.  London  1841.  The  writer  of  this  paper  has  not  yet  been  able  to  consult 
 the  work. 
 
 X    The  O.xyrhyfuits  Pupyri  in  Publications  of  the    Egyptian   Exploration   Fund. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  181 
 
 in  the  same  uncial  or  large  hand.*  We  also  note  that  aside  from 
 the  Saviour's  name,  other  contractions,  such  as  0C  ©EOC  GOD, 
 are  the  same  in  both.  From  this  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
 that  the  contraction  for  the  word  JESUS,  if  restored  in  the  papy- 
 rus, would  be  IN  and  not  |HN  as  Grenfell  and  Hunt  suggest, 
 IN  being  the  accusative  of  |  C-  This  granted,  we  may  say  that 
 from  the  remains  so  far  discovered  the  oldest  sign  which  stands  for 
 the  name  Jesus  is  the  contraction  |  C)  that  for  the  full  name  be- 
 ing I  C  XC-  We£nd  it  thus  written  uniformly  in  the  Logia  or 
 Sayi?igs  of  Jesus  (Third  Century)  also  discovered  at  Oxyrhyncus, 
 in  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament 
 (Fourth  Century),  in  the  Alexandrian  Codex  (Fifth  Century) 
 and  in  other  Greek  uncial  writings,  as  late  if  not  later  than  the 
 Tenth  Century.  In  the  same  manuscripts  the  genitive  case  of  the 
 Sacred  Name  is  written  |  Y  XY  ^  Y  being  a  form  of  U)-  But 
 in  the  passage  Rev.  22:  20  the  Sinaitic  and  Alexandrian  manu- 
 scripts differ,  the  latter  having  the  vocative  KE  I Y  (for 
 KYRIE  IHCOY  (Lord  Jesus),  while  the  former  has  KE 
 IHY-  In  the  three  most  ancient  codices  I  have  not  seen  the 
 nominative  written  |  HC-  The  form  |  C  is  also  found  in 
 the  Sa'idic  version  of  the  so-called  Letter  of  Christ  to  Abgar  of 
 the  Sixth  Century,  on  a  gem  presumably  of  the  Sixth  Century, 
 on  a  Coptic  altar  of  the  Sixth  Century,  over  the  head  of  Christ  in 
 a  fresco  of  the  Fifth  Century  (perhaps!),  in  an  uncial  Conmien- 
 tary  07i  Isaiah  of  the  Ninth  Century,  f  on  an  Evangelistary  or 
 Book  of  Gospel  Lessons  of  the  Tenth  Century,  and  on  the  medal 
 
 *  Ancient  manuscripts  were  written  in  what  are  known  as  majuscule  and  futtt- 
 ttscule  letters.  Majuscules  might  be  either  uncials  or  capitals.  In  Greek  manu- 
 scripts pure  capital  letter  writing  was  never  employed  except  in  ornamental  titles. 
 Uncial  letters  were  large  and  well  rounded.  Greek  manuscripts  in  the  uncial  hand 
 were  written  from  the  Second  Century  B.  C.  to  the  Ninth  Century  A.  D,  Minus- 
 cule writing  was  a  kind  of  reduced  alphabet,  combining  both  uncial  and  old  cursive 
 forms.  It  originated  in  the  Seventh  Century  A.  D.  and  continued  in  use  up  to  the 
 time  of  printing.  From  about  the  Ninth  Century  minuscles  were  gradually  substi- 
 tuted for  the  old  uncial  writing. 
 
 t  SiLVESTRE  Paleography. 
 
182  MEMOIRS. 
 
 of  Urfa,  previously  mentioned.  This  medal  a  certain  missionary 
 places  in  the  Fourth  or  Fifth  Century,  but  it  seems  to  be  almost 
 identical  with  a  coin  which  numismatists  ascribe  to  John  Zimisces 
 in  the  Tenth  Century.  The  coin  has  on  the  one  side,  in  addition 
 to  |~^XO  lbs  XPS  REX  REGNANTIVM;  and 
 on  the  other  side,  ibSUS  XRISTUS  BASILEU  BA- 
 SILE 
 
 The  tri-literal  Greek  form  in  majuscules  is  |HC-  It  is  prob- 
 able that  in  ancient  times  it  was  regarded  as  a  contraction,  since 
 the  last  letter  varied  with  the  case.  For  example  recall  the  pas- 
 sage Rev.  22:  20  in  the  Codex  Siniaticus  where  !HY  is  written 
 for  the  vocative.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  an  inscription  of 
 pope  Gregory  III  (731-741  A.  D.)  in  the  BasiHca  of  St.  Paul, 
 but  here  it  stands  for  the  gentiive.  The  nominative  |HC  is 
 inscribed  on  a  gem  found  in  the  Roman  catacombs,  doubtless 
 very  ancient,  and  over  the  head  of  Christ  in  a  miniature  on  the 
 Codex  Egbert!  (Tenth  Century).  In  the  Harleian  Psalter,  in 
 the  British  Museum,  is  this  inscription  (probably  close  of  Tenth 
 Century)  on  a  picture  of  the  crucifixion  :  HIC  EST  NAZA- 
 REN'  IHC  REX  lUDEOR.  Notice  the  absence  of  the 
 contraction  line  over  the  letters.  This  is  frequent.  A  Coptic 
 Gospel  of  Mark  (Eleventh  Century)  shows  the  same  letters.  In- 
 scribed on  a  rock  at  the  grave  of  the  first  abbot  of  St.  Bavon,  in 
 Ghent,  (middle  of  Seventh  Century)  are  the  letters  in  monogram- 
 matic  form,  the  earliest  of  the  kind  which  I  have  seen  ;  thus  j^. 
 Romilly  reports  that  a  Wiirzburg  manuscript  has  IH2  XIIS  i.  e. 
 in  Greek  capitals.  The  n  is  evidently  intended  for  R,  the  early 
 form  of  both  letters  being'nearly  alike. 
 
 LATIN    FORMS. 
 
 As  was  observed  above,  the  Greek  bi-literal  |  C  and  tri- 
 literal  I HC  are  frequent  in  Latin  remains.  The  Latin  form 
 of  the  monogram  in  capital  letters  is  the  same  as  the  Greek,  ex- 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  183 
 
 cept  the  last  letter,  the  C  giving  place  to  the  S-  This  varies  with 
 the  case,  as  in  the  Greek.  Of  Latin  bi-literals  de  Fleury*  gives 
 two  instances,  one  |  S  on  the  bowl  of  a  chalice  of  probably  the 
 Eighth  Century,  and  the  other  iCl  on  the  clasp  of  a  lock,  in  a 
 Marseilles  collection.  In  the  latter  either  perpendicular  of  the 
 H  may  be  expected  to  stand  for  the  |,  or  perhaps  the  Holy 
 Name  began  with  an  H-  Proeschel  saysf  that  |H  is  the 
 first  representation  of  the  name  of  Jesus  of  which  we  have 
 any  knowledge,  referring  to  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  (probably 
 Second  Century)  which  has  this  passage  :;|:  "Learn  then  my 
 children  that  Abraham  the  first  who  enjoined  circumcision, 
 looking  forward  in  spirit  to  Jesus,  practiced  that  right,  having 
 received  the  doctrine  of  the  three  letters.  For  [the  Scripture] 
 saith,  "And  Abraham  circumcised  ten,  and  eight,  and  three 
 hundred  men  of  his  household."  What  then  was  the  know- 
 ledge given  to  him  in  this?  The  ten  and  the  eight  are  thus 
 denoted — Ten  by  |  (iota),  and  eight  by  H  (eta).  You  have 
 [the  initials  of  the  name]  Jesus.  And  because  the  cross  was 
 to  express  the  grace  by  the  letter  T)  he  says  also  "three 
 hundred."  He  signifies  therefore  Jesus  by  two  letters,  and  the 
 cross  by  one."  But  it  can  hardly  be  argued  from  this  passage 
 that  I H  was  at  that  time  commonly  recognized  as  a  symbol  of 
 the  Holy  Name.  It  rather  looks  as  though  the  writer  of  Barna- 
 bas, after  some  effort,  concocted  an  allegory. 
 
 For  the  popularization  of  the  Latin  tri-literal  |HS  the  West 
 was  indebted  to  Bernard  of  Sienna  who,  as  he  preached  from 
 place  to  place,  was  wont  to  exhibit  a  tablet  on  which  the  mono- 
 gram was  painted  in  golden  letters,  surrounded  by  a  halo  of 
 golden  rays.     To  this  he  directed  his  hearers'  devotions.      He 
 
 *    La  Messe  E'tudes    Archeologiques\  sur  Les  Monuments. 
 t  McClintock  and  Strong's   Cyclopedia,  Vol.  VI,  p  507. 
 X  Ante  Nicene  Fathers,  Vol.   I,  p  142. 
 
184  MEMOIRS. 
 
 was  accused  of  innovation,  but  succeeded  at   length  in  satisfying 
 pope  Martin. 
 
 When  we  study  the  Latin  tri-literals  which  seem  to  be  most 
 commonly  employed  by  modem  church  decorators,  we  are 
 broutjht  face  to  face  with  some  very  difficult  problems.  Observ- 
 ing that  the  Latin  turned  |  HC  i"t«  I  HS  ^^  ibC,  it  is  not  dif- 
 ficult to  explain  that  the  first  letter  |  is  the  same  in  both  Latin 
 and  Greek,  and  that  the  Latin  S  is  substituted  for  the  Greek  C 
 both  standing  for  the  same  sound.  But  how  about  the  middle 
 letter?  Is  this  the  Latin  H  or  the  Greek  Efa  retained?  Analo- 
 gy would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  the  Greek  /-ya.  That  is, 
 when  we  see  that  in  an  Evangelistary  of  the  Ninth  Century, 
 over  the  head  of  Christ  is  |HS  XPS.  we  may  reason  that  since 
 the  first  two  letters  of  the  second  part  are  Greek,  the  first  two  of 
 the  first  part  must  also  be  Greek.  But  how  with  this-tbC  XP9 
 on  a  coin  of  Basil  I,  A.  D.  867?  Also  this  on  a  miniature  of 
 Codex  Egberti,  over  Christ's  head,  rudely  written,  |  HS  XRC? 
 Here  analogy  seems  to  fail. 
 
 Reverting  now  from  the  contraction  to  the  Holy  Name  written 
 in  full,  and  observing  how  variously  it  was  spelled,  we  find 
 ourselves  involved  in  still  greater  perplexity. 
 
 IHESUS — Title  of  Latin  manuscript  in  Gothic  minuscles, 
 written  1462.  Also  on  a  cross,  Tenth  Centur}-, 
 in  St.  Mauritius  at  Miinster. 
 
 lESVS — O"  reliquary  cross,  Twelfth  Century,  in  Museum 
 of  Freising. 
 
 ibCfU  CVifti — genitive  case,  in  colophon  of  Schoefer's  Bi- 
 ble, 1462. 
 
 tbCfU9   in  Book  of  Hours  of  queen  Anne  of  Britanny,  about 
 _i490. 
 
 iCfU    I  pi  in  a  prayer  in  the  same  book. 
 
 iCfU    in  "Devote  Meditatione",  Venice,  1508. 
 
 hiCSUS  on  cross  in  refectory  of  convent  of  Santa  Cruce, 
 Florence. 
 
 i 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA.  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  185 
 
 Whether  these  various  modes  of  spelling  had  an5'thing  to  do 
 with  writing  |HS  i^  doubtful.  They  would  rather  indicate  that 
 the  word  Jesus  was  pronounced  by  some  as  though  it  began  with 
 an  aspirate.  The  last  example  would  seem  to  prove  this.  Per- 
 haps many  people  were  as  reckless  in  their  use  of  the  letter  b 
 as  some  of  our  English  cousins  ;  or  perhaps  many  believed  that 
 the  Greek  Eta  (H)  was  to  be  sounded  as  an  aspirate.  The  last 
 supposition  may  not  be  far  from  right,  for  in  Greek  the  sign  H 
 before  it  represented  long  E  was  used  for  the  rough  breathing, 
 and  may  have  thus  passed  over  to  the  Latin.  Philology  alone 
 can  decide  this  question.  In  the  old  Latin  bibles  Jerome  is 
 spelled  Hieronymus,  and  Jerusalem,  Hierusalera.  Some  have 
 Iheronimus  and  Iherusalem. 
 
 The  same  difficulties  seemed  to  puzzle  the  ancients.  Amala- 
 rius  of  Metz,  author  of  De  Officiis  Ecclesiasticis  asks  in  a  letter  to 
 Jeremiah,  archbishop  of  Sens,  in  the  year  827,  why  the  name  of 
 Jesus  is  written  with  an  aspirate,  an  H>  and  expresses  the  opinion 
 that  according  to  the  Greek  it  should  be  written  IHC-*  l^o  this 
 Jeremiah  answers  that  it  is  not  an  aspirate  but  the  Greek  Eta. 
 He  also  asks  bishop  Jonas  whether  it  were  more  correct  to  write 
 I  HS  or  I  HC  a^^d  was  answered  that  the  latter  form  was  pref- 
 erable, the  first  two  letters  being  taken  from  the  Greek  and  the 
 last  from  the  Latin,  as  had  been  done  in  XPS- 
 
 An  explanation  is  offered  hy  James  O.  Halliwell,t  who  holds 
 that  the  Latin  scribes,  not  knowing  Greek,  confused  the  Latin  H 
 with  the  Greek  Eta  when  they  transcribed  |HS  as  luS  in  min- 
 uscule texts.  This  would  seem  to  be-  the  correct  explanation  in 
 the  case  of  lb  C  which  is  found  in  some  manuscript  sermons  in 
 my  possession,  of  probably  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Here  lb  C 
 was  doubtless  derived  from  I  HC-  1"  this  manuscript  Jesus  is 
 vmiformly  written  lb  C,  dative  lb  U  ,  accusatne  lb  111.  Christ 
 is  written  ipC,    also    ipS,   genative   Xpi  orN^,  dative  ipO, 
 
 *  D\4chery,   Spinlegiuin,   iii,  330,  quoted  in  McClintock  and  Strong, 
 t  A  Few  Hints  to  Novices  in  Manuscript  Literatitre. 
 
186  MEMOIRS. 
 
 accusative  .tpilV  Antichrist  is  written  antlXpC.  Holy  Spirit 
 is  written  in  the  genitive  fpC  f  CI  for  Spiritus  Sancti.  Notice 
 the  Greek  C  for  the  Latin  Q.  Thompson  *  cites  CPC  for  cpisco- 
 pus,  tpC  for  tempus.  While  it  may  be  true  that  the  mediaeval 
 monks  who  copied  manuscripts  knew  little  Latin  and  less  Greek, 
 and  doubtless  made  many  errors,  yet  we  must  also  remember  that 
 language  like  other  human  phenomena  does  not  always  develop 
 along  logical  and  conventional  lines.  When  we  study  the  early 
 use  of  I HS  or  ibS  we  are  hardly  justified  in  declaring  that  it 
 was  due  to  ignorance.  Take  for  example  the  Greco-Latin  codi- 
 ces of  the  New  Testament — manuscripts  in  which  the  Greek  and 
 Latin  texts  are  written  in  parallel  columns.  In  the  Codex  Bezae, 
 written  probably  in  the  Fifth  Century,  we  find  uniformly  in  the 
 Greek  column  |HC  and  in  the  corresponding  Latin  passages 
 lbs,  both  in  the  uncial  hand.  The  accusative  is  written,  Greek 
 ||-||Sj;  Latin  iblll.  Other  bi-lingual  uncials  most  likely  have 
 the  same  thing. 
 
 We  might  also  refer  to  the  Gothic  forms  of  this  monogram, 
 but  this  paper  would  become  too  lengthy.  One  other  feature  de- 
 serves mention  and  that  is  the  cross  which  often  surmounts  the 
 monogram.  This  was  obtained  in  the  Greek  uncial  and  Latin 
 capital  forms  by  a  single  verticle  stroke  drawn  through  the  con- 
 traction mark.  Thus  |HC  '^"<^^  InS-  Or  in  the  Latin  min- 
 uscule form  by  crossing  the  verticle  line  of  the  b  with  the  con- 
 traction   line.     Thus  IP §. 
 
 That  the  Holy  Name  was  often  used  in  conjurings  and  in- 
 cantations is  not  surprising,  and  when  written  for  such  purposes 
 usually  took  the  form  of  the  monogram.  Mr.  C.  W.  King  in- 
 forms us  that  IHS  NAZARENVS  ^^s  an  inscription  very 
 good  against  epilejisy  and  therefore  is  frequentl}'  found  on  silver 
 rings   of    mediaeval    make.     Also  the  phrase  "|HS  autem  tran- 
 
 Ilandbook  of  Greek  ami  I.iitin  Paleography  by  Edward  M.  Thomi'son. 
 
SACRED  MONOGRAMS — THE  CRISMA  AND  THE  HOLY  NAME.  187 
 
 siens  per  medium  illorum  ibat"  i.  e.  "Jesus  going  through  the 
 midst  of  them  passed  by"  (John  8:  59)  was  a  safeguard  against 
 all  dangers  in  traveling  by  sea  and  land.  Says  an  old  writer, 
 "And  therefore  seyen  some  men  when  thei  dreded  them  of  theses 
 on  any  way,  or  of  enemyes,  '  |HS  autem  etc'  in  tokene  and 
 mynde  that  our  Lord  passed  through  oute'of  the  Jewes'  crueltie 
 and  scapte  safely  fro  hem."  Edward  III  had  these  words  in- 
 scribed on  his  gold  noble  *  in  memory  of  his  miraculous  escape  at 
 the  naval  battle  off  Sluys. 
 
 The  Roman  church  has  instituted  a  festival  in  honor  of  the 
 Holy  Name  (Aug. 7)  on  which  special  services  are  held.  An  old 
 Sequence  of  this  festival  has  the  following  verse  preserved  in  the 
 Sarum  Missal  and  with  this  we  close. 
 
 Hail!  Name  so  precious  to  the  ear! 
 
 Sweet  Jesus!  Name  which  all  revere: 
 
 May  naught  on  earth  prevail  to  tear 
 This  title  from  our  heart. 
 
 By  this  let  sin  be  done  away, 
 
 To  this  let  each  one  homage  pay, 
 
 Through  this  in  heavenly  bliss,  we  pray, 
 
 May  we  obtain  a  part." 
 
 Edwin  F.  Keever. 
 
 Ca tasauqjia ,   Pa . 
 
 See   Century  Dictionary. 
 
Unh^K 
 
 AbsoIwUTion  —  Difference  be- 
 tween sermon  and,  VI :  65,  71 ; 
 Lutheran  conception  of,  VI : 
 74;  what  is,  VI:  65. 
 
 Accuracy,  Liturgical  —  De- 
 mands proper  music,  V:  96; 
 demands  strict  fidelity  to  the 
 very  words  of  the  service,  V : 
 95 ;  meaning  of,  V :  92 ;  rea- 
 sons for,  V:  90-91 ;  vital  ques- 
 tions affecting,  V :  93-94 ;  why 
 insist  on,  V:  90. 
 
 Admphora — Sacramental,  in  the 
 Lutheran  Church,  V:  75. 
 
 Advent — Duration  of,  IV:  18; 
 earliest  mention  of,  IV:  18; 
 position  since  6th  century,  IV  ; 
 19;  purpose  of,  IV  :  18. 
 
 Agenda — Earlier  than  or  con- 
 temporaneous with  Luther's 
 formula  Missae,  VI :  17. 
 
 Agende  —  Incongruities  of  the 
 American  of  1818,  IV:  90. 
 
 Agnus  Dei  —  Development  of 
 1 :  58 ;  origin  of,  1 :  57 ;  use  of 
 in  the  Lutheran  Church  differ- 
 entiated from  that  in  the  Ro- 
 man, 1 :  58. 
 
 Agape — What  it  was.  III :  2 ; 
 separated  from  regular  Sun- 
 day service,  VII :  65. 
 
 Altar — Change  in  form  of,  VI : 
 92 ;  comparison  between  Lu- 
 theran, Roman  Catholic,  and 
 Reformed,  II:  11-12;  decora- 
 tion of,  VI :  94 ;  distinction  be- 
 tween Jewish  and  Christian, 
 II :  8-9 ;  earliest  Christian, 
 what  it  was,  VI :  92 ;  effect  of 
 the  Renaissance  on  the,  VI : 
 90;  facing  the,  V:  16,  93; 
 flowers  on  the,  VII :  1 19 ;  form 
 of,  VI :  94 ;  now  sacrificial 
 in  its  significance,  II:  10; 
 Loehe's  views  of  the,  VI :  93 ; 
 meaning  to  Episcopalians,  II : 
 12;  to  Lutherans,  II:  10;  to 
 Romanists,  II:  11-12;  to  other 
 Reformed  bodies,  II:  12;  ob- 
 ject of,  II:  9;  position  of,  II: 
 5  ;  VII :  80,  82,  89,  90,  91  ;  pur- 
 pose for  which  erected,  11:7; 
 sacrificial  character  under  Old 
 Testament  dispensation,  11:8; 
 significance  of,  VI :  93 ;  size 
 and  elevation  of,  11:5;  the 
 place  of  prayer,  VI :  93 ;  vest- 
 ments for,  VII:  116;  where 
 built  in  early  times,  II :  7. 
 
 Auibo — Use  of  in  early  times, 
 11:4. 
 
 Anglican,  High  Church — The 
 peculiar  problem  presented  by 
 the.  III:  33. 
 
 Aiitependium — A  fitting  place 
 for  embroidery,   VI:  97;  pur- 
 
pose  of,  VI :  94;  YII :  119; 
 symbolism  on,  \'1 :  97;  what  it 
 is,  V:  94. 
 
 .Intiphon  —  By  whom  intro- 
 duced into  Christian  worship, 
 II:  45;  origin  of  antiphonal 
 singing-,  11 :  45  ;  present  form 
 ascribed  to  Gregory  the  Great, 
 II:  46;  retention  of  in  XYI 
 century  KOO,  II:  46. 
 
 ArcjSTLiCs'  Creed — See  Creeds. 
 
 Architecture,  Church — Altar 
 space  in,  VII :  88 ;  chancel-rail 
 in,  VII :  82 ;  decoration  in, 
 VII :  83 ;  difference  between 
 Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic, 
 II :  79  ;  doctrine  in.  1 V  :  79-80 ; 
 effect  of  Reformation  on,  VII : 
 76;  Eisenach  Regulative  on, 
 VII:  84;  form  and  character 
 of  art  in,  VII:  107;  galleries 
 in,  VII:  83,  93;  Gothic  style 
 of,  I:  22;  VII:  79;  handbook 
 needed  on  and  what  such  book 
 must  contain,  VII:  77-78; 
 latitude  allowed  in  style,  VII : 
 85-87 ;  liturgical  canons  gov- 
 erning, VI:  92;  material  in, 
 VII:  87;  orientation  in,  VII: 
 84 ;  place  for  organ  and  choir, 
 \'II:  81  ;  propositions  for  dis- 
 cussion on,  VII :  79-83  ;  provi- 
 sion for  Sunday  School  in, 
 VII:  80;  Smend  on,  VII:  95- 
 loi  ;  styles  of  Christian,  TI: 
 89;  the' laity  and,  V:  28;  the 
 tower  in.  \11  :  88,  112;  the 
 sacristy  in.  \11:  94;  technical 
 requirements  in  making  plans, 
 VII :  loi  ;  the  Wiesbaden  pro- 
 g:ram,  VII:  95-96;  what  it 
 should  express,  VI :  90. 
 
 .\rt — .A  handmaid  to  religion. 
 VI :   98 ;  beginning  of   Chris- 
 
 tian. Ill:  no;  characteristics 
 oi,  II:  96-97;  difference  be- 
 tween heathen  and  Christian, 
 11:  87 ;  domain  of  plastic  and 
 pictonial.  III:  no;  form  and 
 character  of  in  Church  archi- 
 tecture, VII:  107;  Goethe's 
 views  on,  \  I:  99;  meaning  of 
 in  worship,  II:  83-84;  pre- 
 Raphaelite  school  of,  1 :  22 
 relation  of  to  worship,  II :  83 
 stained  glass  and,  VII :  168 
 teachings  of  Christ  and  Apos- 
 tles not  hostile  to,  VI :  86 ;  use 
 of  in  Lutheran  Church,  II :  97- 
 99 ;  use  of  in  Tabernacle  and 
 Temple,  II:  85;  value  of  dec- 
 orative,   V  1 :  98. 
 
 Ascension — Origin  and  purpose 
 of,  IV:  25. 
 
 Asii  Wednesday — Origin,  cus- 
 tom and  purpose  of.  IV :  23. 
 
 Atiianasian  Creed — See  Creeds. 
 
 Ai'GusTiNE,  St. — Opposition  of 
 to  the  Donatists,  VI:  68;  the 
 germs  of  the  Collects  in,  1 :  19; 
 the  sncrificial  according  to, 
 III :  96-97. 
 
 B 
 
 Bagger,  Bishop  Hans — Strange 
 pastoral  advice  in  his  "Book 
 of  Service.  VII:  2>^. 
 
 IJAi'TiSNf — According  to  Gal- 
 lican.  Gelasian  and  Gre- 
 gorian Liturgies.  Ill:  18; 
 account  of  Ly  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
 salem, III:  117;  Agenda  on, 
 111:  121;  chiefly  by  immer- 
 sion in  early  Church,  III:  11; 
 I  '4.  115;  Church  membersh 
 by,  V:  81;  compared  witl. 
 Confirmation,   V :     80 ;    direc- 
 
tions  for  in  Didache,  III:  114; 
 distinction  between  the  Rom- 
 ish conception  and  the  Luther- 
 an, III:  120-121 ;  earthly  ele- 
 ment in,  V :  76 ;  earthly  ele- 
 ment, where  applied,  V  :  jy  ; 
 in  Ethiopic  Church,  III:  117; 
 instruction  in  the  catechumen- 
 ate  for,  III:  116;  instruction 
 necessary,  V :  78 ;  intention  of 
 the  catechumenate  concerning, 
 III:  120;  liturgy  used  by  the 
 Apostles,  III:  11 5- 116;  mode 
 of.  III:  114;  V:  76;  modes 
 sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
 Ravenna,  III:  115;  often  long 
 delayed.  III:  116;  place  for 
 administering,  V :  yy;  Sacra- 
 ment of  Regeneration,  III : 
 113;  same  for  infants  as  for- 
 adults.  III:  119;  "Solemn," 
 III:  115;  the  Word  in,  V:  yy ;. 
 validity  of,  Y :  76 ;  validity  of 
 and  benefits  distinguished, 
 Y:yy. 
 
 Adult — Distingviished  from  in- 
 fant, V:  80;  how  applied,  III:' 
 119;  in  primitive  church.  III: 
 113;  in  Church  of  Denmark, 
 II:  66-68. 
 
 Emergency — Consciousness  nec- 
 essary to  validity,  V :  82 ;  lay 
 Baptism,  V:  81  ;  necessity  de- 
 termines externals,  V  :  81  ;  Ro- 
 man Catholic  Baptism  of 
 blood,  of  desire,  V :  82. 
 
 Infant — As  a  regulation,  V :  yy, 
 never  to  be  repeated,  V :  80 ; 
 relation  of  the  infant  to 
 Church,  to  God,  to  parents,  V  : 
 
 -     78 ;    in    Church    of    Denmark, 
 
 ■;    II:  66-68. 
 
 '  Benediction — By     whom     pro- 
 nounced, 1 :  62  ;  character  of, 
 
 1 :  63 ;  form  of,  1 :  62 ;  large 
 number  of,  1 :  62 ;  Luther's 
 practices  regarding,  1 :  62 ;  in 
 Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  56. 
 
 Benedictus  — ■  By  whom  intro- 
 duced into  Latin  Church, 
 II:  50;  use  in  Eastern  and 
 Western  Churches,  II:  50; 
 why  a  Matin  Canticle,  II :  50. 
 
 Bidding  Prayer — See  Prayer. 
 
 Bishops  —  Appointment  of  in 
 Danish  Church,  II:  59. 
 
 Boardman,  Dr. — On  the  use  of 
 a  Liturgy,  1 :  10. 
 
 Brenz,  John — Life  of,  IV:  12; 
 liturgical  labors  of,  IV:  13; 
 the  part  he  took  in  the  prep- 
 aration of  the  Brandenburg- 
 Nurnberg  KO,  IV:  13. 
 
 Bugenhagen,  John — Aids  or- 
 ganization of  Church  in  Den- 
 mark, II:  59;  life  of,  IV:  10; 
 liturgical  position  and  direc- 
 tions of,  IV:  12;  most  lasting 
 monument  of,  IV :  11;  work 
 as  a  Church  organizer,  IV : 
 1 1 ;  Luther,  Melanchthon  and 
 contrasted,  IV:  3. 
 
 BuNSEN,  Baron — Influence  of 
 on  Anglican  Service,  1 :  24. 
 
 Burse — How  made,  II:  34;  ma- 
 terial and  size,  II:  34;  what  it 
 is,  H:  33-34. 
 
 Calendar,  the  Ecclesiastical 
 — Great  events  that  form  the 
 foundation  of,  IV:  18;  two 
 types  of,  IV:  18;  what  it  is, 
 IV:  17. 
 
Canticlks  —  Sec  Bcnedictns, 
 Magnificat,  Nunc  Dimittis, 
 Te  Deum. 
 
 Ceremonials — Custom  versus, 
 V:  74;  Luther's  ideas  regard- 
 ing, IV  :  31,  35  ;  Lutheran  reg- 
 lation  of,  V:  74;  Roman  con- 
 ception of,  V :  71. 
 
 Chancel  —  Derivation  of  the 
 word,  II:  I  ;  furniture  of,  II: 
 3 ;  organic  center  of  the 
 Church,  II:  6;  position  in  the 
 Church,  11:2;  size  of,  II :  2-3  ; 
 symbolism  of.  II :  6. 
 
 Chant — Ambrosian  and  Grego- 
 rian in  Church  Music,  II :  94. 
 
 Charisma — In  the  ApostoHc 
 Church,  VI:  51,  58,  59,  63. 
 
 CharlEmagxi', — Eiiorts  of  in 
 behalf  of  the  Pericopes,  IV : 
 50;  efi'orts  of  to  make  the  Lit- 
 urgy more  than  an  opus  op- 
 cratum,  1 :  26 ;  Homiliarius  of, 
 IV:  51. 
 
 CiioiR — Composition  of,  II:  95; 
 spirit  of,  II :  95. 
 
 Chrisma,  the,  or  Chi  Rho — 
 Addition  of  Alpha  and  Omega 
 to,  \'II :  177;  antiquity  of. 
 VII:  170;  coins  and  the,  VII: 
 symbol;  VII:  173;  form  of, 
 VII:  170;  Greek  forms  of, 
 VII:  170:  Greek  intluence  in 
 Latin  forms,  VII:  175;  Latin 
 forms  of,  VII:  174;  origin 
 commonly  though  incorrectly 
 ascribed  to  Constant ine,  VII : 
 171  ;  popularized  by  Constan- 
 tine.  VII:  175;  the  Circle  and 
 the.  VII:  177;  the  Maltese 
 Cross  ;ind  the,  \'II:  177;  used 
 
 frequently  on  books,  pottery 
 and  secular  documents,  VII: 
 176;  varietv  of  forms  of,  VII: 
 176. 
 
 Christ — The  center  of  our  wor- 
 ship, I:  15. 
 
 Christian  III,  King  op  Den- 
 mark— Labors  of  in  behalf  of 
 the  Church,  IV:  97;  "Ordi- 
 nance" of  in  Church  of  Den- 
 mark. II:  58;  "Ordinance"  of 
 introduced  into  Icelandic 
 Church,  IV :  98 ;  influence  of 
 on  Norwegian  Liturgy,  VII : 
 36-37- 
 
 Christmas — Date  of,  IV:  19; 
 purpose  of,  IV :  20. 
 
 CiU'RCii — Calvinistic  doctrines 
 on  the.  Ill:  28;  Roman  Cath- 
 olic doctrine  of  the  Church, 
 II:  22,  26;  Luther's  distinc- 
 tion of  the.  III:  26;  marks  of 
 the,  III:  27;  parallelism  be- 
 tween the  history  of  the  and 
 the  Liturgy,  III:  19;  what  is 
 the,  VI:  77;  worship  in  the 
 Pentecostal.  Ill :  90. 
 
 Church.  Mediaeval — Distinc- 
 tion between  the  sacramental 
 and  the  sacrificial  lost  sight  of 
 in  the,  VI :  79 ;  causes  leading 
 to  this  loss,  VI:  79;  import- 
 ance attached  to  the  sacrificial 
 in  the.  \'1 :  79. 
 
 Chi'rch,  Post  -  Apostolic  — 
 Character  of  Second  Century. 
 VII:  50;  conception  of  Sacra- 
 ment in,  VII :  61  ;  Didachc  on 
 Christian  worship  in,  VII:  56; 
 obfcrvancc  of  Easter,  Lent, 
 and  vStation  Days  in,  VIT:  5.V 
 45 ;    observance     of     "Saints' 
 
Days"  in,  VII :  55  ;  observance 
 of  Sunday  in,  VI 1 :  51 ;  prayer 
 in,  VII:  59;  prophetic  charac- 
 ter of  Sacrament  in,  VII :  61  ; 
 temptations  lying  in  the  path- 
 way of  the  student  of  Christian 
 worship  in,  VI :  49 ;  variations 
 of  prayers  in  the,  VII:  69-71. 
 
 Churches  —  Distinctive  differ- 
 ences between,  1 :  10. 
 
 Church  Year — Basis  of,  V: 
 24 ;  development  of  the,  IV : 
 18 ;  VI :  25 ;  effect  of  on  the 
 expression    of    worship,    VI : 
 
 ■  26;  the  liturgical  colors  and 
 the,  VII :  13. 
 
 Circumcision — Origin  of  festi- 
 val of,  IV:  20. 
 
 Cloth,  Altar — How  placed,  II: 
 31  ;  material,  II:  31 ;  ornamen- 
 tation of,  II:  31;  VII:  116; 
 when  used,  II:  31  ;  width  and 
 length  of,  II:  31. 
 
 Collects,  the — As  congrega- 
 tional prayers,  V :  45  ;  contents 
 due  to  specific  causes,  V:  47- 
 48;  examples  illustrating  the 
 marks  of,  V:  46;  Gelasian,  V: 
 48-50;  Gregorian,  V:  51; 
 Leonine,  V :  47 ;  intended  for 
 public  use,  V:  44;  Luther's 
 ideas  on  the  use  of.  III :  45 ; 
 marks  of,  V :  45 ;  meaning  of 
 the  word,  V:  44;  origin  of, 
 III:  45;  V:  47;  other  than 
 those  de  tempore,  V:  51; 
 sources  of,  1 :  48 ;  their  beauty, 
 1 :  48-49 ;  their  fitness,  III :  46 ; 
 what  they  are,  III :  45  ;  where 
 found,  1 :  47. 
 
 Collect  (Matins) — Form  in  I 
 and    II.    Edward    the    Sixth, 
 
 II:  54;  in  Common  Service, 
 II:  54;  in  Gregorian  Sacra- 
 mentary,  II:  54;  germ  in 
 Gelasian  Sacramentary,  II : 
 5,3  ;  Roman  version  of,  II :  54 ; 
 version     in     Sarum    Breviary, 
 
 11:54- 
 
 Collect  for  Peace — Common 
 Service  form,  II :  56;  different 
 forms  of,  II :  56 ;  first  found  in 
 Gelasian  Sacramentary,  II : 
 56. 
 
 Colors,  Liturgical — Adiapho- 
 ra,  VII:  17;  application  of  in 
 Old  Testament  Church,  VII : 
 3 ;  appointments  of  in  our 
 Church,  VII:  14-15,  118; 
 Christ's  life  and  work  and  the, 
 VII:  16;  defense  of  the,  VII: 
 13;  divine  authorization  of  in 
 Old  Testament  Church,  VII: 
 4;  dogma  and  the,  VII:  8; 
 Durandus  on  the  and  their 
 symbolism,  VII:  10-12;  help- 
 ful to  the  worshipper,  VII : 
 17;  origin  of  use  of,  VII:  i; 
 purple  and  its  symbolism, 
 VII :  7 ;  the  Church  Year  and 
 the,  VII:  13;  those  in  use, 
 VI :  I ;  VII :  i  ;  tradition  and 
 the,  VII :  8  ;  two-fold  sense  of, 
 VII ;  I  ;  scarlet  and  its  sym- 
 bolism, VII :  7 ;  significance  of 
 the,  VI :  95  ;  symbolism  in  the, 
 VII :  I ;  symbolism  as  seen  by 
 Josephus,  VII :  5  ;  symbolism 
 as  seen  by  Meurer,  VII :  14 ; 
 symbolism  and  Roman  use  of, 
 VII :  13 ;  use  of  in  Old  Testa- 
 ment Church,  VII:  12;  white 
 and  its  symbolism,  VII :  6. 
 
 Comes  Hieronymi  —  Reference 
 to  I:  51;  IV:  49. 
 
Common  Prayer,  Book  of — At- 
 titude of  Westminster  Assem-I 
 bly  towards,  III:  6i ;  First 
 and  Second  Prayer  Books  of 
 Edward  the  Sixth,  III:  64; 
 English  and  American  com- 
 pared, III:  66;  comparative 
 tables,  III :  72-^}^ ;  non-unity  of 
 in  Holy  Communion;  III:  69; 
 our  indebtedness  to  the,  III : 
 71  ;  rubrics  of  the  and  their 
 elasticity,  III:  63;  similarity 
 between  First  Edward  VI  and 
 the  Lutheran  Orders,  III:  65; 
 strange  juxtaposition  of  va- 
 rious parts  of,  III:  64-65; 
 theology  of,  HI:  62;  unique- 
 ness of.  III:  61;  wherein  lies 
 its  power,  ill:  60;  wide  devo- 
 tional use  of  the.  III :  60. 
 
 Common  Service — x\nalysis  of 
 and  application  of  fundamen-) 
 tal  principles  in  the,  V: 
 61-67;  x\merican  Lutheran 
 Church  influences  in,  VI:  14; 
 ancient  Church  influences  in, 
 VI :  6 ;  Church  of  England  in- 
 fluences in,  VI:  10;  Gentile- 
 Christian  influences  in,  VI: 
 6  ;  Greek  influences  in,  VI :  4 ; 
 influences  of  the  i6th  Century 
 Church  in,  VI:  11  ;  Jewish  in- 
 fluences in,  VI :  2  ;  Luther's 
 influences  in,  VI :  1 1  ;  New 
 Testament  influences  in,  VI : 
 5 ;  old  Catholic  influences 
 in,  VI:  7;  Reformation  influ- 
 ences in,  VI:  11;  Reformed 
 influences  in,  VI:  12-13;  Ro- 
 man influence  in,  VI:  9-10; 
 Influence  of  Pietism,  VI:  14; 
 present  day  influence,  VI:  15; 
 the  sacramental  and  the  sacri- 
 ficial in  the,  V :  85. 
 
 Confession — A  form  of  used  in 
 
 the  loth  to  I2th  Centuries, 
 VI :  74 ;  form  of  prayer  of- 
 fered by  priest  about  to  hear, 
 VI:  69;  two  parts  in,  VI:  65. 
 
 Confession  and  Absolution — 
 By  whom  instituted,  Vl:  66; 
 Bugenhagen's  form  of,  VI : 
 ^2 ;  Donatistic  view  of,  VI : 
 68 ;  declaration  of  Branden- 
 burg-Nurnberg  Order  of  1533 
 concerning,  VI:  72;  effect  of 
 Thirty  Years'  War  on,  VI :  74 ; 
 five  periods  in  history  of, 
 VI:  66;  form  of  in  Lutheran 
 Church,  VI :  65 ;  idea  under- 
 lying Lutheran,VI :  ^72  ;  institu- 
 tion of  private,  W :  68 ;  in  the 
 Lutheran  Church,  VI:  68; 
 Luther's  declaration  bearing 
 on,  VI:  70-71;  Montanists' 
 teaching  concerning,  W:  67; 
 New  Testament  teaching  con- 
 cerning, VI :  66 ;  parts  of  the 
 Lippish  Order  of  1538,  VI: 
 71  ;  Pietism  and,  VI :  75  ;  prac- 
 tice of  excommunication  and 
 redemption  in,  \'1 :  69;  pres- 
 ent day  progress  in,  VI :  75  ; 
 present  usage  of,  VI :  65 ;  ra- 
 tionalism and,  W  :  75  ;  Re- 
 formed views  concerning,  VI : 
 y^ ;  retention  in,  VI :  yT, ; 
 Shepherd  of  Hermes'  declara- 
 tion concerning,  Yl :  67 ;  Spe- 
 ncr's  views  concerning,  VI : 
 74 :  St.  Augustine's  opposition 
 to  Donastic  view  concerning 
 VI:  68;  teachings  of  Calen'- 
 berg  and  Luncberg  Orders 
 concerning,  VI :  72  ;  Tertullian 
 and  Cyprian  on.  VJ  :  67. 
 
 Confirmation  —  Beginning  of 
 custom,  III:  9;  catechumenate 
 in  ancient  Church.  Ill:  9;  in 
 Middle  Ages,  III:  12;  Chem- 
 
nitz  on,  III:  14;  compared 
 with  baptism,  V:  80;  effect  of 
 Pietism  on.  III:  13;  effect  of 
 Rationalism  on,  III:  17;  in 
 Church  of  Denmark,  II :  68- 
 69;  Luther's  views  on.  III: 
 13;  opposition  to  in  Reforma- 
 tion era.  III :  13 ;  reference  to 
 Dr.  B.  M.  Schmucker's  views 
 on.  III:  16;  revival  of  in  19th 
 Century,  III:  18;  Spener's  ef- 
 forts in  behalf  of.  III:  17; 
 teaching  of  Augsburg  Confes- 
 sion on.  III :  14 ;  views  of  in 
 1 6th  Century,  III:  15. 
 
 Coniiteor — Origin  of,  1 :  44 ; 
 sources  of  various  parts,  I : 
 45 ;  usage  in  Roman  Catholic 
 and  Lutheran  Churches,  I : 
 44. 
 
 Consecration — Abraham  Lin- 
 coln's idea  of  the  term,  VII : 
 25 ;  Apostolic  Succession  and, 
 VII :  22 ;  degeneration  of, 
 VII :  22 ;  difference  between 
 Romish  and  Lutheran  idea  on 
 of  Churches,  VII :  23 ;  differ- 
 entiated from  Dedication  and 
 Benediction,  in  DuFresne's 
 Glos\sary,  VII:  20;  etymology 
 of  term,  VII :  20;  Gerber's  de- 
 scription of  a  Church,  VII : 
 24-25 ;  in  Eastern  and  West- 
 ern Churches,  VII:  21  ;  infor- 
 mation furnished  by  Church 
 History  and  History  of  Doc- 
 trines, VII :  21 ;  Luther's  ad- 
 dress at  a  Church,  VII :  24 ; 
 necessity  of  in  the  Romish 
 Mass,  VII:  21;  of  bells,  pul- 
 pits, organs,  altars,  fonts,  cem- 
 eteries, etc.,  VII:  25;  of 
 Churches,  VII :  23  ;  Ordina- 
 tion and,  VII :  22  ;  principle 
 underlying,  VII :  26. 
 
 Corporal — Definition  of,  II :  31 ; 
 how  laundered,  II :  32 ;  orna- 
 mentation of,  II :  32 ;  size  of, 
 II:  31;  symbolism  of,  11 :  32. 
 
 Creeds — A  witness  to  the  uni- 
 versality of  our  faith,  VII : 
 32 ;  an  expression  of  our  per- 
 sonal convictions,  VII :  33 ; 
 order  of  relative  value,  VII : 
 27;  purpose  of,  VII:  30;  sac- 
 rificial character  of,  VII:  30; 
 subjective  benefits  of,  VII : 
 31 ;  use  of  in  the  Anglican 
 Liturgy,  VII:  29. 
 
 Niccne — Brief  histor}^  of  pre- 
 Reformation  and  Reformation 
 usage,  VII :  27-28 ;  first  usage 
 of,  1 :  52  ;  VII :  27,  origin  and 
 development  of,  1 :  51 ;  position 
 of  in  the  Service,  VII :  29-30. 
 ment,  VII :  28 ;  early  employ- 
 
 Apostlcs' — Basis  of  and  develop- 
 ment, VII:  28;  early  employ- 
 ment of,  VII:  28;  limited  use 
 of,  1 :52 ;  proper  sphere  of, 
 VII:  28;  uncertainty  when  in- 
 troduced into  office,  VII :  28 ; 
 uncertain  when  completed, 
 VII:  27. 
 
 Athanasian  —  Canon  Liddon's 
 defense  of,  VII:  29;  date  and 
 origin  of,  VII:  27;  names  by 
 which  known,  VII :  29 ;  limit- 
 ed use  of,  1 :  52  ;  use  in  Angli- 
 can Church,  lil :  65 ;  in  Luth- 
 eran Church,  VII :  28. 
 
 CuLTus — The  Lutheran  Church 
 and,  VI :  22^;  always  harmon- 
 ious in  expression,  VI :  24. 
 
 Cyprian  —  Views  concerning 
 Confession  and  Absolution, 
 VI :  67  ;  views  on  the  Doctrine 
 of  the  Church,  III:  21,  26. 
 
Cyclic — The  Christmas,  IV:  19; 
 tlic  Victorian,  IV:  22. 
 
 DixoRATiON — Altar,  VI :  94 ; 
 lectern,  VI:  95;  pulpit,  VI: 
 95 ;  tendencies  in  Church,  VI : 
 91. 
 
 Denmark  —  Early  introduction 
 of  the  Reformation  into  Den- 
 mark, 11:  57. 
 
 Dr-TERioKATiox — Range  of  litur- 
 g-ical,  IV:  67. 
 
 DidacJic — Directions  for  baptism 
 in.  III:  114;  on  Christian  wor- 
 ship in  Post-Apostolic  Church, 
 VII:  56. 
 
 Distribution,  Formula  of — Dif- 
 ferent forms  of.  1 :  61  ;  origin 
 of,  1 :  61 ;  source  of  that  in" 
 Common  Service,  I:  61. 
 
 DoNATiSTS— Views  on  the  be- 
 stowal of  Absolution,  VI:  68. 
 
 Easter — Derivation  of  name, 
 IV:  24;  orig-in  of,  IV:  20; 
 present  mode  of  determining 
 date  settled  at  Council  of  Nice, 
 IV:  21;  rule  for  determining 
 date,  IV:  21;  why  a  movable 
 festival,  IV:  21. 
 
 EdiEicatiox — Service  for.  VI: 
 50;  idea  underlying,  VI:  51- 
 52 ;  the  four  elements  of,  VI : 
 52. 
 
 Education,  Liturgical  —  Ad- 
 vantages of.  III:  84;  effect  of 
 early,  III:  86;  necessity  of, 
 III:  81;  our  part  in,  III':  83; 
 
 pastor's  and  teacher's  part  in. 
 Ill:  87;  responsibility  of  Sun- 
 day School  in.  III:  82,  83. 
 
 Embroidery — Beauty  and  fit- 
 ness of,  VI :  96;  effect  of  Cru- 
 sades on,  VI :  97 ;  historv  of, 
 VI :  96. 
 
 England— German  influence  in, 
 1:24. 
 
 EpiclcSs — Meaning  of,  1 :  33  ; 
 restoration  in  some  Service 
 Books,  1 :  33-34. 
 
 Epiphany — Date  of,  IV:  19; 
 origin  of,  IV:  19;  purpose  of, 
 IV:  20. 
 
 Epistle — Designation  in  ancient 
 Liturgies,  1 :  49 ;  early  and 
 later  custom  of  reading  the, 
 I:  49. 
 
 Exhortation  —  Origin  of,  i  : 
 56 ;  purpose  underlying,  1 :  56. 
 
 F 
 
 Festivals — Greek  Church,  IV: 
 26-27 ;  Luther's  views  on,  IV : 
 36. 
 
 First  Apology  of  Justin  Mar- 
 tyr— Description  of  Eucharis- 
 tic  Service  in,  VII :  64 ;  de- 
 scription of  regular  Sunday 
 worship,  VII :  65  ;  elements  of 
 the  Service  in,  VII :  66-68 ; 
 kiss  of  peace  in,  VII:  67; 
 prayer  in,  VII :  67. 
 
 Font — Location  of,  11:3;  VI : 
 95;  VII:  83,  90,  114. 
 
 Form  —  Necessity  for  some, 
 111:  ys- 
 
 formula  Missac — A  liturgical 
 classic,  VI :  17. 
 
Furniture,  Church — Articles* 
 of  and  their  significance,  VI : 
 92  ;  doctrine  in,  IV :  80 ;  sym- 
 bolism of,  II :  91. 
 
 Galleries — Their  fitness  in  a 
 Church,  VII :  83,  93. 
 
 Glass,  Stained — Characteristic 
 qualities  of,  VII :  163 ;  de- 
 signs on,  VII:  167;  function' 
 of,  VII:  166;  medium  to  be 
 employed  in,  VII :  162 ;  need 
 of  attention  on  the  subject  of, 
 VII:  159;  perspective  and, 
 VII:  166;  "pot-metal"  or 
 "painted,"  which?  VIII:  162; 
 pictures  and,  VII :  163  ;  struc- 
 tural necessities  in,  VII:  160; 
 true  art  to  be  sought  in,  VII : 
 168. 
 
 Gloria  in  Bxcelsis — Age  and 
 original  form  of,  1 :  47 ;  au- 
 thor of,  1 :  47 ;  use  in  Roman 
 and  Lutheran  Churches,  1 :  47. 
 
 Gloria  Patri — Early  forms  of, 
 1 :  46 ;  how  distinguished  in 
 Matins  and  Vespers  from  its 
 use  in  Chief  Service,  II:  40; 
 origin  of,  1 :  45-46 ;  reasons 
 for  present  form  of,  1 :  46. 
 
 Gospel — Arrangement  in  Ro- 
 man Church  and  present  usage 
 in  the  Common  Service,  I :  SC- 
 SI;  by  whom  read,  1 :  50;  rev- 
 erence accorded  it,  1 :  50. 
 
 Gnosticism — Efifect  of  on  the 
 doctrine  of  the  Church,  III : 
 21. 
 
 Grace,  Means  oe — Doctrine  of, 
 exalted,  1:17. 
 
 Gregory  the  Great — Antipho- 
 nary  of,  V :  2  ;  author  of  Plain 
 Song  or  Gregorian  Chant,  V: 
 3 ;  doctrine  of  Purgatory,  V : 
 5 ;  effect  of  his  principles  of 
 worship,  V:  6;  Homilies  of, 
 V :  2 ;  labors  in  behalf  of 
 Church  Music,  V :  3 ;  Litanies 
 in  his  age,  V :  6 ;  Order  of  the 
 Mass,  V :  3 ;  Sacramentary  of, 
 V :  I ;  transubstantiation  clear- 
 ly taught  bv  him,  V :  5  ;  unique 
 position  of,  V:  i. 
 
 H 
 
 Hallelujah  and  Sentence — 
 Early  use  in  Jewish,  Eastern 
 and  Western  Churches,  1 :  49 ; 
 origin  of  sentences,  1 :  49-50  ; 
 when  omitted,  1 :  49. 
 
 HoMiLiARius  —  Charlemagne's, 
 
 VI:  35;  IV:  51,  57,  59;  basis 
 of  Luther's  Kirchen  Postille, 
 
 VI:  35- 
 
 Hours,  Canonical — Addition 
 and  development  by  Cyprian, 
 II:  36;  effect  of  the  Reforma- 
 tion upon  the,  II :  37-38 ; 
 eighth  hour  added  by  Benedict 
 of  Nursia,  li :  37 ;  Luther's 
 combination  of  the,  II :  38 ; 
 names  of  and  services  per- 
 formed at  these,  II :  37 ;  refer- 
 ence to  in  Apostolic  Constitu- 
 tions, II :  36 ;  Scripture  refer- 
 ence to,  II :  35 ;  why  a  seventh 
 hour  was  added,  II :  2)7- 
 
 Hymnology — Christian,  II :  93  ; 
 work  of  Olavus  Petri  in  behalf 
 of,  II:  21;  labors  of  Lauren- 
 tius  Petri  in  behalf  of,  II :  22. 
 
10 
 
 Hymns — Apostolic  Church,  II: 
 92;  VI:  55;  essentials  of  true, 
 II:  93;  Litany,  VII:  152. 
 
 I.  H.  S. — See  The  Holy  Name. 
 
 Introit — Change  of,  1 :  45  ;  il- 
 lustrations of  thematic  har- 
 mony, II :  77-82 ;  Luther's 
 opinion  as  to  use  of  the,  II : 
 45 ;  omitted  in  Rook  of  Com- 
 mon Prayer,  III:  65;  origin- 
 of,  I:  45;  purpose  of,  II:  76; 
 use  of,  VI:  33. 
 
 Invitatory — Eastern  origin  and 
 form  of,  II :  40-41  ;  use  in 
 Eastern,  Western  and  Luther- 
 an Churches,   II:  41. 
 
 Iceland — Introduction  of  Chris- 
 tianity into,  IV:  95;  of  the 
 Reformation,  IV :  96. 
 
 Jonas,  Justus — Life  of,  IV :  15  ; 
 liturgical  labors  of,  IV:  15. 
 
 K 
 
 Koo — Types  of.  IV:  2-^. 
 
 Kyric — Early  use  of.  1 :  46 ;  how 
 used  in  Greek  Church,  1 :  4O ; 
 Luther's  views  on  the,  1 :  47 ; 
 repetition  of,  VII :  131  ;  use  in 
 Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  52 ; 
 use  in  Roman  Church.  1 :  46. 
 
 Laitv — Xccd  for  a  liturgically 
 well-informed.  V:  21  ;  purpose 
 of  enlightening^  our,  V  :  22  ;  the 
 defense  and  ui)building  of  our 
 Church  depends  upon  a  litur- 
 
 gically well-inforjTied,  V :  22 ; 
 the  pastor's  part  in  instruct- 
 ing the,  \^ :  26 ;  two  methods 
 of  instructing  our.  \' :  21. 
 
 Lectio  Continna — See  Pericopes. 
 
 Lections — Common  Service  as- 
 signment of  the,  II:  48;  dif- 
 ferent Lectionaries.  1:51;  ear- 
 ly assignment  of  different 
 books  of  the  Bible  to  different 
 seasons,  II :  46-49;  how  closed, 
 II:  48;  idea  of."  VI:  38;  later 
 changes  shortening  the,  11:48; 
 Luther's  advice  and  retention 
 of  the  II :  47 ;  VI :  35  ;  origin 
 of,  I:  51;  effect  of  the  Ref- 
 ormation on  the,  II:  48. 
 
 Lectern — Arrangement  of  the, 
 \'II :  1 13  ;  defense  of  the.  VI : 
 95 ;  form  and  decoration  of 
 the,  VI :  95  ;  origin  of  the,  II: 
 4;  position  of  the,  II:  4;  VII: 
 80. 
 
 Lent — Origin  and  fixity  of,  IV : 
 23-24. 
 
 Letter,  Domi.mcal — How  de- 
 termined, II :  24. 
 
 Linen,  Altar — See  Altar  Cloth, 
 Burse,  Corporal.  Pall,  Purifi- 
 cators,  Veil. 
 
 Lrr.\NV — A  product  of  the  West- 
 ern Church.  VII:  129;  Angli- 
 can form  of  the.  VII :  137 ;  ap- 
 i:)ointmcnt  of  Rogation  or  Lit- 
 any Days,  II:  51;  changes 
 made  by  Luther  in  the.  Ill: 
 43;  contents  of  Roman.  Ill: 
 43 ;  different  forms  of  and 
 their  origin.  Ill :  42;  early  us- 
 age of.  Ill:  42;  four-fold  use 
 of  in  Western  Church.  VII: 
 130;  general  divisions  of  Me- 
 
11 
 
 diasval  Litanies,  VII :  36 ; 
 Hymns  growing  out  of  the, 
 VII:  152;  its  introduction  into 
 the  Mass,  VII:  148;  Loehe's 
 tribute  to  the,  VII :  148  ;  Lu- 
 theran form  of  the,  VII :  145  ; 
 manner  of  rendering  the,  VII : 
 151;  Moravian  form  of,  VII  r 
 141 ;  origin  of  the,  II :  51 ;  or- 
 igin of  Litania  Scptiformis, 
 II:  52 ;  III :  42  ;  VII :  132 ;  or- 
 igin of  the  term.  Ill:  42; 
 origin  of  the  specific  formula 
 uncertain,  VII :  132 ;  rapid 
 multipHcation  of  the,  II:  52; 
 VII:  134;  reduction  to  three, 
 II :  52  ;  Reformation  usage  of 
 the,  VII:  149;  rejected  by  the 
 Reformed  Churches,  III:  44; 
 responses  in  the,  III :  43 ;  rise 
 of  litanical  form  of  prayer  un- 
 certain, VII:  132;  Roman 
 Catholic  use  of  the  "Great," 
 VII:  136;  that  of  the  Com- 
 mon Service,  II :  52 ;  the  in- 
 vocation of  Saints  and  the, 
 VII :  135  ;  use  of  in  connection 
 with  processionals,  II:  51 ;  use 
 of  in  Common  Service,  VII : 
 150;  when  used.  III:  43. 
 
 Literature: — Romantic  move- 
 ment in,   1 :  22. 
 
 LiTURGics — Bound  up  with  Dog- 
 ma and  Doctrine,  III:  106; 
 development  of,  III :  104 ;  his- 
 torical character  of.  III:  106; 
 individualism  and,  III :  105  ; 
 proper  department  for.  III : 
 105. 
 
 LiTURGiST — Sphere  of  the  prac- 
 tical, 1 :  36-37. 
 
 Liturgy  {General  Subject) — A 
 legacy  of  history,  III :  105 ;  a 
 preserver  of  doctrine,  IV :  70 ; 
 
 Apostolic  Church  and,  III: 
 102  ;  architecture  and  the.  III : 
 no;  beauty  and  glory  of  our, 
 V :  41-42 ;  charges  of  oppo- 
 nents against  a,  V:  88;  devel- 
 opment of  Roman  in  Reforma- 
 tion era,  IV  :  64 ;  devotion  and 
 the,  III:  109;  divisions  of  the 
 in  early  times,  VI :  27 ;  doc- 
 trines affecting  the.  III:  20; 
 doctrine  in,  IV:  81;  doctrines 
 taught  in  our,  IV :  81-82 ;  Eth- 
 ics in  relation  to  the,  III :  108 ; 
 groundlessness  of  charges 
 against  a,  V:  89;  Homiletics 
 in  relation  to  the,  III:  108; 
 limit  set  to  the.  III:  34;  music 
 of  the.  Ill:  no;  position  of 
 Christ  with  reference  to  a, 
 III:  101-102;  proper  balance 
 of  a.  III :  loi ;  reasons  as- 
 signed for  a,  V:  86-88;  ref- 
 ormation of  the,  III:  29;  re- 
 lation between  doctrine  and 
 the,  IV:  79;  specific  doctrines 
 taught  in,  IV:  81-82;  starting 
 points  of  Luther  and  Calvin  in 
 the  reformation  of  the.  III : 
 29;  three  doctrines  that  serve 
 to  explain  the.  III:  107;  uni- 
 versal priesthood  of  believers 
 exemplified  in  our,  IV :  82 ; 
 why  we  have  a,  V :  85. 
 
 Specifie — Bunsen's  Capitoline, 
 1 :  22 ;  first  types  of  Lutheran, 
 1 :  24 ;  for  Garrison  Church  at 
 Berlin,  1 :  22 ;  for  Prussian 
 Church,  1 :  23  ;  Knox's,  1 :  14 ; 
 proposed  for  use  in  Presbyte- 
 rian Church,  1:14;  Reformed 
 Church  in  the  United  States, 
 I:  15;  St.  James',  I:  14;  the 
 Greek,  I:  11,  12;  the  Roman, 
 I:  12;  Zwingli's  I:  14. 
 
12 
 
 America)!  Lutheran  of  1748 — 
 Basis  and  preparation  of,  IV: 
 86;  how  long  in  use,  IV: 
 88;  publication  and  material 
 changes  of.  IV:  88;  revisions 
 and  deteriorations  noted,  IV: 
 88-89;  rubrics  of,  IV:  87; 
 translation  of,  IV:  87;  views 
 of  Dr.  B.  M.  Schniucker  on, 
 IV:  88. 
 
 Of   1817  —  Rationalistic   and 
 un-Lutheran,  IV:  89. 
 0/  18 18  —  Its    incongruities, 
 IV:  90. 
 
 Of  1833— Based  on  that  of 
 1786,  IV:  91. 
 
 Of  1847 — History    and     esti- 
 mate of,   IV:  91-93. 
 Of   1855— History,  parts  and 
 estimate  of,  IV:  93. 
 Of  i860  (English)— Estimate 
 of,  IV:  94. 
 
 Danish — Chief  Service  of  the, 
 II:  61-65;  Lord's  Supper  in, 
 II :  70-73  ;  Matins  and  Vespers 
 in,  II:  65;  order  of  Service 
 in  tities  and  rural  places,  II : 
 57;  use  of  the  vernacular  in, 
 II:  58;  work  of  Palladius  in 
 behalf  of.  II :  59-61. 
 
 Icelandic — First  Liturgy,  IV: 
 95 ;  first  Service  officially 
 adopted,  IV:  loi ;  post-Ref-i 
 ormation  Liturgy.  IV:  103; 
 present  Service,  IV:  104;  fu- 
 ture Service,  IV:  107. 
 
 A'orzvci^^ian — Influence  of  Lu- 
 ther's "German  Mass"  on.VII  : 
 35 ;  influence  of  the  "Ordi- 
 nance" of  King  Christian  III 
 on,  VII:  36-37;  optional  use 
 of,  VII:  27  \  order  of  "Ordi- 
 nance," VII:  38-39;  compari- 
 
 son of  "Ordinance"  and 
 "Ritual,"  VII:  38-39;  later 
 changes  in,  VII :  40 ;  the  "New 
 Order  of  Service"  and  basis 
 of,  VII:  43;  estimate  of  New 
 Order,  VII:  46-47;  effect  of 
 Pietism  and  Rationalism  on, 
 VII:  4^^. 
 
 Sii'cdish — Order  of  that  of 
 1531,  II:  17-20;  similarity  be- 
 tween it  and  Luther's  formti- 
 la  Missae,  II:  20-21;  later 
 changes  in,  II:  21  ;  changes  in 
 those  of  1541,  1641,  1811, 
 1874,  1894,  II:  21.  24.  25,  26, 
 27. 
 
 LuTiiER — Address  at  the  conse- 
 cration of  a  Church,  VII:  24; 
 attack  of  the  "Sacrifice  of  the 
 Mass,"  VI :  80 ;  Bugenhagen, 
 Melanchthon,  and  contrasted, 
 IV :  13  ;  declaration  bearing  on 
 Repentance,  VI:  70-71;  doc- 
 trine of  the  Church,  III:  26; 
 doctrine  of  the  Ministry,  III: 
 27 ;  doctrines  of  the  Church 
 and  Ministry  affecting  the  Lit- 
 urgy, III:  30;  his  Deutsche 
 Messe,  IV:  41-4- ;  his  Formu- 
 la Misme,  IV:  39-40;  his  Ord- 
 niDig  dcs  Gottcsdicnst  in  der 
 Gcmcine,  IV :  37-38  ;  his  Tauf- 
 hncchlcin,  of  1523  and  1526, 
 III:  121;  IV:  45;  his  idea  of 
 a  Service,  III:  29;  ideas  re- 
 garding Divine  Service,  IV : 
 30;  influences  of  in  Common 
 Service,  VI:  11;  reasons  for 
 changing  ojd  Order  of  Ser- 
 vice, IV :  32-33 ;  reply  to 
 Carlstadt  concerning  the  use 
 of  pictures,  VI :  44 ;  the  first 
 outline  of  a  purified  Service, 
 I^  :  371  the  Formula  Missae 
 
13 
 
 and  Deutsche  Messe  paral- 
 lelled, IV :  44 ;  views  on  Cere? 
 monies,  IV:  31,  35;  Collects, 
 III :  45 ;  Confirmation,  III : 
 13  ;  external  observances,  IV  : 
 34;  festivals,  IV:  36;  Introit, 
 1 :  45  ;  Kyrie,  1 :  47 ;  Lections, 
 II :  48 ;  Paraments,  VI :  90 ; 
 Pax,  1 :  60 ;  Pericopes,  IV :  51- 
 52 ;  pictures,  II :  88 ;  the  sacra- 
 mental, VI :  80 ;  the  Salutation 
 and  Benedicamus,  1 :  62. 
 
 M 
 
 Magnificat — Early  use  of,  II: 
 150;  Greek  and  Latin  Church 
 assignment,  II:  50;  later  and 
 present  use,  II :  50 ;  restoration 
 to  Evensong  in  American 
 Episcopal' Church,  III:  65. 
 
 Malmo  Book — Changes  made 
 by  the  Danish  Reformers  in, 
 IV :  loi ;  order  of  service  of, 
 IV:  9Q;  strength  and  weak- 
 ness of,  IV:  100. 
 
 Martyr,  Justin — Description  of 
 worship  at  his  time.  III:  36; 
 his  conception  of  the  Lord's 
 Supper,  VII:  71-74.  See  also 
 First  Apology  of. 
 
 Mass — Center  of  the  Roman,  I : 
 15;  Protestant  opposition  to 
 the,  IV :  64 ;  in  Swedish,  II : 
 22 ;  the  Roman,  I :  lo-i  i. 
 
 Masses — Questionable  features 
 in  Strassburg,  VI:  21. 
 
 Mklanchthon,  Philip — Life, 
 place  and  work  of,  IV:  4;  lit- 
 urgical position  of,  IV :  6 ;  his 
 outline  of  a  Church  Service, 
 IV :  9 ;  on  the  relation  between 
 the  sacramental  and  the  sacri- 
 
 ficial, VI :  81 ;  Luther,  Bugen- 
 hagen,  and  contrasted,  IV :  3. 
 
 MuuRER — On  the  symlolism  of 
 the  Liturgical  Colors,  VII: 
 14;  views  on  the  position  of 
 the  pulpit,  II :  4. 
 
 Minister — Agent  in  mediating 
 the  Word,  V:  10;  extempore 
 prayers  and  the,  V:  18;  his 
 arbitrary  conduct  in  changing 
 formulas,  V:  19;  his  attitude 
 in  prayer,  V:  16;  his  bearing 
 and  deportment,  V:  12;  his 
 bearing  in  the  Chancel,  V :  13  ; 
 his  bodily  movements  in  gen- 
 eral, V:  14-15;  his  personal 
 appearance,  V:  13;  his  prep- 
 aration for  the  service,  V:  12; 
 his  reading  of  the  Word,  V: 
 15  ;  his  self-control,  V:  14;  the 
 representative  of  the  congre- 
 gation, V:  II. 
 
 Ministers — Two  classes  of  in 
 early  Church,  III:  20;  later 
 distinction  of.  III:  21. 
 
 Ministry — Catholic  conception 
 of  the,  III :  25 ;  Luther  on  the 
 Doctrine  of  the,  III :  27. 
 
 Missa  Catechumenorum — What 
 it  was.  III :  24. 
 
 Missa  Fidcliiim — What  it  was, 
 III:  24. 
 
 MissAES — Dififerences  noted  in, 
 II:  15;  pre-Reformation  Mis- 
 sals of  the  Church  of  Sweden, 
 II:   15- 
 
 Monograms,  Sacred — See  Chris- 
 ma  and  The  Holy  Name. 
 
 Montanists — Heresv  of  the, 
 VI :  67. 
 
14 
 
 MUHLCNDERC,  Dr.  H.  M. — His 
 work  on  the  liturgy  of  1748, 
 IV:  86. 
 
 Music — Doctrine  in,  IV:  80; 
 must  be  in  accord  with  the  Lit- 
 urgy, II:  92,  94;  proper  kind 
 of,  V:  26;  proper  use  of,  11: 
 94-95 ;  the  Sunday  School  the 
 place  for  the  introduction  of 
 good,  V:  26    28. 
 
 N 
 
 Namk,  the  Holy  (I  H  S)  — 
 Festival  in  honor  of,  VI:  187; 
 Greek  forms  of,  VII:  180;  in- 
 terpretations of  the  symbol 
 I  H  S.  VII :  179;  Latin  forms 
 of,  VII:  182;  meaning  as- 
 signed it  by  the  Jesuits,  VII : 
 179;  MSS.  in  which  various 
 forms  of  are  found,  VII :  180- 
 18  r  ;  origin  of  the  Cross  in 
 connection  with,  VII:  t86; 
 popularized  in  the  West  by 
 Bernard  of  Sienna,  VII:  183; 
 probably  a  contraction  of  the 
 Greek  for  Jesus,  VII:  180; 
 problems  confronting  us  in  the 
 study  of,  VII:  184;  Sequence 
 in  Sarum  Missal  on,  VII :  187  ; 
 tri-literal  Greek  form  of,  VII: 
 182;  use  of  in  conjurings  and 
 incantations,  VII:  186;  vari- 
 ous spellings  of  in  full,  VTT: 
 184. 
 
 Napoleon — Effect  of  conquests 
 of  on  the  Service,  1 :  22. 
 
 XicENE  Creed — See  Creeds. 
 
 XrMT.ER,  Golden — How  deter- 
 mined, IV:  22. 
 
 Nunc  Dimiftis — Authority  for  its 
 use,  1 :  61  ;  mentioned  in  Apos- 
 
 tolic Constitutions,  II :  50;  res- 
 toration to  Evensong  in  Amer- 
 ican Episcopal  Church,  III : 
 65  ;  use  in  Eastern  and  West- 
 ern Churches,  II:  50;  why  a 
 Vesper  Canticle,  II :  50. 
 
 o 
 
 Offertory — Lutheran  idea  of  the, 
 1 :  52 ;  origin  of,  1 :  52 ;  usage 
 in  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
 1:52. 
 
 -The    Roman 
 
 22 ;    Charle- 
 
 to    make    the 
 
 Opus     Opcratnm- 
 Liturgy    an,    I 
 magne's  efforts 
 Liturgy  something    else    than 
 an,  1 :  26. 
 
 Order — The  question  of  litur- 
 gical, I:  35. 
 
 "Ordinance" — Order  and  parts 
 of,  II:  58;  influence  on  Ice- 
 landic Liturgy,  IV  :  97 ;  influ- 
 ence on  Norwegian  Liturgy, 
 VII:  36-37- 
 
 Ordination — Consecration  and, 
 VII :  22 ;  distinction  created 
 by,  HI:  23. 
 
 Organ — Location  of,  VI :  81,  92, 
 104;  proper  use  of  in  worship, 
 II:  95. 
 
 Organist — Importance  of  the 
 Church,  HI:  47;  power  and 
 dignity  of  his  position,  HI: 
 56 ;  why  he  should  study  the 
 Liturgy,  HI:  48. 
 
 OsiANDER,  Andrew — Life  of, 
 IV:  14;  prepared  first  draft  of 
 Brandenburg  -  Nurnberg  KO, 
 IV :  14 ;  strong  evangelical  po- 
 sition of,  IV :  14. 
 
 Oxi-oun  Movi:.M EXT  —  Influence 
 of  on  liturgical  reform,  I:  23. 
 
15 
 
 Painting — Early  Christian,  II : 
 87. 
 
 Pall — Definition  of,  II :  32  ;  ne- 
 cessity of,  II:  32 ;  ornamenta- 
 tion of,  II :  32 ;  size  of,  II :  33  ; 
 usage  of,  II :  32. 
 
 Palladius,  Peder — Work  of  in 
 behalf  of  the  Danish  Liturgy, 
 II:  59,  61. 
 
 Paraments — Definition  of,  VI: 
 89;  Luther's  attitude  towards, 
 VI :  90. 
 
 Paramentics — Beauty  and  fit- 
 ness of  embroidery,  VI :  96 ; 
 importance  of  the  subject,  VI : 
 89 ;  in  America,  VI :  89 ;  in 
 Germany  and  England,  VI : 
 89 ;  limitation  of,  VI :  98 ; 
 Loehe's  views  on,  VI :  90 ;  per- 
 ils of,  VI :  98. 
 
 Pax — Luther's  views  of,  1 :  60 ; 
 origin  and  development  of  the, 
 1 :  58-59 ;  place  in  standard 
 Ms.  of  the  Common  Service, 
 I:  60;  rejection  and  retention 
 of  in  1 6th  Century  Orders,  I: 
 60. 
 
 Peace,  Kiss  oe — Abolition  of 
 the,  1 :  60 ;  doubtful  whether  it 
 had  any  part  in  the  worship  of 
 the  Apostolic  Church,  VI :  63  ; 
 origin  of,  1 :  58 ;  place  in  the 
 Service,  1 :  59 ;  traces  remain- 
 ing in  Russian  and  Roman 
 Churches,  1 :  60. 
 
 Pentecost — Origin  and  purpose 
 of,  IV:  25. 
 
 PericopES,  The — Criticized  by 
 Luther,  IV:  51 ;  difference  be- 
 tween those  of    the  Lutheran 
 
 Orders  and  the  Miss^ale  Ro- 
 manum,  IV  :  56 ;  differences  in 
 detail,  IV:  56-58;  first  intro- 
 duction in  Rome,  IV :  49 ; 
 gradual  development  of,  IV : 
 49;  Homiliarius  of  Charle- 
 magne, IV :  50 ;  introduced 
 into  France  through  efforts  of 
 Charlemagne,  I V  :  50 ;  in  Nor- 
 wegian Church,  VII :  42  ;  lists 
 of  Epistles  and  Gospels  in 
 Luther's  German  New  Testa- 
 ment, IV  :  53  ;  Lutheran  Agen- 
 da favoring  retention  of,  IV : 
 52-53 ;  Agenda  recommending 
 the  Lectio  Contiiiua,  IV:  53; 
 Old  and  New  Testament  cus- 
 tom of  reading  the  Word,  IV : 
 47 ;  some  difficult  questions  en- 
 gaging attention,  IV :  55 ;  the 
 Lectio  Continua  an  early  cus- 
 tom, IV:  49;  the  Lectio  Con- 
 timia  retained  in  Matins  and 
 Vespers,  IV :  49. 
 
 Petri,  Laurentius — His  work 
 on  Swedish  Service  Book  of 
 1541,  II:  21;  effects  in  behalf 
 of  Hymnology,  II:  22. 
 
 Petri,  Olavus — His  independ- 
 ence in  Service  Reform,  II : 
 16;  his  Manuals  for  the 
 Church,  II:  16-17;  his  Ser- 
 vice Book  for  the  Swedish 
 Church,  II:  17;  his  work  in 
 behalf  of  Hymnology,  II:  21  ; 
 his  work  for  the  Swedish 
 Church,  II :  16. 
 
 Pictures  —  Luther's  reply  to 
 Carlstadt  concerning  the  use 
 of,  VI :  98. 
 
 Pietism — Influence  of  on  Con- 
 fession and  Absolution,  VI : 
 75 ;  influences  of  in  Common 
 Service,  VI:   14;  influence  of 
 
16 
 
 on  the  Liturr;:y  in  Germany, 
 IV:  69-70;  influence  on  the 
 Norwegian  Liturgy,  VII:  40. 
 
 Poetry — As  a  vocal  art  in  wor- 
 ship, II :  02,  94. 
 
 Prayer — By  whom  offered,  VI : 
 53 ;  distinction  between  pubUc 
 and  private,  III:  39;  extem- 
 pore, V:  18;  grounds  for  pub- 
 lic, III :  35  ;  in  the  assembly  of 
 the  lirst  Christians,  VI :  48 ;  in- 
 ckuled  in  Psalm,  VI :  52 ;  min- 
 ister's attitude  in,  V:  16;  nec- 
 essary for  the  Church,  III :  40; 
 proper  place  for  the,  III:  41. 
 
 Prayer,  the  Bidding — Eastern 
 Church  use  of,  VII:  124-125; 
 Loehe's  rubric  as  to  use  of, 
 VII:  127;  Lutheran  retention 
 of,  VII:  126;  source  of  our, 
 VII:  122;  the  question  of 
 kneeling  during  the,  VII :  128  ; 
 traces  of  in  Anglican  Liturgy, 
 VII :  126;  two  forms  of  given 
 by  Loehe  and  their  analysis, 
 VII:    123;    Western    Church 
 
 use  of,  VII:  125. 
 
 I 
 
 Prayer,  the  General — Differ- 
 ent usages  for,  1 :  53 ;  distinc- 
 tive nature  lost  in  Roman 
 Catholic  Church,  1 :  53 ;  form 
 and  contents  of,  1 :  52-53 ;  his- 
 tory and  development  of,  III : 
 35-39;  VI:  53;  origin  of,  I: 
 52 ;  parallel  between  that  of 
 Church  Book  and  early  traces 
 in  Apostolic  Constitutions,  I : 
 53-54 ;  place  in  early  times,  I : 
 52 ;  position  in  later  ages,  i : 
 52 ;  restored  again  in  Refor- 
 mation era,  1 :  53 ;  sources  of 
 that  in  the  Church  Book,  I : 
 55- 
 
 Prayer,  the  Lord's — Character 
 of,  1 :  57 ;  earliest  testimony  to 
 its  use,  I:  59;  integral  part  of 
 the  Liturgy,  1:57;  prc-Rcfor- 
 mation  usage,  1 :  57 ;  not  used 
 in  worship  of  the  Apostolic 
 Church,  VI:  54;  use  in 
 Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  53. 
 
 Prcccs — Sec  Suffrages. 
 
 Preface — Age  of,  1 :  55  ;  con- 
 stancy of  the,  1 :  55 ;  origin 
 and  development  of  the  Prop- 
 er, I:  56;  the  Common,  where 
 found,  1 :  56 ;  the  Common 
 Service,  1 :  56. 
 
 Priesthood  —  Development  of 
 the,  III :  22 ;  the  universal  of 
 all  believers,  I:  10;  III:  93. 
 
 Prophecy — Meaning  of  in  Ap- 
 ostolic Church,  VI :  58. 
 
 Psalms,  the — Changes  of  the 
 the  1 :  62. 
 
 Psalter  necessitated  by  the 
 Reformation,  II :  45  ;  Alonas- 
 ticism  and  the,  II :  42 ;  number 
 of  in  the  Church  Book,  and 
 Books  of  Worship,  II :  45  ;  the 
 Greek  Church  and  the  Psalter, 
 II:  42;  use  of  in  Apostolic 
 times.  II:  42;  usage  in  later 
 eras,  II:  42;  weekly  arrange- 
 ment of  Benedictine  and  Gre- 
 gorian Psalters,  II :  43-44. 
 
 PuLi'iT — Decoration  of  the,  \'I : 
 95 ;  Meurer  on  the  location  of 
 the,  II:  4;  most  approved  lo- 
 cation, II:  4;  VI:  95;  VII: 
 80,  82,  89,  90,  91,  95,  96,  112, 
 113;  various  positions  in  dif- 
 ferent ages,  II :  3-4. 
 
 Pl'RGatory — Beginning  of  the 
 doctrine  of  a,  VI:  68;  origin 
 
17 
 
 of  prayins^  souls  out  of,  VI : 
 69. 
 
 PuRiFiCATORS  —  Number,  size 
 and  ornamentation  of,  II :  32 ; 
 how  folded,  II :  32 ;  why  nec- 
 essary, II:  33. 
 
 R 
 
 Rail,  Chancei, — Un-Lutheran, 
 VI :  94 ;  VII :  82-88. 
 
 Rationalism — Illustrations  from 
 rationalistic  Agendas  affecting 
 (a)  Baptism,  (b)  Confession 
 and  Absolution,  (c)  Lord's 
 Supper  (d)  Lord's  Prayer, 
 (e)  Benediction,  IV:  73-77; 
 influence  of  on  Confession  and 
 Absolution,  VI :  75  ;  influences 
 of  in  Common  Service,  VI : 
 14 ;  influence  of  on  the  Liturgy 
 in  Germany,  IV:  71-72;  influ- 
 ence of  on  the  Norwegian  Lit- 
 urgy, VII :  40. 
 
 Red  Book  —  The  Romanizing 
 Swedish  Liturgy  of  John  III, 
 II :  22. 
 
 Reform,  Liturgical — ^Direction 
 of,  III:  76;  education  in,  III: 
 76 ;  element  of  taste  in,  1 :  28 ; 
 eras  of,  1 :  25 ;  expected  re- 
 sults from,  1 :  37-39 ;  how  ef- 
 fected, III:  76;  in  Germany, 
 1 :  23 ;  necessity  of,  1 :  21  ;  or- 
 igin of,  1 :  20 ;  pastor's  part  in, 
 III:  yy;  problems  of,  I:  28; 
 questions  of  texts  in,  I:  31; 
 reasons  for,  1 :  20 ;  two-fold 
 tendency  of.  Ill :  75 ;  within 
 the  Church  of  Rome,  1 :  26 ; 
 IV:  63. 
 
 Reformation,  the — What  it 
 was  and  emphasized,  III:  26; 
 VI :  80 ;  Tercentenary  of,  I : 
 22. 
 
 RerEdos — Origin  of  the,  VII: 
 III;  remnant  of  reliquaries, 
 II :  5 ;  taste  in  its  construction 
 and  enrichment,  II :  5. 
 
 Responsory — Not  known  by 
 whom  introduced,  II:  49; 
 place  of,  II :  49 ;  what  it  was 
 originally,  II :  49. 
 
 Revolution,  French — Effect  of 
 the,  1 :  22. 
 
 Ritual — Questions  in  develop- 
 ment of,  1 :  32. 
 
 Rock,  Dr. — On  the  celebration 
 of  the  Roman  Mass,  1 :  10. 
 
 Sacraments,  the — Number  of, 
 V:  69;  practice  and  doctrine 
 in  relation  to,  V :  69 ;  the 
 Friends  and  the,  V:  69;  the 
 Reformed  Church  in  general 
 and,  V:  70. 
 
 Sacramental  —  Luther's  views 
 concerning  the,  VI :  80 ;  Mel- 
 anchthon  on  the  relation  be- 
 tween the  sacramental  and  the 
 sacrificial,  VI :  81 ;  position  of 
 the  Lutheran  Church  concern- 
 ing the,  VI :  85  ;  the  sacramen- 
 tal element  in  the  Apostolic 
 Church,  VI:  78-79;  this  ele- 
 ment lost  sight  of  in  the 
 Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ;  the 
 sacramental  elements  in  the 
 Reformation  Service,  VI :  83  ; 
 this  element  not  limited  to  the 
 minister,  VI :  84 ;  the  sacra- 
 mental elements  in  the  Com- 
 mon Service,  VI :  85  ;  Zwing- 
 li's    depreciation   of   the,   VI : 
 
IS 
 
 Sacrifice  —  Development  and 
 meaning  of,  III:  2^;  Luther's 
 attack  of  the  "Sacrifice  of  the 
 Mass,"  VI :  80. 
 
 Sacrificial  —  Augustine's  idea 
 of  the,  III:  96-97;  Augustine 
 contrasted  with  Cyprian  on 
 the,  III:  95;  deterioration  of 
 the,  III :  91 ;  development  of 
 the  at  the  time  of  Innocent  I, 
 Leo  I,  and  Gregory  the  Great, 
 III:  97;  era  of  normal  appli- 
 cation of  the,  III:  89;  import- 
 ance attached  to  the  in  the 
 Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ; 
 Luther's  German  Mass  in  re- 
 lation to  the.  III:  98;  Mel- 
 anchthon  on  the  relation  be- 
 tween the  sacrificial  and  the 
 sacramental,  VI  :8i  ;  not  limited 
 to  the  congregation,  VI :  84 ; 
 position  of  Justin  Martyr,  Ire- 
 naeus,  Tertullian  and  Cyprian, 
 III:  91,  95;  position  of  the 
 Greek  Church,  III:  95;  Re- 
 formed tendencies  toward  the 
 and  their  general  eflfect,  VI : 
 86-88 ;  restoration  of  the  in  the 
 Reformation  era.  III:  98;  the 
 sacrificial  in  worship,  III:  89; 
 the  sacrificial  element  in  the 
 Apostolic  Church,  VI:  78-79; 
 this  element  lost  sight  of  in  the 
 Mediaeval  Church,  VI :  79 ;  the 
 sacrificial  in  the  Reformation 
 era,  VI :  83  ;  the  sacrificial  ele- 
 ments in  'he  Common  Service, 
 III:  99;  VI:  85. 
 
 Solutation  and  Bcncdicanius — 
 Luther's  directions  concerning 
 the,  1 :  62 ;  origin  and  use  of 
 the  I:   62. 
 
 Salutation  and  Response — Usage 
 in    early   Greek   Liturgies,    I : 
 
 47;  in  Mediaeval  Church,  I: 
 47 ;  in  KOO  of  i6th  Centurv, 
 1:47- 
 
 Sanctus — Addition  of  Bcnedic- 
 ius  and  Hosanna  to  the,  1 :  56 ; 
 differentiated  from  Trisagion, 
 1 :  56 ;  origin  of  the,  1 :  56 ;  use 
 in  Eastern  and  Western 
 Churches,  I ;  56. 
 
 Sculpture  —  Use  in  early 
 Church,  II:  88;  position  ac- 
 corded bv  the  Protestant 
 Church,  II:  88. 
 
 Semester  Domini  and  Ecclesiae 
 Meaning  of,  IV:  25. 
 
 Sermon — Part  of  and  place  in 
 the  Service,  VI :  39. 
 
 Service — Doctrine  of  the  Church 
 and  Ministry  affecting  the 
 111:30;  elements  of  the  in 
 Apostolic  Christianity,  VI :  47; 
 intoning  the,  V:  17;  Luther's 
 idea  of  a.  III:  29;  the  sacra- 
 mental and  the  sacrificial  ele- 
 ments in  the,  VI :  83 ;  vica- 
 riousness  not  an  element  of 
 our,  1 :  10. 
 
 Service,  Divine — Definition  of, 
 V:  53;  origin  of,  V:  53;  ob- 
 ject of,  V  :  57 ;  liturgical  forms 
 in,  V :  59 ;  necessitv  for  an 
 Order  of,  V:  58. 
 
 Shepherd  of  Hermes — Decla- 
 ration of  concerning  Confes- 
 sion and  Absolution.  VI:  67. 
 
 Sources  —  Liturgical,  of  the 
 Chief  Service,  of  the  Common 
 Service,  1 :  44-63  ;  Scriptural, 
 I:  41-44;  liturgical,  of  the  Mi- 
 nor Services.  II:  40-56;  Scrip- 
 tural, II :  38-39. 
 
19 
 
 Sponsors  —  Discontinuance  of, 
 V :  79 ;  regulations  concerning, 
 V:  79- 
 
 Suffrages — Etymology  of  the 
 word,  VII:  156;  manner  of 
 rendering  the,  VII :  156;  name 
 by  which  anciently  known,  II : 
 51  ;  origin  of  obscure,  II:  51 ; 
 VII:  154;  origin  of  Morning 
 and  Evening  in  Church  Book, 
 VII:  154-155;  pre-Reforma- 
 tion  use  of,  II :  51 ;  remnant  of 
 in  Anglican  and  American 
 Episcopal  Churches,  VII :  155  ; 
 rubrics  on,  VII:  156. 
 
 Sunday — Observance  of  in  post- 
 Apostolic  Age,  VII:  51. 
 
 Sunday,  Trinity — Origin  and 
 fixity  of,  IV:  25. 
 
 Supper,  the  Lord's — Adminis- 
 tration of  in  the  first  Christian 
 congregation,  III:  i;  in  third 
 and  fourth  centuries.  III :  3 ; 
 in  the  Apostolic  Church,  VI : 
 45-47;  in  Danish  Church,  II: 
 70-73 ;  by  whom  to  be  admin- 
 istered, V :  83  ;  customs  in  dif- 
 ferent Churches,  III :  4-5  ;  es- 
 sentials to  a  proper  adminis- 
 tration, III :  6-8  ;  frequency  of, 
 III:  4;  influence  of  doctrine 
 in,  III:  6;  institution  of,  III: 
 I ;  Methodist  admission  to,  V : 
 84 ;  object  of  Confessional  Ser- 
 vice before,  V :  84 ;  question  of 
 essentials  and  non-essentials 
 in,  V :  82 ;  rejection  of  abuses 
 in,  V :  82 ;  self-examination 
 before.  V :  83 ;  the  doctrine  of 
 transubstantiation  and,  V:  71 ; 
 the  act  of  Consecration  in,  V: 
 84;  the  culmination  of  Chris- 
 tian worship,  VI :  78 ;  West- 
 minster Confession  rubric  on. 
 
 V :  83 ;  what  constitutes  valid- 
 ity of,  V :  84 ;  who  are  to  par- 
 take of,  V :  84 ;  withdrawal  of 
 the  cup  in.  III :  6. 
 
 Supper,  the  Lord's,  in  Apos- 
 tolic Church  —  Consecration 
 and  reception  of  in,  VI :  62 ; 
 special  service  for,  VI :  60 ; 
 purpose  of  this  service,  VI : 
 60;  St.  Paul's  view,  VI:  61. 
 
 Siirsum  Corda — General  use  of 
 the,  1 :  55 ;  minor  differences 
 in,  I:  55- 
 
 Symbolism — Argument  in  be- 
 half of,  V:  32;  as  science  and 
 art,  V:  31;  Christianity  and, 
 V:  32;  Judaism  and,  V:  32; 
 material  for,  V :  36 ;  origin  of, 
 y :  2,7 ;  in  early  Church,  II :  87 ; 
 in  every  religion,  V:  34;  in 
 Liturgical  Colors,  VII :  i ;  in 
 nature,  V:  33;  in  Revelation, 
 V :  35  ;  in  Sacraments,  V :  33  ; 
 symbolic  passages  of  the  Old 
 Testament,  V  :  35  ;  symboliza- 
 tion  of  Chief  Christian  doc- 
 trines and  of  the  EvangeHsts, 
 V:  32,  ZZ^  34;  the  Antepen- 
 dium  and,  VI:  97;  use  of,  V: 
 36. 
 
 Symbols — Defense  of,  VI:  07; 
 lists  and  signification  of  va- 
 rious, V :  37-40 ;  VI :  97, 
 
 Tausen,  Hans — Author  of  Mal- 
 mo  Book,  IV:  99. 
 
 Taufbuechlein — Luther's  of  1523 
 and   1526,  III;   121,  IV;  45. 
 
 Teaching,  Apostolic  Church 
 — Of  what  it  consisted,  VI : 
 56,  57- 
 
20 
 
 Tc  Dcum — Origin  obscure,  II : 
 49;  use  in  Mediaeval  Church, 
 II:  50;  why  accepted  by  and 
 its  use  in  the  Lutheran 
 Church,  II :  50. 
 
 Tennessee  Synod — Sponsor  for 
 Liturgy  of  1833,  based  on  that 
 of  1786,  IV:  91. 
 
 TkrTullian — Idea  of  the  rela- 
 tion of  the  Sermon  to  Absolu- 
 tion, VI :  67. 
 
 Thanksgiving,  tut-: — Great  di- 
 versity of  noted  in  old  Orders, 
 1 :  62 ;  origin  of,  1 :  62. 
 
 Thorlaksson,  Bishop — Labors 
 of  in  behalf  of  Icelandic 
 Church,  IV:  98. 
 
 Thursday,  Maunday — Origin 
 of,  IV:  24. 
 
 Tongues — Meaning  of  in  Apos- 
 tolic Church,   V  i  :  50. 
 
 Tower — Necessity  of  a,  VII : 
 88;  position  of,  VII:  112. 
 
 V^EiL,  THE — Color  and  material, 
 II :  33  ;  ornamentation,  II :  33  ; 
 use  in  Roman,  Anglican  and 
 Lutheran  Churches,  II :  33. 
 
 Venitc,  The — Difference  between 
 Eastern  and  Western  Church 
 in  the  use  of,  II :  41 ;  its  intro- 
 duction into  and  use  in  Mat- 
 ins, II :  41-42. 
 
 Vernacular — Use  of  in  Reforma- 
 tion era,  IV :  65. 
 
 Versiclcs,  The — Antiquity  antl 
 origin  of  those  used  at  opening 
 of  Matins  and  Vespers,  II :  40 ; 
 use  made  of  them  bv  the  KOO 
 
 of  the  i6th  Century.  II:  40; 
 time  of  introduction  of  that 
 preceding  Vespers  Canticles  a 
 question,  II:  49;  pre-Refor- 
 niation  and  present  form,  II: 
 49 ;  that  at  the  close  of  Ves- 
 pers has  no  pre-Reformation 
 usage,  II :  55 ;  the  Da  Pacem 
 of  the  i6th  Century  KOO,  II : 
 55- 
 
 W 
 
 War,  Thirty  Years'— Effect  of 
 on  the  Liturgy,  IV:  67. 
 
 Whit-Sunday — See  Pentecost. 
 
 William,  Frederick  III,  oE 
 Prussia  —  Unionistic  efforts 
 of,  1 :  22. 
 
 William,  Frederick  IV — At- 
 tempt to  unite  the  German  and 
 Anglican  Churches,  1 :  24. 
 
 Word — Efficacy  of  the  Divine, 
 V:ii. 
 
 Words  of  Institution — Essen- 
 tiality and  use  of  the,  1 :  57. 
 
 Worship — Art  a  handmaid  to, 
 I:  6-7;  center  of  Christian,  I: 
 5,  15  ;  danger  attending.  1 :5-6 ; 
 divine  element  in.  1:4.  11,  12; 
 divine  purpose  in,  1 :  2-;^  ;  di- 
 vine and  human  elements  con- 
 trasted, 1 :  4-5  ;  doctrine  re- 
 flected in,  I:  9,  16,  17;  earliest 
 form  of.  III:  24;  four  distinct 
 types  of  Christian.  Ill:  31-32; 
 human  element  in.  I:  3.  ii. 
 12;  idea  underlying.  I:  i  ;  Lu- 
 theran Order  of  explained,  I : 
 13-15  ;  meaning  of  the  term.  I : 
 2;  Reformed  idea  of.  I:  14: 
 relation  of  Principle  and 
 Form  in,  1:9;  Roman,  Greek, 
 
21 
 
 Reformed  and  Lutheran  con- 
 trasted, I :  IO-I2 ;  sacramental 
 character  of,  1 :  5  ;  sacrificial 
 character  of,  1 :  5 ;  three  fac- 
 tors in,  V  :io;  three  ways  of 
 arriving  at  the  expression  of 
 congregational,  V :  23 ;  time 
 and  place  of,  1 :  6 ;  uniqueness 
 of  Christian,  III :  89 ;  vicarious 
 character  of  in  non-liturgical 
 Churches,  I:  lo-ii ;  what  it  is, 
 1:3,  II ;  Word  and  Sacrament 
 in,  1 :  12. 
 
 Worship,  Apostolic  Church — 
 Development  of  in  the  Gentile- 
 Christian    Churches,  VI :    49 ; 
 
 difficult  to  obtain  a  clear  idea 
 of,  VI :  41 ;  elements  of  the 
 Service  in,  VI :  47 ;  worship  in 
 the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  VI : 
 43  ;  in  private  houses,  VI :  44 ; 
 number  of  services,  VI :  50 ; 
 prayer  in  the  assembly  of  the 
 first  Christians,  VI :  48 ; 
 sources  of  our  knowledge  of, 
 VI :  42,  49 ;  time  of  assembly 
 for,  VI :  49 ;  the  Lord's  Sup- 
 ner  in,  VI :  4^^-47 ;  use  of  the 
 Temple  in,  VI :  44. 
 
 Year — See  Church  Year, 
 
Pnncrton  Thfot09«»l  ^etrunarj  Sp*e»  Ubranr 
 
 01 
 
 2  01022