DwisioaJV64^ ScttioQ • ' ' I 3(lmmcan public ^vohltm^ EDITED BY RALPH CURTIS RINGWALT Hmerican jpubUc iproblems EDITED BY ^ RALPH CURTIS RINGWALT IMMIGRATION : And Its Effects Upon the United States By PRESCOTT F. HALL, A.B., LL.B., Secretary of the Immi^ation Restriction League. 393 pp. $1.50 net. By mail, §1.65. " Should prove interesting to everyone. Very readable, forceful and convincing. Mr. Hall considers every possible phase of this great question and does it in a masterly way that shows not only that he thoroughly understands it. but that he is deeply interested in it and has studied everj thing bearing upon it." — Boston Transcript. "A readable work containing a vast amount of valuable informa- tion. Especially to be commended is the discussion of the racial effects. As a trustworthy general guide it should prove a god- send." — N. Y. Evening Post. " Earnest and unprejudiced. . . . Cannot fail to be of great assistance in clarifying and setting on a solid foundation the ideas of people who are now becoming convinced that the problems of immigration in the nation and the municipality will soon reach a more acute stage than ever before." — Philadelphia Press. "An auspicious omen of the worth of Messrs. Henry Holt and Company's recently announced series on American Public Prob- lems. . . . Mr. Hall has been in close touch with the immigration movement and he writes with a grasp and a fullness of information which must commend his work to every reader. ... A handbook ... to which one may turn conveniently for information for which he would otherwise be obliged to search through many a dusty document."— T/ie World To-day. THE ELECTION OF SENATORS By Professor GEORGE H. HAYNES, Author of " Rep- resentation in State Legislatures." 300 pp. $1.50 net. By mail $1.65. Shows the historical reasons for the present method, and its effect on the senate and senators, and on state and local government, with a detailed review of the arguments for and against direct election. "A timely hook. . . . Prof. Haynes is qualified for a historical and analytical treatise on the subject of the Senate." —X. Y. Evening Sun. "Well worth reading, and unique because it is devoted wholly to the election of senators and to the delit)erations of the Senate." — Boston Transcript. "Able and dispassionate, and ought to be widely read." — \eiv York Commercial. " Of considerable popular as well as historical interest." — Dial. Henry Holt and Company 34 We* 33d Street New Yohk ^dmerican public ^tohUin^ — ^ IMMIGRATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON THE UNITED STATES PRESCOTT F. HALL, A.B., LL.B. SECOND EDITION, REVISED NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1913 Copyright, 1906, BY Henry Holt and Compasi Published February, igo6 EDITOR'S PREFACE Mr. Hall's Immigration is the first of a series which the publishers plan gradually to augment until it covers the field of controverted topics in American political, economic and social af¥airs, in which there is any wide- spread public interest. Each of the volumes will be de- voted to a single and to a definite question ; and all, it is hoped, will possess certain desirable characteristics in common. Thus, a history will be given of each question in its political and legislative aspects ; all the facts that are available and pertinent in respect to it ; and a careful and impartial discussion of the policies that have been advocated for the future. But authors will, of course, be free to adopt any method of treatment that they please, and to uphold or to condemn as they may see fit. So far as possible, the editor wishes to make the scries one of genuine weight and consequence, — not only as books and literature, but as a contribution to national life and welfare. The problems M'ith which the Series will deal are all important ; those on the right solution of which much of the nation's greatness and prosperity, and even its existence, may well be said to depend. But such a solution, it is believed, can only be achieved in one way, — by thorough understanding, and by intelligent, thought- ful discussion. And it is to such understanding and dis- cussion that the Series will seek, in as weighty a measure as possible, to contribute. R. C. R. New York City December, 1905 AUTHOR'S PREFACE The great interest now shown by the American people in the immigration question, and the very general lack of information as to the conditions and effects of immigration, seem to call for a new handbook on the sub- ject. Since the publication of the late Professor Mayo- Smith's book, in 1890, important changes have taken place in immigration itself ; and many valuable reports and articles have been published, the most comprehensive of which is, perhaps, the Report of the Industrial Com- mission made in 1902. The extent and importance of these changes have naturally resulted in considerable attention being given, in the present volume, to the most recent period, and less to the historical survey of immigration in the earlier part of the country's existence ; for, however interesting the history of the matter may be, the problems which confront the American people to-day, with regard to immigration, are of comparatively recent origin. The limits of the present volume forbid any elaborate treatment of the various races of our immigrants, either statistical or descriptive. For the benefit of those who wish to study this phase of the subject further, the author has made a free use of footnotes, and has ap- pended a list of the more important authorities. The plan of the book is to present first the facts in re- gard to immigration — its history, causes and conditions. In Part II. the effects of immigration are discussed. In vii viii Preface Part III. the history of past legislation upon the subjtct is given, and various proposed remedies for the evils of immigration are described. Part IV. deals with Chinese immigration. Copies of the federal immigration acts now in force are appended. The author desires to acknowledge his obligations to the late Professor Mayo-Smith, not only for many facts in his book but for suggesting the preparation of this volume. He wishes also to express his indebtedness to the various officials of the Immigration Service during the past ten years for their unfailing courtesy in answering inquiries and permitting examination of in- spection methods ; and to Mr. R. DeC. Ward, for many valuable suggestions. The immigration question in this country has never in the past had the attention to which its importance entitles it. It has sometimes been the scapegoat of re- ligious and racial prejudices, and always, in recent years, an annual sacrifice to the gods of transportation. The causes of this indifference are not far to seek. In the early days, the people of this country were busy with other matters : the immigration was small and not espe- cially objectionable in quality. Later, the doctrines of the laissc:: faire school, and the narrow and prejudiced theories of the Know-Nothing movement helped to con- tinue the status of free immigration. More recently a superficial interpretation of the doctrine of the " sur- vival of the fittest " has led the public to adopt an easy- going optimism with regard to racial questions, forget- ting that this doctrine really means that those survive who are fittest for survival only, and not necessarily fittest for any other purpose. At the present time, the enormous volume of immi- gration has attracted the attention of the public, but its Preface tx conditions and effects are familiar to few. If this volume contributes in any degree to a further knowledge of the subject its purpose will have been accomplished. Prescott F. Hall 60 State Street, Boston December, 1905 NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION, REVISED Since this book was published, the Act of March 3, 1903, and the contract labor acts of 1885 and 1888 have been superseded by the codifying Act of February 20, 1907. Inasmuch as the provisions of the Act of 1903 are discussed on pp. 216-255, it has been thought desirable to substitute the text of the new act for the old in the Appendix, in order that readers may have the exact wording of the present law at hand. Although it was not practicable to insert references to the new act throughout the text, readers can readily ascertain what changes have been made by comparing the text of the new law with the statement of the old. CONTENTS PART I IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION CHAPTER PAGE I. History of Immigration and Emigration A. Immigration prior to 1820 3 B. Immigration from 1820 to 1869 .... 6 C. Immigration from 1870 to 1905 .... 7 D. Summary 8 E. Emigration 11 II. The Causes of Immigration A. In general 14 B. Prosperity of the country 17 C. Religious persecution and political oppression 20 D. Facility of transit 22 E. Solicitation by steamship agents .... 25 F. Assisted immigration 27 G. Other causes 33 III. Racial Conditions of Immigration A. History of changes 36 B. Characteristics of the various races ... 41 IV. Economic Conditions of Immigration A. Money value of the immigrant .... 67 B. Occupations 74 C. Birds of passage 77 V. Social Conditions of Immigration A. Illiteracy 80 B. Crime, insanity and disease 83 C. Distribution 88 3U / xii Contents PART II THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION CHAPTER PAGE VI. Racial Effects A. Importance of race stock 98 B. Effect of changes in the nationality of immi- grants 102 VII. Economic Effects A. Demand for labor . 121 B. Effect on wages and standard of living . . 123 C. Padrone system 131 D. Sweating system 133 E. Unemployment 135 VIII. Social Effects A. Illiteracy 139 B. Crime 146 C. Insanity and disease 156 D. Pauperism 160 E. Burden of dependents and delinquents . . 166 F. Congestion in cities 169 G. Assimilation 172 IX. Political Effects A. Political tendencies 183 B. Naturalization 189 FART III IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION X. History of Immigration Legislation A. Legislation favoring immigrants .... 201 B. State restrictive legislation 204 C. Federal restrictive legislation 206 D. Inspection and registration of immigrants . 231 Contents xiii CHAPTER PAGE XI. Effect of the Present Laws and the Need of Further Restriction A. Numbers debarred and deported .... 239 B. Diseased immigrants 241 C. Solicitation by transportation companies . . 245 D. Contract labor laws 248 E. Immigration through Canada and Mexico . 251 XII. Proposed Legislation A. Head-tax and money test 256 B. Physical test 258 C. Illiteracy test 262 D. Consular inspection 280 E. Other methods 288 F. Administrative amendments 295 XIII. Other Proposed Remedies for Immigration Evils A. Distribution of immigrants 299 B. Protective and assimilating movements . , 306 XIV. Considerations with Respect to Further Re- striction A. Public opinion as to restriction .... 309 B. Ethical aspects of regulation 320 PART IV CHINESE IMMIGRATION XV. History of Chinese Immigration and of the Ex- clusion Acts 327 APPENDICES I. Statistical Tables 339 II. United States Immigration Laws 348 III. Bibliography 369 Index * . . 375 PART T IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION CHAPTER I HISTORY OF IMMIGRATION A. IMMIGRATION PRIOR TO l820^ In popular discussions of the immigration question it is often said that all who have come to this continent since its discovery should be considered equally as im- migrants, and that only the aboriginal inhabitants can hz properly called natives. In a certain sense this is of course true, but in another it is entirely misleading; for one cannot speak of immigration to a country until that country has entered upon a career of national ex- istence. Accordingly a distinction has been made,^ and with reason, between those who took part in building the political framework of the thirteen colonies and of the Federal Union, and those who have arrived to find the United States Government and its social and political institutions in working operation. The former class have been called colonists, the latter are immigrants proper. In discussing the immigration question, this distinction is important ; for it does not follow that be- cause, as against the native Indians, all comers might be considered as intruders and equally without claim of right, those who have built up a complicated framework of nationality have no rights as against others who seek * Cp. John R. Commons, " Colonial Race Elements," in Chau- taiiquan, vol. 38, pp. 1 18-125 (Oct. 1903). - Mayo-Smith, Emigration and Immigration, p. 35. 3 4 Immigration and Emigration to enjoy the benefits of national life without having con- tributed to its creation. The number of persons in the country at the date of the Revolutionary War is not accurately known. The population of New England was produced out of an immigration of about 20,000 persons who arrived before 1640, and it overflowed into the other colonies with- out receiving any corresponding additions from them. Franklin stated in 1751 that the population then in the colonies, amounting to about one million, had been pro- duced from an original immigration of less than 80,000.^ The first census of the United States, in 1790, gave the total population as 3,929,214; but, as has been pointed out by Professor F. B. Dexter,* this number does not include Vermont or the territory northwest of the Ohio River, which, he says, would make the total over 4,000,000. The first records of immigration begin with the year 1820, and, although the number of immigrants who arrived in the United States from the close of the Revolutionary War to 1820 is not certain, it is esti- mated by good authorities at 250,000.'' It is difficult to ascertain the number of immigrants from the various countries in the early part of the nine- teenth century. The number from Great Britain in- creased from 2081 in 1815, to 34.787 in 1819, after which it diminished to 14,805 in 1824.* In the year 1820, out of a total immigration of 8385, the United Kingdom furnished 6024. Germany was second with ^Franklin's JVorks (Spark's Ed.), vol. 2, p. 319. Cp. Wash" ington's JVorks, vol. 12, p. 323; Madison's Works, vol. 3, p. 213. * Estimates of Population in the American Colonies, Worcester (1887). 5 Bureau of Statistics, series 1892- 1893, Quarterly Report, Na 2, p. 7- « Mayo-Smith, p. 17. History of Immigration 5 968; France third with 371 ; and Spain fourth with 139. The total immigration from the other parts of North and South America was 387J The original settlers of this country were, in the main, of Teutonic and Keltic stock. In the thirteen original States the pioneers were practically all British, Irish, Dutch, and German, with a few French, Portu- guese and Swedes ; and, in this connection, it should be remembered that a large proportion of the French peo- ple is Teutonic in origin. The Germans were Protes- tants from the Palatinate, and were pretty generally scattered, having colonized in New York, western Penn- sylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The Swedes settled upon the Delaware River. The French were Huguenots driven from home by Louis XIV. ; and, though not numerous, were a valuable addition to the colonies. The Irish were descendants of Cromwell's army, and came from the north of Ireland. All the settlers had been sub- jects of nations which entertained a high degree of civili- zation, and were at that time the colonizing and com- mercial nations of the world. At a later period, the an- nexation of Florida and Louisiana brought in elements of Mediterranean races, so called ; but, owing to various considerations into which it is not necessary to enter here, the civilization and customs of the British over- spread these regions, as well as those colonized originally by the Dutch and French, and produced a substantial uniformity in institutions, habits and traditions through- out the land. This process of solidification and assimilation of the different colonies under British influence reached its con- summation with the establishing of the Federal Govern- ment. After the birth of the United States as a separate ^ Bureau of Statistics, Op. cit., pp. 32-39. 6 Immigration and Emigration nation, colonization in the earlier sense ceased entirely. European nations could no longer send out their own citizens and form communities directly dependent upon themselves and subject to their own jurisdiction. The immigration of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, therefore, differs widely in character from the coloniza- tion of the seventeenth and eighteen centuries. B. IMMIGRATION FROM 182O TO 1 869 With the year 1820 the official history of immigra- tion to the United States begins; for it was then that collectors of customs at our ports were first obliged to record the arrival of passengers by sea from foreign countries. The record included numbers, ages, sexes, and occupations. Before 1856 no distinction at all was made between travellers intending to return and immi- grants intending to remain. Although still comparatively small, immigration in- creased from 8385 in 1820 to 22,633 in 1831. The first marked rise took place in 1827 and 1828, following the commercial depression in England in those and in the previous year. From 1831, with the exception of the period 1843-1844, numbers continued steadily to advance until they reached totals of 104,565 in 1842, and 310,004 in 1850. The most striking annual increases were from 114,371 in 1845 to 154,416, in 1846, and 234,968 in 1847. These sudden movements of population were chiefly due to hard times in Europe, and especially in Ireland, a cause which, with the Revolution of 1848 in Germany, continued to operate until 1854, when a total of 427,853 was reached — a figure not again attained until nearly twenty years later. With the year 1854 the tide began to beat less fiercely ; immigration decreased steadily until, History of Immigration 7 during the first two years of the Civil War, it was below 100,000. But in 1863, a gradual increase once more set in and in 1869, 352,768 persons landed. During the whole of this period the only immigration of importance came from Europe and from other parts of America. Immi- gration from Asia, which began in 1853, consisted in the largest year, 1854, of 13,100 persons. In 1869 the ethnic composition of immigration com- menced in a marked way to change, and considerations which apply to the earlier years do not necessarily hold for those from 1870 to the present time. For this reason the period is made to end with 1869. C. IMMIGRATION FROM 1870 TO I905 In the period from 1870 to 1905, immigration in- creased more than two fold. In 1870 the total immigra- tion was 387,203 ; in 1903 it had reached the enormous number of 857,046, and, in 1905, the still more signifi- cant figure of 1,026,499. Directly after 1870 a time of industrial and commercial depression began, culminating in the panic of 1873. The barometer of immigration, always sensitive to such changes in the industrial atmo- sphere, began to fall, though there was no rapid move- ment until the panic was well under way. In fact, immi- gration increased to 459,803 in 1873 ; but it fell in the following year to 313,339 and then steadily diminished to 138,469 in 1878. After this it very suddenly increased again, and in 1882 it reached 788,992 — the largest immigration of any year except 1903, 1904, and 1905. A part of this sudden increase in 1882 and the two subsequent years, must be ascribed to the promulgation of the " May Laws " by Russia, which caused large num- 8 Immigration and Emigration bers of Hebrews to emigrate.^ Thus, immigration from Russia, exclusive of Poland and Finland, was nearly four times as great in 1882 as in 1881, and by 1890 was more than seven times as great. But, in addition to these special causes, there seems to have been a general ad- vance all along the line of nations. One reason for this may have been the enactment by Congress of the first general immigration act of August 3, 1882, and the fear that this might be the forerunner of further restrictive legislation, a fear which has undoubtedly operated dur- ing the last two or three years. After 1882 numbers again diminished, making an- other low point of 334,203 in 1886. Then an increase took place until the total reached 579.663 in 1892. In 1893 came the epidemic of cholera in the East and quar- antine regulations at various ports, followed by a period of commercial depression lasting from 1894 to 1898. As a result of these causes, immigration fell off largely, touching a minimum of 229,299 in 1898. From that year it rose by rapid strides to 648,743 in 1902 ; to 857,046 in 1903; to 812,870 in 1904; and to 1,026,499 in 1905. The total for 1905 was an increase of 26 per cent, over that of 1904 ; 58 per cent, over that of 1902 ; and 349 per cent, over that of 1898. The record for a single day seems to have been reached on I\Iay 7, 1905, when 12.000 immigrants entered New York inside of twelve hours. D. SUMMARY It appears that the total immigration to the United States from the close of the Revolutionary War to 1905 was not far from twenty-three millions, a movement of * As to the detailed working of these laws see W. Evans* Gordon, T/te Alien Immigrant, pp. 60-61, 96, iii, 124, 156. History of Immigration 9 population unprecedented in history. This was divided by decades as follows : 1821 to 1830 143439 1831 to 1840 599,125 1841 to 1850 1,713,251 1851 to i860 2,598,214 1861 to 1870 2.314,824 1871 to 1880 2,812,191 1881 to 1890 5,246,613 1891 to 1900 3,687,564 1901 to 1905 (five years) 3.833,076 Total, 182 i- 1905 22,948,297 If the average holds to the end of the present decade the number for 1901-1910 will be nearly eight millions of souls, much the largest contribution on record for the same period. It need surprise no one, however, if the total for the decade should be twice as large as this, for the increase in the last few years is enormous, and the general tendency during the past century has been toward a steady and rapid growth of the immigration movement. Another way of viewing the annual immigration is with reference to the volume of population into which it flows. This has the advantage of showing how rela- tively small the annual additions are, though they are enormous compared with the additions to the population of other countries. But it has also a disadvantage in that it takes account merely of numbers, and does not reckon with the character or racial composition either of the annual additions or the people with whom they are to be mixed. The following table shows the number of immigrants arriving in each year, from 1839 to 1901, and the num- ber of immigrants to 10,000 population ; lo Immigration and Emigration FOKEIGN IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 8a Year Number of ending Number of immigrants to Dec. 31 Immigrants 10,000 populatioi 1839 68,069 41 1840 84,066 49 1841 80,289 45 1842 104,565 57 Sept. 30. 1844 78,615 40 1845 114,371 57 1846 154.416 75 1847 234,968 III 1848 226,527 103 1849 297,024 132 1850 369,980 134 1851 379,466 158 1852 371,603 149 1853 368,64s 143 1854 427,833 162 1855 200,827 73 1856 195,587 69 1857 246.945 85 1858 1 19.501 40 1859 118,616 35 1860 150,237 47 1861 89.724 28 1862 89,007 27 1863 174,524 52 1864 193,195 57 1865 247,453 71 1866 314.917 88 1867 310,965 86 June 30. 1869 352,768 93 1870 387,203 100 1871 321.350 81 1872 404.806 99 1873 459,803 110 1874 313,339 73 1875 227,498 51 1876 169.986 37 1877 141,857 30 1878 138,469 29 1879 177,826 36 1880 457,257 91 1881 669,431 128 ^» Report of the Industrial Commission^ vol. 19, p. 958. History of Immigration ii Year Number of ending Number of immigrants to June 30 Immigranti 10,000 population 1882 788,992 150 1883 603,322 112 1884 518,592 94 1885 395.346 70 1886 334,203 58 1887 490,109 85 1888 , 546,889 91 1889 444427 72 1890 455.302 72 189 1 560,319 88 1892 579,663 88 1893 439.730 64 1894 285,631 42 1895 258.536 37 i8q6 343.267 48 1897 230,832 32 1898 229,299 30 1899 311,71s 40 1900 448.572 58 1901 487,918 61 It will be noticed that while in such a table it would be natural for the index numbers to grow smaller as the population grew larger, in general they are as high dur- ing the past twenty years as during the periods from 1839 to 1846, from 1855 to 1865, and from 1875 to 1880. The only times when immigration exceeded one per cent, of the receiving population were the period 1847- 1854, the years 1870, 1873, the period 1881-1883, and the years 1903- 1905. E. EMIGRATION It is unfortunate that no accurate records are avail- able of emigration from this country. The Immigration Bureau has repeatedly made recommendations for sup- 12 Immigration and Emigration plying this defect,* but Congress has not seen fit to act, and the only figures available are those of the trans- portation companies, supplemented by such conclusions as can be drawn from the census. The census obviously cannot furnish very accurate data for estimating emigra- tion, because persons who have been in the country more than once may figure at a certain date in the census and a year or two later in the immigrant arrivals. The same facilities for cheap and rapid transit which operate so powerfully to encourage immigration are available also for passage in the other direction. Pas- sage from New York to European ports is from two to ten dollars less than the rate to this country ; and the number of domestic servants, for example, taking ad- vantage of these rates to pass a summer or winter abroad has become so large as to cause comment. In 1903, east- bound steerage passengers, according to figures obtained by the Department of Commerce and Labor, numbered 251,500; and for the decade 1891 to 1900, excepting the years 1896 and 1897, for which no figures are available, the number was 1,229,909; or a probable total for the decade of 1,529,909.^'^ At certain times the exodus is larger than the influx. Thus, during the period from November i to December 8, 1894, the number of emi- grants was 25,544, while immigrant arrivals for the month of November numbered 12,886. ^ E.g., Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1903, p. 62. 1" R. P. Faulkner, " The Immigration Problem," in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 19, pp. 37, 38. The argument of the American Line before the Senate Committee on Immigration of the 57th Congress, p. 24, gave the eastbound steerage passengers for the period 1893 to 1901 as 1.281,936, or 44 per cent, of the westbound, for the direct lines ; and for 1895 to 1901 as 37,432, or 19 per cent, of the westbound, for the Canadian lines. History of Immigration 13 The hard times of 1893 caused large numbers of Italians to return home. The total of steerage passen- gers sailing from New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Balti- more, New Orleans, and Montreal in that year was 268,037; in 1894, it was 311,760. The Italian Commis- sioner-General of Emigration states that, in 1903, 214,157 Italians went to the United States and 78,233 returned.*^ Naturally, many of those who return home, come again to the United States when conditions here are more favorable, or they have spent the money accumu- lated while in this country. In 1898, 18 per cent, of im- migrants had been in this country before; in 1901, 12 per cent.; in 1903, 9 per cent.; in 1905, 17,1 per cent. These figures do not, of course, show how often the im- migrants represented have been in the United States ; for although this information appears to some extent upon the manifests, it is not tabulated in the official re- ports. From a personal examination of the manifests of several thousand Italians at Ellis Island, New York, the writer can state that large numbers have been here two, three, four, and in some cases six or more times. In view of this the inaccuracy of estimates based on the census becomes even more apparent. Poles, Slovaks, and other mining laborers are frequent birds of passage ; and in the case of Canadians working in the United States, there is a large exodus of persons returning home, some in the winter and some in the summer, according to the nature of their occupation. It is to be hoped that in accordance with the recom- mendations of the Immigration Bureau, Congress will require the collection of statistics as to emigration. Report of the Surgeon-General of the United States, 1904, p. 218. CHAPTER II THE CAUSES OF IMMIGRATION A. IN GENERAL History, from one standpoint, may be considered the story of race migration and its effects. The Tartar inva- sion of Europe, the Roman invasion and conquest of a considerable part of three continents, the Germanic in- vasion of the Roman Empire, the invasion of America by the Spaniards and afterwards by the Enghsh, as well as the peaceful immigration of recent times on an enormous scale, are facts of the greatest magnitude. It has been said by a leading biologist ^ that all organic evolution is sympodial. This means that, when growth has taken place in a certain way for a time, it takes a new direction, carrying the chief vigor of the organism with it, so that the new growth becomes more important than the old, the latter perhaps dying out entirely. From this point of view a race may be likened to a strawberry plant, which after growing upward and increasing, sends out runners and establishes new colonies in adjoining soil, with the result that, in time, the new plants become more vigorous than the old, and in turn send out their runners. According to this theory, the " offshoots " of a race are indeed not metaphorical, but examples of a general law of growth. In general, emigration has always taken a westerly direction. This is a curious phenomenon which has 1 Lester F. Ward, Pure Sociology, (1903). The Causes of Immigration 15 never been satisfactorily explained. Exceptions have sometimes occurred for special reasons, as when the northern tribes were attracted by the wealth and power of Rome, and when a large British emigration was drawn by the gold of Australia, and the wealth of India inspired conquest. But in the case of the Manchus, Per- sians, Tartars, Turks, Hebrews, Spaniards, English, and many other races, the general direction has been westward. The cause of migration, sometimes hard to trace in detail, is for the most part the overgrowth of popula- tion. This creates a need for further sustenance, more space and new opportunities ; and the race either moves en masse to seek pastures new, or a part splits off, just as in the case of protozoa which propagate by fission. The power of such a movement is tremendous. De Tocqueville wrote of American immigration in 1835, " No power on earth can close upon the immigrant that fertile wilderness which offers resources to all industry and a refuge from all want." Sometimes the first step in this process is war with a neighboring race ; and a con- quest may result in unexpected expansion, as was the case when the United States acquired the Philippine Islands. If peaceful expansion be difficult the result is either race-suicide or war. The recent conflict between Japan and Russia was partly due to the fact that the 40,000,000 inhabitants of Japan were cooped up in a territory smaller than California, and required an oppor- tunity for expansion. A distinction may be made between the migration of tribes by means of conquest, and peaceful emigration which is the movement of individual units. Indeed, the latter may be said to be generally a movement of the conquered. The subjugation of colonies has always been 1 6 Immigration and Emigration undertaken with the idea of increasing the power and influence of the home country, and, until very recently, colonial administration has always been conducted for the benefit of the governing race ; the emigrating in- dividuals have been leaders at home and abroad. But the Pilgrims who settled New England, the Huguenots banished from France, the Jews driven from Spain, and, later, from Russia by the May Laws, and the Italians from the slums of Naples, are instances of individuals conquered at home. The inability to cope with home conditions may indeed express different reactions in the cases of different kinds of individuals. It is an am- biguous symptom, and may betoken a most enterprising and aspiring character, or a " beaten," atavistic and valueless nature. The million or more Jews who were led from Egyptian slavery by Moses created a religious State exerting a lasting influence upon the life and thought of the world. The Pilgrims and Puritans, seek- ing liberty and a chance to develop a new and lofty type of civil and religious commonwealth, produced a civilization which, in spite of obvious defects, has ex- cited the admiration of mankind. Much of the recent immigration, however, is not led by the hope of bursting its bonds, but by the allurements of promised wealth and material comfort. In general, then, migration is due to the tendency to follow a path either of increased attractiveness or of diminished resistance. Its fluctuations may be classed under two heads ; the gradual growth exhibited in later periods as contrasted with earlier ones, and the interrup- tions to this steady increase. The causes of these fluc- tuations we shall now examine. The Causes of Immigration 17 B. PROSPERITY OF THIS COUNTRY While the desire to escape from persecution or oppres- sion operated chiefly in the early settlement of the United States, and still operates in a few cases, there is no doubt that the chief influence affecting immigration in recent times is the prosperity of this country. This is shown by the fact that there is a marked relationship between industrial and commercial activity in the United States and the volume of immigration. The latter, of course, follows upon the former, and usually acquires a certain momentum which causes it to continue for a time after the demand for labor here has diminished. ^ In 1837, for example, the total immigration was, roughly speaking, 79.000; after the panic of that year it fell off in 1838 to 38,000. In 1842, the total was 104,000; in 1844, after a depression, it was 78,000. By 1854, as a result of the famine in Ireland and the political revolu- tion in Germany, it had increased to 427,000; but in i860 at the opening of the Civil War it fell to 90,000. After the close of the war it increased until, in 1872, it was 438,000; but with the panic it fell, in 1874, to 261,000, or nearly one-half. From that time it increased to a maxi- mum of 730,000 in 1882. Owing in a measure to the passage of the first restrictive law and the contract labor acts, it fell off in 1885 to about 400,000. It then in- creased somewhat ; but it was checked in 1893 by the cholera epidemic and the consequent quarantine regula- tions. Beginning with 1894, and lasting several years, there was a period of commercial depression, to which the agitation of the currency question in part contrib- - On the relation between prosperity and immigration see the author's testimony before the Industrial Commission, Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 49 ff, and the chart annexed. l8 Immigration and Emigration uted; and in 1898 immigration reached the very low mark of 229,000. From this point there was a very rapid rise, until, in 1903, the highest point hitherto reached was attained, viz., 857,000. In 1894, owing in some degree to the closing or partial shutting down of many mills, to political conditions, and probably, in larger part, to the difficulty of finding employment for the enormous num- bers of the few preceding years, the total again fell off ; but in 1905 the high water mark of i,026,499was attained. The commercial activity of this country not merely induces immigrants to desire to come ; it makes their coming possible. The testimony before the Industrial Commission ^ disclosed the fact that 40 to 55 per cent, of those who arrive (some estimates range as high as 60 per cent.), have their passage prepaid by friends or relatives in this country, and from 10 to 25 per cent, more buy their tickets abroad with money sent from the United States. The money used to enable friends and relatives of immigrants already here to emigrate to this country, must come from the latter's savings ; and the amount of such savings depends upon the relation of wages to the cost of living, and upon the steadiness of employment. Knowledge of industrial conditions in this country is conveyed abroad through many channels. Perhaps the most common are the newspapers and the personal let- ters of friends or relatives. There are also doubtless many employment agencies abroad which are familiar with conditions here, and which let it be known that if laborers of a certain t>'pe go to a certain place in the United States they can find work. This is not a violation of the contract labor law, for there is no contract to 3 Report of tlic Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 95, 104, 115, 118. The Causes of Immigration 19 labor ; it is not even an " offer, solicitation, promise or agreement " to give employment within the present law. One other important aspect of the relation between prosperity and immigration may be noted: that in times of depression it is in skilled immigrants that the decrease takes place. This is due, in part, to the better knowledge of trade conditions on the part of such persons, and in part to the fact that many public and quasi-public works go on in times of commercial stagnation ; while the mills and factories which employ the higher class of skilled labor are to a greater or less extent shut down. Further, unskilled labor is more mobile, and can take up easily any unskilled occupation in any locality ; also, as it is largely unmarried, it can accommodate itself more readily to a reduction of wages. The skilled workman as a rule, can do but one thing ; frequently he has a family and dislikes to change his residence. Foreign skilled workmen know that if they come to this country in a time of industrial depression, they -un a great risk of being forced into the ranks of the unskilled, and they prefer to remain in their native surroundings until they can emigrate with :iie assurance of permanent and profit- able employment. For certain kinds of unskilled labor there is a steady demand at all times. A good example is the domestic servants. One-third of the three hundred intelligence offices in New York City depend on foreign-born resi- dents and their children for their supply; fully another third depend upon recent arrivals ; ^ and there is no doubt that the employment offices stimulate the immigra- tion of this class, just as the padroni do in the case of unskilled male laborers. * F. A. Kellor, " Immisration and Household Labor," in Charities, vol. 12, pp. 151-2, 'Feb. 6, 1904) 20 Immigration and Emigration C. RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND POLITICAL OPPRESSION In the early settlement of the country, religious and political persecution had no small part in promoting im» migration. The flight of the Pilgrims from England, of the Quakers to Pennsylvania, and of the Huguenots ex- pelled by Louis XIV., are well known Zo everyone. Again, after the revolution of 1848 in Germany, and after the partition of Poland, many political refugees came to this country and helped build up our Middle States. At the present time comparatively few instances of persecution, whether on account of political or re> ligious opinions, take place. The chief exceptions are the cases of the Armenians fleeing from Turkey and the Jews coming from Russia to avoid oppressive legisla- tion. But even in the case of the Jews, it is probable that the numbers fleeing from actual persecution are relatively small, and that the bulk of immigration comes from fear of persecution and to escape the grinding op- pression which, however hard to bear, is not to be con- fused with the fanatical outbreaks of slaughter and violence. The history of Russian legislation affecting the Jews is a long one and cannot be adequately treated here.* One of the principal objects of the Russian government is to Russianize all subjects of the Czar, and this implies as an ideal the universal dominion of the Greek Ortho- dox Church as well as of the State. It should, therefore, be borne in mind in speaking of the question of the Rus- sian Jew, that the Polish Roman Catholics are quite as much oppressed in Russia as the Jews themselves. The recent attempts to Russianize Finland have resulted in the emigration of large numbers of Stundists, Doukho- bors, and others. The general policy of Russia is to " See Major W. Evans-Gordon, The Alien Immigrant. The Causes of Immigration 21 restrict the Jews within a circumscribed territory, in- cluding what was formerly the kingdom of Poland and certain contiguous western provinces. This, known as the Jewish Pale, was first established in 1786. In 1897 the number of Jews in the Russian Empire according to the census was 5,189,401 ; of these, 1,316,576 were in Poland, and 3,607,373 were in Russia. A few espe- cially favored classes, amounting to a small percentage of the total, are allowed to reside outside the Pale. Under the " May Laws," often mentioned in this connection, enacted in 1882, all the Jews, except those who could prove a right of residence in small towns and villages, were obliged to move into the large towns. The May Laws have thus created the Ghetto conditions in Russia, and have caused much of the Hebrew emigration since they were passed. The congestion in the cities and large towns has resulted not only in disease, but in over- crowding industries and lowering the standard of living. This result is intensified by the fact that only a few occu- pations are open to the Jews, and that public work, including transportation and its branches, is entirely closed to them. Roumania was created a kingdom by the Treaty of Berlin, which especially stipulated for the complete civil and religious liberty of the Jews. The Roumanian government, however, has since surpassed even the Russian in its oppressive laws.* If the oft- promised liberal reforms should take place in Russia, Jewish emigration from that country might consider- ably diminish. On the other hand, the Aliens Rill recently enacted by Great Britain is likely to turn many of the most undesirable of this race to the United States. • For further details see Dr. Richard Gottheil, in World's Work, pp. 3689-3693 (July, 1903). The article also contains «, sketch of anti-semitism in other countries. 22 Immigration and Emigration Most of the 8,581,000 Jews still in Europe are in Russia, Austria, the Balkan States and Germany, and are subject to more or less unfavorable discrimination. They may, therefore, at any time still further increase the number now in this country. The fear that an anti-semitic feeling may arise in the United States, if Hebrew immigration keeps its present level, is leading some Jewish leaders to try to check the influx and to divert immigration to other countries. D. FACILITY OF TRANSIT It is obvious that the cost and the degree of hardship involved in coming to this country must be an important factor in determining the volume of immigration at any particular time. The great change which has come over conditions of immigration in this respect is well de- scribed by General Francis A. Walker ' as follows : " Fifty, even thirty, years ago, there was a rightful presumption regarding the average immigrant that he was among the most enterprising, thrifty, alert, ad- venturous, and courageous, of the community from which he came. It required no small energy, prudence, forethought, and pains to conduct the inquiries relating to his migration, to accumulate the necessary means, and to find his way across the Atlantic. To-day the presump- tion is completely reversed. So thoroughly has the Continent of Europe been crossed by railways, so effec- tively has the business of emigration there been ex- ploited, so much have the rates of railroad fares and ocean passage been reduced, that it is now among the least thrifty and prosperous members of any European community that the emigration agent finds his best re- cruiting-ground. The care and pains required have been Discussions in Economics and Statistics, vol. 2, p. 446. Cp. Bryce, American Commonwealth, vol. 2, p. 726. The Causes of Immigration 23 reduced to a minimum ; while the agent of the Red Star Line or the White Star Line is everywhere at hand, to suggest migration to those who are not getting on well at home. The intending emigrants are looked after from the moment they are locked into the cars in their native village until they stretch themselves upon the floors of the buildings on Ellis Island, in New York. Illustra- tions of the ease and facility with which this Pipe Line Immigration is now carried on might be given in profusion." In 1900 over $118,000,000 was invested in trans- atlantic steamship lines, and these to-day are largely owned by foreigners. The multiplication of lines, espe- cially the new ones to the Mediterranean, the increase in the number of sailings, and the size of the ships, have all made it easier and cheaper for an immigrant to come to this country. The sea formerly acted as a sieve, now the meshes let through every species of voyager. Fur- thermore, in spite of the consolidation of many lines into the International Mercantile Marine Company, there is still, as there always has been, a certain amount of rate cutting which gives an exceptional opportunity for the immigration of the poorer classes. For example, in July, 1894, the Cunard, White Star, Hamburg-American, and American Lines charged from South Liverpool or Lon- don to New York $15, and for the return trip $10. In the summer of 1904, a rate war resulted in the reduction of the steerage passage from Liverpool to New York to $8.75, and from London or Liverpool to Quebec to $10. The American Line for a short time carried pas- sengers to Philadelphia for $7.50. Of course, these rate wars are usually of short duration, and, since 1880, numerous pooling and other agreements have been effected to maintain a high level of rates, in fact to keep them considerably above what they were in 1880. Thus, 24 Immigration and Emigration in 1901, the rate from Naples to New York was $28, from Bremen $36.50, and from Antwerp $29.50.* Never- theless, the general tendency of steerage rates in recent times has been to become lower, and this could hardly be otherwise, considering the competition and the dimin- ished cost of carrying immigrants. The food consumed during the voyage costs less than $1.50 a day, and the immigrant is the cheapest kind of cargo to carry, for he loads and unloads himself and his baggage. From 1859 to 1882 the average steerage rate as indicated in Boston and London newspapers was about $30. Be- ginning with January i, 1883. the price was reduced to about $21. In 1885, it was once more reduced to $15; but in 1886 it rose to $25. Special railroad rates are usually made in connection with steamship steerage rates, both to interior points in this country and in Europe from the immigrant's home to the seaboard. These likewise are subject to fluctuations from time to time. In 1896, the immigrant rate from New York to Chicago was only $13. Before the formation of the International Mercantile ^Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. xiv. In 1904 the steerage rates from the countries named below to New York, as reported hy our consuls, were as follows, i.e. $5 to $8 higher than in former years, according to Special Consular Re- ports, vol. 30: Austria-Hungary (Fiume to New York) $38-41 Belgium (Antwerp) 17-36 France (Havre) 35 Greece (Piraeus) 35 Italy (Naples) 27-39 Denmark (Copenhagen) 32-35 Norway (Christiania) 32-36 Spain (Barcelona) 49 England (Liverpool) 25-38 Japan (Yokohama to San Francisco) 33 The rate from this country to Europe is generally from $2 tu $5 less than in the reverse direction. The Causes of Immigration 25 Marine Company and its understandings with other lines, and to some extent since, the steerage rates have been fixed in Europe by the companies for the purpose of avoiding rate cutting and undue competition. There are three " conferences " of transatlantic lines — the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Continental.^ By means of these, rates were forced up to the figures given for 1901 ; but even at that point they were much lower than they were twenty years earlier. It is admitted by the steamship companies that rates cannot be advanced much more without a falling off in traffic. But low rates alone do not seem to have a very powerful effect in stimulating immigration. As has been said, steamship lines are being extended to ports with which we had but little or no direct com- munication a few years ago. Every such extension means more immigrants. Italians have increased notice- ably in Boston since the Dominion Line steamers first be- gan to run thence to Mediterranean ports. The Cunard Line also has recently undertaken a fight for a share of the Mediterranean steerage traffic, and has even gone so far as to get the Hungarian government to guarantee that 30,000 immigrants a year would ship from its terri- tory. This brings us to the next point to be considered, the methods used by the steamship companies to obtain passengers. E. SOLICITATION BY STEAMSHIP AGENTS*" The present law forbids transportation companies or the owners of vessels to " directly or through agents, either by writing, printing or oral solicitations, solicit, * See Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. iqp- 109, 118. ^0 Cp. infra, chapter xi., c. 26 Immigration and Emigration invite or encourage the immigration of any aliens into the United States except b)' ordinary commercial letters, cir- culars, advertisements or oral representations, stating the sailings of their vessels and terms and facilities of trans- portation therein." Nevertheless, there is no doubt that a large part of the present emigration is neither spon- taneous nor normal. It is rather a process of artificial selection of population on the part of the steamship com- panies, who induce whomever they can to emigrate, pro- vided the person is reasonably sure to pass inspection. Indeed, the companies have not always stopped here. The practice of requiring the payment of double passage money from immigrants, making a profit on the return trip if they were rejected, and keeping the return passage money if they were admitted, at one time be- came so common that the Italian government was obliged to pass a law giving the immigrant a right of action to recover the money for the return passage. Since the act of March 3, 1903, imposing upon any steamship company bringing a diseased alien a fine of $100, it is alleged that in some cases not only the return passage money but the amount of the fine has been de- manded ; then the immigrant has been brought on the chance of his getting in. These extreme, and it is to be hoped unusual, cases are mentioned in this place to show the great competition which exists in getting the immigrant business. The number of regularly employed and paid steamship agents in Europe is enormous. The Red Star Line alone formerly had 1500 of them. But in addition to the regu- lar agents, who are supplied with copies of the American immigration laws and are supposed to enforce them, there are thousands of other persons in the smaller towns in the interior of Europe who act as agents by making The Causes of Immigration 27 a commission on the sale of tickets. It is claimed by the steamship companies that these men are entirely un- known to them, that they have no control over their acts, and are not responsible for the representations they may make. In many cases this is no doubt true. Never- theless, the companies are partly responsible for allow- ing- tickets to be sold at a discount or by other persons than their regular agents. It seems, moreover, true that many immigrants have been induced to sell their little farms or houses and frequently to expend their whole capital in coming to the United States, on the representa- tions of agents, or persons working under them, as to the fabulous wealth of this country, the ease of accumu- lating a fortune, and the amount of public land to be had for the asking. The present writer has more than once seen immigrants throw their cooking utensils overboard in an American harbor believing that all they had to do was to pick up news ones on reaching land. In addition to the solicitations of the countless steam- ship agents and sub-agents abroad, there is perhaps an equal and more eflfective pressure by steamship agents in this country. As has already been shown, a con- siderable proportion of immigrants come to this country on prepaid tickets ; and no doubt the wish of those here to send for friends or relatives is often made concrete and effective by the solicitation of some drummer-up of business in the resident's neighborhood. F. ASSISTED IMMIGRATION In the earlier periods of European history, emigra- tion was not favored, inasmuch as it was a distinct loss to the industrial and military powers of the various nations. Toward the end of the eighteenth and the be- ginning of the nineteenth century, for example, various 28 Immigration and Emigration cantonal governments of Switzerland forbade emigra- tion entirely. At a later time, the increase of popula- tion, combined with the enormous pressure of military taxation, created a desire to emigrate on the part of many citizens of the more populous countries. Although with the people it has been the desire to escape from hard economic conditions and from military service which has led them to seek new homes in the colonies of their own country or in the United States, the object of the governments has been a different one. The gov- ernments, like the people, have realized the advantages of a certain amount of emigration ; but they have desired to limit it to such members of the community as were undesirable at home, and to keep the young and stal- wart citizens within the country for reasons which are chiefly military. With this object in view, although emigration is nowhere totally prohibited at the present time, European governments have placed much red tape and many regulations in the way of intending emigrants. Thus, in Italy, able-bodied young men must have served in the army before emigration is possible. The practical result is that more Italians than Frenchmen emigrate from France. For some time Austria took very stringent measures to prevent emigration, with the result that, whenever collusion with the police was not feasible, men walked a hundred miles by devious and obscure routes and byw^ays to escape the gendarmes. In some cases, as the result of representations made by the United States, these governments have undertaken to prevent the emi- 1* See report of Consul-General Jiissen as to Austrian emigra- tion (1886); Special Consular Report on European Emigration by F. L. Dingley, p. 248 et passim, (1890) ; Special Consular Reports, vol. 30 (1904); J. D. Whelpley, The Problem of tht Immigrant, The Causes of Immigration 29 gration of convicts and other undesirable persons; but, as a practical matter, those who are undesirable find much less difficulty in escaping and finding passage to this country. In general, too, it may be said that foreign nations have been only too glad to get rid of the economic bur- den of their dependent and delinquent citizens. During the nineteenth centur}' there were many instances where governments, especially municipal and local governments, adopted the plan of shipping paupers, insane, and dis- eased persons to the United States. As the average cost of supporting dependents and delinquents in the United States is not far from $150 per capita a year, and as the cost of transporting such a person from Europe to th.e United States would in most cases not exceed $50, the gain to the home country adopting a policy of ex- porting their undesirable citizens is obvious. During the latter half of the last century the Swiss governments were especial ofifenders in this respect. "phg same was true of Great Britain and Ireland. The British Local Government Board has had the right since 1834 to use money raised by taxes to assist poor persons and pau- pers to emigrate, and their report for 1886 shows that, in the preceding thirty-five years, over 40,000 persons had been sent out of the country, and three-quarters of a million of dollars expended in that way. The poor law guardians in Ireland were enabled in 1849 to borrow money to assist emigration, then thought to be a solu- tion for the conditions resulting from the famine. The Land Act of 1881 authorized loans of $1,000,000 to assist emigration, and the Acts of 1882 and 1883 authorized $1,000,000 more. In 1884 and 1885, over 16,000 persons were sent from Gahvay and Mayo counties in Ireland 12 Mayo- Smith, p. 170. 30 Immigration and Emigration by the government, which also assisted the Tuke Com- mittee, a private philanthropic enterprise, in the emigra- tion of half as many more. The United States government protested from time to time against this action," and, when the protests were ignored, resorted to legislation, excluding certain classes of aliens. Thus the Act of 1875 forbade the landing of persons who were undergoing a sentence for conviction in their own country for felonious crimes other than political, or whose sentence had been remitted on condition of their emigration. The Act of 1882 excluded persons unable to take care of themselves without becoming public charges ; and since 1891, assisted immigrants have been especially mentioned in the law in addition to the other classes to which many of those previously assisted belonged. Thus, in addition to idiots, insane persons, epileptics, persons likely to become a public charge, professional beggars and convicts, the present law excludes " any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another, or is assisted by others to come, unless it is affirmatively and satisfactorily shown that such per- son does not belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes ; but this section shall not be held to prevent persons living in the United States from sending for a relative or friend who is not of the foregoing excluded classes." In spite of these provisions, however, large numbers of dependents and delinquents are undoubtedly even now assisted, both by public and private agencies, to come to the United States. It is said, for example, that Foreign Relations with the United States, 1879-1889, Corre- spondence with Mr. Fish, charge des affaires at Berne; Corre- spondence Relating to the Right of the United States of Dc porting Aliens and State-Assisted Emigrants, London, 1887. The Causes of Immigration 31 though the British government itself has discontinued giving wholesale aid to criminals and paupers, the local authorities still endeavor to pass them along from their respective jurisdictions, and that many finally emigrate to the United States, especially through Canada. ^* The number of persons assisted to emigrate by societies and associations is doubtless far larger than that assisted by general or local governments. Mention of some of these societies has already been made. The Baron Hirsch Fund, the Jewish Board of Guardians, the Self-Help Emigration Society of London, the Prisoners' Aid Society, the Munich Society for Assisting Dis- charged Convicts, are merely examples of numerous agencies which have been at work for longer or shorter periods in this direction. But, after all, the great proportion of assisted immi- grants are helped by relatives or friends in this country. The Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the New York State 'Board of Charities ( 1894) , p. xx, says : " During the ten years from 1883 to 1893, tlie expenditures have doubled, showing a ratio of increase nearly four times greater than that of the State's population. Such a disparity excites apprehension that the attractiveness and scope of our systems of relief may draw inmates from abroad, a possibility that may be considered in connection with the statement that 60 to 70 per cent, of foreign-born persons is not an unusual esti- mate of residents in them." Again, on p. Ixv, in speaking of alien paupers sent back to Europe during the year, it is said : " The examinations showed that they were intentionally de- ported from their several homes in Europe and their passage paid to this country by the following agencies, vis: By cities and towns 5 ; by various charitable and benevolent associations and societies and immigration agencies 47 ; by relatives, guardians and friends 46; by contractors under agreement to labor 30; total 128." Cp. "European Emigration" by F. L. Dingley, in Special Consular Reports, (1890). 32 Immigration and Emigration The amount of money sent abroad for this purpose is enormous ; and the steamship companies have been quick to recognize this factor in promoting their busi- ness. The result is, that there is a large number of agents in all parts of this country, engaged in stimulat- ing emigration. In the case of the German lines, nearly every German settlement in the United States has steam- ship agents, who are often the editors of German news- papers and leading members of German societies. Simi- lar conditions exist in respect to the other lines. Mayo- Smith states that in 1890 the Inman Line had 3400, and the Anchor Line 2500 such agents ; and that the number of prepaid passages ranged from 10 to 50 per cent. As an agent makes a commission of about three dollars on each prepaid ticket sold, the inducement to develop this branch of the business, through the employment of boarding-house keepers, liquor dealers and others in touch with the people, as agents and sub-agents, is ap- parent. Agents in America, however, often have rela- tions with correspondents abroad, and undertake to care for immigrants upon their arrival and to find work for them, thereby nullifying to a large extent the provi- sions of the contract labor law. Some agents in Europe have made a specialty of shipping immigrants unfit to pass inspection at American ports to Canada, and later smuggling them across the border. Those who are interested in this method of evading the law will find the details in the report of Inspector Marcus Braun, in the Commissioner-General's Reports for 1903 and 1904.^^ 15 See infra, chapter iv., a. The Dingley Consular Report says : " The enormous sums of money which the United States is sending annually to Europe by ' prepaids ' are the basis of the prosperity of great fleets of foreign steamships." See also infra, chapter xi., e, and House Reports, 50th Cong., 2d Sess., No. 3792 (Report of Ford Committee). The Causes of Immigration 23 It is apparent, too, that, in the case of the unfit, assist- ance in the form of coaching to pass the inspection, and information as to easy routes to enter the country, may be of as much value to the immigrant and detriment to the United States as assistance in money, against which the act is specifically directed. But in many instances both kinds of assistance are used, and fraud is the means of making the prepaid ticket available. G. OTHER CAUSES There are many other factors in the fluctuation of immigration, such as war, epidemics with the resulting quarantine, and the development or extinction of particu- lar industries requiring a special kind of labor. The development of fruit-growing in California, for ex- ample, has led to the immigration of many Italians into that State. One of the most important causes, however, and one very little noticed, is the protective tariflf.^" The tariff has the eflfect not only of developing certain industries in this country, but of shutting out foreign goods from our market in these industries. It creates, therefore, a demand for certain kinds of labor, and at the same time it destroys the demand for certain sorts of foreign goods. The moment you make the tariff high enough, especially if the labor in protected industries is well organized, and the rate of wages high, the goods will be shut out and the producers of the goods will come in. Mention may also be made of the influence of new machinery upon immigration. In the earlier days of the country many hands were needed for the building of 17 Cp. J. R. Commons, in Chautauquan, vol. 39, p. 20, (Marcji, 1904) ; Mayo-Smith, p. 128. 34 Immigration and Emigration railways, the digging of canals and sewers, the construc- tion of public works and the running of mills and fac- tories. To-day, the steam shovel and excavator, the concrete mixing machine, and the construction railway accomplish with a few men more than could be done with thousands fifty years ago. Electrical coal-cutting machinery is producing the same result in the mines. Modern appliances have reduced the number of opera- tives in cotton and woolen mills to one-third of those formerly employed, and the writer is informed that, in the near future, less than one-tenth of the former num- ber of employees will be needed for the same amount of work. Machinery has chiefly diminished the need for skilled labor. A relatively unskilled person can tend machines to-day which do the work formerly done by several skilled operatives. This brings us to still another factor in the volume of immigration, at least of the higher class. It has been noted that where there is an over-supply of skilled labor in a period of depression, it tends to fall into the un- skilled class. If there is also an excess of the unskilled, the position of the higher artisan is hard indeed. Even within the skilled class, the single man, and the man with a low standard of living, tends to supplant the mar- ried man and the one with the higher standard of living. Whenever there is a large immigration to the United States of unskilled labor, skilled labor hesitates to enter into a possible competition with it, and the result is that foreign skilled labor either stays at home or emigrates to some other country. The falling off of skilled immi- gration from northwestern Europe in recent years is un- doubtedly due to this cause. Skilled British labor, for example, prefers to go to Canada, Australia, or South Africa, where the higher steerage rate and the longer The Causes of Immigration 35 voyage protect it against the competition of the kinds of workingmen we have recently received in large numbers. The same is true of the diversion of German emigration to South America. A corollary from this principle is that freedom of immigration does not necessarily in- crease the volume, though it may change the quality, and, conversely, a careful selection of immigration may stimu- late the emigration of the selected classes. Another element, which has undoubtedly had a potent efifect in promoting immigration in recent years, espe- cially from Italy and other countries of southern Europe, has been the fear of restrictive legislation, and the desire to get in before its enactment.^* This probably accounts in part for the increase in the immigration of 1896 as compared with 1895, for the agitation for an illiteracy test reached a climax in the former year, and, except for a presidential veto, the bill would have been law. The same cause was undoubtedly at work in 1903-4 ; for the report of the Italian Commissioner-General of Emigra- tion for that year contemplated the enactment of such a law and recommended further public education in order to forestall it.^^ Other agencies of less importance in promoting immi- gration are the advertisements in Europe of American railway companies and boards of agriculture of Ameri- can States, and the missionary efforts of the Mormon Church.2o 18 Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 167-169. 1® Report of Vice Co4isul Byington at Naples to Dept. of Commerce. -° Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 67. CHAPTER III RACIAL CONDITIONS OF IMMIGRATION* A. HISTORY OF CHANGES IN RACIAL CONDITIONS It would be hard to determine whether the volume of immigration or its racial composition is the more im- portant element in the progress of our population. Each is of great weight, and when combined, as in the advent of large masses of a particular race, they cannot fail to leave a permanent and visible mark upon our people, if, indeed, they do not result in a radical modification of our instincts and a total reconstruction of our institutions. The first considerable addition to our population after the adoption of the Constitution, as has already been shown, was due to the hard times in Ireland and to polit- ical agitation in the German States, causes which re- sulted in a very large emigration from those countries in the years from 1841 to i860. In the decade 1841 to 1850 nearly one-half of the total immigration was Irish and one-quarter was German. Of the total immigration in the following decade, one-third was likewise Irish and more than one-third was German. However much social prejudice there may have been 1 See John R. Commons, " Colonial Race Elements," in Chau- tauqnan, vol. 38, pp. 118-125 (Oct. 1903); "Immigration During the Nineteenth Century," ibid., pp. 433-443 (Jan. 1904) ; Re- t>ort of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 259-277; vol 19, pp. 958-962. 36 Racial Conditions of Immigration 37 against the Irish and German immigrants of the forties and fifties, and although even that immigration tended to diminish the native stock, it remains true that, before 1870, immigration was chiefly of races kindred in habits, institutions and traditions to the original colonists. ^ Upon this point Mr. Lodge said, in addressing the Sen- ate March 16, 1896: " It will be observed that, with the exception of the Huguenot French, who formed but a small percentage of the total population, the people of the thirteen colonies were all of the same original race stocks. The Dutch, the Swedes, and the Germans, were simply blended with the English-speaking people, who like them were de- scended from the Germanic tribes whom Cxsar fought and Tacitus described. During the present century, down to 1875, there have been three large migrations to this country in addition to the always steady stream from Great Britain ; one came from Ireland about the middle of the century, and somewhat later one from Germany, and one from Scandinavia, in which is in- cluded Sweden. Denmark and Norway. The Irish, although of a difTerent race stock originally, have been closely associated with the English-speaking people for nearly a thousand years. They speak the same language, and during that long period the two races have lived side by side and to some extent have intermarried. The Germans and the Scandinavians are again people of the same race stock as the English who built up the colonies. During this century then, down to 1875, as in the two which preceded it, there had been scarcely any immigra- tion to this country except from kindred or allied races, and no other which was sufficiently numerous to have produced any effect on the national characteristics, or to be taken into account here." Thus if a line were drawn from north to south across ^ Cf. Ret>ort of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 268- 275; vol. 19, pp. 958-962. 38 Immigration and Emigration Europe it would be found that the countries of western Europe, that is to say Great Britain, Ireland, France, Germany and Scandinavia, furnished more than three- fourths of the total immigration from all countries be- fore 1880. Eastern Europe, including Austria-Hungary, Italy, Poland, and Russia, furnished less than one per cent. How marked the change in nationality has been, is shown by the fact that in 1869 not one per cent, of the total immigration came from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Poland and Russia; in 1902 the percentage was over 70. On the other hand, in 1869 nearly three-quarters of the total immigration came from the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Scandinavia.^ In 1902 only one- fifth was from those countries. Or, to put it in another way : in 1869 the immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Italy, Poland and Russia were about one-hundredth of the number from the United Kingdom, France, Ger- many and Scandinavia; in 1880, about one-tenth; in 1894 nearly equal to it; in 1902 three and one-half times as great. In 1903, the largest element in immigration was the South Italian, with 196,117 souls, and the next largest was the Polish, with 82,343. Considering the immigration of 1904 by the great racial divisions we have the following result, in striking contrast to the days when immigration was almost entirely Teutonic and Keltic : 8 See Kendric C. Babcock, " The Scandina%'ians in the North* west," in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 103-109 (Sept. 1892). Racial Conditions of Immigration 39 Immigration by Racial Divisions, 1904 Per cent, of Total Number Immigration Slavic 272,396 335 Teutonic 195,287 24.0 Iberic 186,607 22.9 Keltic 98,635 12. 1 Mongolic 20,616 2.5 All others 39.329 4-8 Another way of looking at the subject is by compar- ing the total immigration of certain nationalities for the period 1821 to 1902 with that for the year 1903.* 1821 to 1901 190; Country Number Per cent. Number Per cent. Austria-Hungary. . . . 1,316,914 6.5 206,011 24.0 England, Wales. . . . 2.739.937 13 4 26.210 3.0 Germany 5.098,005 24.9 40,086 4-7 Ireland 3,944.269 19.3 35. .300 4.1 Italy 1.358.597 6.7 230.622 26.9 Norway, Sweden... 1.334,931 66 70,489 8.2 Russia, Poland 1,106,362 5-4 136,093 iS-9 British N. America. 1,050,682 5-1 The foregoing table shows not only the nations which have added chiefly to our population in the past, and v.'hich are adding to-day, but how the percentage of each has varied in the period before 1903 compared with 1903. If the same proportions had obtained in the earlier period as during the later how dififerent might our country and its institutions now be ! Further light on racial conditions is furnished (i) by a comparison of the number of the foreign-born in this country at the time of the last two censuses, and (2) their relative increase during the decade- The facts are shown in the following tables : ♦ Bureau of Statistics, Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p viii (1904). 40 Immigration and Emigration (i) Foreign-born in the United States, 1890 and 1900, by BIRTHPLACES.' 1890 igoo Per Per Number cent. Number cent. North and South America 1,088,245 11.76 1,318.913 12.73 Great Britain and Ireland 3,I22,QII 33.76 2,788.304 26.92 Qermany 2.784.894 30- 1 1 2,666,990 2575 Scandinavian nations . . . 933.249 10.09 1,064,309 10.28 510.625 5.52 1,173,210 1 1.33 Tf n 1ir Io2,^oO 1.90 484,207 4.67 113,383 1.23 120,862 1. 17 5X3,660 5.55 739,849 7'5 9,249,547 100.00 10,356,644 100.00 (2) Increase of the FOREIGN-BORN, BY BIRTHPLACES, 1890 TO 1900. Per cent, of Per cent, of aggregate number increase of found foreign- Number In 1890 born North and South America 230.668 21.2 20.8 Great Britain and Ireland *334,6o7 *I0.7 *30.2 * II 7,904 * 4.2 *io.6 14.0 11.8 Slav nations 662,585 129.8 59-8 Italy 301,627 165.2 27.2 7479 6.6 0.7 All others 226,189 44.0 20.4 Total increase, excluding United Kingdom and Germany 1,559,608 Decrease, United Kingdom and Germany 452,511 Net increase 1,107,097 •Decrease. ' So far as a classification of nationalities has been attempted, that of the census of 1890 has been followed. The Scandinavian nations include Norway, Sweden, and Denmark ; the Slav na- tions, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, and Finland, Natives of Finland are returned separately in the census of 1900, but seem to have been included among natives of Russia in that of 189a Racial Conditions of Immigration 41 It will be noted that the natives of Slavic countries in- creased 130 per cent., those of Italy 165 per cent., and those of Scandinavian countries 14 per cent. On the other hand, the natives of Germany diminished 4 per cent., and those of the United Kingdom over 10 per cent. The increase of Italians amounted to more than a quarter of the aggregate increase of the foreign-born, and the increase of natives of Slavic countries amounted to 60 per cent, of the aggregate. Meantime there was a decrease of natives of Germany to the extent of 10 per cent., and a decrease of natives of the United Kingdom to the extent of 30 per cent. B. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS RACES The limits of the present volume forbid anything more than a cursor}' survey of the chief characteristics of the most important races forming our immigration. Im- migrants of the same race come to us from such different surroundings, and under such varying conditions that the task of generalization is often diflficult ; and for de- tails the reader must consult special studies made in the homes of the various nationalities in this country Armenians. The Armenians, who are rather recent arrivals, began to come both because of Turkish perse- cution and of new steamship communication with the Levant. Missionaries and sympathizers in the United * See generally W. Evans-Gordon, The Alien Immigrant; Report of Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1903, pp. 1-130, "Race in Industry"; F. A. Bushee, "Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," in Publications of the American Eco- nomic Associations, Third Series, vol. 4, No. 2 (May, 1903) ; Peter Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities; Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15 (see index) ; Dr. Allan Mc- Laughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 63, p. 25 (May, 1903) ; 42 Immigration and Emigration States have also done much to encourage their immigra- tion. The total number arriving in 1904 was 1745, most of whom were destined to Massachusetts, Rhode Island and New York. A considerable part were shoe- makers, tailors, bakers and weavers, and the balance chiefly laborers and servants. They showed about twenty-three dollars p>er capita, but only one-tenth brought fifty dollars or more. Of those over four- teen years of age, 21.9 per cent, were illiterate. Some of the Armenian merchants are fairly intelli- gent and are not undesirable immigrants. On the other hand, many of the lower class are extremely objection- able. Their standards of living and of morals are low, and they tend to form small colonies in manufacturing centres. Some take up the occupations of cigarette mak- ing and peddling. On the whole they are not desirable immigrants. Canadians. Immigration from Canada consists of two very different classes : the British element, composed of immigrants from England. Scotland, and Ireland, and their descendants ; and the French element. No reliable statistics are at hand as to the numbers or conditions of either class. The British Canadians are in many re- spects similar to native Americans, but they have fewer defectives and fewer criminals in serious crimes. Their skill is not as great as that of the English and Scotch, and the perpetual migration which goes on back and vol. 65, pp. 341-349 (Aug. 1904) ; vol. 65. pp. 432-442 (Sept. 1904) ; S[>ccial Consular Reports, vol. 30 (1904) ; John R. Commons, " Racial Composition of the American People," in Chautauquan, vols. 38 and 39 (Sept 1903 to J^lay, 1904) ; A. H. Hyde, "The Foreign Element in American Civilization," in Forum, vol. 52, PP- 387-399 (Jan. 1898) ; Seventh Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, (1894) ; W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe. Racial Conditions of Immigration 43 forth from Canada tends to make them less reliable and steady in their work. The French Canadian element is entirely different both from the British Canadian and from the modern French. The general intelligence of these people is much less than of the British Canadians and they perform a lower grade both of skilled and un- skilled labor. The birth rate is very high among them ; they seem likely to increase as fast as or faster than any other element of our population. Their standard of living is very low, and, as they often regard their stay in the United States as temporary, they do not at- tempt to improve it. On account of their willingness to underbid other labor they are very unpopular in New England, the section in which they are chiefly employed. Whole families work in the mills and other manufactur- ing establishments. In the absence of factory legisla- tion, the tendency of the race is to work its young children and to labor very long hours. Many of the French Canadians are also employed in lumbering, not only in New England but in Michigan and the other border States ; and, on the whole, they make excellent laborers in this industry. They do not, however, by any means take the place in the social life of the community of those whom they drive out. They fail to educate their children and they lower the average of intelligence and morality. English. In 1904 we received from England 41,479 immigrants. Of the professional division, the largest classes were actors and engineers. Among the skilled division, clerks, sailors, engineers and miners predomi- nated, and by far the largest of any of the classes was that of domestic servants. The average money shown was sixty-five dollars per capita ; the illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 1.3 per cent. The immi' 44 Immigration and Emigration grants were destined chiefly for New York, Massachu- setts, Pennsylvania and California, the balance being well distributed among the other States. English immigrants come from two very different classes. The better is well educated, brings consider- able money, and makes a valuable addition to our popu- lation. Many of this class are skilled workingmen or professional and commercial men. On the other hand, there is much immigration of the lowest class, includ- ing numerous defectives and delinquents who find it to their advantage to leave their native towns. Dr. Bushee remarks that the English are perhaps the least readily assimilated of any of the English-speaking nationalities, because though they mix readily with the native popula- tion they hold tenaciously to their national character- istics.^ Emigration from England has fallen off in re- cent years ; partly on account of trade conditions, and partly because the stream is going elsewhere. Except where immigrants have friends or relatives in the United States they are likely to go to Canada, both because the advantages of that country are being continually adver- ;ised and because of the Imperialistic sentiment. Never- iheless in certain sections of England, such as Corn- jvall, the decline of the native industries is driving many persons to the United States. The English working- ynan, as a rule, has not as high a standard of sobriety or economy as the American, but he tends in a short time to conform to the latter's standard. Owing to the greater iTheapness and ease of transportation it is said that the class of inferior immigrants tends to increase. Finns. Finnish immigration, owing to economic and ®" "Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," in Publications f the American Economic Associatioiij Third Series, vol. 4, No ^p. 153 (May, 1903). Racial Conditions of Immigration 45 political troubles at home, has increased during the last two years. In 1904, it amounted to 10,157 souls. The principal destinations of these immigrants were Michi- gan, New York and Massachusetts. They were prac- tically all unskilled, though there was a sprinkling of artisans among them. They showed about twenty dol- lars per capita, and the illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 2.7 per cent. Most of the Finns go to the country districts and espe- cially to the Northwest. Colonies, however, are forming to some extent in the smaller cities where quarrying and similar kinds of labor are engaged in. The farm laborers are generally intelligent and well-trained, and find employment easily, especially as they seldom leave home without having friends here to help them to find work. They are Protestant in religion. Immigration from Finland may be said to be in a normal condition as contrasted with the countries where the solicitation of the steamship companies has gathered all sorts of natives for transportation to the United States. French.^'^ Immigration from France, which has never been very large, reached a low point in 1899. Since then, owing to the difficulty of obtaining work in Europe, it has risen again to its normal size. The total in 1904 was 11.557 immigrants, whose destinations were very generally distributed. Next to New York and Pennsyl- vania, California appeared to be the favorite State. Among them were a considerable number of clergymen, artists, engineers and teachers, also of dressmakers, miners and servants. They showed an average of about seventy dollars per capita, and more than one-half of those who brought money exhibited over fifty dollars, See Spcctal Consular Reports, vol. 30, pp. 20-36. 4-6 Immigration and Emigration The illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 3.2 per cent. The French immigrants are noted for their intelli- gence, education and thrift, and are in every way desirable additions to the population. The French gov- ernment has been making great efforts to divert emigra- tion to the colonies, especially to Algeria and Tunis. The peasantry has come to the United States chiefly by way of Canada. The present French emigrants, like the early Huguenot settlers, are chiefly of the middle and upper classes. Germans}'^ Germans settled in Pennsylvania as early as 1682, in what is now called Germantown, and from that time to the present the stream of German immigra- tion has been constant. In 1904 the total was 74,790 persons, the third largest element in the whole immi- gration of that year. The principal destinations were New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, jNIissouri, Wisconsin and New Jersey. Of the professional division, the prin- cipal classes were teachers, musicians and engineers. Among skilled laborers, bakers, clerks, carpenters, miners and tailors were the most numerous. The largest class of German emigrants in 1902, as regards occupation, was that engaged in farming and forestry ; the next largest was engaged in mechanical and building trades, with domestic service, commerce, and insurance next in order.^'- The average money shown in 1904 was forty-eight dollars ; the illiteracy of immigrants over fourteen years of age was 4.8 per cent. The German immigrants are thrifty and industrious. Besides helping to settle Pennsylvania and the Middle '^'^ Report of tlie Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 326-461; E. A. Steiner, in Outlook, vol. 73, pp. 260-264 (Jan. 31, 1903). Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 39 (1904). Racial Conditions of Immigration 47 States, they have taken the lead in estabhshing numerous industries. Curiously enough, although the Germans were the first prohibitionists in this country, the modern Gennans have largely developed the brewing industry- They have tended to congregate largely in certain sec- tions — sixty per cent, of the population of Milwaukee is German. They have a strong love of their native country, and keep alive their native language and habits by political, musical, and social organizations. Many magazines and newspapers are published in German, but, as a rule, the traditions of the German intellectual Ufe have not been maintained. In general, the Germans are of good physique and en- courage athletic sports and physical training among their children. They are, also, good-natured and given to enjoying life. Perhaps their chief danger in this country is from the money-making spirit, and their success in all mechanical pursuits makes this materialism especially attractive to them. The proverbial neatness of German homes is a pleasant contrast to those of some other na- tionalities. A few of the poorer Germans drift from the country districts to the large cities, where they take up rag picking and similar occupations. From their very thrift, they frequent the dirtiest and most objec- tionable parts of the city slums, or else contribute to the " shanty " or squatter population found, for example, in the outlying districts of New York.^^ German immigrants bring with them a fair amount of money, and, more important, they come with the inten- tion of settling permanently in the country. As a rule they are much freer from intemperance than the British ; and, indeed, the defective and delinquent classes among them are exceedingly small. In spite of the love for their ''^^ Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 461. , 48 Immigration and Emigration native language and customs, they assimilate rapidly, as is shown by their tendency to intermarry with other races, and to enter politics. The German vote in New York City already tends to supplant the Irish, and most of the German voters are intelligent and patriotic. The physical vigor and personal cleanliness for which the male immigrants are noted may be attributed in part to the military service which they are commonly obliged to perform before emigrating. A considerable propor- tion of the female immigrants go into domestic service. Greeks. Greek immigration, like other immigration from the Levant, has recently increased. In 1904 it amounted to 12,625 persons. Most of these were going to New York, Illinois, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. The proportion of professional persons was surprisingly small. Among the skilled, the principal classes were ma- chinists, blacksmiths, bakers, shoemakers, tailors and clerks ; but by far the greater part were unskilled laborers. The per capita money shown was about eighteen dollars, and the illiteracy of those over fourteen years was 23.6 per cent. Many of the Greeks, especially the boys and young men, come under contract to work for padroni in the peddling and boot-blacking trades. They are usually well coached and in that way evade the contract labor acts. Owing to the fact that they emigrate practically under contract they tend tp congregate in certain large cities and to live in very unhealthy surroundings. The percentage of trachoma and other contagious diseases among them is high ; many also are of poor physique. During the year 1903, one Greek out of every thirty landed was sent back as liable to become a public charge. Not a few of the immigrants are from rural districts and were, in their own country, agriculturists and shep- Racial Conditions of Immigration 49 herds. They are very patriotic, and, in most cases, come to this country with the intention of returning ; for that reason the immigrants are chiefly men, who leave their women behind to care for the farms and flocks until their return. Hebrews.^* It is estimated that there are approxi- mately 12,000,000 Jews in the world. Of these Europe contains 10,000,000 and the United States upwards of 1,100,000. Of those in Europe, Russia has 5,000,000; Austria-Hungary, nearly 2,000,000 ; Germany, 550,000 ; Great Britain, 200,000 ; Turkey and the Balkan States 500,000. More than one-half of the 1,100,000 Jews in the United States live within the confines of Greater New York. In 1904, of the 106,236 Hebrews coming to this coun- try, 77,500 were Russian, 20,000 Austro-Hungarian, 6500 Roumanian, 817 British, and 669 German. By far the greater portion were destined for New York, Massa- chusetts, Illinois, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Among the professional classes the most numerous were musi- cians and teachers, though only about one per cent, of the total immigration was engaged in professional occu- pations. Of the skilled classes, the most numerous were tailors, bakers, carpenters, clerks, locksmiths and 1* W. Evans-Gordon's The Alien Immigrant, gives the personal observations of a member of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration in the Jewish settlements in Russia, Austria and other European countries ; Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 348, 369, 465-492, SIC, 517; Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 65, pp. 432-438 (Sept. 1904) , K. H. Claghorn, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, pp. 196 ff. (July, 1904) ; Roger Mitchell, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 52, pp. 334-343 (Feb. 1903) ; Dr. Richard Gottheil, in World's Work, pp. 3689-3693 (July* 1903). 50 Immigration and Emigration painters. There was a total of 45,109 skilled as against 21,799 "miscellaneous," i.e., laborers, servants and the like. Notwithstanding that some Hebrews bring com- paratively large sums, the average money shown was extremely small — only fifteen dollars per capita. The illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 23.3 per cent. The fact that practically no German Jews are now coming to us seems due to the greater civil liberty which they enjoy as compared with their co-religionists in other countries. Although the Jews were originally an agricultural people, on reaching America the vast majority settle in large cities, — where previous immi- grants of their race are already located, — and take up small manufacturing under the sweat-shop system. The poor physique of Hebrew immigrants bars them from farming and other pursuits involving hard manual labor. They therefore take up tailoring, harness- making and the like, and have, till recently, practically controlled the clothing trade in New York City. Owing to the great congestion in the East Side of New York many of the Hebrews are unable to succeed in the strug- gle for economic independence. Forty-five per cent, of the applicants for relief at the Hebrew Charities in 1901 had been in the countn.- five years, and forty per cent, less than one year. The manager of the United Hebrew Charities also states that during that year from 75,000 to 100,000 members of the New York Jewish commu- nity were unable to supply themselves with the necessaries of life. It will be noticed that the latter number is about one-eleventh of all the Hebrews in the United States. It is said that whenever the Jew gets away from the Ghetto he succeeds, and great efforts are being made 15 Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the United Hebrew Chari- ties, (1901). Racial Conditions of Immigration 51 to distribute the recent immigration to agricultural regions. 1^ How far such attempts will be successful on a scale large enough to do any good remains to be seen. The passage of the British Aliens Bill is likely to result in our receiving a still worse class of Jewish immigrants, described by Arnold White as " incurable paupers." The Jews we have received hitherto have been, in general, industrious, of good mental ability, but liable to disease, especially tuberculosis, in the crowded life of our city slums. The longevity of the race and its freedom from acute disease, apart from this factor of city life, has often been noted ; so, also, is the freedom of the race from drunkenness and crimes of violence. The Jews have a keen personal ambition, and such lawbreaking as they do is usually in the breach of sanitary regulations or in trying to gain some monetary advantage by craft and deceit. Although the history of many of these immi- grants in Europe is something for which they are not responsible, it does not augur well for their future as American citizens. This is shown by the fact that the authorities of the Jewish settlements in South America cause their recruits to be " filtered " several times before accepting them.^^ The physical degeneration of the Jew in New York and Philadelphia has been accompanied to some extent by a moral and political degeneration. The report of the United Hebrew Charities above referred to states that " the vice and crime, the irreligious- ness, lack of self-restraint, indifference to social conventions, indulgence in the most degraded and perverted appetites are growing daily more pronounced and more offensive. " ^8 Report of the Industrial Com^nission, vol. 15, pp. 510-517; Report of the Industrial Removal Office, 1904. " W. Evans-Gordon, in World's Work, p. 3281 (April, 1903). 52 Immigration and Emigration Of course, this is not true of such Hebrews as have obtained a foothold and have achieved economic inde- pendence. The latter are generous, and do their best to help their co-religionists, although there is some friction between the German and the Russian Jews.^® As the Hebrew death rate is low, and the birth rate high, the race is likely to multiply. The family as an institution has a strong hold upon them, and their desire for race and religious purity tends to keep them from intermar- riage with other races, so that assimilation is often a mingling rather than a fusion. Irish}^ Immigration from Ireland, like that from other parts of the United Kingdom, has shown a great falling off in recent years — the arrivals formerly ranging from 50,000 to 70,000 a year. From 182 1 to 1902 Ire- land sent us almost four million immigrants, a number surpassed only by Germany. There were, moreover, in 1900, nearly five million persons in the United States hav- ing one or both parents Irish, or about half a million more than the population of Ireland itself in 1901. With some truth, therefore, it may be said that the Irish race has been literally transplanted to the United States. In 1904, the total Irish immigration amounted to 37,- 076, and of these 20,469 were females. 20 The principal destinations of the immigrants were New York, Massa- chusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Connecticut. The great majority were unskilled laborers and servants. The average money shown was twenty-nine dollars, and the 18 Ezra S. Brudno, in World's Work, pp. 4S56-7 (March, 1904). 1* F. A. Biishee, " Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," in Publications of the American Economic Association, Third Series, vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 149-152 (May, 1903). 20 Ireland is the only country from which female emigrants outnumber the males. Racial Conditions of Immigration 53 illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 3.4 per cent. As in the case of the Germans, tlie Scandinavians and the Canadians, many of the women enter domestic service. The Irish, Hke several other nationalities among our immigrants, present the spectacle of an agricultural and rural people suddenly transferred to city life. As a whole they have heen essentially mediocre, for although many have attained to positions of moderate dignity and importance — especially in politics, for which this race has a genius — few have secured pre-eminence in pro- fessional, scientific or social pursuits. So, although many have interested themselves in athletic matters, as a race they have no great physical vitality, and their death rate is very high. The number of defectives among them is large, and their record for drunkenness and pauperism is bad. The race is conventional in temper rather than indi- vidualistic, and readily enters into existing institutions. Especially fond of political life, it attempts to influence other races politically, and to that extent encourages as- similation. It is also noted for its cheerful temperament, and genial, easy-going disposition, which, though it often leads to intemperance, adds to the pleasure of a community. The monopoly which the earlier Irish im- migrants had of the heavier forms of manual labor is giving way before the inroads of Italians and French Canadians, and the Irish themselves are beginning to feel social aspirations and to limit their birth-rate in order to secure social advantages. Of the various nationalities the Irish show the smallest rate of natural increase, 2^ F. A. Bushee, " Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," in Publications of the American Economic Association, Third Series, vol. 4, No. 2, p. 54 Immigration and Emigration and to some extent they may be supplanted by more fertile races. Italians.^^ From 1821 to 1903 Italian immigration to the United States amounted to nearly 1,600,000 persons; and in J 903 was about 27 per cent, of the total immigra- tion of that year. The term " Italian " is, in a sense, very misleading, for the nation is composed of many races of different origins. In general, however, there is a broad distinction between the Keltic elements inhabit- ing northern Italy, and the Iberic elements living in the southern part. Under the classification adopted by the Immigration Bureau, " Northern Italy," includes Tus- cany, Emilia, Liguria, Venice and Lombardy ; and " Southern Italy " the other States. The northern Italians come of much better stock, and are more enter- prising, thrifty and intelligent than their southern fellow- countrymen. The comparative characteristics of the two groups in the immigration of 1904 are shown by the following table : Northern Soaihera Italiaa Italiu Total immigration 36,699 159.329 Average money shown in dollars. 28 I3 Per cent, of illiteracy of those over 14 years 12.6 54.2 The Southern Italians have constituted the largest single element in the immigration of recent years ; and, '^-Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, pp. 78-97 (1904); Re- port of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 474, 475, 499- 506; Dr. .\Han McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 65, PP- 341-349 (Aug. 1904) ; K. H. Claghorn, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, pp. 185-206 (July, 1904) ; " The Italians in Chicago," Special Re- port of the United States Commissioner of Labor; Eliot Lord, John J. D. Trenor, and Samuel J. Barrows, The Italiart in Amef' ka (1905). Racial Conditions of Immigration 55 while immigration from northern Italy lias diminished, they have rapidly increased. In 1904 about 22 per cent, of the immigrants from each division were females. The principal skilled occupations were those of carpenters, sailors, masons, miners and tailors, but less than one- fifth of either group was professional or skilled. The bulk of the northern Italians also were destined to a much larger number of States than the southern. Thus the former were, for the most part, bound to Cali- fornia, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Washington. The destinations of the southern Italians were chiefly Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Penn- sylvania and West Mrginia. The earliest Italian immigration to the United States was of a very low class, and took up organ-grinding, rag-picking, and similar pursuits. Next came barbers, bootblacks, fruiterers and shoemakers from northern Italy. These people were, on the whole, peaceable and industrious, and improved the trades in which they engaged. They soon began to come through represen- tations of friends, with a definite destination and purpose of work in their minds. In this respect, they differed from the southern Italians, who in most cases gave New York as their destination and were sent wherever the padroni could find work for them. With the establishment of the direct lines from Genoa and Naples to New York and Boston, and through the solicitations of steamship agents and of the Italian padroni and bankers in this country, there has been, within the last twenty years, an enormous increase in Italian immigration, mainly from the southern provinces on the mainland and from Sicily. These newer Italians are let out by contract to work on railroads, sewers and ^6 Immigration and Emigration the like. Many go back and forth according to the state of the labor market. Their standard of living is extremely low, and, owing to their intention of return- ing to their own country, they are largely indifferent to their circumstances. Where an Irishman or a German demands meat, an Italian will work upon stale bread and beer, and, although his physical efficiency is not as great, he works for so much less that it is profitable to employ him. Many Italians of the better sort are expert fruit- growers ; instead of settling on the Atlantic seaboard, they have gone into the interior or to the Pacific coast, and become valuable additions to the population. Most of those who have thus bettered themselves have done so in response to demands for labor of that class, or through information furnished by friends. Attempts have also been made to distribute Italians from the poorer sections of the large cities ; and, on the whole, these colonization schemes have been more successful than in the case of the Jews, a result due no doubt to the fact that Italians are better fitted for manual labor and take more kindly to agricultural pursuits. 2* The main part of the recent immigration does not incline to farming; it either works under contract or gathers in the slums of the cities. Of all the Italian settlements, those in Boston and New York are the most crowded and unsanitary. The Italians do not readily learn English. Further- more, they keep by themselves, and, owing to the great preponderance of single men, there is little family life. In regard to ordinary matters, they are, as a rule, law abid ing. On the other hand, they are extremely hot- headed, and their quarrels result in many assaults and homicides, which give them a bad record for serious ^* Report of the Industrial Commission, voL IS, pp. 499-507. Racial Conditions of Immigration 57 crimes. Moreover, although not as intemperate as some other races, idleness and drunkenness are constant temp- tations because of the fact that many are unemployed a considerable part of the time. The happy and cheerful dispositions of the Italians tend to make them improvident ; and, in the cities at least, a larger proportion of cases demanding relief are caused by inefficiency, crime and dishonesty than is the case with the British, Germans or native Americans. Nevertheless, their standard of living is so low that few become paupers ; indeed, the relief work of the Asso- ciated Charities in wards inhabited chiefly by the race has largely disappeared. As the average wages of peas- ants in Italy under contract is about eight to thirty-four cents a day, and never exceeds fifty cents to a dollar even in harvest time, it is easy to see how Italians in this country can send home large sums of money. It has been said that one can clearly recognize parts of Italy, from which immigration has gone to this country, by the improved appearance of the houses and yards. Be- cause of this relief to the poorer districts there, the general sentiment in Italy is favorable to emigration, and the greater part of those leaving home come to the United States. Upon the whole, it may be said that the Italians are a tractable and imitative people, with great capacities — either for good or for evil. But, unless they can be in- duced to go into the country districts, to adopt the idea of permanent settlement, and to bring over families or intermarry here, it is to be feared that the second and third generations will contribute a large number of de- fectives and delinquents. Like other races which have recently come to us, the Italians take little interest in political matters and do not readily assimilate in other 58 Immigration and Emigration ways. The fact that many of them are continually moving about in response to economic demand, and that a large number are above the age when they will receive any schooling, makes assimilation more difficult. It is asserted that there is a growing demand in the south for Italian labor to take the place of negroes, and that the Italians can endure the sun as well and turn out a much larger product. This demand is, however, for intelligent farmers and farm laborers with some money, who intend permanent settlement. It cannot be supplied by the class of totally unskilled Italians now arriving at New York in such large numbers. Japanese."^^ Until recently immigration from Japan was insignificant. Not until 1891 did it reach a thou- sand persons a year ; but since that date it has rapidly increased. From 1891 to 1905 inclusive there have come to us about 95,000 Japanese, the largest immigration in any one year being 14,382 in 1905. Of the 86,000 Japa- nese in the United States according to the census of 1900, 61,111 were in Hawaii, 10,151 in California, 5617 in Washington, and about 2500 each in Oregon and Montana. It has been stated,^^ however, that the figures of Japanese immigration given above are entirely inade- quate and deceptive, and that the number of Japanese coolie laborers in California to-day is greater than the total Japanese arrivals shown by the immigration records at all ports of the United States for the past ten years. Of the 14,382 immigrants arriving in 1904 practically all were destined to Hawaii, California, Washington and Oregon, and were laborers, farm laborers, sen-ants or 25 See Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 749- 766; Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, voL 66, pp. 117-121 (Dec. 1904). Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 755. Racial Conditions of Immigration 59 persons without occupation. They showed about forty- five dollars in money per capita ; and the average iUit- eracy of those over fourteen years of age was 21.6 per cent., or nearly three times that of the select classes of Chinese admitted under the Exclusion Acts. The Japanese coolies are brought over largely by " immigration companies " who contract for their labor. Indeed, many of the coolies are of a class which could not come to this country without assistance. They in- variably show exactly thirty dollars at inspection, an evidence of coaching by the companies importing them. Many too come secretly across the borders from Canada and Mexico. In the opinion of some observers, they are more undesirable than the Chinese coolies who were imported in the same way before the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Acts. Wages in Japan are about one-half those in the United States, and this stimulus to emigration is aided by the pressure of population in Japan, constantly seeking for new outlets. The hop and sugar-beet fields, the ranches, the orchards, and the vineyards on the Pacific coast are to-day filled with Japanese laborers who have driven out, in some cases, even the Chinese laborers who pre- cede them. The wages of these coolies in the sugar- beet industry are only eighty-five to ninety cents per day, out of which they board themselves. They are said to be strong and healthy, many of them having served in the Japanese army.^^ It is natural that such a large importation of laborers willing to work for low wages should stir up organized labor against their admission. It was to a considerable extent organized labor which secured the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Acts and has successfully pre- Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 193. 6o Immigration and Emigration vented their repeal or modification. From an economic standpoint the Japanese coolies are as dangerous as the Chinese, and as there are plenty to come, demands by labor organizations have been heard in the last few years that the Chinese Exclusion Acts should be ap- plied against all Asiatics, a feeling reflected in the Democratic platform of 1900. On the other hand, there is testimony to the neatness and cleanliness of the Japa- nese, their desire to learn, their freedom from crime, and their desire faithfully to obey the laws,^^ — facts which must have considerable influence in their favor, especially as it is the better class of Japanese who are known in the central and eastern portions of the country'. Probably a good deal which has been said in favor of the Japanese could also be said in favor of the higher grades of the Chinese ; but apart from the merits of the question it seems unlikely that this country will ever adopt the same policy with regard to the Japanese which has been followed with the Chinese. The fact that it was the United States which opened Japan to western civilization and induced the making of treaties of friend- ship and commerce ; the admiration of the Japanese for this country as shown by the Pern,- monument at the entrance to Tokio Bay, the Grant monument at Nagasaki, and the recent meeting in Tokio to celebrate the signing of the first treaty with America ; and last but not least, the fact that Japan has become a military power — all are likely to prevent the extension of the Exclusion Acts to the Japanese. Magyars.^^ In 1904, Magyar immigrants numbered 2* See resolutions of Methodist Preachers' meeting at San Francisco, March 20, 1905. 29 Peter Roberts. Anthracite Coal Communities ; Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, voL 65, pp. 438-440 (Sept. 1904). Racial Conditions of Immigration 6i 23,883. They were destined chiefly to New York, New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania. With the exception of a small number of artisans, they were practically all unskilled laborers. They showed sixteen dollars per capita and the illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 14. i per cent. Most of the Magyars go into factories where the labor involves more or less skill. Less than one-third seek the mining regions. Their moral and industrial status is higher than that of the Slavic races, but they are more high-strung and nervous and less adaptable than, for example, the Slovaks. Moreover, owing to the prosperity of Hungary the best class does not emigrate, and, in common with other peoples from eastern Europe, they do not readily assimilate or adopt our citizenship. They tend, like the Italians, to become birds of passage without permanent interests in the United States. Scandinavians.^'^ Scandinavian immigration, includ- ing that from Sweden, Norway and Denmark, from 1821 to 1903 amounted to 1,609,922. It was exceeded by that from Germany, from Ireland, and from England, and it exceeded slightly that from Austria-Hungary, and from Italy. The total immigration in 1904 was 61.029, whom nearly one-half were females. A considerable falling of? has been observable in recent years, and most of those who now come intend joining relatives or friends or entering domestic service. The principal destinations for these immigrants were, in 1904, Minnesota, New York, Wisconsin, North and South Dakota, Illinois and Michigan. Among them were many sailors, carpenters, K. C. Babcock, " The Scandinavians in the Northwest," in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 103-109 (Sept. 1892) ; Report of the In- dustrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 326, also pp. 22. 29, 41 and 54. 62 Immigration and Emigration clerks, painters and shoemakers ; but the great bulk consisted of laborers and servants. The average money shown was twenty-five dollars, and the illiteracy of those over fourteen years of age was 0.7 per cent. — practically nothing. The most important characteristics of the Scandina- vians who have come in the past have been their attachment to the soil and their tendency to settle new parts of the countr}'. States like Wisconsin, Minne- sota and the Dakotas were practically founded by Scan- dinavian immigrants. They assimilate readily, take part in politics, usually on the side of good government ; and they are in every way a desirable addition to the country. Even where they enter trades like the clothing trade, they work under hygienic conditions and make use of ma- chinery. They send their children to school instead of putting them into the shops. They are also free from serious crimes and free from pauperism ; although not from small misdemeanors. They have no especial tend- ency to form colonies, and, owing to their universal edu- cation, soon learn English. The Swedes are considered on the whole superior to the Norwegians. Slavs.^^ For convenience, the various Slav peoples will be briefly considered together. The immigration of Slavic races in 1904 was as follows : 31 Peter Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities; Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 389-420 and passim; Charities, vol. 13, No. 10 (Dec. 3, 1904) ; Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 63, pp. 25-32 (May, 1903) ; E. A. Steiner, in Outlook, vol. 73, pp. 555-564 (Mar. 7, 1903) ; W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe. Racial Conditions of Immigration 63 Illiteracy Numbers. Per ccnL PnlicVi At '7C'7 27^940 Crotititin cind Slovcninn. 2 1 f2~\.2 12,780 54-1 ijuiiciiii«iii cinci iviurdviaii I 8 9,592 58.8 Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin HtJ/ / 3-961 26.0 Dalmatian, Bosnian and 2,036 35-6 Total 161,796 3y far the larger part of these immigrants is un- skilled workmen, and goes to the mining regions of Pennsylvania, although some take up other forms of imskilled labor and the simpler kinds of manufacturing industries. With the exception of the Bohemians they bring but little money, the average amounts shown varying from eight dollars, in the case of the Lithuan- ians, to fifteen dollars in the case of the Russians. The Bohemians bring nearly twice as much. Nearly all Slavs are Roman Catholics, but a few belong to the Greek Church, still fewer to the Lutheran Church. The Poles were intrinsically a warlike and progres- sive people. They have been the victims of political oppression and spoliation, and have thus been reduced to a lower industrial and social position than they would otherwise have reached. More than the other Slavic races, they go into manufacturing concerns and mills, and many have reached a comfortable independence. Five-sixths of the male Polish immigrants are unskilled laborers, and practically all are Roman Catholics. The Bohemians ^2 have an extremely low per cent, of ^- See Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 507- 510; E. K. Steiner, in Outlook, vol. 73, pp. 968-972 (Apr. 25, 1903) ; Charities, vol. 13, No. 10 (Dec. 3, 1904). 64 Immigration and Emigration illiteracy, less than one-half that of German immigrants. They are largely settled in New York, Chicago, Cleve- land and other cities, where they generally engage in cigar-making and in other manufacturing pursuits. They publish a number of newspapers and many books in the Czech language, and are wide awake and pro- gressive. In religion and politics they are very inde- pendent. Their nature is said to be at times suspicious and quarrelsome, though this seems less true of the younger generations. Chicago is the leading center, but there are Bohemian colonies in many of the smaller cities and towns ; indeed the first settlements after the revolution of 1848 were comprised of students and pro- fessional men who were forced on their arrival to take to farming. After the German immigration, the Bo- hemians found that as they were able to speak German, they could go into manufacturing with more success, and they have since tended more in that direction. This fact has, in turn, induced the immigration of the laboring class. Like other peoples who have escaped from officialism and autocracy, the Bohemians dislike law and authority, and insist strenuously on their rights and liberties. In Chicago they take part in politics and their intellectual activity tends on its political side to lead them to some extent into socialism. Upon the whole, the Bohemians are likely to prove a valuable addition to our population, especially if they can be mixed with other races. The north Bohemians are especially desirable, as the great majority are skilled in glass blowing, textile industries and the like. They are chiefly Roman Catholic in re- ligion, and the wives and children usually assist in wage- earning.33 In general it rnay be said that the Slavic immigrant ^'Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 10. Racial Conditions of Immigration 6^ furnishes probably the most difficult problem with which we have to deal. For while, like other immigrants, he has large possibilities of development and improvement provided his environment is favorable, his past, his cus- toms and his inherited traditions make change very slow, especially in view of his temporary residence and the persistency with which his love for his native country and language survive. In the second and third genera- tions, indeed, many of the Slavs desire the concentration of advantages, and consequently their birth rate is fall- ing and their standard of living is rising. But these are, after all, only matters of outward conformity, and the difference in training between children raised in a native community and those accustomed from childhood to the surroundings of a foreign mining camp is im- mense. Most of what is said later in parts of this volume, of the dangers and difficulties arising from recent immigration, is especially true of Slavic immigra- tion and need not be repeated here. For more detailed information in regard to racial characteristics the reader is referred to the references at the beginning of this division. Syrians.^* The Syrians, like the Armenians, are a recent element of immigration. In 1904, the total Syrian immigration was 3,653 persons, and, of these, 300, or nearly ten per cent., were debarred. One hundred and fifteen were debarred for disease. The Syrians came chiefly from Turkey and the West Indies, and were destined for New York, Massachusetts, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio and Connecticut. Owing to the fact that a few brought large sums, the average money exhibited was about sixty dollars per capita, but only one-seventh showed more than fifty dollars. The illiteracy of those 3* See Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 442-446. 66 Immigration and Emigration over fourteen years of age, which was 54.7 per cent., was the highest for any non-European race. ]\Iuch of what was said above about Armenians ap- plies also to Syrians. The chief business of the race is peddling and small manufacturing. Many of them take up professional begging. Their principal defect is an absolute disregard of truth. Shortly after their arrival many immigrants put their children into public institu- tions, where they are cared for and educated at the public expense until they can obtain remunerative work. Officers of the Associated Charities coming in contact with them assert that they are among the most difficult people to deal with. On landing they go immediately to settlements of their countrymen, from which an inde- scribable condition of congestion, filth and poverty re- sults. Their physique is poor, and they are very subject to loathsome and contagious diseases. Some of the immigrants have an instinct for weaving and go into silk and cotton mills, apparently with some success. Their emigration is said to be due to the mis- rule of the Turkish authorities ; and that they come to the United States is the work of missionaries. Xine- tenths of them are Catholics, though a few belong to other sects. Unless coupled with free support, they have only the slightest desire for education, and it is estimated that there are less than 100 Syrian children in the public and parochial schools of New York. The relatively wealthy Syrians, it is said, are more bent on the accumu- lation of money than on the improvement of their stand- ard of living, and many continue to live in the same manner as their poorer neighbors. On the whole they are fairly temperate, and more peaceable than some other nationalities. It is their other qualities that make them very undesirable immigrants. CHAPTER IV ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF IMMIGRATION A. MONEY VALUE OF THE IMMIGRANT In describing the economic conditions of immigration, we have first to consider the immigrant himself, re- garded from an economic standpoint. This topic falls under two heads : first, the personal value of the immi- grant ; and second, the money or other capital which he brings with him. In estimating the money value of the immigrant, at- tention may first be called to the fact that the bulk of our immigration is of the age of greatest productive- ness ; that is to say, this country has the benefit of an artificial selection of adults of working age. For ex- ample, in 1903, less than 12 per cent, of all immigrants were under fourteen years of age ; and less than 5 per cent, were over forty-five years of age, leaving more than 83 per cent, between the ages of fourteen and forty- five. In other words, the expense of bringing up the bulk of our immigrants through childhood has been borne by the countries of their birth or residence, and this amount of capital therefore comes to us without expenditure. Professor Mayo-Smith refers to the fre- quently quoted estimate of Frederic Kapp ^ that the cost of bringing up a child to the age of fifteen is $562.50 in Germany, and $1000 to $1200 in the United States. ' Immigration and the New York Commissioners of Emi' gration, p. 146 (1870). 67 68 Immigration and Emigration Taking the value of the immigrant at $1000, the immi- gration over fourteen years of age in 1903 would have added $754,615,000 to the wealth of the United States if it had all remained in the country. But Mayo-Smith ^ rightly considers this kind of an estimate fallacious, as well as that which holds that the true test of the value of an immigrant is not the cost of production, so to speak, but the amount of wealth he will add to the country before his death, less the cost of his maintenance. The latter valuation has been variously given as $875 for English and $225 for Ger- mans, and is based on the expectation of life, cost of living and average wages. This method of valuation assumes steady employment at a fairly constant wage. But one has no right to take for granted that these con- ditions obtain. As a matter of fact, we know that at all times an appreciable per cent, of labor is unemployed, and at certain times, a large per cent. ; and it cannot be assumed that immigrants coming in vast numbers to a strange land will at once or continuously be employed in the occupation for which they are fitted, or that they receive the average wages in those occupations. Indeed we know that directly the opposite is true. We know that the proprietor of the sweatshop pays starvation wages, and that the padrone supplies laborers at from 25 to 60 per cent, less than the current wages of unskilled labor. We know that, because of the congestion in cities, recent immigrants have the greatest difficulty to obtain employment at all, and that the oft-repeated de- mand of the labor organizations for further restriction is due not only to increased competition, but to the com- petition of those who are willing to cut the union rates of wages. ^Emigration and Immigration, pp. 104-109. Economic Conditions of Immigration 69 It is difficult, therefore, to say precisely what the money value of the immigrant is. The remote as well as the immediate ei¥ects of his coming must be consid- ered, and also the state of employment and the rate of wages at the time of his arrival. A thoroughly conserv- ative estimate is probably that of Mr. John B. Webber ^ formerly Commissioner of Immigration at the port of New York. He assumes that there were 10,000,000 for- eign born at the date of the eleventh census and that 2,000,000 of these were working at an average wage of $1.00 per day ; and he points out that these persons added $600,000,000 a year to the earnings of this country. When we inquire into the amount of capital the im- migrant brings with him in the form of money, a more definite answer can be given as to his economic value. Thus it appears that, in 1903, 857,046 newcomers ex- hibited to the inspectors the sum of $16,117,513, or an average of about $19 apiece. This was a slight increase over previous years. The average shown in 1896 was $1 1 ; in 1898 and 1899, $17; in 1897, 1900 and 1901, $15; and in 1902, $16. In 1904 the average money shown was $26, and, no doubt, the more prosperous always bring in a great deal which is not exhibited. In considering these amounts, however, it should be remembered that, instead of bringing money with them, it is becoming more and more common for immigrants to send it ahead through banking institutions ; but no one has attempted to state the amount thus sent.* The reader, however, must not infer from the fore- going figures that every immigrant brings in a sum near 3 In North American Review, vol. 154, p. 435 (Apr. 1892). * Report of Commissioner of Immigration at New York for I901. JO Immigration and Emigration the average. In 1904, 215,765 persons, or over 26 per cent, of the total immigration, exhibited no money at all. Of course, many of these were children and married women. But, in recent years, large numbers of un- skilled laborers have been allowed to land who had only a dollar or even less in their possession, and it can be shown that the method of including children does not af¥ect the general proposition that a large proportion bring less than the average money. Thus in 1895, 160,103 immigrants over 20 years of age brought $4,126,793, or an average of $25.97 each; and if all immigrants had been included, the per capita amount would have been only $16.34. The same report for 1895 also shows that 78 per cent, of the 160,103 immigrants brought less than $30, and only 22 per cent, brought more ; and it is clear that, even allowing for the difference between $26 and $30, a large proportion of those over twenty years of age must have brought less than the average money. In 1895 examination was made of the mamfests of 331 illiterates landed at Ellis Island, New York, chiefly Russian Jews, Austro-Hungarians (mostly Magyars, Galicians and Croatians) and some Syrians. Of these, 32, or 10 per cent., brought in no money at all; loi, or 30 per cent., brought from one to five dollars each ; 92, or 28 per cent., brought from six to ten dollars; and 106, or 32 per cent., brought over ten dollars. In other words, 40 per cent, of those examined had five dollars or less, and 68 per cent, ten dollars or less. The report of the Superintendent of Immigration for 1892, page 26, shows that of 9639 Russian Jews arriving at New York, 333 brought more than $100, one of them $25,000; but, of the 9306 remaining, nearly all were destitute. In 1904, the total money exhibited by immigrants Economic Conditions of Immigration 71 amounted to nearly twenty-one millions. Probably a further amount was brought in but not shown. Great diversity exists in the average amounts of money brought by the dififerent races. This is shown by the following table for the year 1900 : ^ Amount of Amount of money stiown money shown Races per capita Race* per capita Scotch $41-51 Syrian $i4-3i Japanese 3Q SQ Chinese 13 98 English 38.00 Finnisii 1306 French 37-8o Croatian and Slavonian. 12.51 Greek 28.78 Slovak 11.69 German. 28.53 Riithenian (Russniak) . . 10.51 Bohemian and Moravian 23.12 Portuguese 10.47 Italian (northern) 22.40 Magyar 10.39 Dutch and Flemish 21.00 Polish 9.94 Cuban I9 34 Italian (southern). . .. 8.84 Scandinavian 16.65 Hebrew 8.67 Russian 14-94 Lithuanian 7.96 Irish 1450 From this it is evident that the races coming to us recently in the largest numbers, stand much nearer the foot of the list than those of which our immigration was chiefly composed before 1880. For example, the north- ern Italians, who formed the beginning of Italian immi- gration, brought nearly three times as much as their southern brothers, who, for a number of years, have constituted the largest single element in immigration. The great numbers of poor Hebrews sufficed far to out- weigh any rich traders, and brought the average of that race down nearly to the bottom of the hst. As a general principle, also, it is true that the best educated races and those contributing the most skilled labor bring the largest share of the pecuniary results of that skill and intelligence. This is strikingly brought out in the following table made up for the year 1899 for immigrants arriving at the port of New York : ^Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 284. 72 Immigration and Emigration Race ol People Portuguese South Italians . . Lithuanians .... Ruthenians Syrians Poles Slovaks Northern Italians Germans French British Per cent of Illiteratet Money broughl per capita 28.39 26.22 11.00 41.22 4573 46.56 28.0s 45.83 4-43 3-53 2.43 $ 7 57 8.79 8.18 953 1395 10.37 12.82 22.00 29.18 3 1 -97 2951 The table likewise shows that even among the illiterate races, the more illiterate bring the less money. While the amount of money brought by an immi- grant can be only a rough and deceptive test of his worth, it does enable us to make certain predictions about his economic relations after landing. For example, the money brought has an important bearing upon the auto- matic distribution of immigrants. Those who bring little money are tied to the seaboard, and unable to enter occu- pations requiring capital. This is why so few of the relatively illiterate races go to the West or the South, or become landowners. Whatever money is brought is, however, a direct gain to the nation. It generally represents the price realized by the immigrant from the sale of his farm or business in the old country, or his savings for a longer or shorter period. The money, furthermore, is spent in the United States, and no equivalent need be sent abroad to make a balance of trade. It would be interesting to know what proportion it bears to the amount our people spend in European travel. Whatever it is, the money devoted annually by this country to the benefit of aliens, repre- sents a capital far in excess of the surplus brought by well-to-do immigrants and not needed for their owtj support. Economic Conditions of Immigration 73 Besides the cost of diseased and destitute aliens to this nation, there must also be set, against the money brought, the amount remitted abroad or taken out by returning emigrants. The figures representing this are largely guesswork and are taken entirely from unoffi- cial sources. In 1883, the sum sent to Italy alone was reported by the Italian \'ice-Consul at New York to be nearly five millions of dollars ; and the Commissioner at New York in 1896 stated that conservative estimates of the total amount varied from four millions to thirty millions of dollars.® Commissioner-General Stump, during a trip abroad as Chairman of the Immigration Investigating Commission, noted that " the marked in- crease in the wealth of certain sections of Italy can be traced directly to the money earned in the United States." Various British authorities have asserted that the amount sent to Ireland from this country each year exceeded the total cost of poor relief in Ireland. In respect to assisted immigration we found that from ten to fifty per cent, of all immigrants came as " prepaids." If we assume an average immigration of 600,000 per- sons, with 200,000 coming as " prepaids," and that the average rate of passage was $25 we shall have five mil- lions of dollars accounted for in this way. Probably this estimate is much too small ; and, in addition to the passage money, not a little is sent for incidentals, and to show on inspection.'^ The economic value of the immigrant may be further •See Rhoda Gale, in Lippincott's, vol. 58, p. 234 (Aug. 1896). The latter figure is given in Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 83 (1904). '' The Dingley report, p. 249, speaks of this export of money in the following language : " It is not too much to say that if the countries of Europe were for one year deprived of the vast sums of money sent to Europe 74 Immigration and Emigration considered from the standpoint of tlie savings accumu- lated after arrival and not sent out of this country. In the larg-e cities the Jews have acquired considerable real estate and have also moderately large deposits in savings banks. The Slav miners in the anthracite industrv', in four towns alone, own $2,500,000 in real estate, or about $100 per capita of the Slav population in these towns. In one town they own two-fifths of the homes having an average value of $953 each.^ The Italians in New York City are said to hold $60,000,000 worth of property, of which $i5-,ooo,ooo is in savings bank deposits ; and those in St. Louis, San Francisco, Boston and Chicago are reported to have even larger amounts.^ These figures give some idea of the additions to the wealth of the community made by the newer comers to our shores, and constitute a hopeful sign for the future. The sacrifice of comfort, health and decency involved in the production of this wealth, how- ever, should never be forgotten, and the effects of such a sacrifice must be paid for by the community in many forms. B. OCCUPATIONS The Immigration Bureau in its annual reports gives elaborate and interesting tables showing the occupations of immigrants. These may be roughly grouped into : (i) professional and skilled, (2) agricultural, (3) per- from the United States by immigrants and taken to Europe by tiie visiting and returning immigrant, every department of European enterprise would feel the shock." * See Kate H. Claghorn, " Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism," in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 201 (July, 1904). As to the mining regions see Peter Roberts, The Anthracite Coal Communities, chap. ix. » G. C. Speranza, in Charities, vol. 12, p. 462 (May 7, 1904). Economic Conditions of Immigration 7^ sonal and domestic servants, (4) laborers, (5) persons with no occupation, including women and children, and (6) all others. Out of a total immigration of 857,046 in 1903, 124,683, or 14.6 per cent, were skilled; 90,881, or 10.6 per cent, were farmers and farm laborers ; 92,686, or 10.8 per cent, were personal and domestic servants ; 320,642, or 37.4 per cent, were laborers; 199,701, or 23.3 per cent, were without occupation; leaving 21,454, or 2.5 per cent, to cover all others. The first thing that impresses us in these figures is the large proportion of unskilled labor. Thus, the percen- tages of immigrants having no occupation, including women and children, since 1894 have been as follows: 1895 36 1896 36 1897 39 1898 39-4 1899 35-1 1900 30. r 1901 30.5 1902 23.6 1903 23.3 1904 26.4 1905 22.6 The diminution in this class is probably more appar- ent than real, and is due in part to greater care in the tabulation of statistics and the preparation of manifests, and in part to the impression among the immigrants that the giving of an occupation tends to improve the chances of admission. The percentage of immigrants who were farm laborers, laborers, or servants for the same years was as follows : 1895 42 1896 46 1897 40 1898 40.3 1899 47-3 76 Immigration and Emigration 1900 53.0 1901 531 1902 60.6 1903 57-3 1904 49 4 1905 541 Combining the two foregoing tables, it appears that the proportion of immigrants practically without knowl- edge of a trade or means of livelihood has remained nearly constant for the last decade, and is about four- fifths of the total arrivals. In 1893, skilled immigrants were supplied in the following proportions : among im- migrants from Scotland, i in 4 was skilled : from England and Wales, i in 5 ; from Belgium, i in 7 ; from France, I in 9 ; from Germany and Xonvay, i in 10; from Italy, I in 14; from Russia, i in 18: from Poland, i in 23 ; from Austria-Hungary, i in 29. The immigration from Ger- many, Scandinavia and Ireland contains a large propor- tion of females intending to enter domestic service. In 1903, the proportion of skilled persons in the races contributing ten thousand or more immigrants was as follows : English and Hebrew, i in 3 ; German, i in 5 ; Italian (North) and Scandinavian, i in 6; Italian (South), I in 8; Greek, i in 9 ; Irish, i in 11 ; Magyar, I in 13 ; Croatian and Slovenian, i in 19 ; Japanese and PoHsh, I in 22 ; Finnish and Lithuanian, i in 24 ; Slovak, I in 25. The principal skilled occupations to which over 1000 immigrants belonged in 1903, were as follows : bakers, 3885; barbers, 3069; blacksmiths, 5345; butchers. 2810; carpenters and joiners, 13,250; clerks and accountants, 6978; gardeners, 1182; ironworkers, 1448; locksmiths, 2549; machinists, 1395; mariners, 9148; masons, 7085; miners, 8059 ; painters and glaziers, 2826 ; seamstresses and dressmakers, 8513; shoemakers, 9770; stonecutters, Economk Conditions of Immigration 77 1730; tailors, 15,992; tinners, 1465; weavers and spin- ners, 3823. In addition to the skilled immigrants, there were also 6999 professional persons, of whom the largest number, 2286, were engineers, and the next largest, 853, were teachers. Mention should also be made of 12,379 merchants, dealers, and grocers, not included under any other heading. In considering these statistics, it should be borne in mind that the pursuits reported by the immigrants are not necessarily their real occupations ; and, also, that large numbers will take up entirely diflferent pursuits in this country. For example, nearly one-half of the farm laborers were destined for the two States of New York and Pennsylvania, and it is not to be supposed that all of these finally followed agricultupal occupations. C. BIRDS OF PASSAGE Attention has already been directed to the immigrants who remain here a certain time, then go abroad, and re- turn some months or years later ; and who, perhaps, repeat this process several or many times. Such immi- grants are generally known as " birds of passage." Be- fore 1897 no figures were published showing who had been in this country before. The percentages begin- ning with that year are as follows : 1897 19-3 1898 18.6 1899 154 1900 11.6 1901 11.9 1902 9.5 1903 8.9 1904 12.8 1905 171 The decrease in the number of " birds of passage " is probably due in part to the greater care taken in pre- 78 Immigration and Emigration paring manifests and in inspection, and in part to knowl- edge on the part of immigrants that a hue and cry has been raised against birds of passage. But a more important factor undoubtedly is the increasing propor- tion of immigrants from the Mediterranean. It is to be regretted th^t our information upon this, as on so many other subjects related to immigration, is derived from the unverified assertions of the immigrants themselves. Italy and Canada are the countries which furnish the greatest number of the class we are now considering. i\Iany Italians come in the spring to work during the summer season, when public works are undertaken, and return to Europe in the autumn when the demand for labor has diminished. In each case, they bring practically no money and live very frugally while here, carrying back in the fall sums of money ranging as high as $1000. With this they purchase homes in Italy, where they can live more cheaply than in the United States. There are also many skilled laborers who come from Great Britain and Ireland during the summer and return during the winter. But by far the largest class of birds of passage con- sists of those coming, not from across the water, but from contiguous territories. It has been estimated that from 50,000 to 70.000 native Canadians come yearly into the United States during the busy season and return to Canada during the winter. The competition of these Canadians is severe and is felt chiefly in New England and in the States across the Canadian border. As in the case of the Italians, most of the money earned is sent back or taken back to the mother country. Opinions as to the desirability of this class of immi- grants vary considerably. On the one hand, it is pointed out that they are willing to underbid the current rate of Economic Conditions of Immigration 79 wages in order to get employment, and that they return home to spend their money, having formed no permanent ties, and having acquired a relatively slight acquaintance with our institutions and standards of living.^o On the other hand, it is asserted that, after three or four visits, many of these immigrants send for their families and become permanent settlers. It is also said that formerly one-half of the Italians returned each year, but that now the proportion does not exceed one-quarter, and the general tendency is to form a permanent settlement. The official returns do not disclose lio^u often the arrivals listed have been in the United States before ; but the present writer has examined some thousands of manifests, from which it appears that in many cases immigrants have visited this country five, six, or seven times, and that cases of two, three and four visits are common. An examination of the manifests of 3174 Italians, in 1896, showed that 27.7 had been in the coun- try before. As a rule these persons do not bring their families with them, and the proportion of women is very low. For example, R. P. Faulkner, in Political Science Quar- terly, vol. 19, p. 42 (March, 1904), expresses this feeling: "The temporary immigration is much to be deplored, since it intro- duces into the body politic a class of people not only alien in fact but determined to remain so, wholly indifferent to their adaptation to the conditions of life by which they find them- selves surrounded. To put it in another form, we have here a class eager to profit by our standard of wages but unwilling to adopt our standard of expenditure. . . . That it [standard of living] is to some degree a factor in determining wages is generally conceded, and the introduction and maintenance of a lower standard must result in injury to the working classes when it embraces a number of persons large enough to be a factor in the labor market." CHAPTER V SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF IMMIGRATION A. ILLITERACY An " illiterate " immigrant as defined by the Immigra- tion Bureau is one fourteen years of age or over who cannot write, or who can neither read nor write any recognized language or dialect ; whether it be the lan- guage or dialect of his native or resident country, or, as in the case of Yiddish, one used by a particular sect or community. The general illiteracy of immigrants in recent years has been as follows : Per cent, of illiterate Id total immigratioD over 15 years of age 189s 20 1896 29 1897 23 Over 14 fears of age 1898 23 1899 197 1900 24.3 1901 28.4 1902 25.4 1903 25.0 1904 24.6 1905 26.2 In 1903 there were about 190,000 illiterate immigrants over fourteen years of age, who were not likely to re- ceive any schooling after their arrival, fourteen years being the limit of compulsory education in most of the States. 80 Social Conditions of Immigration 8i The illiteracy of the dififerent races contributing more than 2000 immigrants each during the past three years has been as follows : NORTHERN AND WESTERN EUROPE (Chiefly Teutonic and Keltic) 1901 1903 1904 Scotch 1.2 1.2 0.6 Scandinavian 0.5 0.6 0.7 English 1.9 1-6 1.3 Bohemian and Moravian 1.6 1.6 1.8 Finnish I.4 2.2 2.7 French 4.8 3.8 3.2 Irish 3-9 38 34 Dutch and Flemish 7,6 6.9 4.1 German 5.4 4.6 4.8 Italian (North) 14.4 12.7 12.6 Average of above 4.4 3.9 4.0 SOUTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (Chiefly Slavic and Iberic) Spanish 8.9 9.8 Magyar 13.3 10.5 14. i Greek 30.0 27.7 23 6 Russian 31.9 26.0 Slovak 25.9 21.6 27.9 Roumanian 28.3 21.5 31.7 Dalmatian, Bosnian and Herzegovinian 35.6 Polish 38.4 32.1 3S.8 Croatian and Slovenian 42.2 35.2 36.1 Bulgarian, Servian, Montenegrin 44.7 45.4 Lithuanian 54.I 46.6 54.1 Italian (South) 56.4 51.4 54.2 Ruthenian 50.0 49.4 58.8 Portuguese 71.6 73.2 67.5 Average of above 44.3 39.7 42.6 OTHER RACES Chinese • 12.9 8.2 Cuban 8.0 4.2 8.7 Japanese 1.2 27.0 21.6 Hebrew 28.6 26.5 23.3 African (black) 32.5 23.7 Syrian 51.0 53.8 54.7 82 Immigration and Emigration It will be noted that the illiteracy of southern and eastern Europe is nearly ten times that of northern and western Europe, and that the Syrians are more than one- half illiterate. If the age limit of the above table were ten instead of fourteen years, the contrast with the native illiteracy of 10.7 per cent, would be much more striking. The illiteracy of particular shiploads is often much above the foregoing figures. From manifests examined by the writer at New York in 1902 the illiteracy of Hebrews was 44.9 per cent., and of Syrians 76.8 per cent. It is asserted that the Hebrew illiteracy arises from the immi- grant's misunderstanding of the question whether he can read and write, and that, in fact, all Hebrews can read and write Yiddish. Actual tests made at New York by the Immigration Restriction League do not, however, entirely sustain this contention. Reliable figures as to the illiteracy of the various races of Asia and Africa in their own countries are not available ; but, as nearly 30,000 Asiatics, or 3.5 per cent, of the total immigration, came to our shores in 1903, and as this immigration is sure to increase with the spread of steamship lines to the ^Mediterranean and the Levant, there is reason to sup- pose that the average illiteracy may increase in the near future, in spite of the spread of education in parts of Europe. The relative illiteracy of males and females for speci- men groups of certain races landing at New York in 1901 was as follows: Race Armenian Bohemian and Moravian Croatian and Slovenian. English Finnish German Greek Male* Females 14 37 2 3 50 55 2 8 I 3 9 " 4 6 Social Conditions of Immigration 83 Kacb Male* Femalea Irish 4 6 Italian, North . . . . , 20 21 Italian, South 62 74 Magyar Ii 12 Polish 36 48 Ruthenian 66 78 Scandinavian I I Scotch 2 3 Slovak 20 21 Syrian 55 81 B. CRIME, INSANITY AND DISEASE An act passed in 1875 prohibited the immigration of convicts, except those guilty of political ofifences; or, as it is expressed in the present law, " persons who have been convicted of a felony or other crime or misde- meanor involving moral turpitude," provided, " that nothing in this act shall exclude persons convicted of an offence purely political, not involving moral turpitude." In 1904, out of over 812,870 immigrants, only 35 were debarred under this clause — a small percentage probably of the number who should have been excluded. Men- tion has been made ^ of the extent to which for- eign governments and societies have endeavored in the past to get rid of criminals by sending them to this country, and it is not likely that the practice has entirely ceased. In such cases the immigrant is doubtless well " coached " for his inspection here, and, without the co- operation of foreign officials, it is nearly impossible to obtain sufficient evidence to secure exclusion. The writer has been told by an eye witness of at least one case within ten years, where, of two persons arrested in England for an offence the penalty for which was six months' im- prisonment, one who had a ticket to America was allowed to proceed on his way while the other suffered the full penalty. ^ Chapter ii, F. 84 Immigration and Emigration The present law excludes idiots, insane persons, epilep- tics, persons who have been insane within five years previous and persons who have had two or more attacks of insanit)' at any time previously. In 1904, under these provisions, 49 persons were debarred out of 812,870. Of these 49 persons, 16 were idiots and 33 were insane per- sons. While the law no doubt tends to exclude some who are obviously insane, there is reason to believe that many escape detection, and that some come in through Canada who would be debarred by inspectors at Atlantic ports.^ Probably there is a much larger class who have been out of insane hospitals in Europ>e only a few months when they enter the United States. These persons are sane enough to pass the ordinary inspection ; but, failing to find employment and having spent their money, they become ill-fed and soon go to pieces; after which they are recommitted here.^ The act of 1891 added to the excluded classes persons snfifering from loathsome or dangerous contagious dis- eases. In 1903, 1773 persons were debarred for these causes.* These diseases include two practically unknown in America until the beginning of immigration from southeastern Europe and Asia, favus and trachoma. The former is an aflFection of the scalp ; the latter a disease of the eyes and eyelids, which if not cured results in blind- ness. Other diseases causing exclusion are small-pox, ^Senate Reports, 57th Cong., 1st Sess., No. 21 19, p. 243; New York Medical Journal, vol. 77, p. 224 fFeb. 7, 1903). ^Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 236; T. V. Powderly, in North American Review, vol. 175, pp. 53-60, especially, p. 54 (July, 1902). * Cp. Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 126- 132; T. V. Powderly, "Immigration's Menace to National Health," in North American Reziew, vol. 175, pp. S3-6a Social Conditions of Immigration 85 cholera,' tuberculosis,^ and venereal diseases. Favus and trachoma have attracted most attention because of the difficulty of their detection and the serious results of their domestication. In 1904, out of 812,870 immigrants, 1560 were rejected because suffering from loathsome or dangerous diseases, and 6440 were treated in the hospi- tals for various ailments. While a few immigrants are thus debarred because of diseases, large numbers are allowed to land who are poor in physique, and destined shortly to develop acute troubles. In the majority of cases it is impossible to de- tect incipient cases of tuberculosis among the steerage passengers in the time available for observation ; and there are many immigrants, not actually tuberculous when they land, who quickly become infected through living in unsanitary conditions and in close contact with those already affected. The number of " diseased " persons in certain races of recent immigrants for the year 1901 was as follows:^ Slav (Pole, Slovak, Croatian) i in 7000 Magyar i " 6500 Italian I " 3450 Lithuanian i " 1250 Hebrew i " iioo Finn i " 1000 Syrian i " 135 ' As to the proposition to suspend immigration entirely in 1893 during the epidemic of cholera in Europe, see W. E. Chandler, in North American Rcvieu.', vol. 156, pp. 1-8 (Jan. 1893) ; H. C. Hansbrough. ihicl. pp. 220-227 (Eeb., 1893). 6 Added by opinion of Commissioner-General, May 4, 1901. See Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1901, P 33- ^ Dr, Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 62, pp. 407-409 (Jan., 1903). 86 Immigration arid Emigration The ratio for the same year of immigrants requiring hospital treatment on arrival, to the totals landed, was as follows : Slav Magyar . . , Finn Italian . . Lithuanian . Hebrew . . . Syrian . . . in 300 " 250 " 200 " i8s " 140 " 100 " 35 Immigrants certified as having some disability grave enough to make them public charges or dependent upon some one, in proportion to the totals landed, for the same year (1901) were: Lithuanian , Slay Italian . . . Finn Magyar . . , Hebrew . . , Syrian . . . in 1906 •' 664 " 172 " 163 " 148 " 42 " 29 The ratios of minor defects to the number landed for the same year are given below. These defects, although not sufficient to ensure rejection, were such as were likely to affect the immigrant's chances of becoming a public charge, e.g., poor physique, loss of an eye or a finger, anemia and the like. Finn . . . Slav ..... Lithuanian , Magyar . . Italian . . . Syrian . . . Hebrew . . . in 81 " 65 " 64 " 40 26 " 24 " 16 It will be observed that in each of the respects noted Social Conditions of Immigration 87 in these tables, Hebrews * and Syrians made the worst showing, a fact of serious import when the tendency of Asiatic immigration from the Levant to increase is re- membered. It will also be noticed that the immigrants of poor physique are, as a rule, from the most illiterate races, and are, therefore, beyond the reach of tracts and circulars relating to hygiene and tuberculosis. The fol- lowing table supplements those given, and includes the Irish and Scandinavians by way of comparison : ® Ratio sent to Ratto deported on hospital on arrival medical certificate Racb to total landed to total landed Hebrew i to 90 i to 393 Italian i " I77 i " 535 Slav I " 200 I " 575 Irish I " 64s I " 1450 Scandinavian i " 7i5 i " 3280 The present condition of immigration with respect to disease has been well summed up as follows : " Good physique was much more general among immigrants a quarter of a century ago than among the immigrants of to-day. The bulk of the immigrants previous to 1880 came from the sturdy races of northern and western Europe, and, not only was good physique the rule, but loathsome, communicable or contagious disease was extremely rare. . . . With the change in the racial character of immigration, most marked in the past decade, a pronounced deterioration in the general physique of the immigrants, and a much higher per cent. 8 See " Health and Sanitation of the Immigrant Jewish Popu- lation of New York" by Dr. Maurice Fishberg, in The American Hebrew (New York City), July 25, 1902. 9 Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 64, p. 233 (Jan. 1904). 10 Ibid. 88 Immigration and Emigration of loathsome and dangerous disease is noticeable. . . , The immigrant recorded as having a poor physique is usually admitted." C. DISTRIBUTION OF IMMIGRANTS While the distribution of immigrants after their arrival has important effects, economic, social, and political, the fact of such distribution is really a social condition of immigration itself, and should, therefore, be considered here. It is a matter of common knowledge that the North Central States were for the most part settled by the Teutonic immigration of the last century, and that the inhabitants of the North Atlantic States are to-day very largely foreign-born. This tendency of immigrants to settle in the northern parts of the country' is reflected in the census returns of the foreign-bom. Thus, of the 10,356.644 foreign-bom in the United States, exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii, in 1900. the North Atlantic divi- sion contained 22.6 per cent.; the North Central, 15.8 per cent ; and the Western 20.7 per cent. ; leaving only 4.6 " For the general figures as to the foreign-bom in the United States, see infra, chapter vi. For congestion in cities, see infra chapter viiL, f. For distribution of immigrants as a remedy for existing evils, see infra, chapter xiii., a. See also as to the agricultural distribution of immigrants, Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15. pp. 492-646. 1- The North Atlantic division embraces New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; the North Central, the States from Ohio to the Dakotas and Kansas, including Missouri; the Western, all west of the Dakotas, Kansas, and Texas; the South Atlantic, West Virginia, the District of Columbia, and all the States south of Pennsylvania which touch the Atlantic coast; the South Central, the remainder of the Southern States. Social Conditions of Immigration 89 per cent, for the South Central and South Atlantic divi- sions combined. That the same tendency was at work during the decade preceding 1900 appears from the fact that four-fifths of the whole increase in the foreign-born from 1890 to 1900 is concentrated in the North Atlantic division. 13 This tendency to concentration is still more apparent when we consider the increase of foreign-born in certain States, as shown in the following table: Per cent, of total increase -4 Number United States New York 329,375 30. i Massachusetts 189,187 17.3 Pennsylvania I39,530 12. 8 Illinois 124,400 11.4 New Jersey 102,909 9.4 Connecticut 54,609 S.O Total, 6 States 940,010 86.0 It appears, therefore, that six States have received more than four-fifths of the increase ; and if we were to look within those States we should see a still larger relative gain in the important cities. Thus, during the decade, the foreign-born population of Illinois increased 124,400, while that of Chicago increased 136,446, show- 13 The proportion of the foreign-born in the various geographi- cal divisions, beginning with the census of 1850, is shown in the following table, from the Twelfth Census of the United States, vol. I, p. civ. : Divisions. 1900 1890 1880 1870 i860 1850 North Atlantic 46.0 42.0 42.1 45-3 48.9 59.0 South Atlantic 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.9 4.7 North Central 40.2 43.9 43.7 41.9 37-3 29.0 South Central 3.5 3.5 4.1 4.2 5.6 6.1 Western 8.2 8.3 7.5 5.6 4.3 1.2 United States 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 per per per per per per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. 90 Immigration and Emigration ing a movement toward the cities within the State itself. That this general tendency, which has been true of immigration in the past, is operating to-day, and in in- creasing proportions is also clear. The destinations given by immigrants, which appear upon the manifests, are doubtless, in many cases, inaccurate. Many who do not know where they will go give as their destination the port of landing or some large city ; many also after land- ing change their destination. But, on the whole, the sta- tistics of destination are in close correspondence with the census. Thus, the percentage of the total immigra- tion destined for the four States of Illinois, Massachu- setts, New York and Pennsylvania has been in recent years as follows : 1895 72 per cent. 1896 72 1897 71 " " 1898 68.9 " " 1899 68.7 " " 1900..: 68.8 " " 1901 69.5 " " 1902 67.8 " " 1903 65.4 " " 1904 64.6 " " 1905 65.3 " " On the other hand, the percentage of the total immigra- tion for the Southern and Western States was as follows : 1896 II per cent. 1897 15 " " 1898 15.2 " " 1899 157 " " 1900 13.4 " " 1901 135 " " 1902 13.0 " " 1904 10. 1 " " 1905 8.7 " " When we consider the composition of the popula- Social Conditions of Immigration 91 tion in the Tarious divisions of the United States, we find 1"* that but a small proportion of the races which form the bulk of our recent immigration are in the un- settled regions of the West and South. Coming as they largely do on prepaid tickets, and to join friends or rela- tives, each shipload tends to follow the footsteps of those who have preceded and to increase the concentration in particular localities. Thus it appears that only 3.9 per cent, of the Poles, 4.4 per cent, of the Hungarians and 8.7 per cent, of the Russians (Jews) live in the Southern States or the Western division, a population of only 58,471 scattered among a total of nearly 29,000,000 souls. The North Atlantic States contain only one-third of the Germans and one-seventh of the Scandinavians, but they have over seven-tenths of the Hungarians, Italians and Russian Jews. The local congestion of the nationalities coming to us in the largest numbers in recent years is another sig- nificant feature of immigrant distribution. That this congestion is increasing is shown b)' the following table of the increase of natives of certain nationalities 1* The following table shows the distribution of various na- tionalities for 1890 and 1900. Eleventh Census of the United States, Population, Part i, p. cxxxvi; Twelfth Census of the United States, vol. i, p. clxxiv: North South North South Atlantic Atlantic Central Central Western l8go 1900 1890 1900 1890 1900 l8go 1900 i8go 1900 Great Britain and 59.5 61 .6 2-5 2.3 27.6 25.6 2.4 2.2 7.9 8.1 36.0 40.6 2 . 2-3 34.1 29.4 12.7 II .2 14-9 '6-5 Germany 3-2-2 33-2 2-9 2.7 56.4 54-9 4.1 4.1 4-3 5-1 Bohemia 10.4 14. I 1.4 2.0 84.3 75-8 3-1 6.9 0.8 I .2 Scandinavia. . . . 12.7 16.6 0-3 0.4 76.0 70.9 0.8 I . I 10.0 10.9 -Austria 49.9 62.0 1-7 1.4 31-8 25.5 8.4 3-7 8.1 7.4 Hungary 72.9 73.0 1.8 1.4 22.2 22.6 I .4 1-3 1.6 1.7 Italy 65.0 72.7 2-7 2 . 2 12.0 1 1 .4 6.7 5-4 13-7 8.3 Poland 38-4 51-2 1-7 1-7 57.0 44-9 1-7 1 .4 1.2 0.8 Russia 50 9 65-9 3-2 3-9 38.2 25.4 1-5 2 . t 6.1 2.7 92 Immigration and Emigration from 1890 to 1900, in the several geographical divi- sions : 1^ North South North South Atlantic Atlantic Central Central Western Hungary 73.0 1.2 22.9 1.2 1.7 Italy 77.4 1.9 ii.o 4.6 S.I Poland 59.1 1.7 37.3 1,2 0.7 Russia 77.2 4.5 15.6 2.6 0.1 The North Atlantic States thus received approximately three-fourths of the increase of Hungarians, Italians and Russians (Jews), as well as nearly three-fifths of the Poles. These races do not get distributed to the West and South. Considering certain individual States the foregoing re- sult appears more striking, as the following compilations show : NATIVES OF POLAND In 1890, ther^ were in this country 147,440 persons born in Poland ; in 1900, there wer^ 383,407. In 1890, the three Atlantic States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts had 34.6 per cent, of the natives of Poland in the country ; in 1900, they had 43.8 per cent. These three States, together with the three interior States of Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, had 76.9 per cent, in 1890, and 77.2 per cent, in 1900. The three interior States had 42.1 per cent, in 1890, and 33.4 per cent, in 1900. Almost three-fifths of the whole increase during the decade went to Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois. Pennsylvania received 21.7 per cent.; New York 20 per cent., and Illinois 16.6 per cent. Nine-tenths of the in- crease in Illinois was in the city of Chicago. IS Compiled from Eleventh Census, Population, Part I, ppt 606-609 (1890) ; Turlfth Census, vol. i, pp. clxxii-clxxiv. (1900). Social Conditions of Immigration 93 Number of Poles New York 22,718 Pennsylvania 25,191 Illinois 28.878 Michigan 15,669 Wisconsin 17,660 Massachusetts 3.341 Total, six States. 1 13457 1900 Per cent. Per cenl of all Number of all in U. S. of Poles in U. S. 69755 18.2 I7.I 76.358 19.9 19-5 67.949 177 10.6 28.286 74 12.0 31789 8.3 2.3 21,503 57 76.9 295,640 77.2 NATIVES OF ITALY There were 182,580 Italians in the United States in 1890, and 484,703 in 1900. The number in certain States in each of these years was as follows : 1890 1900 Per cent. Per cent. Number of all Number of all of Italians in U. S. of Italians in U. S. New York 64.141 35- 1 182.248 37-6 Pennsylvania 24.662 U-5 66,655 138 12.989 71 41.865 8.6 8.066 44 28.785 5-9 5.285 2.9 19.105 4.0 Illinois 8,035 44 23.523 4.8 Total, six States. 123,178 67.4 362,181 747 California 15,495 84 22,777 47 Louisiana 7,767 4.2 17,431 3.6 Ohio 3,857 2.1 11.321 2.3 Total, three States 27,119 14-7 51,529 10.6 From the foregoing it appears, therefore, that the five Atlantic States of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, together with Illinois, contained two-thirds of the Italians in 1890, and that their share had risen to three-quarters, in 1900. The three non-Atlantic States of California, Louisiana, and Ohio 94 Immigration and Emigration contained a seventh of the whole in 1890; but in 1900 their share had fallen to hardly more than a tenth. Four- fifths of the increase of our Italian-born population was in the six States first mentioned. NATIVES OF RUSSIA In 1890, there were 182,644 natives of Russia in the United States ; in 1900, 424,096. The following table shows the proportion gathered in half a dozen States : Number of RuMian; New York 58,466 Pennsylvania ^'3^5 Massachusetts 7,325 New Jersey 5,320 Connecticut 3.027 Illinois 8,407 Total, six States. 99.860 1890 1900 Per c»nt. Per cent. of all Number of all in U. S. of Rutsiani in U. S. 32.0 165,610 390 9-5 50.959 12.0 4.0 26,963 6.4 2.2 19.745 47 17 11,404 2.9 4.6 28,707 6.8 540 303.388 7^8 It will be seen, therefore, that while these six States had 54 per cent, of all the natives of Russia in the countrj' in 1890, they had 71.6 per cent, in 1900. Of the increase during the decade, these States suf- fered 84.3 per cent. Nearly two-thirds of the natives of Russia, or 279,230, were found in the North Atlantic States in 1900, three-quarters of the rest, or 107,529, were in the North Central States. In 1880, the 50 prin- cipal cities of the country contained only 8967 natives of Russia. In 1890, the 50 principal cities contained 98,736. In 1900, the 50 principal cities contained 290,790. It almost goes without saying that the occupation of an immigrant has much to do with his destination. Thus, mariners seek the seaboard ; nearly one-eighth of them going to California, and one-tenth to New Eng- Social Conditions of Immigration 95 land, while one-half remain in New York State. Of the miners, about one-half go to Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois. The tailors, mostly Jews, naturally tend to the big cities, about seven-eighths of them being destined for Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois. These instances are but samples, and almost any occupa- tion illustrates the general principle. PART II THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION ON THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER VI RACIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION A. THE IMPORTANCE OF RACE STOCK The results of immigration to this country have been of the greatest importance, extending in countless ways and in many directions, and affecting the fabric of society to an extent of which the average citizen little dreams. From one point of view, indeed, the history of the United States is the history of the effects of European immigration. How valuable this has been, in adding to the wealth and power of the country, everyone knows and gladly acknowledges ; and it is not without a deep appreciation of the fact that we proceed to examine certain effects, especially in recent years, of which the value is less obvious ; which, indeed, constitute a real and menacing danger to our institutions and organic life. The racial effects of immigration are more far-reach- ing and potent than all others. The government, the state, society, industry, the political party, social and political ideals — all are concepts and conventions created by individual men ; and when individuals change these change with them. Recent discoveries in biology show that in the long run heredity is far more important than environment or education ; for though the latter can de- velop, it cannot create. They also show what can be done in a few years in altering species, and in producing new ones with qualities hitherto unknown, or unknown in combination. 99 loo The Effects of Immigration At the present time, apart from education, attempts to improve race stocks are limited to two directions. The first, universally practiced, is the segregation and, to a slight extent, the elimination of the dependent and de- linquent classes. Insane and dangerous criminals are more or less successfully segregated and prevented from propagation during the period of their incarceration. But against this benefit must be set the fact that our charities, and even our penal institutions, keep alive lar;je numbers whom natural forces would once have elimi- nated. Epidemics which once carried off many of the best citizens also removed more of the worst ; and war still removes many of the strongest. To-day the feeble, the anemic live. Furthermore, many of our prisoners and insane, detained for long periods, have had children before their segregation. The first method of improving the people of a state is, then, segregation within its limits. The second method is segregation by refusing entrance into the nation from without. Where migration small in numbers takes place between nations of equal age, who have been long settled, this method is less important than the first. But a new nation derives its whole character and has its whole future determined by its first settlers ; and when subse- quent immigration takes place on a scale large in relation to the total population, equally far-reaching changes may be made in the nation's institutions and ideals. The Rt. Hon. Arthur Balfour has pointed out that our beliefs and purposes are little dependent upon logic or intellec- tual information. What is impressed upon two men will produce widely different results, according to the way they react towards it ; and this reaction depends upon those vast, vague undercurrents of life, as Professor Wil- liam James calls them, little understood, often hardly Racial Effects lOI noticed, which are largely determined by heredity. Edu- cation, imitation of others, will do much to produce outward conformity, but racial characteristics will with- stand the influence of centuries. . The point is dwelt upon because, although the value of artificial selection in breeding animals, in producing seedless fruits and new grains — in fact in nearly every department of life — is now generally recognized ; and although some advanced persons talk of regulating mar- riage with a view to the elimination of the unfit for other purposes than mere survival; yet most people fail to realize that in the United States, through our power to regulate immigration, we have a unique opportunity to exercise artificial selection on an enormous scale. We started with immigrants of the best stock in Europe, selected naturally by the perils of the voyage and the hardships of life in a new countrv'. The possible danger from too careless an attitude toward the selection of race stocks for the future population of this country is thus stated in a recent article by Mr. Eliot Norton : ^ " If one considers the American people from say 1775 to i860, it is clear that a well-defined national character was in process of formation. What variations there were, were all of the same type, and these variations would have slowly grown less and less marked. It needs little study to see of what great value to any body of men, women and children, a national or racial type is. It fur- nishes a standard of conduct by which anyone can set his course. The world is a difficult place in which to live, and to establish moral standards has been one of the chief occupations of mankind. Without such standards, man feels as a mariner without a compass. Religions, rules, laws and customs are only the national character ^ In Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 163 (July, 1904). 102 The Effects uf Immigration in the form of standards of conduct. Now national char- acter can only be formed in a population which is stable. The repeated introduction into a body of men, of other men of different type or types, cannot but tend to pre- vent its formation. Thus the nineteen millions of immi- grants that have landed have tended to break up the type which was forming-, and to make the formation of any other type difficult. Every million more will only intensify this result, and the absence of a national charac- ter is a loss to every man, woman and child. It will show itself in our religions, rules of conduct, in our laws, in our customs." In the United States we have the opportunity to try the effect of hybridization upon an enormous scale. The question as to the racial effects of immigration is not, as most people assume, a question between us and the im- migrants, but between our children and grandchildren and theirs. We are trustees for the future, and with us is the decision what races and what kind of men shall inherit this country for years after we are gone. Such being the opportunities and the dangers of a change of race-stocks, we have now to consider how far the dangers are real. B. EFFECTS OF THE CHANGES IN THE NATIONALITY OP IMMIGRANTS * Immigration may affect the races already here in two ways ; first, by those whom it introduces, and second, by those whom it prevents being introduced. The second class may be still further divided into those prevented from coming to us from abroad, and the vastly more numerous and important division of those who are never born here at all because of immigration. According to '- For much of what follows the author is indebted to the article of Gustave Michaud, in Century, vol. 65, pp. 682-692, (Mar. 1903). Racial Effects the census in 1900, less than one-half of our white popu- lation consists of immigrants who landed before 1835 and their descendants. Up to 1890 this part of the population was still in the majority, but since then it has been rapidly falling in importance, both from the new arrivals and the decline of the native stock. As we have seen, immigra- tion during the colonial period and up to 1835 was almost exclusively Teutonic and Keltic. Under the classifica- tion adopted by the Immigration Bureau, the proportion of the various race divisions in the immigration of 1904 was: Slavic, 33.5 per cent.; Teutonic, 24.0 per cent.; Iberic, 22.9 per cent.; Keltic, 12. i ; Mongolic, 2.5 per cent. ; and all others, 4.8 per cent.^ From this it appears that the Teutonic and Keltic immigration amounts to only a little over one-third of the total immigration.* The increase in immigrants from southern and east- ern Europe and the diminution in those from northern and western Europe, may also be expressed in terms 3 This classification is by no means ideal. " Slavic " includes Hebrews, and "Keltic" includes peoples as diverse as Scotch, French, and Northern Italians. See Dr. K. H. Claghorn, in Out- look, vol. 13, p. 453 (Feb. 4, 1905) ; W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe. * The ordinary classification of the immigration reports are those of nationality and of " race," the latter being chiefly based on language. As Dr. Michaud has pointed out, the language and nationality of an immigrant chiefly indicate acquired habits and characteristics, while a true racial classification tells of the inherited tendencies which are likely to be developed in his descendants. Most ethnologists are agreed upon a three-fold division of the Caucasian race, namely, into the Baltic race, occupying Scandinavia, Great Britain, northern Germany and parts of France, Central Europe and Russia ; the Alpine, occupy- ing the mountain-ranges of Central and Southern Europe and some of the plateaus of Western Asia; and the Mediterranean, formerly widely spread, but to-day occupying Southern Europe. The Baltic race is probably descended from the early Medi- I04 The Effects of Immigration of races, as follows. For the period from 1835 to 1890, the Baltic furnished 87 per cent., the Alpine 10 per cent., and the Mediterranean 3 per cent, of the total immigration. For the decade from 1890 to 1900, the Baltic furnished 53 per cent., the Alpine 32 per cent., and the Mediterranean 15 per cent. For the two fiscal years 1901 and 1902, the Baltic fur- nished 35 per cent., the Alpine 42 per cent., and the ]\Iediterranean 23 per cent. It therefore appears that during 1901-2, as compared with 1835-90, the Mediter- ranean has increased 7 times, the Alpine over 4 times, while the Baltic has fallen to less than one-half. It also appears that, since 1900, the Baltic has been losing the commanding position in the total immigration, which has been assumed by the Alpine ; and that in recent years the Mediterranean has been increasing faster than the Alpine, and is likely to increase still faster in the future. It is also evident that if the diminution in the Baltic immi- terranean, and its energy and resourcefulness may be the result of natural selection — in high latitudes. It represents, therefore, a picked stock distinguished by many valuable qualities. These people have long and narrow skulls, blue eyes, and light hair; they are fond of work, enterprising and ingenious, with a high regard for neatness and order. They are also distinguished for courage and have generally made good soldiers. The Alpine race has a broad and short skull, grey eyes and brown hair. They vary in height, but are usually solid and of heavy weight. They are not so given to action as the Baltic race, and are not artistic like the Mediterranean race, but are fond of intellectual pursuits and of philosophy. On account of these latter char- acteristics they are more individualistic and do not co-operate practically in civic matters as well as those of the Baltic race. In their living and dress they affect simplicity and are not as fond of fashion as their northern neighbors. The Mediterranean race are dolichocephalic like the Baltic, but are sliort and slender with dark hair and eyes. They are enthusiastic, fond of art and music, and distinguished by courtesy and fine manners. Racial Effects gration continues at the present rate, it will soon cease to be a factor of any importance. As has been pointed out elsewhere, recent immigration is not of the same quality it once was. This is probably true of the immi- grants from all races ; yet this factor works unequally because the less desirable elements of the Baltic race are, on the whole, nearer the average of their race than the lower classes of the Alpine and Mediterranean. Conse- quently, the increase in immigration of the latter nationalities will probably mean, not merely a change of race but a change in average quality. This process, moreover, has a cumulative effect ; for immigrants who come from a low order of society, no matter of what race, tend to deter the more desirable of the same race from attempting to compete with them in a new country. Apart from this deterioration, the most likely effects of the change in immigration will be as follows : the skull will become more of the brachio-cephalic type, the average stature will be lower and the average complexion will be darker. Dr. Michaud states that these changes are already taking place on a large scale in New York, Pennsylvania, and especially in Massachusetts. He also makes the following prediction : ^ " Mental changes keep pace with these, and will be most noticeable after the descendants of our present immigrants have identified themselves a degree with American politics, literature, science and art. Tlie most conclusive of these, perhaps, will be a decline of that enterprising spirit which has been called the American push. Both the Alpine and the Mediterranean — the first more than the latter — will contribute to bring about that undesirable result. A restless mind, ever on the watch for opportunities and improvements, is characteristic of the British people, but it is found to a higher degree 5 In Century, vol. 65, p. 688 (Mar. 1903). io6 The Effects of Immigration among the Baltic race than among the European branches of the same race. The artificial selec- tion practised at the time of the emigration of primitive Baltic stock by the circumstances attending that emigration is the cause of that dif¥erence which manifests itself to-day in a thousand different ways. During the i6th, 17th, i8th and part of the 19th cen- turies, the voyagp from Europe to America was long, perilous, and had many sufferings in store for those who undertook it. As a result, the average of those who chose to depart were gifted with a more enterprising spirit than the average of those who chose to remain. That the newcomers cannot possess that spirit to the same degree results from two facts : they do not belong to the Baltic race and the voyage from Europe to Amer- ica is no longer fraught with danger and uncertainty." On the other hand, Dr. Michaud thinks that stronger family ties, a lessening of the pursuit of wealth, and a greater love for abstract knowledge will come with the Alpine immigrants of the future ; and that the Mediter- ranean stock will be likely to increase our love of art and our appreciation of the beautiful in all its forms. It should not be forgotten, however, that these desirable qualities can be obtained by admitting only the best speci- mens of the newer races, and that to obtain them all it is quite unnecessary to subject the nation to the bur- den of delinquents, dependents and the unprogressive elements. When we turn to the second important racial effect of immigration, its power to prevent new arrivals — we touch a consideration of overwhelming significance, for this alters not merely the quality of material to be assimi- lated, but the very power of assimilation itself. Attention has already been drawn to the fact that the immigration of low types has a tendency to prevent the immigration of better from the same or other races. It is well known Racial Effects 107 that after immigration from southern and eastern Europe began to be appreciable in 1880, large numbers of Ger- man emigrants were diverted to South America and other places, and that British emigrants began to seek new homes in Canada, Australia and South Africa. Inquiry confirms the belief that the more enterprising and desir- able emigrants are unwilling to go to a country where they are obliged to compete with the lowest grade of labor. As soon as the displacement of the Germans and Irish in the mining regions of Pennsylvania became known in Europe, it tended to check the emigration of their countrymen to those regions. It is still cheaper to go to the United States than to many places now more eagerly sought by the better class of emigrants. But the additional price is paid because the emigrants know that their condition and prospects will be better in a land where the padrone system and the sweat shop are less largely developed. Streams of emigration, long directed to any land tend to wear channels in which still more emigration will flow. The most important of all the effects of immigration, however, is that of preventing additions to the population from our own stock. This point, until recently, has re- ceived little attention. General Francis A. Walker, super- intendent of the tenth and eleventh censuses of the United States, w-as one of the first to call attention to its danger. He says : ^ " Space would not serve for the full statistical demon- stration of the proposition that immigration, during the * Discussions in Economics and Statistics, vol. 2, pp. 440- 441. Cp. Sydney G. Fisher, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 48, pp. 244-255 (Dec. 1895) ; Prof. John R. Commons, in Chau- tauquan, vol. 39, pp. 217-218 (May, 1904) ; Census Bulletin, No. 22 (1905). io8 The Effects of Immigration period from 1830 to i860, instead of constituting- a net re-enforcement to the population, simply resulted in a replacement of native by foreign elements ; but I be- lieve it would be practicable to prove this to the satisfac- tion of every fair-minded man. Let it sui¥ice to state a few matters which are beyond controversy. " The population of 1790 was almost wholly a native and wholly an acclimated population, and for forty years afterwards immigration remained at so low a rate as to be practically of no account ; yet the people of the United States increased in numbers more rapidly than has ever elsewhere been known, in regard to any considerable population, over any considerable area, through any considerable period of time. Between 1790 and 1830 the nation grew from less than 4,ocxD,ooo to nearly 13,000,000, — an increase, in fact, of 227 per cent., a rate unparalleled in history. That increase was wholly out of the loins of our own people. Each decade had seen a growth of between 33 and 38 per cent., a doubling once in twenty-two or twenty-three years. During the thirty years which followed 1830, the conditions of life and re- production in the United States were not less, but more, favorable than in the preceding period. Important changes relating to the practice of medicine, the food and clothing of people, the general habits of living, took place, which were of a nature to increase the vitality and reproductive capability of the American people. Throughout this period, the standard of height, of weight, and of chest measurement was steadily rising, with the result that, of the men of all nationalities in the giant army formed to suppress the slave-holders' re- bellion, the native American bore off the palm in respect to physical stature. The decline of this rate of increase among Americans began at the very time when foreign immigration first assumed considerable proportions ; it showed itself first and in the highest degree in those regions, in those States, and in the very counties into which the foreigners most largely entered. It proceeded for a long time in such a way as absolutely to offset the foreign arrivals, so that in 1850, in spite of the incoming of two and a half millions of foreigners during the thirty Racial Effects 109 years, our population differed by less than ten thousand from the population which would have existed, accord- ing to the previous rate of increase, without re-enforce- ment from abroad. These three facts, which might be shown by tables and diagrams, constitute a statistical demonstration such as is rarely attained in regard to the operation of any social or economic force." Of course the falling of a birth rate may be due to many causes ; but, in general, it is the result of the desire for the " concentration of advantages." In an old coun- try, where pressure of population is felt and the wealth of the country is limited — as in England, France and Germany — concentration of advantages may be necessary to maintain the social status of families in the condition to which they have been accustomed. In England this has been accomplished by primo-geniture and the prac- tice of younger members of families to seek their fortunes in other lands. Hence — although tlie birth rate has not fallen as much as it otherwise would — the pressure of population is relieved, and wealth, sufficient to sup- port small families, is conserved and handed from one generation to another. In France, a country never characterized by great colonization, the same result has been attained through voluntary limitation of the size of families ; an idea that has been carried to so great an extent that the population, as is well known, has remained at times very largely stationary. The United States, on the other hand, has always been a country of immense natural resources, which, even at the present time, is far from completely exploited, and where the opportunities for acquisition of wealth have been unparalleled. There have never been in the United States the same reasons for accomplishing the " concentration of advantages," by means of an artificial lowering of the birth rate, which have obtained in European countries. no The Effects of Immigration In the United States the controlling reason which re- duced the birth rate seems to have been the social one. Consider for a moment the typical town of one hundred years ago. The boys of the village drove the omnibus, tended the store, hired themselves for labor in the fields. Everybody knew everybody else, and though the judge, the minister and the doctor, owing to their better educa- tion, had a certain pre-eminence, society in general, was comparatively homogeneous. But from the moment ''mmigration began, this condition was broken in upon. The earlier immigrants from Ireland and Germany, who /Tame in the forties to escape famine and political oppres- sion, were, for the most part, unskilled and incapable of any but the simpler kinds of manual labor. At first they were regarded as curiosities in the towns where they settled. They went more or less by themselves, and did not enter into the existing clubs and amusements. As the factory system developed, and machinery made possible the employment of a grade of labor far inferior in education and skill to the old handiworker of the crafts, the immigrants went largely into the factories. Poor, they lived in the cheapest locations and in the most frugal way. Gradually the natives withdrew from social contact with them ; the girls disliked to work with them in the factory or in domestic service, and the boys were unwill- ing to be with them in the fields and the mills. In most cases this was not a matter of mere race prejudice : it arose from the fact that the intelligence and standards of the newcomers were diflferent from and inferior to those of the natives. The result of this dislike was, necessarily, that the natives and their children wished to confine themselves to occupations which the immigrants had not yet invaded ; and these occupations were, of course, those requiring more capital either in money or in education. Racial Effects Girls no longer went out to service, but took up book- keeping or work in certain kinds of stores ; the boys were sent to high school, or, if possible, to college. To fit children for these, however, required capital, and this involved some method for the further concentration of advantages. As the country was not overcrowded, and the material resources still remained as great as those of any other in the world, nothing was to be gained by emigration — although it is probable that not a little of the movement from the Eastern to the Western States was stimulated by the arrival of new immigrants on the Atlantic border. In most cases, however, emigration was not practicable ; and the easiest course in order to obtain special advantages was for the family to limit its num- bers. The result was that the natives did not marry, or married later ; and in case of marriage, voluntarily limited the size of their families.'^ In the latter part of the nineteenth century this position was further accelerated by the movement toward the cities, in which the young men played the leading part, leaving the girls at home upon the farms, and diminishing their opportunity for marriage. That this is no flight of the imagination, but an actual description of what has happened and is still happening to-day, is testified to by many students of the question. The writer has personally inquired as to the cause of the T Census Bulletin, No. 22, p. 17 (1905), gives the number of white children under 5 years of age to 1,000 white females 15 to 49 years of age, for the Continental United States as follows: 1830 781 1840 744 1850 613 i860 627 1870 562 1880 537 1890 473 1900 465 112 The Effects of Immigration small families in various parts of our Eastern States, and has been repeatedly told by parents that this social reason was the important one in their own case. Dr. Roberts and Dr. Warne report the same thing in the mining regions of Pennsylvania. Confirmation of this explanation of the falling of the birth rate, is found in the fact that the same cause is tending to operate in the case of the earlier Teutonic and Keltic immigrants, in order to enable them to keep their position as against the newer Iberic and Slavic immigrants. Of course, in more recent years luxury has increased, and the desire for material advantages probably plays a larger part in this process to-day than it did at the time of the first considerable immigration. In other words : there is to-day not merely the desire to escape from contact with the lower social class, but to ape the habits and customs of a higher social class ; but in both cases the result has come about through the disturbance of the original homogeneity by the introduction of different social elements.^ A very thorough study of the native birth rate has been ® Gen. Walker says. Discussions in Economics and Statistics, vol. 2, pp. 417-426: " The American shrank from the industrial competition thus thrust upon him. He was unwilling himself to engage in the lowest kind of day labor with these new elements of population ; he was even more unwilling to bring sons and daughters into the world to enter into that competition. . . . The great fact protrudes through all the subsequent history of our population that the more rapidly foreigners came into the United States, the smaller was the rate of increase, not merely among the native population, but throughout the population of the country as a whole, including the foreigners. ... If the foregoing views are true, or contain any considerable degree of truth, foreign immigration into this country has, from the time it as- sumed large proportions, amounted not to a re-enforcement of Racial Eft'ects made by R. R. Kuczynski for the State of Massachusetts.^ He finds that the marriage rate among the natives is much smaller than among the foreign-born for all ages up to 45 ; that the proportion of married natives is smaller than among the foreign-born, especially at the most fruitful periods of life ; and that the foreign-born have a larger number of children. His conclusion is that probably the native population cannot hold its own, and that it seems to be dying out. It has also been our population, but to a replacement of native by foreign stock." The Industrial Commission says also in its report, vol. 15, p. 277: "It is a hasty assumption which holds that immigration during the nineteenth century has increased the total population." 9 Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 16, pp. 1-36 (Nov. 1901), and pp. 141-186 (Feb. 1902). 1° The marriage rate of unmarried males 15 years and older is : native-born 47.7 ; foreign-born 68.9 ; and of females, native-born 40; foreign-born 56.8. Among the natives 3-15 of the married women have never had children, as compared with 2-15 among the foreigners. The birth rate among married women of child- bearing age is; 142.5 per thousand for natives, and 251.8 for the foreign-born. For the period 1885-1897 the marriage rate and the proportion of married women decreased with natives and increased with foreigners. The average number of children born to every foreign-born married woman at the census of 1885 was 2-3 higher than for the natives. Among the German women it was 4-7 higher than for the natives ; among the Irish women 6-7 higher ; and among the French-Canadian women twice as high. The average number of children living for every married woman was 3-5 higher among the foreign-born than among the natives. It was more than 1-2 higher for the women born in Germany; 2-3 higher for the Irish women, and nearly twice as high for the French-Canadians. Taken with the fact that the proportion of the single among adult natives was over 6-15, and among \.hf foreign-born, less than 5-15, while it was not much less than 1-2 among natives in Massachusetts, only 1-4 for natives in other New England States, and only 2- 11 for the women born in Germany; 114 The Effects of Immigration stated that at the present time the excess of deaths over births in New England for those whose mothers were native-born is 1. 5 per 1000 population. This, how- ever, is partly due to the fact that many of the native stock have moved away and bred outside of New Eng- land, leaving the rural parts of the country peopled by the old and quite young. The same writer also is of the opinion that, comparing the native-born with the Irish, the average annual excess of births over deaths during the ten years following 1890, for those born here of Irish mothers,, was 11.2 per thousand ; ^2 for those born of native American mothers, 16 per thousand. The foregoing conclusions are reinforced by a recent investigation by Professor Walter F. Willcox made for the Census Bureau. He finds a marked falling of the general birth rate in this country, especially in the North this makes the adult native women in Massachusetts appear even less prolific. It appears also that, in the period from 1883 to 1897, the marriage rate of the foreign-born adult men was 1-9 more, and that of the women 3-10 more, than that of the adult natives. The birth rate during the same period for the adult foreign-born was more than twice as high as that for the natives. 11 Letter of Dr. E. E. Cornwall, New York Daily Tribune, Mar. 30, 1903. 12 He also says that the average age at death of native whites born of native American mothers was 36 years, and of native whites of foreign mothers, 15 years, showing that mortality is greater among children of the foreign-born than among those of the natives. Increased sanitation and attention to public hygiene, especially in the large cities, are doing something to offset the conditions causing infant mortality in those places. If this betterment should increase on a large scale, the advantage of the native population owing to increased infant mortality among the descendants of the foreign-born, would be largely taken away, and the higher birth rate of the foreign-born would tend to give that element increasing advantage. '^^ Census Bulletin, No. 22 (1905). Racial Effects and East, and he notes the same large difference in birth rate in favor of the foreign-born. Thus, in 1900, the number of native white children under five years of age, in proportion to 1000 females 15 to 44 years of age, was as follows: for cities of 25,000 or more inhabitants, na- tive mothers 296, foreign mothers 612 ; for smaller cities and the country districts, native mothers 522, foreign mothers 841.1'* That the native birth rate is falling is also confirmed by the report of the president of Harvard College for 1902.1*'' This shows that out of 881 graduates of the classes of 1872-1877 inclusive, 634 were married and had surviving 1262 children. In other words, 28 per cent, of the members of these classes were unmarried in 1902, and those who were married had, on the average, only two surviving children ; so that the married pairs did no more than just reproduce themselves. In part no doubt this is due to the period of preparation by educated young men for professional occupations, a fact which causes them to marry at twenty-nine or thirty when they should marry at twenty-five, and as young men of the same social class, a hundred years ago, would have mar- ried at twenty. Considering the average number of children for the graduates of other colleges we find a progressive decrease. Thus the average size of families of graduates of Middlebury College in the period 1803- 1807 was 5.6. From this time there was a steady diminu- tion to 2.3 for the period 1870- 1874, and 1.8 for the period 1875-1879. A similar result is observed in the cases of Wesleyan University and New York University, " Ceusiis Bulletin, No. 22, p. 24. This also shows a de- crease in children between 1890 and 1900 of 13 per thousand for the native mothers and an increase of 44 for the foreign mothers. See Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. 11, p. 355, (Mar. 1903). ii6 The Effects of Immigration in each of which the average fell from 4 or over, in the period 1830-1850, to about 2^ for the period 1860-1870.1^ In Boston, 1" it appears that the negroes and native whites are failing to keep up their numbers, the former because of a high death rate, and the latter on account of a low birth rate. But the foreign born show an increas- ing birth rate, which varies with different nationalities, and is highest for the more recently arrived. It appears also that practically the whole of the native population of Massachusetts is in the same position as the college graduates above referred to ; and that the decrease in birth rate is characteristic of the social classes which constitute the older part of the population. It is only fair to state in this connection that the ex- planation which attributes this result to voluntary re- striction has not passed unchallenged. Herbert Spen- cer, for example, has advanced the view that education diminishes actual fertility. But though this be so, the great majority of children would be produced by the more fertile individuals, and, on ordinary principles of inheritance, would tend themselves to continue fertile and to produce large families ; and the class who were 1® Edward L. Thorndike, " The Decrease in Size of American Families," in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 63, p. 64 (May, 1903). Investigation in New York City has disclosed the fact that there are large numbers of apartment houses where large families are not received. Six real estate agents controlling many flats renting for from $50 to $100 per month refuse to accept tenants with more than two children. In one house containing suites renting from $400 to $800 there were sixty families and no children ; in another there were forty families and but six children; in another, containing apartments for 24 families, there were but three children. Out of twenty-two apartment houses containing 485 families there were but 54 children. 1^ Dr. F. A. Bushee, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 63, pp. 355-363 (Aug. 1903). Racial Effects 117 not fertile, or who believed in voluntary restriction, would tend to die out, if not recruited through converts to re- striction from the class naturally fertile. It is difficult to suppose that the amount of education in one or two generations would be sufficient to affect general fertility, and it would seem, therefore, that the change in birth rate must be due to a desire to concentrate advantages, either by increasing the period of time devoted to educa- tion and accumulation of wealth, or to voluntary restric- tion of offspring. It has also been suggested that races, like individuals, have a natural period of vigor, followed by a decline and extinction ; but if this hypothesis were true, it would re- quire a considerable period for its demonstration. In the case of stock of English descent in the United States, a general decay of race seems to be negatived by the larger birth rates in the newer parts of the country to which the native stock of New England, for example, has emigrated.^® In the Southern States, which have received but little foreign immigration, the birth rate remained substantially unchanged during the last cen- tury. That diminished fertility is not the cause of small families in the East seems further to be supported by the fact that in many of the older countries of Europe where, owing to the simplicity of peasant life and per- haps to firmly fixed class distinctions, social ambition is a less potent factor, the birth rate has continued with full vigor. Also because in the countries from which there has been a considerable emigration, the birth rate ^8 In the West, while the patriarchal families of ten and twelve children are no longer common, families of four or five children among the native Americans are. Prof. T. N. Carver, in IVorld's Work, p. 4234 (Dec. 1903). ii8 The Effects of Immigration immediately increases to such a degree that the pressure of population is soon restored to its former condition. William Farr, an eminent student of vital statistics, observed many years ago that, as in the case of England, emigration increased the birth rates in the countries from which it took place. Although immigration has not taken place on the continent of Europe to the same extent as in this country, it could probably be shown that it has diminished the birth rate in the countries to which it moves, both among the natives already there and among the emigrating population. That voluntary restriction induced by immigration is, in large part, the true explanation of these phenomena has also been expressed by ^I. Arsene DuMont, who has stated the law in the following proposition : that popula- tion increases inversely with " social capillarity." In other words, where, in a communit}-, there are groups with different social standards, prudential restraint is exercised by the group or groups having the social stand- ard to maintain. The lower groups, oblivious to such considerations, multiply both from pure indifference to the outcome, and from the economic gain arising from an increase in the size of the family. This principle of social capillarity is an element often overlooked in the ordinary statement of the law of population, that the increase varies inversely to the density.-*' For although density exercises, no doubt, an economic check, even where the population is homogeneous, the social factor 1* A table showing the birth rates for the various elements of population in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, as well as for the whole population of those States and for certain foreign countries, will be found in an Appendix. See also R. R. Kucz>ti- ski, in Boston Herald. Mar. 31, IQ02. -"A. H. Hyde, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 52, p. 389 (Jan. 1898). Racial Effects 119 is almost as powerful if not more powerful than the economic factor; and this is not taken into account in speaking merely of density. As has already been indicated, the same tendencies to artificial restriction of births are beginning to operate both among the earlier and more recent immi- grants. Inasmuch as social and educational considera- tions are weaker among the more recent arrivals, the change in sentiment resulting in restriction of families is not likely to operate to a very large extent for some time to come. That the foreign born in the United States do not increase faster, is doubtless due largely to the fact that the children of foreign-born are. after a time, reckoned as natives in the censuses ; to the very considerable emigration which continually goes on, especially among " birds of passage ; and to the large infant mortality arising from the very unfavorable con- ditions in which many of the newer arrivals live. Xo one, of course, can contend for a moment that the United States or any part of it, with some exceptions in large cities, has as large a population as it could support. The densest population in parts of Massachusetts, Penn- sylvania and New Jersey is about go per square mile. In New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois and Kentucky the average is between 45 and 90 individuals per square mile. When we compare this with certain foreign countries we see the immense difference ; thus, in 1890, the Nether- lands had 359 inhabitants per square mile ; Great Britain, -1 See Dr. F. A. Bushee, " Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," Publications of the American Economic Association, 3d series, p. 4 (May, 1903) ; Peter Roberts, Anthracite Coal Com- munities, pp. 74 fF. For a denial of Dr. Bushee's statement that the Irish are tending to die out, see The Republic (Boston), July 25, 1903. I20 The Effects of Immigration 311 ; Germany, 234; France, 187, and China, 295.22 The problem, then, is not one of numbers, but of quaHty ; not of mere additions, but of a lowering of average value ; and as such it is more fundamental than any mere ques- tion of quantitative selection. 22 S. G. Croswell, in North American Review, vol. 164, p 528 (May, 1897). Cp. Edward Atkinson, "Incalculable Room for Immigrants," in Forum, vol. 13, p. 360 (May, 1892). CHAPTER VII ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION It is impossible to consider the economic ef¥ects of immigration entirely apart from the racial, social, and political effects. An immigrant, because he is a human being, touches the life in the country in which he makes his new home on many sides, in this respect differing from inanimate merchandise. The economic effects pro- duced by certain classes of immigrants may be tempo- rarily disastrous, while, upon the whole, these same im- migrants may add to the strength of social and polit- ical institutions, and may contribute to the produc- tion of a more valuable breeding stock. On the other hand, immigrants may be a definite and incontrovertible gain to the country from an economic point of view, and yet their presence may cause social degradation, political dangers and racial deterioration. The efficiency of labor itself depends to a considerable degree not only upon the physical, but also on the mental condition of the worker, and these in turn depend upon all those elements entering into the condition of the working classes, housing, health, home life, and the like.^ A. DEMAND FOR LABOR The economic effect of immigration most discussed, is that upon the labor market. It is alleged that immi- gration produces at certain periods an over-supply of 1 Cp. W. H. Mallock, Aristocracy and Evolution. 121 122 The Effects of Immigration labor, and causes a fall in the rates of wages and the standard of living of the workingmen. This matter can be tested by the demand for labor, by the evidence of employers and workmen as to competition, and by the numbers of the unemployed. Except from certain parts of the South and West, which seek farm laborers who have families, and wjio bring some money and intend a permanent settlement, there is practically no demand in this country for immi- grant labor.2 This was brought out by the Immigration Investigating Commission in 1895, and by the replies received from the Governors and Commissioners of Labor of the various States in response to inquiries made by the Immigration Restriction League in 1904 and 1905.^ There is, and there always has been, a demand for the cheapest labor on the part of certain railroads, mine owners and contractors. But these view the mat- ter solely from the standpoint of the profits of their business, and their importation of cheap labor led to the passage of the contract labor laws. It is frequently said in discussions of this subject that the foreigners have come to do work which the natives were no longer willing to attempt, and that this country has been fortunate to have plenty of cheap labor for employments of the lower sort. The argument, how- ever, is based upon a fallacy. As long as society was homogeneous, Americans were ready to do all kinds of work. Men like Emerson performed much manual labor in addition to their intellectual pursuit, and the * As to the Southern feeling on ihis question see Manufac- turers' Record (Baltimore), vol. 48, pp. 5-13 (July 20, 1905), and PP- 33. 36 (July 27, 1905) ; R. De C. Ward, " Immigration and the South," in Atlantic Monthly, vol. 96, pp. 611-616 (Nov. 1905). 3 The nature of these replies is discussed in chapter xiv. infra. Economic Effects 123 American farmer of sixty years ago was a jack of all trades. So long as manual labor was honorable socially, large families were an economic benefit instead of an economic burden, and all the manual laborers needed could have been and would have been produced by the increase of the native stock. Benjamin Franklin stated that the average American family in 1700 was eight. He himself was the next to the youngest child in a family of seven- teen. Cotton Mather had twenty children. While men were needed to till the fields and to fight the Indians, large families were the rule. The fallacy in question is further exposed by the fact that the Italians coming in at a later period have displaced to a large extent the Irish who were actually performing manual labor, and the same is true of the displacement of the " English " by the " Slav " labor in the Pennsylvania mining regions. In these cases the laborers first in the field were anxious to work, and bitterly objected to being deprived of their jobs by the newcomers, who, as they were without families and with a far inferior standard of living, could accept lower wages. The newer immigration is causing the same reduction of the birth rate among the earlier immigrants, which the latter caused among the native Americans. B. EFFECT ON WAGES AND STANDARD OF LIVING So many factors enter into the rate of wages that it is difficult to express in statistical form the results of immigration upon the labor market. For example, in times of prosperity, wages tend to advance ; and this advance is followed, as has been shown above, by an in- crease of immigration. Increased immigration tends to promote competition, and so far tends to check the rise of wages ; but it is, of course, impossible to tell in a given 124 The Effects of Immigration case whether wages would have gone still higher \{ increased immigration had not occurred. On the other hand, when prosperity diminishes, wages naturally tend to fall, and this is followed, though after a not inconsid- erable interval, by a diminution of immigration. Hence, it is difficult to determine how much of the fall of wages is due to the previous large immigration, and how much to the diminution of the fund out of which wages are paid. The problem is also complicated by the large numbers of immigrants who are willing to work for less than the average wage. The number of persons out of employment within a given time needs to be supple- mented by statistics of the wages actually paid in the different industries and to the different classes of workers. It is, however, the almost universal belief of the workers themselves, at least so far as they are organ- ized, that immigration tends to lower wages and to lower the standard of living. This was the opinion of the Massachusetts Commission on the Unemployed in its report in 1895.* It is also shown by the forcible and con- * " It appears to us that the evil of non-employment is in a considerable measure due to ill responsible, ill advised and ill adapted immigration. It is found that not only in Boston but in many of the cities of similar rank in the United States, a large proportion of those who needed help during the emergency of last winter were immigrants who had recently arrived. It is im- possible to introduce any plan of positive and immediate aid for the unemployed of this country that does not mean doing the same for the unemployed of Europe. Under present conditions, the United States is attempting to solve the question of unem- ployment for Europe as well as for itself. The immigrants who are now coming to this country are, for the most part, unskilled. This section of the country has an abundance of such labor, even in normal times; and it cannot be said that this immigration is due solely to the working of the economic law of supply and Economic Effects 125 tinned demand of organized labor for further restriction of immigration. Of the 5082 petitions for restriction sent to Congress in 1901-2, a large proportion came from the labor unions of the country. The American Federa- tion of Labor and likewise the Knights of Labor have re- peatedly placed themselves on record in favor of further restriction ; ^ and the American Federation of Labor at its convention in Nashville in December, 1897, by a vote of 1858 to 352, pronounced itself in favor of checking the influx of cheap foreign labor, and of an illiteracy test for immigrants. The labor unions are chiefly composed of skilled laborers, and these are the ones who suffer most in com- petition with the newcomers. In times of commercial depression, many skilled workmen are obliged, tempo- rarily, to take up unskilled employments ; and any large influx of unskilled laborers increases the number of those with whom the former must then compete. In times of cpuimercial prosperity the skilled workmen are ex- demaiiS of labor. . . . Much of the recent immigration is due, not to a real and permanent demand for labor in this part of the country, but rather to depressed and abnormal conditions abroad, to governmental persecutions and to irresponsible and inaccurate representations in Europe of industrial conditions in this country. . . . A large number of these immigrants also are illiterate, and consequently cannot rise into the ranks of skilled labor. They have become congested in our large cities, and not only find themselves repeatedly in need of relief, but also depriving the rank and file of our more permanently established industrial classes of opportunity to work at unskilled employment when there is a temporary interruption in skilled occupations." 5 In a letter to Representative Watson in 1902, Mr. Gompers, President of the American Federation of Labor, said : " The organized workers of the country feel that the existing immigration laws, while not without their value, are of trifling effect compared with the needs and the just demand of American labor. . . . The strength of this country is in the intelligence 126 The Efifects of Immigration posed to the competition not only of the skilled aliens, but even of the unskilled, and for the following reason: The introduction of machinery has, to a large extent, done away with the necessity for any considerable skill on the part of operatives, as well as actually diminished the number of operatives required for a given output. The spinning and weaving industries, for example, for- merly demanded not a little technical skill. At the pres- ent time, owing to changes in the machines employed, a relatively unskilled worker can produce a far larger output in less time. The unskilled immigration from Europe and Canada, crowding into the mills and fac- tories in this country, has displaced labor far more skilled, or at any rate, far more intelligent. In New England, the Irish displaced the native Americans ; they in their turn were displaced by the French Canadians, who are now to some extent being themselves displaced by Syrians, Armenians and other recent immigrants. The same process has occurred in the mining regions. Originally most of the workers were British, Irish and and the prosperity of our working people. But both the intelli- gence and the prosperity of our working people are endangered by the present immigration. Cheap labor, ignorant labor, takes our jobs and cuts our wages. The fittest survive; that is, those that fit the conditions best, but it is the economically weak, not the economically strong, that fit the conditions of the labor market. They fit best because they can be got to work cheapest. Women and children drive out men, unless either law or labor organizations stop it. In just the same way the Chinamen and others drive out the American, the German, the Irishman. . . . A fall in wages or a relative fall of wages makes the workers unable to buy as large a share as before of the goods they pro- duce. This hastens the time when over-production or under- consumption will show itself. That means hard times; and when hard times come, the mass of immigrants that prosperity at- tracted, will be here to increase the burden of the unemployed." Economic Effects 127 German. To-day in the lower grades of work they are very largely " Slav," and the former miners either oc- cupy the lower grades of work, or have become policemen or operatives, or have been crowded out en- tirely, and have gone elsewhere. The standard of living of these mine laborers is very different from that of the earlier immigrants.*' The Special Agent of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, in testifying before the Industrial Commission, said that in the mining regions of Pennsyl- vania, in 1897, the compulsory education law was a dead letter. The children were not in the schools, but were mostly in the mines working as helpers, pickers, and the like. Many of the mothers also were working, leaving their children unattended under the shade of the trees. Overcrowding was the rule ; in one case twenty miners occupied one small shanty. Sanitation did not exist. The Irish and Welsh miners, who in 1884 were a con- * Peter Roberts, Anthracite Coal Commuiiities, chapters i, 2 and 4 ; Henry Rood, " The Mine Laborers in Pennsylvania," in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 1 10-122 (Sept. 1892). The latter says, p. lis: " When a stranger visits the anthracite regions he is filled with sympathy for the poor Italian and the Slav. He considers the American resident heartless in the extreme. He is amazed at the way the foreigners are regarded. But a single year spent in that land will show him the truth, no matter how tender hearted he is. He will then know that disgust should take the place of surprise. He sees a thousand idle .\mericans, and a like number of foreigners slaving for eighty or ninety cents a day. He sees the Americans sending their children to school, support- ing churches, living in decent houses, trying to be cleanly, and to wear presentable clothing. He also sees the scum of Europe taking the place of the former, content to swarm in shanties like hogs, to contract scurvy by a steady diet of the cheapest salt pork, to suffer sore eyes and bodies rather than to buy a towel and washtub, to endure typhoid fever rather than undergo the expense of the most primitive sanitary apparatus." 128 The Effects of Immigration tented class of people living in clean dwellings, had been unable to withstand the competition of the newcomers, and had gone west to where the competition was not so strong. The agent stated also that the rising generation of Jews, Italians and Hungarians is likely to live for the most part in the same conditions as their parents, and to remain unskilled laborersJ Of course, after a time, as Dr. Roberts points out, the Slav immigrants who have been in the mining regions for some time, tend to raise their standard of living; but this process is slow, and the benefit is largely neutralized by the continual influx of those whose stand- ard is the lowest. It was to better just these conditions that we passed the numerous factory acts now on the statute books ; restricted the hours of labor ; regulated the employment of women and children ; and adopted compulsory education for children under a certain age. These improvements are largely neutralized by the im- migration of aliens willing to work for a lower wage than the standard of this country. Under present conditions there is a constant struggle to maintain our standard of living, with all that it implies. General Francis A. Walker expressed this dan- ger when he said that immigration of the lowest class " will not be permanently stopped so long as any differ- ence of economic level exists between our population and that of the most degraded commvmities abroad." The wages of agricultural laborers outside of harvest time in the United States, except in the South, range from $1.25 to $1.50 a day. In England they are $0.50 a day; in Italy, $0.16 to $0.28; in Russia and Austria-Hun- gary, $0.30. The cost of living in Europe is, to be sure, ^Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 192-19^ 201. Economic Effects 129 also less ; it has been estimated as 30 or 40 per cent, of that in the United States. But, taking Italy as an example, it is said that wages in the United States are five times as high, and the cost of living three times as high. It is asserted that a foreign laborer sooner or later finds that he must raise his standard of living, must, for example, eat meat, to fulfill the more exacting standard of work in this country, and keep the pace with other laborers. But in many occupations where there is no standard wage and no efifective labor organization, an employer can obtain laborers at the lowest rates, and he often finds it to his advantage to employ more men at a lower rate rather than fewer men at a higher rate. The Italian laborer in a trench, who lives largely on stale bread and beer, cannot do as much work as an American, an Irishman, or a German, who eats meat ; but he will do a good deal more than half as mlich work on half as much wages, and many recently arrived immigrants are only too ready to work for a low wage and to keep their standard of living as close to that which they have previously followed as possible. The same influx of low-grade labor and the develop- ment of machinery, acting in combination, produce the same tendencies in the farming regions as in the mines and the factories. Dr. True, of the Department of Agriculture, states that about 2,000,000 men, or 6,000,000 persons in all, gave up farming and went to join the toilers in our cities between 1870 and 1890. This tend- ency to seek the cities will be considered again hereafter,* but it may be mentioned in this place as one of the principal effects of immigration upon labor. It has been explained by many as the result of the monotonous conditions of the country and the greater pleasures and 8 Chapter viii., e. 130 The Effects of Immigration comforts in the town. In regard to this view, Dr. True says : " Lately, however, a few students of modern life have come to see and to say that, while present industrial conditions continue, the movement of populations to cities will continue. The fact is that, broadly speaking, men leave the farms because they are not needed there. . . . A smaller number of men working in our fields turn out a much greater product than the greater num- ber of laborers could possibly secure in olden times. . . . For a time in this country cheap land, superficial methods of cultivation, rapid development of farm machinery, and the swift increase of population engaged in mining and manufacturing enabled our farmers to extend their operations with profit, and to give employment to thou- sands of new men. But gradually, and more rapidly within the past twenty-five years, invention has gained the mastery in agriculture as in other arts. The brain of man has triumphed over his hand, here as elsewhere. . . . Fewer workers per acre are required. The horse or the machine, steam or electricity, has taken the place of the boy or the man. Make farm life never so attrac- tive, and there Vv^ill be but little difference. There are more birds in the nest than the parents can take care of. . . . It is not love of the town so much as necessity to earn a livelihood off the farm which drives boys to the town and makes them competitors in the great industrial struggles at the centres of population.^ In the Corn Belt, for example, although everybody works, the development in machinery has been such that a scarcity of labor is felt only in a very short period of the year. Professor Carver, who has recently visited that region, says : " Riding plows and cultivators, disk harrows and corn harvesters, as well as twine binders and hay stackers, so reduce the amount of muscular strength needed that a ^ Arena, vol. 17, pp. 538-540 (Mar. 1897). Economic Effects boy ten years of age will frequently render almost as much service as a grown man. I was shown one corn field of 1 20 acres which had been cultivated almost entirely by two girls, aged thirteen and fifteen, using riding cultivators." The chief significance of the facts stated in these pas- sages is obvious. It means, on the one hand, that the country boys and girls coming to the cities, are brought into competition with several hundred thousand immi- grants. It means, on the other hand, that, so far as immigrants go onto the farms and work for lower wages, the tendency toward the cities is thereby increased and made more powerful. C. THE PADRONE SYSTEM One of the effects of immigration which has attracted an unusual degree of public attention, is the so-called padrone system. A padrone is a contractor, usually a foreigner, who keeps in close touch with arriving immigrants, secures their labor at a low wage, and then rents it out to other contractors engaged in works of construction. Very frequently the contractor is also a banker, and, occasionally, a boarding-house keeper, com- bining as many ways to secure the immigrant's money for himself as possible. It is said that the Act of 1864 for the encouragement of immigration, which gave con- 10 T. N. Carver, "Life in the Corn Belt," in World's Work, p. 4235 (Dec. 1903). 1^ See Report of Immigration Investigating Commission, pp. 26-29 (1895) ; Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. Ixxix ; Broughton Brandenburg, in Collier's W eekly, vol. 34, p. 29 (Nov. 19, 1904) ; Senate Documents, 53d Congress, 2d Session, No. 114 (1894) ; Bulletin of the Department of Labor, No. 9, (Mar. 1897) ; Gino C. Speranza, " Forced Labor in West Virginia," in Outlook, vol. 74, pp. 407-410 (June 13, 1903). 132 The Effects of Immigration tractors, manufacturers and employers power to con- tract with laborers from Europe to take the places of American workmen, was responsible for the beginnings of the padrone system. / The Italians were the first to be exploited by this method and are still its chief victims, but the practice has spread to include Slav, Jewish, Greek and other laborers ; and, although the details of the system vary somewhat with the nationality and the kind of labor the immigrant performs, the working is simple. A contractor, who has a large job on hand and wishes to secure the lowest-cost labor, applies, for ex- ample, to an Italian banker. The banker, through agents in Italy, secures the necessary number of laborers and has them sent here on prepaid tickets from each of which he receives a commission. On landing, the men are taken in hand by his agent, distributed among boarding- houses under his control, and charged extortionate rates for board. The banker finally assigns them to their work, and collects a commission both from them and from the contractor. While employed, they are forced to live together in shanties owned or hired by the banker's agent, to pay exorbitant rents, and to buy all their pro- visions from this agent at enormous prices. All the money sent home by them is transmitted by the banker, who charges a large fee for this service in addition to the exchange. When they are ready to return to Italy, the banker secures another profit on the return tickets. In this way, from the time they leave home until they return, the immigrants are a constant source of profit. The operations of the padroni are a serious menace to the cause of advancement of labor ; not merely because they stimulate the importation of labor, but on account of the ease and mobility with which labor under their control can be sent to different parts of the country. Economic Effects 133 In 1886, for example, circulars of a New York company were distributed broadcast through the State of Wis- consin, advertising gangs of men for grading, mining, street cleaning, snow shovelling, and similar kinds of labor. In more recent times the system has spread among the Syrians, Arabs, Turks, Greeks and Ar- menians who are being brought here to peddle goods, to black boots, and to beg.^^ For example, the Com- missioner recently discovered that eighty boys who arrived together at Boston from Italy, were to be farmed out as helpers in truck gardens and other work of that kind. It is asserted that the system does not operate as extensively as formerly, especially in regard to the Italians. But it may be replied that although infrac- tions of the contract labor law are not so common, yet it is understood that there is a market for certain kinds of labor in New York City, and immigrants of certain nationalities who come on the strength of this informa- tion fall under the control of the padroni of their own race almost as quickly as if they had been directly im- ported. Competent witnesses further report that most of the Italian banks even at the present day, are more or less engaged in this business. D. THE SWE.A.TING SYSTEM Closely akin to the padrone system is the " sweating system." This term originally denoted a system of sub- contract wherein work was let out to contractors, to be done usually by muscular power in small shops or homes. It is contrasted with the factory system, where the manufacturer employs his own workmen in his own building with steam or other power. The sweating sys- 1- As to Greeks and the boot-black trade see Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1904, p. 38. 134 The Effects of Immigration tern was not originally peculiar to immigrants : but in the sixties, immigrants, especially the Russian Jews, in- vaded the lines of work where the system prevailed, and by their willingness to adopt machines, such as sewing machines, and by division of labor, quickly ousted the English, Irish, and native labor previously employed. ^The sweater is now chiefly an organizer and employer of immigrants, like the padrone. Formerly he was generally a lodging-house keeper, to-day he is a manu- facturer. The wages paid by the sweater are from one- quarter to one-half those formerly obtained by inde- pendent workmen. From the fact that attics, tenements and cellars are used for shops, and because of the low wages paid, the sweater is able, with footpower, to com- pete with the machine power of factories. The hours of labor are unlimited. If the workers ask for higher wages, the sweater answers that he has nothing to do with the price, and that the latter is made by the manu- facturer. As the manufacturer is unknown to the operatives, they have no means of making him responsi- ble. I Both the contractor and the sweating system are the products of an overcrowded labor market, and this is due to the multitude of newly arrived immigrants will- ing to work for almost any wage. Factory legislation, labor unions and tenement house reform are alike unable to cope with the condition. As sweatshop employees progress upward, some join the labor unions ; but the ambition of most is to become themselves contractors and sweaters. In either case, the continually-arriving immigrant labor supplies the material and the motive power for the continuance of the system. The committee of the House of Lords which investigated this matter, reported in 1890 that the principal evils of the system were inadequate wages, excessive hours of labor, and the Economic Effects unsanitary condition of the workshops. The testimony before tlie Industrial Commission was all to the efifect that factory legislation cannot remedy this condition, and that so long as a constant stream of cheap labor continues to flood our large cities, economic conditions will not right themselves. One inspector testified that after two days' inspection of the sweatshops of Phila- delphia, he had found such filth, vice, suffering and actual starvation that he was unable to continue his investigation.^* E. UNEMPLOYMENT The displacement of large numbers of native workers by foreigners who underbid them, affects the standard of living, not only by direct competition, but by increas- ing the ranks of the unemployed. In other words, it increases the number not only of those unemployed at the standard wage, but of those unemployed at any wage. Here again so many factors enter into the labor market that it is impossible to say exactly what part immigration plays in its variations. In 1892, the Massachusetts census showed 29 per cent, of the population was out of employment for some part of that year. It has been estimated that 6,000,000 persons were out of employ- ment for some part of the year ending ]\Iarch 31, 1897, or 2,000,000 persons for the whole year. From 1891 to 1896, inclusive, we added about 3,500,000 immigrants to our population, nearly all of whom were unskilled. The report of the Massachusets Commission on the Un- employed, already quoted from, attributes the evils of Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 319-327. 1* Cp., as to London, W. Evans-Gordon, The Alien Immi' grant, chaps, i., ii. i^John Chetwood, Jr., in Arena, vol. 18, p. 792 (Dec. 1897). 136 The Effects of Immigration lack of work in 1893-4 largely to immigration. It is a curious coincidence that in Massachusetts in 1893, 30 per cent, of males who had previously been em- ployed were unemployed ; and of these, 30.000 persons were unskilled ; and that in the year 1892-3 exactly 30,000 unskilled immigrants landed in the United States bound for Massachusetts. In Xew York State for the year 1902, about 15 per cent, of all workers were idle; and in 1897 the percentage was as high as 22. More than one-half of those unemployed were so from lack of work, and not from strikes, illness or other causes. In the face of such figures, it seems idle to claim that labor must be imported or industry will stififer. It may be remarked also that although immigration is, to some extent, regulated by the labor market here, this has its bad as well as its good side. Foreign labor stands as a constant menace to the progress of the American laborer, and a check to his advancement. The moment foreign labor can do no harm to the native standard of living, it ceases to come ; while the moment conditions here improve, immigration comes to share in and limit the improvement."^ In various ways the economic conditions into which the immigrant comes, have changed in the last half century. On the one hand, the total population is now so large that its natural increase amounts to about a million and a half in a year, and this increase would probably be larger if there were a sufficient demand for labor at good wages. On the other hand, although of course the natural resources of the country are by no means fully developed, the free land suitable for culti- 1" See, generally, Mayo-Smith, pp. 117-120, 123-128, 135, 143; Bnlish Board of Trade Report, 1893, pp. 212-217, 221, 237-238. Economic Effects 137 vation has practically disappeared. In 1903 the total area of the United States unappropriated and unreserved, exclusive of Alaska, amounted to about 475,000,000 acres. 1^ A very large part of this consisted of mineral, timber and arid lands not suitable for cultivation. Dur- ing the fiscal year 1903 about 23,000,000 acres were disposed of, including 11,000,000 homestead entries. Most immigrants arrive with only a few dollars in their pockets, not enough to carry them to land still available, and much less to pay even a low price for fertile land. Much of this fertile land, moreover, is owned by rail- roads or Indians who have a good notion of future values, and are not disposed to sell at a very low figure. It must be admitted that immigrants with some money can obtain land from private owners, and transport themselves thither at less cost than they could formerly when the prairies of the West were open to free occu- pancy under the homestead law. But farmers with some money, bringing their families with them, and intending permanent settlement, are not relatively numerous ; and apart from colonization schemes where the capital is fur- nished for them, there is no way in which land in the West and South can be made available for immigrants now arriving. That, in fact, recent immigrants do not go West or South to any extent is shown both by the immigration statistics and the census figures on the loca- tion of the foreign-born population. Moreover those States desiring immigrants do not, in general, desire the kinds of settlers now arriving in the largest numbers. The fact that there is room for a much larger population in parts of the country seems, therefore, to have no very 1" Land Office Report, 1903, p. 113. 1^ See supra, chapter v., C. 19 See infra, chapter xiv., A. 138 The Effects of Immigration direct relation to the immigration problem as it now exists.^" In conclusion it may be said that the chief economic effects of immigration have been the settling of the new portions of the countr>', the exploiting its industries more speedily than would otherwise have been possible, the development of the factory system, and stimulating the invention and use of machinery requiring no great skill for its operation. Immigration has also resulted in the greater organization of industry and the stratification of society. All these things doubtless would have come to pass sooner or later without immigration, but the influx of such large numbers of producers has probably has- tened their advent. See, however, Edward Atkinson, " Incalculable Room for Immigrants," in Forum, vol. 13, pp. 360-370 (May, 1892). CHAPTER VIII SOCIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION A. ILLITERACY ^ Social institutions depend for their existence upon the ability of men to exchange their ideas and act to- gether intelhgently for common purposes. Inasmuch as the chief means of doing this is the spoken and written word, the ilhteracy of any community is a matter of great importance, and anything that atfects it deserves pubHc attention. The necessity of universal elementary education has become an axiom with the American people ; its practical expression is found in the vast sums expended annually for educational purposes. The result of compulsory education in the United States is shown in the following figures. In 1900. there were 13,367,147 persons attend- ing school during some portion of the year. There were 6,180,069 illiterate persons over 10 years of age, con- stituting 10.7 per cent, of the total population over 10 years of age. This is a considerable reduction from 13.3 per cent, in 1890 and 17.0 per cent, in 1880. The various elements of the population vary considerably in respect to illiteracy. The native whites in 1900 showed an aver- * Twelfth Census, 1900, vol. ii., pp. xciii., xcviii. As to the congestion of illiterate immigrants in the slum districts of our large cities, see infra in this chapter under " F. Congestion in Cities." 139 140 The Effects of Immigration age of 4.6 per cent, as against 44.5 per cent, for colored persons, and 12.9 per cent, for foreign whites. The percentage of all illiterate males was 10. i as against 1 1.2 for illiterate females. Illiteracy varies also in different parts of the United States. Nebraska has the least, 2.3 per cent. ; Louisiana has the most, 38.5 per cent. Attention has been directed ^ to the fact that, as re- gards white children between the ages of 5 and 14, 71 per cent, of those born of foreign parents were attending schools, as against 66 per cent, of those born of native parents. It is, of course, creditable to the foreign ele- ment that the children are anxious to obtain an education, but it must be remembered that most of the recent immigration has settled in the Northern and Eastern States where the educational system is the most developed, the laws against the employment of children the most strict, and the difficulty of evading the compul- sory education law the most pronounced. If we consider secondary education, that is of children from 15 to 20 years of age, the percentage of children of native white parents attending school is 33.5, that of children of foreign white parents 22.8, showing that throughout the country as a whole, the children of native parents tend to receive a more complete education. Considering the white population of ten years and over, it appears that the illiteracy of those of native parentage was 5.7 per cent, as against only 1.6 for those of foreign parentage. But, striking as this is, it would not be safe to argue from it that the children of immigrants are, everywhere, less illiterate than those of natives. The concentration of immigrants in certain States above mentioned in connec- tion with school attendance, would account largely for 2 O. P. Austin, " The New Immigration," in North American Review, vol. 178, p. 565 (Apr. 1904). Social Effects 141 the low illiteracy of their children. The figures for chil- dren of natives and of foreigners, for example, are, in New York State, 1.3 and i.i ; in Massachusetts, 0.5 and 1.2; in Pennsylvania, 2.5 and 1.6; in Texas, 5.1 and 13.2. It is interesting to note that the illiteracy of the foreign- born from ten to fourteen years of age is 5.6 per cent., while among those 65 years of age and over it is 19.3 per cent. Undoubtedly this is due to two factors, the recent spread of popular education in Europe, and the opportunities provided by our educational institutions for the children of foreign-born immigrants. In estimating the probable effect of immigration on illiteracy, it will be useful to consider for a moment con- ditions in Europe. The following is the general illiteracy for European nations : ^ Category of COUNTRIEI Per cent. Population o.ri Male O.II it . . . 0.54 1.60 « & female over 10 yr (t ••• 357 U & female 4S . . . 5 80 it & female . . . 4.90 it , . . 12.80 ft . . . 23.80 . . . 17.00 tt & female Hungary , , 28.10 4t . . . 30.00 ti & female Italy ... 38.30 ti Portugal . . . 79 00 ii & female 68.10 ti . . . 61.70 it 86.00 ii . . . 89.00 it 'Report of United States Commissioner of Education, 1900, p. 785. 142 The Effects of Immigration These figures are based on returns dating- from i88g to 1897, most of them being for 1896. In some coun- tries an improvement lias doubtless been made since the figures were compiled. Although immigrants are usually of the lower and more ignorant classes, there is a certain general corre- spondence between their illiteracy and that of the countries from which they come. This means that re- cent immigration, though it has not checked the general spread of education in the United States, has retarded the movement, and has imposed a heavier educational burden upon the country than would have been imposed by the immigration of kindred races. Thus, while the native white illiteracy has diminished from 8.7 per cent, in 1880 to 4.6 per cent, in 1900, the foreign white illiter- acy has increased from 12 per cent, to 12.9 per cent., and the total white illiteracy has decreased only from 9.4 per cent, to 6.2 per cent. That the general illiteracy has thus decreased in spite of immigration, is striking testi- mony to the efficiency of our public school systcri. In 1890, as compared with 900,000 foreign-born of school age there were 12,400,000 of the second generation of school age ; and the fact that in Massachusets in 1900 the illiteracy of the foreign-born was 15 per cent., as compared with 0.8 per cent, for the native-born, shows the effect of our educational facilities upon the children of foreigners. We notice at once that the countries from which the United States received the bulk of its immigrants before 1880 arc, with the exception of Ireland, those which have a lower illiteracy than the United States at the present time ; and that the German Empire. Scandinavia, Finland, Switzerland, Scotland and the Netherlands are the only countries having a lower general illiteracy than Social Effects 143 the native whites of the United States over ten years of age. On the other hand, we note that the countries from which we have received our principal immigration since 1880, namely, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Poland, and Russia, have a relatively high illiteracy — frequently two or three times as high as that of even the foreign whites in the United States over ten years of age. Remembering that the figures as to illiteracy, based as they are on the unverified statements of immigrants themselves, are extremely untrustworthy, let us now consider the probable efifect of the present immigration. The author has several times been allowed, through the courtesy of government officials, to make practical tests of the ability of immigrants to read and write, and in nearly every instance many cases of false representation of literacy were disclosed. Immigrants have a theory that they are more likely to be admitted if they are thought to be able to read and write, and the agitation for an illiteracy test makes it for the interest of the transportation companies to have returns indicate as small a proportion of illiterates as possible. Once or twice an educational test bill before Congress has been reported by foreign newspapers as actually enacted, and this has doubtless contributed to the feeling of steerage passengers upon the subject. As we have already seen,^ the general illiteracy of immigrants is less than formerly ; but it is undoubtedly much greater than it would be if immigration to-day had the same racial composition it had before 1880. In other words, illiteracy has diminished in the United States and in the countries of northern and western Europe much faster than it has in the general body of immigration to this country. A good illustration of * Chapter v., A. 144 The Effects of Immigration what might have happened if the racial composition of immigration had not changed is furnished by Italy. The earlier immigration from Italy came from the northern States ; the present immigration is chiefly from the southern States. In Piedmonte, one of the principal States of northern Italy, from which the emigration to this countn,- was 576 persons in 1895, the illiteracy among the married men was 8 per cent., and the propor- tion of children in the elementary schools was 12.8 per cent. ; in Campania, one of the principal States of south- ern Italy, from which the emigration was 13,469, the illiteracy of the married men was 51 per cent., and the proportion of children in the elementarj' schools was 6.4 per cent. 5 Somewhat akin to the question of illiteracy and there- fore suitable for consideration in connection with it, is the ability of immigrants to speak English.^ The tabu- lation of persons unable to speak English was first made in the census of 1890. The census of 1900 shows that there were at that date of foreign white persons 10 years of age and over who could speak English 1,217,280, or 12.2 per cent, of the total of such persons in the country. As there was, down to 1880, a very large immigration from the United Kingdom, and there still is an appreci- able immigration from that kingdom as well as from the English-speaking part of Canada, allowance must be made for the foreign-born who speak English as their mother tongue. If we allow 24.5 per cent, for these persons, the percentage of other foreign-born who were unable to speak English was 18.3 per cent, in 1900 and ^ Statement of Luigi Bodio, Italian Director of Statistics. See Baltimore Herald, May 2, 1897. * Twelfth Census, 1900, vol. 2, pp. cxxiii, ff. Social Effects 145 25 per cent, in 1890. The States having the largest pro- portion of white persons of foreign parentage 10 years old and over were, first, Texas, Arizona and New Mexico, where nearly one-third of the population speak Spanish ; and second, Florida, where the same is true in less degree ; and third, Maine and New Hampshire, where more than 10 per cent, speak French. It is inter- esting to note that, in 1900, in Pennsylvania there were nearly 20,000 native whites of native parentage, chiefly Dutch, who did not speak English ; but the number was less than one-half what it was in 1890. The parentage of persons over ten years of age unable to speak English was, for the largest number of those unable to so speak, as follows : The ability to speak English is nearly as important as that of being able to read a foreign language. It ap- pears that in the year 1901 there were nearly 1300 news- papers published in foreign languages in the United States. By far the greater number of these were German, but there were also a considerable number of French, Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Danish and Swedish. The total circulation of these papers is doubtless very large, and their influence for assimilation very great. Yet it is probable that these papers do not reach a very large proportion of those who cannot speak English. There are no figures to show what proportion of those who cannot speak English are also illiterate, but from the races making up the non-English speaking class, we can safely Germany Italy . . . Poland . Russia . Austria French Canada 18.8 15-3 "•5 7.6 7-3 7.0 146 The Efifects of Immigration assume a considerable percentage of illiteracy. Rather, it is fair to assume that an immigrant who is intelligent enough to subscribe to a foreign newspaper in the United States, will generally feel the importance of ac- quiring the language of the country in which he lives; and apart from settlements in mining regions and in some of the city colonies, it is probable that most of the subscribers of these newspapers speak some Eng- lish. The effect of inability to read or to speak English will be discussed further in connection with the ques- tion of the assimilation of immigrants.'' B. CRIME* We shall consider, in this and the two following sections, the extent to which immigration has contrib- uted to the dependent and delinquent classes in this country. The statistics of these classes in the census of 1900 are not yet at hand, so it will be necessary to use those of the census of 1890. According to the latter,^ it appears that taking into account only the 105,885 parents whose nationality was known, 43.19 per cent, of the crime committed by white persons in the United States was chargeable to the native element, and 56.81 per cent, to the foreign element. By the same census the number of native-born whites in penitentiaries was 12,842. The number of those of for- eign birth or parentage was 15,598, or 54 per cent, of ^ Infra, chapter viii., g. * See Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 285 ff. ; John R. Commons, in Chatttauquan, vol. 39, pp. 118-121 (April, igo4) ; Report of the Commissioner-General of Immif gration, J904, pp. 48-76. See also supra, chapter v., B. * Compendium, Part II, pp. 169, 182. Social Effects 147 the total. In other words, the foreign white element, which was two-fifths of the total, furnished three-fifths of the white criminals of the United States. Professor Mayo-Smith says : " From all the statistics the conclusion seems to be justified that criminality is somewhat more prevalent among the foreign-born and those of foreign descent than among those of native descent, but this excess is not so great as to enable us to say that the influence of migration is to increase the tendency of crime." It would thus appear that, just as in the case of illiteracy, the foreign-born tend to keep up the average criminality, while the criminality of the native element tends to diminish. The following tables show in a general way the pro- portion of native-born and foreign-born criminals at various decades. It should be remembered that these figures are based upon very imperfect data, and that the increase of crime in the native-born " is probably due in large part to the criminal children of immigrants, who, as we have seen, are largely in excess of their normal proportion. Njtive Native Forelgo Foreign born in bora bom ia bora DECADE population crimiaali population criminals 1850 90.32 64.21 9.08 35.79 i860 86.84 53- 14 13.16 46.86 1870 85.56 73.47 14.44 26.53 1880 86.68 78.15 13.32 21.85 1890 85.23 79.91 14.77 20.09 Even as far back as 1850 there was one native criminal Publications of the American Statistical Association, neV/ series. No. 24, p. 447 (Dec. 1893). 148 The Effects of Immigration in 1619 natives, and one foreign criminal in 154 foreigners. As the average age of foreigners is higher than that of natives, and criminals are largely adults, there is great danger of drawing hasty conclusions as to the criminality of the two classes. Thus, if we consider merely the total of persons without reference to ages, it appears that the foreign-born furnished 1768 prisoners per million as against 898 for native-born. Professor ^1 Sydney G. Fisher, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 610 (Jan. 1893). The following tables from the census of 1890 throw additional light upon this matter: Percentage of increase of the total native and foreign-born criminals 1850-1890: l8;o to i860 to 1870 to 1880 to CLASS i860 1870 1880 1890 Total criminals 183.3 72-3 78.1 40.4 Native-born 134.4 138.3 89.4 43.6 Foreign-born 270.9 2.40* 46.7 29.1 * Immigration fell off about 1 1 per cent, during the war period. Percentage of white native and foreign criminals and juvenile offenders, 1890: Native- Foreign- CLASS born born Total white criminals 7'.7 28.2 Total white juvenile offenders 88.7 11. 3 Percentage of white native and foreign-born criminals and juvenile offenders by parentage, 1890: Both parcnu Both parents CLASS native foreign Total white criminals 42.4 57-6 Total white juvenile offenders 37.7 62.3 Percentage of illiteracy among white criminals by nativity and parentage, 1890: CLASS Illiterates Total criminals 27.8 Total white criminals 13.4 Total white native-born criminals 10.3 Total white foreign-born criminals 20.6 Total white criminals, both parents native 38.7 Totai white criminals, both parents foreign 61.2 1* See Professor Commons, "Racial Composition of the American People," in Chautauquan, vol. 39, p. 118 (Apr. 1904) J also Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. x, Ixix. Social Effects 149 Commons considers it fairer to compare the number of male prisoners with the males of voting age. On this basis, for i8go, the foreign-born whites furnished 3270 prisoners per million as against 3145 for the native whites, an excess of only 5 per cent, of the total pris- oners.^3 must be insisted, however, that the question, as it regards this country, is not entirely whether one race is normally more or less criminal than another, but whether our burdens are increased by the coming of criminally-inclined persons. We might endure the criminality of the adult immigrants with more com- posure, if we had any assurance that their children would be as orderly as the native-born. But we find just the opposite to be the fact. Comparing again the male prisoners with the males of voting age, we find 6742 native-born white prisoners of foreign parentage, which shows that this element furnishes three times as many criminals as those of native birth and parentage, and more than twice as many as the foreign-born. The children of immigrants are therefore twice as dangerous and troublesome as the immigrants themselves. Again, if we compare the male juvenile offenders with the male population of school age (5-20 years) for the North Atlantic Division, where juvenile prisoners are more segregated into reformatories than in other parts of the country, we find that the native whites of native parentage furnished 855 prisoners per million, as against 2740 native whites of foreign parentage, and 2252 foreign whites. ^3 Cp. John J. D. Trenor, " Proposals affecting Immigration," in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 228 ff. (July, 1904). 1* The author is indebted for these facts to the article of Professor Commons above cited. 1^0 The Effects of Immigration In other words, the native-born children of immi- grants are more criminal than immigrant children, and more than three times as criminal as the native children. When we already have the problem of the negro, who is six times as criminal as the native white of native parentage, if we consider adults, and twelve times as criminal if we consider juvenile offenders, it seems un- safe to allow the further introduction of disorderly elements into our population. It is much to be regretted that the statistics of the subject have not been more complete in the past. Any census based upon the number of prisoners at a given time, though it may give a correct idea of the burden on the community, exaggerates the crimes for which the longer sentences are imposed, and takes little or no account of those for which lesser sentences are given. Yet the community may suffer more from forty-four persons serving sentences of three months or less — who might not be counted in the census at all — than from one criminal serving a sentence of eleven years, who would appear in two censuses. On the other hand, the census exaggerates the importance of petty crimes by including the petty criminals in jail at the date of its taking. It appears that, in 1904, the foreign-born in the public penal, reformatory, and charitable institutions of the United States were 28 per cent, of the total inmates ; the foreign-born population, in 1900, having been 14 per cent, of the total population. i*'' The following table, compiled from the report of the Massachusetts Prison Commissioners for the year ending September 30, 1894, shows first, the number of commitments furnished by ^'^'^ Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 190^, p. 62. Social Efifects each one thousand persons born in the countries named, and second, the same thing leaving out commitments for drunkenness. For purposes of comparison, the per- centage of illiteracy of immigrants fourteen years and over for the year 1896 is given : No. per m. Illiteracy No. per m. lets drunks. (1896) Germany 6.2 3.6 2.4 Scandinavia 12.3 5.1 i.o Scotland 19.6 5.8 4.6 France 14.7 6.1 4.2 Ireland 27.2 7.1 6.5 England 20.6 7.2 4.4 Russia (Jews) 9.5 7.9 32.I Austria 15.6 10.4 36.4 Hungary 15.4 15.4 46.5 Poland L . . 20.9 16.0 47.8 Italy 20.g 18.2 46.1 Native born 7.7 2.7 Foreign born 18.2 5.4 It will be observed that, according to this table, the general criminality of the foreign-born is two and one- half times that of the native-born, and, considering other crimes than drunkenness, it is exactly twice as great. It will also be observed that, in a general way, there is a parallel progression of criminality other than drunkenness and illiteracy. The latter feature will be again referred to when we come to consider proposed remedies for the evils of immigration. That certain races settling in certain sections of the country develop alarming criminal tendencies is a con- spicuous fact. Cesare Lombroso, the noted criminolo- gist, writing of the increase of homicide in the United States, speaks of the relatively large proportion of homicides among miners, namely 3.2 per cent., while in the community at large it is but 1.6 per cent; and 1' In North American Review, vol. 166, p. 9 (Jan. 1898). 1^2 The Effects of Immigration he attributes this to the laborious nature of their toil, their addiction to the use of alcoholic liquors, and to the light esteem in which they hold human life. He insists on the need of adequate immigration legislation in view of the fact that 35 per cent, of the homicides in the United States are committed by foreigners of no education. In Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, the total popula- tion in 1900 was about 48,000, of whom 30,000 were native-born ; yet the commitments to prison in that county during the year 1901 were 326 for the foreign- born, as against 322 for the native-bom, the largest number for any given nationality being 236 for natives of Russia and Poland. Of sixty cases of assault and battery in the Schuylkill County Criminal Court in one session of 1897, fifty were of Poles and Hungarians. Turning now to other specific parts of the country, some significant facts can be cited. In the anthracite regions it appears that although the population in- creased 25.4 per cent, from 1880 to 1890, convictions increased 34.1 per cent. ; and although the Slav popula- tion increased 45 per cent., Slav criminals increased 69.2 per cent.^^ This was in the face of the fact that con- victions are exceedingly difficult to obtain. One medical expert who testified in seventeen murder cases reports that in not one was the criminal convicted. Another region where foreign lawlessness is espe- cially evident is the city of New York. In 1892, the authorities reported that 39 per cent, of all the persons in the penitentiary, 74 per cent, of those in the city 1' See Philadelphia Enquirer, March 16, 1897. Peter Roberts, Anthracite Coal Communities, pp. 275, 282 18 Henry Rood, in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 110-122, especially pp. ti8, 119 (Sept 1892), Social Effects 153 prison, and 59 per cent, of those in the workhouse, were of foreign birth ; and the Superintendent of the Work- bouse estimated that 90 per cent, of the native-born therein were of foreign parentage. The proportion of the foreign-born in New York City in 1890 was 42.2 per cent.; in 1902, 37.1 per cent. During the year 1902, in the City Magistrates' Court of the first division, which is situated in the Irish quarter, out of 55,125 per- sons held for trial or summarily tried and convicted, 27,031 were born in foreign countries. Of these, it is remarkable to note that, in 1900, the total Greek popula- tion of New York was given as 1309, and in the year 1902, 1678 Greeks were held in these courts as above described. The arrests were largely for the violation of corporation ordinances, and not for crimes of a serious nature ; nevertheless, it is a remarkable indication of ignorance of, or indifference to, law. In the report of the Five Points House of Industry -° it is stated that of 378 cases, the parents of 116, or less than one-third, were of American birth, and in 262 instances the parents were of alien birth. The report of the Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents (House of Refuge), for the 78th year, shows that 430 children were received, of whom 135 were Amer- ican (94 white and 41 colored), the remaining being of foreign birth. It might be interesting to know how many of those classified as Americans were of Amer- ican-born parents. The Seventh Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor shows that the proportion of those of foreign birth or parentage in the slums of New York City was 95 per cent., and 19 Charles S. Smith, in North American Review, vol. 154, p. 436 (Apr. 1892). »o Vol. 46, p. 13. 154 The Effects of Immigration that 5 1. 1 per cent, of these were from southern and eastern Europe. A New York City magistrate has re- cently said : " I have been particularly disturbed by the growth of faginism of children on the East Side. Some of these children are immigrants and some are the children born here from immigrants. It has been particularly severe in that section of the city among the Jews, Roumanians, and Poles, and I do not find it existing in any other part of the city." While conditions are not so strongly marked in Massa- chusetts, they are similar. For the year ending Septem- ber 30, 1894, of the total commitments during the year to all the prisons, 85 per cent, were persons of foreign parentage and 49 per cent, of foreign birth, while the foreign -born population in 1890 was only 29 per cent, of the total population. For the year 1895 in Massachusetts the total commitments to all prisons were 26,423. The number of those of American birth and parentage was 4087, and of foreign-born 12,781, and of those of foreign birth and parentage 22,134. From these figures it would appear that the foreign-born, who were less than one-third of the total population, furnished three times as many prisoners as those of native birth and parentage, and that the foreign element furnished five times as many crimi- nals as the native element. It also appears that the second generation, that is, those of American birth and foreign parentage, furnished five-sixths as many criminals as the foreign-born themselves. Considering the matter of drunkenness, as shown in the statistics of all Massachu- setts prisons for the same year, it appears that the foreign-born furnished more than three times as many commitments for this cause as the natives. Although the greatest burden on the community Social Efifects 155 doubtless comes from those committing the lesser crimes more frequently, and from the drunkenness and general lawlessness of certain classes of the foreign-born, it is the homicides and anarchists who attract most public attention. The names of the injured in the Haymarket outrages in Chicago were nearly all outlandishly foreign, though one of the leaders was a native American. Later came the Italian agitation in New Orleans fol- lowed by lynching, which was the subject of much correspondence between the United States and the Italian government. There seems to be little doubt that the Mafia and kindred societies of violence and crime exist in the United States.^i In the ^^■est, various crimes are attributed from time to time to the Chinese " Highbinder " societies or " Tongs." It is probable that in many cases these foreign " societies " are not really such, but are groups of desperate men whose character and fortunes unite them for certain crimes. To meet the universal perjury of such people and to secure con- victions an efficient secret police of the nationality in question seems to be indispensable. It is probable also that the number of radical social- ists and anarchists in this country is not large ; yet from time to time foreign-born anarchists have attracted much attention, and in the Act of 1903 they were placed among the excluded classes. This Act specifies "anar- chists, or persons who believe in or advocate the overthrow by force or violence of the government of the United States, or of all government or of all forms of 21 Henry Rood, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 119 (Sept. 1892); Broughton Brandenburg, " The Truth about the Mafia," in Collie/s Weekly, vol. 34, p. 15 (Dec. 10, 1904) ; Henry Cabot Lodge, " Lynch Law and Unrestricted Immigration," in North American Review, vol. 152, pp. 602-612 (Jan. 1891). 156 The Effects of Immigration law, or the assassination of public officials," and also provides that such persons shall not be naturalized. 22 What has been said as to the difficulty of detecting con- victs by inspection at the ports of lancjing, applies as well to anarchists. Those who disbelieve in government and law are not likely to scruple to evade regulations of this character, and such legislation is a foolish attempt to strain out such gnats while swallowing the camel of ignorant and degraded material out of which criminals and anarchists are made. It has been pointed out that anarchy and socialism are the result of a certain degeneracy of race, and that those who come to us from a condition bordering upon serfdom are least capable of distinguishing between liberty and anarchy. " The anarchist and ultra-socialist do not, as is commonly supposed, derive their chief support from the Teutonic element; their ranks are rather recruited from among these members of the Semitic and Slavonic races." The increase of the socialist vote in certain districts of the East Side of New York, through the growth of the Semitic, Polish and Hungarian population in those districts, would seem to confirm this view. C. INSANITY AND DISEASE ^* The census of 1890 showed that, not counting the feeble minded and idiots, 33.2 per cent, of the insane in the United States were of foreign birth, as compared 22 For an argument against this clause, see Ernest Crosby, " How the United States Curtails Freedom of Thought," in North American Review, vol. 178, pp. 571-616 (Apr. 1904). 23 A. H. Hyde, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 52, p. 397 (Jan. 1898). 2* Cp. supra, chapter v., b. Social Effects 157 with 28.8 per cent, in 1880. As the foreign-born corn stituted in 1890 only 14.77 P^^ cent, of the total popula- tion, they furnished two and one-third times their normal proportion of insane. From a statistical standpoint it is no doubt true that a part of this propor- tion is due to the greater average age of the foreign- born and to the hardships incident to a new environment. Thus the facts that in Minnesota the Scandinavians, who in 1886 constituted 16.5 per cent, of the population, fur- nished in 1886 28.3 per cent, of the insane, and in 1890 30.7 per cent, of the insane, are to be explained by the changed environment and isolation of the farmers and the severity of their initial struggles in a new country .25 But whatever the causes may be, the burden remains the same, and it is a severe one. In March, 1904, rep- resentatives of the New York State Lunacy Commission represented strongly to the Department of Commerce and Labor the need of more stringent regulations to prevent the landing of foreign-born insane ; and they further reported that, in the Greater New York district, 60 per cent, of the insane patients were foreign-born. Passing now to the subject of disease, it is clear that immigrants have been the cause of epidemics, and of the spread of much infection. It is asserted that they have caused 14 out of the 19 epidemics of small-pox in Chicago since 1863, and that to them was due the preva- lence of small-pox in New York in 1902.26 In the fall of 1903 an epidemic of trachoma, spread by immigrant children, affected 10 per cent, of all the children in the schools of Manhattan, and required the K. C. Babcock, in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 108, 109 (Sept. 1892). Statement of the Health Commissioner of Chicago, quoted in American Medicine (Philadelphia), Nov. 22, 1902. 158 The Effects of Immigration expenditure of $250,000 to stamp it out. In 1904, fines were imposed upon the steamship companies for bring- ing 310 diseased persons, chiefly afflicted with trachoma. Favus and trachoma were practically unknown in the United States before the immigration from southern and eastern Europe. The foreign-born are also placing so great a burden on our hospitals that the money contributed to support these institutions is no longer sufficient. It has been stated recently that twenty of the principal hospitals of New York City showed an annual aggregate deficit of about $450,000. The Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Presbyterian Hospital, one of the best in the city, shows that the total operating expenses for the year were $213,539.86, and that, of the 3026 patients cared for, 1417 or nearly one-half were of foreign birth. This hospital had a deficit of $58,504.88, or about one-quarter of the total operating cost. It seems, therefore, that but for the burden of aliens receiving free treatment, this hospital would have had a surplus. From the report of the Lying-in Hospital for its 104th year it appears that of 2595 out- door patients treated, 2280 were foreign-born, and of 696 in-door patients 436 were foreign-born. This institution showed a deficit of nearly $90,000.2^ During the ten years, 1885-1894, the total admissions to the hos- pitals of New York City, excepting the children's, were 282,928. Of these, 63.7 per cent, were foreign-born, and probably a considerable proportion of the remainder were of foreign parentage. During the ten years above-mentioned it appears that 27 Publication of the Immigration Restriction League, No. 40. 28 The following table shows the nationality of the foreign-born admissions to tiie hospitals and insane hospitals of New York Social EfYects 159 the percentages for England and Ireland in the hospitals decreased, while those for Russia and Austria-Hungary increased. The Irish and Germans, constituting about one-quarter of the total population of the city, furnished more than one-half of the insane, while during the ten years the proportions from Sweden, Russia and Austria- Hungary have doubled. In addition to hospital cases, the numbers seeking charitable relief because of illness have largely increased as a result of recent immigration. Tuberculosis is be- coming endemic in certain sections of our large cities. In 1895 only 2 per cent, of the applicants for aid to the United Hebrew Charities of New York City were tuber- culous ; in 1902 the percentage had increased to 4.8, and of all those seeking medical treatment 18.5 per cent, were consumptive. The illiteracy of recent immi- grants and their general ignorance and uncleanliness are potent factors in their spreading of this and other diseases. Immigrants are not only indifferent to sani- tary regulations, but many cannot even read the board of health notices circulated for their benefit. The spread of yellow fever in New Orleans in the summer City during 1885-1895. It is taken from an article by Byron C. Mathews, in Forum, vol. 26, p. 622 (Jan. 1899). Insane Hospitals Hospitals Ireland 35.5 35.5 Cicrmany , 11.4 20.0 England 4.2 3.4 Scotland 1.3 Russia 2.0 Austria-Hungary 1.9 France 1,3 Sweden I.o All others 8.6 7.2 -8 Dr. H. L. Shively, in New York Medical Journal, vol. 77, p. 225 (Feb. 7, 1903). Cp. the report of the Committee on Tubercu- losis in Twenty-eighth Antiual Report of the United Hebrew Charities, pp. 35-42 (1902). i6o The Effects of Immigration of 1905 is said to have been largely due to the resistance of recent Italian immigrants to proper sanitary measures.^*' Probably the worst effect of immigration upon the public health is not the introduction or spread of acute diseases, but of large numbers of persons of poor physique, who tend to lower the general vigor of the community. This matter will be considered more fully hereafter in connection with proposed legislation.^^ As in the case of criminals, the exclusion of insane and diseased persons, in the absence of specific informa- tion, is a difficult problem. Deportation is likewise hard to secure under the present methods of registration and surveillance, and an increased expenditure for these pur- poses would undoubtedly effect a saving to the com- munity in the long run. D. PAUPERISM'S In ascertaining the effect of immigration upon the number of dependents, we are compelled, as in the case of delinquents, to rely upon the eleventh census, the figures for 1900 not being yet available. According to the census of 1890,^^ taking into account only the 108,802 parents whose nationality was known, 41.56 per cent, of the white inmates of almshouses in the United States were native, and 58.44 per cent, were foreign. In other words, those of foreign white parentage, who in 1890 were 38 per cent, of the total white population, 30 See Boston Everting Transcript, Aug. 21, 1905. 31 Chapter xii., b, " Physical Test." 32 Robert Hunter, Poverty (1904); Dr. K. H. Claghorn, " Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism," in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, pp, 185-205 (July, 1904). 33 Part II, p. 174. Social Effects i6i furnished 58 per cent, of the white paupers. In 1880, the foreign-born white population, which was about 15 per cent, of the total white population furnished 37 per cent, of the white paupers.^^ In 1890 the foreign-born white paupers constituted 43 per cent, of the total white paupers ; the white paupers of foreign parentage (both parents foreign) constituted 59.2 per cent, of the total white paupers having both parents native or foreign. Looking at the matter in another way : of the male paupers in almshouses per million of voting population in the North Atlantic States in 1890, the native whites of native parentage were 2096 ; the native whites of foreign parentage were 1782 ; and the foreign whites 4653. Even as far back as 1850 there was one native pauper in every 317 natives, and one foreign-born pauper in every 32 foreign-born persons. The figures for particular localities tell the same story. In Massachusetts in 1895, out of a total of 11,054 pau- pers, 5209 were foreign-born. In other words, a foreign-born population which was 30.6 per cent, of the total population furnished 47.1 per cent, of the paupers-^-* In Boston for the year ending September 30, 1897, of 3050 men given work in the men's department by the Industrial Aid Society, 1710 or 56 per cent, were for- eign-born ; while of 8060 persons aided by the Provident 2* The proportion of the foreign-born, and of the foreign-born paupers, at various decades is given in the follgwing table : Foreign-born to total DECADE population Forcign-born paupers to total paupera 1850 9.7 i860 13.1 1870 14.4 1880 13.3 1890 14.8 26.7 39-1 29.7 35 Census of 189s, vol. i, p. 803 ; vol. 3, p. 379. 1 62 The Effects of Immigration Society, 5291, or 66 per cent., were foreign-born. In Pennsylvania in 1887 a census of alien paupers showed the number to be upwards of 20,000, costing annually $1,500,000.3*' In New York City there is a tendency on the part of some new arrivals, especially the Syrians, to put their children into institutions until they are old enough to become an economic gain to their parents ; and the Com- missioner-General of Immigration reports that within six months after landing 580 aliens were sent recently to the charitable institutions of the city.^^ The bulk of those dependent upon the public for support are, of course, the aged and the children. As regards race, in 1890, four-fifths of the paupers were British, Irish, and Germans. This is owing to the fact that the races which have come recently have not had time to find their way into public institutions ; to the relief afforded certain races by the charitable organiza- tions of their kindred, and to the low standard of living of other races. The Hebrew dependents are very largely taken care of by their own race. In all our large cities there are Hebrew Charities which do a large amount of relief work ; but even their generous efforts have to be sup- plemented by other agencies, and. in New York at least, the enormous Hebrew immigration makes the problem of relief a very difficult one.-** Ret>orl of Legislative Committee (1887). 2" F. P. Sargent, in Century, vol. 67, p. 471 (Jan. 1904). 38 The Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the United Hebrew Charities, pp. 21, 29, 30 (1901) states the problems and conditions of relief as follows : " No matter how earnestly we labor to care for the Jewish poor already in our city, our burdens are being constantly in- creased by the thousands who come from Europe every year Social Efifects The case of the recent Italian immigration is some- what different from that of the Hebrews. In certain charity districts of Boston apphcations for reHef have fallen off almost entirely since ■"he Italians supplanted the Irish in those localities.^^ Although the recently formed Societies for the Protection of Italian Immi- grants have in some instances been of service in pro- curing work for those out of employment, the main to settle in our midst. It is worth noting in passing that — com- paratively speaking — few of these newly arrived immigrants come to us for assistance until after they have been in New York for a year or two. Either they have sufficient means of their own to bring them to America and to support them for a period after arrival, or they have been sent for by relatives, who are able to give them assistance for some time. But the evil conditions of the houses, and the deteriorating influences of the sweat shops of the great Ghetto, soon work havoc among these people, and after an interval of two or three years they come to us in numbers for relief. ... A condition of chronic poverty is developing in the Jewish community of New York that is ap- palling in its immensity. Forty-five per cent, of our applicants, representing between 20,000 and 25,000 human beings, have been in the United States over five years ; have been given the oppor- tunities for economic and industrial improvement which this country affords, yet notwithstanding all this have not managed to reach a position of economic independence. Two thousand five hundred and eighty-five of the new applicants, representing 7 per cent, of the Jewish immigration to the United States dur- ing the year, found it necessary to apply at the office of the United Hebrew Charities within a short time after arrival. It must be remembered, furthermore, that the United Hebrew Charities does not represent the entire Jewish poverty and de- pendence that exists in New York City. ". . . The problem of the care of the Jewish poor in the city of New York is essentially the problem of the immigrant, and as such it passes beyond merely local lines." Fifteenth Annual Report of the Associated Charities of Bos- ton, p. 30 (1894). 164 The Effects of Immigration cause of this condition is more far-reaching. The standard of Hving of the ItaHan is so low that he can Hve even on the very low wages he obtains. One sees everywhere the Italian women and children collecting wood from buildings in process of construction and carrying home large loads for fuel. Fruit and other food which would be rejected as unfit by most other races furnishes a diet upon which the Italian seems to thrive. His drink and tobacco bills are lower than those of the British and the Germans. All this has both a good side and a bad side. The latter is not perhaps as obvious as the former ; but it is clear that a low standard of living enables the Italian to underbid other labor while himself a very limited consumer of the products of labor. Much of the money saved is, as we have seen, sent out of the country or used to help the immigration of fellow- countrymen who repeat the same process after arrival. The great mobility of Italian laborers is also a factor in keeping them from becoming public charges. The padrone system gives them employment almost from landing and moves them about at the need of the con- tractors. In bad seasons many return to Italy. Much of the pauperism due to recent immigration is, therefore, not to be found in the ranks of the immigrants themselves, but. among those who are displaced by their presence. It is said that a large proportion of tramps and professional beggars are native Americans. Probably this is true, and many of these wandering outcasts doubtless became such by losing their jobs through the competition of lower-priced foreign labor. In the case of the Slav laborers, especially in the mining regions, the foreign-born are a much heavier direct burden upon the community. Thus, in the an- Social Effects thracite regions the outdoor expense per capita is nearly three times as great as the average for the State.*'* In regard to the outlook for a continuance of pauper- ism, among recent arrivals, a difiference of opinion exists among experts. One competent observer thinks that the second generation of Italian, Slavic and Hebrew immigrants is likely to furnish fewer dependents than did the Irish, Germans and English, and that pauperism in all races generally ends with the first generation.*^ On the other hand, the Associated Charities of Boston in its report for 1894 considers the situation as serious and describes it in the following language: *2 " As we face the fact that nearly all those applying to us were of foreign birth or parentage, that they included representatives of some fifteen dififerent na- tions, and that inefficiency and lack of capacity were really the prevalent difficulties, we feel the importance of having changes made in our laws as to immigrants. This is a primal necessity. The recent immigrants have been, generally speaking, much inferior to those who came in earlier times. They are lowering the average standard of citizenship in our covmtry, and such immi- gration must be checked before we can adequately deal with the problems of pauperism and crime in our cities." It may be pointed out that technical pauperism is but one sign of general poverty and degradation, and that, as in the case of the Italians, above noted, its decrease may not mean any general improvement in the condition of the community, at least for a considerable period. If ■ *° Roberts, Anlhracite Coal Communities, p. 299. *^ K. H. Claghorn, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, pp. 204, 205 (July, 1904). P. 30. Conference of Ward VIII, containing a large foreign population. i66 The Effects of Immigration charitable institutions were more ready to take advan- tage of the law as to the deportation of public charges, the community would be relieved of much of its present burden. What this burden is we shall now proceed to consider. E. THE BURDEN OF DEPENDENTS AND DELINQUENTS The actual burden of the foreign dependent and de- linquent classes upon the community is almost as difficult to estimate as the money value of the immi- grant ; and the sum expended in the care of these classes bears about the same relation to the whole burden which they impose upon the community, that the money the immigrant brings with him does to his money value. In addition to the cost of supporting persons actually in institutions, there is a far larger cost for increased police and sanitary inspectors, for law courts and machinery of justice, for private charity, for public education, and for the effects of physical and moral contagion upon the rest of the population. Roughly speaking the foreigners furnish more than twice as many criminals, two and one-third times as many insane, and three times as many paupers as the native element ; and in 1890 these foreign dependents and delinquents numbered over 80,000 persons. When the forthcoming census of alien defectives and delin- quents is published we shall know more exactly the money burden put upon us. The Immigration Bureau in 1904 made a census of the aliens in public institutions, and it appeared that in the penal, reformatory, and charitable institutions of eleven States from Maine to Maryland, including Delaware, there were 28,135 aliens. Of these, 16,438 or 58.8 per cent, were Irish, German, and Eng- lish by birth, and 7995 or 28.8 per cent, were Slavic and Social Effects Italian.*^ The numbers of aliens of these races in the same States are not at hand for comparison, but if we consider the foreign-born, it appears that the Irish, Ger- mans and English were about 51 per cent, of all the foreign-born, and the Italians and Slavs about 13 per cent.** As the Irish, Germans and English tend to be- come naturalized more than the Italians and Slavs, the comparison may be rather unfair to the latter; but one cannot help noticing the great disproportion between their rates in the total foreign-born population and in the total alien dependents and delinquents.*^ The ex- pense which these aliens were to the country can be estimated from the per capita expenditure in institutions in one or two of our Eastern States, bearing in mind that in some other sections of the country the plant is not so large and that in the East the administration is more economical.*^ If we take $150 as an average yearly cost, which Horace Mann considered too low, there is a bill of $12,000,000 which this country has to pay for persons *3 F. P. Sargent, in Annals of the American Academy of Polit- ical and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 157 (July, 1904). Twelfth Census, 1900, vol. i, p. clxxiii. *^ Of the inmates of the penal and charitable institutions of New York city, 36.9 per cent, are native-born, and 63.1 per cent, are foreign-born. Of the foreign-born, 36.3 per cent, are natives of Ireland; ii.o per cent, natives of Germany; and 4.2 per cent, natives of England. See Byron C. Mathews, in Forum, vol. 26, P- ^^5- Average cost per capita STATE Yeir Clasi in dollars *8Mass 1893 Prisoner 164 Mass 1893 Pauper 155 Mass 1893 Insane 186 Mass 1896 Insane _ 132 Mass 1895 Prisoner in State prison 207 Mass 1895 Prisoner in Women's Reformatory 192 N. Y 1890 Penitentiary iio N. Y 1890 Insane 222 N. Y 1900 Insane 165 i68 The Effects of Immigration many of whom could have been, and should have been, excluded. In 1902, the direct cost to the United States of the excess of the foreign-born insane alone amounted to at least $5,000,000 per year. It is probable that the figure given above as the total cost of alien defectives and delinquents is ridiculously inadequate. It has been estimated that the total annual cost of caring for the foreign-born poor of New York State alone equals $12,000,000, and this leaves out of account the charitable homes for children. The average expendi- ture for correctional, charitable and reformatory institu- tions, for the period 1885 to 1895. in New York State was about $ 1 5, 000,000.* *5 If we assume the foreign-born to be responsible for only one-third of this expenditure the result is a charge of $5,000,000 on this account, again probably too low. In 1902 there were 12,000 foreign- born insane, idiots, and epileptics in the public institu- tions of the State of New York, or about 6.000 over the normal proportion for the foreign-born.*" The average life of a person committed to an insane hospital is about twelve years, and the cost about $165 a year for each patient ; so that the total expense of the 6000 foreign-born patients mentioned, for the rest of their lives would be nearly twelve millions of dollars. Further investigation and the lapse of time will show which nationalities furnish us the largest proportion of the unfit ; but, taking the 28,000 alien convicts and paupers above enumerated, at the average cost of $150 per year, we see that in the North Atlantic Division with Maryland and Delaware alone these persons cost over Report of State Board of Charities, 1894, p. xiv. *" See testimony of Goodwin Brown, attorney for the New York State Lunacy Commission, Senate Documents, S7th Cong, 2d Sess., No. 62, p. 238. Social Effects 169 $4,000,000 annually. The burden of private charity is even harder to ascertain than that borne by public charity, and is doubtless quite as great. In the face of figures like these it is not strange that Henry Gannett, a competent statistician, writes : " The evidence on record is that this country supports the greatest eleemosynary work known to history." F. CONGESTION IN CITIES*^ One of the marked features in modern life is the rush toward the cities, which is characteristic of all the civil- ized world. In addition to sharing in this general tendency, the United States is in the unique position of having the population of many of its future cities pre- sented to it as a free gift, moved with magic ease from the old world to the new. In 1790, cities of 8000 inhabitants contained 3.35 per cent, of the urban population ; in 1900, 32.9 per cent. In 1870, only 14 cities had a population of 100,000; in 1900, there were 38. In 1880 there was only one city with 1,000,000 population; to-day there are three. This growth is due more to the influx of persons from outside than to the increase of original population, and of the influx a large proportion consists of immigrants. Thus, in 1900, the foreign-born constituted a little over one-eighth of the total population of the United States ; and though they also constituted only one-tenth of the rural population, they formed one-fourth of the total population of the cities. These figures have a more *^ Seventh Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, (1894) ; Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. IS, pp. 449-492, "The Foreign Immigrant in New York City"; Bulletin of the Department of Labor, No. 13, (Nov. 1897), "The Italians in Chicago." Cp. supra, chapter v., c 170 The EfYects of Immigration definite meaning when applied specifically. As is shown in the following table, with the exception of certain mill towns, the cities with the largest proportion of residents of foreign birth and parentage were these : Percentage of Perc^nta?^ of Foreign Born Foreign Parentage Boston, Mass 35-1 72 2 Fall River, Mass 477 86.1 Providence, R. I 31.8 66.5 Buffalo, N. Y 29.6 73.8 New York. N. Y 370 76.9 Philadelphia, Pa 22.8 54-9 Cleveland. O 32.6 75.6 34-6 77-4 Detroit, Mich 33.8 77- Duluth, Minn 39-6 79.8 San Francisco, Cal..., 341 75-2 Tt would be natural that, after some residence in this countr}'. immigrants should share in the general tend- enc}- toward urban life. But Ave find two factors which produce that result to-day, immediately upon immi- grants' landing. The first, already referred to, is the change in recent years in the kind of the majority of immigrants. Coming from a lower social and economic class than formerly, with but little money, and hence with no power to go to the newer parts of the country, they are attracted to the settlements of those similarly situated who have come before. Community of lan- guage, kinship or friendship combine with poverty to produce constant accretion in any settlement once started ; so that even those accustomed at home to country life and the cultivation of the soil, instead of following similar occupations here, become occupants of the sweat shop and the factory. The second factor, which is responsible for so many other far-reaching consequences, is the change of race among immigrants. The races which came to us earlier Social Effects 171 continued in the main the same habits of rural and agricultural life to which they were accustomed in Europe. But the newer races, as has been said, reverse their habits in this respect and tend to the cities. This is brought out by the following table from the census of 1900, giving the proportion of those born in certain specified countries who were found in the 160 principal cities of the United States:*^ Per cent. Per cent. Norway 22.4 England 46.3 Denmark 28.1 Germany 50.2 Wales 32.3 Ireland 62.0 Switzerland 35.3 Italy 62.4 Sweden 36.3 Poland 62.6 Holland 44.1 Russia 74.9 Scotland 46.0 It is possible in some instances to follow this subject even further, and to show that recent immigration settles not only in our large cities but in the slum districts of those cities, and to compare the relative contributions of population made to those districts by the earlier and more literate, and the later and more illiterate. The Seventh Special Report of the United States Commis- sioner of Labor contains a study of the slum districts of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Chicago. The report, which is exceedingly valuable and interest- ing, shows ^° that the proportion of those of foreign birth or parentage to the total population of the slums in Baltimore was 77 per cent. ; in Chicago, 90 per cent. ; in New York, 95 per cent. ; and in Philadelphia, 91 per cent. The figures for the foreign-born alone are correspondingly striking. Of every 100 aliens, 40 were illiterate in the slums of Baltimore, 47 in Chicago, 59 *^ Census of 1900, vol. i, p. clxxxvi. Seventh Special Report of the Commissioner of Labor, pp. 41, 44, 72, 160-163 (1894). 172 The Efifects of Immigration in New York, and 51 in Philadelphia; and of every 100 of these illiterate aliens, there were 67 males of voting age in Baltimore, 77 in Chicago, 78 in New York, and 85 in Philadelphia. From the same report it appears that southeastern Europe furnishes three times as many inhabitants as northwestern Europe to the slums of Baltimore, 19 times as many to the slums of New York, 20 times as many to the slums of Chicago, and 71 times as many to the slums of Philadelphia ; also that the illiteracy of northwestern Europeans in the slums was 25.5 per cent. ; of southeastern Europeans 54.5 per cent. ; and of native Americans, 7.4 per cent. G. ASSIMILATION It has been asserted that in the early days of this country the majority of the great men were produced in the two States of Massachusetts and Virginia, which, more than any others, were homogeneous in race, re- ligion, and civic and social ideals. It is said that taking history as a whole, the nations which have left the greatest mark in religion, in art and in literature, such as Judaea, Greece, Rome, France, Germany and Eng- land, were at the time of their greatness essentially homogeneous ; and that decadence has in general fol- lowed the dispersal or mixture of races. There is undoubtedly much to be said in support of this view. So far as mere commercial and material progress is con- cerned a heterogeneous people may be as successful as 51 See J. T. Buchanan, in Forum, vol. 32, pp. 686-694 (Feb. 1902) ; Americans in Process — Robert A. Woods, editor, (1902); Hull House Maps and Papers; Special Report of United States Commissioner of Labor, "The Italians in Chicago." 52 Sydney G. Fisher, in Forum, vol. 14, p. H9 (Jan. 1893). Social Effects 173 any. But where depth and not breadth is concerned, that freedom from distraction and multipHcity which results from the prevalence of a distinct type and the universality of certain standards and ideals, seems almost essential to the development of extraordinary products in any line. If, as we have seen, a certain type was developed in this country, under relatively homogeneous conditions, is there not danger that in becoming a cosmopolitan people we shall not merely change but shall cease to have any distinctive type at all ? •^'■^ It should be remem- bered that the earlier immigration which settled New England, for example, was of a carefully selected class and, until recently, the natural conditions of immigration have worked to produce the same selection. The social and institutional character of our country was developed not only from selected material, but arose from the strongest kind of forces operating upon the colonists after their arrival. " The first of these was the effect of settlement in an entirely new country, so far from the mother country as to be practically free from her influence, and so exposed to danger that it demanded extraordinary courage and self-reliance. Here was an influence of environment demanding the development of certain qualities at all cost, even on penalty of anni- hilation. With the extension of colonization westward, the same qualities were demanded, and have in recent times been made manifest in the mining camps, and on Eliot Norton, in Annals of the American Academy of Politi- cal and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 163 (July, 1904) ; Robert Hunter, in The Commons, vol. 9, p. 114 (April, 1904). '■■'When the voyage of the Mayflower was projected it was arranged that the " yonngest and strongest part " of the con- gregation should go. Geo. F. Parker, in Forum, vol. 14, pp. 605-6 (Jan. 1893). 174 The Effects of Immigration the cattle ranges of the far west just as they were in the earhest settlements. The second influence, and one which has been permanent and powerful, is that of es- tablished institutions. Owing to the fact that the major- ity of the early settlers were English, and that the im- migration at first was extremely moderate, time was given to fix the institutions on the English model. Later, immigration from many different nations has been received into the mould thus prepared, and, not having the cohesion necessary for separate existence, has taken on this form.-^-^ The intermixture of races caused by the immigration of the nineteenth century, unlike that of former times, has not been due to a war of nationalities, it has been the absorption by a nation- ality of individuals from other nations. It has been an unequal contest of the individual immigrants against powerfully established national customs and firmly rooted institutions. This influence became especially powerful with the establishment of our national gov- ernment, and has remained powerful ever since." Xow, though it is true in a sense, that material prog- ress is the foundation of culture and character, it is also true that material progress is but the soil in which national character grows. No matter how good the soil, if the stock is poor or atmosphere vitiated, the organic institutions arising from it will be dwarfed and imperfect. The social and industrial system having been once cast in a certain mould, any very diverse elements introduced into it in sufficient numbers may re- tard or destroy its satisfactory working. All these truths 55 A German cast the deciding vote making English the official language of Pennsylvania. •"'^ R. Mayo-Smith, " Assimilation of Races in the United States," in Publications of the American Statistical Associatioiit new series, \ol. J, p. 431 (Dec. 1S93). Social Effects 175 are self-evident, but the optimism of our people, relying upon the comparatively easy assimilation of some millions of aliens during the nineteenth century, fails adequately to appreciate the problems of assimilation in the twentieth century.^'' A word may be said as to the argument that the recent immigration bears no larger proportion to the total population than did the immigration before, say 1880. and hence cannot have any more disturbing effect upon our institutions. This argument overlooks the fact that the population into which the earlier immi- gration flowed was relatively homogeneous, and that the earlier immigration mixed much more with those already here than does the later. Much of our recent immigration settles in the midst of immigration imme- diately preceding it, and is almost as far removed from direct contact with native Americans as if it were still in Europe. Aloreover, even immigrants who have been 5' The bulk of the immigration now coming to us is of the peasant class. '' But our fathers did not, and we do not as yet, declaredly propose to found a state on such a purely laboring class. The only social order consistent with our commonwealth is one in which all men are not only equal before the law, but have an essential unity in their motives and aspirations. Just so far as we admit these peasant people to a place with us, we in- flict on our life the impoverishment of citizenly talent which their own unfortunate history has laid upon them. ... I would ask the hopeful man to consider how long it would require to change himself or his descendants into the characteristic mould of body and mind of the peasant. Backward steps in the generations are always more easily taken than are those of ad- vance, but all who have considered such changes will, I think agree with me that it would take some centuries of sore trial to bring the characteristic .\merican to the lower estate, and the chance is that the breed would perish on the way." N. S. Shaler, " European Peasants as Immigrants," in Atlantic, vol 21, p. 654 (.May, 1893). 176 The Efifects of Immigration here for some time and have adopted American ideals, cannot exercise as powerful an assimilative influence as an equal number of the native born. A democracy, to be a success — and we are trying it here on a hitherto unprecedented scale — depends on the intelligence of the average citizen. Wherever civic intelligence and initiative are low, democracy becomes impossible, and an oligarchy or an empire takes its place. The United States has had to suffer and is still suffering untold miseries from the reckless introduction for purposes of material gain of an alien people, to wit, the African negro. The same arguments were used for the admission of negro slaves that are now used for the admission of the cheapest European and Asiatic labor. Wherever a superior and an inferior race are brought together, one must rule ; and one will withdraw itself socially and politically from the other. When this happens universal democracy ceases to exist, and no amount of preaching the rights of men or any other theoretical considerations will modify the result. As Professor Shaler has said this result has already happened in the South ; and in the North, society is be- ginning to experience a social stratification which is breaking up its former homogeneity, and, as we saw above,^^ is affecting profoundly the matter of race survival. The question therefore arises, to what degree are the streams of population now coming to us essentially alien to our character and institutions. It has been already pointed out that the immigration of the first eight decades of the nineteenth century was essentially akin Atlantic, vol. 21, p. 657 (May, 1893). S8 Chapter vi. ^0 Chapter i., a. • Social Effects 177 to the colonial population which preceded it, and was either English-speaking or sufficiently intelligent and progressive to acquire the language and habits of the new country within a comparatively short period. There were here and there exceptions, as in tlie case of the Pennsylvania Germans ; but, upon the whole, this statement is accurate. In other words, while the various immigrants differed to some extent in language, train- ing and habits, their intelligence, their education, their initiative, and their ideals and purposes were of the same general type. The most important factor in assimilation is, there- fore, likeness of world standpoint. The next is probably knowledge of language. We have seen that the races which form the bulk of immigration to-day are ten times as illiterate as those which formed the bulk of our immi- gration a generation ago. In this respect they are much more than ten times as hard to assimilate, for the cohesive and centripetal force of common language in- creases in geometrical rather than arithmetical propor- tion to the units of those speaking it. It is of no consequence to say, as is often said, that immigrants of to-day are no more illiterate than those of 1870, who in general made good citizens. Times have changed, and to be illiterate to-day marks a man as shiftless or un- fortunate in a way that was not true thirty or forty years ago. Whichever it is the immigrant's chance to be, it renders him more difficult to assimilate. We have to-day little Italys, little Russias, little Syrias, and so on, in our midst, vortex-rings of nationality, closed to the outside medium in which they live, though possibly shifting en masse from one place to another as the currents of economic demand bear them. Such results were not known with the earlier British, German and Scandi- 178 The Effects of Immigration navian populations. Their superior energ\' and intelli* gence caused them to take part in everything that was going on, and where they retained their native language, it was either in addition to English, or the local papers published in their native language were read by all, and bridged the gulf between. Ignorance of language, however, does away with even such influence of the outside world as might be exerted by the reading of local papers in the native language of the immigrant. It means ignorance of trade conditions, of political life, and of civic matters generally. It causes immigrants to be the prey of the padrone, the banker, the local political boss. Colonies of such immi- grants are like hard-caked patches of clayey soil, unfer- tilized by the stream of public life flowing around, and unable to absorb the needed moisture even from con- tiguous earth. The keynotes of modern education are attention and suggestion. To a man who is ignorant of language, one-half at least of the power of suggestion from outside sources is cut off, and with this the force of attention is cut off likewise. In some cases, no doubt, individual initiative supplies the impetus to break through this wall, even for the adult. But, it must be remembered, a very large proportion of the immigrants who come to us are above school age, and, except what comes from observation in the much-restricted area of their daily life, are not likely to receive any education after landing. It is for these reasons that the hope of assimilation is always fixed upon the public schools,^i and it is said " no matter about the parents, they will soon be dead, the children will become good Americans." The writer " See A. M. Shaw on the public schools of New York City, in World's Work, pp. 4204-4229 (Dec. 1903). Social Efifects 179 would not underestimate the power of compulsory edu- cation in this direction, but he would like to point out certain limitations not always observed in this connec- tion. In the early days of the country nearly all the inhabitants contributed to the support of the schools, and took an interest in them. To-day there are hundreds of thousands of immigrant children and native-born chil- dren of immigrants whose education is being paid for by others than their parents. Here is a direct and increas- ing burden of assimilation put upon the community. The immigrant is getting something for nothing, and, while this is good for the child, it is demoralizing to the interest of the immigrant as a citizen. In the next place, though immigrant children are mentally quick and take high rank in their studies, it remains to be shown that the average is not held back by the unfamiliarity with Eng- lish, and by ignorance of many things In the home. In spite of some institutions like the Educational Alliance in New York, which aims to teach the children enough English to enable them to enter the public schools, it is safe to assert that the burden on a teaching force, of educating a number of Southern and Eastern Europeans or Asiatics, is far greater than of educating an equal number of native Americans, and that the average result is no better. Further than this, the average result in a broad sense cannot be as good. For, leaving out of account the important distinction between education and information, the usefulness of a particular piece of infoimation de- pends to a great extent upon the general info\ mation in the scholar's mind, with which it can be correlated. A boy, reared in a family of educated citizens, uncon- sciously and by hearsay and imitation learns far more from his family and associates than he ever learns at i8o The Effects of Immigration school, and he is in a condition where school training is of more value to him. Courses in history and govern- ment, flag exercises, and occasional readings of the Declaration of Independence in the schools have only a superficial influence. It is even said by competent ob- servers, that the result of school education of immigrant children is often to alienate the children from their parents. The children cease to have much in common with their parents, in some cases feel socially above them, and in more cases contract a dislike for manual labor. In a large number of cases the parents are so occupied in trying to earn a living wage that the chil- dren are entirely neglected, and the whole aim of the parents is to be rid of them as far as possible. How difTerent is this picture from that of the colonist's home of fifty or one hundred years ago. Is it surprising that the children of immigrants are the most criminal class in the community, as we have seen them to be ? Wherever there is a lack of assimilation, social ptomaines are created, and do their deadly work as surely in the civic body as in the physical body. The explanation is obvious. We have taken in immigrants faster than we can assimilate them, and while we put forth strenuous efforts to digest those already here, still larger numbers are put before us. A fire can be extin- guished by too much fuel as well as by fuel of a low grade, and when both features are combined the result is but smoke and bad gases. Not only are large masses of our recent immigrants utterly deficient in political ideals, or trained in theories of government widely diverse from and inconsistent with our own, but their ethical and religious ideals are funda- mentally different. The wholesale perjury in recent naturalization frauds, and the habitual use of falsehood Social Effects i8i in obtaining admission of children to public institu- tions, are " but evidences of a widespread condition of immorality. Difference in religious belief may be one of the chief causes of heterogeneity, and one of the greatest of hindrances to assimilation. Members of the same re- ligious sect, especially if surrounded by others of a different faith, tend to become clannish and separatist, and to affiliate only with newcomers of like faith, or, as sometimes is the case in New York City and else- where, with those of like faith and the same race. Dif- ference in religion is a powerful bar to intermarriage, as in the case of the Jews. The statistics of religious belief, as collected by the answers given by immigrants to questions on that sub- ject, are available only for the year 1899, asking of such questions having been begun in that year and dis- continued in 1900. It appears that in 1899 the total immigration was divided as to religious belief as fol- lows: ^2 Roman Catholics, 52.1 per cent.; Protestant-s, 18.5 per cent. ; Jews, 10.4 per cent. ; Greek Catholics, 4.0 per cent. ; Brahmins and Buddhists, 0.9 per cent. ; and miscellaneous, 13.9 per cent. The Roman Catholics came mainly from Austria-Hungary, Italy and Ireland ; the Protestants from Germany, Scandinavia and Great Britain ; the Jews from Austria-Hungary and Russia. The classes of immigrants who do not assimilate are described in detail in various parts of this volume. Those who form the abnormal contribution of our foreign-born population to the dependent and delinquent classes, those who fail to adopt the American standard of living for themselves and their children, who fail to demand a fair living wage, who do not learn English, Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, pp. 290, 291. 182 The Effects of Immigration who go back and forth as " birds of passage " and form no permanent ties in this country, who herd together in isolated communities taking no interest in their neigh- bors or in public matters — these classes are the instances of non-assimilation, and their elimination is necessary to the health of the body politic. In addition to the natural diflficulties of the situation an artificial one is being added. Foreign countries, realizing that it is futile to attempt to check the exodus of workers, have begun to bend all their energies to maintain the allegiance of their emigrants, to induce them to send home their savings, and to return ulti- mately. Political, social and even religious influences are used to prevent assimilation as far as possible.®^ That such solidarity is accomplished in many cases appears from the ease with which certain nationalities can be and have been arrayed against immigration restriction, or any action tending to break up the system above described.'*^ It is interesting to note that a New York judge recently refused to approve the incorporation of a club formed to inspire love of Hungary ; and our consul at Budapest states that immigrants are to be taught to retain their European citizenship, and to remit their sav- ings to Europe, and that it is expected to keep watch over the immigrants in this country by means of clergymen, newspaper men and others in order to secure these re- sults.^5 Such attempts to hinder assimilation are not to be tolerated, and it is believed that they do not have the sympathy of the most intelligent immigrants. *^ Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1904, PP- 43. 45- Cp. infra, chap, xiv., a. Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 7 (1904). CHAPTER IX POLITICAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION A. POLITICAL TENDENCIES The early colonists of this country, though impatient of foreign control, were on the whole reverent of law and disposed to uphold the authorities constituted by the people. The later immigration was mostly from States and races long familiar with representative government. With the more recent immigration the case is quite otherwise. The more ignorant Italians, the Slavic races, the Syrians and other Asiatics, the Russian Hebrews, — all have come from lands where democracy is unknown, and where law is represented to the people by soldiers, tax collectors, and gendarmerie. We may say at once that the political efifect of the Teutonic immigration of the last century, which settled the Middle and Northwestern States, has been beneficial. The German, Scandinavian, and British immigrants have proved intelligent and conservative in public matters. They contributed, for example, in no small degree to conservative action upon the money question in 1896. There have been few socialists or agitators among them, and these have had no large following.^ The city gov- ernment of Milwaukee, with a foreign element of 86 1 As a rule they vote the Republican ticket, as do some of the Italians. Of the 168 members of the Minnesota legislature in 1894, 47 were Scandinavian Republicans. The bulk of the Irish, many of the Hebrews, and some of the Slavs vote the Democratic ticket. 183 184 The Effects of Immigration per cent., compares favorably with that of any of our large cities. It is notorious that populist and socialistic doctrines have found more adherents in States contain- ing the largest proportion of native Americans than in those with a large foreign vote. Outside of New York City few of the obnoxious political bosses have been of foreign birth or parentage. ^ It is fair to point out, how- ever, that this may not continue to be the case, and that the conspicuousness of the native bosses may be due in part to inherited influence and better knowledge of our political machinery. In view of the relative unfitness of many of our recent immigrants for political life in a democracy, it is perhaps fortunate that hitherto they have shown but little disposition to become naturalized. The census of 1890 showed the percentage of foreign-born who were aliens to be as follows : ^ Slav 21.4 British 9.3 Latin 29.7 German 9.7 Asiatic 85.7 Scandinavian 13.2 Average 32.0 Average 9.9 From this it appears that those races most akin to the original settlers show a greater inclination to take part in our political life.* The Slavic and Iberic races have constituted nearly seven-tenths of the total immi- gration in recent years, and seven-tenths of the male aliens of voting age have been in the country long enough to be naturalized. If we consider Massachusetts only,® 2 See Xew York Evening Post, Dec. 15. 1894. ^ Part II, pp. 600, 688, Cf. Tzi-elfth Census (1900), vol. i, p. clxxvii. * As to naturalization by Scandinavians and Germans in Min- nesota, see K. C. Babcock, in Forum, vol. 13, p. 106 (Sept. 1892). ' F. A. Bushee, in Publications of the American Economic Association, vol. 4, pp. 122 ff. (May, 1903). Political Effects 185 and make allowances for five years' residence and for illiteracy as to English, it appears that three-fifths of the Swedes and Norwegians, and more than one-half the Germans, Russian Jews, and Irish are voters ; but of the Portuguese and Italians only one-third are voters ; and if we take account of the time of residence, only about one-half of the Irish, Germans, and Scandina- vians, 17 per cent, of the Portuguese, and 13 per cent, of the Italians. These figures are in the face of the fact that many who do get naturalized do so from selfish and not from public motives. There is the Italian or Slovak bird of passage who goes back and forth between this country and his own, and who gets out his first papers in order to facilitate passing inspec- tion on his next trip, or to get municipal jobs which are limited to actual or intending citizens. The enormous political power which can be exercised by the foreign-born is shown by the fact that of the males of voting age over one-quarter are foreign-born, and that nearly three-fifths of these latter have been naturalized. Indeed, the possible foreign vote of two generations hence is larger than the native vote of native parentage.*^ Although, as has been said, the result of most immigra- tion has thus far been beneficial politically, in consider- ing possible future efifects there are certain dangers that should not be overlooked in a country committed for better or for worse to the doctrine of government by plurality of votes. One of these dangers lies in the liberality with which the ballot is given, and in the fact that in some States aliens can take part in State and Federal elections. It is to be regretted that citizenship of the United States by * See R. Mayo-Smith, in Publications of the American Statis- tical Association, vol. 3, pp. 4;i ff. (Dec. 1893). 1 86 The Effects of Immigration naturalization has not. in every instance, been made a prerequisite to the right to vote in the States ; but anti- federalist jealousy of the central government was origi- nally responsible for a different arrangement, and the provisions upon this subject have remained very lax down to the present time. In 1901, there were still twelve States which allowed aliens to vote, viz., Ala- bama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin. In Michigan, aliens who had declared their intention to become citizens prior to May 8, 1892, had the privilege. The period of residence within the State required has also varied very much. In 1902, in States allowing aliens to vote, six months' residence was re- quired in Arizona, Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Nebraska, Oregon, and South Dakota. In other words, although native-born citizens under twenty-one years of age were not allowed to vote in the States above men- tioned, an alien, ignorant of the language, who perhaps had never cast a ballot in his native land, was allowed to vote after being six months within the State. Only three States required an educational test : Connecticut, Massachusetts, and IMississippi. Recently, constitutional amendments have been adopted in some of the Southern States requiring the ability to read or to " understand " the State constitution ; but these were designed to exclude ignorant negroes from the suffrage, and they are not material in our present consideration, because, as we have seen, very few of the recent immigrants go to the Southern States. Another danger lies in the tendency of certain races, congregated in particular localities to vote as units, thus giving greater effect to that heterogeneity of foreign ideals already mentioned. In certain districts we have Political Effects 187 numerous political organizations with " hyphenated names." Here the danger is not so much from the leaders as from the ignorance of the mass of the voters whom they influence — ignorance of things in general and especially of the moral and political truths under- lying our government. It is probable that Tammany Hall could never have reached or retained its great in- fluence in New York City without the help of the foreign vote ; and the defeat of Mayor Low for re-election in 1903 was undoubtedly due in large part to the feeling of the Germans on the excise question, and of the Italian, Hebrew, and Greek pedlers on the enforcement of mu- nicipal ordinances enacted by the better sentiment of the community. The heterogeneity of these races tends to promote bossism, localism, and despotism, and to make impossible free co-operation for the public welfare. This condition is, of course, more apparent in the " vortex- rings " of population living without much intercourse with outsiders. In Chicago many of the Poles vote as Poles, not as Republicans or Democrats. In the mining regions of Pennsylvania, it is said, when a miner is asked his politics, the invariable answer is " Slovak," and that not twenty per cent, of the people know the name of the President of the United States.'^ Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the price of votes is often as low as a dollar a head.* It is stated that among the Jews of our cities, local and business considerations determine their voting to a large extent, although among recent immigrants they take the lead in political interest, and have many non-partisan clubs for ^Edward A. Steiner, in Outlook, vol. 73, pp. 560, 564 (Mar. 7, 1903)- * Henry Rood, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 121 (Sept. 1892). See generally, Peter Roberts, The Anthracite Coal Communities, chapter xii. 1 88 The Effects of Immigration political education. Until recently, the Italians have shown little interest in public matters. The chief rank in political activity must unquestionably be assigned to the Irish, and, in a less degree, to the Germans. The Irish have a natural liking for politics, and are easily organized. They enjoy a contest of any kind, and occupy a large proportion of positions on the pay rolls of Eastern cities. Perhaps the chief political danger of the future lies not so much in the ease with which the ballot can be obtained, or in the tendency to vote along racial lines, as in the change of political ideals following the change in the racial composition of immigration. This dififer- ence in ideals between the earlier and the later immigra- tion has been characterized by a French author ^ as follows : " The ethnic character has a profound influence on the choice between the two modes of government. With some peoples individual autonomy — independence of character — is strongly traced, for example, among the Germanic nations. Each one engages only his extreme exterior in society. With nations of such temperament, family life is strongly developed; the home is the sacred ark. . . . With some other peoples — with the Latin nations in general — it is quite different ; the autonomy is less refractory ; they like to live in society, and prefer to discharge the functions of thinking and wishing upon others — the will not being carefully cultivated, it dimin- ishes, and the State acts for the individual." We can trace already some effects of the racial change in immigration, in the different government of our cities. It is impossible to govern a large city composed of diverse elements in the same way as a small city with a * R. de la Grasserie, in Rcz'ue Internationale de Sociologie, vol. 4, p. 888, quoted by A. H. Hyde, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 52, p. 388 (Jan. 1888). Political Effects homogeneous population. So we are tending to take more and more power from legislative councils, and to concentrate it in executive officers, such as mayors, heads of departments and commissions, in order to secure effi- cient control of the heterogeneous elements of our population. In the words of Professor Commons, " we have actually begun to despotize our institutions in order to control these dissident elements, though still optimistically holding that we retain the original de- mocracy." Whether such a change makes for good or for evil, time will show ; but it is at any rate a profound alteration of our political system, and results largely from immigration. B. NATURALIZATION.^^ In view of the number of aliens coming to our shores, and the great political power which foreign-born voters can exercise, it is important to consider vvhat the require- ments have been as to naturalization, and how far they have safe-guarded the ballot. The singular indifiference of the public to the matter of naturalization, as to all subjects affected by immigra- tion, is shown by the fact that our present naturalization laws are substantially the same as those established by the Act of Congress of April 14, 1802.^2 Jt is provided that the alien shall declare on oath before a State or Federal Court, two years before his admission, his inteii- i^John R. Commons, in Chautauquan, vol. 38, p. 34, (Sept. 1903)- 11 For the history of this subject see H. Sydney Everett, in Atlantic, vol. 75, pp. 345-350 (March, 1895). For an account of recent naturalization frauds see Senate Documents, 58th Cong., 3d Sess., No. 63 (1904) ; Message of President Roosevelt, December, 1903; Report of Commission on Naturalization, House Documents. 59th Cong., 1st Sess., No. 46 (1905). "U. S. Rev. St., §§ 2165-2174; Act of Mar. 3, 1903, § 39. 190 The Efifects of Immigration tion to become a citizen, unless he was a minor residing in the United States for three years before his majority. When he seeks finally to be admitted, he must take an oath to support the Constitution of the United States, and it must appear that he has resided in the United States five years at least, and one year within the State or territory, and that he is of good moral character. These facts generally must be proved by the testimony of two or more witnesses. Upon naturalization, the alien's wife becomes a citizen, even though she does not come to the United States until after his death. His children residing here also become citizens, but not if they come here after his naturalization. It has also been held that where an alien has declared his intention of becoming a citizen, his minor child, who attains his majority before his father completes his naturalization, may in some cases become a citizen without going through the process of naturalization. The immigra- tion act of 1903 ^* provides that anarchists shall not be naturalized. From the foregoing, it will be seen that practically any court, State or Federal, can naturalize aliens, and that a slight amount of testimony on the part of the alien and his friends is all that is required to support his petition. From the first of these circumstances, it results that the thoroughness of the process varies very much with the court administering the law, all degrees of laxity being found in difiPerent localities. Even in the Federal Courts, the practice is not uniform, and in sev- eral of our large cities where certain judges have applied the law with greater rigor, the business of naturalization has been transferred to other courts. In some localities, 13 Boyd V. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 135. i-'Act of j\Iar. 3, 1903, §39. Political Effects 191 lists of petitioners for naturalization are required to be posted in public places, probably on the theory that op- posing political committees will be moved to expose fraud. The rules of the Supreme Court of the United States require the petitioner to file, ten days before his case is acted on, a paper stating the names and residences of the witnesses by whom he proposes to establish his claim. Some of the judges of local courts who are keenly alive to the abuses of the present methods of naturalization, have attempted to remedy the defective legislation by strict rules of procedure. Something has been accom- plished in this way in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York, but there has been no uniformity of action, in spite of the efforts of Bar Associations and others interested.^-' The number of States requiring naturaliza- tion as a prerequisite to voting is gradually increasing.'*^ Minnesota, for example, with the help of the alien vote, recently adopted a constitutional amendment disfran- chising aliens. But progress along this line is slow. In some of the county courts of Pennsylvania the judges have required applicants to mark sample ballots, write their names, speak English and show some knowledge of the institu- tions of the country. See Philadelphia Public Ledger, Aug. 24, 1897, and Dec. 4, 1897. I" New Jersey, one judge has barred aliens who could not give intelligent answers to questions as to the national and city governments or who paid no taxes. See New York Herald, Oct. 5, 1897. In New York, a judge recently rejected sixty applicants on the ground that they had been in the country five years and were unable to speak English. See letter of Mr. Justice Pryor in New York Sun, Feb. 5, 1896. 1^ For a list of States where aliens can still vote see supra in this chapter. " Chicago Record, Oct. 23, 1897. So great was the rush to become naturalized that " naturalization picnics " were common in all parts of the State. 192 The Effects of Immigration From the census of 1900 it appears that there were then 1,070,126 male aliens of voting age out of a total population of about seventy-six millions. The number reported was about one-quarter of all the adult foreign- born males. The largest proportion of adult male aliens to all foreign-born males, is, naturally, among those in the country but a few years ; yet it appears that the percentage of " aliens " and " unknown " in 1900 was slightly less than in 1890.'^ The figures for earlier dec- ades are not available. The largest proportions of aliens among males of voting age, in 1900, for those born in Europe or Canada, were: Greeks, 57.8 per cent.; Hungarians, 53.1 per cent.; Italians, 53.0 per cent.; Austrians, 44.6 per cent. ; Poles. 38.9 per cent. ; Finns and French Canadians. 38.5 per cent. In certain cases the indisposition to become citizens is due to the temporary character of residence on the part of aliens. This is especially true of the Slovak and Italian birds of passage, and of the Canadians who work part of the year in the United States, and then return home for part of the year. The large number of aliens among the natives of Ireland and Germany is due somewhat to the great number of females among immigrants from these countries. The pressure for naturalization is principally due to two causes, the desire to get employment, for which first papers are a condition precedent, and the solicitation of political managers. Another cause, which will be ad- verted to hereafter, is the desire to make use of citizen- ship applications or certificates in foreign countries. In i^Vol. I. p. 918. It should be noted that "aliens" in the cen- sus do not include persons who have taken out their first papers. 1* See Roland P. Faulkner, in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 19, p. 44 (March, 1904). Political Effects 193 regard to the first cause, in some States the competition of recently arrived immigrants has led to the passage of laws forbidding the employment of aliens who have not declared their intention to become citizens, upon or in connection with any State or municipal works.20 Such laws exist in Idaho, Illinois and perhaps other States. In Pennsylvania and Wyoming none but citizens may be so employed. In New York, preference is to be given to citizens of that State. Preferences are also exercised in many municipalities, independently of statute. The in- fluence which such a rule must exert is obvious, and not in all respects beneficial. It has been stated on appar- ently reliable authority that one-quarter of the Italians in the street-cleaning department of New York City ob- tained their positions by means of fraudulent naturaliza- tion papers. And the Deputy Superintendent of Elec- tions recently sgid that from ten to thirty per cent, of the papers of all Italians in New York were fraudulent. The statute of Pennsylvania, passed some years since at the instance of those whose employment was affected by the influx of Slav miners, and imposing a tax of three cents a day upon aliens employed in the State, led to naturalization upon an enormous scale. This law was declared unconstitutional by the Federal Courts, but meanwhile the administration of naturalization by the various County Courts was fovmd very diverse and de- fective; and even after agitation of the subject had resulted in the adoption of stricter and imiform rules, certain judges continued to administer the law as be fore. 2" On this subject see Frederick J. Stimson, Handbook of American Labor Law, and Second Special Report of United States Commissioner- of Labor (1896). -1 See Philadelphia Times, Dec. 6, 1897. 194 The Efifects of Immigration Just before important elections, the political managers of the great parties expend great energy and large amounts of money in naturalization. The numbers naturalized in the large cities run into the tens of thou- sands. With the pressure of sudden naturalization, in addition to the regular business of the courts, it is not surprising that the examination of applicants and of the witnesses who vouch for their character and period of residence, is often of the most superficial character. In New York City, during October, 1891, about seven thousand papers were issued, mostly by one judge, who examined each applicant and his witnesses, and signed his orders at the rate of two a minute.^^ If a judge tries to be conscientious, the business is transferred to another who is less particular ; and it is said that the vouching for applicants has in some in- stances reached the status of a regular occupation. It is alleged that during the existence of the Tweed ring in 1868 in New York City, the courts issued 68,000 nat- uralization certificates, many of them in blank to be filled by the political bosses and their agents. More re- cently, in one of the District Courts of the United States, the clerk was in the habit of swearing a lot of applicants and issuing certificates, no judge at all being present ; and in one of the New York courts thousands of Italians were naturalized through an interpreter. Similar practices were discovered in Chicago and St. Louis. All this is a great contrast to the practice in for- tign countries ; France and Denmark, for example, require a ten years' residence and a rigid examination. In addition to the frauds practised upon the courts. For further details as to these remarkable proceedings, see Senator W. E. Chandler, in Forum, vol. 13, pp. 131-2, (March, 1892). Political Effects 195 recent investigations have disclosed wholesale forgeries of naturalization certificates, which were often sold to ignorant aliens who had no intention to commit any crime. It has been estimated recently that there are 50,000 fraudulent citizenship papers held in New York City alone ; and it appeared in a recent investigation that one agency sold 4000, and another 2000 papers, in 1903. From the testimony in the trial of a former clerk of a Federal Court in New York, it appeared that this man sold naturalization certificates made out in blank with forged signatures, at from fi\e to ten dollars each. The State Superintendent of Elections in New York stated in 1904 that probably $600,000 was made in the preceding year in the sale of fraudulent naturalization papers, and that 100,000 such papers had been sold in that State. It was discovered by the Immigration Bureau that a counterfeiting club for the manufacture of such papers existed in New Jersey, run by the Italians. It was also shown that the issue of fraudulent certificates was a wide-spread system extending from Boston and Providence to Albany, New York, and south to Wilmington, Delaware. More than four hundred convictions were obtained for this crime in a short period in New York City. In St. Louis, 1342 papers were found, purporting to have been issued in one evening, a thing physically impossible for the office force. How much of the intelligent public spirit essential in a free democracy can be expected from the holders of such certificates? The third inducement to naturalization is the use of papers by the immigrant as a protection upon return- ing to his native land, or as a help to pass inspection upon coming hither upon a second trip. It was, indeed, the large number of citizenship certificates presented to 196 The Effects of Immigration the immigration authorities at New York by Italian im- migrants who claimed they had been " home on a visit," which led to the discovery of a fraudulent issue of such papers upon a large scale. The celebrated case of Martin Koszta is an instance of the use made of natur- alization papers abroad. Koszta, who was a Hungarian, came to this country in 1850 and declared his intention to become a citizen. He remained here two years, and then went to Turkey. While there, he was seized by an Austrian war vessel which threatened to take him back to Austria-Hungary. The commander of an American vessel at Smyrna, hearing of the affair, cleared for action, and demanded his release. He was then transferred to a French vessel, and subsequently released. Our government took the ground that Koszta had renounced his allegiance to Austria, and that the country of his birth had no claim on him. So far as this contention was based on the declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States, it seems ill- founded ; for the oath of allegiance to this country is taken only at the time of hearing on the final application. This case was the cause of great controversy between the United States and Austria, and attracted much atten- tion at the time. Since, there have been many other in- stances where aliens, who have taken out first papers, have returned to their native country, and have claimed the protection of the United States when such country attempted to enforce its laws, especially those relating to military service. A considerable proportion of these are cases of former citizens of the Ottoman Empire and of Jews returning to Russia. Recently, an American war- ship was sent to Hayti at the request of certain Syrian merchants who claimed American citizenship. It was subsequently discovered that some of the certificates of Political Effects 197 citizenship relied upon were fraudulently obtained, at a price of several hundred dollars. That the practice of fraudulently obtaining and utiliz- ing American naturalization papers is widespread at the present day admits of no question. The investiga- tions of the lawyer appointed as special assistant to the Federal district-attorney in New York make it clear that there is an extensive and well-organized system of obtaining forged and fraudulent papers. The Italians get their papers in many parts of the country ; the Canadians from Buffalo and Chicago ; the Turks from Providence, R. I. ; the Armenians from Troy, N. Y. ; the Syrians from Waterbury and New Haven, Conn., and so on ; but the worst place of all in this regard seems to be New York City. It is stated that seventy-five per cent, of the papers examined in Westchester County are fraudulent. The use of fraudulent papers, by aliens in passing the immigration inspection, led the bureau to undertake an investigation. The report of Special Inspector Marcus Braun fully confirmed what has been said as to the extent of the frauds, and the burden imposed upon this country as a result. 2* Professor Crawford of the American College at Beirut says : '"' A characteristic of such returning Syrians is the almost universal custom to come back supplied with American naturalization papers ; they do not, however, disclose such citizenship ; in fact they conceal this cir- cumstance as much as they possibly can. They still pose as Turkish subjects, and, probably because most of these naturalization papers are obtained fraudulently, they re- frain from asserting their American citizenship until for 23 See Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, J904, p. 46. 2* See ibid., pp. 46-48. 198 The Effects of Immigration some reason or other they get in trouble and difficulties with the Turkish authorities, when, and in which event, their certificate of citizenship is immediately produced, and the American consul called upon for protection, giv- ing no end of inconvenience to our said consul." In conclusion, a word may be said as to the relation of naturalization to immigration in general. When the immigration question is being discussed, many persons say : " Let everyone come in, but let us be very careful whom we allow to vote." It is believed that the facts set forth in other parts of this volume make it clear that even the strictest possible naturalization law would but touch the outskirts of the immigration problem.. The ballot is but one way in which, at considerable in- tervals, the naturalized foreigner afifects our life in one of its phases ; whether alien or citizen, he is affecting our life in countless other and more fundamental ways all the time. It is true, no doubt, that suffrage is a valuable agent in assimilation, and that the presence of large bodies of aliens in the country is undesirable, for legal and diplomatic reasons. Nevertheless, the protection of the franchise is a matter of great importance in a country where mere numbers determine all elections. 25 Mr. Gino C. Speranza, however, holds the opposite opinion. He contend* that the politicians prevent assimilation as far as pos- sible in order to handle the foreign vote more easily. Outloek, jroL 76, p. 928 (April 16, 1904). PART III IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION CHAPTER X HISTORY OF IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION A. LEGISLATION FAVORING IMMIGRANTS Various Federal statutes have been passed at different times to secure adequate protection and good treatment for immigrants during the voyage hither.^ Thus, in 1819, it was provided that the master of a vessel should not carry more than two passengers for every five tons, and that a specified quantity of certain provisions should be carried for every passenger. This act also required the master to deliver, on arrival, sworn manifests showing the age, sex, occupation, nativity and destination of passengers. The act of 1855 limited the number that could be brought to one for every two tons, not includ- ing children under one year, and counting two children between one and eight years of age as one person. It also provided that each passenger on the main and poop decks of vessels should have sixteen feet of floor space, and on the lower decks eighteen feet. The present regulations on this subject were estab- lished by the Act of 1882.^^ This provides that, in a steamship, the unobstructed spaces shall be sufficient to allow one hundred cubic feet for each passenger on the main deck and the next deck, and one hundred and ' For the Carriage of Passenger Acts, see Act of 1819, c. 46 ; Act of 1847, c. 16; Act of 1847, c. 34; Act of 1848, c. 7; Act of 1848, c. 41; Act of 1849, c. Ill; Act of Mar. 3, 1855, c. 213, 10 Stat. 715; Revised Statutes, §§ 4252-4277; Act of Aug. 2, 1882, c. 374, 22 Stat. 186. See, however, Act of Feb. 20, 1907, Sec. 42, in Appendix II. 201 202 Immigration Legislation twenty cubic feet on the second deck below the main deck ; and it forbids the carrying of passengers on any other decks than those mentioned. In a saihng-vessel, passengers shall be carried only on the main deck or the next deck, with an allowance of one hundred and ten cubic feet for each person. No one is to be carried in any space the vertical height of which is less than six feet. There are also provisions regulating the occupancy of berths, light and air, ventilation, toilet rooms, food, and hospital facilities. Explosives and other dangerous articles are not to be carried, nor animals with or below passengers. Lists of passengers, as under the Act of 1819, are to be delivered to the boarding officer of cus- toms. In order to protect immigrants from designing persons, it was provided, in 1884, that no keeper of a sailors' boarding-house or hotel, and no runner or per- son interested in one, could board an incoming vessel until after it reached its dock.^ Under the head of legislation favorable to immigrants may also be mentioned the Act of 1864 for encouraging immigration.^ This act provided that the President should appoint a " Commissioner of Immigration " ; that immigrants might assign their wages for a year or less or encumber their land in order to pay the expenses of emigrating ; that no immigrant, unless he should de- clare his intention to become a citizen, should be liable to military service in the Civil War ; that a United States Emigrant Office should be established in New York City, and the superintendent should make contracts with railroads and transportation companies for carrying 2 Treasury Department, Circular of July 21, 1884. 3 Act of July 4, 1864, c. 246, 13 Stat. 385, repealed by Act of Mar. 30, 1868, c. 38, IS Stat. 58. \ History of Immigration Legislation 203 immigrants to their destination, and should provide them with all needed information ; and that the Com- missioner should furnish an annual report to Congress of the workings of his bureau. This act was in the nature of a War measure and was passed in order to fill the places of men sent to the front. After the end of the War, the army re-entered peaceful pursuits, and the necessity for the act ceased. Thereafter, the authorities of the State of New York took charge of the immigrant business at the port of New York until 1882. State legislation favoring immigration has usually taken the form of commissions appointed to secure suit- able colonists for the unsettled parts of the country. Such commissions exist in some of the Southern and Western States, and many of them send agents to other parts of the United States or to Europe to advertise the advantages of their respective States and induce immi- grants to come thither. Under the Federal laws, States are exempt from the prohibition against advertising for immigrants in foreign countries.* The work of the State commissions is in many places supplemented by that of local voluntary associations having the same object. B. STATE RESTRICTIVE LEGISLATION ^ There have been comparatively few State laws on the subject of immigration as distinguished from laws re- *Act of March 3, 1903, § 6. For the State laws creating immigration commissions see William C. Endicott, Jr., Immi' gration Laws, State and National (State Department, 1887). 5 See William C. Endicott, Jr., Immigration Laws, State and National (State Department, 1887) ; Second Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor, " State Labor Laws" ( 1896) ; Frederick J. Stimson, Handbook of American Labor Law. 204 Immigration Legislation lating to the employment of aliens. The reason is that none of the States, except those on the Atlantic seaboard, have until recently been adversely affected by immigra- tion to any appreciable extent, and because in 1882 the Federal government took charge of the whole subject to the exclusion of the States. The first legislation on the part of any State in relation to immigration was not the result of race prejudice or political influence; it was due essentially to the same causes which led Congress to legislate generally on the subject in 1882. The States on the Atlantic seaboard early found themselves sub- jected to serious annoyance and expense because of the large numbers of diseased and pauper immigrants which came upon their public institutions for support, and the same was later true of California and Louisiana. The first attempt to regulate immigration in New York was an act passed in 1824, requiring masters of vessels to report to the jNIayor of New York City the name, place of birth, age, and occupation of each immi- grant. It also required a bond on demand of the mayor to save the city harmless from the support of a passenger becoming a public charge, and to return any person deemed likely to become a public charge to the place whence he came. The part of this act relating to reports, was held to be within the police power of the State and valid, but the other provisions were declared void.^ Soon after, owing to the large number of aliens arriv- ing in a diseased condition or becoming ill subsequent to arrival, an act was passed levying a tax of one dollar and fifty cents for each foreign cabin passenger and one dollar for each foreign steerage passenger or sailor, and a tax of twenty-five cents for each person on board any * Act oi Feb. 11, 1824. See City of New York v. Miln, 11 Pet (U. S.) 103. History of Immigration Legislation 205 coasting vessel arriving at the port of New York. These moneys were to be used for the support of the immigrant hospital. It was held that this act was unconstitutional on the ground that the Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 8, provided that Congress should have power " to regulate commerce with foreign nations." The statute was then modified so as to require a bond or, in the alternative, a tax ; but in 1876 it was decided that the whole subject was national in its character and had been confided to Congress under the commerce clause.^ Finally, in 1881, New York, under the guise of an inspection act to detect criminals, paupers, etc., at- tempted to levy a head tax of one dollar ; but this also was declared illegal.^ The whole subject having been dealt with by Con- gress, it would not be profitable to give the history of the various State statutes in detail. They have related, in general, like those of New York already cited, to detecting diseased persons, criminals, paupers, and per- sons likely to become public charges, and providing for ''Passenger Cases, 7 How. (U. S.) 572 (1849). * Henderson v. IVickham, 92 U. S. 259. Similar regulations in Massachusetts, Louisiana and California were declared void on the same ground. Passenger Cases, 7 How. 572; Commis- sioners V. North German Lloyd, 92 U. S. 259; Chy Lung v. Free- man, 92 U. S. 276; Ah Fong, 3 Sawyer, 275; People v. Pacific Mail Steamship Co., 8 Sawyer, 640. • Laws of 1881, c. 432. New York v. Companie Generate Transatlantique, 107 U. S. 59. The Federal Act of May 31, 1870, c. 114 (16 Stat. 144) ; U. S. Rev. St., § 2164, expressly provided that no tax or charge should be imposed by any State upon immigrants from one country which was not equally imposed upon immigrants from any other coun- try; and the requiring of a bond as a condition of landing was held to be a charge and in conflict with the Act See Re Ah Fong, 3 Sawy. (U. S.) 144. 2o6 Immigration Legislation the return of such persons whence they came ; or the giving of a bond by those bringing them to relieve the State or municipality in which they settled of any burden caused by their presence. It is obvious that any State law regulating immigration must have proved nugatory sooner or later, owing to the impossibility of preventing the entrance of aliens from contiguous territory. This has proved a troublesome matter even in regard to Federal laws, and the wisdom of the framcrs of the Constitution in making the regulation of immigration a Federal matter is apparent. C. FEDERAL RESTRICTIVE LEGISLATION The attitude of desiring some restriction placed on im- migration is not of recent origin ; it has existed in a greater or less degree since the foundation of the govern- ment. The Federalists and their successors, the Whigs and Republicans, were at various times strongly opposed to unlimited accessions of foreigners. Washington doubted the advisability of immigration except of certain skilled mechanics. He further objected to giving for- eigners places in the government, with the exception of Lafayette. Under the presidency of John Adams, a resi- dence of fourteen years was established as a prerequisite for naturalization, although, as we have seen, a reaction from the Federalist point of view later reduced the period to five \ ears. Madison favored immigration ; but Jeffer- son, though bitterly opposed to the Federalists, went even further than Washington in his objection, and expressed the wish that there were an ocean of fire between this country and Europe so that it might be impossible for any 1" See, for example, the provisions contained in the General Statutes of Massachusetts, chapter 71. 11 See Appendix III. History of Immigration Legislation 207 more immigrants to come hither. " At a later period, in the thirties and forties, when immigration had risen to an important vokime and consisted for the most part of persons of a different race and rehgion from those already here, the nativistic sentiment became strengthened and led to the so-called Know-Nothing party. The violence of the nativistic movement went so far as to precipitate Catholic riots in 1844, ai''- appoints all immigration officers and employees and fixes their compensation. In spite of the fact that the Bureau has now been in existence fifteen years, the inspection of immigrants varies somewhat at the different ports, according to the number to be inspected, the importance of the port, and the physi- cal accommodations for such service. Inasmuch as three- fourths of all aliens pass through the port of New York, a brief description of the practical method of inspection there may be of interest. When a ship arrives in New York harbor, telegraphic notice of its entrance is sent ahead, and the vessel is boarded by the State quarantine inspectors, and by the immigration inspectors and surgeons. The State au- thorities examine first for diseases which would subject the vessel to quarantine, and the immigration inspectors and Marine Hospital officers examine all the first and second cabin passengers. The examination of cabin pas- sengers is a comparatively recent thing and was necessi- tated by the fact that many inadmissible aliens undertook to travel in the second cabin to avoid inspection. In the examination of passengers, inspectors can use their dis- cretion as to asking any or all of the questions on the manifests, and can avoid absurd and unnecessary inquir- ies. Upon the completion of the cabin inspection, the ship's surgeon reports any persons in the ship's hospital. If advisable, these are presently transferred to the immi- grant hospital. »i Act of March 3, 1903, Section 22. History of Immigration Legislation 233 The steerage passengers and any other aHens held by the inspectors are then taken with their baggage upon barges and carried to ElHs Island. They enter a large general room separated from the rest of the building by iron gratings. The main hall, which is on the second floor, is also divided lengthwise by gratings into a series of parallel passageways. Before reaching these, how- ever, immigrants have to pass in single file before two surgeons of the Marine Hospital Service, stationed a little distance apart, who divide the inspection between them, one examining general physique, and the other for trachoma. Any doubtful individuals are held for a more thorough physical examination, and idiots, insane, and diseased persons are certified as such. Minor defects are noted on the immigrant's card mentioned below, which he has already received on the ship, and he is passed along for general inspection. The women are examined individually by a matron or her assistants, whose business it is to ascertain whether or not they are pregnant, as this increases the probability of their becoming public charges unless they can produce satisfactory evidence that they will be taken care of and supported. Persons with loathsome or dangerous con- tagious diseases, epileptics, idiots, insane persons, and those physically defective so that they are liable to become public charges, and pregnant women, are at once held for examination before a board of special inquiry. The re- maining immigrants are then segregated into columns which pass down the various passageways above re- ferred to. On the steamer, each immigrant is given a card with his name and a number or letter which tells the particular manifest on which his name appears ; and, in marshalling immigrants for examination by the inspec- tors, care is taken that those appearing on the same 234 Immigration Legislation manifest shall proceed along the same passageway. At the end of each passageway is a desk at which sits an immigrant inspector. When the alien reaches the in- spector he produces his card and the officer finds his name upon the manifest. The immigrant is then asked sub- stantially the same questions which he has already an- swered at the time of the preparation of the manifest, and any discrepancies between his answers and the statements on the manifest are noted on the latter in red ink. The immigrant is also required at this time to show the amount of money which he has in his possession ; and this also is noted on the manifest. In general, at this primary inspection, which is the only one to which nine-tenths of all immigrants are ever subjected, no steps are taken to ascertain whether the answers given are correct or not ; indeed, such verification is in many cases impossible. Thus, while it would be comparatively easy to ascertain whether an immigrant could read or write, it is utterly impossible to ascertain whether he has been a convict ; whether he is a polygamist or anarchist ; or, unless his appearance indicates it, whether he has been insane within five years previous. In the main, if the answers given appear to be truthful, if the immigrant is of good physical appearance, and, considering his ability to work, and his age, sex and occupation, if he has money to sup- port him until he can find employment, he is immediately passed. If, however, the inspector has a doubt about his right to land, his card is marked " S. I." and he is de- tained before a board of special inquiry and conducted to another part of the building. Those who are not de- tained pass into another room, where they can have their money changed into United States currency, buy tickets to their destination, and obtain information of all sorts »2 Act of March 3, 1903, section 24. . History of Immigration Legislation 235 in regard to proceeding on their way. Quite frequently, the right of persons to land is dependent upon the exist- ence and responsibility of some other person, as a husband or parent, whom the immigrant is to join. From this cause, also, the immigrant may be detained ; and then a telegram is sent to the friend or relative requesting him to come and take the new arrival away. Immigrants also have the assistance of the representatives of the mission- ary and charitable societies of the various races who are allowed at the Island. These societies provide work for aliens after landing, assist in finding their relatives and friends, and are in many ways useful. The immigrants permitted to land, who have obtained all necessary information, have exchanged their money, and are otherwise ready, are taken on board the ferry boat which runs every hour, and landed at the Battery. Those destined to points outside of New York City are looked after until they take their trains, in order to pro- tect them from all kinds of crooks, sharpers, agents of the padroni, and boarding-house keepers. The boards of special inquiry, above referred to, consist of officials selected by the Commissioner-General. At New York several are usually in session all the time. They now consist of three inspectors, the decision of two of whom is final as to the immigrant's right to land, sub- ject to appeal, first to the commissioner at the port, then to the Commissioner-General, and finally to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Each board has the assistance of a stenographer and an interpreter, although most of the primary inspectors as well as those serving upon the boards of special inquiry are familiar with a large number of languages. The sessions of the board are private, but the immigrants are sometimes permitted to have coun- Act of March 3, 1903, section 25, 236 Immigration Legislation sel present. The examination is usually conducted the president of the board, and the evidence is taken by the stenographer in English and written out. At the hearings all the facts bearing upon the right of the immi- grant to land are considered, and, if an immigrant is to join friends or relatives, they, also, are brought before ihe board and examined as to their ability to support the new arrival and such other facts as may tend to establish the truth or falsity of the information on the manifest. Where a number of aliens come from one locality, examination before the board frequently throws light on their history and intention. For example, where a large number from one locality are destined to the same or neighboring localities in the United States, there is a strong presumption that they are contract laborers ; and, while this fact perhaps could not be established from the testimony of one, it may be elicited by the examination of a number. If the decision of the board is favorable to the admission, the alien proceeds as those passed by an inspector. If the decision is adverse to his landing he is CO be informed that he has a right of appeal from such decision, and the fact that he has been so informed, is entered on the record of the board's proceedings. If no appeal is taken, the alien is held in detention until the return of the vessel which brought him, when he is placed on board and turned over to the steamship authorities, to be taken back to the port of embarkation. If the decision of the board is adverse to his right of landing, and an appeal is taken, the immigrant is detained until the appeal is finally decided. This appeal, as above stated, is first to the commissioner of the port. At the hearing, the immi- grant is produced before the commissioner, together with the testimony taken before the board of special inquiry, '♦Department Circular, Aug. 26, 1903, Rule 7. History of Immigration Legislation 237 and he is examined further by the commissioner, who sub- sequently dictates a decision, to be written out and filed with the papers in the case. If an appeal is then taken to Washington, the immigrant is remanded to the deten- tion pen, and the papers are forwarded to the office of the Commissioner-General. Provision is made at Ellis Island for the thorough dis- infection of clothing and baggage, and for feeding and caring for immigrants during their detention. The pres- ent buildings at Ellis Island, erected two or three years ago, are already proving inadequate to meet the needs of the enormous influx of the last few years. In summer time, spaces on the roof are reserved for detained immi- grants, so that they may enjoy the advantages of out-door air and sunlight. The sleeping quarters are walled and floored with concrete, the bedsteads are of iron, allowing the most thorough disinfection, and the bedding is fre- quently sterilized. In addition to the main buildings and power plant, there is also a hospital at Ellis Island, where immigrants afflicted with dangerous contagious diseases can be quarantined, and where those sufifering from any sort of disease can be treated. In certain cases, where a disease is curable, and the immigrant is going to join a husband or parent, he is allowed to remain in the hospi- tal until cured. In other cases, they are treated until de- ported. Detained immigrants are fed by the govern- ment at an expense to the steamship companies of about thirty cents a day for each person. The average cost to the steamship companies of detained immigrants, in proportion to the whole number of immigrants carried by them, varies from 6 cents to 22 cents. The Hamburg- American, Prince and Holland-American Companies pay the largest amounts ; the Scandinavian and White Star Companies the smallest. See Report of the Commissioner-General of Im' migration, 1904, p. 102. 238 Immigration Legislation Alien seamen are not subject to inspection when they land with the intention of reshipping on an outward bound vessel as soon as possible ; but discharged or de- serting seamen are to be treated like other aliens. ''^ Under a ruling of the Attorney-General, made in 1903, Chinese seamen may be landed in the United States to be signed to man American vessels. This not only opens the door to violations of the Chinese Exclusion Acts, but is a violation of the spirit of the contract labor laws. ^'^ Within the past two years, in addition to the general statistical work at the Island, necessary for the prepara- tion of the annual report of the Commissioner-General and for the proper classification of records, a card cat- alog has been established giving the names of all arriv- ing aliens, the ship on which they came, and such other information as is needed for purposes of identification. This is likely to prove of great value, especially in con- nection with the deportation of those who have become public charges in institutions. Formerly there was great difficulty in looking up the record of an alien to ascertain whether the information he gave as to the time and port of his arrival and the ship by which he came was correct or not. 8* It was no part of the purpose of the immigration laws to deal with seamen, and no account was taken of them until it was found that they furnished a loop-hole for the admission of the excluded classes. See Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1903, pp. 69, 119; ibid. J904, pp. 77, 103; Depart- ment Circular of August i, 1903. »^ Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 190J, p. 105. CHAPTER XI EFFECT OF THE PRESENT LAWS AND THE NEED OF FURTHER RESTRICTION A. NUMBERS DEBARRED AND DEPORTED Some idea of the efficacy of the inspection of immi- grants since the Act of 1891 may be gathered from the numbers debarred and deported, as shown in the follow- ing table : 1892 2,801 out of 579,663 or 0.5 per cent. 1893 1,630 out of 440,793 or 0.4 per cent. 1894 2,389 out of 228,020 or 1.0 per cent. 1895 2,419 out of 258,536 or i.o per cent. 1896 3,037 out of 343,267 or o.Q per cent. 1897 1,880 out of 230,832 or 0.8 per cent. 1898 3,194 out of 229,299 or 1.4 per cent. 1899 4,061 out of 311,715 or 1.3 per cent. 1900 4,602 out of 448,572 or 1.3 per cent. 1901 3,879 out of 487,918 or 0.8 per cent. 1902 5,429 out of 648,743 or 0.8 per cent. 1903 9,316 out of 857,046 or I.I per cent. 1904 8,773 out of 812,870 or I.I per cent. The figures given for 1904 include 4802 aliens returned within one year after landing, and 479 persons returned within three years after landing, as being unlawfully in the United States under Section 21 of the Act of 1903; but they do not include 6856 persons debarred at ports on the Canadian and Mexican border. The 7994 debarred in 1904 were made up as follows: Idiots 16 Insane persons 33 Paupers or persons likely to become public charges. 4798 Persons with loathsome or dangerous contagious diseases 1560 Convicts 35 239 240 Immigration Legislation Anarchist . Prostitutes Procurers . 9 3 I Assisted Immigrants Contract laborers... 38 1501 During the thirteen years, 1892- 1904, 47,768 were de- barred ; 4802 were returned within one year after land- ing; and 479 within three years after landing; making a grand total of 53,049 debarred and returned during that period. Of this grand total, 32,422 were debarred as paupers or persons likely to become public charges; 8,981 as contract laborers; and 5,529 as diseased persons. According to the theory of the existing laws, the ac- tual exclusion of aliens, although valuable, is but a small part of the total process of rejecting the undesirable. The theory of the law is that the steamship companies will, through their agents and for their own protection, refuse to sell tickets to immigrants who will be unable to pass the test. Undoubtedly in the past this has been the case to a considerable extent. The fact, how- ever, that aliens are the most profitable cargo that can be carried, and the great desire of foreigners to come, to a considerable extent invalidate the theory of the law. It is well known that for many years the steamship com- panies have, in the case of doubtful immigrants, demanded double passage money with the object of making a profit on carrying the immigrant back in case he is rejected. That this has obtained to a large extent is shown by the fact that the Italian government passed an Act giving an alien a right of action to recover the money retained il- legally by the steamship companies in this way. Un- doubtedly, in some cases the companies bring over unfit aliens inadvertently. The method already described by which in small interior towns tickets are sold by persons acting as sub-agents and sub sub-agents without the Effect of the Present Laws 241 knowledge or consent of the company, relieves them to a certain extent of moral blame in the matter. On the other hand, the companies are supposed to inspect aliens at the port of embarkation and they certainly deserve no great sympathy if they connive at attempts to evade our laws. B. DISEASED IMMIGRANTS That the steamship companies actually do connive at evasions of the immigration laws is conclusively estab- lished by the fact that in 1904 they were fined upwards of $31,000 under Section 9 of the Act of 1903, imposing a penalty of $100 for bringing a diseased alien whose malady might have been detected by a competent medical examination at the port of departure ; and it is stated to be a more or less frequent practice for steamship com- panies to demand from a doubtful case a deposit of $100 or more to cover a possible fine of this sort.' A circular recently issued by one of the great transportation cor- porations, says 2 that a diseased person who claims to be able to prove American citizenship on arrival will be ac- cepted for passage if he deposits with the Company $150 for each person in the family, which amount is to be forfeited to the Company if he is de- ported on arrival. The same circular also thought- fully provides that " a person or persons so afflicted shall agree to be isolated from the other passengers dur- ing the voyage." An easy means of reaching an Ameri- can port is thus pointed out to diseased aliens if they are willing to guarantee the company against loss and to make a false claim to American citizenship. In view of the great numbers of fraudulent naturalization * Report of the Surgeon-General, 1904, p. 199. * Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, Jpo^j p. 41. 242 Immigration Legislation papers in existence and the ease of obtaining them ^ it is obvious that it is by no means difficuh for diseased aliens to evade the law by this method. The burden is upon the United States to show that the disease could have been detected at the time of embarkation. Since August 21, 1903, by an arrangement with the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, surgeons of the Marine Hospital Service stationed at Kobe, Nagasaki and Yoko- hama in Japan, and Hong Kong and Shanghai in China, have been instructed to inspect aliens embarking from such ports to the United States. In nine months, out of 9538 immigrants examined at Yokohama 629, and at Nagasaki, Japan, 655 were rejected, all afiflicted with trachoma.^ Surgeons are also detailed for service at Naples and Palermo in Italy ; Vancouver and Victoria in British Columbia ; Winnipeg in Manitoba ; and Quebec and Montreal in Canada. ^ The law provides that the medical officers shall certify not only those suffering from loathsome or dangerous diseases, but those with any mental or physical disability which would bring them within the excluded classes, for example, make them public charges. It is also provided, though on this the law is not free from contradiction, that the decision of a board of special inquiry based on the medical certificate shall be final. In view of the evident intention of the law it is interesting to notice the practical working of these provisions. Of immigrants certified to the board of special inquiry by the medical officers at Ellis Island in October, 1903, there were 65 cases of dangerous con- tagious diseases acted on, and of these 4, or 6 per cent., were landed. Of 379 cases certified as likely to become ' See supra, chapter ix., B. ■* Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1904, p. 43 ; Report of the Surgeon-General, 1904, p. 195. * Report of the Surgeon-General, 1904, p. 193 ff. Effect of the Present Laws 243 public charges, 349 or 92 per cent, were landed. Of course, as to the latter class, the certificate is merely one piece of evidence for the Board ; but, considering the lax method of guaranties at present in vogue, it is to be re- gretted that the medical certificate is not the controlling factor.^ The increase in certification marks to some ex- tent the increasing deterioration in thr physique of immi- grants. The chief surgeon at Boston, for example, says in his report for 1904 : " Superiority in quality is no longer characteristic of the immigration at this port, and during the past year the inadequacy of the facilities for ronducting the medical examination has been emphasizerl by the increasing num- bers it has been found necessary at the line inspection to turn aside for special examination. On a recent ship 20 per cent, of the total steerage passengers were thus ' turned off the line.' To some extent this low physical standard is the outcome of the extension of the business of the British lines into continental territory, but there also seems to be a decided increase in the physically and mentally defective from Great Britain and Ireland as well. With a slight decrease in total immigration the number of certificate cases for the past year was 513 as compared with 308 for the previous year." This physical inferiority has recently become so marked that the Commissioner-General has called the attention of his subordinates to the fact that aliens certified for " poor physique " are particularly disqualified for ad- mission. ^ « Cp. as to Boston, Report of the Surgeon-General, 1904, p. 200. Report of the Sturgeon-General, 1904, p. 199. * Circular letter of April 17, 1905. The definition of " poor physique " by the Department is as follows : " A certificate of this nature implies that the alien concerned is afflicted with a body but illy adapted not only to the work necessary to earn his bread, but is also but poorly able to with- stand the onslaught of disease. It means that he is undersized. 244 Immigration Legislation The relation of disease and poor physique to deporta- tion under the present law, is shown to some extent by the numbers treated annually in the immigrant hospitals, and the proportion of these actually deported for any cause. At New York, in 1901, 2718 persons were treated, and 280 were deported. In 1902, 3874 were treated and 645 deported. In 1904, there were 4916 certified cases, of whom 1368 were deported. During the year, 5155 per- sons were admitted to the hospital at New York, 11 58 of whom were Austro-Hungarians, 1475 Italians and 1277 Russian Hebrews. The great difficulty in showing that an alien becoming a public charge, does so from causes arising prior to land- ing appears from the following facts. In 1903 about iioo applications for deportation were made at New York ; yet only about one-quarter were deported. ^ Under a special contract between the State of Massachusetts and the United States the latter pays $5 a week for each immi- grant who has become a public charge, out of the immi- grant fund. In 1904. there were 396 aliens reported by the Massachusetts State Board of Charity to the Com- poorly developed, with feeble heart action, arteries below the standard size ; that he is physically degenerate, and as such, not only unlikely to become a desirable citizen, but also very likely to transmit his undesirable qualities to his offspring should he, unfortunately for the country in which he is domiciled, have any. " It is deemed proper to add that of all causes for rejection, outside of those for dangerous, contagious or loathsome disease, or for mental disease, that of ' poor physique ' should receive the most weight, for, in admitting such aliens, not only do we increase the number of public charges by their inability to gain their bread through their physical inaptitude and their low resistance to disease, but we admit likewise progenitors to this country whose offspring will reproduce, often in an exaggerated degree, the physical degeneracy of their parents." 8 Report of Ellis Island Commission, 1904, p. 25. Effect of the Present Laws 245 missioner of Immigration at Boston. Of these, 146 could not be identified as immigrants within two years, and of the remaining 250, only 77 were deported, the balance continuing here and being paid for out of the immigrant fund. In other words, of all the aliens reported as public charges within the year, only 19 per cent, were actually deported ! 1° It is true that in some cases aliens becoming public charges from causes arising subsequent to landing may be deported if they are willing to go. " Any alien who has been lawfully landed, but who has become a public charge from subsequently-arising physical inability to earn a living, which is likely to be of a permanent nature, may, with the approval of the Bureau of Immigration, be deported within one year from date of landing, at the ex- pense of the immigrant fund, provided that such alien is delivered to the immigration officers at a designated port free of charge." The number of these cases is, how- ever, not large, and this provision does not help the situ- ation materially. It must be admitted that the local boards and authorities are partly to blame in not attempt- ing to secure more general deportation, as the matter has been repeatedly called to their attention. ^2 C. SOLICITATION BY TRANSPORTATION COMPANIES Abundant evidence is forthcoming that the provision of the present law, prohibiting the solicitation of immi- grants by transportation companies, except through the statement of sailings and terms and facilities of trans- it Cp. Report of Surgeon-General, 1904, p. 202; Report of Mas- sachusetts State Board of Charities, 1904, p. 95. 1^ Regulations, Aug. 26, 1903, Rule 17. 12 Cp. Bureau Circular, 1903, No. i. i» Cp. supra, chapter ii., E. See also Special Consular Re- Ports, vol. 30 (1904) passim. 246 Immigration Legislation portation, is practically a dead letter. On the contrary, it is known that an enormous number of agents and sub- agents are continually at work trying to induce all kinds of aliens to emigrate to this country, by making all sorts of representations. This has gone to such an extent that some of the foreign governments who were desirous of retaining their citizens for military service, have been obliged to enact stringent regulations and to make many prosecutions to prevent such solicitation. As the Com- missioner-General says in his report for 1904 : ^* " It is useless, if not puerile, to trust that the transpor- tation lines representing enormous investments of capital operated for that express purpose, will not resort to every known means to secure passengers, or that persons act- ing as agents in foreign countries will not do likewise to secure commissions, even if such acts involve violation of the laws of the United States." The following extracts from the report of Special Immigrant Inspector Marcus Braun indicate both the extent to which this unnatural stimulation of immigra- tion has gone, and the disastrous results likely to follow from it: " While I have no direct proof that the steam- ship companies are directly concerned or even tolerate the giving of these secret instructions ['coaching' immi- grants for passing the inspection], yet I learned in the course of my travels, particularly in the countries of Austria-Hungary and Russia, that a large number of reputable persons, such as priests, school teachers, post- masters and country notaries, are directly connected with certain agents representing these steamship companies, and that they advise and instruct the emigrants how to procure steamship tickets, passports, and all other things 14 Page 44. Cp. J. D. Whelpley, The Problem of the Immigrant. '^^ Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration^ 1903, pp. 86-96. Effect of the Present Laws 247 necessary for their travel, for all of which they receive a commission from the agent employing them. It is obvious that since the amount of the earnings depends entirely upon the amount of business procured, hence in their anxiety, the sub-agents above enumerated, by prom- ises and in order to earn a commission, induce a large number of persons to leave their homes and come to the United States. The governments of each of these coun- tries, in good faith, are endeavoring to stop this sort of traffic and provide for the punishment of any person in- ducing another to leave the country, but I found that in many of the towns visited the local authorities are in league with the sub-agents and their business thrives practically with the consent of the officials whose duty it is to prevent it ; this is particularly true of Austria-Hun- gary, as I was able to ascertain from personal interviews with a large number of emigrants at the Austro-Prus- sian border. . . . The deplorable political and finan- cial conditions of the eastern and southern countries of Europe, coupled with the prosperous condition of the United States, creates a large natural emigration to our shores. The most convincing proof in the eyes of the people of these countries of the exceptional prosperity of our country is the large sums of money, almost unpre- cedented to them, which annually arrive from friends and relatives residing in the United States. Besides this nat- ural emigration, however, we are burdened with a dan- gerous and most injurious unnatural immigration which from year to year assumes larger proportions. This un- natural emigration consists of paupers and assisted emi- grants, and is induced and brought about by the unscrup- ulous and greedy activity displayed by a large number of agencies and sub-agencies having well-established con- nections in the United States and abroad, apparently un- known to the steamship companies, which activity mani- fests itself in the peddling of steamship tickets and pre- paids on the installment plan, both here and abroad, the constant agitation and offers of inducements by sub- agents in Europe, occupying semi-public positions, who, in order to earn commissions play upon the ignorance and susceptibility of the plain peasant, frequently inducing 248 Immigration Legislation him to sell or mortgage all his belongings for the purpose of raising the necessary travelling expenses, which latter transaction is also turned to profit by such agent." That there is a vast amount of " coaching " of immi- grants by steamship agents and officers is not to be doubted. In addition to what is done before the immi- grant starts, there is the period of the voyage which af- fords an excellent opportunity for instruction as to how best to pass inspection. Much light is thrown upon this subject as regards the Canadian lines in the letter of the International Navigation Company to the Assistant Sec- retary of the Treasury and the annexed exhibits, i*"' It is not improbable that a careful investigation would dis- close evidence of " coaching " upon other lines. In France, schools have been formed to enable immigrants to pass the Mexican border, and in Canada to help Chi- nese and others to be smuggled across the Canadian line. D. CONTRACT LABOR LAWS There has always been much discussion and consider- able difference of opinion as to the benefit of the con- tract labor provisions of existing law. These provisions were originally passed with the object of shutting out low- grade labor in the mining regions. It is said that the first importation of cheap labor into the mining regions was made as an act of charity ; ^' but the succeeding im- portations were solely in the interest of the selfish greed of mine owners and manufacturers, some of whom lived to repent their action. The contract labor laws have A Brief Account of Attempts to Control Immigration into the United States via Canada. Aug. 3, 1900. Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. Ixxxi. Effect of the Present Laws 249 shut out not only cheap unskilled labor, but also skilled labor except when similar workers could not be found un- employed in this country. The laws, therefore, tend to exclude both the worst and the best elements of immi- gration ; for a skilled laborer, well established abroad, is not likely to come to this country without some definite future in view. Indeed, the attitude of many of the labor organizations is more antagonistic to the coming of skilled labor, which will compete in a larger degree with their own members, than to the coming of unskilled and unorganized labor which competes with them only indirectly or after a considerable period. Apart, how- ever, from the policy of these provisions it appears that they are to a large extent nugatory at the present time. In the first place, those contracting for labor and the laborers themselves are often clever in evading the laws, and it is frequently very difficult to get convictions for violations. In many instances, district attorneys are already overworked and are averse to taking up immi- gration cases, especially unless the evidence is very clear. Then, again, the dockets of the Federal Courts are so crowded that it takes a long time for a case to be reached, and meanwhile the benefit of some of the evidence is frequently lost. The courts, further, have always tended to whittle down the operation of these Acts as far as possible ; as, for example, by holding, prior to the Act of 1903, that the contract must have been a bi-lateral agree- ment made before the sailing of the vessel, and that a promise of employment acted on by the immigrant was not such a contract as was contemplated by the Act. It As to the argument that the laws themselves show the ex- istence of a legitimate demand for labor see Edward Atkinson, in Forum, vol. 13, p. 365 (May. 1892). See H. C. Lodge, in Cch:,iry, vol. 67, p. 468 (Jan. 1904). 250 Immigration Legislation has, however, been held recently that where persons hav? been permitted to land by a board of special inquiry and are actually in the country, they can be subsequently arrested and deported as contract laborers.-" It has been suggested that the law should be changed so that a de- cision of the board favorable to the alien shall not be final. 21 It must, however, be admitted, that the mere deportation of particular laborers would have little effect upon the employers in deterring them from attempting other violations of the law. 22 Another defect in the present laws is that deportation of the alien removes the most important witness for the government. Formerly, his affidavit was taken before deportation ; but latterly this practice has been discontinued, and deportations have consequently fallen off. The present status of the matter is described by the Commissioner-General as follows : 24 " To state the situation exactly, it is now indispensable to the Government's successful maintenance of a penal action under the provision of these laws, first, that an alien contracted for shall escape the vigilance of the in- Pearson v. Williams, 136 Fed. Rep. 734 (1905). 21 Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1904, p. 102. Cp. Act of Mar. 3, 1903, sections 21, 22 and 25. -2 The Commission appointed to investigate the Immigrant Station at Ellis Island said in its report (1904) pp. 18, 30, that it had been unable to learn of a single successful attempt to enforce the provisions of section 5 of the Act of 1903. imposing a penalty upon persons importing contract laborers. -^Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1902, p. 10. The numbers rejected fell from 327 in 1901 to 275 in 1902. If fines could have been collected for all of the 879 con- tract laborers deported in 1903, the total gain to the government would have been $879,000. 2* Report, 1901, p. 32. Effect of the Present Laws spection officer and efYect a landing and, second, that the work for which he was engaged shall be unskilled manual labor. It appears superfluous to say in view of the fore- going that the Bureau has no report to make of the suc- cessful prosecution for violation of the alien contract labor laws, nor can it be reasonably expected to have such report to make in the future unless the law is ap- propriately amended." The question how far one who comes in pursuance of the promise of a relative to give him work is a contract laborer, is one of great difficulty. In order to make the law strict enough to cover abuses, its language must in- clude some cases which are harmless. A certain dis- cretion it seems must be exercised in the application, and yet that is always to be regretted in laws of this kind. It is no longer even necessary to have a definite promise of employment before arriving at New York to be prac- tically certain of employment in some lines of work. Employers let it be known abroad that there is a demand for a kind of labor and information regarding employ- ment to be obtained at a certain place in New York or elsewhere. The aliens are then shipped to the locality where they are wanted, E. IMMIGRATION THROUGH CANADA AND MEXICO A source of much difficulty in the execution of the laws has always been the immigration of undesirable aliens to the United States by way of Canada and Mexico. The number of arrivals at Canadian ports in recent years, professedly destined to the United States have been as follows : =3 See Gino C. Speranza, in Outlook, vol. 74, pp. 407-410 (June 13. 1903). 2^2 Immigration Legislation 1897 6.542 1898 7,344 1899 11.550 1900 20.011 1901 21.674 1902 29.199 1903 35920 1904 30,374 Under various contracts with the transportation com- panies, dated September 7, 1893, ^larch 25, 1896 and November i, 1901, the United States has for some years maintained stations for the examination of trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific immigrants landing in Canada and des- tined to the United States, These stations are Hali- fax, Montreal, Quebec. St. John. Yarmouth. \'ancouver and Victoria. Altogether there are forty-seven of them along the Canadian border, including one at Winnipeg, and seven along the Mexican border. The inspection is, in general, similar to that at ports of the United States. The owners of Canadian vessels agree to furnish manifests and to pay the head-tax. When an alien is found admissible he is given a certifi- cate which he shows at the border. The steamship lines agree to return those who have come in through Canada and become public charges within a year, in like manner as in the case of aliens landed at ports of this country. To the direct immigration through Canada must also be added the large number who give Canada as their destination and then sneak in across the border. The latter are the worst of all immigrants. In the words of the Commissioner at Montreal : 2« For the text of the last agreement see Report of Commis- sioner-General of Immigration, jgo2. pp. 46-48. For regulations as to inspection of aliens landed at Canadian ports see Dept. Cir- cular of Nov. I, 1901. Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1902, PP- 39> 40. Effect of the Present Laws 253 " The Canadian route to the United States is known to every unscrupulous agent in Europe and is by that means made known to the very dregs of society, many of whom having been rejected at the United States ports sought this easy mode of escaping the effect of ofificial vigilance. ... It will be seen that those aliens clas- sified as Canadian immigrants, and who are simply so classified to conceal their real intention, furnish in the aggregate a greater amount of specific disease and gen- eral inadmissibility than all the immigrants examined at all the United States ocean ports of entry combined, in- cluding Quebec, St. John and Halifax." Many con- tract laborers also come in by the Canadian route as af- fording a method more difficult of detection. These facts led recently to an increased rigor of in- spection on the frontiers. As a result, the rejections at the border ports of Canada and Mexico were 5437 in 1902 and 6856 in 1904.2^ Of the rejections in 1904, 2001 were on the Canadian border and 4855 on the Mex- ican border ; showing that attempted evasions of the law have been largely transferred to Mexico since the more severe inspection on the Canadian frontier. The only radical remedy for the present state of things would be for Canada and Mexico to adopt the American immi- gration laws, and a system of inspection as thorough as The United Hebrew Charities of New York reported recently that as many as 75 per cent, of all their dependents had come in via Canada. Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigra- tion, igo?, p. 43. In 1904, 15.359 aliens examined at Canadian ports, destined to the United States, furnished 262 inadmissibles ; while 9438 examined at the border yielded 667 equally inadmis- sible persons. Report of the Commissioner-General of Immi- gration, 1904, p. 95. See Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1902, p. 11; ibid. 1904, p. 10, 254 Immigration Legislation that in vogue in this country : or to permit the inspection by American officers of all aliens whether destined to the United States or otherwise. At present, the inspection in Canada is a matter of contract and courtesy on the part of the steamship companies and has no color of authority from the Canadian government. Canada and Mexico have always been very anxious to obtain colonists, the former spending large sums in advertising for immi- grants ; consequently they have not been critical in regard to the quality of their immigration. Two influences, however, have cooperated to induce Canada to take the first steps towards regulation of im- migration on her own account. The first is the increased vigilance of American inspection along the border, which has resulted in turning back into Canada numerous un- desirable persons. The second, and more important fac- tor, is the influence of the transportation companies which dislike to have their passengers delayed by a rigid border inspection. The net result to date has been the passage of a law by Canada in 1902 excluding diseased persons ; and the more cordial cooperation of the Canadian au- thorities with the United States inspectors at Canadian ports. ^'^ Under the present system, where persons are rejected by American inspectors at Canadian ports for causes also defined in the Canadian law, such persons are deported to Europe ; but in all other cases this govern- ment must rely upon its frontier inspection. It is obvious that the policing of 3,000 miles of frontier is a difficult matter. There are at least thirty points along A previous attempt to check diseased persons going to Canada, by having American surgeons at British ports of em- barkation, was not successful, partly because the steamship lines insisted on bringing rejected aliens. See Report of the Com- viissioner-Gcncral of Immigration, ipoi, p. 32. Eflfect of the Present Laws 255 the Canadian border where railroads cross the Hne. There are, also, ferries and carriage roads. It has been suggested that the United States inspectors at Canadian ports should be withdrawn, and that all immigrants should be required to enter this country at certain des- ignated frontier points, on penalty of arrest. It would, however, be almost impossible to apply such a rule to bona fide residents of Canada, and in every case the question of residence would arise. In spite of the difificulties of the present arrangement much has been accomplished in the way of breaking up the smuggling of undesirable immigrants, and, in the future, Canada may be induced to make her standard of immigrants as high as our own. As to smuggling and prosecutions for the same, see Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 19OJ, pp. 48, 49, 97-99. Recently a shipload of 250 Syrians was landed at Vera Cruz from a French port, and a number of these, all suffering from trachoma attempted to cross at Eagle Pass. See Boston Evening Transcript, Jan. 6, 1903; Boston Herald, March 27, 1905- CHAPTER XII PROPOSED LEGISLATION A. HEAD-TAX AND MONEY TEST When further restriction of immigration is under dis- cussion, one of the suggestions which comes first to mind is to increase the head-tax. The raising of the present tax of two dollars to ten, fifty or one hundred dollars would no doubt considerably diminish immigration. Of the total immigration in 1904, 501,530, or 84 per cent, of those whose money was reported, brought less than fifty dollars ; and a tax of that amount would, therefore, have excluded most of them. Even a large head-tax would not, however, altogether stop immigration ; for friends and relatives in this coun- try, who prepay most of the tickets, would in some cases supply the extra sum needed. In general, an increase of the tax would tend to exclude the less thrifty and enter- prising ; but a tax of any considerable amount would certainly bar out many desirable immigrants from all races. ^ The head-tax, of course, does not discriminate directly between those with good and those with bad mental and physical characteristics. Another objection to it is that it bears more severely upon the man with a family, in- tending permanent settlement, than it does upon the un- married birds of passage. If it is desirable to promote 1 See Gustav H. Schwab, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 810 (Feb. 1893) ; Henry Cabot Lodge, in Century, vol. 67, p. 468 (Jan. 1904). 256 Proposed Legislation 257 the immigration of families, the tax cannot be appHed strictly per capita; there must be some exemption of wives and children. A still further objection often made to this method of restriction is, that, so far as the immigrant himself pays the tax, he is so much the poorer upon his arrival. This is precisely the time when he needs money to support him until he can obtain work, and prevent his becoming a public charge. It is probably true, however, that the improvement in the quality of immigration under a higher head-tax would more than offset any bad results of this character. Somewhat similar to the head-tax is the " money test," that is to say, the requirement that each immigrant must possess a certain sum of money, say the equivalent of a year's wages. ^ The Commissioner at New York has sug- gested 3 that this could be obtained by mere executive order. He says, in speaking of the public charge pro- vision of the law : " I think its execution would become much more effective if the department w^ould in some proper form express the opinion that persons having less than a stated sum, say $20 or $30, were not * clearly and be- yond a doubt ' entitled to land, unless they gave, not ordinary, but very convincing proof of some exceptional qualifications to justify their admission, and that in all appeals by persons excluded as paupers, or as likely to - George Guiiton, in Lecture Bulletin of the Institute of Social Economics, Nov., 1901, p. 94. In the Fifty-second Congress, Senator Chandler, in Senate Bill 3363, proposed the excUi- sion of persons not provided, in addition to the means of reach- ing their destination, with sufficient money for their support for two months after arrival ; the amount required not to exceed $100 for each single person or head of a family and $25 for each member of a family except the head. ^ Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1902, ?• 59- 258 Immigration Legislation become public charges, it would presume the excluding decision to be correct, unless such persons at the time of landing possessed this minimum amount over and above all claims, together with transportation to final destina- tion. Such a rule would be a warning to many over- zealous emigration agents on the other side, who are more bent on securing their commissions than seeing to it that no ineligible person enters this country, with the result that numerous chances are taken with regard to the eligibility of immigrants, and pauperized families . . . are brought here who would never have left the other side." There is no doubt that an economic test of this char- acter would be to some extent evaded. Means would be found through some arrangement of guaranty between friends or relatives of aliens and immigrant bankers, here and abroad, to supply them with the money necessary to pass inspection, to be returned after landing. * Never- theless, the necessary safeguards of such a system would themselves tend to restrict its application, and to render the law an efficient means of restriction. B. PHYSICAL TEST Just as the illiteracy test is designed not only to secure rudimentary education on the part of immigrants, but also and chiefly to exclude those undesirable for general rea- sons, so a physical test would bar out not merely persons of poor physique or physically defective or imperfect, but, in addition, a considerable proportion of those liable to become paupers and diseased. The present laws ex- clude all who are mentally diseased in such a way as to be a burden on the community ; that is to say, the insane, 4 Thus the $30 invariably shown by Japanese immigrants is said to be furnished by the immigration companies. Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 756. Proposed Legislation 259 idiots, and persons who have been insane within a few years ; and, on the physical side, those with dangerous or loathsome contagious diseases. The next logical step, therefore, if there is to be a further restriction, would seem to be to stiffen the requirements for admission, both on the mental and on the physical side. On this account it has often been argued that if there is to be an educa- tional test there should be a physical test as well ; and many go further and hold that the relation between ap- parent physique and desirability, is much closer than be- tween the mental intelligence, necessary to read and write, and desirability, inasmuch as the physical condition of the individual determines to a great extent his capacity and opportunity for acquiring education. Furthermore, experience shows that the persons of poor physique, are, with few exceptions, those who are most likely to become a burden upon the community. To a considerable ex- tent both of these tests would hit the same classes of in- dividuals ; although the educational test would exclude some persons of extremely good physique coming from countries where opportunity for education is limited, while, on the other hand, it would admit large numbers, especially of Russian and German Jews, who are most prone to become victims of tuberculosis within a short time after landing. In the Fifty-second Congress, in connection with a consular certificate bill ^ introduced by Senator Lodge of Massachusetts, it was provided that the immigrant must have a certificate stating that he was " physically and mentally sound, in good health and free from disease or deformity as certified by a physician of good and regular standing known to the consul or diplomatic representa- tive with whom such medical certificate shall be filed." H. R. 575, § 2. 26o Immigration Legislation In the same Congress another bill,*' introduced by Sena- tor Chandler of New Hampshire, added to the excluded classes : " Persons blind or crippled or otherwise physi- cally imperfect so that they are wholly or partially disabled from manual labor, unless it is affirmatively and satisfactorily shown on special inquiry that such persons are sure of abundant support and not likely to become a public charge." In view of the various changes in the law since these provisions were suggested, a more de- sirable form of the test might be to exclude : " Per- sons physically or mentally weak, defective or degenerate so that their ability to earn a living in their trade, occu- pation or employment is thereby affected, whether that trade, occupation or employment involves hard physical effort or not ; but this clause shall not be held to exclude the wife, minor children, or parents of anyone who is a citizen of the United States at the time of the passage of this act or of any person who may become a citizen of the United States within five years after such pas- sage, if it be affirmatively and satisfactorily shown, on special inquiry, that such citizen is able to give his wife, minor children, or parents adequate support." «S. 3663. The importance of a proper physical test has been repeatedly emphasized by the immigration authorities. Thus, the Commis- sioner at New York says in his report for 1904: " We are receiving too many immigrants whose physical con- dition is poor. . . . To exclude aliens suf¥ering from either physical or mental ailment it is generally necessary to show that they are likely to become public charges, and yet it is obviously impossible to exclude on this ground all persons whose physical condition is poor. I think that in all instances in which the U. S. Marine Hospital surgeons who conduct the medical examination at the immigration stations certify in writing that the physical condition of an immigrant dependent for support upon his own physical exertions, is below a certain standard to be designated Proposed Legislation 261 It has also been suggested that section 10 of the present act shall be supplemented by a provision that, whenever an examining medical officer certifies that an alien has a mental or physical defect which will, in his opinion, afifect the alien's ability to earn a living through physical efYort, including manual labor, the alien shall be held for special inquiry ; and at such in- quiry the sole question for determination shall be whether or not the alien must rely on physical effort to earn a living; if this question be determined in the affirmative the alien shall be excluded. In other words, the question, what effect a given physical imperfection is likely to have upon an immigrant's power to work is really a medical question for medical experts and should not be decided by a board of special inquiry ; but such board may properly pass upon the general question as to how the immigrant shall be obliged to earn his living. During the year 1904, at the port of New York, 4802 cases of serious physical defects were certified ; and out of a total of 4916 cases to be accounted for, 3478 were landed. This statement covers only the serious physical defects or diseases; and 17,422 cases were recorded of aliens with minor defects, many of whom, no doubt, by them by some appropriate term, whether this be ' low vitality,' ' poor physique,' or some other similar expression or that he is ' senile,' such immigrants should be excluded, subject to cer- tain reasonable exceptions. . . ." Report of the Commissioner- General of Immigration, 1904, pp. 105-106. Cp. ibid. 1903, pp. 84, 120. The standard sometimes used by the officers of the Marine Hospital Service in certifying cases to the board of special inquiry is that of the United States Infantry recruiting officers. At present, as has been already noted, many immigrants suf- fering even with serious physical defects are allowed to be landed on the promise of some irresponsible person that they shall be cared for or given work. 262 Immigration Legislation ought properly to have been exchided. If a physical test is to be adopted, it should be an absolute cause for exclusion. The practice of admitting aliens on the oral guaranty of some person that they shall not become a public charge should be restricted, and should not be allowed in the case of physical defectives, as experience has shown that such guaranties are of no value. In any law prescribing a physical test, too, it would seem to be necessary to make some exceptions in the cases of persons of independent means. It would be impracti- cable to insist upon the appearance before a board of special inquiry of every case certified by a medical in- spector ; as, for example, some very prominent cabin passenger of ample means travelling for his health or upon business, might be subject to a physical defect which would exclude him under such a provision. It has also been suggested that pending any radical action by Congress, or any construction by the depart- ment of section 10, which would accomplish the same purpose, there should be a rule requiring the commis- sioner of immigration in charge at a port where a physi- cally defective alien is landed, to notify in writing the officials of the municipality in which such alien intends to reside, that he has been admitted, giving sufficient information to identify him. If, subsequently, he be- comes a public charge the chain of evidence necessary to secure his deportation will then be complete. C. ILLITERACY TEST We come now to the method of restriction which has practically monopolized public and legislative attention ^Senate Repurls, 54tli Cong., 1st Sess., No. 290 (1896); re- printed as Senate Reports, 55th Cong., ist Sess., No. 13 (1897); Proposed Legislation 263 for the past ten years. For this reason a more detailed account of its history and merits will be given than has been accorded to other plans. By whom this method was first suggested is a matter of doubt ; ^ but it first came into prominence in 1895 shortly after the formation of the Immigration Restriction League in 1894, although embodied in various bills before that time.^*^ It will be convenient to consider first the history of the test and then its merits and defects. In December, 1895, ^ ^^^^ prepared by the Immigra- tion Restriction League was introduced into the Senate by Mr. Lodge of Massachusetts, and into the House by Mr. McCall of Massachusetts. Since then this bill has Prescott F. Hall, " Immigration and the Educational Test," in North American Rcviciv, vol. 165, p. 393 (Oct., 1897) I ibid., " New Problems of Immigration," in Forum, vol. 30, p. 555 (Jan., 1901) ; Publications of the Immigration Restriction League, Nos. 6, 10, II, 13, 14, 21, 23. 24, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35; Speech of Hon. S. W. McCall in the House of Representatives May 20, 1896; Speech of Hon. H. C. Lodge in the Senate, Mar. 16, 1896; Speech of Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks in the Senate, Jan. 11, 1898. " It was advocated by Senator H. C. Lodge of Massachusetts in the North American Rcviezv, vol. 152, p. 36 (Jan. 1891). 10 " It seems to a majority of the committee that the time has come, in view of the alarming increase within the last few years of ilh'terate immigrants, to adopt a reasonable requirement of in- telligence on the part of newcomers seeking the privilege of residence and citizenship in our great and prosperous Republic. . . . Persons of proper age must be able to read and write with reasonable facility their own language ; but aged persons rot =0 able may come with or join their families. As a partial check to the addition of undesirable persons to our population the majority of the Comm.ittee cannot devise any wiser or more rational provision." Senate Reports, 52d Cong., 2d Sess., No. 1333 (1893)- " ;i. R. g; S. 301. Cp. S. 310 introduced by Senator Chandler of New Hampshire. 264 Immigration Legislation generally been known as the " Lodge bill." It provided for an addition to the excluded classes of " all persons between fourteen and sixty years of age who cannot both read and write the English language or some other language." On April 2, 1896, Mr. Bartholdt. for the House Com- mittee on Immigration, reported a bill excluding illiterate males between sixteen and sixty years of age, but ex- empting parents of residents or immigrants. 12 On February 18, 1896, Air. Lodge, from the Senate Com- mittee, reported a bill excluding illiterates over fourteen years of age, with an exemption in the case of aged par- ents or grandparents of admissible or resident immi- grants. This bill also provided machinery for making the test of illiteracy.!^ On May 20, 1896, the bill passed the House by a vote of 195 to 26; and on December 17. 1896, it passed the Senate by a vote of 52 to 10. The votes in each case were not in the least on party lines. On January 21, 1897, a bill was reported from conference, similar to the bill as it finally passed, except that it required immigrants to " read and write the English language or the language of their native or resident country." The opposition im- mediately discovered that this form of wording would exclude a large proportion of the Jews, Yiddish not being a language of any recognized country. Immediately, there was an emphatic protest from influential Jewish bankers in New York City and from other prominent Jews, and it was deemed advisable to restore the original wording of the League's bill requiring the reading and writing of the " English language or some other lan- 12 H. R. 7864. House Reports, 54th Cong., ist Sess., No. 1079- 1^ S. 2147. Senate Reports, 54th Cong., ist Sess., No. 290. Proposed Legislation 265 guage." The bill as finally reported by the conference committee passed the Senate February 9, 1897, by a vote of 34 to 31. This close vote is to be explained by the efforts of the steamship companies and their sympathizers to defeat the measure. For example, while the matter was pending in the House, the western agents for the North German Lloyd Steamship Company sent the fol- lowing telegram to numerous persons : " Immigration bill comes up in the House Wednesday ; wire your Con- gressman, our expense, protesting against proposed ex- clusion and requesting bill be defeated, informing him that vote in favor means defeat next election." At about the same time, the same firm sent out a letter stating that if the Lodge bill became a law immigration would be restricted " almost to the extent of total exclusion," — a most absurd statement — and saying that every effort should therefore be made to defeat the bill. With this letter was sent a slip as follows : " Wire your repre- sentative fully and let us know cost of telegram and we will promptly refund amount to you." Comment on such communications seems unnecessary. During the passage of the bill through the House, Representative Corliss of Michigan succeeded in having four sections, dealing with an entirely different subject, the coming of Canadians across the border to perform daily labor in the United States, added to it by way of amendment. The labor unions of Detroit and other places in Michigan, to which State Mr. Corliss was accredited, who were affected by this daily migration, had asked for some measure of relief. So the so-called " Corliss amendment " was made a part of the bill, much against the wishes of its friends, and only because of a fear that it might be held up if the amendment were opposed. As will presently be shown, this amendment 266 Immigration Legislation was what really caused the veto of the measure hy President Cleveland, on March 2, 1897.*^ In his veto the President rehearsed the benefits of immigration in the past, referred to the quantity of land still available for settlement, and maintained that labor difficulties were the result of temporarj' depression and would be remedied in natural ways. He further ex- pressed less fear from large masses of ignorant im.mi- grants than from a few educated agitators, and suggested that if the illiteracy test were being advocated as a method for excluding classes undesirable for other reasons than illiteracy, such classes should be directly legislated against. He also referred to the separation of families which might take place in spite of the ex- emptions of the bill. The message characterized the sections of the Corliss amendment as unfriendly legisla- tion which could hardly fail to provoke retaliatory meas- ures, and as being illiberal, narrow and un-American. As will be seen by any one who reads the message, the President vigorously expressed his disapproval of the whole bill. It has been said, however, on apparently good authority, that in view of the very large vote by which the illiteracy test had passed both Houses twice, the President would not have interposed his veto but for the provisions afifecting the border immigration from Canada. It must be remembered that at this time there 1* As the Lodge Bill has been long out of print, and as there is a constant demand for the text of the measure, it is given in full in Appendix III. as it went to the President; but readers should remember that sections 4 to 7 inclusive are no proper part of the illiteracy test bill, and were added in the manner above narrated. 15 Senate Documents, 54th Cong., 2d Sess., No. 185. For a discussion of this veto, see John Chetwood, Jr., in Arena, voL 17, pp. 788-801 (Dec. 1897). Proposed Legislation 267 were many questions of grave importance pending be- tween the United States and Canada, such as the question of the seal fisheries and the Alaskan boundary. In addition to the general desirability of avoiding trouble with a near neighbor, with whom the United States had hitherto been on friendly terms, it was of the greatest consequence for the successful adjustment of the various matters in controversy that friction should not be created and bad feeling engendered by the passage of a measure containing such irritating and vexatious clauses as those of the Corliss amendment; and on this account the veto can be supported even by friends of the illiteracy test. The House, however, at that time was not at all in sympathy with the President, and, on the same day that the veto was received, passed the bill again over the veto by a vote of 193 to 37, which was very nearly as large a majority as that by which it had passed the conference report and the original bill. There was, however, no time to secure its passage over the veto by the Senate, if indeed the necessary two-thirds could have been secured, which was very doubtful. In the Fifty-fifth Congress, the bill of the Immigration Restriction League was again introduced, and passed the Senate January 17, 1898, by a vote of 45 to 28 ; but, owing to the great pressure of business, especially that arising out of the Spanish War, no action was taken in the House, although a canvass showed a considerable majority in favor of the measure."^ i« This bill was introduced by Mr. McCall as H. R. i on Mar. 15, 1897; and by Mr. Lodge as S. 112 on Mar. 16, 1897. The re- port was Senate Reports, 55th Cong., 1st Sess., No. 13, being a reprint of 54th Cong., ist Sess., No. 290. Consideration was refused in the House, Dec. 14, 1898, by a vote of 103 to 100. 268 Immigration Legislation While the matter was pending, the opposition was not idle; and an organization was formed in 1898, called the Immigration Protective League, for the purpose of defeating legislation. The promoter and secretary of this organization was Dr. J. H. Senner, who will be referred to again. The principal work of the Immigra- tion Protective League, apart from appearing at one or two hearings, was the distribution of circular letters, printed in the German language, which were sent to German but not to English newspapers, and to various German societies throughout the United States. These circulars were so remarkable that they deserve quotation. The one sent out in 1898 contained the following lan- guage : "... The nativistic authors of such entirely superfluous new laws pretend that their only object is to protect the American laboring man against foreign competition. This is, however, only a poor excuse for their real scheme, dictated by that hatred of the foreigner, whom they would like to exclude altogether. . . . " If, in particular, the now comparatively feeble stream of German immigration is completely cut off, then they will succeed in oppressing Germans in this country, and ruin the German element politically and industrially. To the great satisfaction and delight of the English-Ameri- can press, many a German newspaper, whose competition is a thorn in their flesh, will be forced to the wall. No German church building will then be erected any more, or conserved ; no German school could exist, and the German language will disappear from the public schools." When it is remembered that, on the strictest construc- tion, the Lodge bill would have excluded less than 1.5 per cent, of German immigrants it is apparent that the absurdity of such an appeal to race prejudice has rarely been equalled. Hundreds of thousands of Germans in Proposed Legislation 269 this country are among the best foreign-bom citizens we have, and no one would wish to ruin them industrially, even if it were possible, as it is not. Senator Fairbanks stated in 1898: " I received and am still receiving protests [against the Lodge bill] from various societies in Indiana. One of them was from a German organization in Jefferson- ville. I took the trouble to investigate this, and found it had been directly instigated by a steamship agent, and that the members of the German Aid Society, who osten- sibly protested, were led to believe that it was a general restriction of immigration and not merely an attempt to keep out illiterates, which these very men who pro- tested heartily approved of." In the Fifty-sixth Congress, the Senate Committee reported an illiteracy test bill on January 15, 1900, but no vote was taken in either house. In the Fifty-seventh Congress the Immigration Restriction League again caused its bill to be introduced into both houses. The machinery for applying the test, omitting the writing requirement, was substantially the same as in former 1* Chicago Tribune, Jan. 21, 1898. The Evansville, Indiana, Courier of Jan. 19, 1897, in speaking of protests against the Lodge bill from certain branches of the German Catholic Central Society of the United States pointed ont that the Evansville Branch of the Society would have endorsed the Lodge bill if they had not been misled into supposing that the bill required the reading and writing of English. Such a belief would have been a very natural consequence of reading the circulars above referred to. See also an article by Hon. Wm. A. Stone of Pennsylvania, in Illustrated American, vol. 21, p. 840 (June 26, 1897). 1" See further, as to the opposition of the steamship companies, Publications of the Immigration Restriction League, Nos. 22, 24 and 32. s^H. R. 2013 by Mr. Watson of Indiana, Dec. 13, 1901; S. 223 by Mr. Lodge of Massachusetts, Dec. 4, 190I. 270 Immigration Legislation years, and the language of the excluding clause was as follows : " All persons over fifteen years of age and physically capable of reading who cannot read the Eng- lish language or some other language; but an admissible immigrant or a person now in or hereafter admitted to this country may bring in or send for his wife, his children under eighteen years of age, and his parents or grandparents over fifty years of age, if they are otherwise admissible, whether they are so able to read and write or not." At this time, the bill prepared in accordance with the recommendations of the Industrial Commission and of a conference of the commissioners of immigration at the various ports, which afterwards became the Act of March 3, 1903, was pending.-^ On May 22, 1902, on motion of Mr. Underwood of Alabama the educational test, in the form last given above, was added to the bill in committee of the whole by a vote of 86 to 7.22 On June 23, 1902, the bill was favorably reported by the Senate Committee, but in the session of 1902-3 it 21 H. R. 12, 199, reported March 18, 1902. House Reports, 57th Cong., 1st Sess., No. 982. 22 While the bill was pending, the Immigration Protective League published another circular in the German language, of a part of which the following is a translation : " Again the nativistic serpent raises its poisonous head and .'^eeks to press through the United States Congress some bill to forbid immigration wholly or to limit it to such an extent that tlTe coming of your brothers and sisters from the old fatherland must wholly or partially cease. Do you know what this means? Observe the treatment of the Chinese and negroes in this country and you know what lies before you." The bill as it passed the house would have excluded at most only 15 to 20 per cent, of the total immigration, and probably not over one per cent, of the German immigration. It is interesting also to note that at the hearings before the Proposed Legislation 271 became evident that although a majority of the Senate favored the educational test, certain senators were de- termined to defeat the whole bill if the section embody- ing this test were retained, and Messrs. Penrose, Lodge and Fairbanks, who were in charge of the bill, agreed to drop this section (Sec. 3) in order to save the general bill. In the Fifty-eighth Congress the League's bill in the form last given was introduced into both houses,^^ but no reports on any measures were received from the Im- migration Committee of either the House or the Senate. This was owing partly to the pressure of other mat- ters, partly to the great increase in industrial activity which created a temporary demand for unskilled labor, and partly to a desire to see the practical operation of the Act of March 3, 1903, before undertaking further legislation. During all these years from 1894 on, the subject of immigration restriction was attracting wide attention through the country. The question of the illiteracy test was debated in the schools and colleges, and advocated or denounced in lectures, pulpits and from professors' chairs. Seldom has a question of which the public has made so little study been a subject of such widespread Senate Committee in 1903, the bill which became the Act of March 3, 1903 was opposed by the International Navigation Company, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad Co., the Southern Pacific Railroad Co., and the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association. The railroads and steamships, of course, have a joint interest in the immigrant traffic and the former are also in- terested as employers of cheap labor. As to the combination to control the immigrant situation, see Chicago Times-Herald of Nov. 22, 1897, which gives a list of the affiliated corporations. 23 H. R. 832 by Mr. Watson of Indiana, Nov. 10, 1903; S. 15 by Mr. Lodge, Nov. 11, 1903. 272 Immigration Legislation interest and it is on this account that the history of this particular measure has been given with such detail. The only other recent suggestion in regard to the educational test has been that in which it was combined with consular inspection, an intending immigrant being required to produce a consular certificate that he could read and write.2'* No action has ever been taken on this suggestion. We come now to some consideration of the merits and defects of this proposed plan of restriction. It has been a handicap to the educational test that its purpose and working are often misunderstood, even by those who are in favor of it. This misunderstanding is usually expressed in the saying : " A man is no more moral because he can read and write." President Cleveland himself, in his veto message, showed that he was not entirely familiar with the object sought to be gained by the bill and the way in which this object would be accomplished. The principal difficulty with all the im- migration laws hitherto enacted, as has been frequently said before, is that they are so framed as to be very elastic in their interpretation. The principal excluded class at the present time is that of persons " liable to become public charges." This clause is very elastic. At times the law has been enforced in such a way as to make exclusions comparatively few ; at other times it has been more strictly enforced. This elasticity would not be such a great defect if one could be sure that the officers charged with the administration of the law were suf- ficiently informed of the labor conditions in the country 2* See 5Sth Cong., S. 2779 introduced Dec. 14, 1897 by Senator Kyle; Charles Stewart Smith, in North American Review, vol. 154, p. 438 (Apr. 1892) ; Special Consular Reports, vol. 30 (1904), p. 70 and pcusitn. Proposed Legislation 273 and the practical effects of immigration upon the social and political conditions, especially in the eastern part of the United States. The theory of the educational test is that it furnishes an indirect method of excluding those who are undesir- able, not merely because of their illiteracy but for other reasons. We have already seen that there is a fairly constant relation between illiteracy, the amount of money brought by the immigrant, his standard of living, his tendency to crime and pauperism, his disposition to congregate in the slums of cities instead of going out to settle new parts of the country, and his failure to assimilate politically and socially and to have any but temporary interests in the country. Undoubtedly some illiterates would make desirable citizens and undoubtedly mere illiteracy as such can be conquered, in the second generation at all events, with much labor and expense ; but the hereditary tendencies of the peoples illiterate abroad, and especially of their uneducated classes, cannot be overcome in a generation or two. While it should be clearly understood that it is not claimed that ability to read and write is an evidence of good moral character, this test would, nevertheless, practically operate to ex- clude a very large part of the immigration which is destitute of resources either in money, or still more, in ability and knowledge of a means to support itself ; which is generally ignorant ; which has criminal tend- encies ; which is averse to country life and congregates in our city slums ; which has a low standard of living and little ambition to seek a better ; and which has no permanent interests in this country. Furthermore, as we have seen, the most powerful factor in assimilation, both social and political, is the ability to read, if not in -5 Chapters v., a, and viii., a. 274 Immigration Legislation the English language at least in some language. The ability to read and write his own language does not seem an unreasonable requirement to make in the case of one seeking to enter a democracy like ours. At the entrance to our principal port at which immigrants arrive, we have placed a statue of Liberty Enlightening the World. The statue carries in one hand a torch and in the other a book ; and this, properly interpreted, means not merely that immigrants shall be educated to a higher degree after they get here, but that they should be able to read the fundamental law of the land by the light of Liberty's torch in order to entitle them to enjoy the advantages which Liberty has produced. The principal advantage of the educational test is that it is a definite rule of exclusion. It is equally definite for our immigrant inspectors, for the foreign steamship agents and for the immigrants themselves. It could and would be applied at the places where tickets were bought by the immigrants, and by the steamship companies ; therefore, there need be no great change in existing ma- chinery, or any large increase in consular service or in expense. By excluding many of the otherwise doubtful cases, it would relieve the boards of special inquiry and would, to that extent, permit a more thorough examina- tion of the remaining immigrants. The certainty of the test renders it valuable to the immigrant, for it saves him the hardship of making the voyage in doubt as to his admission or exclusion. This in itself does away, in 26 Chapter viii., G. " It is conceded that less than three per cent, of those unable to read and write at the age of sixteen ever after acquire this education. The alien who has never acquired the primary steps to an education is likely to acquire our language with difficulty, and will not assimilate readily with our customs and manners." Report of the Superintendent of Immigration, i8gj, p. ig. Proposed Legislation 275 large part, with the separation of families, and with the temptation to a lax enforcement of the laws in order to prevent such separation. The mere expectation that the Lodge bill would be- come law has already done much to promote elementary education in the kingdom of Italy ; -'' and it is not unlikely that the adoption of an educational test by the United States would be followed by the adoption of similar regulations in other countries, and would stimu- late general education throughout the world. It has already been adopted in an optional form in Australia, New Zealand, Cape Colony, Natal, and other British colonies.-* The educational test has had the most united support, on the part of all sorts and conditions of men in this country, ever given to any immigration bill, or, indeed, to any bill of similar sociological importance. In the Fifty- seventh Congress, the report of the Senate Committee contained a list of 4444 petitions for the educational test presented to the first session of the Fifty-seventh Con- gress, covering fifty-seven pages of the report ; and a further list of endorsements of restriction and the test covering fourteen pages. Among these petitions and endorsements, were the Legislatures of three States and House of Representatives of a fourth ; all of the associations formed in the northwestern part of the country for the promotion of immigration into thai section ; the American Federation of Labor by a vote of 1858 to 352 at its national convention held in Nash- Report of Italian Commissioner-General of Emigration, 1904. See Boston Evening Transcript, Sept. 12, 1904. See James D. Whelpley, The Problem of the Immigrant, Senate, Documents, S7th Cong., 2d Sess., No. 62 (1902). *' California, Washington, Wyoming, Arkansas. 276 Immigration Legislation ville, December 17, 1897 ; and the General Assembly of the Knights of Labor in 1896, 1897, 1901. It was likewise endorsed by the Republican national platform of 1896, by the Massachusetts Republican platforms of 1897 and 1898, and in the message of President Roose- velt, December 3. 1901. The Industrial Commission, until within a few days of the adoption of its final report, was practically unanimous in favor of the test ; but at the last moment decided, on practical grounds, not to recommend it, although the chairman and one other member filed additional reports in its favor. It was recommended also by Superintendent of Immigration Owen in his report for 1892 ; and by Commissioner- General Sargent in his report for 1903. The latter says : " This requirement, whatever arguments or illustra- tions may be used to establish the contrary position, will furnish alien residents of a character less likely to be- come burdens on public or private charity. Otherwise it must follow that rudimentary education is a handicap in the struggle for existence, a proposition that few would attempt to maintain. It would also, in a measure, relieve the American people of the burden now sustained by them of educating in the free schools the ignorant of other countries." 3^ In 1902 about two-thirds of the Boards of Associated Charities of the United States petitioned Congress in favor of the Lodge bill. The test has also been endorsed by the National Prison Reform Association, and by about 90 per cent, of the newspapers in the United States having editorials upon the immigration question, as shown by clippings received by the press bureau of the Immigration Restriction League. 31 Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, I993, p. 61. Cp. ibid., 1904, p. 106; 1905, p. 76. Proposed Legislation 277 Dr. J. H. Senner when Commissioner of Immigration at the port of New York favored an illiteracy test, on the ground that illiteracy is invariably coupled with a low standard of living.-''- He not merely favored the test at that time, but actually put it in operation ff)r several months, and reported that it was easily applied, was practicable as a method of restriction. It is true, however, that Dr. Senner, after leaving the government employ and becoming connected with the Immigration Protective League, changed his view, and was most vehement in his denunciation of the educational test. In addition to the usual argument, that it would ex- clude many sturdy though ignorant immigrants, Dr. Senner has specified certain other objections to the plan. These were that if enforced against women, the test would practically create a still more pressing servant problem, as, in general, more of the women than of the men are illiterate ; and this would apply especially in the case of Italians who have not as yet gone much into domestic service, although efforts are now being made to induce them to do so. It may be answered to this objection that hitherto the class of women going into domestic service have come chiefly from Ireland, Ger- many, Scandinavia, and Canada, and have had a com- paratively small percentage of illiteracy. Dr. Senner also considered that the test would be a discrimination in favor of the affluent, and therefore undemocratic. He likewise mentioned the difficulty of enforcing the test in the case of cabin passengers, and the futility 22 North American Review, vol. 162, p. 655 (June, 1896) ; An- nals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 10, p. IS (July, 1897). ^^Independent, vol. 50, p. 78 (Jan. 20, 1898). \ 278 Immigration Legislation of it if it were not enforced aq^ainst cabin passengers. We have seen, however, that since Dr. Senner wrote, the immigration laws have in practice been applied to cabin passengers without any serious difficulty and the illiteracy test would not increase the difficulty appre- ciably. Dr. Senner further alleged that an examination as to reading and writing would deter the Germans from emigrating, although owing to the small percentage of illiteracy among them, they could practically all pass the test. He does not, however, allege that German immi- gration fell oflf owing to his putting of the illiteracy test in force for some months at Ellis Island, and it is dififi- cult to see why one item out of many in the examination should deter anybody who is certain of passing such a test from emigrating. While it is true that many of the Germans are opposed to the educational test on principle, the theory that it would deter German immi- gration must be considered a figment of the imagination. Another objection made to the test is, that it would soon cease to operate as against certain races owing to the spread of edvication. Admitting this to be so, it is obvious that there will be for many years illiterate in- dividuals of many races ; and with increasing immigra- tion from Asia and Africa, this safeguard is needed in the immediate future. Just how far the test would cut down the volume of immigration is a question. It was estimated that the bill which President Cleveland vetoed would have cut down immigration from fifteen to twenty per cent. In other words, the exceptions made in the bill would have admitted from one-quarter to two-fifths of the illiterates over fourteen years of age, reckoning the total illiteracy of such persons at twenty-five per cent. It is possible that the effect of the act might be much less than this after a year or two ; for, if the steamship Proposed Legislation 279 companies should be prevented from bringing illiterates, they would immediately try to secure emigrants who could read. However this may be, there is no doubt that the quality of immigration would be much improved by such a selection. An objection frequently made to the educational test is, that it would not shut out criminals, many of whom are well educated. In answer to this, it may be said that criminals are already excluded by law, and the illiteracy test is to be added to the existing provisions of law, and is not to be a substitute for any of them. It has always seemed to the writer that a few intelligent criminals or anarchists were far less detrimental to the country than large numbers of men too ignorant to see through their arguments, and forming inflammable material which can be easily kindled into the flame of disorder.^^ Moreover, it is not true that the test would be valueless as against criminals. The census of 1890 showed that nearly 21 per cent, of the foreign-born criminals were illiterate, and that the illiteracy of the foreign-born white criminals in 1890 was double that of the native-born white crim- inals. These foreign undesirables, and, what is more important, their children, would not now be here to any extent if an educational test had been in force for the last forty years.^^ In favor of this view, see Lecture Bulletin of the Institute of Social Economics (Nov. i, 1901), p. 85; Charles Stewart Smith in North Atnerican Review, vol. 154, p. 437 (Apr. 1892) ; John Chetwood, Jr., in Arena, vol. 17, p. 790 (Dec. 1897). Secretary of War Taft says in the Churchman of Oct. i, 1904, that this is true in the Philippines. See contra, on the ground that the ignorant do not read socialistic literature, Dr. Allan McLaughlin, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 66, p. 245 (Jan. 1905)- Cp. speech of Senator Fairbanks in the Senate, January 11, 1898. 280 Immigration Legislation In any legislation embod3ing the educational test it would probably be found advisable to exempt citizens of Canada, Newfoundland, and Mexico, and, perhaps, bona fide residents of those countries for a year or some other period before entry ; otherwise the test is likely to stir up considerable opposition among the railroads crossing the borders, who do not want their Canadian business interfered with. It would probably also be found neces- sary to forbid the entrance of aliens from foreign contiguous territory except at certain specified ports of entry, because it is obviously impracticable to have the machinery for examinations at every point of crossing. Both these features were discussed in connection with the bill as it passed the House • in the Fifty-seventh Congress, and considered to be desirable. It was claimed by the International Navigation Company and others that the former provision, as well as the similar provision as to the head-tax in the existing law, violated all treaties with foreign nations granting their citizens as favorable treatment as citizens of any other nation. The State Department, however, thought differently ; and, as no trouble has arisen with the existing law in respect to the head-tax, it would doubtless not arise with regard to an educational test. D. CONSULAR INSPECTION Of the various plans for further regulation of immi- gration, the plan known as " consular inspection " has, perhaps, until recently, been the most popular. This plan contemplates the examination of each alien at the port of embarkation by American consular ofificers. On its face it appeals to common sense. It would seem, at first sight, that more knowledge can be obtained of an Proposed Legislation 281 immigrant's antecedents, habits, and character in the country of his birth or residence than in the United States. Then, too, the fact that rejection in a foreign country saves the immigrant the hardship of the voyage and the uncertainty whether he will be admitted, and whether he will be separated from his family or friends, appeals to our sympathy. Schemes for consular inspection may be divided into two classes and in two ways. The examination may be voluntary, as a result of an application by the alien, and in this case the consular inspection is auxiliary to the inspection in this country ; or, the inspection may be in- voluntary. That is, it may be prescribed for all aliens intending to come to this country, and may be either auxiliary to the existing inspection or may be a substi- tute for it. Both of these plans were frequently before Congress during the ten years prior to 1895 and received a large measure of public support.^** Consular inspection was the most popular plan for further restriction until the educational test was brought forward. One of the most zealous advocates was Hon. William A. Stone of Pennsylvania, a Congressman from this State and afterwards its Governor. The bill advo- cated by him provided that no immigrant should be admitted unless he could exhibit at the port of arrival a certificate, signed by the United States consul or authorized representative of the United States at the place nearest where he last resided, setting forth that he did not belong to the excluded classes. The immi- grant, in addition to obtaining this certificate, was required to conform to all the existing requirements of 2® See Sen. H. C. Hansbrough, in North American Reviezv, vol. 156, p. 224 (Feb. 1893). 53d Cong., 2d Sess., H. R. 5246 ; 54th Cong., ist Sess., H. R. 58. 282 Immigration Legislation the law ; that is to say, the Stone bill was auxiliary to the existing system and not a substitution. It provided that the State Department should make rules and regulations to carry the act into effect, and the details were, there- fore, not incorporated in the statute. This act passed the House of Representatives July 20, 1894. Mr. Stone also introduced another bill into the same Congress.^^ setting forth more in detail the method which he would employ to restrict immigration by means of consular inspection.'^'' Under this bill, an alien desiring to migrate to the United States was to swear to an applica- tion giving the reason of his desire to migrate, his trade, age, state of health, and statement of property. The applicant was also to file a passport of recent date from his native government granting permission to migrate, and a certificate from the chief officer of police of the place where he resided certifying that he had not been under charge of crime or violation of the law for five years. The representative was then to fix a day for hear- ing within thirty days from the receipt of the ap- plication, and notice of such hearing was to be sent to the government of the applicant's country and to the chief officer of police. The consul was to subpoena and examine such witnesses as were necessary to determine whether the application was true and whether the applicant was a fit subject to become a citizen and resident of the United States. If he found him to be such a person, he was then, on payment of $20, to issue a permit enabling the applicant to sail within four months ; but if it appeared that the emigrant was one of 3s H. R. 243. 39 It may be noted in passing that this purports in its title to be a bill " to restrict immigration " and not merely to provide a substitute or auxiliary method of inspection. Proposed Legislation 283 the excluded classes, or, being over sixteen years of age, conld not read and write his own language, or if the government having jurisdiction over him objected to his leaving, or if he were a bad character or over a certain age, the permit was to be refused. Upon arrival at a port of the United States, immigrants with permits were to be allowed to land. The immigrants who had obtained their permits through fraud or were unable to produce them were to be returned to the port whence they came. Any officer of a steamship receiving im- migrants withgut permits in a foreign port was to be liable to prosecution, and any immigrant coming to this country without such a permit could be arrested at any time within five years and returned to his own country by order of a United States court. Various other bills were introduced at about the same time containing schemes for consular inspection, more or less similar. One of them required that the application for the permit should be accompanied by a photograph.'*' A bill intro- duced by Senator Chandler, provided for consular certificates, but these were to be merely evidence taken in connection with other facts at the port of arrival, and were not to be conclusive as to the right of the immigrant to land. ^2 Another suggestion required a consular cer- tificate of the ability of the immigrant to read and write.*3 f". g. 52d Congress, H. R. 32 by Mr. Geary; H. R. 575 by Mr. Lodge; H. R. 9,104 by Mr. Beltzhoover; S. 134 by Mr. Chandler; S. 357 by Mr. Puffer. ^' Cp. Special Consular Reports, vol. 30, p. 22 (1904). *- Cp. S. 2543 introduced by Mr. Washburn providing for a declaration by aliens before consuls stating certain information, and for a perliminary inspection in foreign countries. *3 55th Congress, S. 2779, introduced Dec. 14, 1897 by Senator Kyle. Cp. Charles Stewart Smith, in North American Review, vol. 154, p. 348 (Apr. 1892). 284 Immigration Legislation One of the principal arguments in favor of consulal inspection is, as has been said, that under our present system, the immigrant's own word has to be taken for most of the questions asl') Italy 1.358.507 6.66 230.622 26.91 1,589.219 Netherlands 137.323 .67 1.37,323 Norway & Sweden... 1,334.931 6.54 70.489 8.22 1,405,420 Russia & Poland.... 1.106,362 5.42 136,093 15.89 1,242,455 Scotland 388,506 1.9 388.506 Spain & Portugal. .. . 84.381 .42 81,381 Switzerland 208,963 1.02 208,963 All other Europe.... 82,321 .4 82,321 Total Europe.... 18.481,841 90.56 744,820 19,226,661 British N. America. . . 1,050,682 5.16 1,050,682 Me.Kico 29,033 .14 29,033 Central America 3,372 .02 — • 3,372 South America 14,417 .07 14,4^7 West Indies 134.859 .66 134,859 Islands of the Atlantic 35.706 .17 35,7o6 Total Western Hemisphere... 1,268,069 6.22 1,268,069 China 317.929 156 317.O29 All other Asia 103,161 ,5 103.161 Total Asia 421,090 _>.g6 ■ 421,190 Africa 2.792 .01 2.792 All other countries. . . 234.885 1.15 112,226 13.09 3(7,iil Total 20,408,677 100 857,046 100 21,265,723 ' Classification of immigrants in 1903 confined to only seven European nationalities. Appendix 343 TABLE IV PER CENT. OF NATIONALITIES IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION (From Rcf'ort of the Industrial Commission, vol. 15, p. 275.) England, Scandi- Russia Scotland navian Austri.i and Pfriod and Wales Ireland Germany Countries All others Italy Hungary Poland necadcs Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent i8ii-)0 17 JS 4.8 o.z 42.6 0.3 0.06 l8;i-40 11.5 3? 25 .5 26.6 .4 .1 1841-50 »!.5 46 2? .8 12.6 .1 .04 1851-60 16 J5 !7 .9 10.7 .3 .06 1861-70 l6 19 34 5 •5 .5 0.3 .2 1S71-80 •9 16 26 8 24.5 2. 2.5 2 l88i-go H.? 12.5 18 IT 16 7. 7 5 1891-1900 7.4 15 13-7 10. 1 3.8 16.7 16. 16.} TABLE V DISTRIBUTION OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS IN CERTAIN STATES (Compiled from Censuses of 1890 and 1900.) Natives of Poland in Certain Cities and Urban Counties. 1890 1900 Per cent. Per cent, of all in of all in Number State Number State Illinois : Cook County (Chicago) 25,336 87.7 62,008 91.3 Michigan : Wayne County (Detroit) 5,599 35.7 14,236 50.3 Massachusetts : Boston 954 28.6 3,832 17.8 Cities above 25,000 inhabitants in 1890 1,315 39.4 10,367 48.3 Cities above 25,000 inhabitants in 1900* 10,449 48.6 New York : New York City* 32,873 471 Erie County (Buffalo) 8,929 39.3 19,776 28.4 Cities above 25,000 inhabitants in 1890 19426 85.5 57-095 81.9 Cities above 25,000 inhabitants in 1900* - — ■ 58,229 83.5 'The number of foreign-born inhabitants, in 1890, of cities which had not then 25,000 people, is not obtainable. * The number of foreign-born inhabitants, in 1890, of the present area of New York city, cannot be determined. 344 Appendix 1890 igoo Per cent. Per cent of all in of all in Number State Number State Wisconsin : Milwaukee County 10,066 57.0 17,644 55.5 Natives of Italy in Certain Cities and Urban Counties. Connecticut : Cities above 25,000 inhabitants .in 1890 2,723 5 1.5 10,657 55 J? Cities abo\ e 25,000 inhabitants in 1900 10,832 56.7 Illinois : Cook County (Chicago) 5.734 71.4 16,915 72 0 Massachusetts : Boston 4.718 58.5 13,738 47.7 Cities above 25.000 inhabitants in 1890 5,936 73.6 18,592 64.6 Cities above 25,000 inhabitants in 1900 5 19,442 67.5 New Jersey : Essex County (Newark, etc.) . 3,598 27.7 11,896 28.4 Hudson County (Jersey City, etc.) 3,039 23.4 9,646 23.0 Passaic County (Paterson, etc.) 1,198 9.2 5,798 13.8 New York : New York City * 145.433 79 8 Cities above 25.000 inhabitants .in i8go....." 53,533 83.5 157,856 86.6 Cities above 25.000 inhabitants in 1900' 158,463 87.0 Connecticut : New Haven 1.160 38.3 3,193 28.0 Hartford 492 16.3 2,260 19.8 Cities above 25,000 in i8qo. . . 1,879 62.1 7,237 63.4 Cities above 25,000 in 1900 ''.. 8,030 70.4 Illinois : Chicago 7,683 91.4 24,178 84.2 'The number of foreign-born, in 1890, in cities which had not then J5,ooo people, is not obtainable. ' The number of foreign-born inhabitants, in 1890, of the present area of New York city, cannot be determined. Appendix 345 Natives of Russia in Certain Cities and Urban Counties. 1890 1900 Per cent. Per cent, of lU in of all in Namber State Number State Massachusetts : Boston 4,30s 58.8 14,995 55-6 Cities above 25,000 in 1890... 5,831 79.6 23,819 88.3 Cities above 25,000 in 1900^.. • 24,170 89.7 New Jersey : Essex County (Newark, etc.) 1,348 25.3 5,877 29.8 Hudson County (Jersey City, etc.) 869 16.3 4,592 23.3 Passaic County (Paterson, etc.) 546 10.3 2,422 12.3 Union County (Elizabeth, etc.) 364 6.8 1,251 6.3 New York: New York City* 155,201 93.7 Cities above 25,000 in 1890... 56,076 95.9 161,354 97.4 Cities above 25,000 in 1900 *. . 161,491 97.5 Pennsylvania : Philadelphia 7,879 45.5 28,951 56.8 'The number of foreigri-born, in 1890, in cities which had not then 25,000 people, is not obtainable. " The number of foreign-born inhabitants, in 1890, of the present area of New York city, cannot be determined. 34^ Appendix TABLE VI RACIAL COMPOSITION OF CITY SLUMS (Compiled from Seventh Special Report of the Commissoner of Labor, pp. 44, 120, 160-164.) Austria-Hungarj, Italy, Poland, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Russia and Scandinavia Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. of Total of Slum of Total of Slum Population Population Baltimore. Population Population 1-97 12.72 1 Chicago. 1352 27.29 6.41 4444 1 New York. 30.70 10.64 9-45 1 Philadelphia. 3073 8.64 I-9S 50.28 1 22.95 8.44 Note: that Southeastern Europe furnishes 3 titnes as many inhabitants as Northwestern Europe to the slums of Baltimore, 19 times as many to the slums of New York, 20 times as many to the slums of Chicago, 71 times as many to the slums of Philadelphia. The comparative degree of illiteracy of foregoing elements of slums is as follows for the above-mentioned four cities : Scandinavia 5-6% Great Britain., 7.0 France 10.2 Germany 21.9 Ireland 40.4 Average of Group 25.5 Austria-Hungary 16.6 Russia 37.1 Poland 46.1 Italy 66.4 Average of Group 54.5 Native Americans 7-4 Appendix 347 . TABLE VII THE BIRTH RATES OF NATIVE-BORN AND FOREIGN-BORN IN MAS- SACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES (Compiled by R. R. Kuczynski.) Births to of child-bearing COUNTRIES AND STATES Years ige (15-50 yri.) , 1888-93 168.4 1888-93 1474 Germanv ■ • • 1893-97 144. 1 Massachusetts (foreign-born) . . . . ■ 1803-97 1 4 1-3 1887-92 1397 Rhode Island (foreign-born) .... ■ • . 1803-97 135.4 Finland 1888-93 1340 1887-92 127.0 Norway 1888-93 124.9 Scotland . . . 1889-93 120.2 . . . 1889-93 120.2 England and Wales . . . 1889-93 1 18.2 Sweden 1888-93 1158 • • ■ 1893-97 94-4 Rhode Island (State) . . . 1893-97 91.4 . . . 1889-93 90.6 85.1 ■ ■ • 1893-97 65.0 Rhode Island (native-born) ■ • • 1893-97 63.0 APPENDIX II UNITED STATES IMMIGRATION LAW ACT OF FEBRUARY 20, 1907 An Act To regulate the immigration of aliens into the United States. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be levied, collected, and paid a tax of four dollars for every alien entering the United States. The said tax shall be paid to the collector of customs of the port or customs district to which said alien shall come, or, if there be no collector at such port or district, then to the collector nearest thereto, by the master, agent, owner, or consignee of the vessel, transporta- tion line, or other conveyance or vehicle bringing such alien to the United States. The money thus collected, together with all fines and rentals collected under the laws regulating the immi- gration of aliens into the United States, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, and shall constitute a permanent appropriation to be called the " immigrant fund," to be used un- der the direction of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor to de- fray the expense of regulating the immigration of aliens into the United States under said laws, including the contract labor laws, the cost of reports of decisions of the Federal courts, and digest thereof, for the use of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, and the salaries and expenses of all officers, clerks, and employees appointed to enforce said laws. The tax imposed by this section shall be a lien upon the vessel, or other vehicle of carriage or transportation bringing such aliens to the United States, and shall be a debt in favor of the United States against the owner or owners of such vessel, or other vehicle, and the payment of such tax may be enforced by any legal or equitable remedy. That the said tax shall not be levied upon aliens who shall enter the United States after an uninterrupted residence of at least one year, immediately preceding such entrance, in the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, the Republic of Cuba, or the Republic of Mexico, nor upon otherwise admissible resi- dents of any possession of the United States, nor upon aliens in transit through the United States, nor upon aliens who have been lawfully admitted to the United States and who later shall go in transit from one part of the United States to another through foreign contiguous territory: Provided, That the Cora- 348 Appendix 349 missioner-General of Immigration, under the direction or with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, by agree- ment with transportation Hnes, as provided in section thirty-two of this Act, may arrange in some other manner for the payment of the tax imposed by this section upon any or all aliens seek- ing admission from foreign contiguous territory : Provided further, That if in any fiscal year the amount of money col- lected under the provisions of this section shall exceed two mil- lion five hundred thousand dollars, the excess above that amount shall not be added to the " immigrant fund : " Provided further, That the provisions of this section shall not apply to aliens arriv- ing in Guam. Porto Rico, or Hawaii ; but if any such alien, not having become a citizen of the United States, shall later arrive at any port or place of the United States on the North American Continent the provisions of this section shall apply : Provided further. That whenever the President shall be satisfied that passports issued by any foreign government to its citizens to go to any country other than the United States or to any insular possession of the United States or to the Canal Zone are being u^ed for the purpose of enabling the holders to come to the continental territory of the United States to the detriment of labor conditions therein, the President may refuse to permit such citizens of the country issuing such passports to enter the continental territory of the United States from such other country or from such insular possessions or from the Canal Zone. Sec. 2. That the following classes of aliens shall be excluded from admission into the United States: All idiots, imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, epileptics, insane persons, and persons who have been insane within five years previous ; persons who have had two or more attacks of insanity at any time previously; paupers; persons likely to become a public charge: professional beggars ; persons afflicted with tuberculosis or with a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease ; persons not comprehended within any of the foregoing excluded classes who are found to be and are certified by the examining surgeon as being mentally or physically defective, such mental or physical defect being of a nature which may affect the ability of such alien to earn a living; persons who have been convicted of or admit having com- mitted a felony or other crime or misdemeanor involving moral turpitude; polygamists, or persons who admit their belief in the practice of polygamy ; anarchists, or persons who believe in or advocate the overthrow by force or violence of the Government of the United States, or of all government, or of all forms of law, or the assassination of public officials ; prostitutes, or women or girls coming into the United States for the purpose of prosti- tution or for any other immoral purpose ; persons who procure or attempt to bring in prostitutes or women or girls for the purpose of prostitution or for any other immoral purpose ; persons / 350 Appendix hereinafter called contract laborers, who have been induced or solicited to migrate to this country by offers or promises of employment or in consequence of agreements, oral, written or printed, express or implied, to perform labor in this country of any kind, skilled or unskilled; those who have been, within one year from the date of application for admission to the United States, deported as having been induced or solicited to migrate as above described ; any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another, or who is assisted by others to come, unless it is affirmatively and satisfactorily shown that such person does not belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes, and that said ticket or passage was not paid for by any cor- poration, association, society, municipality, or foreign govern- ment, either directly or indirectly ; all children under sixteen years of age, unaccompanied by one or both of their parents, at the discretion of the Secretarj' of Commerce and Labor or under such regulations as he may from time to time prescribe: Provided, That nothing in this Act shall exclude, if otherwise admissible, persons convicted of an offense purely political, not involving moral turpitude : Provided further, That the provisions of this section relating to the payments for tickets or passage by any corporation, association, society, municipality, or foreign government shall not apply to the tickets or passage of aliens in immediate and continuous transit through the United States to foreign contiguous territory : And provided further. That skilled labor may be imported if labor of like kind unemployed cannot be found in this country: And provided further, That the provisions of this law applicable to contract labor shall not be held to exclude professional actors, artists, lecturers, singers, ministers of any religious denomination, professors for colleges or seminaries, persons belonging to any recognized learned pro- fession, or persons employed strictly as personal or domestic servants. Sec. 3. That the importation into the United States of any alien woman or girl for the purpose of prostitution, or for any other immoral purpose, is hereby forbidden ; and whoever shall, directly or indirectly, import, or attempt to import, into the United States, any alien woman or girl for the purpose of prosti- tution, or for any other immoral purpose, or whoever shall hold or attempt to hold any alien woman or girl for any such purpose in pursuance of such illegal importation, or whoever shall keep, maintain, control, support, or harbor in any house or other place, for the purpose of prostitution, or for any other immoral purpose, any alien woman or girl, within three years after she shall have entered the United States, shall, in every such case, be deemed guilty of a felony, and on conviction thereof be im- prisoned not more than five years and pay a fine of not more than five thousand dollars ; and any alien woman or girl who shall be found an inmate of a house of prostitution or prac- Appendix 351 ticing prostitution, at any time within three years after she shall have entered the United States, shall be deemed to be unlawfully within the United States and shall be deported as provided by sections twenty and twenty-one of this Act. Sec. 4. That it shall be a misdemeanor for any person, com- pany, partnership, or corporation, in any manner whatsoever, to prepay the transportation or in any way to assist or encourage the importation or migration of any contract laborer or contract laborers into the United States, unless such contract laborer or contract laborers are exempted under the terms of the last two provisos contained in section two of this Act. Sec. 5. That for every violation of any of the provisions of section four of this Act the persons, partnership, company, or corporation v.jolating the same, by knowingly assisting, encourag- ing, or soliciting the migration or importation of any contract laborer into the United States shall forfeit and pay for every such offense the sum of one thousand dollars, which may be sued for and recovered by the United States, or by any person who shall first bring his action therefor in his own name and for his own benefit, including any such alien thus promised labor or service of any kind as aforesaid, as debts of like amount are now recovered in the courts of the United States ; and separate suits may be brought for each alien thus promised labor or service of any kind as aforesaid. And it shall be the duty of the district attorney of the proper district to prosecute every such suit when brought by the United States. Sec. 6. That it shall be unlawful and be deemed a violation of section four of this Act to assist or encourage the importation or migration of any alien by promise of employment through adver- tisements printed and published in any foreign country ; and any alien coming to this country in consequence of such an advertisement shall be treated as coming under promise or agree- ment as contemplated in section two of this Act, and the penal- ties imposed by section five of this Act shall be applicable to such a case : Provided, That this section shall not apply to States or Territories, the District of Columbia, or places subject to the jurisdiction of the United States advertising the induce- ments they offer for immigration thereto, respectively. Sec. 7. That no transportation company or owner or owners of vessels, or others engaged in transporting aliens into the United States, shall, directly or indirectly, either by writing, printing, or oral representation, solicit, invite, or encourage the innnigration of any aliens into the United States, but this shall not be held to prevent transportation companies from issuing letters, circulars, or advertisements, stating the sailings of their vessels and terms and facilities of transportation therein; and for a violation of this provision, any such transportation com- pany, and any such owner or owners of vessels, and all others engaged in transporting aliens into the United States, and the 352 Appendix agents by them employed, shall be severally subjected to the penalties imposed by section five of this Act. Sec. 8. That any person, including the master, agent, owner, or consignee of any vessel, who shall bring into or land in the United States, by vessel or otherwise, or who shall attempt, by himself or through another, to bring into or land in the United States, by vessel or otherwise, any alien not duly ad- mitted by an immigrant inspector or not lawfully entitled to enter the United States shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction, be punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars, or by imprisonment for a term not ex- ceeding two years, or by both such fine and imprisonment for each and every alien so landed or brought in or attempted to be landed or brought in. Sec. 9. That it shall be unlawful for any person, including any transportation company other than railway lines entering the United States from foreign contiguous territory, or the owner, master, agent, or consignee of any vessel to bring to the United States any alien subject to any of the following disabilities: Idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, or persons afflicted with tuberculosis or with a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, and if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor that any alien so brought to the United States was afflicted with any of the said diseases or disabilities at the time of foreign embarkation and that the existence of such disease or disability might have been detected by means of a competent medical examination at such time, such person or transportation company, or the master, agent, owner, or consignee of any such vessel shall pay to the collector of customs of the customs district in which the port of arrival is located the sum of one hundred dollars for each and every violation of the provisions of this section ; and no vessel shall be granted clearance papers pending the determination of the question of the liability to the payment of such fine, and in the event such fine is imposed, while it remains unpaid, nor shall such fine be remitted or refunded: Provided, That clearance may be granted prior to the determina- tion of such questions upon the deposit of a sum sufficient to cover such fine and costs, such sum to be named by the Secre- tary of Commerce and Labor. Sec. 10. That the decision of the board of special inquiry, hereinafter provided for. based upon the certificate of the e.xam- ining medical offlcer, shall be final as to the rejection of aliens afTected with tuberculosis or with a loathsome or dangerous con- tagious disease, or with any mental or physical disability which would bring such aliens within any of the classes excluded from admission to the United States under section two of this Act. Sec. II. That upon the certificate of a medical officer of the United States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service to the effect that a rejected alien is helpless from sickness, mental Appendix 353 or physical disability, or infancy, if such alien is accompanied by another alien whose protection or guardianship is required by such rejected alien, such accompanying alien may also be excluded, and the master, agent, owner, or consignee of the vessel in which such alien and accompanying alien are brought shall be required to return said alien and accompanying alien in the same manner as vessels are required to return other re- jected aliens. Sec. 12. That upon the arrival of any alien by water at any port within the United States it shall be the duty of the master or commanding officer of the steamer, sailing or other vessel having said alien on board to deliver to the immigration officers at the port of arrival lists or manifests made at the time and place of embarkation of such alien on board such steamer or vessel, which shall, in answer to questions at the top of said list, state as to each alien the full name, age, and sex ; whether married or single ; the calling or occupation ; whether able to read or write ; the nationality ; the race ; the last residence ; the name and address of the nearest relative in the country from which the alien came; the seaport for landing in the United States; the final destination, if any, beyond the port of landing; whether having a ticket through to such final destination ; whether the alien has paid his own passage or whether it has been paid by any other person or by any corporation, society, municipality, or government, and if so, by whom; whether in possession of fifty dollars, and if less, how much ; whether going to join a relative or friend, and if so, what relative or friend, and his or her name and complete address; whether ever before in the United States, and if so, when and where ; whether ever in prison or almshouse or an institution or hospital for the care and treatment of the insane or supported by charity ; whether a polygamist ; whether an anarchist ; whether coming by reason of any offer, solicitation, promise, or agreement, express or implied, to perform labor in the United States, and what is the alien's condition of health, mental and physical, and whether deformed or crippled, and if so, for how long and from what cause ; that it shall further be the duty of the master or commanding officer of every vessel taking alien passengers out of the United States, from any port thereof, to file before departure therefrom with the collector of customs of such port a complete list of all such alien passengers taken on board. Such list shall contain the name, age, sex, nationality, residence in the United States, occupation, and the time of last arrival of every such alien in the United States, and no master of any such vessel shall be granted clearance papers for his vessel until he has deposited such list or lists with the collector of customs at the port of departure and made oath that they are full and complete as to the name and other information herein required concerning each alien taken on board his vessel; and any neglect or omission 354 Appendix to comply with the requirements of this section shall be punish- able as provided in section fifteen of this Act. That the collector of customs with whom any such list has been deposited in ac- cordance with the provisions of this section, shall promptly notify the Commissioner-General of Immigration that such list has been deposited with him as provided, and shall make such further disposition thereof as may be required by regulations to be issued by the Commissioner-General of Immigration with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor : Pro- vided, That in the case of vessels making regular trips to ports of the United States the Commissioner-General of Immigration, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, may, when expedient, arrange for the delivery of such lists of out- going aliens at a later date ; Provided further, That it shall be the duty of the master or commanding officer of any vessel sail- ing from ports in the Philippine Islands, Guam, Porto Rico, or Hawaii to any port of the United States on the North American Continent to deliver to the immigration officers at the port of arrival lists or manifests made at the time and place of embarkation, giving the names of all aliens on board said vessel. Sec. 13. That all aliens arriving by water at the ports of the United States shall be listed in convenient groups, and no one list or manifest shall contain more than thirty names. To each alien or head of a family shall be given a ticket on which shall be written his name, a number or letter designating the list in which his name, and so forth, is contained, and his number on said list, for convenience of identification on arrival. Each list or manifest shall be verified by the signature and the oath of affirmation of the master or commanding officer, or the first or second below him in command, taken before an immigration officer at the port of arrival, to the effect that he has caused the surgeon of said vessel sailing therewith to make a physical and oral examination of each of said aliens, and that from the report of said surgeon and from his own investigation he believes that no one of said aliens is an idiot, or imbecile, or a feeble- minded person, or insane person, or a pauper, or is likely to become a public charge, or is afflicted with tuberculosis or with a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, or is a person who has been convicted of, or who admits having committed a felony or other crime or misdemeanor involving moral turpitude, or is a polygamist or one admitting belief in the practice of polygamy, or an anarchist, or under promise or agreement, express or im- plied, to perform labor in the United States, or a prostitute, or a woman or girl coming to the United States for the purpose of prostitution, or for any other immoral purpose, and that also, according to the best of his knowledge and belief, the informa- tion in said lists or manifests concerning each of said aliens named therein is correct and true in every respect. Appendix 355 Sec. 14. That the surgeon of said vessel sailing therewith shall also sign each of said lists or manifests and make oath or affirmation in like manner before an immigration officer at the port of arrival, stating his professional experience and qualifica- tions as a physician and surgeon, and that he has made a per- sonal examination of each of the said aliens named therein, and that the said list or manifest, according to the best of his knowl- edge and belief, is full, correct, and true in all particulars rela- tive to the mental and physical condition of said aliens. If no surgeon sails with any vessel bringing aliens the mental and physical examinations and the verifications of the lists or mani- fests shall be made by some competent surgeon employed by the owners of the said vessel. Sec. 15. That in the case of the failure of the master or com- manding officer of any vessel to deliver to the said immigra- tion officers lists or manifests of all aliens on board thereof, as required in sections twelve, thirteen, and fourteen of this Act, he shall pay to the collector of customs at the port of arrival the sum of ten dollars for each alien concerning whom the above information is not contained in any list as aforesaid : Provided, That in the case of failure without good cause to deliver the list of passengers required by section twelve of this Act from the master or commanding officer of every vessel taking alien passengers out of the United States, the penalty shall be paid to the collector of customs at the port of departure and shall be a fine of ten dollars for each alien not included in said list ; but in no case shall the aggregate fine exceed one hundred dollars. Sec. 16. That upon the receipt by the immigration officers at any port of arrival of the lists or manifests of incoming aliens provided for in sections twelve, thirteen, and fourteen of this Act, it shall be the duty of said officers to go or to send com- petent assistants to the vessel to which said lists or manifests refer, and there inspect all such aliens, or said immigration officers may order a temporary removal of such aliens for ex- amination at a designated time and place, but such temporary removal shall not be considered a landing, nor shall it relieve the transportation lines, masters, agents, owners, or consignees of the vessel upon which said aliens are brought to any port of the United States from any of the obligations which, in case such aliens remain on board, would, under the provisions of this Act, bind the said transportation lines, masters, agents, owners, or consignees : Provided, That where a suitable building is used for the detention and examination of aliens the immigration officials shall there take charge of such aliens, and the trans- portation companies, masters, agents, owners, and consignees of the vessels bringing such aliens shall be relieved of the respon- sibility for their detention thereafter until the return of such aliens to their care. Sec. 17. That the physical and mental examination of all ar- 356 Appendix riving aliens shall be made by medical officers of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service, who shall have had at least two years' experience in the practice of their profession since receiving the degree of doctor of medicine and who shall certify for the information of the immigration officers and the boards of special inquiry hereinafter provided for, any and all physical and mental defects or diseases observed by said medical officers in any such alien, or, should medical officers of the United States Public Health and Marine Hospital Service be not available, civil surgeons of not less than four years' pro- fessional experience may be employed in such emergency for such service, upon such terms as may be prescribed by the Com- missioner-General of Immigration under the direction or with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service shall be reimbursed by the immigration service for all expenditures incurred in carrying out the medical inspection of aliens under regulations of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Sec. i8. That it shall be the duty of the owners, officers, or agents of any vessel or transportation line, other than those rail- way lines which may enter into a contract as provided in sec- tion thirty-two of this Act, bringing an alien to the United States to prevent the landing of such alien in the United States at any time or place other than as designated by the immigration officers, and the negligent failure of any such owner, officer, or agent to comply with the foregoing requirements shall be deemed a misdemeanor and be punished by a fine in each case of not less than one hundred nor more than one thousand dollars or by imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment ; and every such alien so landed shall be deemed to be unlawfully in the United States and shall be deported as provided in sections twenty and twenty-one of this Act. Sec. 19. That all aliens brought to this country in violation of law shall, if practicable, be immediately sent back to the country whence they respectively came on the vessels bringing them. The cost of their maintenance while on land, as well as the expense of the return of such aliens, shall be borne by the owner or owners of the vessels on which they respectively came; and if any master, person in charge, agent, owner, or consignee of any such vessel shall refuse to receive back on board thereof, or on board of any other vessel owned or operated by the same interests, such aliens, or shall fail to detain them thereon, or shall refuse or fail to return them to the foreign port from which they came, or to pay the cost of their maintenance while on land, or shall make any charge for the return of any such alien, or shall take any security from him for the payment of such charge, such master, person in charge, agent, owner, or con- signee shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall, on Appendix 357 conviction, be punished by a fine of not less than three hundred dollars for each and every such offense ; and no vessel shall have clearance from any port of the United States while any such fine is unpaid: Provided, That the Commissioner-General of Immigration, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, may suspend, upon conditions to be prescribed by the Commissioner-General of Immigration, the deportation of any alien found to have come in violation of any provision of this Act, if, in his judgment, the testimony of such alien is necessary on behalf of the United States Government in the prosecution of offenders against any provision of this Act : Provided, That the cost of maintenance of any person so detained resulting from such suspension of deportation shall be paid from the " immi- grant fund " but no alien certified, as provided in section seven- teen of this Act, to be suffering from tuberculosis or from a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease other than one of quarantinable nature shall be permitted to land for medical treat- ment thereof in any hospital in the United States, unless with the express permission of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor : Provided, That upon the certificate of a medical officer of the United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service to the effect that the health or safety of an insane alien would be unduly imperiled by immediate deportation, such alien may, at the expense of the " immigrant fund," be held for treatment until such time as such alien may, in the opinion of such medical officer, be safely deported. Sec. 20. That any alien who shall enter the United States in violation of law, and such as become public charges from causes existing prior to landing, shall, upon the warrant of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, be taken into custody and deported to the country whence he came at any time within three years after the date of his entry into the United States. Such depor- tation, including one-half of the entire cost of removal to the port of deportation, shall be at the expense of the contractor, pro- curer, or other person by whom the alien was unlawfully in- duced to enter the United States, or, if that cannot be done, then the cost of removal to the port of deportation shall be at the expense of the " immigrant fund " provided for in section one of this Act, and the deportation from such port shall be at the expense of the owner or owners of such vessel or transportation line by which such aliens respectively came : Provided, That pending the final disposal of the case of any alien so taken into custody he may be released under a bond in the penalty of not less than five hundred dollars with security approved by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, conditioned that such alien shall be produced when required for a hearing or hearings in regard to the charge upon which he has been taken into custody, and for deportation if he shall be found to be unlaw- fully within the United States. 358 Appendix Sec. 21. That in case the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall be satisfied that an alien has been found in the United States in violation of this Act, or that an alien is subject to de- portation under the provisions of this Act or of any law of the United States, he shall cause such alien within the period of three years after landing or entry therein to be taken into custody and returned to the country whence he came, as provided by sec- tion twenty of this Act, and a failure or refusal on the part of the masters, agents, owners, or consignees of vessels to com- ply with the order of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor to take on board, guard safely, and return to the country whence he came any alien ordered to be deported under the provisions of this Act shall be punished by the imposition of the penalties prescribed in section nineteen of this Act : Provided, That when in the opinion of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor the mental or physical condition of such alien is such as to re- quire personal care and attendance, he may employ a suitable person for that purpose, who shall accompany such alien to his or her final destination, and the expense incident to such service shall be defrayed in like manner. Sec. 22. That the Commissioner-General of Immigration, in ad- dition to such other duties as may by law be assigned to him, shall, under the direction of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, have charge of the administration of all laws relating to the immigration of aliens into the United States, and shall have the control, direction, and supervision of all officers, clerks, and employees appointed thereunder. He shall establish such rules and regulations, prescribe such forms of bond, reports, entries, and other papers, and shall issue from time to time such in- structions, not inconsistent with law, as he shall deem best calculated for carrying out the provisions of this Act and for protecting the United States and aliens migrating thereto from fraud and loss, and shall have authority to enter into contract for the support and relief of such aliens as may fall into distress or need public aid : all under the direction or with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. And it shall be the duty of the Commissioner-General of Immigration to detail offi- cers of the immigration service from time to time as may be neces- sary, in his judgment, to secure information as to the number of aliens detained in the penal, reformatory, and charitable in- stitutions (public and private) of the several States and Terri- tories, the District of Columbia, and other territory of the United States and to inform the officers of such institutions of the provisions of law in relation to the deportation of aliens who have become public charges : Provided, That the Com- missioner-General of Immigration may, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, whenever in his judgment such action may be necessary to accomplish the purposes of this Act, detail immigration officers, and also surgeons, in accord- Appendix 359 ance with the provisions of section seventeen, for service in foreign countries. Sec. 23. That the duties of the commissioners of immigration shall be of an administrative character, to be prescribed in detail by regulations prepared, under the direction or with the ap- proval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Sec. 24. That immigrant inspectors and other immigration officers, clerks, and employees shall hereafter be appointed and their compensation fixed and raised or decreased from time to time by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, upon the recom- mendation of the Commissioner-General of Immigration and in accordance with the provisions of the civil-service Act of Janu- ary sixteenth, eighteen hundred and eighty-three: Provided, That said Secretary, in the enforcement of that portion of this Act which excludes contract laborers, may employ, without reference to the provisions of the said civil service Act, or to the various Acts relative to the compilation of the official register, such per- sons as he may deem advisable and from time to time fi.x, raise, or decrease their compensation. He may draw from the '■ immigrant fund " annually fifty thousand dollars or as much thereof as may be necessary, to be expended for the salaries and expenses of persons so employed and for expenses incident to such employment ; and the accounting officers of the Treasury shall pass to the credit of the proper disbursing officer expendi- tures from said sum without itemized account whenever the Secretary of Commerce and Labor certifies that an itemized account would not be for the best interests of the Government : Provided further, That nothing herein contained shall be con- strued to alter the mode of appointing commissioners of immi- gration at the several ports of the United States as provided by the sundry civil appropriation Act approved August eighteenth, eighteen hundred and ninety-four, or the official status of such commissioners heretofore appointed. Immigration officers shall have power to administer oaths and to take and consider evi- dence touching the right of any alien to enter the United States, and, where such action may be necessary, to make a written record of such evidence ; and any person to whom such an oath has been administered under the provisions of this Act who shall knowingly or wilfully give false evidence or swear to any false statement in any way affecting or in relation to the right of any alien to admission to the United States shall be deemed guilty of perjury and be punished as provided by section fifty-three hundred and ninety-two. United States Revised Statutes. The decision of any such officer, if favorable to the admission of any alien, shall be subject to challenge by any other immigration officer, and such challenge shall operate to take the alien whose right to land is so challenged before a board of special inquiry for its investigation. Every alien who may not appear to the examining immigrant inspector at the port of arrival to be clearly 360 Appendix and beyond a doubt entitled to land shall be detained for ex- amination in relation thereto by a board of special inquiry. Sec. 25. That such boards of special inquiry shall be appointed by the commissioner of immigration at the various ports of ar- rival as may be necessary for the prompt determination of all cases of immigrants detained at such ports under the provisions of law. Each board shall consist of three members, who shall be selected from such of the immigrant officials in the service as the Commissioner-General of Immigration, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, shall from time to time designate as qualified to serve on such boards : Provided, That at ports where there are fewer than three immigrant in- spectors, the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, upon the recom- mendation of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, may designate other United States officials for service on such boards of special inquiry. Such boards shall have authority to determine whether an ahen who has been duly held shall be allowed to land or shall be deported. All hearings before boards shall be separate and apart from the public, but the said boards shall keep a complete permanent record of their proceedings and of ail such testimony as may be produced before them ; and the decision of any two members of a board shall prevail, but either the alien or any dissenting member of the said board may appeal through the commissioner of immigration at the port of arrival and the Commissioner-General of Immigration to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, and the taking of such appeal shall operate to stay any action in regard to the final disposal of any alien whose case is so appealed until the receipt by the commis- sioner of immigration at the port of arrival of such decision which shall be rendered solely upon the evidence adduced before the board of special inquiry : Provided, That in every case where an alien is excluded from admission into the United States, under any law or treaty now existing or hereafter made, the decision of the appropriate immigration officers, if adverse to the admission of such alien, shall be final, unless reversed on appeal to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor ; but nothing in this section shall be construed to admit of any appeal in the case of an alien rejected as provided for in section ten of this Act. Sec. 26. That any alien lial)le to be excluded because likely to become a public charge or because of physical disability other than tuberculosis or a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease may, if otherwise admissible, nevertheless be admitted in the dis- cretion of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor upon the giving of a suitable and proper bond or undertaking, approved by said Secretary in such amount and containing such conditions as he may prescribe, to the people of the United States, holding the United States or any State, Territory, county, municipality, or district thereof harmless against such alien becoming a public charge. The admission of such alien shall be a consideration Appendix 361 for the giving of such bond or undertaking. Suit may be brought thereon in the name and by the proper law officers either of the United States Government or of any State, Territory, district, county, or municipality in which such alien becomes a public charge. Sec. 27. That no suit or proceeding for a violation of the provisions of this Act shall be settled, compromised, or discon- tinued without the consent of the court in which it is pending, entered of record, with the reasons therefor. Sec. 28. That nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to affect any prosecution, suit, action, or proceedings brought, or any act, thing, or matter, civil or criminal, done or existing at the time of the taking effect of this Act; but as to all such prosecutions, suits, actions, proceedings, acts, things, or matters the laws or parts of laws repealed or amended by this Act are hereby continued in force and effect. Sec. 29. That the circuit and district courts of the United States are hereby invested with full and concurrent jurisdiction of all causes, civil and criminal, arising under any of the pro- visions of this Act. Sec. 30. That all exclusive privileges of exchanging money, transporting passengers or baggage, or keeping eating houses, and all other like privileges in connection with any United States immigrant station, shall be disposed of after public com- petition, subject to such conditions and limitations as the Com- missioner-General of Immigration, under the direction or with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, may prescribe : Provided, That no intoxicating liquors shall be sold in any such immigrant station ; that all receipts accruing from the disposal of such exclusive privileges as herein provided shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States to the credit of the " immigrant fund " provided for in section one of this Act. Sec. 31. That for the preservation of the peace and in order that arrests may be made for crimes under the laws of the States and Territories of the United States where the various immigrant stations are located, the officers in charge of such stations, as occasion may require, shall admit therein the proper State and municipal officers charged with the enforcement of such laws, and for the purpose of this section the jurisdiction of such officers and of the local courts shall extend over such stations. Sec. 32. That the Commissioner-General of Immigration, un- der the direction or with the approval of the Secretary of Com- merce and Labor, shall prescribe rules for the entry and inspec- tion of aliens along the borders of Canada and Mexico, so as not to unnecessarily delay, impede, or annoy passengers in or- dinary travel between the United States and said countries, and shall have power to enter into contracts with transportation lines for the said purpose. 362 Appendix Sec. 33. That for the purpose of this Act the term " United States " as used in the title as well as in the various sections of tills Act shall be construed to mean the United States and any waters, territory, or other place subject to the jurisdiction thereof, except the Isthmian Canal Zone: Provided, That if any alien shall leave the canal zone and attempt to enter any other place under the jurisdiction of the United States, nothing con- tained in this Act shall be construed as permitting him to enter under any other conditions than those applicable to all aliens. Sec. 34. That the Commissioner-General of Immigration, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, may ap- point a commissioner of immigration to discharge at New Or- leans, Louisiana, the duties now required of other commissioners of immigration at their respective posts. Sec. 35. That the deportation of aliens arrested within the United States after entry and found to be illegally therein, pro- vided for in this Act, shall be to the trans-Atlantic or trans- Pacific ports from which said aliens embarked for the United States; or, if such embarkation was for foreign contiguous terri- tory, to the foreign port at which said aliens embarked for such territory. Sec. 36. That all aliens who shall enter the United States ex- cept at the seaports thereof, or at such place or places as the Secretary of Commerce and Labor may from time to time desig- nate, shall be adjudged to have entered the country unlawfully and shall be deported as provided by sections twenty and twenty- one of this Act : Provided. That nothing contained in this section shall affect the power conferred by section thirty-two of this Act upon the Commissioner-General of Immigration to prescribe rules for the entry and inspection of aliens along the borders of Canada and Mexico. Sec. 37. That whenever an alien shall have taken up his per- manent residence in this country, and shall have filed his dec- laration of intention to become a citizen, and thereafter shall send for his wife, or minor children to join him, if said wife or any of said children shall be found to be affected with any contagious disorder, such wife or children shall be held, under such regulations as the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall prescribe, until it shall be determined whether the disorder will be easily curable, or whether they can be permitted to land with- out danger to other persons ; and they shall not be either ad- mitted or deported until such facts have been ascertained ; and if it shall be determined that the disorder is easily curable or that they can be permitted to land without danger to other persons, they shall, if otherwise admissible, thereupon be ad- mitted. Sec. 38. That no person who disbelieves in or who is opposed to all organized government, or who is a member of or affiliated Appendix 363 with any organization entertaining and teaching such disbelief in or opposition to all organized government, or who advocates or teaches the duty, necessity, or propriety of the unlawful as- saulting or killing of any officer or officers, either of specific individuals or of officers generally, of the Government of the United States or of any other organized government, because of his or their official character, shall be permitted to enter the United States or any territory or place subject to the jurisdic- tion thereof. This section shall be enforced by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe. That any person who knowingly aids or assists any such person to enter the United States or any territory or place subject to the jurisdiction thereof, or who connives or conspires with any person or persons to allow, procure, or permit any such person to enter therein, except pursuant to such rules and regulations made by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor shall be fined not more than five thousand dollars, or imprisoned for not more than five years, or both. Sec. 39. That a commission is hereby created, consisting of three Senators, to be appointed by the President of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives, to be ap- pointed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and three persons, to be appointed by the President of the United States. Said commission shall make full inquiry, examination, and investigation by sub-committee or otherwise into the sub- ject of immigration. For the purpose of said inquiry, exami- nation, and investigation, said commission is authorized to send for persons and papers, make all necessary travel, either in the United States or any foreign country, and through the chairman of the commission or any member thereof to administer oaths and to examine witnesses and papers respecting all matters pertaining to the subject, and to employ necessary clerical and other assist- ance. Said commission shall report to the Congress the con- clusions reached by it and make such recommendations as in its judgment may seem proper. Such sums of money as may be necessary for the said inquiry, examination, and investiga- tion are hereby appropriated and authorized to be paid out of the " immigrant fund " on the certificate of the chairman of said commission, including all expenses of the commissioners and a reasonable compensation, to be fixed by the President of the United States, for those members of the commission who are not me_mbers of Congress ; and the President of the United States is also authorized, in the name of the Government of the United States, to call, in his discretion, an international con- ference, to assemble at such point as may be agreed upon, or to send special commissioners to any foreign country, for the purpose of regulating by international agreement, subject to the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, the immi- gration of aliens to the United States; of providing for the mental, 3^4 Appendix moral and physical examination of such aliens by American consuls or other officers of the United States Government at the ports of embarkation, or elsewhere ; of securing the assistance of foreign governments in their own territories to prevent the evasion of the laws of the United States governing immigration to the United States ; of entering into such international agree- ments as may be proper to prevent the immigration of aliens who, under the laws of the United States, are or may be excluded from entering the United States, and of regulating any matters pertain- ing to such immigration. Sec. 40. Authority is hereby given the Commissioner-General of Immigration to establish, under the direction and control of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, a division of information in the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization; and the Sec- retary of Commerce and Labor shall provide such clerical assist- ance as may be necessary. It shall be the duty of said division to promote a beneficial distribution of aliens admitted into the United States among the several States and Territories desiring immigration. Correspondence shall be had with the proper officials of the States and Territories, and said division shall gather from all available sources useful information regarding the resources, products, and physical characteristics of each State and Territory, and shall publish such information in dif- ferent languages and distribute the publications among all ad- mitted aliens who may ask for such information at the immi- grant stations of the United States and to such other persons as may desire the same. When any State or Territory appoints and maintains an agent or agents to represent it at any of the immigrant stations of the United States, such agents shall, under regulations prescribed by the Commissioner-General of Immi- gration, subject to the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, have access to aliens who have been admitted to the United States for the purpose of presenting, either orally or in writing, the special inducements offered by such State or Territory to aliens to settle therein. While on duty at any immigrant station such agents shall be subject to all the regula- tions prescribed by the Commissioner-General of Immigration, who, with the approval of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, may. for violation of any such regulations, deny to the agent guilty of such violation any of the privileges herein granted. Sec. 41. That nothing in this Act shall be construed to apply to accredited officials of foreign governments nor to their suites, families, or guests. Sec. 42. It shall not be lawful for the master of a steamship or other vessel whereon immigrant passengers, or passengers other than cabin passengers, have been taken at any port or place in a foreign country or dominion (ports and places in foreign territory contiguous to the United States excepted) to bring such vessel and passengers to any port or place in the Appendix 365 United States unless the compartments, spaces, and accommo- dations hereinafter mentioned have been provided, allotted, main- tained, and used for and by such passengers during the entire voyage ; that is to say, in a steamship, the compartments or spaces, unobstructed by cargo, stores, or goods, shall be of suffi- cient dimensions to allow for each and every passenger carried or brought therein eighteen clear superficial feet of deck allotted to his or her use, if the compartment or space is located on the main deck or on the first deck next below the main deck of the vessel, and twenty clear superficial feet of deck allotted to his or her use for each passenger carried or brought therein if the compartment or space is located on the second deck below the main deck of the vessel : Provided, That if the height between the lower passenger deck and the deck immediately above it is less than seven feet, or if the apertures (exclusive of the side scuttles) through which light and air are admitted together to the lower passenger deck are less in size than in the propor- tion of three square feet to every one hundred superficial feet of that deck, the ship shall not carry a greater number of passen- gers on that deck than in the proportion of one passenger to every thirty clear superficial feet thereof. It shall not be lawful to carry or bring passengers on any deck other than the decks above mentioned. And in sailing vessels such passengers shall be carried or brought only on the deck (not being an orlop deck) that is next below the main deck of the vessel, or in a poop or deck house constructed on the main deck; and the com- partment or space, unobstructed by cargo, stores, or goods, shall be of sufficient dimensions to allow one hundred and ten cubic feet for each and every passenger brought therein. And such passengers shall not be carried or brought in any between decks, nor in any compartment, space, poop, or deck house, the height of which from deck to deck is less than six feet. In computing the number of such passengers carried or brought in any vessel, children under one year of age shall not be included, and two children between one and eight years of age shall be counted as one passenger ; and any person brought in any such vessel who shall have been, during the voyage, taken from any other vessel wrecked or in distress on the high seas, or have been picked up at sea from any boat, raft, or otherwise, shall not be included in such computation. The master of a vessel coming to a port or place in the United States in violation of either of the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor; and if the number of passengers other than cabin passengers carried or brought in the vessel, or in any compartment, space, poop, or deck house thereof, is greater than the number allowed to be carried or brought therein, respectively, as hereinbefore prescribed, the said master shall be fined fifty dollars for each and every passenger in excess of the proper number, and may also be imprisoned not exceeding six months. 366 Appendix This section shall take effect on January first, nineteen hundred and nine. Sec. 43. That the Act of March third, nineteen hundred and three, being an Act to regulate the immigration of aliens into the United States, except section thirty-four thereof, and the Act of March twenty-second, nineteen hundred and four, being an Act to extend the exemption from head tax to citizens of Newfoundland entering the United States, and all Acts and parts of Acts inconsistent with this Act are hereby repealed: Provided. That this Act shall not be construed to repeal, alter, or amend existing laws relating to the immigration or exclusion of Chinese persons or persons of Chinese descent, nor to repeal, alter, or amend section six, chapter four hundred and fifty-three, third session Fifty-eighth Congress, approved February sixth, nineteen hundred and five, or, prior to January first, nineteen hundred and nine, section one of the Act approved August second, eighteen hundred and eighty-two. entitled An Act to regulate the carriage of passengers by sea." Sec. 44. That this Act shall take effect and be enforced from and after July first, nineteen hundred and seven : Provided, how- ever, That section thirty-nine of this Act and the last proviso of section one shall take effect upon the passage of this Act and section forty-two on January first, nineteen hundred and nine. Approved, February 20, 1907. Note. — The Act of February 14, 1Q03. established the Department of Com- merce and Labor and transferred to it the ImniiRration Bureau and the administration of the Chinese Exclusion Acts. The Act of March 22, 1004. exempted from the head-tax citizens of New- foundland entering the United States The Acts of July i, 1902, and March 18, 1Q04, applied the immigration laws to the Philippine Islands. The Act of April jqo4, extended in force all anti-Chinese legislation without limitation. Appendix 367 TEXT OF THE LODGE ILLITERACY TEST BILL (H. R. 7864), AS PASSED BY CONGRESS IN FEBRUARY, 1897, AND VETOED BY PRESIDENT CLEVELAND. " Sec. I. That section i of the Act of March 3, 1891, in amend- ment of the immigration and contract labor act.s, be, and hereby is, amended by adding to the classes of aliens thereby excluded from admission to the United States the following: All persons physically capable and over sixteen years of age who cannot read and write the English language or some other language ; but a person not so able to read and write who is over fifty years of age and who is the parent or grandparent of a qualified immi- grant over twenty-one years of age and capable of supporting such parent or grandparent, may accompany such immigrant, or such a parent or grandparent may be sent for and come to join the family of a child or grandchild over twenty-one years of age, similarly qualified and capable, and a wife or minor child, not so able to read and write, may accompany or be sent for and come to join the husband or parent similarly qualified and capable. Sec. 2. For the purpose of testing the ability of the immigrant to read and write, as required by the foregoing section, the in- spection officers shall be furnished with copies of the constitution of the United States, printed on numbered uniform pasteboard slips, each containing not less than twenty nor more than twenty- five words of said constitution prnited in the \ arious languages of the immigrants in double small pica type. These slips shall be kept in boxes made for the purpose, and so constructed as to conceal the slips from view, each box to contain slips of but one language, and the immigrant may designate the language in which he prefers the test shall be made. Each immigrant shall be required to draw one of said slips from the box and read, and afterwards write out, in full view of the immigration officer, the words printed thereon. Each slip shall be returned to the box immediately after the test is finished, and the contents of the box shall be shaken up by an inspection officer before another drawing is made. No immigrant failing to read and write out the slip thus drawn by him shall be admitted, but he shall be returned to the country from which he came at the expense of the steamship or railroad company which brought him, as now provided by law. The inspection officer shall keep in each box at all times a full number of said printed pasteboard slips, and in the case of each e.xcluded immigrant shall keep a certified memorandum of the number of the slip which the said immigrant failed to read or copy out in writing. If in any case, from any unavoidable cause, the foregoing slips are not at hand for use, the inspection officers shall carefully and thoroughly test the ability of the immigrant to read and write, using the most appropriate and available means at their command, and shall state fully in writing the reasons why the slips are lacking, and describe the substitute and method adopted for testing the ability of the immigrant. 368 Appendix Sec. 3. That the provisions of the act of March 3. 189.^, to facilitate the enforcement of the immigration and contract labor laws, shall apply to the persons mentioned in section i of this Act Sec. 4. That it shall hereafter be unlawful for any male alien who has not in good faith made his declaration before the proper court of his intention to become a citizen of the United States to be employed on any public works of the United States or to come regularly or habitually into the United States by land or water for the purpose of engaging in any mechanical trade or manual labor for wages or salary, returning from time to time to a foreign country. Sec. 5. That it shall be unlawful for any person, partnership, company, or corporation knowingly to employ any alien coming into the United States in violation of the next preceding section of this act: Provided, that the provisions of this act shall not apply to the employment of sailors, deckhands, or other employees of vessels, or railroad train hands, such as conductors, engineers, brakemen, firemen, or baggagemen, whose duties require them to pass over the frontier to reach the termini of their runs, or to boatmen or guides on the lakes and rivers on the northern border of the United States. Sec. 6. That any violation of the provisions of sections 4 and 5 of this act by any alien or citizen shall be deemed a misde- meanor, punishable by a fine not exceeding $500 or by imprison- ment, for the term of not exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court: Provided, that all persons convicted of a violation of section 4 of this act shall be deported to the country whence they came. Sec. 7. That, notwithstanding the provisions of this or any other existing law, the Secretary of the Treasury may permit aliens to enter this country for the purpose of teaching new arts or industries under such rules and regulations as he may provide. Sec. 8. That this act shall not apply to persons arriving in the United States from any port or place in the island of Cuba during the continuance of the present disorders there who have heretofore been inhabitants of tliat island. Sec. 9. That this act shall take effect July i, 1897. [Sections 4 to 6 constituted the so-called Corliss Amendment, and wer« no part of the original Lodge bill.] APPENDIX III BIBLIOGRAPHY The following bibliography is intended to give the principal authorities; it is not in any sense exhaustive. A. BIBLIOGRAPHIES List of Books (with references to periodicals) on Immigration. Library of Congress (1904). [Contains also lists of Congres- sional Documents, Annual Reports, and Articles in Consular Reports.] ^ Select List of References on Chinese Immigration. Library of Congress (1904). [Contains also lists of Government Pub- lications, Congressional Documents, Reports of Debates.] ^ B. BOOKS Mayo-Smith, Richmond. Emigration and Immigration, t^ew York, Scribners (1892). [The best general book on the sub- ject.] Atchinson, Rena M. Un-American Immigration. Chicago. Charles H. Kerr & Co. (1894)- Walker, Francis A. Discussions in Economics and Statistics. Vol. 2, pp. 29-45, 417-451- Holt. New York. (1899). Brandenburg, Broughton. Imported Americans. New York. F. A. Stokes & Co. (1904). [Describes conditions abroad, especially in Italy; also inspection at Ellis Island.] Evans-Gordon, W. The Alien Immigrant. New York. Scrib- ners. (1903). [A description of the condition of Hebrews in European countries by a member of the Royal Com- mission on Alien Immigration. The book is written from the British standpoint, but Chapter xii. discusses the situation in the United States.] * These may be obtained by addressing the Librarian of Congress, Washington, JD, C. 369 370 Appendix Roberts, Peter. Anthracite Coal Communities. Xew York. Macmillan. (1904). [A study of the social, educational and moral life of the Anthracite Regions, and of the Slav laborers.] Warne, F. Julian. The Slav Invasion. Philadelphia. Lippin- cott. (1904). [Discusses the effect of Slav immigration in the mining regions of Pennsylvania.] Whelpley, James D. The Problem of the Immigrant. London. Chapman & Hall. (1905). [Summarizes the laws regarding immigration in the United States and foreign countries.] Hunter, Robert. Poverty. New York. Macmillan. (1904). [Chapter vi. The Immigrant.] Eliot Lord, John J. D. Trenor and Samuel J. Barrows. The Italian in America. New York. B. F. Buck & Co. (1905). Seward, George F. Chinese Immigration. New York. Scrib- ners. (1881). [A brief for Chinese labor by an ex-minister to China. Cites much testimony taken before Committees of Congress.] C. GOVERNMENT REPORTS The following are the most recent and valuable reports: Report of the Industrial Comtnission. Vol. 15, pp. 1-840 (1901) ; Vol. 19, pp. 957-1030 (1902). [The most recent and complete discussion of the subject. It contains a large amount of testimony taken before the Commission, and valuable special reports by experts.] Report of the Senate Committee on Immigration. 54th Cong., 1st Sess. No. 290 (1896). [Commonly known as the Lodge Report. Reprinted as Senate Report, 55th Cong., 1st Sess., No. 13 (1897)-] Report of the Senate Committee on Immigratiju. 57th Cong, 2d Sess., No. 62 (1902). [This contains the most recent testimony of experts as to present conditions and needed legislation.] Reports of the Board of Trade on Alien Immigration. (Lon- don. 1893). [The best single report on immigration in the United States at its date. Though prepared for Great Britain, it contains much valuable information, including opinions of labor leaders and experts.] Appendix 371 Annual Reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration.^ Other important reports are the following: Report of the Immigration Investigating Commission. (1895). Report on the Importation of Contract Labor, soth Cong., 2d Sess., No. 3792 (1889). Report of the Select Committee on Immigration and Naturalisa- tion. 51st Cong., 2d Sess., No. 3472 (1891). [The Owen Report.] Report of the House Committee on Immigration and Natural- isation. 52d Cong., 1st Sess., No. 2090 (1892). [The Stump Report.] Report of the Senate Committee on Immigration, j.^d Cong., 2d Sess., No. 1333 (1893). [The Chandler Report.; Arrivals of Alien Passengers and Immigrants from 1820 to 1892. Bureau of Statistics (1893). [Gives general tables and review.] D. MAGAZINE ARTICLES (i). Descriptive and Statistical. " Racial Composition of the American People." John R. Com- mons, in Chautauquan, vol. 38, pp. 33-42, I18-125, 332-340, 433-443. 533-543; vol. 39, pp. 13-22, I15-124, 217-227 (Sept 1903 — May 1904). " Foreign Element in American Civilization." A. H. Hyde, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 52, p. 387 (Jan. 1898). "The Immigrant." Charities, vol. 12, No. 6 (Feb. 6, 1904). " The Slav in America." Charities, vol. 13, No. 10 (Dec. 3, 1904), " Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism." Kate H. Claghorn, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 185 (July, 1904). " Immigration to the Southern States." Walter L. Fleming, in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 20, p. 276 (June 1905). " Immigration and the Foreign-born Population." Richmond Mayo-Smith, in Publications of the American Statistical Association, vol. 3, p. 304 (March-June 1903). ' Recent reports can usually be obtained free of charge by addressing the Immigration Bureau, Washington, D. C. 372 Appendix Articles by Dr. Allan McLaughlin of the United States Marine- Hospital Service, in Popular Science Monthly: "The Slavic Immigrant," vol. 63, p. 25 (May 1903). "The Bright Side of Russian Immigration," vol. 64, p. 66 (No- vember 1903). " Immigration and the Public Health," vol. 64, p. 232, (Jan. 1904). "The Immigrant, Past and Present," vol. 65, p. 224 (July 1904). " Italian and other Latin Immigrants," vol. 65, p. 341 (August 1904). " Hebrew, Magyar and Levantine Immigration," vol. 65, p. 432 (September 1904). " Chinese and Japanese Immigration," vol. 66, p. I17 (Dec. 1004). " Social and Political Effects of Immigration," vol. 66, p. 243 (January 1905). " How Immigrants are Inspected," vol. 66, p. 357 (February 1905). " The Scandinavians in the Northwest." Kendric C. Babcock, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 103 (September 1892). " Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston." Frederick A. Bushee, in Publications of the American Economic Associa- tion, 3d Series, vol. 4, No. 2 (May 1903). " The Federal Contract Labor Law." Prescott F. Hall, in Harvard Law Review, vol. 11, p. 525 (April 1898). Publications of the Immigration Restriction League. Nos. 1-43. [These deal with statistical and other aspects of immigration and can be obtained free of charge by addressing the Secre- tary, 60 State St., Boston, Mass.] (2). In Favor of Further Restriction. " The Restriction of Immigration." Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, in North American Revieiu, vol. 152, p. 27 (January 1891). " Lynch Law and Unrestricted Immigration." Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, in North American Review, vol. 152, p. 602 (May 1891). " Methods of Restricting Immigration." Hon. Wm. E. Chandler, in Forum, vol. 13, p. 128 (March 1892). " Our National Dumping-Ground." Charles Stewart Smith, in North American Review, vol. 154, p. 432 (April 1892). " The Immigration Question." John H. Noble, in Political Sci- ence Quarterly, vol. 7, p. 232. " The Mine Laborers in Pennsylvania." Henry Rood, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 110 (September 1892). Appendix 373 ' Alien Degradation of American Character." Sydney G. Fisher, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 608 (January iSgj). 'Has Immigration Increased Population?" Sydney G. Fisher, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 48, p. 244 (December 1895). ' Restriction of Immigration." General Francis A. Walker, in Atlantic Monthly, vol. 77, p. 822 (June 1896). 'The Immigration Question." Hon. J. H. Senner, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. ID, p. I (July 1897). ' Immigration and the Educational Test." Prescott F. Hall, in North American Rcvicio, vol. 165, p. 393 (October 1897). ' Immigration, Hard Times, and the Veto." John Chetwood, Jr., in Arena, vol. 18, p. 788 (December, 1897). ' A Pennsylvania Colliery Village. A Polyglot Community." Henry E. Rood, in Century, vol. 55, p. 809 (April 1898). 'The Menace of Immigration." Gunton's Maga::ine, vol. 16, d. 166, (1899). ' New Problems of Immigration." Prescott F. Hall, in Forum, vol. 30, p. 555 (January 1901). 'The Declining Birthrate and its Cause." Dr. Frederick A. Bushee, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 63, p. 355 (August 1903) . ' Selection of Immigration." Prescott F. Hall, in Annals of the American Academx of Political and Social Science" vol. 24, p. 167 (July 1904). ' The Agricultural Distribution of Immigrants." Robert DeC. Ward, in Popular Science Monthly, vol. 66, p. 166 (December 1904) - ' Immigration the Annihilator of Our Native Stock." Robert Hunter, in The Commons, vol. 9, p. 114 (April 1904). ' The Restriction of Immigration." Robert DeC. Ward, in North American Review, vol. 181, p. 226 (August 1904). ' Our Imported Criminals." Broughton Brandenburg, in Collier's Weekly, vol. 34 (November 19 and 26, December 10, 1904). ' Underground Immigration." Broughton Brandenburg, in Char- ities, vol. 14, p. 896 (July I, 1905). 374 Appendix " How Shall We Select our Immigrants." Robert DeC. Ward, in Charities, vol. 14, p. 906 (July 8, 1905). " Immigration and the South." Robert DeC. Ward, in Atlantic, vol. 96, p. 611 (November 1905). (3)- Opposed to Further Restriction. " Our National Dumping-Ground." John B. Weber, in North American Review, vol. 154, p. 424 (April 1892). " Incalculable Room for Immigrants." Edward Atkinson, in Forum, vol. 13, p. 360 (May 1892). " What Immigrants Contribute to Industry." George F. Parker, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 600 (January 1893). " A Practical Remedy for Evils of Immigration." Gustav H. Schwab, in Forum, vol. 14, p. 805 (February 1893). " A Few Facts and Thoughts on Immigration." Hon. J. H. Senner, in Independent, vol. 45, p. i (November 2, 1893). " How We Restrict Immigration." Hon. J. H. Senner, in North American Review, vol. 158, p. 494 (April 1894). " Immigration from Italy." Hon. J. H. Senner, in North Ameri- can Review, vol. 162, p. 649 (June 1896). "Should Immigration be Restricted?" S. G. Croswell, in North American Review, vol. 164, p. 526 (May 1897). " An Educational Test for Immigrants." Hon. J. H. Senner, in Independent, vol. 50, p. 77 (January 20, 1898). " Some Immigrants from Oversea." K. Munroe, in Harper's Magazine, vol. 96, p. 429 (February 1898). "Our Immigrants and Ourselves." K. H. Claghorn, in Atlantic Monthly, vol. 86, p. 535 (October 1900). " The Immigration Problem." Roland P. Faulkner, in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 19, p. 32 (March 1904). "Is the New Im.migration Dangerous to the Country?" O. P. Austin, in North American Review, vol. 178, p. 558 (April 1904). " Proposals Affecting Immigration." John J. D. Trenor, in An- nals uf the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 24, p. 221 (July 1904). " The Folly of Chinese Exclusion." H. H. Bancroft, in North American Review, vol. 179, p. 263 (August 1904). INDEX INDEX Act of March 3, 1903 (see " Legislation ") Adams, John, views of, 206 Adams, Robert, Jr., 289 Advertising, for immigrants Hmited, 214; liabihty for un- lawful, 221 ; by steamship companies, 214, 221, 245 Africans, illiteracy of, 81 Ages, of immigrants, 67 ; pro- posed exclusion of aged per- sons, 294 Agents, of steamship lines, 23, 26, 27, 32, 33, 132, 240; solicitation by, 23, 25-27, 32, 33, 240, 245-248 Agriculture, Japanese in, 59; Hebrews not fitted for, 50, 303; Italians in, 33, 56, 302; farmers and laborers among immigrants, 75, 77 ; immi- grants needed in, 58, 122; wages in, 128; less labor rel- atively needed in, 129, 130; in corn belt, 130 ; proposed distribution of immigrants for, 299-306; Syrians and Armenians not fitted for, 303 ; Chinese in, 328 Air-space, regulations as to, 201 ; proposed increase of, 290, 348. Aliens (see also " Foreign- born" ; "Immigrants" ; "Nat- uralization " ; " Political Ef- fects"), definition of, 192; present law applies to, 217; in transit, 218 American Federation of Labor, endorsement of illiteracy test by, 125, 275, 312 Anarchists, attract attention, 154; debarred, 155, 219; race and, 156; cannot be natural- ized, 155, 190; liability for entry of, 222; numbers de- barred, 240 Apartment houses, large fam- ilies not wanted in, 116 Appeals, from orders deport- ing, 222, 229, 236 ; necessity of uniformity in, 296 Armenians, 20, 41, 42; illiteracy of, 42, 82 ; earlier immigrants displaced by, 126; padrone system among, 133 ; not fitted for agriculture, 303 Arrest of aliens unlawfully in country, 229 Artificial selection, by steam- ship companies, 26, 321 ; of early Baltic stock, 106, 173; duty of, 102 Asiatics (see also "Chinese"; "Japanese"; "Syrians"), immiigration of, 7, 82 ; phy- sique of, 87 ; in United States, 40; naturalization of, 184; not desired, 316 Assimilation, i n Colonial period, 5; of Hebrews, 52; religion as 'a bar to, 52 ; generally, 172-182; numbers of immigrants and, 175 ; es- sential to democracy, 176; illiteracy and, 179-180; through public schools, 178; religion and, 181 ; attempts to prevent, 182; naturaliza- tion and, 198; movements for, 306-308 Assisted immigrants, propor- 377 378 Index tion of, i8; in general, 27-33, 83 ; money devoted to, 73 ; coaching of, 32, 33-. 59. 83; follow previous immigration, 91; excluded, 214. 219; num- bers debarred, 240 ; proposal to reduce, 297 Associated Charities of Bos- ton, 165 ; endorse illiteracy test, 278, 314 Attitude, of States toward im- migration, 122, 303, 311, 315, 316; of public, 309-320 Australia, emigration to, 34, 107 Austrians, as immigrants, 28; in United States, 91 ; illit- eracy of, 141, 151; ability of, to speak English, 145 ; ctriminality of, 151; aliens among, 192 Austro-Hungarians, as immi- grants, 39; occupations of, 76; insanity among, 158, 159; religion of, 181 ; disease among, 244 Balfour, Arthur J., 100 Bartholdt, Richard, 264 Beggars, professional, exclud- ed, 219 Belgians, occupations of, 76; illiteracy of, 141 ; desired as immigrants, 315 Bibliography, 369-374 " Birds of passage," generally, 77-79: Italians, 13, 78, 185, 192; Polish, 13; Slovak, 13, 185, 192; Canadian, 13, 78, 293; miners as, 13; British, 78; Irish, 78; desirability of, 78; return how often, 79; effect of, on birthrate, 119; and naturalization, 185 ; pro- posed exclusion of, 293 Birth-rate, of Slavs falling, 6$, 112; immigration lowers, 107-120: of natives, 108, iii- 120; of foreign-born, 112- 116, 123; causes of falling, 15, 107-120; proportion of children to females, in; of Teutonic and Keltic immi- grants, 112; in Massachu- setts, 113, 114, 347; of col- lege graduates, 115; in Bos- ton, 116; of negroes, 116; Herbert Spencer's theory as to, 116; exclusion of children from apartment houses, 116; and racial decay, 117; in Southern States, 117; in Western States, 117; in Eu- rope, 117, 347: effect of emi- gration on. 118, 321; birds of passage and, 119; increase among natives, 136; tables of comparative, 347 Bohemians, as immigrants, 63, 64; money shown by, 71; illiteracy of, 81, 82; in United States, 91 Bonds, formerly required by States, 205 ; acceptance of, regulated, 215; of small value, 215 ; under Act of 1903, 230, 231 ; suggestions as to, 297 Bosnians, as Immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 81 Brandenburg. Broughton, ad- vocates inspection at home of immigrant, 284 Braun, Marcus. 32, 197, 247 British (see also "English"; " Scotch ") , as immigrants, 4, 29, 31, 38. 39: as emi- grants, 34, 107 : Aliens Act, 21, 51 ; in United States, 40, 41, 91 : money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72; occupa- tions of, 43. 76 : as " birds of passage," 78: in mining re- gions displaced by Slavs, 123, 126; pauperism among, 162; religion of, 181 ; naturaliza- tion of, 184 Brooks. Phillips. 323 Bulgarians, as immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 81 Index 379 Cabin passengers, examination of, 217, 226, 232 California, Italians in, 33; Japanese in, 58 Canada, immigration into, 13, 32, 34, 107; immigration from, 39, 40, 42, 43, 126; citizens of, exempt from head-tax, 218; immigration through, generally, 251-255; undesirable, 31, 32, 33, 59; agreements with transporta- tion companies, as to, 219, 252; immigration laws of, 254; application of illiteracy test to immigrants from, 280 Canadians, " birds of passage," 13, 78, 293; deportation of, to Europe and Asia, 230, 254; numbers of, debarred, 239, 253; volume of, 251; smuggling of, 32, 59, 221, 252-255 ; rules for inspection or, 226 Carver, T. N., 130 Causes of immigration, 14-35; in general, 14-16; industrial depression, 6. 7; political agi- tation, 6, 7, 20-22; prosperity of this country, 17-19; solici- tation of friends and rela- tives, 18; employment agen- cies, 18; padrone system, 19; religious persecution, 8, 16, 20-22; facility of transit, 22- 25; solicitation of steamship agents, 23, 25-27, 55 ; assisted immigration, 27-33 ; war, 33 ; epidemics, 33 ; devel- opment of industries. 33; tariff. 33 ; fear of restrictive legislation. 35 ; advertise- ments of American railways, 35 ; Mormon missionaries, 35 Chandler. William E., 260, 283 Charitable societies assist im- migrants, 31 Chinese, displaced by Japanese, 59; money brought by, 71; illiteracy of, 81 ; effect of, on labor, 126; crime among, 155; seamen, 238; numbers of, 327; debarred, 335; destina- tion of, 327; "Highbinders," 155, 328; occupations of, 328; coolies, 59, 60, 155, 210, 211, 327-334 ; Burlingame treaty, 329, 330; discrimination against, 329, 331 ; State laws against 330; Geary Act, 332 Chinese Exclusion Acts, eva- sion of, 59, 60, 238; seamen and, 238; proposed applica- tion to other races, 289 ; pub- lic opinion regarding, 309; provisions of, 327-335 ; policy of, 335 Cholera, 8, 17 Civil war, effect on immigra- tion, 7, 17, 209 Cleveland, Grover, veto of Lodge bill by, 266, 272, 293, 317 " Coaching " of immigrants, 32, 33. 59. 83, 224. 247, 248 Colonial period, immigration in, 4, 37; views as to restriction in, 206 Colonist, definition of, 3 Commissioner - General, office of, established, 214; duties of, 231 Commons, John R., 189, 306 " Concentration of advantages," desire for, affects birthrate, 65. 109-111 Congestion in cities, 21. 169- 172; of Hebrews, 50; of Syr- ians, 66; as cause of unem- ployment, 68; movement to- ward cities, 129, 169; foreign- born in cities, 169-171, 343- 345 ; foreign parentage popu- lation, 170; causes of, 170, 171 ; race and, 171 ; slums, 153, 171, 172, 346 Congressmen, interference of, with administration of laws. 223 Consular inspection, proposed, 259, 272, 280-288; plan of 38o Index Broughton Brandenburg, 284 ; objections to, 284-287 Contract laborers, contractors stimulate immigration of, 31 ; Greeks as, 48 ; padrone sys- tem as to, 131-133 ; those de- ported as, excluded, 219; liability for importing, 221 ; deportation of, suspended when, 227 ; numbers debar- red, 240; affidavits of, 250; deportation a detriment when, 250; coming to join friends and relatives, 251 ; importation of, without ex- press contract, 251 ; smug- gling of, across border, 253- 255 ; and consular inspection, 287 Contract labor laws, generally, 17. 133. 212-213. 220, 248-251 ; effect of, 248-251 ; origin of, 248 ; public opinion as to, 309 Contractors, desire cheap labor, 122 Convicts, as immigrants, 29, 30, 83; excluded, 211, 219; num- bers debarred, 239 Coolies, Japanese, 59, 60; Chin- ese, 59, 60. 155, 210, 211, 327- 334; traffic in, regulated, 210, 211 Corliss Amendment, 265. 293 Courts, revisory power of, 214, 215 ; decisions affecting con- tract labor laws, 249 Crime (see also "Dependents and Delinquents"); con- victs excluded, 29, 30, 83, 211, 219; segregation of criminals. 100; as an effect of immigration, 146- 156, among foreign-born. 146-156, 208; among juveniles, 148, 149; statistics of. unsatis- factory, 150 ; among various nationalities, 151 ; homicide, 151 ; in mining regions, 152; in New York City, 152, 153; among immi- grants, 41-66, 83, 146-156, 166; among second genera- tion, 148, 149. 153. 154; of- fenses against immigration acts, 220; illiteracy and, 279; among Chinese, 328 Croatians, as immigrants. 62- 65; money brought by, 71; occupations of, 76 ; illiteracy of, 81, 82 Cubans, money brought by, 71 ; exempt from head-tax, 218; illiteracy of, 81 Dalmatians, as immigrants, 63 ; illiteracy of, 81 Danes (see also " Scandina- vians"), illiteracy of, 141; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; as immigrants, 37, 60-62 Debarred and returned, con- victs, 83. 239; idiots, 84, 239; insane, 84, 239; diseased, 87, 239, 240, 244; provisions as to, 221-223. 227-230: numbers of, generally, 251-256; pau- pers. 239. 240; persons likely to become public charges. 239. 240; contract laborers, 239. 240, 250 ; prostitutes. 240 ; procurers. 240; anarchists, 240; assisted immigrants, 240; at border ports, 239, 253 ; at foreign ports, 242 Democrats, views of, as to re- striction, 60, 310 Dependents and delinquents, assisted to emigrate by for- eign governments, 29-31 ; cost of supporting. 29, 167; laws relating to immigration of, 30; segregation of, 100; burden of. 166-169. 244; in public institutions 166; no- tification of probable. 262 Deportation, cost of, 29; diffi- culty of securing, 160, 244; of contract laborers. 213 ; of debarred, 214, 227-230. 242- 245; arrest and, within three Index 381 years, 229; card catalog of arrivals a help toward, 238; of contract laborers a detri- ment when, 250; on medical certificate, 87, 242-245, 261 ; proposed extension of period of, 294 De Tocqueville, 15 Dexter, F. B., 4 Disease (see also " Poor Physique"), definition of loathsome or dangerous, 84; among immigrants generally, 84-87; among Greeks, 48; among Hebrews, 21, 51, 259; among Italians, 56; among Syrians, 65 : steamships fined for bringing, 21, 157, 221, 225, 241 ; epidemics of. as cause of immigration, 26, 157; cholera, 85 ; epilepsy, 84. 168, 219, 233; favus, 84; smallpox, 84, 157; trachoma, 48, 84, 85, 157, 242; tuberculosis, 51, 85, 87, 159, 259; yellow fever, 159; venereal, 85 ; numbers de- ported on medical certificate, 87, 242-245. 261; infant mor- tality, 119: among foreign- born, 157-160; deficit of hos- pitals, 157-159; immigrants cannot read regulations, 159; immigrants with, barred, 214, 219; penalty for bringing persons with, 26, 157, 221, 225, 241 ; rejection of those with, 222; political pressure to prevent deportation of those with, 223 ; deportation of guardian of person with, 223 ; examination for, 233 ;• numbers debarred for, 84, 239, 240, 2^4; treated in im- migrant hospitals. 237, 244; persons with, excluded by Canada, 254; detection of, under consular inspection, 287 Distribution of immigrants, agricultural, 33, 50, 56, 59, 302; relation of money brought to. 72; destinations of the various races. 41-66, 90; generally, 88-95; foreign- born in United States, 88-95 ; concentration in certain States, 89-95 ; as remedy for immigration evils, 299-307; of Hebrews. 303 ; wishes of States as to, 122. 303; rail- roads and steamship compa- nies advocate, 304 ; only a palliative, 306; from city slums. 302-305. 316; tables showing. 343-345. 346 District attorney, duties of, 296 Du Mont, Arsene, 118 Dutch, colonies of, S. 37! money brought by, 71 ; illiter- acy of. 81, 141 ; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; desired as im- migrants, 315, 316 Economic conditions. 67-79 Economic effects of immigra- tion generally. 121-138; de- mand for labor. 121-123; ef- fect on wages and standard of living. 123-131 ; padrone system, 131-133; sweating system, 133-135; unemploy- ment. 135-139 Education (see also "Illiter- acy"), in Italy, promoted by fear of legislation. 35; small desire for. among S\Tians, 66; in mining regions. 127 Educational Alliance. 179. 307 Effects of immigration, racial, 99-120; economic, 121-138; social, 139-182; political, 183- 200 Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 122 Emigration, from United States, 11-13; discouraged by for- eign governments, 28; lowers birthrate, 118 Employment agencies, as pro- motors of immigration, 18, 19 382 Index English, (see also "British"), as immigrants, 43, 44; money shown by, 71 ; illiteracy of, 81, 82, 141, 151; ability to speak, 144-146; criminality of, 151; disease among, 158; in- sanity among. 158; depend- ents and delinquents, 166; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; desired as immigrants, 315 Epidemics as a cause of immi- gration, 33 ; effect of, on race stock, 100 Epileptics, debarred, 84, 219; in United States, 168; in- spection of. 233 Ethics of regulation, gener- ally, 320-323 ; restriction con- sidered immoral, 317; duty to preserve democracy, 320, 322 Evolution, 14, 99 Fairbanks, Charles W., advo- cated illiteracy test, 269. 271 Farmers' National Congress, 316 Farr. William, 118 Faulkner, Roland P., 79 Favus (see "Disease") Federalists, views of, 206 Finns, as immigrants, 8, 20, 44; money brought by, 71 ; oc- cupations of. 45, 76; illiter- acy of, 81, 82, 141 ; diseased and defective, 85 ; aliens among. 192 Foreign-born, in United States, 1890 and 1900, 40; increase of, 1890 to 1900, 40, 89; dis- tribution of. 88-95 ; marriage rates among, 113, 114; birth- rates among, 113, 114, 115; illiteracy of. 140, 141. 142; ability of. to speak English, 144-146; newspapers publish- ed by. 145, 315; crime among, 146-156. 166. 279; increase of homicide due to. 151; insanity among, 156, 157, 158, 166; an- archy and socialism among, 154-156; disease among, 157- 160; burden of, upon hospi- tals, 157-159: pauperism among, 160-166; tend to cities, 169-172; voting power of, 185-189; joining labor unions, 313; societies among, 269, 307-309, 318, 319 " Foreign contiguous terri- tory" (see "Canada"; "Mexico") Foreign governments, assist immigration, 27-30, 83; at- tempts of, to prevent assimi- lation. 182 ; restraints upon emigration by, 247 ; illiteracy test adopted by, 275 ; assist protective and distributing societies. 303. 307 Franklin, Benjamin, 4. 123 Fraud, in naturalization, 193- 19s. 197. 241; in entering country, 32, 59. 252-255, 298 French, as immigrants, 5, 16, 20, 28, .38, 45 ; Huguenots, 5, 16, 20, 46. 47 : money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 141, 151; occupations of, 45, 76; in United States, 91; criminality of, 151 ; insanity among, 158 French Canadians, characteris- tics of, 42, 43 ; birthrate of, 113; have displaced earlier labor, 126; displaced by Syr- ians, 126; ability of, to speak English, 145 ; aliens among, 192 Friends and relatives as a cause of immigration, 18, 31 ; as cause of congestion in cities, 170; sent for when, 235; aliens joining, how far con- tract laborers, 251; fictitious, 298 Gannett, Henry, 169 Germans, as immigrants. 4, 6, 17, 36, 37. 38, 39. 46-48, no; characteristics of, 46-48; emi- Index 383 gration of, to South Amer- ica, 35, 107 ; in United States, 40, 41, 91; money shown by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 82, 141, 151 ; editors and steam- ship agents, 32 ; occupations of, 46, 77; birthrate among, 113; in mining regions, dis- placed by Slavs, 127 ; ability to speak English, 145 ; crim- inality of, 151; disease among, 158; insanity among, 158, 159; pauperism among, 162; dependents and delin- quents among, 166, 167 ; pro- portion of, in cities, 171 ; re- ligion of, 181, 209; naturali- zation of, 184, 185, IQ2; politics of, 183, 188 ; aliens among, 192; opposition to il- literacy test by, 268, 269, 319; desired as immigrants, 315, 316 Gompers, Samuel, 125, 312 Grasserie, Raoul de la, 188 Greeks, as immigrants, 48; money shown by, 71 ; occu- pations of, 48, 76; illiteracy of, 81, 82, 141; padrone sys- tem among, 48, 132, 133; criminality of, 153; aliens among, 192 Guaranties (see also "Bonds"), verbal, that aliens will not become public charges, 223, 231 Hawaii, Japanese in, 58; immi- gration laws apply to, 218 Head-tax, imposed by States, 203-206; in Act of 1882, 212; in Act of 1903, 218; exemp- tions from, 218; paid by steamships, 218; on persons coming from foreign con- tiguous territory, 219; pro- posed, 256, 257 Hebrew Charities, United, 31, 50, 159, 162, 307 Hebrews (see also " Rus- sians"), as immigrants, 16, 20, 49-52; characteristics of, 49-52 ; effect of ghettoes on, 21, 50, 303; British Aliens Act aimed at, 21 ; world dis- tribution of, 49; in sweat- shops, 50 ; poor physique of, 50; money brought by, 71; property owned by, 74 ; occu- pations of, 49, 76; illiteracy of, 81, 82, 151 ; diseased and defective, 85, 244 ; in United States, 91, 92, 94; padrone system among, 132; crimi- nality of, 151; tuberculosis among, 159, 259; pauperism among, 162, 163 ; naturaliza- tion of, 185; voting by, 183, 187; opposition to illiteracy test by, 264; not fitted for agriculture, 50, 303 ; distribu- tion of, 303 Heredity, influence of, 99-ior Herzegovinians, as immigrants, 63 ; illiteracy of, 81 Holland, immigration from, 5, 37, 71, 81, 141, 171, 315, 316 Homicides, increase of, 151; at- tract attention, 154 Homogeneity, of early life in United States, no, 122; pro- duces great men, 172 Hospitals, burden of foreign- born upon, 157-159; treat- ment in immigrant, 237, 244 Huguenots, 5, 16, 20, 46, 47 Hungarians (see also " Mag- yars"), as immigrants, 25; in United States, 91, 92; illit- eracy of, 141, 151; criminality of, 151, 152; socialism among, 156; aliens among, 192 Idiots (see also "Insane") debarred, 84, 212, 219; in United States, 168; inspec- tion of, 233; numbers de- barred, 239 Illiteracy, of various races, 41- 384 Index 66, 72 ; relation of, to money brought, 72 ; definition of, 80; generally, 80-83, 139-146; relation of sex to, 82 ; rela- tion of poor physique to, 87; in United States, 139-141, 274; in Europe, 141, 144; re- turns as to, unreliable, 143; ability to speak English, 144- 146; relation of, to crime, 148; relation of, to disease, 159; of slum population, 171 ; relation of, to assimil- ation, 177-180; illiterates not desired as immigrants, 316 Illiteracy test, labor unions favoring, 125 ; proposed, 216, 262-280; votes on, 264, 265, 267, 269, 270; Corliss Amend- ment to, 265, 293 ; vetoed by President Cleveland, 266, 272, 293 ; advocated by Im- migration Restriction League, 262-280 ; endorse- ments of, 275-277 ; opposition to, by Hebrews, 264 ; by steamship companies, 265, 269, 271 ; by Immigration Pro- tective League, 268, 270; by Germans, 269; by railroads, 271 ; and consular inspection 272 ; merits of, 272-275 ; ef- fect of expected passage of, in Italy, 143, 275 ; adopted in foreign countries, 275 ; and criminals, 279 ; applica- tion of, to citizens of con- tiguous territory, 280 Immigrants, definition of, 3, 217; money value of, 67-75; ages of, 67 ; cost of bringing up, 67; and "alien imiiii- grants," 217 ; movements for protection and assimilation of, 306-308 Immigration, history of, 3-13; future of, 9; volume of, 339-341 ; compared with pop- ulation, 10; causes of, 6, 7, 14-35 ; artificial selection of, 26; free movement and vol- ume of, 35 ; racial conditions of, 36-66 ; econom.ic condi- tions of, 67-79 ; social condi- tions of, 80-95 ; proposed suspension of, 85, 288; racial effects of, 99-120; economic effects of, 121-138; social ef- fects of, 139-182; political ef- fects of, 183-200 ; prevention of, by other, 106; lowers birthrate, 107-120; and pop- ulation, 108, 113; and natu- ralization, 198; by nationali- ties, 342, 343 ; distribution of, 299-307, 343-345; in slums. 346 ; birthrates among, 347 ; history of legislation in re- gard to, 201-238; effect of present laws in regard to, 239-255; proposed legislation in regard to, 256-298; reme- dies for evils of, 299-308; public opinion in regard to, 309-320; ethics of regulating. 320-325 ; Chinese, immigra- tion and exclusion acts, 327- 335 ; text of present laws re- garding, 348-368; Dibliog- raphy of, 369-374 Immigration Investigat- ing Commission, 122, 217, 293, 303. 315 Immigration Protective League, opposed illiteracy test, 268, 270, 277 Immigration Restriction League, tests of Hebrew illit- eracy by, 82 ; inquiries by, as to the desire of States for immigrants, 122, 303, 316; advocated illiteracy test. 263. 267, 269, 271 ; canvass of newspapers by, 276, 314; formation of, 263, 317 Industrial Commission. 217, 276, 300 Industrial Removal Office, 303, 308 Industry (see also " Economic Conditions " ; Economic Ef- fects "), relation to immigra- Index 38s tion, 6, 7, 13, 17-19, 68; new, as cause of immigration, 33 Insane (see also "Idiots"; " Dependents and D e 1 i n - quents"), among immigrants 84; segregation of, 100; in United States, 156, 157, 166, 168; cost of, 168; excluded, 212, 219; inspection of, 233; numbers debarred, 239 Inspection, contracts by United States with States for, 212; of cabin passengers, 217, 226, 232 ; medical, 222, 226, 232, 233 ; abroad, 242, 254 ; ap- peals, 222, 296 ; hampered by political influences, 223 ; gen- erally, 226, 231-239; of aliens crossing borders, 226; by matron, 233 ; by boards of special inquiry, 215, 222, 223, 229, 231, 233; of alien sea- men, 238 ; card catalog of aliens, 238; supposed, by steamship lines abroad, 240; certification for minor de- fects, 86, 87, 242; in Canada, 252, 253, 254; at home of immigrant proposed, 284; cooperation of officials desir- able, 296 ; more time desir- able for, 297 Irish, immigrants, 5, 6, 17, 29, 36,. 37- 38, 39, 52-54. "o; assisted to emigrate, 29; characteristics of, 52-54; in United States, 40, 41, 52, 91 ; displaced in industry, 53; money brought by, 71 ; occu- pations of, 52, 76; as "birds of passage," 78; illiteracy of, 81, 83, 141, 151; diseased, 87, 158; birthrate among, 113, 114; displaced by Ital- ians, 123 ; by French Cana- dians, 126; displaced Ameri- cans, 126; displaced by Slavs in mining regions, 126; crim- inality of, 151, 153; insanity among, 158, 159; pauperism among, 162; dependents and delinquents, 166, 167; pro- portion of, in cities, 171 ; re- ligion of, 181, 207; naturali- zation of, 185, 192; politics of, 183, 188; desired as im- migrants, 315 Italians, emigration of, 13 ; immigration of, 13, 16, 25, 28, 33. 35, 38. 39. 54-58; in California, 33 ; as fruit- growers, 33, 56; North and South, 38, 54, 55 ; in United States, 40, 41, 91, 92, 93, 94- 343. 344; demand for, in South, 58, 304; money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 83, 141, 144, 151; property owned by, 74 ; oc- cupations of, 55, 56, 76; " birds of passage," among 13, 78; diseased and defec- tive, 85, 159, 244; displace- ment of Irish by, 123; work- ing power of, 129; padrone system among, 132, 133 ; ability to speak English, 14s; criminality of, 151; lynching of, 155 ; Mafia among, 155 ; pauperism among, 163, 165 ; societies for the protection of, 163, 164, 307 ; dependents and de- linquents among, 166, 167; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; religion of, 181 ; naturaliza- tion of, 185, 192, 193, 194; voting by, 183, 187 ; aliens among, 192 ; effect of ex- pected passage of illiter- acy test on, 275 ; proposed distribution of, 302, 304; desired as immigrants, 315 Japanese, characteristics of, 58- 60; as contract laborers, 59; numbers in United States, 58; in agriculture, 59; agita- tion for exclusion of, 60; money shown by, immi- 386 Index grants, 71, 258; occupations of, 58, 76; illiteracy of, 81 Jefferson, Thomas, views of, 206 Knights of Labor, 125, 212, 276, 312 Know-Nothing party, origin and strength of, 207-209 Kuczynski, R. R., 113 Labor, immigration of un- skilled, 33, 34. 74-77. 123. 125, 136, 316; skilled, will not compete with unskilled, 34, 123 ; goes to other countries, 34 ; demand for, in South and West, 58, 122; unem- ployed, 68, 124, 135-138; im- migration and demand for, 17, 121-123; employers' desire for cheap, 122 ; natives and manual, 122 ; displacement of earlier by later, 123, 126; wages and standard of liv- ing, 123-131, 136; effect of machinery on, 33, 129, 130, 301, 302; padrone system of, 131-133; sweat shop system of, 133-135; proposed bureau of, 301 Labor unions, demand restric- tion, 68, 125, 312, 313; for- eign-born joining. 31,3 Land, exhaustion of public, in United States, 137 Landing certificates, proposed, 298 Legislation (see also " Stat- utes"), history of, 201- 238 ; effect of present laws, 239-255 ; proposed. 256-298 ; other remedies than, 299- 308; considerations as to further. 309-323; favoring immigrants, 201-204; Carri- age of Passengers Acts. 201 ; Act of 1864, 202 ; State legis- lation favoring immigrants, 203, 209; State restrictive, 203-206; federal restrictive, 206-231; as to coolies, 210; Contract Labor Laws, 212- 213; Act of 1882. 212, Act of 1891, 214; Act of 1893, 215; Act of 1894, 215 ; Act of 1903, 216-231; scope, 217; head- tax, 218; excluded classes, 219; offenses against, 220; re- jection of diseased, 222; manifests, 223; examination of immigrants, 226 ; deten- tion and return of aliens, 226; bonds and guaranties, 230; inspection and registra- tion of immigrants. 231-239; applies to insular posses- sions, 218; as to Philippines, 218; fear of, as cause of im- migration, 35 ; head-tax and money-test, 256-258 ; physi- cal test, 258-262; illiteracy test, 262-280 ; consular in- spection, 280-288 ; miscella- neous proposals for, 288- 295; administrative amend- ments proposed, 295-298; act of 1907, 348-368 Lithuanians, as immigrants, 62-65 ; money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 63, 72. 81; occupations of, 76; dis- eased and defective, 85 Lodge, Henry Cabot, generally. 37, 259 ; advocated illiteracy test, 263, 264, 267, 271 ; and consular inspection, 287 Lombroso, Cesare, isi Machinery, effect upon labor, 33, 129. 301, 302 Madison, James, views of, 206 Mafia, 155 Magyars, characteristics of, 60, 61 ; money brought by, - 71 ; occupations of, 61, 76; illit- eracy of. 81. 83; diseased and defective, 85-87 Manifests, required by Pas- Index 387 senger Acts, 201, 202; under Act of 1893, 215; liability for not delivering, 222, 225 ; under Act of 1903, 223; use of, on inspection, 223, 233 ; should show money brought, 298 Mann, Horace, 167 Marriage, rates of, in Massa- chusetts, 113 Massachusets Commission on the Unemployed, 124 Mather, Cotton, 123 " May laws," 8, 16, 20-22 Mayo-Sniith, Richmond, 320 McCall, Samuel W., 264, 267 Mental test, proposed, 294 Mexico, citizens of, exempt from head-tax, 218: immi- gration through, generally, 251-255; undesirable, 59, 219, 253; numbers of debarred, 253 ; rules for inspection of, 226; deported to Europe and Asia, 230, 254; application of illiteracy test to citizens of, 280 Michaud, Gustave, 103, 105, 106 Middle States, settlement of, 20 Migration, causes of, 14 Mine-owners, desire cheap la- bor, 122 Mining regions, emigration of laborers in, 13; displacement of labor in, 123, 126; stand- ard of living in, 127, 128; wages in, 127; crime in, 152; pauperism in, 164 ; labor tax in, 193 Money, exports of, 18, 32, 72, 73 ; brought by various races, 41-66, 70-73, relation of, to illiteracy, 72; to distribution, 72; value of immigrant, 67- 75 ; sent ahead by immi- grants, 69 ; saved by immi- grants, 74; no amount of, required for admission, 224; test proposed, 257, 258 ; man- ifests should show, brought, 298 Montana, Japanese immigrants in, 58 Montenegrins, as immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 81 Moravians, as immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 63, 81, 82; mon- ey brought by, 71 Mormons, missionary eflforts of, 35 Naturalization (see also " Po- litical Effects";" Suffrage"), anarchists not to enjoy, 155, 190; perjury in connection with, 180; among various races, 184, 192 ; voting power of foreign-born, 185-189; re- quirements for, 189-191 ; effect of, upon wife and children, 190; diversity of practice as to, 190, 193, 194; abuses connected with, 191 ; " birds of passage " and, 185, 192, 195 ; inducements to, 192, 193; and employment, 193; use of certificates of, abroad, 192, 195 ; fraudu- lent, 193, 194. 195.. 197, 241 ; certificates and inspection, 195 ; Koszta case, 196 ; rela- tion of, to immigration prob- lem, 198; and assimilation, 198; landing certificates and, 298 Natural selection, belief in, 318; not sufficient, 102, 322 Negroes, labor of, unsatisfac- tory, 58; birthrate of, in Boston, 116; criminality of, 149; problem of, 176 Newfoundland, citizens of, ex- empt from head-tax, 218; application of illiteracy test to citizens of, 280 Newspapers, in foreign lan- guages in United States, 145, 315; endorse illiteracy test. 388 Index 276; attitude of, toward re- striction, 309, 314, 315, 317 North America, emigration from, 5; immigration from British, 39; natives of, in United States, 40 Norton, Eliot, views of, loi, 301 Norwegians (see also " Scan- dinavians"), as immigrants, 37. 39. 60-62; occupations of, 61, 77 ; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; naturalization of, 185 Occupations, of various races, 41-66, 74-77; immigrants with no, 75 ; unskilled, 75 Oregon, Japanese in, 58 Padrone, as promoter of immi- gration, 19, 55; among Greeks, 48, 132, 133; wages paid by, 68; system of labor, 131-133; among Italians, 132; among Hebrews, 132; among Slavs, 132; bankers act as, 132; as steamship agents, 132 Panics, relation of, to immi- gration, 7, 17-19 Pauperism (see also "De- pendents and Delinquents"), among Italians, 57, 163; among Syrians, 65, 162; as an effect of immigration, 160-166, 208; among He- brews, 162, 163 ; among Slavs, 164 ; among native- born, 164; in mining regions, 164 ; continuance of, 164 ; paupers excluded, 219, 239 Perjury, in connection with naturalization, 180; in con- nection with inspection, 222; in connection with manifests, 225 Philippine Islands, immigra- tion laws apply to, 218 Physical test (see also "Dis- ease"; "Poor physique"), proposed, 258-262 Pilgrims and Puritans, 17, 20 Poles, as immigrants, 8, 13, 20-22, 38, 39, 62-65; charac- teristics of, 62-65 ; money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 63, 72, 81, 83, 151; occu- pations of, 63, 76; as "birds of passage," 13; in United States, 91, 92, 93, 343; ability of, to speak English, 145; criminality of, 151; So- cialism among, 156; propor- tion of, in cities, 171 ; voting power of, 187; aliens among, 192 Political effects (see also "Nat- uralization " ; " Suffrage "), Irish and German vote, 48; political tendencies, 183-189; naturalization, 189-198; change in political ideals, 188 Political oppression, 8, 16, 20- 22 Polygamists, excluded, 214, 219 Poor physique (see also "Dis- ease"; "Physical test"), among Hebrews, 50, 244; Austro-Hungarians, 244; Syrians, 66; Italians, 244; predisposes to tuberculosis, 85 ; physical defects, 86, 87, 242, 261, 262 ; immigrants with, generally admitted, 87; relation of, to illiteracy, 87; increasing, 87 ; dangerous to public health, 159; to be considered important by in- spectors, 223, 243; examin- ation for, 233, 242; definition of, 243 ; increasing, 243 Population (see also " Birth- rate"), and immigration, 10; density of, in United States, 119; natural increase of, 136 Porto Rico, immigration laws apply to, 218 Portuguese, money brought by, Index 389 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 141 ; naturalization of, 185 " Prepaids " (see "Assisted Immigration ") Probation, landing of aliens upon, 228, 295 Procurers, excluded, 219; lia- bility of, 220; numbers de- barred, 240 Prosperity, as cause of immi- gration, 17-19 Prostitutes, excluded, 211, 219; numbers debarred, 240 Public charges, persons likely to become, among Greeks, 48; excluded 212, 219, 223; admitted on oral promises, 223, 231 ; pregnant women as, 233 ; numbers of, de- barred, 239, 240; physical defects making, 242 ; admit- ting, upon bonds, 215, 230, 231, 297; deportation of, 214, 228 Public opinion, as to further restriction, 309-320 Quakers, 20 Quarantine, 8, 17 Race, Teutonic, 5, 39, 103, 112, 156; Keltic, 5, 39, 103, 112; Iberic, 39, 103, 112, 184; Slavic, 39, 103, 112, 156, 184; Mongolian, 39, 103 ; illiter- acy by, 81 ; stock, importance of, 99-101 ; changes in, 102- 120; Baltic, 103-106; Alpine, 103-106; Mediterranean, 103- 106; theory of, decay, 117; Semitic, 156; anarchy and, 156; and congestion in cities, 171, 343-346; Latin, 184; as affecting naturalization, 184; in voting, 186 ; proposed ex- clusion by, 288; tables of nationalities, 342, 343 Race-suicide (see "Birth- rate ") Racial conditions, changes in, 36-41 ; immigration from Northwestern Europe, 38; immigration from South- eastern Europe, 38; racial divisions in 1904, 39; foreign- born in United States, 40; characteristics of races, 41- 66 Racial effects, importance of race stock, 99-101; result of racial changes, 102-120; in- fluence of heredity, 99 ; on national character, 99-102; on future generations, 102; result of racial changes, 102- 120; prevention of immigra- tion, 106, 107 ; reduction of birth-rates, 107-120 ; on politi- cal institutions, ]88 Railroads, rates for immi- grants, 24; desire cheap la- bor, 122, 271 ; opposed to il- literacy test, 271 ; combina- tion of, and steamships as to rates, 271 ; influence of, on Canadian legislation, 254 ; and illiteracy test, 271, 280; advocate distribution of im- migrants, 304 Religion, as bar to assimila- tion, 52, 181 ; of Slavic immi- grants, 63; of immigrants generally, 181 ; Know-Noth- ing movement, 206-209 ; in- fluence of, on attitude toward restriction, 319 Religious persecution, 8, 16, 20- 22 Republicans, views of, 206, 207, 276, 310 Res adjudicata, decision of board of special inquiry is, when, 229, 250 Restriction o f immigration, demanded by labor unions, 68, 125, 312, 313; petitions for, 125, 275, 311; Carriage of Passenger Acts, 201 ; State legislation for, 203 ; federal legislation for, 206-231 ; ef- 390 Index feet of present laws, 239-255 ; need for further, 239-255; proposed total suspension, 85, 288; proposed exclusion by race, 288; by limitation of numbers, 289; by increase of air-space, 290; by exclu- sion of socialists, 291 ; by head-tax or money test, 256- 258; by physical test, 258- 262 ; by consular inspection, 280-288; by illiteracy test, 262-280 ; by exclusion of those not to become citizens, 291 ; by exclusion of im- moral persons, 292 ; by ex- clusion of " birds of pass- age," 293 ; by exclusion of single persons, 293 ; by ex- clusion of the aged, 294 ; by mental test, 294 ; by extend- ing period of deportation, 294; by administrative amendments, 295-298; public sentiment as to, 309-320 ; en- dorsements of, 309-317; op- position to, 317-320; ethics of, 320-323 Roberts, Peter. 112, 128 Rood, Henry E., 127 Roosevelt, Theodore, views of, 276, 306, 311 Roumanians, as immigrants, 21 ; illiteracy of, 81, 141 Russians (see also "He- brews"), as immigrants, 8, 20-22, 38, 39, 63 ; " May Laws," 8, 16, 20-22; money brought by, 71 ; occupations of, 76; illiteracy of, 81, 141, 151; in United States, 91, 92, 94. 95. 343. 345; ability of, to speak English, 145; criminality of, 151, 152; in- sanity among, 158, 159; pro- portion of, in cities, 171 Russniaks (see " Ruthenians ") Ruthenians, money brought by, 71, 72; as immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 63, 72, 81, 83 Sailors (see "Seamen") Sargent, Frank P., views of, 276, 300, 301 Savings, of immigrants, 74 Scandinavians, as immigrants, 37, 38, 61, 62; in United States, 40, 41, 91 ; character- istics of, 61, 62; money brought by, 71; illiteracy of, 81, 83, 151; diseased, 87; criminality of, 151 ; insan- ity among, 157; religion of, 181 ; naturalization of, 184, 185 ; desired as immigrants, 315. 316 Schwab, Gustav H., 295 Scotch, money shown by, im- migrants, 71 ; occupations of, 76; illiteracy of, 81, 83, 141, 151 ; criminality of, 151 ; disease among, 158; propor- tion of, in cities, 171; desired as immigrants, 315 Seamen, alien, inspected when, 238; Chinese, 238 Servians, as immigrants, 63; illiteracy of, 81, 141 Senner, Joseph H.. opposed to illiteracy test, 268, 270, 277; formerly favored test, 277 Sex, of Irish, 52, 76, 192; of Italians, 55, 56, 76; of Scan- dinavians, 76; of Germans, 76, 192; relation of illiteracy and, 82 Shaler, Nathaniel S., 175, 176 Slavonians (see " Sloveni- ans ") Slavs, in United States, 40, 41 ; as immigrants, 62-65; relig- ion of, 63 ; property owned by, 74; diseased, 85, 87; in hospital, 85, 87; suffering with serious defects, 85 ; with minor defects, 85 ; dis- place British in mining re- gions, 123, 126; padrone sys- tem among. 132 ; criminality of, 152; pauperism among, 164; dependents and delin- quents among, 166; natural- ization of, 184 Index 391 Slovaks, as immigrants, 13, 63; money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 83 ; oc- cupations of, 63 ; as " birds of passage," 13 ; political ignorance of, 187 Slovenians, as immigrants, 62- 65; money brought by, 71; occupations of, 76; illiteracy of, 8r, 82 Slums, immigrants in city, 153, 171, 172; races in, 172, 346; proposed scattering of, 302- 305. 316 Smallpox (see "Disease") Smuggling, of immigrants across borders, 32, 59, 252- 255 ; penalty for, 221 " Social Capillarity," law of, 118 Social conditions of immigra- tion, 80-95; illiteracy, 80-83; crime, insanity and disease, 83-87; distribution. 88-95 Social effects of immigration, illiteracy, 139-146; crime, 146- 156; insanity and disease, T56-160; pauperism, 160-165; burden of dependents and delinquents. 166-169; con- gestion in cities, 169-172; as- similation, 172-182 Socialists, proposed exclusion of, 291 Societies, among foreign-born, 26Q, 307-309. 318, 319 South Africa, emigration to, 34. 107 South America, emigration from, 5 ; emigration to, 35, 51. 107; natives of, in United States, 40; Germans in, 35, 107 Southern States, demand for labor in, 58, 122, 304, 305 ; immigration destined to, 90, 137; birthrate in, 117 Spanish, immigrants, 5 ; illiter- acy of, 81, 141 Special inquiry, boards of, 215, 235; duties as to diseased aliens, 222, 233; decision of, when res adjudicata, 229.250; appeals from, 222, 229, 236; evidence before, 223, 231 ; inspection by, 233, 234, 236 Spericer, Herbert, 116 Speranza, Gino C., 198 Standard of living, among Italians, 57, 129; generally, 123-131 ; in mining regiors, 127, 128; menaced bv immi- gration, 136; among Chinese, 328 States, immigration legislation of, as to employment, 192, 193, 203 ; restrictive legisla- tion by, 203-206; desires of, as to immigrants, 303. 315, 316; attitude of, towards restriction, T22, 311 Statistics, imperfections of. 77, 143, 150; children of immi- grants reckoned natives, 119; "aliens" iti census, 192; tables, immigration by dec- ades. 9, 339; annual immi- gration, 339-341 ; nationali- ties, 39, .342, 343 ; distribu- tion, 89-94. 170, 1 7 1.. 343-345: racial composition of city slums, 346; birth-rates, iii, 347; immigration compared with population. 10; steerage rates, 24; immigration by race, 39 ; foreign-born and their increase, 40 ; Slavic races, 63; illiteracy, 63, 72, 80, 81, 82. 141 ; money shown 71, 72; immigrants with no occupation, 75 ; unskilled, 75 ; "birds of passage," 77; dis- eased and defective. 85-87, 158; crime, 147, 148, 151; pauperism. 161 ; cost of de- pendents, 167 Statutes (see also "Legisla- tion"), Carriage of Passen- gers, i8ig, c. 46, 201 ; March 3. 1855, c. 213, 201 ; Aug. 2, 1882, c. 374, 201 ; coolie traf- fic, Feb. 19, 1862, 210; Feb. 392 Index 9, 1869, 210; March 3, 1875, 211; encouraging immigra- tion, July 4, 1864. c. 246, 202, 210; immigration, Aug. 3, 1882, 8, 17, 30, 212; Feb. 26, 1885, 17, 212; Oct, 18, 1888, 17, 212; Mar. 3, 1891, 30, 214-215; Mar. 3, 1893, 215; Aug. 18, 1894, 215; Mar. 3, 1903, 216-231 ; March 3, 1903, sec. I, 218; sec. 2, 219; sec. 3, 220; sec. 4, 221, 227; sec. 5, 221, 227, 250; sec. 6, 203 ; sec. 7, 221 ; sec. 8, 221; sec. 9, 26, 157, 221, 225, 241; sec. 10, 222, 262; sec. II, 223; sec. 12, 224; sec. 13, 225 ; sec. 14, 225 ; sec. 15, 222, 225; sec. 16, 227; sec. 17, 227; sec. 18, 222, 227; sec. 19, 222, 223, 227 ; sec. 20, 228; sec. 21, 222, 229, 230, 239, 250; sec. 22, 232, 250; sec. 24, 222, 234 ; sec. 25, 222, 235- 250; sec. 26, 230; sec. 32, 227; sec. 33, 218; sec. 35, 230; sec. 36, 220; sec. 37, 223 ; sec. 38. 222 ; sec. 39, 189, 190; March 18, 1904, c. 7t6. 218; March 22. 1904, 2r8: Feb. 6, 1905, c. 453, sec. 6. 2t8; naturalization, April 14, 1802, 189 Steamship lines, agents of, 23, 26. 27, 32, 33, 132, 240 ; capital invested in, 23 ; steerage rates, 12, 23-25; fixing of rates by. 25 ; solicitation by agents of. 23, 25-27, 32-33, 240, 245-248; charge return passage when. 26, 240; bring diseased persons. 26. 157, 221, 225, 241 ; sub-agents of. 27, 240; "coaching" of im- migrants by, 32, 33, 247. 248: from Mediterranean, 23. 25, 55, 78, 82 ; American Line, 12; padroni as ticket sellers, 132; air-space on ships, 20T, 290; advertisements limited, 214, 221; to display laws. 215; head-tax paid by, 218; pay cost of feeding detained immigrants, 237; supposed to enforce existing laws, 240; connive at evasions of law, 241 ; liability for smuggling aliens, 221 : escapes, 221, 222, 227; bringing diseased per- sons, 221, 225, 241, 349; neg- lecting to return debarred and deported, 222; entry of anarchists, 222 ; not delivering manifests, 222, 225; improper advertising, 221 ; opposition to illiteracy test by, 265, 269, 271 ; combination of, and rail- roads as to rates, 271 ; pro- posed limitation of ticket sell- ing, 298; artificial selection by, 26, 321 ; advocate distri- bution of immigrants, 304; to Southern States, 305 Steerage rates, 12, 23-25 ; fix- ing of, by lines, 25 ; advertise- ment of, 214; head-tax in- cluded in, 218 Stone, William A., advocated consular inspection. 281 Suffrage Csee also "Naturali- zation": " Political effects"), males of voting age in slums, 172; aliens entitled to, in some States. 185, 186. lOT : voting power of foreig^n-born, 185-189: racial units of, 186, Surgeons of ATarine Hospital Service, duties as to disea'^ed aliens, 222; inspection by. 222, 226, 232, 233 ; abroad, 242. 254: to certify minor defects, 242 " Survival of the fittest."^ 322 Suspension, total, of immigra- tion proposed. 85. 288 Sweat-shops. Hebrews in, 50; wages paid in, 68; generally, 133-135 Swedes (see also " Scandi- navians"), as immigrants, 5, 37. 39. 60-62; illiteracy of, Index 393 141 : Insanity among, 158, 159; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; naturalization of, 185 Swiss, as immigrants, 29; illit- eracy of, 141 ; proportion of, in cities, 171 ; desired as im- migrants, 315 Syrians, as immigrants, 65 ; money brought by, 71, 72; illiteracy of, 72, 81, 83; dis- eased and defective, 85 ; earlier immigrants displaced by, 126; pauperism among, 162; use of naturalization by, 196. 197; not fitted for agri- culture, 303 Tables (see " Statistics ") Tariff, effect on immigration, 33, 121 Tonnage, immigration regu- lated by, 201 Tosti, Gustavo, views on dis- tribution, 302 Trachoma (see "Disease") Transit, facility of, effect, 12, 22-25 True, A. C, 129 Underwood, Oscar W., 270 Unemployment, of labor in United States, 68; due to congestion, 68 ; immigration and, 124, 13s ; Massachusetts Commission on, 124; gener- ally, 135-138 Wages, paid by padroni, 68; in sweatshops, 68 ; newer im- migrants work for lower, 123-131 ; effect of immigra- tion upon, 123-131; in min- ing regions, 127; of agricul- tural laborers, 128 Walker, Gen. Francis A., 22, 107, 112, 128, 209, 321 War, as cause of immigration, 33 ; effect of, on race stock, 100 Ward, Lester F., 15 Warne, Frank Julian, 112 Washington, George, views of, 206 Washington, State of, Japanese in, 58 Watson, James E., 125 Welsh (see also "British"), proportion of, in cities, 171 Western Sta*?s, immigrants destined to, 90, 137; birth- rate in, 117; demand for labor in, 122, 130 Whigs, views of, 206, 207 White, Arnold, 51 Willcox, Walter F., 114 Williams, William, 228, 26c Hmerican public problems Series Edited by Ralph Curtis Ringwalt Chinese Immigration By Mary Roberts Coolidge, Formerly Associate Professor of Sociology in Stanford University. 531 pp., $1.75 net; by mail, $1.90. {Just issued.) Presents the most comprehensive record of the Chinaman in the United States that has yet been attempted. "Scholarly. Covers every important phase, economic, social, and political, of the Chinese question m America down to the San Francisco fire in 1906." — New York Sun. 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