LIBRARY OF THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY PRINCETON, N. J, BV 2120 .R6 1915a c.2 Robinson, Charles Henry, 1861-1925. History of Christian missijDns \mm Zbc gntetnattonal XTbeoIogtcal Xtbratg> PLANNED AND FOR YEARS EDITED BY The LATE Professor CHARLES A. BRIGGS, D.D., D.Litt., AND The late Principal STEWART D. F. SALMOND, D.D. HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. By CHARLES HENRY ROBINSON, D.D. ... .!/^M 16 IQiQ ^ International Theological Library - ^^ ^ -s^ HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS CHAELES HENEY EOBTNSON, D.D. HON. CANON OF RIPON CATHEDRAL AND EDITORIAL SECRETARY OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL IN FOREIGN PARTS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1915 PREFACE The story of missions, which reaches back to the beginning of the Christian era, and embraces almost every country in the world, cannot be told within the limits of a single volume. The task which I have ventured to undertake is of a far less ambitious character, my object being to provide the intelligent reader with an outline sketch of Christian missions which may enable him to obtain a correct perspective, but which will need to be tilled in for each several country and period of history by much careful study. This volume is not intended to serve as a diction- ary nor as a commentary upon missions, but as a text-book to encourage and facilitate their study. Those who have devoted the largest amount of time to such study will be most ready to forgive its imperfections and shortcomings. A well-known authority on the subject of Foreign Missions, to whom the task of writing this book was originally assigned, but who failed to respond to the invitation, wrote to its present author, " You have an almost impossible task; I should absolutely quail at the work you are doing." It would have been comparatively easy to fill the space allotted to me by the publishers with a discussion of the principles which have governed the activities of Christian missionaries, and it would have been still less difficult to compile a volume of statistics which would have shown, more or less accurately, the progress that has been made in bringing about the conversion of non- Christian lands, but in neither case would the object with which this volume was planned have been fulfilled. Of VI PREFACE missionary statistics I have tried to avoid any extensive use, and have only given such when they appeared to be necessary in order to elucidate the relative progress that has been made in different sections of the mission field or at different epochs. In attempting to describe the work of hundreds of missionary societies it is obvious that no single individual, however good his opportunities for obtaining information may be, can estimate correctly the relative importance of that which has been done in each several country and by individual societies. If in some instances I have appeared to dwell at disproportionate length upon the work of Anglican missions, this has not been due to my ignorance of the relative insignificance of their results, if these are calculated on a numerical basis, but is due to the fact that I have tried to lay special emphasis upon the beginnings of missionary enterprises, and to the fact that in many countries, where a large amount of work is now being carried on by other societies, missionary enterprise was initiated by Anglican missionaries. I desire to tender my apologies in advance to the representatives of several American societies concerning whose work I have found it difficult to obtain adequate information. As the series of which this volume forms a part is published both in Great Britain and in America, I venture to hope that those who live on either side of the Atlantic may be helped by its perusal to appreciate better than they have previously done how much good work is being accom- plished by those with whom they have not themselves been brought into contact. In order to render my task a little less " impossible " than it would otherwise have been, I have, albeit with reluctance, omitted any account of the conversion of Europe and of the methods which were adopted by its early missionaries. I had hoped to have included at least one or two chapters which would have served as an introduction to later missionary efforts, but the limits of my space have rendered this impossible. The list of those who have most kindly helped me to PREFACE Vli obtain information for the purposes of this book in Europe and America, and who have read sections of it while it was passing through the press, is too long to give, but I desire to express my special obligations to the three friends who have read the whole of the proofs and by doing so have prevented me from making a number of mistakes. These are Dr. Eugene Stock, formerly editorial secretary of the Church Missionary Society, Professor Cairns of Aberdeen University, and the Eev. B. Yeaxlee, formerly editorial secretary of the London Missionary Society, and now editor of the United Council for Missionary Education. I have given in various footnotes references to a few of the books which I have had occasion to consult, but it has not seemed desirable to attempt any kind of bibliography in view of the fact that the Board of Study for the Pre- paration of Missionaries has recently issued " A Bibliography for Missionary Students," edited by Dr. Weitbrecht, which is much more complete than any which it would have been possible for me to include. Throughout this volume I have used the expressions Eoman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant to designate re- spectively the Churches which are subject to the authority of the Pope, the Churches in Great Britain, America, and else- where which are in communion with the Church of England, and the non-Episcopal Churches. The title Catholic is some- times claimed as its exclusive possession by the Eoman Church, but as the title officially used in the decrees of the Council of Trent is " the Catholic and Apostolic Eoman Church," and as the title Catholic is universally claimed by the Anglican Church and is frequently claimed by other Churches, it would have been misleading to limit its use in the way suggested. A large section of the members of the Church of England and of Churches in communion with it are proud to designate themselves as Protestants, but inasmuch as many other members regard this desig- nation as inadequate, if not misleading, I have used the neutral word Anglican, which does not raise any contro- versial issue. I have avoided the use of the expression vill PREFACE '* Free Churches " as this would not have included several of the Protestant bodies in Great Britain or any of those in America. As the word " native " is much disliked by many of those to whom it has often been applied, and as there is no justification for its employment, I have avoided its use except in the case of quotations. In comparing the statistics issued annually by the Eoman Catholic missions with those issued by Anglican and Protestant missions, it is necessary to bear in mind the custom observed by Eoman Catholic missionaries of baptizing infants and others who are at the point of death. These far exceed in number all other baptisms. Thus — to quote the figures supplied in the Atlas Hierarchicus in 1913 — the number of those baptized when in the act of dying in the three dioceses of North Manchuria, South-West Chihli, and East Sichuen during 1912 was 48,339, whilst the number of adults and of children of Christian parents baptized was only 10,274. In using the statistics supplied by several of the Anglican, Protestant, and Eoman societies, it is necessary to bear in mind that they relate in some instances to work which is being carried on amongst Europeans or Americans who are living in foreign lands. The English Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the American Methodist Episcopal Church, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and several other smaller societies devote a certain part of their annual incomes to the support of those who are engaged in ministering to the spiritual needs of European or American Christians. In dealing with the statistics supplied by the Eoman Catholic organizations a similar caution is needed. The test of the success of missionary enterprise is furnished by moral and not by numerical results, and inasmuch as these are slow to appear and difficult to appraise, the student of missions is often tempted to impatience. He needs to remember that the progress of Christian missions, if it is to be judged aright, must be PREFACE ix measured by units which consist not of years, but of generations. In the beginning of the third century of the Christian era Dion Cassius, referring to the inhabitants of Britain, described them as an " idle, indolent, thievish, lying lot of scoundrels." As a result of Christian teach- ing extending over fifty generations, the proportion of the inhabitants of Britain to whom these epithets can justly be applied has perceptibly decreased. The epithets used by Dion Cassius are often applied to some of the peoples amongst whom Christian missionaries are now working, but before we institute any comparison between these peoples and ourselves to the detriment of the former, or to the disparagement of missionary efforts, we need to ascertain whether the progress which has been achieved within recent years does not compare favourably with that which occurred in our own land during any equal period of time. Few, if any, persons who have made a prolonged study of the work of Christian missions during the last two generations have failed to reach the conclusion that, as a direct result of the spread of missionary efforts, the prospects of the regeneration of the human race and of the establishment of the kingdom of God upon earth are brighter than they have been at any previous period in the world's history, C. H. R. CONTENTS FAOB Preface ...... V CHAP. I. Introductory .... 1 II. Methods of Missionary Work . 8 III. The Dawn of Modern Missions (1580-1750) . 42 IV. India . 61 V. Ceylon ...... . 145 VI. Burma . 151 VII. China . 160 VIII. Japan . 219 IX. Corea . 247 X. Malaysia ...... . 256 XI. Western and Central Asia . . 268 XII. Africa ...... . 277 XIII. America (U.S.A.) .... . 366 XIV. Canada . 382 XV. The West Indies .... . 389 XVI. Central America .... . 401 XVII. South America ..... . 409 XVIII. Australia , 430 XIX. New Zealand ..... . 440 Xll CONTENTS CHAP. PAQK XX. Isles op the Pacific ..... 445 XXI. Missions to Moslems ..... 465 XXII. Missions to the Jews ..... 473 XXIII. Missionary Societies ..... 477 XXIV. The Outlook . , . . . .493 Appendix.— Christian Reunion in the Mission Field , . . . , .499 Index , , . . , , .607 ABBREVIATIONS A.B.C.F.M. . American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. A.B.F.M.U. or A.B.M.U. American Baptist Foreign Missionary Union. A.M.E.C. . . American Methodist Episcopal Church. A.U.P.M. . . American United Presbyterian Mission. B. & F.B.S. . British and Foreign Bible Society. B.M.S. . . . Baptist Missionary Society. C.I.M. . . . China Inland Mission. C.E.Z.M S. . . Church of England Zenana Missionary Society. C.L.S. . . . Christian Literature Society in India. D.U.M. . . . Dublin University Mission. E.P.M. . , . Presbyterian Church of England Mission. F.M.S. . . . Foreign Missionary Society. L.J.S. . . . London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. L.M.S. . . . London Missionary Society. M.E.C. or A.M.E.C. American Methodist Episcopal Church. R.C Koman Catholic. S.A.M.S. . . South American Missionary Society. S.P.C.K. . . Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. xiii xiv ABBREVIATIONS S.P.G. . . . Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. S.V.M.U. . . Student Volunteer Missionary Union. U.F.C.S. or U.F.C. United Free Church of Scotland. U.M.C.A. . . Universities' Mission to Central Africa. W.M.S. . . . Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. Y.M.C.A. . . Young Men's Christian Association. Y.W.C.A. . . Young Women's Christian Association. Z.B.M. . . . Zenana Baptist Mission. Z.M.S. . , . Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS HISTOEY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS INTRODUCTORY. The missionary activities of the Christian Church have, since the Day of Pentecost, been one of its distinguishing characteristics. Nevertheless, there are some modern critics who maintain that its world-wide propaganda, which the apostles inaugurated and which subsequent Christian missionaries developed, was not founded upon any direct commands given by our Lord and did not form part of His original plan. Over against the command contained in St. Matthew (xxviii. 19) to go into all the world and make disciples of all the nations, they set the words, recorded in the same Gospel (xv. 24), " I was not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel," and the fact that the original commission given to the Twelve con- tained no statement that they were to be pioneers of a world- wide mission. It is clear that the question " Did our Lord from the first intend that the religion which He taught should become a missionary religion throughout the whole world ? " cannot be answered by quoting individual texts, but that the answer must be deduced from a consideration of the essential character of His mission. The words in which He Himself defined that mission were : " The Son of Man is come to seek and to save that which was lost." The title which He here applies to Himself is, as all critics admit, one which He habitually used. If the assumption of this title be regarded, as all 2 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Christians have regarded it, as a claim to be the repre- sentative of the whole human race, its occurrence in this passage implies that the scope of our Lord's mission includes all human beings who stand in need of being saved, and the limitation of its scope to the lost sheep of the house of Israel must be regarded as having been merely provisional. In endeavouring to interpret the underlying meaning of our Lord's teaching, it is necessary to remember that inasmuch as it was addressed to the hearts as well as to the minds of men, he alone is qualified to understand its full significance in whose heart it has awakened a sympathetic response, and whose life has become in some degree a reflection of the life of Jesus Christ. If this be admitted, and if, therefore, we may appeal for the interpretation of His intention regarding the evangeliza- tion of the world from the intellectual student of Christianity to the man to whom " to live is Christ," there can be no doubt as to the reply that we shall receive. It is not too much to say that the more Christlike a man becomes the more ardent becomes his desire to bring the whole world to his Master's feet and the more certain does he feel that in seeking to accomplish this object he is rightly interpreting the mind of his Teacher. To know the mind of Christ we must appeal not only to the Gospel records, but to the beliefs and aspirations of the most Christlike persons in this and every other time. An appeal lies, moreover, not only to the subjective but to the objective experience of mankind. The unique claim of Christianity to be the uni- versal religion is not grounded upon the possession of a sacred book, nor upon the miracles which accompanied its introduction into the world, nor upon its revelation of a future life, nor, lastly, upon the testimony of the saints and heroes who have accepted its teachings. Other religions which do not attempt to appeal to all mankind have advanced similar claims. The unique claim which INTRODUCTION 3 Christianity puts forward is grounded upon the fact, of which the whole history of Christian missions serves to sub- stantiate the truth, that it alone, of all religions, is capable of satisfying the needs of every member of the human race. The Chinese who said to Bishop Boone, whom he had helped to translate the New Testament into his own language, " Whoever made that book made me ; it knows all that is in my heart," was putting into language the response which the teaching of the Christian message has evoked from men of every race and of every stage of civilization or of savagery throughout the world. If we have read aright the story of Christian missions, we are justified in saying that the religion of the New Testament has been tested in every clime and amongst races of every degree of culture, and that its teachings have never been presented patiently and lovingly to any people whom they have failed to uplift and transform and whose deepest needs they have failed to supply. The Christian religion came into existence as the result of the manifestation of One who was at once the Son of God and the Son of man, and its claim to universal acceptance is founded on the fact that this divine-human Being can supply the whole world's needs. There is no race or people to which the gospel message, when once it has been apprehended, has appealed in vain. A savage Bechuana, on hearing the story of the Cross, was deeply moved, and exclaimed, "Jesus, away from there ! That is my place." The early Moravian missionaries in Greenland laboured for years to teach their hearers the principles of right and goodness, but without result. When, however, they read to them the Gospel account of the death of Christ, one of them exclaimed, " Why did you not tell us this before ? Tell us it again." ^ Its repetition was speedily followed by the conversion of many of their hearers. If Christian missions have done nothing else, they have proved that the earth contains no race so degraded but that the gospel story can appeal to it. 1 See p. 52. 4 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS In the course of our attempt to sketch the work of Christian missionaries we shall have occasion to point out some of the distinctive needs of the various races to which their appeal has been made, and the response that it has served to evoke, but before doing so it may be well to recall three fundamental needs of which every human being is conscious, and which Christianity can supply more completely than any other religion. 1. Man, whether savage or civilized, needs a power greater than any that he is conscious of possessing which can enable him to live up to his own highest ideals. In studying the chief non-Christian religions we come across rules and maxims which, if they could be translated into action, would enable their possessors to rise high above the level on which their lives are being lived, but we search in vain in the sacred books of these religions for a power or source of inspiration that can enable them so to rise. In Christianity, on the other hand, we have a revelation of the highest ideals of conduct and we have at the same time offered to us the help of One who has Him- self lived the highest life and can live it over again in the lives of those who accept His help. The task of the Christian missionary is not to sweep away or undermine the teachings of non-Christian religions, but to reveal the source of the power which can enable men to fulfil the best teaching which these religions inculcate and to rise to higher ideals than any to which they point. The contrast between the helplessness of the great Oriental religions when confronted with failure to reach life's highest ideals and the helpfulness of Christianity is well illustrated by an allegory told by a Chinese catechist who was trying to explain to his fellow-countrymen the practical difference between the way of salvation as taught respectively by Confucius, Buddha, and Christ. He de- scribed man as a traveller who had fallen from the narrow path of rectitude into an abyss of evil and despair. Presently on the narrow path above him China's great teacher, Confucius, appears, and to him the fallen traveller INTRODUCTION 5 appeals for help, but only to receive the reply uttered in tones of reproach, " Here is no place for prayer." When Confucius has gone on his way Buddha is seen ap- proaching, and in response to an agonized appeal for help he descends a few steps from the narrow path, and peering with sympathetic gaze into the abyss, he says, " If thou couldst rise a little higher, then could I deliver thee," but the weak and exhausted traveller sinks yet lower into the murky depth. Finally, the form of Jesus Christ is seen advancing along the same narrow path, and to Him is the traveller's final appeal addressed. No sooner has it been uttered than the divine Deliverer, clothed in light, descends to the bottom of the abyss, and raising the helpless traveller in His arms, carries him up to the narrow path, and having set his feet securely upon it, walks by his side supporting him ever and anon until the path emerges at last into the final light. The allegory helps us to understand how Christianity appealed to a Confucian Buddhist, and wherein the gospel message differs from the teachings of other religions. 2. The second need of which man is conscious is sympathy. If his efforts to rise to a higher moral and spiritual level than that to which he has as yet attained are not to end in despair, he needs to know that there is a Being to whom his welfare is a matter of immediate concern, and who can both rejoice and sym- pathize, that is, "suffer together with" him. Divine sympathy is a concept that can hardly be said to exist outside the Christian revelation, but man has no greater need than that which these words express. Bishop Selwyn of New Zealand told how the knowledge that God suffered because of man's sin transformed the character of the cannibal savages of New Zealand. He wrote in 1840 : " I am in the midst of a sinful people, who have been accustomed to sin uncontrolled from their youth. If I speak to a native on murder, infanticide, cannibalism, and adultery, they laugh in my face, and tell me I may think these acts are bad, but they are very good for a native, and 6 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS they cannot conceive any harm in them. But, on the con- trary, when I tell them that these and other sins brought the Son of God, the great Creator of the universe, from His eternal glory to this world, to be incarnate and to be made a curse and to die, then they open their eyes and ears and mouths, and wish to hear more, and presently they acknow- ledge themselves sinners, and say they will leave off their sins."i 3. Lastly, if a man is to be sustained in his efforts to realize the highest ideals embodied in his own religion and to rise to those which are still higher, he needs to become the possessor of a hope which reaches out beyond his present horizon. The saddest feature of the religions of ancient Greece and Eome, and of the great religions of the East, is the absence of hope. Amongst the debris of an ancient house in Salonica (the Thessalonica of St. Paul's time) were found two funeral urns of apparently the same date: one bore the inscription, "No hope"; the other, " Christ, my life." The contrast between the two is the contrast between man's destiny as interpreted by most of the chief religions of the world and man's destiny as inter- preted by the message which Christian missionaries have to proclaim. According to orthodox Hinduism, we have now reached the five thousandth year of the Kali Yuga, or "evil cycle," of which there are 427,000 more years to run. There will then be three other cycles extending over 4,000,000 years before this evil cycle again recurs, which is to happen many thousands of times. The possi- bility that after countless re-births, extending over unnum- bered millions of years, a man may at last escape from the miseries of human existence, furnishes no ground of hope that is worthy of the name. The conviction that in Christianity alone of all the religions of the world are to be found the revelation of the power, the sympathy, and the hope which the world needs, begets the assurance that it will one day fulfil what we believe to have been the purpose of its Founder and will 1 Life of Bishop Selwyn, p. 72. INTRODUCTION 7 become the religion of the whole world. Meanwhile, as the message carried by the Christian missionaries makes its appeal to one race after another, the fact that it con- tinues to meet the needs of all provides cumulative evidence that the source of the message is divine. The missionary, albeit unconsciously, becomes the Christian apologist. The only certain proof that the Christian Bible is inspired is that it continues to inspire, and this proof the missionary is in a position to furnish to a unique extent. It is impossible in the brief space at our disposal to follow out this line of thought, and to show otherwise than by incidental illustrations how the gospel message has inspired men of all races to lead new lives and to aim at higher and ever higher ideals, but the story of Christian missions will have been ill told if it does not serve to demonstrate this fact. II. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK. One of the chief results which the careful student may hope to attain by a study of Christian missions is an intelligent appreciation of the methods that are likely to prove most successful in the mission field to-day. The materials for study are well-nigh inexhaustible. We may venture to assert that no new method of prosecuting Christian missions has been suggested within recent years which has not been tested in practice during the eighteen centuries that lie between us and the work of the first missionaries. It is much to be desired that those who speak, or write books, on Christian missions from the theo- retical standpoint would fit themselves more adequately for their task by a prolonged study of their subject carried on both in libraries at home and in the mission field. In attempting to discuss methods of missionary work, the first question that arises is. What guidance can we hope to obtain from the pages of the New Testament, and in particular, from the experience of the greatest of Christian missionaries, the Apostle St. Paul ? The task which he set himself to accomplish was to interpret, by word and action, his Master's purpose of love towards the whole world, and, supported by the belief that Jesus Christ was not only with him but in him, he trans- formed Christianity from a national into the universal religion, and laid the foundation of the missionary work which the Church of Christ has since accomplished. The chapters in the Acts of the Apostles which refer to his work when read in conjunction with the letters addressed METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 9 to the churches which he helped to establish, help us to understand the principles which guided his missionary policy and the methods which he adopted in his endeavours to embody these principles in action. Every one who desires to promote the success of Christian missions to-day will admit that the records which have been preserved of St. Paul's missionary labours have a significance which transcends the limita- tions of time and place by which his work was originally conditioned, but when he proceeds to ask how far the methods adopted by St. Paul can or ought to be copied in any part of the mission field of to-day, he is confronted with a problem which he will find it hard to solve. Few Christians would deny that the principles on which St. Paul based his missionary methods are applicable to all times and to all lands, but any one who surveys the vast area of the modern mission field and who appreciates, as far as the limitations of his knowledge will allow, the differences which exist between the conditions which govern missionary development, say in Japan and West Africa, or in India and New Guinea, will realize that the exigencies of the modern mission field demand more numerous and more complex methods of action than any which can be deduced from the recorded experiences of St. Paul or his fellow-apostles. There are three questions which are constantly being discussed by the representatives of missionary societies at home and by those responsible for the supervision of missionary work abroad. These concern (1) the diffusion of missionary influence over wide areas as contrasted with its concentration at strategic points ; (2) the qualifications to be required of those who are to be appointed as ministers of the Christian Church in the mission field ; (3) the stage in the development of a particular mission at which it is wise to attempt the establishment of an independent Christian Church or branch of the Christian Church in a non-Christian country. 10 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS St. Paul's Missionary Methods. Before proceeding to illustrate from the history of missions the answers which have been given and are being given to these questions, let us ask how far we are justified in appealing to the experience of St. Paul in the hope of obtaining an authoritative solution to the problems which they raise. Those who have appealed to his example and experience and, on the strength of such an appeal, have condemned many of the practices of modern missionaries, have too often failed to realize how different were the conditions under which he worked from those which prevail in the greater part of the mission field to-day. 1. The first of these questions may be expressed thus : Is it wiser as a general rule to diffuse missionary effort over a wide district in the hope of reaching all who may be found willing to listen to the Gospel message, or to concentrate the missionary forces at a few important centres, in the hope that the light of the Gospel may eventually radiate throughout the surrounding districts which are for the time being perforce neglected ? It is obvious that the conditions under which missionary work has been, and is being, carried on in different parts of the world differ so widely that no answer can be given to this question to which exceptions must not be admitted. To take a single illustration, which has a special bearing upon the problem raised by the first question. St. Paul's missionary activities were largely, if not entirely, confined to towns, whereas the chief sphere of the modern missionary may be said to lie in villages. The visitor to India or China who takes an interest in missionary work is naturally impressed with the crying needs of the vast centres of population which he sees, and is apt to forget that the population contained in the towns represents but the tiniest fragment of the total population. Nearly half the human race is to be found to-day in the villages of India and China. These villages are so small METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 11 and so close together that it is often possible, where the ground rises by a few feet, to count twenty or thirty at one time. It is obvious, therefore, that the experiences of the modern missionary who tries to evangelize the villages which constitute the greater part of the modern mission fields are likely to differ widely from the experiences which St. Paul met with in his attempt to preach the Gospel in some of the great cities of the ancient world. Even when we compare missionary work in modern cities with that carried on by St. Paul, the conditions of the two will be found to be widely dissimilar. In nearly all the cities in which St. Paul worked, Greek or Latin was understood, and a Jewish community afforded him the opportunity to appeal through Jewish converts to the wider circle with which they were in touch. In one case only did he attempt to start missionary work and to bring into existence Christian Churches in a district where the prevailing conditions approximated to those which are found in the greater part of the mission field to-day. Bishop Mylne, who was formerly Bishop of Bombay, in his book entitled. Missions to Hindus, maintains (and there is much to be said for his contention) that St. Paul adopted a mistaken policy in attempting to do pere- grinating evangelistic work in Galatia, and urges that his letter to the Galatians and the fact that he never again attempted similar work prove that he had realized his mistake. "One great convincing experience," Bishop Mylne writes, " was to come to St. Paul which would serve with its disastrous shock to convince him of the falsity of his method — the great Galatian apostasy. . . . The method which had prospered elsewhere had disastrously failed among them. The withdrawal of his personal presence from converts of a barbarous race with a poor reputation for stability, far removed from civilizing influences, had proved to be a shock to their faith against which they could not stand. They fell victims to the first false teachers, who 12 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS offered them a plausible Judaism in place of the Gospel of Christ." 1 With this one exception, it would appear from the accounts of St. Paul's missionary labours which have been preserved that he never attempted to preach in villages, but concentrated his efforts upon towns, and specially upon six or seven towns where he sought to establish Christian Churches, which should serve as strategic points in view of the eventual evangelization of the surrounding districts. On the one occasion on which he and his companions thought of attempting to evangelize the scattered country districts of Bithynia, "the Spirit of Jesus suffered them not," 2 and impelled them to extend their labours to the towns of southern Europe. It would appear, therefore, that in so far as St. Paul's experience affords any help towards the solution of the problem raised by the first question, it tells in favour of concentrated as opposed to diffused missionary work. At the same time the fact that his experience of a diffused mission appears to have been limited to a single instance, makes it impossible to regard this as affording unmistakable guidance. The lesson which we have ventured to deduce from the example of St. Paul is endorsed by the experience of later missionaries. Whilst examples might be obtained from many other countries, the history of Christian missions in India affords the most convincing illustrations of the comparative value of the two methods. In the judgment of Bishop Mylne, whom we have already quoted, the three greatest missionaries who have laboured in India were the Jesuit, 1 Pp. 86, 124. Bishop Mylne held with Bishop Lightfoot that " Galatia " was in the extreme north of Asia Minor, but if we accept Ramsay's theory that it was in the south, and included Phrygia and Lycaouia, it would still be the ease that the majority of the inhabitants of Galatia to whom St. Paul preached were less civilized than were those amongst whom the other Christian churches established by him were founded. ^ Acts xvi. 7. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 13 Francis Xavier, the Lutheran, Schwartz, and the Baptist, Carey. As we shall see later on,^ Xavier adopted the " diffusive " method as completely as it was possible for any one to adopt it. His aim was to spread a know- ledge of the Christian faith over the widest possible area, and in accordance with his principles of evangeliz- ation, he baptized tens of thousands of persons whose language he did not understand and whose knowledge of Christianity was limited to the verbal acceptance of a few dogmatic statements. He did this in the hope that some of them, or at any rate that some of their children, might eventually attain a fuller knowledge of the faith. His successors down to the present day have endorsed his action, and to a greater or less extent have followed in his steps. What, then, has been the result ? To quote the words of Bishop Mylne : "The result is that the conversion of the country to Christianity is no nearer than it was when he left it, for anything that his followers have done ; that they form but a Christian caste, unprogressive, incapable of evangelizing, observing distinctions of caste within the body of the Christian Church ; holding their own with a pathetic faithfulness among people of other creeds, but woefully low in their practice, and scandalously superstitious in their con- ceptions ; afraid of the Hindu gods ; and all but idolaters themselves in their veneration of saints and their images." ^ The methods adopted by Schwartz, to whose work we shall have occasion to refer later on, differed in important respects from those of Xavier. He spent nearly fifty years in Southern India and was able to speak the language of the people to whom he appealed. He refused to baptize until the candidates for baptism had given clear proofs of repentance and faith. He traversed enormous areas, and at his death in 1798 his converts were reckoned by tens of thousands. When, however, several of the missions which he had founded were taken over by the S.P.G. in 1825, villages and communities which had formerly been ^ See pp. 70-74. 2 Missions to Hindus, p. 115 sq. 14 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Christian were found to have lost almost all knowledge of the Christian faith and to have relapsed into Hinduism. The collapse of the greater part of Schwartz's work is apparently to be attributed to the diffused methods of evangelization which he adopted and to his "reliance on the power of the gospel to develop spiritual independence in characters quite unprepared for it." The aim that Carey set before him was to create one "red-hot centre from which the light and influence of Christianity might radiate throughout a gradually widening circle." We shall have occasion later on to refer in greater detail to the methods adopted by Carey and to point out the lasting nature of the results which he achieved (see pp. 81-83). It would be easy to produce evidence of a similar character from other mission fields, though in no other country has sufficient time elapsed since missionary work was inaugurated to enable the results to be seen as clearly as they are to be seen to-day in India. 2. The second problem to which we referred is raised by the question, What moral and intellectual qualifications ought to be required of those to be appointed as ministers of a newly established Christian Church in the foreign mission field ? There are some who have sought to find an answer to this question by referring to the example of St. Paul, who, in certain instances after a stay of a few months or even a few weeks in a city, felt able to appoint elders to carry on the work which he had begun and to guide and organize the infant Church. They ask. If St. Paul was able to act thus, how can it be necessary that a course of preparation extending over several years should be required before ministers are appointed or ordained in countries where Christian missionary work is being carried on to-day ? Before we can admit the relevance of this direct appeal to the example of St. Paul we need to know what were the moral and intellectual qualifications of the elders to whom he was accustomed to entrust the carry- ing on of the missionary work which he inaugurated. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 15 Outside Galatia it is doubtful whether St. Paul ever founded a Church in any place in which there did not already exist a Jewish synagogue and in which Jewish methods of church organization were not well understood. It is certain that in the great majority of the places in which he is reported to have preached the infant Church included Jews or Jewish proselytes who had accepted the teaching contained in the Old Testament before they became Christians, and who must have exerted a profound and lasting influence upon the converts who joined the Church from the ranks of heathenism. How widely scattered were the Jews may be inferred from the remark of Seneca, who wrote : " The customs of this most accursed race have prevailed to such an extent that they are every- where received. The conquered have imposed their laws on the conquerors." ^ Strabo wrote : " They have now got into every city, and it is hard to find a spot on earth which . . . has not come under their control." ^ Harnack calculates that the Jews and their converts formed 7 per cent, of the population of the Eoman Empire, which at the beginning of the Christian era was reckoned at 54 millions. He writes : " In order to comprehend the propaganda and diffusion of Christianity, it is essential to understand that the religion under whose * shadow ' it made its way out into the world not merely contained elements of vital significance but had expanded till it embraced a considerable proportion of the world's population." ^ It is hardly necessary to point out that the conditions under which Christian missionaries labour to-day are far removed from those which existed in the countries in which St. Paul established the earliest Christian Churches. It is clear, therefore, that his example affords no precedent for leaving newly established Christian Churches in charge of Christians who have had no preparation for the fulfil- 1 Aug. de Civ. Dei, vi. p. 11. 2 Josephus, Ant. xiv. 2. 7. ^ Expansion of Christianity, vol. i. p. 11, 16 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS ment of their task analogous to that which the Jewish elders had inherited and received. In the course of this volume we shall have occasion to refer to instances in several different lands and at different epochs in which those in charge of missions have sought to imitate the letter of St. Paul's example and to note the results which ensued. Christian missions have to a large extent passed out of the empirical stage, and one of the most certain lessons to be deduced from their history is that attempts to imitate literally the example of St. Paul, and to appoint as Christian ministers the best men who may be avail- able in a newly established Christian community, with- out insisting upon any long course of preparation, are destined to retard the establishment of the Christian Church. Many parts of the mission field contain ruins which represent attempts that have been made to build the Church of God by individuals who imagined that they were following primitive or Pauline methods, but who acted in ignorance or disregard of the lessons which have been taught by the long experience of Christian missionaries. 3. The third problem, which is an extension of the second, is raised by the question, At what stage in the evangelization of a non-Christian country ought the foreign missionaries to retire and to leave the entire control of the Church to the Christians of the district or country ? One of the most common charges brought against the representatives of foreign missionary societies is their alleged reluctance to hand over the government of a Church which they have helped to found to the members of that Church. Such charges are seldom if ever brought by careful students of missionary history, for whom the failures of the past act as a warning against the assumption that any uniform time limit can be suggested, at the expiration of which it can be assumed that an independent and self -governed Church ought to be established. Most students of missionary history will admit that the premature withdrawal of European supervision has not METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 17 infrequently retarded the building up of a Christian com- munity and the establishment of a Christian Church that can be considered worthy of the name. As illustra- tions of the lamentable results which have followed the withdrawal of adequate European supervision we may point to the experience of the C.M.S. on the Niger, of the S.P.Gr. in parts of Southern India and Burma, of the W.M.S. in South Africa, and of the L.M.S. in British Guiana. Before we proceed to consider the development of Christian missions in later times, it is well that we should recall what was the spiritual condition at the close of the first century of seven of the Christian Churches in Asia Minor, one at least of which had been founded by St. Paul, and all of which must have been influenced by him. Nor is there any reason to doubt the ancient tradition that they had all been superintended during a considerable number of years by the Apostle St. John. The messages transmitted by the writer of the Apocalypse to these Churches suggest that their growth in the Christian life was as interrupted and as slow as that which we observe in the missionary Churches which have been founded within recent years. The Church at Ephesus, where St. Paul had laboured long, and where, according to tradi- tion, St. John had afterwards resided, " had left its * first love/ " and was urged to repent on pain of having its candlestick removed. The Church at Sardis had a name to live but was in reality dead, and contained but few who had " not defiled their garments." The Church at Laodicea was lukewarm, and knew not that it was " wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked." To two only of the Seven Churches is a message of encouragement sent unmixed with blame. The story of these Churches, which were cared for and superintended by the apostles and their immediate suc- cessors, should serve to encourage the missionary who is tempted to-day to suppose that because the lives of the Christians amongst whom he has laboured are un-Christlike, his work cannot have been carried on upon apostolic lines. 2 18 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Political methods of evangelization. We pass on now to consider a method of propagating the Christian religion which can claim no support from the example of St. Paul, but which has exercised a large in- fluence upon the development of Christian missions. We refer to the use of political influences for the purpose of facilitating conversions to the Christian faith. Under the term political influences we include all offers of material inducements and threats of punishments or loss, whether made by Governments or by individuals. The change of attitude on the part of most Christian people towards the employment of political methods for the spread of the Christian faith among non-Christian races has been so gradual and at the same time so complete that we do not easily appreciate how far we have travelled from the standpoint of our forefathers. From the days of Constantine down to a period well within the nineteenth century comparatively few Christians would have rejected the proposition that it was lawful, and in many cases advisable, that missionaries should avail themselves of political influences in order to facilitate the prosecution of their work. During the Middle Ages the writings of St. Augustine exercised a dominating influence over the missionary policy of Christendom. He was not himself distinguished for missionary zeal, and apparently made no attempt to organize any missionary enterprise amongst the heathen races in North-West Africa. His writings, how- ever, include several passages in which he urges that the pagans in Hippo and the surrounding district ought to be punished with death if they persisted in their refusal to embrace the Christian faith.^ His interpretation, moreover, of the words in the Parable of the Great Supper, " compel them to come in," as affording authorization for the em- ployment of force to compel an acknowledgment of the Christian faith, was accepted by most of his readers. One or two voices were raised from time to time 1 Ej)ist. 93. 2, 185. 6. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 19 against the policy of forcible conversion, but their protests met with little response. Thus Eaymond Lull, the first missionary to Mohammedans (d. 1315), wrote: " They think they can conquer by force of arms : it seems to me that the victory can be won in no other way than as Thou, 0 Lord Christ, didst seek to win it, by love and prayer and self-sacrifice." Later on, in the sixteenth century. Las Casas, the " Apostle of Mexico," in his treatise De unico vocationis modo, urged that men ought to be brought to Christianity only by persuasion, and where no special injury had been received, it was not lawful for Christians to carry on war against infidels merely on the ground that they were infidels. It would be impossible to name any country in Europe apart from Great Britain and Ireland the conversion of which to Christianity was not to a large extent hastened by the employment of physical force. In the early days of Anglican and Protestant missions, whilst the employ- ment of force was usually discouraged, it was thought to be right to make use of material inducements in order to hasten the work of conversion. The following extract from a journal kept by Van Eiebeek in 1658 at Cape Town might be paralleled in many other lands : " April 17. — Began holding school for the young slaves, the chaplain being charged with the duty. To stimulate the slaves to attention while at school, and to induce them to learn the Christian prayers, they were promised each a glass of brandy and two inches of tobacco when they finish their task." i During the eighteenth century several missionaries wrote in defence of the slave trade, basing their justification of this trade upon the advantages which those captured * A History of Christian Missions in South Africa, by J. Du Plessis, p. 30. 20 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS and sold as slaves would eventually receive by being brought into contact with Christian masters.^ An example, on a large scale, of the disastrous results of employing political methods of spreading Christianity is afforded by the religious history of Ceylon. When the Dutch took over from the Portuguese the island of Ceylon in 1656, they attempted to force a Protestant form of Christianity upon its inhabitants by subjecting Buddhists, Hindus, and Romanists who were not prepared to embrace Protestantism, to heavy civil disabilities. The unsatisfactory nature of the conversions so obtained was made clear when, on the cession of the island to England in 1798, these disabilities were removed. In 1801, soon after this change took place, there were 342,000 Singalese and 136,000 Tamils who professed Protestant Christianity ; but before ten years had elapsed more than half of these had declared themselves Buddhists or had become devil-worshippers, and a large proportion of the " Government religion " churches were in ruins. The far-reaching effects of the policy adopted by the Dutch for spreading Christianity may be inferred from the statement of Bishop Copleston, formerly Bishop of Colombo, who wrote a few years ago : " Not till within the last twenty years has the Buddhist- Christian element been in the main got rid of." Although the principle of endeavouring to spread the Christian faith by the direct offer of material inducements is now rejected by nearly all other missions, it is still accepted by the representatives of many Roman Catholic missions. To take a single illustration which has come under the notice of the writer : After the Lutheran and Anglican missions had obtained a widespread success in the Chota- Nagpur district in North-Eastern India, the Roman missionaries, who then appeared for the first time, adopted the policy of granting small loans to all who were willing to attend their churches, on the understanding that these * See reference to pamphlet published by the Rev. T. Thompson, the first English missionary to Africa, on p. 291. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 21 loans would not be repayable as long as those who received them continued to attend. The recipients include a large number of those who were formerly attached to the Lutheran and Anglican missions, and the system is in working order at the present time. The country in which this principle has been most definitely adopted and in which it has produced results which have affected all Christian missions is China. In an elaborate work,^ which has received the official sanction of the Eoman Church, lately issued by the Foreign Mission Press of Hong-Kong, the writer reviews in detail the different methods that have been adopted by missionaries in China. After explaining all that can be said for and against the adoption of political methods, he arrives at the conclusion that interference by European missionaries in Chinese lawsuits is a means designed by Providence " to draw to religion the simple country people." It is signifi- cant to find that the writer who approves this policy of offering material inducements to non- Christians in China goes on to deplore the fact that the present prospect of Eoman Catholic missions in that country is far from encouraging. To Christian missionaries the two events of recent years in the Far East which will appear of greatest importance are the official announcement that the Japanese Govern- ment is prepared to recognize Christianity as one of the three religions of Japan, Shinto and Buddhism being the other two, and the appeal for prayer addressed by the Chinese Government to its Christian subjects. In both cases the change of attitude on the part of the Government concerned marks a new stage in the spread of the Christian faith over a large part of the non- Christian world, and in both cases political and religious motives appear to have been inextricably intermingled. The student of Christian missions who is familiar with the results which, in ancient, mediaeval, and modern times alike, have followed the * Mithode de VApostolcU mocUrne en Chine, p»r R. P. L. Keryyn, Hong-Kong. Imprimerie de la Socidt^ des Missions-^trangeres, 1911. 22 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS employment of political influences in support of the Christian faith, will regard with profound misgivings the possible exercise of such influences on a wide scale. Cases are to be found in all parts of the mission field in which converts have been induced to make a profession of their Christian faith in the hope that they might secure for themselves material advantages, and in some instances the responsibility for arousing this hope lies with the missionaries. The principle, however, of endeavouring to attract converts by the offer of such advantages is one which has now been abandoned by all non-Eoman missionary societies. Experience shows conclusively that missionary work prospers most and that the best types of Christian character tend to be produced when the convert to the Christian faith has to face at least a mild form of persecution. The nominal spread of Christianity through- out Europe which, in the course of time, followed the Edict of Milan, ushered in the " dark ages," from which Europe as a whole can as yet hardly be said to have com- pletely emerged. No one would desire that the future history of China or Japan should afford any parallel to the experience of Europe. Educational Missions. During the last seventy years educational missions have gradually taken the place of the employment of political influences in a great part of the mission field. As will be shown later on in our references to Dr. Duff and others, the provision of colleges, schools, and industrial institutions has gradually become an important factor in the situation and has greatly affected the work of the evangelistic mis- sionary. Missionaries have not always or generally been educational experts, and it is not a matter for surprise that the success of the schools which they have established has been by no means uniform. Moreover, in view of the fact that they are endeavouring, by means of educational missions, to appeal to races which METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 23 differ in culture and mental powers as much as do the Brahmans of India and the cannibals of the Pacific, it is obvious that the educational methods which they need to adopt must admit of wide variation. Methods of teaching which would be the best possible in West Africa or in New Guinea would be worse than useless in India, China, or Japan, and vice versa. But though the methods should vary, the principles which underlie them must remain the same. The object which the educational missionary needs to keep in view is to " educate " — that is, to draw out and develop the latent capacities of his pupils in order that the additional know- ledge which he desires to impart to them may be correlated with their previous knowledge and with their methods of thinking. To accomplish this would be to accomplish one of the most difficult tasks which it is possible to attempt, and it is no cause for wonder that many failures have to be recorded. It would be easy to give illustrations of the disastrous results which have followed the attempt to provide a distinctively English education for converts to Christianity who were wholly unfitted to benefit thereby. The writer of this volume was sitting one day outside a mission school in the tropics watching its pupils walking to and fro in the mission enclosure. Some of them had come from homes in which it had not been customary to wear clothes and in which cannibalism would not have been regarded with horror. These pupils of the mission school, however, wore immaculate shirt fronts and the smartest of English clothes, and carried gilt-headed walking canes and watch chains to correspond. It was with no feelings of surprise that he learnt that the principal English trading company of the district, which had for several years employed as clerks those who had been trained at this school, had recently issued an order that henceforth no one who had attended this school was to be employed in any capacity, and that Moslems or pagans were to be employed in their stead. Superficial investigators of missionary work abroad are 24 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS never tired of asserting that missionary education tends to deprive converts of their hereditary virtues and to give them no others in their place, and it is impossible to deny that in the past there has been some foundation for such criticisms. A hopeful symptom is that missionaries them- selves have become the severest, and at the same time the most intelligent, critics of the methods which have satisfied their predecessors and which continue to satisfy some of their contemporaries. They have come to realize that the more anglicized in appearance and in methods of thought and action their pupils become the more complete has been their own failure. They have also come to realize that in dealing with backward races it is worse than useless to try to anticipate the results of education by allowing to their pupils a minimum of initiative and by providing continuous supervision. The temptation to impatience which besets the missionary may be described in words borrowed from Dr. Montessori, who writes ; " Little children who are undertaking something for the first time are extremely slow. Their life is governed in this respect by laws especially different from ours. Little children accomplish slowly and perseveringly various com- plicated operations agreeable to them, such as dressing and undressing, setting the table, eating, etc. In all this they are extremely patient, overcoming all the difficulties pre- sented by an organism still in process of formation. But we, on the other hand, noticing that they are ' tiring them- selves out,' or 'wasting time,' in accomplishing something which we could do in a moment, and without the least effort, put ourselves in the child's place and do it our- selves. . . . What would become of us if we fell into the midst of a population of jugglers or of lightning-change impersonators of the variety hall ? What should we do if, as we continued to act in our usual way, we saw ourselves assailed by these sleight-of-hand performers, hustled into our clothes, fed so rapidly that we could scarcely swallow, if everything we tried to do was snatched from our hands and completed in a twinkling and we ourselves reduced to impotence and to a humiliating inertia ? Not knowing how else to express our confusion, we should defend ourselves METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 25 with blows and yells from these madmen ; and they, having only the best will in the world to serve us, would call us haughty, rebellious, and incapable of doing anything." ^ These words of Montessori help to explain how extra- ordinarily difficult is the problem that confronts mis- sionaries, who are usually the first representatives of the more advanced races to attempt to impart to the members of the more backward races the education and culture which they have themselves inherited. It is not possible to attempt here any description of the various forms of educational missionary work which have been tried in different countries. For a description and criticism of the methods which have been tried in South Africa the student would do well to consult the books written by Mr. Dudley Kidd, also the striking testimony relating to the benefits resulting from missionary education contained in the report of the South African Government Commission (see p. 335). In India more than in any other part of the mission field the time and labour of missionaries have been devoted to educational work. In connection with this work the question has often been raised both by missionaries abroad and by missionary critics at home. Is it worth while to go on spending time and labour on the support of educational institutions in India and elsewhere when the labour spent on them produces hardly any visible result, and when men and women missionaries are urgently needed to evangelize the uneducated classes who are anxious to be taught the Christian faith ? To answer this question aright, we need to be endowed with long vision ; we need to look beyond the immediate present and to prepare for a future which perhaps none living may see but the advent of which is certain. During a visit to the chief centres of missionary activity in India the writer had an opportunity of seeing most of the largest colleges which are affiliated to universities in India, and which belong to many different missionary societies. In response to inquiries ^ See International Review of Missions, April 1913, p. 333. 26 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS addressed to those now in charge of these colleges, he gathered that the conversion and baptism of a student in any one of them was an exceedingly rare event. The Principal of one of the largest colleges in North India was unable to tell of the occurrence of a single case during the sixteen years of his principalship. At another college belonging to a different society two conversions had taken place during the last ten years ; at another belonging to yet another society no conversion had occurred for at least twelve years. When it is remembered that there are large districts in India where the missionaries in charge have had to discourage applications from the representatives of villages which desire to abandon Hinduism and to become Christian, on the ground that there are no Christian teachers, European or Indian, available, it is impossible not to sympathize with those who desire to divert from the educational missions a few of those missionaries whose work is attended with no visible result and whose presence else- where is urgently demanded. Nevertheless, we believe that no more fatal policy can be suggested than to weaken or circumscribe the appeal which the Church of Christ is making to the educated classes of India by means of its educational missions. The great need for men created by the success of the mass movements supplies an argument not for withdrawing men from educational work but for holding on to and strengthening this work. For it is certain that the day will come when Christianity, having overcome the opposition of caste, will spread throughout India like a flood. It will make all the difference when this movement occurs whether or no there is then in existence a body of experienced European educationalists and of highly educated Indian teachers to guide and direct the movement. We can only secure the provision of such a body of men at the critical moment if the various missionary societies are content for the time being to forgo counting the visible results of their educational work and hold on unhesitatingly to the schools and colleges which they possess. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 27 Our impatience at the small number of conversions which can be traced directly to the influence of missionary schools and colleges will be lessened in proportion as we realize that their primary object is not to impart informa- tion, or even to produce conversions, but to develop char- acter. Where the education of character is concerned, we should be content to count time not by years but by generations. It need hardly be added that the principle which is illustrated by what is happening in India applies to all other non-Christian countries in which educational work on any large scale is being attempted. In China the results obtained in the missionary colleges (e.g. in the Tientsin College under Dr. Lavington Hart) have been encouraging, and the attitude of the student class towards the preaching of Christianity has become remarkably sympathetic (see p. 201). In dealing with the more backward races, experience has demonstrated the high value to be attached to all kinds of industrial schools. Amongst such races industrial training can best be imparted in conjunction with book learning. Thus the author of The Story of the Lovedale Mission writes : " It is a fact abundantly confirmed by experience that the greatest diflQculties in the teaching of trades are to be met with in the case of those who are deficient, and just in proportion as they are deficient, in school education." Eeferring to the results of the training at Lovedale, which is the best known centre of industrial training in South Africa, Dr. Stewart, who was for a long period its Principal, was able to state that of 2000 who had been educated here, and whose subsequent history could be traced, from 75 to 80 per cent, had led or were leading useful and industrious lives. We refer later on to the work of industrial missions in various parts of the mission field. 28 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Medical Missions. A further method by which Christian missionaries have sought to appeal to non-Christian races is represented by the establishment of medical missions. The aim of the medical missionary is twofold : (1) To alleviate suffering and to train those who in non-Christian lands are ignorant of the art of medicine in order that they may be enabled to alleviate the sufferings of their fellow-countrymen. (2) To co-operate with the Christian evangelist by interpreting the Divine compassion and breaking down the prejudices of those who would not other- wise be willing to listen to the gospel message. Some of those who have advocated the extension of medical missions have laid exclusive emphasis upon the latter objects, but have failed to grasp the importance of the former. The charge given by Christ Himself to His first missionaries was to preach the gospel and to heal the sick, but there is nothing in the context to suggest that in places where the preaching of the gospel was welcomed they might consider themselves absolved from the obliga- tion to heal those who were sick. It may with confidence be asserted that apart altogether from any consideration of the fact that medical missions have proved a power- ful evangelistic agency, it is the duty of the whole Christian Church to establish missions which have as their object the alleviation of bodily suffering, and that it is the duty of the individual missionary who possesses a knowledge of medicine that is not shared by any of those amongst whom he works to use his knowledge with the object of alleviating human suffering, and to continue his labours with this object in view until such time as the medical practitioners of the country are in a position to carry on the work which he has inaugurated. When such a time arrives, as it has arrived in Japan and in some other parts of the mission field, the need for medical missionaries will still remain in so far as their work may subserve the purpose of a direct missionary agency. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 29 1. Confining our attention for the moment to the first of the two objects which medical missionaries have in view, we may note the striking service which they were able to render to China on the occasion of the great out- break of plague in Manchuria in 1910-11. The virulence of the attack may be gathered from the fact that the number of patients attacked and the resultant deaths alike numbered 43,942.^ Had it not been for the medical missionaries, and the Chinese doctors and attendants who worked under their direction, the deaths would have been reckoned by millions. Amongst those who took part in fighting the plague should be mentioned Dr. Aspland of the Anglican mission in Peking, Dr. Dugald Christie of the United Presbyterian mission in Moukden, and Dr. A. P. Jackson, a new recruit belonging to the same mission, who himself died of the plague. On the occasion of the death of Dr. Jackson, the Chinese Viceroy, Hsi Liang, delivered a funeral oration at Moukden on February 2, 1911, in the course of which he said : " Our sorrow is beyond all measure, our grief too deep for words. 0 spirit of Dr. Jackson, we pray you intercede for the 20,000,000 people in Manchuria, and ask the Lord of heaven to take away this pestilence, so that we may once more lay our heads in peace upon our pillows. In life you were brave, in death you are an exalted spirit. Noble spirit, who sacrificed your life for us, help us still and look down in kindness upon us all." To the list of the medical missionaries who have died whilst fighting the plague, albeit in a different country, may be added the name of Dr. Alice Marval of the S.P.G., who died at Cawnpore, January 4, 1904. By way of illustrating the efforts which medical missionaries are making to train men and women in non- * For a description of the kind of work accomplished by medical missionaries during the outbreak of plague in Manchuria, see The Claim of Suffering, by E. K. Paget, pp. 79-84 ; also The Life of Arthur Jacksm, by A. J. Costain. 30 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Christian lands to alleviate the physical sufferings of theil fellow-countrymen, we may mention the central training colleges which have recently been established in China and elsewhere. At the triennial conference of the Medical Missionary Association held in Peking (January 1913), it was urged that combined efforts should be made to strengthen existing hospitals in which Chinese might be trained to become fully qualified medical missionaries. One of the most successful medical training colleges is the Union Medical College in Peking, which is supported jointly by the American Board (A.B.C.F.M.), the L.M.S. and the S.P.G. This hospital, besides ministering to the needs of Chinese patients, is turning out year by year a number of qualified Chinese doctors who will carry the fame of European medicine and a sympathetic report of the Christian faith far and wide throughout the Empire of China. A hospital on similar lines has been started in Shanghai. Another combined hospital and medical school, which is supported by missions connected with several different denominations, is the Severance hospital outside Seoul, the capital of Corea. This was started by the Presbyterian mission, but its staff includes representatives of the S.P.G. , the A.M.E.C., and other societies. Thirty fully qualified Corean doctors have already been trained here. It is in fact due to the influence exerted by this hospital that vaccination has been introduced into almost every village in Corea, with the result that smallpox, which has been one of the greatest plagues of Corea, has been checked, and may ere long be exterminated. An important step towards the education of Indian women who may become medical missionaries was taken in 1894, when the North India School of Medicine for Christian Women was founded at Ludhiana in the Punjab, the two first teachers being Dr. Edith Brown and Miss Greenfield. 2. It is hardly necessary to quote instances in which the medical missionaries have, by the exercise of their art, METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 31 gained for themselves or for others the opportunity to explain and commend the Christian faith. In the case of Corea it was the work of a medical missionary which laid the foundation of Protestant missions in that land. "Up to 1884 no mission work had been possible, the rulers and people being determined to exclude all mission- aries. In the autumn of that year, however, Dr. Allen, an American medical missionary, was deputed to attempt an entry into Corea. He could only do so by becoming physician to the American Legation at Seoul. For some time no opportunity presented itself. Then one night there occurred a riot, during which the nephew of the king — Prince Min Yong Ik — was seriously wounded. Dr. Allen was summoned to attend him, and when he arrived found about thirteen of the native doctors, who were trying to staunch the bleeding wounds by filling them with wax. They gazed in amazement as the medical missionary secured the bleeding vessels, and cleansed and sutured the wounds. Dr. Allen, by this successful application of medical skill, not only occasioned a revolution in the medical treatment of that country, but also obtained a marvellous vantage- ground for carrying on missionary work. The then Govern- ment of Corea subscribed for the building of a hospital for Dr. Allen, which was established under royal patronage, and where not only the healing of the sick was carried on, but also the preaching of the gospel. Other missionaries were allowed to settle in Corea ; the people showed confidence in them, and to-day this once-closed land has been the scene of some of the most splendid triumphs of the Cross, as the direct outcome of the work of medico-evangelism." ^ One further illustration may be given of the influence which the medical missionary may exert in a non-Christian land. During the Boxer rebellion a small mission hospital was attacked by an infuriated mob crying, " Death to the foreign devils ! " The doctor and evangelist went out and faced the mob, requesting that the Chinese patients in the hospital might be spared. The leader of the mob said : " I have been told you can work miracles here ; if you can prove that, all your lives will be spared." A voice at * TTu Appeal of Medical Missions, by R. F. Moorshead, p. 73 f. 32 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS once replied from the mob : " They can. Six years ago I was blind ; that doctor there gave me back my sight." The leader at once drew off his followers, and left the mission hospital and its inmates in peace. " Who could doubt such love, or be unwilling to trust such a Saviour ? " was the exclamation of a poor Chinese woman whose body had been healed and whose soul had been won to Christ in a mission hospital. " We have been loved into heaven by the love and mercy of the doctors and nurses, and we have given our souls to Christ, who sent them here to save us," was the answer given by an Arab mother regarding her daughter and herself, who had formerly been Mohammedans, when asked by a Scottish doctor why they had become Christians. A Brahmin woman who had bitterly opposed the work of Christian missionaries, after being treated in a mission hospital, exclaimed, " I was against them once, but I know now what love means." Similar testimonies and results might be quoted from every land where medical missionaries have worked. The C.M.S. mission at Srinagar in Kashmir, which is now one of the most successful in India, was started by a medical missionary, Dr. Elmslie, in 1865, after several unsuccessful attempts to preach the Christian faith had been made by other missionaries. The United Presbyterian mission at Jeypore in Kajputana was the result of a successful treat- ment by a medical missionary. Dr. Valentine, of the wife of the Maharajah. And if the results from the missionary standpoint which have been achieved by the work of men doctors have been great, greater far have been the results produced by the work of women doctors. No language can describe the appalling needs of India's zenanas, where women die in countless thousands or linger on in helpless misery for lack of medical assistance. To such, the woman missionary doctor comes as an angel from God, and the physical health which she brings is often the precursor of the spiritual health which she longs equally to impart. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 33 The results achieved by medical missionaries in all lands cannot be better described than in the words of a Brahman who addressed a meeting at Arcot which had been summoned by the American Arcot Mission : " I have watched the missionaries, and seen what they are. What have they come to this country for ? What tempts them to leave their parents, friends, and country, and come to this, to them, unhealthy clime ? Is it for gain or profit they come ? Some of us, country clerks in Government offices, receive larger salaries than they. Is it for an easy life ? See how they work, and then tell me. Look at this missionary ! He came here a few years ago, leaving all, and seeking only our good ! He was met with cold looks and suspicious glances, and was shunned and maligned. He sought to talk with us of what he told us was the matter of most importance in heaven and earth, but we would not listen. He was not discouraged : he opened a dispensary, and we said, * Let the pariahs [lowest caste people] take his medicines, we won't ' ; but in the time of our sickness and distress and fear we were glad to go to him, and he welcomed us. We complained at first if he walked through our Brahmin streets, but ere long, when our wives and daughters were in sickness and anguish, we went and begged him to come, even into our inner apart- ments; and he came, and our wives and daughters now smile upon us in health ! Has he made money by it ? Even the cost of the medicine he has given us has not been returned to him. " Now what is it that makes him do all this for us ? It is his Bible ! I have looked into it a good deal, at one time or another, in the different languages I chance to know — it is just the same in all languages. The Bible ! — there is nothing to compare with it, in all our sacred books, for goodness, and purity, and holiness, and love, and for motives of action. Where did the English people get all their intelligence and energy, and cleverness and power ? It is their Bible that gives it to them. And now they bring it to us and say, ' That is what raised us ; take it and raise yourselves.' They do not force it upon us, as did the Mohammedans with their Koran, but they bring it in love, and translate it into our languages, and lay it before us, and say, ' Look at it, read it, examine it, and see if it is not good.' Of one thing I am convinced : do what we will, oppose it as we may, it 34 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS is the Christian's Bible that will, sooner or later, work the regeneration of our land." * The Development of Medical Missions. Although it does not appear that the Jesuits sent out qualified doctors to act as medical missionaries, it often happened that some of their missionaries possessed a serviceable knowledge of medicine which they used to good effect. Thus Professor Okakura Yoshisaburo of Japan writes : " In 1568 Oda Nabunaga gave a plot of ground of about ten acres in Kyoto to build a Christian church. . . . Two Jesuit priests who served the church, being well versed in the practice of medicine, built wards on the premises, where poor patients were invited and treated free of charge. Nabunaga also gave them an area of about 1200 acres in the province of Omi, where three thousand kinds of medical plants were transplanted, the artemisia vulgaris still used in cauterization being supposed to be one of them." ^ We have referred elsewhere to the presence at the court of Japan of a Christian physician during the first part of the eighth century. China. — The first medical missionary to China of whom much is known was Bernard Ehodes, who was born in 1644 at Lyons. Having studied medicine and surgery, he entered a religious Order as a lay brother, and eventually went to China, where he lived for sixteen years and died near Peking in 1715. He attended all ranks of Chinese, from the Emperor downwards. Father Karenni in a letter written from Peking in 1715 gives a graphic account of the widespread influence that he exerted and of the affection with which the Chinese regarded him.^ In 1820 Dr. Livingstone, who was in the employ of the East India Company and was stationed at Macao, * Medical Missions, their Place and Power, by J. Lowe, p. 115 f. * The Life and Thought of Jajmn, 1913, p. 109. * See Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses, vol. xiv. p. 431, METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 35 opened a dispensary for the benefit of poor Chinese, in connection with which Dr. Morrison acted as inter- preter and endeavoured to preach the gospel to the patients. The first medical missionary in modern times to reach China was the Eev. Peter Parker, M.D., who arrived in 1835 and was supported by the American Board of Missions. His hospital at Hong-Kong attracted patients from far and near. In 1839 Dr. Lockhart of the L.M.S. started work at Macao and was joined the same year by Dr. Hobson. Dr. Lockhart eventually undertook work at Shanghai and Dr. Hobson at Hong-Kong. Amongst the medical missionaries who reached China during the next thirty years were the Eev. Hudson Taylor (founder of the China Inland Mission), W. Gauld and James Maxwell of the Presbyterian Church of England, and F. Porter Smith of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. In 1890 the number of medical missionaries in China had risen to 125 and in 1913 to 435 (see p. 203). The S.P.G. may perhaps claim to have been the first missionary society or organization to attempt to train or send out medical missionaries. By his will, dated February 22, 1703, General Codrington bequeathed to the S.P.G. his two plantations in Barbados, one of the conditions being that a convenient number of professors and scholars should be maintained there who should be " obliged to study and practise Phisick and Chirurgery as well as Divinity," so that they might " both endear them- selves to the people and have the better opportunities of doing good to men's souls whilst they were taking care of their bodys." ^ As soon as the society obtained possession of the estates (in 1712), superintendence of " the sick and maimed negroes and servants " was undertaken by a missionary (Eev. J. Holt) skilled " in physic and surgery," "a chest of medicines to the value of £30 being supplied him." As a result of the labours of Mr. Holt and his successors, the report for 1740 records that "some 1 See p. 396, also Two Hundred Years of the S.P.G.f^. 816 a. 36 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS hundreds of negroes have been brought to our Holy Eeligion, and there are now not less than seventy Christian negroes on those Plantations." This was, however, the only organized medical mission- ary work undertaken by the S.P.G. during the eighteenth century. The first medical missionary whom this society sent out in the nineteenth century was the Kev. (afterwards Bishop) F. T. McDougall, F.E.C.S., who began work in Borneo in 1848. Amongst other Anglican bishops who have been fully qualified medical missionaries may be mentioned Dr. H. Callaway, who began work in Kaffraria in 1855; Dr. Strachan, Bishop of Eangoon ; Dr. Smyth, Bishop of Lebombo ; and Dr. Hine, Bishop of Nyasa. The London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews may perhaps claim to have been the first society to send out medical missionaries with the intention that the missionaries should devote practically their whole time to the practice of medicine. This society sent out Dr. George Clarke to Gibraltar in 1823, and Dr. George Dalton in 1824 to Jerusalem. India. — Medical missions in India, in the modern sense of the term, date from 1783, when John Thomas, a ship s surgeon, commenced missionary work in Bengal. After itinerating for three years in the Malda district, and translating part of the New Testament into Bengali, he returned to England in 1792, and having offered his services to the Baptist Missionary Society, was sent out as a companion to Carey in 1793. Though he was an eccentric person, and had to be confined for some time in an asylum, he laboured strenuously to promote the cause of Christian missions. He died in 1801, and had uo successor till 1838, when Mr. Archibald Eamsay began medical work in Travancore. In 1852 the L.M.S. sent out Dr. Leitch, who was drowned two years later, but whose work inaugurated the large and successful medical mission which the L.M.S. has since developed at Neyoor in South India. About the same time the American Board METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 37 of Missions sent out Dr. John Scudder, who laboured first in Ceylon and afterwards in Madras. In 1856 the Free Church of Scotland sent its first medical missionary, Dr. David Paterson, to Madras. The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society sent the first woman doctor to India (Dr. Fanny Butler) in 1880. The S.P.G. began medical missionary work in 1870 at Nazareth in Tinnevelly, and Dr. Strachan, its first medical missionary, afterwards became Bishop of Eangoon. As a development of Mrs. Winter's work at Delhi, which was begun in 1863, the first hospital for women and children in India was established in connection with the S.P.Gr. mission to Delhi. The work grew steadily till the foundation of St. Stephen's Hospital in the central street of Delhi in 1884. In 1906 the new St. Stephen's Hospital was founded outside the walls. The Zenana Bible and Medical Mission (1852), which is an undenominational society, supports the Victoria Hospital at Benares, the Duchess of Teck Hospital at Patna, the Kinnaird Memorial Hospital at Lucknow, and a hospital at Nasik in Western India which was presented by local Brahmans. For further details in regard to the hospitals and medical missions which are scattered through- out India, see p. 131. The total number of qualified medical missionaries in India was 140 in 1895, 281 in 1905,and 335 in 1912. Medical Missions to Moslems. It has been the well-nigh universal experience of missionaries who have worked amongst Moslems that the best, and often the only, way by which a successful appeal can be made is by means of medical missions. The experience of Dr. Pennell on the borders of Afghanistan, Dr. W. Miller in Northern Nigeria, and many others, is the same, namely, that the prejudices of Moslems against the Christian faith can best be combated by the practical 38 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS demonstration of the love of Jesus Christ which is em- bodied in a medical mission. One reason why medical missions appeal so strongly to Moslems is that in many cases their knowledge of medicine and surgery is so deficient that it can only be compared with that of heathen or pagans. Even in Moslem lands which have long been in touch with European influence and science the knowledge of medicine has lagged behind the knowledge of all other subjects.^ Four doctors and four nurses were sent out by the Dutch Church, twenty years ago, to the Dutch East Indies. One of the Scotch doctors who visited the scene of their work in 1912 wrote home as follows : " I find here over 30,000 converts from Islam, all the work of four doctors and four nurses. And these men and women are living better Christian lives than the vast bulk of our Christians at home." Women's Work in the Mission Field. Our failure to describe in detail the share which women have taken in the work of Christian missions is due to no want of appreciation of the supremely important part which they have played in the past and are destined to play in the future in all parts of the mission field. The ^ An illustration of this may be found in a series of questions and answers which were published by the Lancet, July 16, 1898. The questions to which the answers were appended had been addressed by the French Statistical Department to the Pasha of Damascus. '* ^. What is the deatb-rate per thousand in your principal city? A. In Damascus it is the will of Allah that all must die — some die old, some young. Q. What is the annual number of births ? A. We do not know ; God alone can say. Q. Are the supplies of drinking water sufficient and of good quality ? A. From the remotest period no one has ever died of thirst. Q, General remarks on the hygienic conditions of your city. A. Since Allah sent us Mohammed, His prophet, to purge the world with fire and sword, there has been a vast improvement. But there still remains much to do. And now, my lamb of the West, cease your questioning, which can do no good either to you or to anyone else. Man should not bother him- self about matters which concern only God. Salaam aleikum." METHODS OP MISSIONARY WORK 39 future status of women for many years to come in non- Christian lands will depend to a very large extent upon the ability of missionary societies to send out into the mission field an increased staff of highly qualified Christian women. The suffragist and suffragette societies at home would be amongst the strongest supporters of missionary work could they but reahze that the work accomplished by these has done more towards effecting the emancipation and uplifting of women than all other societies or political organizations in the world. To two-thirds of the women now living in the world Christian missions hold out the only immediate prospect of raising their social status. No religion other than Christianity inculcates the doctrine that women are the equals of men and should be accorded equal freedom and equal opportunities of education. Their future is therefore inseparably connected with the diffusion and acceptance of the teaching of Christianity. More than half the women now living in the British Empire are Hindus. This fact adds point to the words uttered by a well-known Brahman in India who said that among the countless divisions and sects of Hinduism the only two things on which all Hindus are agreed are the sanctity of the cow and the depravity of woman. "We note with joy the isolated efforts which have so far been made by Hindus and Moslems to imitate the actions of the Christian missionaries and to agitate for the emancipation of their women, but without the support of Christian teaching and the inspiration of Christian love it is im- possible that these efforts should obtain their true fruition. To appreciate the nature of the problem which con- fronts those who desire to uplift India's women, we need to remind ourselves that there are 40,000,000 Indian women confined in zenanas, that there are 26,000,000 widows, 335,000 of whom are under fifteen years of age and 111,000 under ten, that not one woman in 100 in India can read, and that only one in 100 of girls of school- going age are at school. How difficult it is for the enlightened Hindus to win over their fellow-countrymen 40 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS to the institution of any radical reforms may be gathered from the fact that the teaching of their sacred books strongly supports the treatment of women which is at present in vogue. Thus their great law-giver, Manu, whose teaching is accepted by nearly all orthodox Hindus, can be quoted by those opposed to reform as having said : " Day and night must women be kept in dependence by the male members of the family ; they are never fit for independence ; they are as impure as falsehood itself: that is a fixed rule." 1 The need for transforming the life of women by im- parting to them the teaching of Jesus Christ is as real in other countries as it is in India. Few, if any, English women outside the ranks of the missionaries have had so wide an experience of the con- ditions under which women in India and the Far East live as the famous traveller, Mra, Bishop. Speaking of the influence which the religions of these countries exert upon women, she said : " Just one or two remarks as to what these false faiths do. They degrade women with an infinite degradation. I have lived in zenanas and harems, and have seen the daily life of the secluded women, and I can speak from bitter experience of what their lives are — the intellect dwarfed, so that the woman of twenty or thirty years of age is more like a child of eight intellectually; while all the worst passions of human nature are stimulated and developed to a fearful degree ; jealousy, envy, murderous hate, intrigue, running to such an extent that in some countries I have hardly been in a woman's house or near a woman's tent without being asked for drugs with which to disfigure the favourite wife, to take away her life, or to take away the life of the favourite wife's infant son. This request has been made to me nearly two hundred times." ^ The Indian zenana was first penetrated in the name of Christ by the wife of a missionary sixty years ago whcD 1 Manu, ix, 2, 3, 18. 2 Speech at Exeter Hall, November 1, 1893. METHODS OF MISSIONARY WORK 41 asked to visit a Hindu woman who was dying, and who had been in secret a reader of the Christian Bible. The sequel of this visit was the establishment in London in 1852 of the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission, which supports more than 30 stations and a number of well-equipped hospitals for women (see p. 132). Miss Swain was apparently the first woman to become a qualified medical missionary (1870). The number of qualified women doctors in the mission field is now nearly 400. Another sphere of women's work in the mission field is afforded by the demand for qualified nurses. It is encourag- ing to know that during the last ten years 700 nurses have joined the Nurses' Missionary League, thereby declaring their intention, if God permit, to become missionaries, and that of this number 230 are already (1914) at work abroad. The number of unmarried women missionaries now at work is nearly 7000. Of these 2700 come from the U.S.A. and about the same number from Great Britain. The remainder are connected with continental societies. The work which women missionaries have accomplished in the mission field will be referred to again and again in the sections relating to different countries, but nothing which can be said will give the supporters of missions an adequate idea of the important part which women are playing in the spread of Christian missions and of the supreme importance of extending their work. III. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS * (1580-1750). During the two centuries preceding the Eeformation hardly any attempt was made to evangelize the non- Christian world, and nearly two centuries elapsed after the Eeformation before the Churches of Europe which had the open Bible in their hands realized that it was their duty to impart the knowledge of its contents to the heathen. Some of the leaders in the Eeformation movements were so far from initiating missionary work abroad that they regarded all such work as useless or even wrong. Thus Luther (1483-1546) in his Table Talk says : " The arts are growing as if there was to be a new start and the world was to become young again. . . . Another hundred years and all will be over. God's Word will disappear for want of any to preach it. . . . Asia and Africa have no gospel. In Europe, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Hungarians, French, English, Poles have no gospel." " The small Electorate of Saxony will not hinder the end," he replied to one who observed that when Christ came there would be no faith at all on the earth, and that the gospel was still believed in that part of Germany. Zwingli (1484-1531), whilst admitting that the gospel must continue to spread throughout the world, makes no suggestion that it is the duty of the Church to send out ^ This chapter contains a brief sketch of missionary work other than that connected with the R.C. Church up to 1750. A further account of the work to which reference is made will be found under the headings of the various countries in which the work was attempted. 42 THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 43 missionaries. It is interesting to note that he maintained that pious heathens would be saved who died without a knowledge of the gospel. Calvin (150 9—1 564) held that any special agency for the conversion of the heathen is needless, for, as he wrote, " we are taught that the kingdom of Christ is neither to be advanced nor maintained by the industry of men, but this is the work of God alone." In 1535 Erasmus, who was not definitely associated with the Eeformation movements, had urged in the strongest language the duty of evangelizing the whole world.^ The first theologian connected with the Eeformation movements to maintain that " the command to preach the gospel to all nations binds the Church " for all time was Adrianus Saravia (1531—1613), a Dutchman, who, after being a Keformed pastor at Antwerp and Brussels, and a professor at Leyden, eventually became Dean of Westminster. In his treatise " concerning the different orders of the ministry of the gospel as they were instituted by the Lord," published in 1590, he urges the duty of the Church to carry on the task of the evangelization of the world, which had been begun by the apostles, and argues that the maintenance of the episcopal office is necessary to the fulfilment of this task. This treatise by Saravia drew from Theodore Beza of Geneva a reply (1592) in the course of which he disputed the interpretation of the missionary command given by Saravia and maintained that its obligation did not extend beyond the first century. Later on, Johann Gerhard (d. 1637) wrote, opposing the views of Saravia and maintaining that the command to preach the gospel in the whole world ceased with the apostles {mandatum prcedicandi evangelium in toto terrarum orhe cum apostolis He gives as one reason for believing that this * See his treatise, Ecdesiastes, sive de ratione cmicionandi. A quotation of some length is given by Dr. Geo. Smith in his Short History of Christian Missions, p. 116 f. 44 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS was SO, that St. Paul himself declared that this command had been already obeyed, and that the gospel had brought forth fruit in the whole world (Eom. x. 18, Col. i. 23). The arguments that he adduces reappear in an official document issued by the theological Faculty of Wittenberg which represented Lutheran orthodoxy, and which had been elicited by an inquiry addressed to the Faculty by Count Truchsess, who desired to have an explanation of the scope of the missionary command recorded by St. Matthew. The Faculty declared that the command to go into all the world was only a personal privilege (personate privilegium) of the apostles, and had already been fulfilled. They argued that if this were not so it would be the duty of every Christian to become a missionary — a conclusion which was absurd. They further declared that inasmuch as all nations once possessed the knowledge of God, He is not bound to restore to their descendants what has been taken away crimine Icesce majestatis. Lastly, they suggested that where a Christian Government is established in a non-Christian land it behoves the civil authorities to build churches and establish schools for the benefit of the " sinners " whom they have brought under their sway. The first attempt at missionary work made by members of the Eeformed Churches was not followed by any permanent result. In 1555 Villegaignon, a French adventurer, who founded a colony in Brazil, asked Calvin to send Christian preachers, whether to minister to the French Protestants or to evangelize the heathen is not certain. Eichier, who was one of four clergymen sent, wrote shortly after his arrival in Brazil that they had purposed to win the native heathen for Christ, but that their barbarism, their cannibalism, and their spiritual dullness " extinguished all our hope." It would be interesting to watch the countenances of a missionary committee to-day which should receive a similar pessimistic report from one of its missionaries before he iiad even begun to learn the language of the country to which he had been sent ! THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 45 George Fox (1624—91), who founded the Society of Friends, and who had himself visited America, wrote : " All friends everywhere, that have Indians or blacks, you are to preach the gospel to them and other servants if you be true Christians." In 1661 three of his followers set out as missionaries to China, but did not succeed in reaching that country. The first Lutheran to attempt definitely missionary work was an Austrian, Baron Justinian von Weltz (b. 1621). After writing several treatises in which he maintained the missionary obligation attaching to all Christians, he laid aside his baronial title and sailed for Dutch Guiana, where he soon afterwards died. The change of attitude in favour of the recognition of the duty of prosecuting foreign missions that took place amongst the Lutheran Christians towards the end of the seventeenth century was due in part to the writings and example of Von Weltz. Thus S'pener (1635—1705), who has been called the " Father of pietism," in the course of a sermon preached on the Feast of the Ascension said : " The obligation rests on the whole Church to have care as to how the gospel shall be preached in the whole world, . . . and to this end no diligence, labour, or cost be spared in such work on behalf of the poor heathen and unbelievers. That almost no thought even has been given to this . . . is evidence how little the honour of Christ and of humanity concerns us." At the close of the seventeenth century the cause of foreign missions found an earnest advocate in the well-known philosopher, Baron von Leibnitz, whose interest in them had been aroused by his conversations with Jesuit mis- sionaries from China whom he had met in Eome. One of those whom he influenced was Francke, who was associated with the sending out of the Danish Mission to India. In 1700 the Boyal Society of Prussia was founded in Berlin, and in 1702 a collegium orientale was added in 46 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS order that the society — to quote the words of the royal declaration — " may also be a college for the propagation of the Christian faith, worship, and virtue, that upon occasion of their philosophical observations which they shall make in the northern part of Asia, they shall likewise diligently endeavour that among the barbarous people of those tracts of land as far as China, the light of the Christian faith and the purer gospel may be kindled, and even that China itself may be assisted by those Protestants who travel thither by land or sail to that country through the Northern Sea." Dr. Jablonski, the vice-president of the Eoyal Society, writing to a representative of the English S.P.G. (on Jan- uary 20, 1711) stated that the formation of this "oriental college " was an act of " pious emulation " on the part of those in Prussia who had heard of the proposed formation of the S.P.G. Dutch Missions. — The Dutch East India Company, which was founded in 1602, was bound by the charter granted by the State to care for the planting of the Church and the conversion of the heathen in the countries with which it traded. At its instigation was founded in 1622, at the University of Leyden, an institution called the Seminarium Indimim, which for twelve years helped to provide preachers and missionaries for the Company's service. These engaged for a period of five years only, and the majority of them returned to Holland without having mastered the languages of the peoples amongst whom they lived. The causes of the comparative failure of the Dutch missions are thus described by Dr. Warneck : ^ " At the best the preachers mastered the language of the Malays, but the motley population of the wide archipelago has many languages, and only in the case of Ceylon and Formosa can it be pretended that they attempted to learn other languages. No doubt there was a Malay and also a Singalese translation of the Bible : so also in Formosa some ' History of Protestant Missions^ p. 45 f. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 47 books of the New Testament were translated into the language of the country . . . with honourable exceptions the mission work itself became very superficial. . . . The example of Portuguese sham-Christianization worked infectiously. Thousands were received into the Church by baptism without heed to inward preparedness. . . . When in 1674 one of the kings of Timor declared that he and his people were willing to become Christians, the preacher Ehymdyk was sent ' to see to what was necessary ' — that is, to baptize the whole people off-hand. In the state of Amboina the chiefs simply received a command to have always at the time of the preacher's visit a number of natives ready for baptism; and since for everyone who was baptized the preacher received a sum per head, it will be easily under- stood that he was not particular if, as often happened, he himself was not a man full of the Holy Ghost and of faith. . . . With such a method of conversion it can easily be understood how at the close of the seventeenth century the number of Christians should be given in Ceylon alone as from 300,000 to 400,000, in Java as 100,000, in Amboina as 40,000, and no less easily how the Christianity of these masses was inwardly worthless, and almost vanished when, as in Ceylon, the rule of the Dutch came to an end, or con- tinued to exist only as a dead nominal Christianity. . . . In Formosa alone had a better foundation been laid, but there, after the expulsion of the Dutch by the Chinese pirates in 1661, the nascent Christianity was forcibly extinguished." The Danish-Halle Mission. — The Danish colonial pos- sessions date from 1620 in the East Indies, and from 1672 in the West Indies and Gold Coast. In 1705 Dr. Liitkens, who had been appointed as a Danish court chaplain in the previous year, and who had lived for a time with Spener in Berlin, was commissioned by the king, Frederick IV., to seek out missionaries who might be sent to the Danish colonies. Having failed to find suitable men in Denmark, he applied to Francke at Halle in Germany, and through his assistance the first two missionaries, Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau, were sent forth from Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand on November 29, 1705. Whilst staying at the Cape of Good Hope, on their way out to Tranquebar, they sent home a deplorable account of 48 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS the Hottentots who were under Dutch rule. This eventu- ally resulted in the commencement of a Moravian mission at the Cape. On arriving at Tranquebar (July 9, 1706) they experienced much hostility from the Danish officials, who regarded their enterprise as fanatical and quixotic. Their work, nevertheless, was soon attended by visible results. Ten months after their arrival they baptized five heathen slaves of Danish masters, and five months later they baptized nine adult Hindus. In the following year Ziegenbalg made a preaching tour through the kingdom of Tanjore, and the reports of this tour, and of his public conferences with Brahmans, were translated into English by the Eev. A. W. Boehm, formerly chaplain to Prince George of Denmark, and were dedicated to the S.P.G., and the 500 copies purchased and distributed by this society " proved a motive to many charitable benefactions contributed by well-disposed persons for advancing this mission." The English East India Company offered to convey the books and letters belonging to the mission free of charge, and the S.P.C.K. undertook to receive funds on its behalf. In 1714 a college for promoting the spread of the gospel was founded as a state institution at Copenhagen, but, notwithstanding the existence of this college, the real direction and control of the mission remained at Halle in Germany. Pliitschau returned invalided in 1711, by which time the New Testament had been translated into Tamil and a Tamil dictionary was nearly completed. When Ziegenbalg returned in 1715, he was presented to George I., who wrote to him after he had returned to Tranquebar a letter (dated August 23, 1717) expressing satisfaction " not only because the work undertaken by you of con- verting the heathen to the Christian faith doth, by the grace of God, prosper, but also because that in this our kingdom such a laudable zeal for the promotion of the gospel prevails." When Ziegenbalg died in 1719, aged thirty-six, he left 355 converts and numerous catechumens, a complete Tamil Bible, a dictionary, a mission seminary and schools. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 49 Francke was the chief supporter in Germany of the Danish-Halle Mission and helped to train many of its earliest missionaries. We shall refer to this mission later on in describing missionary work in India. Meanwhile we may quote Dr. Warneck's statement : " As to the history of the Danish-Halle Mission, ... let it suffice to note that from Francke's institutions there have been sent out in the course of a century about sixty mission- aries, amongst whom, besides conspicuous men like Ziegenbalg, Fabricius, Janecke, Gericke, Christian Friedrich Schwartz was distinguished as a star of the first magnitude. Amid various little strifes and ample distress . . . this . . . on the whole solid and not unfruitful mission (about 15,000 Christians) maintained itself until in the last quarter of the century and afterwards rationalism at home dug up its roots. Only when the universities, having fallen com- pletely under the sway of this withering movement, ceased to furnish theologians, was the first trial made in 1803 of a missionary who had not been a university student. Meanwhile a more living interest had been awakened in England, and so the connection which had already for some time existed with friends of missions there, and specially the alliance with the Church missionary societies, saved the Tamil Mission from ruin. Then later the Dresden-Leipsic Lutheran Missionary Society stepped into the old heritage of the fathers, after Halle had long ceased to be an active centre." ^ The college which had been founded at Copenhagen sent out Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, to start work in Greenland in 1721. The hardships and disappointments that he and his associates encountered resulted in an order from the King of Denmark to discontinue the work (see p. 51). Moravian Missions. — The missionary activities of no other branch of the Christian Church can compare with those of the Moravian Church. Within twenty years of the commencement of their missionary work the Moravian Brethren had started more missions than Anglicans and ^ History of Protestant Missions^ p. 57 f. 4 60 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Protestants had started during the two preceding centuries. Their marvellous success was largely due to the fact that from the first they recognized that the evangelization of the world was the most pressing of all the obligations that rested upon the Christian Church, and that the carrying out of this obligation was the " common affair " of the community. Up to the present time the Moravians have sent out nearly 3000 missionaries, the proportion of missionaries to their communicant members being 1 in 12. Amongst English Christians generally the proportion is said to be 1 in 2000. To the Moravians it seemed impossible that any branch of the Christian Church could continue to exist which failed to recognize this common obligation. It would be little exaggeration to say that the continued existence and vitality of the Moravian Church are a result of its missionary activity. The Moravian community or brotherhood (JJnitas Fratrum) dates back to 1467. The Moravians who were expelled from Austria in 1722 settled at Herrnhut, not far from Dresden, where they were welcomed by Count von Zinzendorf (1700-60), who helped to inspire them with a zeal for foreign missions and was eventually consecrated (1737) as a Bishop of the Moravian Church. Their first mission ^ was to the negro slaves in the Danish island of St. Thomas in the West Indies. A negro from this island, who had been invited to Herrnhut by Count Zinzendorf, appealed to the Brethren for help. He said to them, ** You cannot come unless you are willing to become slaves " ; and although this forecast was not literally fulfilled, the first missionaries who responded to this appeal were not dis- couraged by the terms proposed. On August 21, 1732, Leonard Dober, a potter, and David Nitschmann, a carpenter, left Herrnhut for Copenhagen on their way to the West Indies, being the advanced guard of an army of nearly 3000 missionaries which the Moravian Church has sent forth. ^ For a sketch of Moravian missions see A Short History of the Moravian Church, by J. E. Hutton. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 51 On reaching St. Thomas : "they won the hearts of the slaves and made them clap their hands for joy. They aroused the anger of the brutal slave-owners. . . . They caused the negroes to weep and pray in sugar-field and hut, and brought hundreds of con- verts to baptism. . . . They stood fearlessly before high officials . . . and by showing the slave-owners that they should no longer treat their slaves as beasts, prepared the way for negro emancipation." ^ In 1734 mission work was started in the island of St. Croix, and a little later in Jamaica and Anticrua. The Mission to Greenland. — When Count Zinzendorf visited the Danish Court at Copenhagen in 1731, he met two Eskimos, who had been baptized by the Danish missionary Egede. On hearing that it was proposed to discontinue the work in Greenland, two Moravian Brethren, Stack and Boemish, who were by occupation grave-diggers, volunteered to undertake work there, and reached Green- land in 1733. " At first their outlook was gloomy. When they tried to earn their living by fishing, they found themselves unable to manage their boat, and had to live chiefly on seaweed. They had to learn two new languages — first, the Danish, and then through the Danish the Eskimo — and the Greenlanders took the opportunity to cheat them. . . . When the two cousins stood up to preach, the natives treated them shame- fully, danced around them, mimicked them, howled, drummed, pelted them with stones. * As long as we have a sound body,' said these greasy Greenlanders . . . ' we have enough. Your people may have diseased souls; go back to those that need you.' When the first convert, Kajarnak, came forward with his family to be baptized, a plot was formed, and his father-in-law was murdered. To add to the missionaries' troubles, the small-pox broke out and carried off from two to three thousand of the people. . . . The Moravians were hated and despised by the people: they were looked upon as the cause of the small-pox ; they had to attend on two thousand ungrateful patients ; they were * A Short History of the Moravian Church, p. 152. 52 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS almost dying of hunger ; and as they lay in their snow huts at night, with the cold stars above them and the sounds of midnight revelry in their ears, they felt indeed that only by the strength of Christ could they win the hard-fought battle. At last, after years of waiting, the long night began to break . . . and from the moment when Kajarnak, as he listened with awe to the story of Gethsemane, came forward with his eager question, ' What is that ? Tell me that again,' the work began to flourish, the hope of the missionaries swelled to faith, and the Rose of Sharon began to bloom in the eternal snows of the ' Land of Desolation.' " ^ In 1740 the Moravian missionaries made an important change in the methods of presenting the gospel to the Green- landers which they had hitherto adopted. In the Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren^ written by John Holmes and published in 1818, this change is thus described : " A great change took place in the mode adopted by our brethren in their endeavours to instruct the natives. The method hitherto pursued by them consisted principally in speaking to the heathen of the existence, the attributes, and perfection of God, and enforcing obedience to the divine law, hoping by this means gradually to prepare their minds for the reception of the sublimer and more mysterious truths of the gospel : and it must be allowed that, abstractly con- sidered, this method appears the most rational ; but when reduced to practice, it was found wholly ineffectual. For five years our missionaries had laboured in this way, and could scarce obtain a patient hearing from the savages. Now, therefore, they determined in the literal sense of the word to preach Christ and Him crucified without first ' lay- ing the foundation of repentance from dead works and faith towards God.* No sooner did they declare unto the Green- landers * the word of reconciliation ' in its native simplicity than they beheld its converting and saving power. This reached the hearts of the audience and produced the most astonishing effects. An impression was made which opened a way to their consciences and illuminated their under- standings. They remained no longer the stupid and brutish, ^ A Short History of the Moravian Church, p. 154 f, • P, 31 f. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 53 creatures they had once been ; they felt they were sinners, and trembled at their danger ; they rejoiced in the offer of a Saviour, and were rendered capable of relishing sublimer pleasures than plenty of seals and the low gratifications of sensual appetites. A sure foundation being thus laid in the knowledge of a crucified Eedeemer, our missionaries soon found that this supplied their young converts with a power- ful motive to the abhorrence of sin and the performance of every moral duty towards God and their neighbour. . . . In short, the happiest results have attended this practice, not only at first and in Greenland, but in every other country where our missionaries have since laboured for the conversion of the heathen." Within the territory occupied by the Moravians the work of evangelization has long since been completed. At their General Synod in 1899 the Moravians handed over their missions in Greenland to the Danish Church and quitted Greenland in the following year. The mission to Lahrador^ which was commenced soon after the middle of the eighteenth century, was attended by even greater difficulties than those which the mission- aries had to encounter in Greenland, but these were successfully surmounted, and nearly all the population of Labrador is now Christian. In 1738 a mission was established in Surinam or Dutch Guiana. On reaching the coast the missionaries made their way through three hundred miles of jungles and swamps and finally settled amongst the Accawois, the Warrows, the Arawaks, and the Caribs. George Dahne, one of the missionaries, lived in a lonely hut in the forest for two years, " surrounded by wild beasts and wilder men." After six years of strenuous toil, the first convert, an old woman, was baptized. As the work began to attain visible success it was bitterly opposed by the Dutch traders, and the Dutch Government issued orders forbidding the Indians to join any Moravian settlement. In 1735 the Moravians undertook colonization in Georgia^ and commenced missionary work amongst the American Indians. Their work, which met with a large 54 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS amount of initial success, was so vehemently opposed by the other white settlers that they at length withdrew altogether. In 1742 the Moravian missionary Eauch developed a mission at Shekomelco in the state of New York, but the opposition of the white settlers compelled its abandonment. A missionary settlement established in 1746 at GnadenhUtten prospered for ten years, but was then destroyed during one of the innumerable wars waged against the Indians. In 1736 Huckoff, who belonged to an old Moravian family, attempted to start a school among the slaves on the Gold Coast. In 1737 George Schmidt reached Cape Toivn, having been sent out by the Brethren at Herrnhut. By this time the Dutch had held Cape Town for nearly a century, but they had done nothing towards the evangelization of the Africans. Schmidt had been imprisoned for conscience' sake for six years in Bohemia before he set sail for South Africa. He worked for six years among the Hottentots at Bavianskloof, and won the hearts of many by his teaching and preaching. The Dutch Boers, who disliked and de- spised the Hottentots, were far from being pleased at his success. In 1742 Schmidt, having received an "act of ordination" from Zinzendorf, proceeded to baptize five Hottentots. His action gave umbrage to the regular Dutch ministers at Cape Town, and after fruitless attempts to arrive at an understanding with them he started in October 1743 on his return to Europe. He left behind 49 adherents, 5 of whom had been baptized. For nearly fifty years after his departure no attempt was made to carry on the work which he had inaugurated. The principles and methods which characterized these early Moravian missions have been well summarized by a Moravian historian, who wrote : "No Moravian missionary worked alone. The whole Church threw its heart into the task. All missionaries went out with full instructions, and were followed by the prayers THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 65 of the whole Church. No man was to go unless his mind was fully made up ; nay more, unless he could not help it. He must be a man, so ran the rules, who felt within him an irresistible call ; a man who loathed the lusts of the world, who burned with love to Christ, who was approved by all his brethren, and whose face shone with the light of a divine joy, which should enlighten the black hearts of the heathen. As for the work of the missionaries, it was thorough and deep and well organized. Everything was done according to a well-considered plan. When the missionaries arrived at their post they were to announce themselves to the people as messengers sent by Jesus Christ. ... As soon as possible after their arrival they translated portions of the gospels into the native language, and with this as their weapon spoke straight to the hearts of the people. Instead of puzzling the poor heathens' brains with shadowy notions of a great and good God, they went straight to the mark : * Jesus Christ lived and died, and lives now, to save thee from thy sins.' ... As they never baptized till they were perfectly sure (as far as man can be sure) that the candidate was a genuine Christian, they often seemed to work but slowly ; but they found it better to do their work thoroughly than be content with a mere coating of sham religion. . . . Above all, with their teaching, they did not forget discipline. . . . But the iron hand had a silken glove . . . and by kindness and love and tenderness they won the hearts of the heathen. ... * It will not do,' said Zinzendorf, *to measure everything by the Herrnhut yard."i The districts in which Moravian missionaries are at work to-day include Labrador, Alaska, California (amongst the Indians), Jamaica, eight of the West Indian Islands, Nicaragua, Demerara, Surinam, South Africa, East Central Africa, West Himalayas, and North Queensland. Their missionaries, who number altogether 367, include 38 theo- logians, 1 doctor, 26 tradesmen, 6 artisans, 6 deaconesses, 1 2 brethren trained in London and 6 at Tubingen. Of the whole number 142 are ordained. In addition to these the native missionaries include 48 ordained and 25 un- ordained brethren. * A Short History oj the Moravian Church, p. 102 f. 56 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Anglican Missions. — Of missionary societies now con- nected with the Anglican Church the oldest is the New England Company (formerly known as " The Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England "), which was founded by the Long Parliament in 1649. It was founded at the instigation of Cromwell after a petition had been presented to Parliament in 1641 by 70 English and Scottish ministers. The money necessary for its support was obtained by a collection directed by the same Parliament to be made throughout England in all parishes, which amounted to what was then the large sum of nearly £12,000. The money was invested in land, and the income forwarded from time to time through the Governors of the United Colonies to the Company's first missionary in New England, the Eev. John Eliot, and afterwards to his assistants. At the Kestoration the Company was reconstituted, and incorporated by King Charles ii. in 1661. The first Governor of the Company was the Hon. Eobert Boyle ^ (later one of the founders of the Eoyal Society). The Company continued its work in New England until the year 1775, when the War of Independence broke out. After the Declaration of Independence the Company transferred the scene of its labours to New Brunswick, and the work among the Indians there was carried on from 1776 to 1822. In 1822 the Company transferred its operations from New Brunswick farther to the west. Since then its missionaries have been working among the six Indian nations on the Grand Eiver Eeserve, Ontario, which is the largest Indian reserve in Canada. The Company has built several churches on the reserve, and entirely main- tains three clergymen, several catechists, and a trained hospital nurse. ^ Robert Boyle was for thirty years Governor of this Corporation. In addition to his labours on behalf of the American Indians, he published at his own expense the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in the Malay language. These were printed at Oxford in 1677. THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 57 The Company has also charge of the Mohawk Church (which is the oldest church belonging to the Anglican Communion in Canada), and has built and maintains the Mohawk Institution. This institution is considered by the Indian Department of the Canadian Government to be one of the most successful industrial schools for the children (boys and girls) of Indians in the Dominion. The Mohawk Church and Institution are in Brantford, Ontario. The church is the only chapel royal in Canada, being styled by the Crown "His Majesty's Chapel of the Mohawks," and possesses silver communion plate and a Bible presented by Queen Anne to "Her Chapel of the Mohawks," in the Mohawk Valley, Albany (now U.S.A.), in the year 1712. During the war the plate and Bible were buried, but were subsequently recovered by the Indians and by them brought to Canada. In 1901 the Company opened a new sphere of work and built (at the invitation of the bishop of New West- minster) a school for Indian boys at Lytton in British Columbia. The membership of the New England Com- pany has since its foundation consisted entirely of laymen and is limited to 25 members. The Company maintains its missionary work upon the annual income derived from its endowments, which have been obtained partly by the amount realized from the collection already referred to, and partly from the bequests of the Hon. Eobert Boyle and Dr. Daniel Williams. The Christian Faith Society, originally called the Society for the Conversion and Eeligious Instruction and Education of the Negro Slaves in the British West India Islands, was founded as a result of a bequest made in the will of Eobert Boyle, dated 1691. Its first achievement was the foundation of the College of William and Mary in Virginia for the instruction of Indian children. After the War of Independence the operations of the society were diverted to the West Indies. It has an income of £2300 per annum, derived from investments, which is spent 58 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS on the support of Anglican work for the benefit of the inhabitants of the West Indian Islands. The formation of English missionary societies for the promotion of missionary work throughout the world may be said to date from the opening of the eighteenth century. In 1698, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed, its chief object being to provide Christian literature and to promote Christian education both at home and abroad. When the Danish mission to South India was in danger of becoming extinct through lack of funds, the S.P.C.K. supported it financially for a hundred years. The missionaries were for the most part German Lutherans, of whom Schwartz was the most remarkable (see p. 79). The oldest missionary society now existing in England, which was founded with the object of sending out mission- aries, is the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. It can claim to be the official representative of the Church of England, since it was brought into exist- ence as the result of a resolution passed by convocation (March 13, 1700), and all the diocesan bishops in England are ex officio members of its standing committee. The society was founded with the twofold aim of ministering to English settlers beyond the seas and of propagating the gospel amongst the heathen with whom the settlers might come into contact. The society recognized that it was as important to prevent English people from becoming heathen as it was to attempt the conversion of heathen to the Christian faith. One of its earliest missionaries, the Eev. Thorogood Moore, who was sent to New York in 1704 as a mission- ary to Indians, wrote home to the society : " To begin with the Indians is preposterous, for it is from the behaviour of the Christians that here they have had, and still have, their notion of Christianity, which, God knows, hath been generally such that it hath made the Indians to hate our religion." Although the chief efforts of the society were directed THE DAWN OF MODERN MISSIONS 59 at first towards supplying and maintaining clergy for the colonies and dependencies, of Great Britain, it soon began definite work amongst the Indians and negroes of North America. It has sometimes been stated that the founders of the S.P.G. did not regard its work as definitely missionary in character, but this is far from being the case. In the sermon preached at the first anniversary of the formation of the society in 1702, the preacher stated that it was part of the design of the society " to proceed in the best methods they can towards the conversion of the natives," and that it included " the breeding up of persons to understand the great variety of languages of those countries in order to be able to converse with the natives and preach the gospel to them." At a meeting of the society held on April 20, 1710, the following resolutions were carried: " 1. That the design of propagating the gospel in foreign parts does chiefly and principally relate to the conversion of heathens and infidels, and therefore that branch of it ought to be prosecuted preferably to all others. 2. That, in consequence thereof, immediate care be taken to send itinerant missionaries to preach the gospel among the Six Nations of the Indians according to the primary intentions of the late King William of glorious memory." Bishop Seeker (who afterwards became Archbishop of Canterbury) said in 1741 : " In less than forty years, under many discouragements and with an income very disproportionate to the vastness of the undertaking, a great deal hath been done; though little notice may have been taken of it by persons unatten- tive to these things, or backward to acknowledge them . . . great multitudes upon the whole of negroes and Indians brought over to the Christian faith, many numerous congregations have been set up, which now support the worship of God at their own expense where it was not known before, and seventy persons are constantly employed at the expense of the society in the further service of the gospel." ^ * See S.P.G. Anniversary Sermon, 1741, p. 11 f. 60 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS The " seventy persons " to whom reference is here made included all those who were engaged in ministering to English-speaking congregations. Many of these would, however, be in touch with the Indians, as " the instruction of the negro and Indian slaves and (their preparation) for conversion, baptism, and communion was a primary charge to every missionary . . . and to all schoolmasters of the society in America." ^ Further references to the work undertaken by the S.P.G. for the benefit of Indians and negroes between 1701 and 1750 in North America and the West Indies are given later on (p. 371—6). 1 Two Hundred Years of the S.P.O., p. 63. IV. INDIA. Before attempting to describe the beginnings of Christian missions in India it would be well to make a brief refer- ence to the connection which, it is often maintained, exists between the Baghavad Gita and other Hindu literature and the Christian Scriptures. The conclusion which seems to be best supported by evidence may be expressed in the words of Dr. E. W. Hopkins (U.S.A.). After con- sidering in detail the points of resemblance which have been suggested between the teaching of the Gospels, specially that of the Gospel of St. John, and the Gita and other Hindu scriptures, he writes : "The most reasonable explanation of the data as a whole appears to me to be that the Fourth Gospel, perhaps not uninfluenced by the Gnosticism of the time, but not necessarily influenced by a Buddhistic tradition or by any Sanskrit texts, was of a mystical tone that made it peculiarly suitable to influence the Hindu divines, who transferred from it such phrases and sentiments as best fitted in with the conception of Krishna as a god of love. For it must be remembered constantly that before Krishna's advent in his new role those characteristics of Krishna that bring him into closest likeness with Christ are entirely lacking in the conception of any previous Hindu divinity. Buddha never pretended to forgive sin. . . . But suddenly there appears this benign man-god, who proclaims that all sins are forgiven to him who believes in Krishna, and that those who believe in him are very few in number, yet this new religion of love and faith is better than the old Brahmanic religion of works and ceremonial purity." ^ » India Old and New, by Dr. E. W. Hopkins (New York, 1901), p. 158. 6» 62 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS When we come down to the writings of Tulsi Das (the Eamayana) in the sixteenth century tfie influence of Christian teaching becomes so apparent that it is im- possible to resist the conviction that his development of the doctrine of hhaJcti which was hinted at in the Bhagavad Gita was the outcome of Christian influences. Keferring to this doctrine Dr. Grierson writes: " Suddenly in India there came this great revolution of bhakti. Keligion was no longer a matter of knowledge, it became one of emotion. Bhakti may be translated by ' faith * or * devotion.' It requires a personal, not an im- personal, God. I do not myself doubt that this great step forward of the Hindu soul was due to the influence of the Christians who were then settled in the country. It was not openly an adoption of Christian principles by Hindu thinkers, who had been wasting their lives on a barren search for knowledge. In such a search, even with the brother-love of Buddhism added to it, the people could find no permanent happiness. The craving for expressing love towards the Infinite which exists in every heart was there, a spark was sufficient to set it in a flame, and that vital spark came from Christianity." ^ For a detailed discussion of the influence which Christianity has exerted upon the teachings of modern Hinduism the reader is referred to any of the standard books on Hinduism. A helpful account of the approxima- tions of modern Hindu writers to Christian thought will be found in The Crown of HiThduism, by J. N. Farquhar, and in The Renaissance in India, by C. F. Andrews. We pass on to consider the beginnings of actual mis- sionary work in India. The obscurity attaching to the first preaching of the Christian faith in Southern India is in part due to the fact that the word India was used during the early centuries of 1 See "Hinduism and Early Christianity," by G. A. Grierson, The East and The West, April 1906, p. 142 f. As an incidental proof of the existence of intercourse between Rome and South India in the first century a.d. we may refer to the discovery in 1850 at Calicut of several hundred coins all of which were as early as the reign of Nero, INDIA 63 the Christian era in a number of different senses. The tradition that St. Thomas, whose tomb is shown to-day at Mylapore, a suburb of Madras, was the first to preach the gospel in Southern India is of comparatively late origin.^ On the other hand, Origen's statement that St. Thomas went as a missionary to Parthia is probably correct. The tradition that he was sold to a Parthian chief called Gondophares has been rendered credible by the discovery that a prince of this name ^ actually existed in Parthia at the period when St. Thomas might have been there. Heracleon, a Sicilian Gnostic who wrote about a.d. 170, says that St. Thomas ended his days in peace ; and St. Clement of Alexandria, who quotes this statement, does not deny it. It is by no means inconceivable that St. Thomas extended his missionary activities from Parthia into North -West India, but it seems certain that he never visited Southern India. Pantsenus is said by Eusebius to have travelled from Alexandria to India about A.D. 190 in order to preach the gospel. The words of Eusebius are : "He (Pantsenus) is said to have found there among some of the inhabitants who were acquainted with Christ the Gospel of Matthew, which had reached that country before him. For Bartholomew is said to have preached to these people and to have left them a Hebrew version of Matthew's Gospel, which they had kept until the time of which I speak." ^ It seems probable that by India is here meant either Southern Arabia or the India of Alexander the Great — that is, the valley of the Indus. One of the bishops who attended the Council of Nicsea, a.d. 325, was described as "John of Persia, in all Persia and Great India," the latter word apparently being intended to denote the country which lay between Persia and the Indus. The * See "St. Thomas and his Tomb at Mylapore," by James Kennedy, in The East and The West, April 1907. ^ Undaphares of Arachosia. * Historia Ecclesiastica, v. 10. 3. 64 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS India visited by Frumentius early in the fourth century was apparently Abyssinia, and the India of Theophilus the Indian towards the end of the fourth century was Arabia Felix. A tradition which does not date back earlier than the seventh century assigns Calamina, or Calamita, as the site of St. Thomas' martyrdom. Possibly this may be Kerman in Eastern Persia, or Calama in Beluchistan. The Church in Southern India, which claims to trace back its ancestry to St. Thomas, was an offshoot from the Church in Persia, which, at the time when the Church in India was established (that is, at the beginning of the sixth century), was part of the patriarchate of Babylon. Keferring to the missionary activities of this patriar- chate. Dr. Neale writes : they " pitched their tents in the camps of the wandering Tartar : the Lama of Thibet trembled at their words : they stood in the rice fields of the Panjab and taught the fisher- men by the Sea of Aral : they struggled through the vast deserts of Mongolia : the memorable inscription of Singanfu attests their victories in China: in India the Zamorin (the ruler of Calicut) himself respected their spiritual and courted their temporal authority. . . . The power of the Nestorian patriarch culminated in the beginning of the eleventh century, when he had 25 metropolitans, who ruled from China to the Tigris, from Lake Baikal to Cape Comorin." ^ The identification of the founder of Christianity in Southern India with the Apostle is probably to be explained by the local tradition which asserts that in the year 345 there landed in Malabar, under the convoy of a Jerusalem merchant, a bishop from Edessa, named Thomas, who brought with him a large following, which included several priests and deacons. We know from other sources that in 343 a severe persecution of Christians occurred in the Persian Empire. The first definite authority for the existence of a 1 A History of the Holy Eastern Churchy vol. i. p. 3, 143. For a further reference to Nestorian Bishoprics in Asia, see p. 164 f. INDIA 65 Christian Church in Southern India is Cosmas Indi- copleustes, who, about a.d. 535, found Christian churches and clergy in Ceylon, interior India and Male (Malabar), as well as a bishop at Kaliana (Kalyan) near Bombay. He states that the Bishop of Kaliana receives imposition of hands from Persia. In 1547 the so-called Thomas Cross was discovered at Milapur, Madras. On it and on two other similar crosses found at Cottayam, 500 miles away, there is an inscription in ancient Persian (or Pahlavi). In the case of the cross at Madras and of one of those at Cottayam the inscription proves that the cross must have been in existence at least as early as the seventh century. In 883 King Alfred of England sent two priests, Sighelm and Athelstan, to India via Eome to carry the votive offerings which he had promised to St. Thomas during the siege of London. Of what befell the Christians in South India during the next four centuries we know nothing. Marco Polo, who travelled in the East from 1270 to 1295, writes: "In the kingdom of Quilon (Travancore) dwell many Christians and Jews who still retain their own language." By this time the connection between the Apostle Thomas and Milapur had attained general acceptance. Marco Polo says that there lies "the body of the glorious martyr St. Thomas Apostle, who suffered martyrdom there ... a great multitude of Christians and Saracens (Mohammedans) make pilgrimages thither." John of Monte Corvino, who afterwards became Archbishop of Cambaluc (Peking), spent thirteen months in South India, 1292-93, on his way to China. He writes : "At different places in that province (which contains the Church of the Apostle St. Thomas) I baptized some hundred persons." 5 66 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Menentillus, a friar who visited India in 1310, writes: " Christians and Jews there are, but they are few and of no high standing. Christians and all who have Christian names are often persecuted." Sir John Mandeville, who visited South India early in the fourteenth century, states that round about the tomb of St. Thomas were fifteen houses inhabited by Nestorian monks, recreant Christians and schismatics. He states that the body of St. Thomas has been transported to Edessa in Syria, but had again been brought back to India. The papal nuncio John of Marignola on his way home from China spent nearly two years in India, 1348—50, but the information which he supplies adds little to our knowledge of the development of Christianity in South India. In 1503 the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Elia IV. sent three bishops to Southern India, and a letter received by his successor which announced their arrival stated that in one of the two districts in which Christians were found there were 30,000 "families of the faith." In 1599 the Portuguese representatives in India succeeded in forcing the Syrians into obedience to the See of Eome, but half a century later, when Portuguese political influence in India began to wane, the larger part of the Church renounced its connection with the E.C. Church. The Syrian Christians in South India are now divided into four sections : — 1. " Orthodox Syrians," or simply " Syrians." These live under their Matran, Mar Dionysius, and his four suffragans. They are Monophysite in confession, and subordinate to the Patriarch of that Church, who resides at Mardin in Chaldaea. They are often called Jacobites because they use the Liturgy of St. James, in the form employed by the Church referred to. 2. Eomo-Syrians. These of late years have been ruled by Indian bishops, guided by Eoman Catholic fathers of the Jesuit and Carmelite orders. While Eoman INDIA 67 Catholic in confession, they use their own rite, which is an expurgated and amended version of the Liturgy of SS. Adai and Mari, though not identical with the version of the same liturgy used by the Chaldseans of Mosul. 3. Eeformed Syrians, called by themselves the " Christians of St. Thomas." This is an independent Church, an offshoot from the Monophysite Syrians, having their own bishop, Mar Titus Thomas, with two suffragans. Their formal separation from the " Syrians " dates only from about the year 1880. The Church is in close accord with the English C.M.S. missionaries but is in no way under their control, and it uses an expurgated and amended version of the Liturgy of St. James, in the Malayalam language. 4. The Syro-Chaldseans. This body, which is the smallest of the four, is an off-shoot from the Eomo-Syrians, from whom they separated in 1880. In theory they are Nestorian, and their bishop. Mar Timotheus, was con- secrated by the Nestorian Patriarch in 1907, but in practice they bear considerable traces of long subjection to Eoman Catholic influences, and would better be described as " Old Catholics." The real reason for their separation was apparently the refusal of the Vatican to allow native bishops to the Eomo- Syrian Church ; but though that concession has been made since their departure, it has not brought about their reconciliation. They use the same liturgy as the Eomo-Syrians. (For the number of Christians belonging to each of these bodies see p. 1 2 1 f .) In 1816 the C.M.S. sent four clergy to try to revive the Syrian Church and to translate the Scriptures into the vernacular. This " mission of help " continued for twenty years, after which the C.M.S. undertook independent missionary work amongst non-Christians. The Syrian Christians during the long centuries of their history have never been inspired with missionary enthusiasm and have constituted a select community which corresponded closely to an Indian caste. During the last 68 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS few years, however, there has been a revival amongst them, and the " Eeformed Christians " have sent four missionaries of their own race to work in connection with the National Missionary Society at Karwar in the Bombay Presidency. The only contemporary reference to Christianity in India during the fifteenth century is the statement of the Venetian Nicolo de Conti, who on his return to Eome stated that the body of St. Thomas " reposes honourably in a large and beautiful church, close to which dwell a number of Nestorian Christians, who are also found dis- seminated all over India, just as Jews are found in Europe." We should greatly like to penetrate the darkness which conceals the fortunes and condition of these tiny Christian communities during this long period, but there seems little hope that we shall ever be enabled to do so. On May 9, 1498, Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut after sailing round the Cape of Good Hope. His arrival in India inaugurated the establishment of missions, sup- ported by the kings of Portugal. The expedition under Cabral, which sailed in 1500, included several monks who were intended for missionary work, and their numbers were rapidly augmented. In 1534 Goa was constituted a bishopric, and in 1557 an archbishopric. The mission- aries belonged to the Franciscan and Dominican Orders. The Portuguese encouraged their soldiers and sailors to take native Indian wives, and as the offspring of these unions, which were often of a temporary nature, were baptized, the moral character of the Christian community tended to become more and more deplorable. During the first forty years of the sixteenth century the missionaries do not appear to have made any considerable number of converts, but before the middle of the century India was to receive a missionary whose arrival forms a landmark in the history of Christian missions in the East. In 1523 — that is, eleven years before the institution of the " Company of Jesus " — Ignatius Loyola had himself left Spain with the avowed object of converting the Mohammedans of Palestine to the Christian faith and INDIA 69 of reconciling the Greek Church to the See of Eome. Sailing from Barcelona to Gaeta, he visited Eome and thence begged his way by land to Venice. From here he sailed to Cyprus and eventually to Jaffa. On Sep- tember 4, 1523, in company with other pilgrims, he set foot inside the Holy City. Here, had he been allowed to do so, he would have spent the rest of his life. The Superior of the Franciscan convent in Jerusalem, who had been given by the Pope control over Christian pilgrims, refused, however, to allow him to stay, and when he lingered behind the pilgrim caravan he was forcibly conducted to Jaffa. Had he been able to carry out his purpose, there is little doubt that the Society of Jesus would not have been formed and that he would himself have met his death at the hands of the fanatical Moslems of Jerusalem. Despite the failure of his efforts in Jerusalem, he deserves to be remembered as one of the earliest missionaries who made a definite attempt to convert Mohammedans otherwise than by the sword. By his personal activities and by his teaching Loyola was largely instrumental in arousing the whole Roman Church to a sense of missionary obligation. His society sent missionaries to India, Brazil, and North America, and his zeal was the indirect cause of the missions of the Dominicans to China, of the Franciscans to Tartary, of the Theatins to Armenia, Persia, and Sumatra, and of the Sulpicians in Montreal. He founded at Rome the first Jews* Society, the first Magdalene Asylum, and the first Orphan House on record. In the year that Columbus died (1506) Francis Xavier was born. The youngest of a large family in which all the other boys became soldiers, he entered the University of Paris at the age of eighteen, and became a teacher of philosophy in this university when he was little more than twenty. His conversion from a life of carelessness and selfishness to one of self-denial and devotion was the result of five years' close intercourse with Ignatius Loyola, who began by being his pupil, but whom he soon learned 70 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS to regard as his master. On the Feast of the Assumption in the year 1534, Loyola and six companions, of whom Xavier was one, repaired to the subterranean chapel of Montmartre, and amid the darkness, at dead of night, dedicated themselves by solemn vows to become missionaries of the Church and to preach the gospel to every man whom they might meet. Two years later the members of the new Order placed themselves unreservedly at the dis- posal of the Pope, to be sent by him as missionaries to any part of the world. The seven years which passed before a definite plan was elaborated were spent by Xavier in visiting hospitals and tending the sick in some of the principal towns in Italy and in preaching to the poor wherever he could obtain an audience. After abstaining from interviewing his widowed mother and his much-loved sister, lest he should be tempted to draw back from his high call, he embarked, with a smiling face, on his thirty- fifth birthday, in a ship sailing for India. His first year there was spent in preaching, catechizing, and visiting the sick. At the time of his arrival a missionary college was in course of erection at Government expense to accommodate 100 Indians who were to be trained as Christian missionaries. The Franciscan Principal ere long gave place to a member of the Jesuit Order, and the college became one of the chief centres of its work in India. Prior to the arrival of Xavier, 85 deputies had come to Goa to implore help on behalf of a community of low caste pearl-fishers (Paravas) who lived between Cape Comorin and Eamnad on the east coast and were oppressed by Mohammedan pirates. They offered, as the price of assistance, to become Christians and to acknowledge the sovereignty of Portugal, and as an earnest of the genuineness of their offer they all allowed themselves to be baptized in Goa. A fleet was dispatched to their aid, which drove off their enemies. The whole community, 20,000 in number, were baptized in the course of a few weeks, no teacher, however, being left behind to teach them the meaning of Christian baptism. INDIA 71 After Xavier had laboured for a year in Goa he spent fifteen months with these Paravas, living on rice and water and associating with them as one of themselves. After returning to Goa and obtaining the assistance of some of the students in the missionary college there, he returned to the Paravas and endeavoured to minister both to their material and spiritual wants. During this period he is said by his biographer to have spent twenty-one and a half hours each day in prayer and labour on their behalf, and his zeal begat a corresponding zeal in his companions. To those who are familiar with modern missionary methods, it may seem almost incredible that during the whole of Xavier's missionary activities in India and in the Far East he made no attempt to learn any language understood by those to whom he preached and was dependent entirely upon interpreters. How unsatisfactory were the efforts of his interpreters may be gathered from his own words : " It is a difficult situation to find oneself in the midst of a people of strange language, without an interpreter. Eodriquez tries, it is true, to act in that capacity, but he understands very little Portuguese. So you can imagine the life I lead here, and what my sermons are like, when neither the people can understand the interpreter nor the interpreter the preacher — to wit, myself." Again he writes: "We could not understand one another, as I spoke Castilian and they Malabar, so I picked out the most intelligent and well-read of them and then sought out with the greatest diligence men who knew both languages. We held meetings for several days, and by our joint efforts and with infinite difficulty we translated the Catechism into the Malabar tongue. This I learnt by heart, and then I began to go through all the villages of the Malabar country, calling around me by the sound of a bell as many as I could, children and men. I assembled them twice a day and taught them the Christian doctrine, and thus in the space of a month the children had it well by heart. "Every Sunday I collected them all, men and women, 72 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS boys and girls, in the church. They came with great readiness and with a great desire for instruction. Then, in the hearing of all, I began by calling on the name of the most Holy Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and I recited aloud the Lord's Prayer and the Creed in the language of the country, and they all followed me in the same words, and delighted at it wonderfully. Then I repeated the Creed by myself, dwelling upon each article singly . . . and asking them after each article whether they believed it. . . . After explaining the Creed I go on to the Commandments, teaching them that the Christian law is contained in these ten precepts, and that everyone who observes them all faithfully is a good and true Christian. After this I recite our principal prayers, such as the Our Father and the Hail Mary, and they say them after me. Then we go back to the Creed, adding the Our Father after each article with a short hymn ; for as soon as I have recited the first article I sing in their language : * Jesus, Son of the living God, grant us the grace to believe firmly this first article of Your faith, and that we may obtain this from You we offer You the prayer taught us by Yourself.' We do the same after all the other articles. " We teach them the Commandments in the following way. After we have sung the first, which enjoins the love of God, we pray thus : ' Jesus, Son of the living God, grant us the grace to love Thee above all things * ; and then we say for this intention the Lord's Prayer. So we go on through the other nine, changing the words of our little invocation as occasion requires. Thus I accustom them to ask for these graces with the ordinary prayers of the Church, and I tell them at the same time that if they obtain them they will have all other things that they can wish for more abundantly than they would be able to ask for them. " I make them all, and especially those who are to be baptized, repeat the form of general confession. These last I question, after each article of the Creed as it is recited, whether they believe it, and after they have answered * Yes/ I give them an instruction in their own language, explaining the chief heads of the Christian religion and other duties necessary to salvation. Last of all I admit them, thus prepared, to baptism. "As to the number who become Christians, you may understand from this that it often happens to me to be INDIA 73 hardly able to use my hands from the fatigue of baptizing ; often in a single day I have baptized whole villages. Some- times I have lost my voice and strength altogether with repeating again and again the Creed and the other forms." In a letter relating to a missionary tour which he had made through Travancore, he speaks of having baptized all the fishermen (Machhas) whom he could possibly meet with, but does not say whether these baptisms were preceded by any kind of instruction. In forming an opinion on the methods adopted by Xavier, it is only fair to him to remember that he was himself profoundly dissatisfied with the results which his labours produced. In a letter addressed to Ignatius Loyola in January 1549 he writes: " The natives [of India] are so terribly wicked that they can never be expected to embrace Christianity. It is so repellent to them in every way that they have not even patience to listen when we address them on the subject ; in fact, one might just as well invite them to allow themselves to be put to death as to become Christians. We must now therefore limit ourselves to retaining those who are already Christians." From first to last Xavier did not scruple to invoke the aid of the secular powers in order to further his mission- ary projects. He obtained authority from the King of Portugal authorizing him to punish by death the makers of idols, and in 1543 he urged the Portuguese Viceroy in India to support the claims of a brother of the King of Jaffna, who offered to be baptized as a Christian if the Portuguese would establish him on his brother's throne. With reference to this proposal Xavier wrote : " In Jaffna and on the opposite coast I shall easily gain 100,000 adherents for the Church of Christ." Two years later, in the course of a letter addressed to the King of Portugal, he wrote : " I have discovered a unique, but, as I assuredly believe, a sure means ... by which the number of Christians in 74 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS this land may without doubt be greatly increased. ... I demand that your Majesty shall swear a solemn oath affirm- ing that every Governor who shall neglect to disseminate the knowledge of our most holy faith shall be punished on his return to Portugal by a long term of imprisonment and by confiscation of his goods. ... I will content myself with assuring you that if every Viceroy or Governor were con- vinced of the full seriousness of such an oath, the whole of Ceylon, many kings on the Malabar coast, and the whole of the Cape Comorin district would embrace Christianity within a year. As long, however, as the Viceroys and Governors are not forced by fear of disfavour to gain adherents to Christianity, your Majesty need not expect that any considerable success will attend the preaching of the gospel in India, or that many baptisms will take place." After the departure of Xavier the Jesuit missions continued to make rapid progress on the lines on which he had started them. So unsatisfactory have been the results that Bishop Caldwell, who spent a long lifetime in South India, and knew the people as few Europeans have learned to know them, could write concerning the converts con- nected with the Eoman missions in Tinnevelly : "In intellect and morals they do not differ from the heathen in the smallest degree." As the Jesuit missions spread they came into conflict with the Syrian Church in Travan- core, the metropolitan of which they burnt in 1654. There is no Christian missionary other than Xavier in whose case it is more necessary to separate his life and character from his methods of work, if we are to do justice to the former. Of his self-devotion, his prayerfulness, and his capacity for inspiring others with his own spirit it is hardly possible to speak too highly. The record of his life has sent many to the mission field, and has helped to sustain their faith there, and to support them in times of despondency and trouble. But whilst we thank God for the many virtues which he possessed and which have placed his name high in the roll of missionary heroes, we cannot blind our eyes to the fact that his work was so marred by the methods of missionary enterprise which were recog- INDIA 75 nized by his contemporaries, and which he adopted as his own, that it is at least open to question whether the final conversion of India to the Christian faith has not been retarded by the work done by himself and by those who followed in his steps. In 1567 the Governor of Goa, at the suggestion of the Jesuit missionaries, issued a decree ordering that in those districts of Goa which yet remained heathen, the pagodas and mosques should be pulled down and that orphans under fourteen years of age should be baptized. Similar action was taken in the other Portuguese settle- ments in India, Dr. Eichter estimates the number of E.G. missionaries in India in 1590 as 500, and the number of converts connected with these missions as 254,000; these representing the result of ninety years' work. He compares these results with those obtained up to 1870 by about the same number of Anglican and Protestant missionaries, after eighty years' work; the number of converts connected with these missions being then 224,000. It is apparently true to say that the numerical results obtained by Anglican and Protestant missionaries in the face of frequent opposition on the part of Government authorities were approximately equal to those which the E.G. missionaries obtained when backed by the material forces of the Portuguese Government. The next great missionary to India was Robert di NoUli, an Italian, who reached India in 1605. His work is deserving of special attention inasmuch as the principle which he adopted of recognizing and accepting the Indian caste system has been accepted to a greater or less extent by nearly all the E.G. missionaries who have since laboured in India. He started his work at Madura,^ which was outside the region in which Portuguese political influence prevailed. Having determined to make himself an Indian, in order that he might win the Indians, he adopted the dress and the sacred thread of a Brahman, and painted the sandal-wood sign on his forehead. He ^ See Letires Edifiantes, vol. x. pp. 46, 62. 76 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS called himself a Eajah from Eome, and eventually pro- duced a new Veda, which he had himself forged, in support of his own teaching. He kept aloof from men belonging to the lower castes and only allowed Brahmans, or men of high caste, to have access to him. The principle which underlay his action was sanctioned by a Papal Bull in 1623 which declared that " out of compassion for human weakness, Nobili's converts are permitted to retain the plait of hair, the Brahmanical thread, the sandal-wood sign on the forehead, and the customary ablutions of their caste." The hair and thread were, however, first to be sprinkled with holy water. After more than fifty years' work, Nobili died at Milapur in 1656. After his death the Jesuit missions in South India were carried on on the lines which he had inaugurated, and the missionaries who worked amongst the higher castes refrained from any intercourse with those who worked amongst the lower castes. In the eighteenth century, when it was found impossible to provide Jesuit missionaries for the lower castes, those who worked amongst the Brahmans were accustomed to administer the sacraments at dead of night outside the doors of the higher caste churches. From 1690 to 1750 the missionaries and converts were subject to constant persecutions, and one at least of the Jesuit missionaries suffered martyrdom. At the time of Nobili's death the Christians connected with this mission were reckoned at 100,000, but by 1815, according to Dubois, himself a Jesuit, these numbers had decreased to 33,000. In 1703 Pope Clement xi. commissioned Tournon, the Patriarch of Antioch, to visit and report upon the methods which had been adopted by the Jesuits in this mission. On his suggestion the Pope published a decree which condemned several of the practices introduced by the Jesuits and contained the statement : " In future, refusal of the Holy Sacrament to Pariahs who may be sick will no longer be permitted." Unfortunately this decree, which was confirmed later INDIA 77 on by several other decrees, failed to effect any funda- mental change in the methods which had been adopted and which are still to a large extent followed. The writer of this volume has himself seen three E.G. churches in a village not far from Madura which are used by Christians from three different castes. In considering the work accomplished, or attempted, by Eobert di Nobili, we need, as in the case of Xavier, to distinguish between the man and the methods which he adopted. Of the missionaries who have laboured in India, few have lived lives of such continuous self-denial, or have been inspired with a more ardent passion to effect the conversion of the Indians. Whilst we deplore the super- ficial character of the results which his work produced, and the methods to which these results were due and which he bequeathed to his successors, we cannot withhold our ad- miration and respect for the Christ-like enthusiasm which was the motive power of his life. At the time that Nobili was living in Madura, the Jesuit missionaries at the Court of Akbar in North India were prosecuting their labours with a large amount of success. In 1610 three princes of the royal blood received baptism in Lahore at the hands of Geronimo Xavier, a nephew of St. Francis Xavier. Akbar himself reverenced " the images of Jesus Christ and the Virgin when they were shown to him by the missionaries, and solicited permission, reluctantly accorded, to retain them in his palace for a single night." ^ Another name deserving of special mention is that of Juan de Brito, the son of a Viceroy of Brazil, and for a time one of the royal pages at Lisbon. He arrived in India in 1673, and in the course of a few years baptized with his own hands many thousands of converts, who had, however, received a far more careful preparation than many of those who had been baptized by his predecessors. On 1 Elphinstone's History of India, vol. ii. p. 323. Many thousands were baptized, and it seemed for a time as though Christianity were about to supplant Islam and Hinduism in North India. 78 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS several occasions he was imprisoned and tortured, and at length, on February 3, 1693, he suffered death as a martyr. Another member of the Society of Jesus who was martyred a few years later, Xavier Borghesey when bidden by his heathen judge to refrain from mentioning the Holy Name, replied, " Think you that I left my country and all that was dear to me on earth, and came here to preach the law of the true God, which I have preached for so many years, only to keep silence now ? I declare to you that, so far from obeying your command, I will employ all that remains to me of life and power to make new disciples to the God of heaven." ^ " We will see," said the judge, " whether your disciples have as much courage as yourself," and then he ordered his soldiers to break the bones of one of his catechists. When the catechist heard the command which had been given, he exclaimed, " Now I begin to be truly your disciple. Do not fear, my father, that I shall do anything unworthy of a Christian." Another E.G. missionary whose name is deserving of mention is the Abbe Dubois, who went to India on the outbreak of the French Eevolution and remained there for thirty-two years, living a simple and self- denying life. He laboured amongst the E.G. Christians in South India, whom he describes in pessimistic language. " I must confess," he wrote, " with shame and humiliation, that there was not a single member of them of whom it could be said that he had accepted Christianity save for some objectionable secondary consideration." He returned to France in 1823, expressing the belief that missionary work in South India had been and was likely to be a complete failure. The book which he published on the manners and customs of India is a standard work of reference. Anglican and Protestant Missions. Long before the advent of the first Anglican or Protestant missionaries Anglican chaplains were sent out 1 Lettrcs Edifantes, vol. x. p. 210. INDIA 79 by the East India Company, and especially in the early years were allowed or even encouraged by the Company to take an interest in the religious welfare of the Indians with whom they were brought into contact. Between 1667 and 1700 eighteen chaplains were provided by the Company, the first being sent to Madras in 1667. The first Indian to become a Christian as a result of the missionary efforts of a representative of the Anglican Church was, perhaps, an Indian from Bengal, who was baptized in 1616. According to a minute contained in the Court Minute Book of the East India Company at Masulipatam, which is dated August 19, 1614, Captain Best took home a young Indian who was instructed by Mr. Patrick Copland, or Copeland, the preacher, one of the first chaplains to travel in the Company's ships to Masulipatam. On December 22, 1616, the lad was baptized, after consultation with the Archbishop of Canter- bury, in the presence of some members of the Privy Council, Lord Mayor and Aldermen, and also the members of the East India Company, and the sister company of Virginia. He received the name of Peter, chosen by the King (James I.). Some Latin letters exist written by the lad signed " Peter Papa." He seems to have gone with Mr. Copeland to Virginia. It is not possible to determine the actual place of his birth, but it is certain that he came from the Bay of Bengal, that he was taught by a visiting chaplain to Masulipatam, and that he was taken home at the Company's expense. 1750-1820. We have already referred to the work of the Danish and Moravian missions to India down to 1750. On July 16 of this year Christian Friedrich Schwartz landed at Cuddalore and continued to work in South India till his death in 1798 (aged seventy-two). After working at Tranquebar for ten years he moved to Trichin- opoly, where he laboured for sixteen years (1762-78), 80 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Trichinopoly then belonged to the Mohammedan Nawab of Arcot, who was an ally of the English. It contained an English garrison, and in 1767 Schwartz ceased to be connected with the Danish Mission and became an English chaplain and was in part supported by the S.P.C.K. He was a Lutheran and did not receive Anglican Orders. In 1763 he visited Tanjore and, at the request of its Kajah, settled there in 1778 and made this the centre of his work till his death. His reputation for probity spread throughout South India and became a distinct asset to the English Government. Thus Colonel Fullerton, the Commander ©f the British army in South India, wrote in 1783: "The knowledge and integrity of this irreproach- able missionary have retrieved the character of Europeans from imputations of general depravity." The Rajah of Tanjore before his death in 1787 desired to appoint Schwartz as the guardian of his heir and Eegent of his kingdom. Two years after his death Schwartz was appointed to both these posts by the English authorities. He entrusted the care of the young Rajah to his colleague Gerick^ at Madras till his accession to the throne in 1796. The important political offices which Schwartz filled naturally affected his work as a missionary, and many accepted Christianity under the influence of the " royal priest of Tanjore " who were not Christians at heart. He travelled extensively throughout South India and established a considerable number of schools, and at the time of his death, in 1798, the total number of Christian adherents connected with the Danish Mission was about 20,000. Between 1706 and 1846, 57 mission- aries connected with this mission went out to India, of whom 20 died at Tranquebar, the chief educational centre of the mission. When the Tanjore Mission was handed over to the S.P.G. in 1825, there were about 2000 persons in the congregations and 700 children in the schools. During the ten years which followed the adherents increased to 4300. It is interesting to note that Schwartz, together with INDIA 81 his adopted son, J. C. Kohlhoff, and his son, J. B. V Kohlhoff of Tranquebar, worked in South India for an aggregate period of 156 years. The permanent results of Schwartz's work were disap- pointing, but when we consider the conditions under which it was carried on, it is hard to see how a better foundation for subsequent work could have been laid. He deliber- ately refrained from using the political influence which he possessed as prime minister of the Eajah of Tanjore in order to increase the number of baptisms, and those whom he baptized had for the most part an intelhgent knowledge of their new faith ; but the wide area over which his activities were spread, and the difficulty of sending efficient teachers to carry on the various mission centres which he created, gave to his work a superficial character which he would have been the first to deplore. Six years before his death there had landed in Bengal one who may be regarded as one of the greatest mission- aries who have set foot in India, William Carey, a cobbler who was sent out by the newly formed Baptist Missionary Society. He was so far from possessing the material and political support which Xavier enjoyed, and which in a lesser degree Schwartz obtained, that the East India Company refused him permission to work anywhere within the sphere of its influence, and he was compelled to retire to Serampore, a mission station which had been occupied but abandoned by Moravian missionaries, and which belonged to the kingdom of Denmark. Carey's first companions were Marshman, who had been a ragged-school teacher, and Ward, a printer — a trio of missionary heroes and geniuses to which it would be impossible to suggest a parallel. By the beginning of 1800 Carey had translated the whole of the New Testament into Bengali. The style of Bengali writing which he created in doing this, and which was specially distinguished by his efforts to enrich its vocabu- lary by a liberal borrowing of Sanskrit words, has affected all Bengali prose literature which has since been published. In 1801 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley master of 6 82 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS the new college in Calcutta which had been erected for che training of Anglo-Indian officials, and he subsequently filled the posts of Professor of Bengali, Sanskrit, and Marathi. Amongst many books which he published were a Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. He also edited three volumes of the Eamayana and other Sanskrit works, and before his death in 1834 he had translated the whole Bible into Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, and Sanskrit. These translations were imperfect, and were eventually replaced by completely new versions, but their production testifies to the marvellous enthusiasm and industry of their author. The Serampore Brotherhood sent out missionaries or missionary agents to places as far distant as Benares, Agra, Delhi, and Bombay in the one direction, and to Burma, the Moluccas, and Java in the opposite direction. They also started work at Barisal, Dacca, Chitagong, Dinajpur, and Katwa in Bengal, and among the Khasia tribes in Assam. Many of these stations were eventually handed over to other missionary societies. In 1816 the missionaries at Serampore separated from the Baptist Missionary Society, but on their death the greater part of their work passed into the hands of this society. In 1818 they commenced the foundation of a college which was intended to expand into a university with a view to the education and training of Indian missionaries. To this college the King of Denmark granted the right to confer degrees. After the death of the three missionary founders the college was carried on with decreasing effectiveness till 1883, when it came to an end. After this date it became a Baptist seminary for preachers and teachers in Bengal, and has recently been reorganized as an arts college with a theological faculty on an undenominational basis. The distinguishing characteristic of Carey's work was his adoption of the principle of concentration. It is true that he sent agents to distribute his translations of the Bible and to attempt to found mission stations in places far distant from Serampore, but his life-work was the establishment of the training college at Serampore and of INDIA 83 the group of schools in its neighbourhood. To a far greater extent than any of his predecessors he realized the comparative futility of diffused missions and the impossi- bility of converting India by means of European evangelists. By concentrating the greater part of his activities within a narrow circle, and by spending his time upon the education and training of Indian teachers, he inaugurated a new method of missionary work the importance of which it is impossible to exaggerate. Dr. Mylne, formerly Bishop of Bombay, writes : " If ever a heaven-sent genius wrought a conquest over obstacles and disabilities it was . . . this humbly-born Englishman. Not only was he born in low station . . . but he received hardly any education. . . . And this man before he died took part in translating the Bible into some forty languages or dialects, Chinese among the number! He started in life as a cobbler — would never let anyone claim for him the more dignified title of shoemaker — he died a professor of Sanskrit, the honoured friend and adviser of the Government whose earliest greeting, when he landed on the shores of the country, had been to prohibit him from preaching. He founded a notable college (Serampore) for the training of native missionaries. . . . But the one grand merit of Carey, without which his marvellous qualities had been lost like those of his predecessors, was that he, with the intuition of genius, set to work instinctively from the first on the lines of the concentrated mission. There was no diffusion of his energies over impossible tracts of country and impracticable numbers of converts. A few really Christianized people, with the means of future extension — this he seems to have set before him as his object. He left no great body of converts, but he laid a solid foundation, to be built on by those who should succeed him. ... I should hardly be saying too much did I lay down that subsequent missions have proved to be successful, or the opposite, in a proportion fairly exact to their adoption of Carey's methods." ^ In 1797 the S.P.C.K. sent the Eev. W. T. Bingeltauhe as a missionary to Calcutta. He returned after two years, and was then sent out by the L.M.S. to Travancore. Between 1806 and 1815 he was stationed at Myladi, ^ Missions to Hindus, p. 12^ f, 84 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS where his work resulted in the conversion of more than 1000 of the Shans. Of these, 677 were admitted to Holy Communion in 1812. Of the Anglican chaplains who did much to promote a missionary spirit in Calcutta in the early part of the nineteenth century the Kev. David Brown and the Eev. Claudius Buchanan deserve special mention. The Rev. T. Thomason and the Eev. Daniel Corrie, who acted as chaplains up the country, also contributed much to create interest in missions both at home and in India. Yet another chaplain whose name is still more widely known was the Rev. Henry Martyn (1781- 1812). Landing in Calcutta in 1806, he commenced the study of Hindustani, Hindi, Persian, and Arabic, and within five years he had translated the New Testament and the Book of Common Prayer into the first of these languages. In 1811 he proceeded to Persia. After spending ten months in Shiraz, where he translated the greater part of the New Testament into Persian, he set out on his return to Europe via Asia Minor. Worn out by mental and physical strain, he died at Tokat at the age of thirty-one. Although he apparently made but one convert, and his translations needed much revision, his life and death did much to inaugurate a new interest in missionary work both in India and else- where. The romance connected with his scholarship — he had graduated at Cambridge as senior wrangler — and with his early death, far from the help of friends, helped to attract the attention of many who had taken no interest in missions to the cause to which he had given his life, and the ardent faith and piety which are reflected in the letters that were subsequently published inspired many who read them to become missionaries in their turn. His only convert, Abdul Masih, was ordained by Bishop Heber in 1826 and was the second Indian to receive Anglican Orders. The first was a Ceylon catechist, Christian David, who was ordained by Bishop Heber in 1824. The year 1813, in which the Charter of the East INDIA 85 India Company was renewed and modified by Parliament, was a critical year in the history of Indian missions. A clause was then inserted in the Charter the effect of which would be to authorize and encourage the sending out of Christian missionaries. A similar clause had been suggested twenty years before, but was then vehemently opposed by some of the Directors, one of whom, Mr. Bensley, speaking at an assembly of the General Court held on May 23, 1793, at the East India House, said: "So far from approving the proposed clause or listening to it with patience, from the first moment I heard of it I con- sidered it the most wild, extravagant, expensive, and unjustifiable project that ever was suggested by the most visionary speculator." One of the clauses in the new Charter ordered the appointment of a bishop and three archdeacons for the oversight of work amongst Europeans in India. Bishop Middleton, who was consecrated in 1814, founded Bishops' College, Calcutta, the object of which was to train Indian Christians to become preachers, catechists, and teachers, and to serve as a centre for translation and other literary work. The college, which was established at a cost of £60,000, was placed under the supervision of the S.P.G. Its foundation-stone was laid in 1820, and the Eev. W. H. Mill, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was appointed as its first Principal. The Bishop of Calcutta reported in 1837 that "the amount of good already effected by the College was really surprising," and in 1840 it was stated that there were 1800 Christians in the Barripore and Tollygunge missions as a result of the influence exerted by the College. But despite these and other encouraging reports of a later date, it cannot be maintained that the College has so far fulfilled the hopes of its founders. When, however, the new scheme for its removal from Calcutta and its reconstitution has been carried into effect, there is good reason to hope that it may do much to help forward the work of Anglican missions not merely in Bengal but throughout India. 86 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS We have already referred to the work of Eingeltaube, which was begun in Travancore in 1806. By 1835 the total number of converts connected with his mission numbered 11,000. In certain districts of Tinnevelly not far removed from the scene of his labours the Eev. C. T. Ehenius, who was in Lutheran Orders but was employed by the C.M.S., began work in 1820, and was so successful that by 1835 there were nearly 12,000 baptized Christians living in 2 6 1 villages, and nearly 3000 children were under instruction in 107 schools. The work in Tinnevelly, which was at first supported by the S.P.C.K. and for which the S.P.G. a little later became responsible, was started by Schwartz, who dedicated the first church in Palamcottah in 1785. There were at that time 40 baptized Christians. In 1803 the Eev. C. W. Gericke, a colleague of Schwartz, visited this mission and took part in one of the " mass movements " towards Christianity for which Tinnevelly subsequently became famous. In a single tour he baptized 1300 people who had been carefully prepared, and an Indian missionary, Satthianadhan, soon afterwards baptized 2700 more. By 1835 the total number of Christians connected with the English and Danish missions in South Travancore and Tinnevelly was about 30,000. After the death of Schwartz, Janicke (1795), and Gericke (1803), the work of the Danish Mission rapidly dwindled. The enthusiasm of its missionaries in the field seemed to decline, and it became increasingly difficult to provide them with successors from Europe. By 1840 the greater part of the mission stations had been transferred to the S.P.G. and nearly all were occupied by English missionaries in Anglican Orders. In 1835, Archdeacon Corrie was consecrated as the first Anglican Bishop of Madras. Caste in the Christian Church. We have already referred to the results produced by the recognition of caste within the Christian Church by INDIA 87 E.C. missionaries in South India.^ Their recognition of caste rendered it extremely difficult for the Danish and German missionaries to do otherwise than follow their example. With few exceptions, they permitted the Sudras and Pariahs to observe their caste distinctions, to sit apart in church, and to receive the Holy Communion on separate occasions. The Eev. C. T. Ehenius was one of the earliest missionaries to make a decided stand against the observance of caste. Bishop Wilson of Calcutta, who visited South India in 1833, issued a pastoral letter in which he said, " The distinction of caste must be abandoned, decidedly, immediately, and finally." He further described caste as " eating as doth a cancer into the vitals of our infant Churches." When his pastoral letter was read in Vepery Church, Madras, the Sudra Christians rose and left the church, and for the time being renounced their membership of the Christian Church. In Tanjore the reading of the pastoral caused a similar upheaval and produced but little permanent result. We have not space in which to discuss the significance of caste observances or the grounds on which they appear to be inconsistent with the spirit of Christianity. It is sufficient to say that an overwhelming majority of the most intelligent and the most successful missionaries who have laboured in India have agreed with the view expressed by Bishop Wilson. Nehemiah Goreh, himself a Brahmin convert and one of the most remarkable missionaries of Indian nationahty, once said, " Christianity with caste would be no Christianity at all." 2 The General Missionary Conference which met in India in 1902 passed this resolution: " The Conference would earnestly emphasize the deliver- ance of the South India Missionary Conference of 1900. namely, that caste, wherever it exists in the Church, be treated as a great evil to be discouraged and repressed. It is further of opinion that in no case should any person who 1 See p. 76. "^ Lifo of Father Qoreh, p. 7. 88 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS breaks the law of Christ by observing caste hold any officx3 in connection with the Church, and it earnestly appeals to all Indian Christians to use all lawful means to eradicate so unchristian a system." Ever since the establishment of Protestant missions in South India the Lutheran missionaries, and especially those connected with the Leipzig Missionary Society, have practically condoned the observance of caste by the Christian converts. The Anglican and the other Protestant missionaries have striven with varying, but on the whole with very incomplete, success to put an end to its observance. Alexander Duff and his work (1830-57). Of the pioneer missionaries whose labours have left a permanent impression upon missionary work in India and to whom we have already referred, four names stand out pre-eminent — Xavier, Nobili, Schwartz, and Carey. To these we should now add that of Alexander Duff} Dr. Duff, who landed at Calcutta in 1830, after being twice shipwrecked on his outward voyage, was the first missionary sent out by the Established Church of Scotland. He at once resolved to strike out what was then a new line of missionary policy and attempt to influence the higher castes of North India by providing schools in which, through the medium of the English language, a liberal education should be offered to all who were willing to receive Christian instruction at the hands of missionaries. In adopting the English language as the chief medium of instruction he did not desire to discountenance the use of the vernacular languages, but he was convinced that the use of these was incompatible with the imparting of a comprehensive education, and still more that they were inadequate to express the fundamental conceptions of Christian doctrines. In carrying out his scheme he obtained the assistance of Eam Mohan Eoy, the founder 1 See Life of Alexander Duffy by Geo. Smith. INDIA 89 of the Brahmo Samaj. The first school which he opened in Calcutta in July 1830 proved so great a success and seemed likely to result in the conversion of so many of its scholars, that the Hindu newspapers announced that anyone continuing to send his son to school would be driven out of caste. The school thereupon emptied, but only to fill again to the very last place before the end of a week. With a few interruptions Duff continued his work in Calcutta till 1863. His converts were not numbered by thousands, or even by hundreds, but they included a large number of high caste Hindus whose brilliant mental gifts and whose strength of character liave exercised an immense influence upon their fellow- countrymen in North India. Amongst the names widely known in India are Krishna Mohan Banerjea, Gopinath Nundy, Mohesh Chunder Ghose, and Anando Chunder Mozumdar. Not only in the schools started by Duff, but in other schools and colleges which were founded as an indirect result of his work, conversions from amongst members of the highest and most distinguished families took place during this period. Amongst the number of important colleges which were founded during Duff's time in India may be mentioned the Eobert Noble College at Masulipatam (C.M.S.), 1841 ; St. John's College at Agra (C.M.S.), 1853; the General Assembly's school, afterwards known as " the Christian College," in Madras, 1837; St. Thomas' College, Colombo (S.P.G.), 1851 ; Almora College (L.M.S.), 1851 ; Trichinopoly College (S.P.G.), 1863; the Forman College, Lahore (A.U.P.M.), refounded in 1886. A colleague of Duff, Dr. John Wilson, founded the college in Bombay which now bears his name. The influence which Duff exerted upon the Government of India was at least as important as that which he exerted upon those who were responsible for the control of missions. The trend of its policy and the course of legisla- tion were profoundly affected by Duff, and had he done no direct missionary work he would still have left a permanent 90 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS impress upon the development of education throughout India. No sooner had the success of Duff's initial efforts become apparent than the Government of India — Lord Bentinck being then the Governor-General and Sir Charles Trevelyan one of his chief advisers — issued a minute (1835) in which it was stated that it was the desire of the Government to naturalize European literature and science and to foster English culture. Later on, and after consultation with Duff, the Government announced the establishment of a department of Public Instruction in each of the Presidencies, and in 1857 founded universities in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. These were eventually supplemented by the foundation of one at Lahore in 1882 and one at Allahabad in 1887. During this period the system of grant-in-aid was also established by which government grants could be claimed by missionary or other schools which provided a secular education up to a given standard. This system has made it possible for missionary societies to establish and carry on mission schools at little or, in some instances, at no cost to their own funds. Indian Christians in 1851, In 1851 the first attempt was made to count the number of Christians connected with the Anglican and Protestant missionary societies in India. The statistics obtained, though incomplete and less accurate than those which were subsequently available, enable us to form some idea of the progress of these missions up to the middle of last century. The number of Christians in 1851 was 91,092, they formed 267 congregations, and 14,661 of them were communicants. Of these, 24,613 were connected with the C.M.S. Tinnevelly Mission, 10,315 with the S.P.G. Mission in the same district, and 16,427 with the L.M.S. Mission in South Travancore. These three missions claimed 51,355 out of the 74,176 Christians in the Madras Presidency. The remaining number included those who had become converts in connection with the old Danish INDIA 91 missions in the Cauvery districts. In the whole of the rest of India there were only 16,916 converts, of whom 14,177 were in Bengal. Of these, 4417 were connected with the G.M.S., 3476 with the S.P.G., and 1600 with the Baptist mission. Of the 339 ordained missionaries in India at this time the C.M.S. had 64, the L.M.S. 49, the S.P.G. 35, the Baptists 30, the Basel Missionary Society 23, and the American Board 22. The advent of American missionaries. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (A.B.C.F.M.) sent their first missionaries to India in 1812, but, owing to the opposition of the East India Company, they were not allowed to remain in Calcutta. In 1813 they started work in Bombay, but little progress was made till 1833, when they crossed over from Ceylon, where they had been previously at work, and founded a series of mission stations at Madura and in the surrounding districts. Soon afterwards they began work in Madras and in the Arcot district. In 1831 they began work in Ahmadnagar, which subsequently developed into their Maratha Mission. The American Presbyterians started work in the United Provinces and subsequently in the Punjab. Their first station was opened at Ludhiana in 1834. Later on they opened stations at Allahabad (1836) and Fatehgarh (1838), and in the Punjab at Jullundur (1846), Ambala (1848), and Lahore (1849). They were the first Protestant missionaries to work in the Punjab. The American Baptists started their Telugu Mission in 1840 and their mission to Assam in 1841. For a long time neither of these societies made any great progress. The American United Presbyterians started work at Sialkot in 1855. 92 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Lutheran Missionary Societies, We have already referred to the work of the German missionaries who went out to India in connection with the Danish -Halle missions. The Basel Missionary Society, which was founded in 1815, began work at Mangalore on the south-west coast in 1834, and a little later at Dharwar (1837) and Hubli (1839) in the South Maratha country. The Leipzig Missionary Society, which was founded in 1836, took over the work amongst the Tamils in 1840 which had been carried on by the Danish-Halle mission. Pastor Gossner, after severing his connection with the Berlin Missionary Society in 1836, sent out missionaries, who commenced work at Hadjipore (1839), and other places on the river Ganges. Later on, in 1845, he began the work amongst the Kols of Chota Nagpur which was to develop into one of the most successful missions in North India. For a further reference to Lutheran societies in India, see pp. 121, 124. The Mutiny (1857). Exactly a century after the battle of Plassey, which gave India to England, North India was convulsed with war and massacre and many Indian Christians were murdered on the ground of their supposed sympathy with the English. On the capture of Delhi (May 11) by the mutineers, every missionary was killed. Their number included the Eev. A. K. Hubbard and two catechists, Sandys and Koch, of the S.P.G., the English chaplain, and Mr. J. Mackay of the Baptist mission, also an Indian Baptist preacher, Wilayat Ali. At Cawn- pore were killed the Eev. W. H. Haycock and the Eev. H. E. Cockey of the S.P.G., and the Eevs. J. E. Freeman, D. E. Campbell, A. D. Johnson, and E. M. M'MuUen from the American Presbyterian mission at Fatehgarh. At Sialkot the Scotch Presbyterian missionary and his family INDIA 93 were massacred. Including English chaplains and their families, about 36 connected with missionary work were murdered and 15 leading Indian Christians. Ghokal Parshad, the headmaster of the American Presbyterian mission at Farrukhabad, on being offered life and freedom for himself and his family if he would abjure his faith, replied, " What is my life that I should deny my Saviour ? I have never done that since the day I first believed on Him, and I never will." Throughout the Mutiny the Indian Christians re- mained loyal, and they assisted materially in holding the fort at Agra. The Mutiny helped Englishmen to realize the obliga- tion which rested upon them to spread the knowledge of their faith throughout India, and the years which immediately followed it witnessed a great expansion of missionary effort, more especially in the north-west. This development of missionary work was greatly aided by the whole-hearted support accorded by some of the officials who were responsible for the government of the north-west. Amongst these were Sir John Lawrence (Viceroy, 1864-69), Sir Eobert Montgomery and Sir Donald M'Leod, Lieutenant-Governors of the Punjab; Sir Herbert Edwardes, General Eeynell Taylor, and Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of Bombay. Without infringing the policy of religious neutrality, which was enunciated in the Queen's proclamation that followed the suppression of the Mutiny, they made no secret of their personal faith, and contributed largely out of their private incomes towards the establishment of new mission stations, especially those which were supported and controlled by the C.M.S. Amongst the important centres occupied in succession by this society in the Punjab were Amritsar (1852) and Peshawar (1854), Multan (1856), Lahore (1867), Dera Ismail Khan (1868), and Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir (1863). In Oudh it established centres of work at Lucknow (1858) and Fyzabad (1862). A few months before the Mutiny, the first representa- 94 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS tive of the Methodist Episcopal Church of North America (A.M.E.C), Dr. Butler, had landed in India. Immediately after the Mutiny this society started work at a number o^ centres in Oudh, and later on in the United Provinces, and it soon established single stations in almost every part of India. It has been the policy of this society to spread its operations over the widest possible area, rather than to establish a series of centres in any one province or district. During the first ten years of its operations in India, it devoted its attention (except in the United Provinces) to work amongst Europeans and Eurasians, but later on it developed its missionary activities in all the districts in which it was represented. Bishop Thoburn and his sister, Isabella Thoburn, exercised a large influence upon the development of its work. The distribution of mission workers. In order to gain some idea of the present condition of missionary enterprise in India, we will try to make a brief survey of the field from south to north. In this survey only the work of the larger societies can be mentioned. The total number of the societies at work exceeds a hundred. The distribution of the workers belonging to the E.G. missions will be referred to later on. In the Tamil-speahing country, which forms the eastern portion of South India to the south of Madras, the Anglican missions, i.e. the C.M.S. and the S.P.G., which latter took over many of the converts belonging to the old Lutheran missions, have about 100,000 converts. The bishop resides at Palamcottah, which is the chief centre of the C.M.S. mission. At Nazareth, which is the most important centre of the S.P.G. mission, there is a medical and an industrial mission. The mission workers include 13 European and 80 Indian clergy. Amongst the mission- aries who have worked in these missions should be men- tioned Edward Sargent (C.M.S.) and Eobert Caldwell (S.P.G.), both of whom afterwards became bishops. Many INDIA 95 thousands of Indian Christians belonging to the Anglican missions in Tinnevelly have become Eoman Catholics in order to avoid having to abandon their caste customs and ceremonial. In the district of Madura the American Board and the Leipzig Missionary Society are represented. Travancore, We have already referred to the work of the L.M.S. missionary, Eingeltaube. The work which he began in South Travancore has developed till the number of con- verts is now over 80,000, the greater part of whom are ministered to by Indian teachers and pastors. The mission staff includes 1 6 Europeans, 1 7 ordained Indians, and over 600 preachers and teachers. The C.M.S. began work amongst the Syrian Christians who were independent of Eome in 1816, in the hope of creating a revival amongst the members of this ancient Church. During the first twenty years encouraging results were attained ; but when this work was brought to a stand- still by the opposition of the metropolitan, the C.M.S. began to develop work amongst the Hindus. This mission has steadily developed. It is superintended by the Anglican Bishop of Travancore, but is largely self- supporting. Connected with the Anglican Church in Travancore there are 12 European and 40 Indian clergy. The bishop lives at Kottayam, where the C.M.S. has a college which is affiliated to the University of Madras. Part of the C.M.S. mission is in the State of Cochin, where missionary work is carried on amongst the Arayer, a hill tribe which had not become Hindus. The chief stations in Cochin are Trichur and Kunnankulam. The members of the ancient Syrian Church ^ under the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch number 225,190, and those of the Eeformed, or St. Thomas Syrian, Church under its own metropolitan about 75,000. Those owing * The following figures include the members of the Syrian Church in Cochin and in other parts of South India. 96 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS allegiance to the Church of Eome number, according to the Syrian or the Latin rite, 413,142. Those under the East Syrian Patriarch (the Catholicos of the East) number about 13,780. These Churches are supervised by 11 Indians, 1 Chaldean, and 3 European bishops (see p. 66 f). Madras and the Telugu country. In the districts which include Trichinopoly and Tanjore, the chief agencies at work are the S.P.G., the Leipzig Mission, and the Wesleyans. The Trichinopoly college (S.P.G.)and schools attached to it have about 1600 pupils. The college is affiliated to the University of Madras. In the city of Madras the best-known missionary institution is the Christian College (1837), belonging to the Scotch U.F.G.M., of which Dr. Miller was for many years Principal. As a direct missionary agency the college has attained little success, but it has helped to raise the ideals of education in Madras and throughout South India. One of the aims of the college is " to influence and mould the corporate thought of Hinduism," and to be a con- stant witness to the close bond that exists between Chris- tian faith and modern thought. Those who have been educated at the college and who now hold posts of re- sponsibility throughout South India are to be numbered by thousands. There are 800 students at the college, 200 of whom live in hostels and 800 in the school attached to the college. The Anglican diocese of Madras includes the whole Presidency, with the exception of Tinnevelly and Madura, and the bishop also superintends the Anglican clergy in the native states of Hyderabad, Mysore, and the province of Coorg. In the area included in the diocese there are 38 European and 110 Indian clergy. To the west of Madras the Reformed Dutch Church of America has a mission, including about 30 stations and about 10,000 Christians. Eight sons and two grandsons of the founder of this mission, Dr. Scudder, who died in 1855, have worked in its service. INDIA 97 The principal societies which are at work in the Telugu districts to the north of Madura are the C.M.S., the S.P.G., the L.M.S., and the American Baptists (A.B.M.U.). In these districts there has been within recent years a series of mass movements towards Christianity. If these should continue, as seems likely to be the case, there is every prospect that within the lifetime of this generation the greater part of the 20,000,000 people speaking the Telugu language who inhabit these districts will have become Christians. Up to the present the movements have been almost entirely confined to what is called the outcaste population, but applications for Christian instruction have recently been received from communities belonging to the Sudra class. The conversion of any large number of Sudras would pave the way to the acceptance of the Christian faith by the caste population throughout the whole of India. The L.M.S. began work in the Telugu country in 1805, in which year they sent two missionaries to Vizaga- patam, but it was not till 1835 that their first converts were made. They opened a station at Cuddapah in 1822. By 1870 they had 23 stations, which five years later had increased to 80. After the famine of 1877 they, like the other societies working in this district, were wholly unable to cope with the applications which were received for Christian teachers. Their converts and adherents, which include a considerable number of Sudras, number about 25,000. The society has an important medical mission at Jammalamadugu. The American Baptists began work in 1835. One of their first missionaries, Sewett, who was invalided home after twelve years of apparently unsuccessful work, when informed by his society that they wished to abandon this mission, said, " I know not what you will do, but for myself, if the Lord gives me my health, I will go back to live, and if need be to die, among the Telugu." " Then," was the answer, " we must surely send a man to give you a Christian burial." In 1869, at a new centre which had 7 98 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS been opened at Ongole, the number of converts began rapidly to increase, and by 1879 they numbered over 10,000. The number at the present time exceeds 60,000. The mission supports five hospitals, three high schools (at Ongole, Nellore, and Kurnool), and a training school for teachers. The territory occupied by the C.M.S. mission lies between the rivers Krishna and Godavery, and stretches from the coast about 100 miles inland. Work was commenced in 1841, when E. T. Noble and H. W. Fox were sent to Masulipatam. From the high caste school which Noble started a number of Brahmin converts were obtained, especially during its early years. On the staff of the college there were in 1911 four Brahmin converts and five sons of Brahmin converts. A mission at Nellore was opened in 1854 and at Bezwada in 1858. In 1859, after eighteen years' work, the converts connected with the mission numbered about 200. In this year a remarkable man named Pagolu Venkayya was converted, and with his conversion the whole aspect of the mission changed. He belonged to the Mala caste, and had been the leader of a band of violent men. At the age of forty-seven, having been told by a companion that a Christian missionary had declared that idols were incapable of helping their wor- shippers, he then and there determined to renounce the worship of idols. His friend also told him that the mis- sionary had spoken of one only God. From that time he began to use these words as a form of prayer : " 0 Great God, who art Thou ? Where art Thou ? Show Thyself to me." Later on he came across a Christian tract which referred to God as the Saviour of the world. Thenceforth he prayed, " 0 great God, the Saviour, show Thyself to me." For three years he continued to pray. In 1859, whilst attending a Hindu bathing festival at Bezwada, he met a Christian missionary, and having heard and eagerly accepted the Christian faith, he became a preacher of Christianity amongst his fellow-countrymen. Conversions soon followed, and when Venkayya died in 1891 the converts connected with the C.M.S. mission, who had INDIA 99 numbered 200 at the time of his baptism, had increased to 10,000. At the present time they number over 32,000. There are 28 Indian clergy connected with this mission. Hopeful work is also being carried on amongst the members of the Sudra caste. The territory occupied by the S.P.G. lies to the west of the C.M.S. mission, and comprises the collectorates of Cuddapah and Kurnool. In 1842 several of the L.M.S. missionaries, amongst whom was Dr. Caldwell, afterwards Bishop of Tinnevelly, became members of the Anglican Church. In 1854, in response to repeated requests, the S.P.G. undertook to support the Anglican mission at Cuddapah, which had been carried on by the Eev. V. Davies and by the Eev. J. Clay, who had been previously supported by the Additional Clergy Society. In 1855 the centre of this mission was moved to Mutyalapad. By 1859 the mission included 13 congregations, 619 baptized Christians, and 527 persons under instruction for baptism. A station which was opened at Kalasapad in 1861 soon became the centre of a large number of other stations. The S.P.G. Telugu Mission has from the start been greatly undermanned, with the result that its representatives have had to refuse a long succession of pressing requests from villages which asked, but asked in vain, to receive Christian instruction. Despite the fact that there had never been half a dozen European missionaries in the field, by 1879 the number of congregations had increased to 76, and the baptized Christians to 2377. Ten years later they had increased to 115 congregations and 5562 baptized Christians. In 1913 the number of congrega- tions was 230, and of baptized Christians 13,541. The im- portant factor in this mission has been the 300 or more Christian teachers, most of whom have been trained at Nandyal, and who in most cases have had to act not only as teachers of village schools but as catechists or preachers. The general rule, in the case of the S.P.G. and C.M.S. missions, has been that when an application for Christian instruction has been received from a Hindu 100 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS village, the inhabitants of the village have been asked to provide evidence of their sincerity by building a school and a house for a teacher, and by guaranteeing to supply him with food. Where these conditions have been ful- filled, and it has proved possible to supply a teacher, the teacher has taught the children of the village, and given daily religious instruction, and conducted daily worship for the inhabitants of the village for perhaps two years. The village has, meanwhile, been periodically visited by an Indian catechist, and at rarer intervals by a European missionary. After three, or in some cases four or five, years' continuous instruction, a third, or perhaps half of those who have become candidates for baptism, are baptized. A more or less similar course of procedure has been followed by the other missionary societies represented in the Telugu country. Experience has shown that a long course of instruction and period of probation is necessary if due precautions are to be taken to guard against moral relapses. In 1913 the Bishop of Dornakal ordained 16 Telugu Christians, 10 of whom belonged to the S.P.G. and 6 to the C.M.S. mission. In addition to the large number of day schools connected with its mission, the S.P.G. has 5 boarding schools, one at each of its principal centres of work. A beginning has been made of work amongst women, but there is urgent need of further development. In the district which comprises the estuary of the rivers Krishna and Godavery the Canadian Baptists and the American Lutherans have missions which have achieved considerable success. Before we leave the Telugu-speaking country, refer- ence should be made to a small but specially interesting mission which was founded and is maintained entirely by Indian Christians. At a meeting of Indian Christians connected with the Anglican Church which was held at Palamcottah in Tinnevelly in 1903, it was resolved to form the Indian Missionary Society of Tinnevelly. In 1904 this society sent two Indian Christians to open a INDIA 101 mission at Dornakal, 600 miles from Palamcottah, between Bezwada and Hyderabad, in Hyderabad State. In 1906 the staff had grown to 3, in addition to 4 local workers. In that year the Bishop of Madras baptized 23 converts who had been won by this mission. The work, which is rapidly spreading, is carried on in over thirty villages. In 1912 the Eev. Vedanayakam Azariah was consecrated as Bishop of Dornakal and the surrounding district, and as an assistant bishop to the Bishop of Madras. The fact that this mission is entirely self-supporting, and that it has as its head the first Indian bishop in communion with the Anglican Church, will appeal to all who desire to see Indian churches self-supporting and governed by men of their own race. Farther north, in the Hydemhad State, the American Episcopal Methodists, the American Baptists, and the English Wesleyans have a considerable number of mission stations. Malabar. In Malahar, which lies to the north of Travancore and Cochin on the west coast, several societies are represented by one or two mission stations. The Basel Mission Society has a series of stations reaching from here north- wards to the South Mahratta country in the Bombay Presidency. A chief characteristic of this mission is its development of industrial training, especially of weaving, brick-making, and carpentry. These industries were started in order to give employment to those who had been left orphans by famine, and Indian Christians who had been deprived of any means of livelihood by their conversion to Christianity. These are carried on by an industrial committee in Basel, which is not connected financially with the Basel Missionary Society. From a commercial standpoint this mission has been a great success : "There are dangers in such work, chiefly lest the mingling of business and evangelism shall hamper the 102 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS spiritual influence of the mission, and lest the tendency shall be to induce individuals to profess Christianity for the sake of securing a lucrative position. Even those who for these reasons believe that only necessity will justify the starting of mission industries, have to admit, however, that this Basel work has made a real contribution to economic progress and to the dignifying of labour as worthy of a Christian." ^ Mysore, In the native state of Mysore work is carried on by the L.M.S. from Bellary as a centre. The English Wesleyans have also been at work since 1838. The A.M.E. Church has mission stations at Bangalore and Kolar. The L.M.S, has an extensive mission of which Bangalore is the centre. This is also the site of an important United Missionary College. From the missionary standpoint, the educational policy which has been adopted by the native Hindu Government of Mysore is of special interest, as it may perhaps forecast what will be eventually adopted in other parts of India. The Times correspondent in Mysore, writing on October 3, 1908, said: " The tendency of the present system is purely secular in character and has not been satisfactory. For various reasons the homes of the pupils have ceased to impart religious education, and the influence of religious teachers and places of worship has almost disappeared. Irreverence and disrespect for authority have been on the increase ; modesty, self-restraint, and good sense have been largely at a discount, while presumption, vanity, and unrestrained aggressiveness appear to be increasing. In the circum- stances, the Maharajah's Government has decided that the readiest way of remedying this state of affairs is by impart- ing religious and moral instruction as a systematic part of education." In view of the widespread interest which was aroused by the regulations issued by the Mysore Government and the possibility that they may create a precedent in other ^ Sociological Progress in Mission Lands, by E. W. Capen, p. 66 f. INDIA 103 parts of India, it will be well to quote the actual wording of the regulations : " The time to be given to religious and moral instruction will be limited to five periods a week, the first thirty minutes after roll-call being devoted thereto. There will be a moral discourse on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and religious instruction on Tuesdays and Thursdays. The moral discourse will be common to pupils of all persuasions, and be based on a text taken from some religious, moral, historical, or literary book. In addition, there will be specific religious teaching from books like the Sanatana Dharma Advanced Text- Book, the Koran and approved commentaries and essays on the Mohammedan religion, and the Bible. The question of extending the scheme to aided schools not under Government management is reserved for future consideration. "As Mysore is a Hindu State and the bulk of the population is Hindu, provision for imparting teaching in the Hindu religion will be made in all Government institutions other than those intended purely for the education of par- ticular classes of non-Hindus — as, for instance, Hindustani schools. The classes will be open for Hindus of all de- nominations, but attendance will be optional in the case of other pupils. It will at the same time be laid down for the present that, when in any Government institution the number of Mohammedan or Christian pupils is not less than twenty, arrangements should be made, as far as may be possible, for imparting instruction to them in their respective religions. If, however, any private persons or bodies interested in either of these religions wish to make special arrangements at their own cost for teaching their respective religions in Government institutions, where the number of pupils of such religions is below twenty, every facility should be given for this being done." In the Native States of Mysore, Baroda, and Travan- core, primary education is now compulsory. Bombay Disti^ict. In the Mahrathi'SpeaJcing country which lies to the north of the Kanara country the societies represented by the largest number of Christians are the American Board, the 104 HISTORY OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS S.P.G., and the United Free Church of Scotland. In Ahmadnagar and the neighbouring districts the S.P.G. has several hundreds of village schools and a large amount of work amongst women. There are also signs of special interest which may develop into a mass movement amongst some of the Sudra villages. In Poona the C.M.S. is represented, and there is also a strong mission which has been worked by the Cowley Fathers since 1870. Closely associated with this mission, which also maintains work in Bombay, are the Wantage and All Saints' sisterhoods, which carry on work amongst Indian women. Khedgaon, near Poona, is also the centre of the remarkable work amongst high caste Indian orphans which has been carried on by Pandita Eamabai since 1899. Industrial work is being carried on by a large number of missionary societies and by several independent in- dustrial associations, e.g. the Scottish Mission Industries, which works in connection with the U.F.C. of Scotland at Ajmer and Poona, and the Industrial Mission Aid Society, which has a large carpet-weaving establishment at Ahmadnagar in connection with the AB.C.F.M. In the city of Bombay a number of missionary societies —including the AB.C.F.M., the C.M.S., the S.P.G., the U.F.C.S., and the AM.E.C. — are at work, but the visible results have been small. The Wilson College connected with the U.F.C.S. is doing good work. In Gujerat the Irish Presbyterians have been work- ing since 1841. In the province of Sindh, where the majority of the population is Mohammedan, the C.M.S. and American Episcopal Methodists have a few stations. The A.M.E. Church has resident missionaries at Ajmer and Phalera. The Punjab. We have already referred to the starting of missionary work in the Punjab (see pp. 91, 93). Of the population of INDIA 105 the Punjab 10,955,721, i.e. rather more than half, are Moslems. The Sikhs in the Punjab number 2,093,804; in the whole of India they number 3,014,466. Eeference has been made to the rapid development of missionary work in the Punjab by the C.M.S. which followed the Mutiny, and to the active support given to this work by leading Government officials. It was alleged at the time, and the statement has frequently been made since, that for Government officials to display sympathy with Christian missions was to render the task of govern- ing Hindus and Moslems more difficult than it would otherwise be. This suggestion has been refuted again and again by the history of the missions which have been estabhshed in the North-West Provinces. Dr. Eichter, quoting one of many instances, writes : " No town was so notorious for its fanaticism as Pesha- war, near the Khyber Pass. An English Commissioner had declared that so long as he had anything to say in the matter, no missionary should cross the Indus. A short time afterwards this individual was stabbed by an Afghan on the veranda of his house. His successor. Sir Herbert Edwardes (in 1853), began his official activity in the very house, the veranda pillars of which were still splashed with the dead man's blood, by founding an evangelical mission for the town, and he established peace and quiet in the place." ^ The chief centres of the C.M.S. work in the Punjab are Lahore, Amritsar, and Multan. At Clarkabad, and by other missions at other centres, attempts have been made to establish villages to be inhabited by Christian converts, but great difficulties have been experienced in regard to their organization and control. On one occasion 200 nominal Christians, who imagined that they had a grievance, suddenly announced their conversion to Islam. Successful attempts have been made by the C.M.S. to create a series of representative church councils with a view to encourage self-government and self-support amongst the Christian converts. * History of Indian Missions, p. 210 f. 106 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Lahore is also an important centre of the American Presbyterian Mission, and its college, the Forman College, which has over 500 students, is one of the most important colleges in North India. The A.M.E.C. has mission stations in several parts of the Punjab, but the greater portion of its work is in the Patiala state, and specially in Patiala city. During the last few years the Central Punjab has been the scene of several movements towards Christianity similar to the " mass movements " that have taken place in South India. These have occurred in the American United Presbyterian missions and in the C.M.S. missions. There are over 60,000 Christians connected with the former. The great increase in the number of Christians in the Punjab may be seen from the fact that whereas thirty years ago their number was about 4000, in 1901 they had increased to 37,000 and in 1911 to 163,000. In the C.M.S. missions in the Chenab colony there were in 1913 about 10,000 Christians, and the number is rapidly increasing. Both the C.M.S. and the A.U.P.M. are very inadequately staffed in view of the large number of Indians, mostly Chuhras, who are desirous of receiving instruction. The Bishop of Madras, who has had ex- perience of the " mass movements " in the Telugu country, after visiting (in 1913) the missions in the Punjab wrote : " One result of the scarcity of workers in the Punjab is that their whole system of education is far behind ours . . . but the fact that they have such an inadequate organization and such a great dearth of workers has obliged them to stimulate the Christians to take a larger share in the management of their own affairs than is the case in the South. Many congregations of the United Presbyterian Mission — the strongest and in many ways the best organized mission among the outcastes of the Punjab — are self-supporting and self-governing. One feature of the work in the Punjab which impressed me very much was their system of agricultural colonies and settlements. As INDIA 107 I passed through the Chenab colony I visited five of these, each with a population of 1000 to 1500 Christians. . . . There are two classes of Christian villages and agricultural settlements in the Punjab. In one class the mission holds the land as the property of the Mission, and the Indian Christians are the tenants of the Mission. In the other class of Christian villages the people own their own land and are independent. It is an interesting fact that the first class of villages are nearly all a failure, and the other class, where the people are independent, are so far a success." The total number of Christians in the Punjab at the end of 1912 was reckoned at 167,413. Their rapid increase in number has been in part due to the policy adopted by certain missionary societies of baptizing those who desired to receive baptism without demanding any period of probation or any intelligent knowledge of the Christian faith. Most of the missionary societies which are at work in the Telugu country, where mass movements on a large scale have taken place, have found by experience that it is necessary to keep groups of inquirers under instruction for three or even four years before admittiug them to Christian baptism. A contrary policy has been adopted in the Punjab by the American Methodist Epis- copal Church, the American Presbyterian missions, and the Salvation Army, which are working among the Chuhras, who occupy a position similar to that of the Lai Begis in the United Provinces, at the very bottom of the social scale. Professor Griswold of the Forman (Presbyterian) College in Lahore, in defending the policy of these missions, writes : "The conditions laid down for baptism are not the same in all the missions. Earnestness of purpose is required by all. Sometimes considerable numbers are baptized with no other qualification than an apparently sincere desire to become Christians. But usually something is given in the way of instruction, e.g. at least the name of the Saviour, and the fact that He gave His life for sinners 108 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS and that salvation is only through Him, and frequently the Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, and Apostles' Creed, either the whole or in part." ^ Eeplying to the objection that as a result of this policy the Christian Church will be crowded with those who are practically heathen, he urges that though this may be true as long as the adult members are concerned, there is hope that " their children may become very much better than their parents, and really enter the promised land of spiritual renovation." The same experiment has been made and the same argument has been urged in other parts of the mission field and in different periods of Christian history; but few who have made a careful study of Christian missions from the earliest times down to the present day would venture to say that in any single case have the final results justified the adoption of the policy of " speedy baptism " for which Professor Griswold pleads. Amongst the C.M.S. stations on the North-West Frontier are Srinagar in Kashmir, Peshawar, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, and Dera Ghasi Khan. At Srinagar, where the work was started by Dr. Elmslie (see p. 32), there is a large mission hospital under Drs. A. and E. Neve, and a boys* school under the Eev. C. Tyndale Biscoe. This school, which is chiefly attended by high caste Hindus and Moslems, is one of the most remarkable in India. By his personal influence and example the Principal has inspired his pupils with the desire to display many Christian virtues which are but seldom practised by those who are nominally Christians. The visitor to this school may see high caste boys engaged in rowing on the lake low caste women and other patients who are convalescents at the Srinagar Hospital, and performing, for the benefit of suffering people and animals, tasks which the ordinary high caste Hindu would regard as defiling. Although few of the scholars or ex-scholars ^ See article "The Mass Movement in the Punjab," by H. D. Griswold, The East and The West, January 1915. INDIA 109 have as yet been baptized, the Christian influence exerted by this school has been felt throughout a large part of North- West India. Delhi, the capital of India, is an imperial enclave within the Punjab province. We have already referred to the S.P.G. and Baptist missions which were established there prior to the Mutiny (see p. 92). As soon as the S.P.G. re- ceived the news of the massacre of its missionaries, it issued an appeal for fresh workers, which met with an immediate response. Before the arrival of the new workers, amongst whom the Eev. T. Skelton, Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge, and the Eev. R Winter deserve special mention, Eam Chunder and another Indian had recom- menced the mission school, which by the end of 1859 contained 300 boys. During the years that followed, the educational work carried on by this mission developed to a large extent. In 1877 the Cambridge University Mission was formed, its object being to co-operate with the S.P.G. in developing its educational and evangelistic work in Delhi. The Eev. E. Bickersteth, who afterwards became a Bishop in Japan, was the first Head. The next Head of this mission was the Eev. G. A. Lefroy, who afterwards became Bishop of Lahore (1899), and subsequently Bishop of Calcutta and Metropolitan of India (1913). St. Stephen's College, which is affiliated to the University of Lahore and has over 200 students, has an Indian Principal, Professor Eudra, who is assisted by a staff of English University graduates. The college, which is now being rebuilt in the new city of Delhi on a site granted by the Government of India, has recently increased its staff of professors and has the prospect of a wide sphere of usefulness in the future. The S.P.G. also supports a large mission hospital for women and educational, industrial, and zenana work. The S.P.G. and Baptist missions work in complete harmony and have been able to co-operate in some of the educational work which they carry on. 110 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS On the Indian border of Tibet to the north of the Punjab the Moravians have carried on a mission for over fifty years, and have translated the Bible into the Tibetan language. Central Provinces and Rajputana, The C.M.S. has mission stations at Jubbulpore and in the country of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, and at Bharatpur and in the Bhil country in the eastern part of Eajputana. The Scotch Episcopal Church has a mission to the Gonds at Chanda. The C.E.Z.M.S. has also work in these Provinces. The U.F.C. of Scotland has work at Nagpur, the Swedish Fatherland Institution at Sagar, and the German Evangelical Synod of North America at Bisrampur. The A.M.E.C., the Friends Foreign Missionary Association, and several other Bodies have also a number of mission stations in Eajputana. The A.M.E.C. has resident missionaries at Nagpur, Jubbulpore, Gondia, Raipur, Khandwa, and Jagdalpur. United Provinces. The United Provinces, i.e. Agra and Oudh, include the important towns of Agra, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Allahabad, and Benares. The Anglican Bishop of Lucknow, in whose diocese these provinces lie, resides at Allahabad. We have already referred to the development of missionary work in these provinces up to the time of the Mutiny, and to the missionaries who were killed in Cawnpore on the outbreak of the Mutiny. After the Mutiny the Government handed over the church which had been built for the use of Europeans, and which was not destroyed by the mutineers, to the S.P.G., which has made it the centre of its work in Cawnpore. It is interesting to record that the son of the man who was the direct instigator of the massacre at Cawnpore even- tually became a catechist in the S.P.G. Mission. In 1889 George and Foss Westcott (who are now Bishops of INDIA 111 Lucknow and Chota Nagpur) started a Brotherhood in connection with the S.P.G. Mission which has been the means of developing educational, industrial, and evangelistic work in the city and the surrounding country. The college which the Brotherhood helped to establish at Cawnpore is affiliated to the Allahabad University. Amongst the Indian clergy who have done good work in connection with the S.P.G. Mission should be mentioned Sita Earn, a Brahman convert, who died in 1878. In 1899 St. Catherine's Mission Hospital for Women was opened. One of its doctors, Alice Marval, and four of the hospital workers died as a result of nursing plague patients in 1904. Offshoots of the S.P.G. Cawnpore Mission have been established at Eoorkee (1861) and Banda (1873). Other missionary societies represented in Cawnpore are the A.M.E.C.,^ the American Presbyterian Mission, and the Women's Union Missionary Society of America. The AM.E.C. Mission dates from 1871. Here as in many other places in India its representatives work not only amongst the Indians but amongst the Europeans and Eurasians. Agra. — St. John's College, which is supported by the C.M.S., was established in 1853 and is now affiliated to the University of Allahabad. The daily attendance at the college and its branch schools in the city is over 1200. The Queen Victoria Girls' High School (1904) has about 100 Christian scholars and exercises a large influence amongst the Christian community throughout the province. Other missions represented in Agra are the A.M.E.C, the English Baptist Missionary Society, and the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. The C.M.S. and the A.M.E.C. began their work in Lucknow in 1858. The A.M.E.C. supports the Eeid Christian College for Boys and the Isabella Thoburn ^ For a reference to the rapid development of the work of the American Methodist Episcopal Mission in the United Provinces, see pp. 124, 138. 112 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS College for Girls. It also supports work at several stations in the Sitapur and Philibhifc districts. In Allahabad the C.M.S. began work in 1813, when it placed there Abdul Masih, who was the first Indian to receive Anglican Orders. The American Presbyterians have an important college which is affiliated to the Allahabad University, and the C.M.S. has a hostel for students attending the University. The A.M.E.C. and the Z.B.M. are also represented. In Benares, which is in a sense the religious capital of India, work was begun by the C.M.S. in 1817, by the L.M.S. in 1820, by the Baptists in 1827, and later on by the Wesleyan Missionary Society and by the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. This latter society supports a strong medical mission and hospital. The L.M.S. and the C.M.S. have large high and elementary schools. Chota Nagpur, Work amongst the aboriginal tribes in Chota Nagpur was inaugurated by the Kev. J. E. Gossner, a German who had received priest's Orders in the B.C. Church, and having separated from its Communion prepared and sent out evangelists to India. Four of these, who were sent to India in 1844, were instructed to start work in some district in which there were no other workers. Their attention was directed to Kanchi in Chota Nagpur by coming across some of the inhabitants of that district who were working as coolies in the streets of Calcutta and whom they followed to their homes. After they had laboured at Eanchi for four years, four men came to them asking that they might be allowed to see Jesus, and when told that this was impossible, they went away disappointed, believing that the missionaries had refused their request because they were not high caste people. As the result, however, of watching the missionaries at their devotions, they became the first converts to Christianity in that district. By 1851 thirty-one baptisms had taken place, and by INDIA 113 the time of the Mutiny the converts had increased to 900. At the close of the Mutiny Gossner proposed to transfer the mission and his funds to the C.M.S. This offer was refused, though the C.M.S. made a grant of £1000 to the mission in 1858. On the death of Gossner in this year a committee was formed in Berlin to carry on the mission. When in 1868 this committee proposed to alter the constitution of the mission, the older Lutheran missionaries found themselves unable to accept the orders of the Home Committee, and were obliged to quit the churches and mission buildings which they had erected. At this time the number of Christian Kols was about 9000. Application was made by the missionaries to Bishop Milman of Calcutta to receive them and their converts into the Anglican Church. The Bishop for a long time refused to take action and did his utmost to promote a reconciliation between the older Lutheran missionaries and the Berlin Committee. When it at length became apparent that no reconciliation could be effected, he applied to the S.P.G., and having received a promise of support from this society, he formally received 7000 Kols into the Anglican Church and conferred Anglican Orders upon their three pastors. On the same occasion he ordained an Indian catechist, Daud Singh. It is scarcely necessary to point out that for one society to invite converts who had previously been attached to another society to join its mission would be wholly in- compatible with the principles of Christian comity and would be altogether deplorable. In this case, however, the Anglican Bishop had refused to recommend the S.P.G. to undertake work in Chota Nagpur till the representatives of the Lutheran Mission had declared that their separation from the Berlin Committee was irrevocable. The mission supported by the Berlin Committee was carried on with undiminished enthusiasm and increasing success. Satis- factory relations, moreover, were soon established with the S.P.G. , and the two missions have since worked harmoniously side by side. 8 114 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS In 1890 the Eev. S. C. Whitley was consecrated as the first Bishop of Chota Nagpur. Seventy miles to the north of Eanchi a Dublin University Mission was established at Hazaribagh in 1891. This mission maintains a college, several schools, and a hospital, and has done much to further the higher educa- tion of the people of Chota Nagpur. It has a number of women associates, who form part of the mission staff. Missionaries belonging to the E.G. Church first appeared in Chota Nagpur in 1880, when the Lutheran and ST.G. missions had already attained a large amount of success. In order to win the confidence of the people, the new missionaries started an extensive system of agricultural loans, offering to those whose wages did not exceed 2d. or 3d. a day a loan of two or three rupees, which was not to be repayable as long as the borrowers continued to be " good Catholics." As the Lutheran and S.P.G. missionaries did not consider it to be right to offer similar advantages, the result was that a large number of the converts who had been baptized by them joined the Eoman Church. This method of conversion was not adopted on the initiative of individual missionaries, but was definitely sanctioned by the E.C. Jesuit authorities on the ground that to rely upon religious motives would be to forgo the possibility of extending their work. Thus the editor of the Government Census for 1911 writes : " A well-known E.C. missionary in Chota Nagpur writes to me as follows concerning the inducements to conversion : — "*As a general rule religious motives are out of the question. They want protection against zamindars (farmers) and police extortions, and assistance in the endless litigation forced on them by zamindars. , . . Personally, 1 know of some cases where individuals came over from religious motives. But these cases are rare.' " ^ The Belgian Jesuit missionaries in Chota Nagpur have acted from the highest motives, and they have ^ Census Beport, vol. i. pt. i. p. 137. INDIA 115 themeielves lived self-denying and laborious lives, but it is much to be deplored that in Chota Nagpur, as in many other districts in India, the E.G. missionaries should have thought it to be their duty to proselytize those who were already Christians rather than to begin new work amongst non-Christians. So great was the success attained by the Jesuit missionaries in the districts round Eanchi that they were able to baptize, or re-baptize, 10,000 converts within the course of a few years. Their best work has been the establishment of village schools where a large number of children are in course of being educated. Moreover, as their work has extended they have gathered in many who had not been touched by other missions. In the Jashpur native state, which lies to the west of Chota Nagpur in the state of Berar, they had in 1911 33,000 adherents, chiefly aboriginal Oraons, nearly all of whom had been won since 1901. A considerable number were won from the ranks of the Lutheran Christians, who number about 10.000. Bengal. The Indian Christian community in Bengal ^ numbered 43,784 in 1911. Of the total number of Christians in Bengal 35 per cent, are Eoman Catholics, 27 per cent. Baptists, and 22 per cent. Anglicans. Nearly two-fifths of the Eoman Catholics are found in the district of Dacca. The Baptists have obtained their greatest success amongst the Namasudras of Eastern Bengal, and half their con- verts are in the Dacca division. The great majority of the Indian members of the Anglican Communion are found in Nadia, the twenty-four Parganas, and Calcutta.^ A large number of missionary societies are represented in Calcutta, amongst which are the C.M.S., the S.P.G., ^ These statistics relate to "Bengal proper." In Behar, Orissa, and Chota Nagpur — which were also included in the Bengal census — the Indian Christians numbered 19,893, 7110, and 197,168 respectively. ^ See Census Report, 1911, vol. i. pt. i. p. 134, 116 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS the Oxford University Mission, the Scotch Established and the U.F. Churches, and the Baptist and Wesleyan Missions. In Calcutta itself (as in the case of Bombay and Madras), the progress of missionary work has been slow and unsatisfactory compared with the progress achieved in some other parts of India. This is partly due to the very unsatisfactory moral atmosphere which prevails in these cities, and partly to the mixed and changing character of their populations. The work of the Oxford Mission to Calcutta amongst students attending the Calcutta University has been carried on for thirty-five years with a self-denying de- votion which has never been excelled in the history of modern missions, but the visible results are as yet in- significant. The largest missionary college in Calcutta is that belonging to the Church of Scotland and the U.F.C., which has over 1000 students. The L.M.S. and the S.P.G. have also colleges, and the C.M.S. has a college and two high schools for boys, and a boarding school for girls. Throughout the greater part of Bengal, missionary work is being carried on, but a large proportion of the inhabitants are still unreached. The Anglican, Scottish, London, Baptist, and Wesleyan societies are all repre- sented. At Barisal, east of Calcutta, the Oxford Univer- sity Mission and the English Baptists are strongly represented. The C.M.S. has many stations in the Krish- nagar or Nadia district north of Calcutta. In this district there occurred a mass movement towards Christi- anity about sixty years ago, but the results were not altogether satisfactory. The C.M.S. began work at Taljhari in Western Bengal among the Santals, one of the aboriginal races which have not embraced Hinduism, in 1860, and soon covered the Santal districts with a network of mission stations. In 1913 there were 24 European and 25 Indian clergy, and 389 Christian \aj agents connected with this mission; the INDIA 117 total number of Christians being about 6000. The Indian Home Mission, founded by two Scandinavians in 1867, has also a considerable amount of work amongst the Santals, its chief station being Ebenezer. The U.F.C. of Scotland also began work amongst the Santals in 1871, and has several mission stations. The Church of Scotland has excellent work in the neighbourhood of Darjeeling and Kalimpong amongst the hill tribes of the Lepcha, Gurkha, and Bhutia. Assam, The Assamese people have for the most part become Hindus, but there are several hill tribes (Garos, Nagas, Khasis, Lushais, and Kacharis) which are still pagan. The largest number of converts have been won by the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, who started work in 1841. Their chief work lies in the Khasi and Jaintia hills, their principal station being Shillong. The mission has also branches in Cachar, Sylhet, and the Lushai hills. In the latter district rapid progress has been attained. The heir to the throne of a small independent kingdom in the Khasi mountains who embraced Christianity when offered the choice of renouncing his new faith or of abandoning his claim to the throne, chose the latter alternative. During the decade the converts connected with the W.C. Mission have nearly doubled. They numbered 31,000 in 1911. The American Baptists, who started work in 1836, number over 21,000. The Christians connected with this mission are chiefly found in the Brahmaputra valley and in the Garo and Naga hills. This mission has also some work amongst the Assamese. Anglican Mission in Assam, — In 1850, Captain Gordon, who was stationed at Tezpur, began a mission at this place, which was taken over by the S.P.G. in 1862. In 1851 the S.P.G. started work at Dibrugarh, and later on opened several stations amongst the Kachari in the neighbourhood of Dibrugarh and Attabari. In this district there are 118 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS about 3000 converts. Quite recently a E.G. mission has been started amongst the people to whom the S.P.G. is ministering. Apart from the work which is being done amongst the hill tribes and the Assamese, the S.P.G. and the German Lutherans minister to the needs of a large number of Christian Kols and Santals (numbering about 8000), who have come as immigrants to labour on the tea and other plantations. The recent creation of a diocese of Assam will probably lead to a considerable expansion of Anglican missions in this province. The total Christian population of Assam (apart from Europeans) is about 64,000 (1911). Indian Census Returns. Greater facilities exist for gaining a bird's-eye view of the progress of missions over a wide area and during a considerable number of years in India than in any other non-Christian country. These facilities are afforded by a careful study of the returns issued by the Indian Census Commissioners at intervals of ten years since 1871. The student of missions is warned that great care is needed in making comparisons supplied for the different decades, as the limits of the Indian Empire have undergone several important changes. Moreover, the returns do not include the Portuguese and French territories in India, in which a large proportion of the Christians attached to the RC. Church reside. Many of the tables, moreover, which are contained in the returns include European and Eurasian Christians. It is obvious that the number of these must in every case be subtracted before any trustworthy estimate of the progress of Christian missions can be gained. During the decade 1901-11 the population of India as a whole increased by 6 '4 per cent., or, if we include the gain due to the addition of new areas, 7'1. The Indian Christians have increased during the same period from INDIA 119 2,664,313 to 3,574,770— that is, 34-2 per cent., or five times as fast as the whole population (included in both the returns) has increased. The rate of increase of Indian Christians during the last four decades has been 22 per cent., 33*9 per cent., 30 "8 per cent., and 34*2 per cent. Eoughly speaking, it may be stated that the Indian Christians in the Indian Empire numbered 1 in 143 in 1891, 1 in 111 in 1901, and 1 in 86 in 1911. Those interested in the spread of Christianity in India have sometimes tried to forecast the future and to estimate the length of time which may be expected to elapse before India becomes a Christian country. Those who regard the future from a more hopeful standpoint are influenced by a consideration of the mass move- ments which are now in progress and by the anticipation that the caste system which is the chief obstacle to the spread of Christianity will probably ere long disappear as by a landslide. The fact that 24,000 Moslems in the Dutch East Indies have become Christians within recent years forbids them to despair of the conversion of the Indian Moslems, when they come to be surrounded by a Christian population of the same race and speaking the same languages as themselves. On the other hand, those who take a less hopeful view point to the comparatively small number of conversions which are taking place at the present time amongst the high caste peoples and the Mohammedans, and con- template the possibility that the present conditions may long continue to operate. It is obviously unwise to rely upon statistics relating to progress in the past in order to prognosticate what the future has in store, but this at least may be said : should the increase which has been taking place during the last 30 years be maintained, in 50 years' time the Christians will number 1 in 21 of the population, in 100 years they will number 1 in 5, and in 160 years the whole population of India will be Christian. If the relative rate at which the Roman and non-Eoman 120 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS missions are expanding be also maintained, in 1 6 0 years the Christians in India connected with the E.G. Church will form about 1 in 30 of the whole Christian community. The following table shows the number of Christians of Indian nationality according to the last three census returns : — Provinces. 1891. 1901. 1911. Madras Travancore and Cochin Bengal and Assam . Bombay . United Provinces . Punjab . . . Burma Mysore . . . 825,424 713,403 167,304 127,575 23,406 19,639 101,303 27,981 983,888 892,054 258,305 171,214 68,341 37,695 129,191 39,585 1,150,379 1,149,495 367,079 191,973 136,469 163,220 185,542 46,554 Total for all India ^ . 2,036,590 2,664,000 3,574,770 As will be seen from the above table, the rate of increase has varied considerably in different parts of India. The most striking increase has been in the Punjab, where the rate has been 333 per cent. This has been due to the mass movements among the Chuhras, which have resulted from the work of the American Presbyterian and C.M.S. missions. More than half the Indian Christians in the Punjab are connected with the A.U.P.M. (see p. 106). The Salvation Army converts in the Punjab have increased during the decade from a few hundreds to 18,000. "A special feature of the activities of the Salvation Army is the attention which they pay to the criminal tribes and depressed classes generally. In several provinces they have entered into special arrangements with Government for the reclamation of tribes whose criminal proclivities it has been found impossible to curb by means of police surveil- lance. They endeavour to improve the moral and material 1 These totals include the Christians in the Provinces as given above together with the Christians in the native states. INDIA 121 condition of these people by sympathetic supervision and by teaching them various industries which will enable them to earn an honest livelihood." ^ In the Central Provinces and Central Provinces States the general increase of the population has been 18 per cent, while the Christian increase has been 162 per cent. The population of the Madras Presidency, including the Travancore and Cochin States, has increased by 3 per cent., whilst the Christians have increased by 16 9 per cent. In the case of Burma, the statistics revealed by the Government Census are much more encouraging than missionaries had anticipated. During the last ten years there has been an increase of 56,000 Christians, the ratio of increase being 44 per cent. The following table shows the comparative progress of Eoman and Anglican missions, and of the largest of the Protestant denominations during the decade 1901—11 : — Total Number of Indian Number Christians. Actual Increase per 1000 Indian Chris- Increase. Percent. In 1911. In 1901. tians. Roman Catholics, ex- cluding Romo-Syrians 1,393,720 1,122,508 271,212 24 390 Romo-Syrians 413,134 322,583 90,551 28 116 Anglicans 332,807 213,2731 119,534 56-2 93 Baptists .... 332,171 216,915 115,256 53-1 93 SyrianChristians( Jacobite, Reformed, Chaldsean) . 315,157 248,737 66,420 26-7 88 Lutherans 216,842 153,768 63,074 41 61 Presbyterians . 164,069 42,799 121,270 283-3 2 46 Methodists . 162,367 68,4^9 93,878 137 45 Congregationalists . 134,240 37,313 96,927 259-7 3 38 Salvationists . 52,199 18,847 33,352 177 15 ^ Omitting the 92,644 unclassified "Protestants" which were added to the Anglican totals in 1901, but which were omitted in 1911. 2 The greater part of this increase has been in the Punjab, where a mass movement has occurred. See p. 106. * In 1901 nearly 60,000 Christians in Travancore connected with Congregationalist missions were classified as Protestant or un-sectarian. If these be added to the 1901 figures, the rate of increase would appear to have been about 38 per cent. * See Census of India Re-port, vol. i, pt. i. p. 133. 122 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS The preceding table afifords information which will enable us to appreciate the present strength and the rates of increase of the chief Churches or religious organizations in India. The Romo-Syrians who are found in Travancore acknowledge the authority of the Pope, but their services are in the Syrian language and they follow in part the Syrian ritual. If they are included in the E.G. returns, it appears that slightly over half the Indian Christians were connected with the E.C. Church when the census was taken in 1911. The rate of increase for the decade in the case of the Roman Catholic missions was only 25 per cent, as compared with 45 per cent, for the Anglican and Protestant missions taken together. If we suppose that the proportionate rates of increase have been maintained, the converts connected with the E.C. Church within the Indian Empire will now (1915) number about 1,980,000 as against rather more than 2,000,000 converts connected with non-Eoman missions. In addition to the E.C. Indian Christians within the Indian Empire there are, according to a return made by E.C. missionaries six months after the census was taken, 25,918 in French and 296,148 in Portuguese territory within the Indian Peninsula. Their rate of increase is probably less than that of the E.C. Christians within the Indian Empire. In the province of Madras, where the Eoman Catholics are most numerous, they have increased only by 8 per cent., the rate of increase being slightly in excess of that of the general population. In Behar and Orissa (chiefly in the Eanchi district and the state of Gangpur) they have gained 68 per cent., in Burma 62 per cent., in Bombay 35 per cent., and in Bengal 1 9 per cent. Their greatest progress has been attained in Jashpur State in the Central Provinces and Berar, where they have now 33,000 adherents, chiefly aboriginal Oraons, practically all of whom " have been gathered into the fold " since 1901. The rate of increase of the E.G. Church in the Indian Empire taken as a whole is slower than that of any other large body of Christians in India. INDIA 123 Anglican Missions. — In interpreting the figures which are given for Christians connected with the Anglican Church it should be noted that in 1901 and in the earlier returns all Indians who called themselves Protestants, and did not claim to belong to any particular Church or body, were returned as Anglicans. In this way, 92,644 Christians were added to the Anglican total in 1901. In the census for 1911 all Protestants who did not claim to belong to any particular Church were entered in a separate column by themselves. In order, therefore, to compare the number of Christians connected with Anglican missions to-day with those which existed in 1901, we must deduct from the returns for 1901 92,644. We then discover that the number of these Christians has increased during the past ten years from 213,273 to 332,807 — that is, an increase of 56*2 per cent. The editor of the Government Census for 1901, referring to the 92,644 Christians who returned them- selves as belonging to no denomination and were wrongly added to the Anglican totals, says : " Of these 59,810 were returned in Travancore, where the majority were probably members of the London Mission." ^ The Anglican Church in India comes next in point of numbers to the E.C. Church, but it includes only one- eleventh of the Indian Christians. The principal centre of the Baptists is in the Madras Presidency, where about two-fifths of their converts are found, chiefly in the districts of Guntur, Nellore, Kurnool, and Kistna. In Burma, where there are 120,000 converts, they have nearly doubled their number, but, according to the Census Report, " the increase is probably less than would appear from the figures, as in 1901 many failed to return their sect, and were thus not shown as Baptists." In Burma the Baptists have by far the largest number of Christians: thus the Baptists have 120,549, the Roman Catholics 50,770, and the Anglicans 9999. In ^ Vol. i. pt. i. p. 387, note. 124 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Assam, where their numbers are much smaller, the pro portional increase has been greater. The Syrians (excluding Eomo-Syrians) show an increase of 66,420, or 26*7 per cent. By far the largest number of Syrian Christians are in the Travancore State. Most of the rest are in Cochin. Madras contains over 20,000 (see p. 66 f). The Lutherans, whose actual increase in the decade has been 63,074 Indians, have increased at the rate of 41 per cent.; 104,074 out of a total of 216,842 are in the Madras Presidency. Here their increase has been at the rate of 35 per cent. In the province of Bihar and Orissa, where their numbers are nearly 88,000, they have increased at the rate of 43 per cent. The Presbyterians show an actual increase of 121,270 Indians, which is larger than any other Protestant denomi- nation. Their numbers for 1901 have been multiplied three and five-sixth times in the course of the decade. The most remarkable progress has been made in the Punjab, which now contains 95,000 Presbyterians, against only 5000 in 1901; in the two districts of Sialkot and Gujranwala alone there are now 52,000, whereas in 1901 there were only 500. Most of the converts belong to the Chuhra, Chamar, and other depressed castes. In the United Provinces there are 14,000 Presbyterians, or nearly three times as many as in 1901. In Assam there are 31,000 converts, chiefly connected with the Welsh Calvinistic Mission in the Khasi and Jaintia hills, where their number has risen from 16,000 to 28,000. The Methodists (most of whom are connected with the A.M.E.C. missions) have doubled their numbers in the United Provinces in the course of the decade, and have a large absolute majority of Christians of all races taken together in these Provinces — 104,148 out of a total of 177,949. Three-fifths of the present strength of the Methodists are in the United Provinces. Their rate of increase has been higher in the Punjab, where they now INDIA 125 number 11,582 Indians: in Bombay 11,609, Baroda 4833, and Hyderabad 8121. Their total of Indian Christians (162,367) is two and one-third times as large as in 1901. Their total increase of Indian Christians in the decade has been 93,878. The CongregationalistSy according to the census figures, have gained 96,927, though in 1901 their numbers were only 37,313, an increase at the rate of 259*7 per cent. This increase, however, is largely artificial, due mainly to Congregationalists in 1901 being put down as Protestant or Unsectarian. If (as is suggested by the editor of the Census returns) the figure 59,810 was added to 37,313, the actual increase in the decade would be reduced to 37,117, or 38 per cent. The Congregationalists number 134,240 Indian Christians. Of these 81,499 are in Travancore, 36,565 in Madras, 11,519 in Bombay, and 2336 in Bengal. The Salvationists have grown from 18,847 to 52,199, at the rate of 176'4 per cent. In the Punjab they have now 17,970, as against a few hundreds in 1901. In Travancore their present strength of 16,759 is five times what it was ten years ago. In Bombay they number 9924 Indians, in Madras 4876, in Baroda 1540. Of the effect of conversion on the Indian Christians themselves, Mr. Blunt (one of the Provincial Superin- tendents of the Census), writes : "The missionaries all these years have been providing the corpus sanum (if one thing is noticeable about Indian Christians it is their greater cleanliness in dress and habits), and now they are being rewarded by the appearance of the mens sana. The new convert, maybe, is no better than his predecessors; but a new generation of converts is now growing up. If the missionaries could and can get little out of that first generation, the second generation is in their hands from their earliest years. The children of the converts born in Christianity are very different from their parents ; their grandchildren will be better still. It is this which provides the other side to the black picture so often drawn of the inefficiency of Christian conversion. And this 126 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS generation is now beginning to make its influence felt. The Hindu fellows of these converts have now to acknowledge not only that they are in many material ways better off than themselves, but that they are also better men." The Census Superintendent of the Mysore State, him- self a Hindu, says that the missionaries work mainly among the backward classes, and that " the enlightening influence of Christianity is patent in the higher standard of comfort of the converts, and their sober, disciplined, and busy lives. To take education, for instance : we find that among Indian Christians no less than 11,523 persons, or 25 per cent., are returned as literate, while for the total population of the State the percentage is only 6. . . . The success in gaining converts is not now so marked as the spread of a knowledge of Christian tenets and standards of morality." The figures of the Indian census returns which we have been considering, whilst they afford mathematical demon- stration that the number of Christians is increasing in India, are but a skeleton outline. They need to be clothed with flesh and blood in order that their significance may be appreciated. It is instructive to learn that India is becoming Christian at a rate unprecedented in the history of the world, but to realize what this means one needs to go out to India and to walk through the districts where the Christian faith is being taught, and to note the changes which are taking place. A visitor will not need to ask as he enters any particular village whether its inhabitants are Christians. A glance at their faces, or even at the faces of their children, will show whether the spirit of fear, engendered by the debased form of Hinduism which is professed in the average Hindu village, has been exorcised, and whether Christian hope and freedom have taken its place. He may find many who call themselves Christians, but whose lives are unworthy of their profession ; but the proportion will not be as large as he will have been pre- pared to discover if he is acquainted with the history of INDIA 127 Europe during the centuries which succeeded its nominal conversion to Christianity, nor will the superficial Christianity of a few greatly lessen the impression which will be produced upon him as he comes to understand the marvellous transformation which is taking place in the experience alike of individuals and communities. It is easy to criticize the mass movements which have taken place in South India and are beginning to take place in the north, and to call in question the motives which, in some instances, lie behind these movements. The nominal acceptance of Christianity on the part of a community is, obviously, no substitute for the conversion of heart and character which can alone enable individuals or communities to lead a Christian life, but in many instances the nominal and to some extent superficial con- version of a community may be regarded as the almost indispensable preparation for the conversion of its indi- vidual members. The atmosphere which caste has gener- ated is so unwholesome, and so completely destroys the recognition of individual responsibility, that until this atmosphere can be dispelled it is well-nigh impossible for individuals to appreciate the liberty wherewith Christ would set them free. The nominal conversion of a whole village may not be accompanied by many signs of spiritual life, but it brings every individual in the village within the reach of spiritual influences and renders possible the growth of the Christian character. It is not difficult for the critic of Christian missions to discover instances in which the desire for Christian instruction on the part of a village community has been strengthened, if not created, by the hope of material advancement, but the student of missions, who is familiar with the many unworthy motives which hastened the nominal conversion to Christianity of the peoples in Northern Europe, will not be unduly dis- heartened when he realizes that in the history of the evangelization of non- Christian countries to-day a limited number of cases are to be found which recall what might almost be termed the normal occurrences of the past. 128 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Missionary Education. The Government has come to realize that if elementary education is to be spread throughout India and is to bring any moral gain to its peoples, its efforts must be largely helped and supplemented by the missionaries. These alone are in a position to supply trained Indian teachers and to superintend the teaching if it is to be supplied on any large scale. In the province of Chota Nagpur, which is chiefly inhabited by races that have not embraced Hinduism, the Government has offered to place the whole school system of the province under the direction of the three missionary societies which are at work there, i.e. the S.P.G., the E.G. Mission, which is manned by Belgian Jesuits, and the German Gossner Mission. Here, and in many other parts of India, an unlimited opportunity is offered to the representatives of Christian missionary societies to exercise a decisive influence upon the whole moral and religious future of its peoples. Missionary Colleges. — The Anglican and Protestant missionary societies have 38 colleges, of which 23 prepare for the B.A. degree, the other 15 having only a two years' course and finishing with the First Arts qualification. In these colleges there were (in 1912) 5447 students, includ- ing 61 women. Of these students 4481 were Hindus, 530 Mohammedans, and 436 Christians. All the students receive daily instruction in the Christian Scriptures, and of those attending mission schools throughout India 92 per cent, are non-Christians. There is a Christian college for women at Lucknow and one has recently been organized at Madras. This latter has received support from eleven British and American missionary societies. In South India at least 1000 Christians are university graduates. There are 1163 boarding and high schools belonging to missionary societies with 110,763 students. In the Christian elementary schools there are about 450,000 pupils, of whom 146,000 are girls and 170,000 INDIA 129 are Christians. The 160 industrial schools have 9125 pupils. The colleges connected with the Anglican Church in- clude St. Stephen's College, Delhi (S.P.G.) ; St. John's College, Agra (C.M.S.) ; Christ Church College, Cawnpore (S.P.G.) ; Hazaribagh College, Chota Nagpur (D.U.M.) ; Trichinopoly College (S.P.G.) ; the C.M.S. colleges, at Madras, Peshawar, Amritsar, Masulipatam, and Kottayam. Those connected with the Church of Scotland include the General Assembly's Institution, Calcutta, and the college at Sialkot. The principal colleges supported by the United Free Church of Scotland are the Christian College, Madras, the Wilson College, Bombay, and Nagpur College. Those connected with the L.M.S. include the Eamsay College at Almora in the United Provinces, a college in Calcutta, and colleges at Bellary and Nagercoil in South India. Those connected with the American Presbyterian missions include Forman College, Lahore, and the Ewing Christian College, Allahabad. Those connected with the American Methodist Episcopal Church include the colleges at Lucknow (for men and women) and Allahabad. Amongst other colleges which deserve special notice may be mentioned the Canadian Presbyterian college at Indore, the Wesleyan colleges at Bankura and Manargudi, and the American Baptist college at Ongole. The total number of students attending colleges of university standing in India is about 25,000, and of these about 5500 are at missionary colleges. During recent years the Government of India has realized that the provision of university education to all who desired it has been anything but an unmixed blessing to its recipients, and that the moral atmosphere of many of the university towns was injuriously affecting the characters of a large number of university students. They have in consequence adopted the policy of contributing largely towards the cost 9 130 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS of establishing residentiary hostels in which students may live under sympathetic supervision. By far the greater number of these hostels are in the hands of the missionary societies. At the two new universities of Patna and Dacca the Government desire that the majority of the students should live in such hostels. How great is the need of establishing university colleges or hostels may be gathered from a statement made by the Rev. W. E. S. Holland of Calcutta, who writes : " Seven thousand Bengali students congregate in Calcutta under conditions that are nothing less than appalling. The circumstance that determines everything else is their ex- treme poverty. A mere handful are in properly supervised hostels. A good many live at home. The remainder are huddled together in the cheapest lodgings they can find; so that the slums and student quarter are almost inter- changeable terms. Fancy Oxford transferred to lodgings in the slums of Whitechapel ; and picture an England with its leading classes educated thus ! The moral and sanitary environment is deplorable ... 80 per cent, [of the students] join no college societies, 90 per cent, play no games ; their only recreation a slack stroll up and down College Street, their only pabulum the gutter-press of Calcutta." At Dacca and Patna hostels to accommodate 200 students are being built almost entirely at Government expense which are to be under the direction of the Oxford University Mission in the one case and of the C.M.S. in the other. Interest in education has been steadily increasing throughout India during recent years. According to the Government Quinquennial Eeview published in 1914, the number of boys in attendance at secondary schools in which English is taught went up from 473,000 to 667,000 between 1907 and 1912. During the same period the number attending primary schools went up from 3,986,000 to 4,998,000. Of these about a quarter were attending missionary schools. During the year 1912—13 the total increase of pupils attending all kinds of schools was nearly 400,000. INDIA 131 The backward condition of female education may be inferred from the fact that whilst nearly 30 per cent, of boys of school-going age were at school, the proportion of girls was only 5 per cent. During the period 1907-12 the number of girls in primary schools increased from 645,028 to 952,911. Seminaries. — Of Anglican seminaries for the training of Indian clergy the S.P.Gr. and C.M.S. each have one in Madras; the S.P.G. has also Bishop's College, Calcutta (which is being re-organized) ; the C.M.S. has also divinity schools at Lahore, Allahabad, Calcutta, Poona, and Kottayam. The American Board (A.B.C.F.M.) has seminaries at Madura and Ahmadnagar, the A.M.E.C. at Bareilly, the Lutheran Mission at Tranquebar, the A.P.M. at Saharampur, the A.U.P.M. at Eawal Pindi, and the Baptists have the theo- logical college at Seramporc, which has the standing of a university. In 1910 a United Theological College was established at Bangalore which is supported by the L.M.S., W.M.S., A.B.C.F.M., the American Eeformed Church, and the U.F.C. of Scotland. The largest theological seminary in the Indian Empire is that at Insein in Burma, which is supported by the A.B.M. and has 160 students. Medical Missions. Anglican. — The C.M.S. has hospitals at Srinagar in Kashmir, Peshawar, Bannu, Quetta, Dera Ismail Khan, all on the North-West Frontier; and at Amritsar and Multan in the Punjab. The S.P.G. has hospitals at Delhi, Cawnpore, Hazaribagh (D.U.M.), Murhu in Chota Nagpur, and at Nazareth and Eamnad in South India. The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society works to a large extent in conjunction with the C.M.S. and maintains hospitals at Peshawar, Quetta, Tarn Taran, Dera Ismail Khan, Amritsar, Bangalore, etc. The U.F.C. of Scotland maintains hospitals at Ajmer, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Nasirabad, Poona, Nagpur, Bhandara, and Wardha. In the Santal country it has three medical 132 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS missions and in the Madras Presidency it has hospitals for women at Eoyapuram and ConjeveraQi. It also supports a medical mission at Aden in Arabia. The Church of Scotland has medical missions for women at Poona, Gujerat, and at Sholinghur in Madras. The Canadian Presbyterians maintain hospitals for women at Neemuch, Indore, and Dhar, and have several other general hospitals. The A.U.P.M. has hospitals for women at Jhelum and Sialkot. The A. Preslyterian Church has a large medical mission at Miraj in the South Maratha country. It has also stations at Kolhapur, Vengurla, and Kodoli in the same district, and at Sabathu, Ambala, Ferozepore, Kasur, Allahabad, and Fategarh. The Irish Presbyterians have a hospital at Anand in Gujerat. The L.M.S. has a large medical mission at Neyoor in Travancore. It has also hospitals at Jammalamadugu in the Telugu country, and at Kachwa, Alraora, and Jiagauj in North India. The A.B.C.F.M. has medical missions in the Marathi country, at Madura and in Ceylon. The A. Baptist F.M.S. has medical missions in Burma, Assam, and in the Telugu country. The W.M.S. carries on medical work chiefly amongst women in South India. It supports hospitals at Mysore, Hassan, Ikkadu, Medak, Nizamabad, Nagari, and Madras. The A.M.E.C. has hospitals at Bareilly, Bhot, Brindabun, Baroda, Kolar, and Bidar. The Zenana Bible and Medical Mission has hospitals at Benares, Patna, Lucknow, and Nasik. The Basel Mission has medical stations at Calicut and Betgeri-Gadag. The Salvation Army has hospitals at Nagercoil, Anand, Moradabad, and Ani. In addition to these there are a large number of hospitals and medical missionaries connected with smaller missionary societies. In 1910 there were in mission hospitals about 50,000 in-patients, more than 1,000,000 INDIA 133 out-patients, and over 56,000 surgical operations. Train- ing institutions for Indian doctors and nurses have been founded at Ludhiana and Agra. The greatness of the need to which medical missionaries minister may be gathered from a recent statement made by the Inspector- General of Civil Hospitals in Bengal, to the effect that in order to supply the rural districts with dispensaries sufficient to bring the supply of medical aid up to the lowest standard that is considered necessary in England, the agencies would have to be multiplied by 40. Work amongst Indian Moslems. The first missionary to work amongst Moslems in India was Geronimo Xavier, who came to Lahore from Goa in 1596. He wrote three books — a Life of Christ, a Life of St. Peter, and a disquisition on the religion of Islam. It is known that he baptized several converts (see p. 77). Amongst those who worked amongst Indian Moslems in the nineteenth century should be mentioned Dr. C. G. Pfander, Bishop French, Robert Clark, Rev. T. P. Hughes, Rev. R Bateman, Dr. Imad-ud-din, and Safdar Ali. In 1856 the Harris school, which is under the charge of the C.M.S., was opened in Madras. The C.M.S. has also some work amongst Moslems in Hyderabad and Alleppey. The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society supports schools for Moslem girls in Madras, Bangalore, Mysore city, Ellore, Bezwada, Masulipatam, and Khammamett, the last four being in the Telugu country. The S.P.G. works amongst Moslems in Delhi, where a large proportion of the students attending St. Stephen's College are Moslems. The A.M.E.C. Mission has work at Hyderabad and Kolar. The U.F.C.S. has a mission at Conjeveram in the Tamil country, and the L.M.S. has a station at Trivandrum in the Malayalam country. One or two small associations have work amongst Moslems in the Tamil and Telugu country. Industrial 134 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS schools have been established in Madras, Bangalore, and Guntur to provide employment for destitute Mohammedan women. Most of the larger missionary societies carry on indirect mission work amongst Moslems in connection with their missions to Hindus. Missionary Societies in India. Of the 117 foreign and 19 indigenous missionary societies working in India and Ceylon, 41 are British, 41 American, 12 from the continent of Europe, 8 from Australia, and 3 are international. The three societies which support the largest number of missionaries are the C.M.S., which supports (1913) 142 European clergy; the American Baptists, who support 136, and the A.M.E.C., which supports 124 American clergy. The tendency of the British and American societies is to leave the adminis- tration of affairs and the initiative to those in India, whilst the tendency of the continental missionary societies is to retain a larger measure of control in the hands of the home committees. The following is a brief summary of the work of some of the chief missionary societies in India and Ceylon, with the date at which they began work. I. Anglican. — The C.M.S. (1816) and the S.RG. (1818) are at work in all the provinces of India. The total number of Indian Christians in India connected with the Anglican missions in 1914 was about 350,000. These include the converts connected with the C.M.S., the S.P.G., the Church of England Zenana Mission (1851), and several smaller Anglican societies or associations. In 1913 the C.M.S. had 142 European and 206 Indian clergy and 196,000 baptized Christians; the S.RG. had 104 European and 139 Indian clergy and 113,000 baptized Christians. The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (CE.Z.M.S.) is an offshoot formed in 1880 from the Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society, an INDIA 135 undenominational body which began work in Bengal in 1851. It supports medical and evangelistic work among women in Bengal, the Central Provinces, the Punjab, Sindh, and in several parts of South India. This society works in close association with the C.M.S., and occasionally the two societies interchange workers. (For a list of hospitals supported by the C.E.Z.M.S. see p. 131). The total number of missionaries supported by this society in India in 1913 was 145 Europeans and 256 Indians. Of the twelve bishops in India who superintend the Anglican missions, seven are appointed by the English Government — namely, those of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Lahore, Eangoon, Lucknow, and Nagpur. These occupy a somewhat anomalous position, as they are at once Govern- ment officials and in charge of the Government chaplains, and superintend the Anglican missions which have been established in their dioceses. The Bishops of Travancore, Tinnevelly, Chota Nagpur and Assam, are not appointed or paid by Government and are simply missionary bishops. The Bishop of Dornakal, who was appointed by the Bishop of Madras, has a small diocese of his own in the state of Hyderabad. He also acts as an assistant bishop in the diocese of Madras. As long as there is an English army in India and a large European population it will be necessary to have English chaplains and English bishops. It would, however, be an undoubted advantage from a missionary standpoint if the bishops who are responsible for the supervision and development of missionary work in India were no longer supported or appointed by the Government. II. Baptist Missionary Societies, — The English B.M.S. (1792) works chiefly in Bengal, Bihar, the United Pro- vinces, and the Punjab. Its " church members " number about 11,000 and its adherents 30,000. It has hostels for students at Calcutta and Dacca, and a university college at Serampore. In Ceylon, where it began work in 136 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 1812, it has 1057 "members." The Baptist Zenana Mission has 70 missionaries and 100 girls' schools. The A.B.M.U, (1813) has 140 European and 425 Indian clergy and 135,000 baptized adherents. Nearly- half these are in Burma. In Assam it has 60 missionaries (including men and women) and about 11,000 communi- cant members. It has also work in Bengal and the Telugu country. The total number of Baptists in India in 1911 was 332,000. III. The Lutheran Missions. — Next to the Anglican and Baptist missions come, in point of numbers, the Lutheran missions, the largest of which are (1) the Gossner Mission of Berlin (1841), which has 71,000 baptized adherents in Chota Nagpur, and a staff of 50 European and 44 Indian missionaries and 400 Indian lay-workers (see p. 112). (2) The Evangelical National Missionary Society of Stockholm (1877) has 1500 baptized Christians and 23 European (men) missionaries in con- nection with its work in the Central Provinces. (3) The Schleswig - Holstein Evangelical Lutheran Mission (1883) works among the Telugus in the Vizagapatam district and amongst the Uriyas of the Jeypore Agency. The Christian community numbers about 15,000 and is ministered to by 24 European missionaries. The Basel Mission (founded in 1815) started work on the west coast of India in 1834. It has 26 principal stations in the districts of Kanara, Malabar, Coorg, the Nilgiris, and South Maratha. It has 60 European and 26 Indian clergy, and its baptized Christians number 20,000. Its constitution is Presbyterian in character. Industrial work forms a chief feature of the mission. The industrial mission work of this society has been criticized by many of the supporters of Indian missions, and not altogether without justification. A member of the Basel Mission, the Rev. A. Scheuer of Tellicherry, writes : "This system is not without its disadvantages. Most Christians look to the mission for everything ; the temporal INDIA 137 and the spiritual are too closely allied, and therefore often confounded. The factories attracted undesirable converts. In the minds of the people mission work became associated with providing a living. Well-to-do Hindus may not seldom have stood aloof from the Church because they needed no material help. . . . There can be no doubt that these industrials have been very helpful factors in building up a few strong congregations in the most caste-ridden parts of India. But it remains doubtful if without them a smaller and more efficient Church, better distributed, would not in the long-run have amply compensated for speedier numerical success." ^ There are also two American Lutheran Missions, the General Synod (1842) with its headquarters at Guntur, and the General Council with its headquarters at Rajah- mundry. The former has over 40,000 adherents, which include over 1000 Sudra converts ; the latter, which started in 1869, has about 17,000 adherents. The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society (1867) has 29 European missionaries, 5 Indian pastors, and about 1600 members connected with its work at Pattambakam in South Arcot. The total number of Christians connected with the Lutheran missions in 1911 was 216,000. IV. Freshyterian Missions. — (1) The Foreign Missions Committee of the Church of Scotland, which sent out Alexander Duff as its first missionary (1829), works in Calcutta, the Eastern Himalayas, the Punjab, Poona, and Madras. It has 77 European agents (32 men and 45 women) and 16,000 baptized Christians. (2) The United Free Church of Scotland (U.F.C.S.) in- cludes three missions which existed before the time of the Disruption in Western India (1823), Calcutta (1829), and Madras (1837). Its other missions are in Eajputana, Santalia, and in the Central Provinces. The European workers which it supports include 56 ordained and 32 unordained men and 117 women. Its Indian workers include 18 ordained men. There are about 12,000 ^ Year-Book of Indian Missions (1912), p. 507. 138 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS persons "in fellowship with the Church." It supports 16 medical stations. The Women's Foreign Mission in connection with the U.F.C. of Scotland supports 275 schools with 15,000 scholars. The Christian College at Madras founded by this society also receives support from the C.M.S., the W.M.S., and the Church of Scotland Mission. (3) American Presbyterian Missions. — The chief centres of work are in the Punjab (1846), Allahabad (1836), and in the state of Kolhapur (1852), which lies about 150 miles south of Bombay. It supports university colleges at Lahore and Allahabad (see p. 91). (4) The Canadian Presbyterian Mission (1877) has eleven chief stations, mostly in Central India. It has an important college at Indore. It supports a good deal of medical work, including three hospitals for women. The total number of Indian Christians connected with Presbyterian missions in 1911 was 164,000. V. Methodist Missions. — (1) The largest Methodist mis- sion is that of the A.M.E.C., which works in many different parts of India. This society has done excellent educa- tional, medical, and industrial work. In the carrying out of its evangelistic work it has been content to accept a lower standard as a qualification for baptism than that accepted by other societies, and complaints, which have often been well grounded, have been made against its representatives that the society has established itself in areas already occupied by other societies, and has baptized large numbers of converts who were in course of being prepared for baptism by other missions. It is greatly to be hoped that those who are responsible for the direction of its policy will fall into line with that adopted by all other great societies with the exception of the representatives of the RC. Church and of the Salvation Army. The A.M.E.C. also works to a considerable extent amongst Europeans and Eurasians in India. It has 112 American and 264 Indian ministers. (2) The Wesley an Methodist Missionary Society (W.M.S.) INDIA 139 supports work in Ceylon (1814), Madras, ISTegapatani Hyderabad, and Mysore, and in North India in Bengal, Lucknow, Bombay, and Burma. A large part of its work is amongst Europeans and Eurasians. The total number of Indian Christians connected with Methodist missions in 1911 was 162,000. (In 1912 the A.M.E.C. claimed to have 185,000 "baptized adherents.") VI. Congregationalist Missions. — (1) The London Mis- sionary Society (L.M.S.) occupies 10 centres in North India, 12 in South India, and 6 in Travancore. In connec- tion with its missions in North India it has about 4000, in South India about 33,000, and in Travancore about 81,000 Christians. Its staff consists of 70 European men, 50 European women, and 41 Indian clergy. (2) The missions of the American Board support 29 American and 83 Indian clergy attached to three principal centres — Ahmadnagar, the Jaffna peninsula in Ceylon, and the Madura district. It has about 40,000 Christian adherents. It supports 6 mission hospitals. The total number of Christians connected with Congregational missions in 1911 was 134,000. VII. The Salvation Army employs 207 European and 2285 Indian officers and teachers. Its work is carried on in 13 different districts and in 12 languages, its general headquarters being at Simla. The contributions raised in India and Ceylon equal in amount those sent from England. It supports 3 hospitals, 21 industrial boarding schools, 6 farm colonies, 17 weaving schools, and 11 settle- ments for criminal tribes accommodating 2300 persons (see p. 125). The Indian National Missionary Society. — One of the most hopeful developments of missionary work in India during recent years has been the formation of the National Missionary Society of India, which was first organized on Christmas Day, 1905, and began its missionary operations in 1907. Mr. K. T. Paul, the Secretary, writes: " The society is strictly denominational in the evangel- istic work done in its fields. Each field is worked in a 140 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS particular connection exclusively of others. For instance, the Punjab field is Anglican, to which only those candi- dates who are of that connection are sent. The first missionary to that field was ordained by the Bishop of Lahore in 1911. The field in the United Provinces is Presbyterian, to which only those candidates who are of that connection are sent. One of the workers there was ordained by the Presbytery of Ludhiana (in 1912). And so with the other fields, one of which is in connection with the ancient Syrian Church." ^ The " five fields of labour " which have so far been selected are the Montgomery district in the Punjab ; the Nakkar tahsil of the Saharanpur district in the United Provinces ; the Omaher taluk in the Salem district, Madras; the district of North Kanara in the south of the Bombay Presidency ; and the Karjat-Karmala taluks near Ahmadnagar. In 1914 there were 26 agents employed by the society, of whom 12 had received a college education and of whom 2 were doctors. The converts numbered about 1000. Had we space, we should like to refer to some of the movements which owe their origin to the Christian ideals which missionaries have inculcated in India, such as the Society of the Servants of India, founded in 1906 by Mr. Gokhale ; the Seva Sadan or Sisters of India Society, founded in Bombay in 1908 by the Parsee philanthropist Mr. Malabari ; or the Ramakrishna Home of Service, in Benares. The Seva Sadan Society seeks to train Indian women for educational, medical, social, and philanthropic work. These and many others are supported by those who do not call themselves Christians but whose lives have been influenced by the spirit of Christ. Bihle Societies. — An important missionary agency is the British and Foreign Bible Society, which employs many hundreds of Biblewomen and colporteurs to read and dis- tribute the Bible. Since its foundation (1804) it has issued in the languages of India nearly 20,000,000 * Year -Book of Indian Missions, p. 431. INDIA 141 portions of Scripture. The American Bible Society (1817) does similar work on a smaller scale. The National Bible Society of Scotland (1861) maintains 223 colporteurs in India and Ceylon, who sold in 1910 239,000 copies of the Scriptures. Roman Catholic Missions in India. We have already referred to the early missions of the R.C. Church in India and to the work which it is carrying on in special districts. In 1886 India and Ceylon were placed under a regularly constituted hierarchy with eight arch- bishoprics (Goa, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Pondicherry, Verapoly, Agra, and Colombo). The total number of bishops and priests (1912) is 2653, of whom 1700 are indigenous to the country and 953 are Europeans. "Of these European missionaries a small percentage are of Irish and a still smaller percentage of English descent. The rest are members of various religious Orders from Italy, Spain, France, Holland, Belgium, and Germany, while the prelates, in every case except one, belong to these continental nationalities." ^ B.C. Colleges and Schools. — The B.C. Church has 23 seminaries containing 700 candidates for the priesthood, of which the most important are situated at Kaudy in Ceylon, Shembaganur near Trichinopoly, Eanchi, and Kurseong near Darjeeling. It has 1 1 colleges which prepare for university degrees with 1300 students, 6 5 high schools, 248 middle schools, and 2438 elementary schools with 98,000 pupils. It has also 47 industrial and 74 boarding schools with 5917 pupils, and 97 orphanages. For girls it has 59 high schools, 240 middle class schools, and 672 elementary schools. The total number of pupils (1912) in RC. schools is 143,000 boys and 73,000 girls, out of whom about 12,000 are orphans. The boys' schools are for the most part managed by members of religious Orders and the schools for girls by professed Sisters. ^ See article by Father E. R. Hull in The Year-Book of Missions in India, p. 160. 142 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Of the university colleges the most important are St. Xavier's College, Calcutta, under Belgian Jesuits (276 students); St. Xavier's College, Bombay, under German Jesuits (350 students); St. Joseph's College, Trichinopoly, under French Jesuits (420 students). The educational establishments are to a large extent supported by Government grants-in-aid. They are in part maintained by the two European societies, the Association for the Propagation of the Faith and the Society for the Holy Childhood. Religious Unity in South India. In 1908 five separate missions in South India were organized as one body under the name of the South India United Church — namely, the United Free Church of Scotland in and about Madras, the Arcot Mission of the Eeformed Church of America, the American Madura Mission, and two London Missionary Society missions — the Travancore Mission and the South Indian District Committee Mission. Its affairs are managed by a small committee elected by the General Assembly which meets once in two years. The Basel Evangelical Mission and one or two other missions are considering the possibility of joining the South India United Church. Proposals have also been made to incorporate in a " Federation of Christian Churches in India " all churches and societies that " accept the Word of God as contained in the Scriptures as the supreme rule of faith and practice, and whose teaching in regard to God, sin, and salvation is in general agreement with the great body of Chris- tian truth and fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith." In December 1911 a Presbyterian Alliance was organized in Allahabad. As a result the General Assemblies of the Church of Scotland, the U.F.C. of Scotland, the Presbyterian Church in America, and the Canadian and Irish Presbyterian Churches approved the INDIA 143 scheme and voted to allow their Indian Churches to join the Union. Hie number of missionaries in India. In 1912 there were 5200 Anglican and Protestant missionaries in India (compare China, 4299). Of the 1442 ordained missionaries, 620 were from Great Britain, 559 from the U.S.A., and 222 from the continent of Europe. There were 118 men and 217 women doctors. Of the total number of missionaries, 2076 were men and 3124 women; of these latter, 1800 were unmarried women. Of Indian men and women there are about 40,000 who devote their whole time to missionary work ; of these, 1665 are ordained. Amongst the Indian workers there are about 250 university graduates, most of whom are teachers. Of the 40,000 Indian workers about 10,000 are women. The difficulty of developing an educated ministry supported entirely by Indian contributions will be realized when it is remembered that the average income per capita of the people of India is £2 per annum. At the present time the average contribution towards the support of his Church made by each member of the Indian Christian Churches is 4s. per annum. The Young Men's Christian Association, which works chiefly amongst students in the larger towns, exercises a widespread influence. The Christian Literature Society (C.L.S.) translates and produces in various Indian lan- guages books bearing directly or indirectly upon the Christian faith, and thereby furnishes invaluable aid to the missionary societies. Philanthropic Work, Some idea may be obtained of the organized philan- thropic work, apart from that of medical missions, which is being done by missionary societies in India from the 144 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS following statement. The figures in brackets denote the number of inmates in the various institutions. There are now in India in connection with missionary societies : orphanages, 181 (13,400); leper hospitals and asylums, 59 (4815) ; institutions for blind and deaf mutes, 8 (340) ; rescue homes, 8 (360); industrial homes, 19 (1134); houses for widows, 15 (410). V. CEYLON. Soon after the arrival of the Portuguese, who effected a settlement in Ceylon early in the sixteenth century, some Franciscan monks reached Ceylon, and a bishopric of Colombo was established. In 1544 St. Francis Xavier preached among the Tamil fishermen of Manaar in the kingdom of Jaffna and baptized over 500 of them. These were massacred by the Kajah of Jaffna, whose kingdom was conquered by the Portuguese in 1548. The Portuguese used forcible methods of conversion, and a large proportion of the people, including the Brahmans, were baptized. In the south of the island less violent means were adopted, but even here " many became Christians for the sake of Portuguese gold." When the Dutch expelled the Portuguese in the middle of the seventeenth century, they strove hard to induce the Singalese to adopt the Eeformed faith. The RC. priests were banished, E.C. rites were forbidden on pain of death, and the people were ordered to become Protestants. No unbaptized person was allowed to hold any office or to possess land. Before the end of the Dutch occupation it had been realized that the conversion of the people was merely nominal, and when pressure was relaxed the number of the Christians rapidly fell. When the English gained possession of the island in 1798, 300,000 persons registered themselves as members of the Dutch Church. Of these a few were intelligent members, a large number were Eoman Catholics, but the majority were Buddhists or Hindus. The Enghsh Government proclaimed religious toleration, but did nothing to teach or evangelize lO 146 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS the people. As a result of the religious liberty which they established, a number of the Singalese declared themselves to be Eoman Catholics and a larger number claimed to be Hindus or Buddhists.^ The first Protestant missionary to establish work in Ceylon in the nineteenth century was James Chater of the Baptist M.S. After spehding six years in Burma, he reached Colombo in 1812, where he laboured for sixteen years. His successor, the Eev. E. Daniel, did much to spread Christianity in the villages near Colombo. The B.M.S. has now 4 European missionaries and 1057 baptized Christians, its chief centres of work being Colombo, Kandy, and Eatnapura. In 1814 five Wesleyan missionaries aYYived and started work at Jaffna and Batticaloa for the Tamils, and at Matara and Galle for the Singalese. The mission proved discouraging in its early years, but afterwards maintained a steady growth. In 1842 work was started among the savage Veddahs. The W.M.S. has training colleges at Colombo and Galle and a large number of day and board- ing schools in various parts of Ceylon. In 1913 the number of European missionaries was 26 and of communi- cants 6186. In 1816 four missionaries belonging to the A.B.C.F.M. arrived, and in the following year started work at Jaffna. The work of this society, which has since been developed, has been concentrated in this district. A special feature of the mission, especially in its earlier days, has been the establishment of missionary schools. The greater part of its work has been handed over to Singalese, and but little evangelistic work is now being done. In 1912 it had a staff of 3 American missionaries, and its communicants numbered 2170. In 1818 four missionaries sent by the C.M.S. landed in Ceylon and, like their predecessors, received a warm welcome from the Governor, Sir Eobert Brownrigg. They ^ For a further reference to the relapse of the Protestant Christians in Ceylon, see p. 20. CEYLON 147 began work among the Tamils at Jaffna and among the Singalese at Kandy. The mission to the Tamil coolies in the north has for many years received a large amount of financial support from the English planters, who have learnt to appreciate its value. The college at Kandy, of which the Eev. A. G. Fraser is the Principal, is a " red- hot centre " of missionary life and enthusiasm, and seems likely to exercise a far-reaching influence upon the prospects of Christianity in Ceylon. Another important college be- longing to the mission is situated at Jaffna. In 1913 it had 20 European missionaries and 5097 communicants. The first missionary supported by the S.P.G. was stationed at Colombo in 1840, and was transferred to Matara in the south in the following year. A large part of the work which this society has helped to develop has been done in close conjunction with Government chaplains or with the diocesan clergy. The centre of its educational work is St. Thomas' College, Colombo, which has recently been rebuilt on a new site. It is one of the leading educational institutions in Ceylon. In 1845 the first Anglican Bishop of Colombo (Dr. Chapman) was appointed. The words which one of the C.M.S. missionaries wrote in 1868, on the occasion of the jubilee commemoration of the C.M.S. Mission in Ceylon, apply to the work of all the existing societies. He wrote : " A more arduous task, a more trying field of labour, it would be difficult to imagine. . . . Pure Buddhists and Hindus are tenfold more accessible than are the thousands of relapsed and false professors of Christianity. . . . The tradition preserved in native families of the fact that their forefathers were once Christians and afterwards returned to Buddhism is naturally regarded by them as a proof of the superiority of the latter religion ; whilst the sight of churches, built by the Dutch but now gone to ruin, adds strength to the belief that Christianity is an upstart religion which has no vitality, and which, if unsupported by the ruling powers, cannot stand before their own venerated system." ^ » ffistory of the C.M.S., i. 218. 148 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS During the years which have elapsed since these words were written, Christianity has made considerable progress, but the missionaries have not yet got rid of the handicap created by the religious history of the past centuries. Other societies at work in Ceylon are the Salvation Army, which commenced work in 1882, and the Friends* Foreign Mission Association, which began in 1896. There are five B,C. dioceses in Ceylon — Colombo, Kandy, Galle, Trincomalee, and Jaffna. The missions in the dioceses of Colombo and Jaffna are conducted by the Oblates of the Blessed Virgin Mary, those in Galle and Trincomalee by the Jesuits, and those in Kandy by the Silvestrine Benedictines. The staff includes 173 European and 67 native priests. The European priests are also engaged in ministering to European residents. The number of B.C. Christians, according to the latest B.C. returns, is 345,628. These figures include about 1300 Europeans and 12,500 Burghers {i.e. Dutch half-castes). The Jesuits are in charge of the seminary at Kandy, which was established in 1893 for the training of native priests. The population of Ceylon (excluding the military), according to the census of 1911, is 4,105,535. The following table gives the religious profession of the inhabit- ants as shown by the last four census returns : — Total Population (including Europeans). 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. Christians . 267,977 302,127 349,239 409,168 Buddhists • 1,698,070 1,877,043 2,141,404 2,474,270 Hindus . 693,630 616,932 826,826 932,696 Mohammedans 197,775 211,995 246,118 283,582 Of the total Christian population of 409,000, 239,000 were low-country Sinhalese, 6000 Kandyan Singalese, CEYLON 149 86,000 Ceylon Tamils, 41,000 Indian Tamils, 7470 Europeans, and 26,454 Burghers. The Anglican Christians (who included 4983 Europeans and 7299 Burghers) numbered 41,095; the Wesleyans (who included 1977 Burghers and 310 Europeans) numbered 17,323; the Presbyterians (who included 663 Europeans and 2684 Burghers) numbered 3546 ; Baptists, 3306 ; Congregationalists, 2978; Salvation Army, 1042. The figures belonging to the different denominations given in these census returns include adherents as well as baptized Christians. During the decade 1901-11 the percentage of increase in the Christian population was 16 '8, whilst that of the total population was 16'5. In the Christian schools in Ceylon, 54,967 scholars are in charge of Eoman Catholics, 32,713 of Anglicans, and 29,192 of Wesleyans. The per- centage of literates — i.e. of those who can read — is much higher both in Ceylon and in Burma than it is in India, and there are therefore greater opportunities for extend- ing missionary influence by the circulation of Christian literature. One result of the progress of Christian missions during recent years has been that the Buddhists, who include the majority of the inhabitants, have recently awakened to the fact that Christianity is a force to be feared, and therefore deserving of active opposition. In an article entitled "The Buddhist Eevival in Ceylon," ^ Mr. Ekanayake, who is himself a Singalese Christian, describes the remarkable efforts which have been made by the Buddhists in different parts of Ceylon to establish schools and to organize lectures and addresses in order to counteract the spread of Christian influences. He writes : " Work among children, which was entirely unknown in Buddhist circles, whether in the earliest or in the latest days of Buddhism, is being vigorously carried on. Catechism, Sunday schools, religious instruction in day schools, the teaching of Buddhist stanzas to school children, and their 1 The East and The West, July 1904. 150 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS processions to temples on festival days, are noteworthy features of work amongst children." Unfortunately, it does not appear that this revival of Buddhism is accompanied by any serious effort to bring the debased form of this religion which is found in Ceylon up to its original standard or ideals. "What is most disappointing," writes Mr. Ekanayake. "is that in spite of all this activity there is no attempt made to purify Buddhism of its corruptions . . . the worship of trees, relics, and images still takes place . . . devil worship has not been denounced, but still goes on, though it is contrary to the principles of Buddhism. Caste, which the teaching of Buddhism denounces, is strongly upheld in Buddhist circles." From the missionary standpoint this attempt to revivify Buddhism is perhaps the most encouraging feature of the present situation. The fact that the re- vival itself is, so to speak, on the surface, and that it is doing little to raise the religious and moral standards of the people, suggests that it is not likely to interfere for long with the progress of Christian missions. VI. BURMA. In 1603 Felipe de Brito, a Portuguese adventurer, estab- lished himself as Governor of Syriam near Eangoon. He built a church at Syriam and began to destroy the Buddhist pagodas and to force the Buddhists to become Christians. After ten years he was killed by the king of Ava, and his wife and most of the Portuguese at Syriam were taken as slaves to Ava. Their descendants constitute the bulk of the RC. population in that part of the country to-day. In 1692, the first missionary priests of the Society of Foreign Missions at Paris reached Pegu. In the following year they were arrested by order of the king, exposed naked to the bites of mosquitoes, and then sewn up in sacks and thrown into the Pegu Eiver. In 1721 two more priests arrived, who were followed by others. During the next forty years a bishop and several priests were murdered, including Father Angelo, who was "a skilled doctor," but the work continued. By 1800 there were two RC. churches in Eangoon and 3000 Christians, but in 1824, on the outbreak of the first Burmese War, the two churches were destroyed. In 1857 King Mindon helped the E.C. priests in Mandalay to build a church and a mission house. Soon after this the E.C. mission work in Burma was handed over to the Foreign Mission Society of Paris, and Father Bigandet, who had already been a missionary for fourteen years, was consecrated as bishop. He became one of the chief authorities on the language and religion of the Burmese. »5i 152 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS The Christian Brothers started work at Moulmein in 1859 and at Eangoon in 1861. In 1867 the Milan Society for Foreign Missions took charge of the work at Toungoo and in East Burma. The Eoman Catholics have virtually abandoned direct evangelistic work amongst the Burmese, the bulk of their adherents in Burma being Tamils, Pwo- Karens, and Eurasians. They have also done good work amongst the Chinese immigrants. During the decade 1901-11 their increase in Burma was at the rate of 62 per cent., and the total number of their converts in 1911 was 50,770. They have 3 bishops and over 200 European priests, monks, and nuns. The Kev. W. 0. Purser of the S.P.G. Mission writes : "The Eoman priests have won the admiration of the European residents by the devotion of their lives. Few return to Europe after coming out to the East, and the missionary priests live right among the natives. The educational and social work of the Eoman Catholics is beyond praise. St. Paul's School, Eangoon, is one of the largest and best equipped boys' schools in the East, and is staffed by the 'Teaching Brothers,' who are trained lay teachers and give their labour free. It is the wonderful organization of the Eoman Church, as shown by this brother- hood of teachers, that enables it to compete successfully with other Christian bodies in India, with the result that many Anglican and Nonconformist children are being educated in E.C. schools." ^ Baptist Missions, In 1806 five students sat beneath the shelter of a haystack in Williamstown, Massachusetts, discussing the possibility of evangelizing the world. Mills, one of their number, suddenly cried out, " We can if we will," and the cry was taken up and repeated by his four companions. Five years later Adoniram Judson joined this company, each member of which was pledged to give up all and dare all in order that they might spread the Kingdom of Christ throughout the world. 1 Missions in Burma, p. 93. BURMA 153 In 1810 Judson, with three others, offered himself for missionary work to the General Association of the Congre- gational Church, and as a result the American Board for Foreign Missions was founded. After being ordained for the Congregational Church he and his companions eventu- ally reached Calcutta in 1812, where soon afterwards he became a Baptist. The East India Company having refused him permission to work in India, he arrived on July 13, 1813, at Eangoon, where one of the Careys had already (1807) begun missionary work. When the American Baptists heard of Judson's change of views, they determined to support him, and founded the society which is now known as the American Baptist Missionary Union. There- upon the English missionaries in Eangoon handed over their work to this society. At the end of seven years Judson had baptized 10 Burmese converts. On the outbreak of the Burmese war with England in 1823, he and his companion, a medical missionary named Price, were thrown into prison, and for twenty-one months endured the greatest hardships. When the war was over, and after the death of his first wife (he married three times), he lived the life of a hermit, and on one occasion fasted for forty days in the jungle. In 1828 Mr. Boardman baptized the first convert among the Karens — Ko Tha Byu — who became an apostle to his fellow-countrymen. Meanwhile Judson gave himself up to the task of translating the Bible into Burmese. He died in 1850. Judson believed in peregrinating as opposed to concentrated mission work, and was doubtful as to the value of mission- ary schools. His legacy to those who came after him was the inspiration of a devoted life and the translation of the Bible into Burmese. In 1852 there were 62 missionaries, male and female, and 267 Burmese and 7750 Karen Christians belonging to the A.B.M. The number of baptized members belong- ing to this mission in 1911 were: Burmese, 3182; Karens, 54,799; Kachins, 371; Chins, 1011; Shans, 154 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS 338 ; Takings, 308 ; Muhsos, 9343 ; Tamils, 465 ; others, 579 — making a total of 70,396. The total number of Christian adherents belonging to the mission was 120,549. There are about 200 American missionaries (including wives) and 2200 native workers, and the contributions of the native congregations amount to over £20,000 per annum. Of the 976 churches connected with this mission, 717 are self-supporting. Two institutions connected with the mission deserve special notice : 1, The Baptist College at Eangoon, which is affiliated to Calcutta University. Its new buildings were opened in 1909 in memory of Dr. Cushing, a former Principal and the translator of the Bible into the Shan language. 2. The theological seminary at Insein, established in 1845, where Karens, Burmese, Chins, and others are trained to become evangelists. It has 150 students in residence. The American Methodist Upiscopal Mission has been represented in Lower Burma since 1878. For many years its missionaries confined themselves to work amongst Europeans, but they are now doing missionary work as well. In Upper Burma the English Wesleyan Methodists have been at work since 1885. They help to support a home for lepers which has accommodation for 250 lepers. The Y.M.G.A. has a large organization in Eangoon, but its work is chiefly amongst Europeans. Anglican Missions. At the close of the second Burmese war in 1853 the Anglican chaplain at Moulmein, supported by English civilians, began to organize missionary work. In 1854 the S.P.G. sent a Eurasian from Calcutta to assist him, and in 1859 they sent the Eev. A. Shears from England. In 1860, Mr. J. E. Marks (now Eev. Dr. Marks), a trained schoolmaster, arrived, who enlarged and developed the school which had been started. In 1863 Mr. Marks was BURMA 155 ordained and transferred to Eangoon, where he started a school which was afterwards known as St. John's College, which stands in 13 acres of land and has now nearly 700 boys, 190 of whom are boarders. In 1867 Mr. Marks visited Mandalay on the invitation of the king, and in 1869 he opened a school which had been built at the king's expense, and which included amongst its scholars nine of the royal princes. The king also built a church, to which Queen Victoria gave a font, and which was consecrated by the Bishop of Calcutta in 1873. In 1863 difficulties arose between some of the A.B.M. missionaries amongst the Karens and their converts, and in 1870 the wife of the founder of the Karen Mission suggested handing over to the Anglican Church 6000 converts together with a number of mission schools and other property. The Eev. J. Trew, whom the Bishop of Calcutta deputed to make inquiries, advised that the offer should be refused and that the members of the A.B.M. should be left to settle the dispute among themselves. In 1873 a mission station for work amongst Burmese was opened at Toungoo. In 1875, the dispute among the members of the A.B.M. still continuing, and some of the Karen Christians having drifted back into heathenism, the Anglican Mission at Toungoo undertook the care of the Karen Christians who had finally separated themselves from the A.B.M. In 1877 the bishopric of Eangoon was constituted, and in the following year the first four Karen clergy were ordained. On the succession of KingThibaw in 1878, the mission at Mandalay was broken up, and the church was converted into a state lottery office. In 1885 the mission was re-started, after the annexation of Upper Burma by the English Government, by the Eev. James Colbeck, a most capable missionary and a man of saintly character. He died in 1888, after fifteen years of unbroken service in Burma. In 1895 Dr. Marks was compelled to return to England after thirty-five years of strenuous work in the 156 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS cause of Burmese education. On the resignation of Bishop Strachan, after an episcopate of twenty years, the Eev. A. M. Knight was consecrated as third bishop of Eaugoon in 1903. During the six years which followed, before he was forced by ill-health to resign, he did much to strengthen and develop the work of the Anglican missions, and on his return to England he became the Warden of St. Augustine's Missionary College at Canterbury. A Missionary Brotherhood, supported by funds collected in the diocese of Winchester, started work amongst Burmese in Mandalay in 1904, and a community of women was organized in 1909. The first Head of the Brotherhood was the Eev. E. S. Fyffe, who became Bishop of Eangoon in 1910. The S.P.G., besides supporting work amongst the Burmese and Karens, carries on work amongst Tamil, Telugu, and Chinese immigrants at Eangoon, Moulmein, Toungoo, and Mandalay, and has a small mission amongst the Chins. Connected with the Anglican Mission there are 16 ordained native missionaries, of whom 10 are Karens, 3 Burmese, and 3 Tamils. Its most important institutions are St. John's College for boys, and St. Mary's High and Normal Schools for girls in Eangoon. It has also some work at Car Nicobar, one of the group of islands south of the Andamans, which are in the diocese of Eangoon. The total number of baptized Christians connected with the Anglican Mission is about 10,000. Of the converts in Burma connected with all the Christian missions, by far the largest proportion have been won from amongst animists who had not previously embraced Buddhism. But although the profession of Buddhism renders the Burmese difficult for the Christian missionary to approach, the Burmese are far from being consistent Buddhists. No picture could be more ideal than that of Burmese Buddhism depicted in the book entitled The Soul of a People, We are loth to admit the truth, which is that BURMA 157 the Buddhism described by Mr. Fielding Hall exists only in the imagination of the writer. Over against the poetical, but wholly misleading, descriptions of Mr. Hall we have to set the matter-of-fact, but true, description by Mr. C. Lewis in the official Census Eeport for India and Burma. He speaks of " the fact — now largely recognized — that the Buddhism of the people is of the lips only, and that inwardly in their hearts the bulk of them are still swayed by the ingrained tendencies of their Shamanistic forefathers — in a word, are, at bottom, animists pure and simple. . . . The Burman has added to his animism just so much of Buddhism as suits him, and with infantile inconsequence draws solace from each of them in turn. I know of no better definition of the religion of the great bulk of the people of the province than that given by Mr. Eales in his 1891 Census Eeport: 'a thin veneer of philosophy laid over the main structure of Shamanistic belief.' The facts are here exactly expressed. Animism supplies the solid constituents that hold the faith together, Buddhism the superficial polish. Far be it from me to underrate the value of that philosophic veneer. It has done all that a polish can do to smooth, to beautify, and to brighten ; but to the end of time it will never be more than a polish. In the hour of great heart-searching it is profitless. It is then that the Burman falls back upon his primaeval beliefs. Let but the veneer be scratched, the Burman stands forth an animist confessed." ^ A more hopeful view of the possible developments of Burmese Buddhism was expressed by Dr. Tilbe, an American missionary working in Burma. Speaking at a recent Conference in America of the change which has taken place during recent years in Burmese Buddhism, he said : "This whole country of Burma is absolutely different from what it was not so very long ago. The people are different, the religion is different. Twenty-five years ago the term * Buddhism ' meant the Buddhism of the books, the Buddhism of the priesthood. To-day, Buddhism is still a religious term, ^ Census Report, 1901, vol. i. p. 35. 158 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS but the thing itself is vastly different from what it was twenty- five years ago. At that time, when I spoke of God, I had to prove the existence of God in a way that would satisfy those people. When I spoke then of man having a soul, almost every man in my congregation denied it. To-day, I preach everywhere, appealing to their own belief in God, appeal- ing to their own belief in the human soul : and I find unanimous assent. Christian teaching, Christian tracts, Christian schools have modified the belief in Buddhism until to-day it is not the Buddhism of the books, not the Buddhism of the priesthood." ^ One of the most remarkable of the Burmese converts to Christianity is a man named Maung Tha Dun, who lived in the forest for thirteen years the life of a Buddhist hermit. Without having received any Christian instruc- tion, or having come into contact with a European missionary, he came to believe that much of the teach- ing of modern Buddhism was false and that there was a Supreme God who could be thought of as the great Father, and he began to preach this truth in the sur- rounding villages. He at length came into contact with the Kev. T. Ellis, an Anglican missionary at Kemmendine, and, after long and careful preparation, was baptized in 1911. Since his baptism he has lived the life of an ascetic and has occupied his time partly in meditation and partly in travelling from village to village in districts where he was previously known, in order to preach the faith of Christ to his former disciples and followers. Of these, 150 have been baptized as the result of his efforts, and the number of those who have been influenced by him, but have not yet been baptized, may be counted by thousands. Of the hermit and his followers the Kev. G. Whitehead writes : " I am more and more struck with the self-denying life and the earnestness of the hermit, and with the beauty of character reflected in the face of him and of quite a * Students and the World-wide Expansion of Christianity. Report of a Conference at Kansas City, 1914, p. 270. BURMA 159 number of his followers. The hermit himself is so patient and unselfish, humble and pure minded, earnest and devout, full of benevolence towards all men, anxious to lead his brethren into the right way, and unwearied in service, that it is a great joy to be with him." In the discovery and the conversion of men like Maung Tha Dun lies the hope of interpreting Christ to the Burmese. VIL CHINA. The story of Christian Missions in China may be con- sidered under five heads: 1. The influence exerted by Christian teachers upon the development of Chinese Buddhism, prior to the arrival in China of the Nestorian missionaries. 2. The Nestorian Missions of the fifth and following centuries. 3. The Franciscan Missions in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 4. The Jesuit and other Koman Missions from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century. 5. Modern Missions to China from the beginning of the nineteenth century. I. The influence of Christianity on Northern Buddhism. Any inquiry into the history of Christian Missions in China, if it is to take account of the conditions under which these missions have been carried on, must include a reference to the influence which Christian teaching may have exerted in China before the Christian faith was definitely preached there. Northern Buddhism, that is, roughly speaking, the Buddhism of China and Japan, differs so fundamentally from the southern Buddhism, which is now represented in Ceylon and Burma, that only by a stretch of language can the two be called one religion. The differences that exist between them are more fundamental than those that exist between Christianity and Islam. How then was Indian Buddhism i6o CHINA 161 transformed, and under what influences ? One answer appears to be that northern Buddhism was indebted for part of its distinctive teaching first to Gnostic teachers of the first and second centuries, and, later on, to the teaching of Manicheism. Before we attempt to suggest how this debt may have been incurred, it is well to recall the essential difference between northern and southern Buddhism. The latter, as represented in Ceylon, Burma (and apparently in Tibet), knows nothing of a personal God, or of salvation to be gained as a gift from God or as the result of faith in Him. It teaches that without expecting to receive divine, or external, help man should aim at securing salvation by accumulating merit. The salvation which, after countless rebirths on this earth, he may hope to secure will result in his individual life and consciousness being merged in universal life and, in so far as the ex- pression has a definite meaning, in universal conscious- ness. If by northern Buddhism we mean the Buddhism embodied in The Aivakening of Faith and The Lotus Scripture^ which are accepted by Chinese Buddhists, and the Buddhism of the Amida sects and the Pure Land School in Japan, we may claim for northern Buddhism a belief in a personal God who is moved with love towards men, and in a salvation which includes personal immortality to be won not by the accumulation of merit but by faith in God. The teaching of the Amida sects and the Pure Land School, which include more than half the population of Japan, go far beyond this. ^ The Awakening of Faith, the Chinese translation of which was made by the Buddhist missionary Paramartha during the first half of the sixth century, and which is about the size of the Gospel of St. Mark, is said to rank fifth amongst the religious books of the world which have the largest number of adherents, i.e. after the Bible, the Koran, the Confucian Classics and the Vedas. The Lotus Scripture, which is the most popular of all the Buddhist scriptures in Japan, existed before a.d. 250, and was translated into Chinese about the end of the third century'. II 162 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS According to the doctrine accepted by the Amida and Pure Land sects, " Amida is without beginning and without end : all love, wisdom, benevolence and power. In ages incalculably remote he appeared in various forms among men, all his incarnations being to bring salvation to man- kind. In his last incarnation he registered a vow that, should the perfect consummation of the Buddhahood ever be in his power, he would not accept deliverance unless such deliverance should also mean the salvation of man- kind. ... To grasp the salvation wrought out for man by Amida . . . nothing is needed but faith — no works of the law, no austerities, penances, no repentance, nothing but faith." 1 Whilst it is impossible to maintain that this teaching, or the teaching of those Buddhists in China to whom reference has been made, is a natural development of the teaching of southern Buddhism, it is hard to suggest any source from which the distinctive doctrines of this form of Buddhism could have been derived other than Christianity or the early heretical sects which had accepted part of the Christian faith. The two sects which were in touch with Christian thought, and which might have exerted influence upon Buddhist teachers in very early times, are the Gnostics and the Manichees. A book en- titled Fistis Sophia, which is a Gnostic Gospel and pro- fesses to give in the words of Jesus an exposition of the chief doctrines of Gnosticism, was discovered by Schwartze in 1851 among the Coptic MSS. contained in the British Museum. The original, which was apparently written in Greek, dates from the second century and may have been written by Valentinus. The resemblances which can be traced between the teaching of the Fistis Sophia and that of the Amida sects of Japan are so striking as to make it difficult to doubt that Egyptian Gnosticism either influenced, or was influenced by. Buddhism. The latter alternative is apparently quite inadmissible. Professor Lloyd has shown that it is far from being impossible that Gnostic ^ The Creed of Half Japan, by Arthur Lloyd, pp. 266-8. CHINA 163 teaching may have reached Japan via Southern India at a very early date.^ We cannot give even a summary of the evidence which Professor Lloyd and others have adduced in proof of the theory that Chinese Buddhism was influenced by Chris- tianity, represented in a distorted form by early Gnostic and Manichee teachers, but no careful student can lightly disregard such evidence. An interesting discovery was made in China in 1908 which tends to support the theory that Manicheism exerted a widespread influence in China in very early times. In 1908 there was found in a cave in Tunhuang in the province of Kansu, a large number of MSS. which have been in part deciphered by MM. Chavannes and Pelliot.^ The cave had been sealed up for many centuries (from 1035 A.D.). One of the MSS. is a Chinese translation of two short Manichean treatises.^ The discovery of this book affords evidence that Manichean teaching was represented in China in or about the eighth century.* Another MS. found in the same cave consists of a hymn addressed to the Holy Trinity entitled " A hymn by which to obtain salvation to the Three majestic Ones of the Illustrious Religion." The hymn consists of 309 words divided into eleven stanzas of four lines each, and includes a list of persons and books venerated by Christians. This recent discovery confirms and supplements the information supplied by the famous stone discovered at Hsianfu, to which we shall have occasion to refer. ^ See "Gnosticism and Early Christianity in Egypt," by P. I. Scott- Moncrieff, Church Quarterly Review, October 1909 ; "Gnosticism in Japan," by A. Lloyd, in The East and The West, April 1910 ; and The New Testament of Higher Biiddhism, by Timothy Richard. 2 Cf. Un traiti manicheen retrouve en Chine, traduit et annote par Chavannes et Pelliot, Paris, 1912 ; ef. also "An Ancient Chinese Christian Document," in the Church Missionary Review for October 1912, by A. C. Moule, ^ The actual title of the Chinese MS. is missing. * In A.D. 981 the Chinese traveller "Wang Yente spoke of the existence of Manichean temples in the neighbourhood of Tourfan. 164 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS II. The Nestorian Mission. There is no certain proof that a mission connected with any branch of the Christian Church reached China prior to the arrival of the Nestorian missionaries. It is true that a fourteenth-century tradition mentioned by Nicholas Trigault (1615) states that St. Thomas, after preaching the gospel in South India, preached and founded Christian churches in China, but the tradition has no historic value. The earliest reference of any value to the existence of Christianity in China is that of Arnobius, who wrote about A.D. 300. He says : " The work done in India, among the Seres, Persians and Medes may be counted and come in for the purpose of reckoning."^ If by Seres we are to understand Chinese, the state- ment would show that Arnobius believed that Christian missionary work amongst Chinese was in existence there at the time when he wrote. It is difficult to say what value can be attached to this statement. We are on surer ground when we come to speak of the Nestorian Mission. At the Council of Ephesus held in a.d. 431, Nestorius, who was then Patriarch of Constantinople, was condemned as a heretic and banished beyond the frontiers of the Eoman Empire. His banishment, which was apparently the result of a serious misunderstanding of his teaching, was the immediate cause of a great extension of Christian Missions throughout the Far East. A school was founded at Edessa (the modern Ourfa) which became a centre for missionary expansion, and owing to the activity of the followers of Nestorius the Christian faith was spread over a great part of Central Asia. Many archbishoprics or metropolitical sees were eventu- 1 Adversus Gentes, Leyden, 1651, lib. ii. p. 50, quoted in the Book of Governors, i. p. 115, note 2. The Book of Governors is the Historia Monastica oiThoma.^, Bishop of Marga, written in Syriac, c. 840, printed with English translation and notes by Dr. Budge, 1893. Bishop Thomas was secretary to Mar Abraham, the Patriarch, between 832 and 840. CHINA 165 ally established, of which two were at Cabul and Cambaluc (Peking). Other metropolitical sees were at Elam, Nisibis, Bethgerma, and Carach in Persia ; at Halavan or Halach on the confines of Media ; at Mara in Korassan ; at Hara in Camboya ; at Dailen, Samarcand, and Maravalnabar ; and at Tanket or Tangut — the modern province of Kansu.^ The canon of Theodore, Bishop of Edessa in 800 A.D., refers to " Metropolitans of China, India, and Persia, of the Merozites of Siam, of the Eaziches, of the Harinos, of Samarcand, which are distant, and which by reason of the infested mountains and turbulent sea are prevented from attending the four-yearly convocations with the catholicos, and who therefore are to send their reports every six years." * Our chief source of information in regard to the work of this mission is the famous Nestorian Stone which was inscribed at Hsianfu in the eighth century, and was buried during the great persecution of a.d. 845, to be rediscovered by Chinese workmen in 1625, and roofed over by a patriotic Chinese in 1859. The inscription refers to the work accomplished by one or more Syrian monks who arrived at Hsianfu in a.d. 635. It throws so much interesting light upon the work of the Nestorian missionaries that it is worth while to describe it in some detail. The inscription is in Chinese, the names of the clergy being given for the most part in Chinese and Syriac. The inscription, which is entitled, " Monument commemor- ating the propagation of the noble law of Tach'in (the Eoman Empire) in the Middle Kingdom," states : It is handed down by Chingching, priest of the Tach'in monastery (called in Syriac Adam, Priest and Chorepiscopos and Papas of China), that there is one Alaha, Three in One, the unoriginated true Lord. Then follows the story of creation, an account of Man, of Satan, and the rise of ^ See Assemani, Bihliotheca Orientalis, vol. iii. This is a collection of Syriac and other MSS. published in Rome, 1719-28. The complete list of Nestorian dioceses given by Assemani (vol. iii. pt. ii.) occupies eighty folio pages. 2 Quoted in The Greek and Eastern Churches, by W. F. Adeney, p. 534 f. 166 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS idolatry. The Triune Alaha divided His Godhead, and Messiah appeared. Angels proclaimed Him ; a Virgin bore Him in Tach'in ; a bright star announced His birth ; Persians visited Him. He left twenty-seven books of a New Testament, and baptism. His ministers turn to the east at prayer and wear beards as a sign that they maintain outward relationships, shaving their crowns. They pray for the living and the dead ; they have the weekly offering ; they have no slaves, no wealth, but they promote harmony. In the days of T'ai Tsung (627-650), Alopen brought the Scriptures and translated them into Chinese. He built a monastery for twenty-one monks. Eeligion spread through ten provinces (650-683). Monasteries filled a hundred cities (698-699). But Buddhists derided it. The Emperor Tai Tsung (763-780) every year on the day of the Nativity presented divine incense to proclaim the perfected work, and offered a royal feast to do honour to the Christian congregation. Chien- chung (780-784) helps us. Priest Issu restored the old monasteries and doubled the size of the churches. Erected (781) in the days of Henan Ishu, the Catholicos (oh. 780), by Jazedbouzid, Priest and Chorepiscopos of Kumdan (Hsian) by the disposition of our Saviour, and preaching of our fathers to the Kings of the Chinese. Then follow names, Lingpao, Adam, Hsingt'ung, Sabranishu, etc., of Kumdan and Sarag (China).^ As suggestive of the possible influence exerted upon the development of Chinese Buddhism, we may note that Chingching, the author of this inscription, helped an Indian Buddhist missionary to translate a Buddhist sutra into Chinese. We have already referred to the references to the Nestorian Mission contained in the Christian MS. found in the cave at Tunhuang. The following references, which occur in the writings of contemporary Chinese writers, are deserving of special notice : — ^ A nibbing of the stone, the lettering of which is easily decipherable, can be seen at the S.P.G. Mission House, Westminster. CHINA 167 " Allusions to the Nestorian Mission in Chinese Writings. — In the seventh month (August 15 to September 12) of the twelfth of the Chengkuan years (a.d. 638) a decree was made saying : Teaching has no immutable name, holy men have no unchanging method. Religions are founded to suit (respectively, different) lands, that aU the masses of men may be saved. Alopen, a Persian monk, bringing the religion of the Scriptures from far, has come to offer it at the chief metropolis. The meaning of his religion has been carefully examined : it is mysterious, wonderful, calm; it fixes the essentials of life and perfection; it is the salvation of living beings, it is the wealth of men. It is right that it should spread through the Empire. Therefore let the ministers build a monastery in the Ining quarter, and let tw^enty-one men be duly admitted as monks.^ "In the ninth month (September 30 to October 29) of the fourth of the T'ienpao years (a.d. 745) a decree was made saying : It is long since (the teachers of) the religion of the Scriptures of Persia, starting from Syria, coming to preach and practise, spread through the Middle Kingdom. When they first built monasteries we gave them in conse- quence (of their supposed origin) the name (of Persian). In order that men may know their (real) origin, the Monasteries of Persia at the two capitals are to be changed to Monasteries of Syria. Let those (monasteries) also which are established in all the Prefectures and Districts observe this." 2 The next decree suggests alike the widespread influence of the Nestorian Mission and the development of official government opposition to its claims : " As to the monks and nuns who come under the head of aliens, making known the religions of other countries, we decree that over 3000 Syrians and Muhufu return to lay life and cease to confound our native customs." ^ 1 Tang hui yao (ed. 1884, first published a.d. 960), xlix. fol. 10. Chinese text in VarUUs Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 376. 2 T'ang hui yao, xlix. fol. 10, 11 ; Hsihsita'ung, vii. fol. 22. Text in VarieUs Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 376 ; translation, p. 255. There seem to have been "Persian "if not "Syrian" monasteries of other creeds besides the Christian. ' VariU6s Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 378. The words come in a decree dated a.d. 845. 168 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS "When Wu Tsung (a.d. 840-846) was on the throne, he suppressed the Buddhist religion, destroying in the Empire 4600 monasteries and 40,000 lesser establishments. Monks and nuns to the number of 265,000 were enrolled as ordinary subjects, with their slaves, 150,000 ; and many thousand myriad cKing of land were confiscated; Syrians (Tach'in) and Muhuyao over two thousand. In the chief metropolis and the eastern metropolis two monasteries were left in each main street, with thirty monks in each monastery. In the provinces, monks were left in (monas- teries of) three grades, with a limit of twenty men (in the largest houses). . . ." ^ "Long ago some foreigners built a monastery here (Chengtu) for a Syrian monastery. The ten divisions of the gate-tower all had blinds made of strings of pearls and blue jade. Later it was destroyed and fell to the ground. To this day the foundations remain, and every time there is heavy rain, people (living) behind and in front (of the site) pick up quantities of pearls, sMsM^ gold, blue jade and different things." ^ " Among the different foreigners who have come there are the Moni (Manichees), the Tach'in (Nestorians) and the Hsienshen (Zoroastrians). All the monasteries of these three (sorts of) foreigners in the Empire are not enough to equal the number of the Buddhists in one small district." ^ Of the subsequent development of the Nestorian Mission in China hardly anything is known. Abou'l Faradj, writing in a.d. 987, speaks of having met a Christian who had travelled extensively in China, and who declared that there was not a Christian then left in the country and that the Church buildings had been destroyed.* Apart from references to the existence of Syrian monasteries at Hsian in 1076 and at Chengtu at about the same date, Chinese contemporary writers make hardly a single allusion to Christianity between the decree of * VarUtis Sinologiques, No. 12, p. 376 f. 2 Chinese work quoted by A. C. Moule, to whom it was communicated by P. Pelliot. ' VariiUs Sinologiques^ No. 12, p. 394. * See Les Influences Iraniennes en Asie centrale et en extreme-orient, par Paul Pelliot, Paris, 1912, p. 15. CHINA 169 845 and the comiDg of the Franciscan Mission in the thirteenth century. The following is a quotation from CatJmy and the Way Thither, translated from a book written in the fourteenth century : — " Concerning the Schismatics or Nestorian Christians who dwell in that country.— In the said city of Cambaluc there is a manner of schismatic Christians whom they call Nestorians. They follow the manner and fashion of the Greeks, and are not obedient to the Holy Church of Eome, but follow another sect, and bear great hate to all Catholic Christians there who do loyally obey the holy Church aforesaid. And when the Archbishop of whom we have been speaking was building those Abbeys of the Minor Friars aforesaid, these Nestorians by night went to destroy them, and did all the hurt that they were able. But they dared not do any evil to the said Archbishop, nor to his friars, nor to other faithful Christians in public or openly, for that the Emperor did love these and showed them tokens of his regard. "These Nestorians are more than 30,000, dwelling in the said Empire of Cathay, and are passing rich people, but stand in great fear and awe of the Christians. They have very handsome and devoutly ordered churches, with crosses and images in honour of God and the saints. They hold sundry offices under the said Emperor, and have great privileges from him; so that it is believed that if they would agree and be at one with the Minor Friars and with the other good Christians who dwell in that country, they would convert the whole country and the Emperor likewise to the true faith." ^ In 1725, what is supposed to be a relic of the Nestorian Christianity in China was discovered in the shape of a Syrian MS. which contained a large portion of the Old Testament and a collection of hymns. These were in the possession of a Chinese Mohammedan. 1 Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. i. p. 238. The Latin original ia not extant. The French version is found in the Bibliotheque Rationale at Paris, MSS. 7500 and 8392, and was printed in the Journal Asiatique, vi. pp. 57-72. Cf. Cathay, vol. i. pp. 189-190. Yule gives the original date as circa 1330. The author was John of Cora, who had served under John of Monte Corvino and was made Archbishop of Sultania in Persia in 1328. Cf. i^iicy. Brit., 1910, vol. vi. p. 190. 170 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS III. The Franciscan Missions. At the Council of Lyons which was held in 1245, Pope Innocent iv. appealed for a spiritual army which should be the means of converting the Mongols to Christ. In response to his appeal three Franciscan friars started on April 16, 1245, and succeeded in penetrating to the heart of the Mongol territory, but failed to reach China. A second attempt made a little later met with still less success. In 1271, Nicolo Polo and his more famous son Marco visited the Great Khan, and after his return in 1295 Marco Polo dictated the well-known story of his travels in the Far East. Meanwhile, in 1289, Pope Nicolas iv. sent forth John of Monte Corvino with letters addressed to Kublai, the ruler of Cambaluc ^ (Peking), who after many adventures in Persia and India reached Cambaluc in 1294. On his arrival he found the Nestorian Mission strongly established and bitterly opposed to his Mission. Thus he writes on January 8, 1305 : " The Nestorians, certain folk who profess the name of Christians but who deviate sadly from the Christian religion, have grown so powerful in those parts that they will not allow a Christian of another rite to have ever so small a chapel, or to proclaim any but the Nestorian doctrine." A further extract from this letter will give in the fewest words an idea of the work accomplished by Friar John during the twelve years which followed his arrival in China : "I, indeed, was alone in this pilgrimage and without confession for eleven years, until there came to me brother Arnold, a German of the province of Cologne, who came to me last year. In the city of Khanbalig, where the king's chief residence is, I have built a church, which I completed six years ago, and I have built a campanile to it, in which I have put three bells. I have baptized * Cambaluc does not appear to have become the capital of Northern China before the tenth century a.d. CHINA 171 there up to this time as well as I can estimate about six thousand persons, and if there had not been those charges of which I have spoken above, I should have baptized more than thirty thousand; and I am still often engaged in baptizing. " Also I have gradually bought forty boys, the children of pagan parents, between the age of seven and eleven, who up to that time had known no religion. These boys I have baptized, and have taught them Latin letters and our rite, and have written out thirty psalters for them, with hymnaries and two breviaries, by means of which eleven of the boys already know our Office, and form a choir and take their weekly turn of duty as is done in convents, whether I am there or not; and several of them are writing out the psalter and other necessary books; and the Lord Emperor delights much in their singing. I have the bells rung for all the hours, and with my congregation of babes and sucklings I fulfil the Divine Office, and we sing by ear because we have no Office book with the music. I have a competent knowledge of the language and character which is generally used by the Tartars ; and I have already translated into that language and character the whole New Testament and the Psalter, which I have caused to be written out in their most beauti- ful script. I understand the language and read and preach, openly and publicly, in testimony of the Law of Christ." ^ On receiving the news contained in this letter Pope Clement v. nominated John of Monte Corvino as Arch- bishop of Cambaluc and Primate of the Far East, and dispatched seven friars whom he had consecrated as bishops with orders to consecrate Friar John as Archbishop. Appar- ently four of these bishops died before reaching China. The other three arrived and performed the act of consecration in 1308. After this we have very little information in regard to the work of the Franciscan Mission. Archbishop John died soon after 1328 and his place was left unfilled for many years despite the dispatch of a message from the Great Khan himself, begging that more teachers might be sent. *The original of this Latin letter is given in Annales Minorum, ed. Fonseca, vol. vi. p. 69, and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, July 1914. For an English translation see The East and The West, April 1904. 172 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Mr. Marshall Broomhall writes : " One of the grandest opportunities that the Church of Christ has ever had presented to it is connected with the lifetime of Kublai Khan. There are letters still extant, preserved in the French archives, relating the remarkable fact that Kublai Khan actually requested the Pope to send one hundred missionaries to his country, * to prove by force of argument to idolaters and other kinds of folk that the law of Christ was best, and that all other religions were false and naught ; and that if they would prove this, he and all under him would become Christians and the Church's liegemen.' " ' What might have been ' is a question that cannot but rise in the hearts of those who read this extract. The death of the Pope, however, and faction among the cardinals, with the subsequent failure of the two missionaries sent — they turned back because of the hardships of the way — lost to Asia an opportunity such as the Church has seldom had."i The last authentic reference to the mission mentions the sending of a mission by Pope Urban v. in 1370, but it is doubtful whether any of its members reached China. Meanwhile the tolerant Tartar dynasty had given place to the intolerant and persecuting Ming dynasty. James of Florence, fifth bishop of Zaitun, a city on the coast three weeks' journey from Peking, was martyred, together with certain of his fellow Christians, in 1362, and his martyrdom is the last fact which we know concerning the Franciscan missions in China. If the representation of Odoric on his tomb in the cathedral at Udine is true to life, it would appear that the Franciscan missionaries were accustomed to wear the dress of the people amongst whom they worked and to shave their heads in the Tartar fashion. ^ The Chinese Empire, p. 8. The quotation made by Mr. Broomhall is from a summary of a letter given by Marco Polo, but Dr. George Smith, who is his authority for the statement quoted above (cf. The Conversion of India, p. 35), was mistaken in supposing that the letters in the French archives referred to the request made by Kublai Khan, see The Book of Ser Marco Polo (1903), i. p. 13. CHINA 173 Before going on to refer to the establishment of the Jesuit missions in China it may be well to say a few words with regard to the failure of the Nestorian and Franciscan missions to leave any permanent traces of work which was carried on for so long a period and with so many outward signs of success. Three special reasons may be suggested to account for the eventual failure of these missions. 1. In neither case was any serious attempt made to establish the missions on a democratic basis. After they had been dispatched from their home base, no financial help was sent to them, and they were therefore compelled to be self-supporting. In order to fulfil this requirement it was considered to be necessary that they should obtain support from the rulers of the countries to which they went. " They did not labour with their own hands, nor receive support as a rule from their converts, as far as we know. They went with letters of recommendation from the Pope (or some other potentate), and received support from the Emperor as forming part of his retinue in some vague sense, or as the representatives of a friendly foreign Power. This applies at least to the early Nestorians (635-845) in part and to the Franciscan Mission (1294- 1350). The later Nestorians did engage in trade and agriculture, and there are Imperial decrees extant which refuse exemption from taxes to Christian monks who were so engaged."^ 2. A second reason that may be assigned for the disappearance of the later Nestorian and Franciscan converts is to be found in their connection with the ruling dynasty, the overthrow of which involved the overthrow and persecution of the Christians. The Christians came to be regarded as foreigners and lost all power of influenc- ing those who were not already Christians. 3. A third reason is the failure on the part of either mission to train an effective body of Chinese clergy. For the early Nestorian Period (635-845) there is no evidence 1 A. C. Moule, The East and The fFest, October 1914. 174 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS to show whether the Nestorian missionaries included any Chinese priest, though it is at least possible that some of the seventy names on the Hsian monument are those of Chinese clergy. In the accounts of the later Nestorians, though there is no mention of the ordination of Chinese, it is probable that some were ordained. The Franciscan Mission apparently took no steps to found a Chinese ministry. There is only one case on record of a Chinese bishop, and he was a Chinese who had become a Dominican monk. Alu, subsequently called Gregory Lopez, came from the Province of Fukien. He followed the Dominican preachers to Peking and was imprisoned, and subsequently banished with them. At Manila he studied Spanish, Latin, and philosophy. In 1654 he was ordained, being the first Chinese priest of whom any record exists. In 1674 Clement x. designated him as Bishop of Basilea and Vicar Apostolic over six provinces in China. He was, however, too humble to accept the honour, and was not consecrated as a bishop till 1686, when he was over seventy. He died at Nanking in 1687. He was the author of a pamphlet of twenty pages, in which he defended the observance by Christians of the rites observed by Con- fucianists in the worship or commemoration of their ancestors. The Bishop is reported to have been a man of great saintliness.^ Had either the Franciscan or Nestorian Mission succeeded in training a body of Chinese clergy, there is little doubt that their work would have continued. In regard to the translation of the Bible and of other books in connection with these missions, it is interesting to note that of 500 books which the early Nestorian missionaries possessed 35 were translated into Chinese. One of these, the Book of the Holy King David, was apparently the Psalter, and another was the hymn in praise of the Holy Trinity to which we have already referred. The later, and probably the earlier, Nestorian ^ Further particulars in regard to Bishop Alu are given in Qudif {Echard) Scriptores Ord: Praedicatorum, Tome ii. (1721), p. 708, and in Hue's ChrisUaibismus, Tome iii. oh. 3. CHINA 175 missions used Service books in Syriac. John of Monte Corvino translated into the " Tartaric tongue " the Psalms and the New Testament and part of the Missal. The Jesuits obtained leave in 1615 to celebrate Mass in Chinese, but there is no evidence to show that they acted upon this permission, and it is most unlikely that either of the earlier missions translated the Mass into Chinese. By the time that the Jesuit Mission reached China few traces remained of the work of the Nestorian or Franciscan missionaries. According to Nicliolas Trigault} who wrote early in the seventeenth century, a Jew named Ai who had come from Kaifengfu told Eicci that the Christians " had been very numerous, especially in the northern provinces, and had prospered so much both in civil and military careers that they had made the Chinese suspect a revolution. He thought the suspicion had been excited by the Saracens . . . not more than sixty years before. And it had reached such a pitch that they were afraid that the magistrates would lay hands upon them, and all fled in different directions and professed, from fear of death, to be Saracens or Jews or for the most part idolaters. Their churches were changed into idol shrines." ^ IV, The Jesuit Mission. It had been the special ambition of S. Francis Xavier to preach the gospel to the Chinese. After spending two years in Japan, he landed on the island of Shangch'uan, near Macao, where he died of fever on December 2, 1552, aged forty-six, without having set foot on the mainland of ^ Be Christiana, expeditione (Rome, 1615), pp. 119, 122 ff. Nicholas Trigault was a Jesuit who reached China just after Ricci's death and was entrusted with the editing of the latter's commentaries. 2 I am indebted for this reference and for much help in obtaining in- formation concerning the Nestorian and Franciscan Missions to the Rev. A. C. Moule, who has done much original work relating to early Christian missions to China. See article, "The Failure of Early Christian Missions to China," in The East and The West for October 1914, and article in the Journal of the Reyal Asiatic Society for July 1914. 176 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS China. Thirty years later an Italian missionary named Eicci, who was a member of the Society of Jesus, came to China as a member of an embassy from Macao. He had been preceded by Michael Eogers, who had arrived three years before. Eicci's methods, which were followed by all subsequent Jesuit missionaries in China, differed widely from those of Xavier. During the first seven years of his work he dressed as a Buddhist priest. He strove to over- come the prejudice of the Chinese and to ingratiate himself and his mission in their favour by assuring them that the faith which he came to teach was a development of Confucianism, and that they could embrace it without abandoning their ancestral beliefs or customs. His know- ledge of mathematics and of astronomy won their respect, and his preaching was ere long attended by widespread results. A mandarin of Shanghai, who on his baptism took the name of Paul, did much to commend the Christian faith to the educated classes. "His youngest daughter, Candida, was a remarkable woman. Having been left a widow at an early age she devoted herself to the promotion of the cause of Christianity, and, reserving enough for her eight children, she conse- crated the rest of her fortune to the founding of churches and the printing of Christian books, for the instruction of the surrounding heathen. Having heard that the pagans in several of the provinces were accustomed to abandon their children as soon as born, she established a foundling hospital for infants, and seeing many blind people telling idle stories in the streets for the sake of gain, she got them instructed and sent forth to relate the different events of Gospel history. A few years before her death the Emperor conferred on her the title of the 'virtuous woman' and presented her with a rich dress covered with plates of silver, which she disposed of in order to apply the proceeds to acts of charity." ^ At the time of Eicci's death in 1610 it seemed likely that Christianity, or rather an amalgamation of Christianity 1 China, its State and Prospects, by W. H. Medhurst, 1838, p. 227 sq. CHINA 177 and Confucianism, would ere long become the religion of China. In 1622, Adam Schall, a German, whose policy was the same as that of Eicci, became the head of the mission in China. Eeports of its success reached Europe and evoked the enthusiasm of the other great religious Orders, and in 1631 the first Dominican missionaries arrived. They were followed by the Franciscans, who re-entered China in 1633. Ere many years had elapsed the missionaries attached to these two Orders began to protest in vehement language against the methods employed by the Jesuits. The two special grounds on which they denounced the Jesuit missions were that they allowed their converts to continue " ancestor-worship " and that the words Tien and Shang Ti, which they had accepted as representing the Christian God, were inadequate and misleading.^ For some years the three missions worked on side by side. In 1617 the number of Christians in China was reckoned at 13,000. These had increased in 1650 to 150,000.^ In 1669, according to a volume^ which was published in Eome in 1 671,the Dominicans had 21 churches, the Franciscans 3, and the Society of Jesus 159. The number of baptized Christians was then 308,780, of whom 3500 had been baptized by the Franciscan missionaries. In 1692 the Emperor Kanghsi, who had been educated by Schall, one of the Jesuit missionaries, issued a decree in which he legalized the preaching of the Christian faith throughout the Empire.* 1 For a detailed account of the use of Tien and Shang Ti in Chinese literature see article by Stanley Smith in The East and The West, April 1913. In A.D. 1116 the latter title was given to a Taoist priest by an imperial decree. ^ These are the figures given by Joannis Adam Schall in a book entitled Hisiorica relatio de ortu et progressu fidei orthodoxae in regno Chinensi (published at Ratisbon in 1672), p. 109. ^ See Compendiosa narratio de statu Missionis Chinensis ah anno 1581 usque et annum 1669, oblato Eminentissimis Cardinalibus sacrae Congrega- tionis de propaganda fide. Romae, 1671. (Copy in the S.P.G. library.) * See Lettres 6difiantes et curieuses (published in Paris, 1781), vol. xvi. Preface, p. xiii. 12 178 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS P^re Pelisson, writing from Canton on December 9, 1700, states that the Emperor of China had given to the members of the Jesuit Mission a house in the Palace enclosure and had contributed towards the building of a Christian church in Peking.^ In 1645, Morales, a Dominican missionary, had ob- tained a bull from Pope Innocent x. which denounced as superstitious and abominable the rites connected with ancestor-worship which the Jesuits had approved. In 1656, however, the Jesuits induced Pope Alexander vii. to declare that they were merely political ceremonies, and that the toleration of them was both prudent and chari- table. In 1665, during a temporary persecution, the missionaries belonging to the different Orders made an unsuccessful attempt to arrive at an agreement. In 1693, Maigrot, the Apostolic Vicar of Fukien, decided that Tien signified nothing more than the material heavens and that the rites connected with ancestral worship were idolatrous, a decision which was endorsed by a papal decree of Clement xi. in 1704. In 1707, Tournon, the papal legate who had been sent from Eome to China, promulgated this decree. The Emperor, Kanghsi, thereupon banished the legate to Macao, where he died under suspicious circum- stances in 1710. The Pope sent yet another legate, who arrived in 1720, and who granted "eight permissions" in connection with the points in dispute, which were, however, afterwards disallowed at Pome.^ The expression Tien Chu is used to-day by all the Chinese connected with the Eoman Missions, and the religion of these Chinese is everywhere spoken of as the Tien Chu religion. The same term is used by the members of the Greek Church, by the Anglican Mission in North China, and by the American Episcopal Mission in Mid-China. Shang Ti (supreme ruler), which was the original * Lettres idifiantes et curieuses, vol. xvi. p. 409. 2 See The Jesuits in China and the Legation of Cardinal de Tournon, by R. C. Jenkins, 1894. CHINA 179 Jesuit term, is used by nearly all the Missions in Central and South China. It is also adopted as the rendering for God in the Anglican Prayer Book in use in North China. Some American missionaries have adopted the ex- pression Shin, a word which is used by the Chinese for spirit and is frequently applied by them to an idol. It is recognized by all that the Chinese language does not contain any satisfactory equivalent for the word God, and that every rendering which has been suggested is open to more or less serious objection. It is impossible for the impartial student of Missions to take sides either with the Jesuits or with the Franciscans and Dominicans in the long series of con- troversies which did much to discredit the work of Christian Missions in the eyes of the Chinese. Eicci and some of the earliest of the Jesuit missionaries in China honestly believed that they were following the example set by St. Paul at Athens when they tried to identify the God of the Christians with the Power or Powers held in reverence by the Chinese, and that they were further justified in putting for the time being into the background of their teaching the doctrine of the Atonement. They numbered amongst the members of their Order some of the most devoted and earnest missionaries who have ever visited China. Whilst most students of Christian Missions will agree that the methods which they adopted in China and in other non-Christian lands have been shown by the logic of history to have been unwise, if not actually wrong, they will not hastily condemn the motives that prompted the policy which the Jesuits adopted. The steady decline in the number of Chinese Christians during the eighteenth century was in part due to a decrease of missionary enthusiasm in Europe and in part to persecu- tions in China. In cases where Christian missionaries appeal for support to rulers of non-Christian countries, the success which they secure as the result of such an appeal is apt to be transitory. A new ruler, prompted by advisers 180 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS who are not themselves Christians, is easily induced to suspect the Christians of political or revolutionary aims and to persecute them on this plea. So it was in China, and so it has been in many other countries where Christian missionaries have attained success under the friendly auspices of a ruler who has not himself become a Christian. Kanghsi, the Emperor who had done much for the Jesuit missionaries, died in 1721. His successor, Yung- cheng, was persuaded by the Chinese literati to persecute the Christians, and in the following year 300 churches were destroyed and 300,000 Christians were left without the ministrations of their Church. When Chienlung became Emperor in 1736 the persecution became more severe and was continued with occasional intermission for many years. In 1773 the Jesuit Mission was further weakened by the suppression of its Order by Clement xiv. (It was re-established by Pius, vii in 1814.) In 1815 a special persecution occurred in the province of Szechwan. In 1819 the imperial censor complained of the existence of Christians, but his suggestion that the existing laws against them should be rigorously enforced was rejected by the Emperor on the ground that to do this would create a disturbance. In Tonking, where Christian missions were carried on by the Jesuits,^ the persecutions were exceptionally severe, and continued with little intermission from 1720 down to the time of the French occupation in 1883. In 1840 the Vicariate Apostolic of Eastern Tonking, administered by the Spanish Dominicans, contained 40 native priests and 120,000 "catholics," whilst the Vicariate of Western Tonking, the missionaries in which belonged to the French Society of Foreign Missions, contained 80 native priests and 180,000 " catholics." ^ According to Marchini's map of Missions presented to 1 The Head of the Jesuit Mission in Tonking during the first year of his work in the province of Tonking, 1692-93, states that he and one companion had baptized 1735 persons and had given the Holy Communion to 12,122. 2 See Annals of the Propagation of the Faith (published in Paris, 1840), vol. 1. p. 419. CHINA 181 the Bishop of Macao in 1810, the Christians in the Chinese Empire then numbered 215,000, the number of missionaries being 23 and of native agents 80. It is difficult to say what reliance can be placed upon these figures, which are at best very rough estimates. At this time the chief missionary agencies were the Propaganda and the Lazarites. (For a further account of E.C. missions in China see p. 208.) V. Modern Missions. A Chinese politician who held one of the highest positions under the new republican government, in answer to the question, When did the Chinese revolutionary movement begin ? replied. On the day that Eobert Morrison the missionary landed in Canton. The start of Protestant missions in China, notwithstanding the fact that the earliest Protestant missionaries were wholly devoid of political aims, was, in fact, the introduction of a new factor into the political life of China, the far-reaching results of which can now be seen. Bohert Morrison'^ reached China in 1807 as the representative of the London Missionary Society. Although he was not directly instrumental in winning many converts, his literary work and his skill and perseverance in overcoming what often seemed insuperable difficulties, justify us in regarding him as one of the greatest among Christian missionaries to China. Eobert Morrison was born near Morpeth in 1782 and his youth was spent at Newcastle, where his father was an elder of a Scotch church. After being accepted as a missionary he started for China via America and landed at Macao on September 7, 1807. At this time the dislike of foreigners was so strong that it was a capital offence to be found teaching Chinese to a foreigner, and in ' For a sketch of his life and work see Life of Eobert Morrison, by W. J. Towusend. 182 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS order to avoid exciting suspicion he lived at first in complete retirement. In 1808 he ceased to be dependent upon the L.M.S., having accepted the post of interpreter to the East India Company. In 1813 he was joined by Mr. and Mrs. Milne, who, however, were not allowed to remain at Macao. Mr. Milne was the author of the description of the Chinese language which has been often quoted, "To acquire Chinese is a work for men with bodies of brass, lungs of steel, heads of oak, eyes of eagles, hearts of apostles, memories of angels and lives of Methusaleh." Morrison's chief work was of a literary character. In 1813 he published the whole New Testament in a colloquial dialect, and later on he printed, at the expense of the East India Company, his Chinese dictionary, which was of immense use to subsequent missionaries and students of the language. Before his death in 1834 he had translated nearly the whole of the Bible into Chinese and had published in addition a large number of tracts and booklets. It may also be claimed for him that he introduced medical mission work into China, as he established a dispensary over which he placed a qualified Chinese practitioner. The first medical missionary sent from England to Cliina was Dr. Lockhart, who was sent out by the L.M.S. in 1839. The first Chinese to become a Christian as the result of Protestant missions was Tsai Ako, who was baptized by Morrison in 1814 "at a spring of water, issuing from the foot of a lofty hill, by the seaside, away from human observation." During the twenty-five years which followed the arrival of Morrison in China ten baptisms took place, two of the converts being Chinese printers who had worked for Dr. Milne at the Malacca College. This college, which was started by Dr. Milne, was intended partly for the education of Chinese and partly for training European students of Chinese who desired to work in China. For twenty-seven years, with the exception of his furlough in 1824, Morrison laboured on practically alone CHINA 183 at Canton and in the face of almost every possible dis- couragement. At the time of his death there were only two Protestant missionaries in China, both of whom belonged to the American Board of Missions. 1835-1850. We shall now refer very briefly to the new missions which were started in China during the next twenty-five years. The Church Missionary Society sent Mr. E. B. Squire, an officer in the Navy, on a tentative mission to Singapore and Macao in 1837. In 1844 the first two missionaries belonging to this society arrived in China, namely, the Eev. G. Smith (afterwards Bishop of Victoria, Hong-Kong), and the Eev. T. M'Clatchie. The latter started missionary work at Shanghai. In 1848 the Eev. W. A. Eussell (afterwards Bishop of North China) and the Eev. E. Cobbold began work in Ningpo, which eventually became one of the centres of the C.M.S. Chekiang Mission (see p. 189). In 1845 the English General Baptists commenced work in Ningpo which was carried on for some years, but was eventually given up. In 1847 the English Presbyterian Church sent the Eev. W. C. Burns as their first missionary to China. He spent some time in Hong-Kong and Canton, and eventually started permanent work in Amoy (see p. 195). In 1836 the American Southern Baptist Mission sent the Eev. Jehu Shuck as a missionary to Macao. In 1842 their mission was moved to Hong-Kong, and during the next six years work was started at Canton and Shanghai. In 1834 the American Baptist Missionary Union sent a missionary to work amongst Chinese in Siam, and in 1842, the year in which Hong-Kong was ceded to England, started work in that town. In 1835 the American Protestant Episcopal Church sent two missionaries to Canton, who retired for a time 184 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS to Batavia. In 1837 the Kev. W. J. Boone, M.D., joined the mission, which in 1842 was established at Amoy. In 1845, Dr. Boone, who had been consecrated as a bishop, brought out from America a party of nine workers, where- upon the mission was removed to Shanghai. The first convert, who was baptized on Easter Day 1846, was after- wards ordained and was for many years an effective missionary. In 1842 the American Presbyterian Mission (North) sent a missionary to Macao, and during the following eight years opened missions at Ningpo, Amoy and Canton. In 1847 the American Methodist Episcopal Mission sent their first missionary to China, who started work at Foochow. In 1848 the American Southern Methodist Mission sent two missionaries to China. In 1844 the American Presbyterian Dutch Reformed Church started work at Amoy, where, in 1846, a first convert was baptized. In 1846 the Rhenish Mission at Barmen sent out four missionaries, two of whom belonged to the Basel Mission. They reached Hong-Kong in 1847. It will be seen from the list of missionary societies given above that by the middle of the nineteenth century active interest had been aroused in the work of Chinese Missions in England, America and Germany. When King Frederick William of Prussia was informed by Bunsen that experienced men in England doubted the possibility of doing missionary work in China, he " wrote a letter of sixteen pages, urging Bunsen to arouse the Bishops and clergy of the Church of England to more vigorous action for the evangelization of China." ^ By 1850 there were at least a dozen Anglican and Protestant missionary societies at work in China. In most cases these societies had but recently commenced work, and it is doubtful whether the whole number of ^ See "Private Journal," October 11, 1850, quoted in History of the C.M.S., i. 468. CHINA 185 Christian converts connected with these missions exceeded a hundred. Missionary work, moreover, hardly extended beyond the five treaty ports. Canton, Amoy, Shanghai, Ningpo and Foochow, which were declared open to foreigners by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. 1850-1875. On Good Friday, 1850, the first English bishop (Dr. George Smith) arrived at Hong-Kong accompanied by a party of C.M.S. missionaries. Work was started by the C.M.S. in the great city of Foochow in May 1850, and in 1851 the first five converts in connection with the C.M.S. were baptized, two at Ningpo and three (blind men) at Shanghai. By the end of 1855 the number of converts at Ningpo had increased to sixty. While Bishop Smith was delivering his first charge, the church at Shanghai in which he was speaking was struck by a cannon ball fired by the Taipings, the rebellion raised by whom had a direct bearing upon the progress of the missions in China. No rebellion that has taken place for centuries has been so prolific in massacres and nameless atrocities ; nevertheless, as we look back, after an interval of sixty years, we are forced to admit that General Gordon's successful repression of the Taiping rebellion, and the continuance of the Manchu dynasty which it involved and on behalf of which he fought, put back the clock of China's progress for at least several decades. The instigator of the Taiping revolt, Hung Hsiuch'uan, came under the influence of a Christian missionary (who was probably Morrison) at Canton in 1833. In 1837 he declared that he had seen a vision in which he had received a divine command to destroy idolatry, and to put an end to the Manchu dynasty. In 1853 he and his followers stormed and captured the great city of Nanking. When the British Plenipotentiary went up to Nanking, his boat encountered " hundreds of colossal images of Buddha and various gods and goddesses, broken and defaced, 186 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS floating down the river." It is not possible here to describe the course of the Taiping revolt.^ Suffice it to say that the movement, the leaders of w^hich were at first inspired by good motives, degenerated into a rebellion which devastated the fairest provinces of China and resulted in the massacre of millions of people. The rebellion, which began in 1850, ended with the capture of Nanking in 1864. After describing the course of the Taiping rebellion, Dr. Norris (now Bishop in North China) writes : " It is argued with much apparent reason that Christian missions may aim at the conversion of Chinese individuals, may found little Christian communities in every province of the Empire, may perhaps in time meet with such success that those communities will be mainly self-supporting and self-governing ; but that the idea of Christianity ever really permeating China, as much, for example, as it permeated Western Europe in the Middle Ages, or as it permeates European nations to-day, is a wild and impossible dream which will require the lapse of several centuries before it can approach fulfilment. . . . Surely the history of the Taiping movement has a warning for the critic, no less than a real encouragement for ourselves. Granted that it was not in the end successful, granted that it won its way by methods of which a truer Christianity would be ashamed, it remains true that a movement which took shape originally in the brain of a single man . . . which made no apparent stir for several years, ran like wildfire when once it started. Spreading from district to district, from province to pro- vince, it speedily established itself from Canton to Nanking, and from thence made a great effort, not far short of success, to reach Peking itself. . . . The Church of Christ, whatever her shortcomings, has something better to offer than the religion of the Taiping Wang ... it may be that for the present, and for years to come, she will make no apparent stir; but at least she is justified in claiming that in the light of history it is not incredible that Christianity should one day run like wildfire over China, until the whole nation has been won for Christ." ^ ^ For specimens of its proclamations and literature see History of the C.M.S., ii. 297 ff. ^ China, by F. L. Norris, pp. 48 sq^. CHINA 187 In 1842 the total number of communicants unconnected with the Eoman Missions was 6, by 1 8 5 5 these had increased to 500,andby 1860 to about 1000. In 1877 ^ the number of Christian converts was reckoned at 13,0 00, and the total number of European missionaries at 473, of whom 228 were connected with British, and 212 with American societies. We have already mentioned the names of the societies which were represented in China prior to 1850. There are now over 100 missionary societies, large and small, at work in China. It may be well to note the dates at which some of the larger societies began their work there. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society entered China in 1852, the United Presbyterian Mission (to Manchuria) in 187 2', the Church of Scotland Mission in 1877, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel sent two men to Peking in 1863, but did not commence regular work in China till 1874. The society which supports more missionaries in China than any other, i.e. The China Inland Mission, was founded in 1865 by the Kev. Hudson Taylor, who himself began work in China in 1 8 5 3. In 1 8 7 5 the C.I.M. was carrying on work in fifty stations scattered over five provinces (see p. 192). In few other countries have the pioneer missionaries met with so many discouragements and waited so long to see visible results from their labours. This fact is specially significant, as the progress of Christianity in China during recent years bids fair to outdo the progress in any other large non-Christian country. The experience of the C.M.S. missionaries in Foochow may be quoted as typical of that which has been repeated in many other places. This society commenced work in the city of Foochow in 1850. After ten years had elapsed, " without a single conversion, or the prospect of such a thing," the committee at home discussed the desirabihty of withdrawing this mission. In the following year, that is after eleven years of earnest, devoted work, the first convert was baptized, who was the first-fruits of a mission which has since attained most encouraging results (see p. 189). 1 We have not been able to secure the exact statistics for 1875. 188 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS It is impossible to sketch in detail the work of the hundred and more European and American missionary societies which are now represented in China, but it will be worth while to give a very few statistics which will show how far the various denominations are represented. The figures relate to the year 1913. ^ Under Lutheran are included most of the German, Swiss, Norwegian, Scandinavian and Swedish missions. 2 Under Congregationalist are included the L.M.S. and the A.B.C.F.M. 2 These returns include those of twelve continental societies which are affiliated to the C.I.M. * These returns include school teachers as well as church workers. ° These statistics are for 1912. Anglican Missions. On April 26, 1912, the representatives of the eleven Anglican dioceses in China decided to form one united Church, the title of which should be Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui (pronounced Joong Hwa Shung Goong Hway). Its constitution and organization correspond with those of the Nippon sei Kokwai of Japan. It is founded upon the recognition of the Lambeth quadrilateral, i.e. the historic episcopate, two sacraments, two creeds, and the acceptance of the Old and New Testaments. The first act of the synod of the new Church was to form a Board of Missions, which is to present at its next meeting, in 1915, a report proposing that the eleven united dioceses should combine CHINA 189 to send a mission to some untouched part of China and that this mission should have a Chinese bishop as its leader. The Anglican missions are supported by the C.M.S. in Central and Southern China, by the S.P.G. and the Canadian Church in North China, and by the Protestant Episcopal Church of America in Central China. The dioceses in which the missions of the Church Missionary Society are situated are those of Victoria (Hong- Kong), Chekiang, Western China, Fukien and Hunan. Hong-Kong (1849). Since 1900 the Chinese Christians have undertaken the entire pecuniary responsibility for the support of their pastors and the upkeep of their churches in the city of Hong-Kong. A church hostel for under- graduates at the new Hong-Kong University was opened at the same time as the university in 1912. The mission work of the Church on the mainland is carried on from Canton and Pakhoi. At Canton a training college was opened in 1912; at Pakhoi there are hospitals for lepers and other patients. Chekiang, formerly part of Mid-China (1872). The missionary work centres round Ningpo, Hangchow, Taichow, Chuki and Shaohing. There is a theological college and normal school at Ningpo, an Anglo- Chinese school at Shaohing, and a girls' high school at Hangchow. The C.M.S. supports three hospitals in this diocese. Its staff includes 24 Chinese clergy. The diocese of Western China (1895) is practically co-extensive with the province of Szechwan, and the work is chiefly of an evangelistic character. There is a diocesan training college at Paoning, a church hostel in connection with the new university at Chengtu and a medical mission at Mienchu. In this diocese several of the Anglican missionaries are supported by the C.I.M. The bishop and the missionaries wear Chinese dress. Fuhien (1906). Foochow, which is the chief centre of work, was occupied in 1850, and eleven years passed before the first convert was baptized (see p. 187). The missionary J 90 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS institutions in Foochow include a hospital and a Union medical college and a school for the blind. The diocesan staff includes 1 8 Chinese clergy. Work amongst lepers is carried on at five centres. Dublin University supports a mission in this diocese in connection with the C.M.S. Kwangsi and Hunan (1909). Work is carried on at Siangtan, Kueilinfu, Yungchow and Hengchow. Amongst the missionaries who have worked in con- nection with the C.M.S. in China should specially be mentioned the Rev. George E. Moule, who went out to China in 1858 and was Bishop in Mid-China 1880-1907, and Archdeacon J. R Wolfe, the pioneer of the Fukien Mission. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel began work in China in 1863, but its work was interrupted and was not definitely started till 1874, when the Rev. C. P. Scott and a companion were sent to Chefoo. Mr. Scott became the Bishop of North China in 1880 and continued as bishop till his resignation in 1913. The present bishop, Dr. Frank Norris, by the influence which he exerted over the Chinese Christians in Peking, was largely instrumental in preserving the European Legations during the Boxer revolution in 1900, till they were relieved by the allied forces. With the help of the Pan-Anglican grant a large school has been opened in Peking. The society also shares in the work of the Union medical college. The diocese of Shantung (1903) includes the province of the same name. There is a college at Chefoo. Other centres are at Pingyin and Taianfu. The medical work of the university is at Chinanfu and the Arts College at Weihsien. It is proposed to remove the latter also to Chinanfu. A mission hospital has been established at Yenchowfu, near the birthplace of Confucius. Three missionaries in connection with the S.P.G. were martyred during the Boxer outbreak, namely, S. M. W. Brooks, C. Robinson and H. V. Norman. In 1 9 1 2 the Rev. Frederick Day was murdered by Chinese soldiers near Paotingfu. CHINA 191 The Protestant Episcopal Church of America supports missions in the Yangtse Valley at Shanghai, and in the district of Hankow and Wuchang. This mission has from the first afforded an instructive object-lesson of the good results to be attained by concentrating on a few strategic positions instead of attempting to spread its influence over a wide area. In 1844 the Eev. W. S. Boone was con- secrated as bishop of the missionary district of Shanghai. No missionary colleges have exercised a wider influence in China than St. John's University College, which was founded by Bishop Schereschewsky in 1872 at Shanghai, and Boone University College at Wuchang, which was started (as a school) in 1871. At the latter college several of those who acted as leaders in the last Chinese revolution received their education. At Wuchang are situated also the Boone Medical and Divinity schools. The bishoprics, or rather missionary districts, supported by this mission are those of Shanghai (1844), Hankow (1901) and Anking (1911). In the missionary district of Shanghai, which consists of the province of Kiangsu, the chief centres of work, apart from Shanghai, are Soochow, Wusih, Kiating, Yangchow and Zangzok. In the missionary district of Hanhow, which includes the provinces of Hupeh and Hunan, the chief centres are Hankow and Wuchang. In the missionary district of Anking (formerly Wuhu), which comprises the province of Anhwei and that part of Kiangsi which lies north of lat. 28°, the chief centres of work are Wuhu and Anking in the Anhwei province, and Kiukiang and Nanchang in the province of Kiangsi. Amongst the missionaries who have been members of this mission, the name of Bishop Schereschewsky is deserving of special mention. He was a Eussian Jew who was converted in America, and after working as a missionary in Peking for some years, was eventually consecrated as Bishop of Shanghai (1877). For the last twenty -five years of his life he was paralyzed and unable to speak distinctly, and used a typewriter which he worked with two fingers. He translated the whole Bible and 192 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS the Prayer Book into literary Chinese (Wenli) and the Old Testament into Mandarin. After he became paralyzed he relinquished the duties of the bishopric in 1884, but he continued to work in the cause of missions till his death in 1906. In 1909 the Church of England in Canada undertook to support a bishop and a staff of missionaries in the province of Roman. The centre of the work, which is still in a pioneer stage, is at Kaifeug. Protestant Missions. The founder of the China Inland Mission, the Eev. J. Hudson Taylor, M.E.C.S., went to China in 1853 in con- nection with the Chinese Evangelization Society. Forced by ill-health to return in 1860, he spent several years in pleading the cause of China, and in 1865 he organized the China Inland Mission. One of its distinctive rules has been that its workers receive no fixed salaries and are not authorized to solicit funds on its behalf. In 1866 Dr. Taylor returned to China accompanied by the first fifteen members of the mission staff. For the first twenty years the work of this mission was largely of a pioneer character. In 1876 it started work in the provinces of Shansi, Shensi and Kansu, and in 1877 in Szechwan, Yunnan and Kweichow. Since then its field of operations has steadily expanded until it has now work at 227 centres situated in eighteen provinces of China and in Chinese Turkestan. In 1884 seven Cambridge graduates, who included amongst their number the captain of the cricket eleven (C. T. Studd) and the stroke of the university boat (Stanley Smith), joined the mission staff, and their departure for China helped to make known to a wide circle the needs of the Chinese and the good work which the C.I.M. had already accomplished on their behalf. In 1876 the mission began to send out unmarried women as missionaries, and by 1881 work amongst Chinese women had been started in six of the inland provinces. The income of the CHINA 193 mission in 1913 was £91,000, of which £51,000 was received in England. Its European and American staff in China is 988 (including wives), of whom 580 are women. Its list of martyrs contains 58 names. Its missionaries belong to various denominations, those attached to each denomination being grouped together. In Western China its members, who belong to the Church of England, are superintended by Bishop Cassels. Amongst the ranks of its workers have been many the record of whose lives, if it could be given, would add a new page to the story of missionary heroism. It is true that criticisms have from time to time been made that this society, in its anxiety to start new centres and occupy new provinces, has sent out men and women whose chief qualifi- cation was their intense desire to become missionaries, but who had given no evidence that they were able to act as Christian teachers under the extremely difficult conditions under which their work in China would have to be carried on. These criticisms, which have sometimes been made by those who knew China well and were anxious to promote missions to the Chinese, are to some extent justified, but the fact that enthusiasm has outrun knowledge and that the methods adopted have been proved by experience to be faulty, must not be allowed to diminish our appreciation of the great work which has been accomplished by this society. The mission has established training homes in China for men and women missionaries, where newly arrived recruits can study the Chinese language and receive training to prepare them for their future work. The work of the London Missionary Society (1807) is carried on in North China, Central China, Shanghai and district, Amoy and district, and in Canton province. Its European staff includes 43 missionaries, in addition to 25 doctors who superintend twenty-six hospitals. The number of its full church members is about 10,000. In many cases its congregations have become entirely self-supporting and self-governed, and carry on missionary work on their own initiative. In Peking the L.M.S. has a large medical 13 194 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS college in which teaching is given by members of all the missions in that city except the Koman Catholics. Its most famous institution is the Anglo-Chinese College at Tientsin, of which Dr. S. Lavington Hart was the founder and first Principal. Its list of missionaries includes the names of Morrison, Milne, Medhurst, Lockhart, Legge, Griffith John and Gilmour. We have already referred to the work done by the first three. Dr. James Legge (1815- 97) was appointed in 1840 to take charge of the Anglo- Chinese College at Malacca, which had been founded by Dr. Morrison and Dr. Milne, and was afterwards moved to Hong-Kong. In 1876 he was appointed Professor of Chinese Language and Literature at Oxford, and was the translator into English of all the Chinese Classics. Dr. Griffith John (1831-1912) spent the greater part of his life at Hankow. His writings in Chinese are known all over China. (For reference to the work of James Gilmour see p. 215.) Its first woman missionary was appointed to China in 1868. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1847) supports work in the city and neighbour- hood of Foochow. In this city it has a theological seminary which is jointly supported by the C.M.S. and the A.M.E.C. It also helps to support a Union medical training college in conjunction with the C.M.S. and the Methodists. In Peking it helps to support a Union men and women's medical college, a Union women's college and a Union theological college. Its roll of missionaries includes the name of Dr. Peter Parker, who was the first regular medical missionary to China in modern times. The Government officials in the province of Shansi have offered to place all the Government schools in eight counties, containing a population of 4,000,000, under the superintendence of the A.B.C.F.M. missionaries, and the society has sent additional missionaries to take charge of the schools. CHINA 195 The chief centres of the Preshyterian Church of Eng- land Mission (1847) are at Amoy, Swatow and Tainan in Formosa. The mission supports 14 hospitals, 4 theo- logical colleges and a large number of schools. It has 50 ordained Chinese ministers and about 12,000 com- municant members. Its most famous missionary was Eev. W. C. Burns (1815-68), who laboured chiefly at Amoy and Swatow. He became a good Chinese scholar, and translated The Pilgrims Progress and other books into Chinese. The Board of Foreign Missions of the Preshyterian Church in the U.S.A., which began work in China in 1844, has over 300 missionaries, of whom 90 are ordained clergy and 40 are medical missionaries. It has eight chief centres situated in the provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Anhwei, Hunan, Kwangtung and the island of Hainan. It has a staff of over 1000 Chinese preachers and teachers, 126 organized churches with more than 20,000 communicants. Its 69 hospitals and dis- pensaries treat about 200,000 cases each year. Its educational institutions include the Shantung Union Uni- versity, the University of Nanking, the college, medical school and theological seminary in Peking and the theo- logical seminary in Nanking, in all of which it works in co-operation with other missionary organizations. Amongst those who have served on its staff may be mentioned the names of John G. Kerr, M.D., John L. Nevius, C. W. Mateer and W. A. P. Martin. Dr. Nevius laboured in China from 1854 to 1893 and did much useful translation work. Dr. Martin, who is the author of a number of books in Chinese, was President of the Imperial University. The various Presbyterian missions in China have taken steps in view of constituting an independent Chinese Presbyterian Church. The Churches represented at the Council which was held at Chinanfu in 1914 in view of organizing this Church were the English, Scotch, Irish, Canadian, Dutch Eeformed, Northern and Southern (U.S.A) 196 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS Presbyterians. The converts connected with these missions number over 60,000 adult Church members. The Wesley an Methodist Missionary Society (1852) sup- ports work in the central portion of the Kwangtung province and in the adjoining Kwangsi province. It has hospitals at Fatshan and Wuchow and a home for lepers at the latter place. Farther north in the Wuchang district it has 4 hospitals. At Wuchang itself it has a college, high school and theological institution. In the Hunan district it supports 2 hospitals and a theological school. Its roll of missionaries includes the name of the Eev. David Hill (1840-96). He worked chiefly at Hankow, and died of typhus whilst administering famine relief. He was instrumental in the conversion of Pastor Hsi, a well-known Chinese missionary connected with the C.I.M. The English Bai^tist Mission (1859) carries on work in the provinces of Shantung, Shansi and Shensi. It has a European staff of 52 men and 52 women who work at nineteen chief stations. Its communicant members number about 6000. The mission supports 12 medical mis- sionaries and 6 hospitals. In Shantung the mission has started a Christian Uni- versity, which is carried on partly by the B.M.S. and partly by the American Presbyterians. It consists of a theo- logical college and normal school at Chingchoufu with 200 students, rather more than half of whom are Baptists ; an arts college at Weihsien with 350 students, and a medical college and hospital in Chinanfu, which is the capital of the province. The S.P.G. has opened a hostel for its students at Weihsien who are attending the university. In the course of a revival which took place in November 1909, 100 of the students joined the Volunteer Missionary Band and have since been actively engaged in evangelistic work. One of the missionaries belonging to the B.M.S. is Dr. Timothy Eichard, who was the first Chancellor of the Imperial University established by the Chinese Govern- ment of Shansi after the Boxer rising in 1900. He has CHINA 197 contributed more than any other missionary towards the creation of a Chinese Christian literature. The Baptist Foreign Mission Society (U.S.A.) (1836) supports work in South, West and East China. In con- junction with the Southern Baptist Convention Mission it supports a large college and seminary at Shanghai. It shares in the support of the universities of Nanking and Chengtu in West China. Other societies which support a large amount of work in China are (the numbers in brackets represent the foreign staff) — The Irish Presbyterian Church Mission (44), The Canadian Presbyterian Mission (80), The Berlin (59)', The Basel (72), and The Swedish Missionary Societies (51), The Christian and Missionary Alliance, U.S.A. (87), The Presbyterian Church, South, U.S.A. (129), and the Inter- national Y.M.C.A. (75). Amongst missionary organizations should be mentioned the Christian Literature Society for China, which by its translations and by its books composed in Chinese has done much to spread a knowledge of Christian literature throughout China. The Young Men's Christian Association is exerting a wide influence in many different parts of China, and several Chinese who have recently become prominent poHticians have been associated with it. At its national convention held in Peking in 1912 requests were received from several provincial governors asking that branches of the Association might be formed in their provinces. The YM.C.A. is likely to exercise an increasing influence in the near future. In China, as in all other non-Christian countries, the work of missions has been greatly helped by the circula- tion of the Scriptures by the Bible Societies of England, Scotland and America. The B. and F. B. Society alone circulated in 1913 considerably over two million portions of the Bible in various Chinese versions. We do not propose to trace the statistical advance of the 104 missionary societies which are now working in 198 HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS China, nor to illustrate by tables the gradual spread of their work throughout the different provinces. In each of its twenty-one provinces mission stations are now to be found, but in several of them the proportion of missionaries to the population is less than 1 to 200,000. The increase in the number of Christians in China which has taken place since the beginning of this century has been proportionately more rapid than at any previous period within recent times. During the first ten years of this century the number of European missionaries (which is now 5186) increased 50 per cent., the number of Chinese missionaries still more rapidly, and the number of Christian adherents was more than doubled. The rapid increase during recent years is undoubtedly connected with the persecutions to which the Christians have been exposed. There are few, if any other, instances in Christian history in which an attempt to exterminate the Christians over a wide area has resulted in so immediate and large an increase in their number and in such a strengthening and expansion of the Christian Church. The movement organized by the Boxers in 1900 was directed against Europeans and against all Chinese Christians, inasmuch as these were supposed to be in sympathy with foreigners. The Chinese Christians were in many instances offered their lives if they would abjure their religion, but despite the cruel tortures to which they were subjected comparatively few recanted and about 16,000 died a martyr's death. Of Europeans there were killed 135 Anglican and Protestant missionaries and 53 children, 35 RC. priests and 9 E.C. sisters. Had it not been for the efforts of Yiian Shihkai and some other Chinese viceroys the massacres might have spread over the whole Chinese Empire. Statistics. The following table will give some idea of the rapidity with which the AngUcan and Protestant missions developed CHINA 199 during the ten years which followed the Boxer persecu- tion : — Year. ^1 ii m 1 1 =1 ^1 111 1 = it 1 1 1900 . . 1910 . . 610 910 416 582 1518 2347 162 251 79 114 2785 4175 6,388 12,082 204,672 469,896 * Including wives of missionaries. The number of Christian adherents, apart from those connected with E.G. missions, were in 1860 about 1000 ; in 1877,13,000; in 1890, 37,000; in 1900, over 200,000 ; and in 1910, about 470,000. At the end of 1913 the number of full members of Christian Churches was returned as 235,303, the number under Christian instruction as 59,106, and the "total Christian constituency" as 356,209. The last figure does not include those who are merely " adherents." The following table illustrates the progress made by Anglican and Protestant missionary societies in China between 1876 and 1913: — ■^r, GB c^ 3r.-aJ c a . z Is 1 111 l< u !storicepisoopate,locallyadapted in the methods «nH 1. r"''n™i'°?.,'°.'.''' ^^""y'^g "'^sds of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church." Whilst nearly all the Churches now at work in the 502 APPENDIX mission field would be prepared to accept the first three of these conditions, the acceptance of the fourth by any of the representatives of the Free Churches in Great Britain or the non-Episcopal Churches in America, will depend upon their interpretation of the words " the historic episcopate." If by these words be implied the doctrine of apostolical succession, the validity of which is to depend upon the uninterrupted and mechanical trans- mission of grace by the laying on of hands, it is most unlikely that any large scheme of reunion will ever be accomplished. There are, however, many representatives of Anglican Churchmen both at home and abroad who place upon these words a meaning which would render the acceptance of this clause acceptable to very many who are at present outside the Anghcan Church. The Bishop of Madras (Dr. Whitehead) in a speech on the subject of Christian reunion delivered to the members of the National Conference of Missionaries at Calcutta on December 20, 1912, quoted and endorsed the article by Dr. A. Headlam in The Prayer-Book Diction- ary (p. 42). In the course of which he wrote : " The idea of apostolic succession ... is really a deduc- tion from the right theory of Orders, and the mistake has been to make Orders depend upon apostolic succession and transmission. . . . The authority to consecrate and ordain, or to perform all spiritual offices, resides in and comes from the Church to which God gives His Holy Spirit. . . . The idea of transmission is an additional and late conception which, instead of expressing the idea of succession, has by its exaggeration of it led to a rigid and mechanical theory of the ministry. ... As the grace of Orders depends upon the authority of the Church and not upon a mechanical transmission, all objections from supposed irregularities of ordination are beside the point, and the opinions of Church- men and others who have maintained that in certain circum- stances a presbyter may ordain, are explained. Ordination depends upon the authority of the Church, and not the Church upon ordination." As the views which have been expressed by the Bishop APPENDIX 503 of Madras form a distinct contribution to the discussion of the question of reunion in the mission field, it is worth while giving in his own words his plea for the acceptance of the doctrine of episcopacy as defined by Dr. Headlam. Speaking in Calcutta, the Bishop of Madras said : " I believe myself that whatever the reason for its adop- tion, the ultimate ground for the principle (of episcopacy) lay in the fact that it was imperatively needed as a safe- guard to unity ; and I believe also that it is as much needed for that purpose to-day as it was then, and that it is far more needed in India than it was in the early Church. When I ask, ' If I give up this, what principle should I adopt ? ' I find it can only be this, that any body of Christian men and women are at liberty to make their own arrangements for their own ministry. Now I have often thought of this alternative principle, and it seems to me that not only does it everywhere throw open the door to division and schism, but, if we were to proclaim it in India, the necessary and in- evitable result would be the creation of caste churches. When the Indian community is freed from the restraints of foreign missionary societies, if it accepts this principle, it will necessarily and inevitably take the line of least resistance, and then we shall see in India divisions based on caste, far more numerous and infinitely worse than any- thing that the Church has yet seen in East or West." ^ The words of the Bishop of Madras may help to explain to those who are not members of the Anglican Church why the representatives of this Church in India and else- where, in their anxiety to "safeguard unity," lay what appears to them to be undue emphasis upon the necessity of the historic episcopate. The plea which they put forward does not unchurch other Churches, but represents an attempt to secure an increase of mutual fellowship, without sacrifice of principle on either side. If this were not so, or if the proposals put forward by the Bishop of Madras were equivalent to a proposal to absorb and re- mould on Anglican lines all other Churches, the prospect of reunion would be far less bright than it now is. ^ The next Step towards Unity, p. 6. 504 APPENDIX One scheme for practical co-operation and federation which was drawn up by the representatives of a number of missionary societies working in East Africa has attracted special attention, as it appears to some to indicate the lines on which co-operation in other parts of the mission field might be attained. The scheme was drawn up at a conference of missionaries which was held at Kikuyu, in British East Africa, in June 1913, and which was attended by representatives of all missionary societies in that district other than those connected with the Eoman Church. The basis of the federation was to be the accept- ance of the Bible and of the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. The same rules relating to the admission of catechumens were to be adopted by all missions and Baptism was to be administered, whether by sprinkling or immersion, in the name of the Holy Trinity. It was further suggested that any minister recognized by his own Church might be allowed to preach, but not to administer the sacraments in a mission Church belonging to other churches. The proposed scheme has since been ratified by the Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee. The conference was followed by a Service of Holy Communion, at which the Bishop of Uganda administered the Holy Communion to the missionaries of various denominations who were present. No proposals for reunion in the mission field can be regarded otherwise than as sadly incomplete which do not include reunion with the branches of the Church estab- lished by the Eoman Catholic missions. What answer, then, can be given to the question — Is there any prospect that the Church of Eome can ever be included in any scheme of reunion which could commend itself to other Christian Churches ? Whilst on the one hand it would be unwise to under- estimate the difficulties which will have to be surmounted before such a reunion could be effected,^ ^ How great these difficulties are, may be gathered from a quotation from a catechism expressly authorized by Pope Pius x. in 1906 and published by the Vatican Press. On page 119 we read: "Can anyone outside the APPENDIX 505 on the other hand, it would imply a lack of faith in the destiny of the Christian Church and in the power of the Divine Spirit to guide and direct its members if we could bring ourselves to believe that the prospect is hopeless and that the attitude of the Church of Eome will ever remain what it is to-day. Bishop Brent, the Bishop of the Philippines, who was one of the delegates to the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910, referring to the letter of sympathy which was read to the Conference from the Eoman Bishop of Cremona, wrote : " The letter of the Italian ecclesiastic which was written for the Conference was the little cloud not larger than a man's hand to-day, destined to-morrow to cover the Eoman heavens. A major law may temporarily be held in suspense by a minor law. When this happens we need not be over- anxious. The issue is certain. Already the true greatness, that is to say the Catholicism, of the Eoman Catholic Church is busy at her heart, and the secondary power of the Eoman curia can do no more than delay its triumph. The Bishop of Cremona did not speak of himself or for himself, but consciously, or unconsciously, voiced the mind of a growing minority who are the soul of his communion. It may not be to-morrow, or a century hence — Christianity, be it re- membered, is very young — but ultimate victory is as sure as Christ is real." The need to promote reunion in the mission field has become increasingly urgent in recent years in view of the fact that in India, China, and elsewhere local Churches are beginning to spring up, the members of which know nothing of the past history of the Christian Church. The danger Catholic Apostolic Roman Church be saved? — A. No." On page 130: "Who are they who do not belong to the Communion of Saints? — A. The damned, and those who belong neither to the soul nor to the body of the Church — that is, those in mortal sin and those outside the true Church." On page 131: "Who are outside the true Church? — A. Infidels, Jews, Heretics, Apostates, Schismatics, and the Excommunicate." "Who are Heretics? — A. . . . The various sects of Protestants." On page 398: "Protestantism . . . is the sum of all Heresies. . . . The most monstrous congeries of errors, both private and individual, and enfolds all Heresies." 606 APPENDIX which is involved in the creation of such local Churches is well described by Dr. Mott, who writes : " Everything practicable should be done to strengthen the bonds of union between the new Churches in non- Christian lands and the Church Universal. This point is one of cardinal importance just now, when independent Churches are springing up on every hand, and when, owing to the growing national spirit, there is danger of the development of Churches in the East which will be separate in aims and sympathies, as well as in activities, from the Church in the West. In this connection the importance of the study of Church history should be emphasized among both the missionaries and the native leaders, as well as among the students in theological colleges and Bible schools. . . . The fact that many of the native Christian leaders have such a poor historical sense makes it all the more important and necessary that in this and other ways we seek to keep the growing native Churches in closer touch with the great con- sensus of the continuous Church of all the ages. There could be no greater danger than for native Christianity to become separate from historical, credal, oecumenical, living Christianity." ^ In the course of this volume we have referred to efforts which have been made in particular sections of the mission field to promote union or reunion between different churches or organizations (see pp. 142, 203, 232, 504). The success which has already been achieved justifies the hope that schemes of a bolder and more far-reaching character may meet hereafter with a like success. The Continuation Committee Conferences, presided over by Dr. Mott, which were held in India, China, and Japan, 1912-13, and which were an outcome of the Edinburgh Missionary Conference (1910), helped to focus the atten- tion of missionaries in the field upon their common needs and problems, and by facilitating joint counsels and joint action prepared the way for a closer union than is at the present moment within sight. 1 The Present World Situation^ by J. E. Mott, p. 193 f. INDEX References to missionary societies and organisations are given under the word " Societies." Abeokuta, 294. Abyssinia, 356 f. Accra, 292. Aden, 132, 272. Afghanistan, 274 f., 469. Africa, 276-365 ; German East, 34 6 f. ; German South-West, 334 ; Moslem population of, 465 ; North-West, 283-6 ; Portuguese East, 338 ; South, general statistics, 334 f. ; South, Native Affairs Commission, 335 f. African Lakes Corporation, 339. Aglipay, Gregorio, 266. Agra, 82, 110 f., 129, 133. Ahmaduagar, 90, 104, 131. Aird, R,, New Guinea, 463. Ajmer, 104, 131. Akbar, Mission to the Court of, 77. Ako, Tsai, a Chinese Christian, 182. Al Azhar University, Cairo, 282, 467 f. Al Kindi, author of apology for Christianity, 466. Alaska, 379-81 ; Moravian Mission in, 55. Alberta, Indians in, 385 f. Aleutian Islands, 380. Alexis, Brother, 384. Alfred, King, votive offerings sent to India by, 65. Algeria, 204 f. Ali, Safdar, 133. Ali, Wilayat, of Delhi, 92. Alifurs in Celebes, 263 f. All Saints' sisterhood, work of, in Poona, 104. All Saints' Sisters of the Poor in South Africa, 311. Allahabad, 90, 112, 129, 132. Allen, Dr. H. N., in Corea, 31, 252. AUepey, 133. 607 Almaheira Island, 264. Almora, 89, 129, 132. Alopen, Nestorian monk, 166 f. Altai Mission in Siberia, 276. Alu, Chinese bishop, 174. Ambala, 90, 132. Amboina, Dutch Mission in, 47. Ambon Island, 264. Ambrim Island, 457. America, U.S.A., 366-81 ; Canada, 382-8; Central, 401-8; South, 409-29 ; missionary contributions of, 494. Amida, sects of, in Japan. 161 f 219 f. Amoy, 183, 185, 193, 195. Amritsar, 93, 129, 131. Anand, India, 132. Ananzimtote seminary, 328. Ancestor worship in China, 174, 178, Anchieta, Joseph, in Brazil, 413. Anda, Governor of the Philippines, 265. ^^ Andaman Islands, 156. Andrews, C. F., author of The He- naissance in India, 62. Andros Island, West Indies, 394. Aneityum, New Hebrides, 457. Angelo, Father, in Burma, 151. Angola, 306. Anhwei, 191, 195, 306. Ani, India, 132. Anking, 191. Ankole, 353. Anne, Queen, gift by, to Mohawk Christians, 371. Annetta Island, 381. Anno Bon Island, 300. Antigua, 391, 394. Antioch, 269. Antsirabe leper asylum, 362. 508 INDEX Anvik, Alaska, 381. Appelsbosch, 331. Arabia, 271 f. Araucanian Indians, 271 f., 419. Arawaks, 391, 398, 424 f., 427. Arayer, Cochin, 95. Arcot, 90 ; medical mission at, 33. Argentine, 409, 412, 422-4. Arima, Japan, 223. Arizona, Indians in, 379. Armenia, 268 f. Armstrong, Bishop, of Grahamstown, 311. Arnobius, rt early missions to the Chinese, 164. Arnold, a Franciscan missionary to China, 170. Arnot, P. S., 303. Asaba, river Niger, 298. Ashanti, 292. Asia Minor, the seven churches of, 17 ; spread of Christianity in, 268 f. Aspland, Dr., in China, 29. Assam, 91, 117 f., 120, 124. Assemani,^i6Zioion in Japan, 232. United Provinces, India, 110-2, 120. Unity, movements towards. 499 ; in India, 142. Universities, Indian, 90. University colleges, in India, 128-30 ; in China, 201-3. University, proposed Christian, in Japan, 234 ; in Cairo, 468. Unyamwezi, 346. Unyamyembe, 347. Urban ii. and the Crusades, 471. Urban v. sends a mission to China, 172. Urdaneta, Friar, in the Philijipines, 265. Urmston, Rev. J., in North Carolina, 374. Uruguay, 409, 422. Urumchi, Turkestan, 212. Usagara, 346. Usambara, 344 f. Usaramo, 346. Usher, Rev. J., in New England, 374. Ushuwaia, South America, 423. Utrecht, Zululand, 313. Valdivia, in Chili, 419. Valentine, Dr., at Jeypore, 32. Van Riebeek, 309 ; his method of teaching slaves, 19. Vancouver Island, Indians in, 384. Vasco da Gama, his visit to India. 68. Vaughan, Cardinal, re religion in New Granada, 410. Veddahs, work amongst the, 146. Venezuela, 409, 427-9. Vengurla, India, 132. Veniaminoff, Archbishop John, 276, 380. Venkayya, Pagolu, a Telugu Chris- tian, 98. Ventimiglia, Father, in Borneo, 263. Verapoly, 141. Verbeck, Dr. G. F., in Japan, 225, 227. Victoria, Mashonaland, 315. Vidal, Bishop, of Sierra Leone, 287. Villa Rica, Brazil, 415. Villegaignon, Nicholas Durand de, in Brazil, 44, 415. Virgin Islands, 390, 394. Virginia, 368 ; college for Indians in, 57. Vizagapatam, 97, 136. Vohiniare, Madagascar, 360. Volkner, Rev. C. S., in New Zealand, 441. 532 INDEX Vos, Rev. M. C, Cape Colony, 316. Vryburg, 321. Vryheid, 313. Waiapu, diocese of, 443. Waimate, industrial mission at, 440. Walfisch Bay, 331. Walpole Island, Lake Superior, 383. Wanganui River, New Zealand, 444. Wantage Sisterhood in Poona, 104. War, European, its efFect upon missions, 498. Ward, A., re Mapoon Mission, 435. Ward, James, at Mapoon, Queens- land, 435. Ward, missionary at Serampore, 81. Wardha, India, 131. Warneck, Dr., re Dutch missions, 46 ; re Danish-Halle missions, 49 ; re Christians in Sierra Leone, 288. Warren, George, in Sierra Leone, 287. Warren, Rev. T., in Central America, 405. Washington State, Indians in, 379. Wayika, West Africa, 303. Weeks, Bishop, of Sierra Leone, 288. Weihsien, 190, 196. Weipa, Australian aborigines at, 435. Weithaga, East Africa, 342. Wellington, New Zealand, 443 f. Wellington, South Africa, 322. Wellington Bay, N.S.W., aborigines at, 431. Weltz, Baron Justinian von, a mis- sionar}^ in Dutch Guiana, 45. Wesley, Rev. John, as an S.P.G. missionary in Georgia, 374. Wesleyan Conference, Australian, its work in New Zealand, 442. West, Rev. S., in Canada, 384, 386. West China Union University, 20 n. West Indies, 389-400. Westcott, Bishop Foss, of Chota Nagpur, 110. Westcott, Bishop George, of Luck- now, 110. Westermann, Professor D., re dis- tribution of Mohammedan peoples, 465. Wherry, Rev. Dr., re missions to Moslems in India, 469 f. Whipple, Bishop, of Minnesota, 376. Whitehead, Bishop, of Madras, re Christian reunion and the episco- pate, 502 f Whitehead, Rev. G., re a Christian hermit in Burma, 153 f. Whiteley, Rev. J., of New Zealand, 442. Whitley, Bishop S. C, of Chota Nagpur, 114. Widdicombe, Canon, re missions in Basutoland, 314. William, King Frederick, his letter to Bunsen, 184. Williams, Bishop C. M., in Japan, 225. Williams, Dr. Daniel, 57. Williams, Rev. H., in New Zealand, 440. Williams, Rev. John, in South Sea Islands, 449, 451 f. Williams, Bishop W., of Waiapu, New Zealand, 440. Willis, Bishop, of Honolulu, 451. Willis, Bishop, of Uganda, 351 f. ; re moral outlook in Uganda, 355. Wilson, Bishop, of Calcutta, 87, 104. Wilson, C, missionary in New Zealand, 440. Wilson College, Bombay, 89. Windward Islands, 398. Winnebagos Indians, 368. Wiunimera district, Victoria, 432. Winnipeg, Chinese in, 388. Winter, Rev. R., in Delhi, 109. Winter, Mrs., 37. Wisconsin, Indians in, 372, 379. Wittenberg, a document issued by faculty of, 44. Wolfe, Rev. J. R., in China, 190. Wolferstan, Father, re Christians in Mongolia, 214. Wolff, Dr. Joseph, in Persia, 273. Women, colleges for, in India, 128 ; Hindu testimony in regard to status of, 39 f. Women, work of, in the mission field, 38-41 ; National Indian As- sociation, U.S.A., 378. Won San, Corea, 454. Wonneroo, Australian aborigines at, 432. Wood, Rev. J. B., of Lagos, 295. Worcester, South Africa, 325. Wreningham, Mashonaland, 315. Wrioht, Rev. W., in South Africa, 310. Wuchang, 191, 196. Wuchow, 196. Wuhu, 191. Wupperthal, South Africa, 325. Wuras, a missionary in Kaffraria, 326. Wusih, 191. INDEX 533 Wyandottes, Indians, 377 f. Wynberg, 310. Xavier, St. Francis, in India, 13, 69-74 ; in China, 175 ; in Japan, 220 f. Xavier, Geronimo, in North India, 77, 133. Yammonsee Indians, 372 ; prince of, baptized in London, 373. Yangchovv, 191. Yao tribes, 339. Yarkand, 212. Yarrabah, mission to aborigines at, 432-4. Yedo, Japan, 225. Yenchowfu, 190. Yente, Yang, a Chinese traveller, 163 n. Yezd, Persia, hospital at, 273. Yorubaland, 294-6. Young, Bishop, in Cuba, 40t>. Young Men's Christian Association in India, 143 ; in Japan, 232 ; in Corea, 254. Young Women's Christian Associa- tion in Japan, 233. Ysabel Island, 458. Yuan Shihkai, President of China, 198, 201. Yukon territory, Indians in, 385 f. Yungchen, Chinese Emperor, 180. Yungehow, 190. Yiinnan, 192, 195, 258. Zaitun, China, 172. Zambesi River, 307 f. ; Industrial Mission, 339, 341. Zangzok, China, 191. Zanzibar, 343-6. Zaria, Nigeria, 299. Ziegenbalg, Bartholomew, 47-9. Zigua, East Africa, 345. Zinzendorf, Count von, 50, 54. Zonnebloem College, Capetown, 311. Zoroastrians in China, 168, Zucchelli, a missionary on the Congo, 302. Zulu Bible, 328. Zululand, 313. Zwemer, Dr. S. M., re Moslem population of the world, 465 ; re prospects of missions to Moslems, 470 f. Zwingli, his teaching in regard te pious heathen, 43. The International Theological Library ARRANGEMENT OF VOLUMES AND AUTHORS THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP/EDIA. By CHARLES A. Briggs, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Professor of Theological Encyclopaedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTA- MENT. By S. R. Driver, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Regius Professor of Hebrew and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. [Revised and Enlarged Edition. CANON AND TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By the Rev. JOHN Skinner, D.D., Principal and Professor of Old Testament Language and Lit- erature, College of the Presbyterian Church of England, Cambridge, England, and the Rev. Owen Whitehouse, B.A., Principal and Professor of Hebrew, Chestnut College, Cambridge, England. OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. By Henry Preserved Smith, D.D., Librarian, Union Theological Seminary, New York. {Now Ready, CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By Francis Brown, D.D., LL.D., D.Litt., President and Professor of Hebrew, Union Theological Seminary, New York. THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. By A. B. Davddson, D.D., LL.D. J sometime Professor of Hebrew, New College, Edinburgh. [Now Ready. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF THE NEW TESTA- MENT. By Rev. James Moffatt, B.D., Minister United Free Church, Broughty Ferry, Scotland. [Now Ready, CANON AND TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By CASPAR Ren^ Gregory, D.D., LL.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Leipzig. [Now Ready, THE LIFE OF CHRIST. By William Sanday, D.D., LL.D., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. The International Theological Library A HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. By Arthur C. McGiffert, D.D., Professor of Church History, Union Theo- logical Seminary, New York. [Now Ready. CONTEMPORARY HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By Frank C. Porter, D.D., Professor of Biblical Theology, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. THEOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By GeorGE B. StevenS, D.D., sometime Professor of Systematic Theology, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. [Now Ready^ BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY. By G. BUCHANAN Gray, D.D., Professor of Hebrew, Mansfield College, Oxford. THE ANCIENT CATHOLIC CHURCH. By ROBERT Rainey, D.D., LL.D., sometime Principal of New College, Edinburgh. [Now Ready. THE LATIN CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. By Andr^ LagardE. [hi Press. THE GREEK AND EASTERN CHURCHES. By W. F. Adeney, D.D., Principal of Independent College, Manchester, [Now Ready. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. By T. M. LiNDSAY, D.D., Prin- cipal of the United Free College, Glasgow. [Noiv Ready. THE REFORMATION IN LANDS BEYOND GERMANY. By T. M. Lindsay, D.D. [Now Ready. CHRISTIANITY IN LATIN COUNTRIES SINCE THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. By Paul Sabatier, D.Litt., Drome, France. THEOLOGICAL SYMBOLICS. By CHARLES A. Briggs, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Professor of Theological Encyclopaedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. INow Ready. HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. By G. P. FiSHER, D.D., LL.D., sometime Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. [Revised and Enlarged Edition. CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS. By A. V. G. Allen, D.D., sometime Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge, Mass. [^ow Ready. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. By George Galloway, D.D., Minister of United Free Church, Castle Douglas, Scotland. r,^ „ , [Now Ready. HISTORY OF RELIGIONS. L China, Japan, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, India, Persia, Greece, Rome. By George F. Moore, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fessor in Harvard University. [Now Ready. HISTORY OF RELIGIONS. II. Judaism, Christianity, Mohammedanism. By George F. Moore, D.D., LL.D., Professor in Harvard University. APOLOGETICS. By A. B. Bruce, D.D., sometime Professor of New Testa- ment Exegesis, Free Church College, Glasgow. [Revised and Enlarged Edition. The International Theological Library THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF GOD. ByWiLLlAMN Clarke D D sometime Professor of Systematic Theology, Hamilton Theological' Semi'- [Now Ready, ■^"^. ^OfTRINE OF MAN. By WiLLiAM P. Paterson, D.D., Professot of Divmity, University of Edinburgh. * i-roiessor THE DOCTRINE OF THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST. By H R Mackintosh, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Theology, New College, Edinburgh.' [Now Ready. WN^. n"n '^"'"'r '^^f^,'"'^^ 0/ SALVATION. By George B. Ste- VENS, D.D., sometime Professor of Systematic Theology, Yale University. [Now Ready, P^ow^''?7n ''I °/ '"'S''?'"^"'"''^ ^''^^- ^y William Adams sSa;y,N^w Yor"!'"" '' '^''^"^^" ^'^^^°^^' ^"^^° T^-^^^^^^^ CHRISTIAN ETHICS. By Newman Smyth, D.D., Pastor of Congrega tional Church, New Haven. [Revised a,id Enlarged Edition, THE CHRISTIAN PASTOR AND THE WORKING CHURCH Bv Washington Gladden, D.D., i^astor of Congregational Church, Columbus ^^^''' [Now Ready. THE CHRISTIAN PREACHER. By A. E. Garvie, D.D., Principal of New College, London, England. ^ HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. By ChARLES HenRY RobiN- SON, D.D., Hon. Canon of Ripon Cathedral and Editorial Secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. [Now Ready. The International Critical Commentary ARRANGEMENT OF VOLUMES AND AUTHORS THE OLD TESTAMENT uENESIS. The Rev. John Skinner, D.D., Principal and Professor Oi Old Testament Language and Literature, College of Presbyterian Church of England, Cambridge, England. [TVoif Ready, EXODUS. The Rev. A. R. S. Kennedy, D.D., Professor of Hebrew, University of Edinburgh. LEVITICUS. J. Y. Stenning, M.A., Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. NUMBERS. The Rev. G. BUCHANAN Gray, D.D., Professor of Hebrew, Mansfield College, Oxford. \_Now Ready. DEUTERONOMY. The Rev. S. R. Driver, D.D., D.Litt, sometime Regius Professor of Hebrew, Oxford. {Now Ready. JOSHUA. The Rev. George Adam Smith, D.D., LL.D., Principal of the University of Aberdeen. JUDGES. The Rev. George F. Moore, D.D., LL.D., Professor of The- ology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. {Now Ready. SAMUEL. The Rev. H. P. Smith, D.D., Librarian, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \Nov) Ready. KINGS. The Rev. Francis Brown, D.D., D.Litt., LL.D., President and Professor of Hebrew and Cognate Languages, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. CHRONICLES. The Rev. Edward L. Curtis, D.D., Professor of Hebrew, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. [Now Ready, EZRA AND NEHEMIAH. The Rev. L. W. Batten, Ph.D., D.D., Pro- lessor of Old Testament Literature, General Theolcgical Seminary, New York City. [Now Ready. PSALMS. The Rev. Chas. A. Briggs, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Graduate Professor of Theological Encyclopaedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. [2 vols. Now Ready. PROVERBS. The Rev. C. H. Toy, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. \^Now Ready, JOB. The Rev. S. R. Driver, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Regius Professor of Hebrew, Oxford. The International Critical Commentary ISAIAH. Chaps. I-XXVII. The Rev. G. Buchanan Gray, D.D., Pro- fessor of Hebrew, Mansfield College, Oxford. [Now Ready, ISAIAH. Chaps. XXVIII-XXXIX. The Rev. G. Buchanan Gray, D.D. Chaps. LX-LXVI. The Rev. A. S. Peake, M.A., D.D., Dean of the Theo- logical Faculty of the Victoria University and Professor of Biblical Exegesis 'm the University of Manchester, England. JEREMIAH. The Rev. A. F. Kirkpatrick, D.D., Dean of Ely, sometime Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, England. EZEKIEL. The Rev. G. A. Cooke, MA., Oriel Professor of the Interpre- tation of Holy Scripture, University of Oxford, and the Rev. Charles F. BuRNEY, D.Litt., Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew, St. John's College, Oxford. DANIEL. The Rev. John P. Peters, Ph.D., D.D., sometime Professor of Hebrew, P. E. Divinity School, Philadelphia, now Rector of St. Michael's Church, New York City. AMOS AND HOSEA. W. R. Harper, Ph.D., LL.D., sometime President of the University of Chicago, Illinois. [Now Ready. MICAH, ZEPHANIAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK. OBADIAH AND JOEL. Prof. John M. P. Smith, University of Chicago; W. Hayes Ward, D.D.. LL.D., Editor of The Independent, New York; Prof. Julius A. Bewer, Union Theological Seminary, New York. [Now Ready, HAGGAI. ZECHARIAH, MALACHI AND JONAH. Prof. H. G. MiTCHELL, D.D.; ProL John M. P. Smith, Ph.D., and Prof. J. A. Bewer, Ph.D. [Now Ready, ESTHER. The Rev. L. B. Paton, Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew, Hart- ford Theological Seminary. [Now Ready. ECCLESIASTES. Prof. George A. Barton, Ph.D., Professor of Bibli- cal Literature, Bryn Mawr College, Pa. [JVow Ready. RUTH, SONG OF SONGS AND LAMENTATIONS. Rev. Charles A. Briggs, D.D., D.Litt., sometime Graduate Professor of Theological Ency- .clopaedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. THE NEW TESTAMENT ST. MATTHEW. The Rev. Willoughby C. Allen, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer in Theology and Hebrew, Exeter College, Oxford. [Now Ready. ST. MARK. Rev. E. P. GouLD, D.D., sometime Professor of New Testa- ment Literature, P. E. Divinity School, Philadelphia. [Now Ready. ST. LUKE. The Rev. Alfred Plummer, D.D., late Master of University College, Durham. [Now Ready. The International Critical Commentary ST. JOHN. The Right Rev. John Henry Bernard, D.D., Bishop of Ossory, Ireland. HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS. The Rev. WiLLlAM SandaY, D.D., LL.D., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, Oxford, and the Rev. Wil- LOUGHBY C. Allen, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew, Exeter College, Oxford. ACTS. The Rev. C. H. Turner, D.D., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, and the Rev. H. N. Bate, M.A., Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of London. ROMANS. The Rev. William Sand ay, D.D., LL.D., Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and the Rev. A. C. Headlam, M.A., D.D., Principal of King's College, London. [Now Ready, I. CORINTHIANS. The Right Rev. Arch Robertson, D.D., LL.D.. Lord Bishop of Exeter, and Rev. Alfred Plummer, D.D., late Master ot University College, Durham. " [Now Ready, II. CORINTHIANS. The Rev. Alfred Plummer, ' M.A., D.D., late Master of University College, Durham. [Now Ready. GALATIANS. The Rev. Ernest D. Burton, D.D., Professor of New Testament Literature, University of Chicago. EPHESIANS AND COLOSSIANS. The Rev. T. K. Abbott, B.D., D.Litt., sometime Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin, now Librarian of the same. [Now Ready, /PHILIPPIANS AND PHILEMON. The Rev. Marvin R. VincenT, D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. [Now' Ready. THESSALONIANS. The Rev. James E. Frame, M.A., Professor of Biblical Theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. [Now Ready. THE PASTORAL EPISTLES. The Rev. Walter Lock, D.D., Warden of Keble College and Professor of Exegesis, Oxford. HEBREWS. The Rev. James Moffatt, D.D., Minister United Free Church, Brought^ Ferry. Scotland. ST. JAMES. The Rev. James H. Ropes, D.D., Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism in Harvard University. [In Press. PETER AND JUDE. The Rev. CHARLES BiGG, D.D., sometime Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. INow Ready. THE JOHANNINE EPISTLES. The Rev. E. A. Brooke, B.D., Fellow and Divinity Lecturer in King's College, Cambridge. [Now Ready. REVELATION. The Rev. Robert H. Charles, M.A., D.D., sometime Professor of Biblical Greek in the University of Dublin. - Date Due "^ ' jaMwtiMm asv^- K ; m f.^..-***^' ^**^*te^ ^'■: MAY 6 1988 MP '' ' ' ^ . ^mmmmm S3g^ ■nUn:: k JA J 3 51 ' >k2^V f)