PRESENTED TO THE LIBRARY OF PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY BY ^^--^^ ' ' jjVlPs. Alej^andcp Ppoudfit. .G:35 IINSTITUTES OP BIBLICAL CRITICISM; OR HEADS OP ON THAT SUBJECT, READ IN THE 7^ BY GILBERT GERARD, D. D. Professor of Divinity, and one of his Majesty's Chaplains in Ordinary in Scotland. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. BOSTON : PUBLISHED BY CUMMINGS AND HILLIARD, NO 1 CORNHILL. CAMBRIDGE : ITNir. PRESS — HILLIARD AND METCALF. 1823. TO HERBERT MARSH, BD. F.R.S. TRANSLATOR OF HICHAELIS, WHOSE LEARNED LABOURS ENTITLE HIM TO A HIGH RAiNK AMONG BIBLICAL SCHOLARS, THE FOLLOWING ATTEMPT TO REDUCE THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF SACRED CRITICISM TO A REGULAR SYSTEM IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, BY GILBERT GERARD. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, - PART I. THE SOURCES OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM^ CHAPTER I, MANUSCRIPTS AND EDITIONS OF THE BOOKS OF SCRIPTURE, 3 Sect. I. The Juthority of Manuscripts, - . 5 Sect. II. The use of J^L-nuscripts, and the Manner of using them, - - - - - 7 Sect. III. The Authority of the printed Editions, - 10 Sect. IV. The necessity of correcting the printed Editions by Maimscripts, - - - - 14 Sect. V. The Samaritan Pentateuch, - - - 18 t4 eONTENT^S'. CHAPTER II. THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES, - - * - 24 Skot. I. 27ie Origin of the Hebrew Language^ and of the Greek, ----- 24 Sect. II. Written Language, particularly the Hebrew and the Greek, - - - - - 27 Sect. III. Of the Hebrew Vowel Points and Accents^ and the Greek Spirits and Jccents, - - 30 Sect. IV. Of the Structure and Genius of the Hebreiv Language, - - - - - 37" Sect. V. Of the Language of the JSTew Testament - 48 Sect. VI. Of the Use of the Original Languages in Crit- icism, ----- 51 CHAPTER III. THE KINDRED LANGUAGES, - ^ - -55 Sect. I. What Languages are useful, - - - 55 Sect. II. The JSTecessity and Propriety of seeking Assistance from the Kindred Languages^ - - 58 Sect. III. Uses of the Kindred Languages in determining the true Readings - - - 59 Sect. IV. Uses of the Kindred Languages in interpreting Scripture, - - - - - 60 ©ONTENT^ V* CHAPTER IV. VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES, - - - - 67 Sect. I. Of the Chaldee Paraphrases, - - -.68 Sect. II. Of the Greek Versions, - - - 71 Sect. III. Of the Samaritan Versionsy - - - 78 Sect. IV. Of the Latin Versions, - - - 80 Sect. V. Of the Syr iac Versions, - - - - 83 Sect. V I. Of the ather Ancient Versions, - - 85 Sect VII. Of Modern Versions, - - - - 89 Sect. VIII. Distinctions of Versions, - - 93 Seot. IX. Of the Use of Versions for determining Readings, 95 Sect. X. Of the Use of Versions for Interpretation, - 100 CHAPTER V. the circumstances relating to the books of scripture, 105 Sect. I. Of the Kinds of Composition in Scripture, - 105 Sect. II. Of the Authors of the Books of Scripture - - 110 Sect. HI. Of the Times of Writing the Books of Scrip- ture, - - - - - 113 Sect. IV. Of the Occasions of the Books of Scripture 115 Sect. V. Of the Scope and Design of the Books of Scrip- ture, - - - - - 119 Sect. VI. Of the Plan and Distribution of the Books of Scripture, - - - - 123 Sect. VII. Of the Connexion of the Parts in the Books of Scripture, - - - - 131 Vm eONTENTS. CHAPTER Vr. GOMPARISON OF SCRIPTURE WITH ITSELF, - - 136 Sect. I. Comparison of Pnrnllel Passages, - - 136 Sect. II. Comparison of Passnges not Parallel, - - 145 Sect. III. Comparison of Particular Passages with the ' Analogy of Faith, - . - 147 CHAPTER VII. HISTORY AND MANNERS, - - - - - 152 Sect. I. Of Civil History, - - - - 152 S¥.CT. U. Of Political History - - - - 155 Sect. HI. Of Customs and Manners, - - 158 Sect. iV, Of Chronology, - - . - 165 Sect. V. Of Geography, - - - - 167 S^cT. y I. Of Mtural History, - - - - 171 CHAPTER Vill. OPINIONS AND LEARNING, _ - - - 175 Sect. I. Of the Religious Opinions of Jncipnt JVationsy 173 Sect. II. Of Jincient Learning and Philtsop'.iy - - 177 Bv.cT.lU. Of the Jeivish Sects and Parties, - - 180 Sect. IV. Of Jewish Opinions, - - - - 186 t-^ECT. V. Of the Jewish Writers, - - - 191 ^^v.cT.yL Of thp Jluclent Curisliuu JVriters, - - 200 Sbct. yU' Of Modern Christian Wriieif, - - 204 iiFXT.ym- Of Pagan Writers, - - - 208 CONTENTS. IX PART IL THE OBJECTS OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM, - - - 211 CHAPTER I. CORRECTIVE OR EMENDATORY CRITICISM, - - 212 Sect. L The J^ature of a Various Reading., - - 212 Sect. II. The Sources of False Readings, - - 215 h-E.CT AW, The Kinds of False Readings, - - 230 Sect. IV. Rules of judging concerning Various Readings^ 244 CHAPTER IL the explication OF SEPARATE WORDS. - - 270 Sect [. The Combination of Letters into Words, - 270 Sect. II. Irregular Forms and Flexions of Wordsy - 274 Sect. 1 1 1. The signification of Words, - - - 277 ^KCT. IV. The Usage of J^^cuns, - - - 290 Sect. V. The Usage of Verbs, - - - - 298 Sect. VI. The Usnge of Particles, - - - 322 Sect. Vil. Difficulties in determining the Parts of Speech, 338 CHAPTER III. THE EXPLICATION OF COMBINATIONS OF WORDS, - - 342 Sect. I. Difficulties in Punctuation, - r 342 Seot. II. in Syntax, , . - 345 Sect. 111. -_— - in Idiom^ - - - 349 CONTENTS. Sect. IV. Difficulties in PhraseSy - _ . 355 Sect. V. _. arising from the Grammatical Figures, - - - 357 Sect. VI, ■ arising from the Rhetorical Figures, 360 CHAPTER IV. difficulties in the circumstances relating to the BOOKS OF scripture, - - . - $66 Sect. I. Difficulties in the Connexion of particular Parts, 366 Sect. II. in Plan and Distribution, - 374 Sect. III. in Scope and Design, - - 378 Sect. IV. concerning the Occasion, - 379 Sect. V. — concerning the Time, - - 380 Sect. VI. concerning the Authors^ - 381 Sect. VII. in different kinds of Composition, 382 CHAPTER V. OF RECONCILING SCRIPTURE TO ITSELF, - - - 385 Sect. I. Seeming Contra lictions in Quotations - 385 Sect. II. ^^ Historical Passages, 392 Sect. HI. ■ — between Predictions and their Accomplishment 400 Sect. IV. — ■ ^w Points of Doctrine 401 CHAPTER VI. SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO REASON AND MORALITY, 404 Sect. I. Seeming Contradictions to Truth - - 404 Sect. II. to Morality - - 408 Sbot. hi. Passages unreasonably severe - - 414 CONTENTS. 33. CHAPTER VIL SEEMING CONTRADICTIONS TO HISTORY, AND MATTERS OF FACT, - - _ - - - 417 Sect. I. Seeming Contradictions to Matters of Fact., in the J\*arr at ions of the Sacred Writers, - 417 Sect. IT. Seeming Contradictions in Occasional References, 422 Sect. III. — — in Prophecies, -■ 423 CHAPTER Yin. complicated difficulties, - - - - 425 Sect. I. DiJ^liculties arising from different Various Readings, . - - . _ 425 Sect. II, Complicated Difficulties in the Sense, - 427 Sect. HI. Difficulties both in Reading and in Sense, 429 Sect. IV. Difficulties which admit different Solutions, 431 CONCLUSION, ------ 433 INTRODUCTION. 1. As the Christian religion is of divine authority, and as the Scriptures are the authentic record and rev- elation of it, every Christian, and especially every Christian teacher, is concerned to understand the Scrip- tures, and obliged to study them with care. 2. The importance of understanding the Scriptures has never been denied, though the means of attaining to it have not always been sufficiently attended to, even in the, schools of Theology. 3. The Scriptures can be understood, only by being studied and interpreted according to the genuine prin- ciples of criticism ; and a regular deduction of these principles, illustrated by examples, seems to be the best method that can be taken foi> assisting students in the study of the Scriptures. 4. It is from the Scripture, rightly understood, that all just opinions in religion are to be der4yed ; but mis- interpretation of it is the certain cause of error, 1 INTRODUCTION. 6. This part of our course may be reduced to two general heads ; — the Sources — and the Objects — of Scripture Criticism. The consideration of the former will lead us to discover the most general and simple principles ; the consideration of the latter will enable us to combine these principles, to deduce from them more particular rules, and to apply them to use. PART I. THE SOURCES OF SCRIPTURE CRITICISM. 6. The sources of Scripture criticism are reducible to the following ; manuscripts and editions ; the ori- ginal languages; the kindred languages; versions; the occasion, scope, and other circumstances of the books of Scripture ; comparison of scripture with itself; ancient history and manners; ancient learning and opinions. 7. These are subservient to Scripture criticism, either by establishing the true readings, by ascertaining the sense, or by displaying the beauties of the Scrip- ture language. CHAP. I Manuscripts and Editions of the Books of Scripture. 8. The first thing necessary for understanding the Scripture, is, to know what the authors really wrote. 4 MSS. AND EDITIONS. 9. We cannot determine this by having recourse to their autographa, because all these are long ago lost. Simon, Hist. Crit. N. T. c. 29. Pfaff. de gen. lect. N. T. c. 2. § 7. Michaelis Introd. Lect. § 12. 10. There are many MSS. which have been tran- scribed from these or from other MSS. and many edi- tions published from MSS. ; which are therefore the sources to which we must apply for discovering what the inspired authors wrote. Simon, ib. Michaelis, § 13. 11. It is, chiefly, to the common editions of the books of Scripture that the generality can have recourse for this purpose ; and these are sufficient for what is absolutely necessary to be known. Kennicott, Diss. General. § 7. 12. But, as these editions differ in some places from one another, and MSS. differ much more, we cannot be certain what was originally written, but by a care- ful examination and comparison of the several MSS. and editions ; and therefore it is of great utility that such as have the opportunity, consult these, and com- municate their discoveries to the world. Ken. ib. § 8—14. De Rog^i, Var. Lect. Prol. AUTHORITY OF MSS, SECT. I. Tlie Authority of Manuscripts, 13. There are catalogues of the known MSS. of the Scriptures, some of which, or one collected from them, it will be useful to have constantly at hand. Simon, Hist. Crit. V. T. 1. 1. c 21, 22, 23. Houbigant, Proleg. c. 3. a. 2. Kennicott, Diss. 2. and Diss. Gen. § 164. Mill. Prolegom. Wetstein, Proleg. Dupin, Prelim. Diss. Pfaff. ib. c. 4, 5. Michaelis, § 21—27. De Rossi, Yar. Lect. Prol. Clavis. 14. Of the New Testament, there are several very ancient MSS. ; but few MSS. of the Old Testament are of very great antiquity. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 305. Diss. 2. p. 465, Diss. Gen. § 49, 50, 162, 163. 15. The ages of MSS. are ascertained either by testimony, or by internal marks ; with greatest certain- ty by the latter ; not however by any one mark singly, but by the conjunction of several. Simon, Hist. V. T. 1. 1. c. 22, 23. Houbigant, Prol. p. 195. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 309, 312, 313. Pfaff. c. 3. § 1,2. Wetstein, Prol. c. 1. § 4, 11, 17. c. 2. c. 3. c. 4. c. 5. Michaelis, § 21, 22. De Rossi, ib. 16. The authority of a MS. depends very much on its antiquity ; and, consequently, it is of importance to ascertain the ages of MSS. as exactly as possible. 17. The principle on which antiquity gives author* ity to a MS. is, that the risk of falling into mistakes increases in proportion to the frequency of transcrib- 6 AUTHORITY OF MSS. ing ; and therefore, other things being equal, the au- thority of a MS. is in proportion to its antiquity. Wetstein, Proleg. c. 16. Kennicott, Diss. 2. p. 467. Walton, Proleg. 6. § 6. De Rossi, ib. can. 13 — 16. 18. But, from that very principle, there arises an exception to this general rule ; viz. that a MS. certain- ly copied from one very ancient, has greater authority than another written earlier, but copied from a MS. of no great antiquity. Houbigant, Proleg. p. 105, 106. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 307. De Rossi, ib. can. 19 — 25. 19. But, there are other circumstances, besides their ages, which likewise affect the authority of MSS. 20. MSS. of the Hebrew bible are of greater or less authority, according to the countries in which they were written, and the persons for whose use they w^ere written. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 21, 22. Houbigant, Prol. p. 107. Kenni- cott, Diss. 1 . p. 313. De Rossi, ib. can. 24 — 30. 21. Some MSS. show themselves to have been writ- ten by persons ignorant of the language ; and, on this very account, have great authority in favour of readings which could not have been introduced without knowl- edge of the language. PfaE c. 3. § 4. Michaelis, § 88. Marsh's Michaelis, ch. 8. 22. Some MSS. bear plain marks of being written with care, and therefore have great authority ; others, of being written negligently, and these can claim no authority. Simon, N. T. c. 30. Michaelis, § 28. Walton, ib. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. De Rossi, ib. USE OF MSS. 7 23. MSS. which have been designedly rendered conformable to a particular copy or version, of vv^hich there are many instances, have no authority in cases wherein they agree with that copy or version. Simon, N. T. c. 30, 31. Mill, Prol. N° 1268, &c. Wetstein, Prol. c. 4. § 1. Michaelis, § 21, 22, 28. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. De Rossi, ib. 24. A MS. transcribed from another, or MSS. trans- cribed from the same original, or corrected by it, can have no separate or independent authority. Simon, N. T. c. 31. Wetstein, Prol. c. 4. § 3. Michaelis, § 28. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 3. De Rossi, ib. 25. MSS. written since the invention of printing, and copied from any printed edition, have no authority. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 305. Wetstein, Prol. c. 2. § 8. Michae- lis, § 20. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. SECT II. The Use of Manuscripts, and the Manner of using them, 26. The first and principal use of MSS. is to show, us all the different readings which have taken place, that we may be able to compare them, and to choose that which is best supported. Kennicott, Diss, passim. 27. If Other considerations be equal, that reading is to be preferred, which is found in the most ancient MSS. Pfaff, c. 12. can. 1 . Walton, ib. 8 USE OP MSS. 28. If other circumstances be equal, the reading of the greater number of MSS. is to be preferred to that of a less number. It is on this principle, that most of the received readings have been preferred. Pfaff, ib. Wetstein, c. 16. § 18. Michaelis, § 28. Walton, ib. 29. Great regard is to be paid to a reading found in a MS. which is evidently v^ritten with accuracy. 30. In judging of the number of MSS. which sup- port a reading, care must be taken, not to reckon for different MSS. one which has been called by different names. Wetstein, c. 1. § 18. c. 4. § 1. 31. It is necessary to know with respect to every MS. whether it contains the whole of the Old, or of the New Testament, or only a part of them, and what part ; and whether it be complete or defective, and what its defects are. Mill, Prol. N° 1156. Wetstein, c. 1. § 12, 13, 16. c. 4. § 3. Marsh's Michaelis, ib. § 4. 32. Besides the principal use which has been men- tioned, MSS. answer indirectly several purposes subor- dinate to that; particularly by indicating, in many ways, the occasions of mistakes, and thus leading us to correct both these and similar mistakes. S3, MSS. shew us the various forms of the charac- ters used in different ages, and thus enable us to judge which of them were liable to be confounded. Houbigant, Prol eg. Kennicott, Diss. 1. p. 313. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 23. Wetst. Prol. c.l. § 4, 5, 7. c. 2, 3, 4, 5. AUTHORITY OF MSS. 9 34. From MSS. we learn what abbreviations have been at any time used ; and by knowing this, we are enabled to account for the introduction of many vari- ous readings. Kennicott, Diss. Gen. § 25, 26. Wetst. c. 1. § 7. Michaelis, § 22. Isa. li. 4. Lowth in loco. 35. From MSS. it appears that, both in the Hebrew and in the Greek Scriptures, numbers were expressed, not only in words at length, but also by single numeral letters, and by figures ; by which many corruptions have naturally been occasioned. Kennicott. Diss. 1. and 2. Diss. Gen. § 27. 36. MSS. are often written with black rules, which by confounding letters otherwise easily distinguishable, lead readers to mistake one of them for the other. 3, n. Isa. liii. 10 ^Snn "he hath put him to grief." 'hr\2 " with grief." Vulg. Lowth in 1. Jer. xxviii. 8. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 54, 122, 179. p 83. note, p. 87. note. n, a. Isa. vi. 13. Lowth in 1. vii. 16. Ken. ib. c. 523. n, IJ. Id. Diss. 1. 2 Sam. v. 1. comp. 1 Chron. xi. 1. 12, :\ 2 Sam. xxviii. 26. comp. 1 Chron. xi. 27. Ken. Diss. 1. D, 'J. 1 Sam. xvii, 32. comp. 70. 3, n. Josh. vii. 18, &c. comp. 70. Vat. and v. 26, and 1 Chron. ii. 7. 37. MSS. were generally written in continued lines, without either punctuation or any breaks between words or sentences ; by which means, letters may be readily taken from one word to another, and words from one clause or sentence to another. Houbigant, Prol. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 313, &c. Simon, N. T. c. S3. Wetst. c. 1. § 5, 10. 2 10 AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 38. MSS. were often written on rolls, by misplacing which, mistakes may readily have been introduced. Ken. Remarks on select passages in the Old Testament. 39. MSS. show the different orders in which the books of Scripture have at different times been placed ; and, by so doing, may account for some appearances, or remove some difficulties. 40. MSS. discover the groundlessness of many con- jectures concerning the occasions of various readings which have been formed by learned men not much conversant with MSS. Mill. Prol. No. 1367 Wetst. Prol. c, 1. § 7. 41. Hebrew MSS. are often written without vowel points ; and some of them retain many of the vowel letters, which are omitted in later MSS. and in the printed editions. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 22. Ken, Diss. I. p. 313. 42. Greek MSS. are generally written without ac- cents, spirits, or the iota subscriptum. Simon, N. T. c. 33. Wetst. c. 1. § 5. SECT. III. The Authority of the printed Editions, 43. All the printed editions of the Scriptures, how- ever many, are derived from a very few original and independent editions ; the authority, therefore, of all the printed editions resolves itself into the authority of these few ; and, in like manner, the authority of each AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. 11 of these few resolves itself into that of the particular MSS. from which it was printed. 44. Of the Old Testament, there are only two edi- tions which can be considered as original ; for though there were some prior to both, they have been very rare, and little known. 45. The first is that of R. Ben Chaim ; and from it all the ordinary printed editions are in general derived ; and, consequently, the authority of them all is resolv- able into that of the MSS. from which his edition was taken ; which, having been all corrected according to the Masora, as well as very late, are entitled to little more than the authority of a single MS. and that of no great antiquity. Simon, Catalog. Edit. Bibl. Houbigant Prol. c. 3. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 287, 548. Diss. 2. p. 470. Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton, Prsef. & Prol. 4. 46. Therefore, also, the printed editions have, all together, little more than the authority of one MS. and less authority than one MS. more ancient than those from which they were taken ; but, of more ancient MSS. than these, there are many still extant. Ken. ib. 47. The other original edition of the Old Testa- ment, is the Complutensian Bible, it having been in the press at the same time with the former ; but it too was taken from MSS. corrected by the Masora. Ken. ib. & Diss. Gen. § 60. Walton, Prsef. & Prol. 3. § 14. 48. Coasequently, where these two editions agree, 12 AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. their authority is not much greater than if they had been printed from the same MS. Ken. ib. 49. There are some variations between them ; and these are to be judged of, according to the authority of the MSS. from which they were respectively taken, or by the examination of other MSS. 50. Still therefore it holds true, that the concurrence of the printed editions of the Old Testament has no great force for establishing a disputed reading, in op- position to evidence against it. 51. Of the New Testament, there are four capital editions, in some measure original and independent, from one or other of which all the rest are derived, and into the authority of which, that of them all, conse- quently, resolves itself. Mill. Prol. No. 1088, &c. Wetst. Prol. c. 10, 11, 12, 13, 16. Michael. § 33, 34. 52. The Complutensian, which is the first of these, is thought by some to have been carefully taken from a great number of MSS. and to have chiefly followed one very ancient ; and by these persons its authority is highly extolled. Mill. ib. Walton, Prol. 4. § 14, 15. 53. Others affirm that it was taken from MSS. of the 14th and following centuries, and, in several in- stances accommodated to the Latin version ; and conse- quently that it ought to have very little authority. Wetst. ib. AUTHORITY OF EDITIONS. IS 54. Till this question be determined with sufficient evidence, that edition ought to be followed with cau- tion. Marsh's Michael, ch. 12. § 1. 65, The second is Erasmus's, who took his first edition from only three MSS. of the Gospels, and one MS. of the other books ; and in his subsequent edi- tions, employed a few more MSS. and made some alterations according to the Complutensian. The readings of his edition, therefore, stand on the authority of a very few MSS. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1116—1154. bQ. The next is that of Robert Stevens, who fol- lowed chiefly Erasmus's last edition, but used along with it, the Complutensian, and fifteen MSS., but some of them only small fragments, and few of them very ancient ; so that the authority of his edition resolves itself, partly into the authority of the two former edi- tions, and partly into that of his fifteen MSS. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1155— 1187. 1220—1235. 57. The fourth is Beza's, who took his edition chiefly from Stevens's third impression, with one MS. of the Gospels, and one of the Epistles, and often pre- ferred readings supported by a single or dubious au- thority. Where his edition, therefore, differs from others, it has little weight. It is from his, that the common editions are taken. Jid. ib. Mill. ib. No. 1258 — 1293. 68. It follows, that the readings found in all the printed editions of the New Testament, rest on the 14 NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. authority of a few MSS. not always the most ancient ; and, consequently, the concurrence of these editions cannot confer great authority on the readings adopted by them in opposition to others which appear to be well supported. SECT. IV. The Necessity of Correcting the printed Editions by Manuscripts, 59. That there are many various readings in the Gopies of the New Testament, and that it is highly useful to examine them, has for a long time been gen- erally confessed ; and they indeed supply the means of rendering the text of that part of Scripture in a very great degree correct. Walton, Prol. 6. § 1. 60. But an opinion, however ill-founded, has been generally received, the few who ventured to oppose it having been till lately discountenanced and borne down, that the Old Testament, as printed in Hebrew, is ab- sdutely correct ; and the prevalence of this opinion has prevented many from employing any care in examining the text of the Old Testament. AValton, Prol. 7. I« 61. In support of that opinion, is urged the great care and accuracy of the Jews, in transcribing their Scriptures. But, as no care is sufficient, without a perpetual miracle, for preventing every mistake in NECESSITY 015' CORRECTING EDITIONS. 15' transcribing, so, by every kind of evidence of w^hich the matter is capable, it appears that they have actually committed mistakes very often in their copies of the Old Testament. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 235, 379, 351, 371, 411. Diss. 2. p. 315, 401, 441, &c. 260, 273, 274, 278. Diss, Gen. § 23. 62. It is, however, insisted, that, when transcribers made any small mistake, it was immediately corrected by the Jewish Doctors, so that no mistakes now re- main in any of the copies. But, though these Doc- tors did several times review and correct the copies of the Old Testament, this could not be effectual for re- moving every mistake ; nor did one review, even in their own judgment, render other reviews unneces- sary. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 444. Diss. Gen- § 32—43. 51—58. Houbig. Prol. c. 1. a. 2. Walton. Prol. 8. § 18—29. 63. But it is urged, that the Masora corrected all the mistakes which had crept in prior to it, and gave the means of detecting every subsequent mistake. From the very nature of the Masora, however, it is clear, that it could not possibly answer either of these purposes ; and it is, in fact, very faulty and defective, and formed on late MSS. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 24, 25, 26. Houbig. Prol. c, 1. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 262—291. Walton, Prol. 8. § 1—16. 64. After the reception of the Masora, the Jews Were very careful to correct their MSS. according to it ; but, it being faulty and inadequate to the purpose, this was far from being sufficient for rendering them 16 NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. free from errors ; and, in fact, there are readings in the text, as corrected by it, and printed, which are evidently wrong. Houbig. Prol. c. 2. a, 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 97. S43, 438, 446, 472, 528, 555. Diss. 2. p. 314, 356. Deut. X. 6. " Aaron died in MoseraP Contradicted by Num. XX. 22. xxxiii. 38. " in Hor."^^ Samaritan. Ken in loc. Diss. 2. p. 314. Diss. Gen. § 18, 165. 2 Sam. xxiv. 13. "Seven years of famine ;" inconsistent with 1 Chron. xxi. 12. « Three years;" which is probably right. Uniformity. 70. T for J. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 472. Diss. Gen. § 167. 2 Chron. xxii. 2. « Forty and two years old was Ahaziah ;" contradicted by 2 Kings viii. 26. "Two and twenty ^'^ and by 2 Chron, xxi. 20. his father Jehoram only forty. Vers. D for b. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 97, 528, 535. Diss. 2. p. 356. Josh. xxi. 36, 37. omitted, yet genuine. Context, vers. ||f , MSS. If Edit. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 22. Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. Diss. 1. p. 440, 552. Diss. 2 p. 285, 330, 390, 459, 464, 485, 487, 571. Diss. Gen. § 25, 43, 55, 56, 60, 61, 80, 98, 123, 125,179. 65. The practice of correcting MSS. according to the Masora prodiiced a very great degree of unifor- mity ; it was confidently asserted that the uniformity was perfect ; and, for a long time, by reason of the want of access to a variety of ancient MSS., the asser- tion could not be directly disproved, and was very gen- erally believed. But since MSS. were examined, it appears with the fullest evidence, that they actually do contain very many variations from the Masoretic text ; the oldest MSS. most ; but even late ones several ; and these often preferable to the received readings ; and often unquestionably the genuine readings. NECESSITY OF CORRECTING EDITIONS. 17 Houbigant, Prol. c. 1. a. 2. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 290, 297. et pas- sim. Diss. 2. p. 286. 445, 459. Gen. xliv. 24. " We came up unto my father;" " our father." 2 MSS. Sam, Vers. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 48. 1 Sam. xvii. 34. " A lion and a bear took (n?) him out of the flock " niy "a lamb." Keri. All xMSS. Vers. Ken. ibid, and § 39. Isa. xxxvi. 5. " / say, I have counsel" *nnDX, absurd. iT^DX " thou sayest." 16 MSS. Syr. 2 Kings, xviii. 20. Eng. supplies it, but improperly retaining also the other reading. Lowth et Ken. in loc. ^Q, The printed editions of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and those of the Greek of the New Testament are, therefore, precisely on the same foot- ing ; and the following principles maj be justly held with respect to both. Walton Prol. 6. 67. There has not hitherto been so great care em- ployed on any edition of the Scriptures, as to render the readings sacred which are adopted in it, or to su- persede the necessity of examining them by MSS. 68. A reading is not rendered even suspicious, merely on account of its not being found in the common edi- tions of the Bible. 69. A reading ought not to be rejected as false for its not being found in any printed edition of the Bible. 70. So far is there from being reason for adhering tenaciously to the printed text, that it ought to be de- parted from without scruple, whenever another reading found in MSS. is cleai'ly preferable, 3 18 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 71. A much more correct edition of the Scriptures than any extant, may be obtained, and would be very desirable. SECTION V. The Samaritan Pentateuch. 72. For ascertaining the true reading in the books of Moses we have a peculiar instrument, the Samari- tan Pentateuch, which was little known by Christians till the 17th century; which was then printed from one MS. ; but of which several MSS. have been since examined by learned men. Walton, Prol. 11. § 10. Simon, V. T. I. i. c. 12. Houbigant, Prol. c. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. Diss. Gen. cod. 61 — 66. Brett, Diss, on ancient versions. 73. It is not a version, but the original law itself, written in a character different from the Hebrew. Jid. 74. It was not translated from the Greek version, nor copied from Hebrew books after the time of Ezra ; but was among the ten tribes when they separated from Judah ; and, from the copies then among them, it has been successively transcribed. Houbigant, ibid. a. 1. § 1. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 110, 130, &c. Walton, Prol. U. § 11, 12. 75. The Samaritan, and the Hebrew, are two inde- pendent copies of the original text, preserved by nations who hated one another, and held no intercourse to- THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 19 gether ; yet they agree in general. This is a strong confirmation of the authenticity and integrity of that part of Scripture which they contain. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 339. Diss. 2. Walton, ib. § 16, 17, 18. Brett, ib. 76. So far as the Samaritan copy is preserved cor- rect, it shews what readings took place in the time of Rehoboam. 77. It differs, in many places, from the present He brew, and that, by all the several sorts of variations. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 11. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 1, 2. Wal- ton, Prol. ll.§ 15. [N^ 81.] 78. All these differences have been made objections against its authority, because it has been taken for granted, that it must be wrong, wherever it is not con- formable to the Hebrew ; but as this goes on the false supposition of the absolute integrity of the Masoretic copies, it cannot reasonably be admitted. Houbig. ib. § 1. &c. Walton, Prol. 11. 79. The wilful corruption charged upon it, of changing Ebal into Gerizzim, Deut. xxvii. 4. is the only thing that could justly affect its authority; but even this could destroy that authority in all cases; and, on a careful examination, it appears highly pro- bable, from many topics, and even from the context of the Hebrew itself, that what has almost universally been reckoned a wilful corruption in it, is the genuine reading, and that the corruption is to be charged on the Jews. Houbig. Prol. p. 73. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. Walton, Prol. 11. § 16. 20 TBE SAMARITAN PENTAtEUCH. 80. All the ether differences between the Samari- tan and the Hebrew copies, exhibit various readings ; with respect to which, neither copy should be preferred absolutely and in all cases ; but both copies carefully collated, and the genuine text selected, partly from the one, and partly from the other. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 10, 12. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 1. § 2, 81. The Samaritan seems to be, and, on several ac- counts, may naturally be expected to be, preserved more correct than the Hebrew ; and therefore will supply many emendations or preferable readings. Simon, V. T. 1. i. c. 12. Houbig. ib. § 3. Ken. Diss. 2. Gen. iv. 8. " Cain said unto Abel his brother, and it came to pass when they were in the field," defective, piska^ all Heb MSS. and edit. Sam. " Let us go into the field." 70. Syr. Vulg. Targums. Aquila. Philo. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 347, &c. Diss. p. 351, 364. Diss. Gen. et in loc. Houbig. Prol. et in loc. Exod. xxxii. 32 " If thou wilt forgive their sin, — and if not, blot me out of thy book,"' defective, all Heb. MSS. and edit. Sam. NK', " forgive it." 70. Houbig. in loc. Ken. in loc. et Diss. Exod. xiv. 1 2. " Is not this the word that we did tell thee in Egypt, saying," &c. Not recorded in Heb. but in Sam. after Exod. vi. 9. Jid. Deut. xxvii. 2, 3. « All the words of this law." What law ? defined neither here, nor at the execution of it. Josh. viii. 32. — various opinions — ascertained to be the decalogue, by addition in Sam. after Exod. xx. 17. explicitly enjoining it to be thus written. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 2. p. 83, &c. Exod. ii. 2'. "Moses swore, Wi." Heb. — an oath unnecessa- THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 2l ry. Sam. Sx^i, « consented." Chald. Syr. Eng. lb. " He gave Moses Zipporah." Sam. adds T\\i/vh " to wife." Gen. xxxvi. 16. « Duke Korah." Heb. Chald. 70. Vul. Arab. Sjr. Wanting in Sam. An interpolation — context, v. 11, 12. and, 5, 14, 18. I Chron. i. 36. Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. 1. p. 3T6, Gen. iii. 12. " The woman he gave me, Kin." Heb. — Sam. " /S%e," K'H — above 20 MSS. — sense — often elsewhere. Houbig. Prol p. 49, et in loc. Ken. in loc. Diss. i. p. 343. Gen. xxvi. 18. "Isaac digged again the wells of water which *D'3 nan they had digged in the c?a?/s of Abraham." — no nom- inative. Sam. " Which n^;; the servants of Abraham had digged." 70. Vulg. Syr. ''♦ Houbig. in loc. Ken. ib. et Diss. l.p. 359. Num. xxiv. 20. " Amalek was the first of the nations, and his posterity 12ii nj?," literally, " to the destroyer." — obscure. Sam. n:iN^ n;; " until it perish." Houbig. Prol. et in loc. Ken. ib. Gen. ii. 4. " In the day that the Lord God made the earth and heavens.^^ Heb. — Sam. "The heavens and the earth." — com- mon order. Houbig. and Ken. in loc. Gen. xii. 16. Abraham " had he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels." Sam. " Men- servants, and maid-servants, and he-asses, and she-asses, and camels." Ken. in loc. Houbig. ib. et Prol. p. 72. 82. The Samaritan Pentateuch agrees with the most ancient Hebrew MSS. in some places where it differs from the printed text. [Gen. iii. 12. N° 81.] 83. It agrees remarkably with the version of the 70; and thus shews that very few variations had crept into the copies of the Hebrew, between the time of the 22 THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. defection of the ten tribes and the making of that version. 84. In some instances, it does differ from the 70 version ; and wherever, in these instances, it preserves the genuine reading, it shews, either that corruptions had crept into the Hebrew copies during that interval, or that that version has undergone changes ; and may thus be the means of correcting errors which could not be otherwise corrected. Ken. Diss. 2. Diss.^en. § 18. Exod. vii. — xi. In the Hebrew, the messages given by God, are recorded but once, generally as delivered by him to Mo- ses; but once, ch. xi. 4. &c. only as delivered by Moses to Pharaoh. — Sam. All of them are recorded twice, as deliv- ered by God to Moses, and then again as delivered by him to Pharaoh. This agreeable to ancient usage — a propriety in recording the execution of the divine commissions — pre- serves regularity throughout — probable that the omission was made by the authors of the 70 version. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 380. Diss. 2. p. 30r. Diss. Gen. § 24. [Deut. x. 6. No. 64.] 85. The Samaritan Pentateuch sometimes agrees with the Hebrew copies, in readings which, notwith- standing their concurrence, appear by other means to be faulty ; which proceeds, either from some mistakes having crept into the copies before the defection of the ten tribes, or from the Samaritans having, in these places, supplied defect in their copies from some He- brew MSS. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 565, 434, &c. Diss. Gen. § 84. 4, 5. 121. Deut. xxi. 23. " He that is hanged is accursed of God," — Heb. Sam. 70. But the apostle quotes it. Gal. iii. 13. THE SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 23 " Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree." — Syr. God probably added to the Heb. and 70 by the Jews, out of ha- tred to the Christians, and to the Sam. perhaps by Sym- machus. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 81, 84, 4, 85. Deut. xxxii. 43. " Praise his people, ye nations." Heb. Sam. But quoted Rom. xv. 10. " Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people." — 70. Eng. — nx or D;^ omitter-. Ken. ib. § 81, 84, 5, 108. c. 507. p. 82. note. 86. There being several MSS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch known, and their variations pointed out, its genuine readings can be better ascertained, and more successfully applied to the correction of the He- brew copies, than at its first publication. 24 THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. CHAP. II. The Original Languages. 87. For explaining the Scriptures, some knowledge of the original languages in which they were written, is absolutely necessary ; as without it, whatever sense a person puts upon them, must be taken wholly on the authority of others. 88. To be reduced to this necessity, is shameful in the teachers of religion; and, therefore to neglect the study of these languages, is also in them inexcusable. 89. Criticism presupposes the grammar of the par- ticular languages ; and is employed in applying the principles there laid down, to their proper use. 90. The languages in which the Scriptures are writ- ten, are the Hebrew and the Greek ; on them it there- fore is, that Scripture criticism must be exercised. SECT. I. The Origin of the Hebrew Language, and of the Greek. 91. Some have ascribed the invention of language, wholly to the natural powers of men ;^ others, wholly to a divine instruction.'' Most probably, the first lan- guage was formed by Adam and Eve for themselves, ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW. 25 by the use of their own powers, but super naturally as- sisted.^ 1 Diod. Siciil. 1. i. Lactant. de cultu. 1. 10. Greg. Njss. cont. Eunom. or. 12. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14, 15. 2 The Jews in general. Plato. Cratyl. Koran, c. 2. Bux- torf de ling. Heb. orig. Blair on Rhetor. L. 6. Walton, Prol.l.§4. 3 Universal History, b. 1. c. 2. s. 5. 92. From our supposing the primitive language to have been formed not without divine assistance, or even from its having been immediately of divine original, it cannot be concluded, that it must have possessed an uncommon degree of perfection ; for still, the wisdom of God would adapt it to the necesshies of mankind at that period, and to the use which their unimproved fa- culties could make of it ; and consequently, it is natu- ral to think that it was narrow and unpolished. Univ. Hist. ib. Blair, lb. 93. Adam and his posterity continued to use the primhive language, only making some additions to it, as their occasions from time to time required. On ac- count of the longevity of men, and their not being very numerous, nor widely scattered, that language probably remained with little variation, till the deluge ; and the same language would, of course, be spoken by the fam- ily of Noah, for some space of time. Univ. Hist. ib. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 1. § 6. 94. This uniformity of language was broken by the dispersion of mankind at Babel ; and when, in conse- quence of that event, the different tribes were formed into distinct nations? they would naturally run into 4 26 ORIGIN OF THE HEBREW AND THE GKEEK. different dialects, which would, in course of time, be- come more and more different from one another. Gen. xi. 6, &c. Cleric, in loc. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14. Scaliger, Exercit. in Cardan. Is. Casaubon, Diatrib. de ling. Heb. M. Casaubon de 4 ling. Wotton concerning the Con- fusion of Languages. Brett's Essay on the same. Buxt. de ling. Heb. confusione. Walton, ib. § 6, 7. 95. Some have thought that the primitive language is wholly lost ; others, that it still exists, and that the Hebrew is that language. The truth seems to be, that in one sense it is lost, all the languages now known differing from it in many respects ; but in another sense it still exists, to wit, in the several dialects derived from it, all which retain something of it. Greg. Nyss. ib. Simon, ib. c. 14. Grot, in Gen. xi. 1. 96. Of these dialects, that may most properly be reckoned the primitive language, which has deviated least from it : And, though claims have been urged in favour of many languages, particularly, of all the Ori- ental tongues, this character is shewn, by many plaus- ible arguments, to belong to the Hebrew, in preference to all others. Theodoret. qu. 51. in Gen. Pocock. Pref. in Tograi. Buxt. ib. Chysost. horn. 30. in Gen. xi. August, de Civ. Dei. 1. 17. c. 11. Hieron. Comment, in Sophon. Origen, horn. II. in Num. Selden de Synedr. 1. 2. c. 9. Bochart, Phaleg. 1. I.e. 15. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 14, 15. Schultens, Orat. de ling. Arab. AValton, Prol. 3. § 1—22. 97. The Hebrew language was not confined to the Israelites alone, nor even to the descendants of Abra- ham or of Shem ; but was the same with that of the WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 27 Pheiiicians and Cannaanites. who were of the posteri- ty of Ham. Simon, ib. 98. The Greek language w^as ultimately derived from the same source, having taken its rise from some of the Oriental dialects used by the colonies which peopled Greece ; but, by reason of the situation of those that used it, their progress in arts and sciences, and their care in refining and improving it, it underwent so great alterations as to become, in time, a very dissimi- lar language. Squire's Inquiry into the origin of the Greek Language. Ogerii Gr?eca et Latina Ling. Hebraizantes. Monboddo's Origin of Lang. p. J. b. 3. c. 11, 12. & p. 2. diss. 1. SECT. IL Of Written Language^ particularly the Hebreiv and the Greek, 99. Men could not fail soon to become desirous of expressing their thoughts by visible marks, as well as by sounds. 100. The first method which they fell upon for this purpose was, probably, the fixing upon marks to de- note particular things ; and these would be, in the be- ginning, a rude picture of the thing ; but would, after- wards, be simplified for the sake of expedition. Of marks in this stage, the Chinese characters appear to be an instance. Warburton, Div. Leg. Blair on Rhetor. L. 7. Walton, Pro!. 2. § 13, 20, 21. 28 WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 101. By most nations, these marks of things were laid aside, as soon as they had invented or learned a more commodious method of writing, namely by an alphabet ; but, the Egyptians retained it along with this other method, and improved it to a great degree of re- finement in their hieroglyphical writing, which they appropriated to particular purposes, especially those in respect of which they studied secrecy. Warburton, ib. Blair, ib. Walton, ib. § 17, 18, 19. 102. The Egyptian hieroglyphics being in high estimation, the symbols employed in them probably gave occasion to some of the common metaphors of the East; and, if such metaphors are found in Scripture, the knowledge of these symbols will serve for deter- mining their meaning. Warburton, ib. Num. xxiv. 17. "There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel." Hierogl. "a god — a king." 103. The invention of alphabetical writing has al- ways been, with reason, considered as a very great effort of human genius. Whether it was wholly owing to that, or partly also to a divine original ? who was the author of it ? whether Adam, or Abraham, or Mo- ses, or the Assyrians, or the Phenicians, or the Egyp- tians ? — are questions which have been moved, but which cannot, perhaps, be answered with any degree of certainty. Walton, Prol. 2. § 1—7. Blair, ib. L. 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 29 104. It is certain, however, that Moses was ac- quainted with alphabetical writing, and used it in the Pentateuch. Blair, ib. 105. It has been made a question. What were the original Hebrew characters ? Some contend that they were the same with the present ; others maintain, and perhaps with better reason, that these are properly the Chaldean characters, which the Jews had learned dur- ing their captivity at Babylon, and used ever since : and, that their ancient characters, in which the Scrip- tures were originally written, were the Phenician, or what are now called the Samaritan, at least very little different from them. Rabbins in general. Buxt. Lightfoot in Mat. iv. Sclmltens. Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. 1. Hieronym. Morinus* Capellu?. Bochart, Phaleg. Walton, Prol. 2. § 8. and 3. § 29—37. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 13. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 146, &c. Wilson's Heb. Gram. 106. The Phenicians used the same characters with Moses and the ancient Hebrews ; and Cadmus carried thence the Alphabet with him into Greece, where their most ancient letters very much resembled the Sa- maritan, and bore plain marks of being derived from them, though they have been gradually altered till they came to their present form. Walton, Prol. 2. § 4, 6, 9. Sec. Ken. ib. Wilson, ib. Blair, ib. so HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. SECT. III. Of the Hebrew Vowel Points and Accents, and the Greek Spirits and Accents, 107. The question that has been much agitated, con- cerning the antiquity and the authority of the present vowel points, is of considerable iaiportance, with res- pect both to the understanding of the Hebrew lan- guage, and to the determining of the sense of Scrip- ture. 108. The Jews agree that the reading and the sense fixed by these points, is universally the genuine ; and their common opinion is, that they were first used bj Ezra, and continued ever since ; but, some of them hold, that only the consonants were written, and the proper vowels handed down by oral tradition till about 600 years after Christ, when they were first expressed in writing by the present marks. Elias Levita, Prsef. 3. in Mass. Ham. 109. Among Christians, some maintain, that the vowel points, in their present figure ; some, that at least marks equivalent to these, were always in use, and were affixed as they now stand by Ezra, and con- sequently are of divine authority, and everywhere determine the true reading and the true sense. Others think that they were, long after that time, invented or adopted by the Jewish critics, called the Masorctes; that therefore, they are merely of human authority, have been often wrong placed, and give a false reading HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 31 and a false sense, which may be departed from, when- ever the analogy of the language, or the connexion, gives reason for doing so. Buxt. Tiberias. Buxt. de Antiq. punctorum. Leusden, Philol. Heb. Hottinger. Thes. Philol. Schultens, Instit. Gram. Heb. Robertson, Gram. Heb. Append. 2. and 3. Capell. arcan. punctuat. Walton, Prol. 3. § 38 — 56. Simon, V. T 1. 1. c. 27. Prideaux, Connex. P. 1. b. 5. Masclef. Lovvth's Isaiah, Prelim. Dissert, p. 54. Wilson, Heb Gram. c. 1, 2. 110. That the vowel points are modern, and of human invention, is argued from many topics : there are none such used to this day in the Samaritan Penta- teuch, nor were they anciently used in any other of the oriental languages. 111. The copies of the Scriptures, used in the Jew- ish synagogues, are constantly written without points ; a practice which could never have been introduced, if they had been original to the language, or of divine authority. 112. All the ancient various readings which have been marked by the Jews, regard only the letters, not one of them the vowel points ; which could not have happened, if these had been then in use. 113. The ancient cabalists draw all their mysteries and allegories from the letters, none of them from the vowel points, which they could not have neglected if they had been acquainted with them, as they would have been copious sources of the conceits in which tliey delighted. 32 HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 114. It appears, from the ancient versions, that they all read the text, in many places, differently from what it is now fixed to by the vowel points ; and therefore had it without them. 116. There is no mention made of the vowel points by any of the ancient Jewish writers, though they had often the most natural occasions for it, if they had been acquainted with them ; lor the books Bahir and Zohar, alleged in opposition, have been proved not to be very ancient. 116. Neither is there a hint of vowel points by any of the ancient Christian writers, for several centuries; not even by Jerome, though he often takes notice of different pronunciations of Hebrew words ; but it is always only in reference to the letters. 117. There seems to be sufficient evidence, that the present vowel points were introduced, probably in imi- tation of the Arabians, who had refined much on their own language, after the Hebrew had ceased to be a living tongue, in order to facilitate the reading of it ; and that they were gradually brought to their present state, between the fifth and the tenth century. 118. They who introduced them, no doubt intended them for expressing, as nearly as possible, the pronun- ciation of the Hebrew as then in use ; and often suc- cessfully ; but it had been so long a dead language, that they could not fail to be often mistaken ; and their system of punctuation renders letters, at one time, quiescent and useless, Vvhich, at other times, have a HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 33 variety of sounds, and produces great intricacy in the flexions of nouns and verbs. 119. From supposing the vowel points modern, it will not follow that the Hebrew must have been a language consisting only of consonants, which would indeed be absurd ; for it is expressly maintained, that there are vowel letters in the Hebrew alphabet, J< a, 1 u^ *> i, to which are now commonly added n ^? and i; 0, by means of which that language might be read without points, almost as well as any other can ; and that these are really vowels, appears — from their being expressed as such, in most proper names, by the 70, — from the letters corresponding to them in place, being vowels in the Greek alphabet, which was borrowed from the Phenician, — and from the frequency of their recurrence, which is found to be just such as ought to belong to these vowels. 120. Though there be many syllables, and even words, in which none of these letters (called Matres lectionis) occur, and though, on that account, they seem insufficient for the pronunciation of the Hebrew ; yet they might have been sufficient when that was a living language, or even as long as it was preserved entire. They express all the long vowels ; and it may be, that the words in which none of them occur, had only short vowels, which it was not unnatural for a rude and simple language, like the Hebrew, to omit in writing, as being implied in enunciating the conso- nants. On the introduction of the vowel points, the vowel letters were omitted wherever they seemed to the introducers to serve only as vowels, which has 5 34 HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. increased the difficulty of reading without points ; but as, even in the printed bibles, words which want these letters in one place, retain them in another, — as an- cient MSS. preserve them in many words which are always printed without them, — and as they are con- stantly retained in the Samaritan Pentateuch ; — from these sources, the full writing and regular form of most Hebrew words, might perhaps be recovered. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 27. 1. ^. c. 8. Herder on Hebrew Poetry. 121. The Masoretes, in expunging the matres lec- tionis, where they thought they served only for vowels, and their place would consequently be supplied by the newly invented points, have often been mistaken ; and bv that means, have introduced a multitude of false readings, or omissions of these letters, where they are essential to the sense. 122. From supposing the vowel points modern, it will not follow, that the sense of the text would be altogether uncertain ; for though, in that case, words of different significations would consist of precisely the same letters, this is no more than what happens in all languages, where the sense and connexion, nevertheless, enable us sufficiently to distinguish them ; and many words, which now would, without points, be the same, were, before the invention of these, distinguished in writing, by some of the vowel letters. 123. By affixing to words which consist of the same letters, different vowel points, according to the diversity of their significations, the Masoretes have de- HEBREW VOWEL POINTS. 35 temiined the sense of Scripture according to their own idea of it, or their traditional interpretation ; and this sense should not be lightly or hastily departed from. But they were fallible, and have mistaken in many instances ; and therefore, that sense should not be implicitly followed, but abandoned without scruple, whenever there are good reasons for preferring another sense. Lowtli's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 54. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1. 124. Though the vowel points be not of authority, yet they are of considerable use ; not only for ascer- taining the sense in many instances ; but also, as they often indicate the true reading, by their agreeing to it, not to the false reading received in the text, — as their not being affixed to some words, points out these as erroneous, — and as they sometimes give intimation, where, in consequence of their introduction, vowel letters have been omitted ; and thus lead us to restore the true reading. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 343. Houbig. prol. p. 49. Nin " he** is often erroneously put up for N'n " she," but always shown to be an error by being pointed xrn. ' JlN' iiavin^ been often, through the superstitions of the Jews, written instead of mn% is often shown to be so, by its having the points of this latter word. Ken. ib. Houbig. ib. Judg. xvi. 18. " He hath showed (ph) her;" but pointed as 'h, which is right. Keri. 6. MSS. sense. Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 446. 125. A great multiplicity of accents have been used in Hebrew, concerning which different opinions have been entertained, similar to those concerning the vowel 36 HEBREW VOWEL POINTSo points. There can be no doubt, however, that they were introduced along with these by the Masoretes ; and they are of no authority nor moment, but only em- barrass the language. 126. There has been a question of the same kind, concerning some particulars in the Greek language, on which the sense of words in the New Testament some- times depends ; the iota subscriptum, the spirits, and the accents; 127. It appears that the ancient Greeks did often express the force of the iota subscriptum, though by a different figure from ours ; but it is certain that they often omitted it in writing ; and as it is never found in the most ancient MSS. of the new Testament, we are sure, either, that the apostles did not write it, or, that we cannot discover where they wrote it ; but that it has been placed as we now have it, by late transcribers or printers ; and consequently, we are at liberty to deter- mine for, or against it, in particular passages, accord- ing to the sense. Michael. Int. Lect. § 35, 39. Marsh's Michael, eh. 13, sect. f). 128. Most anciently, the Greeks expressed the aspi- ration by the letter H. When, in place of this, they adopted the spiritus asper, it appears from medals and monuments that they did not always write it, and never the spiritus lenis. That it was not written originally in the New Testament, appears from the most ancient versions often confounding words distinguished only by the spirits ; and therefore, we are at liberty to interpret STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 37 such words, in the manner most suitable to the sense, without regarding the spirits by which late transcribers or editors have restricted them. Michael, ib. § 40. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 7. 129. Without inquiring whether the Greeks pro- nounced their language according to the accents, or not, it is allowed that they did not commonly write the accents ; and as none are found in any MSS. of the New Testament, prior to the eighth century, it is clear that the present accents are not authorized by the apos- tles ; and therefore, we are not bound to determine the signification of words according to them. Michael, ib. § 42. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect, 8. SECT. IV. Of the Structure and Genius of the Hebrew Language, 130. The nature, the structure, and the genius of a language, are always congruous to the situations, the customs, and the manners of the people who use it : and must be attended to, in order to understand their writings. In the Hebrew language, there are many peculiarities necessary to be remarked for interpreting the books written in it. 131. In Hebrew, there are no neuter nouns, and consequently, no neuter gender of adjectives. This is an instance of simplicity, and it introduces peculiar manners of expression. [N"" 852.] Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 3. can. 19. 38 STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 132. What are called conjugations in Hebrew, are very unlike to those of other languages ; being different forms which any one verb assumes, by the addition of some letters, in order to express the various modifica- tions of which the action denoted by it, is susceptible ; and thus answering to the several modes, voices, and species of verbs in other languages. Schultens, Gram. Reg. 108. 133. Some have affected to multiply the conjuga- tions, under pretence of removing anomalies from the language ; but they would thus introduce a minuteness of distinction inconsistent with the simplicity of the He- brew. Some of their additional conjugations, and even two of those commonly received, are discriminated only by the vowel points, and therefore arbitrarily ; others of them, perhaps, are either irregular and infrequent forms of words, or inferred from a false reading in some text of Scripture. , Schultens, Gram. Heb. Robertson's Gram. Heb. 1. 2. c. 1. V/ilson's Heb. Gram. c. 10. 134. Grammarians have generally attempted to ac- commodate the Hebrew syntax to the rules of the Greek and Latin languages ; but by this they have only perplexed it ; fpr it is, in almost every instance, totally dissimilar. Thus, nouns relating to the same thing are, in Hebrew, joined by mere apposition, without any regard to their being of the same gender or number. Buxt. Thesaur. 1. 2. c. 3. Robertson's Gram. 1. 4. c. 1. § 1. Wilson's Gram. c. 20. Glass. Deut. xxii. 28. nSina n^: " a girl, a virgin.'* Gen. xlii. 30. "^IK (plur.) B^^«n (sing.) " The man, the lord." STRUCTURE OF THE HEBREW. 39 So very often a^nSx nin^ " Jehovah God." Hab. i. 16. )hDi<0 (masc.) n«i3 (fern.) "Their portion is fatness." 135. When a substantive agrees with an adjective, it is placed first ;^ but, if the adjective stand first, it is an affirmation ; a verb, generally that of existence, being understood.^ Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. 1. Robertson, ib. § 2. Glass, ib. 1. 3. t. 1. * Prov. XV. 14. \^22 3^, " An understanding heart." Ver. 20. DJn p, " a wise son." 2 £PsaI. cxix. 75, 137. N° 136.] 136. An adjective agrees with its substantive, and a verb with its nominative, generally in gender and num- ber, but not always ; for sometimes a plural substantive has a singular verb or adjective ; and, a collective substantive, or two or more singular substantives, may have a plural verb, adjective, or participle. • lid. ib. Glass, ib. 3. t. 4. can. 9. t. 3. can. 53. Buxt. ib. 1. 2. c. 9, 10. Gen. i. 1. D^n^N (plur.) Nin (sing.) "Creavit Dii." Psal. cxix. 75, yD^iyD pi)i " Right are thy judgments.'* Ver. 13r. I'DSJyD ->ty^ « Upright are ti.y judgments." Psal. Ixxxix. 15. "Blessed is the people (D^n sing ) that know {yiV plur.) the joyful sound ; O Jehovah, in the light of thy countenance they shall walk (jO^n^ plur.)" Gen. xli. 57. " All the earth (^")J}», nearer, close to, Crete." Eisner. Palair. Bos. Raphel. in loc. Rom. 1.31. 2 Tim. iii. 3. u^opyoi, utttov^i, eeysj^ts^^oi, occur not elsewhere, but frequently in Greek v/riters, " without natural affection, covenant-breakers, fierce." Mark xiv. 72. Kui eTrifiuXm sKhecis, frequent in the N. T. but in no sense suitable here — very differently explained. (Critic, in loc.) Eng. " When he thought tliereon ;" but rather, " hav- ing gone out," (Polyb.) which agrees with Matthew and Luke. Raphel. Acts XV ii. 31. II/5-/V TretpccG-p^av, Most obviously, " Giving faith," but not true, ^ts-ts, "a proof or argument," (Aristot. Rhetor, 1. i. c. 1.) ^i^iv Tcepex^i^j "to confirm, prove, give proof, ren- der credible," (Polyb. Plutarch.) So Eng. — "given assur= ajice." Raphel. 7 50 LANGUAGE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 163. In the language of the New Testament, all the dialects occur ; but the attic is predominant, and runs through all the books of it. Wysii Dialect. Sacra* 164. But, the writers of the New Testament being Jews, would, in writing Greek, naturally run into the idioms of their own language, or introduce hebraisms or syriasms ; which have, however, been, without reason, denied by some, and reckoned much more nu- merous than they really are, by others. Pfochenii Diatrib. de Linguse N. T. Puritate. Fechtii Pr«f. in Raphel. Michael, ib. § 7—10. Macknight, ib. Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 5, 6. 165. Such idioms can be illustrated only from the oriental languages, the study of which is thus strongly recommended, as being necessary even for understand- ing the New Testament ; and from the version of the 70, which is written in the same idiom. (No. 251.) 166. There are in the New Testament, some He- brew and Syriac words. Michael, ib. § 6. (Heb.) AfjLy^v, "truly, so be it." Glass. Philol. 1. 3. t. 5. can. 16. Heylin. Theolog. Lect, p. 131. AA>.i5A«i«, " Praise the Lord." Glass, ib. Zi^dux, « Tares." (Syr.) Mei)M,ft6>v«5, " riches," Erasm. Drus. Grot. M«/)«» et^oi. iBome, " The Lord is come ;" others, " In the coming of the Lord ;" others, " Excommunicated in the highest sense," which was termed xnciy ; others, in general, " Devoted to destruction." Critici in 1 Cor. xvi, 22. Tremell. Vorstius. Locke. Macknight. USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGTJAGESh 61 167. There are likewise Greek words used in a Hebrew or Sjriac sense. Michael, ib. AvvoifAiq, " A miracle." E/5 n/xas, " for ever." 1 Cor. xv. 54. Capell. Grot. Crell. Macknight. P8}/t6«, « A thing." Luke i. 37. ii. 15. Acts v. 32. Mat. iv. 4. H. R. Essay for a new Translation, p. 2. c. 4. § S, 4. EvariTuo-ee, " Hearken," Acts ii. 14. Grot. Wjss. Dialect. Sacra. 168. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and Syriac constructions. Michael, ib. Wyss. ib. 169. There are in the New Testament, Hebrew and Sjriac idioms and phrases. Marsh's Michael, ch. 4. § 5. SECT. VI. Of the Use of the Original Languages in Criticism* 170. The discovery of the true sense of scripture is evidently the purpose to which knowledge of the original languages is principally and most directly ap- plicable ; and the manner of applying it to this purpose being the same as that of coming to the understanding of any language, to enlarge upon it would be unnec- essary. 171. It has been made a question, Whether know- ledge of these languages ought to be at all applied to 52 USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. the discovery of the true reading ; some asserting, that no correction of the ordinary text, by critical conjec- tures founded on the nature of these languages, is at all allowable ; and producing several arguments in sup- port of their assertion. 172. But others have claimed the liberty of making emendations by critical conjectures ; and, though they have often carried this liberty too far, yet they have shown, that the arguments urged against it only con- demn the abuse of it, but prove not that it can never be legitimately used. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 173. If, among different readings found in MSS. one be agreeable to the nature of the language and ajiother not, the former ought certainly to be preferred, 1 74. When a reading occurs (though it were in all MSS.) which is a plain barbarism or solecism, it is- undoubtedly a mistake of transcribers, and should be corrected according to the rules of the language. Houbig. ib, c. 4. reg. 7, 8, 10. 1 75. When a passage cannot be reconciled to the grammar of the language, without supplying words which that language never uses to omit, it may be de- termined that the passage has been corrupted. Houbig. ib. reg. 9. 1 76. When an expression is clearly inconsistent with the rules of the language, it may be held a corruption, USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 55 even though we should not be able to discover how it ought to be corrected. Iloubig. ib. reg. 11. 177. But these principles ought to be applied with great caution, and under several limitations. Thus, corrections supported solely by the nature of the lan- guage, ought to be admitted only when they are abso- lutely necessary ; and, therefore, a place is not to be looked upon as corrupted, or corrected on conjecture, merely because it might be more commodiously ex- pressed. Houbig. ib. reg, 12. & p. 134. caut. 2. 178. When two readings occur, one of which is suitable to the most common usage of the language, the other agreeable to a real, but less common usage of it, the latter ought to be preferred ; for it is not so probable that a transcriber should, by mistake, have fallen into it, as into the other. Michael, ib. § 15. 179. For detecting mistakes repugnant to the nature of the language, and for correcting them, a very thor- ough acquaintance with that language is absolutely necessary ; and without this, the attempt will produce only blunders. 180. The greater number of independent MSS. there are of any part of Scripture, and the nearer they reach to the time of its being written, the less scope there is for conjectural emendations from the nature of 54 USE OF THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. the language ; for the less chance there is that a cor- ruption should have crept into all the copies : for the first of which reasons, greater latitude is allowable with respect to the Apocalypse than the other books of the New Testament ; and for both, in the Old Testa- ment, than in the New. Michael. § 31. Kennic. Diss. Gen. KINDRED LANGUAGES^ 65 CHAP. III. The Kindred Languages. 181. Every language may be, in many instances, illustrated, and the books written in it explained, from other languages derived from the same original, and akin to it. 182. The Hebrew language, in particular, stands in need of illustration by this means, and is capable of it; and the light hence derived, will tend directly to the explication of the Old Testament, but indirectly likewise to that of the Hellenistical Greek of the New. 183. The Greek, though standing much less in need of it, may, perhaps, sometimes receive illustration from other languages. SECT. I. What Languages are Useful, 184. The languages useful for illustrating the He- brew, are those which, along with itself, are dialects immediately derived from the primitive language, and which preserve nearly the same structure and analogy. Schultens, Orig. Heb. T, 2. c. 1. 56 KINDRED LANGUAGES. 185. These dialects are reducible to two principal ones, the Araniean, and the Arabic. Schulteus, ib. 186. The Araniean is subdivided into two branches, the Chaldaic, and the Sjriac ; the former of which was the Language of the Babylonians ; and it the Jews learned during their captivity, retained in a great measure afterwards, and used in their Targums, and other most ancient books. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. IS. Schultens, ib. § S, 9. Walton, Prol- S. § 24. Prol. 12. § 2. 187. In this language, some parts of the later books of Scripture are written ; for the understanding of which, it is, therefore, immediately necessary ; but it may likewise throw light on the other parts written in Hebrew ; it did, in fact, contribute very much to the preservation or the recovery of the knowledge of the Hebrew tongue ; and it would be of the greatest utility, if there were more remains of it, Simon, ib. Schultens, ib. Walton, Prol. 12. § 3. 188. The Syriac is very analogous to the Chaldaic, being little more than the same language, in the form which it assumed at a later period, and expressed in a different character. It is in it, that the Syriac versions of the Scriptures are written. Simon, ib. c. 15. Schultens, ib. § 10, 13. Walton, Prol. 13. § 2, 3, 4. 189. It, too, being highly analogous to the Hebrew, would contribute much to the illustration of Scripture, were it not that there are very few books extant in it. Walton, ib. KINDRED LANGUAGES. 5T 190. The other principal dialect, the Arabic, is somewhat more remote from the Hebrew, but analo- gous enough for fitting it to throw light upon it ; and, its being still a living language, and one in which there is a multitude of books, makes it very useful for that purpose. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16. Schultens, ib. § 14—21. Oratio de Lingua Arab. Bochart. Hier. Prsef. Phaleg. 1. i. c. 15. Walton, Prol. 14. § 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14. 191. From it, the Rabbins received some assistance in restoring the Hebrew language, but not much ; it has been more extensively, and very successfully, ap- plied by several Christian writers, to the illustration of Scripture. JBochart. L. de Dieu. Fuller. Pococke. Schultens, Orio-. Heb. 192. Besides these principal dialects, there are some less considerable branches. 193. The Samaritan dialect is a mixture of Hebrew with the several languages of the colonies transported into Samaria ; but little light can be derived from it, because there are very few books written in it. 194. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian language, has a great affinity to all the oriental dialects, but greatest to the Arabic, from which it is immediately derived ; and it has been applied in some degree to the illustration of Scripture. Simon, ib.c. 16. Bochart. L. de Dieu. Hottinger. Ludolf. Hist. Ethiopic. Comment. Schultens, ib. § 22, 23. Walton, Prol. 15. § 6, 7, 8. 8 58 CONSULTING KINDRED LANGUAGES. 195. The Rabbinical Hebrew is a mixture of seve- ral languages, which cannot be of great use for illus- trating Scripture, but ought not, perhaps, to be totally despised. Schultens, ib. § 5, 6, 7. 196. The Latin is near akin to the Greek; which, however, needs little illustration from it. SECT. IL The Necessity and Propriety of seeking Assistance from the Kindred Languages. 197. The Old Testament, comprehending books on different subjects, by many different authors and in very different ages, does contain more of the Hebrew language than any volume of the same size contains of any other language. 198. Yet, being the only book extant in Hebrew, it is impossible that it should contain the whole of that language; and that it does not, there is internal evi- dence, from its having roots without their derivatives, or derivatives without their roots ; besides, that it can- not be supposed sufficient for ascertaining the precise signification of all the words found in it, which seemSy in some instances, to have been very early lost by the Jews. Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. Orig. Heb. T. 1. Intr. T. 2. Intr. Even the 70 version retains some Hebrew words, as not know- ing how to translate them. 2 Kings xii. 7. 12. BfJ^f*. ch. xxiii. 7. Koc^ijTifA. 1 Chron. xxix. 2. erouf^t.. Job. xxxix. 31. USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 59 199. From these circumstances arises a necessity of having recourse to the languages most akin to it, that from them we may, as much as possible, supply the deficiences of the Hebrew, as it stands in the Bible, and learn its full extent. 200. The propriety of illustrating the language of the bible, from those akin to it, arises from their affin- ity to it in every material respect, being so great, as to fit them for throwing very considerable light on the remains of the Hebrew. 201. It is by those who understood not the original dialects, or understood them but imperfectly, that the propriety of applying them to the illustration of Scrip- ture, has been called in question ; they who understood them best, have always agreed that the application of them is a legitimate mean of criticism, and of very great utility. 202. The particular objections urged against that application, only prove that it may be abused, and ought to be made with proper limitations ; but do not conclude against the use of it SECT. III. Uses of the Kindred Languages in determirmig the true Reading. 203. The Kindred Languages may lead us to dis- cover the occasions of such false readings as transcrib- ers, unskilled in the Hebrew, but accustomed to some 60 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. of the Other dialects, have made, by writing words in the form of that dialect, instead of the Hebrew form. Houbig. Prol. p. 28. 204. The knowledge of the kindred languages often serves to prevent ill-grounded conjectures of a place being corrupted, by shewing that the common reading is susceptible of the very sense which that place re- quires. 205. When different readings are found in copies of the Bible, the kindred languages may sometimes assist us in judging which of them ought to be preferred. 206. If these languages can be at all permitted to suggest a conjectural emendation of the text, it ought to be with the most cautious restrictions, and only when they shew clearly how the present reading might have been naturally introduced. SECT. IV. Uses of the Kindred Languages in Interpreting Scripture, 207. It is chiefly to the interpretation of Scripture, that the Kindred Languages are applicable ; and for this purpose they are useful in many ways. 208. They discover many roots or primitives which are not found in the Bible, though their derivatives occur there ; and by doing so, point out the signi- fications of these derivatives, and either clear the sense, or improve the beauty, of the passages in which they occur. USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 61 Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. c. 1. § 11, &c. Orig. Heb. |n' (Arab.) 1. "To continue running," as water. 2. "To continue (in general) to endure, to be permanent." 3. (metaph.) " To be fat." 4, (metaph.) « To be inexhaustibly rich.*' Hence the adjective jn*K, rendered "hard, rough, strong, brave, severe, powerful," &c. signifies, 1. "Ever-flowing" Amos v. 24. "Let judgment run down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream y'^^ an ever- flowing river. Psal. Ixxiv. 15. "Thou driedst uip mighty waters,^^ the everflowing rivers.' Exod. xiv. 27. '■ The sea returned to his stvength,^^ uninterrupted flowing. 2. Durable, permanent" Mic. vi. 2. " Hear, je strong (dura- ble) foundations of the earth." 2. "Fat, full of moisture." Jobxxxiii. 19. " Man is chastened with pain upon his bed, and the multitude of his bones strong;'^ Eng. "bones with strong pain ;^^ rather, " multitude of his fat bones " 4. " Inexhaustibly ricli and prosperous." Job xii. 19. " And overthroweth the mighty;^' but they are spoken of v. 21. here, the opulent. So Num. xxiv. 21. Jer. xlix. 19. ch. 1.44. Schultens, Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 8. 209. The Kindred Languages point out roots, by showing such to be in use, which, though found in the Bible, have been overlooked, whose derivatives have therefore been irregularly ascribed to other roots, and w^hose signification has been erroneously either trans- ferred to these others, or borrowed from them, or is left fluctuating and uncertain. Schultens, Orig. Heb. T. 1. c. 4. 2;V3 (Arab.) but overlooked in Hebrew, and confounded with Via, yet occurs thrice. It signifies " to shatter, to break into pieces, to break with scattering or dissipation ;" which suits all these places. Jer. xxiii. 29. " Is not my word like a hammer (i*:f3') that (it) breaketh in pieces the rock ? Habak. 62 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. iii. 6. « He beheld and drove asunder the nations ; (ivvari'i) and the everlasting mountains were scattered,'^ broken fn pieces — a bolder figure. Job xvi 12. " He hath taken me by my neck ('Jy£3^i3'i) and hath shaken (broken) me to pieces." 210. These languages ascertain the precise significa- tion of roots, and consequently, of their derivatives, which are acknow^ledged in the bible, and perhaps occur frequently ; but, whose significations have been fixed only by conjecture, and are, on that account, in- definite, precarious, or fluctuating. Schultens de Defect. Ling. Heb. ib. § 43, &c. Via, with which i'i'iJ (No. 209) has been confounded, has been rendered, " to scatter, disperse dissipate." But in Arabic (prim.) " to overflow," (sec.) " to abound, to weep plentiful- ly." 2 Sam. xviii. 8. " The battle was there (nivsj) scat- tered over (had overflowed) the face of all the country ;" a beautiful figure from a river. Job xl. 11. :£2n « Cast abroad the rage (nn:ij^ the swellings) of thy wrath.*' {Make the swellings of thy wrath to overflow) a beautiful figure. Zech. i. 17. (Eng.) "My cities through prosperity shall yet be spread abroad:^ Not suitable, for HJlflDn is active. (My cities shall yet overflow with good.) Schultens, ib. T. 1. c. 4. VDJ occurs often, is rendered inconstantly ; sometimes " to scatter, to scatter by breaking to pieces," which are the senses of iMS and !i:f£3. But Arab. Syr. Chald. " to shake, to shake out by motion ;" so sometimes by 70. Aqu. and Theod. rendered iKTimTru, which suits all the texts. 1 Kings v. 9. « I will cause them (the trees brought by sea in floats) to be discharged ;*' the figure lost— (" shake them out of the floats.") 70. eKTivec^cj. Chald. pj*D-iX projiciam eas. Isa. XXX. 30. " The Lord shall shew the lighting down of his arm, with the flame of a devouring fire, (>f£33) scattering,^^ ("shaking out;") the world by trembling shaken out of its USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 63 place — (a noble image) " and tempest, and hailstones." Gen. ix. 19. " Of them was the whole earth overspread^ (nifflJ.) " From them the whole earth shook out its whole offspring ;" ex his excussit se universa terra — a beautiful metaphor. Judg. vii. 19. 1 Sam. xiii. 11. Isa. xi. 12. xxxiii. 3. xxvii. 9. Jer. xiii. 14. xxii. 28. li. 20. Psal. ii. 9. cxxxvii. 9. Schultens, ib. jba occurs five times in Hiphil. The versions fluctuate. Arab, (prim.) "to shine like the rising sun." (sec.) 1. (in different conjugations) "To shine in general, to be clear, or serene, or manifest, to render clear or serene." 2. " To laugh, to be glad, to remove or allay sorrow." Job ix. 27. "1 will forget mj complaint, I will leave off my heaviness,'^ nrSjtil. 70. " I will sio*/t." Vulg. " I am wrung with sor- row,''^ Syr. Arab. " I am pressed ivith straits.^^ Chald. " I will be confirmed.*^ Eng. " 1 will comfort myself.^' Literally, " I will lay aside my sorrowful face, and I will (prim.) make it to shine like the sun;^^ or, (sec.) "render it serene.*^ Job x. 20. " Let me alone," nj'S^xi. 70. " that I may take rest.^* ^"Ig. " bewail my sorrow.^^ Arab. " take breath.^^ Syr. ''solace myself, and restP Chald. "rest.' Eng. " take comfort.^^ Rather, " make (my face) to shine.^^ Psal. xxxix. 13. "O spare me," nj'SriiO. 70. and Vulg. " that I may be cooled or refreshed." Syr. Arab, as in the former text. Chald. "and I w'lil depart.^^ Eng. "that I may recover strength.^* Rather, " make (my face) to shine /*' or " to be serene." Jer. viii. 18. Eng. "(When) I would comfort myself (titSdd) against sorrow, my heart is faint in me." 70. Arab. "Incurable with the sorrow of your fainting heart." Vulg. " My sorrow is above sorrow." Syr. "I am worn away ^^ Chald. "Because tf ey mocked.*^ Rather, "J/fl/drio' (desiring) me (sec. I.) to render my face serene,^^ (i. e. thou, who desirest, &c.) " above my sorrow, my heart becomes faint in me;" or better (sec. 2.) "0 thou, who laughest at my sorrow." Amos, v. 9. Vy*~h]; llif rhjr2T\. 70. Arab. " Distributing^ bruising upon strength." Aq. 64 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. Vulg. ''Mocking devastation upon the strong." Sjr. " Giving dominion." Chald. Eng. " That strengtheneth the spoiled (Grot. Drus. Vat. * the spoiler,' — Avrong) against the strong." Rather (prim.) " Who viaketh devastation to break forth like the dawn (i. e. suddenly) upon the mighty ;" a beautiful figure, and used Joel ii. "2, Isa. xlvii. 11. Schultens, ib. c. 1. Vindicige Orig. § 2. 211. The kindred languages afford the best (and where the ancient versions vary in translating them, the only) means of determining with certainty, the signification of such words as occur but once, or very seldom, in the Bible. 212. The kindred languages point out the true meaning of some words, whether primitives or deriva- tives, to which wrong significations have been affixed in the Bible. Isa. xviii. 2. " Whose lands the rivers i>{?3 ;" supposed irreg- ular for 1TO, (which is found in one MS.) Eng. " have spoil- ed ;" but this irregularity unexampled. (Schult. Gram. p. 491.) Arab. NO, " to lift itself up, to bring under it." Hence "have brought under them," or "overflowed." But NT3 Syr. and XT'3 Chald. signifies "a teat;" so that the verb may mean, " have nourished ;" very applicable to the Nile fertilizing Egypt. Lowth's Isaiah in loc. 213. The kindred languages enable us to discover all the senses of words, some of whose significations only have been collected from the Bible, though others of them would better suit particular passages ; and, by this means, both explain these passages, and illustrate the connexion between roots and their derivatives. USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. 65 214. In particular, these languages discover the primary signification of many roots, even such as are most commonly used, whose secondary senses alone have been attended to, though the primary sense would throw light on some texts. ^n: very common, rendered " to be great." But Arab, (prim.) "to twist." Hence a^Vn:i Deut. xxii. 12. "fringes." 1 Kings vii. 17. " chain-work," i. e. twisted threads. (Sec.) 1. "Sinewy, brawny, compact, elegant," in the human make. Exod. xv. 16. "By the greatness (brawniness, firm- ness) of thine arm, they shall be as still as a stone." 2. « To struggle, wrestle, fight." Job vii. 17. " What is man that thou shouldst magnify (struggle) with him?" — context. Schultens, Defect, ling. Heb. § 202, &c. pny, very common, "to be just;" but this only a secondary sense. Arab, (prim.) " To be stiff, inflexible ;" also " to be inflexibly straight." Hence metaphorically, "to be just, true." Isa.xlix. 24. " Shall p I2f ^3iy (literally) the captives of the just one be delivered?" but the devil is here meant. Eng. " the lauyful captive ;** but this would be unjust. " The captives of the itijfexihle, rigid, or inexorable one." Schultens, ib. § 217, &c. Eccles. vii. 16. "Be not righteous overmuch." — objectionable. " Be not too rigid or inflexible." Schultens, ib. Hammond, Grotius, Patrick, and others, in loco. 215. The kindred languages are the only, or the most successful, means of leading us to understand the meaning of phrases, or idiomatical combinations of words, which are found in the Bible, and the pre- cise meaning of which cannot be determined by it ; but which, being agreeable to the genius of the orig- inal languages, are preserved in books written m them. 9 Q6 USES OF THE KINDRED LANGUAGES. Dan. xii. 7. " And when he shall have accomplished T 2f33 (literally) " to shake the hand,^^ Eng. " to scatter the power of the holy people, all these things shall be finished." But it is a common phrase in Arabic, signifying " to leave off friendship, society, or intercourse with a person." The meaning therefore is, " When he shall have put an end to his leaving off friendship with the holy people, (i. e. the rejection of the Jews, who were his peculiar people,) all these things shall be finished." A prediction of the future restoration of the Jews from their present state of rejection. S-hultens, Orig, Heb. T. 1. c. 4. VERSIONS. 67 CHAP. IV, • Versions of the Scriptures, 216. Versions of the Scriptures into other lan- guages, are subservient to criticism, either by suggest- ing the readings which the translators followed, or by giving us, in a tongue more intelligible to us, the sense of the original. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 1. Walton, Prol. 5. § 3. 217. Versions are, either such as are confined to the Old Testament, such as extend to the whole Scripture, or such as are appropriated to a particular book. 218. The versions of the first kind are, the Chal- dee paraphrases, the Greek versions, the Samaritan versions of the Pentateuch, and modern Jewish ver- sions. Simon) ib.c. 1. 6S CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. SECT. I. Of the Chaldee Paraphrases. 219. The Targums,*or Chaldee paraphrases, took their rise from the custom which was introduced after the captivity, when the Jews had forgotten the Hebrew language, of subjoining, to the portions of scripture read hi their synagogues, an explication in Chaldaic, which had then become their vernacular tongue. Simon, ib. c. 1, 17. Walton, Prol. 12. § 5. Bret. Diss. 220. For a considerable time, these explications were not probably committed to writing; then they began to write the ordinary glosses on more difficult texts ; and afterwards, by collecting these, and filling them up, they completed targums on whole books ; but at what time is uncertain. Simon, ib. c. 1, 18. Walton, ib. § 7. Bret. ib. 221. The Jews had many of these, all probably collected from scattered or traditional glosses of their doctors ; but with very different degrees of judgment. Wahon, Prol. 12. § 8, &c. Bret. ib. 222. There are three Chaldee paraphrases on the Pentateuch ; the first ascribed to Onkelos, the most ancient, and a very literal and exact version ; the sec- ond to Jonathan, more modern and inexact ; the third called the Jerusalem targum, modern, and of little value. i Simon, ib. c. 18. AValton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. 12. § 8, 9, U, 13, 14. Brett, ib. CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. 69 223 On the prophets, both prior and posterior, there is a Chaldee paraphrase ascribed to Jonathan ; ancient, but not very literal, containing many fables, and suiting its explications to the prejudices of the Jews. .Simon, ib. c. 18. Walton, Prol. 5. ib. Prol. 12. § 8, 10. Brett, ib. 224. There are, likewise, Chaldee paraphrases on all the other books of the Old Testament, the authors of which are unknown, but which appear to be modern and inaccurate ; and, besides all these, the Rabbins refer to other targums, which have never been made public. Simon, ib. Walton, ib. Prol. 12. § 12, 1 5. Brett, ib. 225. The Chaldee paraphrases are written, some- times alternately with the Hebrew, verse by verse ; sometimes in parallel columns ; and sometimes in sepa- rate books. Walton, Prol. 12. § 6. Brett, ib. 226. While some have condemned the publication of these paraphrases, as giving countenance to Jewish fables and superstitions ; and others have extolled it as sufficient for the confutation of the Jews from their own confessions ; both have carried the matter too far. But, though the Jews may elude arguments deduced from them, as not absolutely irrefragable ; yet, on the other hand, such arguments are not wholly destitute of force against them. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 1^2. § 1!, 16, 18. 70 CHALDEE PARAPHRASES. 227. The printed Chaldee paraphrases agree, in most instances, with the present Hebrew text, which there- fore, many conclude, remains now precisely as it was when these paraphrases were written. But this con- clusion falls to the ground, when it is considered, that the MSS. of the Chaldee paraphrases differ much from one another, and from the printed copies ; that these have been often altered, in conformity to the Hebrew; and that the MSS. are very incorrect, and thus demon- strate the carelessness of Jewish transcribers. Polyglot, Lond. V. 6. Simon, ib. c. 18. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 2. Walton, Prol. 12. § 17. 228. The Chaldee paraphrases, therefore, especially the MSS. of them, still suggest several various read- ings, and may assist in recovering some true readings ; for which purpose, that of Onkelos, by being most literal and accurate, is most useful ; the others, only when it appears that they designed to render the very words. Ken. ib. Houbig. Prol. p. 146. Lowth's Isaiah, Prelim. Dissert, p. 68. 229. The Chaldee paraphrases, being written in the same character with the Hebrew text, will often shew the occasions of false readings in the latter, and the kinds of mistakes to which transcribers were most liable. Ken. ib. 230. These paraphrases contributed very much, in in an indirect manner, to the interpretation of Scripture; for they were the principal means by which the Rab- GREEK VERSIONS. 17 bins and later Christians recovered the Hebrew lan- guage, without the knowledge of which, the original could not have been at all understood. Simon, ib. c. 18. 231. They contribute likewise to the interpretation of Scripture very considerably, in a direct manner; as, many of the glosses of the Rabbins, contained in them, are just explications, and elucidate its real mean- ing in obscure passages. Walton, Prol. 12. § 19. SECT. II. Of the Greek Versions, 232. The most ancient version of the Old Testa- ment, seems to be the Greek, commonly called the Septuagint ; for the books which mention others prior to it, are of no authority Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 2. Vr alton, Prol. 5. § 4. Prol. 9. § 6. Brett, ib. 233. It received its name, either from its being ap- proved by the Sanhedrim, which consisted of 70, or rather 72 members ; or, from the Jewish account of that number of persons having been set to translate it separately, and miraculously coinciding in every word ; which is undoubtedly a fable. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 9. § 2, S, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10. Is. Vossius lie 70 Int. Jos. Scaliger. Ilodius de Vers. Greec. auct# Bos. Prol. c. 1. Usser.de 70 fnterpret. Brett, ib, Beaiisobre, Introd. 72 GREEK VERSIONS. 234 From differences in style, in the degrees of accuracy, and in the manner of translating the same Hebrew words, or expressing proper names, it appears evident, that the different parts of this version were made by different authors, and at different times. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 1. p 197. Diss. 2. p. 321. Diss. Gen. § 17. Walton, Prol. 9, § 11,12. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Hod. ib. Beausobre, ib. 235. It is agreed, that the Pentateuch was trans- lated into Greek about 280 years before Christ, for the use of the Hellenistical Jews ; and the version is very literal and exact. The other books began to be translated about 170 years before Christ, when An- tiochus Epiphanes prohibited their reading the law in their synagogues, and were finished before the year 130, all very literally, but with various degrees of skill and accuracy. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 211, 319. Diss. Gen. ib. Bos. Prol. c. 1. 236. The Greek version was held in equal vene- ration with the Hebrew original, and regarded as alike inspired, by the Hellenistical Jews, till the early Chris- tians came to use it in their arguments against them ; and then, they began to depreciate it, and to appeal to the original, or to make alterations in it. Simon, ib. and 1. i. c. 17. Ken. Diss, Gen. § 67, 68, 70, 79, 86. Walton, Prol. 9. § 1, 15. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. Isa. xlii, 1. liii. 9. 237. In order further to discredit it, they Procured new Greek versions from the Hebrew ; that oiAquila, GREEK VERSIONS. 73 about the year of Christ 130, extremely literal; that of Theodotion, about 175, much less literal; and that of Symmachus, about 200, likewise not literal ; of all which only some fragments remain, which have been collected by Montfaucon. Simon, ib. c. 9. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 392, &c. 366. Diss. Gen. § 68 — 70 Owen's Inquiry. W alton, Prol. 9. § 19. Brett, ib. Isa. vii. 14. 7rxp6 v(^, 70. vtccvig, Aq. 238. Origen's Hexapla was an edition of these four versions, along with the original, both in Hebrew and in Greek characters, written in parallel columns, with marks for pointing out the variations of the 70 from the Hebrew, which version he sometimes likewise al- tered in conformity to the Hebrew, and with marginal notations of the differences between the versions ; a work evidently useful when it was written, and which would have been now of very great use, if it had re- mained entire and uncorrupted ; but it was soon in a great measure lost ; and, by the frequency of transcrib- ing the 70 version from it, and the carelessness of transcribers in omitting the marks of distinction, and taking marginal interpretations into the text, that ver- sion came in time to be much vitiated and mixed with other versions. Simon, ib. c. 3, 7. Ken. diss. 1. p. 127. Diss. 2. p. 362, &c. 377, &c. 384, 397. Walton, Prol. 9. § 20—27. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Brett, ib. Hence double renderings of one Hebrew word. Gen. ix. 20. uv6pu'7r(^ (yee>>p'_ (^) yrq. 2. Sam. i. 23. a hxx.eX6>piu evi. Psal. xxii. 1. ^£(^ jttjj, and ^foT^si /^ot* xxix. 1. ut9t $-stf, and iim Kpmt, 10 74 GREEK VERSIONS. 239. In consequence of Origen's work, the old cop- ies of the 70 version were disregarded, and gradually lost ; but, as many were dissatisfied with the altera- tions which he had made, other editions were written by Christians, among which Lucian's was most con- formable to the old copies. Simon, ib. c. 10. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 393. Walton, ib. Brett, ib. 240. There are several MSS. extant of the 70 ver- sion, or of parts of it ; the most celebrated of which are, the Alexandrian, in the British Museum, and the Vatican, at Rome. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 406. Diss. Gen. § 173—175. Walton, Prol. 9. § 30, 34. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Grabe, Preefat. Brett, ib. 241. There are four independent editions of this version ; the Complutensian, in which variations were made from the MSS. in conformity to the Hebrew ; — the Aldiiie, followed with some alterations in several subsequent impressions ; — the Vatican, from which all the ordinary editions are taken; — and Grabe's, pub- lished chiefly, though not entirely, from the Alexan- drian MS. Simon, ib. c. 3. Catalog, edition. Walton, ib. § 28 — 30. Bos. Prol. c. 2. Fabric. Bibliotb. Grfec. I. 3. c. 2. Morin. Exercitat. et Prgefat. Grabe, Prsefat. Brett, ib. 242. These editions differ considerably from one another : some give the preference to one, and others to another ; but none of them is perfect. By a care- ful collation of them all with the MSS. extant, a more correct edition might be made out, and would be of GREEK VERSIONS. 75 considerable use, for throwing light upon the Scrip- tures. Walton, Prol. 9. § 28—51. Brett, ib. 243. While the Hellenistical Jews, and many of the ancient Christians, improperly reckoned the Greek version inspired, some moderns have extolled it beyond measure, and others, as unduly depreciated it ; the truth lies between the two extremes. It is the work of fallible men, who fell into many mistakes ; and therefore, has no authority, except so far as it is con- formable to the original Hebrew ; but, having been translated from very ancient copies, it shews in what manner they read the text ; and therefore, may serve for detecting corruptions, which have since crept into the Hebrew copies, and for pointing out the genuine reading ; and accordingly, many of the readings which it points out, are still found in the oldest and best MSS. and ought to be adopted. Morin. ib. Is. Voss. ib. Simon, ib. c. 2, 5. L. CapelL Epist. ad Usser. Houbig. Prol. p. 143. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 5S6, &c. Walton, Prol. 9. § 8, 14, 15, 52—66. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. Gen. xxxi. 55. " The God of Abraham, and the God of Nahor judge betwixt us, the God of their father.^'' — superfluous and improper — wanting in 70. and 2 MSS. Houbig. ih loc. Ken. ib. Diss. 1. p, 368. Diss. Gen. cod. 80, 227. Neh. ix. 17. " And appointed a captain to return in their re- hellion, (onDD, which has not this signification) to their bondage." 70. f v AiyvTrra^ " to their bondage in Egijpt.** any::^, 3 or 4 MSS. Edit. Neap. 1487. Agreeable to Num. xiv. 4. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 49. 76 GREEK VERSIONS. Zecn. V. 6. ** This is (ZDyy) their eye, (Eng, ' tlieir resem- blance') through all the earth." lD^)]? "their iniquity." 70. uS'iKia. So Syr. 1 MS. Bos. ib. Ken. in loc. 244. The readings pointed out bj the Greek ver- sion, are sometimes the genuine, even when they are not found in any Hebrew MSS. now extant. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. Gen. xxiii. 13. '2V^\i/ )h nnx CDX. Lit. "If thou, I pray thee hear me." — obscure, elliptical. ^^7, "to me." 70. sTreiSecv TT^oi ef^H ei, (as Gen. xxix. 34. ^ Kings, x. 6.) "since thou art friendly to me, hear me." So Sam. Corrected in 1 MS. Bos. ib. Ken. in loc. Gen. iv. 8. (N° 81.) Deut. xxxiii. In the Hebrew there is no mention of Simeon. But V. 6, Evf^em £^M 7ro?^v^. 70. Alex. Aid. Complut. Bos. ib. et in loc. 245. When the Greek version and the Hebrew text agree in readings that are false, it proceeds, sometimes, from these having crept into the Hebrew copies before that version was made, and sometimes, from its having been since altered in conformity to them. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 17, 18. Diss. 2. p. 194, &c. Deut. X. 6. (N° 64.) 246. The Greek version was one of the principal means of recovering the Hebrew language ; and a closer attention to it would have rendered the knowledge of that language, in many instances, more perfect. Simon, i(j. c. 5, 8. Capel. Epist. adUsser. Houb. Prol. p. 143. 247. The authors of that version used, or were acquainted with, languages very analogous to the GREEK VERSIONS. 77 Hebrew ; and therefore, knew significations of words, which have since been unknown or overlooked, and have given them in some passages where they were proper. Simon, ib. c, 5. Walton, Pro!. 9. § 46. Brett, ib. 248. They mistranslated, however, some words, by giving them that signification to which they had come by use to be restricted, in that dialect to which they were accustomed, though they were capable of another more suitable to the passage. Simon, ib. c. 5, Walton, prol. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Gen. i. 6. y'p"), 70. ^vioeafAx *' firmament," from the Syriac use, " firm, solid." So Vulg. Eng. Rather, " expanse." 249. The authors of this version often render He- brew words in a sense different from that to which they are restricted by the present vowel points ; and often in a better sense. Simon, ih. c. 5, 8. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Brett, ib. (No 111.) Gen. xlvii. 31. " Israel bowed himself upon the hed?s (ntjn) head." 70. p«.QSii " staff," HD^p. 250. The Greek version often gives a juster sense of texts of Scripture, than what, being given by more modern versions, is generally put upon them. Simon, ib. Walton, Prol. 9. § 46. Bos. Prol. c. 1. Gen. vi. 3. " My Spirit shall not always strive with man." Eng. — remain^ 70. Vulg. connexion, " for that he is flesh, yet his days shall be 120 years." Simon, ib. c. 5. 251. The Greek version, being written in the very same dialect with the New Testament, often serves, 78 SAMARITAN VERSIONS. both to determine the genuine reading, and to fix the meaning of words in passages of it. (No. 165.) Bos. Prol. c. 1. Grotius in N. T. Kuclien. Animad. in Evang. Macknight, ib. Mark. V. 38. ««AaA<«$dvr«5. all MSS. yet suspected to be for oAoAy^ovTaj, but frequent in 70. Mill, in ioc. Luke viii. 20. K.cct uTry^yyeXij uvtm, ?ieyovrav. Some MSS. have et7ri)yye?^ei} uvrm; but the former is found in 70. (Mill.) Eng. " And it was told him % certain which said." SECT. III. Of the Samaritan Versions, 252. There are three Versions taken notice of, which were made directly from the Samaritan Penta- teuch. Ken. Diss. 2. c. 1. p. 29, &c. Walton, Prol. 11. § 20. 253. One of them is in the Samaritan character, and in their common language, reckoned very ancient, and made on account of their having lost the knowledge of the Hebrew. Simon, V. T. I. 2. c. 1, 17. Walton, Prol. 5. § 4. and Prol. 11. § 20. Brett, ib.. 254. It is very literal and exact, but incorrectly rendered in the Latin version of it published in the Polyglot. Simon, ib. c, 17. Walton, Prol. 1 1. ib. SAMARITAN VERSIONS. 79 255. It generally agrees with the Samaritan text, where this differs from the Hebrew ; and thus confirms the antiquity of its readings. Simon, ib. 256. But, it differs from that text in some places, either by the translator's mistake of the sense, or where a corruption has crept into the one or the other ; and, by a collation of the MSS. of it, it might be rendered more perfect. Simon, ib. 257. There is likewise a version from the Samaritan Pentateuch, into the Arabic language, some copies of w hich are written in the Arabic character, and others in the Samaritan, but little known. Simon, ib. Walton, ib. § 21. 258. There was a Greek version from the same Pentateuch, esteemed very ancient, of which only a few fragments remain, in quotations of the Fathers ; and, from these it appears to have been literal and exact, and to have concurred with the 70, in many readings. Simon, ib. c. 9. Ken. ib. Walton, ib. § 22. 259. The other versions peculiar to the Old Testa- ment, are the modern Jewish versions ; the principal of which are, by R. Saadias Gaon, and an African Jew, into Arabic ; some, into modern Greek ; one, into Spanish, and one, into Persic. Simon, ib. c. 19. Walton, Prol. 14. § 15, 16. 80 LATIN VERSIONS. SECT. IV. Of the Latin Versions. 260. The other class of Versions, is of such as ex- tend both to the Old Testament and the New ; at least, being made by Christians, do not purposely exclude either ; and, these being ancient, or modern, we shall begin with the former, and, among them, with the Latin Versions. 261 . That the Scriptures might be understood by all Christians, there were very early versions of them, probably many, into the Latin tongue ; those of the New Testament, immediately from the Greek original ; but, those of the old Testament, from the Version of the 70. Simon, V. T. 1. 2 c. 11. N. T. t. 2. c. 3—6. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 434. Michael. § 61, 62. Walton, Prol. 5 § 5. Prol. 10. § 1. Brett, ib. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ch. 7. sect. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. 262. There was one Latin Version, of highest au- thority, and most generally received, called the Old, the Italic, or the Vulgate ; written probably in the first century ; a considerable part of which remains, and might be collected. Walton, Prol. 9. § 31, 32. Prol. 10. § 1. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 23. 263. This Version, being extremely literal, is well fitted for pointing out what were the readings in the LATIN VERSIONS. 81 Greek copies ; and, by reason of its antiquity, it be- stows great authority on such readings as it proves to have then taken place. 264. By its being often transcribed, many mistakes crept into the Italic version ; other versions were mixt with it ; and, in particular, expressions were interpolat- ed from parallel places, and glosses taken from the margin into the text ; for which reason, wherever it contains any thing additional to the Greek, it is justly suspicious. Simon, ib. Michael. § 63, 64. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 8. Brett, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 26. 265. To remedy the confusion into which it had gradually fallen, Jerome corrected it ; but afterwards made a new version of the Old Testament from the 70 ; and, not satisfied with this, he made, likewise, a version of it, from the Hebrew, to which, however, he did not always scrupulously adhere. Simon, V. T. ib. c. 11, 12. Michael. § 65, Ken. Diss. Gen. § 8, 84, 1, 92. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 1 -5. Brett, ib. Beaiisobre, ib. Macknight, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib, sect. 28. 266. This last version shews that some variations had crept into the Hebrew copies, since the time when the 70 version was made. 267. Though Jerome's new version was at first dis- approved by some, it soon came (except the Psalms, his former version of which was still retained) to be universally adopted and used ; and obtained the name of the Vulgate. 11 82 LATIN VERSIONS. Simon, V. T. ib. c. 7, 1 1. N. T. t. 2. c. 8, 9. Michael. § 66. Walton, Prol. 5. § 5. Prol. 10. § 7, 8. Brett, ib. Beau- sobre, ib. 268. The copies of the Vulgate version, having be- come very different from one another, and corrupted in many places, were several times revised ; and several successive editions of it, corrected from MSS., have been published. Simon, N. T. ib. Michael, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 12, 28, 92, 107. Walton, Prol. 10. § 9. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. ?9. 269. The Vulgate, in its present state, being a mixture of the old Italic version, and that of Jerome, points out the state of the original text, partly in the first, and partly in the fourth century ; and it gives great authority to those readings which it clearly indi- cates ; and contains several which are preferable to the present readings, and supported by some of the best and oldest MSS. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 27. Jer. li. 19. " He is the former of all things, and the rod of his inheritance." Heb. absurd.—" And Israel is the rod," &c. Vulg. Chald. 23 MSS. Jer. x. 16. supplied in Eng. Ken. in loc. Diss. 2. p. 439. Diss. Gen. § 47. 270. The vulgate is not inspired, nor infallible; but it is, in general, skilful and faithful, and often gives the sense of Scripture better than more modern versions. Walton, Prol. 10. § 6, 10, 11. Marsh's Michael, ib. SYRIAC VERSIONS. 83 SECT. V. Of the Syriac Versions. 271. There is a Syriac version of the Old Testa- ment, from the Greek of the 70, part of which only has been published ; which is ancient, and serves prin- cipally to shew the state of the Greek copy, at the time when it was made. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 15. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88. Walton, Prol. 13. §8,17. 272. But there is, likewise, a Syriac version of the Old Testament, from the Hebrew, as well as of the New Testament, from the Greek ; probably made in the first century. Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. t. 2. Pocock. Not. in Port. Mos. c. 1, Michael. § 47. Walton, Prol. 13. § 8, 15. Brett, ib. Mack- night, ib. Gen. Pref. Marsh's Michael, ch. 7. sect. 4. 6, 7, 8. 273. Many MSS. of this version are known ; there have been several editions of it, and some translations from it. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 88, 89. n. b. Walton, Prol. 13. § 8. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2, 3. 274. The Syriac version omits the Hebrew titles of the Psalms, and inserts others expressive of their sup- posed subjects ; and it contains not 2 Peter, 2 and S John, nor Jude. 84 SYRIAC VERSIONS. Simon, V. T. ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 2. Psal. 1. "Of the manner of living according to tiie nine beati- tudes mentioned by Matthew." Psal. ii. " Concerning the calling of the nations, and the suffer- ings of Christ." Psal. iii. " Concerning future happiness." 275. The Syriac version being very literal, ascer- tains clearly the readings which it followed ; by reason of its antiquity, it gives great authority to these read- ings ; and it has preserved some which appear to be genuine. Walton, Prol. 13, § 19. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 9. 2 Sam. XV. 7. " After forty years Absalom said." From what? — Syr. "four." supported by Vulg. in several MSS. and Sixtus's edit, of Joseph. Ant. 7. 9. Grot, in loc. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 357. Diss. Gen § 31. p. 46, n. Prov. xxvi. 4, 5. "Answer not a fool according to his folly, lest thou also be like unto him. Answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit." Contradic- tory — no reason — Syr. " »3ccording to thine own ivisdom,^^ So C'hald. inSlND repeated from the preceding line. Ken. ib. p. 359. 276. The Syriac version often agrees with the 70, where it differs from the present Hebrew ; not by having been taken from it ; but because the MSS. used for both these versions agreed ; and their concurrence gives great authority to a reading followed by them. Simon, V. T. ib. 277. In the New Testament, the Syriac version often agrees with the old Italic, but was not taken from it, for they differ both in readings, and in renderings. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 5. SYRIAC VERSIONS. 85 278. The coincidence, therefore, of the Syrlac and the Italic versions, in any reading, has arisen from their having been made from MSS. of the same age ; and their great antiquity will generally entitle that reading to the preference. 279. Besides these ancient versions, there are oth- ers into Syriac, more modern, of the fifth and seventh centuries ; but they are less valuable and useful. SECT. VI. Of the other Ancient Versions, 280. The Egyptian Christians, called Copts, had an ancient version of the Scriptures, supposed to have been made about the time of the Council of Nice, into the Coptic language, then vernacular to them, which was a mixture of the old Egyptian language, and the Greek. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16.^. T. t. 2. Michael. § 53. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 13. 281. There are said to be two versions in this lan- guage extant ; one, known in Europe, in which the Old Testament is thought to have been translated im- mediately from the 70, and of which the New Testa- ment has been published ; the other, used by the Jacobite and Melchite Christians; but which of them is the ancient version is uncertain. Simon, ib. Michael, ib. 86 ANCIENT VERSIONS. 282. The Coptic versions are of some use in criti- cism ; and are considerable, as having given rise to the Arabic versions, when this language came into common use in Egypt. Simon, ib. 283. There are many Arabic versions of the Scip- tures, made by Christians ; but they are all posterior to the time of Mahomet ; and were probably finished in the tenth, or the eleventh century. Simon, V.T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Michael. § 53—55. . Ken. Diss. 2. p. 453. Diss. Gen. § 44. Walton, Prol. 14. § 17—23. Beausobre, ib. Marsli's Michael, ib. § 15, 16. 284. They are unequal, inaccurate, and often paraphrastical. Simon, ib. 285. It is generally supposed, that the Arabic ver- sions were taken, in the Old Testament, from the Greek of the 70, or from the Syriac translations of it ; and, so far as they were so, they show the readings of these at the time when they w^ere taken ; and either confirm their present readings^ or preserve such as have since been altered in these. Simon, ib. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. Psal. xviii. 1 3. Arab, wants " hailstones and coals of fire.'^ So 4 Heb. MSS. 2 Sam. xxii. 14. 70. Ken. Diss. Gen. ib. Psal. Ixviii. 18. « Thou hast ^ivew gifts to men." Arab, old MSS. of 70. Syr. Ital. Eph. iv. 8. Ken. ib. § 44, 77. 286. Some of the Arabic versions, or some parts of them, appear not to have been taken from these other ANCIENT VERSIONS. 87 versions, but immediately from the Hebrew ; for they contain readings different from theirs, but conformable to Hebrew copies. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 44. 1 Kings xiii. 20. " As they sat at the table— (piska) — the word of the Lord came unto the prophet." Arab, alone supplies, " and did eat." Ken. Diss. 1. p. 477. Chap. xxii. 19- — "Hear thou the word of the Lord." Heb. 70. Syr. " Hear ^/e" (Jehoshaphat and Ahab.) Arab. 7 Heb. MSS. Ezek. xxxvii. 4. " Again he said unto me." Arab, adds, " Son of Man." So 6 MSS. Chald. v. 3, 9, 11, &c. 287. The Arabic versions of the New Testament are thought to be made, from the Greek, in the Gos- pels ; and from the Syriac, in the Epistles. 288. Of the Arabic versions, there are many MSS. differing much from one another ; and different edi- tions ; but some of them altered according to the Vulgate. Walton, Prol. 14. § 18—23. 289. There was an early version of the Scriptures into the Ethiopic, or the language of the Abyssinians ; and, as one only is known, this is probably the same which has been oftener than once published, and which agrees much with the Alexandrian MS. Chrysost. Walton, Prol. 15. § 10, 12. Beausobre, Introd. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 17. 290. The Ethiopic version of the Old Testament was not taken from the Hebrew, but closely follows 88 ANCIENT VERSIONS. the 70; that of the New is immediately from the Greek ; and better in the Gospels, than in the Epistles. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. Houbig. Prol. Michael. § 56. Walton, ib. § 10, 11. 291. This version has some peculiar readings ; many of them erroneous ; but, where it appears to be exact, its antiquity gives it considerable authority. Walton, ib. § 12. 292. The Armenians are said to have made a ver- sion of the Scriptures, into their own language, in the fourth century, immediately from the Syriac ; but they afterwards translated the New Testament from the original Greek. Simon, V. T. ib. N. T. ib. Michael. § 57. Beausobre, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 18, 19. 293. In the thirteenth century, the ancient Arme- nian version was altered in some places, according to the Vulgate ; with these alterations the subsequent MSS. were written ; and, when it was published, some other alterations, conformable to the Vulgate, were adopted ; but it still retains some of its old readings. Simon, ib. Michael. § 58. Beausobre, ib. Matt. XX vii. 16, 17. " Jesus Barabbas." singular; but men- tioned as a common reading by Origen, Hom. 35. on Matt. 294. If the Persians had anciently a version of the Scriptures into their language, it is probably lost; for all the Persic versions known to us, are reckoned modern. Simon, V. T. c. 16. N. T. t. 2. c. 17. Michael. § 59. Walton, Prol. 16. § 6. Beausobre, ib. MODERN VERSIONS. 89 295. Two Persic versions have been published, both of which appear to have been taken from the Syriac. Jid. ib. Walton, ib. § T, 8, 9. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 20. 296. It is said, however, that there are several MSS. of the Persic version, considerably different from both these editions ; and that another version, perhaps more ancient than either, is used by the Persians in their public service. SECT. VII. Of Modem Versions. 296. The several nations in the Western Church had versions of the Scriptures into their vernacular languages, which were taken immediately from the Vulgate ; but most of them are now lost. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 1. 22. Johnson, Histor. Account. 297. There are, however, several Anglo-Saxon ver- sions of the Bible, or of parts of it, in MSS., and of which the Gospels have been published ; and appear to be taken from the old Italic. Michael. § 72. Johnson, ib. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 38. 298. The version of the four Gospels, called Codex Argenteus, was generally supposed to be a part of the Gothic version of Ulphilas ; but is affirmed by those who have examined it most carefully, to be an old Frankis^ version, made, after the middle of the sixth century, immediately ifrom the Greek, scrupulously 12 90 MODERN VERSIONS. literal, and therefore fit for shewing the readings of the copies used for it. Michael. § 68, &c. Beausobre, Intr. Marsh's Michael, ib. sect. 31, &c. 299. The more modern versions are, either into Latin, or into the vernacular languages ; and both are made either by Papists or by Protestants. Simon, V. T. c. 1, 20. 800. Most of the Latin versions by Papists, are made according to the present Masoretic text, the modern punctuation, and the interpretations of the Rabbins ; aim at being extremely literal ; and, by this means, are rude, barbarous, and often obscure ; as those of the Old Testament by Pagninus, Arias Mon- tanus, Malvenda, Cajetan. Simon, ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 301. Others of them are only editions of the Vul- gate, with some corrections, as Clarius's, &c. 302. Houbigant has given a new version of the Old Testament, not according to the present Hebrew, but according to the text, as he thought it should be cor- rected by MSS., ancient versions, and critical con- jectures. 303. Among Protestants, Munster gave a Latin version of the Old Testament, from the Hebrew, according to the punctuation and interpretation of the Rabbins. 304. Leo Juda began another, which was finished by Bibliander, likewise from the Hebrew ; rather free xMODEUN VERSIONS. 91 than literal ; and the New Testament was added by others. Simon, V. T. ib. Brett, ib. Beausobre, ib. 305. Castalio gave a version of the Bible, from the originals, without adhering scrupulously to the receiv- ed reading, in which he studied, chiefly, to express the sense in elegant and classical Latin. 806. Junius and Tremellius gave a version of the Old Testament, exactly according to the received text, and punctuation, and were peculiar in expressing the article by demonstrative pronouns. 307. There are several versions, likewise, of, the New Testament, from Greek into Latin, by Protes- tants ; as Beza's, which has the peculiarity of render- ing the article by demonstrative pronouns, but is gen- erally and highly esteemed. Walton, Prol. 4. Beausobre, ib. Macknight, ib. 308. Some Protestants have satisfied themselves with only correcting the Vulgate version, according to the originals ; as the Osianders. Brett, ib. 309. In consequence of the Reformation from Popery, the original Scriptures were translated into most of the modern languages of Europe ; first, by Luther, into German, whose version, though not scrupulously literal, is sufficiently accurate; was, oftener than once, revised and corrected by himself, as well as by others since ; and has been translated into the Swedish, Danish, and other northern languages ; 92 MODERN VERSIOJN'S. next, by Leo Juda ; likewise into German, for the use of the Zuinglians. Simon, V. T. 1. g. c. 1, 23, 310. The Scriptures were translated into French, at Geneva, by Olivetanus ; the preferable renderings in the text, and others, particularly from the 70, in the margin. This version was corrected, chiefly as to the language, by Calvin ; and, again, by Bertram, Beza, and others ; and has, since, from time to time, under- gone some alterations of the same sort. Simon, ib. c. 1, 24. 311. By order of the Synod of Dordt, a version was *made into the Dutch language, in place of Luther's, which had been used till then ; and well executed by the learned men who undertook it. Simon, ib, c. 23. 312. There are two versions of the Old Testament into Spanish, in which Pagnin is chiefly followed. Simon, ib. 313. Diodati made a version into Italian, (after- wards translated into French) which follows the 70, in many places where he thought the Hebrew corrupted ; and is free, perspicuous, and highly esteemed. Simon, ib. 314. There have been several English versions of the Scriptures; Wickliff 's ; TyndaPs; Coverdale's ; the Bishops' Bible ; the Geneva Bible ; our present version, the alterations of the later of which, from the earlier, have not always been for the better ; all of DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. 95 them, except the first, taken from the originals ; none of them, however, particularly not our present version, adhering servilely to the common Masoretic reading of the Old Testament, but, rendering according to the emendations which were judged necessary, especially such as are suggested by the ancient versions. Simon, ib. c, 1, 23. Ken. Diss. Gen, §89. note 108. Beau- sobre, ib. Johnson's Histor. Account. Macknight, ib. 315. In opposition to the vernacular versions of Protestants, Popish versions have been made into several language^, generally from the Vulgate, but not very accurate. Simon, ib. c. 22. 316. Besides versions peculiar to the Old Testa- ment, and versions extending to the whole Scriptures, there is a third class, those of particular books. SECT. VIIL' Distinctions of Versions, 317. In recollecting the account which has been given of the versions of Scripture, it readily occurs, that they are distinguishable into different classes, and that these several classes are useful, in different ways, and different degrees. 318. Versions are either ancient or modern. The ancient may serve both for ascertaining the true read- ing, and for interpreting the sense ; the modern can answer only the latter of these purposes. 94 DISTINCTIONS OF VERSIONS. 319. Versions are either independent, taken imme- diately from the originals ; or derived, rendered from another version. 320. To which of these classes a version belongs, may be known either by testimony, or by internal marks. Thus, a version shews itself to be derived, by copying the errors or peculiarities of another, by coinciding with another in very obscure and doubtful passages, by mistaken renderings, accountable only from a natural misconception of the language of another. 321. Independent versions alone are directly useful for ascertaining the readings of the original ; derived versions can shew only the ancient reading of the ver- sion from which they were taken ; but may, by pre- serving it, contribute indirectly to the emendation of the original. 322. Versions are either literal, expressing the original, word for word : or free, intended to give the sense clearly, without adhering scrupulously to the words. 323. Literal versions show the readings of the copies from which they were taken ; and they are the fittest for public use, as being simplest, most perma- nently intelligible, and not unduly limiting the sense. Simon, passim. Michael. § 73. 324. A version is too literal, when it retains idioms which, in the language of the version, convey a sense totally different from that of the original. USE OF VERSIONS. 95 325. But, to be truly literal, a version should retain the turn of expression of the original, as far as it is at all consistent with the language of that version ; peculiar idioms, it should render in words expressive of their sense ; ambiguous words or phrases, it should trans- late, if possible, by such as are equally ambiguous ; it should neither unnecessarily depart from the order of words in the original, nor adhere to it, in cases where it would render the sense equivocal ; it should, as far as possible, preserve the manner and spirit of the original. 326. Free versions always determine the original to one certain sense, rendering obscure expressions by such as are clear, and ambiguous expressions by words answering only to one of their significations. They are, thus, a sort of commentary ; but give only the interpretation, without the reasons of it. SECT. IX. Of the Use of Versions for determining readings. 327. The original Hebrew of the Old Testament, and Greek of the New, are the fountains and standards, by which all versions ought to be examined ; but it follows not from this, that versions may not be of use, for determining the true reading, and of authority, for establishing a reading different from that which is now commonly received. WaltoDi Prol. 6. § 8. Prol. 7, Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 3. Ken. Diss. 2. p. 323. Diss. Gen. § 44 — 49, 63, 136. Pfaff. cap, 12. can. 2, 96 USE OF VERSIONS. 328. To allow this authority to versions, is not to prefer a copy to the original ; it is only to collect from them, what was the reading in the MSS. of the original from which they were taken ; and, because these were more ancient and more correct than any which we now have, to prefer that reading to what is found in later and less correct transcripts. 329. But in applying versions to this purpose, several cautions are necessary, for our determining how the translators really read. 330. The versions have undergone alterations and corruptions by transcribers, even more than the origi- nals. Before adopting, therefore, a reading from a version, we must be certain that it is in that place uncorrupted ; and, for this purpose, a correction of the several ancient versions, by a collation of all the known copies of them, would be of great importance. Simon, V. T. 1. 3. c. 1. 331. It is only when it appears that translators understood the orignal, and rendered justly from it, that their version can give authority to a particular reading. 332. From their adding or omitting words, agree- ably to the genius of the language in which they wrote, it cannot be inferred, that they found in their copies words answering to these. Michael. § 29. 333. When they give a sense equivalent to that of the present copies of the original, though not literal, we ought not to presume that they read differently. Michael, ib. Walton, Prol. 6. § 11. USE OF VERSIONS. 97 334. Sometimes, even when they seem to give the sense of a reading different from the present, they yet had the same reading, but affixed to the word another signification ; and, therefore, in order to ascertain the readings followed by them, an accurate knowledge of the original languages, in their full extent, is highly needful. Simon, V. T. 1. 2. c. 5. Psal. xxii. title, nV«, commonly "kind.'* 70. ctvrar,-<^ii "defence, assistance.^ But thej read not differently, for they render 'mV« ver. 19. ^or.hiccv. Simon, ib. c. 7. 335. But there are cases in which it is clear that the authors of the ancient versions had readings in the original different from the present, and what these readings were ; as, when the expression in both is per- fectly definite, or, when the version suits a word very similar to the present ; and, in these cases, both read- ings ought to be fairly compared and examined, and that preferred which is on the whole best supported. Simon, V. T. 1. 1. c. 11. L 2. c. 5. H«ubig. Prol. Walton, ib. §9, 10. Gen. ii. 2. " On the seventh day God ended his work." Heb.. Chald.— "siar^/i," 70. :^am. Syr. Simon, ib. Houbig. ib. & in loc. Cleric, in loc. ^SQ, A reading, certainly expressed in aa ancient version, is of the same authority as if it had been found in a MS. of the age when that version was made ; and consequently, of greater authority than if found in any single MS. now extant ; and that in proportion to the superior antiquity of the version. 18 98 USE OF VERSIONS. 337. Though it would seem that no single version can have sufficient authority to establish a reading in opposition to the copies of the original, and the other versions, yet, in some very particular cases, it may have even this authority ; as, for instance, when there is evidence that the original and the other versions have been corrupted in that place. 338. In like manner, if the present reading of the original be absurd, or yield no sense, a single version may give probability to another reading, especially when from it the present reading might have naturally arisen. 339. The reading of a single ancient version may receive considerable weight, from its being suitable to the sense, the connexion, or parallel places. Num. xxii. 22. *' And God's anger was kindled because he ^vent, and the angel of the Lord stood," &c. Arab, inserts " from greediness," according to 2 I'eter ii. 15. Some Ileb. MSS. Ken. in loc. & Diss. Gen. § 44, 1C5. Prov. xix. 1. *' Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity, than he that is perverse in his lips, and is sifooL^^ No anti- thesis in poor and fool, walketh and lips, no sentiment. Syr. " ways, though he be richy This gives a proper sense. VD-n ''ways,'' in above 30 iMSS. r^y ''rich:' Collect, var. road. (Ken. Diss. 2. p. 286.) Yulg. " dives et insipicns." Confiimed by Prov. xxviii. 6. Houbi^. in loc. Ken. in loc. & Diss 1. p. 509. Diss. 2. p. 287. Diss. Gen. § 179. 340. The concurrence of several independent ancient versions in a reading, renders it highly probable ; as it USE OF VERSIONS. 99 shews the concuiTence of at least as many very ancient MSSv perhaps of different ages and countries. 341. The concurrence of all the ancient versions in a reading is sufficient for establishing it, though it should not be found in any MSS. now extant ; for it shews that it took place in many MSS. so ancient, that a few of them ought to outweigh a great number of such as are vastly more modern. 342. If a reading indicated by any, by several, or by all the ancient versions, is likewise found in some MSS. still extant, this will add to the authority of such reading, proportionably to the number or antiquity of the MSS., provided that neither have these been altered in conformity to the versions, nor the versions in conformity to them. 343. If, in the books of Moses, the reading follow- ed by ancient versions be likewise found in the Sama- ritan Pentateuch, this makes a great addition to the evidence which they would have otherwise had, and generally renders them certain. 344. When all the copies of the original, and all the versions, agree in a reading, it is certainly the true one; and, as that is, in general, the case, we have absolute assurance of the authenticity and purity of the Scriptures in general, greater assurance than with regard to any other book whatever. 100 USE OF VERJSIOiNS. SECT. X. Of the Use of Versions for Interpretation. 345. Versions contribute much to the interpre- tation of Scripture. 346. It is only by means of versions, that they who are ignorant of the original languages can at all learn what the Scripture contains ; and every ver- sion, so far as it is just, conveys the sense of Scripture to those who understand the language in which it is written. 347. Though they who have the means of under- standing the originals, especially the teachers of reli- gion, ought not to satisfy themselves with versions, yet there is scarcely any version which does not express the sense of Scripture, so far as it is abso- lutely necessary to be known by those, who have no other means of learning it. , 348. Versions give great assistance for understand- ing the sense of Scripture, even to those who are acquainted with the originals, wherever the translators were more skilful in these languages, or bestowed greater attention, or had superior advantages of any kind. 349. As some versions are made with greater skill and exactness than others, and some parts of every version, with greater than other parts of it ; the com- USE OF VEKSIONS. 101 paiison of different versions, and the selection of the preferable renderings from them all, would contribute very much to our obtaining the true sense of Scripture. 350. Neither the ancient versions, nor the modern, ought to be preferred absolutely, and in all cases ; for the deviations of later translators from the renderings of the earlier, are sometimes to the better, and some- times to the worse. 351. Though it be certain, that the authors of the ancient versions often followed readings different from those in the present text; yet, in many cases, we ought to conclude, that they only rendered the reading which we still have, in a sense not affixed to it by the moderns ; as, when they frequently give the same rendering of the same word, or, when that word has still, in any of the kindred languages, the same signifi- cation which they assign to it. Houbig Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 352. Significations of words, in this manner pointed cut by the ancient versions, are significations which we may be sure that the words really had ; and we may, without scruple, prefer them to the more modern and common renderings, when the sense or other cir- cumstances give countenance to them. S53. The ancient versions, being the works of men who had several advantages above the moderns for understanding the original languages, and the phraseol- ogy of Scripture ; and those of the Old Testament, in particular, being one of the principal means by which 102 USE OF VERSIONS. the knowledge of the Hebrew was recovered, and, bj more careful attention to which, it might be rendered still more perfect ; there can be no doubt but they gener- ally give us the true sense of Scripture, and that often in places where we could scarcely have discovered it by any other means. Pocock, Porta Mosis, c. 1. Michael, § 46. 351. That a version may exhibit the true sense of Scripture, it must translate it as it really lies, without regard to any consequences which may seem to follow from a genuine translation, or to the prejudices or peculiar tenets of the translator ; but very few versions are perfectly unexceptionable in this respect. 355. A version of the Scriptures might be made, which would exhibit the sense of Scripture more truly and accurately than any now extant, though it would be attended with great difficulties ; and none can, per- haps, be expected absolutely unexceptionable. 356. Such a version should not SQupulously adhere to the text, as commonly received, but follow those readings which appear to be most genuine ; and, for this purpose, it is prerequisite to our obtaining such a version, that the preferable readings should be every where ascertained, by a collation of the copies, not only of the original, but also of the several ancient versions; and it would be proper that, when a reading is found clearly preferable, it should be translated ; but, when the true reading is doubtful, the commonly received one should be rendered in the text ; and that, in both cases, the renderings of all the other readings USE OF VERSIONS. 105 which have any degree of plausibility, should be marked in the margin. Simon, V.T. 1. S. c. 1. 357. In such a version, that meaning of the orig- inal words should be given in every place, which appears to be in that place most proper ; in determin- ing which, tj|p translator should not confine himself to those significations of words which have been adopted by the Rabbins, and from them by modern lexicog- raphers ; but should attend to all the significations which either kindred languages or ancient versions shew to have really belonged to the words ; and, while the text expresses what appears to be the genuine translation of every passage, the different senses of which the word is capable, especially those which it clearly has in other places, should be marked in the margin, if they can be at all applicable in that passage. Simon, ib. c. 2. S58. Such idioms of the original languages as are ambiguous, should be either retained in the version, or rendered in words capable of the same ambiguity ; but, idioms which have a clear and precise import, should not be copied, but expressed in that form of words w hich, in the language into which the version is made, express that import with greatest propriety and exact- ness. 359. A version of the Scripture should be varied, so as to express the spirit and manner of the several parts of it. This will be most effectually done, not by ser- vilely copying the style of the original, but by exhib- 104 USE OF VERSIONS. iting the several sentiments and affections painted by it, in those terms which one possessed by the same sentiments and affections, would naturally use for expressing them, in the language of the version ; and, by preserving the same species of style which, accord- ing to the usage of that language, comes nearest to the style of the original. Lowtli's Isaiah, Prelim. Diss. p. 35, &c. • 360. So many things being prerequisite to a perfect version of the Scriptures, all of which have not been as yet even attempted, it must be long before a perfect version can be expected ; and, indeed, the difficulties are so great, particularly, in every where determining the best reading and the true sense, that, with all the means which we have of surmounting them, a version of the whole Scripture, absolutely perfect, can scarcely, perhaps, be at all expected ; but every approach to it is highly desirable and important. Simon, V. T. 1. S. c. 1—4. KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 105 CHAP. V. The Circumstances relating to the Books of Scripture. 361. There are several circumstances relating to the books of Scripture, knowledge of which is, in some degree or other, useful in criticism ; the species of composition, the author, the time, the occasion of writing, the design of the book, its plan, and the con- nexion of the parts. Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2, § 2. 362. When these circumstances cannot be ascertain- ed, as in some cases they are not easily or certainly de- terminable, it necessarily occasions some measure of obscurity or ambiguity. 3QS, But, in many cases, these several circumstan- ces may be determined with certainty, or with consid- erable probability ; either externally, by testimony ; or, internally, from hints and indications in the books themselves ; and, wherever they can, they throw light, some more, some less, upon the Scriptures. SECT. L Of the Kinds of Composition in Scripture, 364. The Scripture consists of many books, on dif- ferent subjects, belonging to different species of compo- 14 106 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. sition, and written in different manners ; each of which has its peculiar structure and rules ; and these must be attended to, and understood, in order to our entering thoroughly into either its sense or its beauties. 365. In respect of their subjects, the books of Scrip- ture are historical, didactical, devotional or prophetical ; and, in respect of their manner of composition, either prosaical or poetical. ' S66. All the books of the New Testament, and all the historical books of the Old, are written in prose ; the rest of the Old Testament is, in general, poetical. 367. The history of the Bible is, properly, sacred history ; it is the history of the world, considered pre- cisely as God's world, as wholly governed by him ; and is directly calculated for unfolding the designs of his providence. * Butler's Anal. p. 2. 368. The prevailing character of the Scripture his- tory is simplicity. 369. The whole of Scripture history is carried on in a dramatic manner, introducing persons as speaking and conferring; which has great simplicity, and a great effect in expressing sentiments, suited to partic- ular characters, whether good or bad. Kaimes's Sketches, 5, 2. 370. All the didactic books of the New Testament are in prose, and in the epistolary form ; which occa- sions several peculiarities, necessary to be attended to. KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 107 for understanding them ; and they consist, almost wholly, of argumentation and morality. 371. All the didactical and devotional books of the Old Testament, with some hymns and songs, inter- spersed in the other books, are generally acknowledged to be poetical ; though the precise nature and rules of Hebrew metre cannot now be accurately defined. 372. The prophetical parts of the New Testament are certainly in prose ; and it has been the general opinion, that the prophetical books of the Old Testa- ment are likewise in prose ; but, that these are, for the most part, though not the whole of them, really poetical, seems now to be proved with sufficient evi- dence, particularly from the conformity of their struc- ture, to that of the confessedly poetical books, in every essential circumstance. Lowth, Poes. Hebr. praslect. 18, 19. Prel. Diss. p. 2, &c. Herder's Dialogues on Hebrew Poetry. 373. The true pronunciation of the Hebrew lan- guage Slaving been lost for many ages, the precise na- ture of its poetry cannot now be discovered ; but it seems plainly to be characterised by periods of corres- pondent members, one synonymous with,^ amplifying,* or contrasted to, another ; ^ and similar in their length and structure ; all which appears even in a literal ver- sion. Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 11. &c. Herder, ib. ^ Psal. ii. 1. — " Why do the heathen rage. And the people imagine a vain thing ? 3. Let us break their bands asunder, 108 KINDS OF COMPOSITION. And cast away their cords from us, 2 Psal. iii. 3. — But thou, Lord, art a shield for me ; My glory and the lifter up of my head. ^ Prov. X. 1. — A wise son maketh a glad father; But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother." 374 The Hebrew poetry is remarkable for concise- ness ; the sentences are short, no superfluous words. 375. It is, likewise, highly figurative, and abounds w^ith the noblest and most beautiful metaphors and comparisons, derived from a variety of sources ; pro- sopopeias ; bold transitions ; abrupt change of per- sons ; and, in general, all the acknowledged ornaments of discourse. 376. In consequence of both these qualities, it is strong, bold, and nervous. 377. It is a great beauty in the Hebrew poetry, and contributes much to perspicuity, that the same set of images are constantly appropriated to the same sub- jects. Lowth's Isa. ii. 13. m " Mountains," for states. " Cedars, oaks," potentates, princes. " Towers, fortresses," protectors. " Ships," merchants. 378. The Bible exhibits specimens of almost all kinds of poetry ; agreeing in the same general features, but with differences suitable to the peculiar nature of each ; didactic, in the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and many of the Psalms ; elegiac, in Jeremiah's Lamentation, and several lesser pieces ; pastoral, in Solomon's Song ; and lyric, in hymns, as most of the Psalms, and seve- KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 109 ral interspersed both in the historical and prophetical books ; besides Job, the nature of which is disputed. 379. Besides all these, the Bible contains a species of poetry peculiar to itself, the prophetical ; which, though perhaps scarcely distinguishable from the others, in respect of its poetry, is, in respect of its subject, pre- diction, a very peculiar kind of composition ; but, most of its peculiarities being such as occasion difficulties, they belong, most properly, to the second part. 380. The structure of the Hebrew poetry sometimes serves for detecting a mistake in our present copies, and for suggesting or confirming the true reading. Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 37, 40. Psal. xxxviii. 19. " Mine enemies lively (O^TI living) they are strong ; And they that hate me wrongfully are multiplied." Lively is not synonymous with wrongfuUy^-'Suggests QJn, without cause. This confirmed from Psal. Ixix. 4. where this word is put parallel to "ipiy, here used, but where there seems to be another mistake. Literally it runs, " They are multiplied more than the hairs of my head, that hate me without cause; They are increased that would destroy me, ('n'D2fD) mine enemies wrongfully." Not parallel — suggests *nD:fD, " more than my looks." So 7 MSS. Lowth, ib. 381. The structure of the Hebrew poetry may like- wise contribute to the interpretation of Scripture, by indicating in what sense an obscure or ambiguous word ought to be taken in a particular place. Lowth, ib. p. 37 — 39. 110 AUTHORS OF BOOKS. Isa. xxviii. 14. « Wherefore, hear the word of the Lord, ye scoffers. Ye who rule (^Vk^D) this people in Jerusalem." The word signifies not only to rule, but to speak parables or sen- tentious sayings, which is parallel to scoffers. One of their sayings is instanced in ver. 15. " We have made a covenant with death, And with hell are we at agreement.^* So nm must, from the nature of the poetry, signify here, as well as nun v. 18.; but it does so nowhere else. Lowth, ib. Vitringa in loc. Ver. 18. " Your covenant with death shall be broken, And your agreement with hell shall not stand." Either li3D must here signify to break, which it does nowhere else; or, more probably, the true reading is nan. Chald. So Isa. viii. 10. Lowth, ib. Houbig. in loc. SECT. II. Of the Authors of the Books of Scripture. 382. To know who are the authors of the several books of Scripture, is necessary, chiefly for establish- ing their authority and inspiration ; in which light it belongs to another part of our plan ; but it is, in some degree, conducive likewise to our understanding them ; and it is in this view only, that it claims our present notice. 383. We are abundantly certain concerning the au- thors of most of the books of Scripture, though we be ignorant of many particulars about them, which it might be desirable or useful to know. AUTHORS OF BOOKS. Ill 384. Though all the authors of Scripture be inspir- ed, yet, in regard to their manner of writing, they are left to follow each his own genius, turn of thought, and mode of expression ; in all which there is great diver- sity ; and attention to this will contribute to our read- ing their works both with pleasure and with advantage. 385. An author's peculiar character may sometimes contribute to our determining the true reading ; for, among various readings, equally supported, that ought to be preferred, which is agreeable to the author^s style and manner. 386. But knowledge of the author's history, situa- tion, and manner of conceiving and expressing things, contributes much more to our entering into his full meaning, and is often absolutely necessary for this pur- pose. • 387. An author's situation and circumstances will sometimes account for his choice of matter, for his omit- ting some topics, and enlarging upon others. Mark is silent concerning things honourable to Peter, and large on his faults. He was his companion, and wrote from his information. Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 7. § 5, 8. Jones's Method of Canon. P. 3. 388. In the historical books of scripture, there is great uniformity of manner ; thougli, even in these, some minute varieties may be discerned, together with considerable differences of style. 112 AUTHORS OF BOOKS. 389. In the poetical and prophetical books, there is very great variety ; every writer having his own char- acter and manner very strongly marked. Lowth, Sac. Poes. Heb. prselect. 21. Prelim. Diss, to Isaiah, Blair, Rhet. lect. 41. David various, but excels in the tender. Ibid. The writer of Job highly figurative, and characterised by strength of description. Isaiah has all the excellences of composition, but is eminent for sublimity. Ibid. Jeremiah is tender and pathetic. Ibid. Ezekiel is bold, vehement, and ardent, and often enigmatical. Ibid. Hosea is concise and sententious, lively, but obscure. Ibid. and Horsley's Hosea. Amos has no very remarkable characteristic. Ibid. Micah is concise and lively, often elevated and vehement. Ibid. Joel elegant, clear, fluent and figurative. Ibid. Nahum is august, bold, and regular. Ibid. ^ 390. The other parts of Scripture, in which pecu- liarities of manner chiefly appear, are the argumenta- tive parts. The principal of these are the writings of Paul, who was plainly a man eminent for extensive views, warmth of imagination, and quickness of con- ception ; and this turn of mind occasions several pecu- liarities in his manner, which it is absolutely necessary to attend to, in order to our understanding his epistles. Locke's Essay on Epistles. Taylor, Pref. to Romans. Mack- night on Epistles, Ess. 3. Care to guard against exceptions producing long parentheses. Rom. ii. 12. connected with v. 16. the intermediate verses a parenthesis, guarding against exceptions to both his asser- tions in V. 12. Locke, Taylor, Macknight, in loc. TIMES OF WRITING. 113 Carrying on different designs at once. Rom. xiii. 1 — 8. prin- cipally *the duty of subjects,' but along with this, * the grounds and end of civil government.' lid. Prosecuting a design by complicated means. SECT. III. Of the Times of writing the Books of Scripture. 39 L The books of Scripture are the works of dif- ferent, and very distant, ages ; and each of them bears some characters, derived from the age in which it was written. 392. The age, in which almost all the books of Scripture were written, is easily enough determined. 393. Though there be great difficulty in ascertain- ing the precise date of many of the books of Scripture, yet that of several of them may be determined with sufficient evidence ; and whenever it can be determin- ed, it will shew the beauty of some figure, the force of some expression, or the full meaning of some passage. 394. Hence it has often been mentioned, as what would be of considerable use, that the books of Scrip- ture be placed, or, at least, read, in the order in which they were written. 395. Knowledge of the time when a book was written, sometimes shews the reason, and the propriety of things said in it. 15 114 TIMES OF WRITING. 1 Thess. V. 27. " I charge (o^tct^a) you by the Lord, that this Epistle be read unto all the holy brethren." So solemn an adjuration seems unnecessary. But this was the first writ- ten book of the New Testament ; only tlie Old Testament was publicly read before. It is a charge to read this as an inspired book ; a declaration that it is canonical. This was proper, and extends to the after books of the apostles. Lardner's Credibility, Supplem. c. 12. § 2. c. 25. § 2. 396. Inattention to, or ignorance of, the real date of a book, often occasions mistakes concerning the mean- ing of particular passages. Lardner, ib. c. 12. 2 Cor. xi. 25. " Thrice I suffered shipwreck." That mention- ed Acts xxvii. not one of these, for it was posterior to his writing. Lardner, ib. 1 Cor. XV. S2. " I have fought with beasts at Ephesus." It refers not to Demetrius's riot, Acts xix., for that was poste- rior to his writing. Probably he had, before this, been really exposed to fight with wild beasts, intimated by his saying, " after the manner of men," according to a custom of men. Benson, Hist, of Christian, b. S. c. 7. s. 3. Whitby in loc. Lightfoot, vol. 1. p. 298. Macknight in loc. 397. Knowledge of the precise date is peculiarly of importance, with respect to the prophecies and the epistles. 398. This knowledge would often throw^ light on several particulars of a prediction ; and is sometimes absolutely necessary for ascertaining the event designed, and for perceiving the accomplishment, especially when it was near. 399. The true date of a prediction is often sufficient for confuting a false application of it, and must be ex- OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 115 plained away by those who are set on supporting such application. Grotius was determined to apply the prediction of "the man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. to Caligula ; he therefore labours, but in vain, to prove that the Epistle was written A. 38. the 2d of that Emperor. Its true date, about A. 52. the 12th of Claudius, explodes that application. Grot. Prsef. in 2 Thess. Benson's Hist. b. 3. c. 5. s. 10. Macknight, Pref. to 2 Thess. 400. To dispose all the different predictions, relat- ing to the same event, according to the order of time in which they were delivered, would give us a clear and connected view of them, and enable us to perceive the allusions in the posterior to the prior, and the ad- ditional intimations successively conveyed. 401 . The studying of the Epistles in the order in which they were written, would show the progressive state of things in the Christian church ; and would, by this means, throw great light upon them all. SECT. IV. Of the Occasions of the Books of Scripture, 402. Almost all the parts of Scripture were written on particular occasions, to which they have more or less a reference. 403. There are several circumstances which may be reduced under this head of the occasion of a book, which are all of some, though not of equal, importance. 116 OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 404. The place where, and the situation in which, a person writes, is not a matter of mere curiosity, but often throws light on his writing, by showing the pro- priety and beauty of his figures, by illustrating his allu- sions to objects, customs or opinions, by accounting for particulars which he mentions, or for the manner in which he mentions them. Many figures and images in the poetical books are naturally suggested by the scenes amidst which they were written, and thence derive great additional beauty. Judea was parch- ed in summer ; hence, distress, figured by drought ; relief, by showers and springs. It was liable to torrents ; hence allusions to them frequent. Liable to violent storms and earthquakes ; hence many metaphors and comparisons. Lowth, Sac. Poes. Heb. Blair, Rhet. ib. Mark xv. 21. Simon is described as " the father of Alexander and Rufus." Mark wrote his Gospel at Rome, where these were well known, Rom. xvi. 13. 405. Knowledge of the persons for whose immedi- ate use a book was written, of their situations, opin- ions, and customs, is of still greater importance, as it often accounts both for the selection of matter, and for the manner of writing. Matthew wrote in Judea, for the immediate use of the Jews. Hence his being particular on Christ's genealogy ; the mas- sacre at Bethlehem ; the sermon on the mount ; the fulfil- ment of prophecies ; his giving no explications of Jewish customs. Lardner's Credib. Suppl. Michael. § 88. Macknight, Prel. Obs. 6. Mark wrote at Rome for the use of the Christians there, many of whom were Gentiles. Hence his omitting the above par- ticulars, his describing places, c. i. 13. and Jewish customs, c. vii. 2, 3, 4. Michael, ib. OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. 117 406. The particular occasion, or special reason, for writing any book of Scripture, must be collected from history, from intimations in other parts of Scrip- ture, from openings in the book itself; and is, in dif- ferent instances, discoverable with different degrees of ease and certainty. 407. Knowledge of the particular occasion, or the special reason for writing any part of Scripture, is of the very greatest importance for throwing light upon it ; as, to this, it often has a reference throughout. Psal. xxiv. was written for the proces&ion at brin^^ing the ark to Mount Zion. This gives light and beauty to the senti- ments, the order, and the expressions of the whole. Delaunj, Life of David. Lowth, Sac. Poes. Blair, ib. Isa. xxxvii. 22 - 34. contains Isaiah's prediction of Hezekiah's deliverance from Sennacherib The occasion of it is mi- nutely related from the beginning of ch. xxxvi. ; and this renders the whole clear ; but ignoranip of this would have occasioned many obscurities. Lowth in loc. The occasion of 1 Thess. is clear from Acts xvii. 1, &c. and the epistle itself. They were lately converted, imperfectly instructed, and exposed to persecution. The design is to preserve them steadfast ; the conduct is suited to their situ- ation ; the practical directions are adapted to young con- verts, who had been lately Pagans. Benson, Hist, of Christ, and Paraph. Macknight, Pref. to 1 Thess. 408. The occasion of writing any part of Scripture, when known, is of great use for ascertaining the scope and design ; which should be determined in conformity to that occasion. 118 OCCASIONS OF BOOKS. The epistle to the Galatians was occasioned by some believing Jews teaching that Gentile Christians were obliged to ob- serve circumcision, and other Jewish rites ; ch. ii. 3. iv. 10. V. 2, 3. comp. with Acts xv. 1, &c. Hence great strifes and animosities, c. v. 13, 14, 15. Its scope is, to prove the Jew- ish ceremonial not obligatory ; and, by this means, to per- suade them to steadfastness in their immunity from it, and to restore them to peace and harmony. Locke, Synops. Benson, Hist. b. 3. c. 5, s. 11. Michael. § 3. Castalio. Taylor, Key, § 305. Macknight, Pref. to Galat. 409. The occasion throws light on the plan of a book, and the several topics employed in it. Galat. The Judaizers used several arguments in support of their false doctrine. 1. The superior authority of Peter and the other apostles ; 2. Paul's own former opinion and practice ; 3. That all the promises are made to the chil- dren of Abraham, who was circumcised, — Plan, a confuta- tion of these; — the two first jointly in his history of him- self, c. i. ii. — the second again, c. v. 11. — the last, c. iii. iv. The praSical exhortations are suitable to their state of dissension, and to the cause of it. Michael, ib. 410. The occasion of a book illustrates the meaning of general or ambiguous expressions, which, when used in reference to its peculiar subject, should be deter- mined suitably to the occasion. Locke, Grot. Galat. "Gospel, Truth," signify, mx)st frequently, "the whole Christian doctrine." But, when used in reference to the subject of this epistle, have a much more restricted meaning, « the doctrine of the immunity of the Gentile Christians from the Jewish ceremonial," c. i. 6—9. ii. 2, 5, 14. iii. 1. Vp 7. Locke, in loc. SeOPE OF BOOKS. 119 SECT. V. Of the Scope and Design of the Books of Scripture, 411. The scope and design of a book of Scripture is to be collected from its known occasion, and from attention to its general tenor, to the tendency of the sev- eral topics, and to the force of the leading expressions ; for perceiving all which, repeated and connected pe- rusals of the book itself are the best means. Locke, Essay on Epistles. 412. If we knew all the purposes which the inspir- ed writers had in view, in their several books, it would lead us to a very thorough understanding of them ; but this is beyond our reach. 413. Such knowledge of their particular design, in writing, as we can attain, will contribute very much to our understanding them, and that in proportion to its clearness and certainty ; but some knowledge of it is, in many cases, absolutely necessary for our at all en- tering into their meaning. Glass. Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. s. 2. 414. Even in the historical books, where it seems least necessary, such knowledge as we may obtain of the design in writing them, will account for the selec- tion of materials, and for adopting particular modes of expression. 120 SCOPE OP BOOKS. Genesis, not intended for a general history of all nations; but selects such facts as tended to enforce the worship of the true God, to excite the Israelites to the observance of their religious laws, to trace their descent from Abraham, to insinuate instructions by example, to alienate them from the religions of their neighbours. Cleric. Prol. Diss. 3. § 2. Warburton, Div. Leg. b. 6. s. 2. Gospels, not a complete history of the life of Christ ; hence things are omitted in one which are related in another, and some things omitted in them all, John xx. SO. But as many are recorded as are necessary for our faith in his mission, and knowledge of his doctrine. Acts, not intended for a history of the apostles; mentions the preaching almost only of Peter and Paul. Not for a complete history even of these. Peter is dropt after the conversion of Cornelius; Paul at his going to Rome It is intended only for an account of the promulgation of Christianity, 1. among the Jews, 2. to the devout Gentiles, both by Peter; 3. To the idolatrous Gentiles, by Paul. It is carried no farther than this purpose required ^ Benson, Hist, of Christ. 415. Some of the poetical books are one whole, having a general scope and design ; which, when it can be discovered, throws great light upon them. 416. Other poetical books are a collection of seve- ral distinct and independent pieces, having some anal- ogy in their subjects and designs, though not strict enough to unite them into one determinate scope ; but each of them has its own particular scope, atten- tion to which will contribute both to our perceiving their beauties, and to our entering into their meaning. SCOPE OF BOOKS. 121 Psalnis, a collection of hymns, unconnected, not arranged in any order, according to their authors, times, or subjects. But each hymn has generally one subject, and one scope. 417. Some of the prophetical books have one simple subject and scope, which is easily discoverable. Jonah, a simple history of his mission to prophesy against Nineveh ; of his misbehaviour in relation to it ; and of his being reproved on that account, Nahum, one entire, regular poem, foretelling the destruction of Nineveh. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. preel. 21. Habakkuk. The prophetical part is a prediction of the captivity of Judah, of their returjj from it, and of the de- struction of the Chaldeans. Obadiah. One prediction of the destruction of the Edo- mites by Judah, in return for their violence against it. 418. But most of the prophetical books are collec- tions of many separate predictions, at different times, and on different subjects, interspersed w^ith narrations, reproofs, exhortations, and devotions ; it cannot, there- fore, be supposed, that the whole should terminate in any one common design ; and the immediate scope of each prediction is not generally different from its mean- ing, or the events foretold ; but special views in fore- telling them, or reasons for it, may sometimes be dis- covered, and considered as the ultimate scope of the prediction. 419. It is peculiarly of importance to attend to the general scope and design in the argumentative parts of Scripture ; which are, chiefly, the epistles, particularly those of Paul. Locke's Essay on Epistles. 10 122 SCOPE OF BOOKS. 420. There is one general difference observable be- tween the scope of the epistles and that of the gospels ; that the latter represent the principles of Christianity absolutely, or as they are in themselves ; the former re- latively, as respecting the state of the vs^orld at that par- ticular time. Taylor's Pref. to Rom. § 28. 421. In the epistles, it is proper to suppose one gen- eral scope and design, till it be found necessary, from the strain of it, to admit a plurality of independent views ; and, in many of them, there really is one main design, suitable to the occasions of them, to which all their parts are subordinate. Locke, ib. 1 Thess. To persuade to stedfastness in the faith and prac- tice of Christianity, which they had but lately embraced. Galat. To prove the immunity of Gentile Christians from the Jewish ceremonial. 422. The design of an epistle is the great key to the whole of it. Till it is discovered, all must appear involved in obscurity and confusion. When it is fully ascertained, all becomes regular, distinct, and clear. Locke, ib. 423. A just conception of the scope of an epistle, contributes greatly to our discovering the plan and distribution of the whole, the tendency of the several members, and the manner in which the arguments are conducted ; and shows them all uniting in one point. Locke, ib. 424. Knowledge of the general scope of an epistle, is. often the best or the only means of fixing the sense PLAN OF BOOKS. 123 of particular expressions used in it ; not only of the leading expressions which run through it, but even of the more incidental ones, which are sometimes selected with a plain view to promote it. Locke, ib' SECT. VI. Of the Pla7i and Distribution of the Books of Scripture, 425. Every book, even that which has the greatest simplicity of design, has distinct parts ; the number, tendency, order, and arrangement of which, form it# plan and distribution. 426. The books of Scripture being of very different kinds, the plans of them must be very dissimilar ; and, even books of the same kind differ considerably, in the plans on which they are constructed. 427. In the most of the historical books, there is no other plan pursued, but a narration of certain events, suiting the intention of the book, and belonging to the period which it takes in ; generally, in the order nearly of time ; and the distribution of them is sufficiently ap- prehended, when the different events are distinguished. Genesis. A history — of the creation — the antediluvian world — the deluge — the repeopling of the earth from Noah — the dispersion of mankind — the calling of Abraham — the patriarchs, till the death of Joseph. Exodus. A history — of the state of the Israelites after Jo- seph's death — the birth and youth of Moses — their deliv- 124 PLAN OF BOOKS. erance from Egypt — their first year's journey in the wil- derness—with a particular account of the laws promul- gated during that period. Leviticus. Almost wholly an account of particular laws giv- en by God — and a few remarkable. events connected with them. Numbers. A history of the remarkable events from the beginning of the second to the end of the thirty-ninth year of their journey — witii an account of several laws given them. 428. Some of the historical books observe a more artificial distribution ; arranging the facts recorded un- der distinct heads. Deuteronomy contains seven parts ; the four first digested into as many speeches of Moses, delivered at the times, and on the occasions there related. 1. A summary of their history in the wilderness, to ch. iv. 40. 2. A sum- mary of the laws given them, to end of ch. xxvi. 3. Direc- tions what to do after passing Jordan, ch.xxvii.xxviii. 4. An exhortation to obedience, ch. xxix. xxx. 5. An account of events posterior to his making these speeches, particu- larly his song, ch. xxxi. xxxii. 6. His benediction of the people, ch. xxxiii. 7. An account of his death, ch. xxxiv. Ken. Diss. £. c. 1. p. 91. 429. Such of the poetical books as have one design, have likewise a plan suited to it ; in which there is generally great regularity and beauty, and which throws light both on the several parts, and on many particular expressions. 430. Such poetical books as contain a collection of separate and independent compositions, which have no common design, arrange not these on any regular plan. PLAN OF BOOKS. 125 The psalms are placed, neither according to their authors, dates, nor subjects ; but, as they happened to come to the hand of the collector. 431. But each separate composition, when of any length, has its own plan and disposition ; and in this, there is considerable variety. 432. Some of the scriptural poems are disposed in an alphabetical order, consisting of twenty -two lines, stanzas, or periods, according to the number of the Hebrew letters ; each line or period coinciding in its pause with that of the sense. Psal. cxi. cxii. divided intp 22 lines, beginning with the let- ters in their order, and making 10 stanzas. Lam. iii. into 22 stanzas or periods, each of three lines; both the stanzas and the lines beginning with the letters in their order. Psal. XXV. xxxiv. cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10 — 31. Lam. iv. into 22 stanzas, each of two lines, but only the stanzas begin- ning with the letters in their order. Psal. cxix. into 22 periods, each consisting of eight stanzas, beginning with the same letter as the period, and each stanza of two lines, but the second line not so beginning:. Lam. i. ii. into 22 stanzas, of three lines each, the stanzas only alphabetical. Psal. xxxvii. into 22 stanzas, of four lines each, the stanzas only alphabetical. Lowth, Prelim. Diss. p. 4, 5, 6. 433. In poems thus disposed, a very strict connex- ion cannot be expected, though, in most of them, it is far from being neglected ; but the main intention has been to assist the memory in retaining the detached aphorisms, of which such poems consist. Lowth, ib. p. 5. 126 PLAN OF BOOKS. 434. This disposition sometimes points out false readings, which have crept into the text; for, when it is clear, from the whole structure of a poem, that such disposition was intended, it is reasonable to as- cribe to the mistakes of transcribers, the irregularities which now occur; and it sometimes, likewise, sug- gests the true reading, or gives confirmation to it when otherwise suggested. In Psal. XXV. there is no stanza beginning with 1, the sixth letter ; but v. 5. has three lines, irregular ; the last begin- ning with ^niK, probably for "jn^^i, which is regular in three MSS. ; the second line wanting, but transposed, to v. 7. which has three lines; the last tautological there, but proper for v. 6. which will stand thus, " And on thee do I wait all the day. For thy goodness sake, O Jehovah." Ver. 18. should begin with p, but begins with nxn, the same word as v. 19. whence it has probably been taken by trans- cribers. Yer. 22. probably an addition ; the alphabet complete *vith- out it; it begins, as well as v. 16. with 5, and is not con- nected with the subject of the Psalm. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 84, 14, 165. Psal. xxxiv. V. 6. beginning with 1, is wanting, v. 22. begins, as v. 16. with 3, and is superfluous ; perhaps it had 1 pre- fixed, and was transposed from v. 6. Ken. ib. Psal. cxlv. v. 14. beginning with i is wanting. But 70. Syr. Vulg. Arab, have a distich proper here, "Jehovah is faithful in all his words, and holy in all his works." One Hebrev/ MS. has, at the foot of the page, a distich answer- ing to this version, and beginning with |DN3, doubtless genuine. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 48, 80, 82, 84, 14. cod. 142. Lam. ii. v. 16. and 17. are transposed, 3 being put before y, but right in four MSS. Syr. Ch. iii. v. 46, 47, 48, begin- PLAN OF BOOKS. 127 ning with 3, are put before v. 49, 50, 51, beginning with jr but right in 2 MSS. Syr. Ch. iv. v. 16, 17, transposed in like manner ; right in live MSS. Syr. Ken. in loc. Diss. Gen. § 23, 165, p. 83. n. 435. The alphabetical poems, by shewing the pre- cise extent of each line and stanza, give great light for discovering the form and structure of the poetry in them, and, by this means, supply general principles concerning that form in such poems as are not alpha- betical ; that it is regulated by some fixed measure, or cadence ; that it consists not of rhyme ; that there is some parallelism in the corresponding lines ; and that they are reducible to two species, distinguished by their length. Lowth, Prel. Diss. p. 4 — 34. Herder's Dialog, on Hebrew Poetry. 436. Some of the Scriptural poems are regularly disposed into parts, either by the introduction of differ- ent persons,^ or, by an alternate rehearsal of them,^ or, by the repetition of a chorus or burden at the end of each member,^ all productive of beauty. ^ Psal. ii. The speakers are, 1. the Psalmist, v. 1 — 5. 2. Je- hovah, V. 6. 3. Messiah, v, 7, 8, 9. 4. Psalmist, v. 10, 11, 12. dramatic. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 165. 2 Psal xxiv. (N<> 407.) Psal. XX. sung alternately ; the first five verses by the peo- ple ; v. 6. by David ; v. 7, 8, 9. by the people- Pearce, Serm. on v. 7. 3 Psal. xlii. xliii. consists of three parts, with a chorus subjoined to each. Psal. Ixxx. consists of three unequal parts, each concluding with the same chorus, v. 3, 7, 19. "Turn us again, (*0 God,' V. 3. *0 God of hosts,' v. 7. '0 Jehovah, God 128 PLAN OF BOOKS. of hosts,' V. 19. either tlesignedlj, or by mistake of trans- cribers), cause thy face to shine, and we shall be saved." Psal. cvii. consists of five parts ; all, except the last, con- cluding with this chorus, " O that men would praise the Lord," &c. with different reasons, suitable to the sense of the preceding part. 437. Most of the Scriptural poems are disposed simply according to the different subjects,^ or the parts of the one subject,^ of which they treat ; sometimes clearly distinguished from one another ; oftener sliding easily into one another, or naturally interwoven, so as not to admit an accurate analysis; but always with great poetical beauty. 1 Psal. xix. celebrates, 1. the works of God, v. 1 — 6. 2. His law, V. 7 — 1 1. the distinction being precisely marked ; and concludes with devotions naturally suggested by the latter. ^ Psal. xxii. describes the Messiah, 1. as suffering, v. 1 — 21. 2. as triumphant, v. 22 — 31. sufficiently distinguished, but with an easy transition. Ken. Diss. Gen. § 165. 438. Of such prophetical books as contain many predictions, the natural distribution is into these seve- ral predictions. Where the distinction of them, and the termination of each, is not clearly marked, it occa- sions difficulties, which will be considered afterwards ; where it is precisely marked, as it often is, it throws great light on the prediction. Amos. There is a clear distinction of his several predictions concerning — Syria, i. 3 — 5. ; the Philistines, v. 6 — 8. ; Tyre V. 9, 10. ; Edom, v. 11,12.; Ammon, v. 13 — 15.; Moab, ii. 1 — 3. ; and Judah. v. 4, 5. In the rest of the book, which relates whoUv to Israel, there is not so clear a distinction. PLAN OF BOOKS. 129 Isaiah. The predictions in the first 39 chapters are clearly distinguished, and hence derive light. Those in the following chapters want this advantage. But he is remarkable for a just distribution of the parts, and a natural order in treating them. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. prsel. 21. Joel. The distribution and order are plain. 1. The desolation of the country by locusts, to ch. ii. 27. 2. The effusion of the Holy Spirit, v. 28 — 32. 3. Judgments against different nations. Lowth, ib. Chandler. Pref. to Joel. Dupin. Jeremiah. Three parts. 1 . Various predictions, distinctly mark- ed, to the end of ch. xxxv. 2. Mostly historical, to end of ch. xlv. 3. Many predictions, likewise distinctly marked, to end of ch. li. The last chapter is not his. Lowth, ib. Daniel. Two parts. 1. Historical, first 6 chapters. 2, His predictions, in distinct visions, to end. Dupin. Ezekiel. Twenty -two predictions, in the order in which they were delivered, obviously distinct, and each prosecuted with closeness. Lowth, ib. Dupin. 439. Such prophetical books as have one simple subject, and such separate predictions as are in any degree complex, describe the events belonging to that subject ; sometimes according to the order of their suc- cession, which contributes to perspicuity ; and some- times according to some connexion in their nature ; but often in union with a poetical arrangement, proper, beautiful, and striking. Nahum. 1. The exordium, august and magnificent. 2. The preparation for the destruction of Nineveh. 3. The destruc- 17 130 PLAN OF BOOKS. tion itself; both described with the greatest sublimity and force. Lowth, ib. Christ's prediction against Jerusalem, describes the several events in the order of time ; therefore clear, and easily as- certained. 440. The argumentative parts of Scripture are most of the epistles, particularly Paul's ,* and, in the most general view, the plan of all of them is obvious, and very uniform ; each of them, besides an introduction and a conclusion, consisting of two parts, the doctrinal and the practical. 441. The former is the main part ; it is it that is properly argumentative ; and it is in it that an investi- gation of the plan and distribution is both most neces- sary and most difficult. 442. When an epistle has two or more independent designs, these form its plan ; which is investigated, by ascertaining what these distinct subjects are, where one of them is concluded, and another begun, and what parts of the book relate to each of them. Locke, ib. 1 Corinthians. Introduction, ch. i. 1 — 9. Conclusion, ch. xvi. Body of the epistle has two subjects, 1. to reclaim them from a false teacher, who had led them into several faults, to end of ch. vi. 2. To answer their questions, and correct abuses and errors among them, ch. vii — xv. 443. When an epistle has one principal design, the natural distribution of it is, into the several steps or arguments employed for promoting it ; which, being subordinate to it, ought all to be considered in the CONNEXION OF THE PARTS. 131 relation which they bear to it, and explained in that sense which suits it ; a principle which is applicable, likewise, to each part of such epistles as have more than one design. Locke, ib. 444. A discovery of the real plan and distribution of an epistle, or argumentative piece, will throw great light on the force, the import, and the conduct of the several arguments, and on the meaning of many par- ticular expressions. 445. But, care must be taken not to affect too great nicety and precision in distinguishing and separating the several members of an epistle ; for, as the apostles did not study an artificial method, this would break the connexion of their discourse, misrepresent their argu- ments, and pervert the meaning of their words. SECT. VII. Of the Connexion of the Parts in the Books oj Scripture. 44*6 Every member, in the general plan of a book, consists of parts, which have a certain connexion with one another ; and often, each of these subordinate parts consists of different sentences, or propositions, which have, likewise, a connexion ; and, the discovery of such connexion is of great importance, for ascertain- ing both the true reading, and the sense. 132 CONNEXION OF TBE PAlflTS. 447. Among various readings found in copies, that which suits the connexion should be preferred to such as do not suit it, though these be, in other respects, better supported. Mark i. 2. Ev }i^iii, most MSS. Arm. Goth. But uS'eXcpni, in Camb. MS. Vulg. Copt. Yet preferable, otherwise synonymous with v. 46. Mill and Kuster. in loc. Mark xi. 10 'H epx^f^^^i) l^ecTiXetoc EN ONOMATI KYPIOY, ra %-ecTpeg, &c. Alex. and many other MSS. but perplex the sense — wanting in 7 MSS. Vulg. Syr. Arm. Copt. Arab. Pers. and in the quotation of Orig. right; the clause has been taken in from v. 9. Mill in loc. and proleg. No. 1246. 448. The sense and connexion are, sometimes, alone sufficient to shew that there is a corruption, and like- wise to suggest the proper correction of it. Houbig. Prol. c. 3. a. 4. 2 Sam. xxiii. 13. " Thirty of the thirty went to David." So all editions, except Complut. palpably wrong. Three, v. 16, 17. CD-iyW for mj?*?!?, Compl. Keri. above 20 MSS. all Vers. 1 Chron. xi. 15. Ken. in loc. and Diss. 1. p. 145. 449. But one reading ought not to be preferred to another far better supported, much less to be adopted without any positive authority, except the sense and connexion render it absolutely necessary, as the only CONNEXION OF THE PARTS. 133 means of removing, not merely a difficulty, but an ab- surdity or falsehood. Houbig. ib. Michael. § 18. 450. Nay, a reading may sometimes deserve to be preferred, on account of its leaving the connexion some- w^hat obscure, or not immediately obvious ; for it may have been, for that very reason, changed by trans- cribers. Michael, ib. 461. The more independent copies there are of any book, the less liberty is allowable in making correc- tions, merely because the sense and connexion seem to require them ; for the less probability there is that an error should have crept into all the copies. Michael. § 31. 452. Emendations suggested by the sense and con- nexion, but not supported by any MS. or version, ought not to be inserted into the text ; but only marked in the margin, or in notes. Houbig. ib. 453. The connexion is of so great importance for the interpretation of scripture, that its true sense can be apprehended only by explaining every sentence and expression according to the place in which it stands, and the relation which it bears to what precedes, and what follows. 454. General ferms being often used only in a part of their extension, it is the connexion that shews to what part of it they ought to be limited. 134 CONNEXION or THE PARTS. Heb. xi. 6. " Without faith it is impossible to please God." Not saving or Christian faith. The expression is limited by the next words ; " that he is, and that he is a re warder of them that diligently seek him." 455. In like manner, ambiguous expressions must be restricted, among their several significations, to that one which suits the connexion. Mat. xxiii. 23. "Judgment, mercy, and/aif/i;" not "belief of any kind," but " fidelity." Rom. xiv. 23. Whatsoever is not of faith, is sin" — not "justify- ing faith" — not "a warrant from Scripture;" but "a full persuasion of its lawfulness." This is the natural meaning of x/c-T/5 ; and, though not frequent in Scripture, is the only sense of it through this chapter, and alone can suit the ar- gument. Taylor. Locke. Macknight. Critic, in loc. Sander- son's Serm. Rom. i. 28. Ahycty^o^, " unsearching," referring to ehx,ifA.e6Tctv just before, "try or search." So Tit, i. 16. But 2 Cor. xiii. 5, 6, 7. " destitute of proof," referring to ^oKif*.}} " a proof," V. 3. And 1 Cor. ix. 27. 2 Tim. iii. 8. Heb. vi. 8. "disap- proved, rejected." Locke and Macknight in loc. Pearce on 1 Cor. 456. Every term should be considered as it stands in the proposition of which it makes a part, and ex- plained, not by itself, but so as to bring out the real sense of that whole proposition. Mat. vii. 24. " Whosoever heareth these sayings, and doth them, (subject) I will liken him to a wise man which built his house upon a rock," (predicate.) The sense is plain, "he who practises as well as hears, builds J)is hope of salvation on a sure foundation." But an Antinomian wrests it thus : « The subject of the comparison is, * whosoever cometh to Christ by faith being given him of the Father' (supposed CONNEXION OF THE PARTS. 135 without ground :) Such an one hears his words, not only externally; but internally ; and he doth them, exercises faith on Christ, his grace and righteousness held forth in them, and performs all duties without any view to obtain eternal life thereby, which he expects only from Christ, as his say- ings direct him. Every such believer builds the salvation of his soul, he digs deep, till he come to a good foundation, a rock, Christ, the rock of ages, and he lays the whole stress of his salvation c^ him." Gill in loc. — Here, plain expressions are explained by metaphorical ; a meaning is put on a word inconsistent with its place in the sentence ; the sentence de- stroyed; being all turned into a predicate for a subject gra- tuitously supposed ; the real meaning explained away, turned into an insignificant assertion, "* that he who expects salva- tion only from Christ, lays the whole stress of his salvation upon him,' or, *he who believes on Christ, believes on Christ.' 457. In a piece of reasoning, every proposition must be considered in its connexion with the whole argument ; if it be a principle, or medium of proof, in relation to the point intended to be proved ; if an inference, in relation to the premises whence it is de- duced ; if only an illustration, in reference to the pur- pose for which it is brought. 458. In an argument, the context sometimes sug- gest a step which has been left to be understood, in pursuing it. 459. In a narration, the connexion and series will sometimes suggest circumstances necessary for com- pleting it, which have been omitted in their place. Cleric. Ars Critic, p. 3. s. 3. c. 5. and Dissert in Harm. Evang. 2. can. 4, 5, 6. 136 COMPARISON OF SCRIPTURE. CHAP. VI. Comparison of Scripture with itself, • 460. Comparison of Scripture with itself, or ex- plaining and illustrating one passage by another, is an important source of criticism, the legitimacy and force of which depend on this principle. That the whole of Scripture was intended to be, and as inspired, must really be, consistent. 461. Comparison of Scripture with itself is — either Particular, of one passage with another passage — or General, of a passage with the analogy of faith. Glass, Philol. 1. 2. p 2. s. 2. 462. The particular comparison of Scripture with itself, is of very great utility ; and it is, either of paral- lel passages, or of passages not parallel. SECT. I. Comparison of Parallel Passages. 463. Passages may be parallel to one another in several different ways ; suitably to which, their uses in criticism will be likewise different. PARALLEL PASSAGES. 137 464. First, passages are, in the strictest sense, pa- rallel, in which, either with or without a quotation, the same thing is said in the same, or nearly the same, words ; and if, in these, the agreement be perfect, they shew the integrity, but cannot contribute much to the illustration of each other ; but there is seldom or ever such perfect agreement; and, therefore, passages of this kind generally throw some light on one an- other. Glass, Philol. Sacr. ib. Exod. XX. 2 — ]7. parallel to Deut. v. 6 — 18. Psal. xviii. to 2 Sam xxii. Psal. xiv. to Psal. liii. Psal xcvi. to 1 Chron. xvi. 23, &c. Psal- cv. 1—15. to 1 Chron. xvi. 8—22. Psal. cviii. 1—5. to Psal. Ivii. 7—11. v. 6—13. to Psal. Ix. 5—12. i Psal. cxv. 4 — 11. to Psal. cxxxv. 15 — 20. Psal. Ixxix. 6. to Jer. x. 25. Isa. ii. 2 — 4. to Mic. iv. 1 — 3. Psal. xxxi. 1—3. to Psal. Ixxi. 1 — 3. 465. One such passage often serves for correcting a false reading in another. Ken. Diss. 1. passim. Diss. 2. passim. Diss. Gen. § 100, 133, 140, 165. In Psal. xviii. and 2 Sam. xxii. as printed, there are near 130 variations. These are not original, for many of them are plain corruptions, and many are removed by the authority of MSS. All may be corrected by comparing the passages ; e. g. Sam. v. 11. i«*^'l " »ind he was seen upon the wings of the wind"— flat, wrong. Psal. i^T), « He did /y"— right, context 11 MSS. of Sam. v. 12. Sam. « He made dark- ness pavilions round about him" — defective in metre. Psal. « darkness his secret place, (nno) his pavilion dark waters," &c. 2 MSS. of Sam. v. 13. Sam. "Through the brightness that was before him" defective in 18 138 PARALLEL PASSAGES. metre. Psal. supplies *-his thick clouds passed." right. It follows, 'Sn:i 1^2 ** hailstones and coals of fire," abrupt. Sam. ^hm n;?3 "thej were kindled into coals of fire," right. V. 14. Psal. irregular, 3 hemistichs ; the last, "hail- stones and coals of fire," improper; wanting in 4 MSS. 70. Ital. and in Sam. they have been taken from the pre- ceding verse. Ken. Diss. 1. p. 464. &c. Diss 2. p. 564, &c. et in loc. Diss. Gen. § 113, 118, 140, 179. Psal. cv. 1 — 15. differs from 1 Chron. xvi. 8—22 in so very few places, that these differences seem to have arisen from corruptions. Psal. v. 5. VD, " his mouth," irregular, in'3 in above 30 MSS. Chron. v. 12, and in all copies. Psal v. 6. « Ye seed of Mraham ,-" but, in 10 MSS. " Israel." Chron. V. 13. " Israel," but, in 2 MSS "Abraham." Psal. v. 8 iDT. " He hath remembered," right, connexion. Chron v. 15. nDi, " Remember ye." So 3 MSS. of Psal. Psal. v 12, anvnD, "when they were." connexion. Chron. v. 19. CDDnvnD, " when ije were." So 25 MSS. of Psal. Ken. in loc. 466. If, in such parallel passages, the sense be manifestly contradictory, we are sure that one of them has been corrupted ; and should endeavour to discover which it is, and to correct it, either from the parallel place, or by any other means in our power. 467. But when, in two such passages, the sense is the same, though the words be different, we must be very cautious in supposing a false reading in either ; for in many cases, it is evident, that the sacred writers meant not to confine themselves to the same words, but only to express the same sense ; and, by not observ- ing this rule, transcribers and critics have been led into many mistakes. PARALLEL PASSAGES. 139 Cleric. Harm. Evang. Diss. 2. c. 2. Mackiiight, Obs. 1. Mi- chael. § 15. Psal. cxv. 4 — 1 1. Psal. cxxxv. 15 — 20. Ken. in loc. Isa. ii. 2 — 4. Mic. iv. 1 — f). There is no presumption that the very same words were intended to be used. Isa. n^ri'' pjj, Mic. ])D} r]"r\' ; Isa. O'D^, Mic. O'U ; Isa. J^jj'ji, Mic. Kin m:) ; Isa. OMjn ^j, Mic. O'Dy (3 MSS. ^d) ; Isa. a^:n O'DjrS, " m^nj peoples,*' Mic. pim n^ a^Di'r CD'uS " strong nations from afar." There is no reason to correct either, though some have proposed it. Lowth's Isa. in loc. Matth. xxvi. 26, 27, 28. Mark xiv. 22, 23, 24. Luke xxii. 19, 20. 1 Cor. xi. 23, 24, 25. The words of the institution are different, but not to be assimilated ; they are intended only to express the sense. Macknight, ib. 468. When, among various readings, one agrees exactly with a parallel place, the other only in sense, the former is often, for that very reason, suspicious, and, except it be well supported by authority^ the latter will, generally, deserve the preference. Michael, ib. 469. Even when passages are most exactly similar in themselves, the occasions, or the application of them, may contribute to our understanding their full meaning. The promises of Abraham, Gen. xii. 3. ; to Isaac, ch. xxi. 12. xxvi. 4. ; and to Jacob, ch. xxviii. 14. though in the same words, successively limit the expectation of the Messiah. Gerard, vol. 1. Serm. 6. Isa. vi. 9, 10. is referred to, six times in the New Testament; Mat xiii. 14. Mark iv. 12. Luke viii. 10. John xii. 40» Acts xxviii. 27. Rom. xi. 8. ; a comparison of all which places will give light to it. 140 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 470. Even when passages are very much parallel^ a clear and precise expression, in one of them, may illustrate one more obscure and ambiguous, in another. 471. Secondly, those passages of Scripture are parallel, which relate thu same facts. They are nu- merous : and the comparison of them with one another is productive of great advantage. Many parts of Gen. are parallel to 1 Chron. — Many parts of Exod. Lev. Num. to Deut. — Sam. King, to Chron — 2 Kings xviii. 13, &c. and 2 Chron, xxxii. &c. to Isa. xxxvi. &c. — ^the Gospels. 472. Such passages often serve for correcting false reiadings in each other, and may be legitimately ap- plied to this purpose ; particularly in proper names, and numbers ; when the sense of them, as they stand, ^s irreconcileable ; when the false reading might have arisen from the true, by a natural mistake ; or, when it is contradicted by copies or versions. Josh. xxi. 1 3—37. I Chron. vi. 42—66. The 48 cities of the Levites ; but only 44 in Josh, according to the Masoretic Hebrew, and only 42 in Chron. There are also surprising differences in their names. Ken. in loc. Deut. ii. 26. "with words of peace," wanting in Num. xxi. 21. but found in the Samaritan. Deut. v. 28. *' thou shalt sell me meat for money, that I may eat; and give me water for money, that I may drink ; only I will pass through on my feet. Wanting in Num. but in the Samar. 473. But, wherever none of these circumstances take place, it is probable that the different readings found in such passages, were originally intended, and neither of them ought to be corrected by the other. PARALLEL PASSAGES. 141 474. Plain and direct expressions, in one narration, explain such as are difl5.cult, in another narration of the same fact. Mark xiv. 72. (No. 162.) 475. In different relations of the same fact, circum- stances, omitted in one of them, but fit for throwing light upon it, may be often supplied from the other. Mat. ii. 1, &c. simply relates that Jesus was born at Bethlehem, and refers to Micah's prediction of it. But Luke ii. 1 — 4 informs us of the reason of it, which accounts for it, and renders the accomplishment the more remarkable. 476. Thirdly, passages are parallel, in which the same words or idioms are used in different connexions, or on different subjects ; and the comparison of such passages is of very great utility, for ascertaining the meaning of these words or idioms. Glass, ib. 477. If any one sense of a word be proper, and suitable, in all the places where it occurs, that is most likely to be the true sense of it. Pearce on 1 Cor ix. 27. 'iCytxtvuTcc S'iSuTx,ec>nx " sound doctrine ;" the simple doctrine of revelation, as opposed to subtleties, and as practical ; 1 Tim. i. 10 vi. 3. 2 Tim. i. 13. iv. 3. Tit. i. 9. ii. 1, 2, 8. Gerard, vol. 2. serm. 5. AtxanafjLot, translated very variously ; Luke i. 6. Heb. ix. 1, 10. "ordinance." Rom. i. 32. Rev. xv. 4. "judgment." Rom. ii. 26. V. 18. viii. 4. Rev. xix. 8. " righteousness." Rom. v. 16. ''justification." It every where signifies, " A rule jus- tifying or rendering perfect." Locke on Rom. ii. 26. Taylor on ch. v. 1 6. 142 PARALLEL PASSAGES* 478. The signification of words and phrases ought to be taken from those places, in which it is ascertain- ed by the connexion, or the nature of the subject; and accordingly interpreted in places where there is noth- fng that can thus ascertain it. Gen. iv. 15. " The Lord set (mx) a mark upon Cain." This has given rise to strange conceits ; but the word often signi- fies " a pledge or token," Gen. ix. 12, 17. particularly "a miracle," and this is its most common signification; " a mira- cle, to assure Cain that he should not be killed." Essay for a new translation, p. 1. ch. 6. § 4. Gen. vi. 2. " Sons of Got?," of the great men / ** daughters of ?jie?i," meaner persons, (Psal. xlix. 2. Ixii. 9. Ixxxii. 6, 7, &c.) inp', "took them by force," (v. 11, 13.) Gen, xx. 2, 3. xxxiv. 2, &c. Essay, &c. ib. ch. 8. § 6. Eccles. xi. 1. "Cast thy hread?^ (l^nS) or " corn,'* (Ruth i. 6. Isa. xxviii. 28.) " upon the waters," (O'DH) or " moist ground," (Isa. xv. 6. xxx. 23. xxxii. 20. Jer. xlviii. 34.) "and after many days thou shalt find it." connexion, v. 4, 6. beautiful, and a strong argument. Essay, &c. ib. ch. 10. § 5. Rom. vii. 5. " When we were ev tjj a-eipKi, in the flesh." The expression is ambiguous. " understood the law in a mere lit- eral sense," (Locke) wrong. It occurs only in ch, viii. 8. " vicious," connexion, v. 5,6, 7, 13. it has the same sense here, (Taylor.) " The motions of sin which were Six m vof^a, by the law ;" Engl, many Comment i. e. " excited by it." wrong. " in the state of being under the law." So «J/ uKpo^v- o-Ttuq, ch. iv. 11. also 2 Cor. v. 10. 1 Tim. ii. 15. Eph. iii. 6. Locke in loc. 479. The clear meaning of a phrase, in any part of Scripture, has great authority for determining its sense in any other part ; but the usage of it, in the writings of one author, has the greatest authority for PARALLEL PASSAGES. 143 fixing its sense, as elsewhere used by the same author ; for, in one writer, a greater similarity of style may be expected, than in different writers. 480. When a word is used somtimes in a literal, and sometimes in a metaphorical sense, it must not be supposed that it implies, in the latter case, all that it implies in the former case ; similitude, in some one res- pect, being sufficient for the propriety of a metaphor. 481. It is particularly absurd, and of pernicious consequence, to deduce articles of faith from meta- phorical expressions, supposed to be meant in all the strictness of their literal sense. 482. The metaphorical sense of a word should be explained by the literal, and the more remote meta- phorical sense by the less remote ; and not contra- riwise. 483. Care must be taken not to bring passages to- gether, merely by the sound ; or, to suppose that texts relate to the same subject, or contain the same sentiment, merely because the same expressions are used in them. Locke, Pref. Essay for a new Transl. p. 1. c. 6. § 16, 17, 18. 484. Fourthly, those passages are parallel, which treat of the same subject in different expressions ; and the comparison of such is of great use for illustrating one another, and making that subject more perfectly understood. Locke, Pref. Glass, ib. 144 PARALLEL PASSAGES. 485. In comparing such passages, obscure expres- sions should be explained by such as are perspicuous; and ambiguous expressions, by such as are precise. 486. Passages are, in this manner, parallel, which express the same doctine, or precept, in different terms ; and difficult, or figurative expressions, in one such passage, are to be interpreted by such as are easy, or proper, in another. Gal. vi. 15. "Anew creature'* figurative — explained by ch. V. 6. " Faith which worketh by love ;'' and by 1 Cor. vii. 19. « The keeping of the commandments of God." proper, all synonymous. 487. It is not from one such passage, taken singly, that a doctrine or precept ought to be collected, as has been too often the practice ; but from them all, taken in conjunction, consistently explained, with such limitations of the expressions in each, as the rest shew to be necessary. 488. Predictions of the same events, given at dif- ferent times or by different prophets, along with a degree of similarity sufiicient for indicating the iden- tity of their subject, generally have such variety in the expression, as enables one to illustrate another ; and one of them often intimates some circumstances omitted in another. 489. A passage which contains a prediction, and passages which relate its accomplishment, are parallel ; and the latter not only verify the former, but, gener- ally illustrate the meaning of the expressions employ- ed in it. PASSAGES NOT PARALLEL. 146 Oen. xlix. 7. " I will divide them (Simeon and Levi) in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel ;" not that they were to be con- founded with the other tribes ; but Simeon had only part of the land of Judah, Josh. xix. 1, 9. and went in search of dis- tant accommodation, I Chron, iv. 39 ; and Levi some cities in every tribe. Josh. xxi. 1 Chron. vi, Newton on Prophecy, Diss. 4. Isa. iii. 2, 3. explained by 2 King. xxiv. 14. Lowth in ioc. Isa. xxxiil. by ch. xxxvi. &c, Lowth in Ioc. SECT. IL Compqinson of Passages not parallel. 490. Passages of Scripture, which have none of the relations hitherto mentioned, cannot be considered as parallel ; yet they may often be compared in some respects ; and, from the comparison of them, consider- able light may be derived. 491. Expressions, phrases, and idioms, used in different texts, concerning different subjects, may be, though not the same, yet so similar, as to illustrate one another. 492. A passage, relating to one subject, may re- ceive illustration from another, in which an analogous subject is treated with a different manner of expres- sion. 19 146 PASSAGES NOT PARALLE^. 493. One passage of Scripture sometimes alludes, or, in some way, refers, to another, and may be ex- plained by being compared with it. 494. One passage of Scripture sometimes points out the occasion, origin, and meaning of words and phrases used in other passages. Chandler's Defence of Christianity, c. 2. s. 1. Newton, ib. Diss. 14. 495. One passage of Scripture may serve for re- stricting general expressions, and duly limiting the sense, in another which cannot be considered as paral- lel to it. Mat. iv. 6, 7. Luke iv. 9—1 2. Christ limits and explains the devil's quotation from Psal. xci. 11. by Deut. vi. 16. 496. Comparison of different passages of Scrip- ture sometimes contributes to our discovering the de- sign of a part of Scripture, or the occasion of writing it. 497. The comparison of passages, in no respect parallel, is often of great use, for fixing the dates and chronology of events. 498. The comparison of different passages often explains customs, manners, or opinions, the knowledge of Vv hich is conducive to our understanding the Scrip- tures. 499. It is often by comparing different passages, that we can ascertain what are the places, or nations, meant in Scripture, by names which occur not in pro- fane history. ANALOGY OF FAITH. 147 Ghittim is a name which frequently occurs. It is a general name for " the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean ;'* Gen. X. 5. countries to which the Asiatics went by sea ; Isa. xxiii. 1, 12. Carthage and the Mediterranean islands ; Jer. ii. 10. countries westward from Judea ; Ezek. xxvii. 6. Corsica ; Dan. xi. 29. The Romans. Newton, ib. Diss. 5. Lowth's Isaiah, xxiii. 1. SECT. III. Comparison of particular Passages with the Analogy oj Faith, 500. As one passage may be compared with anoth- er passage, so a particular passage may be compared with the analogy of faith, that is, with the general tenor of the doctrine taught in Scripture. Glass, Philol. Sacr. 1. 2. p. 2. s. 2. 501. All the great principles of religion may be collected from Scripture, while yet many particular texts remain not understood. When thus collected, they form the analogy of faith, and may be applied to the illustration of these texts, which must be explain- ed in a consistency with them. 502. But, the application of this instrument of cri- ticism is very liable to abuse. There is considerable difficulty in fairly collecting the genuine tenor of Scripture doctrine ; there is great danger of substitut- ing, in the place of it, preconceived, and precarious 148 ANALOGY OP PAITH. opinions, and of wresting particular passages, in order to reconcile them to these ; and, therefore, the great- est care and caution are absolutely necessary, for ren- dering it really useful. Locke, Pref. Glass, ib. 503. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is founded on a single text ; for, every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one place ; but this rule has not always been observed. Extreme unction is founded only on Jam. v. 14, 15, perverted from a temporary direction, to a perpetual institution, — from a mean of recovery, to a charm, vrhen recovery is des- perate, for the salvation of the soul. Cameron, Grotius, Benson, in loc. 504. The analogy of faith ought to be collected from, or the tenor of Scripture ascertained by, such texts as are plain and clear, and expressed in proper terms ; not from such as are doubtful, obscure, ambi- guous, or figurative, which ought to be explained by those others ; but men have often taken the con- trary road. Glass, ib. Transubstantiation is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative expressions, " this is my body," Mat. xxvi. 26, &c, and (which too has no relation to the supper) ** eat " my flesh, drink my blood," John vi. 51 — 58. 505. In ascertaining the analogy of faith, texts which treat professedly of a subject, have greater weight than such as only touch it incidentally ; and texts which express it absolutely, and as it is in itself, ANALOGY OF FAITH. 149 are clearer, and more decisive, than such as have a reference to particular occasions, without a perfect knowledge of which they cannot be understood, but may be totally misapprehended. 506. In forming the analogy of faith all the plain texts relating to one subject, or article, ought to be taken together, impartially compared, the expressions of one of them restricted by those of another, and ex- plained in mutual consistency, and that article deduced from them all in conjunction ; not, as has been most commonly the practice, one set of texts selected, which have the same aspect, explained in their greatest pos- sible rigour ; and all others, which look another way, neglected or explained away, and tortured into a compatibility with the opinion, in that manner partial- ly deduced. 507. The analogy of faith, as applicable to the ex- amination of particular passages, ought to be very short, simple, and purely scriptural ; but most sects conceive it, as taking in all the complex peculiarities, and scholastic refinements, of their own favourite sys- tems. 508. If these rules be not strictly observed, the comparison of particular passages with the analogy of faith will be so far from contributing to the illustra- tion of Scripture, that it will only pervert it, in con- formity to men's prejudices and false opinions, as has been very frequently the case. Locke, Pref. 150 ANALOGY OF FAITH. 509. On a supposition of its being most agreeable to the analogy of faith, a false or suspicious read- ing has been sometimes adopted ; and, on a supposi- tion of its repugnance to that analogy, a reading or a passage, unquestionably genuine, has been sometimes rejected. Michael. § 15. liuke xxii. 43, 44. concerning " an angel strengthening Christ in his agony ;" omitted in the Alexandrian and some other MSS. and marked with asterisks in others ; denied by sev- eral of the Fathers, because reckoned inconsistent with his divinity and urged by the Arians. Grot. Erasm. in loc. Mill in loc. and Prol. No. 797, 798. The epistle of James rejected by some, as contrary to the analogy of faith concerning justification ; but undoubtedly genuine. Schultet. Observ, in 2 Tim. i. 13. c. 4. apud Crit. Sac, torn. 7. p. 3868. 510. But a reading ought to be examined by the direct evidence for and against it, not by its connexion with any set of opinions ; and that reading, which seems fittest for supporting an article of faith, is not always to be preferred to another which has no rela- tion to it ; for it might not be the view of that passage to support that article, however true. Wetstein, Prol. c. 16, § 12. 511. For the same reason, that interpretation of a particular passage which is most favourable to a real, or supposed article of faith, is not, on that account, to be always preferred ; and the most obvious and nat- ural sense is to be set aside, only when it is absolutely contradictory to something plainly taught in Scrip- ANALOGY OF FAITH. 151 ture ; but the opposite way has often been taken by all sects. Mat. xvi. 18. "Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my church," o-v Uerfoq^ kxi btti recvTTi tjj Trerpu,. Building on Peter is explained away by some, as contrary to the faith that Christ in the only foundation, 1 Cor. iii. 11. and as favouring the supremacy of Peter and his successors. But the connexion shows, that Peter is here plainly meant; the apostles are elsewhere called the foundation on which the church is built, Eph. ii. 20. Rev. xxi. 14. as the persons employed in erecting the church, by preaching. It is here promised, that Peter should begin erecting it, by his preaching, which was fulfilled, both among the Jews, Acts ii, 14, &c. and among the Gentiles, ch. x. xv 7. This gives no countenance to the papal supremacy, but the con- trary ; for this prerogative was personal and incommu- nicable. Critic, in loc. John xvii. 2. 'hot, ITAN o hSeoxetg etvret)^ Saa-vi xvroig t^aviv utavidv^ may signify, by an enallage, of which there are some in- stances, " that he should give eternal life to as many as thou hast given him." Eng. after Beza, most favourable to predestination. But literally, " that he should give to them, all that thou hast given to him, eternal iife." This the natural and proper sense, and contradicts no article of faith. 512. But, if all the rules which have been laid down, be strictly observed, the comparison of partic- ular passages with the general tenor of Scripture will be of the greatest use ; particularly, for preventing our overstretching figurative and metaphorical ex- pressions, for enabling us to restrict general expres- sions, for setting aside opinions hastily deduced from a few separate texts, and for giving every doctrine its proper limitations. 162 CIVIL HISTORY. CHAP. VII. History and Manners, 513. HiSTORYj especially ancient history, contri- butes, in many instances, and in different ways, to the illustration of Scripture. 514. To this head belong, civil history, political history, customs and manners^ chronology^ geography^ and natural history. SECT. I. Of Civil History. 615. By civil history we mean, relations of actions and events ; and many such relations throw light upon the Scriptures, and have been often applied to this purpose. Shuckford's and Prideaux's Connexions. Stackhouse's Hist, of the Bible. Benson's Hist, of Christianity. Lardner's Credi- bility, p. 1. b. 1. 516. Relations, by other historians, of the same facts which are related in Scripture, illustrate the historical parts of it, in much the same manner as parallel pas- sages of Scripture. CIVIL HISTORY. 163 517. Such relations^ by other historians, often con- firm the relations of the sacred historians, even con- cerning facts which appear most extraordinary. Matt. XXV ii. 51, &c. confirmed by several heathen historians. Usser. Annal. Acts xii. 21 — 23. Luke's account of Herod's death, confirm- ed in all material circumstances by Josephus. Antiq. 1. 19. c. 8. 518. When other historians relate the same events with the sacred writers, they often record circumstances omitted, or only hinted at, by these and fit for throw- ing light upon them. Acts xii. 21 . " Upon a set day, " the second of the shows in honour of the Emperor. Joseph, ib. — " In royal apparel," a robe of silver, reflecting the rays of the rising sun which fell upon it. Jos. ib. 519. Other historians often relate events not men- tioned in Scripture, but connected with such as are there recorded, and fit for throwing light on the nar- ration of them. Acts xii. 1 — 3. Herod's fondness for the Jews, and persecu- tion of the Christians ; the former confirmed, and the latter accounted for, by his great zeal for the law. Joseph. Antiq. 1. 19. c. 7. 520. Histories of the events foretold in Scripture, whenever we have them accurate and full, throw great light on the meaning of the predictions concerning these events, and generally shew the punctual accomplish- ment of them, even in their minutest circumstances. Gen. xvii. 20. " Twelve princes shall he (Ishmael) beget," the names of his twelve sons, ch. xxv. 12 — 16. The Ara- bians have always lived in tribes, each governed by a 20 154} CIVIL HISTORY. prince, or Phylarch, (Strabo,!. 16. Hicron. quaest. iHeb, Thevenot, p. 1. b. 2. c. 32. Harris's Voyages, v. 2. b. 2. c. 9.) and these, for a long time, twelve in number. Melo ap. Euseb. prsep. Evang. 1. 9. c. 19. Cleric, in loc. Newton on Proph. Diss 2. Nahum foretells, ch. i. 10. that Nineveh should be taken when the people were drunk ; and so it was, Diod. Sicul. 1. 2. — chap. ii. 6. that " the gates of the river should be opened, and the palace dissolved ;' the river broke down twenty furlongs of the wall, and overflowed part of the town ; and the king burnt himself, with his palace. See. Diodor. ib. — v. 9 "great spoil of gold and silver;" many talents, Diodor. ib.— ch. i. 8, 9. ii. 11, 13. iii. 17, 18, 19. and Zeph. ii. 13, 14, 15. " its destruction total ;" so much that the oldest historians speak of it only as having once been, and differ even about its situation. Newton, ib. Diss. 9. Isa. vi. 13. is obscure and variously explained, but made clear, partly by sacred history; " a tenth left," 2 Kings xxv. 12, 22. " others gathered themselves and returned," Jer. xl. 7 12.; partly from profane history; the destruction of Jerusalem — the Jews again multiplying — their being near- ly exterminated by Hadrian, yet subsisting numerous still. Lowth in loc. 521. The Scripture contains allusions to facts not mentioned in it, but related by other historians ; and it is from their relations^ that these allusions must be ex- plained. POLITICAL HISTORY. 155 SECT. II. Of Political History, 522. Political History, by which we mean ac- counts of the constitution of states, their laws, and forms of judgment, is often conducive to the ilhistra- tion of Scripture. 523. A considerable part of Scripture has for its professed subject the nature of the Hebrew constitution of government, and its particular laws ; and, the right interpretation of that part of Scripture, is coincident with the knowledge of these. 524. It is from the nature of the Hebrew govern- ment, that we can deduce the precise import of expres- sions, which take their rise from particulars belonging to it. 525. The Scripture contains allusions to particulars in the government and laws of the Hebrews, and, therefore, receives illustration from these particulars, and must be explained by them. ^ Dan. vii. 9, 10. The images taken from the Sanhedrim. Newton, ib. DivSS. 14. Mat. V. 21, 22. Three degrees of guilt, expressed in terms borrowed from Jewish judicatories, for different offences, and different punishments, x-pttric,, a court of 23 in every city, for civil offences, could strangle or behead. o-weS'^iov, the Sanhedrin, for heinous crimes, stoned to death, ysevvx m ^vpoi, burning in the valley of Hinnom. Grot. Macknight in loc. 156 POLITICAL HISTORY. 526. Though the laws of the Hebrews were fixed by divine authority, and continued, in a great mea- sure, unvaried, yet their government underwent sev- eral revolutions, which introduced alterations in sev- eral respects, under the Judges, under the Kings, during the captivity, after their return from it, and on their subjection to the Romans. 527. Knowledge of the peculiarities of their situa- tion, in all these periods, is conducive to the illustra- tion of Scripture ; especially their state, the privileges which they enjoyed, and the restrictions which they were under in the last of them, contribute to the ex- plication of many passages of the New Testament. Under the Romans, the Jews were protected in the tree exercise of their religion, were governed by their own laws, and permitted to live according to their own customs. Joseph. Antiq. 1. 14 c. 10. 1 Cor. vi. 5, 6. " Christians going before heathen judges," are reproved ; they were considered as a Jewish sect, and might have decided their own differences. The Jews had their council, whicli might apprehend, examine, confine, inflict smaller punishments, and carry before the Governor for capital offences. All these privileges were exercised in the trial of Jesus. But they had not the power of inflicting capital punishment. John xviii. 31. John viii. 3—11. The question concerning the adulteress, very artfully insidious. If Jesus said, " she ought to be stoned to death," they might accuse him to the Governor, or throw on him the blame of an illegal act ; if, " she ought not," they might expose him to the people. Lardner, Credibility, p. 1. b. 1. c. 2. The governor, before passing sentence on a person brouglit be- fore him by the Jews, was obliged to reexamine the cause himself. POLITICAL HISTORY. 157 Lardner, ib. This explains Pilate's trying Jesus anew, though pronounced worthy of death by the council ; and Felix's trying Paul, though sent with a declaration of his innocence by Lysias. 528. The nature of the constitution of other states contributes sometimes to the illustration of scripture ; it shews the meaning and the propriety of terms used in Scripture^ for expressing any particulars^ belonging to it. Acts xiii. 7. Sergius is called proconsul (xvSvTicToi) of Cyprus, the proper title of the governor of a province belonging to the people, as avTiG-rpotTnyei of one belonging to the Empe- ror. Cyprus (though in the first partition belonging to the Emperor, Strabo, 1. 14.) had been before this time given, along with Narbon Gaul, to the people, in exchange for Dalmatia. Lardner, ib. p. 1. b. 1. c. 1. § 11. Actsxviii. 12. Gallio Proconsul {etvBvTruTsvm) of Achaia. This was originally given to the people ; afterwards to the Em- peror ; again, A. D. 44, to the people : continued theirs at this time, A. 52 or 55 ; but soon after they lost it under Nero. , Lardner, ib. § 12. 529. The Scripture contains expressions derived from the constitution or laws of other states, and allu- sions to them ; which are to be explained from the accounts given of them. Acts xvi. 37, 38. *» They have beaten us openly uncondemned, being Romans ; the Magistrates feared when they heard that they were Romans." There is here an allusion to two Ro- man laws, against scourging a citizen, and against punishing unheard and uncondemned. Cicero in Verrem. Lardner, ib. c. 10. § S, 4. 158 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 530. The Scripture sometimes simply relates facts, the reason of which is to be learned only from accounts of the constitution and laws of a particular state. Gen. xlvii. 22. Joseph " bought not the land of the priests," because two thirds of their revenues were for the expense of their worship. Diod. Sicul. Warburton, Div. Leg. b. 4. s. 3. SECT. III. Of Customs and Manners, 531. Knowledge of the customs and manners of the Israelites is of very great use, and the knowledge of those of other nations is of considerable use, for illustrating many passages of Scripture. 532. As the customs and manners of every people have a great influence on their language, those of the Israelites must contribute very much to our entering into, and understanding the style of Scripture, the greatest part of which is written in their language, and the whole in their idiom. 533. The Israelites have proper terms for expressing what belonged to their simple and uniform manner of life, and the practices of pasturage and agriculture, with which almost alone they were acquainted ; but were obliged to have recourse to metaphors for ex- CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 159 pressing what belonged to a more refined state of so- ciety, a greater distinction of ranks, and a greater multiplicity of arts. 534. Many of the Scripture metaphors are taken from their arts of agriculture and pasturage ; and can be understood only by our knowing the manner in which they performed the several operations belong- ing to these arts. Lowth. Sacr. Poes. prselect. 7. From threshing, for crushing enemies ; perspicuous and strong. Hab. iii. 12. " Thou didst thresh the heathen in ano-er." o From different methods of threshing, which are described, Isa. xxviii. 27, 28. Lowth's Isa. in loc. 1. With the staff 2. The drag, a frame of planks, rough below, with stones or iron, drawn by horses, (Kempfer Amon. Exot. p. 682.) Mic. iv. 13, " Arise and thresh, I will make thine horn iron, thy hoofs brass, and thou shalt beat in pieces many people." 3. The wain, like the former, but with wheels edged like a saw, (Hieron. in loc. Niebuhr, Voyage.) Isa. xli. 15. " I will make thee a new threshing instrument — ^thou shalt thresh the mountains — beat them small — make the hills as chaff." 4. The treading of oxen, Deut. XXV. 4, The threshing floor was high, open to the wind for dispersing the chaff, (2 Chron. iii. 1.) when they fanned the corn. Isa. xli. 15. " The wind shall carry themi away, the whirlwind shall scatter them." 535. Many of the Scripture metaphors and images are taken from the customs of the Israelites in their common life ; and, it is the knowledge of these that can enable us to perceive the meanings force^ and pro- priety of such. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. praelect. 7. "Mixt wine," means, in Greek and Latin, "diluted with 160 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. water ;" but, among the Hebrews, " made stronger by the addition of spices or drugs." Hence, "mingling wine, spiced wine," for feasts, Prov. ix. 2. Song viii. 2. This was derived from their manners, their fondness for such mixture. Therefore, it is a proper description of a drunk- ard. Prov. xxiii. 30. to " seek mixt wine ;" Isa. v. 22. " to mingle strong drink." It was intoxicating and stupifying; therefore, a strong metaphor for severe and confounding judgments ; Psal. Ixxv. 9. " a cup, the wine red,*' turbid, " full of mixture, poured out" from vessel to vessel, to mix it perfectly; "the dregs thereof," the sediment of the strong ingredients mixt in it, "the wicked shall drink." Isa. li. 17, &c. "The cup of fury, the dregs of the cup of trem- bling," producing intoxication, and confusion, and stagger- ing ; "sons unable to lead, fainting, lying at the head of the streets, full of the fury of Jehovah." Rev. xiv. 10. "Shall drink of the wine of the wrath of God. m xexepuTiicevii ecKpxTn, (not, "poured out without mixture," as in the English version,) " mixt pure," (merum mixtum.) This seeming- ly contradictory ; but it is precise, " pure wine made stronger by the mixture of powerful ingredients.'* The image poet- ical and sublime. Isa. i. 22. " Wine mixt with water," an image for " corruption, depravity," the stronger, because the orientals drink it not thus mixt. Thevenot, Voyage, p. 2. 1. 2. c. 10. Lowth's Isa. in loc. Their manner of burying, and sepulchres, afford many images, particularly for the state of the dead,— Caves dug below ground,— -out of rocks,— dark,— surrounded with nitcfies, each holding a coffin. Job x. 21, 22. xxxiii. 18. Psal. Ixxxviii. 6. Isa. xiv. 9—19. xxxviii. 10. lix. 10. Ezek. xxxii. 18. Lowth, Sacr. Poes. priiel. 7. and Isa. xiii. xiv. 536. Many of the Scripture images are taken from the religious customs and rites of the Israelites ; and, the knowledge of these, not only shows their import and force, but adds dignity to them, by reason of their relation to religion. CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 161 Virtue, represented bj cleanness; vice, by uncleanness. Natur- ally, but with greater propriety and force, as referring to the legal distinction of clean and unclean, and the particular things reckoned such. Isa. i. 15, 16. to Lev. xiv. 8, 9, 47. ♦ (Lowth in loc.) Ixiv. 6. Lam. i. 8, 9. Ezek. xxxvi. 17, Lowth,ib. Psal. cxxxix. 15. "I was curiously wrought, ^nnpl, wrought, as with a needle." A beautiful image of the human texture, but dignified by needle work being appropriated to some partic- ulars in the sanctuary. Exod. xxvi. 36. xxvii. 16. xxviii. 39. Lowth, ib. Psal. civ. 1, &c." Clothed with honour and majesty," allud- ing to the high priest's sacred and magnificent robe. " Co- verest thyself with light," to the Schechinah. « Stretchest out the heavens like a curtain," that which covered the ta- bernacle. " Layeth the beams of the chambers in the wa- ters," to the many parts of the tabernacle easily put toge- ther. "Maketh the clouds his chariot, walketh on the wings of the wind," to the Schechinah when the ark moved, aloft in the air. " Maketh the winds his messengers, a flame of fire his servants," to the ministers serving constantly in the tabernacle. Lowth, ib. 537. There are, in Scripture, images taken from the customs and manners of other nations besides the Israelites, which may be explained from these. From hieroglyphical symbols. The luminaries, for empires. Lions and bears, for generals and warriors. From ordinary customs. Dan. ii. 31, &c. In Nebuchadnezzar's vision, " A great image of human form," represents empire and dominion ; in medals, cities and nations are thus represented, V. 32, 39. " The belly and thighs of brass ;" the Macedo- nian empire, on account of their brazen armour. Joseph. Antiq. 1. 10. c. 10. Newton on Proph. Diss. IS. 21 162 CUSTOMS AND MANNERS. 538. The sacred writers often allude to particular tustoms, both of the Israelites^ and of other nations, without at all explaining them ; and, it is only by ac- counts of these customs, that the passages which ccjn- tain such allusions, can be rendered intelligible. Exod. viii. 26. ** Shall we sacrifice the abomination of tlie Egyptians ?'' what they thought it impious to sacrifice, and would have resented, heifers, rams, goals, &c. Herodot. 1. 2. c. 41,42,45,65. Warburt. Div. Leg. b. 4. s. 3. Isa. xlvii. 2. " Take the millstones and grind meal ;" a strong metaphor ; grinding was the work of slaves ; in the east, of female slaves, low, severe. Lowth in loc. 1 Cor. iv. 9. " The apostles set forth last, as it were appointed to death.'* This alludes to the shows, the last of which was, persons combating with wild beasts ; and this the most danger ous, and appointed to the greatest criminals. ** The apostles most hated, and exposed to the most imminent danger of death.' Grotius, Locke, and Macknight in loc. Benson, Hist, of Christ. There are frequent allusions to the Grecian games. 1 Thess. ii. 19. to the victor crowned by the judge, at the end of the course. 1 Cor. ix. 24 — 27. to the crown, and to the strict i^bstinence by which the competitors prepared themselves, in the Isthmian games, near Corinth. 2 Tim. ii. 5. " strive lawfully," according to the rules prescribed, viz, contend- ing naked, an image of being divested of love to the world. Ch. iv. 7, 8. to two of the exercises, boxing and running, and to the manner of crowning the victor. Phil. iii. 13. 14. to running, the goal, and the suspended crown. Heb. xii. 1, 2, to many particulars. Acts xiii. 1. "Manaen cwrpo-