^ PRINCETON, N. J. Division Section , ^ i-^ S/te// Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/catholicdictionaOOaddi_0 A CATHOLIC DICTIONAEY CATHOLIC DICTIONARY COSTAIXING SOME ACCOUNT OF THE rOCTEINE, DISCIPLINE, KITES, CEREMONIES, COUNCILS, AND EELIGIOUS ORDERS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH BY WILLIAM E. ADDIS BOirerroiE fellow of the rotal ukiversitt op irelajjd AND THOMAS AENOLD, M.A. FKIXOW OF THE SAME UXn-ERSlTY h'EW EDITION, EE VISED AND ENLARGED WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE EEV. T. B. SCANNELL, B.D. AUTHORIZED AMERICAN EDITION. ou5e viif Ovarh (piffis aveptnv irtKTtv, ovSe fi-fiv irore \a6a KaraKomiati' lieyas eV tovtois Beiis, ovSe ynpdo'Kei, Soph. CEd. Bex, 841 New York, Cincinnati. Chicago : BKNZIGER BROTHERS, PRINTERS TO THE HOLY Al'OSTOLIC SEE 1893- NiuiL Obstat. FR. DAVID, Peovincialis O.S.F, censor deputatu3. Impbimatue. HERBERTUS, CARD. AHCHIEP. WESTMONAST, Die 1 Feb., 1893. Imprimatur. MICHAEL AUGUSTINUS, ARCHIEP. NEO-EBORACENSIS. Die 11 Maji, 1893. {The rif;hU of transUtion and of rejfroduction are reserved) PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. In the present edition the whole work has been revised ; most of the articles formerly contained in the Appendix have been inserted in their proper places in the body of the volume ; a considerable number of new articles and headings have been added ; and the statistics and other information have been, as far as possible, brought up to date. The services of one of the original authors being no longer available, his place has been taken by the Rev. T. B. Scannell, B.D. The American editor, Mr. T. F. Galwey, and the llev. Joseph Wilhelm, D.D., have also contributed articles. PEEFACE TO THE FIKST EDITION. Tqe work here snbmitteil to the public is intended to meet a practical want which has long been felt among English-speaking Catholics — the want, namely, of a single trustworthy source of information on points of Catholic doctrine, ritual, and discipline. All existing English works of a similar character — such as Hook's " Church Dictionary," Blunt's *' Dictionary of Theology," Blunt's " Dictionary of Sects," &c. — were compiled by Protestants, and it is scarcely possible to turn over ten pages in one of them without meeting with some more or less open attack upon Catholicism. To this censure the " Dictionary of Christian Antiquities," conducted by Dr. Smith and Professor Cheetham, is not open ; but the large scale of that work, and the fact of its stopping short at the age of Charlemagne, are sufficient of themselves to prevent it from meeting the need above indicated. Their Eminences the Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster and Car- dinal Newman have been pleased to express their approbation of the undertaking. Cardinal Manning wrote : " I am very glad to hear that it is proposed to publish a ' Dictionary of Catholic Theology and His- tory.' It will supply a great want in our English literature. Such works exist in French and German, but we have nothing worthy of the •name." Cardinal Newman, after saying that such a work had been long " a desideratum in our literature," added : " Our doctrines, rites, and history have been at the mercy of Protestant manuals, which, however ably written, and even when fair in intention, are not such as a Catholic can approve or recommend. So much have I felt the need viil PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. that once, many years ago, I began such a work myself, though 1 wa» Boon obliged to give over for want of leioure." The Rev. W. E. Addis, of Lower Sydenham, and Thomas Arnold, Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland, have written nearly the whole work. They are indebted, however, to American contributors for a cer- tain number of articles ; to the Very Rev. Father Bridgett, of the Con- gregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, for the article " Redemptorists " ; and to the Rev. S. H. Sole, Missionary Rector of Chipping Norton, for the article " Plain Chant." As a rule, the articles on dogma, ritual, the ancient Church, and the Oriental rites, are by Mr. Addis ; those on mediaeval and modern history, the religious orders, and canon law, by Mr. Arnold. Theological subjects have been regarded chiefly from an historical and critical point of view, and questions of School theology avoided as far as possible. In almost every case the quotations of Scripture are made from the original texts, and not from the Latin Vulgate. In conclusion, the Authors offer their best thanks to many kind friends who have helped and encouraged them in their labour. Their gratitude is due in a very special degree to the Rev. Father Keogh, of the London Oratory. The office of Censor which he undertook was ia itself a tedious one, but besides this, and on points which did not con- cern him in his official capacity, he furnished the writers with many valuable suggestions and corrections. At the same time it is right to add that the " Nihil obstat " appended by him certifies indeed that the limits of Catholic orthodoxy have been observed, but by no means implies the Censor's personal agreement or sympathy with many of the opinions expressed. November 3, 1883, A CATEOLIO DICTIONARY AEBilCOIWITES. The abbacmnites or abbafes militcs, count abbots or noble abbots, were lay intruders, to whom courts gave abbacies for pecuniary pro- fit. Thus Bernard, the youngest of Charles MarJel's six sons, was lay abbot of Sithiu or St. Quentin. Sons, daugh- ters, wives, &c., were thus benefited before the time of Cbarlemague, who, however, eff'ected a reform and made monasteries the seats of schools and literature. In latter days other princes, claiming the right of investiture, rein- troduced similar abuses ; secular priests were often made coynmendatory abbots. ABBESS, from Abbatissa. The su- perior of a community of nuns, in those orders in which convents of monks are governed by abbots. The dignity of an abbess cannot be traced back so far as that of abbot ; it appears to have been first regulnrly instituted about 591, in the time of I'ope Gregory tlie Great. Regu- lations touching their election, powers, and rights were gradually framed, and in- corporated in the canon law. The elec- tors must, as a general rule, be professed nuns. The age at which a nun can be elected abbess has been variously deter- mined at different times ; finally the Council of Trent' fi.xedit at not less than forty years, of which eight sliou'd have been passed in the same monastery. The voting is secret; generally a simple ma- jority of votes is sufficient for a valid election, but in the convents depending on Monte Cassino a majority of two- thirds is required. In the case of a doubtful election, the ordinary intervenes, and selects the nun whom he may think most suitable for the office. The bene- diction of an abbess, a rite generally but not always necessary-, may be performed * Sess. XXV. c. 7. De Ites. et Mon. by the bishop on any day of the week. When elected, the abbess has a right to the ring and staif, as in the case of abbots, and to have the abbatial cross borne be- fore her. In certain orders where there were usually double monasteries, one for monks the other for nuns, as in the Bri- gittines and the order of Fontevrault, the monks were bound to obey the abbess of the related nunnery. An abbess, more- over, could, and often did, possess and ex- ercise large ecclesiastical patronage, sub- ject to the approval of the ordinary. .These powers are included within that capacity of ruling and possessing property which every truly civilised state has re- cognised in woman no less than in man ; but when the power of the keys, or even any e.vercise of authority bordering on that power, is in question, the abbess is no more than any other woman. Thus she cannot, without the bishop's sanction, choose confessors either for herself or for her nuns ; nor can she dispense a nun from the obligations of the rule of her own authority, nor suspend nor dismiss her. ABBEY. A monastery governed by an abbot. [See Abbot.] ABBOT. The " father " or superior of a community of men living under vows and according to a particular rule. The transference of the idea of fatherhood to the relation between the head of a con- gregation or a religious community and his subjects is so natural that already in the apostolic times we find St. Paul reminding the Corinthians ' that they had not many fathers in Christ ( " for in Christ Jesus I have begotten you," &c.), notwithstanding the apparent prohibition in the gospel of St. Matthew.* But it was customary to call bishops by the Greek word for father; hence the corresponding designation for • 1 Cor. iv. 15. - xxiii. 9. 2 AEBOT ABBOT the head of a community of monks was taken, to avoid confusion, from the Ohal- daic form {nbha, abbas) of the word which means "father" in the Semitic languages. In a paper of extraordinary research, but more learned than lucid, contributed by the late Mr. Iladdan to the " Dictionary of Christian Anti(juities," at least a dozen transitory uses of the word Abbot, in ancient times alone, are enumerated. But these are of little or no importance. The true Abbot, being a natural outgrowth of the Christian doctrine and spirit, comes into sight in the third century, and still fulfils — though under a variety of desig- nations— his original function in the nineteenth. The name imports the rule of others, but as the essential foundation for such rule it implies the mastery of self. The monk was before the abbot. Eusebius has no mention of monks as .such in his "Ecclesiastical History;" but when he tells us of persons, male or female, living austere lives and aiming at perfec- tion, when he notes that Narcissus, bishop of Jerusalem at the end of the second cen- turv', retired into the desert on account of ditiiculties arising in his diocese, and lived there for many years as a solitary contemplative, we see already the germs of the monastic life. St. Antony (250- ?.o5) is usually regarded as the patriarch of the monks. But if we hear much in ills later years of the numbers and the reverent devotion of his disciples, we know that for twenty years after his first quitting the world he lived in nearly ab- solute solitude, conversing with God and taming his own spirit. The clamours of persons desiring to see him and ask coun- .«el of him forced him at last from his cell ; and he, who in conflict with his own lower nature or with evil spirits had at- tained an unwonted spiritual strength and a vast breadth of spiritual ex])i'rience, consented now to take upon liim the direction of a number of men of weaker will and less regulated mind. If he was to do them any good, they must place them.selves in his hands, and do exactly what he bade them. That mastery of the passions, and subj ugation of the natural man under the yoke of reason, which he, aided by the Holy Spirit, had worked out for himself, they, following his directions, must win through him. Hence we find the principle of unquestioning obedience — what Gibbon calls the " slavish " spirit of tlie monks — -laid down from the first. St. Pcemen, a famous Egyptian abbot of the fourth century, said to his disciples, "Never seek to do yoiu* own will, but rather rejoice to overcome it, and humble yourselves by doing the will of others." And, "Nothing gives so much pleasure to the enemy as wiien a person will not dis- cover his temptations to his superior or director." Induced partly, no doubt, by the confusions and oppressions of the empire, but chiefly by the haunting thirst to know the secret of the perfect life, and solve the riddle of existence, great numbers of men towards the end of the fourth century sought the deserts that hem in the valley of Egypt, and were formed into monastic communities under abbots. Great captains of the spiritual life arose, sucli as Puchomlus, Hllarion, Pambo, and Macarius. Spealdng of the effect pro- duced by Antony in Egypt even in his lifetime, St. Athanasius says: "Among the mountains there were monasteries as if tabernacles filled with divine choirs, singing, studying, fasting, praying, exult- ing in the hope of things to come, and working for almsdeeds, having love and harmony one towards another." For full information on these "fathers of the desert," the reader should consult the celebrated work of the Jesuit Rosweide, " Vitse Patrum." The status of these early abbots, as of the monks whom they governed, was a lay status. In the great monastic colonies of Palestine and Egypt, each containing several hundreds of monks, there would be but one or two priests, admitted in order to the celebration of the divine worship. But the proportion of ordained monks gradually Increased, the bishops being generally glad to confer orders upon men, most of whom were of proved virtue. For abbots ordination before long became the rule : yet even in the ninth century we read of abbots who were only deacons, and a Council of Poitiers in 1078 Is still obliged to make a canon enjoining upon all abbots, on pain of deprivation, tht- re- ception of pru'sts' orders. Tlic original lay character here referivd to must of course not be confounded with llip status of those profane intruders (lescvilitHl by Beda in his letter to Egliei t.aidihi-liop of York, who were rich la^ iin ri |in triiiling to found nionastt'ries for the salve of ob- taining till' I'X. injjtioii from civil burdens which monastic hiiuls enjoyed, and could only be caUed pseudo-abbots. The election of an abbot originally rested with the monks, according to the rule "Fratres eligant sibl abbatem." We meet, indeed, with many cases of eplsco])al ABBOT ABBOT 3 intervention in elections, but the right of the monks is solemnly recognised in the body of the cnnon law. In the West, as the endow ments of monasteries increased, temporal princes and lords usurped tlie riglit of appointing abbots in the larger monasteries, no less than of nominating- bishops to the sees ; our own history and that of Germany is full of stories of dis- putes thence arising. [See Ixtestitttre.] At the Council of Worms in 1122 Pope Calixtus obtained from the emperor the renunciation of the claim to invest with ring and crosier the persons nominated to ecclesiastical dignities. The tirst article of Magna Charta (1215) provides that the English Church shall be free: by which, among other things, the right of monks to choose their own abbots was understood to be conceded. Practically, the patronage of the larger English abbeys for two centuries before the Reformation was divided by a kind of amicable arrange- ment between the Pope and the king. St. Benedict (480-545), the patriarcli of Western monachism, allows in his rule (which from its greater elasticity superseded other rules which were for a time in competition with it [see Bexe- DiCTiXES; Rule, RELiGiorsJ) a large discretion to the abbots of his convents, who were to modify many things in accordance with the exigencies of cli- mate and national customs. Such modi- ticatious led of course in time to relaxa- tion, the reaction against which led to reforms. A curious report of the dis- cussion between the monks of Molesme and their abbot Robert (1075), who wished to restore among them the full observance of the rule of St. Benedict, may be read in the eighth book of Ordericus Vitalis. Not prevailing, St. Robert, with twelve companions, left Molesme and founded Citeaux, under a reformed observance. [Cistercians.] The privileges of abbots grew to be very extensive. They obtained many episcopal rights, among others that of con- ferring minor orders on their monks. A practice whicli had arisen, by which abbots exempt from episcopal jurisdiction [Ex- emption] claimed to confer minor orders even on seculars, was condemned by the Council of Trent. ^ The use of mitre, crosier, and ring was accorded to the ab- bots of great monasteries ; these mitred abbots were named abbates infulati. In England mitred abbots had seats in Parlia- ment: twenty-eight, with two Augustinian • Sess. xxiii. De Reform, c. 10. priors, are said to have sat in the Par- liament immediately preceding the disso- lution of monasteries. A remarkable privilege is noticed by Beda,' in virtue of which the abbots of lona e.xercised a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction in the west of Scotland and the Hebrides. The name of abbe, abate, has come to be assumed by a class of unbeneficed secu- lar clerks in France and Italy, apparently in the following manner. The practice by which laymen held abbeys in commen- dayn — commenced in troubled times in order that powerful protectors might be found for the monks, and might have in- ducements to exercise that protection — grew by degrees into a scandalous abuse. Young men of noble families were nomi- nated to abbeys, and could enjoy their revenues, long before they could take priests' orders ; they were not bound to residence ; and under Louis XIV. and Louis XV. many of these abbes cornmen- dataires never saw the abbeys of which they were the titular rulers. The possi- bility of winning such prizes drew many cadets of noble families, who had only just taken the tonsure, to Versailles ; those who had succeeded in obtaining nomina- tions still fluttered about the Court, not being bound to residence ; and the name Abbe, which was really, though abusively, applicable to these, came to be applied in social parlance to the aspirants also, whom no external signs distinguished from the real abb^s. By a further exten- sion, the name came to be applied as a title of courtesy to unbeneficed clerks generally ; just as in England the title " esquire," which is properly applicable only to persons entitled to bear arms, is extended by the courtesy of society to anyone who, as far as outward ma k go, seems entitled to take the same social rank. Benedictine abbeys, following the gen- eral Oriental rule, have always been inde- pendent of each other in government ; but an honorary superiority was accorded in the middle ages to the abbot of the mother house at Monte Cassino ; he was styled abbas abbatum. In other orders various names have replaced that of " abbot ; ■' the head of a Franciscan friary is a " guardianus," that of a Dominican , convent a " prior," that of a Jesuit house i a " rector." There is a prior also in Bene- I dictine convents [Price], but his normal , position is that of lieutenant to the abbot ; sometimes, however, he was al- , most practically independent as the head I 1 Hist. EcclAW.i. B 2 ABCREVIATOES ABRAXAS cf a priory, a cell founded by monks migrrating from some abbey. The duties of an abbot in early times may be learned from Rosweide ; some- \vbat later, and in the West, they were defined with great clearness and wisdom in the rule of St. Benedict. A deeply interesting sketch of the manner of lite of an English abbot in tlie seventh cen- tury is preserved for us in Beda's " Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow." Even more trying was his work in the t\^■elfth century, as we know from the narratiou by jocelyn de Brakelonde of the government of the abbot Samson at Bury St. Edmunds ; with which may be read the striking, and on the whole ap- preciative, commentary of Mr. Carlyle.' The name corresponding to Abbot in the Greek Church is Archimaudrita, or Uegumenos. ABBREVZATORS. The name giver to a class of notaries or secretaries em- ployed in the Papal Chancery. Tliey are first met with about the beginning of the fourteenth century ; were abolished in the fifteenth, but afterwards restored. They are generally prelates, and the office is considered one of great dignity and im- portance. It is not incompatible with Church preferment. The name arose from this, that the ahhremator made a short minute of the decision on a petition, or reply to a letter, given by the Pope, and afterwards expanded the minute into offi- cial form. (Ferraris.) ABJURATIOM- or HERESY. This is required in the canon law as a prelimi- nary to baptism, or, when there is no question of that (as in the case of con- verts from the Eastern Church), before the convert makes his confession of faith. There are decrees of several councils to tliis effect : thus the Council of Laodicea (about 364) ordains that Novatian and Photinian heretics, "whether they be baptised persons or catechumens, shall not be received before they have anathe- matised all heresies, especially that in which they were held." A celebrated instance of abjuration is that of Clovis (4i)G), to whom St. Remy said before baptising him, " Meekly bow down thy head, Sicambrian; adore what thou hast burnt, and burn what thou hast adored." An early German council requires the Saxon converts to renounce belief in " Thor and Woden and Saxon Odin " before being received into the Church. Ferraris sums up the canonical re- ' Past and Present, purt ii. quirements in the matter of abjuration as follows: — that it should be done without delay ; that it should be voluntary ; that it should be done with whatever degree of publicity the bishop of the place might think necessary; and that the abjuring person should make condign satisfaction ' in the form of penance. 1 The modern discipline insists mainly I on the positive part, the profession of the true faith. Thus in the Ritual of Stra.s- burg (1742) the abjuration required is merely general : " Is it your firm purpose to renounce in heart and mind all tlie errors which it [the Catholic religion] condemns ? " In England at the present timethe abjnr!itioni?,sotospeak, taken for granted in ordinfiry cases, since converts are not admitted into the Church except ai'ter suitable instruction, and the Creed of Pope Pius IV., whicli everyone desir- ing to become a Catholic must read and accept, expressly denounces most of those errors which infect the religious atmo- : spliere of this country. ABZiVTZOM'. A name given, in the rubrics of tlie Mass, to the water and wine with which the priest who celebrates Mass washes his tliurab and index-finger after communion. When he has con- sumed tlie Precious Blood, the priest purities the chalice; he then, saying in a low voice a short prayer prescribed j by tlie Church, holds his tluimb and index-finger, which have touclied llie Blessed Sacrament and may have some particle of it adhering to them, over the chalice, while the server pours wine and j water upon them. He then drinks the ablution and dries his lips and the chalice with the mundatory. This ceremony wit- nesses to the reverence with which the Cluirch regards the body and blood of Christ, and to her anxiety that none of that heavenly food shoidd be lost. It is impossible to say when this rite was in- troduced, but we are told of the pious Emperor Henry II., who lived at the be- ginning of the eleventh century, that he used when hearing Mass to beg for the ablution and to receive it with great de- votion. This ablution is mentioned by St. Thomas and Durandus. The former, however, gives no reason to suppose that it was consumed by the priest, and the latter expressly says that the ablution used formerly to be poured into a clean place. (Benedict XIV. " De Missa," III. xxi. C.) ABRAHAinZTE. [See PAT7LICr.\NS.] ABRAXAS, 'AUpd^as or 'Alipa>eds be granted, ])rovided that the requisite c.m- ditionshavc been fulfilled. Still it must bt^ remembered that in any case it is unlawful to use such a form even in the East, since Clement VIII. iu his instruction on the 6 ABSOLUTION ABSTINENCE rites of the Greeks, issued 1595, required them to employ the form prescribed in the Council of Florence — viz. "I absolve thee," &c. Lastly, the form of absolution must be uttered by the priest himself in the presence of the person absolved. This folkiws as a necessary consequence from the nature of the form of absolution sanctioned by the perpetual tradition of the Church ; for the very words, " I absolve thee" imply the presence of the penitent; and the contrary opinion held by some Spanish theologians, who considered that absolution could be validly given by letter or by means of a messenger, was expressly condemned by Clement VIII. in the year 1603. [N.B. For full information on the proofs fi-om Scripture and antiquity for the Catholic doctrine of Confession and Absolution, see Penance, Sacrament os.'] 11. Absolution from censures is widely difl'erent from absolution from sins, be- cause whereas the latter gives grace, removes guilt, and reconciles the sinner with God, the former merely removes penalties imposed by the Church, and re- conciles the oflender with her. [See under Censures.] It may be given, either in the confessional, or apart altogether from the Sacrament of Penance, in the external forum — i.e. in the courts of the Church. It may proceed from any cleric, even from one who has received the tonsure only, without ordination, provided he is invested with the requisite jurisdiction. This juris- diction resides, in the case of censures im- posed by an individual authority through a special sentence, in the ecclesiastic who inflicted the censure, in his superior, in his successors, and in those to whom com- petent authority has delegated power of absolution. For example, if a bishop has placed a subject of his under censure, absolution may be obtained (1) from the bishop himself, (2) from a succeeding bishop, (.3) from the metropolitan, in certain cases where an appeal can be made to him, or if he is visiting the diocese of his suifragan ex officio, (4) from any cleric deputed by one of the above. With regard to censures attached to certain crimes by the general law of the Church, unless they are specially reserved to the Pope or the bishop, any confessor can absolve from them ; and this is generally considered to hold good also of censures inflicted by the general (as opposed to a particular) sentence of a superior. Again, it is not necessary that the person absolved from censure should be present, or contrite, or even that he should be living. As the effects of censures may continue, so they may be removed after death. Excom- munication, for instance, deprives the ex- communicated person of Christian burial. It may happen that he desired but was unable to obtain remission of the penalty during life, and in this case he may be absolved after his soul has left the body, and so receive Catholic burial and a shave in the prayers of the Church. III. Absolution for the dead {pro defunctis). A short i^orm, imploring eter- nal rest and so indirectly remission of the penalties of sin, said after a funeral Mass over the body of the dead person, before it is removed from the church. IV. Absolutions in tlie Breviai-y. Cer- tain short prayers said before the lessons in matins and before the chapter at the end of prime. Some of these prayers ex- press or imply petition for forgiveness of sin, and this circumstance probably ex- plains the origin of the name Absolution which has been given to such prayers or blessings. ABSTmrETrCE, in its restricted and special sense, denotes the depriving our- selves of certain kinds of food and drink in a rational way and for the good of the soul. On a fasting day, the Church re- quires us to limit the quantity, as well as the kind, of our food ; on an abstinence- day, the limit imposed affects only the nature of the food we take. The defiiu- tion given excludes three possible miscon- ceptions of the Church's law on this point. First, the Church does not forbid certain kinds of food on the gi-ound that they are impure, either in themselves or if taken on particular days. On the con- trary,she holds withSt. jPaul' that "every creature of God is good," and has re- peatedly condemned'"' the Gnostic and Manicliean error, which counted tit'shand wine evil. Next, the abstinence required is a reasonable one, and is not, therel'ore, exacted I'mm tliose whom it would injm-e in health or incapacitate for their ordinary duties. Thirdly, Catholic al/stinence is a means, not an end. Abstinence, says St. Thomas, pertains to the kingdom of God only so far " as it proceeds from faith and love of God." ^ But how does abstinence from flesh- » 1 Tim. iv. 4. 2 Canon. Ap«st. hi. Concil. Ancyr. can. 14. 5 2a liie 140, ]. See also the prayer of the Church in the Mass for the third Sunday of Lent. ABSTINENCE ABYSSINLVN CHURCH 7 meat promote the soul's heulth ? The I answer is, that it enables us to subdue our [ flesh and so to imitate St. Paul's example, who "chastised his body and brought it 1 into subjection." ' The perpetual tra- dition of the Church is clear beyond possibility of mistake on this matter, and | from the earliest times, the Christians at certain seasons denied themselves flesh and wine, or even restricted themselves to bread and water.- Moreover, by abstain- ing Irom flesh, we give up what is, on the whole, the most pleasant as well as the most nourishing food, and so make satis- faction for the temporal punishment due i to sin even when its guilt has been for- given. [See also Fast and Penance (4).] The abstinence (as distinct from fast- ing) days to be observed in England are, all Fridays, except that on which Christ- mas Day may fall, and the Sundays in Lent, though on these last the faithful now receive an annual dispensation from the abstinence. Saturday was an absti- nence-day in England, till it ceased to be so in virtue of a Rescript of Pius VIII., in 1830. It may be of some interest, in conclu- sion, to trace the history in the Church of [ abstinence as distinct from fasting. Ab- stinence-days were observed from ancient times by the monks. Thus Cassian tells us that in the monasteries of Egypt, great care was taken that no one should fast between Easter and Pentecost, but ' he adds that the '' quality of lood '" was unchanged. In other words, the religious fasted all the year, except on Sundays and the days between Easter and Pentecost. These they observed as days of abstmence. Again, it is certain that the faithful gene- rally did not, and, indeed, could not, fast on Sundays in Lent, for the early Church strongly discouraged fasting on that day; but it is also certain that they did ab- stain on the Sundays in Lent. For, during the whole of that season, says St. Basil, "no animal has to eutter death, no blood flows." We learn incidentally from Theophanes and Nicephorus, that no meat was exposed during Lent in the markets of Constantinople. The Sun- days, then, in Lent were kept in the ancient Church as days of abstinence. With regard to the abstinence-days of weekly occurrence, Thomassin shows tliat Wednesday and Friday have been from ancient times observed in the East, not only as abstinence, but as lasting-days. Clement 1 1 Cor. ix. -'7. * Concil. Laod. can. 50. VIII., in lof)5, in laying down rules for Catholic Greeks under Latin bishops, ex- cuses them from some of the Latin fasts, on the ground that, unlike the Latins, they fasted every Wednesday and Friday. Thomassin illustrates the custom of the West, by (juoting a nunaber of statutes, &c., prescribing sometimes abstinence from tlesh, sometimes fasting and absti- nence, on Fridav. His earliest authority is Nicolas I. \858-867), and he con- cludes, "even after the year 1400, the Saturday abstinence was rather voluntary than of obligation among the laity; but the Friday a bstinence had long since passed into a law. I say abstinence, for, in spite of efforts made, the fast was never well es- tablished.' (See Thomassin, "Traite des Jeuues," from which the foregoing histo- rical sketch is taken.) ABSTSTTESi'TS. A name given to the Encratites {q.i:), or Manichees, be- cause of their professed abstinence from wine, marria;.'e, &c. AS-rSSXTIII^TJ or ETHZOPXAir CHXTRCH. Tradition relates that the otlicer of Candace, Queen of Ethiopia, whom Philip the Deacon met and con- verted near Gaza,^ on his return home spread the Christian faith among the peoples dwelling on the Upper Nile. But if this were so, the seed then planted must have withered away, for in the middle of the fourth century — when the narrative of Rutinus, in his "Ecclesiastical History," casts a strong light for us on Abyssinian affairs — the zeal of Athanasius appears to have raised up n church in an ahs lutely lieathen land. Frumentius of Tyre, the aj)ostle of Abyssinia, first visited the country, when a mere youth, in 310 ; his luicle, with whom he travelled, was murdered by the natives : he was himself brought up as a slave in the court of A.xum; but his virtue and intelligence led to his being enfranchised ; and in his per- son Christianity, to which he had strictly adhered, appeared attractive. Repairing to St. Athanasius, then recently raised to the patriarchal chair of Alexandria, Fru- mentius was consecrated by him the first bishop of his adopted country. "When he leturned, the king and his people willingly received baptism. He chose Axiuu for his see; and this place remains to this day the ofhcial centre of Abyssinian Chris- tianity. As the work of conversion pro- ceeded, this see became the residence of a Metropolitan {ahinia, father), having under biui seven suflragaiis. The nam© 1 Acts viii. "27. 8 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH ACEPIIALI and rauk of " Abuna " are still retained, but the seven sufl'rag-ausbave disappeared. The bright promise of tliis commence- ment was soon overclouded. An eft'ort, indeed, of Constantius to iutrodiice AriuTi- ism failed ; but when, in the fifth century. Ale.xaudria, along with the m.ajority of the Eastern churches, rejected the decrees of Chalcedon, and the patriarchate became Monophysite, the Abyssiniaiis followed in the wake of their mother church, and they have never unanimously, or for long toge- ther, shaken off the heresy down to this day. In the sixth century the country was the object of a reli^'ious rivalry be- tween Justinian and t lie I']ni]irfss I'hi'o- dora, the former wisliing to attach it to the Roman Church, the latter to preserve it for her Moncijihysite friends at Alexan- di-ia.' The eiujirt'ss, aideinian church, cut olf from true t'athniii- emn- munion, atid severed ihnn tlw chair of Peter, became in tlie cnurSf of ages the strange, unpniL;i-i->i\ ,■, .-.mii-jiagan insti- tution which 111. hI.. Ill travcU.Ts liave de- scribed. Thus, alt li(iii;^li ni'\ cr persecuted for the faith like the Irish and the Poles, the Abyssiuians allowed its lustre to be tarnished and its moral fruits to pint> and wither, through casting olf that vitalising communion with the Holy See which has kept alive the Irish and Polish nat ionalities in the face of secular persecution. In the seventeenth century, Abyssinia having been almost an uuKikiwii land to Em-ope for a tliousaiul y.'ars, it was en- tered by Portuguese Jou'its, whose preach- ing was attended for a time liy marked success. Two emperors in succession be- came Catholics; a J(>suit was nominated patriarch of yEthio]iia. and an outward reconciliation with Ihnnr was elircted. But the masses of the ] i cinaiin li un- influenced, and their ht'ails still ^•earlled towards Egypt; the patriarch .Meiulez is said to have acted iinjinidriu 1\- in att<>iupt- ing to abolisli the rite of ein uiiicision ; - the second Catholic enqicior died, and his son expelled the .IcMiit>, and re-tored the connection with Alexandria, .\fter a long interval ol'rxcl iisi, ,n, ( 'at Imlic iiils.Monaries have again ■■iilcivd Aliy>siiiia in our days, and Hoiiiishing congregations hine been formed in the northern and north-eastern districts, near Massowah.^ In 1875, ' Renaudot, quoted in Gibbon's Decline and Fall, c. 47. Practised bj' the Abyssinians for sanitary, not for religious reasons. ' Annals af the Propagation of Faith, 1876. Monsignor Touvier, stationed at Keren, was \'icar Apostolic of the whole country. About that time missioners were sent into Amhara, the most important province, with the best results. " The sending of missioners into Amhara,''wrote M. Uutios, in .June \ f<7o, "so often criticised, is now justified by the immense results which it has produced." The Abuna, or head of the Abyssinian church, is always an Egyptian monk, nominated by the Patriarcli of Egypt. The cross is held in honour l)y the Abys- sinians, but the use of the criicitix is iin- known. They tolerate jiaintings in their churches, but no sculptured figures. Their priests can marry once only, as in the Greek church. There is considerable de- votion to the Blessed Virgin, liut, along with tliis and other Christian cliaiac- teristics, various superstitious beliefs and practices are rife among them, to the great detriment of their morals and in- tellectual advancement. ACCIDENT. ^SeeEuCHAEIST, I.(y).] ACCiAMATiON-. The elevation to an ecclesiastical dignity by the unanimous voice of the electors, without voting. This is one of the three modes in which a Po]ie may be elected, and the election is said to liey<('c iiisjiirn/ ioiiein, hccan^f "all the Cardinals, with a sudden and har- monious consent, as though breathed on by the Divine Spirit, jiroclaim some jierson Pontiff with one voice, witliout any ])re- vious canvassing or negotiation, whence fraud or iii>eliMi|.. mi-j.-i i,,ii could lie sur- mised." (^'ecclll,ittl, •■Inst. Can." ii. 10.) ACCOMMODATES SENSE. If We quote Scripture to prove a point of doctrine, we must of course try to ascertain the ])re- cise meaning of the sacred writer, and then argue from the i)rojier sense of hi,- ^\■ol■(l^. AVi' may. however, take the words of Scripture and mak'e an application of them which was not originally intended. In other words we may acco/nmodnfe the sense to the needs of our own discourse or the subject we wish to illustrate. Tluis when Baroniiissaid of his unaided lalwur in compiling his ecclesiastical Annals, "I have trodden the wine-press alone," he used the words of Isaias in an accom- modated sense. This practice is innocent in itself, as is shown by the example of our Lord (Matt. iv. 4), and of St. Paul (Acts xxviii. 25-28), and is frequently adopted by the Church in the Missal and Breviary. ACEPHAI.Z. In the year 482 the Greek emperor Zeno issued his " Henoti- ACCEMETI con," in order to reunite the Monophysites with the Church. The lieretical leaders — ■ e.g. Peter Mongus, Patriarch of Alexan- dria— were ready to accejit the emperor's terms, but many of the heretics were more obstinate, and so were nicknamed " head- less " {rallv held, that Adam wa.s crtaled in j^nice. The Council of Trent left the matter (i]ieti. 5 "Bv MM," St, Paid sav.s, " [came] death " (Rom. v.)". Adam .-md K ve li..f,,rc the fall, althou-h naked, "were n>it ashamed,'' which indicates the complete subjection of the lower nature- (Gen. ii. 26). ADAMITES ADOmOXISM 11 as theologians call it, which flowed from original justice, and thus his hody passed under the yoke of suH'ering and death ; the flesh became a constant incentive to sin. He still preserved reason and free will, was still capable of natural virtue and even of corresponding to the grace of repentance; but just as the effects of the grace in which he had been constituted at first overflowed on his natural faculties, so now the fall from grace darkened his intellect and weakened his will. Adam was the representative of the human race. If he had persevered in obedience, his descendants would have inherited from him, along with human nature, original justice and the virtues annexed to it. As it is, men come into the world destitute of grace, and so un- able to attain the end for which they were created ; while their very nature is wounded and impaired through the fall of their first parent. It is heresy, however, to hold, with Calvin and the other Re- formers, that even fallen man is wholly evil. It is grace, not nature, which he has lost, and in his degradation he still keeps reason and free will ; he is still capable of natural good. [See Co^tcfpiscexce and Oeigixal Six.' ADAMITES. (1.) An obscure Gnos- tic sect, said to have been founded by Prodicus, son of Carpocrates, in the second century. They are alleged to have met together without clothes and abandoned themselves to horrible immorality. (2.) A fanatical sect of the middle ages. Their leader, who called himself Adam, was a Frenchman whose real name was Picard (he may perhaps have come from Picardy). From France they spread through Holland and Germany, but had their chief settlement in Bohemia, where they flourished at the time of the Hussite troubles. They were annihilated with frightful severity by Ziska in 1421. They recommended their followers to go naked, and gave unrestrained licence to sensuality. ADMITTZSTKATOR. When a bishop is lawfully absent from his diocese for a prolonged period, the Pope sometimes grants him an " apostolic administrator" to take charge of the see. So, too, when a prince was ap- pointed to a bishopric before he was capable of governing it. The name is commonly applied to a priest in ch;irge of a parish, but who is not himself the rector of the parish. Thus, a bishop's parish is under the care of an administrator. ADOPTION. The Eoman law held that by adoption a civil or lee>ie se ffesserif," and that if that condition is violated, the spouse against whom the judgment was given may justly claim the restitution of conjugal rights. Various impediiuents to divorce on account of adultery are allowed by the canon law, of which the chief are, the proof of adultery against the spouse seek- ing a divorce, and condonation. The statute law of England, as is well known, holds the adultery of the wife to ,\DVEXT, SEASON OF .ADVENT, SEASON OF 13 bo a good cause, not only of the limited speciis of divorce treated above, but of the absolute severance of the nuptial bond, provided always that, as the saying is, the husband comes into court with clean hands. But the proof of adultery alone does not entitle a wife to obtain a divorce a linciilo against the husband ; it must, to have that effect, be coupled with cruelty or desertion. [See Maeeiage.] — Vec- chiotti, V. 14, § 123. ADVESTT, SEASOSr OF. The period, of between tliree and ftnir weeks from Advent Sunday (which is always the Sunday nearest to the feast of St. .\ndrew) to Christma.s eve, is named by the Chiu-ch the season of Advent. Dur- ing it she desires that her children should practise fasting, works of penance, medi- tation, and prayer, in order to prepare themselves for celebrating worthily the coming {advcntum) of the Son of God in the flesh, to promote His spii'itual advent within their own souls, and to school themselves to look forward with hope and joy to Ilis second advent, when He shall come again to judge mankind. It is impossible to fix the precise time when the season of Advent began to be ; observed. A canon of a Council at j Saragossa, in 380, forbade the faithful to absent themselves from the Church ser- vices during the three weeks from De- cember 17th to the Epiphany; this is perhaps the earliest trace on record of the observance of Advent. The singing of the "greater antiphons" at vespers is commenced, according to the Eoman ^ ritual, on the very day specified by the Council of Saragossa; this can hardly be a mere coincidence. In the fifth century Advent seems to have been assimilated to Lent, and kept as a time of fasting and ! abstinence for forty days, or even longer — (.e. i'rom Martinmas (Nov. 11) to Christ- mas eve. In the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great there are Masses for five Sundays in Advent; but about the ninth century these were reduced to four, and so they have ever since remained, " "We may therefore consider the present discipline of the observance of Advent as having lasted a thousand years, at least as far as the Church of Rome is concerned." ' With regard to fasting and abstinence duriiii;- Ailvrnt. t!ir prartii-f has always grt-atlv Villi. m1. and >till arir>, in different parts of the ChurL-h. Strictness has been ' Gue'rani;er's Litnrgicul Yenr, translated by Dom Shepherd, 1867. observed, after which came a period of rela.xation, followed by a return to strict- ness. At the present time, the Wednes- days and Fridays in Advent are observed as fast days by English and Irish Catho- lics ; but in France and other Continental countries the ancient discipline has long ago died out, except among religious commxmities. There is a marvellous beauty in the offices and rites of the Church during this season. The lessons, generally taken from the prophecies of Isaias, remind us how the desire and expectation, not of Israel only, but of all nations, carried forward the thoughts of mankind, before the time of Jesus Christ, to a Redeemer one day to be revealed ; they also strike the note of preparation, watchfulness, compunction, hope. In the Gospels we hear of the terrors of the last judgment, that second advent which those who despise the first will not escape ; of the witness borne by John tlie Precursor, and of the "mighty works " by which the Saviour's life sup- plied a solid foundation and justification for that witness. At vespers, the seven greater antiphons, or anthems — beginning on December 17th, the first of the seven greater Ferias preceding Christmas eve — • are a noteworthy feature of the liturgical year. They are called the O's of Advent, on account of the manner in which they commence ; they are all addressed to Christ ; atid they are double — that is, they are sung entire both before and after the Magnificat. Of the first, O Snpientin, quce ex ore Altissimi piodiisti, &c.,a trace still remains in the words O Sapientia printed in the calendar of the Anglican Pra3-er Book o])pnsite December 16 — words which prnbably nut one person in ten thousand using tlie Prayer Book understands. The pur])le hue of penance is the only colour used in the sfr\ ices of Advent, except on the l'fa>tMif >aints. In many other points Advent rrsemljles Lent: during its con- tinuance, in Masses de Tempore, the Gloria in e.vcehis is suppressed, the organ is silent, the deacon sings Benedicamus Do- mino at the end of Mass i"ii>tead of [fe, i Missa est, and marriages are not solemn- ised. On the other hand, the Alleluia, the word of gladiu'>s. is only once or twice interrupted during Advent, and the organ finds its voice on the third Sunday: the Church, by these vestiges of joy, signify- ing that the a.^sured expectation of a Redeemer whose birth she will soon celebrate fills her heart, and chequers , the gloom of her mourning with these 14 ADVENT OF CHRIST AFFINITY gleams of briulitiiess. (Fleury, "Hist. Eccles." xvii. ")? ; CTUi^ranger's "Liturgi- cal Year.") ASVEurT or chrzst. [See MiLLENKirM.] ASVOCATVS DEX. .a.BVOCA- TXTS SZABOX.!. [See Oanoxisation.] ASVOCATUS ECCl.ESX.a:. Fer- raris distinguishes four classes nf advocati ecclesiarum, but the most important class, and that with which alone we shall con- cern ourselves here, was that of advocate- protectors, princes or barons, or other powerful laymen, who, for a considera- tion, undertook to protect the property of a church or monastery, as well as the lives of the inmates. In the turbulent period between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries this practice was largely resorted to. The advocatus sometimes received a kind of rent, either in money or in kind, but moi-e generally he was put in posses- sion of Church lands, which he might use for his own benefit on condition of protect- ing the rest. " But these advocates became too often themselves the spoilers, and op- pressed the helpless ecclesiastics for whose defence they had been engaged." ' The Lateran Council, in 1215, had to decree (chap. 45) " that patrons or advocates, or vidames, should not in future encroach on the property entrusted to tliem ; if they presume to do otherwise, let them be restrained by all the severity of the canon law." As law and order became stronger in Europe, the practice of employing advo- cnti naturally fell into disuse. (Ferraris.) mom. '[See Gnosticism.] AETZVS and AETIATTS. Aetius was a native of Antioch, born in the first half of the fourth century He was a good example of the "Grfficnlus esuriens" satirised by Juvenal ; after having been successively a slave, a charcoal-burner, a tinker, and a quack doctor, he applied himself to the profession of pliilosophy, and finally to that of theology. He became a pupil of Leontius, who, on being made Patriarch of Antioch in 350, ordained Aetius deacon. The Arian sentiments to ^\hich he could not help giving e.xprcssidii, led to his expulsion from Antioch; hr sought refuge at Alex- andria, where he learnt fnun a sn])hist the Aristotelian logic, and r()i!ti-i\ riimc, he denied not on'ly the iloi iniH ol Nice, which the great A tlianasi us was engaged ' Hallam's Mhldlv Ayes, c. vii. part 1. in defending, but also thatof theHomoiou- sians that the Sou was like to the Father. The laxity and recklessness of his lan- guage were such that the people called him " the atheist." In 358, hearing that Eudoxus, an inveterate and audacious Arian, was installed at Antioch, Aetius went thither, and soon became a person of some importance. But Eudoxus could not prevail upon the bishops of the neighbouring sees to consent to his re- instating Aetius in the diaconate. Basil of Ancyra complained to the Emperor Constantine of the licence which was allowed to heresy at Antioch ; and the Eni])eror in alarm ordered Eudoxus and Aetius to come to Constantinople. The authorship of an exposition of faith in which the unlikeness of the Son to the Father was maintained was brought home to Aetius, and the Emperor banished him to Phrygia (360). His place of exile was changed to Mopsuestia, and after- wards to an unhealthy town in Pisidia. Here he is said to have maintained his heresy yet more openly, and published in support of it a syllabus of forty-seven articles, which St. Epiphanius has pre- served and refuted. The date of his death is not recorded. (Fleury, " Hist. Eccl^s." xii.-xiv.) APrxwiTY, in the proper sense of the word, is the connection which arises from cohabitation between each one of the two parties cohabiting, and the blood- relations of the other. It is regarded as an impediment to marriage in the Jewish, Roman, and canon law. In the Jewish law a man is forbidden, by reason of aflinity, to marry his step- mother, step-daughter, and step-grand- daughter, his mother-in-law and daughter- in-law, the widow of his father's brother (the Vulgate adds the widow of his mother's brother), the widow of his brother, if he has left children.^ In the Roman law marriage was for- bidden between a man and his mother-in- law, daughter-in-law, step-mother, step- daughter, the wife of his deceased brother, the sister of his deceased wife. It also forbade a step-father to marry the widow of his step-son, and a step-mother to marry the surviving husband of her step- daughter. The canon law, starting from the ])i iiu i]ilf that man and woman who have int.'i-oiirs.' wit h each other become one tlr>h, eonsidered the marriage of one 1 Levit xviii. 8, 14-17; x.x 11, 12. 14, 20, 21 ; Dent. xxii. 30 ; xxvii. 20, 23. AFFINITY AFRICAN CHURCH lo party with the relations of the other as equivalent to a marriag-e with his or her own relation. Affinity was computed by degrees just as consanguinity was, accord- ing to the legal maxim, " The degree of a person's consanguinity with one of a married pair is the degree of his affinity to the other.'' Thus gradually marriage was forbidden to the seventh degree of affinity.' Further, although the relations of one married person could espouse the relations of the other, on the principle that " affinity does not produce affinity," still the impediment of affinity was ex- tended to the children a woman had by her second marriage and the relations of her first husband. Moreover, two other kinds of affinity were introduced, viz. of the second and third class (xi'cundi et tvrfii generis), so that marriage was unlawful between a man married to a -w idow and those who had affinity to his wife's former partner, or, again, who had affinity to those who were in affinity to the former partner. Finally, all these degrees of affinity were contracted by unlawfid in- tercourse as well as by marriage In 121 5 the fiftieth canon of the Fourth Lateran Council abolished the impedi- ment from affinity of the second and third class, as well as that from affinity between the children a woman had in second mar- riage and the relations of lier first hus- band, and limited the impediment of affinity in the strict sense to tlie first four degrees. Lastly, the Council of Trent - confined the impediment of aflinity from unlawful intercourse to the first two de- grees, and so the law of the Church con- tinues to the present day. Thus, affinity arising from previous marriage, to the foiu-th degree, and from unlawful inter- course, to the second degree (both inclu- sive), makes marriage null and void, and, if it supervenes after marriap(>, (lc]iri\-i's tlie guilty party ofhisor her niai-riniiv li-hts. However, with one possiMr rxcrjitioii, viz. that between a man and tlie woman ■whose mother or daugliter he has married, or, vice versa, bet\\-ei;n a woman and a man to whosr I'uilicr or son she has been married, atlinity iiii]ii'des mar- riage only by ecclesiastical, nut by natural law, so that the Pope can grant a dispen- sation.^ Besides the various classes of affinity properly so called, there are further two I Concil. Rom. anno 721. - Sess. xxiv. c. 4. 5 Gurv. Mnral. Tlienl. " De Matrimon." § 813, with Uallerini\s note. species of quasi-affinity, known as Ifli/al and spiritual affinity. With regard to the former, the Church has adopted tln' de- termination of the Roman law, acciirding to which marriage cannot be contracted between an adopted son and tlie widow of his adoptive father, or between the adoptive father and the widow of the adopted son. [See Adoption.] Accord- ing to the canon law, spiritual affinity nullified marriage between the widow or widower of the God-parent in baptism and the person baptised or confirmed, and between the widow or widower of the God-parent and either parent of the per- son confirmed or baptised. Since, how- ever, the Council of Trent, in reforming the older law on spiritual relationship (coynatio spirituals), makes no mention of spiritual affinity, it is generally sup- posed that the latter is no longer to be recognised as an impediment to marriage. AFBZCAXr CBURCH AITD COITIT- CUS. Among the witnesses of the Pentecostal miracle ' were Jews, not from Egypt only, but also from " the parts of Libya about Cyrene," and by some of these Christianity must have been ex- tended in North Africa at a very early period. Eusebius tells us that St. Mark went into Egypt, and founded the Church of Alexandria, of which he was the first patriarch. The first see founded further west is beHeved to have been Carthage, which, at the time when we first hear of it, through Tertullian, one of its presby- ters, writing about 200, was already the centre of a flourishing Afro-Roman Christian province, in which the majority of the inhabitants were Christians. Mona- chism sprang up in Egypt [Abbot] in the third century, and the heresy of Arius appeared at Alexandria near the beginning of the fourth. A flood of light is thrown upon the condition of the African Church in the fifth century by the writings of its greatest son, St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, whose vast and disciplined genius has never ceased to instruct and delight the Catholics of every later age. When St. Augustine died (430), his episcopal city was being besieged by the Vandals from Spain, who soon after made themselves masters of the whole of Roman Africa. They were Arians, and cruelly ])ersecuted the ortho- dox Church, which in the time of St. Augustine could count its four hnndred sees. The Donatist schism, which seduced great numbers into a state of alienation 1 Acts ii. 10. 16 AFRICAN CIIUllCH AGAPE from Ciitluilic communion, had already arisen iihout the hctrinning of the fifth centurv. "Aei ism ; DoUATiSTS.] Be- lisarius in tlir sixili ct iitury defeated the Vandals and veo'\ t rcd Africa for the Emperor Justinian; l)ut Christianity had not had time to recover from the blows which war and liere.-y had inflicted, be- fore the swords of the Arabs, fanatical jiropaoators of the reliirion of Mohammed, liewed down, from tile Nile to the Pillars of Hercules, all authority but their own. Under their liani'l'ul sway, which in the early ages of Islam was wielded with great political skill, Cliristianity became all but extinct in North Afi-ica. Only in our own day, through the conquest of Algeria by tlie Frencli, the Cross has driven back the Crescent on the Barbary coast ; and the intrepid Cardinal Lavi- gerie, Archbishop of Algiers, seems likely to reillume a ray of the ancient glory of the African Church. The present state of Christianity in | Africa may be briefly described as fol- I lows : (1) in Egypt, to which is annexed Arabia, there are two vicariates, one for the Latins, the other of the Coptic rite. Following the Mediterranean coast, we find (2) an archbishop's see at Carthage (Tunis), and (3) an archbishop's see at Algiers, with two suffragan sees, Con- stautina and Oran. 4. Ceuta, a Spanish pdsscssion opposite Gibraltar, gives part of his title to the Bishop of Cadiz. 5. In the islands on the west coast of Africa are four bishoprics : the Canaries, under Seville ; Madeira, St. Thomas, and the Cape de Verd Islands, under Lisbon. 6. The vicariate of Senegambia. 7. All the coast from Sierra Leone to the Niger, including the vicariate of Benin, has been lately committed by the Holy See to the charge of the Society of African ^Missions at Lyons. 8. The See of Angola (Portuguese). 9. A large thinly peopled district, between the Portugtiese posses- sions and the Orange River, has been re- centlj' erected into a prefecture under the title of Cimbebasia. 10. At the Cape are two vicariates, the Eastern and the AVestern. 11. The vicariate of Natal. 12. The see of Port Louis, Mauritius, is immediately dependent on the Holy See. 13. The vicariate of Madagascar. 14. North Zanzibar is under a vicar apo- stolic ; the southern portion is under a prefect apostolic. 15. The vicariate of the Gallas. 16. The Abyssinian Christians [Abyssinian CnrECH] are under tlie jurisdiction of the Latin vicar apostolic of Egypt. 17. The vicariate of Central Africa with its seat at El Obeid in Cordofan. Thus is ."yrica ringed round with Catholic missions, so t hat, if France should ever have a Christian government, or Portugucsi' gnvernors go out animated by the fervour of the Albuquerques of former days, u great and sudden spread of Christianity among the descendants of Ham is far from improbable. On the other hand it has to be admitted that the Moravians, the Presbyterians, the Inde- pendents, the Anglicans, and other sects, liave shown much activity in indoctrina- ting the native tribes (especially of South Africa and Madagascar) in their respec- tive systems, and met with considerable success. AFRXCAsr covxircziiS. These were for the most part held at Carthage. In the first four centuries the African Church, full of activity and fervour, and repre- sented by men of the highest intellectual eminence, among whom we need but name St. Cyprian and St. Augustine, bore its part to the full in those memor- able conciliar discussions which settled the form of doctrine and discipline that Christianity was to bear in the world. The chief subjects discussed at the Afri- can councils which preceded the Vandal invasion were, the re-baptism of heretics returning to the Church, the Donatist con- troversy, the heresy of Pelagius, and the adjustment ofquestions of discipline either internal or between Africa and Rome. Fleury enumerates seventeen Councils of Carthage, the last of which, held in 535, busied itself with repairing the havoc ■which the raA ages of the Arian heretics had made. "We read of an African Coun- cil, the last of the entire series, held in 646, which condemned the £c//iesis of Heraclius. In the following year the Caliph Othman despatched the expedi- tion which, with others that followed it, brought utter ruin on the Roman and Christian civilisation of Africa. AGAPE (from ciyantj, love). A name given in Jude 12 to the brotherly feasts of the early Christians, which are described at l.'ug'th in 1 Cor. xi. They were instituted in jiart on the analogy of the common meals usual among the Greeks {avn-atTia) to which each contri- buted his share ; but this common meal was elevated liv the spirit of Christian cliaritv and ilesii.nied to commemorate the last Mij.i.er wliu h Christ held with His disci]iles, as well as to serve for tlie relief of the poor. Thus it received a liturgical AGE, CANONICAL AGNOET^ 17 character, so that the Apostle calls it " the Bupper of the Lord.'' ' It was also closely connected with the sacred mysteries, and, more probably, preceded them. However, this custom of taking other food before the communion soon died out, althoupli in St. Aug-ustine's time the custom still survived of permitting communion once a year — viz. on Holy Thursday — to those who had just partaken of the agape. The Agape thus separated from the Eu- charist survived for many centuries in the Church, although it was evident even in St. Paul's day how liable it was to abuse, and the complaints of St. Augustine prove that he was familiar with similar scan- dals. The Synod of Gangra, about the middle of the fourth century, anathemati- ses those who despise the Agape, although Van Espen is of opinion that in this place the Agape means no more than a common meal charitably supplied to the poor.' Be that as it may, the Agapai still continued to be celebrated in the Church. The Council of Laodicea, in the latter part of the fourth century, forbade " eating in the house of God," but the Synod in Trullo, centuries after, had to repeat the prohibition, which was placed by Gratian in the corpus juris.* AGE, CAitroDrzcAZ.. The Church, like the State, tixes certain ages at which her subjects become capable of incurring special obligations, enjoying special pri- vileges, of entering on special states of life, or of holding office and dignity. The following is a summary of the principal determinations regarding age, so far as they affect (1) the ordinary life of a Christian, (2) the ecclesiastical and re- ligious state. It must be observed that the canonical age is reckoned from the day of birth, not from that of baptism. 1. With rrgni-d to ordinary Cliristians. The age of reason is generally supposed to begin about the seventh year, though of course it may come earlier in soTue cases, later in others. At that time a child be- comes capable of morLal sin, and so of receiving the sacraments of penance and extreme unction, which are the remedies for post-baptismal sin. The Holy lui- charist and Confirmation, according to the discipline of the West, are usually given 1 In Est! us nd Inc. conv given for distiniiuishinK the " Supper of tlie Lor'i " from thi' Eucharist. 2 See Estius, and tlie Council of Hippo, Hefele. Conciliengeschlchte, ii. p. 58. 3 Hefele, li. i. 7«4. •» lb. i. 707. nfj re.isons are I some time after the use of reason has been attained, when the child has received some instruction in Christian doctrine, and is able to understand the nature of these sacraments, further, at seven years of age, a child becomes subject to the law of the Church {e.ff. with regard to absti- nence, Sunday Mass, &c.), and can con- , tract an engagement of marriage. [Set 1 Espousal.] The age of puberty begins in the case I of males at fourteen, in that of females at twelve. Marriage contracted by persons under these ages is null and void {nisi ; malitia suppleat cetatem). Till the age of ■ puberty is reached, no one can be required to take an oath. At twenty-one, the obligation of fast- ! ing begins; it ceases, according to the common opinion, at sixty. '2. With regard to religious and eccle- siastics.— At seven, a person may be ton- sured. No special age is named in the canon law for the reception of minor orders. A subdeacon must have com- pleted his twenty-first, a deacon his twent^'-second, a priest his twenty-fourth, and a bishop his thirtieth year, A cleric j cannot hold a simple benefice before entering on his fourteenth year; an eccle- siastical dignity — e.g. a canonry in a cathedral church — till he has completed his twenty-second year; a benefice with cure of souls attached to it, before he has begun his twenty-fifth year ; a dio- cese, till he has completed "his thirtieth I A religious cannot make his profession I till he is at least si.xteen years old, and j has passed a year in the noviciate. He must be thirty years of age before he can [ hold a prelacy which involves quasi- episcopal jurisdiction. A gu-1 must be j over twelve years of age before she assumes ] the religious habit. A woman under forty I cannot be chosen religious superior of a i convent, unless it is impossible to find in I the order a religious of the age required, I and otherwise suitable. In this case, a religious thirty years old may be chosen with the consent of the bishop or other I su])erior. (See Council of Trent, Sess. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. Ferraris, " Bibliotheca Prompta.") AGsrOETS. A sect of Monophy- sites founded by the Alexandrian deacon Theniistius, and hence also called Therais- tians. Them istius, alt hough, being a Mono- physite, he held only one nature of the Incarnate Word, maintained that this na- ture was subject to ignorance. Timothy, 0 18 AGNUS DEI ALBIGENSES Patriarch of Alexandria, and his suc- cessor Theodosius (537-539) opposed this assertion, which led logically to the con- fession of two natures, or to the open denial of Christ's divinity. Thereupon, the Agnoet£e formed themselves into a special sect which lasted till the eighth century. (See Petavius, " Ue Incarnat." I. xvi. 1 1 . Hefele, " Conciliengeschichte," ii. 574.) ACNVS DEI. (1) A prayer in the Mass, which occurs shortly before the communion — " Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on lis. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Limib of God, &c., give us peace." It has been used since the time of Pope Ser- gius, in the seventh century. Originally (according to some, till the time of .lohn XXIL), each petition ended with " have mercy on us " ; and this custom still con- tinues in the Lateran basilica (Gavant.). {2) The figure of a lamb stamped on the wax which remains from the Paschal candles, and solemnly blessed by the Pope on the Thursday after Easter, in the first and seventh years of his Pontificate. Amalarius, writing early in the ninth century,^ mentions the fact that in his time the Agnus Dei's were made of wax and oil by the Archdeacon of Rome, blessed by the Pope, and distributed to the people on the octave of Easter. A bull of Gregory XIII. forbids persons to paint or gild any Agnus Dei blessed by the Pope, under pain of excommunication.^ AXiB. A vestment of white linen, reaching from head to foot and with sleeves, which the priest puts on before saying Mass, with the prayer — "Make me white, O Lord, and cleanse me," &c. It sprang from the under-garment (the tunica, or T7o?i))pris) of the Romans and Greeks, which was usually white, although a/bn docs not occur as a technical term for the wbite tunic till nearly the end of the third century. The Greek under-garment had sleeves, and it was this which the Chris- tians adopted for ecclesiastical use. The alb was adopted for Church use from early times. Eusebius speaks of bishops clothed in the holy no^rjfi^s. A cajion attributed to the Fourth Council of Car- thage, 398, and which certainly belongs to that ])eriod, orders deacons to use the alb " only at the time of the oblation or of reading." In 580, the Council of Nar- bonne forbade deacons, subdeacons, or > Fleurv, xlvii. 30. ^ St. Liguori, Theol. Moral, vii. n. 200. lectores to put off the alb before the end of Mass. At the same time, long after this date the alb continued to be worn, at least by clerics, in daily life. Thus, in 889, a Bishop of Soissons forbids an eccle- siastic to use at Mass the same alb which he is accustomed to wear at home. The shape of the alb has remained much as it was, for it is a mistake to sup- pose that it ever was a tight-fitting gar- ment. As a rule, too, it was always made of linen, whence it is often called linea, but it was sometimes made of silk, and adorned with gold and with figures It was also in ancient times ornamented with stripes of purple or gold. Another ancient ornament of the alb consisted in the para- turn, which was in use from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. This paratura (from parare, to adorn : French, j)ariire) was a square piece of coloured embroidery from half a foot to one foot in length, sewed on at four places in the alb. The mystical meaning of this vestment is plainly indicated by the prayer given above. (Ilefele, " Beitrage," &c.) AIiBZCBN'SES. These heretics were so named from the town of A Iby in Lan- guedoc, where a Council was held in 1 176 which condemned their doctrines. They owed their Manichfean tenets to the Pauli- cian sect, which, originally formed in Ar- menia in tlie eighth century, was exiled to Bulgaria, and, becoming very powerful there, gradually extended its numbers and influence up the valley of the Danube, and passed out of Swabia into the south-east of France. Their teachers assumed a great simplicity of manners, dress, and mode of life ; they inveighed against the vices and worldliness of the clergy ; and there was sufficient truth in these censures to dispose their hearers to believe what they advanced and reject what they de- cried. They taught the well-known doc- trine of the ManichsBans, tliat there are two opposing creative princijiles, one good, the other evil: the invisible world pro- ceeding from the former, the body and all material things from the latter.' They also rejected the Old Testament, said that infant baptism was useless, and denied marriage to the "perfect," as they called their more austere members. The con- demnation of their tenets by the Council of Alby produced little or no ettect; they still multiplied and spread; and Raymond ' Protestant writers liave dciiietl this, but it has been conclusively established by, .among others, Mr. Hallani, in his History of t/ie I Midd.e Ages, ch. ix. part 2. ALEXANDRIA ALEXANDRIA 19 VI., Count of Toulouse, protected them. Innocent III. sent Peter of Castelnau to Languedoc, as his legate, to oppose the spread of the mischief. In 120() Diego, the holy Bishop of Osmain Spain, attended bv Dominic his sub-prior, engaged in a mission in the south of France, the result of which vas to bring back great numbers to the Catholic faith. The legate having j been murdered in 1208 by a servant of the Count of Toulouse, Innocent proclaimed a crusade or holy war, -with indulgences, against the Albigensian heretics, and re- quested Philip II., the King of France, to puthimself at itshead. The king refused, but permitted any of bis vassals to join it who chose. An army was collected, com- i posed largely of desperadoes, mercenary soldiers, and adventurers of every descrip- tion, whose sole object was plunder. Ray- 1 mend, in great fear, not only promised all ^ that was demanded of him, but assumed the Cross himself against his proteges. \ The war opened in 1209 with the siege of B^ziers and the massacre of its inhabi- tants. Simon de Montfort, the father of the famous Earl of Leicester, was made Count of the territories conquered. The war lasted many years and became politi- cal; in its progress great atrocities were \ committed, Languedoc was laid desolate, and the Proven9al civilisation destroyed. Peace was made in 1227, and the tribunal of the Inquisition established soon after. | St. Dominic, who preached zealously in , Languedoc while the war was proceeding, and founded his celebrated Order in ' 1215, is thought by some to have been \ the first Inquisitor ; but this seems to be a mistake. (Gibbon, liv.; Fleury, Ixxii.) , AXiEXATTDRZA (Church of). The foundation of this Church by Mark the Evangelist, the epurjvevTrjs Uerpov, as he is called by Papias, has been already noticed [Afkic.\n Church]. The names of eighteen bishops of Alexandria between ! St. Mark and St. Athanasius are on re- cord, but little is known about most of them. Demetrius, who died in 234, is known as having been the great Origen's bishop, who first favoured and afterwards [ persecuted that extraordinary man. The j eighteenth in succession to St. Mark was j Alexander, one of the fathers who sat at Nicsea. Under him arose the Arian con- 1 troversy [Arians, Aeius]. Athanasius j [see that article'] succeeded Ale.xander in , 326, and after battling with Arianism for ' more than forty years, passed the close of > his stormy life in peace, dying in 373. j Even in the fourth century, a large pro- | portion of the people of Alexandria were idolaters, as is shown by the story of George the intrusive Arian bishop, mur- dered in a popular rising because he was believed to have insulted some of the heathen rites. In the fifth and sixth centuries Monophysite bishops had pos- session from time to time of the see of Alexandria, which now began to be called a patriarchate [Patriarchate]. The people of Egypt became generally at- tached, with the greater part of their clerg\^, to the doctrine of one nature in Christ, and rejected the decrees of Chalcedon. But these decrees, after a long period of more or less direct opposi- tion, were espoused by the Byzantine emperors, and imposed by force on all the countries under their rule. Hence it happened that the Coptic Monophjsites, when Amrou, the lieutenant of Omar, invaded Egypt in 638, were in the posi- tion of an oppressed sect, and they eagerly joined their forces to those of the Arabs in order to drive out the Greek officials and the orthodox creed. From that time the patriarchate of Alexandria has been Monophysite, and severed from Catholic communion. Alexandria having again become a place of considerable trade, there is now a f^ir sprinkling of Catholics in the popuhnion, for whom Gregory XVI. created a Vicariate. On the present Patriarch of Alexandria of the Latin rite, see Patriarch. AliEXANDRza. (School of). Found- ed by Alexander the Great about B.C. 330, Alexandria rapidly grew in popula- tion and wealth, and numbered, towards the Christian era, more than six hun- dred thousand inhabitants.' Under the Ptolemies Greek literature flourished there with extraordinary brilliancy in every department of thought. The Jews, who settled there in great numbers, struck by the fecundity of the Greek mind, strove to turn it from its errors, and convert it to the belief in the unity of the Godhead. The Hebrew Scriptures were under this impulse translated into Greek [Septita- gint], and a school of eminent writers arose, among whom the most distinguished were Philo and Josephus. In a place so full of learning and intellectual strife, Christianity could only hold its ground, after being once planted, by entering seriously into the pliilnsopliicnl debate, and justifying, by argiinients which the learned would appreciate, the wisdom of God in the revelation through Christ. • Gibbon, ch. x. c2 20 ALLEGORICAL SENSE ALMS Hence arose the Christian school of j Alexandria, the great lights of which — \ Pantajnus, Origen, and Clement — lived in the third century. Among the numer- j ous worlis of Origen the most celebrated j are his commentaries on Scripture (he was the founder of Biblical criticism), the ; " PriTicipia" and the book "Contra Celsum." | Clemi-nt is known chiefly as the author of the " redagoous" and the " Stromata." The latter (the name means " hangings," " tapestries ") is a multifarious treatise, in which he professes to fashion a web of Christian philosophy, discussing the con- duct and the sentiments which shoidd belong to a Christian in all the more important relations and emergencies of life. The rise of Arianism, and the con- flicts to which it led, checked the pro- sperity of the School of Alexandria. St. Athanasius writes rather as a worker than as a thinker, and after him no great name occurs till that of Cyril of Alex- andria, who, though not inactive as a writer, employed his stern will and vigorous intellect chiefly in repressing all dissent from the creed of Ephesus (430). AIiXiECORZCAI. SENSE. [See Mystical Sense.] AitXiEIiTTXA. From two Hebrew words imited by a hyphen, meaning " praise Jah," or " praise the Lord." It occurs frequently in the last fifty psalms, but nowhere else in the Old Testament, except Tobias, c. 13. In the Apocalj-pse, St. John mentions that he heard the angels singing it in heaven. The early Christians kept the word in its original Hebri-'AV form, and we know from St. Jerome tliut children were taught to pro- nounc(_: it as soon as they could speak, while it was sung during his time by the Christian country-people in Palestine, as they drove the plough. According to Sozomen, the Roman Church did nob use it in her public services, except on Easter Sunday. At present, it constantly occurs in the Roman Mass and ottice ; indeed, it is always used in the Mass between the Epistle and Gospel except at certain times when the Church omits it altogether, as a sign of mourning. It is thus omitted from Septuagesima to Holy Saturday ; in ferial Masses during Advent ; on the feast of the Holy Innocents, unless it falls on a Sunday ; on all vigils which are fasting-days, if the Mass of the vigil be said, and in all Requiem Masses. It is, however, used in the Mass on the vigil of Easter (Holy Satiu-day) and of Pentecost, because the Masses were anciently said at night, and belonged to the solemnity of the respec- tive feasts. (Benedict XIV. " De Miss." ii. 5.) AX.I. SAZSTTS. As early as the fourth century, the Greeks kept on the first Sunday after Pentecost the feast of all martyrs and saints, and we still possess a sermon of St. Chrysostom de- livered on that day. In the West, the feast was introduced by Pope Boni- face IV. after he had dedicated, as the Church of the Blessed Virgin and the Martyrs, the Pantheon, which had been made over to him by the Emperor Phocas. The feast of the dedication was kept on the thirteenth of May. About 781 Gregory III. consecrated a chapel in St. Peter's Church in honour of all the saints, from which time AU Saints' Day has been kept in Rome, as now, on the first of Novem- ber. From about the middle of the ninth century, the feast came into general ol> servance throughout the West. It ranks as a double of the first class with an octave. AX.I. SOirx.S 3>AV. A solemn commemoration of, and prayer for, all the souls in Purgatory, which the Church makes on the second of November. The Mass said on that day is always the Mass of the dead, priests and others who are under obligation of reciting the breviary are required to say the matins and lauds fi-om the office of the dead in addition to the office which is said on that day ac- cording to the ordinary course, and the vespers of the dead are said on the first of November, immediately after the vespers of All Saints. This solemnity owes its origin to the Abbot Odilo of Clugny, who instituted it for all the mnuiistcri.vs of his congregation in the y ar '.tits. Some authors think there are tiaccs :it lo;[>t^ of a local celebration of this day lirfore Odilo's time. With the Greeks Saturday was a day of special prayer for the dead, particularly the Saturday before Lent and that which preceded Pentecost. (Thoma.s- sin, "Traite des Festes," liv. ii. ch. 21.) AXiMS (from f\er]fio(Tvvrj), originally a work of mercy, spiritual or temporal, and then used to denote material gifts bestowed on the poor. Almsgiving is frequently and urgently enjoined in the Old Testament.' So highly did the Jews think of this duty, that in Chaldee almsgiving is expressed 1 E.g. Levit. xix. 9, 10 ; xxiii. 22 ; Deut XV. 11. ALMONER ALTAR 21 by a word which sijfnifies justice or | rigliteousness, and in the LXX the word (ktrjfioaim) or " aliiiseiN in;: " is iifteii ] used to translate thr lli lin u l-n- justice , or rig;hteousness. In tlir Ni w 'ri-.-tameiit Christ ninkes almsdceds in those wlmare able to perform them an ahsi )lnti'C(in(lil ion of salvation.' St. Paul rxlmi-t^ tlif faitli- fulto lay by everj-wi'i'l; s..niot hnii; for- the needsof the poor ; and tlir nuniri-ou-. ri-W- gious orders which (h'\otc thcin>rl\es chiefly or in part to the can' of the poor, prove that the >pirit of Cin-ist and His Apostles still animates the (Jliiircli. All are of course strictly bound to re- lieve the poor, when they are in extreme necessity — i.e. when they are in proximate danger of death, or grievous sickness | through want. I5esides this, St. Liguori teaches that persons are l.iound, out of that ]i;irt of tln ii' income \vhi(di remains over when thrv haxe made suitahle jiro- yision lor themsehes and tiieii- families, to relieve the ordinar}- necessities of the poor. The sum whicli a rich man is strictly bound to eive in charity must vary in varying circiimst ance^, and can never be fi.\ed exactly ; hut. \\\nw{ iVom strict obligation, the blessing- ]iromi>ed to generous alnw^^ixinn for the love of God will al\\;i\- ]m o\i- a strong incentive with the C'liri-.tiaii soul. Ecclesiastics are bound to spend all the revenues of their benefices, except what is required for their own maintenance, in pious uses. The poor of the place, if they are in i serious need, must be considered tirst,- and i if the cure of souls is attached to the benefice, the cleric who holds it is bound to seek out the poor in his district. (St. Liguor. " Theol." lib. iii. 31 seq., lib. iv. 497.) AXiMOBTER {eleemosynarius). An ecclesiastic at the court of a king or prince, or in a nohle mansion, having the charge of the di>i rihul ion of alms. From the fourteentii century tlie otlice of Grand Alnioner in Fi-anc- lose into e\en greater im])ortance, hecaii>.' tei> olhcer had the charge of the kine'> i ccle^ia.-i ical patronage. The Revolution swept it away; inider the Second Em])iri> it re- appeared; but it has not sn7-\ i\fd S:-dan. One of the Anglican bi-lio],. has the title of Lord Ilitjh Almone,', and di.s- penses the sovereign's alms. Cluqihiius of anykindare commonly called almoners in France. The finmonicr dc lon who had descended on Jesus, Melchisedec an awn superior to Christ.' Eusebius, with other ancient autliori- ties, .speaks of Paul of Samosata as renew- ing the error of Artemon. Paul, bishoj) of Antioch, was notorious for his avarice, love of worldly pomp, and irregular life. He conceived of the Word and Holy Ghost as mere attributes of God, not divine Persons. Jesus Avas a mere man, born ofa virgin and enlightened in an extra- ordinary degree by the Word or Wisdom of God. After twice deceiving the bishojis assembled in council at Antioch by false statements and false promises, he was deposed at a third Antiochene council in 269.'^ [See Antioch, par. 7.] Similarly Berylhis, bishoji of Po>fra in Arabia, denied the pre-existence and divinity of Jesus Christ. The l)isho])s who met in council against him called in Origen to their lielji, and the latter suc- ceeded in bringing back Reryllus to the truth.' AX.TAR. Th(> Hebrew word n:irp which is usually translated "altar," means literally "a ]>lace for sacrifice:'" and in the New Testament its equivalent is ' Kiisob. v. -JS ; Flnlo^ophnm. vii. .30. ^ Ilefelc, Concilitiigesihichtt, 1. 135 ieq. s Euseb. Hist. vi. 33. 22 ALTAR ALTAE 6v(nale altar-cloths, and, in fact, both the material and the number of these cloths seem to have varied in early times. (See Rock, " Hierurgia," p. 503 ; Kraus, "Archfeol. Diet.," Altartiicher.) AX.TAR, STRXPPZN-G OF. fSee- IIOLY WilKK.] 24 AMBO ANAGNOSTES AMBO (Qr. ava^aiveiv, to ascend). A raised platform in the nave of early Christian churches, surrounded by a low wall ; steps led up to it from the east and west sides. The place on it where the Gospel was read was higher than that used for reading the Epistle. All church notices were read from it ; here edicts and excommunications were given out ; hither came heretics to make their recantation ; here the Scriptures were read, and sermons preached. It was gradually superseded by the modern pulpit. A good example of the " ambo " may be seen in the church of San Clemente at Rome. (Ferraris.) aiffiBBOSZAM' CHANT. [See Plain Chant.] AlvxBilosZAir X.ZTVBCY. An an- cient Liturgy still used in the church of JNIilan instead of the Roman Mass, from which it differs in many striking points. [See Liturgy.] We read in Walafrid Strabo, an author of the ninth century, that St. Ambrose regulated the Mass and Office of his church at Milan, but some parts of this rite are older than St. Am- brose, while, on the other hand, the Ambrosian Missal contains greatadditions which date from St Gregory the Great. According to the Ambrosian rite, there is no Mass for the Fridays in Lent ; and the oflfering of bread and wine by the people for the sacrifice is still retained in solemn Masses. The Ambrosian rite was con- firmed by Pope Alexander VI. in 1497, and is still retained. (Oeillier, " Auteurs SacrSs," torn. xiii. c. 1.) AMBRT (Lat. armarium, whence almarium; Ft. armoire). A closet or cupboard, place for tools, chest. " In the form almery corruptly confused with almonry, as if a place for a/m« " (Murray's Dictionary). The same authority explains an ambry in a church as " a cupboard, locker, or closed recess for books, sacra- mental vessels, vestments, &c." In its corrupt use the word was applied, Stow tells us, to the old almonry of West- minster Abbey, " for that the alms of the abbey were there distributed to the poor." AMEM'. A Hebrew word signifying " truly," " certainly." It is preserved in its original form by the New Testament writers, and by the Church in her Liturgy. According to Benedict XIV., it indicates assent to a truth, or it is the expression of a desire, and equivalent to yivoiro, "so be it." ' ' De Miss. ii. 5. He adds a third sense — viz. consent to a request — but gives no clear instance of this use. "Amen" signifies assent when used at the end of the Creeds. In the ancient Church the commuuicants used it as an expression of their faith in the Blessed Sacrament. Thus we read in the Apo- stolic Constitutions ■ — *' Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, ' The Body of Christ,' and let the recipient say, 'Amen.'" St. Ambrose explains the " Amen " used thus in communicating as meaning " it is true." At the end of prayers " Amen "signi- fies our desire of obtaining what we ask. Thus it is said by the server, after the collects in the Mass, as a sign that the faithful unite their petitions to those of the priest. In Justin's time, the people themselves answered " Amen " as the priest finished the prayers and thanksgiviugs in the Mass, and was about to distribute the Holy Communion.* AMZCS {Amictus. Called also '*' kn- merale," " superhumerale," " anaboladi- um," from avaiiaXkeiv, and, in a con-upt form, " anabolagium "). A piece of fine linen, oblong in shape, which the priest who is to say Mass rests for a moment on his head and then spreads on his shoulders, reciting the prayer — " Place on my head, O Lord, the helmet of salvation," &c. For many centuries priests celebrated with bare neck, as may be seen from many figures in the Roman Catacombs, and from the mosaic at San Vitale in Ravenna. The amice, however, is fre- quently mentioned after the opening of the ninth century.^ Originally, as Innocent III. expressly testifies, it covered the head as well as the neck ; and to this day Fran- ciscan and Dominican friars wear the amice over their heads till they reach the altar. It also was not at first concealed by the alb, as is now the case, and it was often made of silk and ornamented with figures. At present it is made of linen, and only adorned with a cross, which the priest kisses before putting on the amice. Mediaeval writers have given very many and very difi'erent symbolical mean- ings to this vestment. The prayer already quoted from the Roman Missal speaks of it as figuring the " helmet of salvation," and a similar prayer occurs inmost of the ancient Latin Missals. AN-ACsrosTES. [See Lbotob.] > viii. 12. » Apol. i. 67. * " It was introduced in the eighth," sayt Dr. Rock ; but see Hefele. Beitraqe zur Kirchem- geschichte, &c., 11. ANAGOGICAL ANGEL 26 AM-ACOGlCAli (literally, "leading up "). A name given to things typical of Christ in the Old, or to the actions of •Christ in the New, Testninent, so far as they signify the eternal glory which awaits the elect. The anagogical is a subdivision •of the spiritual or mystical senses. {See St. Thomas, S. i. I, 10.) ANAPHORA. Greek word for Offer- tory, in the Mass. ANATHEIVIA. A thing devoted or given over to evil, so that " anathema sit " means, "let him be accursed." St. Paul at the end of 1 Corinthians pronounces this anathema on all who do nut love our blessed Saviour. The Church has used the phrase " anathema sit " from the ear- liest times with reference to those whom she excludes from her communion either because of moral oHences or because they persist in heresy. Thus one of the earliest councils — that of Elvira, held in 306 — decrees in its fifty-second canon that those who placed libellous writings in the church should be anathematised ; aud the First General Council anathematised those who held the Arian heresy. General •coxmcils since then have usually given solemnity to their decrees on articles of faith by appending an Anathema. Neither St. Paul nor the Church of God ever wished a soul to be damned. In pronouncing anathema against wilful heretics, the Church does but declare that they are excluded from her communion, and that they must, if they continue obsti- nate, perish eternally. ABTCHORXTE. [See Hermit.] ANCEXi. The word (ayyfXos, a translation of ^X^O) means messenger, and is applied in a wide sense to priests,' prophets,- or to the Messias ^ as sent by God. Specially, however, it is used as the name of spiritual beings, created by God but superior in natuie to man. The ex- istence of sucli sujit iliuman intelligences was conjectured even by heathens such as Plato ; and although the Sadducees * be- lieved " neither in angel or spirit," angels are mentioned so frequently in the Old and New Testament that it would be idle to allege Scriptural jiroofs on the matter. When they were created, Scripture does not distinctly tell us. " The most ancient Fathers," says Petavius, " especially the Greeks and such Latins as are used to ' iMal. ii. 7. 2 A'^ix, j. 13. 5 Is. xlii. 19. There are diflerent views held on this passage, but this is not the place to '4i:icu8S them. * Acts xxiii. 8. I follow the Greeks," held that the angels j were created " before the heavens and all j material things." The contrary' opinion, that the heavens were first created and the angels in the heavens, is that of St. Thomas, and has been commonly held since his time among the Latins. The Fourth Lateran Council declares that God created angels and material 1)eings "at the same time from the beginning." Butthecoun- cil had no intention ol' deciding this ques- tion, which stdl remains open, as has been pointed out by St. Thomas himself, by Vasquez, Petavius, and others. With regard to the nature of angels, numy early Fathers believed that they w ere corporeal. This opinion is not dith- cult to account for when we consider such a history as that of the marriages between the " sons of God " and " the daughters of men," given in the sixth chapter of Genesis.' At the Seventh General Coun- cil, the Patriarch Tarasius argued that angels might be painted, because they were "circumscribed (eVeifii) nepiypanTol da-iv) and had appeared to many in the form of men ; " nor did the council censure his words, limiting itself to a simple de- cision that it was lawful to represent angels in pictures. However, our Lord's words ^ imply, that angels are incapable of marriage, and so exclude the interpreta- tion which regards the " sons of God " in Genesis vi. as a synonym for angels. INIany of the Fathers deny that angels have bodies; so do all modern theologians. The Fourth Lateran Council separates an- gelic from corporeal natures, and Peta- vius rightly characterises th'e contrary opinion as "proximate to heresy." At the same time, angels are capable of as- suming bodies ; to which they are for the time intimately united ; which they move and which they use to represent either their own invisible nature or the attributes of God. Passages of Scripture, which imply this, will readily occiu- to the reader. The angels, then, are purely spiritual intelligences and, for that very reason, superior to man, who is composed of body and soul. They are immortal, since death consists iu the separation ol'soul and body, nor could they be destroyed, except by the omnipotence of God. Their knowledge, unlike that of man, which is slowly ac- • But that the " sons of God " may nie;m pious men is proved by Ps. Ixxiii. 15 (Ixxii. iu Vulg.), Oseeii. 1, &c. 2 The 7a|ti€iv of Matt. xxii. 30 exactly cor- responds to the " took to themselves wives " in the Hebrew of Genesis vi. 2. 26 ANGEL ANGEL quired by means of the senses, depends upon images received from God along with the nature He has given them. They do not reason, as we do, for the keenness of their intellect enables them to see by intuition the conclusions which are in- volved in principles. Their intelligence is in perpetual exercise, and although the future, the thoughts of the human soul, and above all the mysteries of grace, are hidden from them, except so far as God is pleased to reveal them, still they can know and understand many things which are hidden from us. They can move from place to place with a swiftness impossible to man. Finally, they are endowed with free-will and are able to communicate with each other.' To a nature so noble God added sanc- tifying grace. They received power to know God as revealed by faith, to hope in Him, to love Him, and afterwards, if they were worthy, see Him face to face. But, during the time of their probation, Lucifer and many other angels fell. It is hard to determine the precise nature of their sin, but we may quote Petavius, who places it in "a desire of absolute dominion over created things, and in hatred of subjection." The rebel angels were at once deprived of all supernatural gifts and thrust into hell without hope of pardon; the angels who had persevered were at once rewarded with everlasting bliss. The very greatness and perfection of angelic nature, says St. Gregory the Great, made their sin unpardonable. Holy -^Tit represents the number of the good angels as exceedingly great* They are, according to the common teach- ing of theologians, divided into three hierarchies, each of which includes three orders. The first triplet consists of Sera- phim, Cherubim, Thrones; the second of Dominations, Principalities, Powers ; the third of Virtues, Archangels, Angels. This enumeration occurs for the first time in Pseudo-Dionysius, from whom it was adopted by St. Gregory the Great, and so became current in the Church. But it is founded on the mention of seraphim and cherubim in Isaias and Ezechiel ; of angels and of archangels throughout Scripture ; and of the other orders in St. Paul's Epistles to the Ephesians and Oolos- Bians. The meaning of St. Paul is much 1 The text contains a summaiy of the teach- ing of theolofjians. It is contained in Scripture or deduced from it, as may be seen by consult- ing St. Thomas, pt. i. 2 Dan. vii. 10. disputed. But we may remark that very early writers divide the angels into orders, and count thrones, domi7iiitions, &c., among them,' though it is well to re- member that the existence of these par- ticular classes of angels is no article of faith. As to the employment of the angefe, we read in the Epistle to the Hebrews that they are " all ministering spirits." They serve God continually in heaven, and they also defend countries, cities, churches, &c., besides offering to God the prayers of the faithful, particularly, ac- cording to the Fathers and ancient litur- gies, those which ascend to heaven during the Mass. Further, each man has an angel who watches over him, defends him from evil, helps him in prayer, suggests good thoughts, and at last, if he is saved, presents his soul to God.'' The Church, on her part, shows to the angels that veneration or inferior honour which is their due, and, knowing from Christ's words ^ that they are acquainted with things which })ass on earth, she begs their prayers and their kind offices. It is true that St. Paul condemns the dprjo-Kela, or religion of angels, in writing to the Colossians (i. 16), but every scholar is aware that he is warning them against the Gnostic error which regarded angels as the creators of the world ; and with equal reason, the same passage might be alleged as in condemnation of humility. It is true also that, when St. John in the Apocalypse bowed down before an angel, the latter said, " See thou do it not, for 1 also am thy fellow-servant. . . . Adore God.""* But if Protestants think the veneration of angels idolatrous, or at least unlawful, they ought not to sup- pose the holy Apostle so ignorant as to offer it — not to speak of his shortly after repeating the crime. Rather, surely, the angel refused the homage out of respect to the honour which human nature has received from the Incarnation and to the apostolic dignity ; just as a bishop might out of humility decline the homage of one whom, although inferior to himself in ecclesiastical rank, he venerated for his great virtue. The Catholic may answer those who accuse the Church of idolatrs^ for her cultus of angels, as St. Augustine and St. Oyi'il answered long 1 See Bp. Lightfoot's note on Coloss. i. 16. 2 Gen. xlviii. 16 ; Matt, xviii. 10. 3 Luc. XV. 10. Apoc. xix. 10 ; xxii. 8. Another inter- pretation is also given by Petavius. ANGEL ANGLICAN OliDERS 27 ago, that we adore God alone with latria or supreme adoration, and that to Him alone we offer the sacrifice of the Mass. Ai«i-cx:x.s, fivzx.. [See Devil.] AM'CEX.S, FEAST OP. Since the fifth century churches were dedicated, both in the East and West, to the holy angels. In the West, there was a famous apparition of St. Michael on Mount Gar- ganus, an event which Baronius places in the year 4n.j ; and this apparition gave occasion to the feast of St. Michael which the Roman Church keeps on September 29, and which is mentioned in the mar- tyrologies of Jerome, Bede, and others, as the Dedication of St. Michael. There was another apparition of the same arch- angel in France during 706. " It is this apparition," says Thomassin, "on Mount Michael, or In Periculo Maris, which was once so celebrated in France, and of which the commemoration is still observed in some dioceses." In the East, the constitution of Manuel Comnenus mentions a feast of the ap- parition of St. Michael on September 6, and a feast of the angels in general on November 8. The feast of Angel Guardians was in- stituted under Paul V., at the request of Ferdinand of Austria, afterwards emperor. (Thomassin, "Traite des Festes.") AirCEX. GVARSZAN'S. [See An- GEL.] AIirCEI.ZCAX.S. An order of nuns, following the rule of St. Augustine, founded by Luigia di Torelli, Countess of GuastaUa, about 15-SO. She had been married twice, but being left a second time a widow when only twenty-five years of age, she resolved to devote the rest of her life and her large fortune to the divine service. She founded her first convent at Milan. Her religious took the name of Angelicals in order to remind themselves whenever they uttered it of the purity of the an- gels. Every nun adopts the name of "Angelica," prefixing it to that of a patron saint and her family name — e.g. "Angelica Maria Anna di Gonzaga." Their constitutions were drawn up by St. Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. ANCEliirs. By this name is de- noted the Catholic practice of honouring God at morning, noon, and evening, by reciting three Hail Mary's, together with sentences and a collect, to express the Christian's rejoicing trust in the mystery of the Incarnation. The first sentence begins "Angelus Domini nuntiavit Marife ; " whence the name of the devo- tion. A bell, called the Angelus bell, rings at I lie several hours. Tlie evening Angelus was introduced by Pope .John XXII. in the fourteenth century; that at noon, according to Mabillon, arose in France, and received Papal sanction at the beginning oi the sixteenth centurj'. In Paschal time the "Regiua Coeli" [q.V.] is recited instead of tlie Angelus. ATrcx.iCAN' ORDERS. The vali- dity of Anglican orders is a subject of controversy or not, according to the view taken of the nature and effects of ordina- tion. The late Archbishop Whately (see his treatise on the " Kingdom of Christ," passim) held (1) that the Church of Christ consisted of many separate com- munions having nothing necessarily in common but the profession of belief in Jesus Christ as the Redeemer of mankind; (2) that Christ's kingdom was "not of this world," i.e. not intended to be sus- tained by temporal coercion, as earthly kingdoms are ; (3) that every Christian Church or sect, while repudiating all coercive means either for or against itself, had the right to organise itself and manage its internal aff'airs; (4) that a necessary part of such organisation was the appointment of office-bearers and ministers. Considered thus, Anglican orders are undoubtedly " valid ; " for no one doubts that the Anglican Church has a separate corporate existence, and laws and a government of its own, nor that its clergy are regularly appointed in con- formity to those laws. Nor would any one holding this view justly object to the ordination of Anglican clergymen who have submitted to the Roman Church and desire to become priests ; for he would admit that his view of ordination and that held in the Catholic Church were totally distinct things, so that to treat an Anglican clergyman as if he had not been previously ordained would merely imply a radical difference of con- ception as to the nature of ordination, and convey no slur on the rites or formalities by which his admission as an office-bearer in the Anglican Church had been prefaced. But it is well known that there is a large and increasing section of Anglicans, who hold much the same theory as to the nature and effects of ordination that Catholics do — viz. that in virtue of authority derived in an unbroken chain [ from the Apostles [Oeder, Holy] the j bishop who ordains a priest confers on 28 ANGLICAN OEDEES ANGLO-SAXON CHUECH him the right and the duty of offering the sacrifice of the New Law by celebrating the Eucharist, and of absolving- penitents from their sins. If Anglican ordina- tion really conferred these powers, the consideration of the manner in which they have been used for the last three hundred years, and of the manner in which they are used now, would be one of the most painful and perplexing sub- jects of thought on which a Catholic could enter. At the same time, the Anglican party referred tohaVe no choice but to claim for their ordinations nothing less than the potency above described, for they hold, as we do, that a priest in the Cathulic Church is either all this, or he is — nothing. Hence an earnest and searching conti-oversy has arisen of late years, with the view of sifting and testing the validity of those orders of which the consecration of Parker by Barlow in 1559 was the fountain-head. The subject is encumbered with in- numerable details, and we have only space for a few important propositions in connection with it. 1. The Eonuui Church, though it has never pronounced a formal decision on the validity of Anglican orders, has in practice treated them as invalid, since Anglican clergy men have to go through all the usual stages before being admitted to the priesthood, as though they were simple laymen. 2. No record of the consecration of Barlow (who consecrated Parker) is in existence, and it is doubtful whether he was ever consecrated at all. 3. The ordinal used at Parker's con- secration— that of Edward YI. — shows a manifest intention of rwt making a Catho- lic bishop, as then and now understood, but of appointing a sort of overseer, who, deriving his power from the sovereig-n, should administer discipline, teach, and preach. 4. Similarly, the Anglican ordinal for making priests, at any rate down to the time of Charles II., bore on its face the intention, not to make sacrificing priests, but " a Gospel ministiy." 0. Even if their orders were valid, Anglicans would not any the more belong to the true Church. " Cathdlics believe their orders are valid, because they are members of the true Church, and Angli- cans believe they belong to the true Church, because their orders are valid." ' ' Cardiual Newman's A'.vsoys Crit. and Hist. (1877), vol. ii. 1). 87. (Canon Estcourt's "Question of Anglican Ordinations discussed," 1873; A. Button's " The Anglican Ministry," 1879, a lumi- nous and able treatise.) Axrci.o-SAxoiir church, his- tory or. [See E^'GLISH Chuech: ANGL0-S.iXoN Period.] AirGi.o-SAXosr church (Faith AND Discipline of). We have thought it well to devote a separate article to show how truly Roman, and how identical with the Catholic creed and worship of to-day, were the Anglo-Saxon creed and worship. When Aethelheard, archbishop of Canter- bury, demanded of the bishops assembled in council at Cloveshoe (803) an exposi- tion of their belief, they unanimously answered : " Know that the faith which we profess is the same as was taught by the Holy and Apostolic See when Gregory the Great sent missionaries to our fathers." In theory, then, the Anglo-Saxon faith was identical with the Roman. We proceed to show that it was also identical in practice. 1. Tfie Sacrifice of the Mass. — Everywhere, both in the East and in the West, we meet with the priest who officiates at the " sacrifice of the body and blood of Christ," the altar on which the victim is offered, and the liturgy or form of prayer with which that offering is accompanied. The Britons, before the arrival of the Saxons, had " their altars, the seats of the heavenly sacrifice,' and " their priests who stretched out their hands over the most holy sacrifices of Christ"; (Gildas, pp. 37, 76, ed. Steven- son, 1838) and the Scots, in the remote isle of Icolmkille, " celebrated the sacred mysteries of tlie holy sacrifice, and con- secrated, according to custom, the body of Christ." (Cumiuian, "Vita S. Columb." pp. 29, 32.) With some accidental varia- tions, especially in the parts preceding the Canon, the form of the service was substantially the same as in all Churches, Eastern and Western, each carefully pre- serving the Trisagion or Tersanctus, the invocation, the consecration of the ele- ments, the commemoration of the living and the dead, the fraction of the host, and the communion of the faithful. The several improvements which the Pontiffs of the fifth and sixth centuries had intro- duced in the preparatory part remained for a time unknown to certain ancient Churches which originally had received their liturgy from Rome; hence the variety of rites. Our native writers describe the Mass as the "celestial and mysterious sacrifice, the offering of the victim of ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH 20 salvation, tbe sacrifice of the body and blood of Christ " ; they tell us that at the consecration " the elements of the bread and wine are, through the ineflable hallowing of the Spirit, made to pass into the mystery of Christ's flesh and blood " ; that " the bread and wine are then conse- crated into the substance of His body and blood " ; " that the holy and precious Ixuly and blood of the Lamb, by whom wt- have been redeemed, are again immolated to God for the benefit of our salvation." (Beda, " Hist.", ii. c. 5 ; iii. c. 2. ; iv. cc. 14, 22, 28 ; " Hist. Abb. Gyrven.," inter Redse opera minora, p. 331, ed. Giles, 1843; Thorpe, " Eccles. Instit." ii. p. 22 iind p. 376, quoted by Liiigard; Bedii, "Horn, in Vig. Pusch." p. 31 ; " Horn, in Epiph." p. 272 ; Alcuin ad Paulinum, xxxvi.) Numerous canons and rubrics regulated the celebration of Holy Mass. An altar, a paten or dish, and a chalice, all three previously consecrated by a bishop, were required ; the offlete, or bread for the consecration, was to be made of the tinest flour, without the admixture of any kind of leaven : the wine was to be pure, and to be mix(>d, according to the practice of every CInistian Church, with a small quantity of water. On solemn festivals the clergy in attendance were dressed in their richest apparel; the altar, with its furniture, presented the most gorgeous appearance ; the sanctuary was illumi- nated with a profu.sion of lamps and wax lights ; the air was perfumed with clouds of incense ; to the voices of the choir was added the harmony of the organ and of musical instruments. The Italian mis- sionaries would, of course, establish the Roman liturgy in the new Churcli, but Augustine and his companions had been instructed by St. Gregory not to confine themt^elves e.xclusively to the Roman ritual : " Whatever practice you may dis- cover, whicli in your opinion will be more acceptable to God, establish it in the new Church of the Angles, witliout con- sidering tlie place of its origin, whether it be Roman, or Gallican, or anv other Church." (Bedii, I. c. 27.) How far the missionaries availed thcnisflvc^ of this permission is uncertain. Neither liavcwe means of judiring how far tlic sacrificial service of tlie Scotti.^li missionaries varied from that of tlie Romans. One thing, however, is certain: the discrepancy was of no importance, for it never became a subject of controversy between the two parties, like the time of Easter and the form of the tonsure. I 2. The " order or cour.^e of daily prayer" had in view to supply matter for prayer at the canonical hours, and was therefore more su.sce])tible of variety of form and arrangement than the Mass. Not only in national Churches, but in neiglibouring Churches of the same nation, considerable discrepancies existed in the perforaiance of the choral .service. In England, however, these discrepancies never led to controversy among the missionaries. In 747, tlie Council of Cloveshoe, under Archbisliop Cuthbert, confirmed the ascendency of the Roman, and efl'ected the abolition of the Scottish forms by the following decree : " The great solemnities of our redemption shall be everywhere celebrated according to the written ritual which we liave obtained from Rome, in the administration of Baptism, the celebration of Mass, and in all things thereunto pertaining ; moreover, the feasts of the saints through tlie course of the year shall be kept on the days fixed in the Roman Martyrology, with the chant and psalmody appointed thereto ; and nothing sliall be permitted to be read or chanted but what is taken from the authority of the Holy Scriptures and allowed by the custom of the Roman Church." After this Council we hear nothing more of the Scottish forms iu the Southern province, but in the North they appear to have kept their ground till a much later period. Exact uniformity was never obtained. Discrepancies existed in breviaries of the Churches of Sarum, York, and Hereford until the Reformation ; and even at the present day the English Benedictine monks make use of the monastic breviary approved by Paul V., while the English Catholic clergy use the breviary of the Churcli of Rome. 3. Public IVarsMp. — Among the An- glo-Saxons, both at tlie celebration of the s.acrifice and during the canonical hours, tbe whole service, with the exception of certain prayers during the Mass, was chanted by the choir. For the instruc- tion of the people, the Epistle and the Gospel were read, and the sermon was deliveied in their native tongue, but God was publicly addressed by the minister of religion iu the language of Rome (see art. Language of the Church). On Sun- days and festivals the church service was performed with full solemnity. All servile works — hunting and hawking, travelling, trading, the prosecution of family feuds, litigation, the execution of criminals — were prohibited. Transgressors were 30 ANGLO-SAXOX CHURCH ANGLO-SAXON CHUECH liable to the punishments prescribed in the doombook. The clerp:v were ordered by the Council of ('love-ihoe to devote Sunday to the worship of God exclusively and employ themselves in teaching their dependents the rules of a holy life. The duties expected from the laity may be gathered from the following- injunction : " It is most right and proper that every Christian man, who has it in his power to do so, should come on Saturday to the church [the Sunday was reckoned from sunset on Saturday to sunset on the following day] and bring a light with him, and there hear the vesper soug, and after midnight the uht-song (matins) and come with his oil'ering in the morning to the solemn Mass . . . and after the holy service let him return home and regale himself with his friends, and neigh- bours, and strangers, but, at the same time, be careful that they commit no ex- cess either iu eating or drinking." They were expected not to break their fast or to take any meat before the service of High Mass was ended (Thorpe, ii. 440-2). 4, Private Prayer. — The practice of jtjrivate prayer is thus taught to the Saxon laity : " It is also to be made known to Christian laymen that every one pray, at least, twice in the day — that is, in the morning and in the evening. In thiswise ■shall you teach them to pray : First they shall sing ( = recite) the Creed, for it is most likely to open to them the foundation ef their true faith ; and after he shall have sung the Creed let him say thrice, *0 God that madest me, have mercy •upon me,' and thrice, '0 God, have mercy upon me, a sinner.' And this being done, and his Creator alone being worshipped, let him call upon God's saints, that they intercede for him with God ; first on St. Mary, and then on all God's saints. And then let him arm his forehead with the sign of the holy rood — that is, let him sign bimpelf, and then, with upraised hands and eyes, let hiiu in his heart thank God for all He has given him, pleasant or unpleasant.' (Tliorjx', "Eccles. Instit." ii. 418, 4l'0, 4l'4; xxii., xxlii., xxix.) 5. Baptii^m. — The regular manner of administering this sacrament was by immersion ; the time, the two eves of Easter and Pentecost; the place, the baptistery, a small building contiguous to the church, in which had been con- Btructed a convenient bath called a font. All the preparatory ceremonies prescribed by tiie Roman Ritual at this day were in wfie in England. In the course of time, convenience or necessity led to several changes iu the regulations concerning the administration of Baptism. The mis- sionaries baptised their converts in i i\ tT8. As single baptisms continued to increase, a font was placed iu the church ; the time fi.xed for the rite was, in Northumbria, nine days after birth, in the South thirty- seven days after birth. 6. Confirmation was administered to the children at a very early age. \'ene- rable Bede tells howcliildren were brought to St. Cuthbert for confirmation on his episcopal visitations, and how he minis- tered to those who had been recently born again in Christ the grace of the Holy Spirit by the imposition of hands," placing his hand on the head of each, and anoint- ing them with the chrism which he had blessed." (Inter Bedse opera minora, p. 277 ; " Vita S. Cuthb." p. 100.) This and similar passages prove both the grace attributed to this sacrament and the manner in which it was conferred tiefore 700, and are in perfect accordance with the form described in the Pontifical of Archbishop Egbert of York (beginning of 8th century). 7. The' Holy Eucharkt. — From the arrival of Augustine till the Reformation, the English name for the Eucharist was the housel. To administer the Eucharist was to housel ; to rec<'ive it was to go to the housel or to be hanselled. We find the word housel under the form of hunsle in the Moeso-Gothic version of the Gospels made by I'lphilas about the year 370, twice as translation of dvaia, a sacri- fice or victim, and once as rendering of \aTpela, worship of God iu general.' With Beda the Eucharist is the saving victim of the Lord's body and blood — the victim without au equal — the victim of His blood, the body that was slain and the blood that was shed by the hands of unbelievers. Similar language was used in the Scottish Church. The faiti^fnl partook of the housel during Mass, im- mediately after the communion of the celebrant. The Roman niis.sionaries most probably introduced the cust(un of weekly communion among their converts; but in the North, the Scottish missionaries had appointed the feasts of Christmas, Epi- phany, and Easter for general communion. This arrangement, by directing the devo- tion of the pniple to those jiarticular seasons, had led almost to the extinction of frequent communion. The conditions 1 "The original sense [of Housel] is sacri- fice." (Skeat, Etym. Diet., suO voc.) ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH ANGLO-S.IXON CHURCH 31 required of the communicaut were that he should come fasting, and that, if he had fallen into sin, he should have con- fessed it, have submitted to the penance •enjoined, and have received the permis- sion of his confessor. (Thorpe, ii. A'iS, 440.) 8. Tfte Sacrament of Penance. — " Xo man can be baptised twice ; but if a man «rr after his baptism, we believe that he may be saved if he sorrow [behreowsiath] for his sins with tears, and do penance for them as his teacher shall instruct him." [ (iElf. "Hom." i. p. ;292, "De Fide Ca- j tholica.") Penance in the Anglo-Saxon theology comprised four things : sorrow \ for sin, confession of sin, penitential works, and reconcilement or absolnti'Mi. SmTow (behreowsung = a rueing or lamenting) was a real sorrow of heart. Of confe>siiMi the Saxon homilist says: " We cannot be saved unless we confess sorrowfully what through our negligence we have done unrighteously. All hope of forgiveness is in confession. Confession with true pemmce [doedbote] is the angelic remedy | of our sins."' ..." No man will obtain i forgiveness of his sins from God, unless he confess to some of the ministers of God, and do penance according to his judgment. . . . Without confession there IS no pardon." (Thorpe, ii. p. 2.'50.) "By confession the venom has been extracted: it now remains for the leech to prescribe the manner of cure"' (Alcuin, "De Usu Psalmorum," tom. ii. p. '27S), which he did by apportioning the measure of punish- ment to the degree of guilt of the penitent. The penitential, or doom-book, guided the confessor in the imposition of penitential works. There still remained the prayer of reconciliation or absolution. Inlighter and secret cases, it was generally given after confession : but where the otFence was more heinous, or called for public example, the absolution was deferred for a considerable time, until a great part or the whole of the penance had been per- formed. (See Shrovetide, Penance, Penitential Books.) 9. The Sacraments of Order, Matri- mony, and Extreme Unction were all administered according to the Roman custom as laid down in the Sacramentaries of Gelasins ami St. ( iregnry, whence they were Iranscribrd into tli-- rituals of the Anglo-Saxon Church. The benediction of virgins who entered the cloister, the coronation of kings, the consecration of churches, are all alike drawn from the same source. These rites are in substance and almost in every detail identical with the form prescribed in the " Rituale Romaimm" still used throughout the Catholic Church. 10. Prayer for the Dead. — The .\nglo- Saxons had inherited from their teachers the practice of praying for the dead — a practice common to every Christian church before the Reformation. They believed that " some souls proceed to rest after their departure — some go to punish- ment for that which they have done, and are often released by alms-deeds, but chiefly through the Mass if it be offered for tiiem — others are condemned with the devil to hell." (" Sermo ad Pop. in Oct. Pent." apud Whelock, p. 386.) Pray- ing for the relief of the souls in Purgatory was a favourite form of devotion with our ancestors. But they did not only pray for others, they were careful to secure for themselves after their departure the prayers of their friends. This they fre- quently solicited as a favour or a recom- pense, and for this they entered into mutual compacts by which the survivor was bound to perform certain works of piety or charity for the deceased. Such covenants were not confined to the clergj- or to persons in the higher ranks of life. The numerous gilds, whatever may have been their immediate object, all imposed one common obligation, that of accompanying the bodies of the deceased members to the grave, of paying the soul- scot for them at their interment, and of distributing alms for the repose of their souls. The clerical and monastic bodies ottered gildships of a superior description. They admitted honorary associates with a right to the same spiritual benefits after death to which the professed members were entitled. To some the favour was conceded on account of their piety or learning ; to others it was due on account of their benefactions. It belonged of right to the founders of churches, to those who had made to them valuable benefac- tions, or had rendered to them important services or had bequeathed to them a yearly rent-charge for that purpose. Of all these individuals an exact catalogue was kept, the days of their decease were carefully noted, and on their anniversaries a solemn service of Ma.sses and psalmody was yearly performed. For the benefit of the dead money was distributed among the poor, and slaves were set free. The devotions in behalf of the dead consisted in the frequent repetitiim of the Lord's Prayer, technically called a belt of Pater- 32 ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH ANIMALS, LOWER nosters (containing probably 50) which was in use with individuals ignorant of the Latin tongue ; the chanting of certain psalms followed by the Collect still in use in the Catholic Church : in the sacrifice of the Mass, which was offered as soon as might be after death, again on the third i day, and afterwards as often as was re- ! quired by the friends of the deceased. : 11. Veneration and Invocation of the Saints. — This practice the Anglo-Saxons ^ad received with the rudiments of the Christian religion. It formed an integral part of their public and private worship. In public they were frequently called upon to celebrate the anniversaries of individual : saints, and yearly to keep the festival of ' All-hallows as a solemnity of the first rank and importance. In private, at their morning and evening devotions, they were instructed to worship God, and then " to pray, first to St. Mary and the holy .\p'>stles, and the holy martyrs, and all God's saints, that they would intercede tor them to God." (Thorpe, ii. p. 426.) ! A high pre-eminence was allotted to the " most blessed Mother of God, the per- petual Virgin St. Mary." (Beda, " Horn. | in Purif." p. 173.) Next in rank was St. Peter, to whom Christ had given the keys of the kingdom of heaven " with the ! chief exercise of judicial power in the Church, to the end that all the faithful throughout the world might know that 1 whosoever should separate himself from the unity of Peter's faith or of Peter's fellowship, that man could never obtain ^ absolution from the bonds of sin, nor ad- mis^on through the gates of the heavenly kingdom." (Beda, "Horn." p. 199.) Both laity and clergy were solicitous to secure his patronage. They crowded to the churches and altars dedicated to his \ memory, pilgrimages were made to his tomb, and presents were annually sent to I the church in which were deposited his 1 remains, and to the bishop who sate in his ' chair. Among the other saints, particular i honours were paid to Pope Gregory and to Archbishop Augustine as the friends and patrons of the nation. (This sketch is taken almost word for word from " The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, containing an ac- count of its origin, goverument, doc- trines, worship, revenves, and clerical and monastic institutions," by John Lingard, U.D. In this learned and most con- scientious work the reader will find ample confirmations and further developments of the facts here stated,) AirxMAXiS, XiOWER. The doc> trine of St. Thomii.- on the nature of the brutes stands midway between the ex- treme doctrine, held in ancient and re- vived in modern times, that the brutes have rational souls, and the equally extreme doctrine of Descartes, that they are mere machines. St. Thomas admits that the brutes have souls, by which they live and feel, and know and desire the particular objects which are presented to them. They can store up past impres- sions in their memory; they can recall absent images hy imagination. Further they cannot go. They are incapable of forming abstract ideus, and they have no free will. " In the works of brutes," St. Thomas says, " we see certain in- stances of sagacity, inasmuch as the brutes have a natural inclination to pro- ceed with the most perfect order, and, indeed, their actions are ordered with supreme skill." He explains that this skill comes from God, the supreme arti- ficer, and he continues, "On this account certain animals are called prudent and sagacious, although they themselves have no reason or free will, as is clear from the fact, that all animals of one species go to- work in the same way." ^ From this it follows, as will be plain to anyone who has learned the elements of the Thorn ist Philosophy, that all the operations of the brute soul are performed through the bodily organs. The imagina- tion and the memory are sensitive powers, no less than sight and hearing : it is only the intellect and the will which deal with immaterial ideas, and which act without material organs ; and intellect and will are wanting in brutes. From the opera- tions of the soul in brutes St. Thomas infers its nature, in accordance with the philosophic maxim, " essence and opera- tion correspond to each other." ^ As their souls operate through matter, so they spring from matter and perish with it. They are not created by God, but are derived with their bodies from their parents by natural generation.^ With- out matter, they are utterly incapable of operation, and therefore of existence, for nothing can exist unless it acts in some way or other. Hence, their soul is ex- tinguished with the dissolution of the body.' These philosophical principles deter- mine the morality which regulates the conduct of man to the brutes. As the Sum. i. 2, 1.3, 2. ll,„l. i. 118, 1. 2 Ihid. i. Ih, 3. •* Ibid. i. 75, 3. -\:sNATES AJsXUXCIATION 03 lower animals have no duties, since they ai-e destitute of free will, without which the performance of duty is imjios^ible, so they have no rights, for right and duty are con-elative terms. The brutes are made for man, who has the same right over them whicli he has over plants or stones. lit" may, according to the e.xpress permission of God, given to Xoe, kill them for his food, and if it is lawful to destroy them for food, and this without strict nece^^sity, it must also be lawful to put them to death or to inflict pain on them, for any good or reasonable end, such as the promotion of man's know- ledge, health, &c., or even for the pur- poses of recreation. But a limitation must he introduced here. It is never lawful fur a man to take pleasure directly in the pain given to brutes, because, in doing so, man degrades aiul brutalises his own nature. Hence the touching rules in the Old Testament which pre- scribe mercy on man's part to the beasts. Moreover, we are bound for our own sakes not to inflict long and keen suffering on the brutes, except some considerable good results. If we accustom ourselves to .see animals tortured, we are apt to become callous even to human sufferings, and we do wrong in exposing ourselves to such a danger, unless on the weighty grounds of a higher benevolence. " A man," says Billuart, " who puts brutes to death in a cruel manner, and delights in their torments, sins venially, by abusing his power as master and lord. For by such cruelty a man accustoms himself to be cruel to his fellow-men ; whence we read in Prov. xii. ' tlie ju^t man knoweth Ei.e. considers and regards] the souls of lis beasts, but the heart of the wicked is cruel.' " ' ANlffATES {Annatee) or FIRST FXtVXTS. According to the definition of FeiTaris, "Annates are a certain por- tion of the revenues of vacant benefices which ought, according to the canons and special agreements, to be paid to the Roman Pontiff and the Curia." The por- tion due in the case of inferior benefices seems to have been, before the Council of Constance, onehalf of the gross revenues of 1 Billuart, De Justil. Diss. x. a. 1. For the spirit i)f the O.T. on this matter, see Exod. xx. 10. xxiii. 12. where the beasts, like men, have a day of rest provided for them ; Ueut. xxv. 4. ■'thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treadetli out thy corn ; " xxii. 6, where the Jews are for- bidden to take the bird with the brood on which she is sittiiii;. the first year, and in the case of bishoprics and abbeys, a sum regulated according to "the ancient taxation." At that council a decree was passed after much disciis.*ir>n. of which the general efl'ect was to allow to the Roman Pontiff" the first year's in- come of all dignities and benefices in his gift. The Council of Basle complained of 1 the burden of the " annat'^s." yet when it j was a question of niaiutainluu- the anti- j pope Felix, whom they had -4 uj), they . imposed a still heavier burden, in the shape of " first fruits," on the nations adhering to them. In England the annates were finally transferred t'rnm tlip Vnjif to the KiiiL;' liy a statute passrd in 15-'U. Tln'v are still payable to the sovereign in the case of I Anglican bishoprics and Crown livings. [ ingto the revolutions which within j the last ninety years have so completely I altered the face of 1jii-->]" . annates form. [ at the present day, a scarci K apjireciable portion of the revenues of the Holy See. \ Their place is supplied more or less im- 1 perfectly by the voluntary contributions I usually called " Peter's Pence " [see that 1 article]. Zahlwein remarks : — " Annates (1) are paid for the support of thf Pope, the Cardinals, and other otiicinU. (I'l They are applied to defi-ay the cv]H-nsev ,if the legates and apostolic luuu ii.s. whom the Popes find it necessary to -end \ti various, nations and the Courts ol' ]irinces. (.o j!y means of these annates, aiil is extended ro bishops who have been ex])elle(l from their sees, and to princes unjustly (lislii,,ul. When a testator diieci,- that such an auniver- i sary shall be celehrated, without S])ecify- ] ing " hethiT once or oftener, the canon j law interprets his intention as being that the foundation shall be /// prrpi^tinnn. If I the anniversary falls on a eieater ated or postponed. (Ferraris, Amiirermriinn.) ANiVtrTffCIATION' OP THE BX.£SSZ:i> VZaCIN- {Annimtiati' . U ANNUlsCIATION ANTHONY, ST., ORDER OF fvuyyf\ia-n6s, '^^^ word signifies " declaration," or " announce- ment"— i.e. of the fact that God the Son was to be born of Mai-y — but at the very moment in which the fact was announced, ])f, but Dollinger (" Hippolytus and Oallis- tus," Engl. Tr. p. 1)1 seg.) argues with weighty reasons that he was anticipated thirty years before by Hippolytus, the sup- posed author of the " Philosophumena." In the election of Felix II. (a.d. 355-0) a new element appears which was often to manifest itself again — viz. the influence of the Court. The Arian Emperor Cou- stantius, after removing Pope Liherius from Rome, compelled three disreputable bishops ()car(i(r/to7rovf • ov yhf) av riy f'tnoi iwia-KOTrovs) " to establish as bishop in the palace a certain Felix, who was worthy of them." So Athanasius writes (" Ad Monach. et Hist. Arian." 75) only three years after the event, and we can scarcely doubt that his account is accurate in the main. It is accepted, e.(/., by Natalis Alexander (Diss, xxxii. a. 3 in Sffic. iv.), Hefele (" Concil." i. p. 661), and many other Catholic authorities. But Felix is commemorated as a saint in the Latin Church on July 29, and Pagi (" In Annal. Baron." ad ann. 357, n. 3, ad 357, n. 16 seg.) tries to show that he was no Arian intruder, but succeeded Liherius upon his resignation. After Felix, we meet with no more heretical Antipopes, although Laurentius (498) w^as supported by the Byzantine Court in the belief that he would approve the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno. Indeed, for many centuries Anti- popes were upheld simply by factions among the clergy and people, who had the power of election. Thus Eulalius (418-19) was supported by a minority of clergy and people, and by the Prefect Symmachus ; he was finally expelled by the Emperor Honorius (Fleury, " H. E." xxiv. 7 seq.). Laurentius (498) had a party of the people and Festus the pa- trician on his side ; the case was decided against him by the Arian king Theodoric (lb. XXX. 48). Dioscorus (530) was raised by popular faction and died a mouth j afterwards (ib. xxxii. 21). Pascal (687- 692) gained a party among the people and the favour of John, Exarch of Ravenna, by bribery {ib. xl. 39). The tumultuous mob which chose John (844) abandoned him almost immediately {ib. xlviii. 15). The deputies of the Emperor Lothair and the arms of the Frankish soldiers enabled the usurper Anastasius to defy the true Pope Benedict III. for a brief space in 855 ' {ih. xlix. 26). A new complication occurred in 964. Benedict V. does not im()ny. Micceeded to liis place. He in turn, after the lapse of a year, resigned in favour of Gregory VI., an excellent man, though apparently he bribed Benedict to resign. Althougli therefore there were not three rival Popes, still there were three parties in the Roman Church and some reason to fear that a triple schism might arise. It was this fear which induced the German i King Plenry III. to interfere. A council of Sutri deposed Gregory and Silvester, Benedict was deposed the same yi'ar in a synod of Rome, and Suidger of ISaniherg, at the recoumiendation of tlie king, was canonically elected. He took the title of Clement II. (Ilefele, " Concil." iv. p. 706 seq.) The election of the Anti]>ope Cada- laus (the name is spelt in many ways), known as Ibnioriu.. II., has greater and wider interest, connected as it is with the general history of the Churcli. Tlie party of rei'orm chose Alexander 11. Beatrice of Canossa was zealous in his cause, and he was acknowledged as true Pope in 1002 at a synod of Augsburg. But many feared the strong measures a good Pope might take against the simony and concubinage prevalent among the clergy. The Lombard liisliops were de- termined to lun e a l'o]ie who came from the Paradise of Italy Lomhardy), and who would have ]i,it lenci.' ^\ ith human weakness. A ])o\\ei-lul party at Rome was at one with them, at least on the latter point. Thus it came to pass that Cadalaus, bishop of Parma, a man of licentious life, was chosen Pope at a council of Basle by the Lombard prelates and Roman dejiuties in lOtjl, took the title of Ilonorins IL, and was invested by the young King Henry 1"\'. with the insignia of the Papacv pist twentv-eight davs after the eanHnal'l.i>l,Mii- had ;.lerte a s.Ties of Aiitipoiies in the Ion- str.le ]„■}^^r,■n llie f;,,,|„re and the rapaey. t.iuliert of l;a\eiina, the fa\ourite of Henry IV., was recognised by the Ghibelliiie party as Clement III. ; he was followed by the Antipopes Theo- doric and Albert. In like manner Biir- dinus of Braga, under the Emperor Henry v., became the Antipope Gregory VIII. (Hergenrother, " Kirchengeschichte," i. p. 707). Anacletus II. , a son of Peter Leone and of Jewish family, was chosen by a party among the cardinals in l\'-'>0. but by means of simony. His opponent, Innocent II., won the allegiance of the Catholic world as a whole, but Anacletus was upheld by the Normans in Calabria, by the Duke of Aquitaine, and others. After his death in 1138, his party transferred their homage to another Antipope, Victor ly. {i/>. 771-3). Once more under Frederic I., the war between the Imperial and I'apal parties called new Antipo])e3 into existence. The hrst of these, also called A'ictor IV., had won the votes of the Ghibelline majority among the car- dinals. He was acknowledged by a synod of Pavia in 1160, and the true Pope, Alexander III., took refuge in France. Another Antipope, Paschal III. {Guido ('lii)icnf), followed in 1164, and another Calixtus III. (John de Struma), in 1168. Frederic ceased to maintain the schism after the peace of Venice in 1177. and the Anti])ope himself submitted to Alex- ander III. Some of the Barons tried to continue the schism by declaring Lando Siterio Pope, but the attempt failed utterly and at once, and I'ope Alex- ander, who died in 1181, had seen the fall of no less than four pretenders to the Papacy. For about two centuries no Antipope disturbed the Church's peace, but in 1378 the election of Urban VI. occasioned a schism rightly called the great, since it was the most grievous ever known. Gregory XL had just brought the " Baby- lonish cai)tivity " of Avignon to an end. It is said that, as he received the sacra- ments of the dying, he warned others against certain persons who advanced ideas of their own as divine ins]iirations, Lnin iil I'd t lie step they had induced him to tal»e, and expressed his dread of the consequences to the Church. There were sixteen cardinals present at Rome, of whom eleven were Frenchmen, four Italians, and one, Peter de Luna, a Spaniard. Gregory, a few days before his death, had empowered them to hold a conclave at any place and without waiting for their colleagues (Ravnald. ad. ami. 1378, n. 2). On April' 7, 1378, they assembled in the Vatican. Their task was far from easy. It would have been ANTIPOrES ANTIPOPES 41 natural for them to elect a Frenchman, but on the other hand, the Romans ear- nestly demanded a Roman or at least an Italian Pope. An April 8, Bartholomew of Prignano, archbishop of Bari, was •elected, and he was crowned on Easter Sunday under the title of Urban VI. French contemporary writers with scarcely an exception represent the cardmals as constrained by violence. They were told by the populace that they must elect an Italian or die; nor were signs wanting that the Roman mob meant to keep their word. There are, however, very strong reasons for refusing belief to these French accounts. Dietrich of Niem, a German and an official in the Papal Court at the time, assures us that the election was pei- fectly free, that the people did indeed beg the cardinals to promote an Italian, but used no force or threats, and that the tumult did not occur till the election was over. Dietrich must have known the truth, and there is everj- ground to think he told it, for he was by no means an enthusiastic admirer of Pope Urban. The testimony of St. Catherine of Sweden, ^iven at length by Ravualdus (ad ann. 1379, n. 20) is to the same effect. She was present in Rome at the time, and talked over the matter with many of the cardinals. 15ut the most conclusive document is the letter also given in full by Raynaldus (ad ann. 1378, n. 19), which the sixteen electors addressed on April 19 to their brother-cardinals at Avignon. They declare that they had ■chosen Urban freely and unanimously, and we know that they acknowledged him for several months without a pro- test. However, Urban's harshness and im- prudence alienated the Sacred College, and in August of that same year the French cardinalsdeclared that the elect i. >n had been constrained, and renouncril all allegiance to Urban, whom they called "an apo.'^tate" and "an accursed Anti- christ " (Raynald. ad ann. 1-37&, n. 48 seq.) They persuaded three out of the f(uir Italian cardinals to join them at Fondi, where, on September 20, the Car- | dinal of Geneva was elected, and became Clement VII. Urban found himself •deserted by every cardinal, for the fourth Italian member of the college (Tebal- deschi) was dead. All the cardinals at Avignon accepted Clement, who soon after established himself, and was acknow- ledged Pope in France, Lorraine, Savoy, "Scotland, Naples, and Spam. The rest I of the Catholic world belonged to the obe- ! dience of Urban. St. Catherine of Siena I was eager in the cause of Urban ; St. i Vincent Ferrar equally so for the Pope.* I of the other line. Urban was followed by Boniface IX. (1389-1404); Innocent Vn. (1404-6) ; Gregory XII. 1407-9. j On Clement's death in 1394, he was re- placed bv the famous Peter de Luna, Benedict 'Xin. The Council of Pisa in 1409 tried to remove the scandal of a double line of Popes anathematising each other and dividing the allegiance of Christendom. I In Session XV. both Popes were deposed, I and in the nineteenth. Alexander V. was I elected. For a time this made matters worse, for neither Gregory nor Benedict ailmitt'-d the validity of the sentence, so that tliire were now three claimants of the Papacy — viz. Gregory XII., Benedict XIII. and Alexander Y. Still, Alex- ander's successor, John XXIII. was ac- cepted by the Emperor Sigismund, and by I the greater part of the Church. I Another attempt at peace was made I by the Council of Constance. It annulled j the pretensions of all three Popes. Of these, Grec'orv resigned wiUinalv. John was dep.jsed "in .-r.Mon xii.. 'May 141.5, and Benedict XIII. in sc-^lou xxvii., two years later. Martin A', was then chosen Pope by the twenty-three cardinals and six deputies from each of the four nations into which the council was divided. Here the schism virtually ended, and Martin Y. ruled over all Catholics. Nevertheless, Benedict XIII. held out at the Castle of Peniscola, on the Catalonian coast. He had received the deputies who brought him the sentence of deposition with solemn protest; he maintained to the last that the little church of his obedience was the nrk of salvation, and that he hini.-elf was the centre of unity. A\'ith his last breath in 1423 he bade his cardinals provide for the election of a suc- cessor, which they did by promoting the Canon Muhoz ' as Clement VII. He, however, resigTied the tiara in 1420, and allowed his cardinals to elect " Otto Colonna, known in his obedience as Martin Y." Munoz became Bishop of the Balearic Isles. Amadeus, Cotint and afterwards first 1 There were only four "cardinals " in Benedict's obedience. Three chose Muiioz; a fourth elected himself, and took the title " Benedict XIV." He was defended by the Count of Armagnac. 42 ARTISTES APOCRYPHA Duke of Savoy and Count of Geneva, was the last of the Antipopes. He was chosen by the Council of Basle, then schismatical, in 1439, and crowned at Basle in the following year. He sub- mitted in 1440 to Pope Nicolas V., who madf him cardinal and pei-petual vicar of the Hilly See in the territories of Savoy, Basle, Stnisburg, &c. He died at Ripaille in 14.-,1. AirTXSTES. A title frequently ap- plied in ecclesiastical history, and in the prayers of the Church, to a prelate or bishop. APOCRXSZARIVS {dirOKp'ivecrdai, to answer). Ecclesiastical, but chiefly Papal, emissaries to the Court of the Emperor were designated by this name from the fourth to the ninth century. So long as the civil power persecuted the Church, there was no place for such offi- cials ; but after the conversion of Con- stantine, the recognition by the Roman emperors of the divinity of Christianity and the claims of the hierarchy gave rise to numberless questions, within the bor- derland of the civil and the ecclesiastical jtu-isdiction, which it was important for the Popes to press on the notice of the em- perors, and obtain definite anstvers upon, so that a practical adjustment might be- come possible. The Apocrisiarius, there- fore, corresponded to the Nuncio or Legate a latere of later times, and was usually a deacon of the Roman Church. Gregory the Great resided in this charac- ter for three years at Constantinople in the reign of the Emperor Mauricius. After the middle of the eighth century we hear no more of such an emissary, because the adoption of the extravagances of the Iconoclasts by the imperial Court led to a breach with Rome. But when Charlemagne revived the Empire of the West, similar diplomatic relations arose between him and the Holy See, which again reqtiired the appointment of Apocri- siarii. It appears that under the first Frankish emperors the imperial arch- chaplain was at the same time Papal Apocrisiariu.-. Sulj^^ei^uently the name was given to nlliciul- ut Court nomination, who held im comniis.-iun from Rome ; and in this way the title in its old sense came to be disused, and was replaced by Legatus [q. v.] or Nuntius. APOCRYPHA (from dn-o/cpiK^oy, hid- den). It corn'>])onds to the Jewish word wliich the .Jews applied to books with- drawn from public use in the synagogue, on account of their unfitness for public I reading.' But the later Jews had also the notion that some books should be withdrawn from general circulation be- cause of the mysterious truths they con- tained.'^ I The early Fathers used " apocrj'phal " j to denote the forged books of heretics, borrowing, perhaps, the name from the heretics themselves, who vaunted the " apocryphal " ' or " hidden " wisdom of these writings. Later — e.ff. in the " Pro- logus galeatus " of Jerome — apocrj-phal is used in a milder sense to mark simply that a book is not in the recognised canon of Scripture ; and Pope Gelasius,'' in a de- cree of 494, uses the term apocryphal in j a very wide manner, (1) of heretical for- geries ; (2) of books like the " Shepherd of Hermas," revered by the ancients, but not a part of Scripture; (3) works by early Christian writers (Arnobius, Cas- sian, &c.) who had erred on some points of doctrine. We need scarcely add that the Protestant custom of calling Wis- dom, Machabees, &c., " Apocrypha," is contrary to the faith and tradition of the Church. [See Canon of the Sckiptuke.] The name is now usually reserved by Catholics for books, laying claim to an origin which might entitle them to a place in the canon, or which have been supposed to be Scripture, but which have been finally rejected by the Church. In the Old Testament the most important apocryphal books are — 3 and 4 Esdras, both of which are cited by early writers as Scripture, the latter being also used in the Missal and Breviary ; 3 and 4 Jlacha- bees ; the prayer of Manasses, which is found in Greek MSS. of the Old Testa- ment, and is often printed, in a Latin version, in the appendix to the Vulgate ; the book of Enoch (cf. Jude 14), which Tertullian regarded as authentic (it only e.xists at present in an Ethiopic version) ; a I51st Psalm attributed to David, which is found in Greek MSS., and in the Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions of the Psalms; eighteen psalms attribtited to Solomon, written originally, according to some scholars, in Hebrew, according to others, in Greek. ^ There is a great mass of New Testa- ment apocryphal literature. Some books, such as the "Epistle of Barnabas," the 1 Buxtorf. Lev. Cliald. et Rabbin, sub voc. 2 4 Esdr. xiv. 4G. 5 Tertull. De An. 2. Clem. Alex. Strnm. iii. 4. 29 ; Euseb. Hist. iv. 22. * Fleury, Hist. xxx. 35 ; but see also Hefele^ Conciliengeschickte, ii. G18. 5 See Reusch, hinkit. in das A. T. p. 176. AroCRYPIlA APOLLIXARIAMSM 43 two "Epistles of Clement," the "Shep- herd of Hermas," may in a certain sense be called ajxicryphal, because, thou. « By Fabricius, Cwlex Apocryphus N. T. 170o-i9) ; Grabe. Spicilegium Patrum, Oxoniae nOO) ; Hiliienfeld, N. T. extra Canonem. re- ceptum (18t)5). "Evangelium Infantim Salvatoris," con- tain legendary miracles of our Lord's infancy. We have a second class of apocryphal Gospels which treat of the Passion and Resurrection of Christ. Of this class is the " Gospel of Nicodemus." It is probably of very late origin, but it was a favourite book in the middle ages. The Greek text still exists, but it was also circulated, before the invention of print- ing, in Latin, Anglo-Saxon, German, and French. Closely connected with this Gospel are a number of documents which ha\-e sprung from very ancient but spuri- ous " Acts of Pilate." These ancient Acts which were known to Justin and Tertullian, have perished, but they called forth several imitationswhich still survive. The one which is best known is a letter of Lentulus to the Roman senate describ- ing the personal appearance of our Lord. It is a forgery of the middle ages. Further, apocrj'phal literature is rich in " Acts of the Apostles," and here, as in the apocryphal Gospels, we find early but spurious Acts, revised and enlarged, and so originating fresh forgeries. Thus the " Acts of Paul and Thecla," in their existing form, are the recension of a veiy early work — forged as early at least as TertuUian's time. The fullest of all these "Acts" is the "Historia Certaminis Apostolorum." It can scarcely be older than the ninth century, but it is of con- siderable value, because the author has made diligent use of earlier Acts, some of which have perished. Of apocryphal Epistles we have, among others, a letter of St. Paul to the Laodi- ceans (only existing in Latin), which, though rejected by Jerome, was accepted as canonical by many great Latin theolo- gians of a later day, won a place in many copies of the Latin Bible, and for more than nine centuries " hovered about the doors of the sacred canon." ' We may also mention a letter of St. Paul to the Corinthians, and another of the Corinthi- ans to St. Paul (both only in Armenian) ; letters supposed to have passed Ijetween St. Paul and Seneca (known to Jerome and Augustine); spurious letters of the Blessed Virgin, to St. Ignatius, to the in- habitants of Messina, &c. &c. Lastly, we have apocryphal Apo- calypses of Paul (called also avaiiariKov ; see' 2 Cor. xii. 1), Thomas, Stephen — nay, even of St. John himself. " APOX.X.XM'A.RZA.M'ZSnX. Apollin- aris was the son of a grammarian, also 1 Lightfoot, Ep. to Colos. p. 305. 44 APOLLIXAEIANISM APOSTASY called Apollinaris, -who migrated from Alexandria to Laodicea, where the younger Apollinaris was born, and of which city he afterwards became bishop. He was distinguished, not only for his great literary knowledge and skill, but also for his austerity of life. He was a voluminous author. He wrote in defence of theChristian religion against Porphyry, and showed like zeal against the Arians, who in revenge inflicted a cruel wrong upon him. He was dear in his youth to St. Athanasius, and he was in friendly relations with SS. Kpiphanius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus. Hence, for a long time the Catholics were unwilling to believe that the errors attributed to him were really his. Athanasius wrote against his heresy without mentioning his name, and at the Alexandrian Council of 3G2, the Apollinarians seem either to have retracted their errors for the moment, or else to have deceived the Catholic bishops. ' But " towards 375 or 376," says Fleury, "their errors manifested themselves so plainly as to make further toleration impossiljle. The Egyptian bishops exiled in Palestine for tlie laith opposed [Apol- linaris] vigoniiisly,'"- and St. Basil wrote against the heresiarch. Apollinaris was condemned in a PiOniuu synod under Pope Damasus in 374. Two years later, the same Po])c, in anndnT lloman synod, anathematised the litresy and deposed Apollinariswith his tA^o disciples Timothy and Vitalis, Apolliiiarist bishops at Alex- andria and Antioch.^ They were con- demned again in the first cinion of the Second rieneral Council and their assem- blies wcir l'oi l)i(lden by Theodosius. A])(illiii,i) is was not always consistent with himself, and it is not easy to dis- tinguish his doctrine from later accretions, which it may have received through his followers. A full account of his doctrine so far as it can be ascertained will be found in Petavius,' from whom we have taken the lollowing summarv : — First, Apollinaris, like "llie .Brians, denied that our Lord bad a human intelli- gence. He admitted tlial Christ had a soul by which He liv.d and l"elt, but he said that the placf ot the intellect and spirit were supplied by the eternal Word. A human intelligence, he argued, would have been useless to our Lord, and incon- sistent with His sinlessness, because a ' Hefele, Concillengeschichte, i. 729. ' Hist. xvii. 25. ' Hefele, ConcUiengeschichle, i. 740, 742. * De Incarnat. i. 6. | created intelligence must needs be pecca- ble. Here -Apollinaris virtually denied that Christ is perfect man, and destroyed all real belief in the Incarnation. Next, he, or at least his followers, held that our Lord's flesh Avas of one substance with His divinity, so that the divinity actually suft'ered and died. They denied that He took flesh from the Blessed Virgin, asserting that Christ brought His body with Him from heaven, and that this body existed " before the ages." On this point, the Apollinarians repeated an old Gnostic error, and were the fore- runners of the Monophysites. They ob- jected to the Catholic doctrine, according to which Christ is true man, because they thought it introduced a fourth person over and above the three Persons of the Trinity. As Apollinaris denied the hu- manity of Christ by depriving Ilim of an intelligent soul, so he did in reality deny His divinity, for a Godhead which can die or suffer is no Godhead at all. (See Petav. loc. cit. ; Fleury : Newman, " Tracts The- ological and Ecclesiastical," 257 seq.) APOXiOCZST. The word is used genei-ally to denote %vriters who defend Christianity and the Church from attack. It is also applied in a special sense to those Christian writers of the first four centuries, who vindicated the faith and discipline of Christ from the torrent of obloquy to which they were exposed in Pagan society. Such were J ustin Martyr, Minucius Felix, Tertsllian, Theophilus, Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, &c., besides others, such as Quadratus, Ari- stides, and Melito, whose works have not come down to us. APOSTASY. It is of three kinds : that from the Christian faith ; that from ecclesiastical obedience ; and that from a religious profession, or from holy orders. An apostate from the faith is one who wholly abandons the faith of Christ, and joins himself to some other law, such as Judaism, Islam, Paganism, &c. It is a mistake, therefore, to brand as apostasy any kind of heresy or schism, however criminal or absurd, which still assumes to itself the Christian name. While the Turks were in the heyday of their power, and had great command over the Medi- terranean, the captivity of Christians among them, and apostasy resulting Irom such captivity, were matters of everyday occurrence ; hence a great number of decisions and opinions respecting the treatment of apostates, on their wishing to return to Christianity, may be found AroSTLE APOSTLE 45 in the writings of canonists. The second kind of apostasy, that from ecclesiastical obedience, is when a Catholic wllfiilly and contumaciously sets at nought the autliority of the Church. Such apostasy, it persisted in, becomes Schism [^.i'.]. The third kind is that of those who abandon without permission the rolioious order in which they are professed : as when Luther abandoned his profession as an Augu5tiuian,aud married Catherine Bora. He is also an apostate who, after having received majororders, renounces his cleri- cal profession, and returns to the dress and customs of the world, " an act which entails ecclesiastical infamy, and, if there is marriage, excommunication." (Ferraris, Apostasia : Mack's article in Wetzer and Wehe.) iiPOSTXiE (from dn-ooToXor, one who is sent). The word is not much used in classical Greek except to denote " a naval expedition." In the LXX it occurs only once, 3 Kings xiv. 6, where Ahias says to the wife of Jeroboam, "I am a hard messenger (uTrdoroXoy) to thee." It was, however, in common use among the later .Tews, who applied it to the emissaries sent by the rulers of the race on any foreign mission. These " apostles " formed a council round the Jewish patriarch, and executed his orders abroad. Probably our Lord adopted the word from the current language of his time.' The name is given in the New Testa- ment first of all to the twelve whom our Lord chose. " The names of the twelve apostles," St. Matthew says, "are these: the first, Simon," &c. But it is by no means restricted to them : Mntthias and Paul were of course Apostles, though not of the twelve ; so was 13arnabas.'- More- over, St. Paul seems to bestow the name on the seventy disciples and also upon Andronicus and Juiiias.^ Certainly, in the writings of the Fathers and in the ofiice of the Church the word is used of persons like Silas, Timothy, Luke, and others wlin were associated with Paul in his work.'' Finally, the word .\postle in the New Testament still retains its wide and original meaning of messenger.-'' It is plain, however, from Sci'ipture and tradition, and from the very fact that the Church was an organised body, that the office of Apostle was something 1 LighttViot on G.il.nt. p-2 xcq. Acts xiii. -'^ n : (;.ilat. ii. 9 ; 1 Cor. i.x. 5. * 1 Ciir. .\v. , : R..m. xvi. 7. See Lightfoot. /()c. cit., and Estius on Rom. 1. 5 Philipp. ii. 25. I definite and distinct. It has been argued that an Apostle, in the strict sense, had to be taken from those who had seen our Lord, and that the ofiice of the Apostolate I was always accompanied with the power of working miracles. Neither of these points can be proved. No doubt, it was providentially arranged that the twelve ■■should be able to give personal witness to the resurrection, and St. Paul himself appeals to his having seen our Lord as proof of his equality with the older Apostles. No doubt, God did confirm the teaching of the Apostles by giving extra- ordinary efficacy to their words, and setting his seal to it by miracles. But this is no proof that the essential charac- ter of the Apostolate depended either on the gift of miracles or on having seen our Lord. There are, however, three marks of the Apostolic office which necessarily belong to it, and which, taken together, separate it from all other eccle- siastical dignities. First, the Apostles j were bishops, and so had the sacrament I of order in all its fullness ; they were able to consecrate and ordain, to con- firm, S:c. Next, either mediately, through the ministry of man, or immediately from God Himself, they had received a com- mission to preach the Gospel throughout the world. They were to be witnesses to Christ "even to the end of the earth." I Thirdly, they received full and perfect i power of binding and loosing, of founding Churches, of ordaining bishops and other ecclesiastics, throughout the world. This universal jurisdiction, however, they were I obliged to exercise in union with St. Peter, who was the centre of unity and head of the Church, and in subordination to huu. Further, this universal jurisdiction was I peculiar to themselves : they could not — except in a certain modified sense, which j will be explained presently — transmit it to j their successors. It is Peter only, who had any individual successor in his primacy and his universal jurisdiction. Accordingly, if we are asked how far the Apostolic office continues in the Church, we may answer briefiy as follows : — In episcopal order and in universal jurisdic- tion {i.e. in two out of the three notes of an Apostle) the bishops of Rome are the successors of .St. Peter, (^ther bishops succeed the A])ostles in order only, not in ^ universal juriMliction. But the episcopate i conjointly have universal jurisdiction, and j so together represent the .\postoliccollege. i This jurisdiction they exercise in sub- ordination to the Pope, as the Apostles 46 ArOSTLES' CREED APOSTOLIC CANONS exercised theirs in subjection to St. Peter. (See Petav. " De llit'rarcli." i. 5 and 6.) APOSTLES' CREED. [Ser Creed.] il.POSTX.ES, FEASTS OF. liefure the fifth centiuy the Iloman calendar contained no festivals proper to any of the Apostles except that of SS. Peter and Paul, on June 29. Low Sunday — the Gospel of which recalls the grant of spiritual powers by the risen Christ to the assembled Apostles — was often called in antiquity "the Sunday of the Apos- tles " ; it was one of the chief feasts in the Ethiopian calendar. In the Sacramentary of Pope Leo all the Apostles are com- memorated on June 29 ; for in the Mass for that day there is a collect which runs, " Omnipotens sempiterne Deus, qui nos omnium apostolorum merita sub una tribuisti celebrltate venerari." Hence the " Festival of the Twelve Apostles," (Svi/a^ir Tcov bdiBeKa ' ATToaruXoyv) came to be, and is stiU, observed in the Greek Church on June 30. St. Jerome gives as a reason for having but one festival for the Apostles, "ut dies varii non videantur dividere quos una diguitas apostolica in ccelesti gloria fecit esse sublimes." The feast of the " Division of the Apostles," referring to their final dispersion from Jerusalem thirteen years after the Ascen- sion, occurs in the Iloman calendar on the 15th of July. The feast of SS. Philip and James was fixed on the 1st of May, after the translation of their relics into the "Basilica omnium Apostolorum" at Rome in the sixth century; November 30th was fixed as the feast of St. Andrew by a bull of Boniface VIII. in 12ii5. APOSTOI.XC CAVOHS. A tradi- tion (accepted because unexamined) long prevailed that these Canons were dictated by the Apostles themselves to St. Cle- ment of Rome, who committed them to writing. Accurate research has dispelled this notion. Yet although all are agi-eed that they do not come to us with the weight of A])nstolic sanction, their real value and the antiquity that should be assigned to them are still nuich disputed, and they have been, and still are, appealed to as an important witn(>ss in many modern coni r(i\ I'l-sies. Daillc the Cal- vinist, asldiiii.Ird ;ii important, or rather, I'.-vriii ],h\rr which they assign to ))i,^lin|)s in till' (Christian economy, strove to i)rove thai ilicy were a ^^•ork of no earlier date than tlic tilth rcntuiy. The AngUcan divines Heverldge and j Pearson, especially the former, having | as they conceived a deep interest in prov- ing the acceptance by the primitive Church of high views of episcopal power, examined with great learning aud power the ques- tion of the origin of these Canons, and endeavoured to prove that they must have been compiled not later than the end of the second or beginning of the third century. The latest German re- searches (see Kraus' "Real Encykl.") tend to the conclusion that, as collections, that of the first fifty Canons [see below] cannot be dated earlier than the middle of the fourth, while the remainder must be assigned to the sixth century. Bunsen, in his work on "Hippolytus and his Age," printed a translation of the Canons and also of several versions of the Constitu- tions, with a voluminous commentary, the intent of which is to show that these ancient documents " know of no sacrifice of the Mass, acknowledge no definltlou of the Catholic Church," and, generally, are in "flagrant contradiction" with the later canon law. That one of the authors of that strange hybrid the "Evangelical Church of Prussia " could have persuaded himself that the spirit which breathes from the Canons resembles in any way that which dictated the ecclesiastical legislation of the Prussian Government, is surely a singular instance of self-decep- tion ! The temperate statement of Soglia seems to come much nearer the truth. From these Canons, he says, it may be clearly seen aud pmvfd, "that the ordin- ations of bishops, ii i>. and other clerics are no growtli of a hitor discipline, that the dogma of the oblation and sacri- fice of the Mass is not new, nor the dis- tinction between clergy and laity, nor the power of a bishop over his clergj', nor excommunication, nor many other similar institutes, which have been assailed by heretics on the score of novelty." After briefly describing what the Canons are, we shall reproduce the judgment wliich competent theologians have formed of their contents. The Apostolic Canons are usually found in MSS. appended to the last or eighth book of the Apostolical Constitutions. In some copies they are but fifty in number, in others eighty-five. The collection of fifty exists in a Latin form, having been trans- lated by Dionysius Exiguus from the original Greek towards the end of the iiftli century. These fifty were always regarded in the West as autlioiitative iu a sense in which the remainlngCanons were not ; in the East no such distinction was APOSTOLIC CANONS APOSTOLIC FATHERS 47 made between them and the other thirty- five. From the analysis made by Drey (" Neue Untersuchungen," &c.) it would appear that twenty-two out of the whole number substantially embody injunctions and rules contained in the extant apostolic epistles ; ten are closely connected, both in time and import, with these ; twenty date from the age of the great persecu- tions ; and the remainder are assignable to the Nicene and post-Nicene periods. With regard to their contents, "the greater number, 76 out of 85, relate to the clergy, their ordination, the conditions of consecration, their official ministrations, orthodoxy, morality, and subordination, also to their temporalities, and to the relation of the diocese to the province; so that it is clear that the regulation of the discipline aflecting ecclesiastical persons was the main object of the ci)llection." With regard to the authority that should be assigned to them, while on the one hand the Emperors Constantine, Theodosius, and Justinian, the Council of Ephesus, and especially St. John Damascene, who ranks them with the Canon of the New Testament, are all in their favour, the consensus of opinion against them, since the sixteenth century, when they were first critically examined, is very strong. It is urged that Eusebius and St. Jerome are silent, though if such a collection of Canons had come down from the Apostles, they must have known of them; also that in the controversy (third century) between Pope Victor and St. Cyprian, rteither party appealed to them, though, had they been generally known, and believed to be genuine, they would at once have decided the point in dispute. Again, it is plain that many things mentioned in them — e.v anoaroXoiV a'l Xeyd/ifi/ni 6iSa;^<)t), and similarly Atha- nasius speaks of the " teaching of the Apostles," but it is doubtful whether they refer to some work of which the present •'Constitutions" are a later recension. Epiphanius quotes the " Constitution of the Apostles" {hmTn^is), but his quotations never exactly correspond to, while one of them difters widely from, our present text. Pearson assigns the work, as it stands. In the middle of the fifth century. Lagarde, one of the leading modern authorities on the subject, says it is now the general opinion of the learned, that the book "grew up secretly" in the third century, and that, the last two books, (7th and 8th) were added afterwards. Their is an excellent edition by De Laganl-, 18,;l>. APOSTOXiXCX. A sect of Gnostics described by St. Epiphanius in his work on heresies; they called themselves by this name because they pretended to imitate the Apostles in absolutely renouncing the world. They held matter to be altogether corrupt and im])ure, and consequently rejected marriage, though they appear not to have been averse to irregular connections. They were at no time numerous, and were dying out when Epiphanius wrote. In the twelfth century a sect appeared in Rhineland, and also in France, which took the same name, and held to a gi-eat extent the same doctrines; but these Apostolics allowed of marriage. St. Bernard preached two sermons against them. They were always reviling the hierarchy, the corruption of which they declared to be so great as to have vitiated all the sacraments of the Church except that of Baptism. A similar sect, calling themselves " Apostolic Brethren," ap- peared in North Italy towards the end of the thirteenth century ; their leaders, Segarelli and Dulcino, both suffered at the stake. For an account of their wild fanatical tenets, see Milman's " Latin Christianity," vii. 360. APOSTOX.XCVS. The word was applied to bishojis generally in the ancient Church, rather, however, as an epithet than as a title. Then it was restricted to metropolitans or primates ; thus Pope Siricius writes (about a.d. 300), " ut extra conscientiam sedis apostolicae, id est, primatis, nemo audeat ordinare." Even Alcuin, writing at the beginning of I the ninth century, uses the word in this I sense. Yet long before this the use of the term " sedes apostolica " kut i^oxj)v, for the see of Rome (comp. Beda's "Hist. ' Eccl."^as.«?»i), had laid a foundation for the restriction of the tenn Apostolicus to j the Roman Pontiff. From the ninth cen- , tury onwards we find it applied only to the Popes, and in course of time it came to be used of them as a title and official designation. The Council of Rheima (104'.l) recognised the right of the Pope to this title, "([uod solus Romanae sedis pontilex universalis ecclesife primas esset I et Apostolicus," and excommunicated an ! arcliljishop of Compostella for assuming j to himself " culmen Apostolici nomini.?,"' ! the eminence of the Apostolic name. In the middle ages, Apostolicus (in Norman French apostoile) became the current name for the reigning Pope. (Kraus' "Real Encykl.;" Smitli and Cheetham.) APPEAIi. He who appeals has re- course to the justice of a superior judge from what he conceives to be the unjust sentence of an inferior judge. Appeals may be either judicial or extra-judicial. A judicial appeal is from the sentence of a judge acting as a judge. ! An extra-judicial appeal is from the in- I jurious action of any superior, whereby the appellant thinks his rights are in- fringed— e.g. in a case of disputed patron- age, or abusive exercise of power. In these eases, as the extra-judicial appeal is not in the cause, but hrr/ins or lays the foundation for the cause, it is not, pro- perly speaking, an appeal at all. But there is one kind of extra-judicial appeal which is really such ; it is when the appeal is made from a judge who has not decided judicially— p.//. who has given sentence without hearing the arguments APPEAL APPELLANTS 49 of counsel or the evidence of witnesses ■when tliese were required or allowed by thp law. In this case the appeal is extra- judicial (for it is made against an arbi- trary act, rather than a motived judg- ment), yet it is a true a]ipeal, for it is made from a judge to a judge. The oliject of appeals is the redress of injustice, whether knowingly or ignorantly committed. An appeal need not imply that the original sentence was unjust, for the production of new evidence in the superior court uniy change the aspect of a case, and cause a decision which was just on the assumption of one set of facts to be justly set aside on the discovery of further facts. Appeal can he made from any judge recognising a superior ; thus no appeal is possible, in secular matters, from the decision of the sovereign power, or the highest secular tribunal, in any country, for these, in such matters, recognise no superior. Again, there can be no appeal from the Pope ; " for he, as the vicar of Christ, recog-nises no superior on earth, and it is of the essence of an appeal that it be made from a lower to a higher judge, by whom the sentence of the first may be corrected." ' Those who appeal from the judgment of the Pope to a future general council, of whatever rank or condition they may be, are formally ex- commimicated in the bull "In Crena Domini." Nor can appeal be made from a general council legitimately convened and approved, "because it, being in union with the Roman Pontiff who approved it, represents the whole Church, from the sentence of which there can be no appeal."^ As a rule, appeals should proceed regularly, through all the intermediate jurisdictions, to the supreme tribunal; but canon law admits of many exceptions to this. " In the first place, all persons are at libei-ty to appeal to the Pope imme- diately, passing over all intermediate judges, in ecclesiastical and spiritual causes ; and those subject to his tem- poral rule can do so in temporal causes also." ^ The reason is, that the Pope is "the ordinary judge of all Christians, having concurrent power with all ordi- narie>." ^Mauy other ca>i>- arc spiM ltifd in the canon law, in which ajipcUants are authorised to appeal to a higher court at once, passing over the intermediate j uris- dictions. 1 Ferraris, Apptllatin. art. iii. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. § 10. At the same time there are numerous causes in which no appeal is permitted ; these are summed up in the following lines, which are a sort of memoria tvchnica : — Subliiiiis judex, scelus, exseoutio, pactum, Contenipttis, et res mininiiE, dilatio nulla, Clausula quae reniovet, res qua? niitoria constat, Et textus juris clarus, possessio, latum. There can be no appeal from a " sublimis judex," such as the Pope, or the sovereign authority in a state. " Scelus : " that is, those convicted of criminal otiences and who have confessed their guilt have no appeal. "Exsecutio: " that is, when the cause has become a "res judicata," the execution of the sentence cannot be stayed by appeal; this seems to be a particular case of " fatum." " Pactum : " if the parties have consented to a com- promise during the progress of the suit, there can be no appeal. Contempt of court by a contumacious refusal to appear to the judge's citation is another cause which deprives a litigant of the right to appeal; as is (in civil causes) the utterly insignificant nature of the point raised, according to the maxim, de mhiimis non curat led-. " Dilatio nulla : " that is, in things which do not admit of delay, there can be no ajipeal — at any rate, no such appeal as would have the efiect of sus- pending the execution of the sentence; as in a case about 0])ening a will, or is.^uiug supplies of food to soldiers, and the like. " Clausula qure removet :" that is, when the original suit was conducted by delegation from the supreme tribunal under the clause " appellatione remota," the ordinary right of appeal is annulled. The next two cases explain themselves ; by " possessio " is meant that brief enjoy- ment of the subject of litigation which does not prejudice in an appreciable degree the right of the other party ; and by " fatum " those prescribed terms and dates which are otherwise named " fata- lia," and the exact observance of which is necessary in order that an appeal may proceed. For instance, unless an appeal against a sentence be lodged within ten davs from its deliverv, it cannot be made at all. Finally, no appeal having suspensive efiect lies from a sentence of excommuni- cation, nor from legitimate disciplinary correction of a superior J)aternally ad- ministered without legal process. (Fer- raris, Appellatio.) A.PPEXiXtA.lO'TS. This was the name given to the party among the French -60 ArmOBATION ARCHBISHOP clerg)', Leaded by the Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, and four bishops, who appealed to a future general •council against the constitution IJmyenitm (1733), by which the Holy See had con- demned a hundred and one propositions of a more or less Jansenistic character, extracted from the writings of the Pere Quesnel. [Jansenism.] APPROBATZOxr. The formal judg- ment of a prelate, that a priest is fit to hear confessions. It does not involve jurisdiction — i.e. a bishop does not neces- sarily give a priest power to hear con- fessions in his diocese, because he pro- nounces him fit to do so, though in fact a bishop always or almost always gives a secular priest jurisdiction at the time he approves him. This approbation by the bishop, or one who has quasi-episcopal jiu-isdiction, is needed for the validity of "absolution given by a secular priest, un- less the said priest has a parochial bene- fice.' The bishop who approves must be the bishop of the place in which the con- fession is heard and this approbation may be limited as to time, place, and circum- stances. Regulars, in order to confess members of their own order, require the approval of their superiors; to confess seculars, that of the bishop of the diocese. APSE (Greek, h^'n, a wheel or arch). Nothing is known of the shape of the Christian churches which were built before the time of Constantine. As- suming, therefore, that ecclesiastical architecture dates from the fourth century, the apse may be considered as one of its primitive features, for it already existed in many of the basilicas or halls of jus- tice or commerce, which, when Christi- anity rose into the ascendant, were freely placed at the disposal of the bishops by the civil power. It was the semicircular termination of the basilica, in which sat the judges; the same construction may often l)e seen in French courts of justice at ihis day. "When utilised for Christian worsliip, its extreme end was occupied by the ))islio])'s chair; the seats of the clergy, following the semicircle, were on his right and left ; the altar was in the middle of the apse, or just in front of it; and beyond the altar was the choir. In the By/ant ine style, which arose in the East after Constantine had transferred the seat of em])ire to his new city on the Bos- phorus, the apse was retained; a notable instance of this may be seen in the church ' Concil. Trident, xxiii. 15, of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built in the sixth century. It appears also in the old Byzantine churches at Ravenna, and also in several churches on the Rhine, of later date but in the same style. In France and England the Byzantine architecture received that splendid development which is called Norman; but the apse, in all large churches at least, still held its ground, though it occasionally took a triangular or a polygonal form. Norwich Cathedral is perhaps the finest example of the round apse that we have in England. The cathedral of Durham, of which the nave and choir were finished, much as we now see them, about the beginning of the twelfth century, had originally an apse, but on account of a failure in the masonry, this was taken down and the present magnificent chapel of the Nine Altars substituted in the thirteenth cen- tury. In the later styles which followed the Norman, the French builders as a rule retained the apse, while the English generally abandoned it for the rectangu- lar form. (Oudin, " Manuel d'Arch^olo- gie.") AQVARZX. [See Enceatit^.I ARCBAN-CEi.. [See Angel.] ARCHBISHOP (Gr. apxifnlcTKmros). The word first occurs in the fourth cen- tury; St. Athanasius speaks of himself and also of Alexander, his predecessor in the see of Alexandria, under this name. In earlier times those bishops who had suffragan bishops depending on them, and exercised spirit ual jurisdiction within a certain geographical area which was their ^roymce, were called metropolitans. As Christianity extended itself, the bishops of the more important cities under the metropolitans came themselves to have suffragan bishops under them, to whom t?iei/ were metropolitans. It be- came necessary, therefore, to find some new title for the old metropolitans, and the terms priniate, e.varch [see those articles] and archbishop came into use. In the West the name "archbishop" was scarcely heard before the ninth century. For a time the words patriarch and archbishop appear to have been used in- terchangeably. At present the terms "archbishop" and "metropolitan" have the same meaning, except that the latter implies the existence of suffragans, where- as there may be archbishops without suf- fragans, as in the case of Glasgow. In the middle ages the archbishops possessed an ample jurisdiction: they had the right of summoning provincial coun- ARCHBISHOP ARCHDEACON 51 cils; thev could j iidge their suffragans aa a tribunal of first instance, and hear on appeal causes referred to them from the episcopal courts within the province. The jurisdiction of a metropolitan over his suffragans in criminal causes was trans- ferred by the Council of Trent (sess. xiii. De Ref c. 8) to the Holy See; in civil cavses it remains intact. Provincial coun- cils, owing to the difficulties of the times, have been less frequent in recent times than formerly ; but, by the Council of Trent (sess. xxiv. 2, De Ref), metropoli- tans are bound to convene them every three years. An archbishop can receive j appeals from his suffragans in marriage cases, and (with the authority of the pro- j vincial council) visit any suffragan's diocese. The right also devolves upon [ him of appointing a vicar capitular on i the decease of a suffragan bishop, if the chapter fail to appoint one within eight days. Two venerable insignia still mark his superior dignity — the pallium with which he is invested by the Holy See, and the double cross borne on his " stemma "over his ai-ms. An archbishop has the right of carrying his cross throughout his pro- vince, except in the presence of the Pope or a Cardinal Legate. Until the arch- bishop has received the paUium he can only style himself /i.e^ec^Ms; and, although confirmed and consecrated, he cannot con- voke a council, consecrate chrism, or exer- cise any other acts of higher jurisdiction and order. Gregory the Great, while giving to St. Augustine personally jurisdiction over all English and British sees, designed to make London and York metropolitan sees, with twelve suffragans under each (Bed. " Hist. Eccl." i. 29). But the priority of Kent in receiving the Gospel led to the primatial see being fixed at Canterbury, not at London; and the troubled state of the North long deferred the arrangement proposed for York, and never even in the end suffered it to attain the dimensions contemplated by Pope Gregory. For a short time in the eiglith century, while Mercia was a powerful kingdom, Lich- field was raised by the Holy See to metro- politan rank. Similarly the see of St. David's in Wales received the pall for a brief period in the twelfth century. At that time there were two archbishops, at Canterbuiy and York, with thirteen and ' two suffragans respectively. (Henr. Hunt. ! " Hist. Ang." i. 5.) After the change of , religion the archiepiscopal dignity re- mained in abeyance in England, till re- | vived in our days in the person of Nicholas Wiseman, who was created the first archbishop of Westminster, in 1850. ARCBBEACOIf (Gr. apy^i^iaKOVOi), At a very early period it was the prac- tice for a bishop to select one of the deacons of his church to assist him both in the divine worship and in the ad- ministration of the diocese. As was natural, his choice fell, not necessarily upon the senior deacon, but upon him in whose ability and firmness he could most confide. Thus we read of Eleutherus as the deacon of Pope Anicetus, in the second century ; of St. Lawrence the deacon of Sextus II. in the third ; and of St. Atha- nasius, who as the deacon of Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, attended him at the Council of Nicsea. The name "Arch- deacon" first occurs in the writings of St. Optatus of Milevis (about 370). The im- portance of the office continually grew, and we learn from St. Jerome that in his time it was considered a degradation for an arch- deacon to be ordained priest. It was the duty of the archdeacon, under the bishop's direction, to manage the Chm-cli property ; provide for the support of the clergy, the poor, widows, orphans, pilgrims, and prisoners ; to keep the list of the clergy, &c. An able archdeacon, as was to be expected, often succeeded to the see on the death of the bishop who had ap- pointed him. At first there was but one archdeacon, but in the immense dioceses which the conversion of the We-stem nations caused to arise, the episcopal duties could not be effectually performed — so far as the temporal side of them was concerned — without the appointment of several archdeacons as the bishop's dele- gates. That they should gradually be invested with the jurisdiction possessed by the bishop, and ultimately even receive independent powers, was a natural conr sequence of this state of things. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries their power rose to its height. About 1100 Eemigius, upon transferring his episcopal throne from Dorchester to Lincoln, di- vided his vast diocese into seven arch- deaconries, in each of which the arch- deacon resided in the chief town of his province with quasi-episcopal state, and exercised a jurisdiction which was often formidable even to laymen. Armed with such high privileges, the archdeacons be- gan to encroach on ilir authority of the bisliops, and this led to their downfall. Long before this the Church had ordered that archdeacons on their appointment 52 ARCHES, COURT OF ARIUS AND ARIANISM must receive priestly consecration ; now a series of councils in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries occupied themselves with limiting their powers and bringing them back into a due subordination to the liishops; finally, the Council of Trent continiied and extended these restrictions, takii)<;- from the archdeacons and giving back to the bishops that jurisdiction in matrimonial and criminal causes which Iiad been the chief source of their in- fluence. Amongst ourselves the ofKce of archdeacon was not revived on the re- storation of the hierarchy in 1850; tlie functionary who now most nearly corre- sponds to the archdeacon of the primitive Church is tlie bishop's vicar-general [see that article]. ARCHES, COURT OT. An ancient court, in which the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury is still exer- cised by a judge known as the Dean of Arches. It received its name from Bow Church in Cheapside (S. Maria de Arcu- bus), in which its sittings were wont to be hold. (See Hook's " Church Diction- ary.") By a clause in the Public Wor- ship Act (1877) the office of Dean of Arches is merged in that of the judge appointed under that Act. Tliere is an appeal from the sentence of this court to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which now represents the old Court of Delegates, and practically, as representing the Crown, upholds the doc- trine of the royal supremacy by deciding without ap])eal all spiritual causes that may be brought before it. ARCHXivxAirDRiTE. [See Abbot.] ARCHIVES, ARCHIVIST (Greek apx^iti). The utility of the preservation of public records was fully understood by the ancients ; the record office at Rome, which Virgil alludes to (" populi tabu- laria vidit "), was an enormous building. Episcopal archives have probably been kept from the very beginning of the Church. The archivist or Proto-scrini- arius of Rome was an important per- sonage : besides having cliarge of a large portion of the records, he was the head of all the secretaries and notaries of the Roman Court. A decree of the Congre- gation of the Council of Trent (1626) specifies what oug:ht to be preserved in an episcopal archive — namely, the pro- cesses and proceedings in all causes tried in the bishop's court ; episcopal sentences, precepts, decrees, mandates, &c. ; reports and registers of all kinds relating to ecclesiastical affairs within the diocese ; and complete inventories of Church pro- perty, movable and immovable. (Ferraris, Ai-c)iivimn.) ARCHPRXEST (Gr. dpxnrpea-^vre- poi). The chief of the presbyters, as the archdeacon was the chief of the deacons. The name dates from the fourth century. The archpriest was usually the oldest of the priests attached to the cathedral; yet instances are not wanting of their being chosen by the bishops for special qualifications, without regard to seniority. The principal function of the archpriest was, during the illness or absence of the bishop, to replace him in the Church offices. He occupied the place of the bishop in the ceremonies of public wor- ship, as the archdeacon did in the ad- ministration of the diocese. Aspopidation increased, a rural archpriest was placed in each of the larger towns, who was to the local clergy what the archpriest of the cathedral was to the cathedral clergy. In course of time the latter came to be called the dean, tlie former 7-urnl deans. The privileges of archprie.sts, like those of archdeacons, were often usui'ped by laymen in the ages after Charlemagne. Great divergences grew up in different countries, with regard to the duties, rank, and privileges assigned to them. In later times they appear to have been superseded to a great extent by vicars forane (q.v.). Towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the Holy See, finding that the Catholic clergy in England were much in need of a recognised head, yet unwilling to send a bishop, lest the government should take it as an excuse for fresh cruelties against the Catholics generally, appointed George Blackwell superior of the English mission, with the title and authority of " Archpriest." A consulta- tive body of twelve assistant priests was nominated at the same time. This was in 1598. After some years Blackwell took a course abniit Iho new oath of allegiance which (li-jilciM-d i [„■ Holy See, and he was supersede, I by Birk- head. Towards the end of the reign of James, and after Birkhead had been suc- ceeded ))y a third archpriest, Harrison, the violence of the persecution being now much abated, Gregory XV. decided that the time was come to send a bishop to England. The first vicar-apostolic was accordingly appointed, in 162;J. ARXSTOTI.E. [See Philosophy.] ARIVS AND ARIANISM. The heresy of Arius consisted in the denial ARIUS AND ARIANISM ARIUS AND ARIANISM 53 ■of the Son's consubstantiality wltli the Father, and so virtually of Christ's true and eternal Godhead. In ojiposilion to this error, the first Nicene Council de- fined that the Son is " only-ljptrotten, born of the Father, i.e. of the Father's substance ; " that He is " not made," as creatures are, but that He is "consulj- stantial" with the First Person of the Blessed Trinity. The council added a condemnation under anathema of certain Arian propositions, in which this heresy Tvas summed up. To understand them, "we must know something- of the way in which Arianism arose and spread; and this, again, we cannot do tiU we have acquainted ourselves with the teaching on the mystery of the Trinity which prevailed in the early Church. A^'e shall take the points in order, reserving for the close of the article an account of Arianism in its later developments. 1. It might seem as if there could be little need of dwelling on the doctrine of the Trinity, as held by the Ante-Nicene Fathers. Every Christian is bound to know and believe the doctrine of the Trinity, and it cannot be supposed, that the early Fathers and Martyrs of the Church were ignorant of a fundamental doctrine of the faith. Scripture, too, sets the matter at rest. Our Lord pro- claims the unity of His nature with that of the Father. "I and the Father are one." "The Father is in me and I in the Father." " The Word was with God," St. John says, " and the Word was God." Kow, in one sense it is true that Arius could find no support for his heresy in the Ante-Xicene age. Scripture declared and the Church taught from the begin- ning three propositions from which the "whole of the Xicene definition follows by logical consequence : viz. first, that the Son is distinct from the Father : next, that the Son is God ; and, thirdly, that there is but one God. All this is certain, but it is also true that the Ante-Nicene Fathers often used inaccurate language on this subject ; that we do not find in them the fuU and developed doctrine of the Trinity, as the Nicene Council defined it; and that this explains to a certain extent the success of Ai-ianism and the calamities it brought upon the Church. Nor need we wonder at these defects in the teaching of the early Fathers. They ■were not and could not be content with the simple enunciations of the proposi- tions enumerated above : they endeavoured (and how could they do otherwise ?) to reconcile the apparent contradictions which they involve, and to recommend them as reasonable to those outside the Church. And in this part of their work they were not secure from error. One or two leading instances will be given of the errors into which many of them fell when, instead of merely delivering the tradition which they had received, they began to speculate and reason about it. A difficulty met them the moment they began to consider the eternity of the Son. A son is generated, and generation pos- tulates a beginning: how, then, could the Son be eternal ? They did not cut the knot, as Arius did, by denying the eternity of the Son, because the Catholic faith saved them from such an error; but stiU. many of them did introduce a theory inconsistent with the unchange- able simplicity of God. The Word, they admitted, was eternal, but many of them — aU, indeed, except St. Irenaeus and the Fathers of the Alexandrian school- denied that He had always been Son. With us, the word is conceived first of aU in the mind and then comes forth as articulate sound. So, they maintained, the Word had always been in the bosom of the Father (Xdyoj eVSin^^ros) ; after- wards lie issued forth as the first-begotten of all creation (Xoyoy Trpo(f>optK6s), and by this procession or generation became the Son. They w^ere led into similar error in considering the relation of the Word to creatures. Down to St. Augustine's time the Fathers generally attributed the divine apparitions in the Old Testament to God the Son, and this interpretation led some into erroneous ideas on the subordination of the Son to the Father. Thus Justin speaks of a " God itndei- the maker of the universe," and argues that the "maker and Father of all" could not "have left the region above the sky and appeared in a little comer of the earth." - TertuHian speaks of a "son visible ac- cording to the measure of his deriva- tion,"' while language of the same im- port was used by Origen and Novatian.' Another source of erroneous language arose in the third century. The Sabellians denied a real distinction between Father and Son, and in his anxietj- to estal)lish the distinction between these divine Per- sons, Dionysius of Alexandria, in the year 260, compared the relation of the Father and the Son to that between a > Justin. Did. 60. » Adv. Prax. U. * Petav. De Trinit. viii. 2, 4 seq. 54 ARIUS A^^D ARIANISM ARIUS AND ARIANISM vine-dresser and the vine, asserted that the Son was " made by God " (n-oifj^ua Tov deov) that he was "foreign to the essence of the Father {^evnv kut ovo lai'), and "did not exist till he was made." In the same year, another Dionysius, bishop of Rome, on account of charges brought by certain orthodox prelates against his namesake of Alexandria, summoned a synod at Rome, and issued a memorable document to the bishops of Egypt and Libya. " Had the Son," the Pope argues, " been created, there would have been a time when He was not ; but the Son always was." Thereupon, the Alexandrian bishop, in two letters which he sent to Rome, explained away his for- mer inaccurate language, showed that his adversaries had taken a one-sided view of his teaching, and distinctly confessed the Son's etei-nity. This case is instruc- tive in several ways, It shows that early Fathers, who used words which sound like Arianism, were very far from the Arian belief ; and it is evidence of the vigilance with which the successor of St. Peter watched, as his supreme office required him to watch, over the deposit of the faith.i 2. The orthodox doctrine had been maintained in Alexandria bj- subsequent bishops, when, about the year 318 or 820, Arius began to put forward a heresy which engaged all the energies of the Church for more than half a century. He is said to have been a Libyan by birth ; he had twice joined the Meletian schism, but had been reconciled to the Church, and was exercising the office of a priest in Alexandria. The bishop Alexander, Socrates tells lis, was discoursing to his clergy on the Trinity in Unity. Arius, who was distinguished for his learning and logical skiU, contradicted the bishop, urged that the Son, because begotten, must have had " a beginning of existence ; " that there was a time when he did not exist (rju ore ovK rjv) ; and that he was made, like other creatures, out of nothing (f^ OVK ovToiv e'xfi TTjV vnoo-Taa-w). If we add to this that, according to Arius, the Son was liable to sin in his own nature, and that his intelligence was limited, we have a complete statement of the Arian doctrine. He not only held that the Fatlier was separated from the Son by a priority of time— or i-ather like ■ Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, i. 2,55 seq. See on the whole subject, Petavius, De Trin. ; New- man, Hintory of Arianism, and Causes of the Success of Arianism. time, since time in the proper sense began witli tlic Son— but he denied that the Son Avas from thr FatlwrV >ubstance. He did not im i-i ly irjccl till' word o^ioovaios or oonsuli>t;iiit iui, as an orthdox synod at Antiocli had done in 269,' but also the otlii r language in which early Fathers had expressed the same idea. Arius won many to his side : in par- ticular he was supported by the famous Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had great influence on Constantine. He had friends among the other bishops of Asia, and even among the bishops, priests, and nuns of the Alexandrian ])rovince. Meanwhile, he was condennied in two Alexandrian synods and obliged to leave the city. He took refuge first in Palestine, afterwards in Nicomedia; he gained the favour of Constantia, the em])eror's sister, and he disseminated his doctrine among the pop- ulace by means of the notorious book which he called 6d\eia, or " entertain- ment," and by songs adapted for sailors, millers, and travellers. At first Constan- tine looked on the whole aifair as a strife of words, and sent Hosius of Cordova to Alexandria, that he might restore peace between Arius and his bishop. This attempt failed, and the First General Council met at Nic;ea. It anathematised Arius, with all who afiirmed " that there was a time when the Son of God was not ; that he was made out of nothing; that he was of another substance or essence [than the Father] ; that he was ci-eated, or alter- able or changeable." This symbol was adopted after many di.sputes, in which the deacon Athanasius, then only twenty- five years old, was the great champion of the faith. Arius and those who refused to anathematise him were banished. However, when the cause of Arianism seemed desperate, it suddenly revived. Constantia pleaded this cause with her brother on her death-bed. Constantine asked Athanasius (bishop of Alexandria since 328) to restore Arius to Church communion. This great confessor firmly refused, and, though the Emperor did not insist, Athanasius was grievously calum- niated, and exiled to Treves. Other opponents of the heresy met with like treatment. Eustathius of Antioch and Marcellus of Ancyra were deposed. The Emperor called Arius to Constantinople, with the view of restoring him to the 1 Hefelo, Conc'diengeschichte, i. 140. We are of course aware that the fact of this rejection has been doubted, but we cannot believe there is any serious ground for questioning it. ARIUS AND ARIANISM ARIUS AND ARIANISM 55 communion of tlie Cliiirch. It is right to add, that Arius luul assured the Emperor on oath, that the doctriue for w hich he had been exeommuuicated wa-s not really his. Before, however, he had attained his end, a sudden death struck liim down as he •^valked through Constantinople escorted by his followers. He died in the year 336, the eightieth of his age. Arius was dead, but his heresy still prospered. Constantius, who came to the throne in 337, recalled Athanasius next year to Alexandria. Soon, however, a charge ofSabellian ism was broufiht a<;iiin>t the saint; he fled for his life froin his episcopal city, and took refuge in liome, when Pope Julius in a synod solemnly acquitted him. But a council at Antioch confirmed his deposition, and drew np four confessions of faith, in which the word " consubstantial " was studiously omitted. Through favour of Constans, who ruled the "West, a council met at Sardica in 343 or 344, declared their adherence to the Nicene Creed, and restored Athanasius, with Marcellus and others, to their sees. In spite of the fact that the Arian or Eusebian bishops held a counter-council at Philippopolis, the Sardican decrees en- joyed an almost oecumenical authority, and Constantius permitted the return of Athanasius to Alexandria. However, after the death of his brother Constans, Constantius renewed his persecution of the Catholics. At Aries and Milan synods condemned Athanasius, while Pope Libe- rius and other bishops who woidd not sub- scribe the condemnation were exiled. Again an intruder seized the episcopal throne of Alexandria, and Athanasius, in 356, sought an asylum with the Egyptian monks. This temporary triumph of Arianism proved its ruin. The heretics presented an a])]iearance of unity so long as they were engaged in a struggle for life or death with the orthodox. No sooner did they feel themselves secure than they began an internecine conflict with each other. The strict Arians, led by Aetius, a deacon and a bishop Eunomius, taught that the Father and Son were unlike, and that the latter was made out of nothing. They were also known as Eunomians, Anomceans (from di/d/xoior, unlike), or Exucontians, because they said the Son sprang from nothing (e'f ovk ovtcov). Another party, known as Semiarians, a name they received about 358, when they held a famous synod at Ancyra, confessed that the Son was "like in sub- I stance to the Father {ofioios kut ovalav). r>asil dl' Ancyra, Eustathius of Sebaste, Macrddiiius, and Auxentius of Milan, were llir uKist noted among them. A third ]iarty, led by Ursacius, Valens and Acacius (from whom they are sometimes called Acacians), rejected the phrase "like in substance or essence," and contented themselves with the vague statement that the Son was "like" the Father. The Council of Ancyra, as we have seen, was Semiarian. The second Sirmian synod, in 357, condemned the Semiarian as well as the orthodox formula, while Semiarianism secured a fresh victory in the third council held at the same place. Pope Liberius, under fear of death, is believed by many to have subscribed this third Sirmian formula, while at the same time he anathe- matised those who denied that "the Son is in essence and in all things like to the Father." [See Liberius.] In 350 the Emperor did his utmost to establish Semi- arianism, but his efforts were in vain. The hjastern bishops, 160 in nundjer, met at Seleucia; 400 Western bishops at Rimini. The latter stood firm at first to the faith defined at Niceea, but they were overcome by threats and by bodily suffer- ing. At last both the Eastern and Western council subscribed a formida, in which the word " essence " was rejected altogether as unscriptural, and the Son was defined to be "like the Father in all things." This defeat of the Semiarians by Arians inclined the former to accept the Nicene faith, and at a council held at Alexandria in 362 Athanasius, who had returned to his see on the accession of Julian the Apostate, received many of them into communion. The Acacians, on the other hand, allied themselves with the strict Arians. Arianism found a powerful sup])orter in the Emperor Valens (364-378), who expelled Athanasius from his see. This was his fifth exile. But the palmy days of the heresy were over. His people insisted on the recall of Athanasius to his see, in which he remained till his death, in 373. Ambrose in the West, and in the East the three Cappadocian Fathers, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregoiy of Nyssa, fought the battle of the faith. The orthodox Emperor Theodosius secured the peace of the Church, and the Nicene decrees were enforced again by the General Council of Constantinople (381). So much for the history of Arianism among the subjects of the Roman Empire. 66 ARLES, COUNCILS OF It liad still a great ]iai-t to play amoiiff ' the Barbarians. The AVest Goths'receivrll Christianity in the Arian form tlirougli their great niissimiarv Ulfila (consecrated bishop hy iMisehius of Nicomedia in -'Ul), and A'alens allowed a part of their nation to settle in Thrace on the condition that they became Arians. Soon after, the j East Goths in Italy, the Vandals in ' Africa, the Suevi in Spain, the Burgun- dians in Gaul, the Lombardians who emigrated to upper Italy, became Arians. The Vandal persecution of the Catholics, which rivalled that of Diocletian in severity, began under Genscric in 427 and lasted till 533, when the Byzantine general Belisarius conquered Africa. In Spain, which had fallen under the power of the West Goths, llermenegild, son of the king, fell a sncriiic' to th,- Ariun fanaticism of his fat hoi-, in r>S4. Her- j menegild's brother Iti ccarcd, who began to reign in 586, became a Catholic and established tlie faith in Spain, with the help of a great council which met at Toledo in 5S9. About a century earlier, Clevis, with 3,000 of his Franks, had received Catholic baptism, and the triumph of the Frankish arms sealed the fate of Arianism. ARXiES, COVKTCZIiS OF. (1) In 314, assembled chi(;fly to settle the Dona- tist disputes. This council represented the entire Western Church. The number of the bishops who met is unc(>rtain, and the acts have perished. But we know that the Holy See was represented there by two priests and two deacons, and Constantine himself says he assembled " very many bishops from diverse and almost innu- merable districts." It appears from the letter of the Council to Pope Silvester, that the Donatists were condemned, and Caecilian, the orthodox bishop of Carthage, acquitted. A synod at Home in the pre- vious year had given the same decision. The council also decreed that Easter should be observed on the same day throughout the world, the day to be notified by tlie Pope (Cnn. i); that baptism conferred with the proj)er form was valid even if given Ijy heretics (Can. 8) ; that a bishop should be con- secrated by three others (Can. 20) ; that a married priest or deacon who lived with his wife should be deposed (Can. 29) (see Hefele, " Concil." p. 201 seq.). (2) In 353 a council at Aries was ten-i- fied by the Emperor Constantius into a condemnation of St. Athanasius (Hefele, i/>. p. 652.) Various otlier synods which ARMENIAN CHRISTIANS met in the same place are mentioned hy Hefelr. ARMEirZATr CHRZSTZAirS. The native legends recount the preaching of the Gospel to the Armenian nation by Thaddeus, one of the seventy disciples, but the conversion of the Armenian people as a whole was brought about by their great Apostle, Gregory the Illumi- Jiator, whose efforts were supported by King Tiridates III., just at tlie begin- ning of the fourth century. It is clear from Eusel)ius (" H. E." i'x. 8) that the work of conversion was verj- rapid. Gre- gory established the chief see at Etch- miazin, near Mount Ararat: he and his successors were consecrated by the Metro- politan of Ctesarea in Cappadocia, and the title they took — viz. Catliolicos — sig- nified that they were the general procu- rators and representatives of the see of Cresarea in Armenia (Le Quien, "Oriens Christianus," i. 1355). Early in the fifth century the golden age of Armenian literature began. Isaac the Great and Mesrob (both Catholics) in\euted the Armenian alphabet and translated the Bible from the Syriac Peshitto into Armenian, afterwards improving their work by collat ing it with good MSS. of the LXX (Hexaplar text) and the Greek New Testament. The work of trans- lating Fathers, as well as works of Ari- stotle, Philo, Poqihyry, &c., from Greek and Syriac was carried on with great zeal. This literary aetix it y was aceom])anied by other changes of a very different kind. The brave Armenian nation had preserved its independence, but in 31)0 Armenia was divided between the Byzantine and Persian empires, and I'>ast Armenia, the larger and more fruitful part of the country, fell to the portion of the latter Power. In 430 the very shadow of a national monarchy disappeared, and ever since the Armenians have been subject in succession to Persians, Arabs, Turks, and Russians. They were scattered far and wide by the Mongol invaders, and their unity, like that of the Jews, has consisted in the common bond of race, language, literature, and religion. After the Per- sian conquest the Ai-menian Catholicos became independent of Csesarea, and this change was followed by another of much greater moment. The opposition of the Armenians to the Council of Chalcedon, mainly due to the mission of Samuel, whom the Syrian Archimandrite Bai-su- mas sent to the Armenian church, was clearly displayed in the synod of Vagars- ARMENIAN CHRISTIANS ARMENIAN CHRISTIANS 57 ■liiabnd, A.D. 491. The schism was con- fcummated at the Synod of Dovin in 596 (see Ilefele, "Concil." ii. p. 717, 2nd ed., where the statements of Pagi, Mansi, &c., are corrected from the National llis- torj' published at Venice in 1785), and has endured ever since, though Greek influence induced the Iberian and Colch- ian bishops to sever themselves from the Armenian Catholicos. True, a union between the Armenians and the orthodox Greeks was effected at a council of Karin (the modern Erzeroum) in 628, but it did not last long. The Armenians held fast to the Monophysite doctrine — viz. that in Christ there was but one nature — and external differences increased the opposition between them and the Greeks. Some of these, such as the addition of the words "Who wast crucified for us" in the Trisagion, and probably the use of pure wine, without the addition of any water, in the Mass, were connected with their theological views. Besides this, they maintained the old Eastern custom of celebrating Christ's birth and His epi- phany on one day— viz. January 6. They use leavened bread at the altar, eat lac- ticinia in Lent (Syn. in Trull, can. 32, 56). They were also charged by the Greeks with making the priesthood into a caste, and only ordaining sons of priests (ib. can. 32) ; and fui'ther, with a semi- Jewish practice of cooking flesh in the sanctuary and giving portions of it to the priests {ib. can. 99). The Catholicos lives at Etchniazin, which has belonged since 1828 to Russia. He is chosen from the metropolitans by the synod, with the consent of the Armenian bishops and of all Armenians present at the place, and the election must be confirmed by the Czar. He is enthroned in his cathedral by the IMetro- politan of Siunic. It is his ofiice to watch over religion and discipline ; he consecrates the chrism for his bishops, which he does only once in seven years, and he can convene a national council. In matters of importance he must consult his synod. He is Bishop of Ararat. His distinctive dress consists in a silk veil, with gold fringes, which covers his head and shoulders, and is called kuff/i, and in a pallium folded five times over Ids breast. The patriarchal cross and torch are car- ried before him, and he uses everywhere the staff of the vartabed or doctor. He is chiefly supported by a poll-tax on all adults within his diocese, contribu- tions, stole-fees, &c. from the revenues of the monastery at Etchniazin, and the gifts of pilgrims to the shrine of St. Gregory. There are twelve archbishops and bishops, four vartabeds or doctors, sixty monks in priest's orders, and 500 other monks in the great monastery just mentioned. The archbishops, bishops, and archimandrites residing there form his synod. Deputies from the Armenian nation are added to their number at the election of a patriarch. I Next come the patriarchs, who are now almost independent of the Catho- licos. The patriarchial sees arose from I the constant change of the chief see I during the disasters of the nation, and also from the dispersion of the Armenians after the Mongol invasion in the fourteenth century. The Patriarch of Constanti- nople ( bishopric since 1307, title of patri- arch since 1481) holds the first rank amongst the patriarchs, and is only in- ferior in name to the Cathiilicos. He is chosen by the Armenians, lay as well as clerical, at Constantinople, and gets his berat from the Porte. He can conse- crate the holy oil, and can appoint and consecrate metropolitan bishops through- out the Turkish dominions except at Jeru- salem. The church property is under his control, but he must administer it with the advice of a synod of twenty lay members chosen by the Porte. He has also a synod of ecclesiastics for spiritual matters. He has secular jurisdiction over the members of his church, and he represents not only the Armenians but also the Syrian "Jacobites before the I Turkish Government. The Patriarch of Sis (title granted 1441) is supposed to be chosen by the twelve neighbouring bishops, who, however, really follow the popular choice, which takes place under the influence of the Turkish Government. His jurisdiction extends over Lesser Armenia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia. He receives the holy oil from the Catholicos. The Patriarch of Jerusalem (title since the middle of the seventeenth century) is chosen by his suflfragan bishops, with the consent of the clergy. He has very limited power, for he leaves the conse- cration of bishops and of the holy oil to the Catholicos, and he can be called to the court of the Patriarch of Constanti- nople. The Patriarch of the island of Aghtamar (1114) has little power, and his jurisdiction scarcely extends beyond the shores of the lake of Van. He is chiefly maintained by the monastery on the island. 58 ARMENIAN CHRISTIANS ARMENLAN CHRISTIANS The metropolitans, accordiug to the canons, are empowered to consecrate their sufl'ragans and the holy oils, but these rights are now reserved to the Catholicos, or else to the patriarch, and the metropolitans only difi'er from other bishops by wearing a gold mitre, a triple pallium, a longer staft', and an archi- episcopal eiriyovaTtov, which the Arme- nians call goncher, suspended from the girdle. A monk cannot, except by dispen- sation, become a bishop, and the bishops are usually chosen from the unmarried vartabeds or doctors. The patriarch may nominate, but usually the bishops are chosen by the clergy and fathers of families. The election is confirmed, and the bishop consecrated by the Catholicos or patriarch. The rite of consecration closely resembles that of the Greeks, but the Armenians anoint the head and thumbs of the elect with chrism, and he receives a ring as one of his insignia. Bishops also wear a mitre ' like that of the Latins, and they do not use the aciKKos of the Greeks (see Vestments of the Greeks). The bishop appoints the chor- episcopi ; convents, schools, hospitals, &c., are subject to him ; no altars may be set up or relics exposed for veneration without his leave. The priests are divided into two classes, that of the vartabeds or doctors, who are again subdivided into many grades and who remain unmarried, and the parish priests. The former are far more highly esteemed. A staff is the mark of their office, and their chief duty consists in preaching. They live by col- lections made after the sermon. The ordi- nary clergy are married, taken from the humbler classes and trained either by a parish priest or at a monastery. The Armenians have the same minor orders as the Latins, and, like them, they reckon the subdiaconate among the greater orders. A priest is elected by the people, who, however, invariably accept the can- didate proposed by the lay administrator of the church property ; he must then be approved by the bishop. The priestly vestments are alb, girdle, maniple, stole, chasuble ; but they also have a collar of gold or silver stuff called vagas, from which a sort of metal amice is suspended, with the figures of the twelve Apostles upon it, and they wear a high cap with gold or silver crosses. The priest says Mass with covered head till the > Introduced in 1084 (Neftle, Eastern Church, i. 313.) Trisagion, when he removes his cap amice, and sandals. Priests live by stole- fees and by offerings in kind at Epi- phany and Easter. Tliey al.nts her as having died at Jerusalem, \\ here her empty tomb was shown to pilgrims in the seventh cen- tury. In any ciise, it is certain that she really died, and that her exemption from sin original and actual did not prevent her paying this connnon debt of humanity. The verj- fact that she had received a 62 ASSUMPTION ATTRIBUTES OF GOD passible nature rendered Ler liable to death. Except for the special gift of immortality which he received from God, Adam would have died in the course of nature, even if he had never sinned ; and St. Augustine declares that our Blessed Saviour would have died by the natural decay of old age, if the Jews had not laid violent hands upon Him.' Still, although the Blessed Virgin tasted of death, her body was preserved from corruption and it was united to her soul in the kingdom of heaven. The Church signifies her belief in this fact by celebrating the feast of her Assumption on the fifteenth of August. There is no distinct assertion of the corjmj-al assump- tion in the prayers of the feast, but it is plain that the Church encourages and ap- proves this belief from the fact that she selects for the lessons during the octave a passage from St. John Damascene in which the history of this coi-poral as- sumption is given in detail. This pious belief is recommended by its intrinsic reasonableness ; for surely it is natural to suppose that our Lord did not suffer t hut sacred body in which He himself had dwelt and from which He had formed His own sacred humanity to become a prey to corruption. It is confirmed by the testimonies of St. Andrew of Crete, of St. John Damascene, and of many ancient Martyrologies and Missals, cited by Butler in his note on this feast. It is, moreover, a striking fact that, notwith- standing the zeal of the early Church in collecting and venerating relics, no relics of the Blessed Virgin's body have ever been exhibited. Much weight, too, must be given to the common sentiment of the faithful. "Admirable," says Petaviiis, "is the admonition of Paulinus of Nola, an author of the greatest weight, who bids us adhere to the common voice of the faithful, since the spirit of God breathes upon them all.'"^ The corporal nssimiption isnot an article of faith. Still ^Iclchior Canus sums up the general tfachiiig nf theologians on this head wlien lif says: — "The denial of the Blessed Virgin's corporal assump- tion into heaven, 1 hough by no means con- trary to the faith, is still so much ojiposed to the common agreement of the Church, that it would be a mark of insolent te- merity." * The feast, according to Butler, was • Billuart, De Myster Diss. xiv. a. 1. 2 Petav. De Incarnat. xiv. 2. ' Melchior Canus, De Locis Theohg. xii. 10. celebrated before the sixth century in the East and West. The Greeks called it KoifjLTja-ii or neTtia-Taa-is ; the Latins, dor- mit.to, paiLsatio, transitus, assuiiq)t io. A.STROI.OGY. The doctrme of the Church on this matter is clearly laid down by St. Thomas. There is nothing contrary to the faith in holding that the stars affect the bodies of men, and so indirectly cause passions to which most men will give way. Taking this influence of the heavenly bodies for granted (and its ex- istence or non-existence is a questi(jn of physical science, not of theology), an astrologer may make probable guesses at the truth. But he cannot predict with certainty our future actions, for it is of faith that the will in all cases remains free. Astrology was forbidden to the early Christians. A law of the emperor Hono- rius condemned astrologers to banishment. The practice of astrology was condemned in 15S6 by a bull of Sixtus V.i A.SYI.VIVX. A place to which a criminal, pursued by the ministers of justice, may escape, and where so long as he remains he cannot be arrested. Such asylums, the inviolable character of which was nearly always connected with some notion of the religious sanctity of the spot, were common among the nations of anti- quity. Rome, says the legend, grew out of an asylum for malefactors of every description ; and Moses (Deut. xix. 2) appointed cities of refuge, whither men who had committed involuntary homicide might flee and be safe. The same privi- lege passed over to the Church, and was sedulously respected by the Christian em- perors. Theodosius punished the viola- tion of the protective sanctity of a church as a crime of lese-maji'sty. But the im- munity from the consequences of crime arising from the extended assertion of the principle of sanctuary led to many abuses, and by the legislation of Justinian those guilty of certain specified crimes were to find no right of asylum in the churches. For particulars as to the immunities long enjoyed by certain famous English sanctuaries — e.//. St. Cuthbert's franchise, Beverley, and Westminster — see the ar- ticle Sanctuaey. ATHAN-ASIAN CREED. [See Creed.] ATOXTEMEM'T. [See Redemptio^j-.] ATTRIBUTES OF COD. [See God.] 1 Summ. i. 115, 4 ; Fleury, Hist. vi. 20 ; xxii. 19 ; clxxvii. 06. ATTRITION AUGUSTINIAN CAjS'OXS 63 ATTRXTZOxr, as distinct from con- trition, is an imperfect sorrow for sin. Contrition is that sorrow for sin which has for its motive the love of God whom the sinner has offended. Attrition arises from a motive which is indeed supernatural — that is to say, apprehended by faith — but which still falls short of contrition. Such motives are — the fear of hell, the loss of heaven, the turpitude of sin. By this last, we understand the turpitude of sin as revealed by faith. We may also, for the sake of clearness, exclude from our definition that kind of sorrow which theo- logians call serviliter servilis — the sorrow which makes a man renounce sin because he is afraid of hell, while at the same time he would be ready to offend God if he could do so without incurring the penalty. All Catholics are bound to hold that attrition, as explained above, is good and an effect of God's grace. This is clear from the words of our Lord, " Fear him ■who can destroy both body and soul in hell ; " from the declaration of the Tri- dentine Council, that attrition which pro- ceeds from considering " the baseness of sin or from the fear of hell and punish- ment, if it excludes the purpose of sinning and includes the hope of pardon, ... is a true gift of God and an impulse of the Holy Spirit;"' and from subsequent pronounce- ments of the Popes, particularly of Alex- ander VIII. The council put forward this Catholic truth against Luther, and succeeding Popes against the Jansen- ists. Further, the Council of Trent teaches* that attrition does not of itself avail to justify the sinner. Sin which separates the soul from God is only annulled by love -which unites it to Him. But a question was long keenly de- bated among Catholic divines, viz, whether if a man comes with attrition to the sacrament of penance and receives abso- lution, this avails to restore him to God's grace. The negative opinion was held by the French clergy in their assembly gene- ral of the year 1700, and prevailed in the universities of Paris and Louvain. On the other hand, the affirmative, according to which a sinner who receives absolu- tion with attrition is justified through the grace which the sacrament confers, has always apparently been the com- moner tenet in the scliools. It rests on the strong argument that as perfect con- 1 Concil. Trident, sess. xiv. cap. 4. De Poenit. » iWd. trition justifies without the actual re- ception of the sacrament of penance, it is hard to see why this sacrament should have been instituted, if perfect contrition is needed to get any good from it. Alex- ander VII. in 1667 forbade the advocates of either opinion to pronounce any theo- logical censure on their opponents. But at present the opinion that attrition with the sacrament of penance suffices is universally held. St. Liguori' calls it "certain." A.VDZA.iarS or iXITDEAXTS. [See Antheopomoephites.] AVBZTOR or ROTA. [See Rota.] AVCVSTZN-ZAMT CA.N01TS. The pretensions to high antiquity made by this order, or on its behalf, have involved the history of its origin in much obscurity. Their commencement has been ascribed to some supposed resolution taken by the Apostles to renounce all private property and live in common. This being difficult of proof, the foundation of the order was at least confidently referred to St. Au- gustine of Hippo, whose rule, it was said, the regular canons had never ceased to follow. But it cannot be shown that St. Augustine ever composed a rule, properly so called. He did, indeed, write a treatise " De Moribus Clericorum," and he also wrote a letter (No. 109) in which he laid down a rule of life for the religious women : under his direction, not binding them to strict enclosure, but requiring them to re- nounce all individual property. But when and by whom the injunctions contained in this letter were adapted to communities of men, are points which have never been cleared up. Moreover, it has been urged, that if St. Augustine promulgated a rule and founded congregations which have had perpetual succession ever since, it seems impossible to explain how St. Benedict should have been universally regarded for centuries as the founder ot Western monachisra j In one sense, indeed, the regular I Canons of St. Austin may lay claim to an antiquity with which no other order can compete ; for, as canons, they grow out of an institution and a way of life which reachnearly totheapostolicage. [Caxox.] Considered, however, as a particular in- stitution, the mode in which they arose has been thus explained. Discipline hav- ing become much relaxed among the canons of the various cathedrals in the Frankish empire, a council held at Aix- la-Chapelle in 816 drew up a rule for 1 Moral Tlieol. vi. n. 440. 64 AUGUSTINI.^' CAXO>:S AUGUSTIXIAX HERMITS their observance. But as this rule did not absolutely prohibit the acquisition or enjoyment of private property, abuses again crept in ; and the Popes Nicholas II. and Alexander II., strenuously assisted by St. Peter Damian, held councils at Rome in 105'.) and 1063, by the decrees of which the rule of Aix-la-Chapelle was amended, and in particular the canons were bound to a community life and to the renunciation of private property (Fleury, " Hist. Eccl." Ixi.). Even after these councils, the canons of many churches lived in much the same v^-ay as before ; those, therefore, who obeyed the rule prescribed, by way of distinction from the recalcitrants, were called regular canons. The rule itself after a time was commonly described as the rule of St. Au- gustine, apparently because it was held to be in conformity with his 109th letter and the general spirit of his teaching-. The adoption of this rule facilitated the for- mation of independent bodies of regular canons, neither connected with cathedrals nor with collegiate churches, as had hitherto been the case ; accordingly, soon after the beginning of the twelfth century, we read of the foundation of societies of canons, following the rule of St. Austin, in several countries of Europe. In Eng- land these canons — who were regarded as monks, not as friars — were very popular and had many houses ; they were called Black Canons. At the time of the Disso- lution there were about 170 of their houses in England; two out of their number, Waltham and Cirencester, were presided over by mitred abbots. Newstead Abbey, the birthplace of the poet Byron, was originally an Augustinian house. In Ireland this order was even more popular than in England, holding there, in fact, much the same prominent position that the Benedictines held amongst our- selves. D'Alton puts the number at 223 monasteries and 33 nunneries. The Augustinian priors of Christ Church and All Hallows, Dublin, and of the monas- teries at Conuell, Kells, Louth, Athassel, Killagh, Newtown, and Ivaphoe, had seats in the Irish parliament. (H^lyot, "Ordres Monastiques ; " Dugdale's "Mon- asticon.") * • List of English Souses of Austin Canons existing at date of suppression. Nunneries and cells are indicated by n and c. Aldebury (Surr.) Bamburgh Anglesey (Cambr.) (Northumb.) Ashby Canons Barlynch (Som.) (Northonts.) Barnwell (Cambr.) AVCVSTZN-XAN- BERMZTS. The remarks made in the foregoing article on Beeston (Norf.) Berdon (Essex) Bethgelert (Caem.1 10. Bilsington (Kent) ' Bissemede (Beds.) Bliburgh (SufE.), c. to St. Osith Bodmin (Com.) Bolton in Craven Bourn (Line.) Bradenstoke (Wilts.) Bradley (Leic.) Bradley Mayden (Wilts.) Breamore (Hants.) 20.Bredon (Leic.) Bridlington (York) Brinkburn (Northumb.) Brooke (Rutl.) Bruton (Som.) Buckenham (Norf.) Buckland Mincbvn (Som.), n. Burcester, Bices- ter (Oxf.) Burnbam (Bucks.), n. Burscough (Lane.) SO.Butley (Suff.l Bvshiun, or Bisham '(Berks.) Caldwell (Beds.) Calke (Derb.), c. to Repton Calwich (Staff.) Campsey (^Suff.), n. Canterbury, St. Gregory's Cartmel (Lane.) Cbacomb (Nortliants.) Chich St. Osith (E^sex) 40. Chirbury (Salop) Cirencester (Glouc.) Cokesford (Norf.) Colchester Conishead (Lane.) Combury (Heref.), Comworthy (Devon.), n. Crabhouse (Norf.), n., c. to Castle Acre Cumbwell (Kent) Darley (Derb.) 50. Dorchester (Oxf.) Drax (York) Dunmow (Essex) Dunstable (Beds.) EUesham (Line.) Erdbury (Warw.) Felly (Notts.) Ferriby, North (York) Fineshade (Northants.) Fiskerton (Notts.), c. to Thurgarton 60. Flanesford (Heref.) Flixton (Suff.) Flitcham (Norf.) Fristoke (Devon.) St.GermaJi's(Com.) Gloucester, St. Oswald Goring (Oxf.), n. Grace Dieu (Leic), Gresley (Derb.) Guisborough (York) 70. Haghmon (Salop) Haltem Price, near Cottingham (York) Hartland (Devon) Harwood (Beds.), Hastings (Suss.) Haverfordwest (Pemb.J Helagh Park, near Tadcaster (York) Hempton (Norf.) Herringfleet (SufE.) Hexham (Northumb.) 80. Hickling (.Norf.) Huntingdon Hyrst in Axholme (Line.) Ipswich, Trinity Ivychurch fV\'ilta.) Ixworth (SufE.) Kenilwortb (Warw.) Keynsham (Som.) Kirkby BeUer (Leic.) Kirkham (York) 90. Kyme (Line.) Lanercost (Cumb.) Latton (Essex) Launceston (Corn.) Launde (Leic.) Laycock (Wilts.), M. Leedes (Kent) Leicester, St. Mary Pre. Leigh (Devon), n. Leighs, Little (Essex) lOO.Letheringham (SufiE.), c. to Ipswich Lilleshall (Salop) Llanthony Abbey (Blonm.) Llanthony (Glouc.) London, St. Barth. London, Trinity London, Elsing Spittel, now Sion College AUGUSTLS'IAN llKli.MITS the Canons apply equally to the preten- sions to !Ui historical descentfrom St. Aus- tin niiide by the Hermits who bear his nanie. lu point of fact the order orifji- nated in a union of sevci-al existing con- gregations ell'ectfd in 1 L' •'>•") under the direction of I'oiu' AlrxaiuJt r Their houses soon ln'rami' vi rv numerous, and the usual variat Kins iu regard to the strict obsen'ance of thnr rule, followed by re- formations of grfutcr or less fame, made their appearance. Thev were regarded as friars, not as luduk,-, and were expressly aggregated to the otlier cirders of friars by Pius V. in 15(57. Their house at Wittenberg had the dubious honour of counting Martin Luther among its mem- bers. The Augustiniau Hermits are said to have possessed in the sixteenth century three thousand convents with thirty thousand fi-iars, besides three hundred nunneries following a similar rule. But during the French Revolution an immense number of their houses were dissolved; and at the present time scarcely a hundred are left. In England, according to Tanner, Stafford, St. Thomas a Becket 140.Stone (Staff.) Stonley (Huuts.) Studley (Warw.) Tandridge (Surr.) Taunton (Som.) Thornholm (Line.) Thornton Curtis (Line.) Tliremhall (Essex) Thurgarton(Notts.) Tockwith (York) 150.Torksey (Line.) Tortington (Suss.) Trentham (Staff.) Ulverscroft (Leie.) Wayboiirne (Norf.) Waisinghara(Norf.) "Waltham (Essex) Warter (York) Warwiek "Wallow, near Grimsby fLinc.) IGO.Westaere (Norf.) Weybridge, near Acle (Norf.) Wigiiiore (Heref.) Wombridge (Salop) Woodbridge (Suff.) Woodkirk, or West Avdslev (York), c. to Nostell Worksop (Notts.) Wormegay (Norf.) Wormsley (Heref.) Woi'spring ( Som.) ITO.Wroxton (Oxf.) Wtmondlev, Little (Herts.) " AUREOLE C.> Lymbroke (Heref.), n. Mark-by (Line.) ilarsh (Devon.) ('. to Plynipton llO.ilarton (YorkI Maxstoke (Warw.) Merton (Surr.) Mickleham (Suss.) Missenden (Bucks.) Mottisfont (Hants.) Newburgh (York) Newenham (Beds.) Newstead (Line.) Newstead (Notts.) laO.Nocton (Line.) Northampton, St. James' Norton (Chesh.) Nostell (York) Oseney (Oxf.) Ouston iLeic.) Oxford, St. Mary's CoU. Pentiiey (Norf.) Plympton (Devon) PoVcluster(Hant8.) 130.Ratli7igliope (Salop), c. to Wigniore Ecigate (Surr.) Reptou (Derb.) Rocester (Staff.) Pvonton Abbey (Staff.) Rovston (Herts.) Shelford (Notts.) Southampton Southwark, St. Mary Overy there were about thirty-two houses of Augustiniau Hermits at the Dissolution. The most celebrated was the friary at Oxford, which educated many dis- tinguished men ; here Erasmus lodged with his friend Prior ( 'lianim k when he visited Oxford. A <^ rev ei imibling gate- way in New Inn ILdl Lane alone is left to mark the spot. Capgiave, the well- known hagiogi apher, was an Augustinian Hermit. At the present time there is one house of Augustiniau friars in England (at Iloxton, London, N.), none in Scotland, and twelve in Ireland — viz. Drogheda, in the province of Armagh ; Dublin, Rath- farnham, Callan, New Ross, and Grants- town {to which community belonged the illustrious Dr. Doyle); Eethard, Cork, Limerick, and Dungarvan, in the province ofCashel; and Ballyhaunis and Galway in that of Tuam. The house in London, as well as one in Rome, form part of the Irish province, which now numbers about forty-five Fathers and twenty clerical students, and whence Augustinians have gone out who have founded a new and separate province in the United States of America, where there are several fine churches, convents, and colleges. (Dug- dale's " Monasticon.") ' AVREOKE (from aureolus, golden, gilt, of golden colour). 1. In Christian art it is the gold colour surroiuidiiifi' the whole figure in sacred pictures, and repi e- sentingtheglory of tlie persmi repi-esented. It is distinct frlim tlie uimbiis, which only covers the head. The a ureole (also called scutum, vesica, J) isci.^, itc.) was usually re- served for pictures of the three divine Persons, of Christ, and of the Blessed Vir- gin along with the Holy Child. (Kraus, "Archseol. Diet.") 2. In theology, it is defined as a cer- tain accidental reward added to the 1 bliss of heaven, because of the of Austin Hermits suppression. Norwich Orford (Suff.) Oxford .Penrith (Cumb.) Rye (Suss.) Shrewsbury Stafford Stamford (Line.) Stoke Clare (Sufif.) Thetford (Norf.) Tickhill (York) Warrington (Lane.) Winchester . Woodhouse (Salop) York ' List of English Houses existing at date of Atherston (Warw.) Boston (Line.) Bristol Canterbury 20 Droitwich (Wore.) Gorleston (Suff.) Hull (York) Huntingdon Leicester 10. Lincoln London Ludlow (Salop) Lynn (Norf.) Newark (Notts.) 30 Newcastle-on-Tyne Northampton 66 AUTOCEPIIALI BAIUS excellent victory wliich the person who receives it has attained durinor his warfare upon earth. It is given, accordinpr to St. Thomas/ to virgins, martyrs, and to doc- tors and prcacliers. Virgins have tri- umphed with 8]iecial glory over the flesh ; martyrs, over tlie world, which persecuted them to deatli ; preachers, over the devil, whom they have driven, not only from their own hearts, but also from those of others. AITTOCEPHiLXiZ (avroKf^aXot). A name given by Greek canonists to metro- politans who were not subject to a patri- arch. Such were the metropolitans of Cyprus, who contrived to free themselves from subjection to the Patriarch of An- tioch ; or, again, the archbishops of Bul- garia, who were independent of Constanti- nople. AUTO DA FE. [See Inquisition, Spanish.] A.VXIX.ZARY BISHOP. [See Bishop Auxiliary.] AVE MABZA. This familiar prayer, called also the Angelical Salutation, con- sists of three parts — (1) the salutation of the Archangel Gabriel, Ave [Maria] ^ra^/a plena, Dominies tecum ; henedicta tu in mulieribm ; (2) the words of Elizabeth to our Lady, et henedictus fructus ventris tui ; (3) an addition made by the Church, Sancta Maria, Mater Dei, ora pro nobis peccat.oribus nunc et in hora mortis nostrce. Parts 1 and 2 seem to have come into common use as a formula of devotion to- wards the end of the twelfth century; the use of them is enjoined by the Con- stitutions of Odo, bishop of Paris, in 1196. 1 Supplem. qu. xcvi. The third part gives a compact and appropriate expression of the feelings with which Christians regard the Blessed "Virgin. The words wmtic. . . . nostrcesLTQ said to have come from the Franciscans ; the rest of the verse is believed to have first come into use in the middle of the fifteenth century. The whole Ave Maria as it now stands is ordered in the brevi- ary of Pius V. (1568) to be used daily before each canonical hour and after com- pline. AVE RECZM'A. [See Hymns.] AZYAXZTES (a priv. ({ijxrj). By this term the Greek Schismatics designate Christians of the Latin Church, because the latter use unleavened bread in the ad- ministration of the Eucharist. In the Western Church the point has never been regarded as of vital importance ; the priest is only enjoined smZ» graviio use unleavened bread; and the Council of Florence de- clared (1439) that after consecration the body of our Lord was really present {vera- citer confid) whether the bread used were made with or without leaven. But the Greek ecclesiastics who assented to this article were ill received by their country- men on their return to Constantinople (Gibbon, ch. Ixvii.), and this point of using or not using leaven is still one of the marks of difference between East and West. The arguments either way are well summed up by Fritz (art. Azymites, Wetzer and Welte). The original pro- priety of using or not using leaven turns mainly on the question whether Maundy Thursday was within the period of the Azymes ; on which see Holy Week. BACCAXrAKZSTS (or Paocana- EiSTs), or Regular Clerks of the Faith of Jesus. The object of this congregation, founded at the end of the last century by one Baccanari or Paccanari, a native of the Trentino, was to revive the suppressed Society of Jesus under another name. In 1798, having obtained ecclesiastical ap- proval for his project, Baccanari with twelve companions took possession of a country house near Spoleto, and com- menced a monastery. They wore the Jesuit habit, and made the three simple vows, to which they afterwards added a fourth vow of unconditional obedience to the Pope. Many others joined them, and they had branches in France and even in Holland. But as the prospect of a speedy revival of the Society of Jesus grew brighter, members of Baccanari's congre- gation began to desert him, some joining the Jesuit colleges which had never ceased to subsist in Russia, others repairing to the kingdom of Naples, where the Society was re-established in 1804. Finally, in 1814, the Jesuits being everywhere re- stored, the remaining Baccanarists applied for admission into the order, and the con- gregation of the Faith of Jesus came to an end. BAZVS. A famous theologian of the University of Louvain, who anticipated the errors of .Tansenius. His real name was Michael Bay. He was born at Melin, BAIL'S BANNER 07 in the Low Countries, in 1513. He studied at Louvain, whore he taught philosophy and took his Doctor's degree. In 1551 he became Professor of Scripture, and in 1563 he was sent to the Council of Trent by the King of Spain, returning in the following year to the university. He won great repute by his undoubted learning and by his blameless life, and honours were Leaped upon him. In 1578 he was made chancellor of the university, and, at a later date, General Inquisitor for the Netherlands. He continued to teach till his death, in 1589. However, his life was a stormy one. Baius deserted the scholastic method and did much to revive the study of the Fathers. No one, of course, could justly blame him for promoting patristic learn- ing. But he marred the services which he might well have rendered to the Church, by exaggerating and misinterpreting the Augustinian doctrine on grace. His lectures excited opposition especially among the Franciscans, and several pro- positions taken from his oral teaching were delated to the Sorbonne and con- demned there. In 1563 and 1564 he published various treatises on free will, original justice, justification, &c. Three years later, Pius V. condemned 76 pro- positions, representing on the whole the opinions of Baius, although some are not actually contained in his works. These propositions were condemned " in globo et respective," as heretical, erroneous, sus- picious, rash, scandalous and ofl'ensive to pious ears — i.e. each of these propositions merited one of these censures, but no particular censure was attached to any one proposition. The name of Baius was not mentioned in the bull, which was communicated privately to the theological faculty at Louvain, without being pro- mulgated. Various disputes arose on the authority and sense of this bull which need not detain us here. Gregory XIII. confirmed the bull of his predecessor, and agam condemned the propositions. The famous Jesuit Toletus took the constitu- tion of Gregory to Louvain, where it was read before the assembled university. Thereupon Baius acknowledged that many of the condemned propositions were to be found in his writings. " I condemn them," he said, " according to the intention of the bull, and as the bull condemns them." Toletr. r. t, r, who conlVned the sacrament on fSt. Audivw, St. Andrew on St. James and St. John, and they on the rest of the twelve. ^ After "Christ's Passion and Resun-ection, or at latest after Pentecost, the precept of receiving baptism became binding on all human beings. After this sketch of the history of the institution and proiiiulfiation we may go on to consider the sacrunieut as it ex- ists in the Church. A\'e shall treat -of the following points in order: viz. the essentials in the administration of the sacrament, its effects, its necessity, and the ceremonies with which it is given. I. Under the first head questions occur as to the matter, the form, the minister, and the sulyect of baptism, (a) The matter is water, poured on the head of the candidate. The Scripture makes it clear enough that water is to be used, but it is not so plain at fi,i-st sight that the sprinkling or pouring of water will sufKce. In Apostolic times the body of the bap- tised person was immersed, for St. Paul looks on this immersion as typifying burial with Christ, and speaks of baptism as a bath.^ Immersion still prevails among the Copts and Nestorians, and for many ages baptism was so given among the Latins also, for even St. Thomas, in the thirteenth century, speaks of baptism by immersion as the common practice (communior ufivs) of his time.' Stdl the rubric of the Roman Rituale, which states that baptism can be validly given by immersion, infusion, or aspersion, is fully Justified by tradition. Persons on a sick- bed, in danger of death, were baptised where they lay without immersion. This baptism was always considered sufficient, and in case of recovery they had only to 1 See a fragment of Clem. Al, from his lost •work Hypotyposes (Clem. Al. torn. iii. p. 494, in Dindoif s ed.). 2 Rom. vi. 4 ; Ephes. v. 26 (Xovrpf). 3 It is not true that the Greeks and' all other -Orientals baptise by immersion. The child is, indeed, accordiuf; to the common Oriental rite, placed in the font; but the actual baptism is by infusion of water ou its head. Billuart, jbeBapt. i. 3, where Goar is quoied. Denzinger, Jiitus Orientalium, p. 17. St. Thorn. Sum. iii. 66, 7, get the ceremonies supplied and to be confirmed.' It is only necessaiy for the validity of the sacrament to pour the water once — for although a threefold in- fusion or immersion has been given from the earliest times, still here, too, we meet with exceptions, for Gregory the Great allowed the Spanish Chiu-ch to contin ae its custom of baptising by one immersion. (3) The foi-m or words used in the sacrament are "I baptise thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," or words equivalent to these. Thus the Greek form "The servant of Christ N. is baptised in the name," &c., is valid, as appears from the instruction of Eugenius IV. to the Ai-me- nians, and from subsequent decisions of the Holy See. A form similar to that of the Greeks is used by all the Orientals, except the Copts, Abyssiuians, and Maronites, who approximate to the Latin form." Many great theologians suppose that the Apostles, for a time, in virtue of a special dispensation, baptised simply in the name of Christ ; but this opinion seems to rest on a very questionable interpretation of passages in the New Testament. (y) The minister of baptism, says Eugenius IV., in the instruction quoted above, " is a priest, to whom in virtue of his office it belongs to baptise." The Roman Rituale prescribes that baptism should be given by the parish priest of the place, or by another priest appointed by him, or by the ordinary. A deacon is the extraordinary minister of solemn baptism. The Pontifical mentions bap- tising as one of his duties, a duty, however, which he can lawfully exercise only by delegation from the bishop or priest. But besides this, in case of necessity, any- one, even a heretic or Jew, may baptise if he uses the proper matter and fonn, and intends to do what Christ ordained ; and even if no such necessity exist, baptism so given, although imlawful, is still valid. That one who is not a priest may baptise is clear from the fact that Philip the dea- con did so, as we learn from the Acts of the Apostles. Tertullian expressly says that baptism can be given " by all." ^ The 38th Canon of the Council of Elvira, in 306, assumes the same truth. There was, however, a difficulty in early times about baptism given outside of the Church — viz. ' Euseb. Hist. vi. 43, with the notes of Valesius. 2 Denzina;er, loc. cU. p. 18. » De Bapi. 17. 70 BAPTISM BAPTISM by heretics. St. Cyprian and Firinilian de- nied, St. Stephen, the contemporary Pope, affirmed, its validity. The Pope appealed in favour of his view to Apostolic tradi- tion. It is needless to say that the Pope's teaching prevailed. The great Council of Aries in 314 decided for the ^•alidity of heretical baptism, and the Fourth Lateran Council defined it. The 18th Canon of the Council of Nicipa in no way contra- dicts this article of faith, for, though it orders the disciples of Paul of Samosata to be rebaptised, these heretics had in aU probability corrupted the form of bap- tism.' (S) The Recipient of Baptism.— AU. human beings, even infants and adults who have never had the use of reason, are capable of receiving this sacrament. Adults are bound by the precept of Christ to come and be baptised ; parents and guardians are bound by the same pre- cept to bring their children, or other persons in their cl large, who have not come to the use of reason, and to have them baptised. In the middle ages and in modem times various sects have re- pudiated infant baptism. It is difficult to give strict proof from Scripture in favour of it, nor can it be denied that in the early ages persons often deferred their own baptism or that of their children, except in danger of death, from a dread of incurring the responsibilities of the Christian life. At the same time the Catholic doctrine that children are to be baptised may be inferred from Scripture, and is abundantly justified by tradition. Thus we read of the Apostles baptising whole houses ; and the very fact that our Lord promises Ilis kingdom to children shows that He did not mean to exclude them from the sacrament of regeneration. The early Fathers supply the needed comment on Scripture. We have an explicit testimony for infant baptism in St. Ireneeus. "Christ," he writes, "came to save all — all, I say, who through Him (17-6 born again to God, infants and little ones, and boys and young men, and the aged."''^ In a letter written by St. Cyprian and sixty-four bishops assembled in council, an answer is given to the question whether the baptism of children must be deferred, on the analogy of cir- cumcision, tiU the eighth day. The bishops answer unanimously in the nega- tive. If, the saint argues, adults are 1 Hefele, Cnnciliengeschichte, i. p. 417, where an alteruative explanation is given. 2 Iren. ii. 22, 4. ' admitted to the font, how much more should those be baptised at once who have not sinned, except so far as by natural doemt from Adam they have contrartfd in the moment of birth the infection of ancient death, who for this very reason come more easily to the le- niission of sins, because it is the sina of another, not their own, which are remitted to them.^ II. T/ie Effects of Baptism.— (a) It remits all sin, original and actual, "Be baptised, ' St. Peter said,^ "everyone of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of your sins." " I believe in one baptism," says the Nicene Creed, "for the remission of sins." (3) It remits all the penalties due for sin before God, whether temporal or eternal. A temporal punishment often remains due to sin, even after its guilt has been removed by absolution. Baptism, as the Church defines, leaves no such penalties, and the apostolic origin of thia iaelief is proved by the practice of the early Church, which imposed no penance for the gravest crimes if committed before baptism. The rebellion of the flesh does of com-se remain after baptism, but this rebellion is not sin, unless the will fully consents to it.' (y) It bestows sanctify- ing grace and the infused virtues. A diffi- culty was felt even among Catholic divines with regard to the case of children. All admitted that children received the for- giveness of sins, but how could they have grace and the infused virtues imparted to them ? How, for example, could a child receive faith in baptism, when it plainly remains unable to exercise faith till the age of reason ? The answer is that the capacity is one thing, the actual exercise another. A man in sleep may have the capacity for or habit of faith, though he cannot exercise it till he wakes. More- over, the very fact that baptism gives a title to the possession of heaven proves that it always confers grace, since it is the grace of God, not the mere absence of sin, which enables us to enter there. The Council of Vienne contented itself with pronouncing the opinion that grace is con- ferred in baptism " more probable." Since then, the Council of Trent defined that all the sacraments of the new law confer grace on those who rightly receive them.* 1 Episi. Ixiv. ed. Hartel. ^ Acts ii. 38. 5 Decret. pro Armen. in Bulla Eugen. IV. Concil. Trident, sess. vi. cap. 14 ; sess. v. Decret. de Peccat. Orig. * Sess. vii. De Sacram. in. gen. BArTlSM BAPTISM 71 (8) It imprints a "character" or in- delible mark on the soul, whence it can- not be reiterated. [See underCHARACTEE.] j (f) It makes the recipient a member of Christ and of the Church, and makes it possible for him to receive the other sacraments. An infant is unable to put a bar in the way of sacramental piace, and therefore must receive the full flirct of baptism rightly administered. With adults it is difl'erent. In tliciii i>o>iiivc dispositions are called foi-. In oidrr \o n-rt-'wo baptism validly, an adult is only required to have the intention of doing so. If the inten- tion be there, he receives the character and incurs the responsibilities of a Chris- tian; but in order to obtain the grace of the sacrament, he must come with faith and with contrition perfect or imperfect — i.e. he must from a supernatural motive detest his sins, and resolve to begin a new life.' Thus a person who comes without at least attrition for all his mortal ^ins, and the purpose of ameiuhiient, would receive neither grace nor forgiveness. If, however, he afterwards sup;. lied the re- i quisite dispositions, the grace of the sacrament would revive, and he would receive remi.ssion of original sin, and of all actual sins (including the temporal punishment annexed) which he had com- niiMed u]) to the date of his baptism.^ III. r/ie y<'crf,o. St. ( '\ priau s:n s ot' catechumens who di.'d lioforo hoiii,-- liaptis(>d with water, that they had in fact lieen baptised "with th(> most glorious and greatest ba]itism of lilood," ' and Tertullian wit- ne.'-ses to the belief of the earlj- Church that the Holy Innocents were sanctified by tlu'ir blood. -' IV. Coiidifional Baptism is given when there is some doul)t whether a ]ior>on has been vallillv liaptisofl. The i'oriu procrilied in tlio llouian Itituale is \i rhoii ha.-t not beni baptifed, I baptise thoo." \-c., and in I'^ngland this form is u>eil in the case of all persons who have reeclved ba])tism from a Protestant minister, when they are reconciled to the Church.-' In early times the condition was not expio>sed in words. Fleury could not find any trace of the conditional form hei'oie the time of Alexander III., and St. Thomas alleges a decretal of this Pope for its use.' V. The Cereynonies of Baptism. — The following is a summary of the ceremonies jirescribed by the Koman Itituale, with their sifiiiification as given in the Roman Catechism. The sacrament is to be ad- ministered, apart from cases of necessitj', in the church or baptistery near the church. However, the children of kings and princes may be baptised in their private chapels. Baptismal water is in all cases to be used. The person baptised is to receive a baptismal name, and the Rituale recommends the parents to impose the name of a saint, that the child may profit by his example and patronage. The 1 Ej>. Ixxiii. ed. Ilartel. - "TcstiiiKinium Christi sanguine libave- runt," Adv. I'ulmtin. 2. 5 An order was issued by the Vicars Apo- stolic nt the befjinning of this century, that all converts from Protestantism born after 1773, should be conditionally baptised. This order was re-enacted by tlxc first provincial synod of Westminster, cap. xvi. The water used is to be holy water, not water taken from the font, and all the cpremoiiies are to be omitted. 4 Fleury. J/isl. xciv. .31. St. Tli.im. iii. lUJ, 9. The form 8t. Thomas quotes is fuller than the one in present use. 72 BAPTISM BAPTISTERY priest meets the child at the door of the church ; drives the devil from him ; breathes thrice upon his face, to signify the new spiritual life -which is to be breathed into his soul : puts salt into his mouth, as a sign that he is to be freed from the corruption of sin ; signs him on the forehead and breast with the sign of the cross, and leads him into the temple of God. Then the priest solemnly exor- cises the child ; anoints his ears and nostrils with spittle — after our Lord's example, who thus restored the blind man's sight — and asks him in thi-ee separate interrogations whether he re- nounces Satan, all his works and all his pomps. He next anoints him with the oil of catechumens on the lireast and be- tween the shoulders. The aticient athletes were anointed hefoi-e their cimtests in the arena, and in the same way the voung Cliristian is i.i epare.l fni- the " gdod h-ht" which lies before hini.' The recijiient then, through his spmi-ors, jirotesses liis faith by reciting the ( 'reed, and the jn-est pours water three times on his head, in the form of across, at the same time pro- nouncing the words "I baptise thee," &c. After baptism, chrism is put on the top of his head, to signify his union with Christ, the head of his Church ; he re- ceives a white garment, and a burning light in his hands, symbols of innocence and of the light of faith and charity. These rites are recommended as well by their beautiful symbolism and the majestic words which accompany them as by their venerable antiquity. Ter- tuUian^ mentions the triple renunciation made in baptism, the unct ion, the triple immersion. The Sacramentary of Gela- sius ^ (died 496) contains almost every ceremony of baptism to l)e found in the present Itituale. Two dill'erences, how- ever, must be noted. In the West solemn baptism was given as a rule only at Easter and Pentecost ; in the East it was also given at the Ejjiphany.* Again, the ceremonies now in use were intended primarily for adults, and instead of being given together were spread over three or four weeks. Thus in the Gelasian Sacra- mentary, the ceremonies of baptism begin on the third Sunday in Lent, although the bajitism itself did not take place till ' "Quasi athleta ; " Billuart, De Baptism. V. 2. ^ De Coron. 3, where he also mentions the custom of tasting milk and honey after bap- tism ; J)e Baptism. 7. 3 Fleuri-, Hist. xxx. 62. ^ Thoiiiassin, Traite dea Festes, ii. 7. Holy Saturday. (See Chardon, " Histoire des Sacremenls.") BAFTZSM OF SKZPS. Baptism, or, more correctly, blessing, of ships, a foi-m in the Roman Rituale. Certain prayers are said, in which God is asked to bless the ship and those who travel in it, as He blessed the ark of Noe and helped Peter when he was sinking in the deep. I This form is not found in the older " Or- dines." The practice of blessing ships seems to have become common during the time of the Crusades. BA.PTXsnxii.1. urAitiE. A name given in baptism, to signify that the baj)- tised person has become a new creature in Christ. The Rituale forbids heathenish names, and advises, though it does not enjoin, the taking of a saint's name. The custom of taking a new name in j baptism was not usual in the early Church — tliDUgh we find instances of it from the third centuiy onwards. Then, and long after. Christians bore not only the names of saints, but also those (1) of feasts — e.f/. Epiphanius, Natalis (from Christmas), Paschasius, &c.; (2) of virtues — e.ff. Eaith, Imiocent, Pius, &c. ; (3) animals — Leo, Columba, Ursula, &c. (Ilefele, " Beitriige," im.) BAPTZSiaAX. -WATER. Water blessed in the font on Holy Saturday and the vigil of Pentecost, which must be used at least in solemn baptism. The priest signs the water with the cross, divides it with his hand, pouring it to- wards the north, south, east and west ; breathes into it, and places in it the pas- chal candle, after which some of it is spriniled on the people and some removed for private use. The priest then pours oil of catechumens and chi-ism into the water. The origin of this custom of blessing the water is lost in immemorial antiquity. A form for blessing the water is found even in the Apostolic Constitutions,' in ancient Western and in all the Oriental liturgies.'' BAPTISTERY (called also in Greek (fxtiTca-TtipLov, the place of illumination). That part of the church in which solemn baptism is administered. Anciently, when ba])tism was constantly given to adults and the rite of immersion prevailed, it was inconvenient to baptise in the church itself, and hence after the conversion of Constantine separate buildings for the administration of baptism were erected I Apost. Constit. vii. 43. * Denzinger, Sitvs Orient, p. 24. BAREFOOTED ERIAKS RASILIANS 73 and attached to the cathedral church. Eusebius ' mentions a baptistery of this kind in the basilica at Tyre, and exanijih's of such buildinos still exist at Rome, Pisa, Pistnia, Mnd.-ua. Padua, &c. It was only L;i-ailnaily that l)a]itisiii was nd- The ancient liapt i>t itv was siuiiet iiues round, sometimes it had tour, eight, or twelve sides. Cyril of Jonisalcm distin- guishes the outer part of the baptistery {npoavXios oikos), in which the catechu- mens renounced Satan, kc, from the inner portion (JaaTtpos oiKos), in which they were baptised. The modern baptistery is merely a part of the cliurch set apart for baptism. Ac- cording to the Rnmau Rituale, it should be railed off, it should have a patf fas- tened by a loel{, and be adorned, if possi- ble, with a picture of Clirist's baptisui by St. John. It is convenient that it should contain a chest with two compartments, one for the holy oils, the other for the salt, caudle, &c., used in baptism. (See De Montault, "Construction desEglises," p. 105.) BARSFOOTED FKXARS. [See DlSC.\I.CED.] BARXiAASX. [See Hjestchasts.] BARSTABXTES. The proper desig- nation of the religious of this order is that of " Regular Clerks of the CongTe- gation of St. Paul ; " they are popularly called Barnabites on account of a chm-ch of St. Barnabas at Milan which belonged to them in the sixteenth century. Their principal founder was the holy priest Antonio Maria Zaccaria (died 15.30) ; with liim were joined Bartolommeo Ferrari and Giacomo Antonio Morigena. The fre- quent wars by which the north of Italy had been devastated ; the influx of Lu- theran soldiers, whose example tended to propagate a spirit of contempt for the sacraments and the clergy ; and the fre- quency of pestilential disorders caused by the famine and miseiy of the population, had produced about 1530 a state of things which powerfully appealed to the charity and pity of the true pastors of Jesus Christ. It occuiTed to Zaccaria that a better way of combating these evils could not be found than by organising a con- gregation of secular clergy, not going out of the world but living in it and working for it, and bound by a rule — that is, dili- gently attending to their own sanctifica- tion whilepreachingreformationto others, — " who should regenerate and reTive the » U. E. X. 4, 46. I love of the divine worship and a truly Christian way of life by frequent preach- j ing and the faithful administration of the Sacraments." In 15.'?.'! the foundation of such a congregation, under a special rule approved by the Holy See, was sanctioned l)y Clement VII. Thememberspronounced their vows before the Archbishop of Milan, and chose Zaccaria for their su])erior. The order soon spread into France and Ger- many. In 1579 their constitutions were examined by St. Charles Borromeo, Arch- bishop of Milan, protector of the congre- gation, and being approved by him were finally confirmed. They called, and still caU, their establishments colleges. They are governed by a General residing at Rimif, clpcted for three years, and capable of rf-i'lrctiou once. Besides the three usual vows they take a fourth, never to seek any office or ecclesiastical dignity, and to accept no post outside of their order without the permission of the Pope. The habit is merely tlie black soutane worn by secular priests in Lombardy at the time of their foundation. Their principal house is now at Pome ; and they have about twenty colleges in all, one in Paris, and others in various parts of Italy and Austria. There is no house of these religious either in England or in Ireland. Among the eminent men of this order may be mentioned Sauli, called the Apostle of (^orsica; Bascape, the biographer of St. Charles Borromeo; and Gavanti, the well-known writer on ru- brics and ceremonies. (H^lyot, "Ordres Monastiques.") BASHilAHS. This order takes its name from the great St. Basd (died yrO), bishop of Cfesarea in Oappadocia. On his return to his own country after a long journey through Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia — made that he might collect the experience of monks and solitaries living under many different rules — Basil, still thirsting for the perfect life in which self should be subdued and union with Christ attained, withdrew into a desert region of Pontus, where his mother Emelia and his sister Macrina had already established monasteries, and laid the foundation of the great order which bears his name. To those who placed them- selves under his direction he gave two rules, the Great and the Little — the for- mer containing fifty-five, the latter thi-ee hundred and thirteen articles. This 1 wo- fold rule became so famous and p(q)ular in the East as to sujiplant all others ; and at this day it alone is recognised and fol- 74 BASILICA BASILICA lowed by the monks of tlie Greek Church. I The order never penetrated into France or Eiip-hmd ; hni in southern Itah' there j wereniiuiy Hasilian convents in existence, even hetore the time of St. Benedict, who | regarded both the rule and its author with great veneration, and a | pears to have had it before him when framing his own rule. In Russia, the first missionaries to which were (^reek monks, the Basilian order re- ceived an immense development. Nearly [ all of them have, since the division of the 1 ninth century, adhered to the Photian schism ; there are, however, in Austrian Poland and Hungary several communities of Basilian monks which are in com- munion with Rome ; the monks of these call themselves Ruthenians. In Spain there were several Basilian monasteries, reformed and unreformed, up to the date of the suppression in 1835. The habit of the Basilians is scarcely to be distinguished from that of the Benedictines. Nearly all the convents of Basilian nuns, founded by St. Macrina, like those of the monks, have embraced the l""astern schism. (Helyot, " Ordres Monastiques.") ' BASZIiZCA {^aa-iKiKT)). This name began to be applied to Christian churches about the beginning of the fourth century. The earlier expressions were " house of prayer " (o?ko9 wpocr(VKTijpios), " oratory " (TTfjoa-evKTripLov), and " Lord's house " {KvpiaKov, dominicum), besides the loosely- employed term " ecclesia." It has been commonly held that the ancient Roman basilicas (large halls, like the "Basilica Portia" built by Cato about 180 B.C., used for the purposes of justice or commerce) passed in considerable num- bers into Christian hands, after the con- version of Constantine, and were used for Christian worship ; that new churches were built after the model of these, and that the name " basilica " was naturally applied to buildings of either class. Closer investiga- tion has furnished grounds for a somewhat different view. In a learned paper contri- buted by Prof. Kraus of Freiburg to the " R. Encykl. d. christl. Alterth." the follow- ing conclusions are given, as, in the opinion of the writer, solidly established by the evidence. ( 1 ) All that the Romans meant by " basilica " was a fine, stately, splendid building ; no notion of what was kingly or 'princely connected itself in their minds with the term. (2) Christian congrega- tions used buildings or rooms set apart for 1 There is at present (1891) a Basilian house, the College of St. Mary Immaculate, at Plymouth. divine worship, from the first. (3) Before the time of Constantine, these were, at Rome, ordinary chanibei sin |ii i\ !tte houses, the triclinia, or other lai >i>' niciiis ui the dwellings of the wealthy, and, specially, the private basilicas of Roman palaces. Such a basilica is mentioned in the Cle- mentine " Recognitions " (a work wh ch, apart from all question as to its genuii;e- ness, is certainly of a date not later than the third century) as having formed part of the mansion of Theophilus, a wealthy citizen of Antioch, even in the Apostolic age, and been used by the Christians as a church. (4) The form of these private basilicas probably Lore a considerable re- semblance to that of the pre-Augustan forensic basilicas, such as the Portian basi- lica already noticed; this point, however, is not at present determined with absolute certainty. (5) It is not probable that, apart from the chambers or halls and private basilicas above mentioned, the Christians of the pre-Nicene period pos- sessed, at least in Rome, any churches properly so called within the city. (6) Besides the private basilicas, sepulchral buildings were used for Christian worship in the period referred to — exceptionally, and in times of persecution, those under ground (Catacombs); regularly, the "Me- mories" and Cells of Martyrs built above ground. Both parts of this proposition can be proved by abundant evidence. (7) The Christian basilica of the age of Constantine is not a simple adaptation or imitation of the forensic basilica of the preceding period. For the forensic basilica appears to have had no one determiiuite shape; sometimes it had an apse, some- times not, and it was entered either from one end or from the side — whereas the Christian basilica, faithful to the form of the crypt, or "Memory," of the earlier time, had always an apse, and was always entered from the end opposite the apse. At the same time, the forensic basilica, with its constant in^emaZ feature of a space divided by rows of columns into three aisles — a form very suitable to the needs of a large congregation — was certainly not overlooked by Christian architects. (8) The final conclusion is that the Christian basilica of the age of Constantine arose out of the combination of two factors — one the sepulchral " Cella," terminating in one or three apses ; the other, the great three- i aisled hall, so familiar to Roman eyes, whether in the forensic or in the private I basilicas. The origin of the Christian basilica BASILIDIANS haying been considered, it remains to show what were its parts, structural features, and arrangements for wor^hij). .Vs a general rule, it was hiiilt in an cast and west direction, the altar or table being sometimes at one end, .-.(uiit l inies at the other. It was UMiallv Minnunded by an outer wall. Through a ]iortico or colonnade, forming a ve>tibulc', admission was obtained into a quadrant: (i/friian), round which ran an arcade, si ]iarated by a low partition from the enclosed space (m-ea), which was open to the air. In tlu' middle of the "area" was the "can- thanis," or water-basin, where the faith- ful washed their faces and hands before entering the church. The right-hand arcade was for men; that on the left, for A\-omen ; here penitents must remain during the service ; those, however, whose ofl'ences were of a very heinous ty])c ^\rvi' excluded even from the>f, and bad to stand in the open area. (Jn the o])p()site side of the atrium was an oblong hall, formed by rows of pillars, which was sometimes called the "narthejc" or " ferula." Passing through this, the wor- ship])fr ent.'i-ed tlif church bv a door which was callc.l tlic IVautifui ( iate." He found hini-i If in a iia\r (rnof) with two t)ankiiigai.-lc>(li-,,ni « hadnt wass<:>])arated by pillar>), Imt without a traiisejit ; as he firoceeded, lie came upon the " ambo " see that article] ; beyond which were the " cancelli," or rails, parting off" the choir — which was for the clergy — from the rest of the church. At the end of all was the semicircular vaulted apse [see Apse], with the bishop's chair in the centre, and seats for the clergy on either hand ; just in front of the apse was the altar or table. Dui-ingthe divine worship, the men occupied the south, the women the north, aisle ; the space between was left free. At Rome thirteen churches still retain the name of " basilicas " — five larger, and eight smaller. Those of the foriiier class are 8t. Petei's, St. .John Lateran, St. Mary Major, St. Paul ^^■ithout the Walls, and St. Lawrence. Among the smaller basili- cas, San Clemente (beneath which an older church was discovered in 1858 by the Irish Dominican, Father MuUooly), Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, Santa Sabi- na, and San Sebastiano, are of great interest and beauty. (Kraus, " Real-Encyklo- padie." Platner, " Beschreibung der Stadt Rom," 1829, vol. i. p. 417.) BASZx.xsxA.irs. [See Gnosticism.] BA.SX.X:, coVN-gzx OF. The schism BASLE, COrXClL OF 75 ! in the Papacy, iirab'd with ditliculty at the Council of Constance t iirougii ' t he election of Martin produced in the fifteenth century a prevalent sentiment that the most ellectiial safeguard against the recurrence oi' so tcrril)lc an evil lay in the frequent assmiblagc of general coun- cils. It was ])7-o\ idcd accorilinglv, bv one of the decree,- of (.'on-nince (1414 1418), that a geneial couned should in future be held every li\t' years. Martin Y., in pursuance of the decree, convoked a council for 1423, to meet at Pavia ; but various difficulties arose, and it was finally an-anged that Basle should be the place of meeting, and the time, July 1431. Martin also named Cardinal Julian Cesarini papal legate and president of the assembly. But before the day of meeting the Pope died; and a doubt as to the int ent ipoke am- biguously and others erroneously with regard to the vision of God. They had a difficulty in supposing it possible even for the blessed to behold the divine essence. It is with the eyes of the soul, not with the bodily eyes, that God is seen. This follows from the very fact that God is incorporeal. Nor can any created intellect in its own strength or by the force of its nature enjoy the beatific vision, for there is no proportion between the divine nature and any created intelligence. In order that the blessed may see Him, God infuses a supernatural quality which elevates and perfects tlu^ intellect and makes it capable of the beatific vision. Just as the natural eye, in order that it may see, requires first the presence of the object, and then light, in order that the image of the object may be received, so the intellect, in order to see God, re- qnirrs not only the proximity of the divine c.-si iici', liut alxi an interior disposition by wliich it is elevated to an act above its natural powers.* The schoolmen fitly call this quality in the intellect of the blessed the " light of glory," a term which occurs in the Fathers — e.g. in St. Augustine, though not in the same definite seuM>. The Council of Vienne adopted the t'xpre^>ion in its condemnation of the error "that the soul does not need the light of glory, which elevates the soul so that it beholds God and enjoys Him in bliss." The word "light" is of course a mere metaphor, for the light of glory is immaterial. Nor is it anything outside the intellect, or again an object which the intellect perceives. It is in the intellect and enables it to see God. By the ordinary law of God, this vision is not given in the flesh, since no man can see God's face and liA e, although great authorities maintain that it has been bestowed in exceptional cases even during this life. St. Thomas, for instance, maintains that Closes and St . Paul enjoyed the beatific vision before their death, 1 1 John iii. 2 ; 1 Cor. xiii. 12. 2 St. Thorn, i. 12, 5. 78 BEATIFIC VISION BEATITUDE though the gift was not a permanent one. On the other hand, it was a question long discussed in the Church, whether the paints saw God fact^ to face before the day of judgment. The Council of Florence, quoted above, closed the controversy, and this definition is the true developnunit of patristic teaching. From the first it was held that martyrdom, as the perfect purga- tion of the soul, admits to the immediate possession of glory, a tenet which logically involves the belief that heaven since Christ's ascension has been opened to all who are fitted by perfect purity for the vision of God. St. Gregory ' places the difi'erenee between the saints of the Old and New Testaments in this very point, that whereas the former had to wait for the vision of God till Christ's descent into limbo, the latter, when "their earthly house of this habitation is dissolved," have a "house not made with hands, eteriuil in the heavens." The words of the council, with which we began, explain what it is that the beatific vision implies. The saints and angels see God — i.e. His essence, His attributes, and the three Persons of the Trinity. Further, seeing God, they see creatures in Him, who is the supreme cause, in whom all things live and move and exist. The saints do not, indeed, know all that God can do, because even to the blessed He remains in a certain sense incomprehensible, and it is one thing to see an object before us, quite another to know that object in the utmost extent to which it can be known. Such perfect comprehension of the divine nature belongs to God Himself, and cannot be communicated to any creature. But the saints see in God all the facts concerning creatures which it is suitable for them to know. They have, for example, a special knowledge of those who are placed under their patronage; they are aware when souls on earth implore their prayers; they are acquainted with the best means of helping their clients. The most plausible objection which is made to the invocation of the saints falls to the ground if this point, which St. Augustine sets forth with great fulness, is well understood. We ask the saints to pray for us, not because we believe them omniscient or omni- present, but because, seeing God, they see in Him all that He wishes them to see. Lastly, though all the bl.-^s,..l s,.,. God, they do so with dilfcrent .-i _ ■ -i.. ,it' per- fection. The vision of (i.i.l ihr iv\s ard of merit, and as (iod repays exery man » Petav. IJe Deo, vii.' 1.3. according to his works, as the crown pro- mised in heaven is a crown of justice, therefore the vision of God cannot be given in precisely the same manner to all. This truth was denied by Jovinian in ancient, by Luther in modem, times, and the anathema of the Council of Trent — sess. vi. cap. 16, can. 32 — is directed against the latter. (See Petavius, " De Deo," lib. vii.) BEATirxcATZOW. [See CixoNi- SATION.] BBATXTVDE, or bliss, is defined by St. Thomas as that perfect good which completely appeases and satisfies the appe- tite.^ God alone can constitute man's per- fect bliss, for man's will seeks the fulness of all good, and this cannot be found e.\- cept in God. Had man been left without grace, then he would have found his natu- ral beatitude in knowing God most per- fectly as the author of nature, and in adhering to Him by natural love, sweetly and constantly.- He would have at- tained thishappiuess, after passingsucces.s- fully through his probation in this mortal life. As it is, man has been raised to a supernatural state, and his bliss consists in God, seen face to face in the heavenly country. [See Beatific Vision.] So far all the Catholic theologians are at one. All admit that God is man's last end and that he attains this end through the l)eatific vision. But if we que.stion theologians more closely and wish to know the precise manner in which the blessed reach perfect hap])iness, various answers are given, of which tliree may be rejjeated hei'e. The Thomists, following apparently the clear teaching of their master,-' place the essential hap])iness of the blessed {beatitudo formalis) in the act of the in- tellect by which the saints see God as He is. They argue that while the will is an appetite which tends to its object and rests in it, it is by the intellect that an im- material object actually becomes present to the soul. Thus while the will of the blessed rests in God, it is the intellect which actually apprehends, acquires and possesses Him. The delight which the will takes in good attained does not con- stitute the possession of this good, but presupposes it. The Thomists allege fur- ther that the intellect is the nolilest of the faculties, and that the bliss of man must consist in the exercise of this power.^ 1 Sep l"! 2«, 2, S. 2 Billuart, De Grnt. Diss. ii. 1. 3 See 4. -2. * liilluait, De Ultimo Fine, Diss. ii. 2. BEATITUDES, THE EIGHT BEGUINES AND BEGIL\KDS 79 Here, we may add, they make a legiti- ■mate application of Aristotle's principles. ■''That wbieli is proper to each by nature," says this philosopher,' "is best and sweet- est for each ; sweetest, then, for man is the intellectual life (6 Kara rbv vovv ^ios), since this [_i.e. reason] chiefly con- stitutes man. Such a life, therefore, is most happy." St. Basil, St. Cyril •of Alexandria, and St. Augustine (con- sciously or unconsciously) made a similar application of the Aristotelian princi- ple.^ The second opinion is that of Scotus, which places beatitude in the act of the ■will by which it loves God with the love •of friendship; a third, that of fevciril Jesuit theologians, who make it rmisi-t ii; the e.\ei'cise of intellect ami w ill vmi- bined. It is scarcely necr>-ary to >ay that the Tliomists only j)la< r thf o-fnc-' •or spring of beatitude in ihr \ dt God by the intellect. Ili'iicr How the full satisfaction of the will, tlu' liaiJpy necessity of lovino- God, the luiowlrdi^c ■which the saints have that then- lia])])i- ness is eternal. After the reMin-fit mn this bliss will overflow into the liody, lie- stowing upon it the four gifts of i>/,j>'issi- bility, subtleti/ (by which it will ))(• aMc to penetrate other bodies, as the rl^en (_'lu i>t penetrated the closed duors), cK/ilitij (which will make it capable of the swiftest motion), darity (through which it will become luminous or transjiarent). BEATZTUBES, THE EIGHT. The blessiiiii> iininiiuuced Ijy our Lord at the beginniiii: of the .Serimin on the Mount •(Matt. \. .-3-10). In the so-called Sermon on the Plain (Luke vi. only four •are enumerated. \'arious reasons are eiven by the Fathers for this ditl'erence •(see St. Thomas, 1« qu. Ixix. a. 3). BECVZirES and BEGHARSS. The Bdguiues of Handers are an interesting and ancient foundation. An attempt, in- deed, was madeinthe seventeenth century to trace their origin to St. Begg:,, the mother of Pepin of Herstal, who flour- ished about A.D. 700; but in the judg- ment of Ilefele ^ the attempt failed. That they can be traced back to the twelfth centui-y, and are consequently older than either the Franciscans or Dominicans, is unquestionable. The scandals caused by the conduct of a dissolute Bishop of Liege, about 1180, aroused the zeal of a holy priest of the diocese, Lambert le I Eih. Nicnm. x. 7. » Petav. De Deo, vii. 8. " Art. "Beghines " in VVcUcr and Welte. Beghe, who spent his fortune in founding an institution at Liege for widows and single women desirous to consecrate their lives to God, and opened it in 1184. The associates calledtheniseh es 15egliines, corrupted to Beguines, after their founder, and the name of Ijeuinnai:'' \va> given to the abode, or rather grcnip of aliodes, in which they lived. For the lir^uiiiiiaL;.'. re- sembling in this respect tlieaiu iei,t imird, is not a convent, but a collect ion of Mnall houses (each inlialiited Ijy om- or two Beguines, who do 1 heir ow n housekeeping), surrounded Ijy u wall, and with a cha))el in tlie centre. ThelJeguines do not take ])' r]ietual \ows, nor do they renounce ]iri\ all- projierty : they can leave theasso- ciation wheue\er they desire it, and re- claim the capital which they may have contriliuted to it. But each Beguine on admission to the habit makes a vow, in the jirer-eiice of the Cure who has the s])iritual charge of the community, of obedience and chastity so long as >he remains in the lieguinage. They eni])loy theniseU es, ac- cording to tlie strength or capacity of the several members, in educational work ( including large Sunday-schools for girls) and corporal works of mercy of various kinds, besides taking part in the di\ ine othce. Some of their communities in the fourteenth century fell into the eiTor of the Fraticelli, or brethren of the free spirit, and incurred condemiuition on that ac- count from the Council of \'ienne (Itill). At the ]>re-ent day, they are >till lloui isli- mu 111 ]leli;iiuu, their oi'in'inal seat ; there are r.e--iiinages at (ihent. Drug.-. Aiit- werj), Mechlin, and other ])lac.'^. the great ]5eguinage at (ilidit t her.^ w . i.' in 1857 six iiundred pr.ife.>5.ed 1 ieguiiu'.-, and two hundred locaiaires — that is, ladies liv- ing within the enclosure, paying a certain pension, and to some extent participating in the religious life of the sisters. There are Ijc'guinages in Germany, and one was lately founded at Castelnaudary, in the south of France, by a zealous priest of Carcassonne, M. Soubiran-la-Louviere, which promised to be eminently success- ful and useful. The Beghards had no special founder, but were associations of laymen living together in imitation of the Beguines. They first appear in the early part of the thirteenth century. Heresy and anti- nomianism made great ravages in their ranks in the following ag.-, and the sev.:- rities of which they wen' con,-.>(juenlly the object caused the gi-eater number to pass into the third orders of the Mendicant 80 CELLS BENEDICTINES fraternities. They were finally suppressed by Innocent X. in ] 050. BStliS. Nothing certain is known as to the date of their introduction, which has been attributed sometimes to St. Paulinus of Nola, sometimes to Pope Sabinian. During- the heathen persecu- tion it was of course impossible to call the faithful by any signal which would have attracted public notice. After Gon- stantine's time, monastic communities used to sig-nify the hour of prayer by blowing a trumpet, or by rapping with a hammer at the cells of the monks. Walafrid Strabo, in his celebrated book on the divine otlices, written about the middle of the ninth centuiy, speaks of the use of bells as not very ancient in his time, and as having been introduced from Italy. However, we learn from the his- tory of St. Lupus of Sens that church- bells were known in France more tlian | two centuries before Strabo's time.' For long tlie Eastern Church employed instead of bells clappers, such as we still um' on Good Friday, and bells were not known among the Orientals till the ninth cen- j tury.'- Even then their use cannot have become universal among them, for Fleury 1 mentions the ringing of church-bells us one of the customs which the ^laroniti's adopted from the Latins on their reunion with the Cathohc Church in 1183.^ The classical words for bell are, Kd>8o}v and tintinnahulum. From the seventh cen- tury onwards, we find the names ccanpana (from the Campanian metal of which they were often made), nola (from the town where their use is said to have been intro- duced), and cloccce * (French cloche). Originally church bells were compara- tively small. Large ones of cast metal first appear in the eleventh and twelfth centuries; those of the greatest size in the fifteenth. In the tenth century the custom began of giving bells names.* Before the Church sets aside bells for sacred she blesses them with solemn cere- monies. The form prescribed in the Pontifical is headed " the blessing of a bell," though it is popularly called "the baptism of a bell," a title by which the office is mentioned as early as the eleventh century.* The bishop washes the bell with blessed water, signs it with the oil » Fleury, Hist, xlviii. 42. 2 Kraus, Kirchengeschichte, p. 172. S Ixxiii. 46. •» First occurs in Bonifacius, Ep. 134 ; per- haps from the old German chlachan =frangi. Kraus. p. 288. 5 Kraus, /«c. cit. » Fleury, lix. 20. of the sick outside, and with chrism inside, and lastly places under it the thurible with burning incense. He prays re- peatedly that the sound of the bell may avail to summon the faithful, to excite their devotion, to drive away storms, and to terrify evil spirits. This power of course is due to the blessings and prayers of the Church, not to any efiicacy super- stitiously attributed to the bell itself. Thus consecrated, bells become spiritual things, and cannot be rung without the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities. Hitherto, we have been treating of the large church-bell. Small bells are also used during Mass, and are rung by the server at the Sanctus and at the Eleva- tion. The object of this rite is to excite the attention and devotion of the faithful. The practice of ringing the bell at the Elevation was introduced after the custom of elevating the Host [see Elevation] had become common in the Church. The- Elevation-bell is mentioned by William of I'aris. In England it is the custom to ring the bell also as the priest spreads his hands over the Host and chalice before the consecration, and at the Domine, non sum dii/'iNs, before the priest's commu- nion. 'Phis bell is not rung when Mass is ^aiil liil'iirr the Blessed Sacrament exposed, nor a>:ain in the private chapel of the Apostolic Palace if the Pope says or hears :Ma^s.' BESIESZCAMVS DOMZITO, i.e. "Let us bless the Lord," a form used in the breviary at the end of each hour ex- cept matins, and at the end of Mass in- stead of Ite, 3lissa est on days Avhen the Gloria in e.vcelsis is not said. "N'arious reasons are given for the use of J!ur#; and, eschewing all idleness, ordered that the monks, when not employed in the divine praises, or in taking necessary food and rest, should engage themselves in useful works, either manual labour, or study, or copying books, or teaching. Every monastery was to have a library, and every monk was to possess a pen and tablets. The clothing, of which the pre- vailing colour was black, was to vary in material and warmth at the discretion of the abbots, according to the exigencies of different climates and circumstances. The abstinence from meat enjoined by the rule (except in the case of the sick) is perpetual ; but there is some doubt whether the prohibition was meant to ex- tend to poultry and winged game, as well as the tlesh of four-footed animals. A singular clause in the rule, and one which was fruitful in results, was that which ordered that all persons whatever, with- out distinction of age, rank, or calling, ' should be admissible to the order of St. j Benedict. If parents offered a son to the service of God in a monaster}^, even if he were but a boy of five years old, the monks were to receive and take full charge of him. Thus our own Beda was given over when only seven years old to the monks at Wearmouth and Jarrow, and the good Orderic, the historian of Normandy, was committed by his father in his tenth year to the kind hands of the monks of St. Evroult, and saw his native land no more. Out of this practice of offering young boys to the monasteries a great system of monastic schools naturally arose. St. Maur, a disciple of St. Benedict, founded the first Benedictine monastery in France, in his master's lifetime, at Glanfeuil, near Angers. In Spain they were introduced about 633. "We in England have special caaise to be grateful to the Benedictine order, for it was by it that Christianity was first taught to our Saxon forefathers. The monastery on Monte Cassino was destroyed by the Lom- bards towards the end of the sixth cen- tury, but the monks took refuge at Rome, where Pope Gregory gave them St. Andrew's Church. The Benedictine abbot of St. Andrew's was the person chosen by the Pope to head the mission which he sent to the Court of Ethelbert, and he will be remembered through all time as St. Augustin, the Apostle of England. Benedictine monks from Eng- land—St. Willibrord (699) and St. Boni- face (750) — introduced Christianity in the Low Countries and the Rhineland. Volumes might be -RTitten on the mani- fold services which the German Benedic- tines, going forth from the tomb of St. Boniface at Fulda, and settling themselves down as welcome guests at numberless points in the forests which then covered the Teutonic land, rendered to their halt- savage country men, accustoming them by degrees to the restraints of religion and law, and training and cultivating both the land and the people. But all human institutions are liable to change, and even this famous order, chiefly through the intrusion of ambitious laymen into the office of abbot, witnessed before the end of the eighth century a great decline of monastic virtue. St. Benedict of Anian then appeared as a reformer and re?torer. So, when the fierce Danish and Norman barbarians in the ninth and tenth cen- turies had destroyed many monasteries in France and England, and murdered great numbers of monks, while those who were spared lived with little regularity, the reformation of Cluny by St. Peter the Venerable, and tliat earned on by our own St. Dunstan in England, caused the old life, in its lovely peace and fruitful- ness, to flourish again. It is said that, a calculation being made in the first half of the fourteenth century, it was found that up to that time twenty-four Popes, two hundred cardinals, seven thousand arch- bishops, fifteen thousand bishops, and a still greater number of saints, had been given to the Church by the Benedictine order. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many relaxations and corruptions crept into the Benedictine mona steries in various parts of Europe. In France the reaction against these led to the foundation of the reformed congregation of St. Vanne, in which the rigid observance of the rule was revived (1550) ; and out of this pro- ceeded the yet more celebrated congrega- tion of St. Maur (1618), to which a great number of French monasteries adhered. This congregation, by its colossal patristic and historical labours, directed by such men as Mabillon, Martene, Ruinart, 82 BENEDICTINES BENEDICTINES Rivet, and D'Ach6ry, rendered incalcul- able services to the learned world. Two such works as the "France Litteraire" and the"Recueil des Historiens," if they had accomplished nothing else, would entitle the congregation to the gratitude of all men of letters. At the Revolution the order was entirely suppressed in France. In the present century it has again taken root, and begun to bear fruit of the old kind ; witness the new foundation at So- lesmes, the residence of the pious and gifted I)om GntSranger ; the community at Pierre-qui-Vire (founded by the Pere Muard, who died in 1854); and the Benedictine nunneries of Pradines and Flavigny. In S])ain and Germany also the oidri- su])pressed during the re- volui li ouliles: in the former coun- try It li:is nut yet been re-introduced; in Germany it has reappeared at Munich. In England, at the dissolution, there were one hundred and eighty-six Bene- dictine abljeys, priories, and nunneries, the revcnuesof which appear in tlie ""\'alor Ecclesiiisticus,"and about a hundred otlier cells and jiriories of less importance, besides those jjreviously suppressed by Wolsey (twenty-nine, of which the majority were Benedictine) and the "alien" priories— that is, those which were cells of foreign abbeys. All these were sup])ressed, with what ruinous results to education, art, and learning, all the world knows. Dom Feckenham, the last abbot of Westminster, made a noljlc >]i'rrli in the House of Lords against tlic cliange of religion in the first year of I'^lizabetli ; it may be read in the Smiirrs Tracts. Fecki'nham was thrown into ](i-isi)ii and kept there for the rest of liis life. One of his monks, Dom Sigebert Buckley, after forty years' imprisonment, died at a gi-eat age in IGIO; before dying he gave the habit to two Englisli Bi'ue- dictines who had been prdii ^x il aliroad, and was thus the luik betwiTn the niunks of old and those of modern times. For several generations the English Benedic- tines were obliged on account of persecu- tion to have their houses abroad, whence tliey sent men to the Engli.sh mission. Mr. Law's *' Calendar of English Martyrs" (IHT't) contains the names of nine or ten Bcnrdici nil' niissioners hanged, drawn, and (iiiartfrrd between 1558 and 1681. The old titles, abbot of Westminster, Glastonbury, &c., are still kept up. At the present time the Benedictines have ten or eleven houses in England, the chief of which are Downside, Belmont, and Ampleforth. The English college at Douai is also an English Benedictine monastery. By recent Apostolic Letters (October 31, 1890) the Benedictine missions are placed under three abbeys. Downside, Ampleforth, and Douai, and various changes are made in the constitutions. The abbey at Fort Augustus (in Scotland) is an offshoot from the English province. There is a monastery at Ramsgate belong- ing to the Cassinese branch of the order. An English colony. Western Australia, furnishes a noble example of the old civilising and colonising energy of tlie order. Two Spanish Benedictines, Dom Serran6 and Dom Serra, driven by the Revolution from their own country, emi- grated with Bishop Brady to Perth ; about live-and-forty years ago they formed a settlement on the Moore river, sixty miles to the north of Perth ; where they gathered the natives round them, learned their lan- guage, instructed them in the truths of salvation, and taught them how to till the ground and to practise many useful arts. They have changed hundreds of these wild blacks from barbarous nomads into civilised. God-fearing, home-loving men. The name of their colony is New Nursia. By a special Papal indult, the head of their abbey is an abbot-bishop, like St. Columba and his successors at lona. (H6lyot; "Sketch of the Life and Mission of St. Benedict," vsrritten for the fourteenth centenary of the Saint by a monk of Downside; Taylor's "Index Monasticus," 1821 ; Cardinal Newman's " Mission of the Benedictine Oi-der.") ^ 1 List of English Benedictine Houses existing at date of siipprfssion. Nunneries and cells are inidcated by n and c respectively. Bardney (Line.) Barking' (Essex), n. Barrow lEsse.K), c. to Cok-hester Abbotsbury (Dorset) i Abin'-'don (Berks.) St. Alban's (Herts.) St. Albau's de Pra- tis, n. Alcestpr (War\v.), c. to Evesham Aldeby iNorf.) c. U\ Norwich Anibrosbury, or Amcsbury (Wilts), n. Ankerwyke, near Wrayslmry (Bucks.) n. Arden (York), n, 10. Armathwuite (Cumb.), n. Arthinifton {Yk.),w. Athelney (Som.) Avecot (Wavw.), c. to Malvern Batb (Sojnerset) Battle (Suss.) St. Bees (Cumb.) c. to St. Mary's, York 20. Belvoir (Line), c. to St. Alban's St. Benet Hulme (xXorf.) Binhani (Norf.), c. to St. Alban'a Birkenhead (Cbesli.) Blarkborough (Norf.), n. BIyth (Notts.) Boxgrave (Suss.) Bradewell (Bucks.) BENEDICTION, ETC. BENEDICTION, ETC. 83 BEIffESZCTZOSr OF THE BZ.ESSEB SACRAMEM-T. A rite Brewood (Staff.), n. Bromfield (Salop) 30. Bungay (Suff.), n. Burnham (York), n, Burton-on-Trent (Staff.) Burj- St. Edmund's (Suff.) Canterbury.Christ- church Canterbury, St. Augustine Canterbury, St., Sepulchre, n. Canyngton (Som.), n. Cardigan, c. to Cliertsey Car. v,- Xorf.), n. 40. L .Ut ■^l.y (Xorth- antsi, ((. Ceme (Dorset) Chatteris (Cambr.), n. Chertsey (Surr.) Chester, St. Wer- burgh Chester, St. Mary, M. Cheshunt (Herts.), Colchester (Essex) Colne, Earl's (Essex) Coquet Isle (Northumb.), c. to Tynemouth to. Coventry (Warw.) Cowick (Devon.), c. to Tavistock Cranbourne (Dors.), c. to Tewkesbury Croyland (Line.) Daunton (Kent), n. Deeping (Line), c. to Thorney Dover (Kent) Dunster (Som.) Eastbourne (Sues.), Evesham (Wor«.) 60. Exeter, S^. Cathe- rine, n. Exeter, St. Nicholas Eye (Suff.). Eynsham (Oxf.) i Fame I. (Northumb.) I Feversham (Kent) | Finchale (Durh.) Flamstead (Herts.), n. Folkestone (Kent) Fosse (Line), n. 70. Frieston (Line.) Glannach (Angles.) Glastonbury ( Som.) Gloucester, St. Peter Godstow (Oxf.), n. Grimsby (Line), n. Halliwell (Midd.),«. Hallystone (Northumb.), n. Haiidale (York), n. HatHeia Peveril (Essex), c. to St. Alban's 80. Heanwood(Warw.), Hedingham Cas. (Essex), n. Hertford Hincliinbrook (Hunts I Horsham (Noif.) Hortnn (Dors.), c. to Sherborne Hoxne (Suff.), c. to Nonvich Hoyland (Lane.) Hunston (Line.) Hurley (Berks.), c.to Westminster 90. Hyde (Hants) Jarrow (Durh.), c. to Durham IckletoiuCaiiil..),». St. Ives iHuiiUi Keeling l Yuiki, n. Kidwelly (Caerm.), c. to Sherborne Kilbum (Midd.), n. Kington (Wilts.), n. Lamblev (Northumb.), n. Langley (Leic), n. lOO.Leominster (Herf.) C. to Read ng Lincoln, St. Mary Blagd., c. to St. Mary's, York Lindisfarne (Northumb.), c. to Durham London, Clerken- well, n. London, St. Helen's, n. Luffield(Northants) Lynn (Norf.), c. to Norwich Lytham (Lane.) c. to Durham Mailing (Kent) Malvern, Great (Worc.),c. to Westminster lO.Malvern, Little (Wore), c. to Worce.ster Market-Street (Beds.), n. Marlow, Little (Bucks.), n. Marrick (York), n. Marsh, Little (York), n. which has now become verj' common in the Catholic Church. The priest takes the Host from the tabeniach', plares it in the monstrance, and then puts the monstrance containing the Host on a throne above the tabernacle. The priest then incenses the Blessed Sacrament, ■while the choir (at least in England) usually sing the "0 8alutaris Ilobtia."' Meuresley, or Ivinghoe(Bucks), Michelnev (Som.) Mid.llesburgh (Yorki, c. to Whitby Milton Abbas (Dors.) Modney, near Hilgay (Xorf.), c. to Ramsey 120.Molesby (York), 7i. Monkton Nun (York), n. Monmouth Morfield (Salop), c. to Shrewsbury St. Neot's (Hunts.) Neasham (Dur.) n. Newcastle (Xorthumb.), n. Norwich, Trinity Norwich, St. Leo- nard's, c. to the last Oldbury ( Warw.1, c. to "Pok-sworth ISO.Oxn^^v iXoitiiants), c. to Pfter- borou-h Pembroke, c. to St. Alban's Penwortham (Lane.) Pershore (Wore) Peterborough (Northauts.) Pilton (Devon), c. to Malmesbury Polesworth (Warw.), n. PoUeshoo (Devon) Ramsay (Hunts.) Reading (Berks.) 140.Redburn (Herts.) Bedlingfield (Suff.) Rochester (Kent) Romsey (Hants.), w. Rusper (Suss.), n. Sandtoft (Linc.),?i., c. to St. Mary, York Selby (York) Seton (Cuml).), n. Shaftesbury (Dors.) Sheppey (Kent), n. 150.Shrewsbury Snelleshall (Bucks) Sopewell (Herts.),?!. Spalding (Line.) Stanford (Line), c. to Durham Stanford (Northants.), n. Stanlev (Glouc), c. to"St. Peter's Glouc. Stratford le Bow (Midd.), 11. Stroguil. or Chep- stow iJIonm.i Stn.llrv I Oxf. I. II. leO.Sudburv iSiilf 1, c.to Westminster Swaliham ( Cambr. I, St. Sv tn lie I Corn.), Tavistock (De Tewkesbury (Glouc.) Thetfonl (Nor Thukhr.llYnr Thorn. v ((Ann Tvne.noutli iNoi St. All iffrou Uske (Moi .TO.AValdeu, ^ (Essex) Wallingwells (Notts.), n. Wearmouth (Dur.) c. to Durham Wenuy (Glam.), c. to Glouc. Wetherell (Cumb.) c. to St. Mary's, York Wherwell (Hants.), )i. Whitby (York) Wilberf orce ( Yk.), 7K Wilton (Wilts.), n. Winchcombe (Glouc.) LSO.Winchester Winchester, St. Mary, n. Winchester, New- minster Worcester, St. Mary Wroxall (Warw.), n. Wymondham (Norf.) York, St. -Mary's York, Trinity York, St. Clement's, 62 84 BENEDICTIONALE BENEFIT OF CLERGY Next tte Te Deum, the Litany of the Blessed Virgin, or some other canticle or antiphon, is sung, followed by the "Tan- tuui Ergo," during which the Blessed Sacrament is again incensed, and the prayer " Deus, qui nobis," &c., is recited. Finally, the priest, mantled with the veil, makes the sign of the cross with the monstrance over the people. The Congre- gation of Rites orders this Benediction to be given in silence; probably to show thai it is not the earthly, but the Eternal Priest who in this rite blesses and sanc- tities His people. If a bishop gives Bene- diction of the Blessed Sacrament, he makes the sign of the cross over the people three times. The rite is comparatively modem. Processions and expositions of the Blessed Sacrament date from the early part of the fourteenth century, but at first, apparently, the Host was replaced in the tabernacle, w-itlu)ut any benediction being given to the people. "The custom" [of benedic- tion], says the learned Thiers, in a treatise on the exposition of the Blessed Sacra- ment, published in 1673, "appears to me somewhat novel (assez nouvelle) for I have found no Ritual or Ceremonial older than about a hundred years which mentions it." The same author tells us, that the custom of singing the "0 SulutarisHostia" ' at the Elevation in the Mass was introduced by Loui.-^ XII. of France, a little before his death, in 1515, at a time when he was harassed by various enemies. Thiers also mentions that the Carthusians still main- tained the custom of replacing the Host, after exposition, without giving benedic- tion.'^ BSiTESZcTXOU'AiiX:. A collection of forms of blessing, compiled for the con- A (mience of priests, from the Roman Ritual, I'ontifical, Missal, &c. Such books may be lawfully published with the approba- tion of the ordinary, but they possess no authority in themselves. "Those books only are to be employed, and those Bene- dictions only to be given which conform to the Roman Ritual." (Decree of S. Coiigr.'g. of Rites, April 7, 1832.) BBNEFZCE. An ecclesiastical bene- fice is a pei-petual right, established by the Church in favour of an ecclesiastical per- son, of receiving the profits of Church property, on account of the discharge, by 6uch person, of a spiritual office. The term had iCs origin in a special use 1 Traite de I'exposition du Saint Sacrement de I'auiel. iii. ch. 6. » Ibid. m.7. of the Latin word beneficium which arose in the dark ages, and was connected with the difi'erence between allodial and feudal property. The aUodial estate of a Teuton was his absolute, hereditary, freehold pro- perty, which royal favour had not given, and royal rapacity seldom dared to de- prive him of. But a king could reward a faithful follower by the grant, usually for life, of lands belonging to the crown ; and estates so granted were called henejicidj as being pure emanations of the king's grace and favour, though it is true that military service was always an implied condition of the tenure. As the landed possessions of the Church increased, usur- pations of them by unscrupulous laymen became frequent. The clergy found that, practically, they had no other defence against this species of rapine but by granting portions of Church property to lay lords, on condition of military service against those who might disturb them in the quiet possession of the rest. The tenure being much the same. Church lands thus came to be called hmeficia; and this name was graduallj' transferred to the beneficial enjoyment of all Church property, after the lands above descril^ed had been, with the advent of more peace- ful times, restored to ecclesiastical hands. According to the canonists, six things are required in a benefice. First, that it should be estiiblished by episcopal autho- rity. Secondly, that it should have some spiritual work annexed to it — thus the function of an organist, or a verger, being merely temporal, is incompatible with the possession of a benefice. Thirdly, that it should be conferred by an ecclesiastical person. (Lay patrons are not projierly said to confer, to present to, a benefice.) Fourthly, that it should be conferred on a clerk who has at least received the tonsure. Fifthly, that it should be for life. Sixthly, that whoever has the right of conferring it should not keep it for himself, but give it to another. Ferraris, Benefidum. BEXTEFXT OF CI.ERGV. By this was originally meant the privilege enjoyed by persons in holy orders of claiming, if charged with any felony (unless it were high treason, or arson), to be tried in the bishop's instead of the king's court. The ancient usage was, says Blackstone, " for the bishop, or ordinary, to demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king's courts as soon as they were indicted." Henry II. endeavoured to do away with BENEFIT OF CLERGY BERENGARIUS 85 the exemption, and to subject clerks charged with felony to the jvirisdiction of his o^v^l court ; but the reaction in popular feeling which followed the munler of St. Thomas a, Becket prevented the realisa- tion of his intention. After much conflict between the secular and ecclesiastical courts, it was settled, in the time of Henry VI., that a clerk charged with felony should first be arraigned in the king's court, after which he might either plead his benefit of clergy at once, de- clining thejurisdiction, or, after convict ion, byway of an-e.^tingjudgment. Originally, only persons who had the clerical di-ess and tonsure were entitled to the privilege ; but a laxer test was gradually accepted, until it came to be a settled thing that every prisoner who could read should be allowed the benefit of clergy, even though neither ordained nor tonsured. It was found that too many laymen were thus let in, and by a statute of 1487 it was enacted that a layman might not claim the privilege more than once, and, when allowed it, he was to be burnt with a hot iron " on the brawn of the left thumb " — an effectual, if barbarous, mode of iden- tification— so that he should not illegally claim it a second time. After benefit ofclergy had been claimed and allowed, the culpz-it was remitted to the bishop's court, and there tried. An elaborate procedure was followed, of which the ordinary result is said to have been an acquittal. If, however, the tem- poral courts suiTendered the accused to the ordinary absque purgatione facienda, he had to be imprisoned for life. The later history of benefit of clergy turns upon a statute of 1576. The govern- ment of Elizabeth were resolved to take away all criminal jurisdiction from the bishops, but the principle of immunity to the educated classes as compared with the uneducated was inwoven by so long a usage into judicial practice, and was so convenient for the former, that it is easy to understand why it should not readily be relinquished. By the statute above mentioned, it was forbidden to surrender any prisoner to the ordinary ; but when benefit of clergy had been allowed, and burning inflicted in the usual way, the prisoner was to undergone further punish- ment— except that the judge might, at his discretion, order him to be kept in gaol for any period within a year. Acts were afterwards passed, allowing Peers, even though they could not read, to claim benefit ofclergy, and extending the statute to female defendants, on their being burnt and imprisoned for less than a year. But " those men who could not read, if under the degree of peerage, were hanged." It should be understood that not all felonies were within benefit of clergy. High trea- son and arson, as already mentioned, were always excluded from it ; and other crimes, such as murder, burglary, unnatural crime, ifcc, were expressly withdrawn from it by diflerent statutes. As more and more criminals were found able to read, the state of the law was thought to tend too much to laxity. Acts of 1718 and 1720 provided that any person convicted who was entitled ti> benefit of clergy, with consequent burning and short imprisonment, might be, in substitution for such burning, &c., sen- tenced to transportation to America io\- seven years. Benefit of clergy was finally abolished in 1827. (Blackstone's "Com- mentaries," book iv.) BES^ciaGARZVS. A writer of the eleventh century, celebrated for having anticipated the Sacramentariaus of a later age in assailing the mystery of the Eucha- rist. He was bom, probably at Tours, about A.B. 1000, and was about forty years of age when he was made Archdeacon of Angers. At this period of his life he gave vent to the crude and novel theory on the sacrament of the altar which an inquisitive intellect, joined to a vain and unstable character, suggested to him. His former friends, Adelmann of Liege, and Hugh, bishop of Langres, wrote to him letters of earnest remonstrar.c ^ ; but being at this time supported by the king of France, Bruno, bishop of Angers, and other persons of influence, he disregarded their admonitions. The French king, Henry I., seeing that a line of German Popes was apparently firmly fixed in the chair of Peter, and apprehensive lest the Papal influence should be used to further imperial designs against France, is said * to have meditated the formation of a Galilean schism, and in pursuance of this design to have encouraged Berengarius to resist the authority of Rome. The treatise in which he set forth his peculiar teaching has been lately discovered and printed. In the judgment even of those who would be most inclined to take a favourable view, - it is described as "hard, harsh, and obscure." It is certain that he denied any real or ob- jective change, any trLUSubstantiatlon of 1 By Gfrorer, on no authority. See art. " Berengar ' in Herder's Kirchenlex. 2nd ed. 2 Milman, Latin Christiatiity, iii. BOO. 86 BERENGARIUS BETROTHAL the bread and wine ; with Erigena he held that the presence of the body of Christ in the Sacrament was only real in so far as it was spiritually conceived, and rejected the opposite tenet of Paschasius Radbert. A letter of his to Lanfranc, then Prior of Bee, refeiTing to these views, found its way to Rome ; the matter was immedi- ately taken up, and in a council held at Rome in 1050, the ancient faith of the Church was emphatically reasserted, and the tenets of Berengarius and Erigena condemned. Again, in the Synod of Vercelli (Sept. 1050), and shortly after- wards at Paris, Berengarius was con- demned. For some time, so long as he was able to avoid attendance at any of these i^ynods, he treated their decisions with contempt. But the King of France, who had now learned to form a truer estimate of the great character and apostolic aims of Leo IX., withdrew his support of Berengarius, who was conse- quently compelled to appear at a synod held at Tours in 1054, over which the legate Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory Vll.) presided. Berengarius made and signed the recantation required of him, but not long afterwards he reasserted the condemned error. This happened several times over, Berengarius sub- scribing whatever orthodox formulary might be set before him, and then, in some fresh publication, giving an inad- missible turn to the subscription which he had made. The last of his retractations — from which he does not seem to have subsequently receded — was pronounced at the Council of Bordeaux, in 1080. Malmesbury ^ declares that he changed his views before his death (in 1088), and lamented that he could not effect the like change in all who had espoused his opinions. The same writer — the passage has been often quoted — professes to give us his dying words. It should be men- tioned that he died on the feast of the Epiphany. "To-day, being the day of his manifestation, my Lord Jesus Christ will appear to me, either, as I hope, to raise me to glory for my repentance, or, as I fear, to punish me for the heresy which I have been instrumental in spread- ing." It should be added that William of Malmesbury quotes a long passage from a Latin poem by HUdebert, bishop of Le Mans, a former pupil of Berengarius, in which he warmly eulogises the temper- ance, charity, and self-denial of his departed I Malm. Gest. Reg. lib. ill. master, and that Malmesbury himself writes of him in the same strain, though, whether he is merely echoing the encomi- um.- (if llildebert, or speaking from some independent source of information, there are no means of ascertaining. BERRSTTA. A square cap with three or sometimes four prominences or projecting corners rising from its crown. There is usually a tassel in the middle where the corners meet. It is worn by a priest as he approaches the altar to say Mass, by ecclesiastics in choir, &c. The berretta worn by the Pope is white ; that of a cardinal is "red. Leo XIII. granted to bishops the privilege of wearing a purple beiTetta (Feb. 3rd, 1888). All other clerics wear a black one. A four- cornered berretta belongs to Doctors of Divinity,' though Benedict XIV. men- tions that in his time Spanish ecclesiastics generally wore a berretta of this kind. The word is derived from hirrm, a mantle with a hood, and that again from TTVjipos, flame-coloured. " At Rome," says Benedict XIV., "and in most churches, the berretta was unknown as late as the ninth century. Its ecclesiastical use began when priests gave up the ancient custom of covering their heads with the amice till the actual beginning of the Mass." (Benedict XIV. " De Miss." i. 9.) BETHXiEHEIVlZTES. 1. Matthew Paris speaks of some " fratres Bethleem- itse" to whom a house was gi-anted at Cambridge, on the way leading to Trump- ington, in 1257 ; their habit, he says, was like that of the Friars Preachers, with the addition of a red and blue star on the breast. Of this foundation nothing further is known. 2. An order bearing the same name was founded by a noble Spanish gentle- man of Teneritte, Peter of B6tencourt, at Guatemala, in Central America, about the year 1600. He founded a hospital, con- vent, and school under the patronage of Our Lady of Bethlehem, with an order of monks to attend the sick and teach in the school. The Bethlehemites were rapidly propagated through every part of Spanish America. In 1687 Innocent XI. placed them under the rule of St. Augustine. They are said to possess some forty houses even now, the chief establishment being at Guatemala. BETROTBAXi. [See EsPOUSAL.] 1 Who, however, are forbidden to use this peculiar berretta in sacred functions. S. R. C. 7 Dec. 1844. But there is some doubt as to the precise force of this decree. BIBLE BIBLE 87 BIBKZ: (from ^i^Xiov, a letter or paper, and that from 3l^>.osAhe inner bark of pap_\Tus). A name given to the sacred books of the Je-n s and the Christians. In itself "Bible" might mean a book of what- ever kind, just as its syiionTm " Scrip- tures " {ypa^ai) means orifrinally ■writings of any sort. Gradually the Jews who spoke Greek employed the word "Bible " as a convenient name for their sacred books. Thus the Greek translator of Ecclesiastieus, writing- soon after 132 a.c, mentions the law and the prophets and the rest of the Bible (ra and a similar in^tauce might be quoted from first Machabees.' Our Lord and His disciples received the Jewish collec- tion of the sacred books with the same reverence as the Jews themselves, and gave it the title usual at the time — viz. •' the Scriptures." But after an interval there Ciime a change. The Apostles and their disciples wi-ote books professing sacred authority. These writings ap- peared in the latter half of the first ceu- tury, and were quoted withiu the Church with the same formulas — " it is written," Sec. — which had been used before to intro- duce citations from the law and the pro- phets. These books of Christian author- ship were called, first of all, " the books " or " scriptures of the new covenant," and from the beginning of the third century, the shorter expression " new covenant " came into vogue. In Chrysostom and suc- ceeding writers we find '"bible" (3t/3Xi'n) as the familiar term for the whole collec- tion contained in either " covenant," or, as we should now say, in the Old and New Testaments.^ Under the article Canon op the Scripture the reader will find some ac- count of the way in which and the au- thority by which the list of sacred books has been made, while the nature of their inspiration is also treated in a separate article. Here we take for granted that the Bible consists of a number of inspired books, contained in the Vulgate transla- tion and enumerated by the CouncQ of Trent; and we proceed to treat of its 1 EccIqs. Praef. ; 1 Mach. xii. 9. In Dan. ix. 1, we find iv reus $i$Kois, a translation of DnSDl- "The scriptures of the new covenant," Euseb. iii. 25; " the books of the new covenant," by implication inMelitoof Sardis.about 170 a.d. ( apud Euseb. iv. 2ti). The " new document " and Testament, Tertull. Adv. Marc. iv. 1 ("novum iustruiiientum "). We have translated Smfl^/cTj "covenant." It never means " testament " in the Christian Scriptures except in Heb. ix. 15-17. authority, its interpretation, and of its use among the faithful. I. The Church holds that the sacred Scripture is thi> written word of God. The Council of Trent, " following the ex- ample of the orthodox Fathers, receives with piety and reverence all the books of ' the Old and New Testament, since one God ' is the author of each." These words of the council, which are an almost verbal re- petitiiiu of many early definitions, separate the Bible utterly from all other books. Of no human composition, however excellent, can it be said that God is its author. And the divine origin of Scripture implies its perfect truth. AVe know for certain, St. Irenfeus argues, that the Scriptures are perfect, since they are spoken by the Word of God and by the Spirit.^ Some few Catholic theologians have, indeed, maintained that the Scriptures may err in minimis — i.e. in small matters of historical detail which in no way afiect faith or morals. Nor in doing so do they contra- dict any express definition of Pope or council, though such an opinion has never obtained any currency in the Church. But of course the modern Protestant theories which reduce the historical ac- counts of the Bible to mere myths, or ! again which, while they allow that the Scripture contains the word of God, deny that it is the written word of God, are in shai-p and obvious contradiction to the decrees of the Church. 2. The Church, then, afiirms that aU Scripture is the word of God, but at the same time it maintains that there is an imwritten word of God over and above Scripture. Just as Catholics are bound to defend the authority of the Bible against the new school of Protestants who have come to treat it as an ordinary book, so they are compelled to withstand that Protestant exaggeration, on the other side, according to which the word of God is contained in Scripture and in Scripture alone. The word of God (so the Council of Trent teaches) is contained both in the Bible and in Apostolical tradition, and it is the duty of a Christian to receive the one and the other with equal venera- tion and respect. The whole history and the whole structure of the New Testa- ment witness to the truth and reason- ableness of the Catholic view. If our Lord had meant His Church to be guided by a book and by a book alone, He would have taken care that Christians should be at once provided with sacred books. As 1 Iren. ii. 28, 2. 88 BIBLE a matter of fact He did nothing of the | kind. He refers those who were to em- j brace His doctrine, not to a book, but to the living voice of Ills apo.^t Ics and of His Church. " He who heareth you,'" lie .said to tlie ajiosties, " lu'areth me." For twi'uty years after our Lord's ascension, not a'sino'le book of the Ni^w Testament was written, and all that tiiiii' no Cbrislian ! could a])peal, as many I'l-ot e>t ~ do now. to tiu> Bible and tli'e liible only, for the simple reason that the New Testament did not exist, and the faithful were evi- dently called upon to believe many truths for which no strict and cogent proofs could be brought from the pages of the Jewish Scriptures. Further, when the writings of the New Testament were issued, they appeared one by one, in order to meet special exigencies, nor is the least hint gi-^ en tliat the Ajioslles or tlieir dis- ciples proMcledlhat tlMMV wrlliii-s shoul.l contain tlie \\ liole sum ol' (,'lu isl i.-m truth. St Paul wrote to \arioii> elimvlies in order to give them insti'uelion on iiai-tiru- lar points, and in order to jire-i i\e them from moral or doctrinal errors to which they were exposed at the mouu'ut. Far from professing to communicate the whole circle of doctrine in a written form, he exhorts his converts in one of his earliest ejiistles, to " liold the traditions which" tliev "had le;n-ned, whether byword or Ijy " his " epistle ; " a few year> later he prai>es the ('orinthians for kei'ping the traditions (TrapaSdtrfty) as he delivered them, and towards the close of his life, he warns St. Timothy to keep the " de- posit" of the faith {napaBr^Ktiv) without a syllable to imply that this deposit had been committed to writing.' So, with regard to the Gospel records, St. John ex- pressly declares that they were from the necessity of the case an incomplete ac- count of Christ's life.- The Christians who lived nearest to Apostolic times believed, as the Apostles themselves had done, that Scripture is a source, but by no means the only source, of Christian doc- trine. Tertullian constantly appeals to the tradition of the Apostolic Churches, and lays down the principle on which all his arguments against heresy turn— viz. that the Apostles taught both by word and by letter.-' A little before Tertullian's time, St. Iren;Teus actually put the imaginary case that the Apostles had left no Scrip- ture at all. In this case, he says, we 1 2 Thcss. ii. 14 ; 1 Cor. xi. 2 ; 1 Tim. vi. 20. * John xxi. 2.') ; and see Acts xx. 35. •5 Prescript. 2\. BIBLE should still be able to follow the order of tradition, which [the Apostles] handed down to those into whose hands they committed the Churches.^ 3. There is a controversy no less vital between Catholics and Protestants as to the interjn-etation of Scripture. A po])u- lar Protestant theory makes it the right and the duty of each individual to iuter- ]iret the 13ii)le for himself and to frame his own relit;ion accordingly ; the Catho- lic, on the contrary, maintains that it be- longs to the Church, and to the Church alone, to determine the true sense of the Scripture, and that we cannot interpret contrary to the Church's decision, or to " the unanimous consent of the Fathers," without making slii])\vrecli of tlie faith. The Catholic is fully jii>t ili. .l in b.-lieving with jierl'ect confidence that the Church cannot teach any doctrine contrary to the Sen])tiire, for our Lord has promised that the gates of hell will not prevail against His Church. On the other hand, Christ has made no promise of infallibility to those who expound Scri])ture by the light of private judgment. St. Peter tells us distinctly that some parts of the New Testament are hai-d to understand. More- over, the exjiei-ience of centtiries has abundantly coniiinied the Catholic and disproNeil the l'ioie>tant rule of inter- pretation. Unity IS the test of truth. If each man received the Ilolv (iho.st, enablinii' him to a>certain the sensi' of the Bible, then pious Protestants would beat one as to its meaning and the doctrines which it contains, whereas it is notorious that they have differed from the first on every point of doctrine. The principle of private judgment has been from the time it was first applied a principle of division and of confusion, and has led only to the multiplication of heresies and sects, ae-reed in nothing except in their common disagTeement with the Church. Nor does the authority of the Church in any way interfere with the scientific ex- position of Scriptiu-e. A Catholic com- mentator is in no way limited to a servile repetition of the interpretation already given by the Fathers. He is not, indeed, permitted to give to any passage in Scrip- ture a meaning which is at variance with the faith, as attested by the decision of the Church or the unanimous consent of the Fathers. But he may differ as to the meaning of passages in Scripture, even from the greatest of the Fathers ; he is not bound to consider that these passages 1 Ircn. iii. 4, 1. BIBLE BISHOP 89 necessarily bear the meaning- given them by general councils in the preambles to their decrees ; he may even advance interjireta- tions entirely new and unknowni before. "When for example, God is said to have hardened Pharao's heart, a Catholic com- mentator cannot infer from this tliat the book of Exodus makes (rod the author of sin, but he may, if lie sees cause, give an explanation of the words which differs from that of St. Augustin or St. Thomas, or, indeed, from that of all the Fathers and Doctors of the Church taken together.' 4. AVe now come to the use of the Bible, and the Catholic principles on this head follow from what has been already said. It is not necessary for all Christians to read the Bible. Many na- tions, St IrenjEus tells us, were con- verted and received the faith without being able to read.- Without knowli'due of letters, without a Bible in their nwn tongue, they received from the Churck teaching which was quite sufficient for the salvation of their souls. Indeed, if the study of the Bible had been an indis- pensable requisite, a great part of the hui)ian race would have l)een kft ^vitllout the means of grace till the invention of printing. More than this, parts of the Bible are evidently unsuited to the very yoimg or to the ignorant, and lience Clement XI. condemned the projiosition that " the reading of Scripture is for all." These principles are fixed and invari- able, but the discipline of tlie Church with regard to the reading of the Bible in the vulgar tongue has varied with varying circumstances. In early times, the Bible was read freely by the lay peo- ple, and the Fathers constantly encou- rage them to do so, although they also insist on the obscurity of the sacred text. TSn prohibitions were issued against the popular reading of the Bible. New dan- gers came in during the middle ages. When the heresy of the Albigenses arose there was a danger from corrupt transla- tions, and also from the fact that the heretics tried to make the faithful judge the Church by their own interpretation of the Bible. To meet these evils, the Councils of Toulouse (1229) and Tarra- gona (1234) forbade the laity to read the vernacular translations of the Bible. Pius IV. required the bishops to refuse lay persons leave to read even Catholic ver- iiions of Scripture unless their confessors ' Pallavicini, Hist. Concil. Trident, in Miihler's Si/mbolik, p. 386. » Iren. ill. 4, 2. I or parish priests judged that such reading was likely to prove beneficial. During this centurj-, Leo XII., Pius VIII., and Pius IX. have warned Catholics against I the Protestant Bible Societies, which distribute versions (mostly corrupt ver- sions) of the Bible with the avowed pur- pose of perverting simple Cathohcs. It is only surprising that any rational being could have thought it possible for the Holy See to assume any other attitude I towards such proceedings. It is right, however, to observe that the Church dis- ' plays the greatest anxiety that her chil- ! dren should read the Scriptures, if they [ possess the necessary dispositions. " You judge exceedingly well," says Pius VI., "in his letter to Martini, the" author of a translat ioTi ol' the llible into Italian, "that the faitliiul >lio.iM be excited to the read- ing of holy Scriptures: for these are the most abundant sources, which ought to be left o])ento everyone, to draw fromthem purity of morals and of doctrine. This you have >ea-onably effected .... by ])ublisliin2' the sacred Scriptures in the hinguage of your country especi- ally when you show that you have added explanatory notes, which being extracted from the holy Fathers preclude every possible danger of abuse." BZBX.IA PAUPERvni (the Bible of the poor). A representation in between forty and fifty pictures of events in the Old and New Testaments, with short ex- planations and Scriptural texts appended in Latin or Gemian. The redemption by Christ is the central idea of the collection, so that the Old Testament subjects are chosen for their typical significance. The paintings were often copied from the MSS. and represented in sculpture, or on walls, glass, the antipendia of altars, &c. At Vienna there is an antipendium thus adorned which dates from the twelfth century. The Court libraiy of the same city contains two copies of the " Biblia Pauperum," both of the year 1430. They are block books. Copies printed on movable types soon followed, but owing to the popularity of the book, copies were soon worn out, and are now very rare. BZCAMT. [See Iereguxaritt.] BISHOP. I. Meaning of the Name and Divine Institution of the Office. — The word bishop is derived from the Greek inla-KOTTos, which latter occurs in writers of the earliest age in the general sense of " overseer," and was specially applied in later Greek to the ofiicers whom the Athenians sent to subject states. In the 90 BISHOP BISHOP LXX * fTTia-Kcmos is used for an officer or prefect of any kind. The Christians adopted the -word as the title of an eccle- siastical dignitary who has received the highest of the sacred orders and is in- vested with authority to rule a diocese as its chief pastor. A bishop, therefore, is superior to simple priests, and the Council of Trent defines that this superiority is of divine institution. " If anyone deny," says the council, " that there is in the Church a hierarchy instituted by divine ordinance, which consists of bishops, presbyters, and ministers, let him be anathema;" and again, " if anyone affirm that bishops are not superior to presbyters, or that they have not the power of confirming and or- daining, or that the power which they have is common to presbyters also, let him be anathema."'^ The Anglican Church, as is well known, did not, at least formally, cast ofi" Vielief in the divine institution of epi- scopacy, and learned Anglican divines, among whom Pearson is the most cele- brated, have strenuously vindicated the episcopal authority. With most of the I'rotestant bodies it has been otherwise. They do not pretend to have bishops, or if they have superintendents whom they call by that name, they attribute to them no authority except such as has been bestowed upon them by the Church. They deny, in other words, that the episcopate is of divine institution, and directly impugn the definitions of Trent on this subject. They admit, of course, that bishops ((TTLa-KOTroi) are frequently men- tioned in the New Testament, but they urge that in the Acts and the Epistles bishop and presbyter are two names for the same office. They suppose that originally there were three grades in the hierarchy — viz. the Apostles, whose office ended with their life-time, and who left no successors ; the bishops or presbyters, corresponding to the ministers or clergy- men of the present day ; and deacons. They defend their position chiefly on the following grounds : — We first find the word irricrKoiros in the Acts of the Apostles, xx. 28. " Take heed," St. Paul says, to the clergy of Ephesus, " take heed to yourselves and to the whole flock, in which the Holy Ghost made you bishops." It is plain, however (so it is urged), that these "bishops" were mere presbyters, so that " bishop " and » E.g. Num. xxxi. 14 ; 2 Par. xxxiv. 12. * Concil. Trident, sess. xxiii. can. 6, 7. presbyter in Ncav Testament language are synonymous, for St. Luke tells us at the beginning of the same cha]>tor that the Apostle was addressiug " tlir presbyters of the Church" whom he had suiniuoned to Miletus. Towards the close of the Apostle's life the Church was stiU with- out bishops in the modern sense, for St. Paul addressed an epistle to the faithful at Philippi "with the bishops and the deacons." Here the plural number and the fact that no allusion is made to presbyters as distinct from the "bishops" are said to prove that in that age fVio-Kon-of or "bishop" meant presbyter. Later still, St. Paul writes to Titus that he had left him in Crete to " appoint presbyters in every city," and continues — "for the bishop must be irreproachable," &c. Presbyterian writers also allege certain confirmatory evidence from antiquity — some words of St. Jerome (who, however, anxious as he was to exalt the priestly dignity, expressly mentions the power of conferring orders as marking the dis- tinction between bishop and priest), and the supposed tradition of the Alexandrian Church. The reader who is cui-ious on this latter point will find a full discussion of it in Pearson's " Vindiciae Ignatiance." But Presbyterian arguments from anti- quity need not detain us here. Even on their own showing, Presbyterians can but produce one or two doubtful testimonies, and they have against them a cloud of witnesses dating from the sub-Apostolic age. One additional remark, however, must be made before we end our state- ment of the Presbyterian case. We have seen that there are plausible reasons for holding that the words presbyter and bishop are synonymous in the New Testa- ment. It is right to add that Clement of Rome, writing towards the end of the first centui-y, does not seem to recognise any distinction in meaning between the two words.' In spite of the objections just stated, the arguments for the divine institution of episcopacy are clear and cogent. We need not deny that the same persons were at first called indiflerently bishops and presbyters. It is possible, as some ancient writers suppose, that at Philippi and other places, a number of persons received epi- scopal consecration ; that they were occu- 1 Clem. 1 Ep. 42. He thrice mentions eVf- (TKOTTOi Kol SiaKOVoi together, as in Phil. i. 1, which is striking, because the object of his epistle is to defend the authority of the pres- byters. See Lightfoot, in loc. BISHOP BISHOP 91 pied for a time in administering the sacraments and preaching at the place of their consecration, and ready, as conve- nience required, to be removed to such other Churches as the Apostles should empower them to govern with proper episcopal jurisdiction. Or again, we may suppose, with other great authorities, that the Apostles did not at once provide the newly-founded Churches with bishops, but left them for a season under clergy of the second order, who at that time were called indifferently " bishops and presbyters.' "VMiatever theory we adopt as to the early use of the word "bishop," it is certain that there are clear traces of the episcopal office, as we now understand it, within the lifetime of the Apostles, and with the sanction of their authority. For, first, St. James the Less was be- yond reasonable doubt bishop of Jerusa- lem. Thus, in the year 44, when St. Peter was released from prison he desired information to be given to James and the brethren. At the Apostolic Council James delivers judgment ("wherefore I judge "). St. Paul in his Epistle to the Galatians describes Judaisers from Jerusalem as "certain who came from James," thus naming the Church by its bishop ; in Acts xxi. 18, St Pauf is said to have made a formal visit to St. James and to his presbyters. Moreover, in the middle of the second century all parties were agreed in regarding St. James as bishop of Jerusalem.^ This is clearly proved by Bishop Lightfoot, who rightly describes St. James as " the precedent and pattern of the later episcopate." We refer to Dr. Lightfoot for this admission, not only because of his great learning and high ability, but also because he is perhaps the very ablest writer who has ever ■written against the Apostolic origin of episcopacy. Next, St. Paul gave Titus power to ordain presbyters ; he gives St. Timothy directions for the way in which he is to receive accusations against presbyters. Clearly then both Timothy and Titus I Petavins, De Eccles. Hierarch. lib. iv. ad init., gives both theories as probable, qnotin;,' Kathers of the Church for each. The latter Beems much the more attractive on instrinsio grounds. The former is recommended by the language of the Council of Trent, where Acts XX. 28, is interpreted of bishops in the proper sense. Lightfoot, Ep. to Philippiaos, " Essav on the Christian Ministrv." Routh, Melt. Sacr. i. p. 228. were ecclesiastical officers superior to the clerg\- of the second order. Thirdly, tlie Angels of the Churches in the Apocalypse cannot possildy be an- gels in the ordinary sense, for some of them are charged with serious faults. Nor can the Angels be idcntitied witli the Churches, since botli Angds and Churches are represented by (li>tiiu't syniliol?. "The seven stars," St. .Idhii >ay>. "are the angels of the seven chur( iu'>. ami the seven candlesticks are the seven churclu's." TMiat, then, were the Ang.l> of the Churches ? Each of them rf]>re>ent> the Church of a city, and is responsible for the purity of its doctrine and its morals. They answer to the idea of diocesan bishops and to nothing else.' This inference from Scripture rises to demonstration if considered in con- nection with the earliest tradition. Poly- carp, the disci [lie of St. John, writes as a bishop and distinguishes himself from his ; presbyters. The Ignatian epistles no- j toriously exalt the episcopal ofHce as the I centre of unity, and insist on the necessity laid both on presbyters and laymen of submission to the bishop. St. Ignatius wrote only a few years after St. John's j death, and his letters prove that episco- j pacy was established in his time, not only at Antioch, where he himself was bishop, but at each of the six Churches in Asia Minor to which he writes, nor does he hint that there was any Church with other than an episcopal organisation. True, the authenticity of these letters has been disputed, but this on most inade- quate grounds. Indeed, many eminent German scholars, prejudiced as they are against the Ignatian teaching on episco- pacy, have been compelled by the weight of evidence to admit the authenticity of these epistles. The Clementine homilies supply another important contribution to the evidence. Their witness is all the more valuable because they are deeply marked with heresy. Still the author of these homilies, differing as he does from Catholics on other points, agrees with them in affirming the Apostolic origin of the episcopal office.'^ These homilii > cdme from early times: they cannot be placed later than the end, and should perhaps be placed at the beginning, of the second cen- > See the authorities for this interpretation in Petav, op. cit. lib. i. 2. It was adopted by Grotius, one of the most celebrated of Protes- tant conunentators, and himself member of a Presbyterian sect. 2 See, e.g., the Epistle of Clement to James. 92 BISHOP BISHOP tiiry. Now, if we allow the Apostolic institution, this ancient evidence presents no difficulty. It does but confirm the con- clusion we had already reached from an examinat ion ot'theNew Testament records. If, on the cither hand, it is maintained that bisliops in tlie modern sense beg-an to be after the death of the Apostles, or at least withdut tlieir sanction, it is im- possible to understand how in so brief a space Churclifs all over the world ex- channvd presbytcrian for episcopal govern- ment. Xor is tliis all. "\Ve must sup- pose that in a very short time — with- in a century at the most — all recollec- tion of the original state of things had perished. St. Irenseus cannot even un- derstand tliat the name of " bishop " ' had ever bei'u given to mere presbyters. We say nothing of later Fathers, for in the Church of the fourth century it is ad- mitted to have been a settled maxim that bishops only could ordain, and Epiphanius describes the doctrine of Aerius, the first presliyterian, as frantic. 1 1 . X(i t lire n ft lie EpixcojKtl Office. — We may now dismiss tlie controversial part of the subject, and proceed to explain the duties, ri(/hts and potiition of a bishop in the Church. A bishop is, according' to the Council of Trent, the successor of the Ajiostles. He has received the sacrament f)f order in all its fulness. He can, like the Apostles, confirm; he can ordain ])riests and consecrate otlier bishops. The Pope liiuiself, so far as onler noes, is sim- ply a bishop, .\liiien\er, the hishop is the meudier of a liier.nchy \\ hich is divinely constituted, and which coilecti\ ely repre- sents the colh'ge of the Apostles. The Holy Ghost lias appointed bishops " to rule the Church of God," and although the Pope can suppress sees or change their boundaries, he cannot do away, through- out the Churcli, with bishops governing their sees witli ordinary jurisdiction, because tliis woukl involve a change in the divine const it u1 ion of the Church, which is inalterabli'. Again, even an in- dividual bishop has cei'tain chities to the whole Church. It is his duty to bear witness to the faith and tradition of his predecessors and of his flock, and he sits as a judge in general councils. Of course all these rights are held and duties exer- cised in union with and in submission to the see of Peter. ■ iii. 14, 2. The pas.sage is very instructive. St.Ircn.Tus says St. Paul at Miletus "convoked the bishops and the pre.sbyters." He is evidently unable to understand the interchange of names. 1. In his own diocese it is a bishop's duty (a) to temh. He himself is required by the Council of Trent to jjreach the word of God, unless he be lawfully hin- dered, nor can anyone, secular or regular, preach in the diocese without his leave, lie must watch over purity of doctrine, especially in all schools public and pri- vate, and a]i|io!iit professors in the semi- nary and cieni-al cdUeges. No book treating on religion (r>,-es certain rielits : — (a) He may make laws for his dio- ce.se : not, however, such as are contrary to the law of the Church. (b) He decides in the first instance all ecclesiastical causes, (c) He can in- flict penalties, suspension, excommunica- tion, and the like. (d) He may dispense from the observ- ance of his own laws, and altliough, gene- rally speaking, a bishop cannot dispense inlaws made hy those who hii\e power superior to his own. still ihe ^viu'i-al law of the Church eualiles him to dispense in certain cases of irregularity, in the pro- clamation of banns, in oaths (unless the diiBpensation tends to the injury of a third party), and in simple vows, except vows of I chastitv and \ (i\\s to enter religion, or to make ]ii Igrimages toll' mie, the IJoly Land, I or St. .lames of Ccmijiostella, &c., &c. I Some bishops have additional power to dispense by virtue of lawful custom or by delegation from the Pope. (e) Certain other rights of bishops are summed up imder the general head of 1 Concil. Trident, sess. v. cap. 2, De Reform.; sess. xxiv. cap. 4, De Reform. ; sess. iv. De Edit, et Usu SS. lib. 2 Jbid. sess. xxiii. cap. 1, De Reform. » Concil. Trid. sess. xxiv. cap. 3. BISHOP BISHOP 93 "administration." A bishop may erect or suppress churches or benefices, provided he observes the canonical regulation re- specting such matters. He collates to all b.'nefices, parish churches, prebends in his diocese, except such as are reserved to the Pope. He assigns their duties to his clergy, and determines the persons among his subjects who are to be admitted to the ecclesiastical state or to higher orders. He watches over the manage- ment of temporal goods pertaining to the Church or to pious places. As Apo.^tulic Delegate, he becomes in certain cu,-rs men- tioned by the law jhe executor to carry out the intentions of those who have given or left money for pious uses. ' III. Titles, Imiynia, ifc, of Bishops. — All priests saying Mass in the diocese pray for the bishop by name in the Canon. He is received by the priests and people at the door of the church when he comes on official visits. He receives certain titles of honour. In the first ages he was called Most Holy, Most Blessed, Lord {domi- w««)," Your Holiness "'(.s«nc/«Vr/.s tua). Sec, &C., some of which titles art- now reser\ to the Pope. Desidrrlu- ..t' CnUn>. almut 650, calls himself / > *. •/•»•»»/•///«.- At present a bishop i^ called ■•iimst ilhi-ti lnus and most reverend Lord;"" the Tope ad- dresses him as ''veneraljle brdtbev/' "yoiir fraternity," &c., while the bishop .-peaks of himself as "N., by the grace of God and of the Apostohc See, Bishop of X." The insignia of his office are the pastoral staff {pedum, haculus), the ring, pectoral cross, episco})al throne, the niitre, ponti- fical vestments, gloves and sandals. In many cmuitries the liisliup has spreial rights and titles of honour accorded to him bv the laws of the State. IV. Election, ii,-c..ofIlishni,<.—B[shoi>r, were first of all chosen In" the Apostles. St. Paul, for instance, left St. Titus at Crete, with authority to ordain priests, &c. In the third century bishops were chosen, as Cyprian sa\s, -Miy the vote of all the faithful and by thv- jmlgiiient of the bishops " of the pro\ ince ^ — i.e. t he peo- ple chose a bishop, but tRe Ijishops of the province could put a veto on this choiee : nay, the bishops could in extreme ea-es actually choose the bishop. The fourth canon of Xicaea recommends (Trpoo-tj/cei) that a bishop be appointed {naBL n iktBul) ' Concil. Trid. sess. xxii. cap. 8, De Reform. Chieflv from Card. Soglia, Instilut. Juris Eccl. ■ - Kraus, Archwolag. Diet. Art. " Biscliof." ' Cyprian, Ep. l.wiii. by the bishops of the province. If this is impossible, three bishops are to con- secrate him with the consent of the rest. The confirmation of the whole matter {t6 Kvpoi tS)v yivofih'tiiv) is to rest with the metropolitan. Two intei-pretations of this canon were current in the Church. The Greek canonists, following the lead of tlie Seventh General Council, understood the I Nicene canon as reserving the clioii f a new bishop to the bislio]- of the province, and so annulling the old form of election by clergy and people. In the West, the canon was iutei-preted as merely requiring the presence of the bishops of the pro- vince at the consecration. Hence in the Latin Church jiopular election continued, at least in ronii.till the eleven! h century. Aft.'r that, tlie bi.hop was elected by the clergy of the cathedral church, the conhr- mation restm-.a- 1 irt'ore, with t]u> metro- pohtan.' Gradually, from tlie eleventh century onward?, the right of coutirniation passed from the metropolitan to the Pope.'^ Later on, from the time of Clement V., the Popes reserved the whole apjiointment of bi.-liops in certain cases, ancl at last in all t-ases, to themselves. This la>t state of things, liowexer, did not continue. The l'ope~ restored in some countrie.- the riuht of electing bi.shops to the chapters,'' and tile riLilit is still continued in ( iermany (ex- ]lu\ aria and ].art of Austria) and in Switzerland. In other countries tlie Pope has given to ( 'atholic sovereigns tlie right of noininatini: to \ acaiit bishoprics. Such rights hax e been coiu-eded to the Kings of France, Portugal, Spain, Naples and Sicily, Sardinia, to the l iuiperor of Austria with certain exceptions, and by the Con- cordat of 1817 to the King of i!a\aria. Even Protestant Governments in ( ierinany are jierniitted to inspect a list of names proposed provisionally by th(> chapters and to exclude such names as are displeasing to them. In England the choice of bishops belongs simply and exclusively to the Pope. At tlie same time certain privileges have been L;i anted in this respect to the I'higlish (;iiurcli liy Pius IX. A week after the see is vacant the canons are required to eli-ct a vicar capitular. A month later, under the presiclency of the metrojiolitan, or, failing him, of tlie senior liislio]), they l)y their separate ^ otes recoiniiiend tiiree persons for the vacant see. Ivich of tiiese persons must have obtained an absolute majority of the votes of the chapter. > Hefele, Concilien. i. p. 382. - Kraus, Kirchengeschirhte, p. 326. 3 Soglia, Inslitut. Juris Jf rivat. v. 38. 94 Bisiior BISHOP The names are given or s. iit in alphabeti- cal order to the metmpolitaii. The bishops of the province {i.e. of I'.niiland) examine the names, annex thcir jiKlu I iirnt upon each of them, and transmit them to the Congre- gation of Propaganda. It need scarcely be said that this recommendation is wholly different from true and canonical election.' The person thus elected, nominated or re- commended must be thirty years of age, in holy orders, of Catholic parentage, of good fame, able to produce the public testimony of some university or academy to his learning.'- If the person elected accepts, he must Avithin a tixed time ask for the ra]ial confirmation, by which the person elected is approved and made bishop of the see. This confirmation is given by the Pope in a consistory of Cardinals, and in virtue of it the bishop designate contracts spiritual marriage with his see and receives full jurisdiction within it. He cannot, of course, previous to his con- secration, confirm, ordain, &c., but he can delegate power for the performance of these and other acts of episcopal order to another bishop. It is evident from what has been said that the discipline of the Church with regard to the appointment of bishops has varied from age to age, and that the Holy See now exercises a more immediate control over the matter than was usual in the primitive or even the medineval Church. From the first, however, the Pope possessed the full power of governing the whole Church. No one is, and no one ever could he, a Catholic bishop, unless either expressly or tacitly recognised as such by the Pope. Varyinu circumstances made it prudent for the Pope to exercise his control in a less or in a greater degTee, but the principle of government has re- mained the same. The Pope, by the law of Christ, is the head of the Church. On the other hand, ])atriarchs and metro- politans are of ecclesiastical institution; they could therefore possess no inherent right to confirm bishops, and they suffered no wrong when the Pope withdrew it from them. V. Connecrationof Bishops. — The con- secration of bishops used to be performed by the metropolitan and two other bishops. According to the present discipline, the consecration of bishops is reserved to the Pope, or to a bishop specially commis- ' See Synod. Prooinc. Weslmonuxl. decret. xii. and the Instruction of l'rc>iiagamla in the Appendix. Concil. Trid. sess. xxii. cap. 2, De lleform. sioned by him. The consecrator is assisted by two other bishops, for which latter the Pope sometimes permits mitred abbots, or even simple priests, to be substit\ited. The consecration should take place within three months of confirmation, and on a j Sunday, or feast of an Apostle. The bishop-elect, who must already have been ordained priest, takes an oath before the bishop who is to consecrate him, that he will be faithful to the Holy See, that he will promote its authority, and that he will, at stated intervals prescribed by law, and different for different countries, visit the city of Rome, and give an account to the Pope of his whole pastoral office. Afterwards, the elect is consecrated bishop i by imposition of hands, the tradition [ of staff and ring, the unction with the j chrism, the imposition of the book of the I Gospels on his shoulders, and other rites ; prescribed in the Pontifical. Thus the fulness of the priesthood is received, and the person consecrated acquires episcopal order in addition to episcopal jurisdict ion, which he already held. [See also Oudee, HoltO Vl. Translatiov , Resignation, Depo- sition of Bishops. — Ho sacred is the con- ! nection between a Ijishop and his see, that, 1 as Innocent III. declares, the power to i sever it belongs, "not so much by canoni- cal legislation, as by divine institution, to the lioman Pontiff"', and to him alone." This follows from principles already stated, i The Pope alone can make a bishop ; and therefore the Pope alone can unmake him. Translation from one see to another was absolutely forbidden by the Nicene Council (Can. 15), and by the Council of Antioch, which met in 341. This pro- hibition was, however, modified by the I4th of the Apostolic Canons, which per- mits translation if the reasons are very m-gent and approved by the judgment of "many bishops.'" At first, such transla- tion was eff'ected by provincial councils. In the ninth century, Hincmar of Rheims says a bishop might be tran.slated "by the ordinance of a sjmod, or by the consent of the Apostolic See ; " but by the law which has pi-evailed from the twelfth century the consent of the Pope is always required. The Pope's leave is also required for re- signation. Finally, the "grave causes" against bishops such as deserve deposi- tion or privation can only be examined and terminated by the definitive sentence I Hefele, Concil. i. p. «04 ; Neandcr, Kir- chenffeichichte, iii. p. 233. BISllOr AUXILIARY BISHOP IN PARTIBUS, ETC. 95 of the Pope.' Less serious charges may be examined and decided in a provincial council. BZSBOP AVXZX.ZART. When a bishop is unable, for various reasons, to perform all the functions nvjuired by his office, it is usual to assign to him a titular bishop to a^^i^t him. This aux- iliary bishop, as such, has no jurisdic- tion; he only performs those things which belong to thi- e])i>t'()pal office and order. He may, however, lie nominated by the bishop as vicar "general : in which ca.se he has the right to e.vercise jurisdiction. Another name for an auxiliary is Bishop Sufirag-an [q.v.]. BISHOP, COADJUTOR. [See CO- ADJUTOR.^ BISBOP Zir PABTZBVS ZM-FZBE- 1Z1T2VI. A bisho]) coiiseci'ated to a sei' which formerly exi-^ted, lii;f wliich has been, chiefly through the dc- .i-tations of thefoUowersof Mahomet, lo>t to I 'hn-ti'ii- dom. Such a bishop may als(; be described as a "Titular" bishop. The creation of such titular bisliops dates only from the pontificateof Leo X., but they existed de facto from the time when the first Christian see as widowed by the attacks of a foreign eiu'my oi- tin- action of a hostile governnn'iit. ( ui iioiy the Great provided for several lUyiiau bishops, whom an inroad of the Avars had | driven from their sees, by appointing them to vacant sees in Italy, till they should be ! able to return home. The Moorish con- quest of Spain widowed a great number of sees, the prelates of which fled to the parts still unconquered, chiefly settling at Oviedo, which thence had the name of ' " the City of Bishops." But it was the progress of IMohammedan arms in the East, devastating numberless Cliurcbes in Asia Minor, Syria, and Africa, which, till then, had been flourishing bishoprics, that caused a great and sudden rise in the number of titular bishops, attached to no special sphere of duty, but wan^iering from place to jilne.', some liojiing our day to return, other,- ,-oi long for suitable work wherever it might be offered. Tiiis state of things led to great abuses ; for a bishop whose see was lyi jmrtihuii would often enter some remote portion of tlie diocese of a more fortunate brotliei- further west, and there exercise in various w ays, with- out the permission of the bishop of the diocese, his episcopal ofllce. Clerks whom their own bishop would not have promoted to priest's orders often received through ' Concil. Trid. sess. xxiv. cap. 5, De Reform. the agency of these wandering bishops the ordination which they desired. This abuse was condemned by a decree of the Council of Trent,' which expressly forbids these wandering bishops — "clero careutes et populo Christiano" — to promote candi- dates for ordination to any orders what- ever, without the consent of the bishop of the diocese. "With the increasing eonij)lication of political afl'airs in Europi', circumstances could not but arise which should induce the Pojies, while providing for Catholic populations more or less at the mercy of Protectant Governments pastors armed with lull episcopal powers, to prefer in- ve>tiiig them with the titles of ancient sees, now extinct, to asserting their claim to local titles and thus arousing the hos- tility or suspicion of unfriendly Govern- ments. Considerations of this nature were the cause why Catholic affairs in our own country were committed to the administra- tion of bishops in partibus, from the ap- ])oiiitment of the first Vicar Apostolic (1(>2.'^.) to the creation of a new hierarchy in 18-")0. Besides the Vicars Apostolic in a non-Catholic country, the Vicars of Cardinal-bishops, auxiliary bishops in countries where it is usual to appoint them, and Papal Nuncios, usually have their sees in partibus injidelium. Bishops in partibus can attend general councils. They are considered as truly wedded to the Churches of which they bear the titles, so that they cannot be ajipointed to other sees except upon the conditions common to all episcopal trans- lations. They are not obliged, like other bishops, to make periodical visits ad limina apostolorum, because they have no dioceses to report of. They are, however, expected to inform themselves, so far as they may have opportunity, of the condition of affairs in their titular dioceses, and work actively for their restoration to Christen- dom, if any favourable opening should present itself. The political condition of the eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean has for some time been such as to allow of the existence of flourishing Christian communities in many places where for- merly Mussulman bigotry would have rendered it impossible. These countries are no longer "partes infidelium," in the full sense of the words. His Holiness Leo XIII. has therefore, by a recent decision, substituted the phrase " Titular » Sess. xiv. De Ref. ii. 06 lUSIIOP, SUFFRAGAN BLESSING Bishop " for " Bishop in Partibus Infide- liiiiu." BISHOP, SVFFRACAXir (Lat. mf- fragari, to support.) This name is given to a bishop in an ecclesiastical province, relatively to the metropolitan [y.v.] in whose province he is. Also to a titular bishop or bi.shop in pnrtibm who is exer- cising the pontifical functions and ordi- nations for the ordinary bishop whom he has been invited to assist. BISHOP, TiTVXiAii. [See Bishop ITS PAETIBUS INTIDELIUM.] BX.ACK FRIARS. [See Domini- cans.] BXiASPHBMT (Gr. ff\a(T(i>r)fiia; ety- mol. uncertain). Originally, injurious and opprobrious words generally ; afterwards it was restricted to language dishonouring to God — contumeliosa in Deum locutio — but yet so that the offence committed against those known to be God's servants was held to be committed against God Himself; as when Stephen was charged by the Pharisees with speaking "blasphe- mous words against Moses;" finally, and in modem use, the employment of such language against, or concerning, God only. In Matt. xii. 31, we read that, while every other sin and blasphemy are pardonable, " the blasphemy of the Spirit " shall not be forgiven. Various explanations of this passage have been given by theologians. There is a chapter on "Blasphemy" in the body of the Canon Law, which pre- scribes the penalties to be awarded to the various persons who may be guilty of it. In England the statute 10 "William III. ch. 32, modified by 52 George III. ch. 160, contains the existing law in respect of blasphemy. The code of Wurtemberg punishes outrageous and offensive words or acts against the customs, rites, &c., of any recognised religion ; but the pain in- dicted on the feelings of men, not the dishonour to God, seems to be the motive of such legislation. Similarly the French code, while not punishing blasphemy, as such, restrains it indirectly by severe regulations repressive of anything like what we should consider " brawling " in church. Protestant divines have often stigma- tised the rapturous language in which Catholics indulge in praise of the Blessed Virgin as " blasphemous," on the ground that God is indirectly dishonoured when His creature is thus exalted. But this seems to involve a misuse of the term " blasphemy," which implies a conscious and intentional use of language which the speaker knows to be injurious to the- Being of whom it is uttered. No excess of "profane swearing," culpable as it may be, can amount to blasphemy, because the intentional conterojjt of God is not there. In the same way, to speak of Mary a* "negotiating our peace, not only is not " blasphemous," but conveys an important truth ; while to deny that her Son " nego- tiated our peace " in a higher sense would, of course, be blasphemous in the highest degree. B&ESSXM'C in its most general sense, a form of prayer begging the favour of God for the persons blessed. God is the source of all His blessing, but certain persons have special authority to bless in His name, so that this blessing is mora than a mere prayer ; it actually conveys God's blessing to those who are fit to re- ceive it. Thus in the old law God said of the sons of Aaron, " They shall invoke my name on the children of Israel, and I will bless them;"' and Christ said to his disciples, "Into whatsoever house you euter, first say : Peace be to this house : and, if the son of peace be there, your peace shall rest upon him."' Accord- ingly, the Church provides for the so- lemn blessing of her children by the hands of her ministers. Such bles.sings^ are given, (1) By priests. "It is the part of a priest to bless," the Pontifical says, in the office for their ordination. This blessing may be given privately, at discretion. It is given by a form tolerated in England to the penitent before confession ; to those who have received communion out of Mass ; on many other occasions, some of which are determined by custom, but above all at the end of all Masses except those for the dead. The priest raises his- right hand and makes the sign of the cross once over the people. This custom of priests blessing at .Muss is not very ancient. The older writers on ritual make no mention of it, and although it was known to the author of the " Micro- logus," a contemporary of Gregory VII., the custom does not seem to have beeu universally received even then. At one time priests used to make the sign of the cross three times over the people. Pius V. restricted them to a blessing with a single sign of the cross, except in solemn Masses; Clement VIII. made the rule,, which forbids a priest to bless with th& triple sign of the cross, absolute. « Num. vi. 27. * Luc. z. 6. BLESSING BOHEMIAN BRETHREN 97 (2) By bisshops. A bishop immediately after his consecration is conducted round the church, blessing the people ; and after- wards, returning to the altar, blesses them solemnly, making the triple sign of the cross. lie uses the same rite of blessing whenever he says Mass. An abbot, according- to the decrees of Alexander Vll., can give the blessing with the triple sign of the cross only when he celebrates Mass pontificallv. (See Benedict XIV. " De Miss." ii. l4.) (3) By the Pope. The Pope blesses the people solemnly at Easter, on the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, and also on other special occasions. To this papal blessing ( Benedict io Pontijicia seu Apo- stolica) a plenarj- indulgence is attached, to be gained by the faithful on certain conditions. Bishops in virtue of a special indult sometimes receive the privilege of bestowing the Papal blessing at stated times. The bishop gives it after Mass, first causing the Apostolic letters, which confer the plenary indulgence, to be read. The power of bestowing it is also some- times conimunicatedtoslmple priests — e.g. to regulars, at the conclusion of a mission, &c. Hitherto we have been occupied with blessings bestowed upon the faithful in general. But there are al?o lil('.~-inas reserved for special persons or f.n- -jHcial objects. Gavantus and other writers nn ritual divide blessings of this kiiKl ' intu two classes — viz. into benedict ione.? intyicc- tiea, or blessings which merely invnkr the blessing of God upon persons or things ; and benedictiones constii utivff, or blessings which set apart a person or thing for the service of God. To the former class belongs the blessingof houses, fields, ships, candles, food, &c., &c. : to the latter the blessingof sacerdotal vestments, coi-porals, altar-cloths, &c. It is impossible to dis- tinguish accurately between the use of the word consecration and blessing when it is used in the sense of benedictio constitutiva ; but consecration denotes a more solemn form of blessing, so that we speak of blessing an abbot or a bell, but of conse- crating a chalice or an altar. Of these blessings some (such as that of the At/nm Dei, and the rose sent to sovereigns) are resened to the Pope; others {e.ff. the blessing of a king or queen at their coronation, of bells, vestments, &c.) are 1 This division really includes all lilessiners, for such as are jiiven to the laitht'ul };enerally tall under the head of Benedict hues invoca- ticce. roper to bishops; others (such as the lessing of houses, fields, medals, crosses. &c.) may be given by simple priests, though, of course, for many blessings special facul- ties are required. "With regard to the rite employed, the more ordinary blessings are given by the priest in surplice and stole, with prayer, accompanied by the sign of the cross and very often by the use of holy water. In other more solemn blessings other rites are added, such as exorcisiiis, incensation and anointing with th" Imly oils. Theprinciples on which tlie,-e sp.-cial blessings rest are very simple, (^od nunle all things good, but altliuu-h niatier -till remains good, it has lieeii marreij, and is constantly aliased by the spirits of evil. HeiK-e the L'hurcli, in the power and name (it (_'lin>t, reseiies persons and things from the power of the devil. Further, she prays that the things which she blesses may avail to the spiritual and bodily health of her children. It may be asked, how water, or medals, or candles, can possibly help us on the way to heaven. In theinseives ]ilaiuly they have no such power, lint they tend to excite good dispositi(.in,~ in tlmse who use them aright, not iinly beeau.-e they remind us of holy things, but also liecause they have been blessed for our use by the prayers of the Chinch. There is surely no superstition in lielievingthat if the Church prays that the sight or use of pious objects may excite good desires in her children, God will listen to these prayers and touch in a sjiecial way the hearts of those who use them aright. BXiOOB. [See B.\PTisii, § III. See also Precious Bi.ood.] I BOBEMZAK ERBTHBEIir. The gentleness with which the L'omicd of : Basle dealt with the Hussites, ami the ; evident desire of the majority of the pre- lates to go to the verge of lawful con- cession in order to restore them to the unity of the Church, deprived tin lii-ni otmuch of rnison d'etre. The moderate party (Calixtines) were disposed to lie satisfied with the concession as to eoui- munion under both species, joined to a ]iromise that clerical abuses should be reformed; while the violent section (Taborites), after a long succession of victories over their German foes, were signally defeated at Lalian (1434), and after that found it necessary to abate their pretensions. Some years pas.-ed ; a [ Taborite remnant which had found shelter at Lititz, on the frontiers of Moravia and H ■98 BOHEMIAN BEETHBEN BOLLANDISTS Silesia, throve unmolested ; its leaders plunged anew into the dreamy mysticism which has such charms for the Slavonian mind; they fraternised with some scat- tered Calixtine pastors, who were dis- contented with what they regarded as the undue pliability of the mass of their party, and the " Union of the Bohemian Brothers' (1457) was the result. Three of their leading men, Kunwald, Pre- lautsch, and Krenov, were ordained (1467) by a Vaudois bishop. Under the Bohe- mian prince George Podiebi-ad (died 1471) tliey were subjected to much persecution. "Wladislav, his .successor, left them undis- turbed, and in his long reign they grew greatly in numbers and solidity; about 1500, they possessed two hundred churches in Bohemia and Moravia. When the Reformation came, the brethren, after vainly endeavouringto extract an approval of the " Apology " for their system which they had drawn up from the wary lu-asmus, made overtures to Luther. These were well received; but the brethren were scandalised at the lack of discipline which prevailed amongLuther's followers, and for a long time there was a coolness; ultimately, however, sometliing like a cordial understanding was estab- lished. The toleration which the brethren bad long enjoyed was withdrawn, about the middle of the sixteenth century, by Ferdinand, brother to Charles V. ; and many of them emigrated in consequence to Prussia and Poland. The Emperors Maximilian and Rodolph (1564-1612) w^ere favourable to them ; the latter gave them permission to found an Academy and a Consistory, to hold churches and found new ones on the estates of their adherents. With prosperity, says their historian, Comenius, came the relaxation of their peculiar discipline. They joined the general rising of the Bohemian Pro- testants against Ferdinand XL, and after the battle of the White Hill (1620) were implicated in the consequences of their defeat. Many thousands of them aban- doned their native soil; and of those who remained, hoping against hope that the old state of things would one day be restored, the greater number, at last re- nouncing that hope, quitted Bohemia in 1721 and found a refuge on the estate of Count Zinzendorf, in Lusatia. Under the name Herrn-huters or Moravians, the new organisntion which these refugees, aided by their patron Zinzendorf (who to a my.stical and imaginative turn united much quiet power and practical sagacity), succeeded in forming, has gained a world- wide notoriety. The Brethren who still lingered on in Bohemia adhered under Joseph n. (1780-1790) to the Helvetic Confession, because that Emperor would tolerate in his dominions no other Protes- tant doctrine but either that or the Confession of Augsburg. As a distinct sect the Bohemian Brethren no longer exist. With regard to their doctrine and dis- cipline, it is unnecessary to say that they neither admitted the authority of the chair of Peter, nor the unity of the visible Church. After the Reformation period they adopted Luther's opinions on most other points, but would not follow him in embracing the tenet of consubstantia- tion : they would only allow of a mystical union of the body and blood of Christ with the elements, and denied anything like a real presence. Their organisation was the most remarkable thing about them. They divided themselves into three classes, the Beginners, the Profi- cients, and the Perfect {incipientes, profi- cientes, perfectt). From the ranks of the Perfect were chosen the ministers, who were also of tkree kinds, acolytes or dea- cons, pastors or priests, and bishops or presidents. They had four fu.-t days of obligation in the year. In relation to sin, the laity (if their oifences were of an open nature — for such only, in the absence of confession, could the system reach) were subjected to three degrees of discipline : warning, public reproof, and excommuni- cation. (Ginzel's article in Wetzer and Weltp.) BOIiKAWDZSTS. A name given to the Jesuit editors of the great "Acta Sanctorum," or Lives of the Saints. The first plan of the work came from the Flemish Jesuit Rosweid, who calculated the size of the whole work at eighteen volumes. He, however, died in 1629, without actually beginning the work. His papers were entrusted to another Jesuit, John BoUand (born in the Nether- lands, 1596— died 1665), who settled at Antwerp and opened a correspondence with learned men over Europe, in order to procure the documents useful for his purpose. The plan grew in the hands of Bollandus, and in 1635 his brother-Jesuit George Henschen (born 1600— died 1681) was appointed to help him. In 1643. two large folios appeared, containing the lives of the Saints who are commemorated in January ; they were followed in 1658 by three more folios, containing the Saints BOLSEXA, MASS OF BRASSES 99 for Ft'brxiary. Two years later a new labourer was secured, the Jesuit Daniel Pa pe brock (bom 16:^8 — died 1714), and, at the wish of Pope Alexander VII. , Hen- schen and Papebrock travelled through France, Germany, and Italy, where they found many precious MSS. A little later Bolland died, but the number of those w])0 laboured at the work was continually recruited from the society ; indeed, even at'ii'r the suppression of the Jesuits, the BoUandist Lives were still continued by ex-Jesuits, until in 1794 the French Revo- lutionary troops entered the Netherlands, and put an end for the time to this great undertaking. At that date the Lives had reached the o3rd volume, which was priuted at Tongerloo in the very year the French troops entered, and contained Lives of the Saints from the 12th to the 15th October. The papers of the Jesuit fathers were scattered, some perishing entirely, others being preserved in the Royal Librarv- at Haag, and in the Bur- gundian Library at Brussels. Napoleon desired in vain to procure a continuation of the work. At last, in 1837, the Belgian Government entrusted the prosecution i^f the work to the Society of Jesus, and next year a prospectus was published, "De Prosecutione Operis BoUandiani." The first volume of the new series wa>: published about nine years later. A new edition in sixty-one vols, folio — viz. down to the last volume published — has been issued at Paris by Palnu?, 1863-1875. BOIiSEN-A, MASS or MZRACZiE OP. A portent which is said to have happened at Bolsena (the ancient Volsi- nium) in the reign of Urban IV. This Pope was still in doubt whether he should cause the feast of Corpus Christi to be kept throughout the Church. While he held his court at Orvieto in the year 1264, a priest in the neighbouring city of Bol- sena spilt a drop of the Precious Blood from the chalice with which he was saying Mass, and tried to conceal the accident by covering the spot where the consecrated wine had fallen, with the corporal. Sud- denly the corporal was covered with red spots in the shape of a host. This miracle led the Pope to delay the institution of the least no longer. The corporal is still presei-ved at Orvieto, and the event is commemorated in a famous picture of Ra])hael's in the Vatican. (See Hefele in "\^'etzer and Welte, and Benedict XIV. " De Festis," De Festo Corporis Christi, wliere another account is also given, ac- cording to which the miracle happened ' to remove the priest's doubts in transub- j stantiation.) ] BOirz BOMZM-ES. Several monastic brotherhoods have borne this name. \ (1) The order founded in the eleventh century by St. Stephen Grandmont was once so called. A house of theirs at Vincennes having been transferred by Henry HI. in 1584 to the Minims, "a branch of the Franciscans, these (2) came to be called in France Bons /lommes. (3) A Portuguese order of Canons, founded in the fifteenth century by John Vicenza, Bishop of Lamego, had the same appellation. After a time they had four- teen houses in Portugal, and we read of their sending missionaries to the Indies and to Ethiopia. (4) Matthew Paris describes the arrival in England in 1257 of some friars of an order previously un- known, whom he calls fratres saccati. Comparing this with a passage in Poly- dore Vergil referring to the same y^ar, we find that these unknown religious professed the rule of .^t. Austin, and were called in England " Boni Homines." Roger de Ho\ e(len, under the year 1176, gives an abstract of the proceedings of a council held at Lombers, near Toulouse, which examined and condemned some heretics calling rlieiiiselves Boni Homines, whose tenets seem to have closely rrsrnibled tli(»e of the Cathari and Paulicians. 'AT.i)ir;ENSES.^ BOWIIffG. [See r4E>TFLEX10N.] BRASSES. Engraved sepulchral memorials on brass are so called, which began to a large extent to supersede stone tombs and effigies in the course of the thirteenth century. One great advantage of their use was that they could be let into the pavement : they took up no room in the church. Once introduced, the fashion spread rapidly : improvements and , developments appeared: and during thrr^ I centuries brasses may be said to have been in general use. The material employed was hard latten or sheet brass. The Reformation brought in a period of plunder and destruction, from which (especially the former, because of the intrinsic value of the metal) our bra>ses sufl'ered enormously. Their number must have been very great, if it be true that four thousand are still preserved in various parts of England. They were once equally common in France, Germany, and Holland : in France, however, all that eseaped the Ilugu. nots were pur- loined by the revolutionist^. There are I fine brasses at Meissen and Freiberg ia 100 BREVIARY Saxony, at Werden and Paderborn in \ "Westphalia, and at Bruges in Flanders. ' The greater number of those preserved in England are in the eastern counties ; the churches of Ipswich, Norwich, Lynn, and Lincoln, are exceptionally rich in them. The chapel of Merton College, Oxford, ' once possessed a large number; but many ! have di,^u]i]icai<'(l, and of those that re- | mam >uiiif Ii.im' been sadly mutilated. Tlir eal■lit_'^t I'.nglish brass now in exis- tence is said to be tliat of Sir Roger de Trumpington, at Truiii])iiig'ton, near Cam- bridge; Its date is V2S\). That of Sir John d'Abernon, at Stoke d'Abernon in Surrey (1327), is exceedingly fine; the ettigy is the size of life. In Acton Bur- nell church there is a well-known one of a Lord BurufU, dating from the same century. In tlie fifteenth century this art, 111 n'.-pfi-t both of design and of exe- cution, i-rarlicil its acme. In the cathe- dral of ('(iii>l ance there is a fine brass of English ^\ .u-lviuauship commemorating a bishop of Salis))ui-y, Robert Hallam, who difd (luring the council held at that city (1414-17). In the sixtcentli centuiy the figures become jmi traits. " The incised lini's were filled up with some black resinous substaiu-i', and the ai-niorial or coarsi' eiianicl of various colours." (Parker's " (Hoss. of Arch."). T\w sub- ject of iMiglisli brasses is exhaustively treated in iIih work of Cotniaii. BREVZARV. The word ]5reviary, or compendium, is of median al (U-igin, and Fleurv could find no examjile of its use before the Year 10!»'.>.' Ibit tile recitation of thr l!iv\iary is the coiit inuation of a ju'actici' -which \\as in iisi' from the in- fancv of tlic Church, nay, which the Churt-li la r.M 11' ]ici'i\cd from the Syna- gogue. ^\^■ may divide the liistory of the Bre^•iary prayer into four periods : the first from the beginning of Church liistory down to Pope Damasus in the fourth century ; the second extending to the reign of Gregory VII. in the eleventh; the third to that of Pius V. in the six- teenth ; while the fourth period stretches from Pius V. to our own day. In these periods we propose to trace the history of the Iioiirs of prayer, the origin, the com- ])lctioii, and the final revisions of the Bre\ iaiy. We shall treat in conclusion of its c(jmponent parts, of the obligation of reciting it, and of the authority which belongs to its teadiing. I, The Hours of Prayer in the first » I'leury, Hist. Ixiv. 64. BREVIARY Tour Centuries. — Even in the Acts of the Apostles we find the third, sixth, and ninth hours specially mentioned. From Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Cy- prian,^ and others, we learn that the observance of these hours was general among Christians, and that mystic significations were attached to them. In the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions^ morning and evening prayer are mentioned in addition to the three hours already named, and all five hours are regarded as times of public prayer. To these five hours we must add the nocturnal prayers on the vigils of feasts. This last became more prominent when the times of persecution passed away, and the coenobitical or monastic life grew and flourished. Cassian tells us that the monks divided the nocturnal olticc into three nocturns. Thus, count- ing the nocturnal office as one, we get six hours, corresponding to matins with lands, prime, t irrcc, si 'Xt. none and vi'spers, in the present P.rcvlaiy. We may men- tion here, for thf salic of comcnieiice, though the fact belongs to our second period, that St. Benedict, in the sixth century, added compline to the hours, and so completed the number seven, answering to the praises "seven times a day" of which the psalmist speaks.^ The service at these hours consist. '(1 of psalms, Lrtions, and prayi'r-. As (•arl\- at !i a-t as the time of Atliauasius,' it was thr custom in the East to have the alternate verses of the psalm intoned by difi'erent choirs, and this practice was introduced at Milan uudi'T' St. Amlirose.* The lections were Usually from Scripture, but on the feasts of the 3lartyi',s their Acts were also read. Much was left to free choice in the selec- tion of the Scriptural lessons.' The prayers were recited after each psalm, and the office concluded with the blessing of the celebrant.' II. Origin of the Breviary. Damasus 1 Tertull. De Orat. Domin. 2.i ; Clem. Al. Strom, vii. 7; Cypriiin. De Orat. Dnm. Si, o.i. '- Ap. Const, viii. 33. Pravor at "cock- crow" is also mentioned. s Some liturirical writers niaUe .seven hours, counting matins ami lauds as one. Bona counts seven day hours, and makes matins correspond to the '"midnight praise" spoken of in the 1 Psalms. ^ I'lipodoret. Hist. ii. 29. •'■ .\ugust. Confess, ix. 7. I s Probst, Brevier und Brevier-gebet, p. 28. The permission, however, Merati says, was not universal. 7 The Council of Laodicea, canon 17, orders a lection after each psalm. BREVIARY BREVIARY 101 to Grego)-y VII — Great ehanfres occurred -during this second period. According to a tradition which is not well attested, but which is most likely correct in sut)stance, St . Jerome, at the request of Pope Daniasus, ammged thepsalms for the diti't rent hours and put the lections together in books called Lectionaries, and these Lectionaries were provided with indices marking the beginning and end of the lections. Later on, in the middle ages, we find the word Breviary used for a collection of rubrics, pointing out the way in which the office was to be said on each day, and sometimes these rubrics were united with the office itself so as to form one book, which was ■called Plenarium, and answers to our present Breviary.' Further, hjTiins were added to the office as early as the sixth century," although particular churchts varied in this respect, and the l!om m xli- fied in the churches of Rome. Canlnuil Quignon made additional and radical alterations. In his Breviary the Psalms were recited every week ; nearly the whole of the New Testament and a great part of the Old were read in the course of the » Probst, p. 32. * Concil. Agath. can. 30. » Probst, p. 34. * Ibid. p. 35 seq. year; the chapters, responsories, and versicles were excluded. The use of this Brevian- was permitted from the time of Paul lil. to that of Pius V.— viz. for about forty years.' IV. Final Revisions of the Breviary. Pius V. to the present day. — The Council of Trent, finding that the commission which it had appointed to revise the Breviarj- had not time to complete their work, left the matter in the Pope's hands. - Pius v., with the assistance of the Barna- bite Fathers, eff ected the desired revision, and imposed the new Breviary on the whole Latin Church, permitting, however, churches to retain a special Breviary of their own, if tliev could alleu't' a i)re~crlp- tion of 200 years on its behalf. Addi- tional inipri)\ ements were i tl'. rt. il liy a commissi(.)n under Clement VIII. Bcliar- mine and Baronius were nieuiliers nt it, and to them we owe great amelioi a' ions in the lections of the second noeturu which contain the history of the Saints. The finishing touches were added by Urljan Vlll. : once more the lections were revised, and with the liel]) of three learned Jesuits many barbaiisms and false quantities were removed from the hymns. Since the time of this Pope the Breviary lia~ reni,;iue.l unaltered, except that of iour,-e I'tliees tVir ,-aints canonised since that time, and for 11. -w feasts, have been added by the authorit\- of different Popes. It is true that new I'reviaries were con- structed in Frame .luring the seven- teenth and eiuliteeiitli l eiituries; but the bishops who IjroiiuLt them into use had no power to do so lawfully, and these new Breviaries are now entirely or almost entirely abandoned. These modern Galil- ean Breviaries must not lie confused with the ancient Galilean ntiiee, current in France before Cliarleniat;ni>',- time. V. The Arranycmcnt I'f the Ilri i iary. ■ — The Breviaiy is dnided into lour parts: viz. a winter, sjniug, summer, and autumn quarter. Each part contains (a) the psalter — i.e. the psalms arranged for each day of the week. (3) The ]iroper of the season — i.e. hymns, aiiti- jilions, chapters, and lessons, with re- sjionsories and versieles, for each day of the Church year, ineluding the mo\al)le feasts, (y) The pi o]ier of the saints — i.e. prayers, lesson.-, resixuisories, &c., for tlie immovable feasts. (S) The common of the saints — i.e. psalms, with antiphons, lec- tions, &c., for feasts of a particular class, e.g. ' Fleury, Contin. cxx.xvi. 49; Probst, p. 46. 2 Scss. xsv. contin. 102 BREVIARY BRIGITTINES of the Blessed Virgin, of a Martyr, &c. To this division the Little Office of the Blessed "\'irgin, the office of the dead, the peni- tential and gradual psalms are added, (e) A supplement containing offices which do not bind the whole Church, but ai-e recited only in particular countries, &c. Besides this, a diocese, province or county, &c., or, again, an order or congregation, may have a special supplement with offices approved for use in that district. This second supplement forms no part of the Breviary. It is printed separately for the persons who are to use it, and then, usually, for the sake of convenience, bound into the Breviai-y. Every day the office is composed of matins and lauds, prime, tierce, sext, none, vespers and compline ; but the rules which determine the mode of their recitation are too elaborate to be given here. VI. The Obligation of Reciting Office. — At first all the faithful were accustomed to assist at the canonical hours. "The piety of the lay-people," says Thomassin, " cooled : the clergy did not relax their primitive fervour." From the sixth cen- tury downwards, many councils speak of this obligation on the part of clerics, but they do not so much enforce it as take for granted a law ab-eady enforced by the custom of the Church. The present disci- pline of the Church imposes the obliga- tion (a) on all clerics, even if not iu holy orders, who hold a benefice. By- omitting their duty they forfeit the fruits of their benefice and must make restitu- tion (so the Fifth Lateran Council, session ix.) ; 0) on all persons in Holy Orders, i.e. on subdeacons, deacons, priests ; {y) on religious men and women, professed for the duties of the choir. In the two last cases Billuart considers that the obligation cannot be proved by any positiv(> law, but is founded on custom which has the force of precept.' All these persons are required under pain of mortal sin to recite the office at least iu private. VII. The Authority of Statements in the Breviary. — As the Church herself im- poses the recitation of the Breviary, it cannot contain anything contrary to faith or morals ; otherwi.«e the Church herself would be leading her children into error. But no Catholic is obliged to believe his- torical statements merely because they are found in the Breviary, and as a matter of 1 Rilliiart. De Re/itj ii. 8, .3. whcro ho says that the canons speak "either of priests only, or of beneficed clerks, orof the public office," &c. See also Liguor. Theol. Moral, v. § 140. fact many of them have been questioned and denied by Catholic critics and historians. The ])rincipal books on the Breviary are : — in the middle ages, Amalarius of Metz, who wrote four books " Be Eccle- siastico Officio," in the year 820 ; the author of a work called " Micrologus de Ecclesiasticis Observationibus," written iu the time of Gregory VII. ; John Beleth, a Paris theologian, who wrote, about the middle of the twelfth century, " De Divinia Officiis ; " the abbot Rupert, •' De Divinis Officiislibri xli." (died 1 135),andDurandus, "Rationale Divinorum Officiorum "(about 1286). In modern times the principal authors are : — Grancolas,"Commentariu3 historicus in Romanum Breviarium ; " Bona, "De Divina Psalmodia;" but above all Gavantus, who published " Commen- taria in Rubricas Missalis et Breviarii," in 1628, and Merati, who edited the work of Gavantus with elaborate notes. (From Gavantus, with Merati's notes, and from Probst, "Brevier und Breviergebet.") BRZSAIi WREATH. [See Mab- RIAGE.] QRZEF. A papal Brief is a letter issuing from the Court of Rome, written on fine parchment in modern characters, subscribed by the Pope's Secretary of Briefs, dated " a die IS ativitatis," and sealed with the Pope's signet-ring, the seal of the Fisherman. [See Bull.] BRZCZTTzn-ES. This order was founded about 1344 by St. Brigit of Sweden, author of the " Revelations " so well known and so greatly esteemed by persons aspiring to perfection. Each monastery is double, for nuns and for monks ; but the foundation of the nun- neries, which were to contain on the average sixty inmates, was the principal object of the founder: the related houses of monks were to have thirteen inmates each, priests, besides four deacons. The constitutions of the order, which took the name of the Order of the Saviour, were said to have been communicated to St, Brigit by divine revelation ; the rule was that of St. Austin. The first monastery was built oil the saint's estate of Wastein, in the diocese of Lincopen. The order spread through all the northern countries of Europe, and was of notable service to the Church. The convent of "Wastein, partly through the extraordinary con- stancy of the nuns, partly from their find- ing friends where they could have least expected them, survived the change of religion in Sweden for many years, and I was only suppressed in 1.505. In England BRITISH CHURCH, ANCIENT BRITISH CHURCH, ANCIENT 103 there was one great aud wealthy Brigit- tiiie house, Sion Convent, near Brentford. This was one of the few monasteries re- stored by Queen Mary ; but being again suppressed under EHzabeth, the nuns, that they might be free to observe their rule, took refuge at Lisbon. They have had a perpetual succession in Portugal down to our own day ; and in 1861 some of them came to England and founded the Brigittine convent of Sion House, Spettisbury, in Dorsetshire, afterwards (1887 1 removed to Chudleigh, Devon. BRZTZSH CHITRCH, ANCISHT. "In the year 156 from our Lord's Incar- nation, whilst Eleiitherius, a holy man, was vested with the pontificate of the Roman Church, Lucius, king of Britain, sent him a letter praying to be made a Christian by an act of his authority — the object of which pious request he soon after obtained — aud the Britons having received the faith kept it whole and undetiled, and in peace and quiet till the days of the Emperor Diocletian " (Beda, " Eccl. Hist." i. 4). During the persecu- tion St. Alban and many others suti'ered martyrdom in Britain. After the eleva- tion of Constantine to the purple (which took place at York, where bis father Coustantius died, in the year 306) we tiiid the Briti. ; //n'i/d/sa/ipr,,rr,/io.^ ]„i,<'l, iindrr native ,is inuhr .Sii.ioii nijliimce] during the Anff/o-Sa.vo/t periiiloying them as a barrier against the barbarians of Scythia. They occupied Philippopolis, and soon gained great in- fluence in Bulgaria. About 1200 their Primate Y\\v<\ at or near that city, and iM-ncd by his vicars affiliated bodies in Fnincr and Italy. By three channels tliey nl.itained access to Western countries — the trade of Venice, the military service of the Byzantine emperors, and the pil- grim track to Jerusalem along the valley of the Danube. Mingled with the Cathari and other heretics, they were found in considerable numbers in the south of France at the time of the Albigensian Crusade. [Aliiigexses.] (Gibbon, "De- cline and Fall," ch. liv.) BUliXi. A Papal Bull is so named from the l)idln (or round leaden seal, hav- ing on one side a representation of SS. Peter and Paid, and on the other the name of the reigning Pope), which is attached to the document (by a silken cord, if it be a " Bull of Grace," and by one of hem[) if a "Bull of Justice") and ■ gi\es authenticity to it. Bulls are en- ] gnissed on strong rough parchment, and begin "[Leo] Episcopus servus servorum Dei ad perpetuam rei memoriam." ^ A • Or " jid futuram rei memoriam ; " or, if the bull relates to doctrine, the words "ad ... . nieinoriam " are omitted, and the style usually is, " universis Christi fidelibus salu'tem et apo- I stolicam beiiedictionem." BILL IN CCEXA DOMINI C^REMOXIARIUS 105 Bull is dated " a die Iiicarnationis," and ,' «igfned by the fiinctionaries of the Papal Chancery. It is a document of a more formal and weighty character than a Brief, i and many memorable Pa])al decisions and condemnations have been given in this form, such as the bull Unam Sanctum ■of Boniface VIII., the bull Unigenitus of [ Clement XL. &c. .^c. BUXiZ. XXr C(E2ffA SOMZirZ. This "was a Papal sentence of excommunication formerly published against heretics every ! Maundy Thursday. The latest form which it assumed was given to it by L'rban VIII. in 16:27. It excommunicates all heretics, mentioning the chief modern sects and here.'>iarchs l)y name, as well as those who aid and abet them, or read their works : all those who appeal from the Pope [Appeal] to a future general council; pirates and Avreckers; Christians who ally themselves with the Turks ; those who maltreat I'apal officials or falsify Papal bulls, and many others. By degrees a spirit of marked ()])p()sition to the publication of the bull in their do- minions displayed itself on the part of many Catholic sovereigns : Pope C'lenu nt XIV. yielded to their wislir.-, and after 1773 the periodical publication of the lull was discontinued. BTTX.X.A.BZVax. A Collection of Papal bulls is so called. That of Cocque- lines (Rom. 1737) containing the bulls of *11 the Popes from Leo the Great to Bene- dict XII. is one of the most celebrated. BTTBZAZ.. 'See FlXERAL." BVBSZ: (BITRSA, also ~ PEBA). A square case into which the priest puts - the corporal which is to be used in Mass. It was introduced in the fourteenth ceu- , tury. It should be of the same colour as the vestments of the day. Usually it has a cross in the middle. The priest places it above the chalice, with the open side towards his own breast. AMien he reaches the altar, he extracts the corporal and places the burse on the Gospel side. Pius V. allowed the Spanish priests to carry the corporal outside the burse. (Benedict XIV. " De Miss." i. 5.) BT TH£ GRACE OF GOD AJSH FAVOVB OP THE APOSTOX.ZC SEE. Bishops and archbishops now use this formula (" Dei et Apostolicse Sedis Gratia ") at the beginning of their pas- torals and instructions. Something re- sembling it came in very early ; thus St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, called himself the Servus apostolicce seiUs, and an archbishop of Cologne in the eleventh century took the a]i])ellation of Christi et Clnrit/eri ejus servus. But there was for a long time no unif(.)rmity ; inllovedeu's " Chronicle '' may be read a brief of Gi'olli-ey, Archbishi)]) of York, in which tilt-re is no reference whatever to the Holy Sc.', wliile not many pages further on is a ^eries of decrees of Archbishop Hubert, each of which ends with the words " Salvo in omnibus sacrosauctfe Romanae eccle#i;v hondre et privilegio." In some European countries, the sove- reigns evincing a desire to appropriate for use in their own ])rnclamatious the phrase Dei Gratia, the bisho])s liave used instead the forniida dicina ip-atia. In Otho IV., one of the eaiulidates for the Imperial crown, adopted the style of "Roman Emperor by the grace of God and favour of the Holy Apostolic See." CSBEKOXrZAZ.E EPISCOPO- K1TM. A book containing the ceremonies to be observed by bishops and other eccle- ■siastics, in the peif(!rmiince of ei)iscoj>al acts. An edition '•emended and refoimed " was published by authority of Clement VIII. In the bull L'vm novissiine the Pope strictly requires aU whom it con- cerns to follow the prescrijiticms of this Cjeremoniale, and several of the subse- quent Popes have renewed and confirmed tlie same law. (" Maniiale Decret. SS. Kit. Congr." n. 94 .ler/.) CEBEMOirZABZVS. A name given to the ecclesiastic who superintends I the ceremonies in solemn ofTices. In cathedral churches ow such master of cereuionies should be eli-M-n by the bl.-lm]), another, with the a]i]ii(i\al nf the bijlmp, bv the eliapter. In ipi.-c. .jjal functions l.'r may wear a violet ea.-.>.a k and hold a ferule in his hand. The dignitaries even of the chapter are bound to obey him dui-ing the functions, for he is their director, not their servant. Besides the income which may belong to him as canon, &c., he has a right to the offerings made by clergy and people on Good Friday after the adoration of the cross. (" Manuals Decret. SS. Hit. Congr.") 106 C.ESARL\:nS C.-VLATKAVA, ORDER OF CJESAHXAIVS. The adherents of a 1 pious German friar of the order of St. Francis, Ccesar of Spires, were so called. Cpesar was one of those who, when Elias ; of Cortona, the general of the order after St. Francis, attempted to introduce relax- ations of the rule, resisted him ; in con- sequence of which Elias, having deceived the Pope, threw Caesar into prison. After having been in confinement more than two years, the poor friar, finding one day the door of his dungeon open, went out to warm himself in the sun's rays. His gaoler, a rough unfeeling lay brother, com- ing in and thinking that Caesar meditated escape, struck him on the head with a bludgeon with such violence that he died of the effects of the blow. This was in 1239. Under the generals Crescenzio and John of Parma, who in various ways incurred the disapproval of the stricter Franciscans, the party of Caesar lingered on; but after the glorious St. Bonaventure became general (1256) and the rule and spirit of St. Francis were restored in their first purity, the name of Caesarians was soon forgotten. (Fleury, "Hist. Eccl." xxxi.) CAGOTS. The name given to a race of Christian Pariahs who first came into notice in the South of France about the tenth century. The term has been thought to be derived from caas- Goth, dog of a Goth, as if they were a remnant of the Visigoths who occupied Aquitaine till they were expelled by the Franks ; but this derivation is quite un- certain. The Cagots Avere not allowed to live in towns or villages, but in groups of dwellings set apart for them, called cngoteries. Like the Swiss cretins, they were looked down upon as an inferior race; yet this inferiority was not apparent: in physical development and intelligence they seem to have been on a par with their neighbours; their skin, however, was said to emit a peculiar odour, by which they could always be recognised. They were required to go into church by a separate door, to use a special benitier, and to sit only on benches set apart for them. No trades but those of butcher and carpenter were open to them. They are said still to be nume- rous in the valleys of the western Pyre- nees. CAX.ATBAVA, ORBEB OF. One of the three great military orders of Spain; the other two were tlie knights of Santiago and those of Alcantara. The Templars in Spain had had immense estates conferred upon them, and corre- sponding services in the xmremitting war against theMoorswere expected from them, Calatrava, a town on the upper Guadiana, on the borders of Andalusia and Castile, was a post of great military importance to the sovereigns of the latter country, whether for offensive or defensive pur- poses. In the twelfth century it was en- trusted to the guardianship of the Tem- plars ; but these, finding the charge embarrassing, abandoned the place after eight years. Sancho III., King of Castile, desired to find a body of knights who would undertake its defence; and his wishes were soon fully met by the energy and ability of a Spanish Cistercian monk, Velasquez by name, who with the con- currence of his order founded, in 1258, a chivalrous institute, the knights of which were to live under a strict rule and devote themselves to the protection and extpjision of the Christian kingdom to wli'ch they belonged. A knight of Cala- trn\ a bound himself to perpetual chastity, and this obligation was only relaxed in the sixteenth century, when permission was granted to the knights to marry once. He was enjoined to have his sword ready to his hand while he slept and also while he prayed. Silence was prescribed at meals; the fare was plain, meat not being allowed more than thrice a week. The chaplains of the order were at first allowed to talje the field in expeditions against the Moors ; but this was afterwards for- bidden. In 1197 Calatrava was taken by the Moslems, and the knights retired to Salvatierra, in the north of Spain, and took the name of that city till their former home was recovered. The order soon became very rich, and the extensive influence and patronage which its wealth placed in the hands of the grand-mas- ters caused the ofilce to be eagerly sought by ambitious men. Such violent quarrels and animosities arose from this cause (which was similarly operative in the case of the other military orders) that Ferdinand and Isabella in the fifteenth century wisely procured the Papal sanction to the annexation of the grand-mastership of all three orders to the crown of Castile. In the general suppression of the monastic orders which the present century has witnessed in Spain, the knights of Calatrava have lost all their property, but as a source of honorary distinction the order still survives. (H^lyot ; Prescott's " Ferd inand and Isabella."") CALENDAll, ECCLESIASTIC-IL CALENDAR, ECCLESIASTICAL 107 CAXiENBAR, ECCX.ESZASTX- CAX. An arran^oineiit, I'oiiuded on tlie Juliaii-Gregoriau determinations of the civil year, marking the days set apart for particular religious celebration. The Diocletian persecution made havoc among Christian records and writings of every kind, and for this reason but few calendars of great anti- quity have been preserved. One of the earliest, dated about 350, is little more than a list of holy days; it places Christmas Day on JDecember 25, and the Feast of St. Peter's Chair on Feb- ruary '2-2. In a calendar prefixed to the " Responsoriale " of Gregory the Great, there is no mention of the Cir- cumcision, nor of Ash Wednesday, but in other respects it closely resembles the present Roman Calendar. The various scientific and historical questions in- Tolved in the determination of Easter attracted the earnest attention of the Church from an early period. The Venerable Beda wrote an elaborate work "De Computo;" he is also thought by many to have been the real author of the essay on the true calculation of Easter, given in the form of a letter of the Abbot Ceolfrid to X;iiton, King of the Picts, which he has in.-erteil in the fifth book of his "Ecclesiastical History." A treatise "De Computo" is also among the works of Rabanus Maurus, the great Archbishop of Mayeuce, in the early part of the ninth centiu-y. It was ordered by the Council of Orleans (541) that bishops should every year announce the date of Easter on the festival of the Epiphany. Since Easter varies every year, the liturgical arrangements of the Church, which depend on Easier, must vary in like mamier; and the calendar, which notifies those arrangements, can only be good for the year to which it refers. From the first Sunday after Epiphany to Advent Sunday — that is, from about the middle of January to the end of Novem- ber— there is not a single Sunday of which the ritual observance is not liable to variation from year to year, according to the varying date of Easter. The calendar which announces the actual course of the liturg;\- for every day of the year, may be called the liturgical calendar. It takes into account the relative importance of the celebrations which come into com- petition on the same day, in accordance with canon law and the decrees of the Sacred Coiigregation of Rites, and shows •which celebration is to prevail and be had in use. A glance at this calendar will show that many saints are trarusf erred in it, as to the celebration of their festivals, and that Masses in their honour cannot be said on their own proper days ; but a little further search wiU generally show that the festival has only been transferred a few days later — that is, to the first vacant day. Owing to the difiVrent dignity of feast (see Double, Semi- Double, Feasts), their priority, and the extent to which they may be transferred are often ditficult matters to decide. In general outline this liturgical calendar is the same for the whole Church : the feasts of our Lord and of his Dlessed Mother are observed by all Catholics on the same days ; so also are the principal feasts of the Apostles, and of some of the more eminent martyrs and saints. But special circumstances, arising out of the history of each Christian nation, ati'ect its liturgical calendar to a certain e.xtent; St. Patrick's day, which is a holiday of obUgation in Ireland, is not so in England ; and the octave assigned to the feast of St. Edward, king and confessor, in the pro- vince of Westminster, is not observed in Ireland. Many other modifications more or less important might be mentioned, in virtue of which not only each Christian nation, but every religious order, every ecclesiastical province, eveiy diocese — one might almost say every city, at lea^t in a Catholic land, for the "fete patrouale" of i Cambray is not that of Douay, and each causes a slight disturbance of the general Ordo in its own favour — may be said to have a liturgical calendar of its own. In the common ecclesiastical calendar prefixed to Catholic directories, the " Pro- priirm de Tempore " (that is, the arrange- ment of feasts and offices, most of which depend on Easter, from Advent to Pente- cost) is given in the liturgical directoiy, I but the feasts of saints are assigned to their fixed days. Still more general is that description of ecclesiastical calendar in which the "Proprium de Tempore" is omitted, and only the fixed festivals retained. This, if we exclude from it the festivals of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin, is little more than a calendar of saints' days, and would tend to pass into a Martyrologv. i The " Acta Sanctorum " of the BoUandists may be regarded as a colossal calendar of saints, arranged according to the succes- sive occurrence of their festivals in the civil year, and enriched with biographies I and collateral information. A Greek 108 CALEIsDAE, JULIAX-GREGORIAN CALYIX AND CALVINISM Menology is something between a calendar and a Marty rolog;\-. CAXiENDAK, JVI.ZAM--GREGO- JtXAN, THE. Julius Caesar, in the year 708 of the city, caused the civil calendar, which had fallen into confu- sion, to be reformed by dividing the year into twelve months, each with the same number of days as at present, and pro- viding that an additional day should be given to February in every fourth year, in order that the natural year, which was believed to be 365 days 6 hours in length, might keep even pace with the legal year. But as the real excess of the time taken in the solar revolution over 365 days does not amount to six hours, but only to five hours and forty- nine minutes (nearly), it was an inevit> able consequence of the disregard of this fact that the addition of nearly forty-four minutes too much every leap- year should again in course of time make the natural and civil years dis- agree. The accumulated error cau.sed the difference of a day in about 134 years ; thus the vernal equinox, which in the year of the Council of NiciJea (■■!-•■")) fell, as it ouglit to fall, on ;Minch 21, in 1582 occun-ed ten days earlier. But since Easter ought to be kept on the Sunday after the first full- moon following the vernal equinox, it is 'ibvious that, witli so serious a differ- ence between the real equinox and tlie e(iuinox of the Calendar, Easter might easily be kept a month too late; the Paschal full-moon miglit liave occurred on some day between March 11 (the date of the real equinox) and March 21, but be disregarded in favour of the next full-moon, which fell after the equinox of the calendar. Gregory XIII., con- sulting with men of science, eff'ectually remedied the evil, and provided against its recurrence. He ordered that the days between October 4 and October 15 in the current year (1582) should be suppressed, and that, beginning with 17U0, three out of every four centesimal leap-years— 1700, IsOO, 1900, but not 2000— should be omitted, so that those years should have only 365, not 366 days. This change, having originated at Rome, was long resisted in Protestant countries. In England it was only adopted in 1751, by which time the accumulated error amounted to eleven days ; these days were suppressed between September 2 and 14, 1752. In Russia the Julian Calendar is still adhered to, with the result that their computation of time is now twelve days in arrear of the rest of Em-ope. CAXiZXTZiarES. A section of the followers of John Hubs, who were so- called because they demanded the cup or chalice {cnlix) — that is. Holy Communion under the form of wine as well as under the form of bread. They were also called Utraquists {i>t>M d almost unlimited authority, and esteemed as the greatest work which hud appeared since the days of the .\po,-tlos. It is this book which contains the methodical exposition of his doctrinal system. It affords abundant proof, not only of Calvin's exalted talents, but also of the gulf which separated him from t he tradition of the Church. Its peculiar doctrines have long since lost their hold on Protestants of the better >ort, and his system outrages the principles of natural as well as of revealed religion. It is im- portant, however, to remember wh.it the system was which so many found purer and more attractive than that of the Church. According to Calvin, God ordains some to everlasting life, others to everlasting punishment. God does not choo-. tli.> elect for any good He sees in tlieui, or which He sees they will do ; nor does lie select some for eternal reprobation be- cause of their evil deeds foreseen by Ilim. Indeed, as the whole nature of fiiUen man, in Calvin's view, is " utterly de- void of goodness ; is a seed-bed of sin," which "cannot but be odious and abo- minable to God ; " as man has no free- CAMALDOLI 109 I will, and as God's grace is absolutely irresistible ; it follows that there can be no question of merits foreseen, on account of I which God chooses the elect, or of de- I merits, because of which the reprobate j are rejected. Calvin's words are explicit on this point. " If," he writes, " we cannot assign any reason for His [God's] bestow- ing mercy on His people, but just that It pleases Ilim, neither can He have any reason for reprobating others but His will." ' Here of course Calvinist heresy is in sharp antagonism to Catholic doctrine, 1 according to which God by His eternal decree condemns none, except for their 1 sins foreseen by Him and of course freely committed. As to the means by which the elect actually enter into a state of salvation Calvin was at one with the rest of the Reformers. He taught that justification is effected by faith and by faith alone. Calvin's doctrine on the sacraments — of which he only recognised Baptism and the Eucharist — stands midway between that of Luther and Zwingli. He con- sidered the doctrine of the latter (which made the sacraments mere signs of Christian profession, tokens by which a man is known as such ainonp his fellow- Chi-istlaiis) to lie eiToiieou^ and even prolaiie. He >jie;iihvterian. But ( '.-il- vin had hifrher' notions of Church free- dom and iiule]icndence than Luther. He maint+iini'dtliat the ( 'hurch wasaltogether independent of the State, and the govern- iiieut which he estahlislied at Geneva was theocratic in its character. The influence, however, of Calvin's doctrine was not confined to sects with Presbyterian con- stitution. His Imtitutio represented the dominant theology in the Anglican Church down to the time of Laud. CAMAiiSOXiX. The austere order ' I„sth. lib. iii. 2-2. - Miihler, Syinholik, bk. i. ch. 4. 110 CAMALDOLI UAADLES AND LIGHTS of Camaldoli -was founded by St. Romuald 1 in 1012 on a small plain among the Apen- ' nines bearing that name, about thirty miles east of Florence. He had previously been abbot of several Benedictine monas- teries, the monks of which, unable to bear the rigorous penitential life which he wished them to practise, had all after a time expelled him. The foundation of 1012 has always been known as the Hermitage of Camaldoli. Romuald built separate cells for his disciples, most of whom had to repair to the chapel at the canonical hours, but there was a class among them called recluses who were exempted from this obligation. He gave a white habit to his hermits, whom he obliged to fast during two Lents in the year, and to abstain perpetually from meat; moreover, during the rest of the year they had to fast on bread and water on three days in the week. After some time a monastery was built at the foot of the mountains, at a place called Fonte- buono, and peopled by monks under a prior; these, however, wore the same habit as the hermits, and were bound to the same rule of life. Alban Butler, who seems to have visited Camaldoli about the middle of the last century, thus writes of it.' "The hermitage is two short miles distant from the monastery [Fontebuono]. It is a mountain quite overshaded by a dark wood of fir-trees. In it are seven clear springs of water. The very sight of this solitude in the midst of the forest helps to fill the mind with compunction, and a love of heavenly contemplation. On entering it we meet with a chapel of St. Antony for travellers to pray in before they advance any fur- ther. Next are the cells and lodgings for the porters. Somewlial further is the church, which is lai-gi-, well built, and riclily adorned. Over the door is a clock which strikes so loud that it may be heard all over the desert. On the left side of the cb\irch is thi> ckII in which St. Romuald lived, wli..ii lir li.-l .-tal.- lished these herniils. . . . Thr wliole hermitage is now enclosed with a wall ; none are allowed to go out of it ; but they may walk in the woods and alleys withiii the inclosure at discretion. Everything is sent them from the monastery in the valley ; their food is every day brought to each cell, and all are supplied with wood and necessaries, that they may have no dissipation or hindrance in their con- templation. ... No rain or snow stops » Lives of the Saints, Feb. 7. anyone from meeting in the church to assist at the divine office. They are obliged to strict silence in all puljlic common places, and everywhere during their Lents, also on Sundays, holy days, Fridays, and other days of abstinence, and always from comphne till prime the next day." The order became very wealthy, and many of its hermitages were after a time changed into monasteries. It was agreed that the general of the order, who was also e.v officio prior of Camaldoli, should be taken from among the hermits and the monks. Rudolph, the fourth general, drew up, in 1102, the first written consti- tutions of the order, in wluch he slightly mitigated the severity of the original rule. In process of time the order was separated into five provinces or congregations : that of Camaldoli, or the Holy Hermitage; that of St. Michael at Murano, near Venice; that of the hermits of Monte Corona near Perugia, a reformation founded by Paul Giustiuiani early in the sixteenth century; that of Turin ; and that of France. The Canialdolesi, if the vandalism of the present Government of Italy ha> not yet destroyed their monasteries, have still a famous house near Rome, besides se\ ei-al in other parts of Italy. Pope Gregory XVI. belonged to this order. (H^lyot.) CAIVIEB&. [See Ctjria Roma'na.] CAMERIiENGO. [See CUBIA ROMAXA.] CAircEXiiZ. [See Chancel.] CA.N'DX.EMAS. [See PURIFICA- TION OF THE Blessed Virgin.] CAlfDl.ES and X.XGHTS. St Luke, in Acts XX. 7, mentions the " great number of lamps" which burnt in "the upper chamber," while St. Paul "conti- nued his speech until midnight." The fact that Chi'istian assemblies during the times of persecution were held Ijefore dawn made a similar employment of lights necessary, but we may well believe that (he Clirist ian-. familiar as they were Willi ili,-vinlHii;.Mhn..niilugofthecandle- stick in the tabi'iiiaclc and temple, also attached a symbolical significance to the lights which they bui-ned during the holy mysteries. This conjecture is con- finned by the fact that the Church of the fourth century still continued the reli- gious use of lights when they were no longer needed to dispel the darkness. "Throughout the churches of the East," says Jerome, writing, against Vigilantius, " lights are kindled when the gospel is to be read, although the sun is shining : not, CANON CANON 111 Indeed, to drive away the darkness but as a sign of spiritual joy." So Pauliiuis of Nola speaks of "altars crowned with a forest of lights," and similar language might be quoted from Prudentius. The use of lights at Mass is mentioned in all the Oriental liturgies. With regard to the West, a very ancient African canon makes mention of the candle handed to the acolyte at his ordination ; ' while the niedi;Bval author of the " Micrologus " says : " According to the Roman order we never celebrate Mass without lights .... using them as a type of that light .... without which even in mid-day we grope as in the night." Nor was the use of lights confined to Mass. St. Gregory Nazianzen speaks of the lights borne by the neophytes at baptism, "emblems," he says, "of those lamps of faith with which radiant souls shall hasten forth to meet the bridegroom ; " and our custom of carrying lights at funerals can be traced back to the fourth century. The present custom of the Church re- quires that candles should be lighted on the altar from the beginning to the end of Mass, nor can lighted candles be dis- pensed with on any consideration. A parish priest, for instance, must not say Mass for his flock, even on a Sunilay, un- less candles can be procured. Tlie can- dles must be of pure wax and of white colour, except in Masses for the dead, when the S. Cong. Rit. prescribes candles "de communi cera" — i.e. of yellow wax. Two, and not more than two, may be 1 ighted at a priest's low Mass, unless the Mass be said for the parish, or for a convent, or on one of the greater solemnities, when four candles may be used.^ Six candles are lighted at High Mass, seven at the Mass of a Bishop. Twelve candles at least should be lighted at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, or six if Benediction is given with the pyx.' Candles must also be lighted when Communion is given, whether in the church or in private houses ; and one lighted candle is required in the administration of Extreme Unction. (See Rock, " Ilierurgia," On the Use of Liffhfs.) CAnroxr (member of a chapter). The clergy of every large cluiich in ancient times were termed ranoyuct, as Ijeing entered on the list (for this is one of the meanings of K(ivi>v) ol' ecckviastics serv- 1 Hefele, CnncU. ii. 70. ' " Plus quani duo," aceordinf? to a decree of the S. Cong. ; Matmah. n. 377. ^ See the note in Munuale Decret. to n. 27.'5.5. ing the church. A more definite meaning was attached to the word in consequence of the labours of Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in the eighth century, to revive a stricter discipline among his clergy, and give scope for the exhibition among them of shining examples of virtuous living. He formed the clergy of his cathedral into a commimity, bound by a rule {Knvwv in the common sense, under which they lived in common, on the proceeds of an undivided property, and recited the divine office in choir with the same regularity as monks. Many other cathedrals and large churches, thence named collegiate, orga- nised themselves in the same way. In the course of ages, the obligation of living in common was abandoned, and the common property was divided into portions or prebends [Prebeitd], one for each canon; yet still the clergy of each cathedral formed a united body [see Chapter] which the Council of Trent calls an " ecclesias- tical senate," ' declaring that those who were called to fill places in it ought — inas- much as cathedral dignities were origin- ally instituted in order to preserve and increase discipline, supply society with examples of pious life, and assist the bishops — to be chosen with extreme care and circumspection. In some cathedrals the community life instituted by Chrode- gang was retained, and other separate institutions similarly ordered arose [see Atjgtjstiu-ian Canons ; Pkemonstra- TENSiANs]. The secular canons, with whom we are at present concerned, having the administration of large properties, and holding in cathedrals, relatively to bishops, a position which might be one of willing subordination, yet might easily become one of antagonism, form the sub- ject of numerous chapters of the canon law. A canonry is defined as a spiritual right — arising out of election or recep- tion into the chapter — first, to a stall in choir and a voice in chapter ; next, to a prebend or competent portion of the chapter revenues, on the earliest possible opportunity. Till the acquisition of a ])rebend, the holder of a canonry is a minor canon (cano/iici/s minor) ; after it, a major or full canon. The Council of Trent (loc. cit.'^ ordered that no one should be appomted to a canonry with cure of souls attached, under twenty- four years of age. When there is no cure of souls, a person may receive a canonry in a collegiate churcli at as low an age as fourteen ; in a cathedral where > Se-os. xxiv. De Reform, c. 12. 112 CAXON LAW CANON LAW the prebends are distributed among canons with difierent orders, the recipient of a subdiaconal canonrv must be twenty-one ; of a diaconal, twenty-two; of a sacer- dotal, twenty-four years of age. In a cathedral where the canonries are not distributed, he must be at least twenty-two. The Council ordered that all cathedral canons should possess a grade of orders not lower than the subdiaconate, and recommended that at least half of them should be in priest's orders ; it also obliged them to reside not less than nine months in the year. With regard to their duties, it says: — "Let all be bound to attend the divine offices in per- son and not by substitutes, and to assist and serve the bishop when celebrating Mass, or pontificating in any other man- ner, and to praise the name of God reve- renth', distinctly, and devoutly in hymns and canticles in the choir appointed for psalmody." Chapters were established in England at the restoration of the Hierarchy (1850) ; but, as there are no revenues attached to them, the canons are exempt from residence and attendance at the divine offices in the cathedral. They are bound, however, to be present once a month. CANON IiAW. From the earliest timt>s the determinations of the Church received tlie name of Canons — that is, rules directory in matters of faith and conduct. Thus we read of the Apostolic Canons, the Canons of the Council of Nice, or of Chalcedon, &c. A tendency afterwards appeared to restrict the term Canon to matters of discipline, and to give the name of dogma to decisions bearing on faith. But the Council of Trent confirmed the ancient use of the word, calling its deter- minations "canons," whether they bore on ],oints of belief or were directed to the reformation of discipline. Canon Law is the assemblage of rules or laws relating to faith, morals, and discipline, prescribed or propounded to Christians by ecclesiastical authority. The words " or laws " are added to the definition, lest it be thought that these rules are only matters of publication and persuasion, and not l)inding laws, Uable to be enforced by penalties. The defini- tion shows that the ohject of canon law is " faith, morals, and discipliiu! ; " and nothing but these is its object. "To Christians " — that is, baptised persons are the subject of canon law ; and that without reference to the question whether they are or are not obedient to the Churcb and within her pale. For theologian* teach that the character imprinted by baptism on the soul is ineffiiceable ; and in virtue of this character the baptised are Christ's soldiers, and subiect of right tO' those whom He appointed to rule in His fold. The unbaptised (Turks, Pagans, &c.), speaking generally, are not the sul> ji'cts (if canon law. Yet it must not be supposed that the Church has no rights and no duties in refzard to such persons ; by the commission of Christ she has the- right of visitmg, teaching, and then bap- tising them (" euntes docete omnes gentes, baptizaudo," &c.). "Propounded" — for some of these rules belong to the natural or to the divine law, and as such are not originally imposed by the Church, but proposed and explained by her. " By^ ecclesiastical authority" — hence canon, law is distinguished from systems of law imposed by the civil authority of States,, as being prescribed by the power with which Jesus Christ endowed the Church which He founded ("qui vos audit, me audit ; ]i;i>re ovcs lii-as," &C.). IhI'.uv |)rMir,il to give a brief sketch 111' tlie lii-l.iry of Canon law, to notice its jiarts, ascertain its sources, and describe its principal collections, a pre- liminary 'ilijeetion, striking at the root of its auth(u-it y, and aliiio^t at its existence, must be e\aniiiied. It is, that the con- sent of the civil po«-er in any country is necessary to give validity to the deter- minations of the canon law in that country. This is the doctrine of the "placitum regium," os "royal assent;" it implies, whatever may be the form of the government, that State authorisation is necessary before it can become the duty of a Christian to obey the ecclesiastical authority. On this Cardinal Soglia writes as follows :— " If we inquire into- the origin of the ' placitum,' we shall find it in the terrible and prolonged schism which lasted from the election of Urban VI. to the Council of Constance. For Urban, lest the schism should give occasion to an improper use of Papal authority, granted to certain prelates that there should be no execution of any apostolic letters in their cities and dio- ceses, unless su(di letters \\ . ic lir>t -liown to and approved by those prelates, or their officials. The rulers of European States also began carefully to examine all bulls and constitutions, in order that their subjects might not be deceived by pseudo- pontiifs. But these measures, it is evi- CAKON LAW CANON LAW 113 dent, were of a precautionary and tem- porary character. However, when the cause ceased, the effect did not also cease ; on the extinction of the schism, the Placitum did not disapi)ear, but was re- tained by the civil power in many coun- tries, and gradually extended. At first, says Oliva, the Phicitum was applied to PH})al rescripts of grace and justice given to individuals ; afterwards it was ex- tended to decrees of discipline, and in the end even to dogmatic bulls." The Cardi- nal explains in what sense the celebrated canonist Van Espen, who was prone un- duly to magnify the civil power, under- stood the application of the Placitum to dogmatic rescripts, and proceeds: — "It is evident that this theory " (of possible danger or inconvenience to the State if Papal bulls were published without re- straint) "arose out of the suggestions of statesmen and politicians, who, as Zall- wein says, out of a wish to flatter and please the princes whom they serve, and to enlarge their own and their masters' jurisdiction, as well as out of the hatred of the ecclesiastical power by which they are often animated, invent all kinds of dangers, harms, and losses, by which they pretend the public welfare is threatened, and artfully bring these views under the notice of tlieir masters. . . . ' If,' pro- ceeds the same Zallwein, 'the ecclesiasti- cal sovereigns whom Christ hath set to rule over the Church of God, were to urge their " placitum " also, whenever political edicts are issued which, as often happens, are prejudicial to the eccle- siastical state, hostile to ecclesiastical liberties, opposed to the jurisdiction of the Pontiff and bishops, and aggressive against the very holy of holies, what ^\•ould the civil rulers say ? ' Following u]) the argiiment, Govart says, ' If a prince could not be said to have full power and j\irisdiction in temporals, were his edicts to depend on the "placitum" of the Pope and bishops, and could their publication be hindered by others ; so neither would the Pope have full power in spirituals, if his constitutions depended on the " placitum " of princes, and could be suppressed by them. "Wherefore, if, in the former case, whoever should maintain the affirmative might justly be said to in)]iugn the authority of the prince, so aiid n fortiori in the second case must the supporter of such an opinion be said to undermine with sinister intention the Papal authority, or rather to destroy it altogether.' The sum of the argument is, that ' by the " placitum regium " the liberty of the ecclesiastical "magisterium" and government divinely entrusted to the Church is seriously impaired, the inde- pendence of the divinely appointed pri- macy destroyed, and the mutual inter- course between the head and the memliers intercepted. Therefore, if the Church, to guard against still greater evils, endures and puts up with the "placitum," slie never consents to or approves nf it.' " From the point of view of the interest of the laity, and the Christian people generally, it is obvious that the lovers of true liberty must disapprove of the "placi- tum." It is impossible that the Church, or the Roman Pontifi as the mouth-piece of the Church, should issue any decree or have any interest inimical to the welfare of the general Christian pdpulation in any State. Any obstacles, therefore, which governments may interpose to the free publication and execution of ecclesi- astical rescripts cannot arise from solici- tude for the public welfare. AMience, then, do they arise, or have they arisen ? Evidently from the arbitrarv" temper of ! kings, the jealousies of nobles, and the desire of "bureaucrats to extend their j power. These two latter classes, at least ! all but the noblest individuals among them, are usually predisposed to hamper the action of the Church and the clergy, lest their own social influence sliould be diminished relatively to that of the latter. This is no interest which deserves to en- I gage popular sympathies, but rather the ' contrary. Hit'torical. — Jurisdiction is implied in the terms of the commission of bind- ing and loosing which Christ gave to ! the Apostles, and e.specially to Peter. While Christians were few and apostles and others who had "seen the Lord" were still alive, the apostolic authority coiild be exercised with little help from written documents or rigid rules. As these early conditions passed away, the necessity of a system of law, in order to ensureuniformity, equity, and perspicuity in the exercise of the Church s jurisdic- tion, could not but become increasingly , manifest. After the Apostles had passed away, having devolved upon the bishops all of their authority which was not limited to them in their apostolic charac- ter, each bishop became a centre of juris- , diction. In deciding any cases that might 1 be brought before him, he had three I things to guide him — Scripture, tradition, [ and the " holy canons " — that is, the dis- I 114 CANON LAW CANON LAW cii)linarj' rules -wLicli CLuxch synods, Iji'Lj iiining- with the Council of Jerusalem, had established. Many of these primitive canmis are still preserved for us in the collect ion known as the Apostolical ■Canons [see that article], although, taken as a whole, they are of no authority. Till Christianity conquered the imperial throne, questions of jurisdiction and law did not come into prominence; after Constantine the case was very different. The Council of Nice, besides its dogmatic utti iiiiires, framed a quantity of canons fur I he regulation of Church discipline, which, ahing with those of Sardica, were soon translated into I^atin, and widi ly circulated in the West. An important step towards codification and uniformit}' of procedure was taken at the end of the fifth or early in the sixth centurj', when Dionysius Exiguus, under the direction of Popes Anastasius and Symmachus, made a lai'ge compilation of canons for the use of the Latin Church. In this he included fifty of the Apostolic canons, translated from the Greek, considering the rest to be of doubtful authority; the canons of Chalcedon, with those of which 1 hat council had made use ; the canons of 8Mrdica,and a large num])er promulgated Ijy African cnuncils; lastly, the decretal letters of the Popes from Siricius to Ana- stasius II. The next collection is that supi)osed to have been made by St. Isidore of Seville, early in the seventh century. About A.D. 850, a collection of canons and tlecretals appeared, seemingly at Mayence, which were ostensibly the compilation of Isidore of Seville. In an age of great ignorance, when criticism was neither in favour nor provided with means, it is not wonihnlul that this collection, which invested with the spurious authority of recorded decisions a system of things existing traditionally, indeed, but liable to constant opposition, passed speedily into general recognition and acceptance. Six centuries passed before it was dis- covered that these pseudo-Isidorian or ]*'!ilsi> Decretals, as they are now called, wei'' to a ^reat extent aforgery. [False l)i,i i:m \ I s. Nevertheless, as Cardinal Sou i ill I ' lii.irlvs, the collection contains in it iioilung contrary to faith or sound morals ; otherwise its long reception would have been impossible ; nor does the disci])line which it enjoins depend for its aiithority upon this collection, but either upon constitutions of earlier and later date, or upon custom, " quEB in rebus disciplinaribus multum valet. ' I Many collections of canons were made and used in national churches between I the date of Dionysius Exiguus and that of the author of the " Decretum." In Africa tliere was the Codex Africanus (547) and the " Concordantia Canonum " of Bishop Cresconius (697) ; in Spain the chapters of Martin, bishop of Braga (572), besides the work of Isidore of Seville already mentioned; in France, a Codex Canonum, besides the capitularies of the Merovingian and Carlovingian kings. [Capitulary.] Passing over these, we come to the cele- brated compilation by Gratian, a Bene- dictine monk (1151), which the compiler, who-e main purpose was to reconcile the inconsistencies among canons of different age and authorship bearing on the same subject, entitled " Concordantia discor- dantium Canonum," but which is generally known as the " Decretum of Gratian." Having brought our historical sketch to the point where ecclesiastical law, no longer perplexed by the multiplicity of canons of various date and place and more or less limited application, begins to provide herself with a general code — a " corpus juris " — applicable to the whole Catholic world, we drop the historical method and turn to the remaining heads of the inquiry. Canon law consists of precepts of different kinds. Hence it is divided into four ^(7 precepts of the natural law, positive divine precepts, directions left by the Apostles, and ecclesiastical consti- tutions. Upon each of these Cardinal Soglia discourses solidly and lucidly in the second chapter of his Prolegomena. With regard to the sources whence these precepts flow, they might, strictly speaking, be reduced to three — God, who impresses the natural law upon the con- science, and reveals the truths which men are to believe ; the Apostles ; and the Supreme Pontiffs, either alone or in conjunction with the bishops in general councils. Canonists, however, find it more convenient to define the sources of canon law in the following manner: 1. Holy Scripture; 2. Ecclesiastical tra- dition; 3. The decrees of cotmcils; 4. Papal constitutions and rescripts ; 5. The writings of the Fathers ; 6. The civil law. On this last head Soglia remarks that "many things relating to the ex- ternal polity of the Church have been borrowed from the imperial enactments of Rome, and incorporated in the canon law." The Collections oi canon law, consider- CANON LAW CANON OF THE MASS 115 ing it as a system in present force and obligation, commence with the " Decre- tum of Gratian " already mentioned. This great work is divided into three parts. The first part, in 101 "Distinctions," treats of ecclesiastical law, its origin, principles, and authority, and then of the diflFerent ranks and duties of the clergy. The second part, in thirty-six " Causes," treats of ecclesiastical coui-ts, and their forms of procedure. The third part, usually called " De Consecratione," treats of thiugs and rites employed in the service of religion. From its lirst appearance the Decretum obtained a wide popularity, but it was soon discovered that it contained numer- ous errors, which were corrected under the directions of successive Popes down to Gregory XIII. Nor, although every subsquent generation has resorted to its pages, is the Decretum an authority to this day — that is, whatever canons or maxims of law are found in it possess only that degree of legality which they would possess if they existed separately ; their being in the Decretum gives them no binding force. In the century after Gratian several supplementarj- collections of Decretals appeared. These, with many of his own, were collected by the orders of Gregory IX. — who employed in the work the extraordinary learning and acumen of St. Raymond of Pennafort — into five books, known as the Decretals of Gregory IX. These are in the fullest sense authoritative, having been delibe- rately ratified and published by that Pope (1234). The Sext, or sixth book of the Decretals, was added by Boniface VIII. (1289). The Clementines are named after Clement V., who compiled them out of the canons of the Council of Vienne (1316) and some of his own constitutions. The Extravagantes of John XXII., who succeeded Clement V., and the JE.i ti-ava- ffantes Communes, containing the Decre- tals of twenty-five Popes ending with Sixtus IV. (1484), complete the list. Of these five collections — namely, the De- cretals, the Sext, the Clementines, the Extravagants of John XXII., and the Extravagants Common — the " Corpus Juris Ecclesiastici " is made up. To these a very important addition has to be made in "Jus novissimimi" — modem law. Under this head are com- prised the canons of general councils since that of Vienne, contained in great compilations such as those of Labbe and Harduin, and the Decretal Letters of Popes, published in the form of Bullaria, and coming down (in the case of the great Turin Bvllarium of 1857) to the ponti- ficate of Pius IX. The det■i^i of the Bible. On the other hand, the Sioteli Presbyterians in their Confession nf Faitli ])lace the deutero- canonical book~ oil a le\el with any other human writings, and since 1825 there have been in Germany and elsewhere fierce discussions, whether or no the " Apocrypha " should still be bound up with the Bible (or, as a Catholic would say, with the rest of the Bible). The question, however, is no longer so impor- tant to Protestants as it used to be. The denial of all supernatural inspiration has become common among their theo- logians, so that for this large and influ- ential section of Protestants, discussion about the list of inspired books is alto- gether idle or can have at most only an historical value. II. Canon of the New Testament. — Like the Old, the New Testament contains a certain number of deutero-canonical books, though the fact for long received comparatively very little attention in, modem times, because the Protestant confessional standards, while they reject the deutero-canonical books of the Old 1 Hefele, Concil. vii. p. 796. 120 CANON OF THE SCRIPTURE CANON OF THE SCRIPTURE Testament, incoiisisteiitlv enough accept those of the New. The I'mineil (.)f Trent gives the folknving hst of New 'rcstniiicnt books (those which are ili'iiteiM-cimnnu ul are printed in itahcs): — four Go>iirl>, i lie Acts, the Epistk's of St. Paul (viz. to the Romans, two to the Corinthians, to the Gahitians, to the Ephesians, to the Philip- pians, to the Colossians, two to Timothy, to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews), first and second Epistles of St. Peter, first, second, and third Epistles of St. John, the E2)i^tle of St. James, the Epistle of St. Jude. the Apiicalypse of St John. AVith regard to all these books, except such as are deutero-canonical, there is no reason to believe that their authority was ever doubted in the Church, although the distinct reference to New Testament Scriptures becomes much marked and frequent in Christian writers only after the immediate disciples of the Apostles had passed awaj- and the need of written records became more urgent. Still, from very early times we obtain testimonies to the existence of Scriptures besides those which the Christian inherited from the Jewish Church. Thus St. Peter classes St. Paul's letters with "the rest of the Scriptures," and the epistle which is as- cribed to St. Barnabas, and which belongs to a very early period, uuikes a quotation from St. Matthew, with the formula " it is written." About the middle of the second century Justin Martp- tells us that " Memoirs " written " by the Apostles and by those who followed them" were read in the religious assemblies of the Christians. The description which Justin gives of his "Memoirs" answers exactly to our four Gospels, and he mentions the Apocalypse by name. Shortly after Justin's time (about 180), the famous Muratorian Canon ofi'ers the earliest formal list of New- Testament books. This precious relic exists only in a mutilated form and in a text which is often so corrupt that it is difiicult to divine its meaning. Accord- ing to Dr. Westcott, the Muratorian Canon contained all the New Testament books at present received, except "the Epistle of James, the Epistle to the He- brews, and 2 Peter, while it notices the partial reception of the [spimous] Apo- calypse of Peter," and his words express the general opinion of scholars except that many with very strong reasons add 1 Peter aiso to the list of omitted books.' The Peshito or Syriac translation, which fcelongs to the third century, omits Jude, 1 Hilgenfeld, Kanon des y. T. p. 43. I 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and the Apocu- I lypse. Eusebius sums up the opinions which ](revailed in the Ante-Nicene age as follows: he divides the books of the New Testament into such as are "ac- knowledged " (o^oXoyovfif I'o), viz. the four Gospels, Acts, &c., and those which were " disputed" (dvTiXcyotieva) embracing the deutero-canonical books. He him- self was evidently accustomed to see the ' Epistle to the Hebrews treat(-ilas cauon- ' ical, but, he says, "Som:' h-.m- (l.'nifd its authority, asserting that it i- ili-puinl Ijy the Roman Church as not ^.•lll^ t li.^ Ajio- stle's work." Unally, it is clear froiii Hn>e- bius that there were certain uninspired and unapostolic books which he himself jiro- nounces spurious, but which were not yet clearly separated from those in the canon.' From the middle of the fourth century the canon of the New T.'st.iment gradu- ally became mon' -(ttl.'d. True, the Syrian church still clunu to the canon of the Peshito, but in the Church at large the whole of the New Testament was received. Two books, however, were still ' regarded with partial suspicion. In the East, the Council of Laodicea, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory Nazian/.en, de finitely exclude or pass over in silence the Apo- calypse of St. John ; Amphilochius and Epiphanius mention the doubts enter- tained with regard to it. In the AVest, although the Council of Carthag" in 31)7 and Pope Innocent ratified the full list of New Testament books, still even to a late period doubts existed in some parts of the Church as to the Epistle to the Hebrews. Even St. Isidore of Seville, writing early in the seventh century, says that most Latins were uncertain whether it was St. Paul's, "because of the dis- crepancy in the style." ^ All doubts as to the canonical books of the New Testament were finally set at rest for Catholics by the Councils of Florence and Trent. Protestants, on the contrary, on their revolt from the Church, were utterly unable to find any i-ational principle on which they could determine the list of New Testament books. Luther 1 The statement in the text is suhstantinlly truP. but(l) the disputed books are snbilivi.lpd "generally known" and "spurious;" (2) the I Apocalypse is placed accordiuf; to one opiiiiou 1 given, "among the "acknowledged," acconliiifr to another among the " spurious." Euseb. H. /.\ iii. 25. 2 Apud Credner. p. 293. In the mi Idl." ages the spurious Epistle to the Laodiceans I found wide acceptance, especially in the Frauk- 1 ish and English churches (Credner, p. 299). CANON OF THE SCKIPTURE CANON OF THE SCllIITURE 121 accepted or rejected New Testament books, according as he found or did not find the "Gospel" in them. He called the Epistle of St. James " a letter of straw," which " attributes righteousness to works, dead against St. Paul." It was reason enough, he said, for him not to think highly of the Apocalypse "that Christ therein is neitlier taught nor ac- knowledged, although this above all was an Apostle's business " ! ^ He partly liked the Epistle to the Hebrews, because it enforced belief in the priesthood of Ciirist ; partly disliked it, because of the doctrine contained in capp. 6 and 10.'- This breach with tradition on the Scrip- tures of the New Testament as well as on the doctrine was healed for a time among Prote.stants, and for a long time the entire canon of the New Testament was generally accepted amongst them, al- though the Westminster Confession of 1 648 contains the only list of New Testa- ment writings drawn up by any of the older Protestant authorities. Of modern Protestant critics little need be said. The remarks made above on their treat- ment of the Old fully apply to their treatment of the New Testament. This method is widely different from that of Luther, but it is not without reason that they claim to inherit his spirit. III. The Principles on which the Canon of Scripture rests. — Catholics, be- lieving in the iufalli))le authority of the Church, have full security that the books of the Catholic Bible are all true and in- spired Scripture. Before the Scripture was written, or, again, the canon of Scripture was fixed, the faithful were guided by the infallible teaching of their pastors, and from this same teaching they receive with perfect confidence the written word of God in all its books and in all its parts. There are two other principles put forward as suflicient to determine the canon of Scripture — both of them, as may be briefly shewn, utterly inadequate. According to a theory once popular among Protestants, Scripture attests itself by a " self-evidencing light." In other words, a pious person who peruses the Bible knows by the effect produced upon his conscience and feeling that the book he reads is the inspired word of God. This theory is abundantly refuted by the most obvious facts of history. The Fathers of the Church were not at one as to the » Hilgenfeld, p. 91. » Ibid, p. 93. canon, yet in charity we may believe that they read the books of the New Testament with pious feelings. Nay, the Reformers who are said to have restored ''the Gospel" were not at one with regard to the books which make up the the New Testament. Besides, from the nature of the case, the moral good which we get or think we can get from a book cannot possibly assure us that it was aU writteu mider the inspi- ration of the Holy Ghost and contains nothing but the truth of God. Indeed, the bare statement of this theory sufiices for its refutation. Another theory, which we may call the literary, bases the authority of the Scriptural books and their title to a place in the canon, on a critical investigation of the internal and external evidence which can be produced in their behalf. This method is pursued by almost every learned Protestant at the present day — by extreme sceptics like Hilgeufeld and Keim, who examine tradition to undermine the auth- enticity of Scripture ; and by sober and patient investigators like Dr. Westcott, who is a devout believer in the authority of Scripture. But to base the canon on critical investigations, however accurate and thorough, involves a misconception of the object for which Scripture was given. Scripture is given to the whole Church : it is meant for the guidance of all the faith- ful, and aU, either directly, by reading it themselves, or indirectly, by hearing por- tions of it read or expounded by their pastors, have tlie right to benefit by its salutary lessons. Indeed, the argument tells yet more strongly against Protestants. If, as they hold. Scripture is the sole rule of faith, and if learning and critical training are needed to ascertain what the Scripture is, then one of two consequences necessa- rily follows. All, except an infinitesimal fraction of mankind must give up the attempt to secure a right rule of foith altogether, or else, instead of the infalli- bility of the Church, they must accept the infallibility of some particular school among learned men. Protestants, when they appeal to Scrip- ture against the Church, forget that it is only from this very Church, and on her authority, that Scripture is received; and we may conclude with the words of a Protestant scholar who has done more than any other to illustrate the history of the canon. Protestants, he says, have built a new Church on the foundation of Scripture, first without understanding;, then without the will to understand, that 122 CANON PENITENTIARY CANONISATION Scripture itself rests on nntliing-but tradi- tion.^ CANOir PENZTENTZART. The Council of Trejit ordered - that in every cathedral church, if possible, a penitenti- ary, with a claim to hold the next vacant prebend should be appointed by the bishop ; he was to be forty years of age, and either a master of arts, or doctor, or a licentiate in theology or canon law. His duty was to hear confessions, and by so doing he was considered to perform his choral duties. CAHOtr, PRZVZXiEGE OF. [See Immunity.] CAUOH THEOX.OGZAIir. The Council of Trent directed^ that in all churches where a prebendal provision was already made for lectures on Theo- logy and Holy Scripture, the bishops I sliould see that the foundation was not defeated of its purpose ; and also that for the future, in all cathedral churches, or even collegiate churches, existing in large towns, and having a numerous body of clergy, a theologian with the above-men- tioned duties should be appointed, and competently provided for out of the chapter funds. The office was usually conferred upon a member of the chapter, whence the name Canon Theologian. In England the theologian must be a canon. CAxroirs of the apostx.es. [See Apostolic Canons.] CAiroXTESS. Chapters of Canonesses are mentioned in the capitularies of Louis le D^bonnaire, which allow them to pos- \ ■sess property, both common and private, ' and only require that they should take the vows of chastity and obedience. In the following centuries these chapters, especially in France and Germany, became very numerous. They were distinguished from nunneries by the permission to the members to hold private property. The duties of the Canonesses were, to teach young girls, work at church embroidery, copy and illuminate service-books, &c. The right of holding property nuturnlly introduced much laxity, and introduced into the order of Canonesses a class of wealthy and titled ladies, who were in- disposed to submit to any severity of dis- cipline. Hence a crisis arrived in the history of these chapters, similar to that which we have described with reference to Canons; and Regular Canonesses, bound by the vow of poverty and observ- ' Credner, Zur Geschichte des Canons. 2 Sess. xxiv. De Reform, cap. 8. ' Sess. V. De Reform, cap. 1. ing a strict rul.> nf life, existed side by side with Srcular Caiioiu'sses, to whom the rha])tcr was little iiii>r.' than an agreeable retreat, enaliliufi ladies wlio did not wish to marry, nr had iiutlived their cliarnis, to live in the society of persons of their own rank, much as tliey would have done in the world. At the Reform- ation, such being the character of these chapters, it caused no surprise that the members of several of them — ladies of princely or noble rank — followed the ex- ample of their male relatives and re- pudiated the Catholic faith. Some of these still exist: at Gandersheim, Her- ford, &c. Wilhelmina, sister of Frederick the Great, "Abbess of Quedlinburg," was the head of one of these Protestant chapters. If any of the Canonesses wish I to marry, she mu.st resign her canonrv. CASTOXrzSATZON-. To pay honour to the dead whom the general voice de- clares to have lived well is an instinct of human nature. Roman citizens brought the images of their distinguished ances- tors into their villas ; under the empire they recognised the far-reaching power and august majesty — sometimes the beneficence — of their rulers by deifying them after death ; in China, the worship of ancestors is to this day the most living portion of the popular religion; among ourselves, the number of monuments in our public places everywhere, though in many cases rather attesting the vanity of the living than the merits of the dead, i prove the universality of the impulse. A ' modern writerof note ' has said that every- thing depends on how a people " does its Hero-worship." The Church, divinely founded and divinely guided as she is, so far recognises this view that she en- courages us to distinguish with singular honour certain of her children who have gone before us in the Christian warfare, bids us reserve this honour for those whose virtue reached the " heroic " level, and, that we may not be deceived, establishes a care- ful and deliberate process whereby to test the truth of facts and probe the moral significance of actions. Her judgments and her processes need not fear a com- pai'ison with those of public opinion. The State, which modern irrreligion invites us to regard as a moral agency the fiat of which is not to be appealed against, has also modes of conferring honour, and does not wait for their death before it rewards its servants. It has peerages, baronetcies, orders, stars, money, and offices. If w& 1 Mr. Carlyle. CANONISATION CANONISATION 123 examine on -w-Liit grounds tlie.se distinc- tions are dispensed, we find that it is for rare intellectual ability — usuallyattended by the gift of expression — for the capacity of amassing money, for courage with direction, and for simple courage ; a cer- tain degree of patriotic devotion being supposed to be present in each case. In this way, and on these grounds, the modem State honours its heroes. To the Church, the more or less of ability pos- sessed by those whom she recommends for our veneration is a matter of no con- cern. She is as willing to raise a St. Isidore, the gardener of Madrid, to the ranks of the lilessed, as an Augustine of i Ilijipo or a Thomas Aquinas. The proof of eminent virtue is all that she demands, and as a conclusive and compendious test i of the presence of this high order of vir- tue, she requires the authentication of miracles wrought by, or through the ' intercession of, the person whose vir- j tues are under debate. Such are, in her estimate, the only sound bases of a j popular cultus, and when these condi- tions have been complied with, such a cultus has been never known to be dis- credited. The possession of virtue rising to the heroic level, and the illustration of that virtue by miracles, are matters of fact, which must of course be established by testimony. The witnesses, in most cases, can be no other than the countrymen and countrywomen of the reputed saint, for only they can have seen his life from so near at hand as to be competent to speak with certitude respecting it. In the early times, individual bishops, and afterwards metropolitans, acting upon this local testimony, and sifting it m the best way they could, declared the blessedness of certain persons, and proposed their me- mories for the veneration of the faithful. But it is notorious that local testimony is rarely free from bias, that national and provincial sympathies, or even antipathies, are apt to disturb the judgment, and that for this reason the universal Church could not safely endorse without inquiry even the unanimous judgment of his own countrymen on the virtues of a reputed saint. Earl Waltheof, put to death by "William the Conqueror, was regarded by the English as a martyr, and miracles were said to be worked at his tomb; the same thing liii]i])iMied in the case of Simon de Montfort ; but it may reasonably be doubted whether antipathy to the Nor- man and the foreigner was not a sub- stantial factor in these reputations for sanctity. Considerations of this kind prevailed, many centuries ago, to cause the inquiry into reputed sanctity to be reserved to the central autlidritv in tlie Cliurch, the Holy See, and t<> n.c('.nnn.'n Venerable Bede is a canonised saint. The lessons from his writings which are read in tlie breviary are, however, always headed " De Sermone Venerai/ilis BedfB." ic. This peculi- arity is said to have arisen from the fact that his homilies were read in the office during his lifetime ; and as he could not then be styled " Saint," the title " Venerable " was used." I ance, with all that these suppose and in- volve ; nor is it enough to show that these have been practised to thisdegreeofperfec- I tion under certain circumstances : numer- ous acts, a permanent and habitual prac- I tice, principally of charity, are required ; j and, with regard to the cardinal virtues, I the habit of that virtue which was the j proper and distinguishing excellence of I the person's calling. Thus justice and j temperance are required in statesmen and prelates ; in Popes, zeal for the defence and propagation of the Catholic faith ; in kings, loyal attachment to the Church and the Holy See ; in married women, gentleness and devotion ; " &c.' The first step of the process is a formal inquiry instituted by the bishop of the diocese as to the fact of the reputation of the person whose beatification is de- manded for virtue and miraculous power. This being accomplished, either the same bishop or a Roman oflicial inquires into the fact of non-cultus — that is, whether the bull of Urban VIIL (supposing the case not to be included among the excep- tions therein specified) has been hitherto scrupulously complied with. Thirdly, the acts or minutes resulting from these two inquiries are sent to Rome, to the secretary of the Congregation of Rites. [Congregations, Roman.] Before this body the process is now opened, at the request of the postulators, or supporters of the beatification. The fifth step is the nomination of a promotoi- fidei (called in popular language the " devil's advocate"), whose duty it is to point out any flaws or weak points in the evidence adduced, and raise all kinds of objections. Sixthly, the Congregation examines, if the person were an author, all the works, printed or in manuscript, which were ascertained to be of his composition, and draws up a formal report on them. If this be favour- able, the seventh stage is reached, that of the introduction of the Apostolic process ; for Rome, so to speak, now makes the cause its own, and gives a commission to the Congregation of Rites to try it, in- vestigating, not only the notoriety, but the reality and nature of the virtues and miracles ascribed to the beat ificnndu^. This commission, without a special Papal dispensation, is never issued till at least ten years have passed since the first trans- mission of the acts to the Secretary of the Congregation. The holy person may now be styled " Venerable." The next step is the a]>pointment by the Congrega- De M(iy, in Wetzer and Welte. a'^0>'ISAT10N CANONISATION 126 tion, under vrhat are called littera re- I musionales, of a delegation of three bishops, or other high fuiictlonarie!:, to deal with the case systematically, and examine witnesses in respect of the re- puted virtues and miracles. The acts of this delegation, which are often extremely voluminous, are, as the ninth stage, sent to the Congregation, by which they are examined, and arguments heard, pro and contra, from the postulators and the pro- moturfidci. If the result is favourable to the beatificandm, a second and still : more searching inquiry into the real and inmost nature of all that has been deposed respecting him is committed to a new de- legation: this is the tenth stage. The process, being returned to the Congrega- tion, is finally considered by them, both as to its form and as to its substance ; and the virtues and miracles are separately the subject of debate in three successive assemblies or congregations, at the last of which the Pope himself is present. After having sought to know the will of God by prayer, the Pope makes known his judgment to the secretary of the Congre- gation. A new general congregation is then held, at which it is considered I whether the beatification may be pro- ! ceeded with without further delay ; if ; the decision be favourable, the Pope ap- \ points a day for the ceremony, and orders , a brief, setting forth the Apostolic sen- | tence, to be prepared. The final stage of this long process, the beatification itself ; takes place in the Vatican church ; it in- eludes the public reading of the brief, the ! chanting of the Te Ueum, the unveiling of the image or picture of the newly- beatified on the altar, the incensing of the image, the reading of the new collect, &c. By an "equipollent beatification" is meant the Papal authorisation of the public cultus of a confessor or martyr, founded on the proof of one or more of the exceptional conditions stated in the bull of T-rbnn VIII. Canoiiimtion. — Before proceeding to canonisation, it must be proved that at least two miracles have been wrought through the intercession of the " Blessed" ptTson since the beatification. This proof is attended with the same formalities, and surrounded by the same rigorous conditions, as in the case of the miracles proved before beatification. After it has been established, the three congregations (of which the last is public and in the presence of the Pope), which were re- quisite before beatification, are again con- vened; and upon the direction of the Pope, after the last congregation, the promoter of the faith and the secretary of the Congregation of Rites agree to a form of decree, declaring that no doubt exists relative to the miracles in ques- tion, and that there is no reason wliy the canonisation should not be proceeded with. This then takes place, usually in St. Peter's. After various ceremonies, the postulator of the cause (who is usually a person of high rank or distinc- tion in the country or order to which the saint belonged) asks twice that the name of the servant of God whose cause he pleads may be enrolled in the catalogue of the Saints ; the Pope replies each time that it is best to explore the will of God still further by prayer ; litanies and the " Veni Creator " are chanted ; at the third request the Pope declares and or- dains, "in honour of the Holy Trinity, for the glory of the Catholic faith and the progi-ess of the Christian religion, in virtue of the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and of his own plenary and proper authority," that the servant of God in question shall be inscribed on the register of the Saints (" Canon Sanctorum "), and that his (or her) memory shall be cele- brated on a given day, in every part of the Church. A solemn Mass, in which the Pope himself, unless disqualified by illness or old age, officiates, is then cele- brated, in honour of the new Saint. The actual procedure will be more clearly uuderstood if we describe and partly translate some Papal Bull of Canonisation ; and, for this purpose, we will take the Bull of Alexander VII. concerning St. Francis de Sales, dated April 19, KiGo. Al^er a brief sketch of his life, a specification of seven miracles proved to the satisfaction of the Congre- gation of Kites, a reference to his beati- fication in 1661, and a mention of the princes and others (including Henrietta Maria, Queen of England) by whom the cause had been zealously promoted, the bull proceeds : — "At length, deeming it to be just and due that we should give glory, praise, and honour on earth to those whom God honours in heaven, we, with the cardinals of the holy Roman Church, the patriarchs, archbishops and bishops, our beloved sons the prelates of the Roman Curia, our ofll- cials and ,-uite, tlie secular and regular clergy, and an immense multitude of people, have this day met together in the 12G CANT ATE SUNDAY CAPITAL PUNISHMENT holy Vatican basilica; and after three petitions for the decree of canonisation, prt'seiited to us on the part of the Most Christ ian King by our beloved son, the ilhistrious Charles, Duke of Cr^quy, anil)assador from the said king; after sat-red hymns, litanies, and other prayers, duly imploring the grace of the Holy Spirit :— " In honour of the most holy and un- divided Trinity, for the exaltation of the Catholic faith and the increase of the Christian religion, by the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ, the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul, and ourselves, after mature deliberation, and having many times implored the divine aid, by the counsel of our venerable brothers, the cardinals of the holy Roman Church, and of the patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops met together in the city, we have decided and defined the Blessed Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva, to be a Saint, and have inscribed him on the catalogue of the Saints, as, by the tenor of these presents, we do decide, define, and in- scribe him ; appointing that his memory shall be cherished and honoured with pious devotion by the universal Church, as a holy confessor and bishop, on the 29th day of January in each year. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." A grant of indulgences on the usual con- ditions to those who shall visit the Saint's tomb on his festival, follows : a plenary indulgence to all present at tln' canonisation is announced ; and then the bull proceeds : — " We therefore bless God, who is wonderful in his saints, be- cause we have received mercy in the midst of his temple, in that He hath granted to us in the Church a new pat- ron and intercessor with His divine Majesty, for the greater tranquillity of the same Church, the spread of the Catholic faith, and the enlightenment and conversion of heretics and all who wander from the ])ath of salvation." After clauses relating to the ])ublication of the bull, and forljiddiiig any infrac- tion of it, the instruuieut ends with the dati^, and the signatures of the Pope and thirty-eight cardinals. CAXTTATE SUNDAY. A name given to the fourth Sunday after Easter, from the introit of the Mass, which be- gins with the words "Sing to the Lord a new song." The name " Cantate Sunday " often appears during the middle ages as well known, and was used to mark the date, even in ordinary life. The name is probably as old as the twelfth century. CAirTXCX.ES. [See Htmns ] CAWTOR, also called " episcopua chori," " chori regens," was the official in a cathedral or collegiate church who instructed the choristers and younger clerics in music, and directed the singing of the office, &c. In many foundations, the office of cantor was raised to a dignity, in the canonical sense, and had a prebend of considerable vahie attached to it. A cantor thus provided for often appointed sulvcantors (s accentor es), who were se- lected from the choral-vicars, and en- trusted with the teaching of the eccle- siastical chant, while the cantor himself exercised control over the choral-vicars and superintended the performance of the divine offices. [See Precentor.] CAPITA!. PVXrXSHiaEM-T. It is cei"tain from Scripture that the magistrate may lawfully put malefactors to death. Capital punishment was enacted for certain grievous crimes in the old law, and the Christian dispensation made no essential change in this respect, for St. Paul, in Rom. xiii. 4, expressly says that the magistrate " beareth not the sword in vain; for he is a minister of God, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil." The unanimous opinion of theologians is in favour of the lawfulness of capital punishment ; and if the Church has given no formal decision on the matter, this probably is only because the question has never till of late years assumed any great importance. Argentr(5, however, in his "Collectio de Novis Erroribus," i. 86, mentions an en'oneous proposition of the Waldenses, denying the lawfulness of capital punishment. The theologians of that time, a number of whom are quoted by Argentr6, treated the proposition as heretical. St. Thomas defends the lawfulness of capital punishment on the following principle. The State, he argues, is like a body, composed of many members, and as a surgeon may cut oft' one corrupt limb to save the others, so the magistrate may lawfully put a malefactor to death ;ind thus provide for the common good. It is only the magistrate who can inflict the penalty of death, because as the justification of the penalty is the com- mon good, it can be imposed by him alone to whom the care of the common good belongs — viz. by the magistrate. A parent has the power to impose remedial chastisements, but not to kill. CAPITAL SINS CAPITULARY 127 A private person may of course work for the common good, but if the good he would do involves the injury, above all if it involves the death, of another, he has no authority to decide that any member of the State is to be exterminated for the good of the whole. As to outlaws, who may in certain cases be put to death by private persons, the sentence is really passed by the State, the individual who slays them being the mere executioner. The magistrate derives this authority ■from God, and it is conveyed, not only by the positive Inw of God in Scripture, but also by the natural law written on the heart. The number of capital offences must be determined by the good of the community ; so that lawj are rightly m^re severe at one time or in one place than in another. The strange theory of Scotus that the positive law of God forbids homicide, and that therefore a magistrate can only put to death where God Himself has dispensed him from the observance of the law — viz. for murder, adultery, blas- phemy, &c. and the other eases ])i'ovided for in the Pentateuch — is generally re- jected. This opinion errs in taking for granted that the magistrate's authority to slay is conveyed only tliroiifili the positive law, and in assuming that the judicial precepts of the Jewish code are in force among Christians. li" a capital offence has been com- mitted, the prince, even if certahi of the prisoner's guilt, must not comlemn him without fair trial, although here an excep- tion may be made if the guilt is notorinus and great evils would ensue from delay of execution. Time must be allowed the prisoner to prepare for death and receive the sacraments, and this time must be given even if there is danger of his escaping. Finally, the canon law strictly forbids ecclesiastics, even if they lii>ld temporal jurisdiction, to take any jiart in passing or executing sentence of .leath. (St. Thomas, 2 2n(liE, lxiv.: Billuart, " De Justit.'' diss. X.; St. Liguori, "Theol. Moral." lib. iv. tract, iv. cap. 1. dub. 2.) CAPZTA.I. SXKTS (in English called deadly sins), so named because they are the fountain-heads from which all other sins proceed. St. Thomas, filldwing St. Gregory the Great, enumerates seven — viz. vainglory, envy, anger, avarice, sloth (which he calls IrisHtia, "sadness," or distaste for labour in God's service, but which is generally known as acedia), gluttony, lust. Other writers substitute pride for vainglory ; others, again, like Cassian, count both pride and vainglory, and so make eight capital sins. St Thoinas divides them as follows. " Man," lie >.iys, "is led to sin by seeking that which is good inordinately, or by an unreasonable aversion from that which is good, because of incidental evil which is joined, or thought to be joined, with it. Man seeks inordinately the goods of the soul (pride), or of the body (gluttony and lust), or, lastly, external goods (avarice), lie has an unreasonable aversion to bis own good, because of the labour needed to secure it (sloth), or to another's good, because it seems to detract from his own (envy and anger)." (1 2nd;e, Ixx.xiv. 4.) CAPZTVX.ART. A set of crqntula, or chapters, each of which was a special law, like the " chapters " in the annual volume of statutes passed by the British Parliament. The wonl has Ijeen extended to the ecclesiastical canons passed in pro- vincial councils — e.g. to the chapters of Martin of Duma, passed at IJraga in 572 — but it is usually restricted to the legisla- tion of the Prankish kings of the first and second dynasties. These Capitularies have beenpublkshed by Baluze, and more recently by Pertz ; they have been carefully analysed by M. Guizot in his "Hist, de la CiVilis. en France." I. The Capitularies of the Merovingian kings begin with Childebert (554). Com- piled as they were so soon after the conver- sion of the Salian Franks to Christianity, it is needless to say that ecclesiastical in- fluence is apparent in every part of them. Among the more prominent matters of which they treat, are the right of sanc- tuarj-, the observance of the Sunday, the right to grant lands to the Church, &c. II. The Capitularies of Pepin le Bref, the father of Charlemagne, are five in number, but only one of them can be called in the fullest sense a work of legis- lation, as having been framed " in generali populi conventu." They are much occu- pied with clerical discipline and the rt'gu- lation of marriage. III. The Capitularies of Charlemagne, sixty-five in number, conta in 1 , 1 50 separate chapters. Tliev rang(> in date from 709 to 803. They are clas-itied l.y M. Gui/.ot, according to their .-ulijeris, iiilo jmiiiicrd (273), moral (87 ), />?««/( 1 .'iO). vidl (1 10), religious (So), canonical (2!ll), dommfic (73), and viisccUaneous or occasional (12). A large proportion of them can in no sense be called laivs ; so far from it that 128 CAPrA MAGNA CAPUCHINS M. Guizot distinguishes them into docu- ments of twelve different kinds. These twelve classes include new laws (properly j-o called), ancient laws revived, instruc- tions to tiie missi Dotmntci, circulars to the bishops and counts convejnng admonitions or inviting opinions, answers of the emperor to questions put to him, judicial decrees, memoranda, &c. &c. In fact, this un- wieldy collection faithfully represents the imperial system itself, which was a sort of hodge-podge of paternal government, flexible administration, and rigid law; each of these three being so far pressed as the Emperor, under the circumstances of each case, judged to be expedient. IV. The Capitularies of Louis le D^- bonnaire, twenty in ntunber, were added to those of Charlemagne, and the whole collection, digested into seven books, published between 820 and 842, by Anse- aisus. Abbot of Fontenelle, and Benedict of Mayence — the same to whom many writers ascribe the fabrication of the False Decretals. Charles the Bald added tifty-two, and the succeeding Carlovingian kings, down to Charles the Simple inclu- f^ive, some ten or eleven more. After Charles the Simple, the laws of France ceased to be called Capitularies. CAPPA MACITA.. The barbarous word "cappa," said to be derived from capere (quia cnjnf. totum hominem, " be- cause it covers the whole person "), was iiriginally used by ecclesiastical writers to denote the pluviale, or cope, as appears from Durandus and Honorius. The cappa magna is a long vestment, the hood of which is lined with silk or with fur, ac- cording to the season of the year at which it is to be worn. It is used by cardinals, bishops, and, in many churches, also by canons. It seems to have been at first the choir vestment of canons regular. (From Gavant. with Merati's notes.) CAPUCIIIN-S. A reform of the Franciscan order instituted by Matteo di Bassi of Urbino, who, being an Obser- vantine Franciscan at Monte Falco, and having convinced himself tha t the capuc/ie or cowl worn by St. Francis was different in shape from that worn by the friars of his own time, adopted a long pointed cowl, according to what he conceived to be the original form. In 1526 he obtained the consent of Pope Clement VI] . to the wearing of this habit by himself and his companions, with the further permission to live the life of hermits, and preach the gospel in every country, on condition that once in each year they should present themselves at the general chapter, wherever it might be held, of the Obser- vantine friars. Matteo began hereupon to preach publicly in the March of Ancona but the provincial of the Observantines,. hearing of it, treated him as an apostate friar [Apostasy] and threw him intO' prison. He was released through the interference of the Duchess of Camerino,^ the Pope's niece ; and he, with two zfalous followers, Louis and Raphael of Fossom- brone, took refuge for a time witli the- Camaldules in their convent at Mnss^uccio. They were also kindly treated by the j Conventual branch of their order [Fkan- j ciscANs], and a bull was finally obtained from the Pope in 1528, authorising the union which Matteo and his companions had entered into with the Conventuals,, sanctioning for them the hermit life, and allowing them to wear beards and to use the long-pointed errjOMc^e from which they have derived their name. After this the- order grew with great rapidity, and it has I produced down to the present time numbers t of men eminent for every Christian virtue,, great preachers, and accomplished scholars ,- yet, strange to say, the first projectors of the institute, unlike the great majority of founders of orders, did not persevei'e in the observance of its statutes. Matteo- di Bassi, for whom independence of exter- } nal control seems to have possessed an extraordinary attraction, finding that the [ Pope had forbidden Capuchins who did ! not remain in their monasteries and obey the vicar-general to wear the pointed ' cowl, immediately cut oft' the half of his, i and quitted the order. Louis of Fossom- I brone was expelled from it on account of the violence of his language, when, by the Papal confirmation of another friar as vicar-general in 1536, his ambitious desire to be continued in the office was frus- trated. The statutes of the order were drawn up in 1529. The government was placed in the hands of a vicar-general, for they were at first subject to the general of the Conventuals, and only obtained exemp- tion from this obedience in 1617. Matins were to be said at midnight, and the other canonical hours at the times origi- nally assigned to them ; hours for mental prayer, for silence, and for taking the discipline, were prescribed. They were to have no revenues, but to live by begging ; everything about their churches and convents was to be poor and mean ; the very chalices were to be of pewter, and in the decorations of the altars, gold. CAPUCHINS silver, and silk were excluded. They miprht eat one kind of meat in refectory, and wine was allowed ; but if any Ca- puchin wished to diet himself more rigorously he was not to be prevented. In their begging rounds the friars were not to ask for either meat, eggs, or cheese, though they might accept them if ofl'ered. One of the most illustrious names in this order is that of St. Fidelis of Sigmaringen, a zealous and powerful preacher, martyred by the Calvinists of the Grisons in 1622 (see Alban Butler, April 24). The third vicar-general, Bernardino Ochino, attained an unhappy notoriety throughhaving adopted Lutheran opinions and married a young girl from Lucca. This was at Geneva, where he established him- self in 1542. Ochino afterwards went to England, while Edward VI. was on the throne, and after having travelled through many parts of Germany, and become known as a gifted preacher of the new opinions, he settled at Zurich. But, like the late Rev. Blanco White, who deserted the Church for Anglicanism, but could not stop there, Ochino was compelled after a while by internal restlessness, against his own manifest interest, to seek to imdermine the Lutheranism which he had embraced. In 1563 he printed a book called "Triginta Dialogi," in which it is intimated that if a man has an un- suitable wife, and feels quite certain that the impulse which moves him is from God, he may without sin take to himself a second wife. The leaders of the Re- formed party at Zurich, such as BuUin- ger and Wolf, were scandalised at this apparent vindication of polvgamv, and Ocl lino was driven bv his Protestant friends out of Switzerland and sought refuge in Poland. Even here he was not suflered to rest, and on the forced journey to Moravia, where he hn])fd to find sliel- ter, after losing three cut nf his four children by the plague, he died at Schlackau before the end of 1564, hut in such isolation and obscurity that no jiarticulars of his death were ever ascer- tained. At the time when H^lyot wrote, near the beginning of the last centurj', the order of Capuchins was divided into more than fifty provinces and three "custodies,',' numbering sixteen hundred convents and twenty-five thousand friars, besides their missions in Brazil and various parts of Africa. The French Revolution— though there were a few who yielded — tempted with no other result than illustrating the CARDINAL 129 serene and stable virtue of the great majority of the Capuchins. When Bel- gium was annexed to France in 1797, and soldiers were sent to turn out the friars at Louvain into the street, the guardian thus expelled cried out, " I pro- test in the sight of Heaven that it is only force which makes us go out of our house; that I and my brothers remain Capu- chins ; that we are suffering for religion, and are ready, if need be, to be martyrs in its cause." A large number of their convents were suppressed during the re- volutionary troubles ; in France, however, they had revived again to a considerable extent, but the persecuting " Liberalism " of the Third Republic ejected them anew from their convents (1880). They are at present most numerous in Austria ; in Switzerland also there are many, and altogether they are said still to number several thousands. They are at present eight Capuchin convents in England and Wales — at Peckham, East Dulwich, Erith, Crawley, Chester, Pantasnpli, Olton, and Pontypool — and three in Ireland — one at Kilkenny, and two (of which one is the noviciate) at Cork. (H6lyot ; " Bernardino Ochino," by Ben- rath, 1875; English and Irish "Cathohc Directories.") CARSZlTAli {cnrdo, a hinge). Like most arrangements wliicli, though made by man, carry out the Divine ptii-pnse, CoiTespond to tlie wants nf human society, and are destined to live, grow aiid endure, the great institutioii nf tlie Cardinalate sprang from small and iilninst luiunticed beginnings. The words cardi/ialis, eardi- nare, incardinare, are found in ante-Xicene ecclesiastical writers, and are used to j designate the fixed permanent clergy of any church — those who were so built into it and necessary to its beiiig that it might be said to revolve round tliera as a door round its hinge. ^ Thin' are tlius distinguished from those bisliops, or prii'sts, or dfaoons, whose coiinectimi with a eliurcliwiis Innse nr tempnrary. In the lidiuan Church parish churches or Titles seem tn have been first instituted in tlie . time of Pope MarceHus (.'iOl), and the priests to whose chargi' tliey were ])er- manently committed were styled cardinal priests. The deacons of the Roman I It is interesting to observe that the use of this metaphor dates from the remotest antiquity. The five piinces of the I'hilistines were called D'3^p, literally "axles" or "hinges" of the people. See Josue xiii. 3 ; Judges iii. 3. 130 CARDIN.\L CARDINAL Church, as of many other important Churches, were at first seven in number, in imitation of the original Apostolic institution. They were not at first as- signed to particular districts ; but as time went on, and various charitable institu- tions for the relief of the sick and poor, with chapels attached to them, arose here and there throughout the fourteen " re- gions " into which the city was divided under Augustus, each deacon came to have one or more regions, with the insti- tutions locally contained in it, assigned to his care ; and from the fixed character of their charge, they were called cardinal demons. For a long time there was no such tiling as a cardinal bishop, because the Roman Pontiff himself presided in the see in that capacity. But there were several bishoprics in the immediate neigh- bourhood of Rome — namely, Portus (at the mouth of the Tiber), Ostia (on the op- posite side of the river), Prjeneste, Sabina, Tusculum, Al))aiio, and St. Rufina — the bishops of which appear from very early times to have sat in synod with the Bishop of Rome : a relation which, with increas- ing exercise and deepening comprehension of the Papal prerogatives, was naturally developed by degrees into a closer con- nection. Histoi-y does not enable us to describe or date the stages of this change. In the eleventh century we find all the abnve-iiiimed sees (reduced now to six, for St. Rufina had been united to Portus) incorporated in the Roman Church, and their occupants holding their appoint- ments directly and solely from the Pope. This is the picture which we derive from the writings of St. Peter Damian (d. 1071), who was himself Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. The council held at Rome in 105i), under Nicholas II., decreed that Pojies should thenceforth be elected on the jiidfpncnt. of the six cardinal bishops, with till' ansmt of the Roman clergy, the ap])linisi' of the people, and the ratification of tlie Kniperor. t)f the Roman clergy, the cardinal priests and deacons were the most ]iidniiiient and influential portion. Hence it is easy to niulerstand, consider- ing till' instability of ]io])ular opinion, and tlie ti-ansitni'v chai-acter of human sovereignty, that the election of the Pope gradually came to be vested in the csir- dinals exclusively, who, in their grades of bisho]), priest, and deacon, represented the ancient "])rosbyterium " of the Roman Church in the fullest and most satisfac- tory manner. In the twelfth century the number of the cardinal bishops, as already stated, was six ; that of the cardinal priests, twenty-eight; and about this time the number of the cardinal deacons was raised from seven to fourteen, one for each region, whence they were called " region- ary " deacons. The dignity of their office grew, while its functions either dwindled or were otherwise discharged ; and in process of time the cardinal deacons, still deriving their titles from the chapels formerly attached to the charitable in- stitutions of which they had the charge (St. Hadrian, St. Theodore, &c.), ceased to have local duties, and, like the cardinals of higher rank, were drawn into the august circle of the immediate counsellors and assistants of the Roman Pontifis. In the course of the twelfth century their niunber was further raised to eighteen, I making a total of fifty-three cardinals ; I and this number remained fixed for a considerable time. Then a period of fluctuation ensued, during which the Sacred College was sometimes reduced to a mere handful of persons. The Council of Basle ordered that the number of cardinals should be fixed at twenty-four ; but the decree was not ratified by the [ Pope, and no attention was paid to it. Leo X. raised the number to sixty-five. The final regulation, which prevails to this day, was contained in the constitution Fostquam vetics of Sixtus Y., published in 1586. By this it was ordered that the number of cardinals should never exceed seventy, thus composed : six of episcopal rank, holding the old suburban sees before mentioned; fifty described as priests, hold- ing a corresponding number of " Titles " or parishes in Rome; and fourteen de- scribed as deacons. By a Constitution of ; St. Pius V. (15G7), all customs or privi- leges in virtue of which the name of Cardinal had been assumed by the clergy of any other church (e.g. by the canons of Compostella, Milan, &c.) were abrogated, and it was forbidden to apply it in future to any but the senators of the Roman Church. The cardinals owe their appointment solely to the Pope. They have for many centuries been taken in part from all the great Christian nations of Europe, though the number of Italian cardinals has always preponderated. Tlie appointment of a future cardinal is announced by the Pope in consistory, but tlie name is reserved in petto. At a subsequent consistory it is made public. The actual appointment, in the case of ecclesiastics residing in Rome, I proceeds as follows : On a day named, CARDINAL CARDINAL VIRTUES 131 the candidate goes to the Papal palace, and receives from the Pope the red biretta; afterwards, in a public consistory, at the dose of an imposing ceremonial, the Pope places upon his head the famous red hat. In a second consistory he "closes his mouth " {os clfiud{t)—th&t is, forbids him for the present to speak at meetings of cardinals ; in a third, he " opens his mouth" — that is, lie removes the former prohibition, giving him at the same time a ring, and assigning to him his " Title." If the candidate is absent, being prevented by just cause from visiting Rome at that time, the red biretta is sent to him, and on receiving it he is bound to make oath that he will within a year visit the tombs of the Apostles. The duties of cardinals are of two kinds — those which devolve on them while the Pope is living, and those which they have to discharge when the Holy See is vacant. As to the first, it may be briefly said that they consist in taking an active part in the gnveriiment of the universal Church; for although the Pope is in no way bound to defer to the opinions of the Sacred College, in practice he seldom, if ever, takes an imjiortant step without their counsel and concurrence. Such a school in the science and art of govern- ment in all its forms as the College of Cardinals exists nowhere else in the world. They are brought into immediate contact with the various peculiarities of national character, the prejudices and cherished aims of dynasties, the conservatism that with more or less intelliizeiice supports, and the commiuiism that with more or less wickedness undermines, the fabric of Christian society. In consistory, where the cardinals all meet in a kind of senate under the presidency of the Pope, and discuss affairs "exclusa omni forma judi- ciali," the powers of statement and reply are cultivated ; in the various Congre- gations [see CoNGREGATiox, Roman], they learn to manage in detail the vast and comphcated concerns of a communion which with its one faith and, substan- tially, one ritual, is found congenial to pver^- people and at home in every climate. Hence flow that largeness of temper, that breadth of view, that readiness to drop the accidental if only the essential be maintained, that conciliatory bearing, and that antique courtesy, by which the finest specimens of cardinal ambassadors have always been distinguished. History can show few nobler pictures than that of Cardinal Consalvi confronting the force and cunning of the First Napoleon in the zenith of his power, and compelling the drafting of the Concordat in the form that the Pope, not the First Consul, required. All the cardinals now take precedence of bishops, archbishops, and even patri- archs. This was not so formerly; the change was gradually introduced. They have many other privileges, which canon- ists— who generally hold that the rank of cardinal, in its temporal aspect, is equiva- lent to that of a reigning prince — have elaborately defined in their treatises. On their seals they have their own arms, with the red hat as crest ; the}' are styled EminetUiissimi and Beverendissimi. At a vacancy of the Holy See, the duties of the cardinals become confined to protecting the Church and maintaining all things in their due order, till a Conclave can be assembled for the election of a new Pope. [COITCLATII.] There are two English cardinals at the present time — Herbert Vaughan, Archbishop of Westminster, and Mi- chael Logue, Archbishop of Armagh, Primate of all Ireland. The present archbishops of Sydney, Quebec, and Baltimore, are also cardinals. James Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore, is the only American cardinal. The Sacred College numbers at pres- ent about sixty-four members. CABSIXTAX. XECATE. [See LE- GATE.] CARDZXTAI. PROTECTOS. A member of the Sacred College, belonging by birth to one of the more considerable Catholic nations, who has received the purple partly on that account. His local knowledge of his own people and their ways, through being "to the manner bom," quahfy him to be a trusted referee when any questions afl'ecting the interests j of the nation to which he belongs, or of individuals of that nation, are brought forward at Rome, and the name of "Car- I dinal Protector" has hence naturally bet^n I assigned to him. A remarkable instance, illustrating the representative weii;ht i which such cardinals often enjoy in the j Sacred College, was that of the French Cardinal Maury, described by Consalvi in his powerful narrative of the Conclave which preceded the election ot Pius VII. , There are also Cardinal Protectors of religious orders, of colleges, &c. I CARSZIO'AX. VZBTXrSS. St. Am- I brose("In Luc. ''cap. vi. 1. o) issaid tohave I been the first to caJl the four great moral s. 2 ■ 132 CARMELITES, OEDER OF CARMELITES, ORDER OF virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance) the cardinal " virtues. They are so named, according to St. Thomas, on account of their generality and import- ance. Prudence enables us to know what to desire or avoid ; justice gives everyone his due; fortitude urges us on when difficulty stands in the way of our duty ; temperance restrains us when passion excites us to what is wrong. All the moral virtues may be reduced to one or other of these headings. Thus religion belongs to justice because it gives God His due ; chastity comes under temper- ance because it puts a restraint on certain passions [See Viettte, Justice, Tempee- axceJ. (St. Thomas, 1» 2», qu. Ixi. for the cardinal virtues generally ; and 2* 2% qq. xlvii.-clxx. for the treatment of them in detail.) CAitnxz:i.zTES, orber of. In the middle of the twelfth century a cru- sader named Berthold vowed at the com- mencement of a battle that if by the mercy of God his side was victorious, he would embrace the religious life. The victory was won, and Berthold became a monk in Calabria. Soon after, the prophet Elias is said to have appeared to him and revealed something to him inconsequence ■of which Berthold left Italy, and repair- ing to Mount Carmel (1156) — that moun- tain, so conspicuous and so beautiful, which juts out into the sea to the south of Acre — took up his abode there. Every- one knows the connection of Carmel with some of the leading incidents of the pro- l)het's life (3 Kings xviii ; 4 Kings iv). A cavern near tlie summit was then shown as the habitation of Elias, and the ruins of a spacious monastery, the history of which is iinknown, covcnMl the ground. An eyewitness, John I'hot-as, who visited the holy places in lis."), thus writes: — "Some years ago a white-liuii'ed monk, who was also a priest, came from Cala- bria, and tbrongli a revelation from the prophet Elias, (established himself in this place. He enclosed a small portion of the ruins of the monastery, and built a tower and a little church, assembling in it about ten brothers, who, with liim, inhabit at present this holy place." Ber- thold, therefore, may in one sense be con- sidered as the founder of the Carmelite order, and its first general. On the other hand, it cannot be questioned that Ber- thold found hermits living on the moun- tain when he arrived there, attracted by the peculiar sanctity which the residence of the great prophet had conferred on the spot; these appear to have joined him, and to have accepted along witri him and his immediate followers the rule which was framed for them in 1209 by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem. These hermits may have had a long line of pre- decessors, nor is there any historical or moral impossibility in the assumption that holy men had lived on the mountain without interruption since the days of Elias, although positive evidence is want- ing. This belief in the possible succes- sion of a long line of samtly anchorites was gradually merged in the fixed per- suasion that the very order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, such as it was in the thirteenth and following centuries, had existed there in xmbroken continuity, keeping the three vows, and with here- ditary succession, from the time of Elias. It was in this extreme form that the Carmelite view of the antiquity of their order was combated in the seventeenth century by the learned Papebroke, the BoUandist, who in the volumes of the "Acta Sanctorum" for March gave Lives of Berthold and Cyril, in which it was assumed that the former was the Ji'rsf, and the latter the third, general of the order. A violent controversy arose ; several Carmelite writers published large treatises; other Jesiiits came to the assis- tance of Papebroke ; the Spanish Inquisi- tion was induced to issue a decree censur- ing the published volumes of the " Acta Sanctorum;" and Rome, while refusing to adopt or ratify this censure, thought it expedient to impose silence on the dis- putants (16i)8). The rule given to the order by the patriarch Albert was in sixteen articles. It forbade the possession of property; ordered that each hermit should live in a cell by himself; interdicted meat alto- gether; recommended manual labour and silence; and imposed a strict fast from the Exaltation of the Cross (Srpt. 14) to Easter, Sundays being excepted. The progress of the Mohammedan power in Palestine, after the illusory treaty entered into by the Emperor Frederic II. in 1229 with the Sultan Kameel, made it more and more difficidt for Christians to live there in peace; and under their fifth general, Alan of Brit- tany, they abandoned Carmel and es- tablished themselves in Cyi)rus (12."i8) and other places. They held their first chapter at Aylesford in Hampshire, in ; 1245, and elected our countryman, St. j Simon Stock, to the generalship. Under CARMELITES, ORDER OF CARMELITES, ORDER OF 13S Lim the order was greatly extended, and entered upon a flourishing period. To this Saint Our Lady is said to have shown the Scapular in a vision. [See Scapulae.] After passing into Europe they found it necessary to live in common, and no longer as hermits. This, with other mitigations of the primitive rule, was sanctioned by Innocent IV., who con- firmed them in 1247 under the title of Friars of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. Their habit was originally striped, but xiltimately the dress by which they are 60 well known, the brown habit with white cloak and scapular, was adopted. They were recognised as one of the mendicant orders ; our ancestors knew them as " the \Miite Friars." Many dis- tinguished men and eminent ecclesiastics have worn their habit. In our own country we can point to the vast and sohd capacity of Thomas of Walden, confessor to Henry V., and one of the theologians at the Council of Constance, who in a work of profound learning and great eloquence, the " Doctrinale Fidei," confuted the sophistries advanced by "Wyclif against the faith and discipline of the Church. The Papal schism led to much confu- sion avA relaxation of discipline, a portion of the order siding with the Avignon Pope and electing a different general. England remained true to Urban \T. To put an end to the dissimilarity of practice which prevailed, Eugenius TV. issued a bull in 14:31, in which permission was given to eat meat three times a week, with other indulgences. But these were not accepted in all the convents. Gradu- ally the names of Observantines and Conventuals crept in, to distinguish tlie Carmelites who observed the rule as ratified by Innocent TV. from tliose wlio accepted the mitigations of Eugenius. Special congregations aiming at a strict observance of the rule arose in Italy and France ; among these was the congrega- tion of Mantua, founded by the unliap])v Thomas Connecte, who is noticed by Addison in the "Spectator." In England at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries, the Carmelites were in a very flourishing condition. Impartial witnesses declare that in no country of Europe did the glory of their institute shine out with greater lustre than in England. They had fifty-two houses.* 1 Xamely at — Appleby Berwick Aylesford Blakeney In London the library of the White Friars was the best to be found in the city ; the books bestowed on it by Thomas Walden alone were valued at two thou- sand gold pieces. AH these were de- stroyed or dispersed at the dissolution.' The later glories of the order belong chiefly to Spain, and are due to the heroic virtue of a woman, St. Teresa. Carme- lite nuns had first been instituted by John Soreth, general of the order in. the fif- teenth century. Relaxations of the rule had crept into their convents as into those i of the friars. St. Teresa lived for many ! years in the convent of Avila, which was under the mitigated observance. Amidst j great obstacles, and in the teeth of much I persecution, she carried out her object of [ introducing a reform among the nuns by returning to the ancient rigour of the rule. She thus became the founder of the Discalced Carmelite nuns. Nor did her zeal stop here, but extended itself to a reformation of the friars, in which also, aided by the counsel of St. Peter of Alcantara, and the labours and sufferings of St. John of the Cross, who joined the new order, she was completely successful. At the time of her death, in 1583, she had assisted in the foundation of seventeen reformed convents for women and fifteen for men. These Discalced Carmelites, whose institute rapidly spread to all the Catholic countries of Europe, and to the Spanish colonies, were at tirst suliject to the government of the unre formed order; but Clement VIII., in 1593, gave them a general of their own. Several other r&- Bolton (York) Marlborough Boston Xewcastle Bristol Northallerton Burnham Northampton Cambridge Norwich Cardiff Nottingham Chester Oxford Coveiitrv Plymouth IViihi-li Pontpfrac*: Dunoaster R^ol ni .nd Uravton Ruthin Gloucester Sandwich Hitihin Scarborough Hulm (near Aln S-alp wick) Shenp Hull Shoreliam Ipswich Shreusiiury Leutoii (Xotts) Stamford Lincoln Sutton (York) London Taunton Lospnham Warwick Ludlow Winchester Lyme Regis Yarmouth Lynn York Maldon ' Bibliotheca OirmeUtana. Orleans, 17.52. 134 CARXIV.VL OARTIIURTANS, ORDER OF forms have been introduced since tliat nt' St. Teresa in various countries, whicli we Lave not space here to notice. At present, in spite of the devastation wrought durinfj the revolutionary epoch, and the spirit of \mbelief which engenders and is encour- aged by revolutions, a considerable num- ber of Carmelite monasteries still exists. In France, though they were swept away at the first revolution, they had been re-introduced, and till lately possessed some sixty houses. But the iniquitous decree of March 29, 1880, issued by the Republican Government of France, has resulted in the violent seizure of all the houses of men, and in turning the friars adrift. In Spain, we believe, they are at present numerous. In England there are two houses of Discalced Carmelite friars (at Kensing- ton and Wincanton), and six nunneries —at Fulham, Notting Hill, Chichester, Wells, Lanherne, and Darlington. In Ireland there appear to be seven or eight Carmelite friaries, calced and discalced (beginning witli the well-known convent in Whitefriar Street, Dublin, which stands on the site of an ancient Carmelite house founded in 1274), and eight or nine nunneries. (Il^lyot ; "Bibliotheca Car- melitana"; Tanner; Dngdale.) CARXTZVAIL (from caro, vale, the time when we are about to say farewell tf) flesh-meat; or uhi caro valet — in allu- sion to the indulgence of the flesh in the days whifli jirecede the fast), the three da> s lirlorc Lent, though the name some- times includt's the whole period between February ;i, the feast of St. Blasius, and Ash-Wednesday. The Carnival in Catho- lic countries, and in Rome itself, is a special season for feasting, dancing, mas- querading and mirth of all sorts. In itself this custom is innocent, although the Church from Septnagesima onwards assumes the garb of penance, and pro- pares her children, by the saddened tone of her office, for the Lenten season. But the pleasures of the Carnival easily de- generate into riot, and the Church there- fore specially encourages pious exercises at this time. In 15.56 the Jesuits at Macerati introduced the custom of ex- posing the Blessed Sacrament through the Carnival. This devotion spread through the Church, and Clement XIII., in 1705, granted a plenarj^ indulgence on certain conditions to those who take part in it. CARTHirSXANS, ORDER OF. The founder of this celebrated order was j St. Bruno, in the eleventh centuiy. A well-known story, once inserted in the I Itonian l>reviary, ascribes his retirement from the world to the marvellous resusci- tation of a not ed Paris doctor, as his body was being carried to the grave. But there is no contemporary evidence to sustain the story, and it was, probably on this account, left out of the Breviary by Urban VIII. Bruno was a native of Cologne, and gave proof of more than common piety, recollection, and mortifica- tion even from his tender years. When he was grown up, he was at first entered among the clergy of St. Cunibert's at Cologne, whence he passed to Rheims, a city then celebrated for its episcopal school. Bruno made here great progress in learning, and was appointed " scholas- ticus" (Fr. Scoldtre); many of the leading men of the age were his pupils. He had much to suffer from the conduct of the unworthy Archbishop of Rheims, Man- asses, suspended in 1077 ; and the reso- lution to quit the world seems to have arisen in him about this time, and grew in strength continually. Leaving Rheims, uncertain in what way God willed him to carry out his clearlv-seen vocation, he repaired to St. Robert of Molesme, the founder of the Cistercian order, by whom he was referred to St. Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble. With six companions, Bruno presented himself to the bishop, and opened to him their desire to found an institute in which the glory of God and the good of man should be sought on a foundation of rigorous austerity and self- I disci])llne. The ffood liislio]) was over- joyed at serin- th.-m : in tlir.r rr(|iie>t he saw the lietiiiiniiiii- of llie liiUihneiit of a wonileri'ul (Irrani which he had had the night bcl'ori'. Soon afterwards he led them to the desert of the Chartreuse, an upland vallev in the Aljis to the north of Grenoble, more than l.dOO fret ;il,ove the sea, and only to he nMch.d l,v thi-. nding a gloomy and diilieult ravine. High crags surround the valley on all sides; the soil is poor, the cold extreme — snow lies there most of the year- and the air is charged with fog. riruim ,icic]itf>d this site with joy, and he and Ins com- panions immediately linilt an oratory there, and small se]iara(c cells, in imita- tion of the ancient Jjanras of I'ah'stine. This was in 1080, and the origin of the Carthusian order, which takes its name from Chartreuse, is dated from this foundation. St. Bruno, when he had been only twn- CAKTIIUSIANS, ORDER OF CARTHUSIANS, ORDER OF 135 or three years at the Chartreuse, was sum- moned to Rome by an imperative man- date from Urban 11., -who had been his pupil. With grief he left his beloved companions, the most prudent and de- voted of whom, Landwin, he appointed prior in his room, and, recommending the monastery to the protection of the Abbot of Chaise Dieu, departed for Italy. He was never able to return, but after foimd- ing convents at Squillace and La Torre in Calabria, died at the last-named place in 1101. The celebrated Abbot of Cluny, Peter the Venerable, writing about forty years after St. Bruno, describes in few words the manner of life which the saint instituted, and to which his monks — the only ancient order in the Church which Las never been reformed and never needed refoi-m — have always faithfully adhered. " Their dress," he writes, " is meaner and poorer than that of other monks ; so short and scanty, and so rough, that the very sight affrights one. They wear coarse hair-shirts next their skin; fast almost perpetually ; eat only bran bread ; never touch flesh, either sick or well ; never buy fish, but eat it if given them as an alms : eat eggs and cheese on Sundays j and Thursdays ; on Tuesdays and Satur- days their fare is pulse or herbs boiled ; on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays they take nothing but bread and water; and they have only one meal a dav, ex- cept within the octaves of Christmas, ' Easter, "\Miitsuntide, Epiphany, and some other festivals. Their constant occupa- | tion is praying, reading, and manual labour, which consists chiefly in tran- scribing books. They say the lesser | hours of the divine oHice in their cells at the time when the bell rings, but meet together at vespers and matins with won- derful recollection." This maimer of life they seem to have followed for some time without any written rule. Guigo, the fifth prior of the Chartreuse (1^28), made a collection of their customs; and in later times .several other compilations of their statutes were framed, of which a com- plete code was arranged in 1581, and aj)- proved of by Innocent XI. in 1688. The glorious difficulty of the very perfect life aimed at by the Carthusians is recognised by the Church, which "allows religious men of any of the mendicant orders to exchange their order for that of the Car- thusians, as a state of greater austeritv and perfection ; but no one can pass from the Carthusians to any other order, as Fagnanus, the learned canonist, proves at I large." ' The name of Chartreuse was given to each of their monasteries ; this was corrupted in England into Charter- house. Among their original customs was that of taking a walk, which they called gpatianient (from the Latin spn- tiari), within the bounds of their desert; and to this day the monk of the Grande Chartreuse takes his daily " spaciment." The ordinary dress is entirely white ; but outside the boundaries of his monastery the Carthusian wears a long black cloak and bood. In 1391 Boniface IX. formally renewed the exemption of the order from episcopal control ; and in 1508 Julius II. ordained that their monasteries in eveiy part of the world should obey the prior of the Grande Chartreuse and the chapter general of the order. Among the distinguished men who have borne the Carthusian habit are St. iriit:li, Bishop of Lincoln; Cardinal d'AllitTuuti ; the learufd and holv Denis Puck.-l. commonly called Denis th.. Car- thusian : and Wuit. r Hilton (148;:?), whose " Ladd.T of Perfection." a work of mysti- cal theology, was published by Abraham AVoodhcad in the seventeenth century. The Chartreuses or Charterhouses in England at the time of the dissolution were nine in number.- A large proportion of the monks and friars then in England, like the secular cleriiy, accepted, in words at any rate, the new doctrine of the royal su])remacy ; but the Carthusians stood firm. Even Mr. Froude, the thorough- going apologist of Tudor tyranny, ac- knowledges that the Londi ui Carthusians met death like heroes. Ilaughton, their prior, and several of the monks, were hanged in 15.v5; one. Maurice Chauncey, accepting the supremacy, was allowed to leave England, but bitterly re]iente,l liis weakness, was reconciled to the Church, and wrote an interesting and touching narrative of the whole tragedy. The re- maining eight monks of the London house ])(>rished of jail-fever, fold air, and starva- tion, after being ini])risoned some months in Newgate, The Carthusians of Skene, in Surrey, fifteen in number, withdrew to Flanders on the death of Queen ^laiy, aiul abode in various places ; at the time when Alban Butler wrote they were ' Alb.-m Butler, Life of St. Bruno, Oct. 6. - Namely at — Be.auvale " ( Notts) Mount Grace ( York.), Coventry Sliene Epwortii (Line.) \Vitham ( Line.) ; Hinton (^Sorn.) ami two cells, at Hull Mendip (So.ii.) London Shapwick (Dors.> 136 CASSOCK CATACOMBS settled at Nieuport, and were, ■with the Brigittine nuns of Sion [Bkigittines], "the only two English orders which were never dispersed." 'WTien H^lyot -wrote, early in the eighteenth century, there were 172 Car- thusian houses altogether, of which five were nunneries; about seventy-five out of the whole number were in France. These were all swept away at the Revo- lution. The Jacobin government tried to sell the Grande Chartreuse, but no one would bid for it, on account of the poverty of the soil. After the Restoration some of the monks returning from abroad were allowed to reoccupy it ; amongst these was the general, Dom ^loissonuier, who, like another Simeon, died in peace eleven days after his re-entry into the beloved solitude. For a long time the monks were very poor, having to pay rent for their own barren lands to the goverimient ; but since they invented the famous liqueur named after the monastery, the revenue from the sale of which is considerable, they have been fairly Avell oft". In 1&70 they numbered about forty, with twenty lay brothers, and sixty servants. In England, a large Carthusian mon- astery has been founded among the Sus- sex hills, near Steyning. (H^lyot ; Alban Butler, Oct. 6; Tanner's "Notitia.") CASSOCK {ve-stis talaris, toya sub- tanea, soutarie). A close-fitting ganuent reaching to the heels (usque ad talos), which is the distinctive dress of clerics. The cassock of sinijilo priests is black; that of bishops and (jtln-r ])relates, purj)le ; that of cardinals, red ; tliut nf the Pope, white. Originally the cassoclc was the (irdinary dress common to laymen ; its use was continued by the clergy -while lay people, after the immigration of the I^I^orthern nations, began to wear shorter clothes, and thus it became associated with the ecclesiastical state. The Coun- cil of Trent, De Reform, cap. 6, requires all clerics, if in sacred orders, or if they hold a benefice, to wear the clerical dress ; although in Protestant countries clerics are e.xcused from doing so in public, on account of the inconveniences likely to arise. CASVXSTRY. The science which deals with cases of conscience. [See MoEAL Theology.] CASUS. A name given to real or imaginary cases in canon law, moral the- ology, or ritual, collected together in order to illustrate difficult points in these branches of learning. Such a collection of cases to illustrate the " Decretum of Gratian" was made about 1200 by Benincasa Senensis ; about 1245 Bernard of Bologna, afterwards Archdeacon of Compostella, made a similar collection to aid in the study of Gregory IX.'s De- cretals. Since that time, collections of this kind without number, in all these three branches of learning, have appeared. At conferences of the clergy, " cases of this kind are generally discussed. CAS1TS RESERVATZ. [See RE- SERVED Cases.] CATACOMBS. A sketch of the present state of knowledge about the Roman Catacombs, considering the high religious interest of the subject, may fairly be expected in a work like the pre- sent. We shall briefly describe their position, explain their origin, and trace their history ; then, after describing the catacomb of San Calhsto, as a model of the rest, we shall show, so far as our limits will allow, what a powerful light the monuments of the catacombs supply in illustration of the life, and in evidence of the faith, of Christians in the primi- tive ages. The word " catacomb " had originally no such connotation as is now attached to it ; the earUest form, catacumbce (xara, and Kvfxfir), a hollow) — probably suggested by the natural configuration of the ground — was the name given to the district round the tomb of Caecilia Metella and the Circus Romuh on the Ap])ian Way. All through the middle ages " ad cata- cumbas " meant the subterranean ceme- tery adjacent to the far-famed basiUca of St. Sebastian, in the region al)ove-men- tioned ; afterwards, the signification of the term was gradually extended, and applied to all the ancient midergi-ound cemeteries near Rome, and even to similar cemeteries in other places, at Paris, for instance. The bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul were believed to have rested here nearly from the date of their martyr- dom to the time of Pope C'U-nelius, who translated them to where they are now (Bed. "De Sex .Et. Mundi : " "corpora apostolorum de catacumbis levavit noctu"); it was therefore most natural, apart from the sacred associations which the memor- ials of other martyrs aroused, that for this reason alone pilgrims should eagerly visit this cemetery. I. Some twenty-five Christian ceme- teries are known, and have been more or less carefully examined : but there are many others, which, either from their CATACOMBS CATACOMBS 137 Laving fallen into ruin, or being blocked up with earth and rubbish, remain unex- plored. Those that are kno-svn and acces- sible are found on every side of Rome, but they are clustered most thickly at tlie south-east comer of the city, near the Via Appia and the Via Ardeatina. The most noteworthy of all, the cemetery of San CaUisto, is close to the Appian Way ; near it are those of St. Praetextatus, St. Sebastian, and St. Soteris. Passing on round the city by the east and north, we find the cemetery of Santi Quattro, near tlie Via Appia Nova, that of St. Ciriaca on the road to Tivoh, the extremely in- teresting catacomb of St. Agnes on the Via Nomentana,and that of St. Alexander, farther out from Rome on the same road. Next comes the cemetery of St. Priscilla, on the Via Salaria. Continuing on, past the Villa Borghese, we come upon the valley of the Tiber, beyond which, on the right bank of the river, we find in succes- sion the cemeteries of Calepodius and Generosa. Crossing again to the left bank, we come upon the cemetery of St. Lucina on the Via Ostiensis, that of SS. Nereoed Achilleo (known also by the name of S. Domitilla) on the Via Ardeatina, and, finally, that of St. Balbina between the last-named road and the Appian Way. II. The origin of the catacombs is now thoroughly understood. It was long believed that they were originally mere sand-pits, arenaria, out of which sand was dug for building puiijoses, and to which | the Christians resorted, partly for the sake j of concealment, partly becaiise the soft- | ness of the material lent itself to any sort [ of excavation. This was the view of Baronius and of scholars in general down j to the present century, when the learned : Jesuit, F. Marchi, took the subject in | hand. He made personal researches in the catacomb of St. Agnes, and gradually the true origin and mode of construction of these cemeteries broke upon his mind. His more celebrat(^dpupi], the Commenda- tore de Rossi, aided l)y his brothers, con- tinued his explorations, and has given to the woi-ld a colossal work on the Roman Catacombs, which Dr. Northcote and Mr. Brownlow made the foundation of their interesting book, " Roma Sotterranea." Padre Marchi drew attention to the fact that among the volcanic strata of the Roman Campagna, three deposits are especially noticeable — a hard building stone, called the tufa litoide; a soft stone, t\i& tufa granolare-. and a sandstone of scarcely any coherency, called pozzolana. The sandpits, arenarice, of course occur in beds of this pozzolana ; and if they had been the origin of the catacombs, the latter would have been wholly or chiefly excavated in the same beds. But in point of fact the catacombs are almost entirely foxmd in the tufa granolare, which exactly suited the purposes which the early Christians had in view. In the first place, they were obliged by the im- perial laws to bury their dead outside the walls of the city. Secondly, they natur- ally would not place the cemeteries at a greater distance than they could help; and in fact all the catacombs above named, except that of St. Alexander, are within two miles and a half of the city walls.' Thirdly, the tufa granolare, being softer than the tufa litoide, the necessary gal- leries, chambers, and loculi (receptacles for the dead) could more easily be worked in it, while, on the other hand, it was sufiiciently coherent to allow of its being excavated freely without danger of the roof and sides of the excavations falHng in or crumbling away. The pozzolana was softer, but from its crumbling nature narrow galleries could not be run in it, nor loculi hollowed out, without the em- ployment of a great deal of masonry for the sake of security, as may be seen in the two or three instances of arenarice turned into catacombs which do exist ; thus greater expense and trouble would arise in the end from resorting to it than from excavating in the tufa granolare. If it be asked why the Roman Chris- tians did not bury their dead in open-air cemeteries, the answer is twofold. In the first place, the Church grew up amid persecution, and the Christians naturally strove to screen themselves and their doings from public observation as much as possible, in the burial of their dead as in other matters. The sepulchral inscrip- tions and decorations which they could safely afiix to the graves of their beloved ones in the subterranean gloom of the catacombs, could not with common pru- dence have been employed on tombs ex- posed to public view. In the second place, the needs of prayer and the duty of public worship were in this manner reconciled with the duty of sepulture to an extent not otherwise, under their cir- cumstances, attainable. The relatives might pray at the tomb of a departed kinsman; the faithful gather round the "memory" of a martyr; the Christian mysteries might be celebrated in subter- > The walls of Aurelian. 138 CATACOMBS CATACOIMBS ranean chapels, and on altars hewn out of the rock, -with a convenience, secrecy, and safety, which, if the ordinary mode of burial had been followed, could not have been secured. Nor was the practice a novelty when the Christians resorted to it. Even Pagan underground tombs existed, though the general custom of burning the dead, which prevailed under the emperors before Constantine, caused them to be of rare occurrence ; but the Jewish cemeteries, used under the pres- sure of motives very similar to those which acted upon the Christians, had long been in operation, and are in part distinguishable to this day. The modus operandi appears to have been as follows. In ground near the city, obtained by purchase or else the property of some rich Christian, an area, or ceme- tery " lot," was marked out, varying in extent but commonly having not less than a frontage of a hundred and a depth of two hundred feet. At one corner of this area an excavation was made and a staircase constructed ; then narrow gal- leries, usually a little more than two feet in width, with roof flat or slightly arched, were carried round the whole space, leaving enough of the solid rock on either side to admit of oblong niches {loculi) — large enough to hold from one to three bodies, at varying distances, both verti- cally and laterally, according to the local strength of the material — being excavated in the walls. After burial, the loculiis was hermetically sealed by a slab set in mortar, so that the proximity of the dead body might not aftect the purity of the air in the catacomb. Besides these loculi in the walls, cubicula, or chambers, like our family vaults, were excavated in great numbers ; these were entered by doors from the galleries, and had locidi in their walls like the galleries themselves. There were also arcosolia — when above the upper surfare of a loculus containing the body ti lii s am tc being celebrated at an arcosolimii in one of them, of a considei-able number of worshippers being present. When the walls of the cir- cumambient galleries were filled with the dead, cross galleries were made, traversing the area at such distances from each other as the strength of the stone permitted, the walls of which were pierced with niches as before. But this additional space also became filled up, and then the fossors were set to work to burrow deeper in the rock, and a new series of galleries and chambers, forming a second underground story or piano, was constructed beneath the first. Two, three, or even four such additional stories have been found in a cemetery. Another way of obtaining more space was by lowering the floor of the galleries, and piercing with niches the new wail- surface thus supplied. It is obvious that expedients like these could only be adop- ted in dry and deeply-drained ground, and accordingly we always find that it is the hills near Rome in which the ceme- i teries were excavated — the valleys were useless for the purpose ; hence, contrary to what was once believed, no system of general communication between the dif- ferent catacombs ever existed. Such com- munication, however, was often efi"ected, when two or more cemeteries lay con- tiguous to each other on the same hill, and all kinds of structural comphcations were the result ; see the detailed account in "Roma Sotten-anea" of the gTowth and gradual transformation of the ceme- tery of San Callisto. III. With regard to the history of the catacombs, a few leading facts are all that can here be given. In the first two centuries, the use of the catacombs by the Christians was little interfered with ; they filled up the area with dead, and decorated the undergTOund chambers with painting and sculpture, much as their means and taste suggested. In the third century persecution became fierce, and the Christians were attacked in the cata- combs. Staircases were then destroyed, passages blocked up, and new modes of ingress and egress devised, so as to defeat as much as possible the myrmidons of the law ; and the changes thus made can in many cases be still recognised and under- stood. On the cessation of persecution, after A.D. 300, the catacombs, in which many martyrs had perished, became a place of pilgrimage ; immense numbers of persons crowded into them ; and diflerent Popes — particularly St. Damasus, early in the fifth century — caused old staircases to be enlarged, and new ones to be made, and luminaria (openings for admitting CATACOMBS CATACOMBS 139 light and air) to be broken through from the cuhicula to the surface of the ground, in order to give more accommodation to the pious throng. These changes also can be recognised. Burial in the catacombs naturally did not long survive the con- cession of entire freedom and peace to the Church ; but still they were looked upon as holy places consecrated by the blood of martyrs, and as such were visited by innumerable pilgrims. In the seventh and eighth centuries Lombard invaders desecrated, plundered and in part de- stroyed the catacombs. This led to a period of translations, commencing in the eighth century and culminating with Pope Paschal (a.d. 817), by which all the relics of the Popes and principal martyrs and confessors which had hitherto lain in the catacombs were removed for greater safety to the churches of Rome. After that, the catacombs were abandoned, and in great part closed ; and not till the six- teenth century did the interest in them revive. The names of Onufrio Panvini, Bosio, and Boldetti are noted in connec- tion with the renewed investigations of which they were the object : and since the appearance of the -work of the Padre March! already mentioned, the interest awakened in all Christian countries by the remarkable discoveries announced has never for a moment waned. IV. Having tlius atteni])ted to sketch the origin and trace the history of the catacombs, we proceed to describe what may now be seen in tlie most important portion of the best known among them all —the eemet.'rv of Smii ( "nlli^to. Ent,.rino- it from a viiie\;ii-.l n.^arih,- Ajipiaii Wav, the visitor ,lr-.,-, n,K a ln'oa,! tlitiiit of >tri,.. fashioned l)y Pojjo Damasus from the motive above mentioned, and finds him- self in a kind of vestiliule, on the stuccoed walls of which, honey-combed with loculi, j are a quantity of rude inscriptions in Greek and Latin, some of which are thir- teen and fourteen centuries old, scratched , by the pilgrims who visited out of devo- i tion the places where Popes and Martyrs who had fought a good figlit for Christ, and often their s Eutvchian, Anteros, Fabian, and Ltieius. .V ])as-iaire leads out of the cr^^t into the cuhieiilmn of St. Crecilia, where, as De Kossi lias almost demonstrated, the l)ody of the saint, martyred in the first half of tlie third century, was originally de])osited by Pope Urban, though it was afterwards removed by Paschal to her church in the Trastevere, where it now lies under the high-altar. In this cuhiculum are paint- ings of St. Caecilia and of Our Lord, the latter "according to the Byzantine ty])e, with rays of glory behind it in the form of a Greek cross." But these paintings are late — not earlier than the tenth century. Besides the Papal Cr\-ptand the chamber of St. CiBcilia, there are in this part of the cemetery " several cuhicula interesting for their paintings, chiefly referable to Baptism and the Eucharist, the fish being the principal emblem of the latter. In one of these crypts is a painting of four male figures with uplifted hands, each with his name, placed over an arcosoUum; in another are representations of peacocks, the emblem of immortality; i)i a third, Moses striking the rock, and ascending to the mount ; in a fourth, a grave-diggnr ( fossor) sun-onnded with the implements of his trade : in a fifth, the Good Shep- herd, with the miracle of the paralytic taking up bis bed ; in a sixth, a banquet of seven persons. su])posedtobe the seven (lisei])les alhuleil to in the twenty-first fha])tpr of .St. .John's Gospel. These paintings, as well as the greater part of the catacomb, are referred to the last halt of the third centurv."' V. For a detailed answer, accompanied with ])roofs, to tlie (|nrsrion. ^vhat testi- mony tlie cataeomlis bi-arto the nature of the relii-ious belief and life of tlie narly Christiaiis, the reader is referred to the pages of " Roma Sotterranea," or to the larger work of De Rossi. He will there find sutlii ient evidence tocom lnee him of the truth of two main pro]iositions — (1) that the religion of those Christians was a sacramental religion; (2) that it was the reverse of puritanical : that is, that it disdained the use of no external helps which human art and skill could furnish, in the effort to symbolise and eu- ' Murray's Handtiook of Rome and itt Environs. 140 CAT.IFALQUE CATECHISM force spiritual truth. With reference to the first proposition, let him consider how the sacrament of Baptism is tj'picaUy re- presented in the catacombs by paintings of Noe in the ark, the rock smitten and water gushing forth, a fisherman drawing fish out of the water accompanied by a man baptising, and the paralytic carrying his bed ("Roma Sotterranea," p. 265); and also how the mystery of the Eucharist is still more frequently and strikingly pf)rtrayed by pictures in which baskets of bread are associated with fish, the fish being the well-known emblem of Our Lord.i The second proposition is so abundantly proved by the remains of Christian art of very ancient date still to be seen in the catacombs, in spite of the havoc and ruin of fifteen centuries, that it would be a waste of words to attempt to establish it at length. Adopting the general forms and methods of the con- temporary Pagan art, but carefully eliminating whatever in it was immoral or superstitious, we find the Christian artists employing Biblical or symbohcal subjects as the principal figures in each composition, while filUng hi their pictures witli decorative forms and objects— such as faljulous animals, scroll-work, foliage, fruit, dowers, and l)irds — imitated from or suggested by the pre-existing heathen art. A type for which they had a peculiar fondness was that of the Good Shepherd. The Blessed Virgin inid ( 'hil.I, with a figure standing near su]j]i(iseil to he Isiiias, is represented in an ex- ceedingly beautiful but much injured painthig on the vaulted roof of a locidus in the cemetery of St. Priscilla. De Rossi beheves this painting " to belong almost to the apostolic age " (" Roma Sotterranea," ]). 258). Another favourite type of Our L;)rd was Orpheus, who by his sweet music drew all creatures to hear him. The vine painted with so much freedom and grace of handling on the roof of the entrance to the cemetery of Domitilla is also, in De' Rossi's opinion, work of the first centur\'. (" Roma Sotterranea," Northcote and Brownlow; Murray's - Ilaiidbnok ..f Rmue.") CA.TAFAI.QUE. An erection like a bier phiced during IMasses uf the dead, when the corpse itself is not there, in the ' There were other reasons for this; but the fact that the initials of the Greek words signifyini;, " Jesus Christ. Sou of God, Saviour," made up the word IX0T2, fish, undoubtedly had much to do with the general adoption of the emblem. I centre of the church, or in some other j suitable place, suiTOunded with buruing hghts and covered with black cloth. It is also called "feretrum," "castrum doloris," &c. (Merati's " Novae Observationes " on Gavantus," Part ii. tit. 13.) CATECHisnx. A summary of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, for the instruction of the Christian people. From the be- ginning of her history, the Church fulfilled the duty of mstructing those who came to her for baptism. Catechetical schools were established, and catechetical instruc- tion was carefully and methodically given. We can still form an accurate idea of the kind of instruction given in the early Church, for Cyril of Jerusalem has left sixteen books of catechetical discourses, explaining the Creed to the candidates for baptism, and five more in which he sets forth for the benefit of the newly-bap- tised, the nature of the three sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist) which they had just received. St. Augustine wrote a treatise on catechising, at the re- quest of Deo Gratias, a deacon and cate- chist at Carthage. When the world be- came Christiau there was no longer the same necessity for instructing converts, but the children, and, indeed, the people generally, still needed catechetical instruc- tidu. Ilencf' we find a council held at Paris in 829 deploring the neglect of catechetical instruction, while the Eng- lish Council of Lambeth in 1281 requires parish-priests to instruct their people four times a year in the principal parts of Cliristian doctrine — viz. the articles of the Creed, commandments, sacraments, &c. The treatise of Gerson, " De Parvulis ad Christum trahendis," gives some idea of catechetical instruction towards the close of the middle ages. Catechetical instruction was one of the subjects which (iccu])ied the Coimcil of Trent, and tlieFatliers arranged that a Catechism should lie drawn u]) by a com- mission and be ajijtroved by the council. This plan fell through, and they put the whole matter in the Pope's hands. Pius IV. entrusted the work to four theolo- gians— viz. Calinius, Archbishop of Zara; Fuscararius (Fii.-cai-ai-i), Bishop of ^lo- dena; Marinus, Arclilashdp (irLanciano; and Fureirius (l-'uifiro), a Port iigiiese. AUof them, except the first, were Domini- cans. Scholars were appointed to see to the purity of style. St. Charles Borro- meo took a great part in assisting the im- dertaking. In 1564 the book was finished. CATECmST CATHEDRA : EX CATHEDRA 141 rhereupon it was examined by a new couimissiou under Cardinal Sirletus. To- wards the close of 156G the Catechism appeared, under the title "Catechismus Roniauus, ex Decreto Coucilii Tridentini, Pii V. Pont. Max. jussu editus. Romaj, in redibus PopuH Romani, apud Aldum Manutium." The original edition contains no chapters and no answers. This Cate- chism possesses very high, though not al> solute, authority, and has been regarded as a model of clearness, simplicity and purity of language, of method and of doctrinal precision. But it was not fitted for direct use in catechetical instruction, being intended for parish priests and others who have to catechise rather than for those who receive instruction. Cate- chisms, therefore, of various sizes have been prepared by bishops lor their dio- ceses, or, as in England, the bishops in concert approve a Catechism for use in the whole country or province. CATECHZST. A name originally given to those who instructed persons pre- paring for baptism. Catechists were in early times also called vavroXoyoi, be- cause they brought the sailors on board the ship of the Church. CATECBXTIWSM-S. Those who were being instructed and prepared for baptism. "We meet with the first mention of cate- chumens in Justin Mart_^T, in TertuUiau, and in the Clementines. Tertullian dis- tinguishes two classes of catechumens : viz. the "novitioli." or beginners, and the "aquam adituri,'' or those who were nearly ready for baptism and were admit- ted to the sermon and liturgy. In the A]'o-;, eoniplain> that although the feast of St. Peter's cliair at Rome was (•■■leliiateil in France and S])ain, it was forgotten in Rome itself, I although the feast of bis cliiiir at Antioch i was kept in Rome. Accordingly Paul i IV. ordered tliat tlie lea-t of St. 'Peter's chair at Rnnie should be observed on January IS. Tlie feast of St. Peter's : chair at Aittioch is kept on Februarv 22, ; (Thonia^Mii. ih.) j (.?) Cath-Mha is taken as a symbol of authoritati\ I (lot trinal teaching. OurLord said that the scribes and Pharisees sat "su])er cathedram Movsis" — i.e. on the chair of ^Moses. Here plainly it i> not a material chair, of which Clirist sjieaks. but ■ the "chair," as Jerome says, is a nietajilior for the doctrine of the law. This meta- phor became familiar in Christian litera- ture. Thus Jerome speaks of the "chair of Peter and the faith praised by apostolic mouth." Later theologians use "e.x cath- edra " in a still more special sense, and 142 CATHEDKAL CATHEDRATICUM employ it to mark those definitions in faith and morals which tlie I'ope, as teacher of all Christians, inijuwr- on their belief. The phrase is c oiiiii.ii;it i\ I'ly modern, and Billuart addiuc- n.) instance of its use before 1305. It is often alleged that the theologians explain the words " ex cathedra " in many ditlerent ways, but a clear and authoritative account of the meaning is given by the Vatican Coimcil, which declares that the Pope is infal- lible "when he speaks 'ex cathedra' — i.e. when, exercising his office as the pastor and teacher of all Christians, he, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, defines a doctrine concerning faith and morals, to be held by the whole Church." (From Ballerini, "De Primatu," and the BuU "Pastor feternus," cap. iv.) CATHEDRAE {KadeSpa, the raised seat of the bishop). The cathedral church in every diocese is that church in which the bishop has his chair or seat ; whence see, the English form of siege. It is sometimes called simply Domus, " the house " {Dttomo, Ital. ; I)o>n, Ger.) ; for, as " palace " sufficiently indicates the residence of a king, "so the Lord's house, which is the cathedral church, the palace of the king of kings, and the ordinary seat of the supreme pastor of a city and diocese, is sufficiently denoted by the single word Donms." (Ferraris, in Ec- clesia.) A cathedral was in early times called the Matrix Ecclcsia, l)ut th;it name is now given to any church which has Other churches subject to it. The establishment of a cathedral church, the coin"i-si()n of a eolli>giate church int" a cat IumIim 1, and tlu' union of two or nutv catlii'ilraK iimli'i' tlir same bisho]), ai'f all mrasni-rs which cannot he legally tak.'U without the a]i].iMlial ion ..|' the ro]H'. The tenqioral power has often perfoi'iiieil lliese auil the like acts by way of nsiiv]i.it loll, as \\-lien the i'e\-o|ut ionarv gnA-erniiieiii ol'l'ivmce reiluced the niiniher of Frenclwlioce~e~ tVoui more than a hun- dred and thirty to >i\ty; hut a regular and lawful state of things in such a case can only be restore, 1 hy the State's enter- ing into a coiiNentioii %\ illi the Holy See, which is alwavs reailv, without aliandou- ing ]ii-iiici]il", to (-■onl'oian its action to the eniel'^jelll ]|,.|;e--lties of the times. Thus, in the case jii-t mentioned, liv the Con- cordat Willi' Na].o|rnn iu ISO.;, Uome ShucIioii.mI the p. '-in:iiient ^ii]i]iressiou nf many oh! .-e,--. m c, ,M-ei|iience of which the ' French episcopate now nundiers eighty-four bishops instead of the larger number existing before the Eevolution. Analogous changes are provided for in the Anglican communion by the theory of the Royal Supremacy, though this theory has been slightly modilied by the progress of political development since the Reformation. The sovereign is still supreme in theory " in all causes and over all persons, ecclesiastical as well as civil," within the Anglican communion; but the supremacy cannot be exercised iu any important matter without the consent of the majority of the House of Com- mons, expressed through a responsible ministry. An Act of Parliament, em- bodying as it does the united will and action of sovereign and Parliament, solves all difficulties. Thus in 1833 ten Protes- tant sees in Ireland were suppressed at a ' stroke, and within the last few years I several suffragan sees, at Nottingham and 1 elsewhere, have been erected — always by Act of Parhament. In every such case, j whatever legality the Act may have is I solely due to the action of the temporal I power; ecclesiastical authority has nothhig to do with it. The Council of Trent forbids the holding of more than one cathedral [ church, or the holding of a cathedral I along with a parisli church, by the same j bishop.' It enjohis that ordinations ] shall, so far as possible, be publicly cele- ' brated in cathedral churches, and in the presence of the cunoUS.^ I CATHESRAXi and MOirASTZC SCHOOX.S. [See SCHOOLS.] j CATHESRATZCUnX. This pay- ' ment, as originally regulated by the Second Council of Braga (572), was a \i>ilatiou fee due from every ])arish chinvh in liis (li,,ce-eto the bishop on the oce,-,M f lii^ annual M-it to it. The aiiioiinl was two shilling- {.tn/idi) in gold. In jirocess of lime coins of greater value were tendered — thus in thi' kingdom of Na])les the cathedraticuin was considered to be two ,/„er,^s-^-and when such had to the smaller monev wa.- not allowed. AVherever there is a henelice,! cler^v this ; fee is still legally due to the l,i-lio,,. nor can any jieriod of actual immunity from claim to future e\.'iii]'i ion. I'.m .-ince the Council > word <' Catholic " is used of the fa'itli which the Church of God holds. "\Ve meet with the phrase "Catholic faith" in Pruden- tius, and frequtntly of course in later writers. (For C.MHOLic Chuech see CHrECH OF Christ.) "Catholic" is also used in various subsidiary senses, viz. : (1) Of letters addressed to the faith- ful in general, whether by the Apostles, who wrote " Catholic epistles" as distinct from Epistles to the (ialatians, &c., or by later bishops. (See Euseb. iv. 23.) (2) In Greek, of cathedral churches as distinct from parish churches ; of the chief chxirch as distinct from oratories; and, in the later Byzantine period, of parish as distinct from monastic chapels. (3) Catholicus, originally a civil title used during Constantine's time in Africa and given apparently to the " procurator fisci," was bestowed on the Bishop of j Seleucia, as representing the Patriarch of Antioch, and also on the chief ecclesias- ! tic among the Persian Nestorians. The I title was also current among Armenians I and Ethiopians. It is said to have de- noted a primate with several metropoli- tans under him, but himself subject to a patriarch. S^h" ( 'atholicus.] (4) "Catholic thrones" was a title given to the lour patriarchal sees. (5) " Catholic King " was a title given to Pipin (767), aud other kings of j France (Froissart says it was borne by I Philip of Yalois), who were afterwards called " Most Christian." " Catholic King " became in modern times the usual title of the Spanish sovereig-ns. The title " Catholic " was conferred by Alexander VI. on Ferdinand and Isabella. (Kraus, " Real Encyclopadie ; " and for the title " Catholic King " see also Fleury, cxvii. 11.) CATBOX.ZCirS. Certain Oriental patriarchs in Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Persia have anciently borne and perhaps ! still bear this name. It must have been I intended to signify the wide sweep of the jurisdiction which the bearer of this dignity enjoyed over the provinces and dioceses under his rule. Yet the catholki were never placed on a level with the j patriarchs of the five great sees, Rome, ! Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and j Constantinople. On the erection of the Armenian church, through the labours of Gregory the Illuminated, early in the fourth century, its episcopal head was named " Catholicos." As time went on we find him indifferently styled the ! Catholic of Persia or of the Armenians. ' There was also a Catholic of Seleucia on the Tigris. Both these, after the general revolt of the Oriental churches agaiii>t the Council of Chalcedon, lo-t the ortho- I dox faith; one was Moiio[)hy>ite, the 1 other Nestorian. The Ne.-toriau Cat liolie I of Seleucia had many archbishops and I bishops under his jurisdiction, whose dioceses are said to have reached even j bej'ond the Ganges. Both were origin- ! ally subject to the Patriarch of Antioch ; but the Catholicus of Seleucia, pleading tlie remoteness of his see, obtained the consent of the Patriarch to his ordination 144 CELEBRA^sT CELIBACY of archbishops by his own sole authority ; 1 and the concession of this right was almost equivalent to the erection of a new patriarchate. Thus we find the Arabic canons of Nice directing that the Patriarch of Seleucia shall have the sixth place in councils, after the five patriarchs above mentioned, and that the seventh should be assigned, with the title of Catholicos, to the patriarch of the Ethio- pians. Persecution seems to have di'iven the Armenian Cathohc out of Persia ; in the fifteenth centm-y we find him es- tablished at Sis in Cihcia, but almost isolated there, and knowing little of what went on in the real Annenia. This state of things led to the assumption of patriarchal power by the Abbot of Echmiadzin, near Mount Ararat, and by his successors down to the present day. Latterly, the Armenian uniate Church, which is in communion with the Holy See, has been prospering and advancing ; the late patriarch of this Church, Mgr. Hassoun, who resided at Constantinople, was made a Cardinal (d. 1884) ; the Ku- pelianist schism has been extinguished; and there is a fair prospect of the return of the whole Armenian nation to Catholic unity. [See Armenian Christians.] Anastasius the Sinaite, writing in the seventh centmy, speaks of a CathoUcus of the Nestorians, who was obeyed by a great number of bishops and metro- politans. (Thomassiu, " Vetus et Nova Ecclfsiio DiscipUna.") CEI.EBBA.M'T. The priest who actnallv oilers Mass, as distinct from others who assist him in doing so. Cele- bration of Mass is equivalent to ofi'ering Mass. But " celebi-ant " is also used bv good liturgical writers— e.(?. by Gavantus — for the chief officiant at other solemn oflicps, such as vespers. CSXiBSTZirZAIl' HBRTCZTS. A branch of the Franciscans, authorised by St. Celestine V. in lL".t4, and named after him. The object of their institution was to practise the rule of St. Francis with greater exactitude. They sufl'ered much persecution, and soon after the death of their lirsl >upcrior, Lilicratus, ceased to exist as a separate body. CSXiSSTZlirzii.N-S. This order was founded about 1254 by the holy hermit Peter of Morone, and took the above name after the elevation of their founder to the supreme pontificate, with the title of Celestine V., in 1204. Its rule was austere; the religious had to rise at 2 a.m. to say matins ; abstained perpetuelly from meat unless in case of iUness, and fasted every day from the Exaltation of the Cross to Easter, and twice a week for the rest of the year. They increased rapidly, and spread into France and Germany, but do not appear to have ever established themselves in England. Most of their priories in Germany were in those provinces which the movement begun by Luther most afiected, and they conse- quently perished. In the early part of the eighteenth century there were ninety- six priories in the Italian, and twenty- one in the French province ; the chief or mother house being the convent of the Holy Ghost at Morone, near Sulmoua, the only abbey in the order. The French Celestinians, whose principal house was at Paris, were included among the fifteen hundred convents which, upon various grounds more or less specious, were sup- pressed by the commission of 1766 pre- sided over by the contemptible Lomenie de Brienne, Ai-chbishop of Toulouse. The order has not since been revived in France. Of the once numerous ItaUaa priories very few now exist. CEZiiBACY of the clergy. The law of the Western Chui-ch forbids persons hving in the married state to be ordained, and persons in holy orders to marry. A careful distinction must be made between the principles on wliich the law of celi- bacy is based and the clianges -wliich have taken place in the application of the principle. The principles which have induced the Church to impose celibacy on her clergy are (a) that they may serve God with less restraint, and with undivided heart (see 1 Cor. vii. 32) ; and (/3) that, being called to the altar, they may I iiilnace the life of continence, which is holier than that of man-iage. That con- tinence IS a more holy stale than that of marriage is distinctly allirnied in the words of our blessed Lord ("There are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that can receive it, let him receive it"). It is taught by St. Paul (" He that giveth his virgin in marriage doeth well, and he that giveth her not, doeth better") and by St. John (Apoc. xiv. 4). Christian antiquity speaks with one voice on tliis matter, and the Council of Trent, sess. xxiv. De Matr. can. 10, anatlieiiiat i,-- those who deny that "it is m nM|uired of a bishop that he slimild have been only once mar- ried. In early times, however, we find a law of celibacy, though it is one which ditlers from the present Western law, in full force. Paphnut ins, who at the Coun- cil of Nictea resisted an attempt to impose a continent life on the clergy, still admits that, according to ancient tradition, a cleric must not marry after ordination. This statement is confirmed by the Apostohc Constitutions, vi. 17, which forbid bishops, priests, and deacons to marry, while the 27th {al. 25th) Apos- tohc Canon contains the same prohibition. One of the earhest councils, that of Neoceesarea (between 314-325), threatens a priest who married after ordination with degTadation to the lay state. Even a deacon could marry in one case only — viz. if at his ordination he had stipulated for liberty to do so, as is laid down by the Council of Ancyra, in 314. Thus it was the recognised practice of the ancient Church to prohibit the marriage of those already priests, and this discipline is still maintained in the East. A change was made in the West by the 33rd Canon of Elvira (m 305 or 306). It required bishops, priests, and all who served the altar (" positis in ministerio ") to live, even if already married, in con- tinence. The Council of Nicaea refused to impose this law on the whole Church, but it prevailed in the West. It was laid down by a sjmod of Carthage in 390, by Innocent I. 20 years later; while Jerome (against Jovinian) declares that a priest, w^ho has "always to otfer sacrifice for the people, must always pray, and therefore always abstain from marriage." Leo and Gregory the Great, and theEighth Council of Toledo in 053, renewed the prohibitions against the marriage of sub- deacons. So the law stood when Hildebrand, afterwards Gregory VII., began to exer- cise a decisive influence in the Church. Leo IX., Nicolas II., Alexander II., and Hildebrand himself when he came to be Pope, issued stringent decrees against priests living in concubinage. They were forbidden to say Mass or even to serve at the altar; they were to be punished with deposition, and the faithful wcvr w arurd not to hear their xMass. So far ( Ireg. n y only fought against the corru])tion of tlie times, and it is mere ignorance to repre- sent him as having instituted the law of cehbacy. But about this time a change did occur in the canon law. A series of syuods from the beginning of the twelfth century declared the marriage of persons in holy orders to be not only unlawful but invalid. With regard to persons in minor orders, they were allowed for many centuries to serve in the Church while living as married men. From the twelfth century, it was laid down that if they married they lost the privileges of the clerical state. However, Boniface VIIL, in 1300, permitted them to act as clerics, if they had been only once married and then to a virgin, provided they had the per- mission of the bishop and wore the clerical habit. This law of Pope Bonifiice was renewed by the Council of Trent, sess. xxiii. cap. 6, De Reform. The same Council, can. 9, sess. xxiv., again pro- nounced the marriage of clerks in holy orders null and void. At present, in the West, a married man can receive holy orders only if his wife fully consents and herself makes a vow of chastity. If the husband is to be consecrated bishop, the wife must enter a religious order. We may now turn to the East, and sketch the changes which the law of celi- bacy has undergone among the Greeks. In the time of the Church-historian Socrates (about 450), the same law of clerical celibacy which obtained among the Latins was observed in Thessaly, Mace- donia, and Achaia. Further, the case of Synesius in 410 proves that it w-as un- usual for bishops to live as married men, for he had, on accepting his election as bishop, to make a stipulation that he should be allowed to Uve with his wife. The synod in TruUo (692) requires bishops, if married, to separate from their wives, and forbids all clerics to marry after the subdiaconate. However, a law of Leo the Wise (886-911) permitted siib.leacoiis, deacons, and priests, who liad married after receiving their respective orders, not indeed to exercise sacred functions, but still to remain in the ranks of the clergy and exercise such offices {e.g. matters of administration) as were consistent wdth the marriage which they had concluded. The practical consequences of these enactments are (1) that Greek candidates L 146 CELL CEMLTERT for the priestliood usually leave the seminaries before being ordained deacons, and return, having' concluded marriage, commonly with datighters of clergymen ; {■J) that secular priests live as married men, but cannot, on the death of their wives, marry again; (3) that bishops are usually chosen I'rom the monks. (From Ilefele, " Beitrage zur Kirchengeschichte, Arcliiiologie und Liturgik.") CEXiXi. (1) A colony or offshoot from some large monastery. Cells were first heard of in the Benedictine order, and were usually planted on estates that had been granted to the mother house. Tliey were also called " provostships," •' obediences," or " priories." They were originally ruled by provosts or deans, re- movable at the discretion of the abbot of the mother house. Some cells were of sufficient importance to be called abbeys; but their abbots could only be elected with the consent and subject to the confir- mation of the abbot of the mother house. The inmates of the cell were bound to render yearly a stated portion of their revenues to the house on which they depended, and to present themselves there in person on particular days. Instances of important cells in this country were, Tynemouth Priory, depending on St. Alban's; Leighton Buzzard, on VVobum (Cistercian); and Bermondsey, a cell of the Cluniac abbey of La Charity, in France. This last is also an instance of an "alien priory," of which there were great numbers in England at the dissolu- tion. (Ferraris, Monasterium.) (2) The separate chamber or hut of any monk, friar, or hermit, is popularly termed his " cell," as in Milton's lines — And may at length my weary age Find out the peacefurhermitaee, The hairy gown, and mossy cell. (8) In primitive times the name "cella" was given tea small memorial chapel, erected over the tomb of some friend or relative in a sepulchral area, in which "agapiB''and commemorative cele- brations were held on the anniversaiy of death. CEraETERV ((cot/iijnjpioK, sleeping- place). Ill tbis article only burial- grounds or churchyards "sub die," or in the open air, will be noticed; for subter- ranean burial-places see Catacombs. I'lveii (luring Mm ages of persecution open air eemeterii's wi're in use at Rome, as has been shown by 1 >e Uossi, as well as in the provinces. Thus the cemetery named after Callistus, who was placed in charge of it by Pope Zephyrinus, was partly above and partly below ground ; that at Vienne on the Rhone entirely above ground. After Constantine, sul)- terranean interment was of course abiin- doned. The old Roman law, as old as the Twelve Tables, which forbade intra- mural sepulture, was gradually disre- garded; after 619 it became common to bury at Rome within the walls ; and it is only in modem times that the sounder practice of antiquity has been everywhere restored. A cemetery or churchyard, in order to be fit to receive the bodies of Christians, must first be consecrated and set apart by the bishop for that purpose. The rite may be seen in the Pontificale. From its tenor it is evident that it contemplates the burial of none but Christians within the space to be consecrated ; indiscriminate burial is therefore an abuse. The admis- sion to ecclesiastical burial in a cemetery so consecrated is regarded as a species of commimion. Hence it has ever been held that the burial of excommunicated per- sons, and others with whom in their life we could not communicate, in a Catholic cemetery, is unlawful. If such an inter- ment has been violently effected, Innocent III. ordered that the remains of the ex- communicated person so buried among those of the faithful should, if they could be distinguished, be exhumed ; if not, that the cemetery should be reconciled by the aspersion of holy water solemnly blessed, as at the dedication of a church. In a recent instance in Canada, where the civil power, acting upon the sentence of a lay tribunal, forcibly eftected the burial of an excommunicated person in the Catholic cemetery, the Bishop of Montreal, Mgr. Bourget, laid the portion of the cemetery so desecrated under an interdict. > Cemeteries enjoyed the same right and degree of asylum, in the case of criminals fleeing to them for shelter, as the churches to which they were attached. The Council of Lyons ( 1 244) ordered that all trading, marketing, adjudication, trial of criminals, and secular business of every kind, in churchyards no less than 1 See an account of the " Guibord case," in the Catholic Review of New ifork, September 2.5, 1875. A French Canadian priest writes to u3 (May 5, 1881):— "The man was buried by force in the Catholic buryiug-ground, and the spot is considered with horror by all Catholics visiting that grand and imposing Montreal j cemetery." CENSURE CEREMONY (SACRED) 147 in churches, should be put an end to. (IVn-aris, Ccemeterium.) CfiifSirRS may be defined as a s])iritiial penalty, imposed for the correc- tion and amendment of ofl'enders, by which a baptised person, who has com- mitted a crime and is contumacious, is deprived by ecclesiastical authority of the use of certain spiritual advantages. Thus a censure presupposes not only guilt but obstinacy ; its immediate eft'ect is the de- privation of spiritual goods ; it only atiects those who by baptism have become sub- jects of the Church. It may be true, as Fleury' says, that under Gregory VII. censures were multiplied in a manner un- known to the early Church, and this may have been necessitated by the increasing wickedness of the times. But it is cer- tain that the use of censures dates from the very infancy of the Church. Censures are divided, according to the nature and extent of the pains they in- flict, into excommunications, suspensions, and interdicts [see under those articles]. "Censurje latsB ?ententi;B" are inoun'ed on the violation of the law, ipso facto \ " Censurfe sententise ferendfe," only on the sentence of the ecclesiastical judge. They may be passed ab homine — i.e. they may be issued by a mandate respecting some single action or business ; or, again, a jure — i.e. a permanent law may be passed, binding under censure. In the former case, imless already incurred, they expire with the death of the legislator ; in the latter, they continue still in force. Some censures are reserved, others not reserved — i.e. the superior may reserve the power of absolution from censures to himself, or he may commit it to the ordinary ministers [see Absoltttion]. That the Church has the power of in- flicting censures appears from the words of Christ — "He that will not hear the Church, let him be unto thee as a heathen and a publican" — as well as from the constant practice of the Church herself. Censures can be imposed according to the ordinarj- law, by ecclesiastics possessing jurisdiction in the external courts (" forum externum as distinct from the internal court or tribunal of confession). Thus censures may be imposed bj- the Pope or a general council for the whole Church ; by an archbishop for his own diocese, also in the dioceses of his suflragans during a visitation, or with respect to cases brought to his tribunal by appeal from one of his suffragans ; by bishops and vicar-generals • See the Discourse prefixed to livr. Ix. in their own dioceses ; by cardinals in the churches from which they take their titles; by legates in the territory of their legation; by provincial covuicils in the province ; by chapters in the vacancy of a see till the election of a vicar-capitular, on whom the power then devolves ; by generals, provincials, local superiors of regulars, according to the statutes of j their order. Thus parish priests as such I have no power of this kind. Still such authority may be delegated to all ecclesi- astics : not, however, to women — e.ff. to abbesses. I Persons who have not reached the age I of puberty are not included among the j persons whom the censure strikes ; nor ! again are sovereigns, unless the censure be inflicted by the Pope. Cardinals are not subjected even to Papal censures, un- less they are specially mentioned as so subject. (From Gury, " Theolog. Moral.") csREznoio-T '(sacred), in its widest sense, denotes any external act used in the worship of God. Some cere- monies are essential — such, for example, as concern the matter and form of the sacraments; others are accidental— e.,^. the sacraments can be given vahdly, or the worship of God could be carried on, without them. Of accidental ceremonies, some descend from the apostolic age, others have been added in the course of time by the Church. That the Church has power to institute or to change such ceremonies is plain from the practice in all ages, and is defined by the Coimcil of Trent.' The Council further declares that the approved rites of the Church, in the solemn administration of the sacra- ments, cannot be despised, or changed by individual caprice, without sin.^ Scripture and reason combine to show the wisdom of the Church's doctrine on this head. Scripture — for God ordained ceremonies in the old law, and Christ made outward ceremonies essential to the administration of Baptism and the Eucharist. Reason — because it is natural for man, who is composed of body and soul, to express his interior devotion l)y exterior acts ; because man is iinj)res.-ed by teaching which is conveyed in thi; form of symbol, and which appeals to his eyes as well as to his ears ; because, lastly, as both body and soul come from God, we are bound to use both in His service. The position, however, and import- 1 Sess. xxi. cap. 2, De Comiium. * Sess. vii. can. 13, De Sacrani. in gen. l2 148 CEPJNTHIAIVS CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF aiice of ceremonies in the Christian is very different from that which they held iu the Jewish Church. In the latter a multitude of ceremonies were hinding by divine law ; in the Christian worship, on the other hand, only a very few cere- monies have been instituted by Christ ; the rest are alterable at the will of the Church. Another reason gave cere- monies a much more important place in the Jewish than they have in the Chris- tian Church. The Jews, St. Thomas says, were looking forward in faith and hope, not only to heavenly joys, but also to the means by which these joys could be obtained. Heaven and the means of getting there were both future to them, and both were symbolised by their cere- monies. With us the means of salvation are secured by acts already past (e.g. Christ's passion), or by acts actually per- formed in our midst (e.ff. the sacraments). Our ceremonies symbolise grace already won for us, and regard the future only so far as they typify heaven. The blessed in heaven have nothing more to hope for; therefore with them tliere are no figures or symbols (" nihil figurale "), " but only thanksgiving and the voice of praise, and so it is said concerning the city of the blessed : I saw no temple in it, for the Lord God Almighty is its temple and the Lamb." ' CEZtZM-THlAlirs. Cerinthus was a nativi' ol Alexandria, but taught his heresy in proconsular Asia. He was a contemporary of St. John, who on one occasion left the public Ijatlis at Ephesus because Cerinthus was there, the Apostle fearing to he in the same place with an " enemy of the truth." Irenseus says St. John wrote his Gospel to confute him. Cerinthus was (1) a Judaiser. He seems to have held a gi-oss doctrine on the Millennium, to have enforced the rite of circumcision and the observance of sabbaths. IMnreover, it is related that the Cerinthians, like the Ebionites, ac- cepted only St. Matthew's Gospel. (2) He was also a Gnostic, so that he forms the link between the Judaising and Gnostic sects. He attributed the creation of the world and the giving of the Jewish law to an angel or angels far removed from and ignorant of the supreme Being. The reader will observe that Cerinthus made his creative angel ignorant of, but not antagonistic to, the supreme God ; so that he was not obliged to break entirely with Judaism, as the later Gnostics did. * 1' 2*, qu. ciii. a. 3. (From Lightfoot on Colossians: "Essay on the Colossian Heresy.") CESSATZO A DZVZM-XS. A prohi- bition which obliges the clergy to abstain from celebrating divine offices, or giving Church burial, in some specified place. It is distinct from an interdict, because (1) an interdict may affect only certain persons : cessatio a divinis is always local — i.e. it forbids anyone to celebrate the divine offices in a particular place; (2) an interdict is a censure, and therefore inflicted to correct offenders: not so cessatio a divinis, which may be ordered as an expression of the Church's sorrow, to repair some injury done to the divine honour, &c. ; (3) during an interdict offices may be celebrated with closed doors, and publicly on certain feasts: neither is permissible duriug cessatio a divinis. Cessatio a divinis is in some cases pre- scribed, as a matter of course, by the gejieral law of the Church — e.g. when a church is desecrated ; but it may also be imposed by all who have power to inflict censures. (Gury, "Theolog. Moral.") Fleury gives several instances of cessatio a divinis from the history of the French church in the sixth century.' CHAI.CESOM-, GENERAX. COTTN-- CZli or. The fourth General Council, which, in 451, condemned the errors of Eutyches and affirmed two natures in Christ. The opposition to Nestorius, who said there were two persons in Christ, led many, particularly among the monks, into the opposite extreme of maintaining that there was one nature, as there was one person only, in our Lord. Among those who fell into this error, which was closely connected with Apollinarianism, a conspicuous place belonged to Eutyches, an old monk who had been for thirty years Archimandrite of a monastery near Constantinople which numbered not less than 300 religious. In 448 Eusebius of Dorylfeum accused Eutyches of heresy in a synod at Constantinople. Eutyclics expressed his belief as follows: "I conlV vs that our Lord was of two natures l)ei'nre the union, but after the union [i.r. the union of the two natures in the Incar- nation] I confess one nature." The synod, over which Flavian, bishop of Constant i- 1 Liv. xxxiv. 53. He calls them all inter- dicts, but one or two of his instances (e.g. tlie cessation of the offices at St. Denys, in Paris, because it had been polluted by bloodshed) exactly correspond to the cessatio a divinis. CITALOEDON. COT'NCIL OF noplt', presided, maintained two natures in I Christ " (T/Vcr tlie unimi " [i.e. lufarnu- j IliiT, ami Eutyc-he> was coiKlnnned and i (l.'lKiscd. Tlis cn-orcul at thi' vrrv roots of | true l)flirl' in the hu-arnatioii. lie main- i tained tliat in Christ the human was I absorbed in the divine nature, so that C'hrist's body was not of one substance with ours — was not, indeed, the " body of a num." ("arried to its logical conse- quences, the Eutyehian heresy involved a denial of Christ's hunuinity and even of His divinity, for Christ would have had one mixed nature, partly human, partly divine, and in reality neither divine nor human. After the synod, Eutyches appealed to Leo, professing his desire that the matter had been laid before Leo sooner, and his readiness to accept the Pope's judgment. He also wrote to Chrysologus of Ravenna, who refen-ed him to the chair of Peter ; and it is probable, though not quite cer- tain, that he also addressed himself to Dioscorus and other bishops. Pope Leo, after examining the acts, approved the sentence passed in the synod at Con- ! stantinople. Dioscorus, on the other hand, ■ •who was really of one mind with Euty- j ches, managed through his influence with the Empress Eudocia, to secure the convo- cation of a general synod at Ephesus. Thereupon Leo, who rec('i\ (>d on May 18, 449, an invitation to take part in the council, despatched three legates to repre- sent him there, and gave into their hands several lettei's, among which was his famous "dogmatic epistle" to Flavian. In it the Pope teaches with all possible fulness and clearness the existence of two distinct natures in the incarnate God. "He who, remaining in the form of a God, made man, also in the form of a servant w as 7uade man. For each nature without defect preserves its proper cliarac- teristics ( jirojirietateni suam), and as the form [/.e. nature] of a servant does not take away the form of God, so tlie form of God does not dimini,>h the form of a servant. . . Each form in union with the other does what is projier to it : the Word, that is to say, operating that which is proper to the \\'ord, and the flesh performing that which is pro])er to the tiesh. . . . The one [i.e. the divine nature] shines forth in miracles, the other [j.e. the Inniiaii iialmv^ siici-iimbs to injuries. And as the WHiil does not fall away from eijuaiity li the l-'.-ilher's glory, so the tiesh does not leave the nature of our race. For one and the CHALCEDON, COT XCrL OF 14!1 same, a point often to \«- rej>eated, is truly sou of God, and truly son of man. . . . To hunger, to thirst, to be weary, and to sleep, is evidently proper to man. Hut to satisfy five thousand men with five loaves, and to give the woman of Samaria living water ... is without doubt divine. ... It does not l)elong to the same nature to say, I and the Father are one, and again, the Father is greater than I." In August of the same year the bishops began to assemble at Ephesus in the council which for its evil repute has earned the name of Latrocinium or Robber-synod. The council met on the 8th of the month and consisted apparently of about 130 bishops, though one ancient account raises the number to 300. Dios- corus presided, while two Papal legates, besides Domnus of Antioch, Juvenal of Jerusalem, Flavian of Constantinople, were present. Flavian and Eusebius were condemned as heretics and deposed, as it was pretended, by the unanimous vot e of the council, but the coarse and fanatical Dioscorus would allow no notes of the proceedings to be made except by his own creatures, and he was afterwards accused of having falsified the Acts. He called in soldiers and monks armed with cudgels, cruelly m.altreated Flavian and cast him into prison, and forced the other Fathers by outrage and starvation to sign a blank paper, on which he afterwards vsTOte the condemnation of Flavian, who died shortly afterwards of the ill-usage he had received. Leo, with the whole West, rejected this council, while the churches of Syria, Asia Minor, Pontus, would hear nothing of it. It was, how- ever confirmed by the Emperor Theo- dosius II., and for the time it was im- possible to convoke another synod. Better times came with the accession of Marcian and Pulcheria to the throne. Marcian at once annulled the decrees of the Latrocinium, and in concert with Valentiuian III., the Western emperor, and with the approval of Pope Leo and of Anatolius, the new bishop of Con- stantinople, who had now subscril)ed Leo's letter to Plavian, convoked a new council, which was to meet at Nicrea. Afterwards, however, Chaleedon was chosen as the place of meeting, because I of its proximity to Constantinople, which made it possible for Marcian to attend the council and at the same time to I look after civil affairs in the capital of ■ his empire. The council opened on I October 8, 451, and closed on November 1 150 CIIALCEDON, COUNCIL OF CHALCFDON, COUNCIL OF of the same year. The Fathers held their sessinns" in the church of St. Eu|.Iirmia, wliich ^t..n,l nrar the ]!os- Jihunis nil a i;rntlc ciiiinfiicc just opposite Const ant iudple. The nunilicr of asseuihled bishops was about UOO. The external order of the council was in the liands of an imperial commission, consisting of civil officers ; but the papal legates " manifested an unmistakeable superiority over the other voters, as representing, according to their own explicit statement, the head of the whole Church, and as holding fast to the conviction that every resolution of the synod to which they did not agree was null and void." ' This claim was fully re- cognised by the council, as will presently appear. In the first session, Dioscorus was declared guilty of murder and of other moral ofl'ences, particularly of violence and outrage upon the Fathers who met at Ephesus. In the second, the epistle of Leo to Flavian was unanimously approved. The Fathers exclaimed, " That is the faith of the Fathers: that is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe. Peter has spoken through Leo. That was also Cyril's faith, and that is the faith of the Fathers." In the third session Dioscorus was deposed. In the fourth the letter of Leo to Plavian was approved by a formal vote. In the fifth session, the dogmatic formula of Chalcedon which had been drawn up by a commission was adopted by the council. In this formula the council defined that there was "one and the same Christ the Son, Lord, only begotten, in two natures, without confusion, without change [this is directed against Eutyches], without division, without separation [this against Nestorius, who divided Christ into two persons] ; the difl'erence of the natures being in no wise destroyed on account of the union, but rather the pro- perty (ISioTrjTos) of each nature being presened and meeting (a-vvrpexova-rjs) in one Person and Hypostasis. At the close of the council the Fathers wrote to Pope Leo, who " had presided over aU the assembled [bishops] as the head over the members," begging him " by his assent also to honour their decision " (rifji-qrrov K(u rnls- aais yj/r}4>ois Triv Kf)ta-iu). The Emperor also asked the Pope to con- firm the decrees of the council. Accord- ingly, on March 21, 453, Leo addressed a circular to the bishops who had attended 1 Hefele, Concil. ii. p. 421. the council confirming their definition of the faith. Tlie confirmation of the council would have been olitained much sooner and mucli more easily, if the dogmatic con- troversy had been the only matter of discussion. Ikit it was not so. At the end of the fourteenth session, the Papal legates withdrew, and in their next meeting the Fathers of the Council passed thirty canons, relating to Church government, clerical and monastic dis- cipline, &c., of which the 28th is the most important. The Church of Con- stantinople, though not of Apostolic foundation, naturally acquired great in- fluence as an imperial city, and as early as 381 the second General Council as- signed it " the pre-eminence of honour " after the Church of Rome, cn the ground that Constantinople itself was New Rome. This canon, however, was ig- nored by Rome. At Chalcedon, Ana- tolius of Constantinople saw that the time was unusually favourable for assert- ing the doubtful privilege of his see and for extending it. He had not much to fear from the jealousy or conservatism of the great patriarchates or exarchates in the East. The sees of Alexandria and Ephesus were vacant, Maximus of Antioch was his creature, Juvenal of Jerusalem was in his debt for helping him to obtain jurisdiction over the three Palestinian provinces. In these circumstances, the 28th canon of Chalcedon was agreed to with little difficulty. The former part of this canon merely reaffirms the decree of the second general synod to which the canon of Chalcedon ex])ressly refers. The Fathers, the bislio])s of Chalcedon say, had rigiitly assioned [patriarchal] privi- leges to th>' eld.T lloiiie, boeause of its imperial dignity, and had from similar motives assigned the second rank to New Rome — i.e. Constaiitiiu>i)le. The latter part of the 28th canon goes much further. It sanctions the practice which had prevailed since Chrysostom's time — viz. that the Bishop of Constantinople should be supreme, not only over the distiict {SioiKrjais) of Thrace, but also over Pontus and Asia, which had been formerly independent. The metropolitans of those districts were to receive conse- cration from Constantinople. Leo absolutely refused to confirm this canon, and Anatolius acknowledged that "the whole force and confirmation of that which had been done was reser\ ed to the authority of [his] beatitude " — i.e. CHALDEAN RITE CHALDEAN RITE 151 to tlie authority ot his Holiness the Bishop of Rome. In like manner the council itself and tlie Enijx'ror Marcian had ex- pressly allowed that the canon was in- valid "without the approbation of the A])o>tolic Sice. Indeed, tor a considerable t iiii.' the ( irei'lis themselves did not appeal to tile canon in question, and their canonists' omitted it in their collections. Justinian, however, confirmed the high ranlv of Constantinople, and this very i Miion of Clialeedon was confirmed at the ^ivat i:,iMrrn synod in Trnllo,'^ although IJoiiu- still al),-taini'd from sanctioning it. But after a Latin Empire had been esta- blished in the East, and a Latin Patri- archate at Constantinople, the Fourth Lateran Synod under Innocent III., in the year 1215, ordained that the Patriarch of Constantinople was to hold rank im- mediately after the Pope, and therefore above the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch. (From Ilefele, " Concil." vol. ii.) CHAlSEAir RITE, CHRZS- TXANS OP. — The name Chaldeans in ecclesiastical use signifies the Catholics who belong to the Church formed by conversions from Nestorianism. Assemani (•• Ribliothec. Orient." tom. iii. p. -IIO seq.) distinguishes between particular conver- sions — i.e. conversions of individual bishops and their dioceses, and general conversions — i.e. unions effected with a large section of the Nestorians which led to the recognition of a Catholic patriarch. Under the former head he mentions — (1) the conversion of the Bishop Sahaduna and the Gamarajans, a.d. 630 ; (2) that of Timothy of Tarsus, metropolitan of the Nestorians in Cyprus, and of his subjects, A.I). 1445 ; (.3) that of the Nestorians on the Malabar Coast ; (4) that of the Chris- tians of St. .Tohn, called Sabseans, by the ( 'avmelite Fathers, in Bassora, ci'rc. a.d. 10.;(). The story of the third of these conversions will be given in the article on the CnRisTiANS of St. Thomas. We doubt the accuracy of Assemani's state- ment about the Sabseaus, whose history has been recently investigated by Cliwol- son.^ The third case is interesting from its connection with the Council of Flo- rence. Timothy was converted by An- drew, archbishop of Rhodes (Oolossensis), 1 Till the time of Photius. Hergenriither, PI,oli„s. i. p. 87. - Hut the (leci.sion of the council in Trullo on tliis iKiiiit was not received iu the other tasteru ji;itriiirchatcs. Hergenriither, ib. p. "223. 5 See, especially, his criticism of Assemani (Z>ie Sabier und der Sabismus, vol. i. p. 48). whom Eugenius IV. sent to Cyprus. The union was effected in the second session of the continuation of the council in the Lateran, August 7, 1445. Eugenius, in his bull containing the decree of union, forbids anyone to call the Chaldeans here- tics. So that here we have a formal re- cognition of the name " Chaldean." ' (Ilefele, " Concil." vii. p. 815 seq.) Assemani enumerates the following " general conversions." (1) In 1247 Asa, " Vicar of the East " — i.e. representative of the patriarch in China and Eastern Tartary — under the Nestorian Patriarch Sabarjesu (1226-5G), made a profe-ssion of Cathohc belief to Innocent IV. It was subscribed by the Archbishop of Nisibis, two other a,rchbishops, and three bishops. (2) The Patriarch Jaballaha was recon- ciled under Benedict XL, a.d. 1304. (3) A dispute about the succession to the patri- archate between Sulaka and Shimoom led to the reconciliation of the former under Julius III., A.D. 1652. (4) The Patriarch Elias became Catholic under Paul V., A.D. 1616. None of these conversions had any wide or lasting influence. (5) The conversion of the Nestorians at Diarbekir led Innocent XL to establish a new Chal- dean patriarchate in that city. Joseph I. was the first patriarch ; the last died in 1828. (Badger, "The Nestorians and their Rituals," vol. i. p. 150.) Here Assemani's narrative ends, but since his great work was published at Rome (1719-28) the most important ac- cession of Nestorians to the Church has taken place. There had been since the middle of the sixteenth century a schism 1 '• Meshihaya," which simply means "fol- lower of the Messias" — i.e. Chrfstian' — is now used as a distinctive name for the Chaldean Catholics, as opposed to the Xestorians of the same rite. The word ' Meshi- chojo ") frequently occurs in Syriac literature as a i^enernl name for Christian. (Pavne Smith, Thfxaiir. Si/r. col. -2-2i-2.) The Greek word Xpio-Tioi'b? has been adojited in the Syriac lan- fruage, and occurs constantly, not onlv in the Peshitto, but also in late authors, e.tj. in the chronicles of Barhebra-us. The reader must not suppose tliat the name Chaldean has anything to do with the Chaldee language. The Catho- lics (if the Syrian and Chaldean rites auree in the use of tlie Syriac tongue in the liturgy, the former, however, using the Western or Jacobite, the latter, the Eastern or Nestorian, dialect. The differences between the dialects, which are slight and chiefly affect the pronunciation of the vowels, are lioted in all the reoetit gram- mars. Murtiu (Sj/ro-amldaic-i' In^lil^fmms. p. 60) gives a transcription of tlie Xieeiic Creed in Koman eharacter.s, as he heard it pronounced, by a Chaldean priest. 152 CHALDEAN EITE CHALDEAN RITE between the Nestorians themselves, and tliey had two patriarchs, one residing at Koehanes in Central Koordistan, the other at Mosul, or Alkosh. Elias, the patriarch at the latter place, on his death in 1778, left two nephews, Ilanna ( = John, the name he took at ordination, his own name being Hormuzd) and Jeshuyan. Both were already metropolitans, both became Catholics, and both were candidates for the patriarcliate. The latter liad scarcely reached the object of his ambition when he relapsed into Nestorianism. John, who re- mained Catholic, claimed the patriarchate in his place, a.d. 1782. He had bitter dis- putes, not only with his Nestorian relatives, but also witli the Carmelite missionaries and the Patriarch Joseph, who still exer- cised jurisdiction at Diarbekir. It was not till the close of the last century that be was recognised by Rome as the spiritual bead of all the Chaldeans, and allowed to use the patriarchal seal and exercise patriarchal functions, and he then took the name Elias. He only received the pallium shortly before his death at Bagdad in 1841. He must have been bishop for more than sixty-three years ; but it appears from his autobiography, translated by Badger, that he was consecrated metro- politan at the age of sixteen. This last conversion to the Church embraced most of the Nestorians in the plains by the Tigi is. Badger, writing in 1852, estimates the number of Catholii-s belonging to the Chaldean rite at 20,000, thinly scattered through the vast territory which extends from Diarbekir to the frontiers of Persia, and from Tyari to Bagdad. The Chal- deans, says liadsrer (i. p. 176), are supe- rior to their Nestorian countrymen " in civilisation, general intelligence, and eccle- siastical order." This is important testi- mony, coming, as it does, from an author who had extraordinaiy opportunities of judging correctly, and who writes with passionate vehemence against everything Catholic. Rome utterly abolished the hereditary succession to the patriarchate which had long prevailed among the Nestorians, and John was forbidden to make any of his relations bishops, but it was difficult to root out this abuse. A nephew of the Patriarch John actually became Nestorian for a few months, in 1834, that he might be consecrated metropolitan by the Nesto- rian patriarch and succeed his uncle, who is said to have approved of this proceed- ing. The devotion to the old patriarchal liouse nearly led to a schism, which was fomented by a Nestorian patriarch, Shi- moom, who" tied from the Kurds to Mosul. Great discontent was caused in 1843 by an attempt of the Patriarch Zeiya to make the Chaldeans keep Easter according lo the Latin reckoning. This patriarch was himself cited before the Holy Office on a charge of embezzlement, and resigned in 1846. The next patriarch, Joseph .\udu, came into conflict with Rome ou accoujit of his claims to exercise jurisdiction over the Chaldeans in India, and because of his uncanonical ordinations. He was forbidden to con.secrate bishops without leave from Rome. He refused to accept the decrees of the Vatican Council, which he attended, and renounced communion with Rome. A Capuchin, Bishop Fanciulli, was .sent as Apostolic visitor to Mosul, and the patriarch made a qualified submission in July 1872. Soon after the patriarch re- newed the schism, induced some of the bishops and nobles to join him, and conse- crated bishops in defiance of the Pope. The revolt was fostered by the Turkish Government. The patriarch made histiual submission in January 1877. According to the ordiuan' law the patriarch — unless Rome has previously appointed a coadjutor with right of suc- cession— is chosen by the bishops. The election, if canonical, isconfirmed at Rome. He is subject not only to Propaganda but to the Latin Archbishop of Bagdad, as apostolic visitor. He resides at A.lljosh and Mosul. The metropolitans and bishops, who are chosen from the monks, are nominated and consecrated by the patriarch. The metropolitan sees are Amedia, Mosul (both immediately subject to the pa- triarch), Kerkuk, and Sehna. The epi- scopal sees are Akra, Diarbekir, Gezir, Mardin, Salmas, Seert and Zaku. The secular priests are usually married, and partly support themselves by manual labour. The monks belong to tlie order of St. Anthony, and there are two monas- teries— a very ancient one, that of Rabban Hormuzd, at Alkosh, which in 1843 had an abbot and four monks, and a small one founded in modern times, and with scarcely any religious, that of Mar Yurgis ( = St. George), on the left bank of the Tigris, a few miles above Mosul. The monks live apart in cells which are mostly in the rock. They abstain from -wine and spirits and from flesh, except on Christmas Day and Easter Sunday. The number of priests, secular and j regular, is at present (1891) above 100; CHALICE CHALICE 153 tlio number of Catholics about 33,000. (Werner, "Orbis Terrarum Catholicus.") Bickell ("Conspectus rei Syrorum litterariae," Miinster, 1871, §§ vii.-x.) mentions the following printed editions of liturgical books of the Chaldean rite : " ilissale Chaldaicum, et Decret. S. Con- gregat. de Propaganda Fide,''Romae, 1767; " PsalteriumChaldaienni in usum nationis Chald." Romee, 1842 ; " lireviarium Chal- daicum in usum nationis Chald. a Jose- pho Guriel, secundo editum," Romae, 1865, lie also gives the titles of four liturgical books of the Chaldean rite, but intended for the church of Malabar — viz. " Ordo Chaldaicus ^lissje B. Apost. juxta ritum Eccles. Malabar." Romae, 1774; "Ordo Chaldaicus Rituum et Lectionum juxta movem Eccles. Malabar." Romae, 1775; " Ordo Chaldaicus Ministerii Sacrament. SS. quae perficiuntur a Sacerdot. juxta morem Eccles. Malabar." Romae, 1845; "Ordo Baptism. Adultorum juxta ritum Eccles. Malabar. Chaldseorum." Romae, 1859. In three instances there is an ex- ceptional use of the word Chaldes instead of Syiiac in the titles of books meant for the Maronites— viz. " IMissale Chaldaicum juxta ritum Eccles. nationis Maronita- rum,'' Romae, 1502 ; " Officium Uefunc- torum ad usum Maroiiitarum Gregorii XIII. impensa Chaldaiois characteribus impressum," Romae, 1585, vol. ii. ; " Bre- viarii Chaldaici aestiva pars " (the former part, printed ten years earlier, is entitled simply, " OfKc. Sanctorum juxta ritum Eccles. Maronit. pars hiemalis "), Romae, 1666. (Assemani has been our authority for the history down to the close of the seven- teenth centurj', then Badger, carefully compared with Silbernagl's " Kirchen des Orients ; " and for the events of the last few years, Hergenrother, " Kirchenge- schiciite," vol. ii. p. 1009 seq.) CHiLIiZCE {calix, TTOTrjpwv). The cup used in Mass, for the wine which is to be consecrated. The rubrics of the Missal require that it should be of gold or silver, or at least have a silver cup gilt inside. It must be consecrated by the bishop with chrism, according to a form prescribed in the Pontifical. It may not be touched except by persons in holy orders. "NN'e know nothing about the chalice which our Lord used in the first Mass. Venerable Bade relates that in the se\ enth century they exhibited at Jerusalem a great silver cup, with two handles, which our Saviour Himself had used in celebrate ing the Eucharist, but antiquity knows nothing of this chalice, and it has no better claim to be regarded as genuine than the chalice of agate which is still shown at Valencia and claims also to be that used by Christ. Probably, the first chalices used by Christian priests were made of glass. It seems likely at least, though the inference cannot be called certain, from TertuUian's words, that in his time glass chalices were commonly used in church, and undoubtedly such chalices were still common during the fifth century, as appears from the testi- monies of St. Jerome and Cyprianus Gallus, the biographer of St. Cn?sarius of Aries. Gregory of Tours mentions a crystal chalice of remarkable beauty, which belonged to the church of Milan. However, even before persecution had ceased, the Church began, from natural reverence for Christ's Blood, to employ more costly vessels. The Roman Book of the Pontiffs says of Pope Urban I. (226) that " he made all the holy vessels of silver." So, too, we read in the acts of St. Laurence's martyrdom, that he was charged by the heathen with having sold the altar-vessels of gold and silver, and with having given the proceeds to the poor ; while St. Augustine mentions two golden and six silver chalices, which were exhumed from the crypt of the church at Cirta. Of course, such precious chalices became more common when the Church grew rich and powerful. Thus St. (Jhrysostom describes a chalice " of gold and adorned with jewels." In 857 the Emperor Michael III. sent Pope Nicolas I., among other presents, a golden chalice, sun-ounded by precious stones, and with jacinths suspended on gold threads round the cup. A precious silver chalice adorned with figures belonged to the church at Jerusalem, and was presented in 869 to Ignatius of Constantinople. But it is needless to multiply instances on this head. For a long time, however, chalices of horn, base metal, Sec, were still used, and Binterim says that a copper chalice in which Ludger, the Apostle of Miinster, in the eighth century, said Mass, is still pre- served at Werden, where he founded an abbey. But very soon afterwards chalices of glass, horn, base metal, &c., were pro- hibited by a series of councils in England, Germany, Spain, and France, although chalices of ivory and of precious stone (e.g. of onyx) were still permitted. Gratian adopted in the Corpus Juris a 154 CIIALICE-VEIL CHANCELLOR, EPISCOPAL canon which he attributes to a Council of Rheims, otherwise unknown. The words of the canon are, " Let the chalice of the Lord and the paten be at least of silver, if not of gold. But if anyone be too poor, let him in any case have a chalice of tin. Let not the chalice be made of copper or brass, because from the action of the wine it produces rust, which occasions sickness. But let none pre- sume to sing Mass with a chalice of wood or glass." (Hefele, " Beitriige," ii. p. 322 ser/.) The practice of consecrating chalices is very ancient. A form for this purpose is contained in the Gregorian Sacrament- ary, as Avell as in the most ancient " Ordiues Romani," and such consecration is usual among the Greeks and Copts. In the Latin Church, the bishop anoints the inside of the chalice with chrism, using at the same time appropriate prayers. The consecration is lost if the chalice be broken or notably injured, or if the inside is regilt. A decree prohibit- ing all except those in sacred orders to touch the paten or chalice is attributed to an early Pope, St. Sixtus, by the author of the " Liber Pontificalis." But Merati, who quotes this statement, admits that a Roman Ordo regards it as lawful for acolytes to do so. However, a Council of Braga, held in 563, confines the right of touching the sacred vessels to those who at least are subdeacons. Besides the chalice from which the priest took the Precious Blood, the ancients also used " baptismal chalices," from which the newly-baptised received communion under tlie species of wine, and " ministerial chalices " (" calices minis- teriales," "scyphi"), in which the Precious Blood was given to the people. This " ministerial " chalice was partly filled with common wine, and into this wine the celebrant poured a small quantity of the Precious Blood from the " calix offer- torius" — i.e. the chalice with which he said Mass. (Benedict XIV. " De Miss." i. cap. 4.) CHAXiZCE-VEZIi. The veil with which the chalice is covered, called also " peplum " and " sudarium." It used to be of linen, but must now be of silk, as the rubric requires. The Greeks use three veils, one of which covers the paten, another the chalice, a third both paten and chalice. They call the third veil dijp, because it encompasses the oblations. Cardinal Bona says this Greek custom began in the church of Jerusalem, and thence spread tlinuigli the East. (Bene- dict XIV. "])e Miss." i. cap. 5.) Benedict XIV. considers tlie antiquity of the chalice-veil to be pi-oved by one of the Apostolic canons — viz. 72 (al. 73), which forbids the application of the church vessels or veils (odovTjv) to pro- fane uses. Hefele thinks this canon may belong to the latter half of the third century. But there does not seem to be any reason for alleging that the veil meant is tlie chalice-veil. Gavantus says that the chalice-veil is mentioned in the liturgy of St. Chrysostom (which, how- ever, has been altered since the saint's time) ; that silken chalice-veils were given to Pope Hormisdas (514-523), and tliat Amalarius mentions the Roman custom of bringing the chalice to the altar wrapped in a veil. CHANCEX.. The part of a church between the altar and the nave, so named from the rails (cancelli) which separated it from the nave. The word was in use before the Reformation, and the Anglicans still retain it. Among English Catholics it is now Uttle used, the portion of the church near the altar, separated by rails ft-om the nave, being designated the "sanctuary." In cathedrals and conven- tual churches, where space is required to accommodate the canons or the reli- gious, a portion of the church between the sanctuary and the nave is taken for the purpose ; it is not however called the "chancel," but the "choir," Fr. c/tceur. [See Choir.] CHAirCEX.X.OR, EPZSCOPAX. {cancellarius, from cancelli, a lattice, rail- ings). The place surrounded by railings, or lattice work, where the legal instruments which decisions in an imperial or royal court made necessary were prepared, was called " cancellaria." The word " can- cellarius " is first used in the sense of a secretary or notary by Cassiodorus — that is, in the middle of the sixth century. The jurisdiction of the bishop was in primitive times exercised by his ai-ch- deacon [Archdeacon]; but in proportion as the powers of the archdeacons were enlarged, a tendency manifested itself to make their jurisdiction independent of episcopal control, until at last an appeal actually lay from the archdeacon to the bishop. Such a state of things would inevitably make the bishop's own official, his " chancellor " — the person, whether a clerk or a layman, who had the charge of the judicial records of the diocese — a per- sonage of greater importance. We find, CHANCERY, EPISCOPAL CHAPLAIN 155 accordingly, that in the three centuries preceding the Keformation, while the j)ower of the archdeacon had everywhere declined, or was declining, the influence and importance of the bishop's chancellor were always on the ascendant. "\Ve find St. Edmund Rich, archbishop of Canter- bury, in the thirteenth century, carrying on an important and delicate negotiation with the monks of Christchurch chiefly through Richard, his chancellor, after- wards celebrated in the Church as St. Richard, bishop of Chichester. (See Gervase of Canterbury.) Canon law contains many regulations respecting the fees of office which chancellors are entitled to demand. CHAXrCERT, EPZSCOPAX.. (See the article on Episcopal Chancellors.) From the chancery of a bishop proceed all those documents, deeds, certificates, licences, dispensations, &c., which are necessar\- to the publication, recognition, and execution of the acts which he per- forms in the exercise of the fivefold jurisdiction attributed to him by the canon law, in which are included the jmwers of ordering, jud(jing, correcting, c/ispensinf/, and administering. To these may be added the power of delegating or deputing. (Soglia, " De Potestate Juris- dictionis.") CHAM-CERV, PAP AX. : CBAW- CBRT TAXES, &.C. [See CUEIA ROJIANA.] CHAN-T ECCZ.ESZASTXCAI., CRECORZAio-, &.C. [See Plain Chant.] CHAITTRT (Lat. capellama, Fr. chapellenie). The ancient name in this country — (1) of a chapel, aisle, or part of an aisle, in a church, set apart for the offer- ing of the Holy Sacrifice for the benefit of the soul of a particular person, gene- rally the founder, or for some other pious purpose ; {2) of the institution and endowment of such a service : as when Chaucer ])raises bis " Persone " for not leaving his parish " To seeken him a chaunterie for soules." All chantries were dissolved by the Acts of 1545 and 1547. They were then found to be more than a thousand in number. Chantries in the second of the above senses are divided by the canonists into three classes. (1) Mercenary, as when a testator leaves property to a lay- man with the charge of causing Masses to be said for his soul. (2) Collative, when property is left with an express in- junction that out of the revenue arising from it daily Mass, or a certain number ofMassesiii theyear, should be celebrated; as to these chantries, the r«l/ation of the priests to serve them ])ro])rrly belim-- i,. the bishop. (3) Cbimtrir> in pi-i\:itr patronage. These only ditii-r l'r,,ni tli.' second class in that the iioniiuntiini to them rests with the private jiatron ; but the institution must still conie from the bishop. (Ferraris, Capcllanid.) CHAPXiAlMT [capdlanus, from capella, chapel). The word capellfi, the de- rivation of which is doubtful, ;q)pears to have first come into use in Gaul, and to have been applied to the )juildiuii>, smaller than churches, whicli liiiiij> or bishops erected in their own ]ialac> v, that they might more conveniently and fre- quently attend divine worship. The priest appointed to the charge of such a chapel was called the "capellanus" or chaplain. As the number of such chapels increased, the chaplains became a numer- ous bod}-, and were placed under an arch- chaplain, who was also called the Grand Almoner. Charlemagne selected bishojjs for this office of Grand Almoner. There are chaplains of many kinds, as the following enumeration shows : 1. Army chaplains. Various indults, privileges, and faculties have been granted to Catliolic sovereigns by the Holy See in relation to priests stationed in barracks, or serving with an army in the field. In modern times the sovereigns have usually endeavoured to place army chaplains under the sole control of a royal or im- perial chaplain-major. This has been re- sisted by the Church, and it is decided that such chaplain.s, in the ab,«ence of an Apostolic brief otherwise providing, must be approved by the ordinary of the place. Thus a marriage contracted before an army chaplain, in tlie absence of such brief as aforesaid, is held to be null if cele- brated without the licence of the bishop. There are at present (1891) sixteen Catholic chaplains holding commissions now attached to the British army in Eng- land and the colonies. a. Auxiliary chaplains. Appointed by parish priests as their coadjutors, and removable by them, but not without just cause. (See Ferraris, Capellanu.^, § 41.) 3. Cathedral chaplains. After the common life of canons ceased, and each drew his portion or prebend from the common fund, it became usual for them to reside at a distance from the cathedral ICG CHAPLAIN CHAPTER, CATHEDRAL or collegiate church to which they be- longed, and to pay chaplains to perform their duties in choir for them. This practice was checked by the Council of Trent. [See Cajson.] 4. Chaplains of chant}-ies (capellaniae). [See Chaxtrt.] A large proportion of the chantries which once existed were founded, not that Mass might be said for snuls, but in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary, or of some saint, or some particular mystery. The chaplains serving these were and are carefully regulated by the canon law, so that the course of episcopal and parochial discipline might not be troubled by their presence in a diocese. ■'). Chaplains of confrciternilies. [See CoxFKATEENiTT.] Such chaplains cannot have processions without the express licence of the bishop. They are not to be removed without cause by the bishop against the wish of the brotherhood. G. Court chaplains. How these ori- ginated under the early Frankish kings has been already explained. Charlemagne gave to his episcopal arch-chaplain prece- dence overall the archbishops and bishops of his einjiire. The chaplains of the imperial and royal Courts had great power for centuries. Bv a Papal brief dated in 1857 the Holy See rcsr.ired the office of arch-chaplain or (Trand Almoner in France: but wirli tlie coll.-ipse of the Sec-iiml I']iiipire the brief ln't-ame inope- rative. At the Courts of Catholic sove- reigns in Germany the chaplains of an im)iHrial or royal chapel now constitute a body 111 canons, and the chapel of the palace is regarded as a collegiate church. 7. Ihnnestic chiiplains. I'riests ap- pointed to say Ma.-s in the chnjiels at- tached to private houses, such asCoptfold Hall, Coughton, &c. 8. Episcopal chaplains. In early times the bishops had their private ora- tories, and as their dwellings grew to be palaces their first care was to provide them with Miitalile chapels, the clergy- attached to uliich lii'canie episcopal chap- lains. In large and wealthy dioceses these bfcanie nunii-rous, and were then placed under an episcojial arch-chaplain. At the present day, when the Churcli has in most countries of Europe been reduced to the greatest poverty, the chaplains of bishops usually act as their secretaries, or as masters of the ceremonies when they celebrate High Mass. 9. Chaplains of nunneries. These are of course very numerous, and to be found in every part of the Catholic world. Canon law requires that they shall be of mature age, and in other ways enacts a minute discipline for their guidance. 10. Pontifical chaplains, attached to the Pope's chapel. They are of three classes : honorary, ceremonial, and secre- tarial. 11. Chaplains ot public institutions: e.g. workhouses, prisons, hospitals, and lunatic asylums. In all such appoint- ments the chaplain is, as a rule, nomi- nated by the civil authority, with the approval of the bishop of the diocese. CHAPTER, CATKESRAI.. [For the derivation, see Chapter, Conven- tual.] The ancient name for the clergy of a cathedral church was Presbyterium ; the term " chapter " was borrowed from the assemblies of regulars. The history of chapters has been already partly traced in the article Canon. With the increase of the corporate property of chapters, the extended patronage arising from that increase, and the sense of dignity which the possession of that patronage en- gendered, a strong tendency developed itself in the course of the middle ages towards the independent existence of chapters, both cathedral and collegiate, and their exemption from episcopal control. There was a danger lest the canoos of his cathedral, instead of form- ing the trusted council of the bishop, and assi.-tinghim in the administration of the diocese, as in primitive times, should be transformed into a body of dignified and wealthy ecclesiastics, burdened by very light duties, admission amongst whom would be desired by the upper classes for their sons, from motives much short of the purest. This happened to a great e.xtent, and as a natural consequence col- lisions between bishops and chapters came to be of frequent occun-ence. The Coun- cil of Trent applied itself to remedy this state of things, and partially restored the authority of the bishops over the chapters. A general right of visitation and cor- rection was asserted for them.' A bishop was authorised to convene the chapter for anj- afi'airs which did not solely concern the interests of the canons and their dependents ; this power, however, was not to extend to his vicar-general. At meetings so convened the bishop was to preside, and due rank and honour were to be accorded him. On the other hand, many things important for the welfare of the diocese could at no time be settled by the bishop without the consent or advice ' Sess. vi. c. 4, De Reform. CHAPTER, CATIIEDEAL CHARACTER 157 of bis chapter; and in this respect the Council made no change. Thus the consent of the chapter is required in the administration or alienation of the see- property, or in any case in which diminu- tion of the authority and privileges of the cathedral is threatened ; their advice must be had by the bishop before ordain- ing or instituting clerks,' before proclaim- ing public processions, conveniog synods, &c.. Sec. In England, in consequence of the Elizabethan schism, the reforming influence of the Council of Trent could not assert itself; and hence, though the chapters w ere left, no attempt was made to bring back their action and authority into that harmony with those of the bishops which primitive piety required. Thus the present singular state of things gradually arose. The dean and chapter of an Anglican cathedral have their own separate property, the bishop of the same cathedral has his, and neither side inter- feres with the other. The chapter, say of Worcester Cathedral, has complete power over the church itself, with the exceptions presently to be mentioned ; but there its connection with the diocese ceases. It has no more to do with its government by the bishop than the chapter of Munich has. At a vacancy of the see, indeed, the chapter meets to go through the mockery of electing a new bi>hop : l.ut. as everyone knows, in the co»(/e d'clirc sent down to them from London, the name of the Crown nominee is specified, and the chapter is not at liberty to reject it. On the other hand, the bishop has a legal right to a chair or throne in the cathedral, and to hold con- firmations in it, and here his power ends, lie has no authority to .summon meetings of the chapter lor any pm-])ose whatever, nor to control the deau or the canons in any way, except so far as, in their merely clerical capacity, they may become amen- able to his jurisdiction. The result is that an Anglican chapter has entirely lost the primitive character of the " se- natus episcopi," and is generally regarded as a convenient institution by which a Government can pension and reward its principal clerical supporters. In the Catholic Church, amidst the unnumbered ills that have come upon it in every country of Europe, it is consoling to reflect that this particidar evil at least, so rife in the middle ages, has in our day almoDt disappeared ; everywhere harmony • Ferraris, " Capituluni," art. ii. § 16. ' and co-operation reign between the bishops and the cathedral chapters. In England every Catholic diocese has its chapter, presided over by a pro- vost, and usually numbering ten canons. In Ireland, out of twenty-eight dioceses, ten only have chapters, but these are larger than in England, are presided over by deans, and usually contain live or six dignitaries or officials of the diocese, besides the Canon Theologian and Canon Penitentiary prescribed by the Council of Trent. CHAPTER, CONVSN-TVAIi {capitulmn, a chapter). It was and is the common practice of monks to assemble every morning to hear a chapter of the rule read, and for other purposes. Both the meeting itself and the place of meet- iug gradually obtained the name of Capitulum or chapter from this practice. The assembly of the monks of one monastery being thus designated "the chapter," it is easy to understand that assemblies of all the monks in any pro- vince, or of the whole order, came to be called "provincial" or "general" chap- ters. A general chapter, in the case of most of the orders, is held once in three years. CRAPTER-HOVSE. The place of meeting of the canons of a cathedral, or the religious of a monastery. Till the thirteenth century it was generally rec- tangular; after that time the polygonal or round form came in, as at Salisbury, Lincoln, and York. Chapter-houses were sometimes richly adorned; at West- minster Abbey, for instance, a band of fresco, the painting of which has con- siderable merit, ran round the interior of the building; the remains of this, lately opened to public view, are of great interest. A large round chapter-house, with seats for sixty — the number of the monks — extremely plain in its archi- tecture, but effective from the symmetry and boldness of its forms, was lately erected by the Cistercians at their house of Mount St. Bernard's in Leicestershire. CHAPTERS. [See Three Chap- TEEs, Tin:.] CHARACTER ( x"P"K^hp)- ^ Stamp on coins, >rals, .tc, and in its theological sense, a spiritual marl< indelibly impressed on the soul, by bajitism, eonlirmation, and holy order, which sacraments cannot be reiterated without sacrilege. That these sacraments do really im])ress a character is taught by the Council of Florence, in the "decree of union," and is solemnly 158 CHARACTER CHARITY affirmed by the Council of Trent (Sess. vii. can. 9, De Sacram. in Gen.) as an article of faith. The Fatli.'vs <>f Trent content themselves with detiiilniicliiirac-ter as a "spiritual and indelible mark," on account of which the three sacraments which confer it cannot be reiterated, But St. Thomas, who is followed by other theologians, points out that character marks the recipient in some special way for the worship of God and also conveys certain powers. Thus baptism stamps a man indelibly as a Christian and enables him to receive the other sacraments: confirmation makes him a good soldier of Christ, and conveys particular powers of confessing the faith : by holy order he ))ecomes a minister of Christ, and is empowered to perform certain sacred functions.^ The truth of the Church's doctrine on tliis matter is shown by the fact that it has always been accounted sacrilege to reiterate the three sacraments of baptism, conflriuationand order. Theremust, there- fore, be something in these sacraments which separates them from the other four, which may be lawfully received over and over again. Nor can it be said with any show of reason that the modern doctrine of character is an invention of the middle ages, first set forth by Inno- cent III. From the earliest times. Chris- tian writers — e.g. Clement of Alexan- dria'^— speak of baptism as "the seal of the Lord" (trc^paylSa Tov Kvpiov). So con- firmation was known as the " seal," and it is still conferred in the (ireek rite with the words the "seal of the Holy Ghost." Wliat can this language mean, if con- sidered in connection with the fact that baptism, confirmation and order were never reiterated, except this, that these sacraments set a seal on the soul which could never be blnttpd nut, by sin or even by apostasy? Si. Aiiiiusiiiie gives clear witness to the trailitioii nf the Church on character, and a- tlir smsp (if his state- ments has 1 II .li-|Hiti .l, will quote a brief summaiy of In- Iriu lung from the most t'niini'iit of I'voii stniit ( Inirch his- torians. AugustiiH', Mivs Nran.li'i-,'' " in connection with baiitiis the comparison with the mark (• cliaracter militaris') \Ahicli was imjtrrssed upon soldiers, as a token of imjierial service, and wliich remained indelibly fixed even on those who were untrue to their service, 1 III. qu. a. 2. « De Divite Serrtnitln, c. 42. • Kirchengescliichte, iv. [i. 441. though in that case it only witnessed against them." This is simply the Tri- dentine doctrine of sacramental character. CBARXTY. The theological virtue of Charity may be described as " a virtue divinely infused by which we entirely give ourselves up to God as the Sovereign Good, that by doing His will we may please Him and be united with Him." This description sets forth the object and the substance of the act of Charity. The object is our union with God, for it is of the nature even of disinterested love to seek union with the beloved object ; the substance of the act is a loving gift of ourselves to God, which is also called union. " It pertains to charity, that man gives himself up to God so as to adhere to Him by some union of the mind (spiritus),'" i.e. by making God the object of his thoughts and affections (St. Thomas, 2» 2^, q. Ixxxii. a. 2 ad 1). St. Bonaventure describes charity as "a life which unites the lover with the beloved" ("vita copulans amantem cum amato." St. Bonav. "Comp. TheoL Verit."l.v. c. 23.). Considered as a habit, charity is an infused virtue which elevates the soul, enables and disposes it to bring forth the acts proper to charity, viz. love of God above all for His own sake, and of our neighbour for the sake of God. I Charity may be perfect or imperfect : the former justifies man by its own etficacy; the latter only in the Sacrament of Penance. (See the arts. Attkition and Contrition.) Perfect charity admits of three degrees : first, love of God above all things which grievously displease Him ; second, love above all things which only slightly displease God; and third, love of God even above such things as do not displease Him, but still are less pleasing than others. The first degree excludes all mortal sin and is necessary and sufficient for salvation. The second excludes venial sin and belongs to Christian perfection. The third is the summit of perfection to which no command obliges us, but Divine grace invites. Habitual charity or the habit of charity is lost by mortal sin only (Trid. Sess. vi. c. 15). Venial sins, however numerous, do not diminish it, though their frequent repeti- tion gradually unfit the soul for the retention of charity, just as disease gradually unfits the boclv for the reten- tion of the soul (St. Thomas, 2» 2 , q. xxiv. a. 10). Christ has laid down the commandment of charity as the first and highest of all commandments : " Thou CHARITY, FATHERS OF CHARITY, WORKS OF 159 «hall love the Lord thy God with thy -whole heart, and with thy whole soul, and with thy whole mind," Matt. xxii. 4i7, 38. Tliis precept forbids hatred and all other oHi'iiees of God and in this respect is binding at all times. In as far as it commands positive acts of love it is not binding at all times ; yet a single act of love in a lifetime is not sufficient to comply with it. Propp. damn. 2 Mart. 1679, pr. 5, 6, 7. (See St. Thomas, 2* 2'*. qq. xxii.-xliv. and commentaries.) CHARXTT, FATHERS OP. [See ROSMINIANS.] CHARITY, SISTERS OP. [See Sisterhoods.] CHARITY, WORKS OP CHRIS- TIAM'. Our Lord himself declared " by this shall men know that ye are my disciples, because ye love one another," and the heathen felt that a new spiritual power was in their midst when they beheld the manifestations of Christian love. The fact that the Christian religion taught its disciples to pray for all men, to love all, and to sacrifice themselves for all, is a most solid ami a most touching proof that the Christian religion is divine. With scarcely an exception, every work and institute of mercy existing in the world is of Christian origin, direct or indirect. The same kind of proof may be brought to show that tlie Catholic religion is the one true form of Chris- tianity. No doubt, many Protestnnts have been conspicuous foi- philantlirojiy, and, as Protestants have ])r,'>i'r\ i-d much ■of the Catholic belief, we need not be surprised to find this belief producing its natural fruit in works of mercy. It is true, however, on tbe other hand, that the Catholic Church has laboured for the souls and bodies of men to an extent un- known in other systems, and Protestants ofl'er an unconscious testimony to the superiority of the Catholic religion by imitating many of its institutes for the relief of the poor and suffering. ^luch information on this head will be found in the articles on religious orders founded for works of this kind. Here, we can only give a brief account of the different direc- tions in which Catholic charity has sho'mi itself. We shall speak first of spiritual, then of corj)oral, mercy. (A.) We find religious orders erected with the special view of succouring the fallen, or saving those who are exposed to danger of sin. Such was the double ■order of Fontevraud, erected for male and female penitents, towards the close of the I eleventh century, by Robert of Arbris- I selles, who was endowed with wonderful j power for the conversion of sinners. The order spread over France, S])ain, and England. A century later, the famous preacherFulkof Neuilly and Itavmnnd de Palmariis also laboiired fur fallen women. Other orders with this object iiave been founded in modern times. The orders estahli-shed for the instruction of the poor in Christian doctrine by means of missions, &c., and for the teaching of youth, both of the higher and lo^^•er classes, are past reckoning. The missions to the heathen are a creation of the Catho- lic Church. They were adopted by Pro- testants long af\er the rise of the new belief, and, like Sunday-schools, missions to people already Christian, sisterhoods, &c., are borrowed from the old religion. (B.) The care of the Church for the bodies of the poor shines forth, not only in the lives of saints, but in the Church's ordinary law. By ancient regulation, a fourth part of the Church revenues was devoted to the poor: if extreme distress prevailed, even the sacred vessels were sold for the support of the needy. In many monasteries hundreds of poor people were fed every day ; while in most churches funds for the poor, called " mensae pau- perum," "mensiB S. Sjuritus," were esta- blished. Further, the Church showed her care for the sufi'ering and the indigent by the foundation of houses in which they were received and tended. Public institu- tions of this sort were scarcely possible during the period of heathen persecution; but whenever the peace of the Church was secured, the bisho])S began to have houses erected for the reception of strangers (Xenodochia), of the sick (Xoso- comia"), of the poor (Ptochotrophia), of orphans and foundlings (Orphanotro])hia and Brephotrophia), and of old people (Gerontocoinia). About the middle of the fourth century, we hear of a hospital for the sick at Sebaste in Armenia: while the hospital erected through the zeal of Basil the Great was of a size so vast that it was often compared to a town. In the different sections of the building unfor- tunate people of every kind were received • — the poor, exiles, ieper.s, itc. Half a century earlier, St. Chrysostom spent all the spare revenues of his church in re- storing old hospitals and erecting new ones. In the West, Paulinus founded a house for the poor, for the sick, and for widows. It is to he observed that in Western as well as Eastern Europe the 160 CHARITY, WORKS OF CHARITY, WORKS OF lirst institution!' of this kind were erected by bishops. Not that the laity were reiiiifS in promoting works of charity. Fabiola, the friend of St. Jerome, the Emperor Justinian, the Empress Eudoxia, and a multitude besides, were all distin- guished as the founders of hospitals; still, the bishops led the way. During the middle ages, the Scottish monks — i.e. monks from Scotland or Ire- land— seem to have founded the earliest hospitals. The good work was greatly promoted by Alcuin, who seems to have influenced Charlemagne in this direction, and to have encouraged the bishops to fovmd hospitals in their dioceses. Two years after Charlemagne's death, a Council of Aix la Chapelle issued statutes on this matter which deserve special notice. The bishops were required, after the example of the Fathers, to provide a house for the poor, and to support it from the Church funds. The canons were to resign a tenth j)ait of their income in its favour. It was to be near the church, and under the care of a cleric, and in penitential seasons the canons were to wash the feet of the poor. Whether these hospitals were endowed by clerics or lav people, they were placed under the jurisdiction of the Church, a point settled in the East, e.ff. by the ordinances of Justinian, and in the West | by Charlemagne and the decrees of councils and Popes. Even if a prince founded a hospital, still it was not as a secular ruler, but as a Christian, that he did so ; it was not state policy, but the living spirit of Christianity which had called liospitals into being : it was not State reven\ies, but gifts bestowed, some- times by ecclesiastics, sometimes by secu- lar riders, sometimes by private indivi- duals, but always for the love of God, which maintained them after their founda- tion. The Council of Trent, again, en- forces the obligation which lay upon bishops of watching over benevolent in- stitutions. And the Church did her work well. " With such intelligence," says Von Raumer, " was the inner management [of such institutions] condui-tcd as in truth to excite astonishment and admiration." True, even in the middle ages lay ad- ministrators did occasionally, to the great injury of the su tiering poor, usurp the control of hospitals. But it was the Reformation which began to sever on principle the bond which connected works of benevolence with the power of the Church till modern statecraft completely snapped the link and substituted natural for Christ ian benevolence. No Catholic can appi-ove of a change which is opjjosed to the whole tradition of the Church and to every Catholic instinct. Nor do results recommend the so-called emancipation of benevolence from the Church. The feel- ing of brotherhood between rich and poor has been changed to a great extent into positive enmity, and the State itself has suftered in consequence from the spread of Socialism. The poor accept State aid without gratitude, because it is ver}- often given without real charity. Every expe- rienced person knows the horror with which they regard the workhouse, and, on the other hand, the readiness with which indigent Catholics enter a house of refuge cared for by religious — such, for example, as the Little Sisters of the Poor or the Sisters of Nazareth. This leads us to speak of another characteristic feature in Catholic charity. It was not only, or even chiefly, that the Church founded houses for the relief of the poor and suffering ; she infused into her children a spirit which made them count it an honour to tend their sufferings brethren, and, if need be, to sacrifice life itself in their behalf. From early times, bishops, like St. Basil the Great and St. Gregory Nazianzen, found time to tend the sick and minister to them with their own hands. Persons of the highest rank, such as Placilla, wife of Theodosius the Great, performed the most menial services for them. In the middle ages, St. Eliza- beth of Hungary, from the time of her widowhood — i.f. from her twenty-first year — went daily to the hospital, gave the patients food and medicine, bound up their wounds and applied remedies to ulcers, from the very sight of which others shrank in horror. Everybody knows the love St. Francis had for the poor, and his tender care of the suffering, particularly of lepers. Whole orders were founded for this personal attendance on helpless sufferers, and the poor learned to love those who were born to wealth, when they saw the richest and the noblest among them making themselves the ser- vants of the poor ; they learned to bear their own poverty patiently, when they saw the rich counting it an honour to be poor for Christ's sake. Among such orders we may name the Canons Regular of St. Antony of Vienne, founded by a French nobleman, Gaston, towards the end of the eleventh century, for the succour of persons afflicted with " St. Antony's fire," CIIAKITY, WOlHvS OF CIIAKTOrilYLAX 161 a liorrible disease, then rafring in West- ern Europe; the Jesuats, a confraternity formed by B. John Colouibino, which occupied itself in the preparation of medi- cines, Ac, for the sick ; the " Clerks Regu- lar, Ministers of the Sick,"' also called " the Fathers of a Good Death," established at the end of the sixteenth century by St. C'amillus of Lellis ; the "Si.-ters nf Charity," founded by St. Vincent of Paul; and other orders founded for the same ends and animated by the snme heroic zeal, the name of which is legion. The Catholic Church has also allevi- ated the hardships of jirison life. The lot of prisoners wa.'^ changed wherever Chris- tianity became the religion of the State. The sexes were separated ; care was taken that they should never lack the consola- tions of religion ; greater liberty and better food were allowed to them on Sundays ; the bishop had to visit the prisons every week, and to see that there were no abuses in the administration of discipline. In the middle ages, the Church exercised her tempering and restraining influence on the roughness and barbarity of the times. During that period, the constant wars subjected many innocent persons to imprisonment; and, accordingly, it was common for pious persons to devote large sums of money to the redemption of cap- tives. Help was given in other ways, but all the works of mercy to captives were surpassed by the Trinitarian Order — an institute devoted to the redemption of captives from slavery under the Saracens, j The rule of the Order of the Trinity was - approved by Innocent III., in 1198; in 1223, a similar order, "for the redemp- tion of captives," was established in Spain. In the seventeenth century, St. Vincent of Paul laboured for the galley-slaves, and changed places which had been like hell on earth into abodes of peniince, resigna- ; tion and peace. The Sisters of Notre [ Dame de la Charitt?, of St. Joseph, &c., ' have undertaken the superintendence of female prisoners, and till lately almost every prison for women in France and Belgium was under the care of nuns. Statesmen themselves have admitted that by religious, and religious only, could , prisons be successfully managed. j We pass over, for want of space, the orders devoted to the care of the insane, ' the blind, deaf and dumb, &c., and will only touch in conclusion on one other j work of Catholic charity. In early times and in the middle ages it was often diffi- cult to borrow money except at usurious [ rates. To meet this evil, the Franciscan Father Barnabas of Terni, under Piu« II, (14.58-(i4), erected thefirst Monte di Pieta, at Perugia, in the States of the Church. The rich contributed capital, from chari- table motives, and this was lent to the poor, on security indeed, but at a very low rate of interest. Soon almost every city in Italy had its Monte di Pietii. Several Popes, the Fifth Lateran Council, and the Council of Trent, confirmed these institutions, which in past times produced incalculable good. No doubt many of these orders and institutes of charity fell away from their first zeal, and were abused for seKish ends. But holy souls have never been wanting to reform wliat was amiss, and to come with fresh help to the relief of their brethren. The words of the Psalm have been constantly fulfilled by Christ in his Church : "He will judge the poor of his people, and save the children of the poor." (From Hefele, "Beitriige zur Kirchen- geschichte, Archiiologie," &c.) CHARTOPHYl.AX(more often spelt Carthojihylnx). The name signifies "keeper of the records " merely, and such was the original function of the ecclesiastics who held the office in the Eastern Church, answering to that oi bibliotliecarius among the Latins ; but in course of time other duties, carrying with them a correspond- ing increase of charge, influence, and dig- nity, were imposed on the chartophylax. Yet it appears from the cnnons of Nice that in the fourth century the chartophy- lax of a cathedral was inferior in rank to the archdeacon, and was bound to obey him. But at Constantinople, the power and pre-eminence of the chartophylax, as a kind of secretary or grand chamberlain to the Patriarch, attained after a time to a greit height. An exact appreciation of his office, and of the dignities attaching to it, as they stood in the ninth century, is given by a contemporary writer — Anas- tasius the bibliotliecarian. The post of chartophylax in other cathedral churches in the J']ast appears to have been assimi- lated more or less to that of the church of Constantino])le; and hence this official, representing the bishop and exercising his jurisdiction, held in the Eastern nearly the same position as the archdeacon in the Western Church. Even at this day the Uniate Greeks of the Austrian Empire retain the office; with them, "the cartho- phylax directs the business of the episcopal chancery, and is one of the members of the metropolitan or cathedral chapter, 1G2 CIIARTREUX CHASUBLE along with the arcbpriest or chief provost, the archdeacon or lector, the pritnicerius or precentor, the ecclesiarch or church- warden, and the scholaster or master of ceremonies." (See the rest of the article by Hausle, in AVetzer and AVelte.) CHARTREVX. [See Cakthusians.] CHASVBXiE (Lat. cnsula, panula, planeta ; and in Greek, (f)eK6viov or (^e- \u)vwv, from (\)aivoKr)i, or <^fXoi/?7f, identi- cal with panvld). The chief garment of a priest celebrating Mass. It is worn out- side the other vestments. Among the CTreeli?, it still retains its ancient form of a large round mantle. Among the Latins, its size has been curtailed, but it still covers the priest on both sides, and de- scends nearly to the knees. In France, Belgium, and very often in England, a cross is marked on the back : in Italy, this cross is usually in front. In the West, all who celebrate Mass wear the same chasuble, but among the Greeks, the chasuble of a bishop is ornamented with a number of crosses {(paivoXwv TroXva-rav- pwv), while an archbishop wears a differ- ent vestment altogether, viz. the aaKKos, whicli is supposed to resemble the coat of Christ during His Passion. In Russia, even bishops, since tlie time of Peter the Great, have worn the o-ukxos. The chasuble is derived from a dress once commonly worn in daily life. Classi- cal writers often mention the " ptcnula," or large oviter garment which the Romans wore on journeys or in military service. "Casula,' from which our word chasuble is obtained, does not occur in pure La- tinity. It, was, however, used in later ages, as an equivalent for the "paenula," or mantle. We fir.. Isidore of Seville (about (].;()) us('> Ihe word in tlin same sense, and e.xplains it as a diminutive nf " casa," because, like a little liotisc, it iDvi'red the whole body. Tlie same aiitlior tells us that " planeta " comes from the Greek TrXawo), " to wander," because its ample folds seemed to wander over the body. It is plain, from the examples given by Diicange, that "planeta," like "casula" and " pajnula," denoted a dress worn by laymen as well as clerics. It is in tlie former half of the sixth century that we find the first traces of the chasuble aa an ecclesiastical vestment. In the famous mosaic at San Vitale, in Ravenna, the archbishop, Maximus, is represented W"earing a vestment which is clearly the chasuble, and over which the pallium is suspended. The chasuble has the same shape which prevailed till the eleventh century. The Fourth Council of Toledo, in 638, makes express mention of the " planeta," as a priestly vestment. Germanus, Archbishop of Constantinople, about 715, uses the word (j)(\(ovtov in tlie same technical sense : while at the begin- ning of the ninth century, Amalarius of Metz speaks of the "casula" as the "gene- ral garment of sacred leaders" ("generale indumentum sacrorum ducum "). Almost at the same time, Rabanus Maurus gives the derivation of "casula" quoted above from Isidore of Seville, and goes on to say that it is " the last of all the vest- ments, which covers and preserves all the rest." Later authors of the middle age copy their predecessors ; and even Inno- cent III, adds nothing of his own save certain mystical meanings implied in the use of the vestment. To sum up, the chasuble was first of all an ordinary dress; from the sixth century at latest it was adapted to the use of the Church, tiU gradually it be- came an ecclesiastical dress pure and simple. But did it at once become dis- tinctive of the priesthood ? The question admits of no certain answer. The eighth " Ordo Romanus " dist inctly prescribes that acolytes, in their ordination, should receive the "planeta" or chasuble. Amalarius, in like manner, declares that the chasuble belongs to all clerics. On the other hand, almost all ancient writers who refer to the Church use of the chasuble regard it as the distinctive dress of priests. Cardi- nal Bona mentions this difficulty without venturing to explain it. Hefele suggests that as the Greek (})fX6viov signifies (1) a chasuble in the modem sense, (2) a kind of collar, reaching from the neck to the elbows, which is worn by lectors or readers, so the Latin word " planeta " may have been also employed as the name of two distinct vestments. But even if this explanation is correct, the fact remains that even now the deacon and subdeacon in High Mass during Advent and Lent wear chasubles folded in front, laying them aside while they sing the Gospel and Epistle. This custom is mentioned by Hugo of St. Victor (d. 1140). The form of the chasuble has under- gone great alterations. The ancient chasuble, which enveloped the whole body, was found very inconvenient, and CHERUBIM CHINESE RITES 163 hence, in the twelfth century, it was curtailed at the sides, so as to leave the arms free. Of this kind is a chasuble said to have been used by St. Bernard. In shape, it resembles what is now known as the Gothic chasuble, althouo;h tlie ornaments upon it are not Gothic, hut Romanesque. At a later date, the chasuble was still further curtailed, till in the Rococo perioc all resemblance to the original type disapj^eared. However, even in Italy, attempts were made to re- call the ancient shape, at least to a certain extent. Thus St. Charles Borromeo, in a provincial council, ordered that the chasubles for the Ambrosian rite should be about four and a half feet wide, and should reach nearly to the heels. Various symboUcal significations have been given to the chasuble. The earliest writers make it a ligure of charity, which, as Rabanus Muurus says, " is eminent above all the other virtues." This is the most popular explanation of the sym- bolism ; but we also find it regarded by an ancient writer as typical of good works; ancient Sacramentaries and Mis- sals consider it as the figure of sacer- dotal justice, or of humility, charity, and peace, which are to cover and adorn the priest on every side ; while the prayer in the Roman Missal connects the chasuble with the yoke of Christ. (Hefele, "Bei- trage zur Kirchengeschichte, Archaologie und Liturgik," p. 195 seq.) CRERTTBZIVI. Superhuman beings, often mentioned in Scripture. They guarded the entrance to Paradise after the fall ; the images of two cherubim overshadowed the ark; God is represented in the Psalms as sitting or throned upon the cherubim ; Ezekiel saw them in vision, with wings, with human hands, full of eyes and with four faces, viz. those of a man, lion, ox, and eagle. The Fathers generally are agreed in regarding them as angels ; for the opinion of Theodore of Mopsuestia,' who denied this, seems to be quite singular in Christian antiquity. They form the second among the nine orders of angels. "What the meaning of the word is, it is difficvdt even to con- jecture. Most of the Fathers explain the word as meaning knowledge, or the full- ness of knowledge; but, as Petavius justly remarks, this derivation finds no support either in Hebrew or Chaldee. Many con- jectural derivations have been suggested by modern scholars. In a cuneiform in- scription copied by M. Lenormant, " Kiru- ' Petav. De Angelxs, lib. ii. cap. 3. bu " is a synonym of the Steer-god, whose winged image filled the place of guardian at the entrance of the Assyrian palaces. With this word, the Hebrew cherub may be connected, and the etymology may belong to some non-Semitic language.' CHZliD or MARY. About the year 1560 a Jesuit professor at the Roman College, named John Leonius (?), used to assemble a number of his students after lecture to give them pious discourses and to guide them in their spiritual difficulties. These gather- ings were placed under the protection of the Blessed Virgin. The members undertook to do their best to advance in piety and learning; they heard Mass every morning ; once a week they went to confession, and once a month to Holy Communion. On Sundays they visited the hospitals and performed other works of mercy. The young society soon began to attract attention. Gregory XIII. , in 158-4, gave it his hearty approval. Numerous branches were formed in imitation of the original. The only bond of union between them, besides identity of aim and practices, was aggregation to the parent congregation in Rome which is called " Prima Primaria." The members were everywhere distinguished for their virtue, and were looked upon as the champions of orthodoxy against heretics and infidels. In 1748 Benedict XIV., himself a member, published the " Golden Bull," Glorios(B Domina, in which the confraternity was strongly commended and enriched with numerous indulgences. The expulsion of the Jesuits from France, in 1762, where the " Congregation," as it was called, especially flourished, led to the suppression of the confraternity there. After the Revolution it revived ; and during the Restoration a fierce battle raged between the " Congregationistes " and the Liberals, ending in tlieir suppres- sion once more in 1830. It has since, however, been re-established. Pius IX. and Leo XIII. have both highly favoured the institute. The confraternity was thrown open to women and young girls, and in this form is perhaps more familiar to us than the male branch from which it originally sprang. (See " La Congregation," by M. de Graudmaison, and the art. Sodality.) CHZX.ZA.sivc. [See Millennium.] CHZirESS RZTES. The Jesuit mis- sionary St. FrancisXavier de.sired to preach the Gospel in China, but his wish was not I See Cheyne on Isaiah, vol. ii. p. 27.'?. M 2 1C4 CHINESE RITES CHINESE RITES fulfilled, and he died in the forty-fifth year of his age, a.d. 1552, on the little island of Sancian, close to the great empire which was the ohject of his longing. His religious brethren entered on the labour which he had left undone, and worked with great apparent success. Father Ricci's mathematical knowledge secured the favour of the Imperial Court. He devoted himself to the mission twenty- seven years (1582-1610), and left behind liim 300 churches, one of which was in the capital, Pekin. A German Jesuit, Schall, who came on the field in 1622, was also a distinguished mathematician. Shortly afterwards a great change oc- curred in the fortunes of the Chinese mission. It had been left entirely in Jesuit hands ; indeed, Gregory XIII. had in 1585 forbidden the members of other orders to enter China. But this restric- tion was removed, and in 1631 the first Dominicjin missionaries appeared, who were followed in 1633 by another Domi- nican, Morales, and by Franciscans. Tbe new missionaries, and especially Morales, accused the Jesuits of gaining so-called converts by an unworthy compliance with Chinese idolatry and superstition ; and the famous controversy on the Chinese rites began. AVe shall have occa.sion to enter upon the precise nature of the Jesuit concessions later. Here we con- tent ourselves with stating the main con- tention as given by the Jesuit advocate Pray ("Hist. Controversiarum de Rit. Sinicis," p. 9 scq.). Ricci and his suc- cessors, Pray tells us, cousidered the offer- ings of food and the marks of homage given to the dead in general, and to Con- fucius the great Chinese philosopher in particular, as certainly free from idolatry, and probably even from superstition. Further, the Jesuits allowed their con- verts to use as the name of God the Chinese words signifying "Lord of Heaven, "or " Lord of the Sky,"or even the single word Tien — "sky" or "heaven," and they exhibited in their churches tablets with the inscription " King tien," "adore the sky." These were the prac- tices known as the Chinese rites or usages. In 1643 the Dominicans sent Morales to Rome, and he submitted to the Con- gregation of Propaganda seventeen pro- positions on the Chinese usages tolerated by the Jesuits. These usages, after con- sultation with theologians and the Roman Inquisition, were prohibited by Innocent X., tin the Holy See should otherwise determine. Meanwhile, the Jesuit ^lar- tini tried to convince the authorities at Rome that the impugned customs had nothing to do with religion, and that the success of the Catholic Church in China depended on their being permitted. He obtained from tlie Inquisition a decree, confirmed in 1656 by Alexander VII. This edict allowed the practice of the Chinese rites, provided they possessed a merely civil character, were free from all admixture of idolatry, and could not be omitted without grave h'^s to the Chinese Christians. The complaints, however, were renewed by three Lazarists whom Alexander VII. had made vicars-apo- stolic, and Clement IX. in 1669 renewed the decrees of 1645 and 1656, with a significant addition in which the regulars were ordered to obey the vicars-apo- stolic. ^Tiile these disputes were dividing the missionaries into two hostile camps, the Jesuits were rising in the favour of the Court, and in 1002 the emperor Khang Hi publicly anndiinced that the Jesuits had full leave to preach, and his own subjects to embrace Christianity. Still the opposition of the other mission- aries lasted. The Lazarist vicar-apo- stolic forbade the rites in 1693, and sent a priest to Rome three years later to justify the step which had been taken. Inno- cent XII. died before the commission he had appointed had settled the question, but his successor Clement XI. took the matter vigorously in hand, and, desirous of full information, sent Tournon, patri- arch of Antioch, to China as Apostolic legate in 1703. After examination of the points at issue, Tournon in 1707 con- demned the Chinese rites as idolatrous, and in consequence of his evangelical courage was imprisoned by the Chinese emperor. It is a melancholy fact that the Portuguese at Macao were not ashamed to act as his gaolers, and there he died in 1710, after his elevation to the dignity of cardinal. The Jesuits and bishops who thought with them appealed against the legates decision to Rome: but they found less favour there than at Pekin. Clement XI. confirmed decrees of the Inquisition (1709 and 1710) in accordance witli Tournon's decision, and finally closed the question by the Bull "Ex ilia die" (1715). Every Catholic missionary in China was required to promise on oath all possible resistance to the rites. It was in vain that a new legate, Mezzabarba, tried to modify Clement's ruling. The prohibi- tion was renewed in all its force, the CHINESE RITES CHINESE RITES 1G5 concessions of Mezzabarba recalled, and the oath again exacted bv Benedict XIV. We have abstamed of set purpose from discussing the serious charges of rebellion against and cruelty to Cardinal Tournon which are made against the Jesuits. They are contained in the " Anecdotes sur I'^tat de la religion dans la Chine " (first volume, 1733), by Viller- maules ; in the " Memorie Storiche del Cardinale di Tournon '' (Venice, 1761-2), prepared, as is commonly alleged, by that determined opponent of the Jesuits, Car- dinal Passionei ; and in the Lazarist " Me- moirs of the Congregation of the Mission " (vol. iv.-viii.), collated with otlier autho- rities in the Vatican library by Father Theiner, but suppressed by Pius IX., and now an exceedingly rare book. The charges have often been repeated, e.g. by the Protestant historian Mosheim, and they are answered by Pray in the work men- tioned above. The writer of this article dues not possess the knowledge which would entitle him to an opinion, and what he has read on either side proceeds from writers too much influenced by party spirit to inspire mnfidence. But, after all, the conduct of the Jesuits to Tournon is not a question of theological moment It affects the conduct of individuals, or at most of a religious order, but it has nothing to do with the great principles at stake. Fortunately these principles have been stated with Christian moderation and with rigid impartiality by the cele- brated Dominican, Natalis Alexander. It is only right to compare his account with that of Pray, but we are confident that the result can only enhance the credit of Natalis Alexander. Besides this, a very clear and authoritative state- ment of the controversy will be found in the decree of the Roman Inquisition which bears date November 20, 1704, and is printed at length in the " M^moires pour Rome sur I'etat de la religion chr6- tieime dans la Chine" (1709; no place of publication given). It is well known tbat Confucius, who lived about 600 years before Christ, was in no sense a religious teacher, or even a philosopher, if by that term we under- stand one who investigates the idtimate causes of things. He laid down rules of life based on utility, inculcated great re- spect fur order and for public authority, and great reverence for ancestors, for ancient custom, for all, in short, which represented the traditions of Chinese j civilisation. For the rest, he was con- tent to let religion alone ; and the ruling classes then, as now, were mostly atheistic, their atheism, however, being peifectly compatible with belief in fate, and in a quasi-immortality of the soul, so far as this, that the forces which constitute man's life were su])posed to endure after death mingled with other powers of natui-e, and with a boundless toleration of popular superstition as a means of re- straint suitable to the multitude. Now the Jesuits may have had some excuse for allowing the neophytes to call God the "Lord of Heaven," or even "Heaven," though apparently the Chinese literati used these terms in a pantheistic and materialistic sense. Even here they went to lengths manifestly dangerous and even reprehensible, and we cannot wonder that the Roman Inquisition refused to sanc- tion the inscription " Adore the sky " as suitable for a Christian church. (See the second article in the questions proposed to the Inquisition.) But the worship of an- cestors, and especially of Confucius, was far more scandalous. We will quote a de- scription of this worship by a Jesuit Father, Le Comte, who took a prominent part in the dispute. " They prostrate themselves before the name of Confucius, befoie the name and the tomb of the ancestors. Ofi'erings are made of food and vegetables. Incense is burnt. The duty is acknow- ledged of respect for the one (Confucius) and gratitude to the others (the ancestors). Such has been their immemorial practice; this is the essence of the rites. That, then, is good and laudable. What more do we want? We do not even ask so much, and we limit ourselves to that which is in- dispensably attached to the functions of l)ublic olhce " (Lettre du R. P. le Comte, p. 74; apud N. A. I^ettre 1, p. 25). Even this is a very inadequate ac- count. Confucius was venerated as the greatest of the sons of man (see decree of the Inquisition in 1704, super iv. artic.) He was addressed in these words — " All hasten to otter thee sacrifices and prayei-s. .... Let thy spirit come towards us " (" Apologie des Dominicains," append, pp. 37 and 211 ; apud N. X. Lettre 1, p. 41). Ancestors were worshipped ac- cording to a maxim of Confucius, as actually pi'esent, and they were invited to rest in their pictures. Even the athe- istic Mandarins believed that the subtle air of the sky into which the souls of the dead had been dissolved was at- tracted to earth by sacrifice and the 166 CHIVALRY CHIVALRY other rites, and devotion to ancestors was believed to ensure good luck. The ruin of the Chinese mission is said to have followed the decision hostile to the " rites." But ruin was preferable to success, bought so dear. No one who has read St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians can reasonably doubt what his decision would have been. Christ has no fellowship with idols, and the religion which is from above, as another great authority reminds us, is first " pure," then, and only then, " peaceable." [The authorities consulted for this arti- cle are Pray, " Hist.'Controvers. de Rit. Sin." Buda-Pesth, 1789; Pignatelii, " Consult. Canon." torn. v. Consult. 45 ; Natalis Ale.tander, " Lettres d'un docteur del'ordre de S. Dominique sur lesC^r6mon- ies de la Chine ; " an anonymous work in the British Museum, " MfSmoires pour Home sur Vitut de la religion chr^tienne dans la Chine," 1709, which contains im- portant documents ; Cardinal Hergen- rother," Kirchengeschichte,"vol. ii. p. 629 seq. ; article " Accommodationstreit," in the new edition of the " Kirchenlexikon." Information has also been derived from the Saturday Review, December 13, 1884, and the Month, February 1885.] CKlVAXiRY (Lat. caballus, a horse). The system of ideas prevalent among the mounted men-at-arms (Fr. chevalier, It. cavaliero, Span, caballero, Ger. Hitter, Eng. kniffht) of the middle ages, and which still influences their descendants and European society in general, to a greater or less degree, is known by this name. The Equites, the equestrian order, of ancient Rome summon before the mind no corresponding associations. The three patrician tribes constituted, indeed, the " horsemen " in the organisation of Servius TulHus, and had the first place both in arms and in politics. But before the end of the Republic commercialism invaded the equestrian order, and when we speak of a " Roman knight," or ec/ues, the name suggests a selfish capitalist, wringing taxes out of oppressed provincials, and living in vugar luxury at Rome ; it is as far as possible from caUing up any of the ideas which we associate with the term "chivalry." After the disruption of the empire of Charlemagne, the importance of horse- soldiers in war continually increased. For this there were various reasons: among others the improvements made in armour, which required that the weight of the panoply should be borne by the horse he rode, so that the warrior might preserve freedom and celerity of mov&- ment. But the chief reason was the condition of European society, under which, in the absence of strong central authority in the various countries, power was sown broadcast over thousands of principalities, counties, and fiefs. The holders of these had no other way of deciding which should rule the other, or believed they had none, but by going to war. Horses and ai-mour, like breech- loading rifles at the present day, gave an advantage to those using them over foot- soldiers; whoever, therefore, could afford it went into battle on horseback. The "miles Crassi" was a sturdy footman, armed with the pilum, the ensis, and the scutum ; the " miles " of the eleventh century was a horseman cased in as much armour as he could bear the weight of, and attended by lightly-armed followers on foot. The principles of courage and fidelity may have been transmitted to the knights of the eleventh century from their Teutonic or Iberian ancestors; in these respects a Hermann or a Viriathus left little to be desired. But if ferocity and rapacity were to be indulged without check, if cruelty and injustice, availing themselves of the weakness of law, were to be, without protest, the accompaniment and the fruit of the warrior's toils, no amelioration of the general lot could be hoped for, though extraordinary villany might be repressed by extraordinary chastisement,' until the e.xpiration of the long period required to weld a loose feudal aristocracy into an orderly law- governed State. Religion here stepped in, and endeavoured to consecrate and triinsf(ii-in tliat niugh struggle for supe- ritirity which was everywhere going on. The cavalier was not to desist from war; that was an impossible requirement, and he was generally fit for not much else ; but he was to draw the sword for just causes only, to succoiu- the oppre.^^sed, resist attack and encroachment, and support his liege lord according to his oath. He was to be immovable in his faith, obedient to the holy Church, full of respect for her ministers, and devoutly submissive to the Vicar of Christ, the Roman Pontiff. For the honour and service of the ever blessed Mother of God, whose faithful vassal he was to be, women were to find in him an honourable, 1 As in the case of Thomas de Laon, related by Guibert de Nogent. CHIVALRY CHIVALRY 167 fearless, and virtuous protector. A high I standard of self-re?pect could not but accompany the consecration to these lofty > ends. The word of the knight once ' given, whether to friend or foe, must be irrevocable ; he must be no truce-breaker or snatcher of mean advantages; his /lono It r must be without stain. Courtesy and humanity were to mark his bearing and his acts. In a word, the Christian soldier was to have all those perfections of character and aU those (/races d'etat which the revelation of the Gospel and the institution of the Sacraments have rendered possible; he would then be a perfect miiTor of chivalry. This was the ideal ; but when we ask in what degi-ee i wa5 it ever realised, we are forced to admit that human passion and perversity [ have played their part, and made chivalry by no means an unmixed blessing to the world. The reverence for woman, grounded on a just devotion to the 5lother of God, was turned into an idola- try; human love (such was the baser teaching ) was to fill the soul of the true knight and to predominate over all other thoughts ; nay, the very forms and words of the divine office were blasphemously Sarodied in the service of this vicious evelopment.' Again, the self-respect of the true knight was depraved into a pride of class, which looked down on the labouring non-tiglitiug multitude as base roturiers and plebeians, the shedding of , whose blood was a very trifling matter ; ' his sense of honour often became an absurd punctiliousness, tyrannising over the free speech and action of other men. Human rights and human equality were thus ignored ; but this was not the doc- ti-ine of chivalry — it was the corruption (if that doctrine. The true, noble, knightly spirit and its counterfeit went on side by side, energising, founding, and de- stroying, for centui-ies. The Popes, be- ginuing with Urban II. and ending with ' PiiLs v., preached, blessed, and aided the holy wars, by which, in the cause of justice, the places made sacred by our i Lord's sojourn and sulierings were to be taken out of the hands of persecuting infidels, or Christian lands to be delivered fron; .Moslem thraldom. Numerous orders of clii\ airy were instituted — the Templars, the Knitjhts Hospitallers, or of St. John 01 Jerusalem, the Knights of the Sword, the Teutonic Knights, those of Cala- trava, Alcantara, and many more — the • As in Gower's Confessio Amantis, and Chaucer's Court of Love. \ labours of which, speaking generally, were an honour to human nature and a benefit to mankind. The spirit of chivalry was refined and exalted by the invention of fruitful conceptions, such as that of the Saint Graal, by which the whole tone of romance literature was elevated. On the other hand, in the fourteenth century, while the form and ceremonial of chlvalry were greatly developed, its essenci' — the contention for justice — was shamefully forgotten. Our Edward III. instituted the Order of the Garter, but waged un- just wars with France, causing incredible misery: his son, the Black Prince, waited on the French king, his prisoner, at table, but ordered the indiscriminate massacre of the people of Limoges. Burke wrote, beholding the first shameful excesses of the French Jaco- bins, "The age of chivalry is past;" but the age of chivalry will never be wholly past, while faith survives and wrongs remain to be redressed. Wherever, and so far as, the true Catholic faith, and the imitation of Christ and His saints, inspire a population, a class, or an individual, there, and in that proportion, the spirit of chivalry, dormant and entranced as it seems now, will revive. That spirit is, as we have said, essentiallj', the readiness tu contend for justice. For the pr>'-ent it ii main- lla^sive in cN rry part of Europe, stiip.'lietl. :i> it were, by the audacity of the so-i-:ilk'd Liberals,' who. having' got into their hands the organisations of government in most of the states, are carrying their hostility to the Church, and the Po]ie with a vigour and a malice tians find a difficulty in cot it will awake, and when i not ask whether univiTsal decided this way or that, but whether it if just that this or that change should be made or unmade. Parliamentary govern- ment assisted a tyrant in England to deprive the people of their religion, and enacted that none who did not com- mimicate with heresy shotdd serve their country.' Parliamentary government in France has recently sanctioned the perpe- tration of measures of violence against the religions orders, so flagrant in their iniquity, that the infidels of ut/ier c oun- tries were almost scandalised. The tenijier of true chivalrj', when its awakenincr comes, will perhaps work changes which the verdict of the ballot-box would neither initiate nor ratify, yet which may i Test Act of 1G73. livine faith, ltd ])i-actice, vhich Chris- eiving. But doe. it will suiiVaoe has CHOIR CIIOREPISCOPUS be ultimately found to be beneficial and curative to European society. It need scarcely be said that an order of chivalry which has abandoned the Catholic faith, and repudiated obedience to tlie chair of Peter, has forfeited its title. An order like the Garter, in which the official chief of the religion of the ialse ])ro]iliet is one of the "knights," ]ia> f \ idrntly nothing of chivalry about it but the name. (See Kenelm Digby's " Broad Stone of Honour " and " Mores Catholici.") CHOIR {chorus). From the "band" of singers at the divine worship, who were placed between the clergy in the apse and the people in the body of the church, the space between the sanctuary and the nave came to be called the choir. In the course of time, the superior clergy of a cathcilial or follrf^iate church found if Iu■l■r-^ary t(.i uiiuratc IVom the confined bjKicc of the apsi' or sanctuary, which they occupied in jiriniitive times, and to establish themseh es in seats, called stalls, on either side of the choir. These stalls were often ornamented in the most ex- quisite manner. The recitation of the breviary for each day takes place "in choir" in cathedrals, collegiate churches, and the great ma- jority of convents. CKORAI. VZCARS. These were ancientlj' clerics to whom the precentor {i.e. the canon who had the charge of the music), in a cathedral or collegiate church, committed the immediate suptnntendence of the choir. In the reconstituted chap- ters of France and Germany choral vicars are directly a])])ointed to perform this duty, in concert with the canons, and receive salaries accordingly. CHORAVXiES {xopiwXrjs, lit. a flute-player in an orchestra). In the Eastern Church the name appears to have been transferred to the choir-boys of a cathedral generally. CHOREPzscoPvs (Gr. x^pf""'- aKonns, lit. a country superintendent or bishop). Nothing is heard of such per- sons in the first three centuries. The first mention of them is in the canons of the Councils of Ancyra and Neocgesarea (314), and they probably arose in Asia Minor. A chorepiscopus was appointed and ordained by the bishop of the diocese, to whom he was answerable for the right discharge of his duties. A certain dis- trict was assigned to him to administer ; be was to attend to the wants of the poor and the maintenance of all Christian in- stitutions, and he had the power of con- ferring minor orders, even to the sub- diaconate inclusive. It has been argued — especially by the Protestant writers Hammond, Beveridge, and others— that they were true bishops, although of in- ferior dignity and power to the recog- nised bishops of sees. The fact that fifteen "country-bishops" subscribed the Kicene canons seems to lend support to such a view. But the better opinion is that, notwithstanding the name, they were neither true bishops nor an order of clergy interposed between bishops aiul priests, but simply priests, invested with a jurisdiction smaller than the episcopal, but larger than the sacerdotal. Many notices of them scattered up and down in ecclesiastical history, and the consenting tradition of the Fathers, adjust themselves to this view of their office, and not to the former. Thus a canon of Neocaesarea likens them to the seventy-two disciples sent out by Christ ; but these were always associated with the priesthood, not with the episcopate. The Nicene canon which authorises a bishojj to treat one who had been deposed from the see for heresy, but who desired to return to the Church, as a chorepiscopus, and give him employment and rank as such, is itself a proof that they were not bishops: for the council would not have empowered a single bishop to reinstate to his former place a deposed member of the order. Yet it might seem as if they formed something like an intermediate clerical order, for a canon of Chalcedon says. Si quis ordiim- vcrit per pecunias epi.'^copum, aut chor- episcopum,aut presbi/terum, aut diaconum (" if anyone shall have ordained for money a bishop, or a chorepiscopus, or a priest, or a deacon"). It is certain, however, that in no age of the Churcli have the grades of holy (or superior) order been reckoned as more than three — bishop, priest, and deacon. A chorepiscopus, therefore, must have been either a bishop or a priest ; but we have shown that he was not a true bishop ; he was therefore a priest, but one who received on his appointment a spiritual jurisdiction higher than any priest could pretend to. The Council of Laodicea calls them irtpi- obevrai, or " circuit officers," which shows that they were then expected to make visitation tours in their districts. St. Basil had no fewer than fifty chorepiscopi under him, governing districts of his extensive Oappadocian see, like the arch- deacons whom Remigius appointed in the CHORISTER CHRIST 169 diilereut counties when he organised his great see of Lincoln.' In the "Western Church we hear nothing of chorepiscopi before the Council of Kiez, in the fifth century. But after 500 the notices of them become numerous, and under Charlemagne, according to Thomassin, their numbers and power •were such as to be formidable even to the bishops themselves. In the later Carlo- vingiau times unworthy persons were often foisted into the sees through lay interlerence, for the sake of the wealth witli which they were endowed, and such bishops were glad to devolve as much of their functions as they could divest them- selves of on chorepiscopi, engaged at a low rate of remuneration, and live in sloth and luxury at Court. This abuse called forth the zeal of the Roman Pontitis, and by a series of Papal briefs and couciliar decrees, from Leo III. to the end of the ninth century, restraining the authority of the chorepiscopi, annul- ling many of their acts, and ordering that no more should be appointed, the en- deavour was persistently made to compel tiie bishops to perform their own duties and not attempt to delegate them. No- thing more is heard of this class of clergy alter the middle of the eleventh century. (Thomassin ; Soglia ; Smith and Cheet- ham.) CHORXSTZiR. A singer in a choir, whether cathedral, collegiate, or parochial. The name is usually applied to boys rather than men. The regular singers {KavoviKoi ilfoKrai) of a church received in early times a kind of ordination, without imposition of hands, which could be conferred by a presbyter. The form of words prescribed by the Fourth Council of Carthage was. See that thou believe in thy heart what thou singest with thy mouth, and approve in thy works what thou believest with thy heart." (Smith and Cheetham, article Cantor.) CBRZSK. Olive oil mixed with balm, blessed by the bishop and used by the Church in confirmation aa well as in baptism, ordination, consecration of altar- stones, chalices, churches, and in the blessing of baptismal water. The oil, according to the Roman Catechism, signi- fies the lulness of grace, since oil is did'u- sion; the balm mixed with it, incorruption and the " good odour of Christ." In itself the word chrism (xpIo-/ia) need not mean more than "anything 1 flenr. Huntend. smeared on ; " but even in classical writers it denotes especially a scented unguent, while the common oil was called iXatov. It was this simple unperfumed oil which was used in the earliest times for sacreil purposes, but from the sixth century oil mixed with balm began to be employed. ^ This balm (^dXaanos, in the classics o-o- > ISaXaafiov) is a kind of perfumed resin, pro- duced by a tree which grows in Judsea and Arabia. This Eastern balm was always used in the West till the sixteenth century, when Paul III. and Pius IV. permitted the use of a better kind of balm, brought by the Spaniards from the "West Indies. The Orientals did not content j themselves with simply mixing balm. Thus the Greeks mingle forty different spices, and the Maronites, before they were reunited to the Catholic Church, pre- pared their chrism from oil, saffron, cin- namon, essence of roses, white incense, &c. The consecration of the oils during the Mass goes back to the earliest times. Cyprian mentions it in Ep. 70, addressed to Januarius ; and St. Basil attributes the origin of this "blessing to apostolic tra- dition. It of course included chrism in the strict sense, when that came into use. In the "West this blessing was always re- served to bishops ; in the East, as may be seen from Goar's " Euchologium,'" it was only given by the patriarchs. At first the oils used to be blessed on any day at Mass, but in a letter of Pope Leo to the emperor of the same name, in the Synod of Toledo (490), and in all the older Sacrameutaries and ritual-books, Maundy Thursday is fixed for this blessing. It was only in France that the custom sur- vived of blessing the oils on any day, till uniformity with the use of other churches was introduced by the Council of Meaux, in 84.5. The function took place in the second of the three Masses which used to be said on Maundy Thursday ; whence the name " MissaChrismatis." The bless- ing of the chrism was called " Benedictio chrismatis principalis." AH the clergy of the diocese used to assist, till, in the eighth century, the custom altered, and only those who lived near the cathedral came, while the others had the holy oils sent to them. The chrism used to be kept in a vessel like a paten with a de- I pression in the middle. A " patena chris- I malis" of this kind is mentioned by ' Anastasius, in his Life of St. Silvester. I (Kraus, " Real-Encyclopiidie.") CHRIST, "Anointed" (Gr, ;^p(oTo's i from XP'")> ^ translation of the Hebrew 170 CHRIST CHRIST •word n*t/'p, as is expressly stated in John i. 4'2 : " "VVe have found the Messias, which is interpreted Christ." In the Old Testament the word is used of the high- priest, who was anointed for his olHce (e.i/. in Levit. iv. ;5) ; of kings, who were als" anointed — e.r/. 1 Reg. xxiv. 7, where I'avid calls Saul "the anointed of the Lord : " in the second Psalm, " against theLord, and against his anointed " (where Xfj^cTTos is the word in the LXX) ; with which we may compare other places, such as Dan. ix. 25, Hab. iii. 13, Ps. cxxxi. 17. The Hebrew word designates the king who was to come, the promised Messias. In the doctrinal language of post- biblical Judaism, this expected deliverer is called almost with the significance of a proper name, n^L;.'p, of which "Messias"' is only another form, and "Christ," as we have seen, a translation. Hence, when our Lord came, " the Christ " (6 Xpiarbs) was his official title, while "Jesus" was his ordinary name. When the word occurs in the Gospels, it constantly im- plies a reference to the Messiah as por- trayed by the prophets. The history of Christ's life belongs to a Biblical rather than a theological dic- tionary ; it is only the teaching of the Church on his Person and office which concerns us here. We may divide the subject into two halves, treating under (A ) of what Christ is ; under (£) of his work. (A) Natures and Person of Christ.— Jesus Christ, according to the Catechism familiar to English Catholics, is "God the Son made man for us." He has therefore two natures: that of God, and that of man. As God, according to the Nicene Creed, He was born of his Father, before iill worlds: He is God from God— i.e. He, being true and perfect God, proceeds from God the Father, who is also true and perfect God — He is light from light ; be- gotten, not made, as creatures. He exists from all eternity. He is almighty, om- niscient, inca])able of error or of sin. At the moment of his Incarnation, He fnrtlier became true man, without, how- ever, in any way ceasing to be God. 1 Tlip Creek wonl Messias CMeaaias or Mc- alas) ix imme.li.drl ,i acnvcl, fnim the He- brew, but IVoni liir Ciialdre }<^^L^'^PI the n beinti (imiltc i! Iimiccn the two long vowels, as in /iiSa - XTnO- ^I 'leni. vii. 51, and the to sin or impediments to virtue, since this , would have been inconsistent witii his I otiice as redeemer. The interesting ques- tion on the personal appearance of Christ will be treated in a separate article j [Christ, Personal Appearance and Representations of]. (5) Inasmuch as divine and human I nature, although remaining each of them I distinct in its own properties, were united ! in the Person of the Word, it follows that human attributes may be predicated of or ascribed to God the Son; and, on the other hand, that divine attributes may be predicated of the man Christ Jesus. Thus, although it was his human nature which Christ took from Maiy, and although she is not the mother of the Godhead, still the Council of Ephesus defined that the Blessed Virgin is really and truly the Mother of God. So, again, we may truly say, God sufiered, God died, or the man Jesus Christ is the eternal God, by whom all things were made. [See Coii- MUNiCATio Idiojiatuji.] Moreover, as Cardinal Franzelin writes in his treatise on the Incarnation, " the sacred Humanity, or human nature with all its component parts, inasmuch as it is the nature of the Word," is the object of supreme ador- ation, though, of course, we adore the flesh not because it is flesh, but because it is united to the Word. He continues: "This is clearly and plainly taught in the definitions of councils and in the dis- cussions of the Fathers." Thus the Fifth General Council ' anathematises those who "affirm that Christ is adored in two natures, in such sense that two adorations are introduced, one proper to God the Word, and one proper to the man [Christ] . . . and do not adore with one single adoration God the Word incarnate with his own flesh, as the Church of God has received from the beginning." Cardinal Franzelin also quotes words of St. Atha- nasius against the Apollinarists : "It J.e. the body of Christ] is worshipped ^^•ith due and divine adoration, for the Word, to whom the body belongs, is God ; " and of St. John Damascene ("Fid. Orthodox." iii. 8) : " Nor do we deny that tiie flesh [of Christ] is to be adored ; nor again do 1 It is the ninth of the fourteen anathe- mas. Hefele, Concil. ii. p. 897. 172 CUEIST CHRIST we give supreme worship to a creature ; [ for neither do we adore it as mere 6esh, I but as united to the Godhead." It will be observed that these principles formu- lated in the eai'ly Church contain within them a full justification of the adoration which the Church gives at this day to the Wounds, Blood, Heart, &c., of Christ. If we may, because of the hypostatic union, adore the flesh of Christ, which is a part of his Humanity, then undoubtedly we may for the same reason adore his Heart, which is a part of his sacred flesh. (B) The Work avd Office of Christ.— (1) Christ came chiefly, as the Fathers declare, ^ take aicay sin. This great truth is constantly asserted in Scripture. "The discipline of oui- peace was upon Him, and by his bruises we are healed." " Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us." " God send- ing his own Son, in the likeness of sinful flesh, even of siii, condemned sin in the flesh ; " and thus in the Nicene Creed we confess that God was made man " for us men and for our salvation." This point is trt-ated move fully in the article on the Redemption. Here, it is enough to say that, although God luiglit have forgiven sin without any satisfuctioii at all, still it was his will that a perlect satisfoction should be made, and be made by man. Accordingly, God the Son was incarnate. He was a natural mediator between God and man, since in Him the divine and human natures were united. As man. He was able to sufler and die ; because He was God, his satisfaction possessed aji inflnite value, more than suiHcient to compensate for the infinite dishonour done to Cidd's majesty by sin. He of his free will (itfeied Himself to endure the penalties incuired by men who were bis brethren. He could not, of course, in the strict and proper sense, make our sins his own, nor was Christ as man punished. But He allowed wicked men to work their will upon Him, and, as the new Adam or head of the human race, took on Himself the obligation of satisfying for the ott'ences of mankind. It was this free will with which He sufiered that gave their meritorious character to the pains which He underwent. By his passion He merited every grace which has de- scended or ever will descend on man, for even under the old law all grace and pardon was bestowed for the merits of Christ foreseen. By the merits of his passion He on the day of his ascension I opened Heaven " to aU who believe." ! There He presents his five wounds and pleads the efficacy of the work He ac- complished on Calvary ; while on earth He continues and applies his sacrifice in the holy Mass, thus remaining a priest for ever.* (2) Christ came to teach, so fulfilling the prophetic as well as the priestly office. "Behold," God says in Isaias, " I have given Him for a witness to the people, for a leader and a master to the Gentiles." He Himself declared that He came "to bear witness to the truth." He revealed the nature of the Triune God, and, first to his apostles, then through them and their successors to the world. He explained the mysteries of the king- dom of God, and the way to heaven. He gave perfect instruction in morals, particularly in the sermon on the mount, in which He speaks with authority, as the giver of the new law. Lastly, He taught, as no mere man could, by ex- ample, exhibiting Himself as the model of every virtue. (3) Christ is the Head of the Church, militant in this world, suffering in Purga- tory, and triumphant in heaven, and this headship belongs to Christ as man, for St. Paul in Ephes. i., alter mentioning the fact that God raised Christ from the dead, adds that He made " Him head over all the church." This proves that the headship belongs to Christ as man, for it was in his human nature that Christ was raised from the dead. Christ is head, not only because He is supereminent in dignity as compared with the members of his mystical body, but also because grace and glory flow fi-om Him to the members of his Church in earth and Purgatory and in heaven. Even Catholics living in mortal sin are members of Christ, con- nected with Christ their head by the gift of faith ; and the proposition of Quesnel, that "he who does not lead a life worthy of a son of God and of a member of Christ ceases to have God within him for his Father and Christ for his head," was condemned by Pope Clement XI. More- over, Christ is head of his Church because it receives its constitution and its doctrine from Him. (4) Christ, as man, holds a kingly, as well as a priestly, power. The Prophets foretold Him as king, and the "anointed 1 The opinion held by some of the ancients that Christ inherited the' priesthood by descent from Aaron on his mother's side, is refuted by Petavius, De Incur, xii, 15. CHRIST, APrEAR.\:N"CE OF CHRIST, APPEARANCE OF 173 liii:<; " is a recognised name of tlie Mes.